&EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Region 10
1200 Sixth Avenue
Seattle WA 98101
EPA-10-AK-Valdez-NPDES-79
December 1979
EPA 910/9-79-064
Environmental
Impact Statement
Alaska Petrochemical Company
Refining and Petrochemical Facility
Valdez, Alaska
-------
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT
Alaska Petrochemical Company
Refinery and Petrochemical Facility
Valdez, Alaska
APPENDIX VOLUME I I
-------
APPENDIX TABLE OF CONTENTS
VOLUME I
Geotechn i caI
Hydro Iogy
Ecosystems
Oceanography
VOLUME I I
Soc i oeconomi cs
Refinery Processes
ArchaeoIogy
Acoust i cs
-------
APPENDIX VOLUME I I
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SOCIOECONOMICS
Page No,
I 1-1
Land Requirements and External Appearance
Offsite Operations
Labor Force
Basic Alternatives to the Project . . . .
Transportation Alternatives
Socioeconomics - Existing Conditions . .
Socioeconomic Impacts
I -11
1-18
1-22
1-27
1-32
I -34
1-133
REFINERY PROCESSES AND ALTERNATIVES
Marine Activi ties
Feedstock and Process Raw Materials Sources . .
Feedstock and Process Raw Materials Availability
Description of Major Processes
Material Balances
Intermittent Process Operations
Wastewater Treatment
Alternate Process Design Considerations ....
Energy Requirements
Evaluation Fuel Oil as an Energy Source ....
Evaluation of Coal as an Energy Source ....
Evaluation of Refinery By-product Gas as an
Energy Source
Evaluation of Low BTU Gas as an Energy Source .
Preferred Energy Source
Air Quality Standards Compliance
Alternate Methods of Wastewater Disposal . . .
Alternate Cooling Systems
1-226
1-227
1-238
1-241
1-247
1-287
1-291+
1-309
1-328
1-341
1-345
1-351
1-418
1-428
1-481
1-485
1-500
1-510
ARCHAEOLOGY AND HISTORIC FEATURES
I 1-526
ACOUSTIC ENVIRONMENT
I 1-559
-------
If an inconsistency appears between information in the Draft
Environmental Impact Statement and Volumes I and II of the
Technical Appendices, the DEIS represents the most current
information. The technical reports in the Appendices were
prepared over a period of several months, concurrent with
Alpetco's design development activities. There were com-
pleted prior to preparation of the DEIS and as a result may
not reflect minor project description changes that occurred
subsequent to completion of the reports. The latest avail-
able information has, however, been considered in the main
text of the DEIS.
-------
-------
SOCIOECONOMICS
-------
TECHNICAL APPENDIX
SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS
Draft Environmental Impact Statement
Alpetco Petrochemical Complex
Valdez, Alaska
Prepared by
CCC/HOK Architects and Planners
Contributing Authors:
Richard Morehouse, Land Use
Gordon Harrison, Population, Economics and Project Alternati
Steve Reiner, Public Facilities, and Housing
with
Michael Bates, Alan M. Voorhees & Assoc., Transportation
Marsha Bennett, Housing Survey
October, 1979
H-2
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION NO. TITLE PAGE
3.3 LAND REQUIREMENTS AND EXTERNAL APPEARANCE 11-11
3.5 OFFSITE OPERATIONS
3.5.5 TRANSPORTATION 11-18
3.5.5.1 LAND 11-18
3.5.5.2 AIR H-19
3.5.5.3 MARINE 11-20
3.6 LABOR FORCE
3.6.1 CONSTRUCTION LABOR FORCE 11-22
3.6.2 OPERATION WORKFORCE 11-22
4.1 BASIC ALTERNATIVES TO THE PROJECT
4.1.1 INTRODUCTION H-27
4.1.2 NO PROJECT I1-27
4.1.3 LOCATE REFINERY ON THE WEST COAST OUTSIDE ALASKA 11-30
4.1.4 REGULATORY MEASURES THAT WOULD ELIMINATE NEED
FOR THE PROJECT H-31
4.4 PLANT DESIGN ALTERNATIVES
4.4.8 ALTERNATIVE TRANSPORTATION ROUTES RELATIVE TO THE SITE 11-32
5.8 SOCIOECONOMICS n_34
5.8.1 POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS 11-35
5.8.2 EMPLOYMENT AND ECONOMIC BASE
5.8.2.1 EMPLOYMENT AND ECONOMIC BASE 11-46
5.8.3 PUBLIC SECTOR REVENUES AND SERVICES 11-55
5.8.4 PUBLIC SERVICES II-60
5.8.5 LAND USE 11-73
5.8.5.1 REGIONAL LAND USE AND RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT 11-73
5.8.5.2 SCENIC RESOURCES 11-76
5.8.5.3 RECREATION RESOURCES 11-76
5.8.5.4 VALDEZ CITY LAND USE 11-81
5.8.5.5 RESIDENTIAL LAND USE 11-84
5.8.5.6 EMERGING LAND USE PATTERNS IN VALDEZ II-99
II-3
-------
SECTION NO. TITLE
PAGE
5.8.6 TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS 11-109
5.8.6.1 LAND 11-109
5.8.6.2 AIR 11-114
5.8.6.3 MARINE 11-117
5.8.7 UTILITIES SYSTEMS H-119
5.8.7.1 SEWER SYSTEM n-120
5.8.7.2 WATER SYSTEM 11-123
5.8.7.3 SOLID WASTE 11-125
5.8.7.4 ELECTRICITY 11-126
5.8.7.5 TELEPHONE 11-128
5.8.8 LIFESTYLE AND CULTURE 11-129
6.10 SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS 11-133
6.10.1 POPULATION AND EMPLOYMENT 11-134
6.10.1.1 LOCAL EMPLOYMENT AND POPULATION IMPACTS 11-134
6.10.1.2 STATEWIDE EMPLOYMENT AND POPULATION IMPACTS 11-148
6.10.2 INCOME 11-152
6.10.3 LOCAL ECONOMY 11-169
6.10.4 PUBLIC FISCAL IMPACTS 11-171
6.10.5 PUBLIC SERVICES AND FACILITIES 11-175
6.10.6 LAND USE 11-182
6.10.6.1 REGIONAL IMPACTS 11-182
6.10.6.2 VALDEZ IMPACTS 11-183
6.10.6.3 RESIDENTIAL USE 11-189
6.10.7 TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM 11-198
6.10.7.1 LAND 11-198
6.10.7.2 AIR 11-202
6.10.7.3 MARINE TRANSPORTATION (ONSHORE ELEMENT) 11-205
6.10.8 UTILITIES SYSTEMS 11-206
6.10.8.1 SEWER SYSTEM 11-206
6.10.8.2 WATER SYSTEM 11-206
6.10.8.3 SOLID WASTE 11-207
6.10.8.4 ELECTRICITY 11-207
II-4
-------
SECTION NO. TITLE
PAGE
6.10.9 LIFE-STYLE AND CULTURE 11-209
6.10.10 MITIGATION MEASURES 11-211
6.10.10.1 PUBLIC SERVICES 11-211
6.10.10.2 LAND USE 11-211
6.10.10.3 TRANSPORTATION 11-214
6.10.11 UNAVOIDABLE ADVERSE IMPACTS 11-216
9.1 MEETINGS WITH GOVERNMENTAL AND OTHER ENTITIES 11-217
ENGLISH - METRIC CONVERSION TABLE 11-225
11.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY
H-5
-------
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
3.6.1-1 ALPETCO CONSTRUCTION MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS 11-23
3.6.1-2 TRADE SKILL REQUIREMENTS, ALPETCO CONSTRUCTION 11-24
3.6.2-1 ALPETCO OPERATIONS MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS 11-25
3.6.2-2 MAJOR JOB CLASSIFICATIONS FOR ALPETCO OPERATIONS
WORKFORCE, SUBMANAGERIAL LEVEL 11-26
5.8.1-1 POPULATION OF VALDEZ AND ALASKA, 1900-1970 11-37
5.8.1-2 1978 POPULATION OF VALDEZ BY AGE 11-38
5.8.1-3 SCHOOL-AGE CHILDREN IN POPULATION 11-39
5.8.1-4 ENROLLMENT IN VALDEZ PUBLIC SCHOOLS 1967-1978 11-40
5.8.1-5 VALDEZ POPULATION BY ETHNIC GROUP, 1978 11-41
5.8.1-6 HOUSING SURVEY, CCC/HOK, MAY 1979 11-42
5.8.1-7 NUMER AND TYPES OF INHABITED DWELLINGS IN
VALDEZ, 1978 11-43
5.8.1-8 VALDEZ POPULATION BY TYPE OF HOUSING 11-44
5.8.1-9 COMPARISON OF VARIOUS ESTIMATES OF CURRENT
VALDEZ POPULATION 11-45
5.8.2.1-1 ESTIMATED VALDEZ EMPLOYMENT, 1968 11-48
5.8.2.1-2 1978 VALDEZ EMPLOYMENT BY INDUSTRY 11-49
5.8.2.1-3 VALDEZ EMPLOYMENT BY INDUSTRY, OCTOBER 1977
THROUGH SEPTEMBER 1978 11-50
5.8.2.1-4 COMPARISON OF DEPT. OF LABOR, CITY OF VALDEZ
EMPLOYMENT ESTIMATES BY INDUSTRY, JUNE 1978 11-51
5.8.2.1-5 1978 VALDEZ LABOR FORCE BY OCCUPATION 11-52
5.8.2.1-6 UNEMPLOYMENT AND PART-TIME EMPLOYMENT OF
VALDEZ CIVILIAN LABOR FORCE, 1978 11-53
5.8.2.1-7 COMPARISON OF VARIOUS LABOR WAGE RATES, VALDEZ,
ANCHORAGE AND SITKA (1978) 11-54
5.8.3-1 SUMMARY OF VALDEZ CITY BUDGET, 1978 - 1979 11-57
5.8.3-2 CITY OF VALDEZ, GENERAL FUND EXPENDITURES 1968-1980 11-58
5.8.3-3 COMPARISON OF SELECTED PUBLIC FISCAL MEASURES,
CITY OF VALDEZ AND MUNICIPALITY OF ANCHORAGE 1978 11-59
II-6
-------
TABLE NO. TITLE
PAGE
5.8.4-1 VALDEZ CITY SCHOOLS SEPTEMBER ENROLLMENT REPORT
1967-1979 H-66
5.8.4-2 COMPARISON OF STUDENT ENROLLMENT AND SCHOOL
DESIGN CAPACITY 1979 II-67
5.8.4-3 VALDEZ CITY SCHOOLS SEPTEMBER ENROLLMENT REPORT
PROJECTIONS IN THE ABSENCE OF THE ALPETCO PROJECT 11-68
5.8.4-4 SUMMARY OF VALDEZ FIRE DEPARTMENT RESPONSES 72-79 11-69
5.8.4-5 FIRE FIGHTING EQUIPMENT 11-70
5.8.4-6 CRIMINAL COMPLAINTS AND ARRESTS - VALDEZ 2974-1975 11-71
5.8.4-7 CRIME STATISTICS - VALDEZ 1976-1978 11-72
5.8.5.5-1 TOTAL OCCUPIED HOUSING IN VALDEZ BY TENANCY 11-91
5.8.5.5-2 TOTAL HOUSING IN VALDEZ BY CONDITION OF HOUSING 11-92
5.8.5.5-3 TOTAL HOUSING IN VALDEZ SUMMARY OF VISUAL SURVEY 11-93
5.8.5.5-4 VACANT HOUSING IN VALDEZ BY CONDITION OF HOUSING 11-94
5.8.5.5-5 SUMMARY OF VISUAL SURVEY OF NEW TOWNSITE 11-95
5.8.5.5-6 SUMMARY OF VISUAL SURVEY FOR ZOOK SUBDIVISION
AND AIRPORT AREA I1-96
5.8.5.5-7 SUMMARY OF VISUAL SURVEY FOR ROBE RIVER
SUBDIVISION AREA II-97
5.8.5.5-8 SUMMARY OF VISUAL SURVEY FOR RICHARDSON HIGHWAY,
ALPINE WOODS AND NORDIC SUBDIVISIONS I1-98
5.8.6.1-1 1978 TRAFFIC VOLUMES VALDEZ LOCAL AND REGIONAL 11-110
5.8.6.1-2 TRUCK TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS - VALDEZ SCALEHOUSE 11-113
5.8.6.2-1 VALDEZ AIRPORT OPERATIONS 1975-1979 11-115
5.8.7.1-1 WATER SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT GALLONS PER DAY 11-122
5.8.7.5-1 NUMBER OF TELEPHONES IN SERVICE 1974-1979 II-128
6.10.1.1-1 TOTAL CONSTRUCTION MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS IN
VALDEZ DURING ALPETCO PROJECT 11-143
6.10.1.1-2 PEAK EMPLOYMENT AND POPULATION IMPACTS, CON-
STRUCTION AND OPERATION PHASE 11-144
6.10.1.1-3 INCREMENTAL EMPLOYMENT AND POPULATION IN
VALDEZ DURING ALPETCO CONSTRUCTION, QUARTERLY
1980-1983 H-145
II-7
-------
TABLE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
6.10.1.1-4 ESTIMATED ANNUAL PEAK POPULATION IN VALDEZ,
1979-1990 WITH ALPETCO PROJECT
6.10.1.1-5 SUMMARY OF METHOD USED TO DERIVE TABLE 6.10.1.1-2
6.10.1.2-1 ESTIMATED MAXIMUM STATEWIDE EMPLOYMENT AND
POPULATION IMPACTS
6.10.2-1 ALPETCO CONSTRUCTION LABOR FORCE REQUIREMENTS
6.10.2-2 ALPETCO OPERATIONS MANPOWER REQUIREMENTS
6.10.2-3 ESTIMATED RATIO OF FULL-TIME EQUIVALENT WAGE INCOME,
AND PERCENT EARNED IN ALASKA, FOR CONSTRUCTION
WORKFORCE
6.10.2-4 ESTIMATED AVERAGE ANNUAL INCOME OF CONSTRUCTION
WORKFORCE
6.10.2-5 QUARTERLY AND ANNUAL AVERAGE ALPETCO LABOR FORCE
BY PLACE OF RESIDENCY
6.10.2-6 ESTIMATED GROSS WAGE PAYMENTS TO CONSTRUCTION
WORKFORCE BY PLACE OF PERMANENT RESIDENCE
6.10.2-7 APPROXIMATE RATES OF FEDERAL AND STATE INCOME
TAXATION ON VARIOUS GROSS ANNUAL INCOME LEVELS
6.10.2-8 DISTRIBUTION OF DISPOSABLE INCOME: PERCENT
SPENT IN EACH LOCATION BY PLACE OF RESIDENCE
6.10.2-9 ESTIMATED FEDERAL AND STATE PERSONAL INCOME TAX
REVENUES FROM CONSTRUCTION WORKFORCE
6.10.2-10 ESTIMATED FEDERAL AND STATE PERSONAL INCOME TAX
REVENUES FROM OPERATIONS WORKFORCE
6.10.2-11 ESTIMATED EXPENDITURES IN ALASKA BY CONSTRUCTION
WORKFORCE, 1980-1983
6.10.2-12 ESTIMATED ANNUAL EXPENDITURES IN ALASKA BY
OPERATIONS WORKFORCE (1979 DOLLARS)
6.10.2-13 ESTIMATED FEDERAL AND STATE CORPORATE INCOME
TAXES, 1983-2003
6.10.2-14 ITEMS PURCHASED ANNUALLY FOR REFINERY OPERATION
AND MAINTENANCE
6.10.4-1 ESTIMATES OF MAXIMUM PROPERTY TAX REVENUE FOR
OPERATING PURPOSES, CITY OF VALDEZ, 1984
II-8
-------
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
6.10.5-1 ESTIMATED STUDENT ENROLLMENT 1979-1990 11-180
6.10.5-2 COMPARISON OF STUDENT ENROLLMENT AND SCHOOL
CAPACITY IN PEAK ALPETCO CONSTRUCTION YEAR 1982 11-181
6.10.6.3-1 DEMAND FOR NEW HOUSING 1984-1990 11-197
6.10.7.1-1 TRAFFIC VOLUME SUMMARY - AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC 11-201
ENGLISH - METRIC CONVERSION TABLE 11-225
II-9
-------
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO. TITLE
PAGE
3.3-1
LAND REQUIREMENTS
11-12
3.3-2
REFINERY FEATURES
11-13
3.3-3
VIEW OF REFINERY FROM THE RICHARDSON HIGHWAY
11-14
3.3-4
TERMINAL DOCK
11-16
3.3-5
VIEW OF TERMINAL FROM SOLOMON GULCH
11-17
5.8.5.1-1
EXISTING AND POTENTIAL RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT
11-74
5.8.5.2-1
SCENIC FEATURES
11-77
5.8.5.3-1
EXISTING AND PROPOSED RECREATION FACILITIES
11-78
5.8.5.4-1
EXISTING LAND USE
11-82
5.8.5.5-1
NEW VALDEZ HOUSING
11-85
5.8.5.6-1
EXISTING AND PROPOSED CITY OWNED LANDS
11-100
5.8.5.6-2
FLOOD HAZARD AREAS
11-104
5.8.5.6.3
EXISTING ZONING
11-108
5.8.7.1-1
SEWER AND WATER SYSTEMS
11-121
6.10.6.2-1
PROJECTED LAND USE IMPACTS
11-186
11-10
-------
3.3 LAND REQUIREMENTS AND EXTERNAL APPEARANCE
The proposed petrochemical complex is comprised of facilities at three
locations: (1) Refinery and construction camp east of Valdez Glacier
Stream, (2) the construction dock and mobilization yard at Old Valdez
townsite, and (3) the products terminal dock on the south side of Port
Valdez (see Figure 3.3-1). The refinery is served by new primary and
service roads and by incoming crude oil and outgoing refined products
pipelines. The following discusses the land area requirements and
visual exposure and appearance of these facilities.
1- IM refinery site. The principal refinery components, including
process units, tank farm, support facilities, and construction
camp are all located within a 1,425-acre fenced compound north of
Corbin Creek - Robe (see Figure 3.3-2). Approximately 30 refining
and distillation units, ranging in height from 150 to 250 ft.,
will be located in the east part of the site. The tank farm
contains 39 canister and pressurized sphere-type tanks, each 56
ft. high, ranging in diameter from 65 to 46 ft. Grouped in the
western part of the site are such support facilities as the
administration building, fire station, medical and change house,
warehouses, ballast water tank, water treatment and emergency
flare. Finally, a construction camp housing approximately 2,500
employees in approximately 23 prefabricated, two-story dormitory
-style buildings, will be located to the north.
Because trees and low hills surround the site, only one clear,
ground-level public view of the refinery will be possible: looking
northwest from the vicinity of the Richardson Highway bridge
crossing of Valdez Glacier Stream (see Viewpoint on Figure 3.3-1,
and View on Figure 3.3-3). The process units and the 350-ft.
high emergency flare and most of the tankage will be visible
above the trees. The highly reflective process units will be
unpainted for heat dissipation, but the tanks will be sandblasted
and painted a color which has not yet been determined.
The entire refinery site will have a controlled perimeter. A
nine-foot high flood control dike will be built along its west
boundary on Valdez Glacier Stream. Access roads will be controlled
and a security fence will surround the installation.
2* Construction dock and mobilization yard. Construction modules
and materiel will be unloaded at a new barge mooring slip in the
old townsite. A 140 ft. x 150 ft. dock will be constructed at
shoreside. The nearby storage/mobilization yard is the former
Alyeska Pipeline Service Company pipe storage yard. Prefabricated
modules will.be unloaded at the docks, trucked to the 110-acre
mobilization yard, and then carried over the Valdez Glacier
Stream Haul Road (serving as construction access) to the refinery.
3. Products terminal dock. The terminal dock will be located east
of Solomon Gulch, approximately five mi. by road from the southern
boundary of the refinery site, and two mi. east of the Alyeska
marine terminal. The dock will consist of a two-level trestle
approximately 2,300 ft. long, serving two tanker-loading platforms,
one capable of handling an 80,000-DWT tanker and the other, a 45,000-
DWT tanker.(see Figure 3.3-4).
11-11
-------
to
-------
I 1-13
-------
I
-------
The trestle will be approximately 18 ft. wide for the upper level
pipeway and 40 ft. for the lower level roadway. The elevation of
the roadway trestle and loading platform will be approximately 40
ft. above mean low water level. Each 40 ft. x 145 ft. loading
platform will have a dock operations building, crane, loading
arms, and an approximately 45-ft. high control tower. Five
satellite trussed piers, or dolphins used for tanker mooring or
berthing, will be connected by walkways to the loading platforms.
The terminal dock will be visible from many vantage points in
Valdez, including sections of the Richardson Highway and most of
Dayville Road (see Figure 3.3-5).
Pipelines. The ten products pipelines will be buried in a trench
approximately six ft. deep and 36 to 66
ft. wide running between Corbin Creek (Robe) and the terminal
dock. The crude line will also be buried in the same trench,
except for the elevated segment between the Alyeska pipeline and
Dayville Road (see Figure 3.3-1).
1-15
-------
Dayville Road
30 m (100 ft)
r Piperack ; /¦ noaaway
i n>i^ ^.Ai1 M jw1 Myj M m ^iJ^F
i
Roadway
80,000 DWT
Loading
Platform
0 (Mean Lower Low Water Elev.)-
0 50 100
0 125 330
I I
L- — ^^
I 11 ii
EL. 12 m (40 ft)
Trestle Elevation
0 10 30 M
0 33 100 Ft
-21 m (-70 ft)
-18 m (-60 ft)
-15 m (-50 ft)
Dayville Road
300 M
1000 Ft
J N
Trestle and Dock Plan
Terminal Dock
3.3-4
II-16
-------
View of Products Dock Looking East
3.3-5
-------
3.5.5 TRANSPORTATION
3.5.5.1 LAND
The proposed Alpetco project will generate land-based traffic of two
principal types: freight movement involving truck traffic, and person
movement involving passenger cars, pickups, etc.
FREIGHT/TRUCK TRAFFIC
Truck traffic generated by the project will be low. No part of the
refinery products will be trucked inland over the Richardson Highway.
With the exception of the sulfur product, the product outflow from the
plant will be exclusively carried by pipeline to the products dock.
It is anticipated that about 30,000 bbl. per day of the product slate
(principally gasoline and jet fuel) will be shipped from the marine
terminal dock to Alaskan markets. Principal destinations will be
Anchorage or the Kenai Peninsula for local distribution, for example by
the Tesoro-Alaska Refined Product pipeline from Nikiski to Anchorage.
The remainder of the product slate, about 120,000 bbl. per day, will be
shipped to markets in the lower 48 and Hawaii.
The refinery plant is expected to generate low levels of truck movement
with respect to the sulfur product and catalytic and solid wastes. An
estimated 15-20 truckloads (30-40 daily truck trips) (one truckload
comprises two truck trips, i.e., arriving and departing the plant) will
be generated from the plant for this purpose. About 10-15 of these
trucks will be carrying a solid sulfur byproduct and the majority of
the rest will carry spent catalytic wastes being shipped out for
further chemical recovery. These trucks will be destined to the Valdez
City Dock for shipment. Five-axle semi-trailers or flatbed trucks
(average load 15-20 tons) would probably be used for transportation.
Much of the solid waste produced by the refinery will be incinerated
on site. The remainder, an estimated eight to 10 truckloads a week,
will be hauled to a landfill or waste disposal site (see Section
3.4.3.2 on Solid Wastes). The solid wastes would probably be carried
in three-axle dump trucks with average loads between 10-15 tons.
The remainer of projected trucking activity associated with the plant
will be general supply deliveries from Valdez. While the plant will be
essentially self-sufficient in terms of process requirements (crude oil
will be pipelined directly into the plant, for example) there will be
a need for supply, service, and maintenance trips, as well as food
supplies to support the on-site cafeteria for the workforce. No pro-
jections have been made by Alpetco at this stage with respect to the
frequency of these trips, but the trucking activity would probably not
exceed about 25 Valdez-plant round trips (50 vehicle trips) per day,
consisting primarily of light trucks and delivery vans of two-three
axle combinations and average loads of two-five tons. These trucks
will utilize the primary access road (upgraded Glacier Stream Haul
Road).
11-10
-------
PERSON MOVEMENT
It is estimated that the project would generate an additional 1,250-1,300
vehicle trips* a day (passenger cars, pickups, etc.)- The vast majority
of these trips will be attributed to the refinery itself and include
employee trips to and from work, as well as miscellaneous business trips
during the day between Valdez and the refinery. An estimated 100-200 of
these trips would be attributed to the planned products dock off Dayville
Road.
Alpetco intends to operate the plant 24 hours a day with a three-shift
system. While shift details are not available at this time, staffing
is anticipated to be spread almost equally over the three shifts with
the day shift being slightly higher due to managerial, administrative
and maintenance employees. On this basis, it is estimated that the
peak hourly vehicle trips generated by the refinery will be between
350 and 400 at the start and end of the day shift.
Access to the refinery will be limited primarily to the main access
road which will be constructed across the Valdez Glacier Stream to
connect with the Glacier Stream Haul Road. The service road, running
south from the plant to the Richardson Highway at the Dayville Road
intersection, is intended for emergency use only.
The majority of the projected vehicle trips will utilize the Richardson
Highway between the plant and Valdez. Additionally, the 100-200 daily
trips attributed to the marine terminal dock will utilize Dayville Road,
on the Richardson Highway between Dayville Road and the Glacier Stream
Haul Road. The impacts of these and the secondary impacts of the Alpetco
project (secondary population increases, etc.) on the land transportation
system are discussed in Section 6.10.7.1.
3.5.5.2 AIR
The proposed refinery is planned by Alpetco to be operationally self-
contained and independent. The additional demands that will be placed
on air transportation will, therefore, be related more to the general
increase in population and activity levels that will occur in Valdez,
than to specific demands from the refinery itself.
As described in Section 3.5.5.1, plant product outflow and material
inflow will be exclusively marine and pipeline based. This aspect of
plant operations will thus not lead to any significant increase in
demand for air freight services.
Alpetco does not plan for any central management functions at the plant.
Management staff at the plant will thus be purely operations-oriented.
*Based on projected Alpetco workforce of 580; assumes 2.2 vehicle trips
per person per day and average vehicle occupancy of 1.1 persons. Assumes
an additional 10 percent for movements between the plant and the marine
terminal dock.
11-19
-------
It may be expected, though, that there will be a small increase in air
passenger trips to/from Valdez through business trips between the Valdez
plant and the oil community in both Anchorage and the lower 48.
These additional trips will involve both Alpetco and non-Alpetco per-
sonnel. It is anticipated that these trips will comprise Alpetco
management or specialist staff, traveling between the plant and the
Anchorage- and Texas-based Alpetco operations. General business trips
by personnel from other companies would also be included in this
category. It is estimated that in total, this activity would result
in a maximum of about 40 passenger trips (20 round trips) per week
(about 2,000 passenger trips per year).
The Alpetco facility may be expected to generate a low demand for ancil-
lary services and spare parts deliveries to be made by air. Urgent
small parts delivery, however, may be made by air freight, either by
scheduled air service or by air charter. Such deliveries would prob-
ably not occur on a regular basis, but rather would be sporadic. Major
and bulk items will arrive by either ship or road from Anchorage.
Potentially, the substantive element of increased air transportation
demand will be related to the increased population base in Valdez that
will result from the Alpetco plant operations workforce. This would
include any nonwork-based trips made by Alpetco staff and their families.
These trips would be destined principally to Anchorage, and would be
for shopping or recreational purposes.
Any nonwork and recreational trips to the Anchorage area will have a
tendency to go by air due to the greater convenience (one-hour journey
time compared to a 15-hour ferry/car trip, or a seven/eight-hour car
trip via the Richardson Highway). This tendency will be greater for
the Alpetco-based population in Valdez as the Marine Highway system
via Whittier is projected (Prince William Sound Regional Transporta-
tion Study (unpublished Draft), State of Alaska, Department of Trans-
portation and Public Facilities, 1978) to reach capacity in the
early 1980's.
Overall, it is estimated that the increase in demand for air transpor-
tation as a direct result of the Alpetco facility may be about 5,000
passenger trips per year. Based on the current seasonal variations in
air traffic, this would result in an average increase of about 25 pas-
senger trips per day into and out of Valdez during the summer period,
and an increase of about 10 passenger trips per day during winter.
The projected impacts on the air transportation facilities in the
region are discussed in Section 6.10.7.2, along with the additional
impacts on the air transportation system that may be expected from
the secondary and residual population increases in the Valdez area.
3.5.5.3 MARINE
Alpetco plans to construct a remote marine terminal dock east of Solomon
Gulch off Dayville Road. With the exception of the sulfur solids, all
refinery products will be pipelined down to the marine terminal dock
and loaded directly onto ships.
II-20
-------
The facilities at the marine terminal dock will be exclusively for
liquid products. As there will be no facilities for the handling of
regular cargo (e.g., rol1-on/roll-off, lift-on/lift-off facilities,
etc.), there will be no trucking activity generated by the marine
terminal dock on a regular basis. The trucking activity previously
identified from the refinery (with respect to nonpipeline material)
will be destined to the City Dock on the north shore of Port Valdez.
Anticipated personnel movement between the marine terminal dock and
the refinery plant is described in Sections 3.5.5.1 and 6.10.7.1.
11-21
-------
3.6 LABOR FORCE
3.6.1 CONSTRUCTION LABOR FORCE
Table 3.6.1-1 shows project construction labor force requirements
A peak of 2,280 people will occur in October of the third year of
construction.
Table 3.6.1-2 shows the main craft skills and the approximate
peak requirement of people in each.
3.6.2 OPERATION WORKFORCE
Table 3.6.2-1 shows the estimated plant operations labor force
requirement. There will be steady employment for 579 people
according to this estimate.
Table 3.6.2-2 shows the major classifications for the
submanagement level operations work force and the approximate
number of people required in each category.
11-22
-------
TABLE 3.6.1-1
Alpetco Construction Manpower Requirements
Year
1980
1981
1982
1983
Source:
Month
No. of 1
June
15
July
150
August
200
September
220
October
250
November
200
December
200
January
200
February
200
March
200
April
206
May
214
June
382
July
483
August
622
September
804
October
987
November
1,137
December
1,256
January
1,394
February
1,534
March
1,781
Apri 1
2,016
May
2,263
June
2,446
July
2,638
August
2,767
September
2,799
October
2,820
November
2,693
December
2,606
January
2,457
February
2,306
March
2,006
Apri 1
1,587
May
1,158
June
837
July
579
August
408
September
193
October
107
November
64
December
0
47,385
3,349
>t.
Man-months of
on-site labor
Man-years
H-23
-------
TABLE 3.6.1-2
Trade Skill Requirements, Alpetco Construction
Trade Approximate Peak Requirement
Boiler Makers 100
Carpenters 200
Cement Finishers 50
Electricians 500
Iron Workers 400
Laborers 300
Millwrights 100
Pipe Fitters 800
Riggers 75
Operators 200
Truck Drivers 50
Painters 100
Insulators 200
Source: Brown & Root
11-24
-------
TABLE 3.6.2-1
Alpetco Operations Manpower Requirements
Employment Category Number of Employees
Plant Operations
Maintenance
Administration
TOTAL 579
231
291
57
Source: Brown and Root.
It-2 5
-------
TABLE 3.6.2-2
Major Job Classifications for Alpetco Operations
Work Force, Submanagerial Level
Classification
Process Engineers
Mechanical Engineers
Lab Technicians
Purchasing Agents
Materials Control Personnel
Warehousemen
Accountants
Employee Relations Personnel
Office Services Personnel
Firemen
Safety and Security
Process Operators
Process Supervisors
Mechanics and Machinists
Equipment Operators
Electricians
Laborers
Tool Room Attendants
Clerks
Approximate Number Required
6
4
21
4
4
9
12
7
9
12
12
162
16
98
17
34
27
3
8
Source: Brown & Root
11-26
-------
4.1 ALTERNATIVES TO REFINERY CONSTRUCTION IN ALASKA
4.1.1 INTRODUCTION
Environmental impact statements prepared under Section 102 of the
National Environmental Policy Act of 1970 must include a discussion of
"alternatives to the proposed action," which is meant to include "the
alternative ways of accomplishing the objectives of the proposed action
and the results of not accomplishing the proposed action." (Section
102 c(iii) of NEPA, and a statement of legislative intent by the
Senate Interior Committee, 115 Cong. Rec. 40420, December 20, 1969.)
This section discusses three alternatives: not authorizing the pro-
posed project; the possibility of building the plant outside Alaska;
and the possibility of regulatory measures that would obviate the need
for the project.* The conclusions are that the project would increase
the supply of gasoline on the West Coast and generally help to reorganize
the West Coast petroleum market, and these benefits would be lost if
Federal permits were denied; that location of the proposed refinery
on the West Coast outside Alaska may involve net economic advantages
over an Alaskan site, but the question is moot because the terms of
the sale of Alaska's royalty oil require the purchaser, Alpetco, to
build a processing plant in the State; and that regulatory action
by the Federal Government to increase the supply of gasoline or decrease
demand for gasoline, and thereby obviate the need for the project, is
not a realistic alternative to the proposed plan because it is uncer-
tain whether and when this regulatory action could be implemented.
4.1.2 NO PROJECT
Denial of Alpetco1s NPDES permit application would prevent construc-
tion of the proposed refinery. Local environmental impacts of plant
construction and operation, including economic benefits to the State
and local economy, are fully discussed in this report. These environ-
mental impacts would not occur if the project were cancelled for want
of Federal permits. In addition to these environmental considerations,
cancellation of the project would have other, nonlocal consequences
as well, because the project contributes to the general economic
efficiency of the West Coast petroleum fuel market.
This section discusses the effects of the project on the West Coast
energy market so that all consequences of the no-project alternative
can be identified. The West Coast petroleum supply and demand situa-
tion is extremely complex, and a full explanation of every facet of
it is well beyond the scope of this report. For purposes of the
present discussion, however, it is necessary to describe in general
terms the pertinent features of the West Coast petroleum market.
*It should be noted that the refinery is not a project or program
initiated by the Federal Government, such as a dam, highway or an
offer to lease Federal mineral land, nor is it part of a broad,
coordinated Federal plan designed to deal with a large problem. The
main objectives of the proposed project are private: the refinery
is a business investment by the applicant, Alpetco.
11-27
-------
These features include shortages in the supply of gasoline, particularly
unleaded gasoline; supplies of Alaskan North Slope (ANS) crude oil which
exceed the capacity of West Coast refiners to process this oil; a sur-
plus of high sulfur residual oil; and continued imports of sweet (low
sulfur) Indonesian crude oil.
The West Coast petroleum market is characterized by a mismatch between
refining capabilities and the availability of domestic crudes. Alaska
North Slope (ANS) crude is sour, which means it has a high sulfur con-
tent (approximately 1 percent by weight) and it is relatively heavy
(specific gravity of API 27°) which means it has comparatively fewer
of the light fractions which produce gasoline. California crude is
the only other domestic crude produced in the district, and it is even
heavier and more sour. In contrast, Indonesian crudes are sweet (less
than 0.1 percent sulfur) and light (API 35° or higher). Under normal
refining, a barrel of heavy ANS crude yields less gasoline and more
residual fuel oil than does most light crude; and there is a relatively
high demand for gasoline on the West Coast and relatively low demand
for residual fuel oil. Furthermore, without expensive desulfurization,
ANS crude produces a residual fuel oil that is too high in sulfur
content (1.5 to 1.7 percent) to meet California air pollution regula-
tions, which require that fuel oil may not exceed 0.25 percent in
Southern California and 1.0 percent in Northern California. Indonesian
crude, on the other hand, produces residual fuel oil that is within
these limits. Thus, refiners have preferred sweet, light crude to
sour, heavy crude to best match their slate of products with market
demands.
As a consequence, West Coast refineries, especially the smaller
refineries, are not equipped to handle large volumes of high sulfur
crude which requires more expensive and elaborate equipment. Refinery
runs of sour crude require first, that critical process units, such as
distillization towers and catalytic reactor vessels be fabricated
with special alloy steel to resist the corrosive effect of sulfur at
high temperature and pressure. Second, in order to produce low
sulfur fuel oil from sour crudes, a refinery must have a sulfur recovery
system. Third, to obtain the maximum gasoline production from heavier
crudes, a refinery must have downstream processing units, such as
catalytic crackers and cokers that break the heavy fractions into
lighter products. Therefore, to handle larger proportions of heavy,
sour crude in their existing mix of crude feedstocks, most West Coast
refineries would have to undergo modification. Modification of this
type is commonly referred to as "retrofitting" or making a "sour
crude revamp."
Because Indonesian sweet crude yields a slate of products that is
better suited to the local market than does ANS crude, imports have
continued even though abundant ANS is available. Prudhoe Bay oil has
displaced most sour crude imports on the West Coast since it entered
the market in 1977. Nevertheless, some 500 thousand barrels per day
(MBD) of foreign oil, primarily Indonesian sweet crude, has continued
to be imported to the West Coast (U.S. Department of the Interior,
1979; and U.S. Department of Energy, 1979).
11-20
-------
ANS crude that is not refined on the West Coast is shipped via the
Panama Canal to refineries on the Gulf Coast. North Slope production
is now about 1,200 MBD, and about 840 MBD of this oil is refined on
the West Coast. Thus, some 360 MBD are shipped through the canal.
North Slope producers plan to increase their production to 1,500 MBD
by the end of 1979, so even more ANS crude will soon be surplus to
current West Coast refining capacity.
The Jones Act requires U.S.-built ships to be used in trade between
United States ports, so ANS crude must travel in comparatively
costly American bottoms, and it must be off-loaded for trans-shipment
through the Panama Canal because the large, efficient crude carriers
that transport the oil from Valdez, Alaska are too big to transit the
canal. As a result, the shipment of ANS crude from Valdez to Gulf
ports makes it "by far the most expensive tanker transportation in
the world" (Martingale, Inc., 1978). Transportation charges for ANS
crude beyond West Coast ports are in the neighborhood of $1.80 per
barrel (Martingale, Inc., 1978). This cost is subtracted from the
value of the oil at the well head, reducing producer profits and
royalty income to the State of Alaska.
An objective of Federal, State of California, and State of Alaska
policy is to reorganize the West Coast petroleum market by increas-
ing gasoline production, increasing the amount of sour crude refinery
capacity, increasing West Coast processing of ANS and California
crude, and reducing imports of foreign sweet oil.
In general, existing West Coast refiners are proceeding slowly
with expansions and modifications necessary to accomplish these
objectives. There are several reasons for the slow response by
refiners to imbalances in the West Coast market:
a. The spread between the cost of sweet imported crude and ANS
crude is not great enough to justify major investment in
sulfur recovery and cracking capacity, particularly in cases
where existing equipment is not fully depreciated; and even
if the current price spread is attractive to some refiners,
it is expected to shrink as a result of construction of an
east-to-west ANS crude oil pipeline (U.S. Department of
Energy, March 1979; A.D. Little Inc., 1978);
b. Major investment is required immediately by refiners to increase
the octane rating of their gasoline production, primarily through
additions to catalytic reforming and isomerization capacity
(Oil and Gas Journal, June 4, 1979, April 9, 1979);
c. Refiners are hesitant to invest in new refineries or major
throughput expansions of existing plants because of the
expectation that demand for gasoline will decline, or because
the rate of increase of demand will slow dramatically in
the 1980's (Wall Street Journal, October 10, 1978; National
Petroleum News, May 1979); and because of apprehension over
the avai'labTTTty of cheaper foreign imports when U.S. price
controls on domestic crude oil are phased out (Oil and Gas
Journal, March 12, 1979);
11-29
-------
d. The permitting process for new refineries and for modifications
to existing refineries, involving local, regional, State and
Federal agencies, includes substantial expense, potential for
protracted administrative proceedings and litigation, and a
high risk of eventual denial.*
The Alpetco refinery, which is designed to maximize the yield of
light products from ANS crude, will help reorganize the West Coast
petroleum market. It will increase the supply of gasoline by approxi-
mately 75 MBD (this will eliminate the need for gasoline imports into
the region); it will increase by 150 MBD the volume of ANS that is
refined on the West Coast; and it will spare 150 MBD freight charges
through the Panama Canal (at $1.80 per barrel, this amounts to a total
annual savings of $98.5 million to North Slope producers and the
State of Alaska).
It is not clear that the Alpetco project will have any substantial
direct or indirect effects on the West Coast imports of sweet
crudes.
While denial of Federal permits will prevent construction of the
Alpetco refinery and thereby prevent adverse local environmental
impacts, it will also result in loss of the foregoing benefits of
the project to the West Coast energy market.
4.1.3 LOCATE REFINERY ON THE WEST COAST OUTSIDE ALASKA
A refinery located on the West Coast outside Alaska would make the
same contribution to reorganizing the petroleum market as would an
*Most major West Coast refineries are located in EPA nonattainment
areas, so refinery expansions or desulfurization projects require air
emission "offsets" from within the region. The permitting process is
considered by the industry to be a major stumbling block to new energy
projects, including refinery construction and expansion (Oi1 and Gas
Journal, February 6, 1979 and March 12, 1979). President Carter
recognized the problem in his proposal for an Energy Mobilization
Board (EMB) which could function to expedite the permitting process
for essential nonnuclear energy projects.
**Refinery construction costs would be significantly lower outside
Alaska. Based on a factor of 1.0 for the Gulf Coast, construction
costs are estimated to be approximately 1.5 for Alaska, and 1.1 for
the West Coast (these are estimates by Alpetco based on cost informa-
tion prepared by Brown and Root; they are also independent estimates
of Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories in an unpublished 1978
study for the Alaskan Legislative Affairs Agency). Thus, a $1.2 million
plant in Alaska would cost $880 million in California. Operating
costs, including labor and supplies, would also be cheaper outside
Alaska. It is not clear, however, if these economic advantages would
translate into lower product prices to consumers (or alternatively,
that the higher cost Alaska location means significant higher product
prices to consumers). Preliminary estimates by Alpetco are that an
internal rate of return of 15 percent requires a price differential
of only 0.6 percent on the plant's gasoline pool to offset the 50 percent
higher capital construction costs associated with the Alaska site
(operating costs were not considered) (personal communication,
Leonard Boyd, Economist, Alpetco, September 14, 1979).
n-30
-------
Alaska refinery, and it would be more economical itself since con-
struction and operation costs would be lower.** However, a non-
Alaska location for this refinery is not a realistic alternative
because the State of Alaska has made an explicit condition of its
sale of royalty oil that a refinery be constructed in the State of
Alaska. Indeed, the main public policy objective of the State in
taking its royalty in kind rather than in value is to create economic
development in the State through local refining and petrochemical
manufacture.
4.1.4 REGULATORY MEASURES THAT WOULD ELIMINATE NEED FOR THE PROJECT
Regulatory measures could be taken by the Federal Government which
would reduce overall gasoline demand and/or increase fuel production
from existing refineries, thereby obviating need for the proposed
project. Administrative agencies acting under existing statutory
authority could implement some measures that would have marginal
impact on supply and demand. For example, the Environmental
Protection Agency could delay its scheduled phase-down of lead
additives in gasoline. However, major actions would require new
congressional authorization. For example, Congress could offer
attractive financial incentives for installation of sulfur
recovery equipment on existing refineries; accelerate new car
mileage performance standards; or impose gasoline rationing.
While regulatory measures of this type are potentially effective
means of manipulating both supply and demand of petroleum fuel,
the possibility of any such measures being implemented as even a
partial alternative to the proposed refinery is so remote and
speculative that none warrant consideration here. Existing Federal
regulations affecting fuel consumption and production in the United
States have long, complicated procedural histories and significant
changes in them could not be made without extensive study and public
debate. These regulations are key elements of Federal energy policy,
and changes in them could affect many public and private interest
groups. Thus, the outcome of an effort to change regulatory policy
by Congressional action would be so uncertain, both in terms of the
time when they would be implemented and the ultimate form they might
take, that this avenue is not a realistic and practical alternative
to accomplishing the desirable policy objective of the project.
11-31
-------
4.4.8 ALTERNATE TRANSPORTATION ACCESS ROUTES RELATIVE TO THE SITE
Alternative access route configurations to the proposed project site
are limited by Robe Lake, the Robe River Subdivision, and the Valdez
Glacier Stream. Three potential alternates have been identified and
are described below.
1. REVERSE ROLES OF PROPOSED PRIMARY AND SERVICE ROADS
This alternate would have a number of disadvantages: potential impact
of daily traffic using the service road on wildlife in the Robe Lake
area. The southern access, off of the Richardson Highway at the Day-
ville Road, would have to pass through much of the refinery work area
before reaching the administrative/visitor area. (The proposed main
access from Glacier Stream Haul Road would enter the plant directly
into the administration/visitor area.) This alternate would mean
increased traffic impact on the Richardson Highway for an additional
2.1 miles beyond the Glacier Stream Haul Road, and an additional 2.9
miles on the trip length from Valdez to the refinery administration
bui1 dings.
The alternate, however, would provide a more direct access between the
refinery and the marine terminal dock (1.3 miles less travel distance
than the proposed scheme), and would avoid use of the Richardson High-
way for these trips.
2. EXTENSION OF EXISTING LEVEE ROAD INTO PROPOSED SITE AS ALTERNATE
PRIMARY OR SERVICE ACCESS
This alternate would utilize the alignment of the gravel road along
the existing levee on the south side of the Valdez Glacier Stream,
with an extension into the southwest corner of the site. The
alternate would not present any intrinsic advantages over the
proposed site access plans, for the following reasons: it is
about 0.5 miles east on the Richardson Highway of the Glacier
Stream Haul Road. Use of this alternate as the primary access
would, therefore, involve slightly longer travel distance and
impacts over more of the Richardson Highway. This alternate
would also have to pass through much of the refinery site to
reach the administrative area, thus presenting potential security
problems. If the route were used as an alternate to service
access, then the product pipelines would probably follow a similar
alignment. This alignment between the refinery and the marine
terminal dock would be about 0.8 miles longer than the alignment
adjacent to the proposed service road.
3. USE OF VALDEZ AIRPORT ROAD AS ALTERNATE PRIMARY ACCESS
This alternate would utilize the existing Valdez Airport Road with the
construction of an extension from just beyond the airport, across Valdez
Glacier Stream, to the northwest corner of the refinery site. This
would be advantageous in that new road construction would be reduced.
II-32
-------
The disadvantages of this alternate are:
the route is not as direct as the proposed route
it would lead to severe construction-related impacts
on both the Airport Road and the Mineral Creek Loop
Road, if used for the primary construction access
Severe conflicts would arise between construction
traffic and airport-related traffic
It should also be noted that none of the alternates would offer the
combined advantages of utilizing the Glacier Stream Haul Road as the
primary construction road, these being principally:
direct access to the proposed staging area for module
movement
exclusive use of road for construction traffic
minimal interference with the Richardson Highway.
11-33
-------
5.8 SOCIOECONOMICS
This section describes baseline conditions dealing with population and
employment, public sector revenue and taxation, public services, land
use and housing, transportation and utilities. Subjects are discussed
at the state, regional and local levels, as appropriate to the prob-
ability of impact.
The planning horizon adopted for the study is 1979-1990, a period within
which trends can be extrapolated with some degree of confidence. During
this time frame, the Alpetco project will have been built and in operation
for a period of six years, and nearly all requirements to serve the new
population with housing and public services will have been met.
11-34
-------
5.8.1 POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS
In the past decade the population of Valdez has fluctuated drama-
tically. From a town of fewer than 1,000 people in 1969, Valdez grew
to a boom town of some 8,000 in mid-1976. Construction of the Alyeska
Terminal was complete by mid-1977, and since then Valdez has slowly
stabilized at around half its 1976 peak. The growth of the 19701s has
transformed the demographic profile of the pre-pipeline community. As
a consequence, U.S. census information on socioeconomic characteristics
of the town, which date from 1970, are useless.
In March, 1978, a group from the University of Alaska, Anchorage,
headed by sociologist Dr. Michael Baring-Gould, conducted a census of
Valdez under contract to the City. The project involved enumeration
of the City's entire resident population rather than extrapolation
from sample data. Because the City disputed the findings, the census
has never been officially released. Nonetheless, the data and method
seem unimpugnable, and much of the demographic information and analysis
used in this report is derived from this 1978 census.
The 1978 census reported a population of 3,349, including 106 residents
of Harborview Developmental Center (This is only slightly less than
the town, or noncamp, population of 3,510 that Baring-Gould reported
in a comprehensive survey of Valdez in 1975.). This number is disputed by the
City, but it seems to be confirmed by population estimates based on
the number of currently occupied dwellings, the size of the local
workforce, school enrollment, and residential electric connections.
These estimates are shown in Table 5.8.1-9 and are discussed below.
For purposes of analysis in this report, 3,350 will be considered the
population base of Valdez.
The population of the City of Valdez is currently recognized by the
Alaska Department of Community and Regional Affairs to be 4,481. This
figure is an estimate by the city administration based on a count of
dwelling units (1,469 units multiplied by an average of 3.05 people per
unit). The population of Valdez, like many other places in Alaska, is
higher in summer than in winter. While summer population of the town
might approach 4,500, the number of permanent year-round residents is
fewer.
Table 5.8.1-1 shows the population of Valdez and the State of Alaska
at 20-year intervals between 1900 and 1940, and 10-year intervals from
1940 to 1970. Between 1900 and 1960 the population of Valdez changed
very little (351 in 1900 to 555 60 years later), while Alaska as a
whole grew by two and a half times (from 63,592 to 226,167). Between
1960 and 1970, however, the rate of growth of Valdez was greater than
that of Alaska (81.1 percent in contrast to 33.8 percent). A promo-
tional publication by the Alaska Department of Economic Development
issued in early 1969 estimated the city population to be 800 (school
enrollment was 224, or 28.0 percent of the population). The publica-
tion did not mention the trans-Alaska pipeline, and it identified
mining as the most likely new industry.
11-35
-------
In 1978, census takers found that males comprised 54.5 percent of the
total population, and females 45.5 percent. The census revealed that
the population is predominantly working age. Table 5.8.1-2 shows the
age structure of the community. There are relatively few residents of
retirement age, and the proportion of school-age children (ages 5 to
17) seems to be lower than the statewide average (see Table 5.8.1-3).
Table 5.8.1-4 shows Valdez school enrollment between 1967 and 1977.
Table 5.8.1-5 shows the ethnic composition of the Valdez resident
population. Valdez is not the site of an historic Native village, and
the Native element of the population does not constitute an identifi-
able subculture within Valdez.
Housing is discussed in more detail in Section 5.8.5.5. However,
Tables 5.8.1-6 through 5.8.1-8 suggest the residential patterns of the
local population. The discrepancy between the numbers of occupied
dwellings as observed in 1979 (970) and in 1978 (1,071) may be attribut-
able to errors by the surveyors or to a decline in population between
the dates of the surveys, or both.
Table 5.8.1-9 shows population estimates derived from various sources.
Laborforce information in this table is discussed below in Section
5.8.2. These estimates generally support the finding of the 1978
University census that Valdez has a permanent residential population
of about 3,350 people.
Population projections are very difficult to make for Valdez because
of the uncertainty of future economic development activity in Valdez
and Alaska. For half a century the population of Valdez was very
stable (from 1920 to 1960 the town grew by fewer than 100 people).
Without North Slope oil development in the 1970, Valdez would probably
have continued its traditional modest pace of growth.
For purposes of this analysis, we have assumed that the population of
Valdez will grow from its 1979 base of 3,350 at 3 percent per year.
Incremental population created by the Alpetco project is added to this
annually increasing base. Three percent is the growth rate used by
the Valdez school system for its planning purposes, and it is a middle-
range growth projection for the state population (these vary between
about 1.5 percent for no major economic developments and about 5
percent with major development).
H-36
-------
TABLE 5.8.1-1
Population of Valdez and Alaska, 1900-1970
(% Change From Preceding Census)
1900 1920 1940 1950
% % % %
Place Number Change Number Change Number Change Number Change
Valdez 351 - 466 32.8 529 13.5 554 4.7
Alaska 63,592 - 55,036 13.5 72,524 31.8 128,643 77.4
1960 1970
% %
Number Change Number Change
555 0.2 1,005 (81.1)
226,167 75.8 302,647 (33.8)
U.S. Census figures
Source: Peter C. Lin, "Alaska's Population and School Enrollments,"
University of Alaska, ISEGR, December, 1971, p. 4,9.
-------
TABLE 5.8.1-2
1978 Population of Valdez by Age,
University of Alaska Census
% of
Age
Number
Total
0-4
277
8.3
5-9
309
9.2
10-14
306
9.1
15-19
310
9.3
20-24
405
12.1
25-29
415
12.4
30-34
358
10.7
35-39
289
8.6
40-44
193
5.8
45-49
173
5.2
50-54
145
4.3
55-59
91
2.7
60-64
40
1.2
65-69
14
0.4
70-74
9
0.3
75 and older
5
0.1
age unobtained
10
0.3
TOTAL
3,349(1)
100
Source: Baring-Gould et al, Valdez City Census,
University of Alaska, Anchorage, March, 1978.
(1) Includes 106 residents of Harborview Developmental Center.
11-38
-------
TABLE 5.8.1-3
School-Age* Children in Population (percent
of total) in Alaska, Anchorage, Valdez Census District,
and City of Valdez
,(D
Alaska
Anchoragev
Valdez Census District^
City of Valdez
1960
1970
1978
24.2(1)
29.2(1)
26.4(2)
22.5(1)
29.0(1)
25.0(3)
23.8
27.7
N. A.
N. A.
ro
CO
o
s-/
22.0(5)
^Between 5 and 17 years old.
(1) Source: Peter C. Lin, "Alaska's Population and School Enrollments,"
University of Alaska, ISE6R, Dec. 1971.
(2) Source: National Education Association, "Rankings of the States, 1979."
(3) Source: 1978 Population Profile Municipality of Anchorage, Anchorage
Municipal Planning Department, 1978.
(4) Source: U.S. Census population for Valdez in 1970 (1,005); school
enrollment 281 (Table 5.8.1-4).
(5) Source: Table 5.8.1-2 (ages 15-19 allocated 62 per age group)
11-39
-------
TABLE 5.8.1-4
Enrollment in
Valdez
Public
Schools
, 1967-
1978
Sept.
Sept.
Sept.
Sept.
Sept.
Sept.
Sept.
Sept.
Sept.
Sept.
Sept.
Sept.
Grade
'67
'68
'69
'70
'71
'72
'73
'74
'75
'76
'77
'78
K
22
12
17
21
18
18
16
41
71
79
52
58
1
13
16
15
23
26
19
14
27
54
99
69
59
2
14
18
22
17
23
19
23
20
50
63
81
68
3
19
13
21
25
18
20
20
39
56
49
57
69
4
20
14
16
29
21
23
20
37
67
73
47
66
5
16
14
14
17
25
23
22
34
72
76
61
48
6
15
17
16
22
21
23
25
33
57
83
56
56
7
16
19
26
21
21
16
21
39
69
87
54
51
8
13
18
21
29
18
18
17
33
59
85
70
48
9
16
17
21
26
32
15
24
33
66
69
72
69
10
13
14
19
17
23
26
19
39
57
70
53
58
11
18
12
14
17
19
19
22
22
41
52
39
34
12
12
20
10
17
14
17
14
24
27
43
47
45
T0TALS(1)
207
204
232
281
279
256
257
431
746
928
758
729
(1) Excludes special education students at Harborview
Source: Valdez School District
-------
TABLE 5.8.1-5
Valdez Population by Ethnic Group, 1978
Ethnic Group
Number
% of Total
Caucasian
2,986
89.9
Alaska Native
179(1)
5.4(1)
Spanish-American
55
1.7
Black
41
1.2
Asian-Ameican
39
1.2
American Indian
13
0.4
Other
10
0.3
3,327(2)
(1) Includes 56 Native residents of Harborview Memorial Hospital.
(2) Excludes 26 whose ethnicity was not reported.
Source: Baring-Gould et al, Valdez City Census, University of Alas
March, 1978.
11-41
-------
TABLE 5.8.1-6
Housing Survey, CCC/HOK, May 1979
Type of Housing Occupied
Single-family (frame) 196
Single-family (modular) 114
Single-family (mobile homes) 463
Multi-family row units 10
Multi-family apartments 155
Campers, camp trailers 6
Hotel, motel units 10
Commercial-residential combination
970
Source: Northrim Associates; CCC/HOK.
11-42
-------
TABLE 5.8.1-7
Number and Types of Inhabited Dwellings in Valdez, 1978
University of Alaska Census
Type of Residence
Number
% of Total
Single-Family Dwelling
222
20.7
Trailers
518
48.4
Condominium
10
0.9
Duplex
143
13.4
Apartment
125
11.7
Motel
39
3.6
Work Quarters
2
0.2
Other, Including Boats
12
1.1
TOTAL
1,071(1)
100.0
(1) Excludes Harborview Hospital, Kennedy and Keystone camps, and Coast Guard barracks.
Source: Baring-Gould, et al, Valdez City Census, University of Alaska, Anchorage, 1978.
-------
TABLE 5.8.1-8
Valdez Population by Type of Housing, 1978
University of Alaska Census
Type of Residence
Number
% of Total
Single-Family Dwelling
772
23.1
Trailers
1,541
46.0
Condominium
21
0.6
Duplex
436
13.0
Apartment
317
9.5
Motel
72
2.1
Hospital Residence
106
3.2
Work Quarters
66
2.0
Other, Including Boats
18
0.5
TOTAL
3,349
100.0
Source: Baring-Gould, et al, Valdez City Census, University of Alaska, Anchorage, 1978.
-------
TABLE 5.8.1-9
Comparison of Various Estimates of Current Valdez Population
Source or Basis of Estimate
1. City of Valdez
(IT
2. University of Alaska Census
3. Work Force
a. City Estimate
4. School Enrollment
5. CCC/HOK Housing Survey^
(2)
Date
1979
3/78
6/78
Method
3.05 people/unit x 1469
occupied dwelling units
Census Survey
1,781^ (labor force) x 1.8^
(participation factor)
720(5) r .22(6)
970 housing units x 3.0
people/unit
Population
Estimate
4,481
3,349
3,225*
3,273*
2,910*
(1) Valdez Planning Dept. "Valdez Population, 1979," and "Valdez Housing Units," 2 tables
submitted to Office of Revenue Sharing, Dept. of Community and Regional Affairs.
(2) Michael Baring-Gould et al, Valdez City Census, University of Alaska, Anchorage, Alaska 1978.
(3) City of Valdez, Valdez Overall Economic Development Plan, June, 1978, p.10, Table IV,
footnote 2.
(4) This factor derived from information in Table 5.8.2-2, based on population of
3,350 minus 106; see discussion in Section 6.10.1.1.
(5) Table 5.8.1-4.
(6) Table 5.8.1-3.
(7) Table 5.8.1-5.
In May, 1979, Copper Valley Electric Association reported 901 residential meters in Valdez.
* Excludes residents of Harborview Hospital.
-------
5.8.2.1 EMPLOYMENT AND ECONOMIC BASE
Valdez was founded in 1897 as a point of departure for an overland
route to gold mining districts along the Yukon River. The town acquired
permanence and a measure of prosperity early in the century as a
transportation link to Fairbanks and the Interior mining districts.
Until the Alaska Railroad was completed in 1923 linking Seward and
Fairbanks, Valdez was the only all-season port of entry to the Interior
of Alaska. In the winter months freight and passengers were hauled
weekly to Fairbanks in horse-drawn sleds over the Valdez trail. Also
in the early years of the century, Valdez served as a center of trans-
portation and supplies for gold mines in the surrounding mountains.
Construction of the Alaska Railroad from Seward to Fairbanks and the
emergence of Anchorage as the largest and most prosperous city in
Alaska, combined to eliminate the vital role of Valdez as a port of
entry. During the 19301s and 401s a cannery operated in Valdez, but
the town never became an important fishing center. Cordova became the
capital of the Prince William Sound fishing industry. Cordova also
was selected as the railhead for the copper mining industry that
flourished near McCarthy in the early years of this century.
The role of Valdez as a transshipment (from ships and barges to surface
transportation) and supply point for the Interior was revived twice for
brief periods after the town's eclipse by the ports of Seward and Anchorage;
once during and shortly after World War II when it served as a port of entry
for military cargo headed to the Interior Alaska; and again during the
construction of the trans-Alaska pipeline. Valdez became the site of the
marine terminal of the pipeline and it was also a supply depot for pipe and
material used to construct the southern portions of the line. The mainstay
of the Valdez economy in the intervening years has been government employ-
ment, and particularly state employment since statehood. Harborview Hos-
pital, a state facility for the mentally and physically handicapped, was
built in Valdez, as was the regional office of the State Department of High-
ways, now the Department of Transportation and Public Facilities.
A profile of Valdez published by the Alaska Department of Economic
Development (now the Department of Commerce and Economic Development)
in early 1969 (presumably based on 1968 data) gives a glimpse of the
community's economy just before changes were set in motion by construc-
tion of the trans-Alaska pipeline. Table 5.8.2.1-1 shows employment by
industry at that time. Almost 69 percent of the town's workforce was
employed by government. Payroll records indicate that about 18 people were
employed by the City (personal communication, City of Valdez, June 25, 1979).
The balance was predominantly state government employment. Table
5.8.2.1-2 shows an estimate of employment in Valdez a decade later by
a local citizens group that prepared the city's Overall Economic
Development Program (OEDP Committee). Table 5.8.2.1-3 shows
employment in Valdez by industry for a 12-month period from October
1977 through September 1978 from the records of the State Department
of Labor. These figures differ significantly from the City's OEDP
figures, and a comparison between the two sets is represented in Table
5.8.2.1-4.
Employment information collected in the 1978 census is presented
in Tables 5.8.2.1-5 and 5.8.2.1-6. Although employment levels
11-46
-------
are not identified by industry as they are in Tables 5.8.2.1-2 and
5.8.2.1-3, the number of full-time employed, part-time employed, and
unemployed are very close to the estimate by the OEDP Committee.
Presumably, therefore, information on Tables 5.8.2.1-2, 5.8.2.1-5 and
5.8.2.1-6 best describe the current structure of the local economy.
The most striking change since pre-pipeline days is the increase in
the transportation industry employment (employment at the Alyeska terminal
is classified as transportation) and the decrease in the relative pro-
portion of government employment. Unemployment is between 16 percent and
18 percent which is much higher than the current statewide unemployment rate
of around 10 percent, which in turn is almost double the national average.
Wages and prices are higher in Valdez than Anchorage and cities in
Southeast Alaska. Table 5.8.2.1-7 shows average wage rate in Valdez,
Anchorage, and Sitka. The OEDP reports that, according to a survey
by the Agricultural Experiment Station at the University of Alaska,
Fairbanks, in September 1977, average retail food prices in Valdez
were 146% of Seattle prices, in contrast to 118% for Anchorage and
115% for Sitka.
There are no current data available on average per capita or household
income in Valdez.
11-47
-------
TABLE 5.8.2.1-1
Estimated Valdez Employment, 1968
Industry
Agriculture
Mining
Construction
Manufacturing
TUC*
Wholesale Trade
Retail Trade
Finance
Service
Government
Number
0
0
15
% of Total
0
0
15
8
23
3
26
220
320
4.7
3.1
4.7
2.5
7.2
0.9
8.1
68.8
100
(1) Fluctuates between 7 and 30.
^Transportation, communication and utilities.
Source: Alaska Department of Economic Development (now Commerce and
Economic Development). Standard Industrial Survey of Valdez,
1969.
11-48
-------
TABLE 5.8.2.1-2
1978 Valdez Employment by Industry,
OEDP Committee Estimate
,(2)
Industry
Mining
Construction
Manufacturi ng
Transportation*
Communications & Utilities
Wholesale Trade
Retail Trade
Finance/Insurance/Real Estate
Services
Business and Repair
Personal
Religious
Government
Federal
State
Local
TOTALS
Ful1-Time
0
209
0
283
35
6
218
28
(102)
68
28
6
(404)
67
288
49
Part-Time
0
15
0
17
8
2
77
6
(69)
42
19
8
(34)
3
31
% of
Total
(1)
1,285
(3)
228
(3)
14.8
19.8
2.8
0.5
19.5
2.2
(11.3)
7.3
3.1
0.9
(29.1)
4.4
19.3
5.4
100
(1) Sum of full-time and part-time employed (1,513).
(2) Includes Alyeska employees at marine terminal.
(3) Total full-time and part-time employment 1,513; assumes unemployment
of 269 and total labor force of 1,782.
Source: Valdez Overall Economic Development Program, June, 1978.
11-49
-------
TABLE 5.8.2.1-3
Valdez Employment by Industry, October 1977 through September 1978
Alaska Department of Labor
I
Ln
O
Industry
1977
1978
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apr.
May
June
July
AU£.
Sept.
Mi ni ng
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Construction
*
*
*
80
29
44
30
39
60
67
76
71
Manufacturi ng
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
TUC(1)
112
107
128
340
332
344
336
342
346
233
195
225
Wholesale Trade
*
*
*
*
*
*
7
12
10
14
13
14
Retail Trade
130
131
143
130
142
137
142
150
155
153
155
137
fire(2)
37
36
32
34
32
30
30
31
26
27
27
25
Services
273
257
253
202
199
214
249
254
292
277
293
237
Fed. Govt.
8
7
8
12
13
13
4
5
5
13
15
15
State & Local Govt.
237
239
238
213
225
224
280
382
192
157
226
237
Misc.
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
TOTALS
797 777 802
1011 972 1006 1078 1215 1086 941 1000
961
* Not disclosed by Dept.
(1) Transportation, Utilities, Communication.
(2) Finance, Insurance, Real Estate
Source: Alaska Department of Labor, Research and Analysis Division, Juneau,
Data for area 262 (City of Valdez)
-------
TABLE 5.8.2.1-4
Comparison of Dept. of Labor, City of Valdez
Employment Estimates by Industry, June 1978
Industry
Mini ng
Construction
Manufacturing
TUC(3)
Wholesale Trade
Retail Trade
FIRE(4)
Services
Fed. Govt.
State & Local Govt.
Misc.
Dept. of Labor
(1)
Number
0
60
*
346
10
155
26
292
5
192
*
% of Total
0
5.5
31.8
0.9
14.3
2.4
26.9
0.4
17.7
*
Valdez OEDP Committee
Number % of Total
0 0
209 16.3
0 0
318 24.7
6 0.5
218 17.0
28 2.2
102 7.9
67 5.2
337 26.2
(2)
TOTAL
1,086
99.9
(6)
1,285
(7)
100.0
Notes
TTTFrom Table 5.8.2.1-3
(2) From Table 5.8.2.1-2
(3) Transportation, Utilities, Communications
(4) Finance, Insurance, Real Estate
(5) No entry
(6) Total not equal to 100 percent because of nondisclosure items
(7) Full-time employment only
* Not published to prevent disclosure of information pertaining to
identifiable firms.
11-51
-------
TABLE 5.8.2.1-5
1978 Valdez Labor Force by Occupation, University of Alaska Census
Occupation
Number
Total
Professional
254
14.2
Managerial & Administrative
194
10.8
Technical
354
19.8
Clerical and Sales
217
12.1
Craftsmen
171
9.6
Operators
158
8.8
Laborers
157
8.8
Service Workers
206
11.5
Boat Owners & Crews
17
1.0
Artists, Writers, and Musicians
16
0.9
Military
45
2.5
TOTAL
1,789(1)
100
(1) Excludes individuals outside the labor force and 31 residents whose occupation was not reported.
Source: Michael Baring-Gould et al, Valdez City Census, University of Alaska, Anchorage, March, 1978.
-------
TABLE 5.8.2.1-6
Unemployment and Part-Time Employment of Valdez Civilian Labor Force, 1978
University of Alaska Census
Employment Status
Unemployed
Part-Time Employed
Full-Time Employed
TOTAL
Number
% of Total
288
16.3
90
5.1
1,386
78.6
1,764(1)
100.0
(1) Excludes military (Coast Guard) and 31 residents whose employment status was not reported.
Source: Baring-Gould, et al. Valdez City Census, University of Alaska, Anchorage, Alaska,
March 1978.
-------
TABLE 5.8.2.1-7
COMPARISON OF VARIOUS LABOR WAGE RATES,
VALDEZ, ANCHORAGE AND SITKA (1978)
Job Wage Rate ($ per hour)
Valdez
Anchorage
Sitka
Bartender
11.80
9.43
9.78
Butcher
12.55
10.15
10.54
Carpenter
16.33
13.14
13.62
Cook
12.61
10.15
10.54
Laborer
14.47
11.34
11.77
Lineman
19.55
15.22
15.80
Plumber
16.60
13.14
13.62
Truck Driver
15.92
12.66
13.14
Waitress
11.80
9.43
9.78
Source: Valdez Overall Economic Development Program Committee.
11-54
-------
5.8.3 PUBLIC SECTOR REVENUES AND EXPENDITURES
Development of North Slope oil resources required massive investment
in production and processing equipment on the North Slope, in 800 miles
of pipeline and pump stations across the State, and in the marine
terminal at Valdez. These facilities represented tremendous potential
resources for taxing authorities that could reach them. For its part,
the State of Alaska adopted a special statewide 20-mill property tax
on petroleum exploration, production, and transportation property. On
the North Slope, a new borough was created with power to tax property
at Prudhoe Bay. The City of Valdez expanded its city limits from 4 to
275 square miles in order to include the Alyeska terminal within the
city limits and hence within its taxing power. Because of the high
value of the industry facilities within their boundaries, and their
comparative small population, the North Slope Borough and the City
of Valdez have become anomalies in the State of Alaska. The North
Slope Borough has assessed value of $591,664 per capita; Valdez
$372,589 per capita. The state average (including Valdez and the
North Slope Borough) is only $47,342 per capita.
Table 5.8.3-1 is a summary of the fiscal year (July 1 - June 30) 1979
budget for Valdez. Of the $12.6 million budget, some 39% is allocated
to capital improvements. In 1979 Valdez had debt service of $1,597,577
or about 12.6% of total expenditures. Valdez does not have a personal
property tax, nor does it have a sales tax (repealed in 1976). The real
property tax rate of about 6 mills is one of the lowest in the State.
Valdez is the only city in Alaska with a permanent fund. In 1977 the
voters set aside some $13.5 million to be held perpetually in trust
for the city residents. Earnings of the fund may be used for capital
projects or operating expenses of the City, but the principal may only
be invested in income-producing instruments such as Federal and State
obligations, bank certificates of deposit, corporate bonds, etc.
Table 5.8.3-2 shows the growth of general fund expenditures in
Valdez from 1968 to 1980. This table reveals the rapid transforma-
tion of Valdez from a typical small town in Alaska to the second
wealthiest municipality in the State (on a per-capita basis).
Table 5.8.3-3 compares aspects of the public finances of the City
of Valdez and the Municipality of Anchorage in 1978. Although
metropolitan areas typically have more and higher public service
expenditures per capita than small towns, Valdez spent almost twice
as much per capita as Anchorage on general government, and over three
times as much per capita on capital improvements. Valdez had a much
lower average property tax rate (5.7 mills in 1978) than did the
Anchorage area (about 14 mills in 1978). Although Anchorage has a
higher total assessed value, Valdez has 13 times the per-capita
assessed value of Anchorage. While Valdez has over twice as
much bonded debt as Anchorage on a per-capita basis, this debt
represents only .75% of its total property valuation, in contrast
to 4.38% in Anchorage. The total debt of local governments in
Alaska is limited by law to 15% of total local property value. In
11-55
-------
addition to the $60.3 million of bonded debt ($12.3 million plus
$48 million approved by the voters in 1978), Valdez has $9.6 million
of other debts, or a total debt of approximately $70 million. With
property assessed at $1.63 billion, Valdez currently has a debt
margin of about $175 million. Statutory limits on the power of local
government to tax property (discussed in Section 6.10.4) apply only
to revenue raised for general operating purposes, not to revenue
used to repay bonded debt. Since Valdez is restricted by law in
its ability to raise general revenues through its property tax, it
is encouraged to fund capital expenditure projects through general
obligation bonds.
11-56
-------
TABLE 5.8.3.-1
Summary of Valdez City Budget, 1978 - 1979
Revenue Amount Percent
Surplus Carry-Forward $ 1,970,000 15.6
Taxes 8,731,404 69.2
Use Revenue, Interest Income 1,313,000 10.4
State Revenue 491,000 3.9
Other 118,000 ._9
$12,623,404 100%
Expenditures
General Fund^
Council and Administration $712,189 5.6
Engineering 198,661 1.6
Police 786,724 6.2
Fire and EMS 376,002 3.0
Streets 612,050 4.8
Parks, Recreation and
Campgrounds 323,462 2.6
Library and Museum 139,019 1.1
Health, Hospital 366,400 2.9
Planning and Zoning 75,177 0.6
Education 3,430,465 27.2
Other 546,864 4.3
General Fund Transfers
Utilities 4,561 0.0
Boat Harbor 139,280 1.1
Capital Improvements 4,912,550 39.0
TOTAL $12,623,404 100%
Notes
(1) Functions are summaries of 25 actual budget line items
Source: City of Valdez 1978-79 Budget and Summary of Capital Program.
11-57
-------
TABLE 5.8.3-2
City of Valdez, General Fund
Expenditures 1968 - 1980
Year
Total
1968
$ 293,418
1969
352,814
1970
435,545
1971
596,723
1972 (6 months)
(416,668)
1973
624,232
1974
561,912
1975
2,255,916
1976
4,570,826
1977
4,821,251
1978
11,163,381
1979 (budget)
12,623,404
1980 (budget)
13,755,482
General Fund Expenditures
Per Capita
$ 367
(1)
432
2,817
(2)
(1) In 1972 the City fiscal year changed from the calendar year
to July 1 - June 30.
(2) Based on population of 4,481; $3,765 based on estimate of
3,350.
Source: Annual Financial Report of the City of Valdez, 1972
through 1978: Valdez City Budget, 1979 and 1980.
11-58
-------
TABLE 5.8.3-3
Comparison of Selected Public Fiscal Measures,
City of Valdez and Municipality of Anchorage 1978
Valdez Anchorage
Per capita^ general
government expenditures $963^ $539^
Per capita capital projects
expenditures $1,130 $357
City employees per
thousand population 13 10
Property tax levy (area wide
average) (in mills) 5.7^ 14^
Real and personal property
valuation (full value)
(in billions) $1.67(5) $5.27
Per capita real and personal
property valuation
(full value) $372,589(5) $28,517
Per capita bonded debt $2,752^ $1,248
Bonded debt as percentage
of full value .74(6) 4.38
Notes
(1) 1978 per capita calculations made on the basis of official population
estimates (State of Alaska) of 184,775 for Anchorage; 4,481 for Valdez.
(2) Excludes local support of schools; Source: City of Valdez Budget,
1979 - 1980; Municipality of Anchorage. The 1978 Budget in Brief.
(3) There were two tax zones in Valdez in 1978 with millage rates of
6.127 and 5.3204 respectively.
(4) There were 14 tax zones in the Municipality with millage rates from
17.67 (Anchorage) to 10.42 (Borough outside Bowl).
(5) Valdez does not have a personal property tax; Anchorage does.
(6) In 1979 Valdez increased its bonded debt four fold with the sale
of $48 million in General Obligation Bonds for construction of a
new port.
11-59
-------
5.8.4 PUBLIC SERVICES AND FACILITIES
The provision of public services in Valdez was severely strained
during construction of the trans-Alaska pipeline. The array of
services available today is a partial response by various service
providers to their experiences in coping with the pipeline boom and
its aftermath.
This section describes the public services offered in Valdez including
health care, education, social services, fire protection and police.
These services are examined from the perspective of current programs
and facilities as well as growth planned to occur independent of the
proposed Alpetco petrochemical facility.
HEALTH CARE
A number of providers contribute to the medical care system in Valdez.
Public facilities include the 15-bed Valdez Community Hospital, the
Valdez Mental Health Center and the Harborview Developmental Center,
which is a state facility for the mentally and physically handicapped.
A public health nurse provides early childhood services, communicable
disease surveillance, immunizations, school health services, mater-
nity care and women's clinics. Three physicians, a dentist and an
optometrist provide private medical services; this care is supple-
mented by specialists who visit Valdez on a periodic basis.
Emergency medical care is provided by the Emergency Service Team,
an organization staffed by trained volunteers.
A detailed description of the health care system is presented below.
VALDEZ COMMUNITY HOSPITAL
As part of the reconstruction of Valdez following the 1964 earth-
quake, the Harborview Memorial Hospital was built, providing 150
beds for the developmentally disabled and and 15 beds for use by
community residents. The facility was completed in 1967 and in 1975,
a management contract for operation of the general hospital wing,
now known as the Valdez Community Hospital, was given by the City
to Lutheran Hospitals and Homes Society of America, a nonprofit
organization.
The Valdez Community Hospital is a 15-bed facility with one emergency
room. The hospital has a staff of 23, comprised of full- and part-
time personnel. Minor surgery is performed at the hospital. Valdez
residents with serious or emergency medical problems that cannot be
treated locally are airlifted to Anchorage for care.
The community hospital is a City-supported facility. The hospital's
operating budget, which was approximately $620,000 in both 1978 and
1979, is derived from operating revenues and from City funds.
According to the hospital director, room rates are lower than those
charged by hospitals elsewhere in Alaska. The City has deferred
raising room rates for the past few years, preferring instead to
meet the increasing costs of health care with monies from the
general fund.
11-60
-------
At present, the hospital is being utilized well below its capacity,
in part because Valdez's generally young workforce has few health
care problems (Val Stasch, Director, Valdez Community Hospital).
VALDEZ MENTAL HEALTH CENTER
The pipeline era in Valdez was accompanied by certain indications
of an increase in human stress and psychological problems, although
the precise relationship between pipeline construction and stress-
related incidents is difficult to evaluate. The Baring-Gould and
Bennett study of the 1974-1975 period of pipeline construction in
Valdez noted an increase in the divorce rate, an increase in
alcohol-related crimes and in crimes of violence, an alcohol-
related death, and eleven possible heart attacks (Baring-Gould
and Bennett, 1976, pp. 32-33). In less dramatic ways the changes
and pressures resulting from rapid population growth altered com-
munity life in Valdez.
The Valdez Mental Health Center was established in response to
mental health issues and concerns in the community. With the selec-
tion of a director, the Valdez Mental Health Center began full-
time operation early in 1979. In its first full year of operation,
the center's first priority has been to meet the mental health needs
of the current residents of Valdez. The director believes that the
incidence of alcohol abuse in the current population of Valdez, as
in other areas of Alaska, is higher than the nationwide average;
as a consequence, he has instituted a counseling program.
Sources of the center's budget, estimated to be $92,500 for the
current fiscal year, include State and City contributions, client
payments and third party payments.
PRIVATE MEDICAL CARE
Valdez is served by three resident physicians and by specialists
who visit the community on a recurrent basis. Two of the three
resident physicians operate the Valdez Medical Clinic, located in
the National Bank of Alaska Building. Other medical practitioners
include a dentist and an optometrist, who opened an office early
in 1979.
Specialists based in Fairbanks visit Valdez on a fixed schedule: an
ear, nose and throat doctor every six weeks; an opthamologist every
three months; and an orthopedist every six months.
EMERGENCY MEDICAL SERVICE
The residents of Valdez rely on a voluntary team of local residents
for the provision of emergency medical service. The 22 persons who
comprise the Emergency Medical Service team provide ambulance and
first-aid service on a 24-hours-a-day basis. The voluntary team
works in cooperation with the Valdez Fire Department.
The demand for emergency medical services grew during the pipeline
boom. Service responses increased from 79 in 1974 to 148 in 1975,
11-61
-------
154 in 1976, and 200 in 1977. With the completion of pipeline activity
and Valdez's loss of population, demand for services has declined.
Recently, residents of Valdez have discussed the possibility of hiring
a full-time Emergency Medical Service director ("Full-Time EMS Director
Needed," Valdez Vanguard, April 11, 1979, p. 2). The Valdez Fire
Chief has included the position of full-time director as part of its
1979-1980 budget request.
EDUCATION
At the time of the 1964 earthquake, Valdez had only one high school
and one elementary school; both facilities were damaged by the earth-
quake. A new six-classroom elementary school was the first building
constructed on the new Mineral Creek townsite. In 1966 a high school
was built at the townsite.
During the Alyeska pipeline boom, Valdez's two schools were hard
pressed to accommodate the influx of new children into the community.
Table 5.8.4-1 shows the extent to which enrollment in Valdez schools
increased between 1967 and 1977. When compared to a total school
enrollment of 324 in September 1973, the Valdez school population
grew to 493 in 1974, an increase of 52 percent; to 834 students in
1975, an increase of 157 percent; and to 1,011 students in 1976,
a 212 percent increase over the 1973 enrollment figures. At the
height of the pipeline boom, the school system had to use every
available space in town as classrooms, including church basements,
and had to resort to double shifts. As soon as it could, the
school system increased its capacity by ordering modular classrooms,
four units for the high school and eleven for the elementary school
(Leask, September, 1976, p. 34). The community passed bond issues in
1975 authorizing expansion of the elementary school from its original
six classrooms to fourteen permanent classrooms and, in 1976, authoriz-
ing construction of a new high school.
Valdez now has three schools, all located in proximity to one another
in new Valdez. The Growden-Harrison Elementary School has fourteen
permanent classrooms and twelve modular classrooms. Beginning in
September 1979, the elementary school will contain grades K through 6
rather than K through 5. The George H. Gilson Junior High School,
which earlier served as the high school, has eight permanent classrooms.
Beginning in September 1979, the junior high school will house grades 7
and 8 rather than grades 6, 7, and 8. Valdez Senior High School,
completed in 1977, has 22 classrooms and contains grades 9 through 12.
The Valdez school system also provides special education programs to
developmentally disabled children residing at the Harborview Develop-
mental Center, which is a State-operated facility. Mentally and
physically handicapped children receive instruction either at
Harborview or in two modular classroom units adjacent to the elementary
school.
11-62
-------
School officials have expressed dissatisfaction with the elementary
school's 12 modular units, which have been plagued by a variety of
maintenance problems. Without the modular units, the elementary school
would be able to accommodate only 301 students instead of the 439
presently enrolled. Table 5.8.4-2 compares the enrollment in elementary,
junior and senior high schools with the design capacity of these facilities.
To remedy this situation, the School Board in August, 1979, authorized
the construction of a 24-classroom elementary school designed for
approximately 500 students, and a seven-classroom school to teach
approximately 90 residents of Harborview Developmental Center. Both
schools will be located on a 14.5-acre site off Klutina Street, south
of the Black Gold Subdivision.
As one of its planning activities, the school administration is pro-
jecting changes in school enrollment based on both the continuation
of present trends and on the completion of the proposed Alpetco
facility. Without consideration of the Alpetco project, the school
district is projecting an annual growth rate of 3 percent. Table
5.8.4-3 contains enrollment projections for the years 1979-1982.
SOCIAL SERVICES
The Division of Social Services, part of the State Department of
Health and Social Services, employs one social worker in Valdez
on a part-time basis. It is the responsibility of the social worker
to provide information and referral about the following State programs:
adoptive service; child protection service; counseling; early and
periodic screening, diagnosis and treatment for health problems;
foster care; homemaker service; and other programs.
The current caseload in Valdez numbers 35, of which 22 relate to
child protection. Caseload records prior to 1978 are incomplete.
FIRE DEPARTMENT
Prior to 1977, the Valdez Fire Department was operated entirely by
volunteer firemen. With the increase in population during the Alyeska
pipeline boom came a significant increase in the number of responses
made by the Fire Department. As shown in Table 5.8.4-4, the number
of responses increased from 28 in 1974 to 65 in 1975, 67 in 1976, and
92 in 1977; with the completion of the pipeline, responses have
declined. Many of the responses during the pipeline era resulted
from fires accidentally started by construction workers trying to
heat their small trailers and mobile homes. In the opinion of the
Fire Chief, trailers and mobile homes are not designed for year-
round living in an area with Valdez1s climatic conditions.
Valdez residents indicated a high approval of the fire protection
services offered by their volunteer fire department during the
pipeline era. Residents, in a 1975 survey requesting them to rate
their satisfaction with various community services, gave the Fire
Department the highest rating, with 88.2 percent rating fire pro-
tection services as good or average (Baring-Gould and Bennett, 1976,
p. 48).
11-63
-------
In July 1977, the Valdez City Council authorized four full-time
positions for the Fire Department. At present, paid staff includes
the Fire Chief, one fire truck mechanic, and two fire fighters. The
Comprehensive Employment Training Act (CETA) funds the salary of one
fire fighter trainee and one secretary (CETA). Paid staff is supple-
mented by 56 volunteers.
Valdez is served by four stations located at City Hall, the airport,
Robe River Substation, and 10 Mile. Table 5.8.4-5 lists equipment
at each fire station.
At the present time the Fire Department has the same number of staff
and a greater amount of equipment that it did at the height of
pipeline activity in 1977 when Valdez had a population in excess
of 8,000. The Department certainly has adequate capacity to meet
current and projected needs, independent of the proposed Alpetco
facility.
POLICE
The impact of the construction of the trans-Alaska pipeline on the
demand for criminal justice services was comparatively greater in
Valdez than in the State as a whole. The State Criminal Justice
Planning Agency, in an analysis of statewide patterns of crime
during the construction of the pipeline, concluded that:
"...crime did not increase in proportion to the popu-
lation increase; this year [1978], however, there was
a substantial decrease in the number of crimes reported.
Since 1973, the population of Alaska increased by twenty-
seven percent and the number of crimes reported by forty-
seven percent. The crime rate, however, only increased
by sixteen percent. This means that the large increase
in the state's population was not accompanied by a com-
parable increase in the crime rate."(Office of the Govenor,
Criminal Justice Planning Agency, Crime i_n Alaska - 1978
Juneau, 1979, p. 3.)
Valdez, however, unlike the State, did experience a rate of increase
in criminal activity greater than its population growth. An analysis
of this impact found that "complaints and arrests [in Valdez] increased
dramatically during 1974 and 1975, at a rate far in excess of the three-
to five-fold* increase in population, with steady increases in larcenies,
drunken disturbances, and alcohol-related offenses (Baring-Gould and
Bennett, 1976, p.30). Table 5.8.4-6 presents monthly statistics on
criminal complaints and arrests in Valdez during the height of the pipe-
line boom.
*Va1dez's population increased three-fold if construction camp residents
are not included in the total and five-fold if they are. The camps
maintained their own security personnel whose records are not included
in the above analysis.
11-64
-------
The size of the Valdez Police Department expanded in response to the
increased demand for services. From a staff of two prior to the com-
mencement of the pipeline, the Department expanded to six in 1974-1975,
to nine in 1975-1976, and to 11 in 1976-1977.
Despite the growth in the crime rate during the boom, Valdez residents
expressed satisfaction with the performance of the Police Department.
When Valdez residents were asked to rate community services, the
Police Department received the third best rating, with 46.3 percent
of the respondents rating the Police Department average, and 36 per-
cent, good (Baring-Gould and Bennett, 1976, p. 48).*
Statistics compiled by the Criminal Justice Planning Agency and sup-
plied by the City of Valdez mirror the statewide trend of a reduced
incidence of crime following the completion of the pipeline. Table
5.8.4-7 presents crime statistics for Valdez for the years 1976-1978.
At present, the City of Valdez has 13 full-time officers (including
the Chief of Police) as well as five full-time dispatchers. Of the 13
officers, one is an investigator and one is a juvenile officer.
A wing of the new City Hall, scheduled to be completed in December 1979,
will be occupied by the Valdez Police Department. These new facilities,
which include offices, a seven-cell holding facility with 12 beds and a
maintenance area for police vehicles, will remedy the space deficiences
of the Department's old quarters.
*The Fire Department received the highest rating, followed by the garbage
collection service.
11-65
-------
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
Sour<
Total
207
221
263
319
• 3.17
310
324
493
834
1011
840
808
845
Table 5.8.4-1
VALDEZ CITY SCHOOLS
September Enrollment Report
1967-1979
Elementary (K-5) Jr. High (6-8) Sr. High (9-12) Harborview
104 44 59 0
87 54 63 17
105 63 64 31
132 72 77 38
131 60 88 38
122 57 77 54
115 63 79 67
208 105 118 62
370 185 191 88
439 255 243 83
367 180 211 82
368 155 206 79
439 111 215 80
Valdez City Schools; CCC/HOK
11-66
-------
Table 5.8.4-2
COMPARISON OF STUDENT ENROLLMENT
AND SCHOOL DESIGN CAPACITY
1979
Estimated Student Enrollment
Design Capacity
Sept. 1979*
Permanent Classrooms
Elementary (K-6)
439
301**
Junior High (7-8)
111
172
Senior High (9-12)
215
400
Source: Valdez City Schools; CCC/HOK
~Estimated figures by Valdez school administration, assuming 3% annual growth.
**The balance of 138 elementary school students are taught in 12 modular units
with a design capacity of 250 students.
11-67
-------
TABLE 5.8.4-3
VALDEZ CITY SCHOOLS
September Enrollment Report Projections
in the Absence of the Alpetco Project^^
1979-1982
Elementary
Jr. High
Sr. High
(K-6)
(7-8)
(9-12)
1979
439
111
215
1980
453
115
222
1981
466
118
228
1982
480
121
235
Total^
765
790
812
836
Source: Valdez City Schools; CCC/HOK.
(1) Estimated figures by Valdez school administration, assuming 3 per-
cent annual growth.
(2) Excluding Harborview Development Center.
11-68
-------
TABLE 5.8.4-4
Summary of Valdez Fire Department Responses
1972-1979
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979("
Structure Fires
9
4
12
17
7
18
15
8
Mobile Home Fires
4
2
6
18
29
24
10
6
Vehicle Fires
1
-
-
7
8
6
5
-
Oil/Gas Spill
-
1
-
2
4
10
7
5
False Alarms
-
2
-
7
4
7
5
11
Emergency Medical
Assistance
-
2
-
-
1
7
1
1
Other(2)
4
4
10
14
14
20
18
11
Total Responses
18
15
28
65
67
92
61
42
Damage ($000)
284.3
18.5
145.3
181.7
338.7
305.0
45.7
69.1
Man-hours Worked^
270
202
292
436
659
1035
829
484
Source: Valdez Fire Department, CCC/HOK.
(1) Department responses through April 30, 1979.
(2) Other includes rubbish fires, smoke scares, search and rescue, and
standby for hazardous situations.
(3) Includes only hours worked in responding to calls, not hours spent
by full-time staff on maintenance and office work or hours spent
in training.
11-69
-------
TABLE 5.8.4-5
Fire Fighting Equipment
STATION #1 (City Hall)
1 - 1967 American La France 1000 GPM
1 - 1977 International 250 GPM
1 - 1977 Cheve Superior Ambulance
On Order
1 - 1979 Seagraves 1500 GPM
STATION #2 (Airport)
1 - 1973 Ford 750 GPM
1 - 1953 GMC 1800 Gallon Tanker
1 - 1974 Airport Crash Truck Dodge
1 - Overlight 6KW Generator Trailer
STATION #3 (Robe River Subdivision)
To be constructed late 1979
Equipment Expected for this Station
1 - 1979 4000 Gallon Tanker
1 - 1979 3500 Gallon Tanker Pumper 750 GPM
STATION #4 (10-Mile)
1 - 1942 Ford 500 GPM
1 - 1953 Jeep 250 GPM
1 - 1964 White 1200 Gallon Tanker
1 - 1972 GMC Ambulance
On Order
1 - 1979 Spartian 4000 Gallon Tanker
Expected on 79-80 Budget
1 - 1979 3500 Gallon Tanker Pumper 750 GPM
1 - Chief's Staff Car
1 - Service Truck
Source: Valdez Fire Department.
11-70
-------
TABLE 5
.8.4-6
CRIMINAL
COMPLAINTS
1974-
AND ARRESTS-
1975
¦VALDEZ
Criminal
Criminal
Complaints
Arrests
Complaints
Arresl
1/74
4
2
1/75
21
5
2/74
1
0
2/75
37
7
3/74
4
1
3/75
81
21
4/74
5
1
4/75
67
33
5/74
17
2
5/75
61
17
6/74
26
7
6/75
63
14
7/74
23
7
7/75
105
10
8/74
45
8
8/75
110
22
9/74
41
11
9/75
114
19
10/74
60
13
10/75
124
36
11/74
39
7
11/75
161
40
12/74
37
6
12/75
122
34
Source: Michael Baring-Gould and Marsha Bennett, Social Impact of the
Trans-Alaska Pipeline Construction in Valdez, Alaska 1974-1975
"(Anchorage, 1976), p. 30.
11-71
-------
TABLE 5.8.4-7
CRIME STATISTICS - VALDEZ
1976-1978^1)
Number of Number of State Estimate of
Indexed Crimes(^) Adult Arrests Valdez Population
1976
480
300
6670
1977
324
177
8253
1978
266
63
8793
Source: Criminal Justice Planning Agency
(1) Comparable data not available priot to 1976.
(2) Indexed crimes include violent crimes (murder, forcible rape, robbery
and aggravated assault) and property crimes (burglary, larceny-theft
and motor vehicle theft).
11-72
-------
5.8.5 LAND USE
The purpose of this section is to provide an overview of land use and
development at the regional and local levels. The study includes an
identification of areas of existing and potential natural resource
development, and areas of recreational use potential and high scenic
quality. At the local level, existing and emerging land use and
ownership patterns are examined with particular emphasis on housing
and areas suitable for new residential development.
5.8.5.1 REGIONAL LAND USE AND RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
This section discusses existing and potential land use in the area
around Valdez. Land use is examined in terms of possible long-term
changes which might occur in the absence of refinery development. The
most likely impetus for change would come from development of such
resources as fisheries, timber, hardrock minerals and possibly agri-
culture in Interior Alaska. Land ownership, pending land disposition,
and use restrictions are also considered, insofar as they could affect
development feasibility.
The City of Valdez lies at the end of Port Valdez, a fiord in the
northeast corner of Prince William Sound. The City's jurisdictional
limits encompass 274 square miles extending both sides of Port Valdez
from the Narrows to Keystone Canyon (see Figure 5.8.5.1-1). Southwest
of the City is the Chugach National Forest, whose boundary falls
within the city limits in its southwest quadrant. Surrounding the
City to the north and east are the mountains and glaciers of the
Chugach Mountains, much of which has been selected for ownership by
Ahtna Regional Native Corporation. Most of this area is wilderness.
Widely separated communities in the area include Cordova, 45 miles
southwest, and the native village of Tatitlek, 23 miles south of
Valdez, and Glennallen, 100 miles north of Valdez. A fisheries-
related economy supports most residents of communities in Prince
William Sound, with secondary support coming from government, tourism,
private services, and timber and mineral development - not necessarily
in that order. Most employment in Valdez is derived from government
and the transportation industry (which includes Alyeska).
Changes in the economy of any one of these communities have normally
had little influence on others in the region for two principal reasons:
community isolation, and the existence of major economic forces outside
of the region. First, long travel distances over water and land, dif-
ficult terrain and a severe climate have encouraged local independence.
Second, exogenous factors such as growth in Federal or State govern-
ment, and restrictions on the use of Federal and State land spawned
stronger ties to such cities as Juneau, Anchorage and Fairbanks, than
to any smaller nearby communities. Growth and change in Valdez, for
example, influences and is influenced more by its connection to cities
outside the region, than by any activities within the region.
With respect to resource development feasibility in remote areas,
proximity to a nearby community is not normally an important
factor. Although there might be significant timber and mineral
resources in the area, the actual presence or scarcity of a resource
11-73
-------
Existing and Potential [
Resources Development
Potential Timber | \—I~J Group of Lode Mininq Claims
Cuts on Native 1 ' a
Selected Land Oq-O Gr°up of Placer Claims 5.8.5. 1-1
11-74
-------
is also less important than other variables. Available export markets,
restrictions on land ownership and use, climatic conditions, and
transportation problems all affect the feasibility and timing of
resource development. Valdez, for example, hopes to overcome some of
these limitations by construction of new port facilities for export of
agricultural products, and timber trucked over the Richardson Highway
from inland locations.
With respect to timber development, all of the present commercial
timber harvests in the impact area are located in the Chugach National
Forest. The annual allowable cut is 67.5 million board feet (MMbf) or
only .4% of a total accessible volume of 15,700 MMbf (Chugach National
Forest, DEIS Land Ownership Adjustment Proposal from the Chugach
Natives Inc. and Koniaa Inc. to the Chugach National Forest u> Alaska,
July 1978, p. 42)"! Only 8.5 RMbf was harvested in 1977 Wilderness
designation of portions of the Chugach National Forest, if implemented,
would discontinue timber forest and timber stand improvement projects,
and mineral entry would be prohibited after 1983 (U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Alaska Supplement to Draft Environmental
Statement Roadless Area Review and Evaluation, June 1978, p. 60).
Exploration and development could continue until that time, but no
significant mining developments are expected in the immediate future.
The termination or continuation of these restrictions will depend on
further planning, resulting in the Forest Land Management Plan for the
Chugach National Forest, expected by 1980.
Within the national forest, timber could be harvested and minerals
extracted on regional- and village-selected land. Under an amendment
to the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, the Chugach Native Corpora-
tion was allowed to exchange lands within the Forest, for lands already
selected outside the Forest. Selections have been made in the vicinity
of Tatitlek. If pending Section d-2 amendments to the Act are ratified
by the U.S. Congress, both surface and subsurface development rights
would be allowed. The timber and hardrock mineral development potential
of areas around Tatitlek is rated high (Alaska Department of Transporta-
tion and Public Facilities, Prince William Sound Regional Transportation
Study, Oct. 1978, pp. 6-33). By contrast, timber development around
Valdez, with the exception of approximately 100 acres southeast of
Port Valdez, is rated low (op. cit.).
The likelihood of changes in the fishing industry or mining activity
which would materially affect land use in the region is small. With
respect to fisheries, historical statistics confirm a major decline in
overall numbers of fish in Prince William Sound (increases in harvest
in recent years were not due to an increase in the resource, but
greater numbers of boats operating) (Alaska Department of Transportation
and Public Facilities, op. cit., pp. 6-24). Isolated mineral claims
north of Valdez are mostly Inactive (see Figure 5.8.5.1-1), and areas
of highest mineral development potential are in the Wrangell Mountains,
100 miles to the northeast (Alaska Department of Environmental Conserva-
tion Division of Water Programs, Water Quality Management 1978 Volume
Two, Sources of Water Pollution and Management Actions iji Alaska,
August 1978).
In summary, there is little potential for resource development in the
region which could significantly affect settlement patterns in Valdez
or in any other nearby communities.
11-75
-------
Further, the development of even the highest quality resources in
Prince William Sound might not take place in the near future. The
Alaska Department of Natural Resources estimates that most coastal
timber and mineral resources will not be developed for at least 25
years (Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities, ojd.
cit.). With the exception of improvements to fisheries and possible
petroleum development of the Outer Continental Shelf, no significant
new resource developments are anticipated within the 1990 impact
assessment horizon for the Alpetco refinery.
5.8.5.2. SCENIC RESOURCES
The Valdez region is characterized by steep-walled fiords, mountains
and glaciers, and dense coastal forests. Port Valdez is a three-mile
wide, glaciated fiord extending east-west about 14 miles. At its
eastern end, mountains quickly rise to a height of 3,000 to 5,000 feet
from the river deltas and level glacial moraines which identify the
built-up and developable portions of the City, (see Figure 5.8.5.2-1)
Most level terrain is confined to a narrow strip of land along the
coast; nearly all development is within a mile of the water's edge.
The significant exceptions are the existing airport and the site of
the proposed Alpetco refinery. The center of the refinery site is
located approximately 2-1/2 miles inland, at the base of mountains
which rise 3,000 feet in a space of 1-1/2 miles. Figure 3.3-5 illustrates
a view of the refinery seen against the background of these mountains.
Port Valdez has been given the name "Switzerland of Alaska" because of
its fine views of mountains, glaciers and rivers. The most prominent
views are generally directed across Port Valdez from either the Richardson
Highway or Dayville Road. Consequently, views across the water are
obstructed more by development along the water's edge than by inland
development. However, the large scale of the mountains tends to
diminish the size of even such large installations as the Alyeska
pipeline terminal.
Views of the natural environment and man-made features are signifi-
cantly modified by climatic and seasonal changes. Heavy snows and
roadside snow storage can block views of natural features as well of
objectionable views of industrial depots and litter-strewn yards.
Under heavy snows, even large structures such as buildings and tanks
can take on amorphous shapes which blend with the landscape.
5.8.5.3 RECREATION RESOURCES
Because the area is so large and the population levels are still low,
the intensity of recreational use in Prince William Sound varies
between communities and wilderness areas. Numerous opportunities
exist for sport fishing, hunting, hiking, camping, skiing, and boating
throughout the study area. Most activity occurs at facilities pro-
vided by Federal, State, and local agencies (see Figure 5.8.5.3-1).
CHUGACH NATIONAL FOREST
West of Valdez Arm is the Columbia Glacier Unit of the Chugach National
Forest, an area of approximately 7,000 acres, which has a summer
11-76
-------
Scenic Features
5.8.5.2-1
-------
To Fairbanks
To \
Chitina
Richardson
Hwy. /?
CHUGACH MOUNTAINS
Thompson Pass Ski Area
Cordova
Existing and Proposed Recreation Facilities
11-78
-------
recreational use estimated at 5,000 user days per year (USDA Forest
Service Supplement to Draft Environmental Statement, Roadless Area
Review and Evaluation, June 1978, p. 58). Nearly all of this activity
is associated with boat access. The Forest Service maintains one
outlying cabin at Sawmill Bay for public use on a reservation-only
basis.
The Fidalgo/Gravina Unit of the Forest is located on the south side of
Port Valdez and east of Valdez Arm. This unit extends all the way to
Rude River, five miles north of Cordova, and encompasses 233,700
acres. Summer recreational activity is estimated at 12,000 user days
per year based upon motorized access (boat, airplane) and 5,000 days
based upon nonmotorized access. Three cabins are maintained in this
area.
The future recreational usage of these portions of the Chugach National
Forest will be based upon pressures brought about by population growth
in Alaska and in the region, access limitations imposed by proposed
wilderness designations in some of these areas, and various pending
land settlements. The Forest Service has placed these two management
units in a "further planning category" for additional study of the
merits of wilderness classification. If the pending Forest Land
Management Plan recommends wilderness use for these areas, recreational
activities will be restricted (Ibid.). The use of snow machines, now
allowed, would be prohibited. No new development of cabins, docks, or
campgrounds would be permitted, and existing cabins would be eliminated
over time. Some established area of power boat, airplane, or air boat
access could continue to be used if their use was established prior to
the wilderness classification.
To improve recreational boating opportunities, the Alaska Division of
Parks is proposing a system of marine parks in Prince William Sound
and Southeast Alaska. To be located on state-selected land within the
National Forests, these parks could include such facilities as docks,
mooring floats, beach campsites, trails and toilets. Of the 25 sites
identified in Prince William Sound, four potential sites are located
close to Valdez: Sawmill Bay, Anderson Bay, Jack Bay and Port Fidalgo.
As of September 1979, only three of the total 64 proposed state marine
parks have been approved by the Forest Service (Johannsen, Neil, Chief
of Planning, Alaska State Parks, Marine Parks for Alaska, the International
Connection, Alaska Magazine, April 1979, unnumbered reprintIT
Outside the Forest boundary, the State Division of Parks maintains
five picnic sites and campgrounds in the vicinity of Valdez. Northeast
of the airport is the City-maintained Valdez Glacier Campground with
101 campsites. The four other sites are located on the Richardson
Highway at Mile 9, Mile 12, and in Thompson Pass at Blueberry Lake,
and Worthington Glacier. Only 12 campsites and five picnic sites are
provided at these four locations and there are no immediate plans to
expand them. During periods of peak summer use, recreational vehicles
camp on the shoulder of roads when spaces are unavailable in Valdez
Glacier Campground - a practice which is not restricted by the City of
Valdez (Rutherford, 1979).
The State Division of Parks has proposed the development of a new
State Park in Keystone Canyon, covering an area of approximately 12
11-79
-------
square miles (Alaska Division of Parks, Proposed Keystone Canyon State
Park, 1975, unnumbered pamphlet). Three new campsites with a total of
150 units, three picnic areas, and 14 trails totaling 70 miles are
among the proposed improvements. The Legislature has taken no action
on this proposal, in part because of the interest of the City of
Valdez in developing the park itself, a $50,000 expenditure has been
projected in the 1983-1984 budget. The Valdez Parks Department,
however, believes that there is insufficient land in the narrow canyon
to accommodate campgrounds as large as the State has envisioned.
CITY RECREATIONAL FACILITIES
The City of Valdez has recently begun an ambitious plan to expand its
recreational facilities. Boating facilities at the Valdez Small Boat
Harbor were enlarged from 180 slips to 349 slips in 1978. A greater
number of larger slips have been included, reflecting increased use of
bigger pleasure craft for longer trips into Prince William Sound. The
actual number of boats using the port during the peak summer season
may be double the number of slips (Rutherford, 1979). The harbor
still has additional capacity for approximately 100 boats (Valdez
Harbormaster, 1979). The Harbormaster's office indicates that a new
commercial small boat harbor will be built in three to four years at a
location east of the Small Boat Harbor, possibly in conjunction with
the City's proposed new industrial port.
The Valdez Parks and Recreational Department was formed in response to
new population growth brought about by the Alyeska pipeline terminal
development. A number of new facilities have been built since then,
including parks, playgrounds, and athletic play areas (e.g., tennis
and volleyball), in the new townsite. A ski area has been built at
Thompson Pass - Keystone Canyon, Mile 27 of the Richardson Highway.
Trails have also been constructed in Keystone Canyon, Mineral Creek
Canyon, and at Gold Creek, leading to old mines.
The recent provision of these facilities does not so much reflect any
standard associated with community population projections, as it does
a belief among residents that recreational facilities were "very
inadequate" as recently as 1975 (Baring-Gould and Bennett, Social
Impact of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline Construction in Valdez,"Alaska,
1974-1975,~T576T^ Because of the City's uniquely sound financial
position, it has been able to rapidly improve facilities.
The City's 1978/79 Parks and Recreation budget is $400,000. Improve-
ments planned in 1979-80 include a $100,000 camper park tentatively
located on University of Alaska land near the Small Boat Harbor;
preliminary plans for a new ski area at Mile 19; $1 million in bike
path construction; and a multipurpose indoor facility for tennis,
handball, weight-lifting, and locker rooms. Construction of the
recreational facility will require voter authorization of bond sales.
The preliminary five-year budget includes parks, trails and an indoor
ice rink (see Preliminary Draft, City of Valdez 1979-1989 Budget
Preparation, Appendix).
A recreational hiking trail is planned in conjunction with the pro-
posed Solomon Gulch hydroelectric project in a narrow stream channel
which enters Port Valdez near the site of the proposed Alpetco terminal
11-80
-------
dock. The trail would commence at a small parking lot on Dayville
Road and end at the dam upstream. Recreational usage is projected at
500 visits per year (Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, Final
Environmental Impact Statement Solomon Gulch Project No. 2742-Alaska,
1978, p. 3-5).
SUMMARY
Demand for recreational facilities is expected to continue to grow
faster than the population in the region grows. Opportunities for
construction of facilities in the Columbia Glacier and Fidalgo/Gravina
Units of the Chugach National Forest are great, but feasibility of
development will remain unclear until completion of the Forest Land
Management Plan. Population growth in Southcentral Alaska will help
to encourage development of the proposed state marine parks, as well
as maintain existing Forest Service wilderness cabins. Lands within
the Forest with the most potential for recreational resort development
appear to be those selected by the Chugach Native Corporation. Growth
in resident population and tourism in Valdez could broaden the market
for such facilities.
The 1979-1980 budget for the Valdez Parks and Recreation Department is
the largest of any City department. The size of the proposed five-year
budget of the department ($18.5 million) indicates a significant
commitment on the part of the City to making Valdez a more livable
year-round community. Although the budget has not been outlined on
the basis of any population projections, the budgeted facilities would
meet the needs of a significantly larger population than now exists.
5.8.5.4. VALDEZ CITY LAND USE
The original Valdez townsite was established on the large delta formed
by the streams draining from Valdez Glacier. Because this area peri-
odically flooded, a V-shaped dike was constructed around its inland
perimeter. However, the Great Alaska Earthquake of 1964 destroyed the
town, requiring its relocation to an area west of Mineral Creek. City
limits were established extending from Mineral Creek to beyond the
former townsite. The town at that time covered a total land and water
area of approximately 15 square miles. However, with impending develop-
ment of the Alyeska pipeline terminal in 1973, the City expanded to
its present 274-square mile limits to encompass the Alyeska marine
terminal on the south side of Port Valdez and isolated homes and areas
with potential for development to the east along the Richardson Highway.
Today, human use of the land within the city limits is small. The
former and present townsites, including the Pipeline Terminal and
isolated subdivisions east of the City, comprise a total of less than
five square miles, or 2 percent of the City (see Figure 5.8.5.4-1).
Mountains and water area cover 230 square miles or 85% of the total
area. Within the developed areas, the largest portion is devoted to
industrial uses, which, together with the port, storage depots and the
Alyeska terminal comprise approximately 2,500 acres. The airport has
800 acres. Approximately 460 acres are in developed housing. Public
uses such as the State Department of Transportation and Public Facilities
and the hospital occupy an additional 65 acres.
11-81
-------
I
00
ho
' No 1
Rich^Hwy Subarea No. 2
Zook-
Subdivision^
New Town site
PORT VALDEZ
ALVESKA Terminal
Old Townsite'
V»kJ«2.;6laci« SI ream \\ Subarea No. 3
Robe River
.Subdivision
v
ALYESKA
Subarea No. 4
Alpine Woods Estate
Nordic Subdivision
3K
.6
1.9 Mi
o
N
Existing Land Use
Residential
1 Industrial
^\n"Q Commercial & CBC [ } Public
| J Parks and Recreation| | Open Space 5.8.5.4-1
-------
The City has grown, particularly in industrial and residential land
uses. Most of this development has taken place on formerly undeveloped
land; but some residential properties have been converted from other
use. For example, U.S. Coast Guard housing was built on a 13-acre
Army recreation site west of the new Junior/Senior High School.
Most of the land area in the vicinity of the proposed Alpetco project
is undeveloped. The proposed refinery, pipeline alignments, terminal
dock and most of the access road alignments are on undeveloped land.
The secondary access road will utilize the existing Glacier Stream
Haul Road for most of its distance from the construction dock to the
refinery site. The proposed mobilization yard is a 110-acre site
formerly used by Alyeska for pipe storage.
11-83
-------
5.8.5.5 RESIDENTIAL LAND USE
Available land for residential uses and production of housing becomes
both essential and difficult to provide during periods of rapid indus-
trial growth. In no sector of urban life in Valdez was the impact of
rapid growth during the construction of the trans-Alaska pipeline more
keenly felt than in the availability and cost of housing. With the
impacts of the pipeline on residential land uses in Valdez serving as
recent history, an examination of past and present housing conditions
is a requisite to forecasting the impacts likely to result from the
proposed Alpetco facility.
THE PIPELINE ERA
When construction of the pipeline began in 1974, Valdez already suffered
from a housing shortage and lack of infrastructure necessary to expand
residential areas - two legacies from the relocation of the community
following the 1964 earthquake. At that time, most of the city's
housing stock was located in three subdivisions: Mineral Creek Subdivi-
sion (New Valdez), Zook Subdivision (near Old Valdez), and Robe River
Subdivision (south of proposed Alpetco site). These areas are identified
in Figure 5.8.5.5-1. Scattered housing existed along the Richardson
Highway and close to the Small Boat Harbor.
In the opinion of University of Alaska sociologists, Valdez in 1974
was unprepared for the rapid growth it was about to experience. This
lack of preparedness was attributed to a number of factors, including
the lack of monetary and technical support from the State government
before community impacts were well underway; an overly optimistic
attitude about the severity of probable impacts and a lack of information
from the oil companies and other industries on what impacts Valdez
could expect and what their requirements would be. Accompanying this
lack of preparation and understanding was an assumption that industry
would rectify any problems which emerged (Baring-Gould and Bennett,
1976, p. 12).
In the absence of anticipatory planning, Valdez leaders had to rely on
a series of ad hoc decisions regarding the expansion and location of
new housing stock. By May, 1976, housing conditions were chaotic: as
many as 30 trailer owners at a time squatted on available land to
avoid paying rent at trailer parks (David Oehler, Police Chief, City
of Valdez); many trailers appeared in the Zook and Robe River subdivisions
contrary to the Zoning Code, and some were placed adjacent to bars and
restaurants in which owners of the trailers were employed. Because of
the shortage, existing housing rapidly increased in value. The admin-
istrator of the Valdez Rent Review Board, established by Governor Jay
Hammond in mid-1975 to prevent unjustifiable rent increases, reported
that some two- or three-bedroom trailers rented for $1,000 or more a
month. High pipeline-related salaries, however, helped offset the
expense of such rentals (Linda Leask, 1976, p. 35). This condition
encouraged the explosion growth in the number of mobile homes, which
today account for nearly 60 percent of the single-family dwellings in
the community.
11-84
-------
Junior and Senior High Schools
Alaska Division of Highways/
1 Mineral Creek Heights
2 U.S. Coast Guard Housing
3 Black Gold Subdivision No. 1
4 Black Gold Subdivision No. 2
5 Evergreen Vista Condominiums
6 Mineral Creek Subdivision
7 Miscellaneous Harbor Subdivisions
O 325
300 500M
980 1630Ft N
-------
Both the public and private sectors responded to the demand for housing.
In 1974, the State of Alaska, in response to State employees who were
faced with the twin problems of housing scarcity and cost, authorized
the construction of a mobile home park adjacent to Harborview Development
Center and the State Highway Maintenance Buildings so that low-cost
space would be available.
Several private entrepreneurs came to Valdez to help meet the demand
for housing. One of these was Roy Madsen from Juneau, who in 1974
purchased 40 lots in the Mineral Creek Subdivision between Hazelet
Avenue and Meals Avenue. Madsen bought modular units, placed them on
permanent concrete foundations and arranged a long-term lease with
Alyeska.
However, Alyeska became the primary source for new housing in Valdez
during the pipeline boom. When construction of the trans-Alaska
pipeline began in 1974, Alyeska could not find enough qualified workers
who were willing to live in Valdez on a eight-weeks-on, two-weeks-off
rotation without the provision of housing (W. M. McCoy, Alyeska Pipeline
Service Company). Alyeska1s analysis of the local housing market in
Valdez showed that a high portion of the homes in the city were mobile
homes; little, if any, surplus housing existed. Alyeska decided to
provide two kinds of housing: managers and technical advisors were
provided the opportunity to rent single-family residences in new
Valdez. Contract employees in the construction trades were quartered
in dormitory-style units adjacent to the Alyeska worksite, an area
that became known as Terminal Camp, or in leased trailer units at
Keystone and Kennedy Camps, located near Valdez airport.
Housing for management staff was constructed on 56 acres west of
Hazelet Avenue in an area subdivided as Black Gold Number 1 and Black
Gold Number 2 (also called Fluor Housing). The area was zoned for
single-family units only, but Alyeska received a five-year conditional
use permit from the city to place temporary housing on the site at a
density twice that permitted by the zoning ordinance. This development
consisted of 200 modular units that were manufactured in Arizona and
barged to Valdez. During the construction of the Alyeska terminal,
each unit rented for $500 per month, fully furnished. This subsidized
rate was 30 to 50 percent less than prevailing rentals in Valdez
during that time.
Alyeska housed a great percentage of its construction workforce at
Terminal Camp, a site adjacent to the marine terminal. The camp
consisted of approximately 300 trailers, which were arranged to form
groups of barracks. Each barrack accommodated 104 men in 52 two-man
rooms. At capacity, the camp housed 3,500 persons. The camp was
entirely self-contained, with its own water and sewage treatment
plants and five diesel generators providing electricity. In addition
to barracks, Terminal Camp had a recreation hall with pool tables,
exercise room, sauna, theatre, snack bar, commissary, television room
and post office. A first-aid station was located in one of the barracks.
With the completion of the pipeline, use of the camp has been discontinued,
although all facilities remain in place today.
11-86
-------
In examining the period of the pipeline boom, it is clear that Alyeska's
intervention in the housing market lessened the severity of the overall
housing shortage. Even so, existing and new residents were directly
affected in the quality, price and selection of housing available to
them. The period of shortage and escalating prices also postponed the
purchase of single-family homes by long-time residents who had been
living in mobile homes since the post-earthquake years, and wished to
move into more permanent housing. With rapidly escalating prices
perhaps some of these mobile home residents have been permanently
priced out of the market for conventional frame dwellings.
EXISTING HOUSING CONDITIONS
Because existing land use maps and other documents proved to be of
little use in accurately describing Valdez's current housing stock, a
housing survey was undertaken in May 1979. The survey consisted pri-
marily of a visual inspection from an automobile of the housing stock,
supplemented by interviews with city officials, local realtors, con-
tractors and other Valdez residents. The survey included estimates of
tenancy (number of rented and owner-occupied units), vacancy status
and condition of housing (units in good repair, vacant or abandoned).
The survey also provided an estimate of the number of vacant residential
lots and vacant trailer spaces.
An overview of all housing in Valdez will be given before examining
sub-areas of the City. As shown in Table 5.8.5.5-1, Total Occupied
Housing in Valdez by Tenancy, Valdez has 970 occupied housing units:
738 or 76 percent are owner-occupied, while 232 or 24 percent are
rented. Excluding motel units, the predominent housing type in Valdez
is the mobile home; slightly more than half of all housing units are
mobile homes. Single-family houses comprise 20 percent of the total
and multi-family apartment units 16 percent (Table 5.8.5.5-2).
The condition of most housing in Valdez is good, a category defined in
the survey as "all housing that appears to be inhabited, is in good
repair, or needs minor repairs once the summer construction season
permits." Table 5.8.5.5-2, Total Housing in Valdez by Condition of
Housing, indicates that of the 1,247 total housing units, 1,204 (96.5
percent) are in good condition, 6 units (0.5 percent) need repair and
37 units (3.0 percent) are abandoned.
The vacancy rate for housing units, excluding motel rooms and aban-
doned units, is quite low at 3.1 percent (derived from Table 5.8.5.5-3).
The 25 vacant units, 17 of which are mobile homes, are all in good
condition (Table 5.8.5.5-4). The low vacancy rate is an important
characteristic of the Valdez housing stock. It indicates that very
little slippage exists, and that there is not sufficient housing
available to absorb a significant portion of the demand for housing
the proposed Alpetco facility would generate. The low vacancy rate
might be caused by a reluctance by builders to construct housing
during the post-pipeline years - a time when the city's population
might not be growing. This reluctance is greatest with respect to
newer multi-family housing, for which there has not been a broad market
acceptance. The issue of housing mix is discussed in more detail in
Section 6.10.6.3, Valdez Land Use.
11-87
-------
Valdez has 760 vacant residential lots and trailer spaces, almost
equally divided between lots and spaces (Table 5.8.5.5-3). Most of
the vacant lots are located in the new townsite (140 lots), the Robe
River Subdivision area (114 lots), and the Alpine Woods and Nordic
Subdivisions area (106 lots). Mobile home parks with the greatest
number of vacant spaces are Southcentral Trailer Court (185 spaces)
and Bayport Trailer Court (103 spaces).
The following is a description of the Valdez housing stock on a sub-
area basis, identified on Figure 5.8.5.5-1.
NEW TOWNSITE (SUBAREA 1)
The new townsite contains 794 housing units, or about 64 percent of
Valdez1s housing stock. The housing of this area is quite diversi-
fied, with multi-family apartment units the most plentiful, followed
by single-family mobile homes, single-family houses and the single-
family modulars in the Black Gold Subdivision. Most of the motel
units are located within this area. Vacant residential lots comprise
140 of the total 142 vacant residential lots and trailer spaces (Table
5.8.5.5-5).
During the past year, the Black Gold Subdivision has been in transition.
Under the terms of the initial agreement between Alyeska and the City,
Alyeska agreed to remove its modular units from the site at the expiration
of the conditional use permit in 1979. The City agreed in 1979 that a
portion of the modular units could remain if they were brought up to
code. However, because Alyeska no longer wishes to own and manage
real estate holdings in Valdez, it is ending its financial interest in
this subdivision.
Alyeska has resubdivided the Black Gold Subdivision No. 1 into 145 lots (see
Figure 5.8.5.5-1). Lot sizes range from 8,000 to 17,000 square feet,
with an average lot size of 10,000 square feet. Of the 145 lots,
Alyeska has sold 93 lots, each with a modular unit, to their employees.
Each modular unit is being placed on a permanent foundation. The
sales price for lot and modular unit range from $74,000 to $96,000,
with an average price of approximately $85,000. The remaining modular
units have been offered for sale at a price of $27,000 to individuals
wishing to remove them from the site.
At a cost of $7-8 million, Alyeska is making site improvements, including
the construction of a storm drainage system that will extend from the
subdivision to Port Valdez; the burying of utilities; the construction
of curbs and gutters; and the paving of streets. Once these improvements
are completed around mid-October, 1979, the remaining 52 lots will be
sold for approximately $23,000 per lot. Alyeska employees will be
given the first opportunity to purchase lots; any lots not sold to
Alyeska employees will be offered to the general public (Ellis Mercer,
General Manager, Alyeska Enterprises, Inc., Valdez).
To assure that its employees will have an adequate supply of housing,
Alyeska has incorporated a buy-back provision in its sales contract
with its employees. As part of this agreement, Alyeska retains the
11-88
-------
first option to repurchase a modular unit that one of its employees
wishes to sell. Alyeska will pay the purchase price within one year
of purchase by the employee. After one year, Alyeska will purchase
the unit either for its appraised value or the purchase price, which-
ever is greater. In this way, the employee can gain from appreciating
values while Alyeska can provide future employees with housing.
ZOOK SUBDIVISION AND AIRPORT AREA (SUBAREA 2)
This subarea is located near the old townsite and includes the Bayport,
Southcentral and Allied Trailer Courts adjacent to the airport as well
as Zook Subdivision and other housing along Mineral Creek Loop Road.
The single-family mobile home is by far the dominant housing type here:
of the 264 total units, 235 are single-family mobile homes, of which
30 are abandoned and 20 are vacant. The remaining housing units are
almost all single-family houses and a few trailers. Table 5.8.5.5-6
summarizes land use in this subarea.
Mobile homes and trailers in the Bayport, Southcentral and Allied
Trailer Courts are subject to snow loading and high winds (particularly
strong in this area). Each year two to three mobile homes or trailers
are blown over and many more receive wind-related damage (Michael Schmidt,
Planning Director, City of Valdez).
The groundwater level is quite high in the airport area, resulting in
the failure of septic tank systems used by trailer courts. Also, this
area is zoned industrial and housing is not permitted. For these rea-
sons, the City is interested in gradually phasing out the use of
mobile homes in this subarea.
ROBE RIVER SUBDIVISION (SUBAREA 3)
This area includes Robe River Subdivision, Rainbow Trailer Court
and nearby houses. Mobile homes on 10,000-square foot lots predomi-
nate, comprising 97 of the total 120 units. Single-family houses
are sited on one-third to one-half acre lots.
Although Robe River has more than 100 vacant lots, more intense develop-
ment awaits extension of city water and sewer services, improvements
that are at least partially dependent upon construction of the Alpetco
project (see Section 6.10.8.1). This area's high groundwater level has
caused localized problems of septic tank failure and well water con-
tamination.
Robe River Subdivision has had single-family houses constructed on lots
already developed, replacing older mobile homes. Table 5.8.5.5-7 sum-
marizes residential land use in this area.
ALPINE WOODS AND NORDIC SUBDIVISIONS (SUBAREA 4)
This subarea includes housing along the Richardson Highway and within
the Alpine Woods and Nordic Subdivisions. This portion of Valdez has
65 housing units, about equally divided between single-family houses
and single-family mobile homes, as shown in Table 5.8.5.5-8.
11-89
-------
The Alpine Woods Subdivision is characterized by poor roads and poten-
tial flooding from the Lowe River. Residents of the area rely on
individual on-site water and sewage treatment. These factors might
limit the development of the subdivision's 100 or more vacant lots.
11-90
-------
TABLE 5.8.5.5-1
Total Occupied Housing in Valdez by Tenancy
Tenancy
Type of Housing Owned Rented Total
Single-Family (Frame) 192 3 196
Single-Family (Modular) 94 20 114
Single-Family (Mobile Home) 429 34 463
Multi-Family Row Units -- 10 10
Multi-Family Apartment Units -- 155 155
Campers, Camp Trailers 6 — 6
Hotel, Motel Units — 10 10
Commercial-Residential
Combined (including boats) 16 — 16
TOTAL HOUSING UNITS 738 232 970
Source: Northrim Associates, Inc.; CCC/H0K.
11-91
-------
TABLE 5.8.5.5-2
Total Housing in Valdez by Condition of Housing
Condition of Housing
Type of Housing Good Needs Repair Abandoned Total
Single-Family (Frame) 197 1 2 200
Single-Family (Modular) 114 - - 114
Single-Family (Mobile Home) 481 5 35 521
Multi-Family Row Units 10 ~ 10
Multi-Family Apartment Units 161 - - 161
Campers, Camp Trailers 6 - - 6
Hotel, Motel Units 219 - - 219
Commercial-Residential
Combined (including boats) 16 2 _1 15
TOTAL HOUSING UNITS 1,204 6 37 1,247
Source: Northrim Associates, Inc.; CCC/H0K.
11-92
-------
TABLE 5.8.5.5-3
Total Housing in Valdez
Summary of Visual Survey
Type of Housing Good
Single-Family (Frame) 197
Single-Family (Modular) 114
Single-Family (Mobile Home) 481
Multi-Family Row Units 10
Multi-Family Apartment Units 161
Campers, Camp Trailers 6
Hotel, Motel Units 219
Commercial-Residential
Combined 16
Needs
Repai r Abandoned Total
1 2 200
114
5 35 521
10
161
6
219
Vacant Rental
2 3
20
23 34
10
6 161
209
219
16
TOTAL HOUSING UNITS
1,204
37
1,247 240
447
Vacant Lots 370
Vacant Trailer Spaces 390
Total No. Vacant Residential
Lots and Spaces 760
Source: Northrim Associates, Inc.; CCC/H0K.
11-93
-------
TABLE 5.8.5.5-4
Vacant Housing in Valdez by Condition of Housing
Total
2
23
6
209
240
Source: Northrim Associates, Inc.; CCC/HOK.
11-94
Condition of Housing
Type of Housing Good Needs Repair
Single-Family (Frame) 2
Single-Family (Modular)
Single-Family (Mobile Home) 23
Multi-Family Row Units
Multi-Family Apartment Units 6
Campers, Camp Trailers
Hotel, Motel Units 209
Commercial-Residential
Combined
TOTAL HOUSING UNITS 240
-------
TABLE 5.8.5.5-5
Summary of Visual Survey of New Townsite
Type of Housing
Single-Family (Frame)
Single-Family (Modular)
Single-Family (Mobile Home)
Multi-Family Row Units
Multi-Family Apartment Units
Campers, Camp Trailers
Hotel, Motel Units
Commercial-Residential
Combi ned
Good
132
114
149
10
161
2
209
13
Needs
Repair Abandoned Total
132
114
4 153
10
161
2
209
13
Vacant Rental
1 3
20
1 6
10
6 161
202
209
TOTAL HOUSING UNITS
790
794 210
409
Vacant Lots 140
Vacant Trailer Spaces 2
Total No. Vacant Residential
Lots and Spaces 142
Source: Northrim Associates, Inc.; CCC/HOK.
11-95
-------
TABLE 5.8.5.5-6
Summary of Visual Survey for
Zook Subdivision and Airport Area
Type of Housing Good
Single-Family (Frame) 21
Single-Family (Modular)
Single-Family (Mobile Home) 204
Multi-Family Row Units
Multi-Family Apartment Units
Campers, Camp Trailers 3
Hotel, Motel Units
Commercial-Residential
Combined 3
TOTAL HOUSING UNITS 231
Needs
Repair Abandoned Total Vacant Rental
1 1 23
1 30 235 20 7
3
3
2 31 264 20 7
Vacant Lots 10
Vacant Trailer Spaces 375
Total No. Vacant
Residential Lots & Spaces 385
Source: Northrim Associates, Inc.; CCC/H0K.
11-96
-------
TABLE 5.8.5.5-7
Summary of Visual Survey for
Robe River Subdivision Area
Type of Housing Good
Single-Family (Frame) 13
Single-Family (Modular)
Single-Family (Mobile Home) 97
Multi-Family Row Units
Multi-Family Apartment Units
Campers, Camp Trailers
Hotel, Motel Units 10
Commercial-Residential
Combined
Needs
Repai r Abandoned Total
13
5 102
10
Vacant Rental
21
10
TOTAL HOUSING UNITS
120
125
31
Vacant Lots 114
Vacant Trailer Spaces _13
Total No. Vacant Residential
Lots and Spaces 127
Source: Northrim Associates, Inc.; CCC/H0K.
11-97
-------
TABLE 5.8.5.5-8
Summary of Visual Survey for Richardson Highway,
Alpine Woods and Nordic Subdivisions
Type of Housing Good
Single-Family (Frame) 31
Single-Family (Modular)
Single-Family (Mobile Home) 31
Multi-Family Row Units
Multi-Family Apartment Units
Campers, Camp Trailers 1
Hotel, Motel Units
Commerci al-Resi denti al
Combined
Needs
Repai r Abandoned Total Vacant Rental
1 32 1 -
31 1
1
TOTAL HOUSING UNITS 63-1 64 2
Vacant Lots 106
Vacant Trailer Spaces -
Total No. Vacant
Residential Lots & Spaces 106
Source: Northrim Associates, Inc.; CCC/HOK.
11-98
-------
5.8.5.6 EMERGING LAND USE PATTERNS IN VALDEZ
This section discusses future land use patterns in Valdez in terms of
usable land for new development in specific areas. Important considera-
tions in this analysis include actions of the City of Valdez to encourage
new development, and planning mechanisms of Federal, State, and City
agencies which control land use.
PUBLIC IMPROVEMENTS AND LAND AVAILABILITY
Since the completion of the Alyeska pipeline terminal, the City has
sought to encourage new economic growth and development. Many improve
ments have been made to roads, utilities, schools and recreational
facilities to better serve existing and future residents. Additional
facilities are planned to encourage tourism, including possible relocation
of the ferry terminal to a larger, tourist-related commercial development
site east of Mineral Creek, and construction of a new recreational
vehicle campsite near the small boat harbor (Schmidt, 1979).
In addition to such capital improvement projects, the City is planning
to lease portions of its municipal land entitlement to private developers
for residential and industrial development. A total of 4,800 acres of
land are expected to be conveyed to the City by December 1979, by the
Alaska Division of Lands, under authority of the Municipal Entitlement
Act, Section 29.18 as amended. The 1,425-acre Alpetco refinery site
is included in this land selection (see Figure 5.8.5.6-1). Tentative
approval of the selections has been granted and the City is now awaiting
survey instructions to complete its application for final patent,
scheduled for August 1979.
Of the total entitlement, 640 acres west of Mineral Creek has been
identified by the City for residential development. The balance of
4,160 acres has been designated for industrial development and includes
all of the Alpetco site as well as a 300-acre parcel east of the
Alyeska terminal (See Figure 5.8.5.6-1). By leasing parcels from its
entitlement, the City expects to be able to meet any conceivable
long-term demand for industrial acreage associated with, or independent
of, Alpetco (Schmidt, 1979).
Land for new residential development in Valdez is also expected to be
made available by the State Division of Lands. Approximately 300
acres of State land east of Robe Lake was classified in 1978, and is
scheduled for disposition in the spring of 1980 (Dean Brown, Division
of Lands, 1979). Lots will be platted which vary in size from 2-1/2
to five acres, depending upon site suitability for septic tank filter
fields.
LAND USE PLANNING
The regulation of land use in Valdez is both typical of other small
communities in Alaska and uniquely different. It was only in May 1978
that a full-time Planning Director was appointed and a Planning Department
formed. Before that time, land use decisions were made by various
other City departments, the City Manager and Council. Although compre
hensive plans were prepared in 1965 and again in 1971, neither served
as effective guides for development because there was no one responsible
11-99
-------
Existing and Proposed City Owned Lands
5.8.5.6-1
-------
for implementing them. The plans were made particularly ineffective
because of the dramatic changes forced upon the City by the earthquake
of 1964 and by the development associated with the tran-Alaska pipeline
and terminal in the years 1974-75. The relocation of the town required
rapid construction of new roads, utilities, housing, governmental and
community services - a process which was still being completed when
the pipeline construction began. When the pipeline terminal was
built, the City had to expand to meet the needs of a population which
more than quadrupled in a year and a half. During the entire 15-year
period from the earthquake to the present, the City has had to "catch
up" with demand for more permanent housing, utilities, roads and
services.
Planning within this period necessarily has focused upon meeting
pressing short-term needs. Representatives of the City believe that
Valdez has seen the worst of rapid and disruptive growth and that it
is now prepared to deal effectively with continued development.
However, some administrators and councilmen have noted that the City
sometimes violates its own commitments by approval of projects which
could be better dealt with under systematic planning (Schmidt, 1979).
Such approvals also tend to undermine efforts to complete the long-term
plans against which incremental proposals could be evaluated.
Comprehensive Plan
Control of land use in Valdez will be improved when the new comprehensive
plan is completed and approved in 1980. The initial public participation
phase is complete and planning goals and objectives have been identified.
Although the land use plan which will emerge from the comprehensive
planning process will be determined in the months ahead, its basic
elements may be outlined at this time (Schmidt, 1979. It is based in
part upon the Land Use Plan for 1991 included in the 1971 Comprehensive
Plan, and informal decisions by the City regarding use of lands to be
conveyed by the State.
The 1971 Comprehensive Plan called for new development in three general
areas:
1. Area west of New Valdez. Single-family residential development
was projected west of Hazelet Street to and across Mineral Creek.
Shopping, school and park facilities were also included to sup-
port the new population. Bridges at the extension of Hanagita
and Egan Streets were proposed to serve the single- and multi-
family neighborhood west of the creek.
2. Old Valdez/airport area. Industrial development was proposed
within the entire 2,000 acres of low-lying land between the tidal
flats and Mineral Creek, with the exception of the diked area of
old Valdez and coastal areas to the east. The lod townsite was
designated as a "danger area - not developable in the 1971 plan."
3. The vicinity of Robe Lake. A new neighborhood larger than the
combined area of new Valdez and area No. 1 above was designated
at the east and west ends of Robe Lake. Portions of what is now
the proposed Alpetco site were designated for single- and multi-
family residential and recreational uses. Because of its isolation
11-101
-------
from new Valdez, shopping and convenience centers were also
located in this area.
The City's plans for the first two areas remain largely intact, although
the actual configuration of proposed roads and developable areas has
changed. The townsite is recognized as having flooding and geologic
limitations which would always preclude residential development, but
would not necessarily prevent warehousing and other forms of industrial
development. The satellite development projected for Area 3 is now
seen as limited by flooding and terrain features, the potential for
environmental impacts on the lake, land ownership limitations and the
proposed Alpetco development. The State plans disposition of 300
acres of land for residential development east of the lake, but none
of the land has lake frontage.
For purposes of the new comprehensive plan, no population projections
have yet been made. Because the Alpetco project is so significant in
terms of population growth and land use, the City expects to rely upon
data from this environmental impact assessment in completing its
comprehensive plan.
District Coastal Management Program
The Valdez Coastal Management Program will be an important element of
the Comprehensive Plan. The purpose of the plan is to provide for the
orderly, balanced utilization and protection of coastal resources, and
sound economic development along coastal areas. According to statutory
requirements of the Alaska Coastal Management Act of 1977, as amended
(Chp. 84, Sec. 46.35.030),the final plan will include:
1. A delineation of the boundaries of the coastal areas subject to
the District Coastal Management Program. The State has defined
the zone of "indirect influence" of coastal actions as the 1,500
-foot contour elevation, or essentially all developable land in
Valdez. Its eastern limits along the Richardson Highway have not
yet been established;
2. A statement of uses subject to the program;
3. A statement of policies to be applied to the management of land
and water uses;
4. Regulations as appropriate to govern land and water use under the
program;
5. Description of "proper" and "improper" uses subject to the program;
6. Summary of policies which will be applied to determine whether
proposed land or water uses will be allowed; and
7. Policies applied to areas designated for special attention.
A Phase I draft of the plan has been prepared by the City and has been
reviewed by the Alaska Department of Community and Regional Affairs
(ADCRA) - the agency which dispersed Federal Coastal Zone Management
funds for the study. The draft contains a resource inventory and
11-102
-------
statement of goals and objectives regarding the use of coastal resources.
A component which was not included in the draft is a discussion of
geophysical hazards to development. Geophysical hazards may present
some limitations to construction in at the old townsite where damage
from the 1964 earthquake was most severe.
The statutory date for completion of the Coastal Management Program is
December 1979 (SB 145). However, the City will likely petition DCRA
for an extension, depending on funding availability (Schmidt, 1979).
Until the District Coastal Management Plan is completed and approved,
development proposals such as the Alpetco project will be subject to
compliance with the State Coastal Management Program. Project proposals
are submitted to the Office of Coastal Management within the Governor's
Division of Policy Development and Planning, which acts as a clearing-
house for review of various aspects of the proposal by appropriate
State departments. Projects are reviewed for consistency with require-
ments of the U.S. Coastal Zone Management Act and the State's 1977
Coastal Zone Management Plan. The separate components or phases of a
large project such as the Alpetco petrochemical complex will be reviewed
on a sequential basis throughout the full development period.
Flood Hazard Areas
An important consideration in land use planning for Valdez is the
potential for serious flooding in such areas as the old townsite, the
airport, and the Robe River Subdivision. These areas are situated on
the deltas formed by the Valdez Glacier Stream and the Lowe River,
which make up the entire eastern end of Port Valdez.
A study conducted for the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Develop-
ment Federal Insurance Administration (FIA) (Flood Insurance Study,
City of Valdez, Alaska, 1976) in 1978 identified four types of flood
hazar
-------
o
Flood Hazard Areas
Dept. of Housing and Urban Development
Flood Insurance Zone Data
Base Flood Elevations
Zone
(lOO yr. Flood)
1-3 ft.
~A-0
28 ft. Elevation
A-H
4ft
A-8
6ft.
A-12
lift
A-4
Vaies
A-9
U • Undetermined
A
N • Little or No Floodng
C
Source: City of Valdez
-------
Maps from the FIA study form the basis for the administration of the
National Flood Insurance Act of 1968 and the Flood Disaster Protection
Act of 1973. The flood analysis program was established to allow
property owners to buy flood insurance at rates subsidized by the
Federal Government. In return, communities must carry out local
floodplain management measures to protect lives and new construction
from flooding. The community must use flood elevations shown on the
map as the minimum building elevation for new construction. Private
insurance agents establish premium rates on the basis of flood risk,
identified on the map as letter zones corresponding to flood elevations.
Valdez is in the first or "emergency" phase of the program. Subsi-
dized insurance rates are available during this phase regardless of
their insurance risk. Rates for existing structures in a floodprone
area are lowered to about 10% of the actuarial or real risk rates.
New construction is elegible for insurance only at unsubsidized rates
(Piatt, Rutherford, "The National Flood Insurance Program; Some Mid-Stream
Perspectives," AIP Journal, July 1976). Under the "regular" program,
to become effective March 27, 1980 (Carl Cook, HUD Administrator,
Region X, Seattle), premiums will vary according to exposure to flood
damage, and new buildings must be elevated or floodproofed.
The National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) essentially compels communities
to enter the program. By law, no federal-related assistance is avail-
able in floodprone areas if a community does not enter the program and
upgrade its local building standards to qualify for the regular program
(U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Questions and
Answers, National Flood Insurance Program, May 1979)! Federal assistance
includes mortgage backing (FHA Mortgage Insurance, VA Mortgage Guarantees,
etc.), direct loan, or any other taxpayer funds including disaster
relief. In other words, any development in floodprone areas to which
the Federal Government is in any way a party or guarantor must proceed
under NFIP rules or not at all.
The City has reviewed the Flood Insurance Rate Maps (FIRMs) prepared
for the HUD study and believe that they are overly conservative.
Particular disagreement lies with assumptions used in the study regarding
the severity of potential outburst flooding. A consultant has been
retained by the City and a preliminary analysis suggests that glacier
-dammed lakes in the vicinity probably do not contain nearly as much
water as was assumed in the FIA study. The consultants believe that a
more exhaustive analysis of this and other factors will likely reduce
the base flood elevations from the levels established in the FIA
study.
Provisions of the Flood Insurance Act allow for revisions to FIRMs
when warranted. Plans are to complete the new consultant's study by
midsummer of 1980. In order to make changes to the maps before they
become effective on March 27, 1980, the City might attempt to complete
analyses of critical areas for HUD review before that time. If no
changes are made before that deadline, the City will have to require
building at or above the flood levels identified on Figure 5.8.5.6-2,
or risk loss of any Federal funding. Such delays could in turn cause
loss of the construction season for housing and industrial development
in eastern Valdez.
11-105
-------
By constructing its dike along Valdez Glacier Stream as planned, the
Alpetco facility should avoid any of the potential problems of compliance
with the FIA study (see Sec. 6.2.1). Such a dike would, however,
encroach upon the floodplain, and potentially divert or increase flood
waters on the west side of the stream. The amount of this flooding or
its impact on land use cannot now be determined. The FIA floodplain
regulations allow for periodic updating of the FIRMs where such improve-
ments have likely modified the extent of flooding. The assessments
are usually made at five-year intervals unless warranted more frequently
by intensive development.
In summary, the potential for significant flooding has clear implications
for land use in Valdez. If projected flood elevations are high enough
to make building construction impractical, areas may have to be diked
or new construction restricted. Where projected flood elevations are
not excessive, buildings will have to be floodproofed or elevated,
affecting cost and development feasibility.
Zoning
Like the 1971 Comprehensive Plan on which it was based, zoning regu-
lations have not effectively guided land use in Valdez. During the
pipeline era, ordinance requirements for housing frequently were
ignored to meet pressing needs. Trailers and mobile homes were allowed
throughout the City on land zoned for single-family permanent dwellings.
Tolerating exemptions to codes in order to provide for the temporary
needs of residents became an unwritten policy of the City (Baring-Gould,
Michael and Bennett, Marsha, Social Impact of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline
Construction Jjn Valdez, Alaska 1974-1975, 197677" Because the present
zoning ordinance is difficult to administer, a new ordinance is being
drafted by a consultant to the City. It is expected to be adopted by
June 1980. A new Subdivision Ordinance is also planned. Improvements
which will expedite conditional use applications, and increase densities
in residentially zoned areas are among the objectives for the new
Zoning Ordinance.
Some changes suggested by the new ordinance would approve uses which
are now in violation of the existing ordinance. For example, the
present Agricultural Zone of 5-acre lots served by domestic sewer and
water systems in Alpine Woods Subdivision is being replaced with a
Suburban Residential District of 1-acre lots. This new zone reflects
the actual size of lots presently developed under the Agricultural
Zone.
Other changes suggested in the new ordinance could serve to increase
overall residential building densities. Within the RA Residential
Zone which now predominates in the new townsite and in Robe River Sub-
division, duplex units as well as single-family lots would be allowed.
Townhouse developments would also be allowed as conditional uses in
the RA Zone, which could have the effect of increasing both densities
and the overall numbers of units. The plan to allow higher density
development is a response to the limited availability of land for
residential development and the public cost of providing utilities to
isolated or low-density subdivisions. However, residents frequently
cite crowding and high-density living as an undesirable by-product of
Valdez growth (Baring-Gould and Bennett, op. cit., p. 37).
11-106
-------
There are other adjustments which could reduce the number of housing
units from those allowed on the existing Zoning Map (see Figure 5.8.5.6-3).
The long hill extending along the waterfront between Hazelet Street
and Mineral Creekis designated RA, but according to the Planning
Director, its steepness would probably require development at a density
no greater than one unit per acre. The Zook Subdivision located
northwest of the old townsite is zoned Commercial Residential, a zone
which has been dropped from the new ordinance. The Planning Director
anticipates that housing in this area, some of which predates the
earthquake, will gradually be replaced with commercial services supporting
industrial development in Old Valdez.
The Zoning Ordinance is expected to become effective in July 1980.
Anticipated revisions to the draft include a response to floodplain
problems raised by the FIA Study and possible changes to accommodate
the Alpetco project and other similar industrial projects.
There are no specific flood plain provisions in the draft ordinance.
When the final Flood Insurance Rate Maps are approved, the City will
have to develop specific policies for development within floodprone
areas. Most low lying land with the highest flooding potential is
presently zoned -and likely to remain zoned - for industrial use. The
probable effect of floodplain zoning on industrial development potential
will be to either restrict development in such areas or to increase
the cost of site preparation and building construction.
SUMMARIZATION OF LAND USE TRENDS
From the preceding review of public and private development trends and
regulatory issues, it can be seen that development areas can be generally
defined but the time frame within which development might occur is
more speculative. Efforts are being made to set aside large areas of
land for residential and industrial development, in anticipation of a
demand which has not yet been demonstrated. For example, much of the
industrially zoned land in the vicinity of the old townsite might go
undeveloped for years, or the City's proposed new port might encourage
some new development. Similarly, expansion of land for housing in the
area west of Mineral Creek is seen as a way of accommodating a specu-
latively larger population.
Thus, the actual size, location or pace of development in the City is
subject to a number of variables. Decisions for locating industry in
the City will depend upon considerations which might be only partially
influenced by what the City does. Other variables include the final
resolution of boundaries and elevations of the projected 100-year
flood, and various other local, state and federal permits for construc-
tion of the specific facilities.
11-107
-------
Existing Zoning
Residential
|: - • •;; •Industrial
KSSSI Commercial-Residential Parks & Recreation
Commercial & CBC liHIlifl Public 5.8.5. 6-3
-------
5.8.6 TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS
5.8.6.1 LAND
HIGHWAY SYSTEM
The Richardson Highway provides the only overland transportation access
to Valdez. Beginning in Valdez, the highway runs primarily north,
terminating at Fairbanks. About 15 miles east of Valdez, the highway
runs through the narrow Keystone Canyon and then rises over the
Thompson Pass up to an elevation of about 2,900 feet. At Glennallen,
the Richardson Highway connects with the Glenn Highway, providing
access to Anchorage. North of Gulkana at mile 130, it connects with
the Tok cut-off which leads to the Alaska Highway. Travel distances
from Valdez via the highways are 120 miles to Glennallen, 305 miles
to Anchorage, 365 miles to Fairbanks, and 258 miles to Tok.
The Richardson is a paved two-lane highway. The newer upgraded sec-
tions reflect current design standards of 24-foot pavement width
(two traffic lanes) with eight-foot shoulders, for a total width of
40 feet. Other, older sections sometimes have no shoulders and a
pavement width of 20-24 feet.
The Richardson Highway also comprises the principal element of the
local Valdez highway system, providing a transportation spine from
the Lowe River estuary along the northern side of Port Valdez to the
new townsite at Mineral Creek. The highway passes through the center
of the town and continues about a half mile to the waterfront to pro-
vide access to the city dock facility and the Alaska Marine Highway
berths.
With the exception of local roads serving the new Valdez townsite,
there are few other roads in the area. Between the new townsite and
the Valdez Scalehouse, the only intersections of the Richardson with
paved roads are: Mineral Creek Loop Road, Airport Road, and the
Dayville Road.
TRAFFIC VOLUMES
Traffic volumes on the Richardson Highway have been consistently rising
over the last two decades. Recent years have witnessed abnormal and
severe fluctuations in traffic levels due to pipeline construction
activity. While regional volumes seem to have returned to close to pre-
pipeline levels, local Valdez traffic volumes have leveled off at 1976
levels (Alaska Highway Annual Traffic Volume Report, 1977, State of
Alaska, Department of Transportation and Public Facilities). This is
principally due to the significantly increased resident population that
has remained in Valdez since pipeline construction.
Table 5.8.6.1-1 summarizes 1978 traffic volume data for various locations,
both in the Valdez area and at a regional level on the Richardson High-
way. In Valdez itself, average daily traffic (ADT) along the Richardson
varies from 4,300 vehicles at the Scalehouse to 5,200 vehicles both at
the Department of Transportation and Public Facilities (D0TPF) offices
and also in central Valdez, between Meals Road and Hazelet Avenue.
11-109
-------
TABLE 5.8.6.1-1
1978 TRAFFIC VOLUMES - VALDEZ LOCAL AND REGIONAL(1)
Location
Average
Daily
Traffic
(ADT)
Peak-Hr.(2^
Volume
(All
Vehicles
%
Trucks
Average
Trucks
Per
Day
Mile Point 1.0
Valdez Maintenance Station
(DOTPF)
5,225
370
12.5
655
Mile Point 3.0
West of Airport Inter-
section
4,540
340(3)
12.5
570
Mile Point 7.0
Valdez Scalehouse
(East of Dayville Road)
4,325
325(3)
18.0
780
Dayville Road
(500' west of Richardson
Highway)
1,925
144(3)
18.0
345
Mile Point 17.0
Southwest of Keystone
Canyon
1,600
120(3)
18.0
290
Mile Point 67.0
Ernestine Maintenance Camp
495
38
18.0
90
Mile Point 115.0^
Tazlina Bridge
1,342
100
NA
200-270(5)
Mile Point 123.0^
Gulkana Airfield Access Rd.
650
50
NA
100-130^5)
(1) Sources: Herman E. Londagin, Regional Traffic and Utilities Engi-
neer, State of Alaska, Department of Transportation and Public
Facilities, Valdez; and Alaska Highways Annual Traffic Volume
Report, 1977, State of Alaska DOTPF.
(2) Peak hour generally occurs between 3-5 p.m.
(3) Assumes peak hour 7.5% of ADT - based on peak-hour ratios observed
at Mile Points 1.0 and 67.0.
(4) 1977 Data.
(5) Estimated trucks assuming percentage range of 15-20% trucks in
general traffic stream.
NA Not Available.
11-110
-------
Regionally, volumes decline to low levels along the Richardson away
from Valdez. At Keystone Canyon the ADT in 1978 was 1,600 vehicles,
and at Ernestine about 500 vehicles a day. Truck percentages range
from 12.5 percent close to central Valdez, to 18 percent beyond
Dayville Road and eastward.
The average two-way peak-hour traffic volumes are also shown in Table
5.8.6.1-1 and range from 325-370 vehicles per hour in Valdez to about
40-100 vehicles per hour at various locations beyond the Ernestine
Maintenance Station.
The capacity of a highway is determined by the interaction of numerous
factors. Under ideal conditions of uninterrupted flow, the capacity of
a two-lane, two-way road would be about 2,000 passenger vehicles per
hour. However, as many highway conditions are less than ideal, capaci-
ties are generally below this figure. Principal factors affecting
capacity are: driver sight distance, the proportion of trucks in the
traffic stream, lane and should widths, and road grades. A greater
number of trucks, narrower lanes, and restricted sight distances will
all serve to reduce the number of vehicles able to pass any given
point during a given time period. Therefore, no single capacity
figure can be attached to a highway. Rather the capacity will
vary from section to section dependent on the roadway conditions
outlined above. The relationship between traffic volumes and road
capacity is usually expressed in terms of levels of service, classi-
fied as A through F, and described as follows (Highway Capacity Manual,
Special Report 87, Highway Research Board, 1965):
Level of service A describes a condition of free flow, with
low volumes and high speeds, with speeds controlled by driver
desires, speed limits, and physical roadway conditions.
Level of service B is in the zone of stable flow, with operat-
ing speeds beginning to be restricted somewhat by traffic
conditions. Drivers still have reasonable freedom to select
their speed and lane of operation. The lower limit of this
level of service has been associated with service volumes
used in the design of rural highways.
Level of service C is still in the zone of stable flow, but
speeds and maneuverability are more closely controlled by
the higher volumes. Most of the drivers are restricted in
their freedom to select their own speed, change lanes, or
pass. A relatively satisfactory operating speed is still
obtained, with service volumes perhaps suitable for urban
design practice.
Level of service D approaches unstable flow, with tolerable
operating speeds being maintained though considerably affected
by changes in operating conditions. Fluctuations in volume
and temporary restrictions to flow may cause substantial drops
in operating speeds. Drivers have little freedom to maneuver,
and comfort and convenience are low, but conditions can be
tolerated for short periods of time.
II-lil
-------
Level of service E cannot be described by speed alone, but
represents operations at even lower operating speeds than in
level D, with volumes at or near the capacity of the highway.
At capacity, speeds are typically, but not always, in the
neighborhood of 30 mph. Flow is unstable, and there may be
stoppages of momentary duration.
Level of service F describes forced flow operation at low
speeds, where volumes are below capacity. These conditions
usually result from queues of vehicles backing up from a
restriction downstream. The section under study will be serv-
ing as a shortage area during parts or all of the peak hour.
Speeds are reduced substantially and stoppages may occur for
short or long periods of time because of the downstream con-
gestion. In the extreme, both speed and volume can drop to zero.
In the Valdez area, the absolute capacity of the Richardson Highway is
estimated at about 1,700 vehicles per hour in both directions. Current
average daily peak-hour traffic volumes are 300-370 vehicles, and repre-
sent level-of-service conditions A to B. On the Richardson outside of
Valdez, and on to Glennallen, the capacity of many sections of the
highway is considerably below that of the Valdez section. As traffic
volumes are also considerably lower, however, level of service A to
B is probably maintained over much of the route.
TRUCKS
The average percentage of trucks in the overall traffic stream on the
Richardson Highway ranges from 12.5 percent at the Valdez D0TPF offices
to 18 percent on the Richardson Highway beyond the Valdez Scalehouse.
During the peak of pipeline construction activity in 1976, the truck
proportion reached 23.5 percent at the Ernestine Maintenance Station.
In terms of actual truck movements along the Richardson Highway, based
on 1978 extimates, an average of 655 trucks a day pass the Valdez
Maintenance Station, and about 780 trucks a day pass the Valdez
Scalehouse. Farther out on the Richardson Highway, in keeping with
the lower general traffic volumes, an average of 90 trucks a day pass
the Ernestine Maintenance Station. Table 5.8.6.1-2 summarizes truck
traffic characteristics recorded at the Valdez Scalehouse in recent years.
Since 1972, both the average gross vehicle weight and the net vehicle
weight of loaded trucks have remained relatively constant, averaging
about 60,000 lbs. and 30,000 lbs. respectively.
Also shown in Table 5.8.6.1-2 is the percentage breakdown of trucks
by axle group. Although in 1977 about 20 percent of trucks were of
four or fewer axles, almost 50 percent were of six or more axles.
Truck weight limitations on State highways, specified by the State of
Alaska and controlled by the Department of Transportation and Public
Facilities, Maintenance Division, are based on three factors: maximum
gross vehicle weights, maximum axle weights, and maximum tire loadings
(Alaska Oversize and Overweight Permit Movements. State of Alaska,
Department of Highways, Maintenance Division, May 1973). The allowable
gross vehicle weight is determined by the most critical of the three
elements.
11-112
-------
TABLE 5.8.6.1-2
TRUCK TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS - VALDEZ SCALEHOUSE(1)
% Breakdown of Trucks by Axle Group
Average Gross Average Net 2 3 4 5 6+
Year Vehicle Wt.^ Vehicle Wt.^ Axles Axles Axles Axles Axles
1972
62,000
lbs.
33,000
lbs.
18%
9%
1%
40%
32%
1973
55,000
lbs.
29,000
lbs.
28%
9%
1%
37%
25%
1974
51,000
lbs.
24,000
lbs.
19%
19%
1%
44%
17%
1975
62,000
lbs.
30,000
lbs.
2%
11%
2%
57%
28%
1976
64,000
lbs.
32,000
lbs.
2%
12%
1%
47%
38%
1977
64,000
lbs.
33,000
lbs.
6%
12%
2%
32%
47%
(1) Source: Alaska Highways Annual Traffic Volume Report, 1977, State
of Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities.
(2) Data for loaded trucks only.
If the weight of the gross vehicle, any axle or axle group, or tire
loading is in excess of those prescribed, a permit is required for
vehicle operation.
During the spring, when roads are most susceptible to damage due to
freeze-thaw conditions, additional weight restrictions may be applied
locally. On the Richardson Highway in the Valdez area, legal maximum
axle loads are reduced to 75 percent of the normal allowances during
this period (generally April-May), and for short periods of severe
conditions to 50 percent of the normal allowances. During this same
period permits for overloads in excess of legal limits are not issued
except in extreme emergency cases.
FUTURE HIGHWAY CONDITIONS
Considerable improvements are planned for the Richardson Highway over
the next five to six years, to improve both safety and roadway capacity.
Altogether, about 80 miles of roadway will be upgraded or reconstructed
over the 200 miles between Valdez and the Denali Highway. Approximately
25 percent of these improvements will occur within 30 miles of Valdez
and about 50 percent within 90 miles of Valdez (up to the Tonsina-
Copper Center area).
The key improvement project closest to Valdez will be the Keystone
Tunnel By-Pass which will divert the road from the existing narrow
tunnel and sharp curves at the north end of the canyon.
11-113
-------
The proposed Copper River Highway, linking Cordova to the Richardson
Highway between the Thompson Pass and Tonsina is currently undergoing
official review. As a six- to seven-year construction period has been
estimated for the full facility, it is unlikely that the highway, if
approved, would be in operation before 1988, well after full implementa-
tion of the Alpetco facility.
By 1985, when the Alpetco project would be in full operation, regional
traffic volumes on the Richardson Highway north of Valdez without the
project will probably be almost double current levels (assumes regional
traffic volumes, e.g. at Ernestine Maintenance Camp, will continue to
increase at average pre-pipeline levels of 10 percent per annum (Alaska
Highways Annual Traffic Volume Report, 1977, State of Alaska, Department
of Transportation and Public Facilities). This would increase the
average daily traffic at Ernestine, for example, from 495 to 975
vehicles with corresponding increases in peak-hour traffic volumes.
In Valdez itself, the regional traffic growth on the Richardson cor-
responds to a smaller percentage (about 1-2 percent) due to the far
higher general traffic volumes. In addition, however, the population
of Valdez, excluding the influence of the Alpetco project, is expected
to increase by 1 percent per year on average (see Section 5.8.1 Popula-
tion Characteristics), and it is estimated that the planned new Valdez
city dock could generate an additional 1-2 percent traffic per annum
(Based on usage projections in: Port of Valdez Market Penetration
Study, Alaska Consultants, Inc., Harbridge House, Inc.; prepared for
City of Valdez, 1978).
Overall, it may be expected that traffic volumes in Valdez will increase
by about 3-5 percent per year up to 1985. Average daily traffic on the
Richardson would, thus, increase from 5,225 vehicles to 7,325 vehicles
at the Transportation offices, and from 4,235 to 6,050 at the Valdez
Scalehouse. Levels of service on this section of the Richardson would
remain A to B, the same as the present level.
5.8.6.2 AIR
AIRPORT FACILITIES
The Valdez Airport is located approximately four miles east of the
present Valdez townsite, to the north of the old townsite and the
Richardson Highway. The airport is owned and maintained by the Alaska
Department of Transportation and Public Facilities, which leases out
the recently constructed terminal building to private enterprises.
The configuration and operation of the airport is largely constrained
by the local geography. Airport layout comprises a single 5,000-foot
runway in an east-west orientation, with three taxiways connecting
to a parallel large apron area. Steep mountains to the north and
east of the airport result in the most common flight approach being
from the west, over the Valdez Narrows and the water body of Port
Valdez.
The lack of runway lighting restricts operations to daylight hours, a
more severe restriction in winter, due to the short days, than in summer.
11-114
-------
The airport also lacks any approach instrumentation system, necessitating
all aircraft approaches to be made under visual flight rules (VFR).
Low cloud ceilings, therefore, also can restrict airport activity at
times. The largest craft the runway can accommodate is a Boeing 727 jet.
The current (1978) annual total operations of just under 20,000 indi-
cates that Valdez Airport is operating considerably below its estimated
capacity of 100,000-200,000 per year.* Table 5.8.6.2-1 summarizes total
airport movements over the last four years, and indicates both the sea-
sonal variation of airport operations and the historical fluctuations
caused by the pipeline construction. Airport operations doubled
between 1975 and 1977 to a peak of 28,000 per year. During the last
four years, about 70 percent of all annual airport movements have
occurred between April and September.
TABLE 5.8.6.2-1
VALDEZ AIRPORT OPERATIONS 1975-1979
(Number of Takeoffs and Landings)
Total
Year
Jan.-Mar.
Apr.-June
July-Sept. Oct.-Dec.
Annual
1975
1,379
3,723
6,060 3,159
14,321
1976
2,585
9,265
9,598 4,953
26,401
1977
4,410
9,415
9,916 4,248
27,989
1978
3,574
5,240
7,177 3,478
19,469
1979
3,130
Source:
Federal
Aviation Administration, Valdez.
AIR PASSENGER SERVICES
Valdez is currently served by three air carriers on a regular basis.
Two of these, Polar Airlines and Alaska Aeronautical Industrial (AAI)»
offer scheduled services, while Valdez Airlines (formerly Kennedy Air
Service) operates to Valdez as an air taxi charter service. The
principal carrier is Polar Airlines. The vast majority of air pas-
senger traffic into and out of Valdez originates or is destined for
Anchorage.
*The Prince William Sound Regional Transportation Study indicates that
for a simple runway which does not serve a significant portion of larger
jets, the FAA has estimated a "practical annual capacity" of about
215,000 operations (takeoff or landing). Considering local weather
and daylight conditions, the capacity of the Valdez Airport would be
lower than this figure and would be between about 100,000 and 200,000
operations a year.
11-115
-------
Polar Airlines in summer 1979 operates about 33 round trips per week
(average five-six per day) between Valdez and Merrill Field in Anchorage.
Valdez Airlines, providing air charter services only, averages about
three-four trips a day (20-25 per week) between Anchorage International
Airport and Valdez. AAI provides seven round trips per week, an average
of one a day, between Valdez and Anchorage International, by way of
Cordova. The majority of these services utilize nine-ten seat aircraft.
While overall passenger data is incomplete, the best estimates indi-
cate current total movement through the Valdez Airport on the three
main carriers to approximate 28,000 passengers per year.
Available data (Data submitted by Polar Airlines to Alaska Transporta-
tion Commission, March 1979) for the major carrier indicate flights
operating at about 55 percent of seat capacity for the winter period,
and about 60 percent of capacity for the summer period. The same
data show that during the last 12 months, about 85 percent of sche-
duled flights into and out of Valdez were completed. Weather can-
cellations were more frequent in winter, only 70 percent of flights
being completed on average, while during the summer months about 95
percent completion was attained.
Air freight movements into and out of Valdez are generally low, with
Anchorage being the principal origin point. Air freight data for
recent years is incomplete, though past trends and the data that is
available indicate that annual air freight through Valdez probably
is between 200 and 500 tons. This reflects a low demand rather than
restrictive capacity for air freight. The vast majority of the
freight is carried on scheduled flights. Average freight loads for
Polar Airlines between mid-1978 and mid-1979 varied between 60 and
100 lbs. per flight.
FUTURE CONDITIONS
Late in the summer of 1979, the airport is scheduled to be equipped
with a DME-V0R landing instrument system.* Other improvements sche-
duled for implementation during the summer of 1980 include a runway
extension from 5,000 to 6,500 feet, the installation of a runway
lighting system, and the complete resurfacing of the runway, taxiways,
and apron area.
The planned runway lighting might lead to Federal Aviation Administra-
tion certification for night landing. The planned landing instrument
system will not provide for all weather operations, because the moun-
tains are too close to allow recovery from a missed approach, but is
estimated to reduce the level of cancelled flights by 60-70 percent.
Past fluctuations in passenger volumes make the projection of future
air service levels into Valdez a speculative exercise. Demand for
*This equipment sends out an Azimuth course enabling approaching air-
craft to fly directly toward the transmitting station, and also
provides altitude step down information for aircraft descending to
the airport.
11-116
-------
air services is still falling from the pipeline construction peaks,-
though the airport improvements will improve the service reliability
of the air carriers, and as such may provide a stimulant to increased
demand.
The airport facilities do not present significant restrictions to
future increases in service, and the air carriers have previously
proved their ability to serve substantial demand increases as they
occur. Increases in demand for air travel are likely to be moderate,
however, surplus capacity exists in the current air services schedule
that would be able to absorb increased demand of about 50 percent.
5.8.6.3 MARINE
ALASKA MARINE HIGHWAY SYSTEM
EXISTING SERVICE AND CONDITIONS
Valdez is one of five cities served by the Alaska Marine Highway System.
This system provides ferry service to Whittier, Valdez, Cordova, Seward,
and Ellamar within the Prince William Sound area. The system is operated
by the State of Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities
and has been in existence since 1949.
All routes serving the Prince William Sound area are part of the South-
western Marine Highway System, which also includes the Kenai Peninsula
and Kodiak. Passenger traffic on the Southwest Marine Highway System
has increased from approximately 8,000 riders per year in 1965 to
more than 44,000 in 1976.
The Southewestern Marine Highway System is operated with two vessels.
The MV Bartlett has a capacity of 170 passengers and 38 standard
passenger vehicles. The MV Tustumena has a capacity of 200 passengers
and 54 standard passenger vehicles. In Valdez, the Tustumena utilizes
the city dock loading facilities, while the Bartlett uses the Marine
Highway berth to the west of the city dock.
The Southwestern Marine Highway System provides three main services in
the Prince William Sound region: a waterborne link between the Sound
communities for local residents, freight transportation services to
Cordova, and a major tourist transportation facility.
The most frequently served routes in the Prince William Sound area
are the Whittier to Valdez, and Valdez to Cordova routes. Seasonal
traffic variations are extreme, particularly on the Whittier to Valdez
route, which passes the scenic Columbia Glacier. This route is operated
by the MV Bartlett, and nearly 75 percent of annual traffic on the
Bartlett takes place in the months of June, July and August.
Service is provided five days a week between Valdez and Whittier, from
mid-May to late September. No service is provided during other months.
At Whittier, a direct train connection for passengers and motor vehicles
is available to Portage on the Seward-Anchorage Highway. Passengers
without motor vehicles have a six-hour layover for a train connection
to Anchorage. The capacity of the railroad is just adequate to meet
the peak season capacity of the ferry, with priority on the railroad
11-117
-------
given to Marine Highway users and their vehicles. Travel time from
Valdez to Anchorage by the combined ferry-rai1 road mode is about 15
hours, including the six-hour stopover in Whittier. Travel time by
ferry, railroad, and highway is about nine hours.
The average volume on the Whittier-Valdez line during 1977 was 64
percent of capacity for passengers and 63 percent of capacity for
vehicles. The route carried a total 15,853 passengers and 3,525
vehicles in 1977 (the last year for which data is available). During
the peak of the tourist season in July and August, the ferry fre-
quently operates at full capacity. Travel on the ferry in these
months is generally by advance reservation only, and the summer
tourist rush all but prohibits the use of the ferry by local residents.
The Cordova to Valdez line operates year round. In 1977 a total of
77 trips were operated from Valdez to Cordova, and 104 trips from
Cordova to Valdez. During the summer months, the MV Bartlett operates
two round trips from Valdez to Cordova each week, while the MV Tustu-
mena makes one Cordova-Valdez round trip per week. Volumes on this
line in 1977 were 23 percent of capacity for passengers and 31 percent
of capacity for vehicles. The link carried a total of 7,292 passengers
and 2,311 vehicles in 1977.
FUTURE CONDITIONS
The passenger and vehicular capacities of the MV Bartlett are already
being met during the peak tourist season. Since demand is expected to
continue to increase, the maximum vessel capacity for both passengers
and vehicles will be reached on an increasing number of trips on the
Valdez-Whittier route. The Prince William Sound Regional Transporta-
tion Study (PWSRTS) (Prince William Sound Regional Transportation Study;
State of Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities, and
the Federal Highway Administration, 1978, Unpublished Draft Report)
estimated that at current rates of demand increase, the maximum capaci-
ties for both passengers and vehicles will be reached on the MV Bartlett
between 1980 and 1981 for the Valdez-Whittier route. The State Depart-
ment of Transportation and Public Facilities currently has no plans to
replace the Bartlett with a larger vessel or to add additional vessels
to this route. Even replacing the Bartlett with a larger, Tustumena-
type vessel is estimated to only increase available capacity to at best
1984 for vehicles and 1988 for passengers.
Much greater excess capacity exists on the Valdez-Cordova route. The
PWSRTS estimates capacity on this route being reached between about
1990 and 1995 at current growth levels.
11-118
-------
5.8.7 UTILITIES SYSTEMS
The utilities of an urbanized area are important determinants of urban
form, the type and density of land uses and the pace and location of
community growth. The following section examines the sewer, water,
solid waste, power and telephone systems in Valdez, particularly as
they affect or restrict residential development.
The basic network of utility systems in Valdez was constructed in 1965
by the Army Corps of Engineers, following the destruction of the old
townsite by the Great Alaska Earthquake of 1964. Because of the speed
with which the utilities were constructed, compromises in the design
and construction of the new utility systems were made. These factors
affect the performance of the systems today.
11-119
-------
5.8.7.1 SEWER SYSTEM
Most of the present sewer collection system in New Valdez was built in
1965 with an extension constructed in 1967 to serve the industrial
area along Meals Avenue and Fidalgo Drive.
To obtain Federal Economic Development Administration participation in
the construction of the sewer line extensions, Valdez agreed to install
a sewage treatment plant. The City purchased two used treatment
plants, each with a capacity of 75,000 gallons per day, which were
installed in 1968. These units never operated satisfactorily.
A new sewer plant with a daily capacity of 1.6 million gallons was
completed in 1976 and is located in the center of the old townsite
Valdez has primary sewage treatment, using an aerated lagoon system
with a polishing pond. At present, there is no sludge disposal,
although the Woodward-Clyde (GEZR) solid waste disposal study will
address this issue (see Section 6.10.8.3).
The City provides sewer service to all of the new townsite; Valdez
airport and the trailer parks adjacent to the airport; and to the Zook
Subdivision. Areas served by sewer and water systems are illustrated
in Figure 5.8.7.1-1. Robe River Subdivision, Alpine Woods and Nordic
subdivisions and housing units located outside of the sewer service
area rely on septic tanks. The high groundwater level in certain
parts of Valdez causes localized problems of septic tank failure.
As presented in Table 5.8.7.1-1, demand on the sewage treatment plant
shows great seasonal variation. Flow records kept from 1977 indicate
an average annual output of 750,000 gallons per day. During the
summer months when snow melt-off has ceased and rain is less frequent
output drops to between 575,000 - 600,000 gallons per day. During the
winter months, however, output increases greatly, ranging between
850,000 - 1,000,000 gallons per day. As is typical of other small
communities in Alaska, sewer treatment plant efficiency in Valdez
declines during the coldest winter months. Typically, the plant
operates at better than 95 percent removal. During the middle of
winter, domestic water consumption increases in Valdez as residents,
to prevent standing water in their pipes from freezing, keep water
running by opening their water taps (Bomhoff, Collie and Klotz, Valdez
- A Comprehensive Development Plan, Vol. 2, Comprehensive Development
Plan (Anchorage, 1977, p. 14). As a result, effluent becomes far more
diluted than during other times of the year. In addition, the lagoons
freeze, except around the aerators, thereby impeding bacterial activity
in the lagoons. Consequently, plant efficiency declines to slightly
better than 85 percent removal. Under the guidelines of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, minimum permissible plant efficiency
is 85 percent removal.
The design capacity of the sewage plant can be increased by adding
more lagoons to the system; for example, doubling the size of the
lagoon area would double the capacity of the plant while producing a
higher grade of effluent (Homer Alexander, Engineer, City of Valdez).
Within the proposed 1982 City budget is a request for funds to construct
additional ponds. This budget request for sewer plant capacity is
being made irrespective of the Alpetco facility.
11-120
-------
I
»—¦
N>
Sewer and Water Systems + ¦$- Water Wells Proposed Sewer Extension Existing Sewer Line
I 1 Area served by Water System Q Sewage Treatment Plant 5.8.7.1 1
PORT VALDEZ
3K
n n
1.9 Mi
New Townsite
Old Townsite
Robe River Subdivision
-------
Water
Average Annual Demand
Seasonal Demand
Winter
Summer
Peak Demand^
Design Capacity
TABLE 5.8.7.1-1
Sewage Treatment Plant
Gallons Per Day
750,000
850,000-1,000,000
575,000- 600,000
1,010,000
1,600,000
Source: City of Valdez, CCC/HOK.
(1) Peak demand occurred during the winter of 1977.
11-122
-------
5.8.7.2 WATER SYSTEM
The water system in Valdez is characterized by the availability of
enormous quantities of subsurface water, and by a water distribution
system which has significant problems.
WATER SERVICE
Valdez is underlain by an aquifer described as having "an almost
unlimited potential."(Bomhoff, 0£. cit., p. 14.) The groundwater is a
soft water of excellent quality requiring only chlorination. Potable
water is obtained from a variety of public and domestic wells. Water
for the new townsite area is obtained from three wells in the Mineral
Creek area. Water from this well field is stored in a 700,000-galIon
insulated reservoir, located on a hill northwest of the high school.
A fourth city well, located near the airport, provides water to the
airport and to the nearby trailer parks. Residents of other areas of
Valdez rely on individually drilled and maintained wells for their
water requirements.
A priority of the City is to increase its elevated water storage
capacity in the new townsite. A second storage reservoir with a
capacity of approximately 750,000 gallons might be built, probably
adjacent to the present tower (Homer Alexander, Engineer, City of
Valdez). With the existing and proposed water storage facilities,
Valdez could provide water service to an estimated population of 6,600
persons. No firm time table or cost estimate for a second water
storage facility has been proposed.
WATER DISTRIBUTION
The City provides water service both to the new townsite and to the
area surrounding the airport, as is shown in Figure 5.8.7.2-1. Water
service in the new townsite extends from Mineral Creek easterly to the
point where the Richardson Highway passes the State Department of
Highways complex.
The present water distribution system is the product of construction
compromises that attended the relocation of the Valdez townsite follow-
ing the 1964 earthquake. The city water system in the new townsite
was built in 1965 under conditions that were hurried because of the
shortness of the construction season and because of the scale of
effort that was required to construct the new townsite. As a conse-
quence, the water lines were not buried at a depth great enough to
prevent the service lines from freezing during the winter months. To
prevent standing water from freezing in water pipes, households keep
their water taps open, wasting approximately 200,000 gallons per day.
One consequence of this high water usage is to so dilute the effluent
in the sewer system that it is difficult to treat the sewage (see
Section 5.8.7.1). To ensure that this problem does not occur elsewhere
in Valdez, the building code now requires in areas of new construction
that water pipes be insulated or buried at a depth sufficient to
prevent freezing.
11-123
-------
The city water system in the new townsite area also suffers from an
electrolysis problem resulting from flux currents from nearby buried
utilities. As a consequence, the water lines are subject to premature
corrosion. To correct this difficulty, the City will need to either
better ground the utility lines, or to change the utility conduit to a
nonconducting material.
Some problems arise in subdivisions that are not served by city water
and sewer lines. Because of the small lot sizes as well as the high
water table in Robe River Subdivision, for example, some privately
maintained wells have been contaminated by nearby septic tanks.
The City has established tentative priorities for improvements to the
existing water system. In the next year the City is considering
drilling an additional well to serve the airport area and a well to
serve Robe River Subdivision. If the City does drill a well at Robe
River Subdivision, residences there would no longer rely on individual
wells as a source of water, but would be connected to an independent
community water system.
11-124
-------
5.8.7.3 SOLID WASTE
The City of Valdez uses city property at the old townsite as a disposal
site for solid waste. This site, operated by the City for many years
under a temporary landfill permit, has been the subject of criticism.
The 1971 General Development Plan characterized the site as "... a
health hazard, a fire hazard, an eyesore and contrary to law." (Bomhoff,
Collie and Klotz, ojd. cit. p. 69) Since that report was written, the
City has ceased operating the site as an open dump on a year-round
basis; instead, the trenches are filled during summer months. However,
because the site is located adjacent to Port Valdez in an area with a
high water table, there is a potential for leached contamination of
groundwater and surface waters. These problems and the limited remaining
capacity at the present site have prompted the City to consider alterna-
tive locations and processes as means of disposing of its solid wastes
(see Section 6.10.8.3).
The city landfill operates independently of Alyeska's solid waste
disposal procedures at Alyeska's marine terminal. Alyeska uses an
incinerator which is sufficient for its own needs, but has no excess
capacity.
11-125
-------
5.8.7.4 ELECTRICITY
Electrical service in Valdez is provided by Copper Valley Electric
Association (CVEA), a nonprofit Rural Electrification Administration
electric utility. First formed to serve the Copper River Basin area
in 1955, CVEA took over facilities in Valdez following the 1964 earth-
quake. CVEA now provides electricity to both Valdez and Glennallen,
with each community having an independent generation and distribution
system.
The source of electricity in Valdez is seven diesel generators with
installed capacity of 10.1 megawatts (MW). Firm capacity, a term that
describes the capacity of the system without the service of the largest
generator, is 7.3 MW. Peak demand occurs during the winter months.
In 1979, the peak demand was 3.9 MW. The greatest peak demand ever
recorded in Valdez was 4.875 MW and occurred in December, 1975.
CVEA has 32 miles of distribution line in Valdez and covers a service
area that includes the downtown business and residential section and
extends out the Richardson Highway approximately to Alpine Woods
Subdivision. No significant limitations exist to the extension of
electrical service to serve areas zoned for development.
CVEA is planning two projects that would expand its capacity to generate
electricity and reduce its dependence on diesel oil, a fuel source
that is becoming increasingly more expensive. The essential element
of its plan is construction of the Solomon Gulch project, a $35 million
hydro-electric plant that would produce 12 MW. Bids for the project
were let in June 1979 and preliminary construction activity is underway.
Completion is scheduled for mid-1981.
Although there is support in Valdez for construction of the hydro
project, disagreement exists regarding CVEA's plans to construct a
transmission line from Valdez to Glennallen in order to create an
intertie between the two communities. Some local residents believe
that Valdez ratepayers in effect would be subsidizing Glennallen for
the construction costs of the line, estimated to be approximately half
of the total $35 million project cost (Wayne April, "Solomon Gulch
Debate Continues," Valdez Vanguard March 14, 1979, pp. 1, 7; "Hydro
Project Raises Questions," Vaide"z~Vanguard March 14, 1979). However,
barring lawsuits or delays in permits that are pending before the U.S.
Bureau of Land Management and the State Division of Lands, the CVEA
General Manager expects the Solomon Gulch project, including the
transmission line to Glennallen, to be completed on schedule.
The second element of the CVEA plan is the installation of a 9.0 MW
pressure-reducing turbine in the trans-Alaska pipeline near Valdez.
The turbine would be powered by the movement of oil through the pipeline
as it descends from Thompson Pass to the Alyeska marine terminal.
This energy source would be considered secondary as its availability
would be subject to interruptions in oil flow based on the operating
requirements of the pipeline.
11-126
-------
With both the hydro-electric project and the pressure-reducing
turbine in place in the pipeline, CVEA would use its diesel-
powered generators as a supplementary rather than a primary source
of power.
11-127
-------
5.8.7.5 TELEPHONE
The Copper Valley Telephone Cooperative was among the community services
hardest hit by the pipeline boom. The telephone switching equipment
in use at that time was antiquated; the equipment lacked capacity and
handled calls slowly. By the time the full impact of the population
increase was apparent, the Cooperative lacked the lead time to order
and install modern equipment with additional capacity.
In a 1975 survey of Valdez residents rating their satisfaction with
various community services, telephone services received the worst
rating, with almost 95 percent of the respondents rating it poor
(Baring-Gould and Bennett, 1976, pp. 27, 48). Then, as now, long
distance service was provided from Valdez by means of satellite linkage
to Anchorage and then from Anchorage, by satellite, to points within
and outside of Alaska. Because of the poor telephone equipment in use
in Valdez, and insufficient capacity in the RCA satellite and in the
switching equipment in Anchorage, it often required hours of effort to
initiate a long distance call. By the time the Cooperative's new
equipment arrived in 1977 and was placed in service, the worst of the
pipeline boom had passed and demand on the telephone system had declined.
Although the Copper Valley Telephone Cooperative provides service to
both Valdez and Glennallen, each system operates independently. The
outmoded switching equipment in Valdez has been replaced with electronic
equipment with increased capacity and speed.
The Valdez service area extends from new Valdez to Thompson Pass and
includes lines to the Alyeska terminal.
As shown in Table 5.8.7.5-1, the number of telephones in service has
paralleled fluctuations in population arising from construction of the
pi peline.
The electronic switching equipment has a capacity of 2,500 telephone
lines of which 1,300 are in use. The remaining 1,200 lines can accommo-
date an additional population of 3,600 or 1,200 households, assuming
all households have private line service. If and when it is necessary,
additional equipment can expand current capacity. Lead time for
delivering additional equipment is approximately four months (John
Friberg, General Manager, Copper Valley Telephone Cooperative, Valdez).
TABLE 5.8.7.5-1
Number of Telephones in Service
1974 - 1979
Year: 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979
# of Telephones: 992 1,808 2,169 1,939 1,992 2,136
Source: Copper Valley Telephone Cooperative; CCC/H0K.
11-128
-------
5.8.8 LIFE-STYLE AND CULTURE
Discussion of the life-style and culture of a community is difficult
because interpretations are subjective and do not lend themselves to
quantification. Even so, life-style and culture are essential ele-
ments of community life, vulnerable to changes, however difficult they
may be to measure.
This section discusses life-style issues, particularly from the perspec-
tive of the effects of the trans-Alaska pipeline on community life,
and Valdez's cultural resources.
LIFE-STYLE
The economic orientation of Valdez was established when Valdez was
founded in the late 1890's, as a supply port serving Interior gold
mining communities. This role gave Valdez a distinctly merchant
orientation and distinguishes it from other coastal communities that
have a strong fishing industry. For example, residents of fishing
communities display an ambivalence about industrial development (not
seen in Valdez) because of their concern that such development may
negatively affect commercial fishing activities.
A desire to capitalize upon its strategic location as the closest
ice-free port to the Interior continues today. Following the destruc-
tion of the old townsite in the 1964 earthquake, Valdez officials and
community leaders promoted the community as a site for industrial
development. The City takes credit for influencing its selection as
the terminus of the trans-Alaska pipeline and as the site of the
proposed Alpetco petrochemical facility.
Taxes from the Alyeska marine terminal has made Valdez a wealthy
community, able to hire an array of legal and financial advisors and
pursue a number of development strategies. However, because a great
majority of Valdez residents favored the pipeline - eagerly awaited
it, in fact - the impacts that would accompany its construction were
underestimated or not considered. As a consequence, the transition
caused strains in community life* (Baring-Gould and Bennett, 1976).
During the pipeline boom-time era, Valdez lost some of its small town
intimacy. With rapid population growth, residents no longer knew
everyone by name (ibid. p. 9). Social divisions grew, based on the
term and location of residency and employment. Length of residency
divided Valdez into oldtimers, with well-developed social relationships
and shared values, and newcomers, thought to be part of a highly
transient population.
"'Much of the discussion of Valdez life-style is drawn from Michael
Baring-Gould and Marsha Bennett, Social Impact of the Trans-AIaska
Pi peline Construction in Valdez, Alaska 1974-75, (Anchorage: 1976).
11-129
-------
The development of new residential subdivisions for industry employees
also served to define new social groups. With the construction of the
Black Gold Subdivision, employees of Alyeska and Fluor (Alyeska's
management contractor in Valdez) literally lived apart from the rest
of the community. In their study, Baring-Gould and Bennett concluded
that this housing pattern, while isolating the oil industry employees,
may have actually benefitted the community:
"In general it appears that most newer residents withdraw into
their work and housing clusters and leave the expanded social
scene to older Valdez residents, a factor which may tend to
reduce conflicts that might otherwise develop within the com-
munity." (ibid. p. 20)
Construction workers were also physically segregated, at the construc-
tion camps and trailer courts. Because of the long hours and the
self-contained nature of the camps, construction trades workers became
only minimally involved with he social and economic life of Valdez.
For example, only about 6 percent of the workers went to Valdez on a
daily basis, and more than half of the workers made an average of one
or fewer trips to town per week (ibid. p. 24). Despite some friction
between the construction workers and the longer-term residents of
Valdez, the two groups tolerated one another with few open strains
(ibid. p. 6).
In the past several years, Alyeska employees have become better inte-
grated into community life. One of the City's seven councilmen is an
Alyeska employee. Alyeska employees are also participants in a number
of City Commissions and voluntary groups.
Valdez's pro-development attitudes persist, notwithstanding the incon-
veniences and conflicts that may have existed during the pipeline
construction period.* In 1977 some 600 Valdez residents, polled as to
whether the City should pursue industrial development such as a refinery
and/or petrochemical plant, indicated their approval of such by a
6-to-l margin, providing that such development be environmentally
sound ("Valdezians approve of industrial development here by 6 to 1,"
Valdez Vanguard, November 9, 1977, pp. 1, 3).
Valdez officials actively competed with other Alaska communities to be
designated the site of the proposed Alpetco petrochemical facility.
Following Alpetco's selection of Valdez as the refinery site, com-
munity consensus favoring the project has remained high (Robert G.
Knox, "Valdez takes its future into its own hands," Alaska Industry.
March 1979, p. 21).
The most recent affirmation by Valdez voters of the community's indus-
trial development goals occurred April 10, 1979 when 750 voters passed
by a 4-to-l margin the sale of $48 million worth of general obligation
bonds for a new port (Jim Zahniser, "Valdez Passes $48 Million in Port
Bonds," Anchorage Times, April 11, 1979).
^Impacts of the trans-Alaska pipeline on various aspects of community
life are detailed in Sections 5.8.5.5 Residential Land Use; 5.8.7
Utility Systems; and 5.8.4 Public Services.
11-130
-------
There is general agreement that attempts by city officials and resi-
dents to communicate about important community issues is complicated
by the limited means of communication that exist in Valdez. Valdez
has no daily newspaper nor does it have a local radio station, although
residents do receive the rebroadcast signal of radio station KBYR in
Anchorage. Valdez has community cable television, which offers program-
ming from Anchorage, Seattle and Atlanta, but no local programming.
Because local officials are actively pursuing a number of development
options and because of the dearth of local media, rumors abound in
Valdez. As a consequence, City officials spend a great deal of time
verifying and correcting rumors (Michael Schmidt, Planning Director,
City of Valdez).
CULTURAL RESOURCES
Valdez residents have taken an active interest in the community's
cultured offerings. The Community College provides a mix of cultural
and vocational programs. The Valdez Heritage Center and Valdez Library
serve as cultural resources for the community. These programs and
facilities are described below.
PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND COMMUNITY COLLEGE
The Prince William Sound Community College began in Valdez as a Univer-
sity of Alaska learning center. Since its founding, this facility
has been upgraded twice, first to an extension center and in July 1978
to a community college.
The community college offers both degree and community interest programs.
Students taking degree courses can earn an Associate of Arts Degree.
Community interest programs have included tours of foreign countries,
weekend trips to Anchorage and community education workshops such as
the seminar on the petrochemical industry in 1978. The college also
has a variety of vocational programs.
To meet its future space requirements, the community college will
occupy space in the new Valdez public library, presently under con-
struction and due to be completed early in 1980. The college will
occupy approximately 5,000 square feet, which will accommodate three
classrooms and three offices. These new quarters will enable the
college to offer more flexible programs, including daytime courses.
At present, classes are held in the high school in the evening.
VALDEZ HERITAGE CENTER
The Valdez Heritage Center is funded by the City and was established
in 1976. The museum's collection consists of photographs and arti-
facts that date from the founding of Valdez and include various pieces
of fire equipment and the Pinzon Bar, reputed to be the longest bar in
the State of Alaska. From the more recent past, the museum has photo-
graphs and articles about the 1964 earthquake, a model of the old
townsite, and items related to construction of the pipeline.
11-131
-------
VALDEZ LIBRARY
The Valdez Library has been in existence since 1930. The library
contains approximately 16,000 volumes as well as periodicals, phono-
graph records and cassette recordings.
As part of a new civic center complex, a new 9,500-square foot library,
costing $1.5 million, is under construction with completion estimated
in early 1980. The new and larger quarters for the library will make
it possible for the library to offer new programs including a story
hour for children, new audio visual materials and exhibits, and to
double the library's book collection between 1980-1983.
11-132
-------
6.10 SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS
Socioeconomic impacts of the proposed project are described for the
construction period 1980 through 1983 and for an operational period
1984-1990. Wherever possible, both short- and long-term impacts are
discussed in terms relating to population projections through 1990.
However, for some areas, such as land use, there is inadequate data on
which to make detailed projections.
In addition to the direct impacts on public revenues and land use,
secondary impacts of population growth and housing development are
discussed. These secondary effects are among the most important
long-term socioeconomic changes anticipated in Valdez. Since other
significant industrial projects are identified which would be directly
affected by development of the Alpetco project, no specific cumulative
impacts are expected.
11-133
-------
6.10.1 POPULATION AND EMPLOYMENT
6.10.1.1 LOCAL EMPLOYMENT AND POPULATION IMPACTS
DISCUSSION OF IMPACTS
Construction and operation of the Alpetco refinery will result in
major growth for Valdez. The purpose of this section is to estimate
the magnitude of this growth. During the period of refinery construc-
tion (mid-1980 to the end of 1983) there will be additional construc-
tion activity in Valdez, although minor in scale to the Alpetco project.
Nevertheless, this analysis includes consideration of all construction
activity so that local socioeconomic impacts during the period of 1980
to 1983 may be fully assessed.
The City of Valdez has recently sold $48 million in general obligation
bonds to finance a major new port. Construction of this facility is
schedule to begin late in 1980 and last until the fall of 1982.
Alpetco's operations workforce will require a large number of new
housing units to be available in Valdez by early 1984. Construction
of these units will doubtless begin early in the Alpetco construction
project and last for many years after the plant has begun production.
However, a great deal of housing construction is expected to occur in
the last 18 months of the Alpetco project in order for buildings to be
on the market in early 1984 when sudden, heavy demand for housing will
occur (see Section 6.10.6.3).
Table 6.10.1.1-1 shows the estimates of combined construction manpower
that will be present in Valdez during the construction phase of the
Alpetco project. This manpower is the source of temporary population
growth in Valdez from 1980 to 1983. Thereafter, an operations work-
force filling some 579 positions in the Alpetco plant will cause a
permanent expansion of the town's resident population.
Table 6.10.1.1-2 summarizes the employment and population changes
expected in Valdez as a result of the project. Peak construction phase
employment is estimated to be 3,592; incremental population 4,310.
During the operational period beginning in 1984, the Alpetco project
would generate directly and indirectly some 1,180 new jobs and 2,124
new permanent residents. The new population will be composed of 708
new households, and 467 school-age children.
Table 6.10.1.1-3 shows incremental employment and population in Valdez
at quarterly intervals during the construction period. Table 6.10.1.1-4
shows estimates of annual total (peak) population in Valdez from 1979
through 1990. Total Valdez population is estimated to be 6,009 in
1984, and 7,175 in 1990.
The population projections in Tables 6.10.1.1-3 and 4 are depicted in
Figure 6.10.1.1-1, which shows Valdez population change between 1960
and 1990.
11-134
-------
It must be noted that these estimates indicate a general level of
anticipated impact only. The numbers have not been rounded off~Tn
this analysis s^ that the reader can reconstruct al1 of the calculations
used to derive them. However, the use of unrounded numbers in the
analysis does not imply a correspondinq~3egree of precision in the
results."
DISCUSSION OF METHOD USED TO DERIVE EMPLOYMENT AND POPULATION IMPACTS
1. Introduction
It is assumed that population growth in Valdez will occur mainly
as a result of additions to the local labor force that are required
to 1) build and operate the plant (primary employment); 2) meet
the demands of the new industry and its employees and their
families (secondary employment); an 3) fill jobs created by the
permanent expansion and diversification of the local economy that
occurs as a result of the project construction (residual employment).
Local employment generated by a major project is typically estimated
by means of an employment multiplier that states a relationship
between primary and secondary employment. A multiplier of 2.5,
for example, indicates that 1.5 secondary jobs are created by
each primary job; thus; total employment is 2.5 times primary
employment, which is known or can be easily forecast. Employment
multipliers are theoretical devices that give, at best, very
general estimates of the employment impacts of a project. The
size of the local employment multiplier is a function of both the
characteristics of the primary employment (where it is housed,
its permanent place of residence, etc.) and the size and complexity
of the local economy in which it occurs.
The Alyeska experience has shown that more employment can be
expected in the years following completion of the project than
can be identified as either primary and secondary project employment,
or as normal growth that would have occurred in the course of
events without the project. This employment termed "residual
employment," is largely the result of public sector spending by
both state and local government, but private spending will also
help to support it.
Population increase is estimated from total incremental employ-
ment by means of a factor that expresses the average number of
nonworking dependents for each member of the labor force. This
factor is derived from the labor force participation rate of the
local population. It is referred to in this analysis as the
labor force participation factor. If, for example, a community
has a population of 2,500, and 80 percent, or 2,000 people, are
members of the labor force, then there are .25 dependents (non-
working members of the population) for each worker (500 r 2,000 =
.25). The labor force participation factor is 1.25 (2500 r 2000
= 1.25). The total population will increase by 1.25 times the
number of workers. For example, if 250 new jobs are created in
this community, and the newcomers have (or soon acquire) similar
socioeconomic characteristics of the resident population, then
11-135
-------
there would be a population increase of some 313 people (250 x
1.25).
The number of incremental households that will result from the
population increase is estimated from the average number of
people per household that is typical of the new population or of
the community, whichever is appropriate. A household size of
about 3 people is now typical in most areas of the United States.
The number of school-age children is derived from an appropriate
estimate of the proportion of the new population comprising the
age group 5 through 17.
Essentially, the estimates of employment and population impacts
shown in Table 6.10.1.1-2 are derived from the foregoing method.
However, a large number of assumptions are necessary to implement
them.
There are important differences between the the construction work
force and the operations work force. These differences require
the use of different sets of multipliers and population factors.
Fortunately, a good deal of information is available about the
Valdez population and work force from survey and census work by
University of Alaska sociologists Michael Baring-Gould and
Marsha Bennett ("Social Impact of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline
Construction in Valdez, Alaska, 1974-1975," Testimony prepared
for the MacKenzie Valley Pipeline Inquiry, Anchorage, Alaska
1976; and Baring-Gould, et al., Valdez City Census, March 1978,
University of Alaska, Anchorage, 1978).
Two important assumptions of the present analysis are that the
socioeconomic patterns of the Alyeska construction work force
will also characterize the Alpetco construction work force, and
that socioeconomic patterns of the current Valdez population will
also characterize new permanent residents. There are, however,
important differences in the dimension of the two projects:
Alyeska involved a much larger temporary construction work force
than Alpetco plans, and Alpetco will involve a much larger perma-
nent operations work force than Alyeska currently has.
The peak Alyeska construction labor force was in the neighborhood
of 4,500. While the marine terminal was the single largest
project in Valdez during pipeline construction, it did not account
for all of the primary employment there. The pipeyard and ware-
house complex, transshipment activity, and pipelaying north from
Valdez also contributed to primary Alyeska construction employment.
It is not known precisely how high peak primary employment was in
Valdez. Direct employment on the terminal in July 1976 was
reported by Fluor to be 4,000 (see A. G. Pickett, "Construction
on Schedule at Valdez Terminal," Pipe Line Industry, August,
1976, p. 97). There were probably between 300 and 700 people
working directly on other project components.
11-136
-------
In contrast, Brown and Root, project planners for Alpetco, fore-
cast a peak construction work force of 2,820. While the Alyeska
terminal is operated by approximately 250 people (including con-
tract maintenance personnel), the Alpetco refinery will require
579.
The question of overall comparability of the two projects is
important to the question of similarity of socioeconomic charac-
teristics of the work forces of the two projects, and also to the
question of residual employment in the Valdez economy after
completion of construction -- that is, employment that cannot be
attributed to plant operation alone. The matter of residual
employment, as well as the derivation of the employment multi-
pliers, population factors, and assumptions about utilization of
local unemployed are discussed below.
2. Explanation of Multipliers and Population Factors
a. Local Employment Multipliers
Second order employment impacts are typically estimated by
the use of employment multipliers which are derived from
economic base theory or input-output models for specific
economic areas.* No multipliers have been calculated for
the Valdez economy, and are available "off the shelf," so
selection of an appropriate multiplier is largely a matter
of estimating general magnitude of secondary employment
effects of both phases of the project. It is assumed that
local employment multiplier effects are considerably smaller
than those at the state level and that they are smaller
during construction than operation. Local employment multi-
pliers are estimated to be 1.3 for the construction phase
and 1.5 for the operation phase.
A recent publication by the Alaska Department of Community
and Regional Affairs treating the subject of onshore impact
of offshore oil development in the Gulf of Alaska uses local
multipliers of 1.1 to 1.5, depending upon the degree to
which various activities touch local communities (Lois S.
Kramer, et al., Planning for Offshore Oil Development; Gulf
of Alaska OCS Handbook, Juneau, Alaska; Alaska Dept. of
Community S~Regional Affairs, 1978; p. 232-233). Explicit
distinction is not made between construction and operation
phases, but presumably 1.1 represents a construction period
multiplier of a task with few onshore contacts, and 1.5
represents the ceiling of secondary employment effects
during operation.
In a recent publication on the community impacts of large
development projects, the U.S. Department of Housing and
*There is extensive discussion in the literature about income and employ-
ment multipliers. One introduction to the subject is found in Thomas
Muler, Economic Impacts of Land Development, (Washington, D.C. The Urban
Institute, 1976) p. 64tt.
11-137
-------
Urban Development suggests that secondary employment effects
may be between 0.3 and 0.9 (multipliers of 1.3 - 1.9) during
construction, and between 1.1 and 2.3 (multipliers of 2.1 -
3.3) during operations (HUD, Rapid Growth from Energy Projects.
Washington, D.C. 1976). These values seem high for Valdez
where the economy is small and structurally simple, and
where the construction work force will be housed in camps
isolated from town. The labor force multipliers developed
by Lynn Pistoll of the Alaska Department of Labor from the
Alyeska experience (a low estimate of 2.21 and a high estimate
of 2.47) depict statewide (in contrast to local) employment
impacts, and are therefore not useful for estimating employment
in Valdez (op. cit.).
It is difficult to calculate our own economic base theory
multiplier in Valdez because of the scarcity of readily
available information about labor activity there. If,
however, we made quick assumptions about the percent of
employment in each sector shown in Table 5.8..11-2 that is
export oriented (i.e., it responds to demand from outside
the local economy), we can estimate a local multiplier of
approximately 1.6 as follows:
Sector Full-Time % Number
Employment Export Export
Construction
Transportation
Comm. & Utilities
Wholesale Trade
Retail Trade
Fire
Service
Fed. Govt.
State Govt.
Local Govt.
1>285 g
802 i'b
209
85
178
283
95
269
35
0
6
0
218
0
28
0
102
0
67
100
67
288
100
288
49
0
1,285
802
While this is a very crude measure, it suggests that our use
of 1.5 for the operational phase is reasonable.
b. Labor Force Participation Factor
It is assumed that during construction there will be .2 of a
dependent for every new member of the work force; and during
operation there will .8 of a dependent for each new member
of the labor force. Thus, the labor force participation
factors used in this analysis are 1.2 (construction) and 1.8
(operation).
For the most part, construction workers will come to Valdez
alone, leaving dependents at home. An exception to this
tendency may occur among the supervisory and management
11-138
-------
personnel. At the height of construction of the trans-
Alaska pipeline, Valdez's total work force grew by some
6,750 people (4,500 primary jobs and 2,250 secondary) and
school enrollment peaked at some 671 students over its 1973
level (Table 5.8.1-4). This indicates an overall increase
of about 0.1 student per worker. Baring-Gould and Bennett
report that in 1975 (before the peak of construction employ-
ment) over 80 percent of the town population consisted of
working adults (Baring-Gould and Bennett, 1975, op. cit. p.
15). This information indicates an overall laborforce
(nonresident and resident workers in construction and non-
construction activities) participation factor of 1.25. For
the Alpetco work force, we propose a factor of 1.2.
Information in Tables 5.8.1-2 and 5.8.2.1-5 point to a
current labor force participation factor in Valdez of 1.8
(total population minus Harborview residents divided by
total work force including half of those not reporting an
occupation, or
3,349 - 106 _ , 7n.
1,789 + 17 ~ 1-79)
This value is not inconsistent with labor force partici-
pation rates elsewhere in urban Alaska. Information from a
recent demographic survey in Anchorage, for example, indi-
cates a factor of 1.94 excluding nonadult members of the
work force.* If we assume that the new permanent labor
force of Valdez will be similar to the present permanent
labor force of Valdez and urban Alaska generally, a parti-
cipation factor of 1.8 seems reasonable for estimating the
population increment that will be created by the new employ-
ment.
Household Size
An average of 3.0 people per household will be used to
estimate the number of new households created by the~perma-
nent incremental population. Alaska households tend to be
slightly larger than those outside Alaska of 2.89 (1976)**.
Data in Tables 5.8.1-7 and 5.8.1-8 show an average of 2.97
for Valdez (omitted are hospital residents and work camp
residents).
*Anchorage Urban Observatory. 1978 Population Profile, Municipality
of Anchorage, Anchorage, Alaska 1978. The survey found 3.2 people
per household, 1.5 working adults per household, and unemployment of
10 percent; 3.2 [1.5 x 1.1] = 1.9.
**See Sternbiel and Hughes, Current Population Trends ui the United
States (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Center for Urban Policy Research
1978). Compare Anchorage Urban Observatory, op. cit., and Anchorage
Urban Observatory, A Profile of Five Kenai Peninsula Towns (Anchorage,
Alaska, 1977), in which average household size for several Southcentral
towns was over 3.2 persons.
11-139
-------
It is difficult to estimate the number of new households
during construction because much of the Alpetco work force
will be housed in dormitory-style work camps (a 2,500-bed
camp is planned) and because construction workers will seek
temporary living accommodations (motels, campers, etc.) that
do not characterize a permanet resident population. However,
there will be substantial demand for housing in Valdez
during construction.
d. School Enrollment
It is assumed that 10 percent of the incremental population
during construction will be children of school age (5-17),
and that 22 percent of the incremental population during
operation will be school-age children.
The estimate of school enrollment during construction is
inferred from information about the Alyeska construction
experience in Valdez. Baring-Gould and Bennett reported a
mid-1975 population of Valdez of 6,512 (Baring-Gould and
Bennett, p. 15); school enrollment in the fall of that year
was 746 (Table 5.8.1-4). This points to an overal1 (includ-
ing resident and nonresident population) ratio of school
children of 11.5 percent. We know that peak incremental
population in Valdez was about 7,000 people, and peak incre-
mental school enrollment was about 671 (928 in 1976 minus
257 in 1973), which suggests a ratio of school-age children
among the incremental population of about 9.6 percent. From
this information, an estimate of 10 percent has been selected.
The estimate of school enrollment during operations is based
on information in Table 5.8.1-3. Valdez currently has a
ratio of school-age children to total population of 22
percent, (Table 5.8.1-3), which is lower than the average
ratio elsewhere in Alaska. It seems reasonable to assume
that a process of self-selection is at work in Valdez whereby
people with fewer children (on the average) settle there.
Assuming this tendency will continue, we have used the
current ratio of 22 percent to estimate school enrollments
during the early years of plant operation.
3. Post-Construction Residual Employment
Valdez experienced permanent growth during pipeline construction.
The city was about 1,000 people in 1970, a time when Valdez had
already been selected as the southern terminus of the pipeline
and some work in anticipation of construction had begun. The
city now appears to have a stable population of some 3,350, yet
the marine terminal employs only about 250 people. Thus, the
three years of construction gave rise to a population increase of
some 1,625 people that cannot be attributed to the marine terminal
operation and its secondary employment, assuming a local employ-
ment multiplier of 1.5 and a labor force participation ratio of
1.8 (3,300 - 1,000 - [250 x 1.5 x 1.8] = 1,625).
Alaska's economy as a whole also experienced substantial perma-
nent growth as a result of the pipeline project. This phenomenon
11-140
-------
is discussed in a recent paper by Alaska Department of Labor
economist Lynn Pistoll ("An Oil Pipeline Employment Multiplier
and Post Construction Residuals in Employment," Alaska Department
of Labor, Research and Analysis Section, Issues and Commentary,
Juneau, Alaska, October 13, 1978), who has proposed a formula for
estimating the magnitude of post-construction employment impacts
in the state-wide economy. The formula relates these impacts to
the size of the construction labor force.
In the present analysis it is assumed that the Valdez economy
will continue to undergo permanent expansion during the three-
year Alpetco construction effort. Pistoll's method is adapted to
estimate these local employment impacts. It is important to note
that the use of this method (which incorporates the operations
work force and its secondary employment) has a substantial effect
on the projections of permanent population increase shown in
Table 6.10.1.1-2.
Based on his study of total employment growth in Alaska during
and after construction of the trans-Alaska pipeline, Pistoll has
proposed this general formula to account for total statewide
employment during the operational phase of a major development
project:
Peak construction work force x constant x operational work force
x employment multiplier.
The constant is derived by the formula:
Post-construction employment - Operations work force x multiplier
Peak construction employment
A constant for the City of Valdez based on the Alyeska experience
is .19 using the following assumptions:
Post construction employment = 1,785 (Tables 5.8.2.1-2 and 5.8.2.1-5)
Preconstruction employment = 555 (estimated from pop. in
1970 of 1,000)
Operations work force = 250
Local multiplier = 1.5
Peak work force = 4,500
(1,785 - 555) - (250 x 1.5) _
4,500 -i3
We now have the necessary values to apply the Pistoll formula to
Valdez using Alpetco work force projections. Since local unemploy-
ment utilization (224) is significant at the local level, it must
be subtracted. Thus,
2,820 x .19 + 579 x 1.5 - 224 = 1,180
The total employment in Valdez in the early years of operation of
the project will approximate 1,180 if the economy undergoes
permanent expansion during the construction period as it did
during pipeline construction.
11-141
-------
Utilization of Local Unemployed
At the present time Valdez has a high number of unemployed. The
University of Alaska census in 1978 reported 288 unemployed
(Table 5.8.2.1-6) and the City of Valdez OEDP Committee estimated
269 (Table 5.8.2.1-2, note 3). For purposes of this analysis we
assume an unemployed work force of 280 people.
It will be assumed that 80 percent of these people, or 224, will
find employment during and after refinery construction. This
employment may be direct construction or operation labor; it may
be secondary employment created by the primary work force; or it
may be employment in existing local jobs vacated by people who
become directly employed in the construction or operations labor
force.
Note that our estimate of the number of local unemployed people
(224) who find jobs in the local economy during refinery construe ti
is not the total number of Valdez residents who we estimate will
be employed on the construction project (325 to 330). The dif-
ference between the two estimates, 244 on the one hand and 325 to
330 on the other hand, is the number of people who will leave
existing jobs for construction work and whose former jobs will be
filled by nonresidents. Thus, for the purpose of estimating
incremental population we are only interested in the number of
local unemployed who find jobs, because all other new jobs will,
in effect, be filled by newcomers. That is, if a local man
vacates an existing job for refinery employment, and his old job
is filled by a nonlocal person, then, in terms of incremental
population, the effect is the same as if the nonlocal person
filled a refinery job directly. However, for purposes of estimat
ing the spending patterns of construction wages, it is important
to know the total number of local people in the construction work
force, because local people will have different spending habits
than nonlocal people.
A summary of the foregoing method is presented in Table 6.10.1.1-5.
11-142
-------
TABLE 6.10.1.1-1
Total Construction Manpower Requirements
in Valdez During Alpetco Project
Year
1980
1981
1982
1983
Month
Alpetco^ }
Port (2)
Expansionv '
Other ^
Construction^ }
Total
June
15
15
July
150
150
Aug.
200
200
Sept.
220
220
Oct.
250
250
Nov.
200
52
252
Dec.
200
52
252
Jan.
200
52
252
Feb.
200
52
252
March
200
62
262
April
206
62
268
May
214
62
276
June
382
62
400
July
483
18
501
Aug.
622
18
640
Sept.
804
18
822
Oct.
987
18
1,005
Nov.
1,137
18
1,155
Dec.
1,256
1,256
Jan.
1,394
1,394
Feb.
1,534
1,534
March
1,781
17
1,798
April
2,016
17
2,033
May
2,263
27
2,290
June
2,446
27
50
2,523
July
2,638
45
75
2,758
Aug.
2,767
45
100
2,912
Sept.
2,799
36
100
2,935
Oct.
2,820
100
2,920
Nov.
2,693
100
2,793
Dec.
2,606
100
2,706
Jan.
2,457
100
2,557
Feb.
2,306
100
2,306
March
2,006
100
2,106
Apri 1
1,587
100
1,687
May
1,158
100
1,258
June
837
100
937
July
579
100
679
Aug.
408
100
508
Sept.
193
100
293
Oct.
107
100
207
Nov.
64
100
164
Dec.
0
100
100
(1) Source: Brown & Root, Inc.
(2) Source: Sante Fe Engineering Service, Project Engineers for City
of Valdez Port Expansion.
(3) Source: CCC/HOK estimate.
11-143
-------
TABLE 6.10.1.1-2
Peak Employment and Population Impacts, Construction and Operation Phase
Phase
Incremental
Employment
Incremental
Population
Incremental
Households
Incremental
School
Enrollment
Construction (Peak)
Alpetco^
Total(2)
3,442
3,592
4,130
4,310
413
431
Operation
(3)
1,180
2,124
708
467
Source: CCC/HOK.
Impacts ^Section 6~lo"l. L scuss'on °f Meth°d *> "erlw. E-ploynent and Population
(1) Based on peak primary Alpetco labor force of 2,820, October, 1982; Table 6.10.1.1-1.
(2) Based on peak total primary labor force of 2,935, September, 1982; Table 6.10.1.1-1.
(3) Based on operations work force of 579; peak = average.
-------
TABLE 6.10.1.1-3
INCREMENTAL EMPLOYMENT AND POPULATION IN VALDEZ DURING
ALPETCO CONSTRUCTION, QUARTERLY, 1980-1983
Prima ry^
(2\
Secondaryv J
Utilization
Total(4)
Total(5)
of Local^
Incremental
Incremental
Year
Quarter
Employment
Employment
Unemployed
Employment
Population
1980
3
59
112
142
170
4
251
75
112
214
257
1981
1
255
77
168
164
197
2
315
95
168
242
290
3
554
196
224
626
751
4
1,139
342
224
1,257
1,508
1982
1
1,575
473
224
1,824
2,189
2
2,282
685
224
2,743
3,292
3
2,868
860
224
3,504
4,205
4
2,806
842
224
3,424
4,109
1983
1
2,323
697
224
2,796
3,355
2
1,294
388
224
1,458
1,750
3
493
148
112
529
635
4
157
47
56
148
178
Notes:
(1) Alpetco, port expansion, other; from Table 6.10.1.1-1.
(2) Figures in column 3 times .3.
(3) Estimated recruitment of unemployed workforce in Valdez.
(4) Column 3 plus column 4 minus column 5.
(5) column 5 times 1.2.
(6) Includes June.
Source: CCC/HOK; see Discussion of Method for Employment and Population Projections.
-------
TABLE 6.10.1.1-4
Estimated Annual Peak Population in Valdez, 1979-1990
with Alpetco Project
Year
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
Base
Population^
3,350
3,451
3,555
3,662
3,772
3,885
6,189
6,375
6,566
6,763
6,966
7,175
Incremental
Population^
0
257
1,508
4,310(3)
3,355
2,124
0
0
0
0
0
0
Total
Population
3,350
3,708
5,063
7,972
7,327
6,009
6,189
6,375
6,566
6,763
6,966
7,175
(1) Base population is assumed to increase by 3 percent per year.
(2) From Tables 6.10.1.1-3 and 6.10.1.1-2.
(3) From Table 6.10.1.1-2.
11-146
-------
TABLE 6.10.1.1-5
Summary of Method Used to Derive Table 6.10.1.1-2
I. Construction Phase (peak)
1. Employment
Peak labor force x local employment multiplier - utilization
of local unemployed.
a) Alpetco only
2,820 x 1.3 - 224 = 3,442
b) Alpetco and other construction activity
2,935 x 1.3 - 224 = 3,592
2. Population.
Employment x construction period labor force participation
factor (1.2).
a) Alpetco only
3,442 x 1.2 = 4,130
b) Alpetco and other construction activity
3,592 x 1.2 = 4,310
3. Households - Estimate 80 percent of primary Alpetco labor
force housed in camp (2,256 workers);
4. School enrollment.
Incremental population x % of school-age children. '
a) Alpetco only
4,130 x .1 = 413
b) Alpetco and other construction activity
4,310 x .1 = 431
II. Operation Phase (average = peak)
Same method used above, except for step which includes post-
construction residual employment, and use of different factors.
1. Employment
Operations labor force x loal employment multiplier +
residual employment - utilization of local unemployed
(579 x 1.5) + (.19 x 2,820) - 224 = 1,180
2. Population
Employment x labor force participation factor (1.8)
1,180 x 1.8 = 2,124
3. Households
Population 2,124 _ 7Q8
Average number/household 3
4. School Enrollment
Population x % of school-age children (.22)
2,124 x .22 = 467.
Source: CCC/H0K.
See Discussion of Method for Employment and Population
Projections.
11-147
-------
6.10.1.2 STATEWIDE EMPLOYMENT AND POPULATION IMPACTS
Construction and operation of the Alpetco plant can be expected to
have a significant impact on income and employment outside the Valdez
area. Most of this nonlocal impact will occur in Anchorage, the com-
mercial and population center of the State.
Stimulus to statewide employment will be primarily from purchases by
Alpetco and its contractors of goods and services in the Anchorage
area, both during construction and operation, and the spending of wage
and salary income in Anchorage. No estimate is available of the value
of local purchases by Alpetco and its contractors, but the total
purchases at refineries of comparable size suggest that the amount may
be substantial. (See Discussion in Section 6.10.2 and Table 6.10.2-14.)
Expenditures by construction and operational employees in Valdez and
in Alaska Alaska outside Valdez are estimated in Tables 6.10.2-11 and
6.10.2-12. Expenditures, are estimated to total some $20.3 million in
Valdez and $66.1 million in Alaska during the three-and a-half-year
construction period (1980-1983), and $6 million in Valdez and $3.0
million in Alaska annually thereafter (constant 1979 $).
Increased spending by State government will also contribute to economic
growth statewide. New revenue to the State from the plant will be limited
to corporate income taxes and personal income tax on wages and salaries.*
State corporate income taxes, shown in Table 6.10.2-13 are estimated by
Alpetco to range from approximately $9 million to $24 million annually
over the life of the project. Estimates of annual personal state income
tax revenue from project employees are shown in Tables 6.10.2-9 and
6.10.2-10. During the three-and-a-half-year construction period, state
personal income tax revenue is estimated to be in the neighborhood of
$12.1 million. During operation, state personal income tax revenue will
be approximately $1 million.
Spending in the public and private sectors will create multiplier
effects at the State level.
Alaska Department of Labor economist Lynn Pistol! has estimated the
construction phase statewide employment multiplier of the trans-Alaska
pipeline project to have been between 2.21 and 2.47 ([2,820 x .35] +
[579 x 2.21] = 2,267; See Pistol! 1978).
*Alaska does not have a general statewide property tax. AS.43.56
imposes a property tax of 20 mills on oil and gas property used
in production, and transportation of crude oil and natural gas.
Refineries are not included in this tax. Legislation may be
introduced to include refineries in Title 43, when ALPETCO is
built,, which will be strenuously resisted by both Valdez and
Kenai, the two municipalities in the State which would otherwise
have exclusive powers of property taxation over refineries. Sale
of the State's royalty oil to Alpetco will be at a price equiva-
lent to its royalty value, so there is no difference from the
point of view of state revenue between selling royalty oil or
receiving cost royalty payments directly from producers.
11-148
-------
If it is assumed that the multiplier effects of the Alpetco project
will be comparable to those of the Alyeska project, we could expect
total incremental employment in Alaska of between 6,232 and 6,965
during the construction phase. We have already estimated peak incre-
mental construction employment in Valdez of some 4,130 (Alpetco project
only), which indicates peak employment outside of Valdez of from 2,102
to 2,835 people.
These estimates are probably high, however, because the Alpetco project
will not be comparable to the pipeline project in the degree to which
it stimulates secondary employment statewide. Unlike the pipeline
project, Alpetco construction activity will occur at tidewater where
material and plant components can be barged directly from fabrication
yards and supply centers in Japan and the West Coast of the United
States. Thus, for example, demand for Alaska-based transportation
services during construction will be very small, in contrast to the
tremendous demand for truck, rail, and air transportation created by
the trans-Alaska pipeline project.
The nature of the project, as well as its location, will tend to
isolate it from the Alaska economy. From the point of view of the
Alaska construction industry, a high technology plant of this type is
exotic. Unlike the pipeline project, Alpetco will create little civil
construction (roads, work pads, site preparation, bridges, etc.) that
Alaska-based contractors conventionally perform, and who are supplied
by a network of local businesses.
Thus, on the basis of the assumption that statewide construction
multiplier effects of the Alpetco project will be smaller than those
created by the Alyeska project, an employment multiplier of 2.21
(Pistoll's low estimate for Alyeska construction) probably represents
a high estimate for Alpetco. Thus, total statewide peak incremental
employment will probably not exceed 6,232 during Alpetco construction.
We can also expect the relative level (rate) of statewide post-construction
residual employment to be smaller following completion of the Alpetco
project than following the Alyeska project because, at the State
level, the former will generate far less public sector revenue than
the latter. State spending of North Slope royalty income and pipeline
property tax revenue has made a large contribution to maintaining
employment levels in Alaska since completion of the pipeline in mid-1977.
Alpetco will not generate state revenue that even remotely compares
with the annual sums created directly and indirectly by the trans-Alaska
pipeline. To estimate total statewide employment in the years following
completion of the refinry, we will use Pistoll's method and assume
that his low values derived from the Alyeska experience represent
realistic upper limit values for the Alpetco project. This calculation
indicates total maximum incremental statewide employment of 2,267
during the operation period.
While it is clear that the Alpetco project will generate income and
employment in Alaska outside Valdez, it is not clear to what extent
this statewide economic stimulus will cause net population growth. If
11-149
-------
the new spending and employment is absorbed by the current laborforce
(Alaska currently has a high level of unemployment and a large amount
of excess capacity in the private sector of the economy), little
population growth will occur. If, however, incremental spending in
the public and private sectors that is attributable to Alpetco creates
demands which exceed the number or skills of the unemployment pool, or
if new job seekers are attracted to the State by the prospect of work,
population impacts will occur. Whether minimum or maximum population
growth occurs will depend largely on the condition of the statewide
economy at the time. Stagnant conditions would result in minimum
population growth, while boom conditions (caused, for example, by
construction of a North Slope gas pipeline), would result in maximum
population growth.
Table 6.10.1.2-1 shows the foregoing maximum statewide employment
estimates for the construction and post-construction periods, and the
maximum population impacts they would produce in a booming statewide
economy. Thus, under "worst case" assumptions, maximum population
impacts during the peak construction month (October, 1982) would be in
the neighborhood of 7,757 people, 3,627 of these outside Valdez. In
the early years of operations, maximum population impacts would be in
the neighborhood of 4,298, approximately half of these in Valdez and
half outside Valdez.
11-150
-------
TABLE 6.10.1.2-1
Estimated Maximum Statewide Employment and Population Impacts^
Employment Population
Project Phase Total Valdez State Outside Valdez Valdez State Outside Valdez Total
Construction (Peak) 6,232(2) 3,442(3) 2,790 4,130(3) 3,627(4) 7,757
Operation
(immediate post-
(5)
i i on
(3)
1 flQ7 O 19/1
(3)
O 17/1
(6)
construction years) 2,267wy l,180wy 1,087 2,124wy 2,174v"y 4,298
(1) These estimates could be realized only if the Alaska economy was operating at full capacity
with high employment.
(2) Peak labor force of 2,820 x employment multiplier of 2.21.
(3) ALPETCO impacts only; from Table 6.10.1.1-2.
(4) 2,700 x labor force participation factor of 1.3.
(5) Method from Pistol! (1978); with substituted values [2,820 x .35] + [579 x 2.21] = 2,267.
(6) 1,087 x labor force participation factor of 2.
-------
6.10.2 INCOME
The purpose of this section is to estimate income to the public and
private sectors from major expenditures and payments by Alpetco and
its workforce. Estimates are made of wage and salary payments by
Alpetco for construction and operation labor; expenditures in Valdez
and elsewhere in Alaska by the construction and operation workforce;
all Federal and State personal income tax payments; and corporate
income tax payments by Alpetco to the State and Federal government.
Construction manpower requirements for the plant are shown in Table
6.10.2-1; operation manpower in Table 6.10.2-2.
It is assumed that the typical construction work schedule will be six
12-hour days per week, with nine weeks on and one week off. Thus,
full-time employment would be 282 days per year (365 - 52 x .9). The
hourly wage is assumed to be $17.87; this is an average base wage of
$14.62 per hour with time and a half ($21.93) for time over 40 hours a
week. This amounts to a monthly wage of approximately $5,774.00
(Brown and Root is the source of monthly wage estimates). A worker
who was employed full time for a twelve-month period would have an
annual gross income of $60,472.00 (282 days x 12 hours/day x $17.87/hour).
To project personal income tax revenue and to estimate private per-
sonal expenditures it is necessary to make assumptions about the
average worker's total annual income. This income includes wages
received from the Alpetco project and other employment as well.
Annual average income of construction workers will tend to differ with
their place of residency.
For purposes of this analysis the construction workforce is divided
into three groups based on place of permanent residence: 1) workers
from Valdez, 2) workers from elsewhere in Alaska, and 3) workers from
the U.S. outside of Alaska. The average annual income of these workers
is likely to differ significantly. Valdez residents are likely to
work for the longest time on the Alpetco project; Alaska workers
somewhat less time; and U.S. workers the least time. We have assumed
that the gas pipeline or other major projects are not underway in the
State simultaneously with Alpetco construction (which would tend to
increase the average annual income of the Alaska construction workforce),
and we have pegged average incomes to the full time equivalent of
Alpetco construction employment as shown in Table 6.10.2-3. The
dollar amount of these incomes is shown in Table 6.10.2-4. Thus, it
is assumed that the average total gross income of the Valdez contingent
is 50% of the full-time wage equivalent, or $30,236.00 in the first
year of construction, and 75% of the full-time wage equivalent, or
$45,354.00 in the second, third, and fourth years of construction;
other assumptions are made for the Alaska and U.S. contingents of the
workforce.
The next step in the analysis requires assumptions about the relative
proportions of each geographical contingent in the total workforce.
This distribution will change as the nature of tasks and the manpower
levels change during the life of the project. In the early months of
11-152
-------
construction, when site preparation is underway, a large percentage of
the total manpower needs will be met with Valdez residents. As more
complicated structural work begins and manpower requirements increase,
a greater portion of the workforce will be recruited from outside
Valdez, mainly from Alaska. In the latter stages of the project, when
process equipment and instrumentation is installed, a large contingent
of skilled technicians from outside Alaska will be required. In the
meantime, the Valdez contingent of approximately 325 workers will
remain employed (It is assumed that there will be turnover in this
contingent, which is reflected in the 75% figure in column 3, rows 2,
3 and 4 of Table 6.10.2-3 , but that the average annual number employed
will fluctuate within narrow limits around 325 people). Table 6.10.2-5
and Figure 6.10.2-1 depict a pattern of geographical distribution of
workers that is assumed to characterize the Alpetco construction
workforce.
Table 6.10.2-6 shows the gross payroll (excluding benefits, employer
contributions to union funds, etc.) to each geographical contingent of
the workforce. These figures are derived from Table 6.10.2-5 and an
average monthly wage of $5,574.00. For example, in the second year of
construction there will be a monthly average of 218 workers from
Valdez paid $5,574.00 per month; thus, 218 x 12 x $5,574 = $14,581,584.
Alpetco1 s payment for constructon labor will total some $264,000,000
over the three-and-a-half-year construction period.
Table 6.10.2-7 shows the approximate rates of Federal and State income
tax on various income levels. This information, together with information
on Table 6.10.2-4, permits estimates of personal income taxes that
will be paid by workers on the $264 million Alpetco construction
payroll. Also, Table 6.10.2-7 shows the disposable income (after-tax
income) of persons at various income levels. Thus, a person with an
annual gross income of $21,165 in Alaska will have about 72.3%, or
$15,302, to spend after income taxes are paid. (Alaska income tax
must be paid by residents and nonresidents alike on all earnings in
the State.)
Table 6.10.2-8 shows estimated expenditure patterns of the construc-
tion workforce by place of residence. Thus, Valdez residents are
expected to spend half of their disposable income locally; and a
quarter within Alaska outside Valdez; Alaska residents 3% in Valdez,
etc.
The foregoing information and assumptions provide the basis for estimat-
ing personal income taxes and the magnitude and location of expenditures
in the State by the construction workforce. Table 6.10.2-9 shows
estimated personal income tax revenue to the Federal and State government.
During the three-and-a-half-year construction period a total of some
$62,649,895 will be paid to the U.S. Treasury, and some $12,078,571
will be paid to the Alaska Department of Revenue.
Table 6.10.2-10 shows annual Federal and State tax revenue from the
operations workforce (constant 1979 dollars). This is based on an
annual salary wage income of $30,000 for plant operators and maintenance
personnel, and $52,000 for company administrators (Source: Brown &
11-153
-------
Root estimates). Thus, annual Federal personal income tax revenue
will approximate $4,332,276, and annual State revenue will approximate
$904,128.
Table 6.10.2-11 shows estimated expenditures by the construction
workforce of $20,387,821 in Valdez and $66,143,251 elsewhere in Alaska
(total expenditures in the State of $86,531,072). Table 6.10.2-12
shows estimated annual expenditures by the operations workforce (constant
1979 dollars) of $6,099,312 in Valdez and $3,049,657 elsewhere in the
State (total expenditures in the State of $9,148,969).
Table 6.10.2-13 shows the estimated Federal and State corporate income
taxes payable by Alpetco over the life of the project (inflated dollars).
There is no reliable way to estimate the value of purchases that will
be made by Alpetco in the State during construction or operation.
However, the ongoing need for material, parts, and equipment during
plant operations will certainly create commercial opportunity for
Alaska businessmen. A refinery of comparable size to the proposed
Alpetco plant reports current expenditures of some $20 million per
year, excluding service contracts (personal communication, Gulf Oil
Company, June 21, 1979). Table 6.10.2-14 lists the items purchased
regularly for plant operation.
11-154
-------
TABLE 6.10.2-1
Alpetco Construction Labor Force Requirements
Number of
Year Month People
1980 June 15
July 150
August 200
September 220
October 250
November 200
December 200
1981 January 200
February 200
March 200
Apri1 206
May 214
June 332
July 483
August 622
September 804
October 987
November 1,137
December 1,256
1982 January 1,394
February 1,534
March 1,781
April 2,016
May 2,263
June 2,446
July 2,638
August 2,767
September 2,799
October 2,820
November 2,693
December 2,606
1983 January 2,457
February 2,306
March 2,006
April 1,587
May 1,158
June 837
July 579
August 408
September 193
October 107
November 64
December 0
Source: Brown & Root, Inc.
11-155
-------
TABLE 6.10.2-2
Alpetco Operations Manpower Requirements
Employment Category Number of Employees
Plant Operations 231
Maintenance 291
Administrative 57
TOTAL 579
Source: Brown & Root, Inc.
11-156
-------
TABLE 6.10.2-3
Estimated Ratio of Full-Time Equivalent Wage Income,
and Percent Earned in Alaska, for Construction Workforce
Residency
Valdez
Year of
Construction
1
2
3
4
% Full-Time
Equivalent
50
75
75
75
% of Income
Earned in Alaska
100
100
100
100
Alaska
1
2
3
4
50
60
60
60
100
100
100
100
U.S.
1
2
3
4
35
50
50
50
50
75
75
75
Source: CCC/H0K Estimates.
Note: Assumes pipeline or other large construction project does not
occur simultaneously with the Alpetco project.
11-157
-------
TABLE 6.10.2-4
Estimated Average Annual Income of Construction Workforce
(1979 $)
Average Annual Income of Construction Workforce by Place of Residence ($)
Year of Valdez Alaska U.S.
Construction Total Earnings Alaska Earnings
1 30,236 30,236 21,165 10,583
2 45,354 36,283 30,236 22,677
3 45,354 36,283 30,236 22,677
4 45,354 36,283 30,236 22,677
Note: This assumes full-time project construction income is $60,472, based on 282 days/year,
12 hours/day, at average hourly wage of $17.87; average annual wages derived from
Table 6.10.2-3.
-------
TABLE 6.10.2-5
Quarterly and Annual Average Alpetco Labor Force
by Place of Residency
Year Average Employment by Residence
of Total Valdez Alaska U.S.
Construc-
Average
% of
% of
% of
tion Quarter
Unemployment
Total
No.
Total
No.
Total
No.
1 3™
195
50
98
35
68
15
29
4
217
50
108
35
76
15
33
Annual
206
103
72
31
2 1
200
50
100
35
70
15
30
2
251
50
126
35
88
15
37
3
636
50
318
35
223
15
95
4
1,127
29
327
50
563
21
237
Annual
554
218
236
100
3 1
1,570
21
330
50
785
29
455
2
2,242
14.5
325
50
1,121
35.5
796
3
2,735
12
328
50
1,368
38
1,039
4
2,706
12
325
45
1,218
43
1,163
Annual
2,313
327
1,123
863
4 1
2,256
14.5
327
50
1,128
35.5
801
2
1,194
27
322
23
275
50
597
3
393
25
98
15
59
60
236
4
57
10
6
5
3
85
48
Annual
975
188
366
421
(1) Includes June.
Source: Manpower requirements from Table 1 by Brown and Root, Inc.
Estimates of distribution by place of residency by CCC/HOK.
11-159
-------
TABLE 6.10.2-6
Year
1
2
3
4
TOTAL
Source:
Estimated Gross Wage Payments to Construction Workforce
by Place of Permanent Residence
(1979 $)
Estimated Gross Wages ($)
Valdez
3,444,732
14,581,584
21,872,376
12,574,944
$52,473,636
A1aska
2,407,968
15,785,568
75,115,224
24,481,008
$117,789,768
U.S.
1,036,764
6,688,800
57,724,344
28,159,848
$93,609,756
Total
6,889,464
37,055,952
154,711,944
65,215,800
$263,873,160
Annual averages by area shown in Table 6.10.2-5 multiplied
times average monthly wage of $5,774 times number of con-
struction months in each year.
CCC/H0K Estimates.
11-160
-------
TABLE 6.10.2-7
Approximate Rates of Federal and State Income Taxation on
Various Gross Annual Income Levels
Federal
Gross Income Tax FICA
Annual as % of as % of
Income Gross^ Gross
21,165 17.5 6.13
30,000 22.1 6.13
30,236 22.2 6.13
36,283 23.9 6.13
45,354 26.6 6.13
52,000 29.4 6.13
Alaska ESC and Disposable
Income Tax School Tax Income
as % of as % of as % of
C21
Grossv ' Gross Gross
3.7 .4 72.3
4.6 .3 66.9
4.7 .3 66.7
5.0 .25 64.7
5.6 .2 61.5
6.2 .17 58.1
(1) Federal income tax rates were estimated as an average of three categories; single with one
exemption, married with two exemptions, and married with four exemptions. Calculations made
on the basis of 1979 tax tables.
(2) Alaska State income tax is 21% of Federal income tax.
Source: CCC/H0K
-------
TABLE 6.10.2-8
Distribution of Disposable Income; Percent Spent in
Each Location by Place of Residence
Spending Distribution
Residence
Valdez
Alaska
Other
Valdez
Alaska
U.S.
50
25
72
5
25
25
92
Note: Alaska means Alaska outside Valdez.
Source: CCC/HOK.
11-162
-------
TABLE 6.10.2-9
Estimated
Federal and State
Personal Income Tax
Revenues from
Construction Workforce
Federal
State
Residency
Gross Wage
Income Tax (%
Income Tax (%
of
Payments ($)
of Annual Gross
Federal
of Annual Gross
State Tax
Year
Workforce
(1)
( 2}
Wage Incomev
Tax
C 3 ^
Wage Incomev J
($)
1
Valdez
3,444,732
22.2
764,731
4.7
161,902
Alaska
2,407,968
22.2
534,569
4.7
113,174
U.S.
1,036,764
17.5
181,434
1.8
48,728
2
Valdez
14,581,584
26.6
3,878,701
5.6
816,569
Alaska
15,785,568
23.9
3,772,751
5.0
789,278
U.S.
6,688,800
22.2
1,484,914
3.5
234,108
3
Valdez
21,872,376
26.6
5,818,052
5.6
1,224,853
Alaska
75,115,224
23.9
17,952,538
5.0
3,755,761
U.S.
57,724,344
22.2
12,814,804
3.5
2,020,352
4
Valdez
12,574,944
26.6
3,344,935
5.6
704,197
Alaska
24,481,008
23.9
5,850,980
5.0
1,224,054
U.S.
28,159,848
22.2
6,251,486
3.5
985,595
Total
$263,873,160
$62,649,895
$12,078,571
Notes:
(1) From Table 6.10.2-6.
(2) From Tables 6.10.2-4 and 6.10.2-7.
(3) From Tables 6.10.2-4 and 6.10.2-7; note that Alaska income tax is paid only on wages earned in Alaska;
therefore Alaska income rate is prorated for non-Alaska workers.
-------
TABLE 6.10.2-10
Estimated Federal and State Personal Income Tax Revenues
from Operations Workforce
Employment
Category
Number
of
Employees
Average^
Annual
Gross
Salary ($)
Total
Salary
Payments
($)
Federal
Income Tax
(% of
Gross)
(2)
Federal
Tax
($)
State
Income Tax
(% of
Gross)^
State
Tax
($)
Plant Operations 231 $30,000 $ 6,930,000 22.1 $1,531,530
4.6
$318,780
Maintenance
291 $30,000 $ 8,730,000 22.1
$1,929,330
4.6
$401,580
On
Administration
57 $52,000 $ 2,964,000 29.4 $ 871,416 6.2 $183,768
$18,624,000
$4,332,276
$904,128
(1) Brown & Root, Inc. estimates.
(2) From Table 6.10.2-7.
-------
TABLE 6.10.2-11
Estimated Expenditures in Alaska by Construction Workforce, 1980 - 1983
Disposable Expenditures in Alaska
Residency Income (% of Disposable Expenditures in Valdez Outside Valdez
Year
of
Workforce
Gross Wage
Payment^
Gross Annual
(2)
Income)v
Income
$
% of
Gross^
$
% of
Gross^
$
1
Valdez
$ 3,444,732
66.7
$ 2,297,636
50
$ 1,148,818
25
$ 574,409
Alaska
2,407,968
66.7
1,606,115
3
48,183
72
1,156,403
U.S.
1,036,764
72.3
749,580
3
22,487
5
37,479
2
Valdez
14,581,584
61.5
8,967,674
50
4,483,837
25
2,241,919
Alaska
16,785,568
64.7
10,213,262
3
306,398
72
7,353,549
U.S.
6,688,800
66.7
4,461,430
3
133,843
5
233,071
3
Valdez
21,872,376
61.5
13,451,511
50
6,725,756
25
3,362,878
Alaska
75,115,224
64.7
48,599,549
3
1,457,986
72
34,991,675
U.S.
57,724,344
66.7
38,502,137
3
1,155,064
5
1,915,107
4
Valdez
12,574,944
61.5
7,733,590
50
3,866,795
25
1,933,398
Alaska
24,481,008
64.7
15,839,212
3
475,176
72
11,404,232
U.S.
28,159,848
66.7
18,782,618
3
563,478
5
939,131
Total
$20,387,821
$66,143,251
Notes:
(1) From Table 6.10.2-6
(2) From Table 6.10.2-4 and 6.10.2-7
(3) From Table 6.10.2-8
-------
TABLE 6.10.2-12
Estimated Annual Expenditures in Alaska by Operations Workforce
(1979 Dollars)
Expenditures
Average Total Disposable Income Expenditures in Alaska Total
Employment Number of Annual Gross Salary % of in Valdezv ' Outside Expenditures
Category Employees Salary^ $ Payments $ Gross $ ^ $ Valdez^ $ in Alaska
Plant
Operations 231 30,000 6,930,000 66.9 4,636,170 2,318,085 1,159,043 3,477,128
Maintenance 291 30,000 8,730,000 66.9 5,840,370 2,920,185 1,460,093 4,380,278
Administra-
tion _57 52,000 2,964,000 58.1 1,722,084 861,042 430,521 1,291,563
TOTAL 579 18,624,000 6,099,312 3,049,657 9,148,969
Notes:
(1) Brown & Root, Inc. estimates.
(2) Percentage of gross income from Table 6.10.2-7.
(3) From Table 6.10.2-8.
-------
TABLE 6.10.2-13
Estimated Federal and State Corporate Income
Taxes, 1983-2003
(Constant 1979 $ Million)
Pre-Tax Federal
Year Earnings Tax
1983 -2.4 0
1984 162.8 39.5
1985 149.5 36.9
1986 145.7 36.0
1987 142.1 35.1
1988 138.7 43.1
1989 138.1 57.6
1990 137.7 57.4
1991 146.8 61.2
1992 155.8 64.9
1993 154.8 64.5
1994 157.3 65.6
1995 159.9 66.6
1996 162.5 67.7
1997 165.1 68.8
1998 167.6 69.9
1999 170.2 70.9
2000 172.8 72.0
2001 175.3 73.1
2002 177.9 74.1
2003 253.0 105.4
Source: Alpetco
State Investment Total
Tax Tax Credit Tax
0 0 0
9 33.4 48.5
8.3 31.2 45.2
8.1 30.4 44.1
7.9 29.6 43.0
9.7 18.0 52.8
13.0 0 70.6
12.9 0 70.4
13.8 0 75.0
14.6 0 79.6
14.6 0 79.1
14.8 0 80.4
15.0 0 81.6
15.3 0 83.0
15.5 0 84.3
15.8 0 85.7
16.0 0 86.9
16.2 0 88.2
16.5 0 89.6
16.7 0 90.8
23.8 0 129.2
11-167
-------
TABLE 6.10.2-14
Items Purchased Annually for Refinery
Operation and Maintenance
BEARINGS AND BEARING PARTS
BLOWERS & FANS PLUS PARTS
BOLTS, RIVETS, SCREWS, NUTS, AND WASHERS
CLOTHING AND SAFETY GEAR
CATALYSTS, CHEMICALS, COMPOUNDS, AND GREASE
COKE CUTTING PARTS FOR HANDLING AND LOADING FACILITIES
COMPRESSORS AND COMPRESSOR PARTS
COUPLING AND COUPLING PARTS
CRANE, HOIST PARTS
ELECTRICAL - GENERAL
ELECTRICAL - MAJOR UNITS AND PARTS
EXCHANGER, CONDENSERS, COOLERS AND PARTS
FITTINGS - PIPE, TUBING, WELDING, ORIFICE
FLANGES
GASKETS
HEATERS - BOILERS AND PARTS
HOSE AND ACCESSORIES
INSTRUMENTS AND INSTRUMENT PARTS
JANITORIAL SUPPLIES
MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT PARTS
MIXERS AND PARTS
OFFICE FURNITURE AND SUPPLIES
PACKING AND MECHANICAL SEALS
PUMPS AND PUMP PARTS
TUBES AND TUBING
TURBINES
VALVES AND VALVE PARTS
WIRE AND CLOTH
Source: Gulf Oil Company
11-168
-------
6.10.3 LOCAL ECONOMY
The purpose of this section is to provide a brief discussion in quali-
tative terms of the economic impacts of the Alpetco project in Valdez.
It is perhaps needless to say that construction activity will cause a
major boom for local businesses, such as banks, bars, restaurants,
hotels, retailers, taxi cab companies, etc., The personal income of
Valdez residents will rise as a result of wage employment and earnings
from the spending of the construction workforce. Even the nonlocal
workers will tend to use local banks and spend a part of their wages
in town. In addition to the basic construction labor force, a large
number of people will be in Valdez for short assignments: State and
Federal inspectors of various sorts, engineering and design consultants,
Alpetco partner representatives, and manufacturer's representatives
for the process equipment, pumps, instruments, and other components of
the plant. These itinerates will tend to keep hotels and restaurants filled
to capacity. Of gradually increasing significance during the construc-
tion period is the building that will be necessary to accommodate the
permanent resident population. We have assumed that a minimum of 100
construction workers per month for approximately the last 18 months of
plant construction will be engaged in this building effort. Entire
subdivisions will need to be built, with houses, streets, water and
sewer lines, and electrical service. Also during this period local
merchants may expand their stores to accommodate the business of a
town that will be over 1-1/2 times its former size. New businesses,
requiring new buildings, may also be started (a theatre, bowling
alley, supermarket are possible examples).
Temporary shortages of goods and services, and inflation of housing
costs (for nonhomeowners) will occur during the construction period,
but these effects should not be as prolonged or severe as during the
Alyeska construction boom. It must be remembered that the City of
Valdez is two to three times as large as it was when the Alyeska boom
began, and the Alpetco peak construction workforce will be 1/4 smaller
than peak Alyeska construction workforce.
Estimates are presented in Section 6.10.5.1 of the impacts of the
Alpetco project on local employment during the operational phase.
Approximately 826 secondary jobs will be created in Valdez in addi-
tion to 579 plant positions. A technical distinction should be
made between two types of secondary employment: indirect employment,
which occurs in businesses that either provide inputs to the new
plant or utilize products of it, and induced employment, which occurs
in businesses that serve the new population. It is assumed that
virtually all of the secondary employment created in Valdez will be
induced. While in the long run it is quite possible that "downstream"
petrochemical processing and manufacturing activity will locate in
Valdez to utilize feedstocks from the Alpetco plant, it seems unlikely
to occur in the timeframe of this analysis (1980-1990). Local busi-
nesses may supply some of the equipment and material required during
the routine operation (see Table 6.10.2-14). However, most operating
supplies will come directly from outside Alaska, and what does come
from Alaska distributors will be sold by Anchorage-based firms, which
are better situated to meet the needs of refiners on the Kenai Penin-
sula, in Fairbanks, and at Prudhoe Bay, as well as other general
11-169
-------
customers. In economic jargon, the plant will not have forward
(supply) or backward (product) linkages to the local economy. Thus,
while the local economy will expand greatly as a result of the
Alpetco-related population growth, the private sector will continue
to be oriented primarily to the needs of the resident population
(in contrast to the needs of industrial activity).
The relative high cost of living in Valdez should decrease after
the plant is built and operating. This is because economies of
scale will be realized in the distribution of goods. In place of
small ma and pa grocery stores, for examples, supermarkets will
exist. Also, it is estimated by the City of Valdez that the
transportation cost of goods shipped from Seattle will be reduced
approximately 30% by the operation of the new Port of Valdez.
Because their market it larger, retailers will be able to offer
a larger variety of goods. On balance, the Alpetco project will
result in numerous positive impacts on the local economy.
11-170
-------
6.10.4 PUBLIC FISCAL IMPACTS
The City's present favorable financial situation will not be diminished
by the Alpetco project, and it may be enhanced if the local government
wishes to raise its property tax rate. In its effort to encourage the
Alpetco consortium to locate its plant in Valdez, the city administration
stated that Valdez was fully capable of providing public services
required by both the construction boom and the permanent population
growth during operations, and that no financial impact aid would be
required.
The public fiscal impact of new development has two dimensions:
public costs and public revenues. In this assessment of the public
fiscal impacts of the Alpetco project on Valdez, no attempt is made to
estimate the cost of providing to the permanent incremental population
specific public services, and then to compare these costs with estimated
municipal revenues derived from the plant and the new population. A
cost accounting fiscal impact exercise of this type does not see,
necessary in view of the substantial public per-capita wealth in
Valdez, both before and after the plant is built. Also, however, an
adequate basis for estimating future per-capita service costs in
Valdez does not exist.
Current per-capita costs of providing public services in Valdez may
not be a reliable basis for estimating future costs. The permanent
population of Valdez will increase almost 80% between 1979 and 1984.
The cost of providing specific local public services (police pro-
tection, fire protection, water and sewer service, local government,
etc.) on a per-capita basis is likely to differ significantly (either
higher or lower) between the town of 3,000 and 6,000 people, because
of economies and diseconomies of scale peculiar to the delivery of
each service, and because of general current excess capacity in some
public service systems in Valdez. Also, additional services or different
types of services may be needed in a proportionately larger town. It
also must be noted that current per-capita service costs in Valdez are
higher than statewide per-capita averages suggesting that an adequate
level of public service (relative to Alaska standards), could be
provided by the City for a lower per-capita cost.
On the revenue side, an interesting question about the impact of the
Alpetco refinery is property tax income it will generate for the City.
At the present time Valdez receives approximately 70% of its total
municipal income from a general tax on real property (Table 5.8.3-1).*
The Alpetco refinery and other local construction spawned by it will
add over $1.3 billion to the tax base of the City. However, Valdez
does not have unrestricted access to its tax wealth through the property
"The balance of municipal revenues (from user fees, State- and Federal-
shared revenue, fines, etc.) should increase over the long run in
direct proportion to population increases. The only revenue source
that may decrease per capita is earnings from the permanent fund.
11-171
-------
tax for general government purposes. There are State statutory restraints
on the ability of local government to raise property tax revenue for
operating expenses. Within these restraints, post-construction Valdez
can maintain its current per-capita tax revenue with a lower mill
rate, but it will have to raise the mill rate substantially to increase
its present per-capita property tax income of about $1,500.
Alaska Statutes 29.53.045, 29.53.050, and 43.56.010 establish a set of
limits on municipal property taxing power. According to these provisions
no municipality may under any circumstances tax at a rate to exceed 30
mills. Within this ceiling of 30 mills, a municipality may tax the
full assessed value of its private property as long as it does not
exceed revenue of $1,500 per person, or it may tax property valued at
no more than 225% of the average state per-capita assessed valuation
multiplied times the number of local inhabitants. Municipalities may
choose between the latter two alternatives for calculating their
allowable property tax income.
Alpetco estimates the cost of plant construction to be approximately
$1.8 billion at the time of completion. However, $1.25 billion is
Alpetco1s estimate of the 1979 dollar cost of major capital items
(excluding startup costs, insurance, etc.). The figure $1.25 billion
represents current replacement value which would be the plant's assessed
value (in 1979 dollars) in the early years of operation before the
income of the facility is established and before significant depreciation
has occurred. A substantial amount of additional private construction
will occur in Valdez as a result of the growth stimulated by Alpetco.
Let us consider private housing construction alone. Assuming (a) that
approximately 700 new dwelling units will be required, (b) that 20
percent of these will be multi-family units valued at $60,000 per
unit, and (c) that 80 percent of the new dwelling units will be single-
family houses valued at $100,000 per unit, then about $65 million of
taxable residential property will be added to the tax role in addition
to the $1.25 billion plant.
Total population in the year 1984 has been projected at about 6,000
(see Table 6.10.1.1-4). At the present time the state average per
capita assessed value is $47,342. Therefore, in 1979 dollars, the
maximum property tax revenue that Valdez could raise in 1984 is $9
million under Alternative 1, or $19,173,500 under Alternative 2.
While Alternative 2 allows the City more revenue than Alternative 1
($1,500 per capita versus $3,196 per capita), it requires a mi 11 age
rate of 30, five times the current rate. Alternative 1 generates the
same amount of revenue per capita that Valdez now receives from its
property tax, but it does so at approximately half the current mi 11 age
rate. A rate of 14 mills is required to generate under Alternative 2
the maximum revenue permitted by Alternative 1 (see Table 6.10.4-1).
The foregoing discussion shows how State law will affect the ability
of the City of Valdez to raise property tax revenue from the Alpetco
plant. It should be noted that while there is no difference between
the Alpetco and the Alyeska terminal from the point of view of City
revenue, there is a difference between the two facilities from the
point of view of State revenues. The Alyeska terminal generates
11-172
-------
property tax income for the State by way of a 20-mill tax (with a
credit for local property taxes paid by Alyeska). Since Valdez currently
has a property levy of about 6 mills, the State levy is approximately
14 mills, which generates about $22 million for the State. Refineries
are not included in the property taxable under the 20-mill statewide
property tax (AS 43.56), so there will be no property tax income to
the State from the Alpetco plant.
The Alpetco project will add approximately $197 million of bonding
capacity to the City (it currently has $175 million of unused capacity).
Because there are no limits on the ability of the City to raise property
taxes to retire bonded debts, the City can be expected to fund substantial
capital improvement projects with general obligation bonds.
Also, it should be noted that, if revenue shortfalls occur because of
unexpected public service costs, the City of Valdez could resort to
new sources of nonproperty tax income such as a sales tax.
11-173
-------
TABLE 6.10.4-1
Estimates of Maximum Property Tax Revenue
for Operating Purposes, City of Valdez, 1984
(1978 Dollars)
Assumptions
Assessed value = $2,948,000,000^
Population of Valdez = 6,000^
State average per capital assessed value = $47,342^
Alternative 1
Taxable property = 100 percent
Maximum revenue = $1,500 x 6,000 = $9,000,000
Rate = $9,000,000 divided by $2,948,000,000 = 3 mills
Maximum per capita revenue = $1,500
Alternative 2
Taxable property = 6,000 x $47,342 x 2.25 = $639,117,000 (.2168 of
assessed value)
Maximum revenue = .03 x $639,117,000 = $19,173,500
Rate = 30 mills
Maximum per capita revenue - $3,196
(1) Existing assessed value $1,632,070,848, plus $1,250,000,000
Alpetco, plus $65,000,000 new residential construction.
(2) From Table 6.10.1.1-4 (6,009 rounded to 6,000).
(3) From Alaska Taxable 1978, Alaska Department of Community &
Regional Affairs.
11-174
-------
6.10.5 PUBLIC SERVICES AND FACILITIES
This section examines the likely impacts that the population increase
attributable to the construction and operation of the proposed Alpetco
facility will have on the provision of public services in Valdez.
Based on their experiences with providing services during the trans-
Alaska pipeline boom, service providers in Valdez are anticipating an
increased demand for social counseling and referral services, including
mental health, crisis counseling, and marriage and juvenile counseling;
alcohol and drug abuse counseling; fire protection; and criminal
justice services. The school system will have to accommodate approxi-
mately the same number of students during both the construction and
operations phases of the proposed Alpetco facility.
Expansion of state-funded services (public health, social services) is
difficult to predict since levels of funding and staffing are a function
of legislative appropriations and executive policies. Thus, a deter-
mination of staffing increases and related costs is not possible to
make. Providers of locally funded services (Valdez Community Hospital,
Valdez Mental Health Center) express confidence that they will be able
to hire additional staff as required.
HEALTH CARE
Valdez's health care system has capacity to accommodate the impacts of
the construction and operation phases of the Alpetco plant. Alpetco
will provide an on-site first aid facility and will rely on local
health care professionals and facilities for routine medical problems;
Alpetco workers requiring emergency medical care will be airlifted to
Anchorage. The discussion below focuses on the impact of additional
population on community facilities and services.
VALDEZ COMMUNITY HOSPITAL
The hospital is presently operating at well below its capacity, which
is sufficient to serve a population of over 12,000. This estimate is
based upon "the number of beds needed by each hospital service area
...to meet its needs 99.9% of the time (all but one day every two
years)." (South Central Health Planning and Development, Health Systems
Plan, Anchorage, March, 1979, pp. 149-151). On this basis, the Health
Systems Agency for South Central and Western Alaska estimated that
Valdez would require nine hospital beds in 1983 if its population were
7,522.
The agency notes, however, that the number of hospital beds required
in Valdez would likely increase as additional physicians come to the
community to practice medicine and make referrals to the local hospital.
The number of private doctors in Valdez grew from two to three in
1979, with a fourth doctor anticipated in 1980 if the Alpetco project
proceeds on schedule. Even with an increase in the number of private
physicians in Valdez, the hospital's 15 beds should prove adequate
during the peak of construction of the Alpetco facility. The hospital
administration actually looks forward to an increase in population
11-175
-------
made possible by construction and operation of the Alpetco facility in
order to make better use of the hospital's existing facilities and
equipment.
PUBLIC HEALTH
From experience gained during the construction of the pipeline, the
Department of Health and Social Services anticipates that additional
demands on staff time will be made during the Alpetco construction
phase. During the pipeline era, immigrating families, and particularly
women, experienced a sense of great isolation. Because their husbands
worked lengthy shifts and they lived away from their extended families,
they were prone to both emotional and physical problems (Mary Ray,
R.N., Valdez Health Center).
The Department will need to provide extended family counseling ser-
vices to construction workers, their families and other Valdez residents.
In addition, the Department anticipates increasing its surveillance
and treatment of communicable diseases. Although the Department does
not have ample budgetary resources, it is expected that these expanded
services will receive necessary funding.
VALDEZ MENTAL HEALTH CENTER
The Director of the Mental Health Center believes that the facility is
sufficiently large to accommodate any increase in caseload that may be
attributable to the construction of the Alpetco facility. However,
additional staff may be necessary. The director expects an increase
in the incidence of alcohol and drug abuse during the construction
phase of the Alpetco facility. The center's five-year program calls
for the addition of a staff member specialized in alcohol and drug
abuse programs in 1980-1981 and an additional clinician in 1981-1982.
In addition to an on-going alcohol abuse program, the center will
establish a crisis line telephone service to provide counseling and
referral service for alcohol or drug abuse problems, suicide pre-
vention and other immediate problems on a 24-hours-a-day basis.
Further, the center will continue to perform community outreach in the
form of newspaper articles about various mental health topics and
preventative health care courses, including child rearing and stress
management.
HARBORVIEW DEVELOPMENTAL CENTER
Harborview had problems during the construction of the pipeline in
ways that might occur again during construction of the Alpetco facility.
First, the scarcity of housing made it difficult, if not impossible,
for staff to find affordable housing. Second, Harborview lost many
staff members, particularly men, to higher paying construction jobs.
Maintaining the proper complement of direct care personnel became a
difficult task for Harborview1s administration.
11-176
-------
EDUCATION
The construction and operations phases of the proposed Alpetco petro-
chemical facility will make almost equal demands upon the Valdez
school system. During the construction phase it is expected that only
a relatively few construction workers will be accompanied to Valdez by
their wives and children.* An estimate of Alpetco-induced school
enrollment during the height of the construction phase is approximately
430 students over and above the school population expected to reside
in Valdez in 1982, in the absence of Alpetco. Table 6.10.5-1 provides
a breakdown in the number of students expected in the elementary,
junior and senior high school grades during the peak construction year
of 1982.
Although they will comprise a far smaller group than the construction
workers, many operations employees will relocate to Valdez with their
families. These families will contribute approximately 467 children
to the Valdez school system.
Consequently, unlike other service providers, the Valdez school system
will have to accommodate a permanent, rather than short-term, increase
in demand for teachers and facilities. Further, this impact will
begin earlier than other permanent impacts - in the 1980-1981 school
year - and reach peak demand in the 1982-1983 school year. Table
6.10.5-1 estimates growth in student enrollment from 1979 to 1990
attributable to the school system's 3 percent annual growth rate and
to the Alpetco project.
In order to accommodate the existing K through 6 grade population,
Growden-Harrison Elementary School has had to rely on modular classrooms,
which are throught by school officials to be unsuitable for long-term
use. When the new elementary school authorized in August 1979 is
completed in 1981, it will be able to accommodate the students currently
being taught in modulars and the new student population.
Table 6.10.5-2 compares estimated student enrollment in Valdez schools
in 1982, the projected height of Alpetco construction activity, with
the 1982 capacity of Valdez schools; these estimates assume that the
mixture of grades and facilities will continue to be the same in 1982
as they were in September 1978. Table 6.10.5-2 shows that with completion
of the new elementary school, surplus capacity will exist for K-6
students. The junior high school will likely face slight overcrowding,
and the high school will be near capacity.
By 1990, the Valdez school system will have an estimated student
population of 1,617 (see Table 6.10.5-1). If the school population in
1990 is distributed in the same proportion that it was in 1979, the
school system will have approximately 928 elementary school students
(grades K-6); 235 junior high school students (grades 7-8); and 454
senior high school students (grades 9-12).
The prospect of growing student enrollment due to the Alpetco facility
has caused school officials to consider alternative courses of action.
To make maximum use of existing facilities, officials may decide to
11-177
-------
group grades differently. Other possibilities include construction of
a new junior high school or enlargement of the senior high school,
which was designed for expansion from 400 to 600 students.
SOCIAL SERVICES
Based on its experience during the pipeline era, the Department of
Health and Social Services expects an increased demand for its services
during the construction of the Alpetco facility, especially those
related to family support. During construction of the pipeline,
adolescents neglected by their working parents added to the Depart-
ment's caseload. These children had little supervision and few activiti
Following completion of the pipeline, the Department offered services
to a number of wives and children who were abandoned by departing male
workers (Faye Guthrie, Regional Social Service Manager, Department of
Health and Social Services, Anchorage).
The pipeline also directly affected Department operations. During
that period the Department found it difficult to keep existing employees
or to attract new ones. Employees living in Valdez found they could
obtain better paying jobs. Potential new employees could not find
affordable housing.
The Department anticipates that construction of the Alpetco facility
will increase its caseload with the same types of problems as occurred
during the pipeline era. The Department hopes to increase the size of
its staff as the situation may require.
FIRE DEPARTMENT
The Valdez Fire Chief believes he has sufficient men and equipment to
provide adequate fire protection services to Valdez during and after
the construction of the Alpetco facility. The new station at Robe
River Subdivision will increase coverage and reduce response time to
that part of the community.
Alpetco will be responsible for the provision of fire protection
services at both the site of the refinery as well as the marine terminal
Alpetco will hire and train its own Fire Squad whose work of prevention
and detection will be backed up by an on-site fire detection and
protection system (water spray; foam; dry chemical; and Halon extinguish
ing systems) as well as fire trucks and other mobile equipment (Brown
& Root, Plant Fire Protection and Security Manual, Houston: May,
1979).
POLICE
The Chief of Police believes that the Police Department is in an
excellent position to meet any public safety issues arising from the
construction and operation of the Alpetco facility. The 13-person
staff is large enough to assign two men to road patrol duty 24 hours a
day; this number of police will be adequate for Valdez's needs until
the City increases in size by another 2,000 residents. When that
population is reached, Valdez will hire an additional police officer.
11-178
-------
In addition to its size, the police force has experience dealing with
construction boom situations. Since the number of construction workers
employed by Alpetco will be lower than the number employed by Alyeska,
the Department feels well prepared.
11-179
-------
TABLE 6.10.5-1
Estimated
Student Enrollment
1979-1990
3%
Incremental
Annual
School
Year
Base
Growth
Enrol lment^
Total
1979
—
--
0
765 ^
1980
765
23
26
814
1981
788
24
150
962
1982
812
24
430
1,266
1983
836
25
336
1,197
1984
861
26
467
1,354
1985
1,354
41
0
1,395
1986
1,395
42
0
1,437
1987
1,437
43
0
1,480
1988
1,480
44
0
1,524
1989
1,524
46
0
1,570
1990
1,570
47
0
1,617
Source: CCC/HOK.
(1) These estimates are 10 percent of peak construction employment
shown in Table 6.10.1.1-3 (1982 figure from Table 6.10.1.1-2);
and 22 percent of the incremental operations workforce shown
in Table 6.10.1.1-2.
(2) This 1979 enrollment figure is the estimate of the Valdez school
system. It is calculated on the basis of the students in each
1978 grade level advancing to the next level in 1979. Use of
this methodology results in a student population of 742, an
increase of 13 students over the 1978 figure. The 742 figure
is then multiplied by the school system's 1.03 percent annual
growth factor, resulting in the 1979 estimate of 765 students.
11-180
-------
TABLE 6.10.5-2
Comparison of Student Enrollment and School Capacity
in Peak Alpetco Construction Year - 1982
Projected Student Enrollment Design Excess (+) or
Capacity Deficit (-)
Base(1)
Alpetco-Related^
Total
(Students)
Capacity
Elementary
480
247
727
851<3>
+124
Junior High
121
63
184
172
- 12
Senior High
235
121
356
400
+ 44
TOTAL
836
431
1,267
Source: Valdez City Schools; CCC/HOK.
(1) Base student population for 1982 calculated on the basis of 3 percent
annual growth from 1978.
(2) Assumes that students in 1982 will be distributed in grades K-12
in the same proportion as they were in 1978.
(3) The permanent classrooms of the Growden-Harrison Elementary School
have a capacity of about 301 students (see Table 5.8.4-2) and the
design capacity for the new elementary school, scheduled for com-
pletion in 1981, will be approximately 550 students.
11-181
-------
6.10.6 LAND USE
This section describes effects of Alpetco development on resource
extraction and recreation resources in the region and more localized
impacts on patterns of land use in Valdez. While regional impacts on
land use are expected to be small, local impacts will be much more
signi ficant.
Important land use impacts in Valdez include a demand for housing
which results in a probable housing shortage, and expansion of the
urban area to accommodate the Alpetco project and new housing. Accom-
panying these effects will be possible construction of temporary
housing at the expense of more permanent housing; and housing development
on land planned for another long-term use such as industry. These and
other locational effects are discussed at the regional and local
levels for the following sections.
6.10.6.1 REGIONAL IMPACTS
Construction and operation of the Alpetco petrochemical complex will
probably not facilitate exploration or development of natural resources
in the region. Factors which might produce a situation conducive to
resource development, increased labor supply and a broadened tax base
for the City of Valdez will have little influence outside of a small
area around Valdez.
Exploration for oil and gas and hardrock minerals requires a relatively
small and specialized labor force. It is unlikely that industry would
consider the availability of increased labor supply in Valdez a signifi-
cant inducement to either begin exploration or to undertake development
of timber, hardrock minerals, or petroleum resources. It could be
argued that because Valdez today has an unemployment rate estimated at
between 16% and 18%, representing some 300 people, it is in a better
position to support such development than it would be when most become
employed in construction of the Alpetco facility. Demand for Alpetco
labor and support facilities in Valdez during the 1980-1983 construction
period could actually deter development of any other large projects in
the vicinity which would be in need of local skilled and unskilled
labor.
The proximity of resources (such as hardrock minerals or timber) to
Valdez is also an important consideration in determining whether an
increased labor supply in Valdez would affect resource development.
For example, resource extraction at a site in Prince William Sound
which could only be reached by water or air would not become any more
feasible by the presence of a larger labor force in Valdez. Since the
City is isolated from areas of known resource potential, the Alpetco
project should have little impact on regional development patterns.
Another way in which the Alpetco facility could indirectly facilitate
resource development in the region is through its payment of taxes.
Using revenues from the sale of general obligation bonds, the City
could construct facilities such as warehouses, docks, fuels depots,
etc., which could assist in the processing, storage or export of
timber, minerals, or fish. For example, the City is planning to
construct a new port, to be financed by the sale of $48,000,000 in
11-182
-------
general obligation bonds to encourage private industrial development.
It is difficult to project additional improvements to its industrial
infrastructure which the City might undertake in an effort to stimu-
late new resource development. However, it is the stated objective of
Valdez to encourage viable new industries which can supplant its
petroleum industries when oil reserves are depleted in the future.
6.10.6.2 VALDEZ IMPACTS
Implementation of the proposed project will have important land use
impacts on Valdez. These effects may be described as direct and
secondary impacts. Direct impacts include the conversion of land from
open space to industrial use. Secondary impacts include the use of
land throughout the community for housing for Alpetco and other new
employees and their families. Although construction and operation of
the refinery will be the most significant change in land use, the
secondary growth-inducing impacts should more fundamentally alter
development patterns in Valdez for the foreseeable future. For example
the refinery will be built at an isolated location, while new housing
will be developed on land spread throughout the community. The followi
sections discuss these direct impacts on land use and scenic resources
and secondary impacts onindustrial development, recreational facilities
and land use planning. Demand for housing and residential land use is
discussed in Sec. 6.10.6.3.
DIRECT IMPACTS
In a small community such as Valdez, with little developable terrain,
a project of this size represents a major commitment of land. A rough
approximation of the total developable land area exclusive of defined
flood channels and steep slopes is 9.5 square miles (small amounts of
residential land east of Robe Lake are not included). This area may
be smaller if flood hazards identified on the Flood Hazard Map (Figure
5.8.5.6-2) are considered. The Alpetco project, including pipeline
corridors, covers an area of approximately 2.4 square miles, or 25
percent of all developable land in Valdez. Further, the proposed
refinery is located on what may be the largest single block of land in
the area which is free of development limitations.
The significance of this land conversion, however, must be considered
in light of potential alternative uses for the site. The fact that
the site was zoned for open space use until it was selected for the
Alpetco refinery indicates that it was not considered as strategically
important a location for industry as land west of Valdez Glacier
Stream, or land which has direct frontage on the Richardson Highway.
Its value as recreational open space also may be questioned, since
other areas are in better proximity to the community or to Port Valdez.
In order to be developed for residential land use, significant popu-
lation growth would be necessary - an unlikely eventuality without
major new employment opportunities in the City. Thus, without the
Alpetco project, it appears that little incentive would exist for
development of any kind, including industrial use.
Although the site occupied by the refinery, tank farm and construction
camp is large, it is also isolated from the rest of the community by
11-183
-------
low hills along its southern boundary, by the Valdez Glacier Stream on
the west, and by mountains to the east. This isolation serves to
mitigate direct impacts upon adjacent uses. Construction noise at
this location, for example, may have less impact on the community than
at any other conceivable plant location in Valdez (see Section 6.5,
Acoustic Environment for detailed discussion of noise impacts).
Scenic Impacts
Impacts on scenic features of development of the refinery and pipe-
lines are judged to be very modest for a facility of this size.
Because the refinery is located at the foot of mountains, some distance
from public view, its tall elements will not block view of scenic
features. The only significant ground view of the refinery from a
public area is from the bridge over Valdez Glacier Stream on the
Richardson Highway, illustrated in Figure 3.3-3. Views of the facility
from the south are blocked by low hills and trees.
The marine terminal will be the most visible component of the proposed
complex. As illustrated in Figure 3.3-4, it will extend a distance of
2,330 feet northwest into Port Valdez from a promontory east of Solomon
Gulch. Views from the road of coastal areas across Port Valdez will
be obscured by the trestle, which will have one level at approximately
50 ft. and another at 40 ft. above water level (see Fig. 3.3-5).
Since pipelines will be buried wherever alignments are open to view,
visual impact will be limited to clearing of trees and brush. Revege-
tation can mitigate this impact.
Short-Term Impacts
The most important short-term, direct impacts upon surrounding uses
will occur at the Robe River Subdivision, located south of the refinery
site on the Richardson Highway. The primary access road and pipeline
will follow an alignment which wraps around the subdivision along its
north and east boundaries. Construction of the road and trenched
pipelines are not expected to adversely affect land values or housing
construction in the subdivision, because the area is likely to become
a desirable housing location for permanent employees of Alpetco.
Further, planned city improvements to roads and utilities in the
subdivision should encourage additional housing development before the
plant is operational. Residents of the subdivision will not be affected
by construction of the refinery itself, since the Valdez Glacier
Stream haul road, located west of the stream, will be used to move
material from the construction dock to the site.
Of limited concern during the construction phase are the land use
impacts of off-loading and storage of construction modules in the old
townsite. Truck and tractor movements of material from the proposed
new barge mooring slip to the mobilization yard (formerly used for
pipe storage by Alyeska) and then to the refinery site will have
transportation impacts which are discussed in Section 6.10.7. Land
adjacent to the route between the construction dock and the refinery
is largely undeveloped, so disruption to the few existing warehouse or
industrial operations in the area is expected to be minimal.
11-184
-------
SECONDARY IMPACTS
Secondary land use impacts include potential industrialization of land
areas around the refinery site, demand for additional recreational
opportunities and facilities (see Figure 6.10.6.2-1), and impacts on
city planning functions in Valdez. An additional important secondary
impact - the use of land for housing of Alpetco and other support
employees and their families - is discussed in the following section
6.10.6.3.
Impacts On Industrial Land Use
Large areas of the City are available for industrial development.
Areas presently zoned for industrial use include all of the old townsite
and the airport, extending east to Valdez Glacier Stream, and most of
the delta of the Lowe River (see Figure 5.8.5.6-3). Development of
the Alpetco project would effectively enlarge the industrial zone,
through the creation of a new Special Industrial Zone.
In anticipation of development of the Alpetco facility, the City has
tentatively defined this new industrial zone of five contiguous panels
totaling approximately 3,750 acres. The largest of these sites is for
the refinery and tank farm, with a total of 1,425 acres. Portions of
one of these sites, the old Alyeska pipeline storage yard located in
old Valdez, is planned for lease by Alpetco as a construction module-
staging area. Other sites will be used for such activities as gravel
extraction.
The net effect of refinery development on land use would be to further
encourage the creation of separate residential and industrial sectors
in Valdez. With the exception of Robe River Subdivision, the entire
area between the tidal flats and Robe Lake would eventually be zoned
for some form of industrial development. Mobile homes and other
housing in the Airport and Zook Subdivisions would gradually be phased
out. At the same time, the new townsite and areas west of Mineral
Creek could experience major residential development (see Fig. 6.10.6.2-1).
While this separation of housing and industrial employment will produce
greater dependance on the Richardson Highway linking the two areas, it
could minimize any conflict between the basically imcompatible uses.
Further, a huge industrial area would be created within which nearly
any kind or size of industrial development could take place.
Recreation
Demand for recreational facilities will increase with construction and
operation of the Alpetco project. Between 1980 and the peak construction
year of 1982, the population of Valdez is expected to more than double,
from 3,708 to 8,972 people (this increase includes population associated
with city port development). In 1983 when the plant is operational,
population is expected to drop to 6,009, increasing at 3 percent per
year after that. Since no statistics on recreational use patterns are
kept by Federal or State agencies which can be disaggregated for
Valdez, and none are available from the City's Parks and Recreation
Department, it is difficult to project impacts in quantifiable terms.
Numerous improvements to parks and recreation facilities in recent
years makes comparison with the period of Alyeska construction question-
11-185
-------
CO
ON
Projected Land Use Impacts
Possible Future Residential Areas
Possible Future Industrial Area
6.10.6.2-1
-------
able, but certain experiences may be instructive. Recreational oppor-
tunities for construction workers in 1974-75 were largely confined to
facilities provided by Alyeska and to bars in town. Alyeska provided
a recreation hall with table games and movies. Taped television shows
were shown within the camp and made available to Valdez residents by
cable. Indoor athletic facilities were almost nonexistant.
Significant recreational opportunities now exist for Valdez residents.
Coupled with indoor and outdoor facilities which are budgeted and
planned during 1979 to 1985, the City will have recreational oppor-
tunities perhaps more numerous and diversified than any other city of
similar size in Alaska. A full listing of proposed improvements by
the Parks and Recreation Department is included in the appendix. It
is reasonable to assume that the City will carry out its commitment to
provide additional recreational facilities to meet demand associated
with Alpetco development.
With respect to short-term impacts, some disruptions may be inevit-
able. During the pipeline era, some construction workers came to
Valdez with no guaranteed employment or housing. Temporary housing
was set up at recreational campsites in Valdez Glacier Campground and
elsewhere - a situation which was tolerated because of the shortage of
housing. To the extent that housing for Alpetco construction workers
is not available in quantities sufficient to satisfy demand, some
repetition of the Alyeska experience is possible. There could be
conflicts with tourists in need of recreation campsites. An in-town
camper park, planned for a location near the Small Boat Harbor, could
help to alleviate overcrowding.
New population growth accompanying development of the Alpetco project
will also increase usage of existing facilities and create demand for
new facilities outside of Valdez. Boat ownership is rising in Valdez,
as evidenced in recent expansion of the Small Boat Harbor, and plans
for additional expansion of the harbor. The trend is likely to continue
and to accellerate when the operational phase begins, and well-paid
employees establish permanent homes in Valdez.
Proposals by the Alaska Division of Parks to establish marine parks at
Anderson Bay, Jack Bay, and Sawmill Bay (see Figure 5.8.5.3-1) will
receive added support from these new boat owners. The marine parks
could include such facilities as docks, mooring floats, campsites and
restrooms. However, the Forest Service is considering a restriction
on the development of such facilities, under possible wilderness
classification (U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Supplement to Draft Environmental
Statement, Roadless Area Review and Evaluation, Juneau, June 1978).
Recommendations for or against wilderness classification are expected
by 1980. If implemented, conflicts between the desires of new boat
owners and restrictions of the Forest Service are likely to increase.
Impacts on Land Use Planning
All of the City's basic planning mechanisms are presently undergoing
major revisions. The new Comprehensive Plan, Coastal Management
Program, Zoning Ordinance and Subdivision Ordinance are all due for
completion before summer of 1980. This schedule could be postponed by
final resolution of floodplain regulation issues imposed by the U.S.
11-187
-------
Department of Housing and Urban Development (see Section 5.8.5.6). A
delay in completion of these regulations could create procedural
delays in the processing of permits and in the construction of housing
and other facilities. Additional delays are possible in applications
for numerous other Federal and State permits (see Section 10).
The Alpetco project development schedule calls for site work and
clearing for the construction camp by fall or no later than December
of 1980, followed by construction of the total nonpermanent facilities
required to support the permanent construction effort. These nonpermanent
facilities include offices, shops, warehouse buildings, access roads
and bridges. Thus, many major design and engineering decisions will
be made which require coordination and review by the City, at a time
when its ordinances are still in the process of completion.
Plans are underway to expand the Planning Department to two full-time
employees, who will assist in completion of the new regulations and in
the review of applications. However, no additional impact aid has
been requested by the City from Alpetco to mitigate impacts on planning
or any other City function.
11-188
-------
6.10.6.3 RESIDENTIAL LAND USE
This analysis of the effects of the Alpetco facility on residential
land use is divided into a consideration of developed and undeveloped
land available for new housing and factors influencing the production
of housing.
LAND AVAILABLE FOR NEW HOUSING
When the Alpetco refinery becomes operational in 1984, housing for an
estimated 708 new households will be required (see Table 6.10.1.1-5).
Few of these families can be accommodated in existing housing in
Valdez if its presently low vacancy rate (3.1 percent) continues or
declines. Between 1984 and 1990, a total of 845 new households will
be created by an annual growth rate estimated at 3 percent (see Table
6.10.6.3-1).
Therefore this housing will have to be built on now vacant land. The
survey of housing in Valdez in May 1979 identified a total of 390
mobile homes and 370 single-family vacant lots. However, not all of
these spaces and lots are available for these new households.
Few of the 390 vacant mobile home lots will be used for permanent
housing. Because mobile homes are not regarded as a form of housing
which is suited to the heavy snows and high winds of Valdez, the City
is discouraging the construction of additional mobile home parks.
Instead, the City is planning to gradually phase out mobile home parks
by not renewing leases which will come due after the Alpetco construc-
tion period is over (Michael Schmidt, Planning Director, City of
Valdez).
Of the single-family lots, it is reasonable to assume that most can be
developed, but some will remain unbuildable because of such ground
limitations as high water table and periodic flooding. It can also be
assumed that planned sewer, water and road improvements to such areas
as Robe River Subdivision will make existing platted lots easier to
develop. Thus, nearly all of the existing 370 single-family lots are
capable of development, but the availability of other, more desirable
unplatted land will discourage the complete infilling of these vacant
lots.
A total of approximately 965 acres of this vacant and private land is
planned to become available for residential private development. Of
the total, 640 acres of city land west of Hazelet Street are included
(see Figure 5.8.5.5-1). The balance of 325 acres of private land
includes residentially zoned property southwest of Hazelet Street,
unimproved platted lots in Robe River Subdivision, and land north of
the subdivision. This amount of land is sufficient to accommodate
3,850 housing units at a conservative density of four units per acre.
Areas that can be served by roads and utilities will be developed
first. Listed below are areas within which some of the 845 new house-
holds required by 1990 can be accommodated. It includes both existing
developments (where the 370 vacant single-family lots and the 389
11-189
-------
vacant mobile home spaces were counted) and the vacant land areas
discussed above.
SUBDIVISIONS WITH AVAILABLE LOTS
A. Mineral Creek Heights
This subdivision of 47 lots is located west of the Junior High
School in New Valdez. Five lots have homes under construction.
Prices are among the most expensive in the City, ranging between
$23,000 and $39,500.
B. Robe River Subdivision
The subdivision contains 195 platted lots, of which 145 are
presently served by constructed roads. These unpaved roads are
being improved in the summer of 1979 with construction of roads
to serve all platted lots, a total of 70 lots would be available
for development. These lots will become more desirable for
development when planned improvements to the sewer and water
systems are made.
C. Alpine Woods Subdivision, Mile 10 Richardson Highway
This subdivision of 172 lots has 31 single-family houses and 31
mobile homes, leaving a balance of 106 undeveloped lots.
The subdivision has been beset with problems of poor roads,
potential flooding, illegal siting of mobile homes in a single-
family subdivision and development of one-acre lots zoned for
five acres. Once the limits of the Lowe River flood plain have
been firmly determined to the City's satisfaction, rezoning to
the established one-acre zoning may be allowed. However, since
no improvements to the domestic sewer and water system are antic-
ipated, additional development of all lots at prevailing densities
may be ill advised.
D. New Valdez - Tract A
This 25-acre block of City-owned land extends along the west side
of Hazelet Avenue between Hanagita Avenue and West Pioneer Avenue.
The City is developing a subdivision consisting of approximately
35 single-family and 10 duplex units, plus an additional 8 acres
of multi-family housing, for a total of approximately 100 lots.
The City will subdivide and sell blocks of lots to developers,
who in turn will improve the lots and build homes. The total
number of units represented by these improved, or soon to be
improved, single-family subdivisions is 218 lots.
VACANT LAND AVAILABLE FOR HOUSING DEVELOPMENT
A. Land between Hazelet Street and Mineral Creek
In 1976 the Port Valdez Company platted a large area for residential
industrial and commercial development between Hazelet Avenue and
Mineral Creek; a portion of the area was developed as the Black
Gold Subdivision, but the remainder to the south has not been
developed.
11-190
-------
Development is possible in an area presently zoned RB-1, east and
south of the Black Gold Subdivision and on a large hill running
along the waterfront. The RB-1 zoned area could accommodate 325
multi-family units at maximum available densities. The steep-sided
hill is zoned R-A allowing for 8,800 square foot lots - but would
probably be developed as one-acre lots (Michael Schmidt). Approxi-
mately 150 lots could be developed at this density on the hill
assuming 20 percent of the area would be used for roads. A total
number of 530 single- and multi-family units could be accommodated
in this area.
B. Land north of the Robe River Subdivision
North and west of the platted area of the subdivision approxi-
mately 180 acres of land are zoned for single-family residential
use. The estimate of 180 acres considers use of a portion of
land for the proposed Alpetco pipeline and access road rights-of-
way. At an RA zone density of four units per acre, approximately
600 units could be accommodated. Prevailing densities of two
units per acre in the Robe River Subdivision, however, would
result in a more reasonable 300 single-family units.
C. City-selected land west of Mineral Creek
The City expects to receive patent in the fall of 1979 to 640
acres of land west of Mineral Creek. To reach the area from the
east side of the creek, a bridge or bridges are planned to be
built by the City at the extension of Hanagita Street and/or Egan
Drive, serving housing and any necessary supporting commercial,
park or school sites. It is estimated, however, that up to 500
acres may be subject to some flooding, according to the Department
of Housing and Urban Development Flood plain study (U.S. Department
of Housing and Urban Development, Federal Insurance Administration,
Flood Insurance Study, City of Valdez, Alaska, Washington, D.C.
1976). Unless a dike is constructed to contain potential flooding,
much of the area could be undevelopable. No estimate of the
number of housing units possible in this area can be made at this
time. The total number of units which could be developed on the
open land, exclusive of the number possible in Area B, is approxi-
mately 830 units.
MOBILE HOME PARKS
Because of severe snow-loading and high winds in Valdez, mobile homes
are not regarded as an appropriate "permanent" form of housing.
Nevertheless, there are 485 mobile homes scattered among approximately
10 mobile home parks and subdivisions throughout the City. An additional
389 spaces served by utilities are presently available for additional
mobile homes.
With the exception of the mobile homes sited at the corner of Robe
River Drive and Meals Avenue in the northeast part of the old townsite,
all other mobile home parks are on land leased by the City. These
five- to ten-year leases will soon expire, but the City plans to
11-191
-------
extend them during the construction phase of the Alpetco petrochemical
complex. However, given the potential unavailability of enough tradi-
tional frame and modular homes to accommodate Alpetco employees and
their families during the later operational phase, there may be continued
reliance on existing mobile home parks for "permanent" housing.
The location of mobile home parks which are most likely to be utilized
for the permanent Alpetco workforce is difficult to determine. It is
probably reasonable to assume that few mobile homes or spaces would be
used in the new townsite, while the Keystone or Kennedy construction
camps would continue to be used until more permanent housing is avail-
able. However, the airport trailer courts are particularly vulnerable
to high winds because they lie in an unprotected area.
PRODUCTION OF HOUSING
Of all community land uses, housing will be most affected by the
Alpetco project. During the construction of the facility, a new
population of 4,310 people will require temporary and permanent housing.
During the operations phase, about 2,124 persons, representing approxi
mately 708 households, will require permanent housing.* Given an
existing vacancy rate of slightly less than 3 percent,** the City of
Valdez faces a severe housing shortage. This section examines the
impact of the Alpetco facility on housing during the construction and
operations phases.
CONSTRUCTION PHASE
Of the 3,592 additional workers who will be in Valdez at the height of
construction activity, approximately 2,820 will be directly employed
by Alpetco; the balance of 772 represent secondary employment (see
Table 6.10.1.1-2). Alpetco plans to house 90 percent of its workforce
(about 2,538 persons) in temporary facilities on the refinery site.
City of Valdez officials have expressed concern about Alpetco1s plans
to provide on-site construction housing, citing the tendency of "temporary"
housing to become permanent. The City prefers that workers fill
existing vacant trailer spaces, especially those near the airport. If
the City does permit Alpetco to place construction housing on-site,
the City will require removal of the units immediately following
completion of the project.
It is likely that the City will find it difficult to accommodate peak
construction housing demand even if Alpetco is allowed to build on-site
housing. Assuming that Alpetco builds housing for 90 percent (2,538
workers) of its peak construction workforce, the remaining 10 percent
(282 workers) will require housing for the nine or so months that they
* Estimates of employees and numbers of households that will be
generated by the Alpetco facility are taken from Table 6.10.1.1-2,
found in Section 6.10.1.1 Population and Employment - Local.
**For discussion of the vacancy rate in Valdez, see Section 5.8.5.8
Residential Land Use.
11-192
-------
will be employed. Alyeska's Terminal Camp is an existing facility
suitable for housing workers, but no agreement for its use has been
made between Alpetco and Alyeska. These workers could be housed in
additional on-site trailers. Housing these workers on site would
remove them from competing with an additional 772 workers and their
dependents (for a total of 926 people), holding secondary or residual
employment, who will rent the few vacant units that are available in
town or will bring their own trailers or mobile homes to the area.
Given this situation, Valdez's present supply of 390 trailer and
mobile home spaces will quickly fill and additional spaces will have
to be developed. Further, there will be demand for permanent housing,
such as apartments and single-family houses, either for rent or purchase.
Particularly near the end of the construction period, the demand for
permanent housing will increase, as people employed in construction or
secondary jobs decide to make Valdez their home.
OPERATIONS PHASE
At the start-up of the operations phase of the Alpetco facility in
1984, Valdez will already be in the midst of a housing shortage. In
all probability this shortage will take the remainder of the decade to
remedy. Demand for new units and factors limiting the production of
units are discussed below.
Demand
Approximately 708 new housing units will be required at the beginning
of the operational phase. Some mobile homes vacated by construction
workers will be available, but essentially no vacant apartment or
single-family units are anticipated. Demand will continue at a rate
of 3 percent or approximately 20 units per year after 1984 (see Table
6.10.6.3-1). Thus, new housing will have to be produced for nearly
all of the 708 projected new households.
Independent of the demand for new housing caused by the construction
and operation of the Alpetco facility, there exists in Valdez a latent
demand for new housing. Valdez residents, responding to a question-
naire in 1976, indicated that a wider choice of housing types and
location was the third most important community goal.* This attitude
is reflected in the desire of many residents of mobile homes to purchase
more permanent housing units.
Policies of the City of Valdez also affect the demand for new housing.
One policy of the City is to make more publicly owned land available
*Alaska Department of Transportation Planning and Facilities, Prince
William Sound Regional Transportation Study-Draft, (Anchorage, 1978),
p. 6-15. According to the questionnaire, the most important community
goal was "improving access between Valdez and other parts of the State"
followed by "promoting the growth of businesses and jobs."
11-193
-------
for development. To achieve this goal, the City can act as a packager,
selling land to developers it has selected. For example, Tract A,
bounded to the north by Hanagita Street, to the east by Hazelet Avenue
and to the south by West Pioneer Drive, has recently been selected by
the City for development. Opening up new land with various ammenities
for residential development will likely induce some homeowners to sell
their existing units and purchase new ones.
Under consideration by the City is a proposal (which would affect the
demand for housing) to phase out trailer parks on City land once
construction of the Alpetco facility has been completed. The City
holds leases on some lands used for trailer and mobile home parks,
which will come due in upcoming years. The City may choose not to
renew these leases and convert the land to other uses. Land occupied
by trailer courts adjacent to the airport, for example, is zoned for
and would be suitable for industrial use. In this case, the likelihood
of such conversions would depend upon demand for industrial land and
availability of replacement housing.
Prevailing interest rates also influence the demand for housing.
Although mortgage money is available in Valdez, interest rates are
sufficiently high to discourage home ownership. A typical loan for a
single-family unit in Valdez is $90,000 at an interest rate in July
1979 that varied between 11.50 and 11.75 percent (Gail Cipra, Assistant
Cashier, Branch Loan Coordination, National Bank of Alaska, Anchorage).
However, the prevailing rate of interest in Valdez is not significantly
higher than elsewhere in Alaska.
To make housing more available to potential homeowners, both the
Alaska Housing Finance Corporation and the City of Valdez have sold
tax-exempt mortgage subsidy bonds. Because the income from the bonds
is free from Federal and State taxation, the bonds can be sold at
comparatively low interest rates, and the mortgages they finance are
several percentage points cheaper than the rates charged by taxpaying
sources of mortgage funds. The buyers' monthly payments are passed
along to the bondholders. The Housing Finance Corporation sold $105
million in bonds in June 1979, an amount that will be exhausted by the
end of the summer. Under its program, mortgage money is provided to
90 percent of the sales price or appraised value, whichever is less,
up to a maximum of $90,000 (Carol M. Beaudion, Manager, National Bank
of Alaska, Valdez). In Valdez and several other Alaska communities no
income limitations are placed on participants in the program.
The future availability of mortgage subsidy bonds to meet local housing
demand is seriously in doubt as a result of a bill introduced on
April 25, 1979 by Congressman A1 Ullman (Oregon-Dem.), Chairman of the
House Ways and Means Committee. The bill proposed to abolish tax
exemption for almost all such bonds. The introduction of this bill
has effectively halted, at least temporarily, the use of this device;
if the bill is passed, below-market interest rates made possible by
the sale of mortgage bonds would not be available anywhere in the
country.
11-194
-------
Under the terms of interim rules authorized by the House Ways and
Means Committee, the City of Valdez hopes to sell $12 million of bonds
in August 1979. This sale would make available to Valdez residents
8.4 percent mortgage money, a rate about 3 percent below that offered
by conventional lenders. Of the $12 million, approximately $6.6
million is earmarked for use by employees of the Alyeska Pipeline
Service Company to purchase 73 modular units in the Black Gold Sub-
division. The remaining $5.4 million will be available to other
Valdez residents for the purchase of single-family houses. Under the
terms of the bond sale agreement, these monies must be committed
within two years; however, it is anticipated that the monies will be
committed within six to nine months (Paul Arnett, First Southwest
Company, Anchorage).
Another factor affecting the demand for new housing will be the ability
of the operations personnel to purchase it. It is reasonable to
assume that Alpetco, in order to attract and maintain its workforce,
will pay its employees a wage sufficient to own or rent housing in the
community. Further, many households will have two wage earners, with
the second wage earner either also employed by Alpetco or employed by
one of the secondary businesses induced by the operation of the Alpetco
faci1ity.
Demand for new housing will also result from the growth of the existing
Valdez population, independent of the Alpetco project. Between 1979
and the end of 1983, based on a projected annual growth rate of 3
percent, Valdez will have an additional 400 persons or 133 households
that will require housing.
Production
The production of housing to meet the demand will be complicated by
several factors. The most significant factor is the shortness of the
time period in which the housing must be produced. With the start-up
of operations of the Alpetco facility in 1984, an immediate demand
will exist for approximately 708 dwelling units. While it is likely
that some new units will be built in 1982 and 1983 to house while
collar and managerial personnel working on the construction of the
Alpetco facility, these units are expected to satisfy only a minute
portion of the demand that will appear in 1984.
The availability and productivity of builders are additional factors
that will affect the production of housing. Because Valdez lacks
local, large-scale builders, developers will likely be drawn from
Anchorage, Fairbanks, and Juneau to construct the needed housing
units. It is unreasonable to believe that these builders will construct
housing much in advance of the actual arrival in Valdez of Alpetco
operations personnel. From the perspective of these developers, the
risk and expense of constructing new units in anticipation of future
demand would be unjustified. Consequently, the effort to meet the
demand for new housing will probably begin in 1984 and continue for
several years. Valdez will experience a housing shortage until the
new units are completed. In the meanwhile, workers will either reside
with their families in temporary quarters (trailers or mobile homes)
11-195
-------
or will house their families in Anchorage or out of state until perma-
nent housing in Valdez is available.
Another aspect of housing supply is that of meeting all segments of
the housing market, particularly housing that moderate income families
can afford. To date, multi-family housing has not enjoyed broad
acceptance in Valdez. The developer of the City's only condominium
project, for example, was unable to sell any of the units and is
renting them instead. Because of the appeal of single-family units in
Valdez, it is projected that about 80 percent of the total 708 units
required will be aimed at that market. The remaining 20 percent will
likely be multi-family rental units, available to Valdez residents
unable to afford or uninterested in owning single-family housing.
Both the private and public sectors must take actions to facilitate
the production of new housing units; only about half of the projected
demand for new housing in 1984 derives from the housing needs of
Alpetco employees. The demand for the remaining new units arises from
secondary and residual employment made possible by development and
operation of the Alpetco facility. Thus, although Alpetco plays a
major role in creating a demand for new housing, other economic forces
will serve to increase that demand. Actions that would help mitigate
the severity and duration of the housing shortage are discussed in
Section 6.10.10, Mitigation Measures.
In concluding the discussion of impacts upon residential land use and
housing, it is important to note that there would be severe economic
disruptions for some people if the Alpetco project did not proceed as
planned. For example, the purchase of houses and land for permanent
homes has accelerated in recent months as residents anticipate higher
prices and less housing choice when the project gets underway in 1980.
The new businesses that have opened in town would presumably be similarly
affected by withdrawal of the Alpetco project at this point.
11-196
-------
TABLE 6.10.6.3-1
Demand for New Housing 1984-1990^
(Assuming Alpetco)
Year
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
Incremental Number
of Units
708
21
22
26
23
24
25
m
Total Number
of Units
708
729
751
773
796
820
845
Source: CCC/H0K.
(1) Assumes 3 percent annual growth rate.
(2) See Table 6.10.1.1-2.
11-197
-------
6.10.7.1 LAND
CONSTRUCTION
In general, construction activity can be expected to be most concen-
trated during the summer months when weather and daylight conditions
are at their best. Traffic conditions will be worsened along the
Richardson Highway, both by slower-moving construction traffic,
particularly during pipeline and products dock construction, and by
trucks and construction traffic crossing the highway at the Glacier
Stream Haul Road and at the Dayville Road. At the Glacier Stream Haul
Road many of the crossing trucks will be slow moving, particularly if
carrying prefabricated sections. This will create potential conflicts
with the traffic on the Richardson which has a high average speed over
this section. During the summer season, many travelers will be tourists
and unfamiliar with the local construction traffic.
Truck-induced damage to the Richardson should be limited to that section
between the Glacier Stream Haul Road and the Dayville Road, and on the
Dayville Road up to the marine terminal location. Truck damage may be
expected to be particularly severe to the Richardson at the Glacier
Stream Haul Road crossing point.
Due to the local nature of the Alpetco project, major increases in
traffic during the construction period are not expected on the
Richardson Highway east of Valdez, that is, inland. While some
increases may be expected, they will probably be limited to the
early and late parts of the construction period as construction
vehicles are brought into and out of the area.
Alpetco anticipates a balance in cut and fill earthmoving operations
on the refinery site. As the Valdez Glacier Stream will also provide
a local source of gravel material, minimal off-site earthmoving opera-
tions are anticipated. No landfill or disposal areas have yet been
designated for any off-site movements that might occur.
Alpetco projects a total of 143 construction vehicles being utilized
(excluding buses, ambulances, and earthmoving equipment). Of the
projected inventory, approximately 55 percent will be of five or more
axles (flatbed, winch trucks, and tractor units). The remaining
vehicles will most probably be split equally between two and three/four
axle combinations.
As the majority of construction materials will be shipped into the new
construction docks that will be built south of the Crowley-Weaver docks,
and will be destined for the refinery site, these two areas will prob-
ably account for a large proportion of inter-site movement.
Based on the volume of construction materials projected by Alpetco,
and assuming an average truckload of about 10-15 tons, it is estimated
that an average 30-50 truck trips (15-25 round trips) per day will be
necessary to move these materials to their final destinations, over a
two-year period from mid-1981 to mid-1983. This excludes the pre-
fabricated units. It is anticipated that much of this activity will
be by five-plus axle trucks.
11-198
-------
Much of this traffic will cross directly over the Richardson on the
new construction road, with two principal exceptions. Alpetco plans
to ship some nonbulky and nonheavy materials through the city dock.
No estimates of volume are currently available, but trucking activity
between the docks and the plant would impact the Richardson Highway.
The other exception will be the hauling of construction material for
the pipelines and the marine terminal, which will impact both the
Richardson and the Dayville Road (between mid-1981 and the end of
1982). As these roads are State roads, trucks will be subject to
weight and size limitations described in Section 5.8.6.1 of the EIS.*
As the weight limitations are particularly stringent during the spring
breakup, hauling of heavy construction materials on these roads will
need to be scheduled around the spring period.
Certain components of the refining plant will be constructed outside
of Alaska and then shipped as prefabricated units into the new con-
struction docks. It is currently estimated that about 80 to 100 units
will be shipped in this fashion. The projected weights of these pre-
fabricated units range between 40 and 100 tons, with the exception of
one unit which may weight up to 500 tons. The units will require
special transporters and will all be destined to the main refinery
site. They will, thus, be transported along the proposed construc-
tion road and will not need to be carried along the Richardson Highway.
The planned on-site construction camp will considerably reduce personnel
movement in the area. Buses will transport workers from the camp to
off-site activity areas. Considering the self-contained nature of the
construction camp, and the projected long working hours, the majority
of workers will not visit Valdez regularly or on a daily basis. Over
the length of the construction period, local Valdez residents on the
workforce traveling to the construction site, and worker movement
between the camp and Valdez is expected to add an average 400-800
daily vehicle trips to the Richardson Highway, with probably 100-250
of these occurring in the peak hour.
OPERATIONS IMPACTS
The Alpetco project would directly generate an estimated additional
1,350-1,400 (one-way) vehicle trips per day, of which about 400 or
almost 30 percent would occur during the peak hour (sometime between
3:00 to 5:00 p.m.). Less than 10 percent of these trips would be
truck trips, and the majority of these would be delivery trucks.
Direct truck impact on the Richardson may be considered as negligible.
Following construction completion, the Glacier Stream Haul Road will
be paved, and will function as the main access road to the plant. All
traffic originating at or destined to the refinery will use this
access route. It is anticipated that the Glacier Stream Haul Road
would be stop-sign controlled at its intersection with the Richardson
Highway.
""Truck movements between the construction docks and the refinery site
will only cross the Richardson, not travel along it, and will, therefore,
not be subject to weight/size restrictions.
11-199
-------
A service road will be provided, running south from the plant to the
Richardson Highway at the Dayville Road intersection. This intersec-
tion will be converted from the existing three-leg to a four-leg layout.
The access road, which will probably be unpaved, will run adjacent to
the crude and product pipelines from the plant. The road will be used
as an emergency access, and pipeline service road only. It is antici-
pated that a locked gate will be placed across the access road at the
Richardson Highway to prevent use of the road by general traffic.
The majority of Alpetco directly generated traffic will impact the
Richardson between the site main access and the new Valdez townsite.
Based on the projected geographical location of employee housing
(see Section 6.10.1 Population and Employment) only about 20 percent
of employee trips (200-250 vehicle trips per day) would be destined
east of the refinery site on the richardson Highway (approximately
10 percent would travel to the Alpine Woods and Nordic Subdivisions,
while 10 percent would travel only as far as the Robe River Subdivi-
sion). The remaining 80 percent of employee trips, and virtually
all truck trips, would be destined west on the Richardson Highway to
the new Valdez townsite. An estimated 60 percent of employee trips,
or about 700 vehicle trips a day, would travel through the existing
townsite to new home locations between Hazelet Avenue and Mineral
Creek. Secondary traffic impacts arising from the Alpetco facility
will be based on two elements: nonwork-based trips by Alpetco
employees and dependents (shopping, personal business, recreation,
etc.) and the travel demands of the secondary and residual popula-
tion increases projected for Valdez as a result of the Alpetco
facility.
Much of the secondary induced increases in travel will be in the new
townsite, and the impact will be diffused over all of the streets
(total traffic increases would probably range between 50-70 percent,
in line with the projected total 70 percent population increase).
Secondary traffic increases may also be expected along the Richardson
Highway.
Table 6.10.7.1-1 summarizes the total traffic projected on principal
roads in the area with the Alpetco plant in operation. Comparison
is also made in the table to current (1979) traffic volumes and also
volumes expected without the project.
Total traffic increases between the new townsite and the refinery could
range between 2,000-3,000 vehicle trips a day. Average daily traffic
(ADT) on the Richardson Highway at the Department of Transportation
offices, for example, would be increased from 7,300 to 9,500-10,500
vehicles. To the east of Dayville Road, total traffic impact on the
Richardson Highway will be lower; the majority of the traffic increase
being related more to the secondary population base than directly to
the refinery itself.
Traffic conditions during much of the day should remain at level of
service B along the Richardson Highway (see Section 5.8.6.1 for descrip-
tion of traffic levels of service). While much of the secondary based
trips would be evenly spread throughout the day, trips generated
directly by Alpetco will be highly peaked due to the workforce base.
11-200
-------
TABLE 6.10.7.1-1
TRAFFIC VOLUME SUMMARY - AVERAGE DAILY TRAFFIC
1985 ADT
PROJECTIONS
HIGHWAY
CURRENT
ADT
(1979)
WITHOUT
ALPETCO
(1)
WITH
ALPETCO
(2)
Richardson (between plant
and Valdez)
5,225
7,325
9,500-10,500
Richardson (east of plant
and Dayville Road)
4,325
6,050
7,000- 8,500
Dayville Road
1,925
2,050
2,250
Richardson (Ernestine and
beyond)
495
975
1,275
Notes:
(1) Based on traffic growth assumptions described in Section 5.8.6.1.
(2) Includes both traffic generated directly by Alpetco (work trips,
service trips, etc.) and secondary traffic generation (travel of
secondary population, etc.). See text for further details.
11-201
-------
Peak-hour trips on the Richardson Highway between the plant and the
new townsite are estimated to increase from 500 to 950-1,100 vehicles
per hour (compared to an estimated capacity of about 1,700 vehicles
per hour). This section of the Richardson Highway would thus suffer
a reduction in traffic levels of service conditions from B to C/D
during the peak hour. East of Dayville Road, peak-hour traffic
volumes are estimated to increase from 450 to 550-600 vehicles per
hour (about 35 percent of hourly roadway capacity). Traffic condi-
tions would remain at level of service B during the peak hour.
Over the longer term, the traffic increases produced by both the Alpetco
project and the associated population increases, would necessitate more
frequent road maintenance procedures. Responsibility for road maintenance
and operation rests with the State Department of Transportation and
Public Facilities.
Truck traffic will be negligible between the refinery and the marine
terminal on the Dayville Road, vehicular trips between the plant and
the marine terminal being limited to personnel movement. Daily
traffic on the Dayville Road is projected to increase from 2,050 to
2,250 vehicles a day with estimated peak hour volumes increasing
from 150 to 200 vehicles per hour. At these low volumes, such an
increase would not significantly impact overall traffic conditions.
In the regional setting, it is estimated that a total of about 300
daily vehicle trips will be added to the Richardson Highway beyond
Ernestine (based on an historical analysis of traffic volumes on the
Richardson at the Ernestine Maintenance Station, 70 miles north of
Valdez, as compared to Valdez population levels). This would increase
average daily traffic at Ernestine from 975 to 1,275 vehicles, and
peak-hour traffic from 75 to 105 vehicles per hour. Such an increase
would have a negligible effect on traffic conditions.
6.10.7.2 AIR
CONSTRUCTION
While it may reasonably be expected that air transportation will be
impacted during the 2.5-year construction period of the project, the
increased demand for air services that will occur during that time
is quantifiable only to a limited degree. Some indication of the
likely impact can be gained, however, by reviewing the types of
demand that will be placed on the air transportation system, and
also the experiences of the last construction boom cycle during the
pipeline and terminal projects. The various types of increased
demand will be as follows:
CONSTRUCTION WORKFORCE ARRIVING AND DEPARTING VALDEZ
From mid-1980, the construction labor force in Valdez will build to
a peak of about 2,800 persons by late 1982, and decline to zero by
the end of 1983. Inflow and outflow of personnel will vary during
the construction period, with workers not necessarily arriving imme-
diately after available work contracts. In order to assess seasonal
impacts, construction labor force travel has thus been estimated on
11-202
-------
a quarterly basis (using Alpetco labor force projections). The
maximum quarterly arrivals will range between 150-550 passenger
trips, peaking in early 1982. Maximum quarterly departures will
range from 100-900 passenger trips and will be concentrated in the
first half of 1983. These rates constitute between 5-10 percent of
the existing average quarterly air passenger capacity between Valdez
and Anchorage. Current occupancies are running at about 55 percent of
capacity in the winter quarter, and 60 percent in the summer quarter.
SITE VISITS BY TECHNICAL AND SPECIALIST STAFF, ALPETCO, N0N-ALPETC0 BASED
The greatest increase in demand for air passenger services is likely
to be generated by support and ancillary services during the construc-
tion period. This will include both Alpetco and non-Alpetco staff,
and will comprise engineers, technicians, and specialist skilled
personnel assisting in various aspects of construction work. It will
also include supervisory staff of firms producing components for the
plant. Based on the projected construction schedule, the majority
of these trips will take place between mid-1981 and the end of 1982.
ASSOCIATED AIR FREIGHT TRAFFIC
It may be expected that light equipment and supplies will also be flown
into Valdez. Much of the specialist construction crews will probably
carry their equipment with them, and it is probable that some subcon-
tractors might charter aircraft for the trip to and from Valdez.
Bulkier freight might require freight-only flights to be made by
air carriers.
Increased air traffic during construction will impact two elements
of the air transportation system: the air carriers themselves and
the Valdez Airport. The air carriers have in the past demonstrated
a substantial ability to vary service capacity in response to chang-
ing demand. With respect to the Alpetco construction period, while
the exact demand for air services cannot be projected, it seems
unlikely that Alpetco-based activity will reach pipeline levels, as
the pipeline project included both the Alyeska terminal and the
southern portions of the pipeline. Thus, while at the peak of
pipeline construction in 1976, the principal air carrier provided a
total service seat capacity four times existing levels, a somewhat
lower increase in service would probably be necessary for the Alpetco
project. In discussions, all three air carriers indicated a capa-
bility and desire to expand existing service where necessary to
meet increased demand. Any expansion of service capacity would prob-
ably be based, at least initially, on the use of larger aircraft (up
to 18-seaters), before schedules were intensified. It is unlikely
that 727 jet service will be necessary, although the advantage of a
727-size aircraft is that demand surges can be more readily accommo-
dated than by the smaller aircraft.
Valdez Airport should be capable of absorbing increased flight opera-
tions (a flight operation is defined as either a takeoff or a landing)
that will result from any increased schedule and charter flight activity
from Alpetco construction. Current airport operations total about
19,000 a year. The likely maximum increase would be that experienced
11-203
-------
during pipeline activity when the airport absorbed a doubling of
annual flight operations, from 14,000 in 1975 to 28,000 in 1977.
This was still considerably below the estimated capacity of 100,000-
200,000 a year. It is doubtful that such a doubling would occur with
the construction of the Alpetco facility, and the probable maximum
annual operations would be between 30,000-40,000. The airport will
also be better equipped to handle increased demand than during pipe-
line days. Since then the passenger terminal has been constructed,
and the planned runway lighting and navigational aid improvements
will enable better flight operations scheduling, and reduce the
potential for service blockages or bunching, particularly in winter.
PLANT OPERATIONS IMPACTS
The Alpetco facility could lead to a direct increase in air passenger
demand of about 5,000 additional trips per year, compared to the
estimated existing demand of about 28,000 passenger trips per year
on the three commercial carriers, or a 20 percent increase. The
secondary and residual population elements projected for Valdez as
a result of the Alpetco plant could generate an additional 5,000-
8,000 yearly trips. The overall impact in terms of air passenger
demand would probably be a maximum of between 10,000 and 13,000
annual trips, or a 35-45 percent increase over the current level.
Without additional service provision, the average planeload factor
would be close to 100 percent with demand exceeding supply on peak
occasions. In order to avoid turnaway situations, either service
frequency or average plane capacity would have to be increased. From
discussions with the carriers, it seems probable that the increased
demand would lead the carriers to provide a more economic service by
utilizing 18-seater planes. If this were the case, existing schedules
would probably be reduced somewhat to avoid overprovisi on of capacity.
The upper end of the projected range of increase in demand would
result in the average passenger flow through Valdez Airport during
the summer being increased from about 125 to 175 passengers a day.
This would not be sufficient to justify the introduction of jet
service.
Thus, while there will also be increases in charter and private air-
craft activity, the increase in operations (takeoffs and landings) at
the airport will be considerably below the projected increases in air
passenger traffic. It seems unlikely, from a 1978 base of about
20,000 operations a year, that by 1985 with the Alpetco plant in full
operation, the number of airport operations at Valdez would exceed
30,000 a year. This is well within the capacity of the airport.
It is anticipated that the impact of increased air passenger traffic,
generated by the Alpetco facility, on national and international com-
mercial air services out of Anchorage will be negligible.
11-204
-------
6.10.7.3. MARINE TRANSPORTATION (ON-SHORE ELEMENT)
ALASKA MARINE HIGHWAY
Impacts on the Alaska Marine Highway System during project construction
will probably be small. It is doubtful that the construction workforce
would have the time to take the ferry trips across Prince William Sound.
Columbia Glacier sightseeing tours can be made independently from
Valdez, and workers destined for Anchorage will most likely fly as it
will be considerably faster.
The Marine Highway System would not be used for freight for Alpetco
construction purposes, or during operations phases either. The
essentially localized nature of the Alpetco construction project will
probably not reduce tourist ferry patronage as was the case during
construction of the pipeline when a much longer section of the
Richardson Highway was affected, thus discouraging tourist traffic-
slightly.
Impact on the Marine Highway System during operations of the project
will be minimal, particularly as traffic on the system is largely
tourist-based. Direct impact from the refinery itself will be nil.
Secondary impacts may be created from the general population increase
brought about by the project.
The Prince William Sound Regional Transportation Study estimated that
both passenger and vehicle capacities on the Valdez-Whittier route will
be reached by 1980-1981, based on current rates of demand increase.
The system would thus be operating at capacity well before the Alpetco
plant became fully operational. Use of the system by the Alpetco-based
population would be possible only by early planning and making reserva-
tions well ahead, or if service were increased. As discussed in
Section 5.8.6.3, the State currently has no plans to increase service
on this route.
The Valdez-Cordova route would have surplus capacity available for any
increased usage of this run, although such increases would be minimal.
VALDEZ CITY DOCK
Alpetco plans to use city dock facilities during the construction
period for nonbulky and nonheavy materials. No estimate of likely
volumes is available at this time, although it is anticipated that
any such materials would be shipped on existing barge service and
would not require additional vessels.
During operation of the refinery, direct impact on the city dock,
other than the low level of truck usage specified in Section 3.5.5.1
(20-25 truckloads per day), would be low and irregular. As the Alpetco
marine terminal will not be built to handle regular cargo functions, and
the new construction docks will not be maintained once the refinery
goes into full operation, any maintenance/parts supplies shipped into
Valdez will have to come through the city dock. Such shipments would
probably not occur on a regular basis, however.
11-205
-------
6.10.8 UTILITIES SYSTEMS
This analysis is focused upon the ability of the utilities systems in
Valdez to accommodate the future urbanization that will result as a
direct or indirect consequence of the construction of the proposed
Alpetco petrochemical facility.
6.10.8.1 SEWER SYSTEM
Alpetco will be responsible for the construction and operation of an
industrial sewage treatment plant. This plant will treat industrial
wastes as well as storm water runoff within the tank farm areas.
The City will construct a sewage trunk line that will extend from the
Alpetco site to the Valdez sewage treatment plant at the old townsite
(see Figure 5.8.7.1-1). The trunk line will transport approximately
250,000 gallons of sewage per day from the construction camp housing
area and from all personnel washrooms, lunchroom and other facilities.
After start-up of the plant, it would serve the permanent plant faciliti
At a yet undetermined point along its route between the Alpetco site
and the Valdez sewage treatment plant, the sewer trunk line will be
intercepted by a lateral line serving Robe River Subdivision. The
provision of sewer service to Robe River would diminish problems of
well contamination caused by the proximity of wells and septic tanks.
At some future point it is probable that the subdivision will have
city water service as well.
The Valdez waste water treatment plant has adequate capacity to accom-
modate domestic wastes from the Alpetco facility and from Robe River
Subdivision. The Public Works Director believes that the additional
waste content will enable the plant to operate more -not less -
efficiently because it will help offset the diultion of effluent by
the new townsite area's high water use. Regulations that now require
that newly laid water pipe either be insulated or buried at a depth
sufficient to prevent water line freeze have kept domestic water
consumption from increasing during winter.
6.10.8.2 WATER SYSTEM
Seventeen exploratory wells drilled by Alpetco in June 1979 indicate
sufficient water to meet the on-site requirements for both industrial
and domestic uses. The discussion of the on-site industrial uses of
water can be found in Section 5.2.2 Groundwater Hydrology.
The focus of this discussion is an examination of the impacts of
Alpetco-induced population growth in Valdez on the City's existing and
proposed water system.
The demand for housing for permanent Alpetco employees will encourage
development of new areas of the City. Section 6.10.6 identifies
probable areas for future housing. Selection of areas to develop
11-206
-------
first will in part depend upon the availability of water service. As
is discussed in Section 5.8.7.2, Valdez, which is underlain by an
aquifer, is assured of an abundant supply of water. Consequently, the
source of water is not as important in determining future patterns of
urbanization as the capital costs of distributing water to serve new
residential areas.
The 600-acre area west of Mineral Creek is planned for future urbani-
zation. The City anticipates no great constraints in providing water
service there. Once the groundwater situation of this area has been
examined, the City will decide whether to develop an independent water
system or one that is connected to the existing system east of Mineral
Creek. If it is decided to connect the two water systems, water
service to the area west of Mineral Creek would be provided by a
utilidor that would tie into the Alyeska housing water main and would
cross Mineral Creek as part of a new bridge. Bridge crossings of
Mineral Creek will likely occur at Egan Drive and/or Hanagita Street.
Another area potentially suitable for residential use is located at
5.6 Mile. This site, located 10 miles east of new Valdez, comprises
480 acres on the bench of a mountain. The site is characterized by
exposed rock and probably is not condusive for wells. A cistern or
other method of water storage would have to be developed to support
residential uses.
6.10.8.3 SOLID WASTE
The City Engineer estimates that at the present rate of usage, the
landfill site at the old townsite can be used for another four years;
with the Alpetco project underway, the site will reach capacity in two
years.
The City has commissioned a study by Woodward-Clyde/GEZR to estimate
future solid waste loads, including the disposal of sludge from the
Valdez sewage treatment plant and wastes generated by the Alpetco
facility; to recommend an appropriate waste disposal system; locate a
and evaluate recovery and disposal sites; review existing environmental
regulations; and to identify funding sources. The study is scheduled
to be completed by the end of 1979.
6.10.8.4 ELECTRICITY
The Copper Valley Electric Association (CVEA), as noted in 5.8.7.4, is
expanding its capacity, independent of the proposed Alpetco facility.
The cornerstone of that expansion is the Solomon Gulch Hydroelectric
Project, supplemented by the installation of a pressure-reducing
turbine in the trans-Alaska pipeline.
If construction of the Solomon Gulch Hydroelectric Project is delayed
beyond its current mid-1981 completion date, CVEA would be hard pressed
to meet the additional demands placed on the system's capacity by the
construction phase of the project. The CVEA Manager of Electric
Operations estimates that at the peak of construction activity in
1982, construction trades employees will create a demand for 3-4 MW
11-207
-------
and that Alpetco's construction power requirements might be in the
range of .3 MW. This total Alpetco-related demand of 3.3 to 4.3 MW,
when added to a 1979 peak demand of 3.9 MW, equals or exceeds CVEA's
firm capacity of 7.3 MW. The Solomon Gulch project will add approxi-
mately 12 MW of capacity, except in March and April when reduced water
flows due to cold temperatures might reduce capacity to about 6 MW.
An additional source of power could be the Glennallen electrical
system which, by means of the proposed transmission line connecting
Glennallen and Valdez, could make available 6-7 MW to Valdez.
On-site power for the operation of the petrochemical plant will be
generated by equipment owned and operated by Alpetco. As a result,
operation of the Alpetco plant will have no impact on the CVEA system.
11-208
-------
6.10.9 LIFE-STYLE AND CULTURE
LIFE-STYLE
The rapid industrial and population growth resulting from the construc-
tion and operation of the Alpetco project will disrupt and alter the
life-style of Valdez. Many of the impacts that Valdez will experience
as a result of the Alpetco project will be reminiscent of those the
community experienced during the pipeline era: Valdez will face a
severe housing shortage; the provision of social services will be
strained; tensions will exist between construction workers and older
residents of Valdez; and the small town qualities of Valdez will be
further eroded.
However, Valdez officials and residents face the construction phase of
the proposed Alpetco project with a confidence gained in overcoming
the inconveniences and problems arising from the construction of the
Alyeska pipeline and marine terminal. Because the community anticipates
that the impacts of the Alpetco project will be less severe than those
of the pipeline boom, their confidence will likely serve as a buffer,
diminishing whatever problems do occur.
Other factors that will diminish the Alpetco-induced impacts on the
existing life-style of Valdez include:
1. Valdez1s present population (at 3,350) is three to four times
greater than it was prior to pipeline construction activity.
This greater population base will be better able to absorb short-and
longer-term impacts.
Since the manpower requirements of the proposed Alpetco project
will be smaller than were those of the Alyeska pipeline and
marine terminal, its impacts will be less. At its peak, the
Alpetco project will employ 2,820 workers, while construction of
the pipeline and marine terminal employed about 4,500 workers.
Consequently, as compared to the pipeline era, Valdez will have a
larger population to accommodate lesser impacts.
2. Valdez offers a greater array of public services than it did
prior to the pipeline and, therefore, is better able to respond
to demands for services.
3. Utilities have excess capacity, a situation that did not exist
during the pipeline era. The excess capacity will enable the
City to more quickly extend services to areas slated for develop-
ment.
4. Although Valdez will experience a severe housing shortage in the
short-term, the City will be better able to influence long-term
land development patterns because of its new array of land use
controls - a new zoning ordinance, new comprehensive development
plan, a coastal zone management plan and other planning tools,
which are expected to be in effect prior to construction of the
Alpetco facility.
11-209
-------
5. Valdez has adequate financial resources to cope with whatever
demands are placed on its services and facilities. Unlike the
pipeline era, Valdez is not now dependent on the State for impact
aid.
While the Valdez life-style will persevere, it will be affected by the
Alpetco project. Growth in population will further the loss of Valdez1s
small town flavor. Higher density living and crowding, in some cases,
will be a fact of life in Valdez until housing supply catches up with
the demand created by the Alpetco project.
Population growth may increase pressures on nearby recreational resources.
Possible overcrowding may occur at nearby fishing spots and trails.
Other evidence of an erosion of small town attributes may be reduced
access of residents to public officials and the imposition by local
officials of formal administrative procedures where none existed
before.
While a growth in population might cause Valdez to lose some valued
characteristics, it might also enhance other aspects of community life.
A larger population will increase the diversification of Valdez's
business and social life. Retail activity will increase and become
more specialized: Valdez will have greater shopping selection and
more restaurants. Valdez residents believe that with a bit larger
population the community will have more recreational opportunities
including a bowling alley and movie theater.
Changes in housing patterns will also affect community life. During
the pipeline era, employment tended to determine housing patterns -
State Department of Highways and Harborview Development Center employees
lived in the State Trailer Court; Alyeska employees lived in their own
subdivision. With the number of vacant lots, lots capable of develop-
ment, and undeveloped areas suitable for residential use that now
exist in Valdez, it is likely that houses or multifamily units pur-
chased or rented by newcomers will be fairly equally distributed
throughout the City. This integrated housing for Alpetco operations
personnel will tend to promote interaction and cooperation between new
and older residents.
In sum, the proposed Alpetco project will not destabilize community
life in Valdez either socially or economically; the Alpetco project
will enhance the trend of Valdez to become more diverse in terms of
its population and economic base.
11-210
-------
6.10.10 MITIGATION MEASURES
6.10.10.1 PUBLIC SERVICES
The City of Valdez has accepted the responsibility of mitigating
impacts on local public services. In a letter dated September 28,
1978, Mark Lewis, then Acting City Manager of Valdez, assured the
President of Alpetco that "Valdez currently has all the necessary
utilities, schools and other community facilities necessary to accom-
modate the demands of a construction boom followed by additional
permanent residents without the need for additional facilities or
financial support." The size of the Valdez tax base will make it
possible to expand locally funded public services, such as additional
staff for the Mental Health Center or a greater number of recreation
programs, as required. The City might also consider funding resources
for family support such as day care centers.
The State Department of Health and Social Services will probably
require additional staff in Valdez during the construction phase of
the Alpetco project to accommodate an increased caseload during this
period.
The President of the Community College believes that the college can
provide another form of recreation and entertainment. During the con-
struction phase of the Alpetco facility, the college will also expand
its offerings to include daytime courses to meet the needs of newcomers,
particularly women who are not working.
The administration of the Community College is anticipating expansion
of its vocational programs to meet the staffing requirements of the
Alpetco facility during its construction and operations phases.
Alpetco officials have committed several million dollars to train
Valdez residents for a variety of positions.
6.10.10.2 LAND USE
Recreation
Although the City of Valdez is prepared to meet demand for new recrea-
tion facilities, it could undertake some measures to respond to specific
identified needs. These needs could include new recreational vehicle
campsites, indoor recreation facilities, parks and recreation boat
slips (some of which are already planned for in its five-year preliminary
budget). Specific programs under which the City might obtain government
assistance to acquire land, construct or provide management of facilities
include:
1. Coastal Energy Impact Program (CEIP) authorized under the Coastal
Zone Management Act of 1976, P.L. 94-370. This program provides
grants for the acquisition of recreational facilities to compen-
sate for the loss of recreation resources resulting from the
siting, construction, expansion, or operation of any coastal
energy facility.
2. Outdoor Recreation Development and Planning authorized by the
Land and Water Conservation Fund Act of 1965. Grants are made
11-211
-------
for the acquisition and development of such projects as picnic
areas, city parks, tennis courts, boat launching ramps, campgrounds
etc. A combination of Federal and State matching funds leaves 25
percent funding by local government.
3. Community Development Block Grants authorized by Title I of the
Housing and Community Development Act of 1974, P.L. 93-383.
Grants are made which can include the buying or leasing of lands
to conserve open space, provide neighborhood recreational facili-
ties such as parks and playgrounds.
4. Alaska Municipal Entitlement Act of 1978. Some of Valdez's
entitlement of 4,805 acres of vacant, unappropriated and unreserved
State lands could be used for recreation facilities developed in
conjunction with projected housing west of Mineral Creek.
5. Legislative appropriations for development of the proposed Keystone
Canyon State Park. Campsites could be constructed in the new
park to supplement demand from construction workers or others for
temporary sites for mobile homes or trailers. Better coordination
between the City and State is necessary to bring about a realistic
development of the park and its proposed facilities.
Housing
A series of public and private actions can help mitigate the housing
shortage that Valdez will face during the operations phase of the
Alpetco facility. Actions that the City of Valdez can take include:
1. Making available to builders land that is served by City utilities.
The infrastructure costs per housing unit for large tracts of
City-improved land should be less than for small parcels of
developer-improved land.
2. Shortening the City's review and approval process so as not to
unduly delay the production of needed housing.
3. Permitting the placement of modular units on temporary foundations,
for a specific time period only. Once demand for housing has
abated, the modular units would have to be resited onto permanent
foundations. Utilities would have to meet permanent construction
standards.
4. Issuing mortgage subsidy bonds, if Congress permits the program
to continue.
Actions that the State of Alaska can take include:
1. Issuing mortgage subsidy bonds through the Alaska State Housing
Finance Corporation, if Congress permits the program to continue.
2. Producing housing through the Alaska State Housing Authority for
low-income families and the elderly in Valdez.
11-212
-------
Actions that Alpetco can take include:
1. Intervening directly or indirectly in the production of housing.
By directly producing housing, Alpetco could adopt a role similar
to that of the Alyeska Pipeline Service Company in 1974. Indirect
intervention could take the form of providing a guarantee to
developers for the purchase of a certain number of units or
hiring a developer/ contractor to build the required units.
2. Providing a guaranteed buy-back of any housing purchased by an
Alpetco employee. Under such an agreement, Alpetco would repur-
chase a housing unit from an employee either for its appraised
value or the purchase price, whichever amount were higher. In
this way, Alpetco would eliminate the risk of home ownership for
current employees while guaranteeing the availability of housing
for future employees.
11-213
-------
6.10.10.3 MITIGATION MEASURES - TRANSPORTATION
The following mitigation measures are recommended for the project con-
struction period:
Heavy watering of the primary construction access to the site,
the upgraded Glacier Stream Haul Road, should be undertaken to
avoid excessive dust problems.
Alpetco should schedule the maximum possible amount of nonbulky/
nonheavy construction materials through the new construction
docks. This will minimize the number of trucks passing through
the new townsite and impacting the Richardson Highway up to the
plant site.
The Richardson Highway at the proposed Glacier Stream Haul Road
crossing should be conditioned and strengthened prior to the com-
mencement of construction activity. As this will be the primary
crossing of the Richardson for construction truck traffic, moni-
toring of the roadway condition should take place throughout the
construction period, with repairs and further strengthening being
made as required.
Hauling heavy truckloads of construction materials along the
Richardson or Dayville Roads, for the pipelines or marine terminal,
should be scheduled so as to avoid the spring thaw. This will be
required anyway as the legal maximum allowable loads are reduced
considerably at this time.
Construction traffic on the Richardson Highway east of the Glacier
Stream Haul Road should be limited to traffic involved in pipeline
and marine terminal construction. All construction traffic (includ-
ing light trucks and pickups) between the construction docks and
the refinery site should be restricted to the Glacier Stream Haul
Road.
On completion of the construction period, the Richardson Highway
and Dayville Road in the area of the Alpetco facilities should be
restored to its preconstruction condition with any construction
truck-induced damage being made good.
During the entire construction period, some form of crossing con-
trol should be operated on the Richardson at the Glacier Stream
Haul Road. This could range from flagmen to traffic signals. As
the Richardson at this point is a straight road with a high average
vehicle speed, considerable advance warning will need to be posted
of the truck crossing point. The form of crossing control should
be determined, and its operation monitored, by the local State
Department of Transportation and Public Facilities. During con-
struction of the pipeline and marine terminal, a similar crossing
control should be implemented at the Dayville Road intersection
with the Richardson Highway.
11-214
-------
During construction of the pipelines and marine terminal, when
construction traffic will be utilizing the Richardson Highway, a
temporary lower speed limit should be considered as a means of
reducing conflicts between private vehicles and construction
trucks.
The following mitigation measures could be implemented with respect to
the operations phase of the Alpetco plant:
The intersection of the Glacier Stream Haul Road (primary plant
access) with the Richardson Highway and the Dayville Road should
be redesigned to provide for a protected left-turn lane on the
Richardson Highway, and also for an acceleration lane onto the
highway from the access road.
The projected heavy peaking of employee trips to and from the
plant and the subsequent peak-hour impact on the Richardson
Highway towards the new townsite could be mitigated by Alpetco
providing work buses. Various elements of the local situation
could combine to produce a far higher utilization of such buses
than would normally be the case: the proposed shift system of
24-hour working means that most of the workforce will arrive or
depart for their shift at the same time; the small size and com-
pact nature of the Valdez community (in the new townsite) would
mean the buses could circulate the neighborhoods and provide
virtually door-to-door service; the same buses could be utilized
to bring the workforce to the start of one shift and to take away
the workforce from the previous shift.
11-215
-------
6.10.11 UNAVOIDABLE ADVERSE IMPACTS
The long-term economic impacts of the Alpetco project will be positive.
Unavoidable adverse economic impacts may occur during the construction
period, such as inflationary pressures in the housing market (affecting
renters negatively, landlords positively), and shortages of goods and
services at the peak of the construction boom. In general, these
adverse impacts will be less severe and of shorter duration than
similar adverse impacts that occurred during the peak of the Alyeska
boom.
Adverse land use effects which cannot be avoided if the project is
implemented include the commitment of land for urbanization, land
speculation and disruption of existing neighborhoods for the con-
struction of housing. Urbanization includes the direct conversion of
open land for the petrochemical complex, the removal of trees and a
modification of the scenic quality of the area (particularly at the
site of marine terminal), as well as the development of other parts of
Valdez for secondary support facilities such as housing and commercial
services.
11-216
-------
9.1 MEETINGS WITH GOVERNMENTAL AND OTHER ENTITIES
Person & Position
Agency
Subject
Homer Alexander
Engi neer
Paul Arnett
Randy Bayliss
Regional Environ-
mental Supervisor
Carol M. Beaudion
Manager
Dean Brown
D. P. Bunn, Jr.
Senior Representative
Robert H. Childers
Manager of Electric
Gail Cipra
Assistant Cashier
Branch Loan Coordinator
Carl Cook
H.U.D. Administrator
John Devens
President
Robert 0. Eder
Regional Design
Engineer
Bill Ellis
Manager
Greg Erickson
Director
Alaska Aeronautical
Industries
Alaska Airlines
City of Valdez
First Southwest Company
Anchorage
State of Alaska
Dept. of Environmental Con-
servation, PWS Regional
Office
National Bank of Alaska
Valdez
Alaska Department of
Natural Resources
Division of Lands
Texaco Development Corp.
Houston, Texas
Copper Valley Electric
Assoc.
National Bank of Alaska
Anchorage
Housing & Urban Development
Flood Insurance Administra-
tion, Region X
Valdez Community College
State of Alaska, Dept. of
Transportation and Public
Facilities, Southcentral
Region
Local Utilities
Valdez Mortgage
Subsidy Bonds
Land Use Planning
Impacts
Housing in Valdez
Land Status
Electric Power
in Valdez
Mortgage Interest
Rates
Flood Hazard
Areas
Educational and
Cultural Programs
and Facilities
Richardson Hwy. Con-
struction Projects
Truck Weight Limits
Regional Traffic Issues
Valdez Airport
State of Alaska
Research Division
Legislative Affairs Agency
11-217
-------
John Friberg
General Manager
Copper Valley Telephone Telephone Service
Cooperative in Valdez
Faye Gutherie
Regional Social Ser-
vice Manager
Gerald D. Heier
Di rector
Steve Howell
Vice President of
Production
David Hoxworth
Di rector
David Hunt
Sanitary Engineer
Greg Jones
Susan E. Knighton
Research Analyst
Judy Kreutzer
Director
Ken Lang
Herbert Lehfeldt
Regional Director
Mark Lewis
City Manager
Herman E. Londagin
Regional Traffic &
Utilities Engineer
Pat Londow
Director
George Maykowskyj
Assistant Supertendent
State of Alaska
Dept. of Health and Social
Services
State of Alaska
Petroleum Property Assessment
Department of Revenue
Farm-N-Sea Fish and Shellfish
Products, Anchorage
Social Services
in Valdez
Valdez Mental Health Center
City of Valdez
Simpson User Jones
Kennedy Air Services
State of Alaska
Criminal Justice Planning
Agency
Valdez Heritage Center
Phi 11eo Engineering and
Architectural Service
State of Alaska
Dept. of Transportation and
Public Facilities
PWS Regional Office
City of Valdez
State of Alaska, Dept. of
Transportation and Public
Facilities, Southcentral
Region
Harborview Developmental
Center
Valdez City Schools
Mental Health Pro-
grams/Problems
Wastewater Treatment
Planning Controls
Crime in Valdez
and Alaska
Cultural Facilities
Housing in Valdez
Transportation
Impacts
Housing in Valdez
Local Traffic Issues
Traffic Data
Local Improvements
Alpetco Plant
Access Issues
Public Services
School Enrollment
and Facilities
11-218
-------
Thomas McAlister
Fire Chief
City of Valdez
Fire Protection
Services
W. M. McCoy, Manager
Alan Meiners
Recreation Planner
Ellis Mercer
General Manager
David Oehler
Chief of Police
Manpower Planning and
Personnel Administration
Alyeska Pipeline Service Co.
State of Alaska, Dept. of
Natural Resources
Division of Parks
Alyeska Enterprises, Inc.
City of Valdez
Alyeska Housing in
Valdez
Recreation Impacts
Alyeska Housing
in Valdez
Police Services
James F. Pal in
General Manager
Marliss Prasse
Planner IV
Copper Valley Electric
Association
Alaska Dept. of Community
and Regional Affairs
Homer A. Purdy, Captain United States Coast Guard
of the Port & Officer
In Charge of Marine
Inspection
Ricardo Quiroz
Environmental Impact
Coordinator
State of Alaska
Dept. of Transportation and
Public Facilities
Southcentral Region
Electric Power in
Valdez
District Coastal
Management
Program
Marine Traffic
Control
Local Traffic
Issues
Traffic Data
Local Improve-
ment Projects
Alpetco Plant
Access Issues
Robert Reese
Di rector
Beverly Robinson
Social Worker
Marty Rutherford
Director
Michael Schmidt
Planning Director
Frank 0. Shay
Gulf Oil Company
Purchasing and Stores
Bellechase, Louisiana
State of Alaska, Dept. of
Health & Social Services
Parks and Recreation
City of Valdez
City of Valdez
Alyeska Surplus Management
Social Services
in Valdez
Recreation
Impacts
Local Planning
Issues
Alyeska Housing
in Valdez
Val Stasch
Director
Valdez Community Hospital
Health Care
11-219
-------
Don Thomas
Assessor
Kenai Peninsula Borough
Soldotna, Alaska
Katharine Troll
Planner
John Umlaut
Tim Uwell
Bonny Walker
Peggy Wilson
Planner
Don Wold
Executive Director
State of Alaska, Dept. of
Natural Resources
Division of Parks
State of Alaska
Dept. of Transportation and
Public Facilities
Transportation Planning Div.
Polar Airlines
Valdez Public Library
Health Systems Agency for
Southcentral and Western
Alaska
State Royalty Oil and Gas
Board
Recreation Impacts
Air Travel Between
Valdez & Elsewhere
Growth Issues
Cultural Facilities
Health Care
11-220
-------
Alaska Consultants, Inc./Harbridge House, Inc. , 1979. Port
of Valdez Market Penetration Study.
Alaska, State of, Department of Commerce and Economic
Development, 1978. Valdez; An Alaskan Community
Profile. Alaska Department of Commerce and Economic
Development, Juneau, Alaska.
Alaska, State of, Department of Environmental
Conservation, Division of Water Programs, 1978. Water
Quality Management 197 8, Volume Two, Sources of Water
Pollution and Management Actions in Alaska.
Alaska, State of, Department of Highways, Maintenance
Division, 1973. Alaska Oversize and Overweight Permit
Movements.
Alaska, State of, Department of Natural Resources,
Division of Parks, 1976. Recreation Plan 1976-1980.
Alaska, State of, Department of Transportation and Public
Facilities, 1977. Alaska Highways Annua 1 Traff ic
Volume Report.
Alaska, State of, Department of Transportation and Public
Facilities, 1977. Alaska Marine Highways
System-Annua1 Traffic Volume Report, 1977.
Alaska, State of, Department of Transportation and Public
Facilities, 1978. Prince Wi Hiam Sound Regional
Transportation Study (Unpublished Draft).
Alaska, State of, Office of the Governor. Criminal Justice
Planning Agency, 1978. Crime in Alaska-1977.
Alaska, State of, Office of the Governor. Criminal Justice
Planning Agency, 1979. Crime in Alaska - 1978.
Alaska, State of, Department of Economic Development,
1968. Valdez, Alaska; Standard Industrial Survey.
April, W., March 14, 1979. "Solomon Gulch Debate
Continues," Valdez Vanguard.
Baring-Gould, M. and M.E. Bennett, 1976. Socia1 Impact of
the Trans-Alaska Pipeline Construction in Valdez,
Alaska, 1974-1975.
Baring-Gould, M., M.E. Benett, P. Hargis, and J. Taylor,
August 1978. Valdez City Census. University of
Alaska, Anchorage.
Baring-Gould, M., and M.E. Bennett, 1975. Socia1 Impact on
11-221
-------
the Trans-Alaska Pipe line Construction in Valdez,
Alaska.
Bomhoff, Collie and Klotz, 1971. A Comprehens ive
Development Plan. Vo 1. 1. Basic Planning Studies.
City of Valdez.
Bomhoff, Collie and Klotz, 1971. Valdez. A Comprehensive
Development Plan. Vol. 2 Comprehensive Development
Plan.
Briscoe, Maphis, Murray and Lamont, 1978. Action Handbook.
Managing Growth in the Small Community. Part III
Community Action and Growth. United States
Environmental Protection Agency.
Brown and Root, 1979. Description of a Proposed
Medical/First Aid Station - Facility Hea1th Center.
Brown and Root, 1979. Plant Fire Protection and Security
Manua1.
Burchell, R. W. and D. Listokin, 1978. The Fisca1 Impact
Handbook; Estimating LocaJ. Costs and Revenues of Land
Development. The Center for Urban Policy Research,
New Brunswick, New Jersey.
Copper Valley Electric Association, 1979. Fact Sheet on
the Copper Valley Electric Association. Solomon Gu lcTh
Project.
Copper Valley Electric Association, Inc., 1979. The
Construction Options by the Solomon Gulch
Hydroelectric Power Project Proposed by Copper Valley
Electric Association.
Copper Valley Electric Association, Inc., 1979. Fact Sheet
on the Copper Valley Electric Association. Solomon
Gulch Project.
Copper Valley Electric Association, Inc., 1979. Power
Requirements Study.
Ender, R. L. and B. Withers, 1978. 1978 Population Profile
Municipality of Anchorage. Municipality of Anchorage.
Garnett, R.W., III, 1973. Equalization of Loca1 Government
Revenues in Alaska. University of Alaska, Institute
of Social, Economic and Government Research.
Greenbert, M. et al, 1978. Loca1 Population and Employment
Projection Techniques. The Center for Urban Policy
Research, New Brunswick, New Jersey.
11-222
-------
Gross, A. M., Attorney General, J. K. Donohue, Assistant
Attorney General, March 15, 1978. Memorandum to Lee
McAnerney, Comraissioner of Community and Regiona1
Affairs, via Palmer McCarter, Director o? Loca 1
Government Assistance.
Health Systems Agency for South Central and Western
Alaska, 1979. Hea1th Systems Plan.
Highway Research Board, 1965. "Highway Capacity Manual,"
WHighway Research Board Special Report 87. National
Academy of Sciences, National Research Council.
Johannsen, N., April, 1979. "Marine Parks for Alaska, the
International Connection," Alaska Magazine.
Knox, R. G., March, 1979. "Valdez Takes Its Future Into
Its Own Hands," Alaska Industry.
Leask, L., September, 1976. "Valdez Today is Okay."
Alaska.
Lin, P. C., 1971. Alaska's Population and Schoo1
Enrollments. University of Alaska, Institute of
Social, Economic and Government Research.
Philleo Engineering and Architecture Service, Inc. and
URS/Hill, Ingman, Chase and Company, 1975. City of
Valdez, Alaska Wastewater Facilities Fina1 Facilities
Plan. Vol. 1, Summary Report.
Pistoll, L., 1978. An Oil Pipe line Employment Multiplier
and Post Construction Residua Is in Employment. Alaska
Department of Labor, Research and Analysis Section.
Piatt, R., 1976. "The National Flood Insurance Program;
Some Mid-stream Perspectives," American Institute of
Planners Journa 1.
Santa Fe Technical Services Company, 1979. Preliminary
Engineering Study, Port of Valdez Expansion.
Schmalle, Stevenson and Associates, 1978. Port of Valdez,
Feasibility Study #2.
Special Interagency Task Force For the Federal Task Force
On Alaskan Oil Development, 1972. Fina1 EIS, Proposed
Trans-Alaskan Pipe line. U.S. Department of Interior.
Sternlieb, G. and J. W. Hughes, 1978. Current Population
Trends in the United States. The Center for Urban
Policy Research, New Brunswick, New Jersey.
Tanaka, J. M., 1968. Re location of Valdez. United States
11-223
-------
Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, Alaska
District.
U.S.D.A. Forest Service, 1978. Alaska Supplement to Draft
Environmental Statement, Roadless Area Review and
Evaluation.
U . S. D. A. Chugach National Forest, 1978. Draft Environinenta 1
Impact Land Ownership Adjustment Proposal from the
Chugach Natives Inc. and Koniag Inc.
United States Department of the Interior, U.S. Bureau of
Land Management. Fina1 EIS Crude Oi1 Transportation
System: Valdez, Alaska to Midland, Texas (As proposed
by SOHIO Transportation Company).
United States Bureau of the Census, January 1979. 1976
Population Estimates in 1975 and Revised in 1974 Per
Capita Income Est imates for Census Divis ions,
Borough, and Incorporated Places in Alaska. United
States Printing Office.
United States Department of Energy. Federal Energy
Regulatory Commission, 1978. Solomon Gulch Project.
Fina 1 Environmenta1 Impact Statement.
United States Department of Housing and Urban Development,
Federal Insurance Administration, 1979. Questions and
Answers, Nationa1 Flood Insurance Program.
United States Department of Housing and Urban Development.
Federal Insurance Administration, 1976. Flood
Insurance Study, City of Valdez, Alaska.
Valdez Vanguard, March 14, 1979. "Hydro Project Raises
Questions."
Valdez Vanguard, November 9, 1977. "Valdezians Approve of
Industrial Development Here by 6 to 1."
Valdez Vanguard. April 11, 1979. "Full-time EMS Director
Needed."
Valdez, City of, 1979. Phase 1 Inventory Report, City of
Valdez, Alaska Coastal Management Program (First
Draft).
Valdez, City of, Alaska, 1978. Initial Overall Economic
Development Plan.
Valdez, City of, Overall Economic Development Committee,
1978. Valdez Overall Economic Development Program.
Zahniser, Jim, April 11, 1979. "Valdez Passes $48 Million
in Port Bonds," Anchorage Tiroes.
11-224
-------
ENGLISH - METRIC CONVERSION TABLE
All measurements included in this Technical Appendix are given in the
English system of measurement. Metric conversion from common English
units of measure are given below.
English Unit Conversion Factor Metric Unit
Feet
X
0.305
Meters
Miles
X
1.609
Kilometers
Acres
X
0.405
Hectares
Square Mile
X
259.2
Hectares
Pounds
X
0.454
Kilograms
Tons
X
908.0
Kilograms
Gallons
X
0.004
Cubic Meters
11-225
-------
-------
REFINERY PROCESSES
AND
ALTERNATIVES
-------
THE PACE COMPANY CONSULTANTS & ENGINEERS, INC. 5251 WESTHEIMER
P.O. BOX 53473 HOUSTON, TEXAS 77052 AC 713 965-031 1 CABLE: PACECO-HOUSTON TELEX 77-4350
MARINE
11-227
-------
MARINE
SCOPE OF MARINE ACTIVITIES
The following petroleum products will be transported in tank vessels and barges
from the Port of Valdez to the ports of Seattle, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and
Honolulu:
Thousands
Barrels per Long Tons
Calendar Day Per Annum
Motor Gasoline
75,090
3,208.6
Aviation Jet Fuel
29,139
1,286.7
Diesel Fuel
5,000
242.7
Residual Fuel(No.4 grade)
2,959
153.5
Heavy Gas Oil(clarifier oil)
4,861
252.1
Naphtha (for ethylene production)
13,700
616.7
Benzene
2,546
127.7
Toluene
5,640
281.2
Xylenes
6,177
306.3
Total
145,112
6,553.6*
Sulfur
214 T/D
78.1
~Includes sulfur
The following is an estimate of the vessel sizes which will be used and the
maximum number of round trips expected to be made. Each round trip voyage
consists of one laden and one in ballast passage.
Round Trips
Size and Number of Vessels Each Year
Tank Vessels
Three (55,000 D.W.T.) 54
Three (36,000 D.W.T.) 72
One (25,000 D.W.T.) 30
Barges
Two (10,000 D.W.T.) 30
Total All Vessels 186
(Average vessel size - 36,632 D.W.T.)
11-228
-------
In addition to the foregoing tank vessels, it is expected that the sulfur will be
shipped in small parcels (1,000 to 10,000 ton lots) in ordinary cargo vessels. The
total annual quantity of sulfur to be shipped (78,100 tons) is equivalent to about
ten extra cargo vessels each year. It is not expected that all the sulfur will be
shipped to United States West Coast ports.
TRANSPORTATION OF REFINERY EQUIPMENT
AND CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
During the construction phase of the refinery, large pressure vessels,
equipment, and construction materials will be transported to Valdez by cargo
vessels and barges. The approximate total weight of these materials delivered
over a two year period is 750,000 tons.
The number of vessels will not be greater than the number of product tank
vessels (i.e., 186) and no difficulties are foreseen which could not be handled by
the present VTS system. Certain heavy vessels (12 feet diameter, 100 feet long
and 700 tons) will arive by barge towed by an ocean tug. No difficulties are
expected in putting these tows through the VTS system except that it is
probable that the tug would be required to propel the barge from an along-side
position and that other tugs might be required for maneuvering.
SUPPLY AND TRANSPORTATION OF CHEMICALS
TO THE ALPETCO REFINERY
Prior to the startup of the refinery in late 1982 and during the preceding nine
months, approximately 2,000 tons of catalysts and chemicals will be transported
to the refinery in cargo vessels.
These materials will comprise the following:
• Catalytic Cracking Catalysts
• Hydrocracking Catalysts
• Desulfurization Catalysts
• Reforming Catalysts
• Activated Clays
• Ethanolamines
• Caustic Soda
• Hydrofluoric Acid
Following the commissioning of the refinery, replacement catalyst and
chemicals will be at a rate of 1,000 tons annually.
None of these materials present any transportation problems and it was
specifically established that hydrofluoric acid could be transported in a cargo
vessel and it would most probably be contained in pressure vessels of 10 ton
capacity. The initial charge of hydrofluoric acid to the alkylation plant is
approximately 250 tons.
11-229
-------
NEW COAST GUARD REGULATIONS
All tank vessels will be of American Flag registry and as the refinery operations
will not commence until late 1982, the tank vessels will be equipped to meet the
new Coast Guard DOT regulations (33 CFR Part 157 - CGD 77-058 B). These
regulations, which are expected to be issued in final form by late 1979, are
designed to reduce significantly the potential for pollution of United States
coastal waters and in particular to spill incidents resulting from groundings,
tanker collisions, fire, and explosions.
A summary of the effects of the new regulations on the transportation of
products from the Alpetco refinery is given below. In these regulations the
definition of tank vessels includes integrated tug barges.
a. All tank vessels having a Gross Registered Tonnage (grt) of more
than 10,000 grt must have two remote steering gear control
systems, each operable separately from the control bridge.
This regulation requires that existing vessels be retrofitted with
an additional control system prior to June 1, 1981.
b. The main steering gear of new tank vessels of 10,000 grt and
above must have two or more identical steering gear power units
and must be capable of operating with one or more of these
power units. A new vessel is defined as one for which a building
contract is placed after June 1, 1979; or in the absence of a
building contract, a vessel for which the keel is laid after
January 1, 1980; or any vessel delivered after June 1, 1982.
A vessel of 10,000 grt is approximately equivalent to a tank
vessel of 16,000 D.W.T.
It is the stated opinion of the United States Coast Guard that the ultimate
benefit of the regulations summarized in a and b above would be a reduction in
the probability of collision and groundings of tankers caused by steering gear
failure and a resulting reduction in risk of property damage, personal injury and
death, and pollution of the oceans and United States waters.
c. The regulations state further that all new tank vessels of
30,000 D.W.T. or more for product shipment would be required
to have protectively located segregated ballast tanks (SBT).
d. All other (existing) tank vessels of 40,000 D.W.T. or more for
product shipment would be required to have SBT or CBT (clean
ballast tanks) not later than June 1, 1981. CBT are cargo tanks
dedicated solely to the carriage of clean ballast water. CBT will
reduce cargo carrying capacity by about 20 percent.
The SBT and CBT regulations (c and d) above are expected to reduce
significantly oil pollution during tanker loading, discharging, and transit
operations.
11-230
-------
e. The new regulations require that all new tank vessels of
20,000 D.W.T. and over for the carriage of petroleum products
must be fitted with an inert gas system (IGS).
f. All existing product carriers of 70,000 D.W.T. or over must be
fitted with an IGS by June 1, 1981.
g. All existing product carriers of between 40,000 and
70,000 D.W.T. must be fitted with an IGS by June 1, 1983.
These regulations concerning the installation of IGS will reduce the probability
of tank vessel explosions and fire with consequent sinkings, groundings, and
pollution.
COAST GUARD REQUIREMENTS FOR SPECIAL CARGOES
The cargoes falling into this category are liquified petroleum gas (propane) and
molten sulfur. In both these cases the design of the vessels and materials of
construction may not be the same as for vessels operating in warmer waters
than Price William Sound. In particular it may be necessary to build the hulls of
these vessels of particular steels selected for the low temperature service
conditions. Special attention will be given to these considerations for these
types of vessels. Cargoes of liquified natural gas and ammonia are both
currently shipped through the Kenai Straits. At the present time, Alpetco does
not expect to ship or sell any LPG.
These special vessels would not be subject to special traffic or operational
constraints above those required for petroleum product tank vessels although
the vessels would have to have C.G. certificates of compliance.
PORT VALDEZ TANK VESSEL CONTROL
An important factor which greatly reduces the possibility of tank vessel traffic
accidents in Port Valdez and the approach through Prince William Sound is that
these areas have been declared by the United States Coast Guard to be a
"Vessel Traffic Service Area" (VTS). The transit of tank and other vessels
through these areas is governed by the Coast Guard regulations set out in the
operating manual CGD 17-010 of July, 1977.
The essentials of Price William Sound Vessel Traffic Service (VTS) are four
basic components:
• A Traffic Separation Scheme (TSS)
• A Vessel Movement Reporting System
• Radar Surveillance
• Operational Regulations
Two additional factors are:
• The Use of Pilots Throughout the VTS
• The Use of Tug Boats
11-231
-------
The Traffic Separation Scheme consists of two parallel traffic lanes each having
a width of between 1,000 yards and 1,500 yards. The traffic lanes are separated
by a distance of 1,000 to 2,000 yards except at the Valdez Narrows, which is a
one-way traffic area. Vessels operating in this area are required to have Bridge
to Bridge Radiotelephone, and permission to enter the Narrows is under Coast
Guard control. The channel width at the Narrows is 1,200 yards for a distance
of approximately two miles.
Vessels transitting the system must continuously report to the Coast Guard in
English by VHF-FM communications network. The reports are to include
certain information on vessel operation and other sea, air, and traffic
conditions.
A continuous radar watch is maintained at two points and covers the Valdez arm
of Prince William Sound, the Valdez Narrows, and Port of Valdez.
A security zone has been established around the TAPS Terminal in Port Valdez.
This security zone comprises an area within 200 yards of the waterfront of the
complex and extends within 200 yards of any tank vessel maneuvering to
approach, moor, unmoor, or depart the TAPS complex. No vessel may enter this
security zone without the permission of the Captain of the Port.
So far the traffic density in the Prince William Sound VTS area has been light,
averaging 2.4 vessels per day with a maximum of eight vessels. However, this
will increase when the TAPS throughput increases from 1.4 to 2.0 million
barrels per day.
Tank vessels at the proposed product dock will be required to operate under the
following facility regulations:
• 33 CFR Part 1-126 Waterfront Facility
• 33 CFR Part I - 154 Oil Pollution Prevention Regulations for
Facilities.
In addition to the foregoing, vessel loading operations should also conform to
the "International Oil Tanker and Terminal Guide" (IOTTSG). However, if in any
respect the IOTTSG differs from the Coast Guard regulations, the authority of
the Coast Guard is overriding. Discussions with Coast Guard at a later stage
may result in a security zone around the Alpetco product docks.
All tank vessels of 20,000 D.W.T. or more must use tug assistance for docking
and undocking. The VTS may direct any tank vessel of 20,000 D.W.T. or more to
use tug assistance in the Valdez Narrows one-way traffic area.
ROUTING OF SHIPS FROM PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND
TO UNITED STATES WEST COAST PORTS
Two nationally recommended tracks have been established between the
termination of the traffic separation scheme in the approaches to Prince
11-232
-------
William Sound to (l) the Strait of Juan de Fuca and to (2) the Santa Barbara
Channel. These two routing systems each have northbound and southbound
tracks separated by a minimum distance of 20 miles. The routing is primarily
for use of oil tankers engaged in the Alaskan trade to all ports on the United
States West Coast. The use of the recommended tracks is voluntary but should
be of great assistance in minimizing the risk of collisions.
FREQUENCY OF OIL SPILLS AT MARINE TERMINALS
DURING LOADING AND UNLOADING TANKER OPERATIONS
The most detailed information on this subject is that presented by Captain G.
Dudley, Harbormaster for the Milford Haven Ports area (in Wales, U.K.) at a
symposium on the "Ecological Effects of Oil Pollution on Littoral Communities"
held in London, England in December, 1970.
The port of Milford Haven is comparable to those on the West Coast of the
United States and is situated at the entrance to the Bristol Channel. Prior to
1960 there was no petroleum industry in this area. For this reason all the
subsequent pollution incidents were the result of modern petroleum loading and
unloading operations. These are reasonably comparable to the operational
standards expected in 1984 when the new United States Coast Guard regulations
are in force. Since the port of Milford Haven had not handled petroleum
products until 1960, it was possible as the result of experience in other ports to
set regulations and coordinate activities for recording and dealing with all
minor and major oil spills.
The depth of water in the petroleum port areas varies from 35 feet to 71 feet at
mean high water. The range of the tide varies from 16 feet to 26 feet. The
tidal currents in this area are very strong (up to 6 knots). The tidal range and
currents are greater than those experienced in United States West Coast ports
and their physical effects will marginally tend to increase the risk of spills
during loading and unloading operations at Milford Haven compared with United
States West Coast ports.
An analysis of the Milford Haven data is given in Tables 1 and 2, in which the
British units of long tons and imperial gallons have been converted to the United
States units of barrels of cargo carried and pollution quantities to United States
gallons. Over the nine year period, 55 percent of all spills were less than
96 gallons and 29 percent were between 96 and 192 gallons. The remaining
16 percent are only given in the original tables as over 192 gallons. Except for
three special cases these were in the range of 192 to 3,150 gallons. The three
special cases were not directly attributable to loading and unloading operations
as shown below and could be omitted from the analysis.
11-233
-------
TABLE I
ANNUAL NUMBER OF TANK VESSELS AND POLLUTIONS
Tankers Number of Pollutions
Volume of
Under
96 to
Over
Number
Number
Cargo
96
192
192
Per
of
Millions
U.S.
U.S.
U.S.
100
Year
Vessels
of Barrels
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
Total
Vessels
1961
1,066
74.25
25
9
11
45
4.2
1962
1,192
86.25
18
4
11
33
2.8
1963
1,236
97.50
18
6
6
30
2.4
1964
1,392
132.75
27
14
2
43
3.1
1965
1,985
186.75
46
28
18
92
4.6
1966
2.378
216.75
42
22
14
78
3.3
1967
2,680
211.50
32
16
7
55
2.1
1968
2,669
225.00
26
25
2
53
2.0
1969
3,266
299.25
34
19
5
58
1.8
Total
17,864
1,530.0
268
143
76
487
2.7
Percent
—
55
29
16
100
-
-------
TABLE D
ANALYSIS OF CAUSES OF POLLUTIONS
From Vessels
YEAR Annual
1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 Total Average
Overflow Cargo
3
5
5
8
14
12
11
9
14
81
9.0
Overflow Bunkers
7
4
1
4
14
6
4
9
8
57
6.3
I
Sea Valves
11
4
2
4
5
10
8
9
12
65
7.2
ro
LO
Bilges/Ballast
12
10
6
9
18
14
9
4
6
88
9.8
Ln
Hull Defects
5
7
3
5
1
11
12
8
10
62
6.9
Miscellaneous
2
3
5
—
12
6
4
1
2
35
3.9
Total (Vessels)
40
33
22
30
64
59
48
40
52
388
43.1
From Jetties
Pipelines/Hoses
1
—
3
4
10
10
3
9
6
46
5.1
Sumps/Slop Tanks
3
2
1
1
11
2
2
3
—
25
2.8
Outfalls
—
—
4
5
5
3
—
1
—
18
2.0
Miscellaneous
1
—
—
3
2
4
2
—
—
12
1.3
Total (Jetties)
5
2
8
13
28
19
7
13
6
101
11.2
TOTAL (VESSELS + JETTIES)
45
35
30
43
92
78
55
53
58
489
54.3
-------
• Year 1962 includes one grounding in which about 31,500 gallons
of crude was spilled.
• Year 1967 includes arrival of one vessel with damaged shell
plating below the water line which resulted in 78,750 gallons
spilled.
• Year 1968 a crude tank in a refinery overflowed and about
31,500 gallons escaped into the harbor waters.
At Milford Haven tank vessels of many nationalities were received and it was
observed that this tended to reduce the effectiveness of many vessels as far as
pollution was concerned. In the Alpetco case all the vessels will be of American
flag and will be meeting the more stringent requirements of the United States
Coast Guard. For this reason it is considered that, in practice, for the United
States ports it should be possible to reduce the frequency of pollution incidents.
It was also observed at Milford Haven that product carriers were less prone to
pollution incidents than crude carriers because, in general, they were called
upon to load and unload petroleum products more frequently than crude oil
carriers and hence obtained greater experience in these operations.
The analysis of the number of vessels calling at the port of Milford Haven to
load or discharge cargo (Table I) shows that the nine year average was 2.7
pollution incidents per 100 vessels. On this basis the following are the average
annual number of pollution incidents to be expected at United States ports. Of
these 94.8 percent in the Alpetco case would be with clean products which are
not persistent pollutants and may be cleaned rapidly without longer term
problems. Only 5.2 percent would be with "dirty" products (residual fuel oils).
Harbor
Duty
Number of
Vessels
Annual
Pollution
Incidents
Valdez
Loading Products
186
5.0
Seattle
Unloading Products
45
1.2
San Francisco
Unloading Products
45
1.2
Los Angeles
Unloading Products
51
1.4
Honolulu
Unloading Products
45
1.2
Total 10
Of these 84 percent or 8.4incidents per annum would be of a minor nature (less
than 192 gallons).
If Alaskan crude oil had been transported to and refined in the above port areas,
the number of pollution incidents would have been reduced to approximately the
numbers given below. However, all of these would have been with a dirty
11-236
-------
product (crude oil) which is more difficult to clean up and tends to be persistent
as far as beaches, grasses and rocks are concerned.
Harbor
Duty
Annual
Number of Pollution
Vessels Incidents
Valdez
Seattle
San Francisco
Los Angeles
Honolulu
Unloading Crude
Unloading Crude
Unloading Crude
Unloading Crude
Loading Crude
56
14
14
14
14
1.5
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
Total
3.1
Of these 84 percent or 2.6 incidents per annum would be of a minor nature (less
than 192 gallons).
Based on the Milford Haven experience over a nine year period, the largest spill
to be expected during a loading operation is 3,150 gallons. A spill of this size
would be unlikely to occur more than once in three years on the planned scale of
operations.
11-237
-------
THE PACE COMPANY CONSULTANTS & ENGINEERS, INC. 5251 WESTHEIMER
P.O. BOX 53473 HOUSTON, TEXAS 77052 AC 713 965-031 1 CABLE: PACECO-HOUSTON TELEX 77-4350
FEEDSTOCK AND PROCESS RAW
MATERIALS SOURCES
11-238
-------
FEEDSTOCK AND PROCESS RAW MATERIAL SOURCES
CRUDE OIL SUPPLY
The principal feedstock concern for any new refinery is procuring a steady
supply of crude oil. Alaska Petrochemical Company and the State of Alaska
executed the Royalty Oil Contract in February 1978 and the contract was
approved by the Alaska legislature in June 1978.
The contract has a 27 year life and assures ALPETCO of being able to purchase
up to 150,000 BPD of crude oil from the State of Alaska's leases at Prudhoe Bay
or other state leases should the Prudhoe Bay production fall short. ALPETCO
will compensate the state at a rate equivalent to what the producing oil
companies would have paid if Alaska had received its royalty in value rather
than crude oil.
ALPETCO cannot purchase more than 150,000 BPD under this contract,
although the Alaskan Pipeline now carries more than one million barrels per day
from Prudhoe Bay to Valdez, the proposed site of the new refinery.
OTHER RAW MATERIALS
The refinery design must provide for internal production of all intermediate
feedstocks such as catalytic reforming feed naphtha and hydrogen. The lack of
other hydrocarbon processing plants in the area precludes the purchase of such
intermediates. However, many petrochemical complexes are designed to be
wholly independent of any process raw materials other than crude oil, and
construction of Alpetco's proposed facility to operate in such a manner should
pose no problem.
Several pipeline projects have been initiated to transfer natural gas supplies
from northern Alaska. The Alaska Highway project would consist of
7,668 kilometers (4,765 miles) of new pipe, with completion anticipated by early
1984. The project will move natural gas from wells as far north as Prudhoe Bay
across Alaska and Canada into the northern United States. The design capacity
of the system is 68 thousand cubic meters per day (2.4 billion cubic feet per
day). This project has the strong backing of both the United States and
Canadian governments.
Use of such pipelines to move LPG into or through the Valdez area would
provide a feedstock source for an ethylene manufacturing unit. However, the
proposed refinery does not presently include an ethylene unit and no firm
information is available on the likelihood of moving LPG. Ethylene can also be
11-239
-------
manufactured from other crude oil—derived materials, such as naphthas or gas
oils. Ethylene consists of two carbon atoms and four hydrogen atoms and is a
principle feedstock for many petrochemical processes.
Such commodities as catalyst, gasoline additives, nitrogen, and other small
volume supplies can easily be supplied at the proposed refinery site and thus
should pose no problems to the operation of the ALPETCO facility. Many
Canadian and West Coast refiners now use these materials, but increased
transportation costs are to be expected to move them to Valdez.
11-240
-------
THE PACE COMPANY CONSULTANTS & ENGINEERS, INC. 5251 westheimer
P.O. BOX 53473 HOUSTON, TEXAS 77052 AC 71 3 965-031 1 CABLE: PACECO-HOUSTON TELEX 77-4350
FEEDSTOCK AND PROCESS RAW
MATERIALS A V AIL ABILITY
11-241
-------
FEEDSTOCK AND PROCESS RAW MATERIALS AVAILABILITY
GENERAL
Total crude oil production in Alaska was 463,000 BPD in 1977. Daily production
is forecast to exceed 2 million barrels per day by 1990. A summary of historical
and forecast production levels for the state of Alaska follows. Alpetco's
principle feedstock is the Alaskan North Slope crude.
ALASKAN CRUDE SUPPLY*
(Thousand Barrels Per Calendar Day)
Actual
1975
1976
1977
Alaska
Onshore
26
24
21
Alaska
Offshore
165
149
128
Alaska
North Slope
314
Total
191
173
463
Forecast
1980
1985
1990
2000
15
12
5
4
105
88
50
536
1,400
1,600
1,600
1,600
1,520
1,700
1,655
2,140
* Source: The Pace Company
One area of Alaska—the Gulf of Alaska—has not developed as rapidly as once
was anticipated. Sixteen dry holes had been drilled in the area by year end
1978, although all the structures drilled appeared promising from seismic and
geophysical work. (This includes eleven dry holes and five exploratory wells
which have been drilled in the Gulf of Alaska, Lower Cook Inlet, and Kodiac
Island areas.) Companies active in the area have not yet abandoned these sites,
but probably will spend the next two years acquiring and analyzing data.
In October 1977, 87 tracts were in the Lower Cook Inlet. Drilling activity there
has been sparse with only one well completed, and it had only noncommercial
shows. Three more wells are now being drilled.
11-242
-------
Alaska's proven reserves of crude oil and gas are listed in the following table.
RESERVES OF CRUDE OIL, NATURAL GAS LIQUIDS
AND NATURAL GAS IN ALASKA
Crude Oil (Thousand Barrels)
9,616,111
Natural Gas (Million Cubic Feet)
Associated- Dissolved
Non-Associated
TOTAL
26,340,881
5,491,735
31,832,616
Natural Gas Liquids (Thousand Barrels)
Associated- Dissolved
Non-Associated
TOTAL
408,605
0
408,605
Source: American Petroleum Institute, American Gas
Association and Canadian Petroleum Association.
All data as of year-end 1977.
FUTURE LEASE SALES
The eagerly awaited sale of state and federal tracts in the Beaufort Sea off
Alaska's north coast is scheduled for December, 1979. However, the lease sales
may be delayed because the State of Alaska has indicated that it will not
proceed with the sale unless the federal government allows export of North
Slope crude. When finally allowed to drill in the Beaufort Sea, industry will
face a technological challenge. Some drilling can be accomplished through the
use of slant holes from the barrier islands, but most of the area will require
drilling from artificial gravel, ice islands, or from mobile rigs which have not
yet been tested in Alaska's northern waters.
In addition to the Beaufort Sea, the Federal Bureau of Land Management has
four offshore sales scheduled in the next three years. These will be in the
eastern Gulf of Alaska, the Kodiak Shelf, Lower Cook Inlet, and the Norton
Sound-Bering Sea area off western Alaska. Other potential lease areas off
southern and western Alaska are as yet unscheduled.
In early 1979 the state Natural Resources Department proposed to the
legislature a new five year program for leasing state lands in several basins, but
did not describe specific sites. The program is designed to be flexible to meet
variable conditions but does mention 15 sales through 1983.
11-243
-------
The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, (Section d-2) has passed the United
States House of Representatives and is awaiting Senate approval. The exact
form of the bill which the Senate will finally ratify is not known; however, it is
likely that oil production will be prohibited on approximately 1 million acres of
Alaskan land. While this will certainly have an affect on the long-range future
of Alaskan oil development, it should not reduce the supply of oil available to
ALPETCO's proposed refinery.
Three major expansion projects designed to maintain the flow of Alaskan oil
have been announced this year. Atlantic Richfield plans a major expansion of
the oil and gas gathering facilities on the eastern edge of the Prudhoe Bay
Field. The estimated cost of this work is $1 billion and it will take over five
years to implement.
Standard Oil of Ohio has committed $100 million to expand their facilities on
the west side of Prudhoe Bay. This expansion, scheduled for completion in
mid-1981, includes equipment to separate crude oil, gas, and water and to
deliver the crude to the Trans-Alaska Pipeline.
Atlantic Richfield has also announced plans to develop the Kuparuk field which
is west of the Prudhoe Bay field. This $350 million project should achieve a
production rate of 60 thousand barrels per day by 1982. Additional investment
could bring the volume to 100,000 BPD by 1984.
In addition, capacity of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline is scheduled to be expanded
from 1.2 million to 1.35 million barrels per day by late 1979.
Standard Oil of Ohio's withdrawal from the PAC-TEX pipeline project should
not have a significant impact on ALPETCO's crude oil supply. This line,
scheduled for operation by 1980, was to have carried crude oil 1,026 miles from
Long Beach, California to Midland, Texas. It would have moved up to
500,000 BPD. Operation of the line would allow more economic transportation
of Alaskan crude to Gulf Coast refining centers and thus stimulate demand for
the crude. Sohio announced its withdrawal in May, 1979 due to the project
becoming economically unattractive as a result of long delays in obtaining
environmental permits.
Obviously any additional discoveries by these exploratory activities enhance
Alpecto's operation from the standpoint of improved availability of crude and
the possibility of crude oil trades to obtain raw materials with various qualities
to satisfy differing product demands.
CRUDE OIL PROPERTIES
The crude oil produced from Alaska's North Slope area has shown little quality
variation. The primary duty of the Trans-Alaska Pipeline is to transport crude
oil from the Prudhoe Bay area on the North Slope to an oil tanker loading
terminal at Valdez. In addition, a stream of crude oil is delivered to the North
Pole Refinery near Fairbanks, Alaska.
11-244
-------
Oil is removed at three pump stations along the pipeline and processed to
provide diesel fuel to operate pumps. At each station a return stream is
reintroduced into the line for ultimate delivery at Valdez.
Oils from various producers at Prudhoe Bay are commingled and shipped to
Valdez. Therefore, the crude oil received at Valdez varies in quality from the
oil delivered to the pipeline origin. The changes are due not only to the variable
qualities of the oil deliveries at Prudhoe Bay, but are also affected by the
offtake and return streams at the intermediate points. Quality variation
between offtake and return streams at the North Pole Refinery is much greater
than variations encountered at the beginning and end of the pipeline.
Despite the potential for wide swings in the quality of the oil delivered,
experience has confirmed only minor variations. The API gravity of the crude
delivered has varied only about one degree. The sulfur content of the North
Slope crude has only changed over a range of approximately 0.10 weight
percent. The major properties for a typical North Slope crude oil are shown in
Table 1. The gravity for the oil shown is 26.7°API and the sulfur content is
1.02 weight percent.
11-245
-------
TABLE 1
TYPICAL CRUDE OIL PROPERTIES
Whole Crude
"API
220/400 Naphtha
WT % S Volume %
WT % S
400/650 Distillate
Volume % WT % S
650/1000 Vacuum
Gas Oil
1000+ Vacuum
Residuum
650+ Atmospheric
Residuum
Volume %
WT % S Volume % WT % S Volume %
WT % S
AUskan 2g ? l 02 n 73 0 02 25 gg „ J0 2g g3 x Ab u Jg 2 u 5J 01 1 6Q
North Slope
-------
THE PACE COMPANY CONSULTANTS & ENGINEERS, INC. 5251 westheimer
P.O. BOX 53473 HOUSTON, TEXAS 77052 AC 713 965-031 1 CABLE: PACECO-HOUSTON TELEX 77-4350
DESCRIPTION OF MAJOR PROCESSES
11-247
-------
DESCRIPTION OF MAJOR PROCESSES
CRUDE DISTILLATION UNIT
Introduction
The work horse of the refinery is the crude distillation unit which fractionates
the raw crude into a number of narrow fractions. The crude distillation unit
will provide fuel gas, naphtha, kerosene, diesel, atmospheric and vacuum gas
oils and heavy residual.
Process Description
The crude distillation unit involves the following operations:
• Crude desalting
• Atmospheric distillation
• Product stripping
• Vacuum distillation
Salt and extraneous impurities must be removed to minimize corrosion and to
protect downstream catalytic process operations. Water from a surge drum is
injected into the raw crude oil line. The mixture is heated by exchange and
passed to the desalting drum. Here, the aqueous phase containing salt and other
dissolved compounds, along with some sediment, is drawn off for disposal to the
process waste water system.
The desalted crude oil is further heated by exchange and a fired crude heater.
This heater supplies all of the remaining heat necessary to fractionate the crude
in the atmospheric column (often referred to as the main column). The main
column produces a light material through gasoline overhead fraction as well as
heavy naphtha, kerosene, diesel, and atmospheric gas oil side cut products.
The total main column overhead is heat exchanged and cooled in a condenser
before passing to the main column overhead receiver. Corrosion inhibitors and
ammonia are injected into the overhead line upstream of the condenser. Gas
from the receiver is compressed and discharged to the saturates gas
concentration unit. A portion of the liquid hydrocarbon overhead is returned to
the top of the main column as reflux. The water phase in the overhead
receiver, essentially condensed stripping steam, is sent to the sour water
stripper.
11-248
-------
CRUDE DISTILLATION UNIT
-------
Main column sidestream fractions are first collected in trap out draw trays at
various points up the column. To avoid flooding the top section of the column
with overhead reflux, some liquid from each of the side draw trays is
withdrawn, cooled by exchange and coolers, and returned to the column as
intermediate reflux.
The sidestream material contains a considerable amount of lower boiling
material that would be more valuable in the next lighter product. To
accomplish this as well as to meet product flash point specifications, sidecut
strippers are used on each sidestream. Stripping is done with steam. Vapors
from the stripper are returned to the main column just above the draw off tray.
Stripped product from the bottom of the stripper is heat exchanged, cooled, and
sent to storage. Reduced crude from the bottom of the main column is also
stripped with steam before passing to vacuum distillation.
The reduced crude is a heavy bottoms material that still contains some
relatively valuable gas oil. To flash off this gas oil at normal pressures would
require heating to a temperature at which thermal decomposition (cracking)
occurs. To separate this gas oil at an acceptable temperature, a vacuum system
is employed. The vacuum is generally pulled by means of a three-stage steam
ejector system.
The reduced crude is heated in a fired heater before flowing to the flash zone of
the vacuum column. Light vacuum gas oil (LVGO), heavy vacuum gas oil
(HVGO), and vacuum pitch are taken as products. Vacuum pitch from the
bottom of the tower is heat exchanged and cooled somewhat before flowing to
storage. A heavy, high metal-containing liquid is accumulated in the bottom
collector pan. This material is withdrawn from the column with a portion
returned as spray reflux. The net material, called slop wax, is unsuitable for
blending into gas oil and is therefore cooled and directed to storage with the
vacuum pitch. Heavy vacuum gas oil is withdrawn from an intermediate
collector pan. A portion is returned to the column as hot spray reflux and the
remainder is cooled by heat exchange. Some of the cooled HVGO is returned to
the column as intermediate reflux while the net product is further cooled and
sent to storage. Light vacuum gas oil is collected from a point near the top of
the column and pumped through a cooler. Some of the cooled LVGO is refluxed
to the column and the net product is sent to storage. All non-condensed
material is pulled from the top of the column through the ejector jets. There
are usually three stages of jets with a cooler after each stage. All condensed
hydrocarbons are recovered while the non-condensable gases are vented to a
separate burner in the vacuum column heater. The condensed steam is routed
to the process waste water system.
11-250
-------
GAS CONCENTRATION UNITS
Introduction
The purpose of the gas concentration units is to separate the light ends from the
crude unit and various conversion units into a fuel gas stream, a C^/C. stream,
and a gasoline stream. There will be three gas concentration units in tire plant:
• A saturates gas concentration unit handling light ends chiefly
from the crude unit and reformer
• An unsaturates gas concentration unit for the FCCU
• An unsaturates gas concentration unit integral with the
Flexicoker
Process Description
Feed to the gas concentration units consists of liquid and vapor streams. The
vapor stream is chiefly methane and ethane but contains appreciable quantities
of propane and heavier components. The unstabilized liquid stream is chiefly
propane and heavier but contains quantities of ethane and lighter components.
These streams are mixed in a feed separator. The resulting vapor is passed to
an absorber where it is contacted with a gasoline stream which absorbs propane
and heavier components. The overhead vapor is routed to a sponge absorber
where a kerosene type stream is used to absorb residual heavy components from
the vapor. The sponge absorber overhead consisting of ethane and lighter is
routed to the fuel gas system. Liquid bottoms from the absorber is routed to
the feed separator.
A quantity of wash water is injected into the vapor feed ahead of the feed
separator. The purpose of this water wash is to remove salts and corrosives to
protect downstream processing units.
Liquid from the feed separator is routed to the stripper where ethane is stripped
from the liquid by applying heat with a reboiler. Vapor overhead is routed to
the feed separator. Liquid bottoms is routed to a debutanizer column where Cg
and C4 components are fractionated from the gasoline. This and is
subsequently separated in a downstream depropanizer.
CATALYTIC REFORMER
Introduction
The UOP continuous reforming technology will be used for naphtha reforming.
In this process naphtha is catalytically reformed into aromatics and high octane
motor gasoline. As a result of dehydrogenation reactions, a considerable
quantity of by-product hydrogen is produced. Feed to the unit has been
hydrotreated in the naphtha hydrotreater to remove sulfur to a level of 0.5 ppm.
11-251
-------
TYPICAL GAS CONCENTRATION UNIT
I
N>
cn
to
FUEL GAS
-------
Process Description
Prefractionation
Fresh feed from the hydrotreater is routed to a deisohexanizer where isohexane
and lighter components are removed from the reformer feed in a conventional
fractionating column. These light components are not improved by reforming,
and therefore it is advantageous to remove them from the reformer feed
stream.
Reformer
Feed to the reformer is combined with a circulating stream of hydrogen and
heated by exchange with the reactor effluent. The feed thus flows to a series
of three fired heaters and three reactors which contain a bimetallic catalyst.
The fired heaters supply the heat required for the endothermic reactions which
predominate.
Effluent from the final reactor passes through heat exchange with incoming
feed and is further cooled by exchange with air and water. The effluent then
flows to a separator where a hydrogen rich stream is separated and recycled to
join fresh feed. The net hydrogen make is compressed and routed to the plant
hydrogen system. The liquid from the separator is routed to a debutanizer
where butanes and lighter components formed in the reactors are removed from
the reformate. These light components are then sent to the saturates gas
concentration unit.
Catalyst continuously circulates through each of the three reactors which are
stacked on one another. Catalyst from the final reactor is transported to the
regenerator where a small amount of carbon formed by hydrocracking side
reactions is combusted. The flue gas formed in the regeneration combustion
contains carbon dioxide and water and trace amounts of chlorine (less than
1 percent). Catalyst from the regenerator is then transported to the lead
reactor. The transport medium to the regenerator is nitrogen which is vented
to the atmosphere after a small quantity of catalyst fines is removed in a dust
collector. Regenerated catalyst is transported in a hydrogen medium to the top
of the stacked reactors.
DEISOPENTANIZER
Introduction
Overhead from the deisohexanizer contains mainly C5 and C6 paraffins and the
overall octane of this stream is low, about 65 Research Octane Number Clear
(RON), making it undesirable for gasoline blending.
11-253
-------
CATALYTIC REFORMING PROCESS
LIGHT ENDS
NET HYDROGEN TO RECOVERY
-------
Isopentane, however, has a Research Octane Number (greater than 90) and is
therefore a reasonably good gasoline component and is separated for gasoline
blending.
Process Description
Overhead from the deisohexanizer flows through feed to bottoms heat exchange
and to the deisopentanizer. This is a typical refluxed column. Isopentane is
produced overhead and routed to gasoline blending. The bottoms stream
containing the normal pentane and hexane is routed to paraffinic naphtha along
with raffinate from the Sulfolane unit.
SULFOLANE/BTX SEPARATION
Introduction
The Sulfolane process is a commercially proven solvent extraction technique for
recovery of high purity aromatics (particularly benzene, toluene and xylenes)
from hydrocarbon mixtures. The solvent utilized in the process is tetra
hydrothiophene, 1,1-dioxide (Sulfolane).
Prefractionation
Reformate is first prefractionated to separate a light reformate product
containing benzene, toluene, xylene, and nonaromatics in the same boiling
range. The light reformate is produced overhead of a conventional fractionator
and flows to the Sulfolane Extraction Unit. The bottoms product, heavy
reformate, is routed to motor gasoline.
Sulfolane Extraction
Fresh feed enters the extractor and flows upward, counter-current to a stream
of lean solvent. As the feed flows through the extractor, aromatics are
selectively dissolved in the solvent, and raffinate of low aromatics content is
withdrawn from the top of the extractor.
Rich solvent from the extractor enters the extractive stripper, in which partial
stripping of hydrocarbon from the rich solvent takes place. The non-aromatic
components having volatilities higher than that of benzene under conditions
existing in the column are essentially completely stripped from the solvent and
removed in the overhead stream. This stream is returned to the extractor as
reflux for re-recovery of any aromatics contained therein. The bottoms stream
consists of solvent and aromatic components, substantially free of non-
aromatics.
11-255
-------
SULFOLANE PROCESS
(EXTRACTION SECTION)
-------
Solvent from the extractive stripper enters the recovery column, in which the
aromatic product is separated from the solvent stream. Because of the large
difference in boiling point between sulfolane and the heaviest desired aromatic
product, this separation is accomplished readily. Lean solvent from the column
bottom is returned to the extractor.
Raffinate from the extractor is contacted with water to remove dissolved
sulfolane, and the rich water is returned to the extract recovery column to
reclaim its sulfolane content. This raffinate is then routed to paraffinic
naphtha storage.
Trace quantities of oxygen in the feed and from system leaks degrade the
solvent irreversibly. A slip stream of solvent (2 percent of the circulating
stream) is sent to the solvent reclaimer which boils the solvent overhead. The
bottoms from this regenerator are routed to the flexicoker for reprocessing into
fuel products.
Clay Treating
Sulfolane unit extract will contain trace amounts of unsaturates and residual
non-hydrocarbon compounds which might adversely affect the acid wash color
tests of the final products. To eliminate these trace impurities, the extract is
clay treated prior to fractionation. The clay treat is non-severe and clay
consumption is minimal.
BTX Fractionation
The treated extract is directed to a series of three fractionating columns where
chemical purity benzene, toluene, and aromatics are recovered as distillate
products. Heavy aromatics which may have been contained in the unit feed are
yielded as a bottoms product from the fractionation section and are directed to
the refinery gasoline pool. A small amount of water produced overhead of the
benzene column is recycled to the Sulfolane extraction unit.
FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS
Introduction
Fluid Catalytic Cracking is a process for conversion of straight run atmospheric
gas oil, vacuum gas oils and heavy stocks recovered from other operations into
high octane gasoline, light fuel oils, and olefin-rich light gases. The product
gasoline has a good octane blending number and good overall gasoline quality.
Further, "cat" gasoline is complemented by the characteristics of the alkylate
produced from the gaseous olefinic by-products.
11-257
-------
Process Description
Reactor/Regenerator Section
In the operation of the Fluid Catalytic Cracking unit, fresh feed and
hydrotreated cycle oil are introduced into the bottom of the reactor riser
together with a controlled amount of regenerated catalyst. The charge may be
preheated either by heat exchange or, for some applications, by means of a
fired heater.
The hot regenerated catalyst vaporizes the feed and the resultant vapors carry
the catalyst upward through the riser with a minimum of back mixing. At the
top of the riser the desired cracking reactions have been completed and the
catalyst is quickly separated from the hydrocarbon vapors to minimize further
secondary reactions. The catalyst/hydrocarbon mixture from the riser is
discharged into the reactor vessel through slotted cross arms which achieve a
significant degree of catalyst/gas separation. Final separation of catalyst and
product vapor is accomplished in two stages of cyclone separation. The
catalytic cracking reactions occur essentially completely within the riser; the
"reactor" shell serves primarily as a container for cyclone separators and as a
disengaging space.
The reactor effluent is directed to the FCC main fractionator for resolution
into gaseous light olefin coproducts, "cat" gasoline, and cycle stocks. The spent
catalyst drops into the stripping section where a countercurrent flow of steam
removes interstitial and some adsorbed hydrocarbon vapors. Stripped spent
catalyst descends through a stand pipe and into the regenerator.
During the cracking reaction, a carbonaceous by-product is deposited on the
circulating catalyst. This material, termed "coke," is continuously "burned" off
the catalyst in the regenerator. The main purpose of the regenerator is to
reactivate the catalyst so that, when returned to the conversion section, it is in
optimum condition to perform its cracking function. The regenerator serves to
combust the coke from the catalyst particles and, at the same time, impart
sensible heat to the circulating catalyst which is utilized in satisfying the
thermal requirements of the unit. A large air blower is used to provide the
combustion air which is distributed throughout the fluid catalyst bed. The
catalyst entrained in the flue gas is removed with a two stage system of
cyclones installed in the regeneration vessel. The flue gas from the regenerator
contains primarily nitrogen and carbon dioxide with trace quantities of carbon
monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrous oxides, and catalyst particulates.
The regenerator is operated at conditions that achieve "complete" combustion
of CO to C02. This in situ combustion of carbon dioxide obviates the need for
an external CO boiler and results in a flue gas concentration of CO of less than
500 ppmv. In addition, the practice of CO combustion enhances gasoline yield.
The sensible heat of the 1,300°F flue gas is recovered in a waste heat boiler.
Final cleanup of the flue gas is effected by an electrostatic precipitator.
11-258
-------
FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING PROCESS
-------
In order to maintain the activity of the working catalyst inventory at the
desired level and to make up for any catalyst lost from the system with the flue
gas, fresh catalyst is introduced into the circulating catalyst system from a
catalyst storage hopper. An additional storage hopper is provided to contain
spent catalyst which can be withdrawn from the circulating system when it is
necessary to purge inactive catalyst to maintain the desired working activity.
Fractionation and Gas Concentration Sections
Reactor product vapors are directed to the main fractionation column. FCC
naphtha and gaseous, olefin-rich coproducts are taken overhead and routed to
the gas concentration unit. Reactor stripping steam is condensed in the
overhead condenser and the resulting sour water containing hydrogen sulfide,
phenol, and ammonia is routed to the sour water stripper. Wash water cascaded
from the gas concentration unit is injected upstream of the overhead condenser
to prevent salt deposition and then routed to the sour water stripper. Light
cycle oil is recovered as a sidecut with the net yield of this material being
stripped for removal of light ends and sent to storage. Heavy cycle oil is
recycled to the reactor after hydrotreating to saturate polyaromatics for
improved gasoline yield. A small flow of main column bottoms is recycled to
the reactor section where it is combined with fresh feed and directed to the
reactor riser. Net column bottoms is yielded as slurry or clarified oil.
Because of the high efficiency of the catalyst-hydrocarbon separation system
utilized in modern reactor design, catalyst carry-over to the fractionator is
minimized and it is not necessary to clarify the net heavy product yielded from
the bottom of the fractionator.
Unsaturates Gas Plant
In the gas concentration unit, gas from the FCC main column overhead receiver
is compressed and directed with primary absorber bottoms and stripper
overhead gas through a cooler to the high pressure receiver. Wash water is
injected upstream of the cooler to remove hydrogen cyanide which can result in
corrosion of the downstream equipment. Gas from the high pressure receiver is
routed to the primary absorber where it is contacted by the unstabilized
gasoline from the main column overhead receiver. Primary absorber off gas is
directed to a secondary or sponge absorber. A circulating stream of light cycle
oil from the main column is used as absorption oil in the sponge absorber. Tail
gas from the sponge absorber, consisting mainly of hydrogen sulfide plus C2 and
lighter coproducts, is directed to a fuel gas amine treating unit. Primary
absorber bottoms is stripped and routed to the debutanizer where an olefin
rich C3/C4 stream is recovered overhead. The gas concentration unit is not
designed, per se, on the basis of rejection; the unit is designed to minimize
C„ losses by recovering with the C^/C. product a specified amount of C2
(generally equivalent to not more than one mole percent of the propane) which
can be tolerated in the alkylation unit. Contained H2S is then removed in an
11-260
-------
amine system prior to Merox treating for mercaptan removal. Stabilized FCC
gasoline is yielded from the debutanizer as a bottoms product. The FCC
gasoline is treated in a Merox sweetening system prior to storage.
UOP HF ALKYLATION PROCESS
Introduction
The HF Alkylation process for motor fuel production catalytically combines
light olefins (primarily mixtures of propylene and butylenes) with isobutane, to
produce a branched chain paraffinic fuel that is a high quality component of a
gasoline pool. The alkylation reaction takes place in the presence of
hydrofluoric acid (HF) under conditions selected to maximize alkylate yield and
quality. The alkylate product possesses excellent anti-knock properties. It is
clean burning, has high research and motor octane numbers, and an excellent
performance rating.
Process Description
The alkylation of olefins with isobutane is complex, being characterized by
simple addition as well as by numerous side reactions. Primary reaction
products are the isomeric paraffins containing carbon atoms that are the sum of
isobutane and the corresponding olefin. It is generally believed that alkylation
proceeds through a carbonium ion formed from the isobutane in the presence of
the acid catalyst. The carbonium ion reacts with the olefin to produce a
heavier ionic structure, which in turn reacts with isobutane to produce a
primary reaction product and a new carbonium ion to continue the general
reaction. However, secondary reactions, such as hydrogen transfer,
polymerization, isomerization, and destructive alkylation also occur resulting in
formation of secondary products both lighter and heavier than the primary
products.
The factors which promote the primary and secondary reaction mechanism
differ as does the response of each to changes in operating conditions or design
options. Not all secondary reactions are undesirable; for example, they make
possible the formation of iso-octane from propylene and amylenes. In the
ideally designed and operated system, the primary reactions should predominate
but not to the complete exclusion of the secondary ones. For HF Alkylation the
optimum combination of plant economy, product yield, and quality is achieved
with the reaction systems operating at essentially cooling water temperature, a
considerable excess of iso paraffin, contaminant free feedstocks, and a well-
engineered reaction system.
To minimize acid consumption and ensure good alkylate quality, the feeds to the
alkylation unit should be dry and of low sulfur content. Normally, a simple
desiccant drying system is included in the unit design package. Feed treating in
a Merox unit for mercaptan sulfur removal can be an economic adjunct to the
11-261
-------
HF ALKYLATION PROCESS
DEPROPANIZER
-------
alkylation unit for those applications where the feedstocks of more than low
sulfur content are processed.
Process Description - Reaction Section
Treated and dried olefinic feed is charged along with recycle and makeup
isobutane (where applicable) to the reactor section of the HF unit. The
combined feed enters the shell of a horizontal heat exchanger through several
nozzles positioned to maintain an even temperature throughout the reactor.
Heat of reaction is removed by heat exchange with a large volume of water
having a low temperature rise. This cooling water is then available for further
use elsewhere in the unit. The effluent from the reactor-exchanger enters the
settler from which the settled acid is returned back into the reactor-exchanger.
The hydrocarbon phase which contains dissolved HF is directed from the settler,
preheated, and charged to the isostripper. Outside saturate butane makeup
(where applicable) is also charged to the isostripper. Product alkylate is
recovered from the bottom of the column. Normal butane which may have
entered the unit with the olefinic feed and makeup isobutane is withdrawn with
the bottoms to meet alkylate vapor pressure requirements. Normal butane in
excess of that required to meet alkylate vapor pressure is withdrawn as a
sidecut.
Isostripper overhead consists mainly of isobutane, propane, and HF. Recycle
isobutane is recovered as a sidecut which is recycled to the reactor section. A
drag stream of overhead material, which has been propane enriched, is charged
to the HF stripper. The HF stripper net bottoms stream is withdrawn,
defluorinated, and charged to the gas concentration section (C3/C4 splitter) to
prevent a build-up of propane in the HF Alkylation unit. The HF stripper
overhead vapors are returned to the isostripper overhead system.
Auxiliary neutralizing and scrubbing equipment is included in the plant design to
ensure that all materials leaving the unit during both normal and emergency
operation are acid free.
To the extent possible, the number of relief valves is minimized. The acid
sections of the unit are designed to be easily isolatable to minimize the amounts
of acid or acid-containing materials to be handled in the event of an
emergency.
Process Description - Neutralization Section
The neutralization section is designed to minimize the amount of waste,
offensive materials, and undesirable by-products. It is impractical to release
acid-containing vapors to the regular relief gas system because of the corrosion
and odor problems which would result. The system is composed of the relief gas
scrubber, KOH mix tank, circulating pumps, and a KOH regeneration tank.
11-263
-------
All acid vents and relief valves are piped to this relief section. Gases pass up
through the scrubber and are contacted by a circulating KOH solution to
neutralize the HF. After the neutralization of the HF, the gases may be safely
released into the refinery flare system.
The KOH is regenerated on a periodic basis in the KOH regeneration tank using
lime to form CaF2 and KOH. The lime settles to the bottom of the tank and is
directed to the neutralizing basin.
The neutralizing basin, or CBM pit, is for the neutralizing of any acidic water
from acid sewers or in some cases, CBM from the acid regenerator. Lime is
used to convert any fluorides into calcium fluoride before any waste effluent is
released into the refinery sewer system. Calcium fluoride is a non-toxic solid
waste which could be used for land fill. However, because of the unreacted
lime, this material will be held in a pond designed for a 20 year retention
period.
GASOLINE POLYMERIZATION PROCESS
MOTOR FUEL PRODUCTION
Introduction
The Catalytic Condensation process is a processing technique utilizing a solid
phosphoric acid (SPA) catalyst to promote the condensation of gaseous olefins
to produce a wide range of liquid olefinic products suitable for gasoline
blending.
Process Description
The feed stream is directed to a combined feed surge drum. Feed diluent,
propane, is recycled to the surge drum. Combined feed is preheated and
charged to the reactor. Control or moderation of the heat release in the
reactor is accomplished both by feed dilution and by quenching between the
catalyst beds in the reactor. Reactor effluent is directed to a flash drum. The
flash vapor is condensed and the condensate cooled. Some of the condensate is
recycled for use as feed diluent and quench. Flash drum liquid flows to a
stabilizer where poly gasoline and butane is withdrawn as a bottoms product and
C3 is recovered overhead. The butane/gasoline mixture is then separated in a
debutanizer.
HYDROTREATING UNITS
Introduction
Hydrotreating removes objectionable
selectively reacting sulfur, nitrogen,
hydrogen and by saturating olefinic
materials from petroleum distillates by
and oxygen-containing compounds with
hydrocarbons and poly cyclic aromatics.
11-264
-------
GASOLINE POLYMERIZATION UNIT
-------
Naphtha generally is purified for subsequent processing in catalytic reforming
operations. Heavier distillates, ranging from jet fuels and kerosene through
heavy vacuum gas oils, are treated for sulfur/nitrogen removal to meet
specifications associated with emission standards and/or for odor and color
improvement. Gas oil feed to FCCU feed is hydrotreated for sulfur and
nitrogen removal, reduction in Conradson carbon, and saturation of polycyclic
aromatics.
Process Description
The chemistry of the hydrotreating process is essentially that of selective
hydrogenation. In removal of contaminants, it involves the controlled breaking
of the molecular chain or ring at the point where the sulfur, nitrogen, or oxygen
atom is joined to carbon atoms. This breaking is accomplished by the
introduction of hydrogen with production of hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, light
hydrocarbons or water, respectively. The resultant hydrocarbon reaction
product usually remains either as one or more aliphatic hydrocarbons, or as an
alkyl group on an aromatic or naphthenic hydrocarbon. These hydrocarbon
reaction products usually have larger liquid molecular volumes than does the
parent sulfur, nitrogen, or oxygen-containing reactants. Due to the fact that
only a small amount of cracking of carbon-to-carbon bonds occurs and olefins
and some aromatics are hydrogenated, the yields of liquids from hydrotreating
operations are in excess of 100 volume percent of the chargestock.
The general process flow for all hydrotreaters is basically similar. The
chargestock together with the makeup hydrogen and recycle gas, are heated to
reaction temperature in exchangers and a fired heater. In the reactor the
contained sulfur, nitrogen, halogen, and oxygen impurities together with olefinic
and polyaromatic hydrocarbons are converted over catalysts. All the
hydrotreating reactions are exothermic, although the exothermic heat is
relatively small when minimal quantities of these impurities are present. The
reaction product is cooled through exchangers and air and water coolers en
route to the product separator. A small amount of water is injected into the
effluent stream to prevent the deposit of ammonium salts. Net separator gas is
recycled and combined with hydrogen-rich makeup gas while the separator
hydrocarbon liquid, after heat exchange, is stripped in the stripper column to
remove H2S and undesired light ends which are routed to the feed gas system.
Water is removed from the separator via a water boot and routed to the sour
water stripper. The stripper column bottoms product is sent to storage after
exchange and cooling or directly to another processing unit.
Specific Process Applications
Naphtha Hydrotreater
The product must meet all the requirements of reformer feed, which in most
cases will call for a simple desulfurization to 0.5 ppm sulfur.
11-266
-------
HYDROTREATING UNIT
MAKE UP HYDROGEN
PRODUCT
SOUR WATER
-------
Gas Oil Desulfurizer
Hydrotreating of the FCCU feed reduces the sulfur dioxide emissions from the
FCC unit, avoiding installation of expensive stack gas cleanup facilities.
Concomitant with stack gas sulfur dioxide emission reduction, hydrotreating
processing of FCC feed will also result in recovery of FCC products having
significantly reduced sulfur contents, which eliminates the need for further
hydrotreating of these materials. Additionally, use of hydrotreatment for
reduction of sulfur, nitrogen, metals, carbon residue, and polycyclic aromatics
results in lower FCC coke make, improved conversion capability, better yield
structure, and improved product quality.
LCO Saturation
FCCU cycle oil recycle is hydrotreated to saturate the polycyclic aromatics in
this stream. This hydrotreatment results in increased production of FCCU
gasoline.
HYDROCRACKER
Introduction
Heavy atmospheric distillate and coker distillate are routed to a hydrocracker
where they are cracked to yield gas, LPG, naphtha and jet fuel. Cracking is
done over a fixed bed catalyst in the presence of hydrogen at elevated pressure.
Process Flow
In this system fresh chargestock along with fresh and recycle hydrogen are heat
exchanged and further heated to the desired process temperature in a fired
heater and contacted with the catalyst in the reactor. Hydrocracking reactions
are exothermic; to control temperatures in the desired range, conversion per
pass can be limited or intermediate cooling means such as quench gas can be
used. The reactor effluent is heat exchanged with incoming feed and then air
and water. The resulting vapor/liquid mixture then flows to a high-pressure
separator. Hydrogen-rich gases are recycled along with fresh makeup hydrogen.
High-pressure separator liquid is flashed into a low-pressure drum where most
of the dissolved gases are evolved. The flash drum liquid is fed to a debutanizer
with overhead sent to LPG recovery and bottoms to a fractionator for
separation into the desired products. Fractionator bottoms boiling above the
desired boiling range of the products is recycled for complete conversion.
Water is injected in the reactor effluent upstream of the air cooler to prevent
deposition of ammonium compounds. This water is separated out in the high
pressure system and routed to the sour water stripper.
11-268
-------
HYDROCRACKING UNIT
MAKE-UP HYDROGEN
OIL
I
K>
Os
NO
h2o
-------
HYDROGEN PRODUCTION BY STEAM REFORMING
Introduction
The several hydrotreaters and the hydrocraekers are major consumers of
hydrogen. While the catalytic reformer supplies a portion of the required
hydrogen, the remaining requirement is supplied by steam reforming fuel gas
and LPG.
The steam-hydrocarbon reactions are favored by high temperature and by low
pressure. The lower the residual methane content desired, the higher the
reforming temperature must be. The steam-hydrocarbon reactions are
endothermic.
The reactions which occur in steam hydrocarbon reforming are as follows:
1. C H + nH0o—~ nCO + (2n+m) H2
n m 2 2
2. CO + 3Hj —" CH4 + H20
3. CO + H20 ~^C02 + H2
These reactions are carried out in a furnace containing vertical tubes filled with
a nickel catalyst to promote the reactions. Heat is applied externally by fuel
firing to maintain an outlet temperature which is usually in the range of 1,300°F
to 1,650°F.
The basic steps for the steam-hydrocarbon reforming process are
desulfurization, reforming, two-stage CO conversion, C02 removal,
methanation, and compression. The heat in the process gas effluent is
recovered to a large extent by steam generation and boiler feed water preheat,
with low-level heat of the process gas providing the required reboil heat for the
regeneration of the rich promoted hot carbonate solution when it is used for
C02 removal.
Reformer feed contains less than 0.5 percent olefins to prevent carbon
formation and must be desulfurized to less than 1 ppm to prevent poisoning of
the reformer catalyst and resultant loss of activity.
After desulfurization, the feedstock is mixed with super-heated steam and
reformed in the catalyst-filled tubes of the furnace. Reforming is carried out
by catalytically reacting the hydrocarbon vapors with a stoichiometric excess of
steam. The overall reactions are highly endothermic; therefore the catalyst is
contained in a number of parallel vertical tubes in the radiant section of the
fired heater. The reformed gas products are hydrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, and methane.
The reforming reaction is favored by high temperature, low pressure, and a high
steam to carbon ratio. These conditions minimize methane slippage.
11-270
-------
HYDROGEN PLANT
FEED
X
STEAM
-t
DESULFURIZER
Z
ro
REACTION FURNACE
HIGH TEMPERATURE SHIFT
m
LOW TEMPERATURE SHIFT
TJ
METHANATOR
-------
The processing scheme downstream of the reforming furnace is as follows:
•
Heat recovery
•
High temperature shift conversion
•
Heat recovery
•
Low temperature shift conversion
•
Heat recovery and cooling
•
Carbon dioxide removal
•
Methanation of residual carbon oxides
•
Cooling
The reformed gas is cooled and passed through the high and low-temperature
shift converters with intercooling between the two reactors. The purpose of the
shift converters is to minimize the concentration of carbon monoxide by
reacting it with steam to produce carbon dioxide and hydrogen.
After cooling, the carbon dioxide is removed by one of the various available
processes.
Residual carbon oxides from upstream processing, namely shift conversion and
carbon dioxide removal, are undesirable for most catalytic processes and must
be removed prior to the use of the hydrogen. In steam-reforming plants, carbon
oxide conversion is carried out by means of a methanization reaction in the
presence of catalyst.
FLEXICOKER
Introduction
The Flexicoker process is designed to upgrade heavy bottom of the barrel
feedstocks by converting thejn to lighter products including clean fuel gas,
gasoline, and distillates. Coking is a non-catalytic, thermal cracking process
based upon the concept of "carbon rejection." The heaviest hydrogen-deficient
portions of the feedstock are rejected as coke which contains essentially all of
the feed metals and a substantial portion of the feed sulfur and nitrogen. The
coking process is particularly attractive when no heavy fuel oil product is
desired in the refinery. Materials that might normally be disposed of as No. 6
fuel oil are cracked into gas, naphtha, distillate and gas oil products. These
products can then be further processed in the downstream units.
The Flexicoker process has one additional benefit. Essentially all of the coke is
converted to low BTU fuel gas which can be burned in refinery boilers or
process furnaces. In this manner over 90 percent of the coke can be gasified on
typical coker feedstocks. This substantially reduces the amount of by-product
coke which must be sold versus the historic coker processes.
11-272
-------
The vacuum resid feedstock typically contains most of the metals content of
the feedstock as well as complex nitrogen and sulfur containing compounds.
These compounds are difficult to remove from the resid and pose severe
environmental problems should this material be burned. By flexicoking the
resid, one produces conventional light distillate and naphtha products which can
be effectively treated for sulfur and nitrogen removal in downstream processes.
Also the offgas, from both the Flexicoker and from the coke gasification
facility, can be properly treated for hydrogen sulfide removal and sulfur
recovery. Essentially all of the metals in the crude feedstock to the refinery
will then end up in the coke fines.
Process Description
The Flexicoking process consists of a fluid bed reactor, a liquid product
scrubber on top of the reactor, a heater vessel where circulating coke from the
reactor is heated by gas and hot coke from the gasifier, gasifier vessel, a heater
overhead gas cooling system, and a fines removal system.
Vacuum residuum feed is injected into the coker reactor where it is thermally
cracked (typically at 950°F to 1000°F) to a full range of vapor products and a
coke product. This coke product is deposited on the fluidized coke particles.
The sensible heat, heat of vaporization, and endothermic heat of cracking
residuum is provided by a circulating stream of hot coke from the heater.
Cracked vapor products are quenched in the scrubber vessel. The heavier
fractions are condensed in the scrubber and can be recycled back to the coking
reactor. The lighter fractions not condensed in the scrubber proceed overhead
into a conventional fractionator where they are split into gas, naphtha,
distillate, and gas oil products much as a conventional atmospheric crude tower
operates. Reactor coke is circulated to the heater vessel where it is heated by
coke and gas from the gasifier and partially devolatilized, yielding a small
amount of light hydrocarbon gas and residual coke. The circulating coke stream
is sent from the heater to the gasifier where it is reacted at an elevated
temperature between 1500 F to 1800°F with air and steam. In the gasifier, the
mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen
sulfide, and water is formed . This gasifier product gas, referred to as coke gas,
is returned to the heater and is cooled by cold coke from the reactor to provide
a portion of the reactor heat requirement. A return stream of coke sent from
the gasifier to the heater provides the remainder of the heat requirement.
Energy is recovered from the hot gas leaving the heater by using it to generate
high pressure steam. After coke fines removal from the gas in cyclones and
Venturi scrubbers, the solids-free coke gas is sent to a hydrogen sulfide removal
unit.
11-273
-------
SIMPLIFIED FLEXICOKING FLOW PLAN
STEAM
-------
The lighter fractions from the coker gas concentration unit are sent to a
multitude of process units within the refinery complex. The butane and lighter
off gases are sent to the unsaturates gas plant along with light gas from the
catalytic cracking unit. The coker naphtha is sent to the naphtha desulfurizer
unit for removal of sulfur, nitrogen, and light ends prior to catalytic reforming.
Coker distillate is combined with atmospheric gas oil from the crude distillation
unit and is sent to the distillate hydrocracker. Finally, the coker gas oil is
combined with virgin vacuum gas oils and sent to the gas oil desulfurizer prior
to feeding the catalytic cracking unit.
There is some net coke production—in this case about 20 tons per day. This net
production is necessary to purge metals from the system. The coke purge can
be from the heater, third stage cyclone scrubber, or Venturi scrubber. The
purge coke is maintained in a closed system and is transported to silo storage.
UOP MEROX PROCESS
Introduction
The UOP Merox process is a catalytic process, developed for the removal of
sulfur present as mercaptans (Merox extraction). The process is based on the
ability of a sulfonated cobalt phthalocyanine catalyst to accelerate the
oxidation of mercaptans to disulfides at or near ambient temperatures. Oxygen
is supplied from the atmosphere. The reaction will proceed only in a strongly
alkaline environment; the overall reaction can be written:
RSH + 1/4 02 — 1/2 RSSR + 1/2 HgO
Mercaptans are more or less completely removed using caustic soda solution as
the extraction solvent, with subsequent regeneration of the solvent by bringing
it into contact with air and catalyst, followed by separation of the disulfides
which are insoluble in the solvent (see Figure 12, Merox Extraction).
Process Flow
The fresh feed is charged to an extraction column, in which mercaptans are
counter currently extracted by a caustic stream containing Merox catalyst. The
treated material passes overhead to a settler in which any entrained caustic
solution is separated and returned to the circulation system. The mercaptan-
rich caustic solution from the bottom of the extraction column flows to the
regeneration section through a steam heater which functions principally to
maintain temperature during cold weather. Air is injected into this stream and
the mixture flows upward through the oxidizer where the mercaptans are
converted to disulfides. The oxidizer effluent flows into the disulfide separator
where spent air, disulfide oil, and the caustic solution are separated. Spent air
is vented to a burner in a nearby process heater while disulfide oil is decanted
and injected into the charge to a hydrotreating unit. The regenerated caustic
stream is returned to the extraction column. Merox catalyst is added
periodically to maintain required activity.
11-275
-------
MEROX EXTRACTION UNIT
-------
Specific Merox Applications
Saturate C3/C4 Merox
Mercaptans are removed from this stream to prepare the isobutane for use in
the HF Alkylation plant and to prepare the propane for hydrogen plant feed.
Flexicoker C3/C4 Merox
This unit prepares feed for the catalytic condensaton unit.
Unsaturates C3/C4 Merox
This unit removes mercaptans from the C3/C4 stream prior to alternate
dispositions of catalytic condensation, alkylation, or gasoline blending.
FCCU Gasoline Merox
This unit is slightly different from the other Merox unit in that the disulfides
are not removed from the gasoline after they are formed from the contained
mercaptans. This type of treating is referred to as Merox sweeting.
SOUR WATER STRIPPER
Introduction
A sour water stripper is used to remove H„S, ammonia, and phenols from
various process water streams produced in the plant.
Specifically these process water streams are from the following units:
• Hydrocracker
• Naphtha Hydrotreater
• FCCU
• LCO Hydrotreater
• Flexicoker
• Crude Distillation Unit
11-277
-------
ACID GAS
SOUR WATER
SOUR water stripper
STRIPPED WATER
^
-------
Process Flow
The operation consists of a simple stripping of the acid gas and ammonia. Sour
water is fed as a single stream to a stripper with a steam scrubber. The
overhead vapor is routed to the sulfur recovery unit. In this case the sour water
stripper will be spared to provide reliability.
AMINE TREATING
Introduction
Amine treating of refinery gases removes hydrogen sulfide and other acid-gas
constituents avoiding significant atmospheric pollution by S02 on combustion of
the gases in fired heaters or boilers.
Process Flow
The process is based on an absorption-regeneration cycle using a
circulating aqueous solution of an alkanolamine which reacts with acidic
gases. Hydrogen sulfide containing feed is contacted countercurrently with
amine solution in an absorption or extraction column. Regenerated solution is
introduced into the top of the absorption column and leaves at the bottom of
the column. Rich solution from the bottom of the extractor exchanges heat
with regenerated solution and is fed to the regenerator column. Acid gases are
stripped in the regenerator, which is equipped with a steam reboiler. Cooled
regenerated solution is recycled to the absorber. Acid gases removed from
solution in the regenerator are cooled, thus condensing the water, which is
refluxed to the regenerator. These acid gases then flow to the sulfur recovery
unit.
Specific Applications
Refinery Fuel Gas
Refinery fuel gas from the various process units is collected in a central system
and then routed to a diethanolamine treating unit where sulfur is removed to a
residual level of approximately 1 grain per 100 SCF.
C3/C4 Saturates
Propane and butane from the saturates gas plant are routed to an amine
contactor for removal of hydrogen sulfide prior to Merox extraction for
mercaptan removal.
11-279
-------
AMINE TREATING UNIT
SWEET FUEL GAS
-------
C3/C4 Unsaturates
This C3/C4 stream is also routed to an amine contactor prior to mercaptan
extraction.
SULFUR RECOVERY UNIT
Introduction
The sulfur recovery unit is designed to recover at least 94 to 95 percent of the
sulfur available as hydrogen sulfide in the acid gas stream from amine treating
gas treating units and in a waste gas stream from a sour water stripper. To
provide security and reliability for complete and continuous sulfur recovery,
two sulfur plants will be provided, each having sufficient capacity to process all
I^S-containing gas streams.
Process Flow
A hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, nitrogen and water vapor mixture effluent from
the sour water stripper (SWS) enters into a separator wherein free liquids are
trapped and drained. An acid gas stream from the amine type gas purification
unit flows into another separator wherein free liquids are trapped and drained.
The SWS gas and all of the process air (less process air required for reheat
burners) is fed to the main process burner, a nozzle mixing, low pressure-drop
burner which is mounted on the inlet to a refractory-lined "reactor furnace."
The total supply of process air is so greatly in excess of the oxygen demand of
the SWS gas that all of the H2S is burned to sulfur dioxide and all of the
ammonia is burned to nitrogen and water vapor. This prevents "plugging"
problems associated with the formation of ammonium sulfate, sulfamic acid,
and other undesirable compounds of nitrogen, hydrogen, and sulfur. Process air
for the reaction is furnished by two 50 percent duty multi-stage centrifugal
blowers.
The acid gas (less acid gas required for reheat burners, and less any acid gas by-
passed to the main process burner to maintain flame temperature) is fed into
the "reactor furnace" at approximately the point of termination of the flame
generated by the SWS gas.
The combustion product of the SWS gas and the acid gas flow through a
restriction (or checkerwall) to enforce mixing of the gases. As the gases mix,
the following reaction takes place:
H2S + 1/2 02 " 1/2 S2 + H20
11-281
-------
It is estimated that the above reaction goes to approximately 60 percent of
completion in the firetube of the Waste Heat Boiler. Oxygen not consumed in
the above (incomplete) reaction combusts a portion of the I^S which does not
enter into the above reaction, forming SC^
Partially reacted process gas is cooled to a temperature of approximately
1600°F by radiation and convection in the fire tube of the waste heat boiler.
The partially reacted process gas then passes through flues in the waste heat
boiler, wherein the following reactions are partially completed:
The net result of the reactions cited above is exothermic. Likewise, the
combustion of NH3 and hydrocarbons (if any) in the feed gas is exothermic. A
portion of the heat produced is removed in the waste heat boiler by generation
of steam at pressures as high as 600 psig, and this steam is available for export
and use as process heat in upstream or downstream processes.
The partially reacted process gases normally depart the boiler at a temperature
of approximately 600°F. Under normal conditions, no sulfur is condensed in the
boiler. At less than maximum rates of production, or under upset conditions,
sulfur may be condensed in the boiler; therefore, the boiler is physically
arranged so that any sulfur so condensed will be drained from the boiler at the
point of minimum process gas temperature.
Process gases flow from the boiler to the first pass of the first sulfur condenser,
an unfired steam generator, which has two isolated tube passes with a common
shell-side pass. In the first pass of this condenser, the process gases are cooled
to a temperature of approximately 320°F, while generating steam at a pressure
of approximately 50 psig. Sulfur is condensed, and flows by gravity through a
seal leg to the sulfur receiver.
Cooled process gases flow overhead to the first reheater (built into the end of
the first stage of the catalytic reactor), wherein they are heated to a
temperature of approximately 533°F by burning approximately 10 percent of the
acid gas stream with sufficient air to maintain stable flame conditions.
Products of combustion of the reheat gas are mixed with the process gas, and
the mixed gases enter into the first catalytic reactor. In the first catalytic
reactor the reaction takes place over an activated alumina catalyst.
Reacted process gases then flow through the tube side of a gas to gas heat
exchanger, being cooled to a temperature of approximately 567^ while
reheating process gases effluent from the third pass of the sulfur condenser to a
temperature of approximately 380°F.
11-282
-------
SULFUR RECOVERY UNIT
AMINE UNIT
ACID GAS
-------
Process gas effluent from the tube side of the gas to gas heat exchanger enter
into the second pass of the first sulfur condenser, wherein they are cooled to a
temperature of approximately 320°F, while generating steam at 50 psig plus
condensing sulfur, which flows through a seal leg to the sulfur receiver.
Process gas effluent from the second pass of the sulfur condenser flow to the
second reheater, wherein they are reheated to a temperature of approximately
413°F by combustion of approximately 5 percent of the acid gas stream with
sufficient air to maintain stable combustion. The mixed products of combustion
from the second reheater and process gas flow downwards through an activated
alumina catalyst in the second stage of the reactor.
Reacted process gas is cooled to approximately 320°F in the first pass of the
second sulfur condenser (similar in design to the first), generating steam and
condensing sulfur which drains to storage.
Process gas effluent from the first pass of the second sulfur condenser flows
through the shell side of the gas to gas exchanger, being reheated to a
temperature of approximately 380°F. Heater gas flows to the third stage of the
catalytic reactor.
Reacted process gas effluent from the third stage of the catalytic reactor is
cooled to a temperature of approximately 320 F in the second pass of the
second sulfur condenser, condensing sulfur which drains to the receiver through
a seal leg by gravity.
Cooled process gas effluent from the second pass of the second sulfur condenser
passes into the coalescer, wherein the velocity of the gas stream is reduced so
as to permit entrained sulfur to separate from the gas by gravity. Tail gas from
the coalescer then flows to the tail gas treater.
Sulfur is periodically pumped from the receiver to remote storage or loading
rack.
TAIL GAS TREATING UNIT
Introduction
The sulfur recovery unit will remove about 95 percent of the sulfur in the
various acid gas streams. To further remove sulfurous emissions, tail gas
cleanup facilities will be required. The Beavon/Stretford process is the likely
choice for this application although others are available which are equivalent in
terms of recovery efficiency. With this process the treated tail gas stream will
contain less than 100 ppm of total sulfur compounds and less than 10 ppm of
hydrogen sulfide.
11-284
-------
Process Description
In the first portion of the process, all sulfur compounds in the Claus tail gas
(S02, Sg, COS, CSJ are converted to H«S. The tail gas is heated to reaction
temperature by mixing with the hot combustion products of fuel gas and air.
This combustion may be carried out with a deficiency of air if the tail gas does
not contain sufficient H„ and CO to reduce all of the SO2 and Sg to H„S. The
heated gas mixture is then passed through a catalyst Ded where an sulfur
compounds are converted to H„S by hydrogenation and hydrolysis. The
hydrogenated gas stream is coolea by direct contact with a slightly alkaline
buffer solution before entering the HgS removal portion of the process.
The Stretford process is then used to remove H„S from the hydrogenated tail
gas. This process involves absorption of the m2S in an oxidizing alkaline
solution. The oxidizing agents in the solution convert the HgS to elemental
sulfur, then are regenerated by air oxidation which floats the sulfur off as a
slurry. This sulfur slurry is then filtered, washed, and melted to recover the
Stretford solution and produce a high purity sulfur product.
11-285
-------
TAIL GAS CLEANUP FACILITIES
hO
oo
ON
-------
THE PACE COMPANY CONSULTANTS & ENGINEERS, INC. 5251 westheimer
P.O. BOX 53473 HOUSTON, TEXAS 77052 AC 713 965-031 1 CABLE: PACECO-HOUSTON TELEX 77-4350
MATERIAL BALANCES
11-287
-------
MATERIAL BALANCES
The basis for the material balance is the linear programming (L.P.) results
prepared by UOP, Inc. We certify that the material balance is reasonable and
will reflect actual plant operations to a reasonable degree of accuracy. Our
basis for checking the reasonability of the material balance is as follows:
• Yields of products from the crude unit were checked based on
independent assays of Alaskan North Slope crude.
• The L.P. results were checked for internal consistency.
• Process unit yields and utilities were checked with our data for
similar units and also with several of our computer process
models.
• The overall L.P. material balance was compared to the process
design for each of the individual units.
The overall feed and product material balance is shown in Drawing 100.
Drawing 101 shows the flow of acid gas throughout the plant. Sources of solid
emissions and waste streams are shown on Drawing 103. Table 1 describes each
of these waste streams and emissions. Finally Table 2 gives the caustic streams
for disposal.
11-288
-------
MATERIAL BALANCE
DRAWING 100
-------
IT PiOIWCT
ran. oai to refinery fuel
SAT. (CRUDE)
CS/C4 TO ROLV/ALKV UMTS
UNSAT(FCCU)
CS/C4 TO POLY/ALKY IMITt
C Off CM
CS/C4 TO FOLY/ALKY UNITS
WsS
10F TOM/»AY
TO VOO
HYDROTHEATER
VOO RECYCLE Mj REACTOR
I
N,S
1.1 TOMS/OA Y
I
NtS
0.4 TOMS/DAY
i
M«S
O.S TOMS/OA Y
I
H**
11* TOMS/DAY
J
»««
ttS TOMS/SAY
NtS
!tj TOM/SAY 114 TONS/OAY
T
WATCH TO NIAim
1S.7 TONS/DAY
t7U TONS/DAY
TO RCFINERY FUEL
SULFUR
RECOVERY
TAIL OAS
CLEANUP
TOTAL 434S TONS/RAY
NN) tl.* TONS/DAY
N*S U4 TOM/OAT
tS TONS/OAY
COKER
FUEL OAS
CLEANUF
COKER LOW-STU FUEL OAS
IS TOMS/DAY
SULFUR
SSS TOM/DAY
SULFUR
SS.S TOMS/OA Y
MYOROCRACKER
ITS TOM/SAY
SOUR fATW
VACUUM OAS OIL
HYDRO TREATER
SSS TONS/DAY
1,0*0 TOMS/DAY
1t1>S TONS/DAY
1*4 TONS/DAY
tss TONS/DAY
L
1.14S TONS/DAY
494 TONS/DAY
FLf XICOKER
SATURATES
OAS CONC.
CRUOE UNIT
ACID GAS/SOUR WATER SYSTEM DRAWING IOI
-------
TOiUCMt
c« *»o«Artc«
EMISSIONS AND WASTE STREAMS
DRAWING 103
-------
TABLE 1
SOLID EMISSIONS
AND WASTES
Quantity
Source
Composition
Disposal
Hydrocracker
146,000 lbs.
every 4 years
Unibon Reactor
Nickel-Moly metals
on Silica Alumina
base catalyst
Metals recovery
109,000 lbs.
every 4 years
Unibon Reactor
Nickel-Moly on
Silica Alumina
base catalyst
Metals recovery
Hydrogen Plant
12,000 lbs.
every 2 years
Feed Treatment
Reactors
ZnO containing
up to 25% ZnS
Toxic solid waste
disposal
45,000 lbs.
every 3 years
Reforming Reactor
Medium %
Nickel Catalyst
Metals recovery
50,000 lbs.
every 4 years
High temperature
shift Reactor
Chromia promoted
Iron catalyst
Toxic.
Solid waste disposal
75,000 lbs.
every 2 years
Low temperature
Shift Reactor
Zinc-Copper
formulation catalyst
Solid waste disposal
15,000 lbs.
every 5 years
Methanator Reactor
High %
Nickel Catalyst
Metals recovery
Sulfur Plant
27,000 lbs.
every 2 years
Reactors
Bauxite Catalyst
Solid waste disposal
FCCU Feed Hydrotreater
570,000 lbs.
every 4 years
Unibon Reactor
Cobalt-Moly metals
on Alumina base
catalyst
Metals recovery
11-289
-------
Table 1 (continued)
Quantity
Source
Composition
Disposal
5. Naphtha Hydrotreater
70,000 lbs.
every 3 years
Hydrotreater Reactors Cobalt-Moly metals
on alumina base
catalyst
Metals recovery
6. Fluid Catalytic Cracking Unit
390 lbs./hr.
Combination of 3rd
stage cyclone and
precipitator fines
(continuous)
FCC Catalyst Fines
containing Silica
Alumina and possibly
traces of rare earth
metals
Could be disposed
of in non-toxic solid
waste disposal location
40 lbs./hr.
Fines escaping to
atmosphere from
precipitator
(continuous)
FCC Catalyst Fines
containing Silica
Alumina and possibly
traces of rare earth
metals
Atmosphere
730 lbs./hr.
Equilibrium FCC
Catalyst withdrawn
to maintain activity
FCC Catalyst
containing Silica
Alumina and
possibly traces of
rare earth metals
Usually a market
for this material
- either to catalyst
Mfg. or refineries
operating with FCC
Units
7. LCO Hydrotreater
225,000 lbs.
every 3 years
Hydrotreater Rx.
Catalyst
Metals recovery
8. Platforming Unit
0.5 lbs./hr. (max.)
Vent gas from CCR
section (continuous)
Catalyst fines
containing Alumina
and small amounts
of Platinum and
metal activator
(0.375 Pt. and 0.3
activator)
Atmosphere
11-290
-------
Table 1 (continued)
Quantity
3 lbs./hr. (max.)
Source
Fines from elutriator
sent to collection
drums
Composition
Catalyst Fines
Disposal
Metals recovery
Merox Unit
50,000 lbs.
every 5 years
FCC Gasoline
Minalk Reactor
Carbon
Non-toxic solid
disposal
10. Clay Treater
300,000 lbs.
every 2 years
BTX Clay
Treater
A synthetic clay
material made by
Filtrol (as one
example of a Mfg.)
containing residual
aromatics, and
heavy polymer like
material
Toxic disposal because
of difficulty in stripping
all aromatics off
of spent clay, and
nature of polymer
11. Polymer Gasoline Unit
175,000 lbs.
every 3 months
Catalytic
Condensation
Reactor
Phosphoric Acid
on Kieselguhr base
Neutralize with
Na„ C03 and then
dispose of as non-
toxic waste or sell
to fertilizer companies
12. HF Alkylation Unit
21,000 lbs.
per month
C3-C4 Alumina
Treaters
Alumina containing
up to 15% A1 Fg
Paving gravel
45,000 Lb.
every 3 years
Feed Alumina Driers
Alumina containing
some carbonaceous
material
Paving gravel
11-291
-------
Table 1 (continued)
Quantity
Source
Composition
Disposal
200,000 lbs.
per year
Neutralization Pit
Primarily CaF2
with some lime
Ca(OH)„
Considered toxic
because
of unreacted lime
left in sludge. Toxic
waste disposal faci-
lities would have
to be considered.
If purity of CaF„
is greater than Jflj-
97%, then HF acid
mgf. Co. will reclaim.
However, normally
purity is not this
great and some sort
of washing and filtering
would be necessary.
Best would be to seal in drums
and send to a company
that deals in toxic
solid waste disposal,
in proper and approved
location, of course.
11-292
-------
TABLE 2
SPENT CAUSTIC STREAMS
MEROX
SPENT
5 Baume'
Cg/C4 Saturate
Cg/C^ Unsaturate
Cg/C^ Flexicoker
FCC Gasoline
13,923
CAUSTIC
10° Baume7
2,630
6,870
770
(LB/DAY)
20" Baume7
1,875
4,900
550
PROPERTIES OF SPENT CAUSTIC
5° Baume Solution
pH
Total Sulfur, wt ppm
Total Nitrogen, we ppm
Phenols, we ppm
Mercaptide
Some residual NaOH and NaCO,
9-12
300-3,000
300-500
1,000-20,000
5
10° Baume Solution -
Specific Gravity
Sulfur (desulfide/Sulfite)
NaOH (free)
Iron Sulfides
Merox Catalyst
Disolved Oil
Caustic 50-70 percent spent
1.017
3.3 weight percent
0 percent
Trace
Trace
1 volume percent
20° Baume Solution -
Sulfur (desulfide)
Sulfur (mercaptide)
Thiosulfude
Thiosulfite
Thiosulfate
NAOH (free)
NaOH (combined)
Merox Catalyst
Caustic no more than 30
200 weight percent
100 weight percent
8-10 weight percent
4-6 weight percent
100-200 weight ppm
percent spent
11-293
-------
THE PACE COMPANY CONSULTANTS & ENGINEERS, INC. 5251 WESTHEIMER
P.O. BOX 53473 HOUSTON, TEXAS 77052 AC 71 3 965-031 1 CABIE: PACECO-HOUSION TELEX 77-4350
INTERMITTENT PROCESS OPERATIONS
11-294
-------
INTERMITTENT PROCESS OPERATIONS
INTRODUCTION
During certain intermittent operations some processes produce emissions which
are not produced during normal operation. In general these intermittent modes
are:
• Start-up
• Shutdown
• In situ Catalyst Regeneration
• Furnace Decoking
• Equipment Cleaning
The following sections describe the general procedures involved and the
resulting emissions during typical unit intermittent operations.
GENERAL SHUTDOWN PROCEDURES
In general the shutdown of each unit is nearly the same. The basic steps are as
follows:
1. Cut fire to process heaters.
2. Cut out charge.
3. Depressure to the closed flare system.
4. Drain liquids to feed or product storage or slop tanks.
5. Steam out to the flare system to free the unit of hydrocarbons.
To the extent that sulfur and/or nitrogen compounds are present in these units
there will be emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrous oxides as these materials
are combusted by the flare.
CRUDE DISTILLATION UNIT
Start-up
The start-up of this unit is as follows:
1. Introduce oil to inventory pans.
2. Circulate oil throughout the system.
3. Apply heat to the crude oil feed.
11-295
-------
The crude unit produces some wet gas which is handled by the saturates gas
concentration unit, thus it is necessary to commence operation of the gas
concentration unit before commissioning the crude unit. While it is
theoretically possible to bring the unit on stream with no flaring of produced
wet gas, some minor amount of flaring may be unavoidable.
Furnace Steam/Air Decoking
As the crude oil flows through the process furnace and is heated, some small
amount of coking occurs on the interior of the furnace tubes. These coke
deposits gradually accumulate and retard heat transfer resulting in excessive
tube wall temperatures. As a result, it is necessary to remove this coke from
the furnace tubes of both the atmospheric and vacuum heaters approximately
every two years. This removal is effected by a procedure known as steam/air
decoking.
Steam/air decoking refers to the cleaning of furnace tubes by the action of
steam and air on the coke deposit. Coke is removed by three distinct processes:
1. Shrinking and cracking the coke loose by heating the tubes from
the outside while steam flows through the tube.
2. Chemical reaction of hot coke and steam (coal gas reaction)
producing CO, CC>2 and H2«
3. Chemical reaction of coke with oxygen in air, producing CO and
The mechanics of decoking are usually divided into two periods, "spalling" and
"burning". During spalling, steam only is passed through the tubes at a fairly
high rate while the furnace is fired. As much as 90 to 95 percent of coke can be
removed with proper operation. The remaining coke is removed during the
burning period when both air and steam are passed through the tubes.
Procedure
1. PreUminaj;^
The tubes are steamed out through the normal furnace discharge lines for
thorough purging of hydrocarbons. The furnace is then isolated from other
process equipment by means of blinds; connected to the air-steam
manifold; and all decoking lines and instruments installed.
Steam is introduced into all coils prior to lighting the burners. If the
furnace is a combination oTF and gas-fired type, gas only should be used
since it allows better control and observation. Normally, the firing rate is
hand controlled. Uniform heat distribution within the fire box is essential
11-296
-------
in order to prevent "local" overheating of the tubes. The firing rate is gradually
increased to bring fire box temperature up to 900-1000°F at a rate of about
300°F per hour.
2. Spelling
The furnace is brought up to 1,200-1,250°F and held at this temperature
through the steam spalling period or until introduction of air. With low
fire in the heater box, the color changes in the tubes are more readily
detected. Simultaneous with the increase of firebox temperature,
increase the steam rate until spalling begins and regulate for a maximum
outlet of 1,000°F.
If spalling has not started by the time the maximum steam rate
(18 lb/sec/sq.ft.) is reached, several methods may be used to promote
spalling:
a. Alternately reducing and increasing steam quantity.
b. Lowering fire box temperature 100° - 200°F.
c. Adding small amounts of air for several minutes.
d. Reversing flow through the coil.
The extent of spalling is followed constantly by observing the color of the water
quenching a sample of the effluent gas. When spalling begins the water turns
from a milky color to gray to black and will contain fine particles of coke.
3. Burning
Prior to burning, the furnace temperatures are reduced 100° - 200°F and
steam rate to approximately one-third (6 lb/sec/sq.ft.) of the maximum.
Air is then added to the steam in slowly increasing amounts. The steam-
air ratio is adjusted to burn coke at the maximum rate without
overheating the tubes. The usual weight ratio of steam to air is about
10:1. Burning is best controlled by observing the tube metal temperature
and appearance of the tube. A tube that is burning properly will have a
cherry red (1300°F) hot spot, one to two feet long, which moves along the
tube as burning progresses. When there is heavy coke laydown in the tube,
the entire tube length may be cherry red. If temperature rises to bright
red, air flow is decreased.
During burning, tubes are periodically flushed with full steam rate to blow
out loose coke and ash. Toward the end of the burning period, the air rate
is increased to clean out last traces of coke. The completion of burning is
indicated by a drop in the CO^ content of the effluent gas.
11-297
-------
4. Cooling
When decoking is complete, air is shut off and firing rates decreased.
Steam flow is maintained through the tubes as the furnace cools. Control
of cooling rate, 200°F/Hr., (300°F maximum) is important especially when
rolled-on headers are used. When the furnace is cool it is flushed with
water before hydrostatic test.
UOP CONTINUOUS PLATFORMER
Start-up
The major steps in the start-up of this unit are as follows:
1. Evacuate the reactor system to remove oxygen. The system is
tested for leaks at 20-25 in. mercury vacuum by observing the
unit pressure after evacuation. If pressure rises there is air
leakage into the system.
2. Purge and pressure to 5 psig using nitrogen.
3. Pressure to 50 psig with natural gas and test for leaks using a
soap solution technique.
4. Circulate natural gas with recycle compressor for unit dry out.
5. Purge fractionation system with steam or nitrogen. Pressure
test this system at 100 psig.
6. Purge hydrogen make-up compressor.
7. Establish levels and warm up the debutanizer.
8. Begin operations and achieve design conditions.
SULFOLANE UNIT
Start-up
1. Establish solvent loop circulation.
2. Bring in condensate and pump to the raffinate wash column.
3. Begin solvent circulation to the contactor.
4. Bring in reformate feed.
11-298
-------
3. Begin solvent circulation to the contactor.
4. Bring in reformate feed.
GAS CONCENTRATION UNITS
Start-up
The gas concentration units should result in no emissions during intermittent
operations. The basic start-up procedure is to:
1. Bring in gasoline from storage.
2. Circulate throughout the unit.
3. Begin heating with reboilers.
4. Bring in vapor feed and liquid and line out at design conditions.
FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING UNIT (FCCU)
Start-up
The general procedure is as follows:
1. Heat regenerator vessel using start-up air heater.
2. Purge main fractionator with nitrogen.
3. Introduce oil to the main fractionator and circulate. Bring in
fluid catalyst to the regenerator.
4. Add torch oil to the regenerator to increase temperature.
5. Begin catalyst circulation between the reactor and regenerator.
6. Cut oil to the reactor and bring to design conditions.
ALKYLAHON UNIT
Start-up
The major steps for start-up are as follows:
1. Remove oxygen from the unit with a nitrogen purge.
2. Establish as closely as possible hydrocarbon circulation at
design conditions but without olefins.
11-299
-------
GAS CONCENTRATION UNITS
Start-up
The gas concentration units should result in no emissions during intermittent
operations. The basic start-up procedure is to:
1. Bring in gasoline from storage.
2. Circulate throughout the unit.
3. Begin heating with reboilers.
4. Bring in vapor feed and liquid and line out at design conditions.
FLUID CATALYTIC CRACKING UNIT (FCCU)
Start-up
The general procedure is as follows:
1. Heat regenerator vessel using start-up air heater.
2. Purge main fractionator with nitrogen.
3. Introduce oil to the main fractionator and circulate. Bring in
fluid catalyst to the regenerator.
4. Add torch oil to the regenerator to increase temperature.
5. Begin catalyst circulation between the reactor and regenerator.
6. Cut oil to the reactor and bring to design conditions.
ALKYLATION UNIT
Start-up
The major steps for start-up are as follows:
1. Remove oxygen from the unit with a nitrogen purge.
2. Establish as closely as possible hydrocarbon circulation at
design conditions but without olefins.
3. Reduce the water content of the hydrocarbon circulating
stream to 50 ppm water by drawing water from the unit and by
circulating through the feed dryers.
11-300
-------
4. Establish acid circulation.
5. Introduce olefin feed.
The plant is carefully inspected for leaks upon introduction of the acid. If
possible, repairs are made on stream. If not, the unit is shut down for repairs.
GASOLINE POLYMERIZATION UNIT
Start-up
1. Inventory the unit with saturates (propane and butane).
2. Circulate oil.
3. Introduce olefin feed.
Catalyst Dumping
A steam decompression method has been developed to allow catalyst
(phosphoric acid) dumping with no acid run off. Basically, superheated steam is
used to dislodge the spent catalyst from the reactor vessels. The dry catalyst is
then collected in drums. This spent catalyst may be sold to a fertilizer
company.
HYDROCRACKER/HYDROTREATER
Start-up
The basic steps in starting these units are similar and consist of the following:
1. Evacuate.
2. Nitrogen purge for oxygen removal.
3. Circulate nitrogen with recycle compressor.
4. Circulate oil.
5. Bring reactor inlet temperature to 300°F.
6. Bring in hydrogen.
7. Increase reactor temperature to normal operating level.
11-301
-------
After shutdown of the unit a wash with caustic soda is required before opening
the vessel. About 75,000 gallons of caustic soda solution are used and must be
routed to the process water system. This wash is necessary to prevent
formation of polythionic acid which is extremely corrosive.
In Situ Catalyst Regeneration
Catalysts lose their activity due to the accumulation of coke, sulfur, and metals
as a part of the normal operation of the unit. Some catalysts can be
regenerated in place several times while others must be replaced once the
initial activity is lost. At ALPETCO, the only catalysts that may be
regenerated in place are hydrotreating and hydrocracking catalysts. On the
average, these catalysts require regeneration at approximately six month
intervals. The following deposits on the catalyst are typical:
The catalyst is regenerated by burning the deposits from the catalyst yielding
sulfur oxides, carbon dioxide and water. This burn is accomplished by using the
recycle compressor to circulate a steam of nitrogen. A small quantity of air is
injected to provide oxygen for the combustion. The products of combustion are
vented to the atmosphere. Total sulfur emissions during a simple regeneration
will be about six tons (or about 2.7 percent of the total annual S02 emissions
from the refinery); however, this quantity varies with eacn specific
regeneration. The overall regeneration procedure is completed in about four
days.
AMINE UNITS
Start-up
Start-up of these units is as follows:
1. Begin amine circulation.
2. Introduce heat to the regenerator reboiler.
3. Begin acid gas feed.
This unit would be brought into operation before all refinery units, so that there
will be no HgS emissions as the hydrogen sulfide producing units come on
stream.
Weight Percent
on Catalyst
Sulfur
Carbon
4-7
5-25
0.4 - 1.8
Hydrogen
11-302
-------
Prior to start-up the unit is washed with caustic soda to remove trace quantities
of grease and oil which may be present in the closed vessels. This is necessary
to prevent foaming. The wash water is routed to the process water sewers.
MEROX UNIT
Start-up
The steps for start-up of this unit are as follows:
1. Bring in oil.
2. Inventory the caustic/hydrocarbon contactor with caustic.
3. Begin caustic circulation from the regeneration section.
4. Start oxidizing air to the unit.
Fixed Bed Unit Wash
The FCCU gasoline unit which is a fixed bed sweetener requires a contactor
water wash each four to six months. This water is routed to the sour water
stripper system. The total water used for each wash is about 20,840 gallons.
Effluent properties, expressed as parts of contaminant per million parts of total
solution, by weight (Wt PPM), are as follows:
Sand Filters
Sand filters are used to remove trace amounts of caustic entrained overhead of
the caustic/hydrocarbon contactor. Periodically these sand filters must be back
washed with water as pressure drop across the bed increases. This back wash
which contains trace amounts of caustic is routed to the process water sewer.
FLEXICOKER
The Flexicoker start-up sequence is as follows:
1. Start air blower.
pH 9-10
Insolubles
Total Sulfur
Total Nitrogen
Phenols
20 wt PPM
300 wt PPM
15 wt PPM
500 wt PPM
11-303
-------
2. Start heat up with auxiliary burner burning clean gas.
3. Fill oil circuits in fractionation section.
4. When the refractory is hot and dry, start loading coke into unit
and establish circulation between heater and reactor.
5. Establish coke ignition in heater. Caustic treat heater overhead
gas in Venturi scrubber to maintain neutral pH.
6. Cut feed to reactor.
7. Transfer hot coke to gasifier and start gasification operation.
8. Bring unit up to desired feed rate.
11-304
-------
HYDROGEN PLANT
PREPARATION FOR INITIAL START-UP
Gas Production and Purification
1. Activated Carbon Drums
The desulfurization catalyst should be charged to the activated
carbon drums in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
2. Reformer
The initial charging of catalyst into the tubes of the primary
reformer should be carried out in accordance with the catalyst
manufacturer's instructions.
The reforming catalyst should be in the form of rings. The catalyst
is moderately rugged but should not be subjected to abuse such as
overheating (about 1,850 F), rapid changes in temperature, contact
with hot water in the liquid phase, and contamination with
impurities. Any catalyst stored in containers should be protected
from the weather. After the catalyst has been charged to the
reformer tubes, the tube flange covers should be replaced and a
pressure test for leaks should be made using inert gas and soapy
water.
3. CO Converter
The design of the plant requires two types of CO conversion: one
bed of high temperature catalyst and one bed of low temperature
catalyst. Both beds of CO shift converter catalyst should be loaded
according to the manufacturer's instructions. Once the conversion
catalyst has been put into service, it should not be allowed to come
in contact with uncontrolled amounts of air or other oxygen-con-
taining gases. Contacting the catalyst with liquid water or
saturated steam should be avoided at all times. The iron in the
conversion catalyst will react with carbon monoxide at reduced
temperatures to form the toxic compound iron pentacarbonyl.
4. Methanator
The procedure for loading the methanation catalyst is essentially the
same as for charging the CO converters and should be carried out
according to the manufacturer's recommendations.
Under no circumstances should this catalyst be wetted, and once it
has been put in service, it should not be allowed to come in contact
with air, nor should it ever be subjected to a gas stream containing
hydrogen sulfide.
11-305
-------
A combined carbon oxide (CO + CO J or oxygen concentrations in
excess of two percent for longer than a few moments will result in
permanent damage because of the high temperature which will
result.
If the methanator is to be opened or the catalyst removed during a
shutdown, the catalyst should first be oxidized before taking the
vessel out of service. At temperatures below 250°F, the nickel in
the methanation catalyst will react with carbon monoxide to form
the highly toxic and carcinogenic compound nickel carbonyl.
5. COg Absorber
To prepare the CO, absorber for operation, it should first be
inspected to insure Ihat the packing support has been properly
installed. The packing should then be loaded into the absorber by
floating it in, having filled the absorber with water.
After the packing has been installed, the distributor should be
inspected to insure that it will give even distribution of MEA over
the packing.
6. Amine Reactivator*
The amine reactivator is prepared for operation in the same manner
as the CO2 absorber.
7. Amine System*
Before initial operation of the amine system, the entire system
should be thoroughly washed with clear water. This washing can be
accomplished by circulating clear water between the CO„ absorber
and the amine reactivator, using both the normal amine pump and
the spare pump. When this water is clean, the unit should be flushed
with an 0.5 percent MEA solution and circulated for several hours at
about l,50(f F. At the end of this time, the system should be
drained and flushed with clear water. After the flush, the system
should be filled with condensate and circulated. While circulating,
fresh MEA should be added to the system in a sufficient quantity to
make a 20 percent MEA solution. As soon as the MEA solution has
been established and thoroughly mixed, the amine system should be
shut down until all the air in the system can be replaced with purge
nitrogen. Prolonged contact of MEA with air or other
oxygen-bearing gases causes a gradual degradation of the MEA
solution.
Note: Carbonate is often utilized instead of MEA in this service with
similar results.
11-306
-------
8. Purging
After the plant has been thoroughly inspected and made ready to
start up, it should be purged with an inert gas until there is less than
one percent oxygen in the system. As a safety measure, the entire
plant must be shut down before purging is started.
It is not necessary to purge the activated carbon drums with
nitrogen as they will be purged with steam when regenerated for the
first time, with the steam being displaced by natural gas at the end
of the regeneration cycle.
Inert gas should be introduced to the unit downstream of the
activated carbon drums and should be directed to flow through the
primary reformer, the CO converter, the tubes in the MEA reboiler,
the condensate accumulator, the converted gas cooler, condensate
separator, C02 absorber, the methanator, heat exchanger, the gas
cooler, and tnen to the compressor knock-out drum. From the
compressor knock-out drum, the inert gas will flow to the
compressors. While purging the C02 absorber, the amine solution
should be circulated through the vessel to insure that all air pockets
have been removed from the piping and oxygen displaced from the
system.
Initial Start-Up Procedure
After the reformer firebox refractory has been properly dried, steam flow is
started through the steam superheater section and vented to the atmosphere
upstream of the reformer tubes. Once the steam has reached the proper degree
of superheat so that it is dry and colorless, it can be introduced into the tubes
of the reformer. This steam flow should be started when the furnace wall
temperature reaches approximately 1,000° F. As the temperature of the
superheated steam entering the tubes rises, the flow can gradually be increased.
When the temperature at the inlet to the top of the shift converter reaches
700° F, the waste heat boiler should be adjusted in order to maintain this
temperature. Prior to the actual production of hydrogen-rich gas in the
reformer, furnace temperatures should be monitored very closely as the amount
of heat required to merely heat the steam is small compared to that required to
supply the heater reaction once reforming has started. At this point, the
furnace should be heated to a uniform tube temperature of about 1,600° F, top
to bottom.
Reduction of the CO Conversion Catalyst
The shift conversion catalyst as manufactured is in the oxidized state and
contains sulfur. Therefore, it must be reduced and desulfurized during the
initial start-up. This reduction process is exothermic and will result in
temperatures as high as 900 to 1,000° F, unless the start-up is carefully
controlled. Temperatures in this range will severely deactivate the catalyst. It
is important that the high temperature shift converter catalyst be reduced and
11-307
-------
have the sulfur removed prior to attempting to reduce the low temperature
shift converter catalyst. Since hydrogen sulfide and other sulfur-bearing gases
are poisons to the catalyst, reduction of both of these catalysts shall be
conducted under the direction of the catalyst manufacturer, because the
manner in which the catalyst is treated from the very beginning as a significant
effect on the life of the catalyst.
During the reduction of the high temperature shift catalyst, some H2S will be
vented to the atmosphere until all of the sulfur has been removed from the
catalyst. After completion of the above preliminary steps, the plant may be
started up in a normal manner, being careful to check the tube temperatures so
that firing may be adjusted to achieve uniformity during the start-up period.
SULFUR RECOVERY UNIT
Start-Up
1. Slowly warm the furnace to avoid refractory damage. Inert gas or steam
should be used to moderate flame temperatures.
2. Raise inert temperatures to catalyst beds to 400°F and outlets to 300°F.
3. Bring li^S into the plant.
4. Adjust air to achieve the stoichimetric Hydrogen Sulfide/Sulfur Dioxide
ratio.
11-308
-------
THE PACE COMPANY CONSULTANTS & ENGINEERS, INC. 5251 westheimer
P.O. BOX 53473 HOUSTON, TEXAS 77052 AC 713 965-031 1 CABLE: PACECO-HOUSTON TELEX 77-4350
WASTEWATER
11-309
-------
WASTEWATER
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
The proposed refinery will produce several different types of wastewater. The
treatment requirements for each type or category of wastewater vary
considerably. The basic treatment concept for refinery aqueous wastes is to
segregate various types of streams, provide the appropriate treatment for each
type of water, and then combine the treated streams into a single outfall.
Wastewater from the refinery will fall into one of the following categories:
• Clean Storm Runoff
• Contaminated Storm Runoff
• Non-organic Waste Streams
• Ballast Water
• High Oil Waste Streams
• Low Oil Waste Streams
• Sanitary Wastes
RAW WASTE LOAD
Clean Storm Runoff - Runoff from the tank farms and other non-process areas
will be acceptable for direct discharge without treatment except when a spill
occurs. Spills will be contained within the diked areas surrounding each tank.
After a period of rainfall, the water contained within the tank farm dikes will
be tested prior to discharge. Treatment can be provided if the water does not
meet the effluent standard.
Contaminated Storm Runoff - The wastewater treatment system is being
designed on the basis that runoff from the process area (27.3 acres) will require
treatment. A storm surge pond will be required to retain the peak runoff while
releasing water to the treatment system at a constant rate. The storm surge
pond will be sized to handle runoff from a ten year, ten day storm. With
continuous pumping during the storm to the treatment system, the pond would
be completely drained at the end of the tenth day. The expected quality of the
settled storm water is as follows:
Flow
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Chemical Oxygen Demand
Oil and Grease
Total Suspended Solids
600 gpm
200 ppm
500 ppm
50 ppm
40 ppm
11-310
-------
Non-organic Waste Streams - Several waste streams generated in the refinery
are very low in organic contaminants. They do, however, require some
treatment prior to discharge. The wastes falling into this category include:
hydrogen plant wastewater, demineralized regenerant, and boiler blowdown.
Wastewater from the hydrogen plant will be relatively clean. This 132 gpm
stream will have a BOD less than 10 ppm and COD less than 20 ppm. Treatment
in the biotreatment plant can only increase these concentrations and result in
less effective treatment of the plant wastes.
Boiler feed water and some process water will be treated for plant use in a
demineralizer consisting of both a weak acid ion exchanger and a mixed bed ion
exchanger. Sulfuric acid and caustic will be used to regenerate the depleted
resin beds. The spent acid and caustic solutions are then discharged to the
treatment system. The second waste stream from the plant utility system is
boiler blowdown. The flows and characteristics of the two streams are
estimated to be:
Boiler Demineralizer
Blowdown Regenerant
Flow (gpm) 45.0 70
COD (ppm) 201.0 NA
BOD (ppm) 61.0 NA
Phenol (ppm) 0.1 NA
Oil <5c Grease (ppm) 14.0 NA
NH„ (ppm) 3.0 NA
TDS (ppm) 2,500.0 4,000
TSS (ppm) 40.0 NA
pH 9-12 1-13
NA = Not Available
Due to the phosphorus content the boiler blowdown will be treated in the
biological treatment plant. The deionizer regenerant, however, can be
neutralized and directed to the outfall.
Ballast Water - Ballast is taken aboard an empty tanker during its departure
from port and may vary from an average of 1.5 barrels per deadweight ton
displacement to somewhat over 2 barrels during rough weather. The ballast
initially has the characteristics of the body of water from which it was taken;
however, when loaded it is contaminated with the remains of the previous cargo
in the product hold. The degree of ballast contamination is dependent upon the
nature of the previous cargo and the cleanliness of the tanker's holds. The
portion of this ballast unloaded at port depends upon the amount remaining
after discharges of a portion of the ballast at sea. Since water pollution
enforcement affects the amount of ballast discharged at sea, ballast unloaded
at port can be expected to increase as pollution enforcement (worldwide)
becomes more stringent.
11-311
-------
Ballast handling procedures at sea vary considerably with foreign tankers having
the minimum pollution control discipline. The practice of washing ballast tanks
at sea or consolidating dirty ballast into a single tank for discharge continues
even though international pressure has been applied to eliminate all ballast
discharges at sea. The estimated ballast load at the refinery is equivalent to
3.0 barrels per deadweight ton displacement. The system, therefore, will be
capable of treating the full ballast load from a tanker moving in very rough
seas.
Recognizing the variability of ballast handling procedures at sea, the impact of
previous cargo, and the origin of the water, the characteristics of untreated
ballast water will fluctuate widely. Therefore, the characteristics of ballast
water can only be estimated on an average basis. The estimated flow and
constituents are as follows:
Flow 1,530 gpm
COD 420 ppm
BOD 155 ppm
Phenol 30 ppm
Oil ic Grease 50 ppm
TSS 85 ppm
TDS 23,860 ppm
The estimated concentration of phenol in the ballast water is very conservative
in that the concentration is considerably greater than is experienced at most
Gulf Coast refineries.
High Oil Waste Streams - At least four key waste streams in the refinery
contain or have the potential to contain high concentrations of oil. These
streams are from the desalter and the olefin poly plant, spent sulfide caustic,
and the plant oily water.
Desalters are used in petroleum refineries primarily to remove inorganic salts
from incoming crude oil. The inorganic salts are present in the crude oil as an
emulsified aqueous solution of salt. The reasons for desalting crude oils ares
• To avoid plugging and fouling of process equipment by salt
deposition.
• To reduce corrosion caused by the formation of hydrogen
chloride from the chloride salts during processing of the crude
oil.
The wastewater stream from a desalter contains emulsified and occasionally
free oil, ammonia, phenol, sulfide, and suspended solids. The wastewater is
characterized by high biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand,
total dissolved solids, and high temperature. Since the desalter operates on a
level control principle, occasional system malfunctions can discharge very high
11-312
-------
oil concentrations to the sewer. Feed water to the desalter is obtained from
the sour water stripper. The estimated flow and characteristics of the steam
stripped desalter effluent are as follows:
Flow
235
gpm
COD
470
ppm
BOD
300
ppm
Phenol
20
ppm
Oil & Grease
750
ppm
Sulfide
26
ppm
Ammonia
130
ppm
TDS
5,000
ppm
TSS
1,600
ppm
The olefin poly plant produces a high quality gasoline component by
dimerization and trimerization of C„ and C4 mono-olefins over a phosphoric
acid catalyst. Water is added continuously to the feed to hydrolyze the
catalyst. The wastewater from the olefin poly plant may be contaminated with
phosphoric acid ( 100 ppm) and my contain oil ( 500 ppm). Wastewater flow is
estimated to be 14-15 gpm.
Approximately 50 gpm of "oily water" will be generated from the tankage,
machine shop, and plant washdown area. The stream will contain approximately
1,000 ppm of oil. Another source of wastewater to the oily water system is the
steam condensate from the vacuum distillation unit. The flow of vacuum jet
condensate is about 64 gpm and it contains oil and cracked hydrocarbons.
The major source of sulfide caustic are the caustics and water washes in the
hydrocarbon, which feeds to the alkylation unit (515) and the olefin poly plant.
Sulfur compounds must be limited to low levels to satisfy product sulfur content
specifications and to improve the octane rating in product gasolines. Aqueous
solutions of sodium hydroxide (NaOH), commonly referred to as caustic, are
used to remove the acidic sulfur compounds. The resulting 0.5 gpm of spent
caustic has a very high sodium sulfide and sodium mercaptide content.
Low Oil Waste Streams - Although contaminated with organics, wastewater
from the bottom of the sour water stripper, the tail gas cleanup, and the HF
alkylation contain very low concentrations of oil compared to oily waste
streams.
Sour water originates in several process operations in the refinery. Many of the
processes use steam as a stripping medium in distillation and as a diluent to
reduce the hydrocarbon partial pressure in catalytic or thermal cracking. The
steam is eventually condensed as an aqueous effluent commonly referred to as
"sour or foul water." Condensation of the steam usually occurs simultaneously
with the condensation of hydrocarbon liquids and in the presence of a
hydrocarbon vapor phase containing hydrogen sulfide. Thus, the condensed
steam will usually contain hydrogen sulfide which imparts an unpleasant odor
and hence the name "sour water." The estimated sour water flows from the
various contributing process units are as follows:
11-313
-------
Crude and Vacuum Distillation
72
gpm
Flexicoker
187
gpm
Naphtha HDS
45
gpm
Hydrocracker
60
gpm
Heavy Gas Oil HDS
181
gpm
Cycle Oil HDS
21
gpm
Catalytic Cracker and
Unsaturated Gas Plant
138
gpm
TOTAL
804
gpm
A portion of the stripper bottoms is used as makeup to the desalter unit. The
remainder is sent to the waste treatment facility. The stripper bottom flow to
the wastewater treatment plant and its expected characteristics are as follows:
Flow 569 gpm
Phenol 20 ppm
Oil <5c Grease 2 ppm
Sulfide 26 ppm
NH3-N 20-130 ppm
Approximately 10 gpm of solution will be purged from the Stretford tail gas
cleanup system. The Stretford process treats various gas streams for sulfur
removal. The wastewater is estimated to contain the following constituents:
Sodium Carbonate
20,500
ppm
Anthraquinone Disulfonate
2,200
ppm
Sodium Vanadate
6,200
ppm
Sodium Thiosulfate
172,000
ppm
Sodium Sulfate
103,000
ppm
Rochelle Salt*
845
ppm
*KNaC4H40g-4H20
Alkylation plant spent caustic comes from washing products to remove trace
amounts of hydrofluoric acid and from the neutralization of hydrofluoric acid
leaks and spills. All fluoride bearing caustic is lime treated in the alkylation
unit neutralization pit where all fluoride is removed as insoluble calcium
fluoride sludge. The total flow from this area is estimated to be 2 gpm.
PROPOSED TREATMENT SYSTEM
A schematic diagram of the proposed wastewater treatment system is given in
Figure WWT-1. Table WWT-1 is the estimated raw waste load and treatment
plant performance.
11-314
-------
Discharge 1, uncontaminated storm water, is routed directly to the common
outfall and will be monitored during storm conditions to ensure effluent quality.
The wastewater produced by regenerating the water plant demineralizers
contains the same quantities of organic material found in the water supply. The
pH of the stream will vary from highly acidic to highly basic depending on the
phase of the regeneration cycle. The regenerant wastewater streams are routed
to an equalization tank where adequate retention time (24 hours) allows for
partial self-neutralization of the stream. Following equalization, the stream
enters a neutralization tank where pH is controlled to a range of 6 to 9 before
discharge.
Wastewater from the hydrogen plant is essentially free of organic
contamination. Therefore, this stream is directed to the regenerate
equalization tank rather than biological treatment. The buffering capacity of
the stream also assists in neutralizing the acid streams.
Ballast water characteristics can vary significantly depending on several
previously discussed factors. The proposed system will provide treatment
within the normally anticipated range of characteristics. Since ships are
deballast at very high flow rates, the water will be pumped to a receiving tank.
The receiving tank will be steam traced to allow for rapid oil/water separation.
Water in the receiving tank is pumped at constant rate to the primary oil
separator, which is a corrugate plate interceptor (CPI).
The plate separator operates on the principle of reducing the distance oil must
travel before reaching the collecting surface. The oil particles coalesce on the
underside of the plates and creep up to the surface of the water. The distance
an oil drop travels before being trapped is only a few inches versus a few feet in
the API separator. The plate separator is sensitive to flow and oil
concentration changes. Therefore, the upstream ballast receiving tank is
essential to ensure maximum treatment efficiency.
Following gross oil and solids removal, alum and polymer are added to further
coagulate oil and solids. These residual materials are removed in a dissolved air
flotation unit.
The primary treatment methods used for ballast water treatment are designed
to remove free and emulsified oil plus suspended solids. The chemical oxygen
demand (COD) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of the wastewater will be
reduced by a rotating of biological contractor. The system is identical to that
used for process wastewater described in detail later. Effluent suspended solids
generated by biological treatment are removed by a clarifier. Final polishing
using a pressure filter will ensure maximum effluent quality.
A process option existed to either treat ballast water separately or in
combination with process water. International agreements and Coast Guard
regulations are leading to a future requirement that all ballast be clean and
segregated. When this occurs the biotreatment of ballast will be unnecessary.
Therefore, the two biotreatment systems were segregated so that ballast could
11-315
-------
be phased out without upsetting process wastewater treatment. Identical
systems were used for each wastewater so that treatment units could be
switched to different service if required.
After best available demonstrated treatment, ballast is mixed with the
inorganic wastewater in the equalization basin.
After equalization and neutralization, the treated ballast plus non-organic
waste stream will comprise discharge 2. The discharge will be monitored and
combined with other plant streams prior to final discharge. Since ballast
consists primarily of sea water the dissolved solids concentration should be
completely compatible with the receiving stream. Equalization and
neutralization represent best available technology for the non-organic waste
streams.
The boiler blowdown will contain relatively high concentrations of dissolved
solids, some suspended solids, BOD, and phosphorus. The suspended solids will
be primarily inorganic divalent cation salts. Since the phosphorus is an essential
nutrient for biological treatment, boiler blowdown will be mixed with deoiled
process water and treated at the main treatment facility.
The basic treatment concept for oily waste streams consists of oil removal,
biological oxidation, and suspended solids removal.
The sulfide caustic stream will be pretreated in-plant using air oxidation to
convert sulfide to thiosulfates and sulfates. The oxidation of sulfide is a water
phase direct reaction with oxygen in solution. The oxidation is an exothermic
reaction producing a significant amount of heat. Since the reaction rate of
sulfide and oxygen in the vapor phase is much slower than a liquid, the excess
heat must be dissipated to prevent sulfide stripping. Heat dissipation is
accomplished in three ways: heating of the solution, heating of the air, and
vaporization of water which leaves the column with excess air. Sulfides
stripped in the column must be redissolved and oxidized. The effluent from the
oxidation column will contain only trace quantities of sulfide.
The effluent from the oxidation tower is combined with water from the
desalter, the olefin poly plant, and the oily water sewer and is routed to an API
separator. Since each of these streams contain or has the potential to contain
very high oil concentrations, the API separator is necessary to protect
downstream operations.
Contaminated storm runoff is collected in an impoundment bases. This surge
pond is used to collect the peak runoff and allow treatment at a controlled flow
rate. The surge pond will be sized to collect runoff from a ten year, ten day
storm. Water is released from the system at a constant rate equivalent to one
tenth of the design volume per day. Initially estimates indicate that a constant
maximum flow rate of 600 gallons per minute can be expected. A surface oil
skimmer is provided to remove any floating oil from the pond. The surface
skimmer will discharge to the API separator. This allows for a greater pumping
rate (more water in oil), and the oil concentration in the pond will be kept at a
very low level.
11-316
-------
The effluent from the API separator is combined with the effluent from the
storm surge pond. Following primary oil removal, alum and polymers are added
to the oily waste streams. The chemicals provide a medium by which the very
small oil particles can combine and grow to a size more easily separated from
the water. The floculated wastewater is then further treated for oil removal in
a dissolved air flotation (DAF) unit.
The DAF for process water and ballast water are similar in design. Effluent
from the unit is pumped to a pressurization tank where the water is saturated
with air at 35 to 55 psig. The saturated recycle is then combined with the
influent water at atmospheric pressure. The drop in pressure results in the
formation of very small bubbles. These bubbles adhere to the floculated
particles and reduce their specific gravity sufficiently to produce a froth of oil
and suspended solids on the surface of the unit. The froth is then skimmed from
the unit and sent to the solid waste disposal system.
Wastewater from the sour water stripper, the sulfur plant tail gas cleanup, and
pretreated HF alkylation wastes will have relatively low oil concentration.
These waste streams are combined with deoiled process wastes and ballast
water for biological oxidation. The combined streams are neutralized prior to
bio-treatment to ensure maximum treatment efficiency. Nutrient in the form
of phosphoric acid will be added at this stage as required.
Biological oxidation of soluble organic molecules in the deoiled wastewater will
be achieved using a rotating biological contactor (RBC). A typical RBC unit
consists of a series of thin, large diameter corregated plastic discs mounted on
a central steel shaft to form unified treatment module. Micros-organisms
adhere to the surface of the discs, which are partially (approximately
40 percent) submerged in the wastewater to be treated. As the discs are
rotated, the micro-organisms are alternately exposed to the wastewater and to
the air. Aeration occurs mainly when the biological filter is exposed to the air.
At times the oxygen demand can exceed this natural transfer capacity of
systems and supplemental aeration may be helpful to maintain high organic
removal.
The discs can be turned using either a mechanical chain driver or using an
aeration system. In the mechanical system each shaft is connected by a drive
chain to its own motor. In the aeration system a small diameter pipe is
submerged in the water near an edge of the discs. This pipe is parallel to the
shaft and is fitted with several orifices. The individual discs in this system are
fitted with cup like devices. As air discharges from the small diameter pipe, it
catches in a cup causing that side of the disc to become more buoyant and
results in rotation. A single blower can be used for all the shafts in this system.
As the biomass metabolizes organics in the wastewater, the biological growth
on the discs increases. Eventually rotational stress shears a portion of the
biomass from the surface of the disc. Typical of fixed growth biological
systems, the excess sludge sloughs from the discs in an agglomerated mass. In
this condition the sludge is quite amenable to gravity clarification.
Even though the clarifier will yield a very low effluent suspended solids
concentration, a multimedia polishing filter will be added to ensure maximum
effluent quality.
11-317
-------
EFFLUENT GUIDELINES
The proposed wastewater discharge is covered by the "Effluent Guidelines and
Standards for Petroleum Refining, Cracking Subcategory." In order to calculate
the applicable effluent limitations the refinery process configuration must be
calculated. The computation is provided in Table WWT-2. The process
configuration (7.63) yields a process factor of 1.29. The size factor is 1.41.
Using these two factors, the discharge limits on process wastewater are
calculated in Table WWT-3.
Any storm water treated in the process wastewater treatment system increases
the allowable discharge under the EPA guidelines. The allocation for storm
water is presented in Table WWT-4.
Ballast water is also covered under the new source performance standards.
Table WWT-5 summarizes these limits.
The projected effluent quality for the process wastewater treatment system and
the guideline limitations are compared in Table WWT-6. In every case the
projected effluent quality is considerably better than the required guidelines
limit.
The ballast water system is compared to guidelines in Table WWT-7. The
system proposed will provide considerably better treatment than is required by
the guidelines.
11-318
-------
TABLE WWT-1
ESTIMATED WASTE LOAD AND TREATMENT PLANT PERFORMANCE
i
u>
«
Stream Number
Description
Average Flow (GPM)
COD (ppm)
BOD (ppm)
Phenol (ppm)
Oil & Grease (ppm)
Sulfide (ppm)
NHj(ppm)
TDS (ppm)
TSS (ppm)
pi!
1
Uncontaminated
Storm
Water
(Discharge)
( 1 )
N.A.
N.A.
TOC <35
N.A.
<15
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
6-9
Demineralizer
Regenerant
70
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
4,000
N.A.
1-13
Hydrogen
Plant
25
<20
<10
<10
<10
<10
<10
<10
<10
<10
Ballast
Water
1,530
420
155
30
50
(1)
(1)
32,860
85
Treated
Ballast
1,530
138
15
0.17
8
0.14
32,B60
15
6-9
Disohnrge
2
1,625
<100
15
<0.17
< 8
<0.14
31.112
<15
6-9
7
Sulfide
Caustic
0.5
50,350
8,44(1
22
N.A.
40,R0(1
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
12.7
-------
Table WWT-1 (Continued)
Stream Number
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Olefin
High
Contaminated
Desnlter
Poly
Oily
Oil
Storm
API
IMF
Description
Effluent
Plant
Water
Water
Water
Effluent
Effluent
Average Flow (GPM)
235(2)
15
114
364.5
600
365-065
365-065
COP (ppm)
470(1)
N.A.
N.A.
--
500(5)
5f>n(6)
3sn(fi)
BOD (ppm)
300
N.A.
N.A.
--
N.A.
3nn(fi)
30(r>)
Phenol (ppm)
20
N.A.
N.A.
--
N.A.
70
-------
Table WWT-1 (Continued)
Stream Number
15
16
17
18
19
_20
_2\
Toil
ClnrirTori
Filtrrprl
Boiler
Stripper
Gas
HF
Primary
Biotronlec!
rfflunnt
Description
Blowdown
Bottom
Clean-up
Alkylation
Effluent
Effluent
(Dishnrgc
991-
991-
on i -
Average Flow (GPM)
45
569
10
2
1591
1591
1591
COD (ppm)
201<4)
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
.inn
1 35
1 1 5
BOD (ppm)
61(4)
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
150
.in
15
Phenol (ppm)
0.1(4)
20
N.A.
N.A.
20
n. 17
0. 17
Oil & Grease (ppm)
14(4)
>2 ^
N.A.
50
12
8
8
Sulfide (ppm)
N.A.
26
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
n. 14
0.14
NHj (ppm)
3(4)
20
N.A.
N.A.
25
9
9
TDS (ppm)
2,500
N.A.
N.A.
27 ,500
2,000
2,000
2,000
TSS (ppm)
40 *4)
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
40
30
15
PH
12 (4)
N.A.
N.A.
12.8^
6-9
6-9
6-9
-------
TABLE WWT-2
CALCULATION OF PROCESS CONFIGURATION
Crude Atmospheric Distance 150,000 BPD 1.00
Vacuum Distance 79,850 BPD 0.53
Desalting 150,000 BPD 1.00
2.53 x 1 = 2.53
Cracking Fluid Catalytic Cracking 65,141 BPD 0.43
and Vis-Breaking 0 0
Coking Thermal Cracking 0 0
Moving Bed Catalytic Cracking 0 0
Hydrocracking 37,070 BPD 0.25
Fluid Coking 25,475 BPD 0.17
Delayed Coking 0 0_
0.85 x 6 = 5.10
Lube 0 0
Asphalt 0 0_
Process Configuration 7.63
Cracking Subcategory
Process Factor 1.29
Size Factor 1.41
1.82
11-322
-------
TABLE WWT-3
DISCHARGE LIMITS FOR PROCESS WASTEWATER
lbs/1,000 Barrels Feed Stock
lbs/Day
B0D5
TSS
COD
O&G
Phenolics
NHg-N
Sulfide
Cr Total
+6
Cr
PH
Maximum
5.8
4.0
41.5
1.7
0.042
6.6
0.037
0.084
0.0072
6-9
Average
3.1
2.5
21.0
0.93
0.02
3.0
0.017
0.049
0.0032
Daily
Maximum
1,583
1,092
11,330
464
11.5
1,802
10.1
22.9
1.96
6-9
Monthly
Average
846
682
5,733
254
5.46
819
4.64
13.4
0.87
11-323
-------
TABLE WWT-4
STORM WATER ALLOCATION TO PERMIT
lbs/1,000 Gallons of Water lbs/Day
Daily Monthly
Maximum Average Maximum Average
BOD5 0.4 0.21 346 181.4
TSS 0.27 0.17 233 147
COD 3.1 1.6 2,678 1,382
O&G 0.126 0.067 109 58
Flow = 600 Gallons Per Minute Average
864 M Gallons Per Day
11-324
-------
TABLE WWT-5
NSPS BALLAST WATER DISCHARGE LIMITATIONS
lbs/1,000 Gallons Effluent Limits lbs/Day
Daily Monthly
Maximum Average Maximum Average
BOD5 0.40 0.21 881 463
TSS 0.27 0.17 595 374
COD 3.9 2.0 8,592 4,406
0<5cG 0.126 0.067 278 148
Flow = 1,530 Gallons Per Minute
2,203 M Gallons Per Day
11-325
-------
TABLE WWT-6
COMPARISON OF NSPS AND PROJECT EFFLUENT QUALITY
Average Monthly lbs/day
Dry Weather
Wet Weather
BOD
TSS
COD
O&G
Phenolics
nh3-n
Sulfide
Cr Total
+6
Cr
pH
NSPS
846
682
5,733
254
5.46
819
4.64
13.4
0.87
6-9
Flow (gpm)
Projected
Effluent
178
178
1,368
95
2.02
107
1.67
6-9
NSPS
1,028
829
7,115
312
Projected
Effluent
287
287
2,198
153
991
1,591
11-326
-------
TABLE WWT-7
COMPARISON OF NSPS AND PROJECT
EFFLUENT QUALITY FOR BALLAST
WATER SYSTEM
Average Monthly lbs/Day
NSPS Projected Effluent
BOD 463 276
TSS 374 276
COD 4,406 2,536
O&G 148 147
Flow (gpm) = 1,530
11-327
-------
THE PACE COMPANY CONSULTANTS & ENGINEERS, INC. 52 51 WtSTHEIMER
P.O. BOX 53473 HOUSTON, TEXAS 77052 AC 713 965-0311 CABLE: PACECO-HOUSTON TELEX 77-4350
ALTERNATE PROCESS DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
11-328
-------
ALTERNATE PROCESS DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
INTRODUCTION
The design of the planned ALPETCO refinery and petrochemical complex is
based on several criteria which affect both the selection of processes for the
plant and their design characteristics. These criteria include:
• Minimal production of residual fuel oil
• Plant to be fueled entirely with by-product gas
• Refinery configuration to be compatible with the manufacture of
petrochemicals
• All designs to be based on well-proven technology
These criteria are based on a blend of environmental and economic
considerations. Residual fuel oil from the Alaskan crudes is extremely high in
sulfur and will produce considerable amounts of sulfurous oxides upon
combustion (1.14 pounds per million BTU). The virgin fuel oil is therefore
unsalable in the West Coast or Japanese markets and, for the same
environmental reasons, unusable as plant fuel. These constraints dictate a high
conversion refinery in which transportation fuel and petrochemical production is
maximized. With no production of heavy fuel oils the refinery must be fueled
either by gas produced in the process units or by a sweetened light oil.
The decision to provide a process flow scheme compatible with petrochemical
production is largely economic and is based on market supply/demand
projections.
Given these basic criteria, the processing scheme takes on fewer possible
variations and begins to crystallize.
ESSENTIAL PROCESSES
ALPETCO's refining operations will be heavily oriented toward conversion of
relatively lower valued fuel oils to higher valued premium transportation fuels
and petrochemicals. While there are several possible variations in the
processing scheme consistent with such an operation, the overall refinery
configuration is largely set by current technology. As a result, many of the
processes planned by ALPETCO are basic refining units for which there are no
practical alternatives. These units include the following:
11-329
-------
• Crude Distillation
The first step in any refining operation is separation of crude oil
into fractions according to boiling point by atmospheric and
vacuum distillation. No alternative technology exists; this
process is essential.
• Gas Concentration Units
This process is required in all major refineries to remove
valuable and heavier components from lighter gases sent to
the plant fuel system as well as to remove light ends from the
liquid products.
• Naphtha Hydrotreating/Catalytic Reforming/Aromatics
Recovery
Reforming of naphtha feedstocks from the atmospheric
distillation unit (straight run feedstock) and other units (cracked
feedstock) is essential for production of aromatics (benzene,
toluene, and xylene for petrochemical sales and heavier
aromatics for gasoline blending). The naphtha hydrotreater is
absolutely essential to protect the reformer catalyst from
poisoning by sulfur, nitrogen, and metals. The aromatics
extraction process and downstream distillation towers used for
separation of the aromatics products represent the standard
method used throughout the industry for petrochemical
manufacture.
• Merox and Amine Treating
These processes are necessary for removal of sulfur (hydrogen
sulfide and mercaptans) from various refining streams, including
fuel gas, gasoline, etc. This removal is essential both to
minimize refinery sulfur emissions and to meet sulfur
specifications for refined products.
OPTIONAL PROCESSES
For other processes, ALPETCO was able to select from alternate processing
schemes based on environmental concerns and economic factors. Key issues
affecting process selection in these areas are related below for the following
refining topics:
• Residual Processing
• Catalytic Cracking/Hydrocracking Capacity Relationship
11-330
-------
• Control of FCCU Regenerator Sulfur Oxide Emissions
• FCCU Recycle Policy
• Olefins Conversion
• Acid Gas Treatment
Economic Comparison
No detailed economic analysis of processing options is given herein. As
previously noted, the basic design criteria of producing no residual or high sulfur
fuel oil predetermines many of the processing alternatives. For this reason,
there are very few major alternate schemes or processing units that reasonably
fit into the ALPETCO refinery.
It should also be understood that the simple substitution of one process for
another does not lend itself to a straightforward calculational analysis of the
economic incentives of one unit over another. Because of the highly integrated
nature of refinery economics, one must analyze all of the impacts within the
entire refinery to analyze a single change. This work can only be done with a
sophisticated refinery linear program model.
Residual Processing
Since ALPETCO does not plan to market No. 6 fuel oil or bunker fuel, the
vacuum distillation column bottoms stream (1,050+ *F resid) must be converted
to other products. Several alternate processes can be considered and are
reviewed below. However, only delayed coking and Flexicoking are of practical
significance, and the final choice focused on these two. It is very important to
point out that both of these processes offer advantages, and there is no
clear-cut decision between them.
• Residual Catalytic Cracking
Several refiners are attempting to develop fluid catalytic
cracking of a combined gas oil and vacuum resid feed. While this
technology offers a method of converting a higher portion of the
heavier components to gasoline, it is still regarded as frontier
technology. Problems related to catalyst poisoning are still
under study, and the process cannot yet be applied to large scale
processing of resid except for extremely low metals feed. The
Alaskan resid has relatively high metals contents (typically
50 ppm nickel and 80 ppm vanadium). In such a case, there would
be a high equilibrium metals content on the circulating FCCU
11-331
-------
catalyst resulting in higher rates of coke formation and reduced
catalyst selectivity. The only commercially proven means to
minimize accumulation of metals is to continually replace used
catalyst. This practice would be economically prohibitive due to
the high cost of catalyst replacement (approximately $1,000 per
ton).
This operation would also be undesirable from an environmental
standpoint. The vacuum resid contains 2.0 to 2.5 weight percent
sulfur, roughly one third of which would appear as sulfur oxides
in the flue gas from the FCCU regeneration. Scrubbing of this
flue gas to remove sulfur would be extremely expensive and
would result in large quantities of solid waste. Various types of
flue gas scrubbers are discussed later in this section.
• Plant Fuel
It is, of course, technically feasible for ALPETCO to burn the
vacuum resid as plant fuel. However, this approach is
unacceptable from an environmental standpoint. The resid
contains up to 40,000 tons per year of sulfur which would be
released to the atmosphere as sulfur oxides.
• Deasphalted Oil/Partial Oxidation
An alternate, which would allow some of the vacuum resid to be
fed to the catalytic cracker, would be to feed resid first to a
solvent deasphalting unit. This process would remove most of
the metals, a significant portion of the sulfur, and the heaviest
hydrocarbons as pitch. The basis for the deasphalting process is
the ability of a light hydrocarbon (typically butane) to extract oil
plus a portion of the resins while precipitating asphaltic
compounds. Metals are concentrated in the
high-molecular-weight, condensed-ring molecules which are not
extracted. The extracted oil is more highly paraffinic and is a
satisfactory catalytic cracker feedstock after hydrotreating.
In most refineries which use a deasphalting process, the pitch is
either recovered for asphalt sales or combined with desulfurized
gas oil in residual fuel oil. There is no market for asphalt in
large enough quantities for ALPETCO, and there will be minimal
residual fuel oil product. Therefore, the only possibility
currently available would be to feed this pitch to a partial
oxidation unit to generate a synthesis gas composed of carbon
monoxide and hydrogen. Part of this gas could be used to
generate hydrogen for the refinery, while the remainder could be
burned as fuel.
11-332
-------
Very few refiners use partial oxidation to generate hydrogen
because of the high investment cost required to deal with the
environmentally unacceptable by-products. Both soot and sulfur
recovery processes are needed as well as an acid gas separator to
remove hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide from the shift
converter effluent. Furthermore, there would still remain a solid
soot by-product requiring disposal.
A typical process for testing the effluent from a partial
oxidation reactor consists of the following items:
- A carbon slurry separator to remove soot in a water
stream
A carbon recovery system (coalescer and stripper
column) using a light hydrocarbon to extract soot for
recycle to the reactor while providing soot-free
water to recycle to the carbon slurry separator
A scrubber to remove traces of soot from the product
gas stream
- A solvent contactor to extract l^S, COS, and CC^
- A water wash column to remove traces of solvent
from product gas
A stripper to separate acid gas from solvent
- A solvent reclaimer to remove solvent degradation
products from solvent for recycle
- A unit to concentrate the hydrogen sulfide in the acid
gas stream to permit it to be fed to a Claus unit
Thus, the processing of effluent gas requires an elaborate
operation, much of which must be constructed of stainless steel
and carefully stress relieved and heat treated to avoid stress
corrosion cracking and other corrosion problems.
There is another aspect of partial oxidation which could present
problems for ALPETCO. When the metals content of the resid is
high (as it would be for ALPETCO), a portion of the soot recycle
to the reactor must be purged and disposed of by some suitable
method. Mixing in fuel oil for incineration is a common practice,
but the total quantity of metals involved would have to be
closely determined to guarantee proper design of the boiler or
furnace.
11-333
-------
• Delayed Coking
Delayed coking is a thermal process operated on a semi-
continuous basis. Heavy feedstock is heated to 850-950 F in a
coking furnace and charged to a coke drum. There are typically
two drums in the process, one being charged while the other is
being decoked. Vapors from the drum being charged flow to a
coker fractionator for separation into gasoline and light and
heavy gas oils. When filled, the drum is steamed out, cooled, and
decoked with a hydraulic cutting tool. The blowdown and
hydraulic decoking systems are designed for total water reuse.
Green coke from the drum is then calcined to remove volatile
components and to change the carbon content substantially to a
crystalline form. The final product is an anode grade coke used
in steel and aluminum manufacture.
From an environmental standpoint, delayed coking does not
present any unusual problems except for the creation of coke
dust, which is easily controlled. The types of pollution as well as
the means of control are similar to other refinery processes. The
coke product is a fairly easily handled solid. The primary
concern with delayed coking is the marketability of the coke
product since this is the only practical method for disposing of
the large quantity of coke.
In ALPETCO's case, the product coke would contain about 1.5 to
2.5 percent sulfur. This level is high (most buyers of such coke
require no more than 2.5 percent sulfur and 250 ppm vanadium),
and it diminishes the marketability. At this stage factors such as
shipping and the specific requirements of potential customers are
uncertain.
Since ALPETCO is presently planning to use low sulfur fuel gas
from a Flexicoker to provide a substantial portion of the refinery
fuel, and since delayed coking does not produce large volumes of
gas, a change to a delayed coking operation would necessitate a
supplemental fuel source unavailable at Valdez. The refinery
would therefore have to burn fuel oil roughly equivalent to the
light cycle oil from the catalytic cracker (about 0.3 weight
percent sulfur). While this oil would constitute a low sulfur fuel
source, the total sulfur emissions from the refinery would
increase. The fuel oil would contain about 0.17 pound of sulfur
per million BTUs versus 0.10 pound of sulfur per million BTUs
from Flexicoker fuel gas. Therefore, sulfur emissions from this
source would rise by about 70 percent if a delayed coker were
used. (By contrast, burning No. 6 fuel oil with 2.0 weight percent
sulfur would release about 1.14 pounds of sulfur per million
BTUs, or more than eleven times the sulfur from the Flexicoker
gas.) Additionally, burning liquid fuel in place of fuel gas is
economically unattractive.
11-334
-------
Other environmental considerations regarding delayed coking
include the following:
- Uncondensed steam from coke drum steamout
- Emissions from coker furnace
- Odors from coke cutting operation
- Hydrogen sulfide present in gas, hydrocarbon liquid,
and steam condensate streams
• Flexicoking
The Exxon Flexicoking process is designed to maximize the
conversion of heavy feedstocks to gas and liquid products. The
heart of the process is a high temperature gasifier which
effectively acts as a partial oxidation process for the extremely
fine coke particles. In Flexicoking operations there are no coke
drums to open, and therefore, all coke particles are contained in
closed transfer lines and silos.
Alpetco has selected the Flexicoking option for the following
reasons:
- The low BTU gas produced will supplement other
refinery fuel sources, making the Alpetco refinery
self-sufficient in energy requirements.
- The large quantity of low BTU gas produced will
make it possible to minimize the amount of liquid
product which must be downgraded to fuel oil.
- No large scale coke handling facility would be
required.
Catalytic Cracking/Hydrocracking Capacity Relationship
Catalytic cracking is an important process for upgrading vacuum gas oil to
gasoline and lighter products. Although strictly speaking it is not the only
process that could be employed, it is the most important and most widely used
process for this purpose. The fluid catalytic cracking unit (FCCU) is the most
current technology and the most widely used. ALPETCO does have some
flexibility in distributing feedstocks between the FCCU and the hydrocracker,
and in selecting design parameters for these units. However, the use of the
FCCU itself is really a practical necessity given ALPETCO's overall design
criteria.
The hydrocracking process is normally used by refiners to process refractory
streams (e.g., coker distillates) which are resistant to catalytic cracking. The
11-335
-------
higher pressure and hydrogen atmosphere of the hydrocracker reduce these
materials to more valuable compounds in the gasoline and middle distillate
range. The proposed hydrocracker for ALPETCO is designed to be fed
straight-run, heavy atmospheric gas oil to maximize the production of middle
distillates (with some gasoline yield) and to minimize the need for catalytic
cracking of this feedstock. The hydrocracker and catalytic cracker thus
complement each other. The precise ratio of hydrocracker to catalytic cracker
feedstocks has not yet been determined and, in fact, will likely vary at times in
normal refinery operations. This ratio is set primarily by the relative markets
for gasoline (increased demand of which favors catalytic cracking), kerosene,
diesel, and jet fuel (increased demand for which favors hydrocracking).
The only environmental impact of a change in the hydrocracker to catalytic
cracker feed ratio will be a minor change in the sulfur emissions from the
catalytic cracker regeneration unit. This emission rate is roughly proportional
to the total feed rate to the catalytic cracker and could vary as much as
20 percent as the feed rate increased or decreased.
Control of FCCU Regenerator Sulfur Oxides Emissions
The fluid catalytic cracking unit (FCCU) produces gasoline and lighter products
from the vacuum gas oil streams which are the high boiling portion of the crude
oil. Cracking is attained by contacting the oil with a circulating stream of fluid
catalyst at high temperature (about 975 F). As the cracking reaction proceeds
some side condensation reactions occur, resulting in coke formation which is
uniformly deposited on the surface of the catalyst. In this unit the quantity of
coke produced is about 6 percent of the fresh feed, or about 640 tons per day.
The coke contains carbon, hydrogen, and sulfur compounds. The sulfur on the
coke is approximately 10 percent of the sulfur in the FCCU feed.
After the catalyst is contacted with the oil it flows to the regenerator vessel.
Air is fed to the regenerator to burn the coke deposited on catalyst resulting in
a vast amount of heat liberation which supplies the heat for reaction. Flue gas
from the regenerator which contains primarily water, carbon dioxide, and sulfur
dioxide is vented to the atmosphere after passing through a waste heat boiler
and electrostatic precipitator.
If no provision were made to remove sulfur from the feed or scrub the flue gas,
approximately 20 tons per day of sulfur would be emitted to the atmosphere.
The options for reducing this emission are discussed below.
• Catalytic Cracker Feed Hydrotreating
Sulfur in the vacuum gas oil feed to the catalytic cracker can be
removed in two ways. One method is to hydrotreat the gas oil
upstream of the cracking unit in which about 95 percent of the
sulfur is converted to hydrogen sulfide, stripped from the FCCU
feed, and routed to the fuel gas system where the hydrogen
11-336
-------
sulfide is subsequently removed in an amine unit before the gas is
used as fuel. Of the remaining 5 percent, roughly 10 percent (or
about 1.3 tons per day) is eventually released in the catalyst
regenerator stack gases while the remainder is contained in the
product streams.
In addition to removing the bulk of the sulfur compounds in the
FCCU feed, hydrotreating has several additional benefits:
- Removal of nitrogen compounds
- Reduction in Conradson Carbon
Reduction in polycyclic aromatics
- Reduction in feed metals
Each of these effects lead to increased production of gasoline,
increased total liquids yields, and reduced catalyst consumption.
In addition to these benefits, desulfurization of the feed also
eliminates the need for hydrotreating of the net cycle oil
produced from this unit.
The choice of feed hydrotreating instead of flue gas
desulfurization obviously requires that the catalytic cracker
never be operated with the hydrotreater bypassed since the flue
gas and products from the process would contain excessive
quantities of sulfur. Sufficient intermediate tankage has been
provided between the hydrotreater and cracker so that brief
outages of the former will not affect the feed to the latter.
The FCCU feed hydrotreater was chosen as the most effective
means of regenerator sulfur oxide emissions control on the basis
of
- Comparable performance with scrubbing techniques
- Economics
- Reduction of solid wastes
• Flue Gas Desulfurization
Sulfur may be removed from the FCCU flue gas by means of wet
scrubbing techniques. With all of these methods of wet
scrubbing, about 95 percent removal of sulfur oxides from the
flue gas is achievable. Based on this level of removal, the
emissions of sulfur as pure sulfur would be about 2 tons per day.
The various flue gas desulfurization techniques are discussed
below.
11-337
-------
- Lijjies_tone SIurry_Process
With this process, limestone (CaCOg) is crushed in a
wet bath mill to form a slurry. The limestone slurry
is then contacted with the regenerator flue gas.
Sulfur dioxide dissolves in the limestone slurry and
forms sulfurous acid (H„SOj. The sulfurous acid
then reacts with the dissolved CaCO„ to form
calcium sulfite (CaSOJ. The CaCO, wilr also react
with the oxidized sulfur compounds to form
gypsum (CaSO^). Cleaned gas from tne scrubber is
reheated to avoid a visible water plume and an
undesirable "acid rain" in cold weather.
The calcium sulfite/calcium sulfate slurry from the
scrubber is thickened and the resulting sludge must
then be disposed of. The total quantity of sludge is
about 190 tons per day.
- Ej«on_Flue_Gas_ Desulfuriz_ation_
Exxon has developed a flue gas scrubbing process
especially for the FCCU process. This system uses a
caustic (sodium hydroxide) scrubber specifically
designed for removal of catalyst fines, condensable
hydrocarbons, and sulfur oxides. Disposal of the
waste liquid stream from the scrubber is necessary.
This stream would contain sodium sulfite (NanSOJ.
The Exxon process does not require a separate
electrostatic precipitator to eliminate particulates
upstream of the scrubber. As a result, the required
investment would be lower, but the quantity of solids
present in the liquid stream to the waste disposal
plant could complicate the disposal operation. Thus,
although the Exxon process is proven in refinery
service, the liquid and solid waste disposal problems
associated with other flue gas desulfurization
processes would remain.
FCCU Recycle Policy
The cycle oil from the catalytic cracking unit fractionator is an oil with a
boiling range above 430 F. It is normally blended into distillate products to the
extent allowed by product specifications or blended into No. 6 fuel oil as a
viscosity controller. ALPETCO cannot blend all of its light cycle oil into
distillate products and still achieve the necessary specifications. Alternately,
ALPETCO does not want to produce large quantities of fuel oil. Practically
speaking, there are only two alternates: feed to the hydrocracker or recycle to
the catalytic cracker.
11-338
-------
ALPETCO will have a hydrocracker processing heavy atmospheric gas oil.
Mixing this feedstock with light cycle oil from the catalytic cracker is possible
but not economically favorable.
A better alternate method for disposing of light cycle oil is recycle to the
catalytic cracker. However, this stream contains a significant fraction of
aromatics which cannot be easily cracked in their existing form. Therefore, a
hydrotreating process was selected to provide some polycyclic aromatic
saturation in order to improve the catalytic cracker yield.
Olefins Processing
Alkylation and polymerization are two processes commonly used in refineries to
produce high octane gasoline from butenes and propylenes. The light olefins are
produced by cracking heavy crude fractions in the fluid catalytic cracker and
Flexicoker.
Alkylation
In the alkylation process either or C. olefins are combined with isobutane to
produce mainly isoheptane and isooctane which have good octane blending
quality. The reaction is accomplished in the presence of concentrated strong
acids, either sulfuric (HgSO. alkylation) or hydrofluoric (HF alkylation) acid.
Of the two, refiners currently favor the HF alkylation process for economic
reasons.
The process requires significantly more acid makeup then does the HF
process because it is necessary to reject a portion of the equilibrium acid and
add fresh concentrated acid to maintain the overall system's acid strength. A
sulfuric acid plant would be required to process the rejected or spent acid and
convert it to a concentrated acid. This operation would result in an increase in
the overall refinery sulfur oxide emissions. For these reasons (economics and
sulfur oxide emissions), the HF alkylation process has been selected.
Gasoline Polymerization Plant
It is not possible to alkylate all the C-/C. olefins in this plant because the plant
produces more olefin feedstock tnan isobutane. Therefore, a gasoline
polymerization plant has been included to polymerize C, olefins and also C.
olefins over and above those which can be alkylated.
Acid Gas Treatment
Hydrogen sulfide in the various refinery streams is removed by an amine
solution and then stripped from the amine solution in the regenerator as acid
gas. Also, hydrogen sulfide in process streams is stripped in a sour water
11-339
-------
stripper to yield additional acid gas. Acid gas from the amine regenerator and
sour water stripper is routed to the sulfur recovery plant where the bulk of the
sulfur (95 percent) is converted to elemental sulfur.
Sour Water Stripper
Since the refinery cannot discharge foul water, an entire plant shutdown could
be required if there were no disposition for the sour water. Two options are
reasonable. First, a holding tank could be used to accommodate the sour water
during the stripper outage. Second, a spare sour water stripper could be
provided.
In this case it has been decided to spare the sour water stripper because of the
large volume of water necessitating a very large holding tank and the associated
problems with storing water in cold weather.
Amine Regeneration Unit
A similar problem arises with the amine regenerator (i.e., an outage would force
a refinery shutdown). With this unit a holding tank is not practical because of
the large volume of circulating amine.
A possibility could be to provide two 50 percent regenerators so that only a
portion of the refinery would be forced to shut down. However, the decision has
been made to provide 100 percent spare regeneration capacity.
11-340
-------
THE PACE COMPANY CONSULTANTS & ENGINEERS, INC. r> 2 S ] WESTHEIMER
P.O. BOX S i473 HOUSTON, TEXAS 77052 AC71!%5-() I11 ( ABLE: PACFCO-HOUSTON TELEX 77-4350
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
11-341
-------
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
The ALPETCO refinery is designed to be totally self-sufficient with regard to
electricity and fuel needs. Process electricity, steam and fuel needs will be supplied
by burning the light noncondensable gases from various process units, low Btu gas pro-
duced in the flexicoker, propane, and clarified oil from the catalytic cracking unit.
Table 2.1-1 presents the type and quantity of the fuel sources planned for use
in the refinery. Approximately 97 percent of the refinery fuel needs are met by combus-
tion of various refinery fuel gases, including Flexicoker low-BTU gas.
TABLE 2.1-1
ALPETCO REFINERY FUEL SOURCES
Quantity
Description
MMBTU/D
Fuel Gas
48,372
Low BTU Gas
20,496
Propane
10,115
Liquid Fuel
2,176
TOTAL
81,159
The fuel requirements for individual refinery units are shown in Table 2.1-2 and
are categorized by service categories. These service categories are as follows:
• Process heaters for high temperature process reactions or reactions at
high pressures and associated elevated temperatures.
• Process heaters operating under conditions in which the process fluid is
subject to thermal decomposition.
11-342
-------
TABLE 2.1-2
Individual Refinery Unit Fuel Requirements
Process Units
Fuel Requirement
MMBtu/D
Service Category
Crude Unit
11,687
General Heater
Vacuum Unit
6,858
General Heater
Distillate Hydrocracker
5,094
High Pressure/Temperature
Flexicoker
240
General Heater
Gas Oil Hydrotreater
2,691
High Pressure/Temperature
HF Alkylation
1,367
General Heater
Catalytic Condensation
958
General Heater
Naphtha Hydrotreater
7,756
High Pressure/Temperature
Platformer
11,284
High Pressure/Temperature
BTX Sulfolane & Prefrc.
3,490
General Heater
Hydrogen Plant
6,313
High Pressure/Temperature
Amine
-------
® Process heaters used for general heating service in which little or no ther-
mal decomposition occurs.
• Steam generation and electrical generation units.
Process heaters used for high temperature and high pressure operations generally
require close control of maximum tube metal temperatures and heat flux. Process
fluid subject to thermal decomposition requires that the process heater be designed
for close temperature control, short response times and be capable of instantaneous
shutdown under conditions of flow stoppages, power failures, etc. Process heaters
for general heating service and steam generation and electrical generation units have
less severe design requirements regarding process control, circulation control, tempera-
ture control and heat flux control than the previously mentioned categories.
Fuel requirements during the construction phase is estimated to average
26,000 gallons per day of diesel fuel and 2,500 gallons per day of gasoline. This will
include fuel for all construction equipment and temporary electrical power generation.
11-344
-------
THE PACE COMPANY CONSULTANTS & ENGINEERS, INC. 5251 WtSTHEIMER
P.O. BOX 5347.5 HOUSTON, TEXAS 77052 AC 71 3 965-0 J11 CABLE: PACECO-HOUSTON TELEX 77-4350
EVALUATION OF FUEL OIL
AS AN ENERGY SOURCE
11-345
-------
EVALUATION OF FUEL OIL AS AN ENERGY SOURCE
Liquid fuels burned in process heaters to supplement other refinery fuels
are derived from a variety of sources. Fuel oils are generally used; however,
heavy tar oils, sludges and oily waste streams may also be used. The use of
liquid fuel in refineries has been used to a limited degree in the past to
supplement supplies of natural gas and refinery gases. More recently, however,
liquid fuels have become important sources for replacing natural gas in the
overall refinery fuel balance.
OIL FIRING TECHNOLOGY
Combustion of liquid fuels in process heaters is an established practice.
Heaters and fuel systems utilizing refinery liquids are efficient and reliable.
Fuel oils may be used in all heaters previously described in the refinery
by-product gas section. However, there are special design considerations that
must be taken into account both within the heater and fuel delivery system.
The major difference is in the design of the fuel burners since mixing of oil and
combustion air is more difficult to achieve because of the two-phase condition.
Burners used in oil firing are of two main designs. In outside mix burners,
oil is released into a high velocity stream of steam inside the heater, where the
oil is first mixed with air. These burners are not widely used since much of the
energy of the steam is wasted and steam consumption is relatively high.
Inside mix burners are the most widely used. In these, the steam and oil
are mixed in a chamber within the burner, and they issue together from the
burner as a single stream. Foam formed in the mixing chamber is directed by
the shape and direction of the burner tip so that the flame is of proper shape
and size for the furnace box. As foam issues from the burner tip, it bursts into
a fine mist of oil particles.
11-346
-------
Residual fuels have good atomizing or foaming properties. Gas oils or
distillate fuels do not atomize easily unless they are mixed with residual fuels.
Viscous fuels need to be heated to reduce viscosity. The higher the fuel
temperature, the better the performance unless vaporization occurs or the
water content of the fuel is high. However, at temperatures past the flash
point, operation may be erratic and the flame may spritter.
Transfer and movement of the fuels is important especially for the
heavier fractions. Heavy and high boiling point fuels must be heated and
circulated continuously past the burner to prevent solidification in the line.
The amount of circulation is 1.5 to 2.0 times the rate of oil burned. In large
plants the circuit may be so long that a system of parallel flow must be used.
Individual circulation systems are often maintained for each unit. With
this arrangement, the firing rate may be controlled by regulating the pressure
in the line without individual burner adjustment.
In general, rotary pumps are preferable for fuel circulation. Reciprocat-
ing pumps may cause pulsation in oil pressure and "breathing" of the burner may
occur. Although fuel may be fed by gravity at a head of only 10 to 15 feet,
pressures of 40 to 60 psig are more commonly used. To obtain sufficient
atomization of a light gas oil, pressures up to 125 psig may be required.
The amount of atomizing steam for inside burners ranges from 0.2 to
0.5 pound per pound of oil (1.6 to 4 pound steam per gallon) and may reach
10 pounds per gallon for outside mix burners. In general, the higher the
pressure and temperature of the oil, the lower the steam consumption. Wet
steam causes sprittering or sparks in the flame and if excessive may put out the
flame.
11-347
-------
Mechanical atomizing burners have not generally been used in the oil
industry. However, a mechanical burner or combination steam and mechanical
atomizing burner is useful when firing inferior fuels, such as cracked residues
that contain suspended carbon or acid sludges from lubricating oil treating.
These fuels are supplied to the burner at 200 to 300°F and at a pressure of 100
to 200 psig.
Extremely high melting point residues or fuels tend to congeal into
particles (black smoke) which cannot be completely burned when the fuel meets
large amount^ of cold air at the burner. This can be alleviated by the use of
short-flame combustion, substantial amounts of refractory at the mouth of the
burner, preheating the combustion air to the melting point of the fuel, or
preheating the fuel to 500 to 600°F.
FUEL OIL AVAILABILITY
There are numerous streams within a refinery that can be used to help
meet fuel demand. These include production streams such as No. 2, No. 4, and
No. 6 fuel oils and intermediate process streams such as heavy and light gas oils
from vacuum and atmospheric crude distillation. When chosing a liquid fuel
stream to supply process heat, it is important to select a clean stream to meet
applicable environmental regulations and a stream that has a low economic
value. In many cases, the heavier, higher sulfur containing products such as
No. 6 oil, have lower economic value but may exceed applicable SC>2 standards.
A tradeoff between value of the stream and sulfur content must be made. In
most instances, a lighter desulfurized (treated) stream will be used in lieu of
the heavier fractions.
At the ALPETCO installation, there are three liquid streams that could be
considered for use as refinery fuel. These include two product streams,
clarified oil (No. 6 fuel oil) and hydrotreated cycle oil (No. 4 fuel oil), both from
the catalytic cracking unit. The third stream involves a combination of gas oils
11-348
-------
from the crude distillation unit and flexicoker that are used as feedstock for
the catalytic cracking unit. This stream is hydrotreated prior to entering the
unit.
No. 6 fuel oil was ruled out since the sulfur content was considered to be
too high. The decision to burn cycle oil or gas oil was based primarily on the
more consistent quality of the cycle oil.
Only 335 barrels per day of fuel oil is required for supplementing the fuel
system, or 3 percent of the total refinery heat demand. This fuel is contin-
uously available as long as the FCCU is operating and can be stored in
sufficient quantities to assure supply when the FCCU unit is down for
maintenance. The availability of fuel oil is not considered to be a problem.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
Emissions from the combustion of fuel oil are dependent upon the type
and size of fired heater, grade and composition of the fuel, the firing and
loading practices used, and the level of equipment maintenance. Table 2.1-1
presents the estimated emissions resulting from combustion of the hydrotreated
cycle oil stream.
TABLE 2.1-1
ESTIMATED EMISSIONS FOR FUEL OIL COMBUSTION
(lb/MMBTU)
Particulates
CO
NO
NMHC
x
0.014
0.150
0.036
0.16
0.007
11-349
-------
Particulates are most dependent on the grade of fuel fired. Lighter
distillate oils result in significantly lower particulate formation than do heavier
residual fuels oils. For residual oils particulate emissions are generally a
function of sulfur content. Low sulfur No. 6 residual oils generally exhibit
substantially lower viscosity and lower asphaltene, ash, and sulfur contents than
high sulfur No. 6; these characteristics result in better atomization and cleaner
combustion.
Sulfur dioxide (SC^) emissions are almost entirely dependent on sulfur
content of the fuel oil with about 95 percent of fuel sulfur converted to S02.
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are formed during combustion of fuel oils from two
sources: oxidation of fuel-bound nitrogen and thermal fixation of the nitrogen
present in combustion air. Fuel NOx emissions are primarily a function of the
nitrogen content of the fuel and available oxygen while thermal NOx emissions
are dependent on peak flame temperature and available oxygen.
For residual oil combustion fuel nitrogen conversion is the most important
NC>x forming mechanism. Thermal fixation is the predominant NOx forming
mechanism for units burning distillate oils due to the negligible nitrogen
content of these fuels. Methods to control NOx formation include: firing
configuration, low excess air firing, flue gas recirculation, staged combustion or
combinations of these methods.
Emissions of non-methane hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide are pro-
duced in minor quantities in units firing fuel oils. Proper operational and
maintenance practices will control emissions of these two pollulants.
Refer to Section 3.4.3 for specific control technology planned for the
ALPETCO refinery.
11-350
-------
THE PACE COMPANY CONSULTANTS & ENGINEERS, INC. 5251 westheimer
P.O. BOX 53473 HOUSTON, TEXAS 77052 AC 713 965-0311 CABLE: PACECO-HOUSTON TELEX 77-4350
EVALUATION OF COAL AS AN ENERGY SOURCE
11-351
-------
EVALUATION OF COAL AS AN ENERGY SOURCE
Direct coal combustion is not considered feasible for the ALPETCO refinery for
the reasons given below. More detailed discussion of these reasons is included within
this section.
1. Emissions resulting from burning coal would be significantly greater
than from burning refinery fuel.
2. In order to supply the ALPETCO refinery with coal, the capacity of
the Usibelli mine would have to be doubled or a new mine opened in
another area.
3. The existing railroad would have to be upgraded to handle unit trains.
4. Coal receiving handling facilities for barge transport would have to
be installed.
5. Coal would be considerably more expensive as fuel for the refinery
than using byproduct oil and gases.
DIRECT COMBUSTION TECHNOLOGY
Coal can be used to supply process heat and steam for a refinery either by direct
combustion or indirectly by coal gasification and combustion of the gas product. Direct
combustion consists of three basic methods: stoker firing, suspension firing, and
fluidized bed combustion (FBC). Of these technologies, stoker and suspension firing
(pulverized coal systems) are well established due to their extensive use in coal boilers.
FBC is a developing technology currently in the pilot plant and demonstration phase.
Coal gasification is an old technology that was previously widely used in the U.S. and
abroad before the advent of cheap natural gas. This technology is further discussed in
Section 4.4.2.2.4.
11-352
-------
Stokers
Fuel bed (stoker) firing is accomplished by pushing, dropping or throwing coal onto
a grate in the high temperature region of the furnace by a device called a stoker. Air is
forced up through the coal bed on the grate, the fresh coal is heated, volatiles in the
coal are distilled off, and a coke or char is left on the grate. The coke or char then
burns to carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, leaving only ash material from the coal at
the bottom of the bed.
Gaseous volatile matter distilled from the coal, and carbon monoxide produced by
partial combustion of the coke are burned above the fuel bed with unconsumed primary
air and with secondary air which is injected above the fuel bed. Approximately 40 to
60 percent of the total heat liberated in the furnace is produced by combustion of these
gases.
Stokers can be divided into two general classes depending on the direction from
which raw coal reaches the fuel bed: (1) overfeeds, in which the fuel comes from above
and underfeeds, in which it comes from below. The overfeed group includes spreader
and mass burning stokers. Underfeed stokers are generally referred to as single or
multiple retort.
Spreader stokers are the most widely used in industry today because they
are capable of burning a wide variety of coals ranging from high rank eastern
bituminous coal to lignite. These stokers throw coal into the furnace over the
fuel bed with a uniform spreading action which permits burning of the fine fuel
particles. The larger pieces that cannot be supported in the gas flow fall to the
grate for combustion in a thin, fast-burning bed. This allows relatively quick
reponse to load fluctuations because ignition is almost instantaneous when the
firing rate is increased. Turndown capability normally extends from maximum
capacity to 20 percent of full load, but minimum load can be decreased to about
12 1/2 percent of maximum if provisions are made at the time of design.
The size consist of coal fed to a spreader stoker has a direct bearing on
boiler efficiency and on the tendency of the installation to discharge particu-
11-353
-------
lates. Coal segregation is a problem with any type of stoker, but the spreader
stoker can tolerate a small amount of segregation because the feeding rate of
the individual feeder-distributors can be varied. Size segregation, where fine
and coarse coal are not distributed evenly over the grate, produces a ragged fire
and poor efficiency.
The ash and moisture content in coals are factors to be considered in the
selection of the grate type. If the ash content exceeds 10 percent, stationary or
dumping grates should not be used unless heat release rates are reduced at least
25 percent. Traveling grates have no limit for maximum ash content.
Furnace temperature and the amount of suspension firing are functions of
the moisture content of the coal as well as size consist. Very dry coal will
frequently ignite in the furnace in the immediate proximity of the feeder
discharge and a large volume of flame is generated. Wet coal (high moisture
content) may agglomerate and fall to the grate before igniting. In this instance,
practically all the fuel burns on the bed, lowering efficiency.
Pulverized Coal Systems
Pulverized coal fired systems represent an improvement over stoker fired
units in a number of areas. These include:
• Improved thermal efficiency.
• Ability to use any size of coal available (as feed to the pulverizer
system).
• Improved response to load changes.
• Reduction in manpower required for operation.
• Improved ability to burn coal in combination with oil and gas.
A pulverized coal system must pulvierize the coal, deliver it to the fuel burning
equipment and completely burn the coeil with a minimum of excess air. The system
must operate as a continuous process and the coal feed rate must be varied as rapidly
and as widely as required by load variation.
11-354
-------
/PRIMARY AIR AND COAL
SECONDARY ,
AIR '
\
VERTICAL
FIRING
il ^
IMPACT
FIRING
PRIMARY AIR
AND COAL
HORIZONTAL
FIRING
TANGENTIAL FIRING
FROM CORNERS OF
FURNACE WALLS
FIGURE 2.2-1
SUSPENSION FIRING METHODS
-------
There are six basic equipment components in a pulverized coal system:
• The pulverizer, which reduces the coal to the required particle size.
• The burner which accomplishes the mixing of the pulverized coal with
primary air and then with secondary air in the right proportions.
• Hot air for drying the coal (necessary for effective pulverization).
• Fans to supply air to the pulverizer and deliver the coal-air mixture
to the burner.
• Coal feeder to control the rate of coal feed to each pulverizer.
• Coal and air conveying lines.
The burner is the most important component for firing pulverized coal. Much of
the burner technology used for firing oil and gas is applicable to pulverized coal
burning. However, the use of solid fuel in boilers and furnaces presents additional
design problems.
Selection of burner type and firing configuration are two of the most important
design parameters. Basically, there are four types of firing configurations. As shown in
Figure 2.2-1, they are: vertical firing, impact firing, horizontal firing, and tangential
firing from corners of the furnace walls. Determination of type is dependent on each
individual application and each method must be evaluated at the time of design.
The two most commonly used methods are vertical and tangential firing. Vertical
firing provides a relatively uniform distribution of temperature throughout the furnace,
because of extended and progressive heat release. Because there is an absence of
direct flame impingement, the furnace walls have a good service life. Completeness of
combustion is good because the fuel is in the furnace for a relatively long time. The
best applications for this type are those installations burning extremely low volatile
coals which require long flame travel. The furnace shape and width are dictated by
11-356
-------
flame shape and the need for a multiplicity of burners. Burners used for vertical firing
are not easily adaptable to fuels other than coal.
Tangential firing is the most effective method for producing intense turbulence in
the combustion zone of a furnace. This action is secured through the use of burners
located in each of the four corners of the furnace, close to the floor or to the water-
screen. The burner nozzles are so directed that the streams of coal and air are
projected along a line tangent to a small circle, lying in a horizontal plane, at the
center of the furnace. Intense mixing occurs where these streams meet. A scrubbing
action is present which assures contact between the combustible material and oxygen,
thus promoting rapid combustion and reducing carbon loss. A rotative motion, similar
to that of a cyclone, is imparted to the flame body, which spreads out and fills the
furnace area. Ignition at each burner is aided by the flame from the preceding one.
With tangential firing the furnace is essentially the burner. Consequently air and
coal quantities need not be accurately proportioned to individual fuel nozzle assemblies.
Turbulence produced in the furnace cavity is sufficient to combine all the fuel and air.
This continuously ensures uniform and complete combustion so that test performance
can be maintained throughout daily operation. With other types of firing, the fuel and
air must be accurately proportioned to individual burners, making it difficult to always
equal test results.
With tangential firing, combustion is extremely rapid, and a short flame length
results. The mixing is so intense that combustion rates exceeding 35,000 Btu per cu ft
per hr are practical under certain conditions. Because there is considerable impinge-
ment of flame over the furnace walls it is necessary that they be fully watercooled.
This sweeping of the water cooled surfaces in the furnace by the gas increases the
evaporation rate. Thus, in addition to absorption by radiation from the flame envelope,
there is transfer by convection, and the resulting furnace temperatures are lower than
with other types of burners, even though the heat liberation rates may be somewhat
higher. Tangentially-fired furnaces are usually clean in the upper zone and, as a result,
both the furnace and the boiler are comparatively free from objectionable slag deposits.
11-357
-------
As with oil and gas, the most frequently used burners are the circular and cell
types. Either type of burner can be equipped to fire any of the three principal types of
fuel. However, combining pulverized coal firing with oil in the same burner should be
restricted to emergency periods only, because coke formation is possible on the
pulverized coal element.
In general, the pulverizier-burner combination can operate satisfactorily from full
load to approximately 40% of full load with all pulverizers and burners in service. In
some installations a pulverizer and set of burners, in addition to the number actually
required, are provided to assure availability of the boiler unit in case of unscheduled
outage of a pulverizer. Where spares are provided, it is generally most economical to
operate with the greatest number of burners and pulverizers in service consistent with
the capacity demand on the unit. Although the use of this excess equipment raises the
minimum load which can be obtained without cutting out pulverizers and burners, other
benefits offset this disadvantage.
Idle burners are subject to considerable radiant heat from the furnace and can
attain temperatures above the coking temperatures of the coals. The use of alloy
metals provides longer life for burner parts. However, if they are not adequately
cooled below the coking temperature before being placed in service, coke may form and
cause severe damage to the parts. The easiest way to cool the noozle is to run cold
primary air through the pulverizer and burners for five to ten minutes and then
immediately begin to feed coal before the nozzles can reheat. For this reason, a
pulverizer and its group of burners should be operated as a unit rather than as individual
burners. There is no simple way to cool individual burners before bringing them into
service.
Fluidized Bed Combustion
Fluidized bed combustion (FBC) has come to the forefront as a major means of
mitigating environmental problems, and expanding the use of coal resources while
protecting the environment. The FBC concept is expected to give low sulfur dioxide
and nitrogen oxide emissions along with high overall efficiency. In addition, FBC
designs have the capability of burning many types of coal, as well as municipal sludge
and refuse, oil shale, and heavy petroleum fractions.
11-358
-------
The technology of burning coal in a fluidized bed for generation of steam and heat
is still in the developmental stages, and the reliability of FBC technology has not been
proved in a commercial installation. Just as important, the economics of using FBC
technology have not been proved to be competitive with conventional coal firing,
although preliminary studies have indicated an advantage for FBC. A description of
FBC technology follows; however, FBC units are not considered feasible for refinery
application for the above stated reasons.
As with pulverized coal firing, FBC provides large solid fuel surface area and long
contact time between gas and solid particles, so that fuel is not shielded from oxygen
by a thick layer of stagnant burned gases. FBC achieves an unusually high intensity of
heat release in a small combustion volume.
The bed consists of a mixture of crushed limestone, dolomite, or inert material,
and large ash particles, all of which are "fluidized" by the stream of air and combustion
gases rising from the supporting grid beneath the bed. Original particle size of the bed
material is about 1/8". The gas velocity is set so that the bed particles are partially
suspended and move about in random motion, but do not blow away. Under these
conditions, a gas/solid mixture behaves much like a boiling liquid in that it seeks its own
level and can be moved readily through channels. Boiler tubes submerged in the bed
remove heat at a high rate (extremely effective heat transfer) so that typical bed
temperatures are in the range of 1400 to 1600°F.
Crushed coal (1/4" to 1/2" particles) along with the required bed makeup material
is continuously added at fuel injection points. Within the bed, the coal burns very
quickly, and the bed generally contains less than 2 to 4 percent carbon. Most of the ash
resulting from combustion of the coal is in relatively small, light particles which are
swept out of the bed by the flue gas. If high sulfur coal is being burned, sulfated bed
material is continuously withdrawn to maintain bed volume and activity for sulfur
capture. If low sulfur fuel is being burned, the bed is composed of inert material, such
as alumina or sand, and bed makeup and withdrawal rates would be very low or
negligible.
11-359
-------
Fludized bed combustion is an effective method for controlling emissions from
high sulfur fuels. For this purpose, the sorbent bed is limestone, dolomite, or lime.
Assuming a limestone feed, the first reaction at bed temperatures is calcination.
CaC03 + Ca + C02
The sulfur in the fuel burns to sulfur dioxide, SOg, and bed conditions are maintained to
favor sulfation of the lime to gypsum.
CaO + S02 + 1/2 02 -* CaS04
The limestone sorbent feed rate is set in accordance with the sulfur content of the fuel,
and sufficient cleanup of SO2 is achieved so that no further treatment is required for
compliance with sulfur emission regulations. By contrast, a stoker or pulverized-coal
boiler emits most of the sulfur in the fuel as and high sulfur fuels cannot be burned
in these boilers without desulfurization of the fuel gas.
With respect to nitrogen (NOx) emissions, FBC units exhibit inherent advantages
over conventional boilers using stokers and pulverized coal firing. This is because the
bed temperature is maintained at 1400 to 1600°F, well below the 2500°F+ which is
characteristic of conventional boilers. The lower FBC temperatures result in corres-
pondingly lesser formation of thermal NO . Most FBC operations produce NO
X X
emissions below the EPA limits for new steam generators without the necessity of any
special combustion modifications or design features.
Another valuable characteristic of FBC technology is its wide tolerance to type
and quality of solid fuels. Caking and non-caking coals, refractory cokes and chars, and
solid waste such as bark and wood wastes can all be burned efficiently in a fluidized
bed. The principal detail requiring careful design is to provide the capability of
reasonably uniform fuel introduction at multiple points within the bed. Generally one
fuel feed point should be specified for about ten square feet of bed area. Not only is
the average bed temperature relatively low, but temperatures throughout the bed are
quite uniform if good fluidization is maintained. The absence of hot spots means that
fuels having low-softening-point ash can be effectively burned without serious ash
fusion or clinker formation.
H-360
-------
A final advantage for FBC is that of size. Heat release rates of over 100,000
BTU/hr/cubic foot of expanded bed volume, or 50,000 - 60,000 BTU/hr/cubic foot of
firebox have been achieved in atmospheric FBC pilot plants. This can be compared with
about 20,000 BTU/hr/cubic foot of firebox for a typical pulverized-coal-fired boiler. -
The high intensity of heat release plus the excellent heat transfer rates to boiler tubes
submerged in the bed make it possible that FBC boilers up to about 250,000 pounds
steam per hour can be designed for "package" shipment by rail (compared to the
maximum coal-fired package size of about 50,000 lbs/hr currently available with
conventional firing). This package feature should help to make the future erection cost
of large sized FBC boilers significantly lower than for corresponding field-erected
stoker-fired or pulverized-coal-fired units.
11-361
-------
APPLICABILITY TO PROCESS HEATERS
Fired process heaters are used extensively in refineries for applications such as
distillation and vacuum tower preheaters, catalytic reformer preheaters and reheaters,
hydrotreaters, and hydrocrackers. These heaters are also used in reboiler service in
alkylation unit deisobutanizers and as olefin unit pyrolysis furnaces.
Fired heaters are used for three broad service categories:
• Heaters for high temperature process reactions (including high pressure
service).
• Heaters operating under conditions in which the process fluid is subject to
thermal decomposition.
• Heaters used for general heating service in which little or no thermal
decomposition occurs.
Four fundamental requirements influence the design of fired heaters to varying
degrees: process control, circulation control, temperature control, and heat flux
control.
A major constraint to the use of direct coal combustion for process heater firing
occurs in areas requiring close control of process temperatures. Coal systems are not
designed for short response times, instantaneous shutdowns under conditions of flow
stoppages, power failures, etc. This eliminates coal as an immediate contender in
heaters where thermal decomposition on the tube walls is critical. Close control of
maximum tube metal temperatures and the control of metal temperatures in pressur-
ized systems operating near the ash fusion point are difficult. Thus, immediate
applications for direct coal firing in process heaters are limited to the third category,
general heater service. This includes distillation column preheaters and some fraction-
ation column reboiler applications.
Coal firing technology has not been sufficiently developed for commercial
application in indirect fired process heaters. While it may be possible to fire many
process units with coal, there are some basic differences between coal fired boilers and
11-362
-------
process furnace practice that make direct firing of coal in refineries quite difficult.
Direct fired coal use would result in radical changes to the geometry of process heaters
including volume per unit heat released, tube spacing and configuration, and refractory
use.
Heater Design Factors
Fuel and process fluid characteristics are critical to the design of fired heaters.
For example, metals and sulfur content of fuel oils have a significant effect on
corrosion within the fired heaters. Vanadium vaporizes, then condenses as V^in the
fire box, forming a slag layer which destroys the protective nickel chromium film on
iron base alloys. Internal tube supports are most affected, due to their higher
temperatures. When vanadium exists in the fuel, vertical tubes not requiring extensive
internal support are preferred. Vanadium also forms a eutectic with refractory
materials, which causes them to melt at lower temperatures.
The process fluid characteristics set the maximum allowable radiant absorption
rate. This rate is determined by the temperature at which thermal degradation of the
process fluid inside the tubes becomes significant. Higher absorption rates are
permitted with colder fluids and fluids at higher velocities. Unduly high rates, however,
result in increased maintenance costs due to higher refractory and tube support
temperatures.
A well designed heater will absorb approximately 70 percent of the total heat in
the radiant section of the furnace. This percentage is influenced by the inlet
temperature of the material being heated. The hot combustion gases leaving the
radiant section of the furnace almost always pass through a convection section in order
to recover the maximum amount of heat that is economical. While the radiant surface
costs more per square foot than the convection section, the lowest overall cost will
result if the heat absorption rate in the radiant section is made as high as practicable.
Radiant absorption rates can be expressed in many different ways, the most
common of which are:
11-363
-------
• BTU per hour per square foot of projected tube area.
• BTU per hour per square foot of external tube surface (circumferential
area).
• BTU per hour per square foot of the total wall surface covered by radiant
absorbing tubes.
Frequently, more than one of the above will be discussed in the same reference.
Indirect fired process heaters are generally specified by using the radiant absorption
rate based on external tube circumferential area, because the refractory walls re-
radiate to the backside of the tubes. Typical tube absorption values are shown in Table
2.2-1.
Steam boiler radiant rates are specified differently due to different tube
geometries. The tubes are part of the walls, so that only half of the tube diameter is
exposed to radiant heat. To compare process heater and steam boiler radiant heat
absorption rates, it is necessary to convert the number in Table 2.2-1 to a "per flat
plane wall area" basis. With this new basis:
Figure 2.2-2 illustrates typical tube geometries and radiant heat profiles around
steam boiler and process heater tubes with the maximum rates at 0° (on the side facing
the flame). A hypthetical coal-fired process heater tube profile is dotted in assuming
the coal unit walls are designed with integral tubes.
Figure 2.2-3 compares relative sizes and radiant section volumes for equal BTU
output steam boilers and process heaters. Note the parallel between radiant absorption
rates and unit volumes.
RADIANT HEAT ABSORPTION RATES
(BTU/hr-ft^ flat plane wall area)
Maximum
Average
65,000
40,000
21,000
Oil- or Gas-fired Boiler
Coal-fired Boiler
Oil- or Gas-fired Crude Heater
100,000
80,000
28,000
11-364
-------
TABLE 2.2-1
TYPICAL AVERAGE RADIANT FLUX RATES
GAS/OIL-FIRED PROCESS HEATERS
Basis: Two diameter nominal spacing, fired on one side, refractory backing
Service Average Radiant Rate, BTU/Hr/Ft^
Crude Unit Heaters
Atmospheric 10,000 - 14,000
Vacuum 8,000 - 10,000
Reboilers 10,000 - 12,000
Hot Oil Belt Heaters 8,000 - 11,000
Catalytic Reformer Heaters 7,500 - 12,000
Delayed Coker Furnace 10,000 - 11,000
Visbreakers
Heating Section 9,000 - 10,000
Soaking Section 6,000 - 7,000
FCCU Feed Heaters 10,000 - 11,000
Steam Superheaters 9,000 - 13,000
Hydrotreaters, Hydrocrackers 10,000
11-365
-------
INCIDENT RADIATION
/
HEATER
TUBES
mm/nn)}
TYPICAL RADIANT TUBE
GEOMETRIES USED IN
STEAM BOILERS AND
PROCESS HEATERS
BOILER
TUBES
7777777777777
FIGURE 2.2-2
11-366
-------
OIL-FIRED
BOILER
COAL-FIRED
BOILER
OIL-FIRED
PROCESS HEATER
RELATIVE RADIANT SECTION VOLUMES
OIL-FIRED
BOILER
COAL-FIRED
BOILER
OIL-FIRED
PROCESS HEATER
FIGURE 2.2-3
SIZE COMPARISON OF STEAM GENERATORS
AND CRUDE HEATER
11-367
-------
Comparable heat capacity process heaters and steam generators are designed
using very different criteria. Typical design values for three fired units are shown in
Table 2.2-2. The table includes those parameters, shown underlined, which are normally
used for boiler and crude heater designs. Note that this table applies mainly to the
design of radiant sections. Except for taking into account the maximum combustion gas
velocities shown, as well as ensuring that there is adequate tube spacing to prevent
blockage by ash, the design of the convection section in boilers follows procedures
similar to those used for fired heaters. Gas velocities are restricted in coal fired
boilers to limit tube erosion by fly ash.
There are four major areas in fired heater configurations that are quite different
than for coal fired boilers. These include: tubes, burners, metals and metal
temperatures, and casings.
Tubes
Petroleum is a non-homogeneous material that is subject to thermal cracking.
Some portions of a mixed stream boil before other portions, crack or form coke. Two-
phase flow and various pressure drop problems make it very difficult to split up a
stream into many parallel passes (as in a natural circulation boiler) so the tendency is to
design for a single pass or for as few passes as possible with flow control for each
parallel steam. This leads to the use of large tubes. Large tubes, corrosion allowances,
and high pressure result in thick walls. This, combined with corrosive components and
high temperatures leads to alloys and results in very heavy and very expensive tubes.
Because of their cost, it is desirable to utilize the entire tube circumference as a
heating surface. This requires relatively wide spacing between tubes in a furnace as
well as use of refractory walls behind tubes to re-radiate heat to the back side of the
tubes, away from the flame.
Positioning radiant tubes away from the refractory wall is not acceptable in a
coal-fired unit due to the high probability of ash accumulation behind the tubes. Boiler
tubes are of a very different design. Industry now generally uses a finned and welded
construction with relatively small diameter tubes joined by integral fins welded in large
wall panels that completely eliminate the need for refractory.
11-368
-------
TABLE 2.2-2
TYPICAL BOILER AND HEATER DESIGN PARAMETERS
Oil- or Oil- or Gas-
Gas-fired Coal-fired fired Crude
Design Parameter Boiler Boiler Heater
Average radiant absorption
per unit circumferential .
tube area (BTU/hr/ft ) N.A. N.A. 12,000
Average radiant absorption
per unit flat plane wall
area (BTU/hr/ft ) 65,000 40,000 21,000c
Maximum radiant absorption
per unit flat plane wall •
area (BTU/hr/fr) 100,000 80,000 28,000°
Heat release rate aer unit
volume (BTU/hr/fr) 50,000 20,000 10,000
Heat release rate pet unit . .
waH area (BTU/hr/fr) 170,000° 80,000 40,000
Maximum gas velocity in
convective zone (ft/sec) 120 70 30
a Values not defined.
b Underlined value denotes primary design parameter.
c Based on tube pitch of 2 nominal diameters (1.8 O.D.) located 1.5
nominal diameters (1.35 O.D.) from refractory wall.
^ Secondary design parameter used to predict maximum tube metal/film
temperatures.
11-369
-------
Process furnace tubes are usually straight so that they can be more easily
inspected or replaced. In addition, large, heavy walled, sometimes brittle tubes are
difficult to bend and form. Coal fired boiler furnaces and furnace tubes are relatively
complex in shape. This is a natural result of the need for: steeply inclined furnace
floors as required to channel ash into a water sluice; sloping roofs and partitions which
are used to assist in mixing furnace gases and completing combustion as required
because of the unbalance between the large coal burners; flexible division walls and
platen surfaces which are excellent shapes for the final furnace cooling stage at the top
of the furnace; intricately shaped tubes which form burner throats and enormously
prolong throat life; sharp bends in wall tubes to provide small completely water cooled
openings for observation doors and wall blower openings.
Burners
Because the heated product is often somewhat unstable, many process heaters
employ large numbers of small burners to provide uniform heat flux. Uniform heat flux
reduces hot spots and coking and eases control problems in parallel pass units. There
are no major problems in adjusting fuel and air flow between large numbers of oil or gas
fired burners. Coal burners, in general, are much larger and have many more problems.
Metering of coal between large numbers of burners is much more difficult. Since the
coal/air stream is not homogeneous, it cannot be metered by inlet fuel pressure or
pressure drop across an orifice.
Metals and Metal Temperatures
In general, boiler furnace tubes are carbon steel since metal temperatures are
low. Process heaters frequently require alloy steel for internal corrosion resistance and
for high temperatures.
High fluid temperatures and corrosion resistance requirements necessitate more
alloy material in process furnaces. The amount of alloy material exposed to direct
radiant furnace heat is much higher and the materials operate at relatively high
temperature, making process furnaces not only more costly but also more subject to
external corrosion from metals that may be present in dirty fuels.
11-370
-------
COAL AVAILABILITY
Coal deposits located in the State of Alaska are the logical sources for coal to be
utilized in the proposed ALPETCO refinery. Coal resources in Alaska are estimated at
582 billion tons^ of bituminous, subbituminous, and lignite to a depth of 3000 feet.
The magnitude of this Alaskan resource suggests that a readily available supply of coal
for the ALPETCO refinery exists. Factors which will affect the availability of Alaskan
coal were reviewed and are discussed in the following.
Deposits
Coal is located in nearly all of the regions of Alaska as shown on Figure 2.2-4.
The coal deposits in the southern portion of Alaska have been considered as potentially
viable sources for the proposed ALPETCO refinery because transportation costs would
be prohibitive for other areas. These deposits include Nenana, Matanuska, Beluga-
Susitna, Kenai, and Bering River.
Nenana field is located along the north slope of the Alaskan Range and is actually
an elongated series of coal basins from 1 to 30 miles wide and about 150 miles long.
The coals of the Nenana field are Tertiary in age generally varying between 8500 and
9500 BTU/lb with a sulfur content of around 0.2 percent^. Beds vary in thickness up
to 100 feet and outcrop in numerous areas of the field. The sandstones which comprise
most of the overburden and interburden are friable and areas of multiple thick seams
with low overburden are amenable to surface mining methods. The Usibelli Mine
located near Healy in the western portion of the field is the only currently operating
coal mine in the state with production around 700,000 tons per year. Nenana reserves
are estimated on the order of 450 million tons.
The Matanuska coal field, located about 75 miles northeast of Anchorage, is about
10 miles wide and 40 miles long. Coals in the field vary from subbituminous in the
western portions to anthracite in the eastern portions. Past mining activities were
concentrated in the Wishbone Hill district of the field where a production rate of
slightly over 285,000 tons per year was realized in 1953. Presently only a small amount
of coal is produced from the area for local home heating. Coal in the Wishbone Hill
11-371
-------
explanation
Cool fUMs
Tukoa Cross*! rtpr«s*nl isolated eccurrancts
ol cool of unknown mill
SI Fowl *
PrlblUt It
FIGURE 2.2-4
LOCATION OF ALASKAN COAL FIELDS
11-372
-------
(2)
district of the field varies in heating value from 10,400 to 13,200 BTU/lb with a
sulfur content of 0.2 to 0.3 percent. Reserves are estimated at 112 million tons^.
The Beluga-Susitna field is located across Cook Inlet from Anchorage where coals
(3)
are found in the Kenai Formation of Tertiary age. Coal beds in the field are reported
up to 55 feet thick with favorable overburden ratios. The coal in the field has been
(2)
described as low sulfur subbituminous coal varying from 9000 BTU/lb to 7550
(3)
BTU/lb with a sulfur content around 0.2 percent. The field is located near tidewater;
however, no commercial development of the field has been undertaken. In place coal
resources in the southern portion of the field (Beluga), based on information obtained
from outcrops of 5 seams only with individual bed thicknesses ranging from 23 feet up
to 65 feet, are estimated at 2.25 billion tons^.
The Kenai coal field is located along the western one half of the Kenai peninsula
across the Cook Inlet from the Beluga-Susitna coal field. Coals in the field are found in
the Tertiary Kenai Formation as are those of the Beluga-Susitna Field and have been
related to them^. Coal is exposed in the southern portion of the field and was mined
at Port Graham and at Homer. Generally coals of the field vary in rank from lignite (at
about 7000 BTU/lb^) to subbituminous (ranging from about 8300 to about 9000
BTU/lb^) with sulfur content on the order of 0.2 to 0.4 percent.
Bering River Field is located near the Gulf of Alaska about 225 miles southeast of
Anchorage in a somewhat continuous belt of about 50 sq. mi. in area. The coal in the
field is found in the Tertiary Kushtaka formation and varies in rank from west to east
from low-volatile bituminous to anthracite depending on the intensity of structural
deformation^. Heating values vary from around 10,000 BTU/lb to over 15,000 BTU/lb
and sulfur content varies from about 0.5 percent to nearly 5.0 percent^. The complex
structure and lenticular nature of the coals of this field require a much higher degree of
drilling control than is available in order to estimate reserves and resources on a
meaningful basis.
Of the five fields of interest in the southern portion of Alaska, three have the
highest potential of providing coal for the ALPETCO refinery. The Nenana Field is the
location of the only producing coal mine in Alaska. The Matanuska Field produced coal
in the past and could conceivably produce coal for the refinery. The southern portion of
II-373
-------
the Beluga-Susitna Field (Beluga) has been the focus of recent leasing and exploration
activity, and the proximity to tidewater suggests production from this field in the
future.
Coal Requirements and Potential Sources
Heating requirements which could be supplied by coal in the proposed ALPETCO
refinery are estimated at 2.17 x 101(^ BTU/day or 7.92 x 1012 BTU/year. Presently the
Usibelli coal mine located in the Nenana coal field near Healy on the Alaskan Railroad
is the only coal mine in Alaska operated throughout the year for long term customers.
Production from the mine is about 700,000 tons per year which serves a mine mouth
power plant, local utility markets along the railroad belt, and Fairbanks 112 miles to
the north of the mine. The coals in the Healy area have an average heating value of
8200 BTU/lb, sulfur content of 0.2 percent, ash content of 10 percent and moisture
content of 25 percent. Cutoff stripping ratio is 3:1 (overburden to coal thickness)
with individual seam thickness maximum of around 60 feet. Reserves for the mine are
(6)
reportedv ' at 200 million tons. The mine is reportedly capable of doubling production
(6)
with present equipment. Based on average heating value of the coals in the Healy
area the Usibelli mine would have to produce an additional 483,000 tons per year of coal
to serve the refinery. Considering a refinery life of 30 years, committed reserves of
(6)
about 14.5 million tons would be required. On the basis of the information reported ,
the Usibelli mine would be capable of supplying the coal with no further additions of
equipment.
Based on the lower range of heating value for coals from the Matanuska Field
(10,400 BTU/lb), a new mine with an annual tonnage of about 381,000 tons would be
required. Reserves for the mine would have to total about 11 million tons.
(D (9)
Beluga Field coals have been reported to range from 7550 to 9000 BTU/lb.
At the lower range of heating value (7550 BTU/lb) a new mine would have to produce
nearly 525,000 tons per year. Reserves of about 16 million tons would be necessary for
a refinery life of 30 years.
The coal tonnages required for the refinery are small in comparison to utility use
of coal in the lower 48 states. The Usibelli Mine reportedly is looking for additional
markets and would be capable of supplying the additional coal. A market for coal is all
11-374
-------
that is required by potential developers interested in the Matanuska Field and Beluga
Field.
Transportation
The proposed refinery located at Valdez is somewhat isolated from the existing
railroad system as shown in Figure 2.2-5. For this reason, coal transportation to Valdez
will probably require the use of barges. Coal from the Nenana Field would be
transported to Whittier by rail (310 miles), transferred to barge at Whittier and
unloaded near the refinery. Coal from the Matanuska field would be shipped by rail to
Whittier (104 miles) and then by barge to the refinery. The barge distance from
Whittier to Valdez is about 90 miles.
Coal from the Beluga Field would be shipped to tidewater (10 to 20 miles) and
loaded on barges and shipped to Valdez. The barge distance to Valdez is approximately
400 miles.
Development of coal transfer terminals at either Whittier or the western shore of
Cook Inlet (Beluga) would provide facilities for an export market of Alaskan coal.
The Alaska railroad is upgrading the right of way to handle tonnages typical of a
coal unit train in the lower 48 states. However, the tonnages of coal required could be
delivered over the existing system. On typical unit train basis (10,000 tons/train) only
one train shipment per week would be required.
Delivered Costs
The cost of coal is difficult to project for the ALPETCO refinery due to the
number of uncertainties associated with a project in Alaska for which there are no
other examples. The costs presented in the following are preliminary and subject to
much more detailed study.
The selling price FOB the mine for Usibelli coal is in the neighborhood of
$15.00/ton. New contracts for this coal at the tonnage required for the refinery could
perhaps be negotiated at a lower price. Table 2.2-3 presents an estimate of the
delivered cost of coal from the Usibelli Mine to the ALPETCO refiners.
11-375
-------
ARCTIC OCEAN
FIGURE 2.2-5
MAP SHOWING ALASKA'S RAILROAD
-------
TABLE 2.2-3
ESTIMATED DELIVERED COST OF USIBELLI COAL
Per Ton
Per MM BTUs
Selling Price
8200 BTU/lb FOB the Mine
$15.00
$ .91
Rail Charges, Mine to Whittier
309 mi. $.02 mile
6.18
.38
Transfer Charges
Rail To Barge
2.00
.12
4.08
.25
Unloading Charges
Barge to Shore
2.00
.12
Total Delivered
$29.26
$1.78
Mining costs for Matanuska and Beluga coals were estimated based on the
(7)
following. In 1975 , the selling price of underground mined coal in Alaska was
estimated at $18.42/ton for a DCF of 20%. Surface mined coal at Beluga was
(7\
estimated^ at $10.20 for a DCF of 20%. Inflating these estimated selling prices by
10% per year from 1975 and estimating transportation charges results in the 1979
delivered costs presented in Tables 2.2-4 and 2.2-5.
Based on many uncertainties the delivered cost of coal is projected at $1.78 to
g
$1.85/10 BTU. As the Usibelli mine is already in operation it would appear to be the
best source from the very preliminary estimates made.
11-377
-------
TABLE 2.2-4
ESTIMATED DELIVERED COST OF MATANUSKA COAL
Per Ton
Selling Price Inflated 10%/year
from 1975, 10,400 BTU/lb
FOB the Mine
Rail Charges, Mine to Whittier
104 mi. (§. $.02/ ton mi.
Transfer Charges
Rail to Barge
Barge Rates^Vhittier to Valdez
Unloading Charges
Barge to Shore
$26.96
2.08
2.00
4.08
2.00
Per MM BTUs
$1.29
.10
.10
.20
.10
Total Delivered
$37.12
$1.79
TABLE 2.2-5
ESTIMATED DELIVERED COST OF BELUGA COAL
Per Ton
Selling Price Inflated 10%/year
from 1975, 7550 BTU/lb
FOB the Mine
Rail Charges, Mine to Tidewater
20 mi. 5$/ton mi.
Transfer Charges
Rail to Barge
Barge Rate, Beluga to Valdez
400 mi/
Unloading Charges
Barge to Shore
Total Delivered
$14.93
1.00
2.00
8.00
2.00
$27.93
Per MM BTUs
$ .99
.07
.13
.53
.13
$1.85
11-378
-------
BREAKDOWN OF FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION
ON NEW AND RECENTLY RETROFITTED COAL BOILERS
Control Technology Utility Percent Industry Percent
Lime Slurry Process
26.0
3.9
Limestone Slurry Process
53.0
1.1
Fly Ash Alkalai Process
7.4
0.0
Aqueous Sodium Process
2.0
65.4
Aqueous Ammonia Process
0.0
11.1
Double Alkalai
2.4
18.4
Magnesium Oxide Process
1.9
0.0
Wellman-Lord Process
6.2
0.0
Aqueous Carbonate Process
1.1
0.0
Utilities have favored the calcium based processes over any other process, with the
exception of compliance coal (no longer considered an option by the EPA). Approxi-
mately 79 percent of those plants using FGD systems use lime or limestone processes.
Most of the plants without FGD burn compliance coal.
Industry has historically chosen the higher cost sodium based systems to ensure
reliability. Some 84% of all FGD systems applied to industrial boilers have been sodium
based processes. An additional 11% of these industrial applications have used an
ammonia based system, which is very similar to sodium with respect to scaling
properties.
Absorption processes for nitrogen oxides control are still developmental and will
not be used except in experimental plants for some time. This may not be a problem if
the regulations for NO are not tightened significantly, because NO can currently be
X X
controlled efficiently by good burner design and modifications to the combustion
parameters (e.g. volume and temperature of combustion air).
11-379
-------
BREAKDOWN OF PARTICULATE CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES
USED ON NEW AND RECENTLY RETROFITTED
COAL BOILERS
Control Technology
Utility Percent Industry Percent*
Mechanical Collection
Electrostatic Precipitation
Fabric Filters
Wet Scrubbers
12.5
86.0
0.7
1.9
84.9
29.0
19.6
0.0
* Since some industrial facilities utilize combinations of these controls, the total is
greater than 100 percent.
Sulfur dioxide is controlled by contacting the gas stream with an alkaline solution
to absorb the S02 and neutralize it. In general, the cost to operate an FGD system
depends on the cost of the alkali used, and sludge disposal costs. The overall efficiency
depends on the type of system, and the time that the system is operational. The
availability of an FGD system, expressed in percent, is an indication of the time a
system is actually in operation over a specified time period. Lime and limestone
scrubbing systems tend to have lower on-stream factors than sodium based systems due
to the scaling tendency of the former systems. Raw materials for the sodium based
systems are generally more expensive than those for lime or limestone systems.
In large utilities the reduced alkali costs for the lime or limestone processes can
be used to balance the cost of scaling problems. This situation may not be experienced
in smaller industrial facilities. In industry, availabilities must be high to insure reliable
operation of the production facilities. Sodium based systems (the aqueous sodium
process and the double alkali process) have historically provided this type of dependabi-
lity. Lime and limestone process are improving and may be used more by industry in
the future. The double alkali process is more attractive because it uses sodium
carbonate as the scrubbing agent. This alkali is regenerated, and the lower cost lime or
limestone used for regeneration forms a stable sludge for disposal.
An evaluation of new and recently retrofitted utility and industrial boilers (same
basis as that for particulates above) has resulted in the following mix of FGD systems.
11-380
-------
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
Since direct firing of coal in process applications is not currently feasible, the
discussion on environmental considerations for direct coal firing will be limited to those
emissions and control technologies applicable to coal fired boilers.
Summary
The combustion of coal produces three major air pollutants: particulates, sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides. These pollutants, and the other minor pollutants
discharged to other media (land or water) can be controlled in a variety of ways. This
section describes the control technologies which are commonly used on coal fired boiler
installations.
Particulate control is most effective with some of the higher cost technologies,
such as electrostatic precipitators. Fabric filters, although effective in lower tempera-
ture operation, have not been used extensively on high temperature boiler flue gas. The
technology is relatively new and a considerable amount of space is required. Large
plants and utilities have historically had to meet the tightest standards for particulate
emissions, and high efficiency electrostatic precipitators (ESP) have been used. Smaller
industrial applications have favored low cost mechanical collection, used in conjunction
with wet scrubbing. This relationship is illustrated in a survey of new and recently
retrofitted utility and industrial boilers. For plants with contracts awarded or
announced between 1970 and January 1, 1978, the following table shows the mix of
particulate control technologies used. These percentages are based upon boiler
capacity. The industrial percentages are based on boilers having flue gas desulfuriza-
tion equipment. No data were available for industrial boilers having particulate control
alone. If these were considered, the percentage mix for electrostatic precipitators
would go up, because ESP provides efficient control without lowering the temperature
or humidifying the gas stream. Wet scrubbers require the flue gas to be reheated
before disposal to the atmosphere, and are therefore generally used in applications
requiring both particulate and sulfur dioxide control.
11-381
-------
Regulated Pollutants
Burning coal produces a myriad of pollutants that must be controlled to meet
environmental standards. Converting from oil and gas to coal firing results in increased
air emissions, in both quantity and number of constituents, as well as possible ash hand-
ling problems, and fugitive emissions from coal storage and handling systems within the
plant. The basic air emissions that must be controlled to comply with Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) standards are:
• Particulates
• Sulfur oxides (SOx)
• Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
• Non-Methane Hydrocarbons (NMHC)
• Carbon monoxide (CO)
The EPA also is currently investigating other emissions from direct coal fired plants for
which standards may be issued in the future. These include:
• Benzene soluble organics (BSO)
• Particulate polycyclic organic matter (PPOM)
• Benzo (a) pyrene (BaP)
• Polyhalogenated biphenyls
In addition, combustion releases a number of trace elements contained in coal into the
environment. Research is being conducted to identify the fate of trace elements in
combustion processes.
Emissions from industrial installations are governed by the same principles as in
the utility industry but pollutant data are not as complete nor as readily available.
Combustion equipment design and operating practices are different and consequently,
emission factors are different. Generally, industrial coal combustion equipment is
smaller and operates less efficiently. Emissions of nitrogen oxides tend to be lower due
to decreased furnace temperatures, while emissions of hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide,
and organics tend to be higher due to incomplete combustion. SC>x emissions are
11-382
-------
virtually the same in either case. Particulate emissions from coal burning are strongly
affected by the efficiency of control equipment, which is generally lower in the
industrial sector. Although the quality of data is poor, estimates of emissions of -
polycyclic organic matter show that these emissions in the industrial sector are about
an order of magnitude higher per unit of fuel than in the utility sector.
Combustion Emissions
Stack emissions from coal fired industrial boilers without control devices are
listed in Table 2.2-6 as a function of the firing method and the coal used. These data
were tabulated by the EPA from information reported by industry and from specific
field tests.
Emission factors have been estimated for particulates, SOx, CO, NOx, and hydro-
carbons, all in terms of pounds per million BTU fired. These factors are given in Table
2.2-7.
Ash Handling Emissions
Ninety nine percent of the total ash handling emissions (air, water, and solid
waste effluents) from industrial combustion sources result from coal fired systems. The
extent of control used for fly ash collection affects the total amount of ash recovered.
Estimates of fly ash control on different sizes of installations are given below:
Capacity Percentage of Installations
10** BTU/hr With Control Equipment
10-200 21.0
200-500 53.7
500+ 70.0
The distribution of ash between bottom ash and fly ash also influences the
quantity of emissions from ash handling. This distribution ratio is estimated in Table
2.2-8. A typical coal ash composition is listed in Table 2.2-9.
11-383
-------
TABLE 2.2-6
AIR EMISSIONS FOR INDUSTRIAL COAL FIRED INSTALLATIONS WITHOUT CONTROL EQUIPMENT
Particulates Gases Organics
lb/MMBTU lb/MMBTU lb/MMBTU
SO
X
NOx
HC
CO
BSO
PPOM
BaP
Bituminous
(All installations)
1.84
2.53
.65
.018
.065
.0031
1.7/"5
4.3/~6
Pulverized Dry
1.87
3.37
.79
.013
.046
.0036
2.2/~5
5.5/"6
Pulverized Wet
1.51
3.36
1.33
.013
.044
.0038
2.1/"5
5.5/~6
Cyclone
.30
3.40
2.45
.013
.044
.0025
1.4/~5
3.6/~6
All Stokers
3.60
3.40
.68
.044
.088
.0048
3.8/~5
6.8/~6
Overfeed Stokers
3.59
3.40
.66
.044
.086
.0064
3.7/~5
9.5/"6
Spreader Stokers
3.59
3.42
.66
.04
.088
.0043
2.4/~5
6.2/~6
Underfeed Stokers
3.60
3.40
.68
.044
.088
.0097
5.6/~5
1.4/"5
Lignite (Spreader Stokers)
1.75
1.25
0.9
.07
0.7
.0045
2.6/~5
6.5/~6
-------
TABLE 2.2-7
EMISSION FACTORS FOR FOSSIL-FUEL COMBUSTION WITHOUT CONTROL EQUIPMENT
Type of Combustion Unit
Particulates
Emission Factor, lb/10 BTU of fuel consumed
Sulfur
Oxides
Carbon
Monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Nitrogen
Oxides
Power Plant, pulverized coal
General
Cyclone Burner
Commercial and Industrial stoker
Spreader
Others
0.64 A
0.08 A
0.52 A
0.02 A
(a)
1.25 S
1.52 S
1.52 S
1.52 S
.(b)
0.04
0.04
0.08
0.08
0.012
0.012
0.04
0.04
(a)
The letter "A" indicates that the weight percentage of ash in the coal should be multiplied by the value
given. Example: If the factor is 0.64 and the ash content is 10 percent, the particulate emissions
before the control equipment would be 10 times 0.64, or 6.4 lb/10 BTU (about 160 lb/ton).
0.72
2.2
0.60
0.60
(b)iign eqUais the sulfur content (see footnote (a) above) in weight percent.
-------
TABLE 2.2-8
BOTTOM/FLY ASH RATIOS FOR VARIOUS COMBUSTION UNITS
Type of Combustion Unit
Bottom Ash/Fly Ash
Pulverized - Dry Bottom
Pulverized - Wet Bottom
Cyclone
Stokers
15/85
35/65
90/10
65/35
Handling and disposal of the ash can be accomplished by various methods. For
large amounts of ash, the removal systems generally used are either pneumatic
conveyance with landfill, or water slurry with settling ponds.
For small installations, ash handling generally is accomplished by the day method.
Ash is removed from the boiler on a daily basis and moved by truck to a landfill site.
Water effluents from ash ponds represent another pollution control problem.
Water cleanup systems must be included in the capital cost of a coal fired installation.
Typical constituents of ash pond discharge water are listed in Table 2.2-10.
Ash discharges to the air result from wind erosion at landfill sites and from dry
ash collection and transport. Typical air emissions for an industrial installation average
about one pound of particulates per ton of ash collected. Local siting requirements
generally determine the air loading from landfill operations.
Other Emissions
Other sources of air pollution are cooling towers, coal storage and handling, and
coal preparation. These sources are considered to be relatively minor and primarily of
local or in-plant importance. However, little quantitative information is available.
Water pollution can arise from bleed streams discharged from wet scrubber
recycle systems, from cooling tower and boiler blowdown, and from intermittent
discharges from the boiler feedwater treatment area. Once-through cooling systems
use large volumes of water and potentially cause thermal pollution, stream depletion
11-386
-------
TABLE 2.2-9
TYPICAL COAL ASH COMPOSITION
Constituents % by Weight
Silica (Si02) 30-50
Alumina (A^O^) 20-30
Ferric Oxide (FegO^) 10-30
Lime (CaO) 1.5-4.7
Potassium Oxide (^0) 1.0-3.0
Magnesia (MgO) 6.5-1.1
Sodium Oxide (Na20) 0.4-1.5
Titanium Dioxide (TiOg) 0.4-1.3
Sulfur Trioxide (SOj) 0.2-3.2
Carbon and Volatiles 0.1-4.0
Boron (B) 0.1-0.6
Phosphorous (P) 0.01-0.3
Uranium & Thorium 0.0-0.1
TABLE 2.2-10
TYPICAL PROPERTIES OF ASH POND DISCHARGE WATERS
Range of Concentration
Constituents mg/1
Total Solids
300-3500
Total Dissolved Solids
250-3300
Total Suspended Solids
25-100
Hardness
200-750
Alkalinity
30-400
so4
100-300
A1
0.2-5.3
Cr
0.1
Na
20-173
NH
0.1-2
no3
0.1-6.1
CI
20-2000
Cu
0.1-0.3
Fe
0.02-2.9
11-387
-------
and contamination of downstream water with additives used to prevent fouling of
condenser surfaces. Fugitive emissions such as runoff from coal storage and handling,
and leaks around plant equipment may prove to be significant also.
The major solid waste problem other than that from ash handling is the solid
waste generated from throwaway flue gas desulfurization (FGD) systems. These sludges
vary a great deal in their characteristics. Lime and limestone wastes can liquefy and
flow under stress if they are not chemically altered (fixed) in some way. Some
processes generate sludges that have good stability without fixation.
Particulate Control Technology
Particulate matter from the combustion of coal occurs mostly in the form of fly
ash. Dust loadings in the flue gas leaving a boiler can range from 2 to 13 gr/SCF of dry
gas. There are several types of equipment which can be used to control particulate
matter: mechanical collectors, electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters, and wet
scrubbers. Several control devices in each of the categories are described below.
Removal efficiency for particulate matter is dependent upon many parameters,
but particle size is usually the controlling factor. Fly ash is the major contributor to
stack gas opacity. If it is not removed, a visible plume is produced which may result in
dust "fall out" on the surrounding area. Collected particulate matter can be combined
with bottom ash and used as landfill, road base material, granular material for roofing,
aggregate in concrete blocks and preformed concrete, asphalt mix material, cinders for
icy roads, insulation and grit for sand blasting. The handling of collected ash may result
in environmental problems from fugitive ash emissions and leachate from ash storage
and landfills. Controls which can be used in the ash handling area are discussed later.
Mechanical Collectors
Mechanical collectors use centrifugal, inertial or gravitational forces to separate
particulate matter from the gas stream. Cyclones use centrifugal forces and can be
purchased sihgly or in multiple units containing a number of smaller cyclones. The
inertial collector effects an abrupt change in the direction of flow causing the
momentum of the particulate matter to separate it from the flue gas. The settling
11-388
-------
chamber uses gravitational forces to accomplish particulate removal. The three major
collector types are listed below.
• Single Cyclones
• Multiple Cyclones
• Inertial Collectors
Electrostatic Precipitators
Electrostatic precipiators use electrostatic forces to charge and remove parti-
culate matter from the gas stream. One major efficiency factor is the electrical
resistivity of the particles to be recovered. The combustion of low sulfur western coal
generally produces fly ash with a higher resistivity (at 150°F) than does the combustion
of high sulfur coal. This higher resistivity interferes with precipitator operation.
Several methods which can be used to overcome the high resistivity problem are:
• Provide additional precipitator capacity.
• Use a two-stage electrostatic precipitator.
• Change the flue gas temperature to achieve a more favorable resistivity.
• Use a wet electrostatic precipitator.
• Add fly ash conditioning agents to change the resistivity or otherwise
modify electrical conditions in the precipitator.
Single Stage Precipitator. The single stage electrostatic precipitator is made up
of a number of positively charged, vertical, parallel plates. Between each plate is a
discharge cathode made up of a series of fine wires hung vertically 6 to 12 inches apart.
Gas passing between the plates is ionized by the intense electric field created between
the positively charged plates and the negatively charged wires. Particles are then
ionized by the gas and migrate toward the plates as the gas proceeds through the
precipitator. Agglomerated particulate matter attached to the walls is shaken free by
small hammers called "rappers". Fly ash settles to a dust hopper located below the
precipitator and is removed by a screw conveyor or rotary valve. Factors which
influence the precipitator performance are the time a particle is exposed to the
electro-static field, the strength of the field, the ratio of plate area to gas flow, the
gas viscosity, particle resistivity, sulfur content of the fuel, the temperature, carbon
11-389
-------
content of the particulate, particulate loading and the ability to remove the particles
from the collector plates.
Two Stage Precipitators. This precipitator is identical to the single stage
precipitator except that ionization is accomplished in a separate stage.
Hot Side Precipitators. The resistivity of fly ash changes with temperature. At
higher temperatures, such as those at the economizer outlet (370°C), the resistivity of
fly ash from the combustion of low sulfur coal is low as compared to its resistivity at
lower temperatures. Thus, locating the precipitator after the economizer but before
the air preheater will result in stable, highly efficient operation because of the high
temperatures. The precipitator in this situation can be designed for relatively high
current densities and will provide stable operation over a relatively wide range of fuel
compositions.
The primary disadvantage of the hot side precipitator is the need to handle an
increased gas volume (50 to 100% higher) due to operation at elevated temperatures.
Other than that, the precipitator is identical to the normal single stage precipitator.
Wet Electrostatic Precipitators. In wet precipitators, water is used continuously
to wash dust from the collecting electrodes. The water not only eliminates the need for
rappers, but also prevents reentrainment. In addition, the gas stream is saturated with
water vapor, thus eliminating the problem of fly ash resistivity. Consequently the wet
electrostatic precipitator may be an attractive method of collecting high resistivity fly
ash. The major disadvantage is cost. Wet precipitators must be fabricated from
corrosion resistant materials. This may increase the cost to 2.5 times that for dry
precipitators. The major corrosion problem arises from the reaction of the water with
the chemicals in the gas stream. The potential water pollution problems associated
with the fly ash slurry will, in most cases, increase the capital and operating costs as
well.
Fly Ash Conditioners. Many chemical agents have been investigated to determine
their effectiveness as fuel or flue gas additives. The objective is to reduce fly ash
resistivity and thus increase collection efficiency. A partial list of these chemical
H-390
-------
additives is shown below. Several proprietary additives have been developed by a
number of companies, the composition of which is probably a blend of those shown.
Aluminum Sulfate
Ammonia
Ammonium Bisulfate
Ammonium Sulfate
Hydrogen Chloride
Iron Oxide
Iron Sulfate
Organic Amines
Phosphorus Pentoxide
Sodium Carbonate
Sulfamic Acid
Sulfur Trioxide
Sulfuric Acid
Vanadium Oxide
Water or Steam
Fabric Filters
Fabric filters use tubular shaped fabric bags to filter out particulate matter
contained in the flue gas. Filtration is efficient and normally results in removal
efficiencies greater than 99%. The efficiency of each individual bag, however, varies
with time as dust accumulates on the bag surface. After a fixed period of time, a
section of the baghouse, containing a number of individual bags, is isolated from the gas
stream. Each bag is cleaned by one of various methods. When cleaning is complete, the
section is returned to service and another section is removed for cleaning. This
cleaning cycle continues until every bag has been cleaned. The cleaning sequence can
be operated manually when needed or it can be automated to function continuously.
Wet Scrubbers
Wet scrubbers remove particulate matter from the gas stream by contacting the
gas with water. The mechanism for particulate removal is primarily inertial impaction
(i.e. impaction on water droplets or on wetted surfaces). The exit gases from all wet
scrubbers are saturated with water and cooled below the inlet temperature. In general,
these gases must be reheated to provide buoyancy for disposal by tall stacks and to
eliminate the visible water vapor plume. Wet scrubbers also require treatment and/or
disposal of the scrubber solution to remove suspended solids and treat any chemicals
leached from the fly ash.
11-391
-------
Capital costs for wet scrubbers are generally lower than other control methods
with the exception of mechanical collection. A wet scrubber may cost only 25% as
much as an electrostatic precipitator. However, the operating and maintenance costs
are much higher; as high as five times that for a precipitator.
Five general types of scrubbers are currently in use. Each has been fabricated in
a variety of designs by a number of different manufacturers. Each type of wet scrubber
is listed below.
• Venturi Scrubbers
• Spray Scrubbers
• Moving Bed Scrubbers
• Impingement Scrubbers
• Orifice Scrubbers
Sulfur Dioxide Control Technology
Sulfur dioxide (SOg) is generated when the sulfur contained in coal is burned. Two
general types of control which have been used over the past 50 years are wet and dry
flue gas desulfurization (FGD) processes. The dry processes consist of a gas/solid
contacting system where the SOg is absorbed by the solid matter. Dry lime/limestone
injection, and adsorption on activated carbon, finely ground charcoal, coke and silica
gel have all been tested and applied to boilers to varying degrees. The lime/limestone
injection process has been applied to utility boilers but the process experienced major
problems and has been retrofitted with a wet process. The dry adsorption processes are
currently in a developmental stage and are not currently available for commercial
application.
The wet FGD processes have had by far the greatest success in industrial boiler
applications. Eight processes have been used on a commercial scale in the United
States. In all of these processes, SOg is absorbed in a water slurry or solution and
reacts to form sulfurous acid (H2S03). This acid in turn is neutralized by an alkali
contained in the system. All processes are classified into one of two categories,
throwaway or regenerable. Throwaway processes generate a sulfite/sulfate waste
product which must be disposed. The regenerable processes regenerate the alkali and
produce one of many by-product sulfur compounds which can be marketed.
11-392
-------
Throwaway Processes
Throwaway processes use an alkali to react with absorbed SC^ and form a
sulfite/sulfate waste product. The processes currently available are listed below.
• Lime Slurry Process
• Limestone Slurry Process
• Aqueous Sodium Process
• Aqueous Ammonia Process
• Double Alkali Process
Regenerable Processes
Regenerable processes also use an alkali to react with the absorbed SO.. The
resultant sulfite/sulfate slurry, however, is processed to regenerate the alkali for
recycle back to the absorber and to produce sulfur containing by-products. Only two
processes are currently available for commercial application, the magnesium oxide
process and the Wellman-Lord process.
Scrubber Types
The scrubber is probably the most important component in wet FGD systems.
Here the absorbent liquid or slurry is brought into contact with the flue gas. SC^ in the
flue gas is physically absorbed in the passing liquid. Chemical reactions may initiate in -
the scrubber, although they frequently move to completion or equilibrium outside the
scrubber.
Two major types of equipment can be used in FGD scrubber applications. One
type can be used to remove particulates and sulfur dioxide simultaneously, while the
other requires high efficiency particulate removal before the flue gas can be treated in
the scrubber. Venturi, spray and moving bed scrubbers, described earlier under
particulate control, also can be effectively used to absorb SO2. Packed towers and tray
columns tend to plug easily with the introduction of solids. For this reason highly
efficient particulate removal devices must be included when considering packed or
tray-type towers. Scrubber selections must be made on the basis of performance in the
following areas:
11-393
-------
• Absorption characteristics of the scrubber.
• Scaling experience of the system.
• Physical characteristics of the absorbing media.
• Physical properties and flow rate of the flue gas.
The five scrubber technologies currently most used in industry are as follows:
• Venturi Scrubbers
• Spray Scrubbers
• Moving Bed Scrubbers
• Packed Towers
• Tray Columns
Nitrogen Oxides Control Technology
Oxides of nitrogen are a major contributor to the total air pollution problem
existing in industrial areas. Generally referred to as "NC>x", this gaseous pollutant class
includes both nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NOg), although NO generally
comprises only five percent or less of the total NOx emissions from boilers.
Nitrogen oxide arises from the combustion of fuel-bound nitrogen and also from
the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in the combustion air. Not all of the fuel nitrogen
is converted to NOx< Typically, only 40% to 60% is converted, depending upon the coal
type, fuel nitrogen content, firing conditions, and the structure of the nitrogen-
containing molecules within the coal. Under certain conditions it could be important if
the nitrogen-containing molecules are associated with the volatile fraction of the coal
rather than the fixed carbon portion. The chemical oxidation state of the nitrogen
species is important because nitrogen that is partially oxidized will be more easily
converted to NO. The mechanism of formation of "fuel NO " is not well understood.
X
There is some evidence that "fuel NO " can be reduced by lowering the available
oxygen in the flame.
Atmospheric nitrogen enters the boiler system via the combustion air. At
combustion temperatures 3500°F) a small portion of this nitrogen is oxidized to form
11-394
-------
what is commonly called "thermal NO The formation of "thermal NO " cannot be
X X
prevented altogether, but a significant reduction can be accomplished by one of three
general methods of combustion modification:
• Lowering the peak flame temperature.
• Reducing the availability of oxygen in the flame.
• Altering the residence time/temperature profile in the combustion zone.
Several processes have been developed to control NOx by removing it from the
flue gas or reducing it to nitrogen. These processes are not as economical as the
combustion modifications, but in some applications they may be justified. The various
methods which can be used to control nitrogen oxides, both combustion modifications
and gas treatment processes, are discussed briefly below.
Combustion Modifications
Several methods can be used to alter the combustion system and thus reduce the
NO concentration in the flue gas. As described above, these techniques are generally
X
viewed to be effective as a result of lower peak flame temperatures, reduced
availability of oxygen in the flame, or altered residence time/temperature profiles in
the combustion zone. NO formation is a kinetically limited and highly temperature
sensitive reaction. This, coupled with the fact that the source of the NOx (fuel or
thermal) in the flue gas cannot be determined, makes the selection of the proper
combustion modification a very sensitive process. An example of its complexity is
shown by the reduction of peak flame temperatures. This operation also effects the -
temperature profile through the entire combustion path. However, the methods used
also can affect the gas flow rate and thus the residence time. All of these factors
affect the reaction kinetics, the rate of formation, and thus the concentration of NOx
in the flue gas.
When combustion modifications are employed to reduce nitrogen oxide emissions
from industrial boilers, practical operating problems may arise, namely: fireside
corrosion, deposits on boiler tubes, and flame instability—including blow-off, flash back,
combustion-driven oscillations, and combustion noise or roar.
11-395
-------
The design of the boiler and particular circumstances surrounding the installation
all affect the feasibility of applying modifications to a specific boiler. A considerable
variation of effectiveness, cost and practical difficulty will be experienced from one
application to another. Table 2.2-11 provides an overview of the relative applicability
of the combustion modifications as applied to firetube and watertube industrial boilers.
The data in this table should not be interpreted in terms of relative effectiveness for
NOx reduction.
A brief discussion of the various methods for combustion modification and the
effects on boiler operation caused by the application of these methods is included
below.
Fuel Nitrogen Content. The nitrogen content of bituminous coals can vary from
less than 0.8% up to 3.5%. EPA-funded tests indicate that a dependence of NC>x
emissions upon coal nitrogen content, per se, does not exist. However, these tests did
indicate that a high oxygen level in intimate contact with the fuel nitrogen may
enhance the low temperature conversion of fuel nitrogen to NOx. a. major change in
fuel nitrogen content and "fuel NO " may be encountered with a change from oil or
natural gas to coal.
The effect of coal rank on fuel nitrogen conversion is largely unexplored.
However, some recent data show that western subbituminous coals have about 15 to
20% lower NOx emissions than eastern bituminous coals with comparable fuel nitrogen
contents on a heat-value basis. The difference is believed due to the lower flame
temperature associated with the lower heating values and higher moisture contents of
the western coals.
It is apparent, from the above information, that coals with low nitrogen contents
cannot be used to reduce NO emissions. However, a change in coal rank, from eastern
2x
bituminous to western subbituminous may effect a reduction in NO emissions. This
however, is due primarily to factors other than fuel nitrogen content.
Low Excess Air Firing. Low excess air firing reduces the amount of excess air
being fed to the combustion zone and thus reduces the oxygen available for fuel NOx
formation. The amount of combustion air also affects the peak flame temperature.
11-396
-------
TABLE 2.2-11
APPLICATION OF COMBUSTION MODIFICATION TO
VARIOUS TYPES OF BOILERS
Combustion
Modification (a)
Firetube
Stoker
Water
Stoker
Watertube
Pulverized Coal
Fuel Nitrogen Content
N/A
N/A
N/A
Low Excess Air Firing
N/A
N/A
••
Staged Combustion (b)
•
•
••
Biased Firing (c)
N/A
N/A
N/A
Combustion Air Temperature
Reduction
••
••
••
Flue Gas Recirculation
••
••
a
••
Firing Rate Reduction
•••
•••
•••
Burner Design
N/A
N/A
••
Steam or Water Injection
•••
•••
•••
NOTES: (a) Applicability of combustion modification
••• Modification is feasible for new boilers and for retrofit.
•• Modification is feasible for new boilers and for retrofit,
but with considerable difficulty.
• Modification is feasible only for entirely new designs.
(b) Staged combustion includes use of Nox~ports downstream of
fuel-rich burning zone.
(c) Only applicable for multiple burners.
11-397
-------
Flame temperature increases as the excess air is decreased. This tends to negate
somewhat the effects of the reduced oxygen content in the combustion zone. This
method is the easiest of all combustion modifications to implement.
EPA-funded tests indicate that the reduction of excess air is more effective for
coal fired boilers than for oil or gas fired boilers. NOx in these tests was reduced by 50
to 60 ppm for each percent change in excess oxygen. However, these figures vary a
great deal depending upon the initial level of excess air.
The amount of carbon monoxide (CO) in the flue gas is also affected by the
oxygen content in the combustion zone. However, the CO content in the flue gas varies
directly with the amount of excess air. Unburned hydrocarbons function in a similar
manner. Consequently, low excess air firing requires additional monitoring equipment
to optimize all emissions. The cost for this equipment, in most cases, can be offset by
a fuel savings from a more efficient operation. A reduction in excess oxygen of 1% will
result in an average efficiency improvement of approximately 0.5%.
A point may be reached where further reductions in excess air will result in flame
instability. This limit will usually occur in the range of 2 to 5% excess 02 for
pulverized coal. Fireside deposits, corrosion and slagging may be a problem also.
Staged Combustion. Next to low excess air firing, staged combustion is the most
effective combustion modification. In this process, some of the combustion air is
diverted from the initial combustion zone at the burner and injected into the
combustion zone farther downflame. The injection points are usually called "overfire
ports", "sidefire ports" or "NOx ports" depending upon the location. This modification
causes the combustion process to be fuel rich initially, and slows combustion in the
initial combustion zone. The injection of cool combustion air downflame allows for
complete combustion and cools the flue gas below the nitrogen oxides formation
temperature of 3300°F more rapidly. This control method is inexpensive and effective,
but fireside deposits, corrosion, and slagging may create problems in the combustion
zone.
11-398
-------
Nitrogen oxide emissions have been reduced by as much as 47% with this
technique. In most cases, however, the boiler efficiency is decreased by up to one
percentage point, and in some instances, by as much as three percentage points.
Efficiency drops because more air is required overall, through the combination of the
burner and the overfire ports, than was required through the burner alone. This results
in more hot air being exhausted up the stack, and a corresponding decrease in the boiler
efficiency.
In addition to limiting the formation of thermally generated nitrogen oxides,
staged combustion also reduces the conversion of fuel-bound nitrogen to nitrogen
oxides. The mechanism for the fuel-bound nitrogen conversion is not highly tempera-
ture sensitive, so a combustion modification which reduces only the bulk gas tempera-
ture will not greatly limit the conversion. Staged firing, however, reduces the available
oxygen in the combustion zone near the burner, and is effective in limiting the
conversion of fuel-bound nitrogen.
Biased Firing. Biased firing is an economical method of implementing staged
combustion. In this process, the fuel is shut off to one or more burners while the air
flow is maintained at the same rate. The technique can be applied only to multiple
burner furnaces and cannot be used on stoker fired boilers. The major difficulty in
applying this procedure is in selecting the best burner to turn off and the best settings
of excess C^, air register, etc. which will allow satisfactory operation at reduced NOx
levels without smoke or carbon monoxide formation. In some cases, taking burners out
of service forces the unit to a lower load because the fuel system on the remaining in-
service burners cannot handle the increased fuel flow necessary to maintain full load.
Biased firing is seldom more effective than low excess air with all burners in service.
With a burner out of service, the total nitrogen oxide emissions have been reduced
up to 54%. An advantage of this type of combustion modification is that the boiler
efficiency is relatively unaffected. However, fireside deposits, corrosion and slagging
may be a problem.
Combustion Air Temperature Reduction. This method reduces the preheating of
combustion air to lower the combustion zone temperature profile. Nitrogen oxide
emissions can be reduced up to 32%, but it also results in a lower boiler efficiency.
11-399
-------
The level of combustion air preheat has a direct effect on the temperatures in the
combustion zone. For example a 90 °F decrease in air temperature results in
approximately a 45°F reduction in the adiabatic flame temperature, thus having a
direct impact on the formation of thermal NOx« Since the air preheat temperature
primarily affects thermal NOx formation, it will have the greatest effect, in terms of
percent change, on fuels with low fuel nitrogen contents (oil <5c gas).
Reducing the air preheat temperature results in a higher flue gas temperature
exiting the preheater, reducing boiler efficiency approximately 2.5% per 95°F increase
in the stack temperature. The boiler efficiency can be increased to offset this loss if a
larger economizer is provided to recover the waste heat.
One source indicates that combustion air temperature reduction may be effective
on coal fired boilers operating at high excess air levels. However, in this situation, low
excess air firing may provide better performance than combustion air temperature
reduction. For this reason and because of the large efficiency penalties, combustion air
temperature reduction should be considered only as a last-resort.
Flue Gas Recirculation. Flue gas recirculation has been successful in reducing the
total nitrogen oxides concentration in flue gases by 10 to 40%, especially with
pulverized coal boilers. The only effect on boiler efficiency is the work required in the
recirculation fan, which is negligible. Recirculation of flue gas into the combustion
zone reduces the flame temperature, and thus the formation of thermal NOx- Coal and
oil fired applications are not as responsive to this method as natural gas, probably due
to the high fuel nitrogen contents. However, the lower oxygen concentration in the
combustion gases also may reduce the formation of fuel NOx- Flue gas recycle to
secondary air in pulverized coal boilers has resulted in reductions in NOx concentrations
up to 30%. The recirculated rate corresponding to this reduction was 30%.
The method or location of injecting the flue gas is important. There are several
methods for adding flue gas to the burner. It can be mixed with the combustion air, or
a separate passage can be provided.
The type of boiler influences the effect of flue gas recirculation on NOx. In some
boilers, the technique may be uneconomical for large NOx reductions. In some cases,
11-400
-------
capital cost may be high. This combustion modification is best applied to large, new
boilers.
Firing Rate Reduction. This procedure calls for a reduction in the firing rate and
a reduction in the steam output of the boiler. In most cases this reduction in load, at a
given level of excess air, reduces the total amount of NOx being formed per pound of
steam generated. Problems arise when the boiler operational procedures call for an
increase in the amount of excess air at lower firing rates. This frequently happens, and
the excess air in the combustion zone increases the formation of NO . As a result,
some applications of this technique have been found to reduce NOx emissions by 25%,
while in other applications the NOx is increased by the same amount, depending upon
the operational procedures. A similar effect can be achieved by oversizing the
combustion zone. However, the capital costs for including unused furnace capacity may
be prohibitive. In general, a reduction in the firing rate can be an effective method for
controlling NOx in plants where the boiler has been oversized to handle peak loads or
future growth.
Burner Design and Tuneup. Some boiler types have shown an ability to emit less
nitrogen oxides than other types. Spreader stokers, pulverized coal burners, and
cyclone burners have the highest level of NOx emissions. Chain grate and underfired
stokers have the lowest. This may be a result of the lower flame intensity and larger
furnace volume commonly associated with the latter group.
Burner size is also a major factor in the quantity of NOx emitted from a boiler.
In general, NOx emission rates are higher with increased burner sizes. This would
suggest that one form of combustion modification would be to use several smaller
burners rather than one large one. This is generally true for both pulverized coal
burners and cyclone furnaces.
A burner, once in operation, must be properly maintained to ensure optimum
efficiency and low NO formation. Burner maintenance or tuneup consists of adjusting
the excess air to the proper level for each load, adjusting the burner registers to give a
hard, bright flame and replacing worn parts in the burner itself. The major objective in
burner tuneup is to alter the fuel and air mixing patterns to provide as much
11-401
-------
aerodynamically staged mixing as possible without additional air injection downflame.
The low-NO configuration that one hopes to achieve is a long, narrow flame where the
X
fuel and air mix gradually over the entire flame length. Such flames can be achieved by
reducing the swirl of the secondary air and by changing the angle at which the fuel is
injected into the secondary air stream. In the normal operating range of a burner with
variable air swirl, decreasing the swirl usually decreases NOx<
At very high swirl settings, NO may again decrease if the flame changes to a
widely flaring shape which is more effectively cooled by the walls and by entrainment
of cooled combustion products from within the furnace.
Improvements in thermal efficiency as well as reduced pollutant emissions can be
obtained economically by proper maintenance of the burner if, for example, the overall
excess can be lowered by improved fuel/air mixing. New burner designs are
available which advertise low emissions as well as versatile operation. These new
designs should be considered when a unit retrofit is anticipated.
Steam or Water Injection. In this combustion modification steam or water is
injected into preheated combustion air. It can be thought of as a simpler alternative to
flue gas recirculation and can be applied to any type of industrial boiler. To be
effective in reducing NO , the water must be evaporated before passing through the
flame. Steam or water injection reduces NOx formation by reducing the peak flame
temperature, and by diluting the oxygen concentration in the combustion zone. The
major disadvantage is the high stack gas heat loss associated with water injection. The
dilution effect can be enhanced with less loss in thermal efficiency if waste steam is
used. Neither injection process can be used to control fuel NOx. This method has been
used on several boilers, but normally it is considered unacceptable because of the
associated efficiency loss.
Gas Treatment Processes
Removal of nitrogen oxides from boiler flue gas is considerably more difficult
than preventing their formation by combustion modifications. Several problems are
inherent in this type of system. They are:
11-402
-------
• A large amount of gas must be handled.
• The NOx is present in dilute concentrations.
• Other pollutants may interfere with the process.
• High power consumptions may be encountered.
In Japan, where the NOx problem is greater, a considerable amount of attention
has been given to the development of NOx removal processes. This is due primarily to
the stringent standards imposed on industries there. In most cases, combustion
modifications adequately reduce NO emissions to meet current regulations in this
country.
Control Of Ash Handling Emissions
Ash handling emissions consist of water effluents, fugitive emissions and the ash
itself.
Solid Wastes
Solid waste from the ash handling area, comprised mainly of ash, must be disposed
of in an environmentally acceptable manner. Dry ash from the ash hopper in the boiler
can be combined with fly ash from dry particulate control devices (e.g. cyclones,
electrostatic precipitators, etc.), and sent to a landfill for disposal. Due to a shortage
of landfill sites, ash has been used in a number of ways to eliminate the need for
disposal. Methods of ash utilization were described in the particulate control section.
Molten ash from a slag-tap furnace must be cooled in water to solidify the ash and
to reduce the temperature for transport. Once the slag is contacted with water, it
breaks up into discrete particles. Steam generated from the cooling process will
contain any volatile matter originally present in the ash quench water. Depending on
the quality of the water, this effluent could create environmental problems if
discharged without treatment.
The solidified slag can be dewatered and transported to a landfill by truck or
conveyor, or it can be used in a manner similar to dry ash. Alternatively the slag can
be transported hydraulically to an ash pond. The pond can be used for ultimate disposal
11-403
-------
or the ash can be dredged and sent to a landfill. This method eliminates the need for -
expensive equipment required to dewater the ash slurry. Fly ash from wet particulate
scrubbers can be handled in a similar manner.
Fugitive Emissions
Fugitive air emissions consist of gaseous and particulate pollutants which are
released in small quantities from the plant in general, and not from specific uniform
openings within the plant. Most fugitive dust emissions generated from the handling of
fine, dry ash can be controlled by the use of enclosures to contain the dust or by water
sprays to collect and/or agglomerate the fine particles. Fugitive emissions from the
landfill area can be controlled by water sprays to hold down dust, or by spraying the
surface with chemicals to form a coating which resists wind erosion. Other methods
include covering the site with a daily earth cover, revegetating the area, or using shrubs
and other plants as windbreaks.
Fugitive liquid emissions arise from leaks around pumps, piping, and other process
equipment. In addition, ponds and spills in and around the plant can allow liquid to
migrate into the groundwater. Ash quench water or transport water can be effectively
contained in the ash pond by lining the pond with any one of a number plastic liners,
clay liners or other bulk materials such as asphalt or concrete. Leaks from process
equipment can be controlled by good maintenance practices or by collecting and
recycling the effluent.
Liquid Effluents
The major effluent from the ash handling area is the water used for ash quenching
and/or transport. The flow rate of this effluent can be high depending on the quantity
of ash. The quality of this water can also vary a great deal because of the variation in
coal ash properties. In most plants this stream is recycled from a settling pond or
clarifier, and reused in the ash handling system. Some coals have such a variation
between the fly ash and bottom ash properties that separate transport systems are
needed. Discharges from other areas of the plant also are disposed of in the ash
handling recycle system. If the flow of these streams is small, a closed system (zero
discharge) can be implemented. When the volume of the inputs exceeds evaporation and
11-404
-------
other water losses, the effluent from the system will have to be treated, in most cases,
to meet EPA regulations. This may involve chemical treatment in a clarifier to remove
suspended solids and to precipitate some of the chemical constituents. Cooling may be
required also, prior to discharge.
Control of Other Emissions
Emissions which cannot be classified as ash handling or combustion emissions are
considered in this section. These emissions include: fugitive emissions from coal
handling; cooling tower drift; liquid effluents from scrubbers, cooling towers, and ion
exchange regeneration; boiler blowdown; and solid wastes from flue gas desulfurization
processes.
Solid Wastes
Several throwaway flue gas desulfirization (FGD) processes generate solid wastes
containing varying amounts of calcium sulfate (CaSO^), calcium sulfite (CaSO^), fly ash
(up to 70% dry weight), scrubbing liquor (typically 30-60%), and a small amount of
unreacted lime or limestone. The physical characteristics of this sludge can vary a
great deal. Some sludges in the form of a slurry can be disposed of in a pond. Others
appear to be a dry solid, but after a rain storm or upon shaking, these sludges can
become fluid. Because of this, sludges from lime and limestone scrubbing systems must
be stablized or "fixed" to give them good, long term mechanical properties and to
improve their resistance to chemical leaching. Several methods have been developed to
eliminate the physical problems encountered with these sludges.
As described above, the first option is ponding. Sludge in the form of slurry or
near dry solids can be sent to lined disposal ponds to contain the leachate and allow the
solids to settle while the water evaporates. Experience shows, however, that this
method results in ponds that appear dry, but may at any time liquefy and behave like
quicksand. The solids do not compact themselves, leaving a hazard that must be
monitored indefinitely.
Sludges can also be dewatered and sent to a landfill. However, the sludges can
exhibit thixotropic properties within the landfill as well, and in wet conditions they can
11-405
-------
form a mud or slurry with poor mechanical properties. Soluble matter in the sludge also
can be leached from the landfill.
Physical stabilization is the third option. Dewatered sludge may be mixed with a
dry material such as fly ash and transported to a landfill. This process brings the sludge
to a state where it is non-thixotropic and nonplastic; but due to a non-rigid matrix these
properties can return if water infiltrates the landfill. Leaching may still be a problem
in this system.
Proprietary fixation processes have been developed by a number of companies to
stablize the sludge physically and chemically. In these processes a pozzolanic additive
is used to form a solid matrix with physical properties which will not change with water
inflow, shaking or time. Certain fly ashes can be used as the additive if aluminate and
silicate are present. These compounds react with the alkali sludge to form the cement-
like matrix. A variety of other additives can be used to enhance the process. The
sludge in its final form will have low permeability, good mechanical properties, and will
not degrade with time. Costs for the systems described all increase with the
complexity of the process.
Fugitive Emissions
Fugitive emissions from coal handling are similar to those from the handling of
ash. A certain amount of fine coal particles may be entrained in the air when coal is
dumped, transferred from belt to belt or from coal storage. Water sprays, chemical
sprays or enclosures equipped with dust removal equipment can be effective in
controlling this dust.
Runoff from the coal storage area contains a variety of chemicals leached from
the coal itself. The major constitutent, sulfuric acid, is generated when pyritic sulfur is
oxidized by the dissolved oxygen in rain. In general, this runoff is combined with other
waste effluents and sent to a recycle basin. The water is later reused within the plant.
Liquid Effluents
Several processes within a steam plant generate liquid wastes of varying quality.
These waste streams include boiler blowdown, cooling tower blowdown, ion exchange
11-406
-------
regeneration liquor, boiler cleaning waste streams and a variety of other insignificant
waste streams. Most plants recycle these streams to other areas of the plant using the -
cleanest streams in areas which require relative clean makeup and the dirtiest streams
in the ash transport recycle system.
A major contributor to the liquid effluent from the plant is the flue gas
desulfurization system. Many FGD processes generate small, concentrated bleed
streams to limit chemical buildup in the scrubber. Others use a once-through process
and generate a massive quantity of liquid to be treated or disposed of. Each process is
different, but small bleed streams generally can be reused in the plant waste water
system. With the aqueous sodium process and the aqueous ammonia process, the high
flow rates prohibit using these wastes in the plant recycle system, and a separate
treatment system must be provided. The treatment varies from system to system and
was partly described in the discussion of individual FGD processes.
11-407
-------
COAL ALTERNATIVE FOR ALPETCO REFINERY
This sub-section presents a preliminary design and cost estimate for utilizing coal
as a fuel source for the ALPETCO refinery. Direct coal combustion for the ALPETCO
refinery is applicable only in steam and power generation due to the fact that
technology for combustion of coal in process heaters has not been demonstrated.
For the ALPETCO refinery the preliminary design of the coal-fired steam and
power system is based on a net process steam requirement of 270,000 lb/hr of 150 and
50 psig steam and 51,671 KW of electrical demand. The boilers are designed to produce
650 psig, 680?F steam at a total steam rate of 800,000 lb/hr, utilizing 1268 TPD of
coal. Approximately 270,000 lb/hr of steam are initially sent to a steam topping
turbine with exhaust conditions of 150 psig, 360 a F. The exhaust steam is sent to the
refinery for process use. The topping turbine will produce 8,544 KW of electricity. The
remaining 43,127 KW is produced by running 530,000 lb/hr of steam through a conden-
sing turbine. To assure reliability, the boiler system will include three 400,000 lb/hr
boilers thus providing 50% spare capacity. This will allow periodic shutdown of
individual boilers for inspection and maintenance while maintaining design steam load.
The coal boiler and turbine systems are shown in Figure 2.2-6.
The coal handling system (itemized in Table 2.2-12) for the boilers will involve
barge unloading facilities, a minimum 45 day coal inventory storage pile, a reclaim
system, coal crushers for sizing, silos and bunkers for working storage, feeders and
conveyors, and finally pulverizers to reduce the coal to 70% through 200 mesh before
entering the burners.
In addition to the boiler and coal handling and feeding system a particulate and
sulfur removal system is also included. A typical process flow diagram^1®^ for
pulverized coal boiler, electrostatic precipitator and flue gas desulfurization system is
shown in Figure 2.2-7. The equipment required for this setup, as marked in Figure 2.2-
7, includes:
11-408
-------
360° F
150 PSI
FIGURE 2.2-6
CONCEPTUAL ALPETCO
BOILER/TURBINE CONFIGURATION
-------
TABLE 2.2-12
EQUIPMENT FOR COAL HANDLING SYSTEM
ITEM
COST*
Coal Crusher
$ 148,520
Dust Collection Blowers
212,440
Magnetic Separator
52,640
Coal Screen
63,920
Coal Dust Filters
33,840
Unloading Dust Filters
33,840
Unloading Hopper Conveyor
63,920
Elevator Feed Conveyor From Unloading
212,440
Coal Elevator
105,280
Silo Feed Conveyor
159,800
Silo Discharge Conveyor
84,600
Vibratory Feeder
52,640
Coal Unloading Hopper
84,600
Coal Feed Surge Hoppers
41,360
Pulverizers
530,160
Total
$1,880,000
* 1979 Dollars
11-410
-------
St-ir i
i j .t i
i 4
m
—[
»-»"v jr p-»*T
Vf
> IS*—i L3*~'
rl. r »-aoa
T-aoa
, -A_
"Llf
MMCAT
STiAM
F-JOI
3
ftCNUMill SlUOGC
TO DISPOSAL
FIGURE 2.2-7
TYPICAL PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR A PULVERIZED COAL FIRED BOILER
-------
M-101
pulverizing mill
• T-302
lime use bin
BL-101
primary air blower
• SL-301
slaker
B-101
boiler
• T-303
lime reactor tank
EP-101
electrostatic precipitator
• T-304
thickener
BL-201
blower
• T-305
regeneration surge tank
V-201
venturi
• P-301
regeneration return pump
T-201
separator
• P-302
thickener underflow pump
T-202
recirculation tank
• F-301
rotary drum filter
P-201
recirculation pump
• BL-302
vacuum pump
T-203
slurry mixer
• P-303
filtrate pump
P-202
soda ash transfer pump
• T-506
filtrate receiver
P-203
soda ash hydration pump
• EX-301
reheater
T-301
lime storage bin
• S-301
stack
BL-301
lime transfer blower
Capital costs for the coal-fired steam and power system including the flue gas
desulfurization system are given in Table 2.2-13.
System operating costs are given in Table 2.2-14. Direct labor manpower
estimates are based on past experience, with four men per shift per boiler being
standard practice. Electrical power requirements were charged out at 2.5<)!/KWH even
though the refinery generates its own power. Treated boiler feed water costs $.35/1000
gallons. Boiler maintenance costs were set at $0.40/ton of coal burned.
Emissions from the coal boiler/power system are presented in Table 2.2-15. The
NO uncontrolled emission estimates are based on emission factors published by the
x (9)
Environmental Protection Agency in publication AP-42 . The controlled emission
estimates are based on the recently released New Source Performance Standards for
Coal-Fired Utility Power Plants. These emission standards are as follows:
• S02 - 70 percent reduction in potential emissions for
coals that emit less than 0.60 lb/million BTU
when burned with no control
11-412
-------
TABLE 2.2-13
CAPITAL COST ESTIMATE FOR COAL-FIRED STEAM AND POWER SYSTEM*
Boilers
Installation Labor
Balance of Plant
Dearators
164,400
Boiler Feed Pump & Drivers
152,700
Boiler Chemical Treatment
53,100
Foundations
55,800
Earthwork & Grading
206,700
Revetments Sumps <5c Culverts
516,900
Control Room
1,200,000
Electrical Cabling, Switchgear
435,400
Silos <5c Bunkers
139,800
Coal Handling
1,880,000
Waste Disposal
313,400
Water Treatment
2,923,200
Reheaters
153,000
Subtotal, Balance of Plant
Turbines
8.5 MW
43.0 MW
Installation Labor
Foundations, Controls, Auxiliary
Total Direct Cost
Contingency (10%)
Engineering (10%)
FGD Systems
TOTAL SYSTEM COST
$21,000,000
10,500,000
8,194,400
1,020,000
4,370,000
2,200,000
1,078,000
48,362,400
4,836,200
4,836,200
7,584,000
$65,618,800
* Basis:
1. 3 - 400,000 Lb/Hr Boilers and
2. 1979 Dollars 11-413
-------
TABLE 2.2-14
OPERATING COST ESTIMATE FOR COAL-FIRED STEAM AND POWER SYSTEM
Raw Materials
Fuel @$ 29.26/ton
Soda Ash @$ 55.00/ton
Lime (§.$ 33.00/ton
Annual Cost*
$13,542,100
66,500
360,000
$13,968,600
Salaries & Wages
Direct Labor 4 Men/Shift/Boiler
Administration <5c Overhead
(20% of Direct Labor)
811,400
162,200
$ 973,600
Utilities
Power
- Coal Handling
- Boiler Operation
- Feed Water Pump
- FGD System
Water
- Scrubber Makeup
- Boiler Makeup
24,800
409,200
203,800
564,200
2,600
84,700
$ 1,289,300
Maintenance
Boiler
FGD <5c Other
177,500
432,400
$ 609,900
Taxes <5c Insurance
1,312,400
Depreciation (St. Line 23 Yr. Taxable Life) 2,853,000
Basis:
Total Operating Cost
1. Operating 2 - 400,000 Lb/Hr Boilers
2. 1979 Dollars
$21,006,800
11-414
-------
TABLE 2.2-15
EMISSION ESTIMATES, ALPETCO COAL FIRED BOILER INSTALLATION
Air Emissions, lbs/Day
Particulates
SO
X
CO
HC
NOx
No Control
215,560
9,636
1,268
380
22,864
Controlled
646
674
1,268
380
10,778
Bottom
Ash
Solid
-------
• Particulate Matter - 0.03 lb/million BTU
• NO - 0.50 lb/million BTU
x
The solid/liquid effluent rates are based on:
• Ash - 15% bottom ash; 85% fly ash, 99.7% removal of
fly ash.
• Scrubber Sludge - 55% solids, including lime grit
These estimates compare with the estimates for the ALPETCO gas fired
steam and power system as indicated in Table 2.2-16.
TABLE 2.2-16
ALPETCO EMISSION ESTIMATE COMPARISON
FUEL GAS/COAL STEAM AND POWER FACILITY
(Tons/Year)
S02 NOx CO HC Particulate
Fuel Gas 165 929 98 17 58
Coal 123 1967 231 69 117
11-416
-------
References
(1) Sanders, R.B., "Coal Resources of Alaska," Proceedings of the Conference, Focus
on Alaska's Coal '75, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, October 15-17, 1975, pg. 24.
(2) Conwell, C.N., 1977 Keystone Coal Industry Manual, McGraw-Hill 1977, Pg. 568,
(ALASKA)
(3) Patsch, Benno J.G., "Exploration and Development of the Beluga Coal Field,"
Proceedings of the Conference, Focus on Alaska's Coal '75, University of Alaska,
Fairbanks, October 15-17, 1975, pg. 76.
(4) Barnes, F.F., Coal Resources of Alaska, U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1242-B,
1967, pp. 1-36.
(5) Cornwell, C.N., "Land Reclamation Is An Integral Part of the Only Operating
Coald Mine In Alaska," The Coal Miner, September 1977, pp. 21-29.
(6) Usibelli, Jr., "Mining Constraints and Operations at Usibelli Coal Mine," Pro-
ceedings of the Conference, Focus on Alaska's Coal 75, University of Alaska,
Fairbanks, October 15-17, 1975, pp. 93-99.
(7) Bottge, R., "Changing Economics of Alaskan Coals," University of Alaska,
Fairbanks, October 15-17, 1975, pp. 139-149.
(8) Verbal Communication with Crowley Maritime, Inc.
(9) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Compilication of Air Pollutant Emission
Factors - Second Edition", AP-42, February 1976.
(10) Cameron Engineers, Inc., "Solid Fuels For U.S. Industry, An Engineering,
Economic and Market Study of Coal to 1990", March 1979.
11-417
-------
THE PACE COMPANY CONSULTANTS & ENGINEERS, INC. rj j ¦> 1 wi.srutiMtR
P.O. BOX 53473 HOUSTON, TEXAS 77052 AC 713 965-0311 CABLE: PACE* ()-H( )US1( )N TEIEX 77-4)50
EVALUATION OF REFINERY BY-PRODUCT
GAS AS AN ENERGY SOURCE
11-418
-------
EVALUATION OF REFINERY BY-PRODUCT GAS AS AN ENERGY SOURCE
Refinery by-product gas, which primarily consists of the light, non-condensable
gases produced from various processing operations, has been a major contributor to
the refinery fuel systems and has been used to displace natural gas burned in process
applications. Modern heater designs have evolved over the years based on burning
gaseous fuels, and are efficient units with a high degree of heat control necessary for
high temperature process heating.
HEATER TECHNOLOGY
Fired heaters include a number of devices in which heat liberated by the combus-
tion of fuel within an internally insulated enclosure is transferred to fluid contained in
tubular coils. Typically, the tubes are installed along the walls and roof of the combus-
tion chamber where heat transfer occurs primarily by radiation and a separate tube
bank where heat is transferred by convection. Industry identifies these heaters with
such names as process heater, furnace, process furnace and direct fired heater, all of
which are interchangeable.
The fundamental function of a fired heater is to supply a specified quantity of
heat at elevated temperature levels to the fluid being heated. It must be able to do so
without localized overheating of the fluid or the heater structural components.
Fired heater size is defined in terms of its design heat absorption capability, or
duty. Duties range from about a half-million BTU/hr for small units to about one billion
BTU/hr for large facilities associated with steam-hydrocarbon-reformer heaters. How-
ever, the majority of fired-heater installations fall within the 10 to 350 million BTU/hr
range.
Process industry requirements for fired heaters are divided into a half-dozen
general service categories:
• Column reboilers (general heating service)
• Fractionating - column feed preheaters
• Reactor-fired preheaters (high temperature service)
11-419
-------
® Heat supplied to a heat-transfer media
• Heat supplied to viscous fluids (pumping and transfer requirements)
® Fired reactors
Design
There are many variations in the layout, design and construction of fired heaters.
The principal classification relates to the orientation of the heating coil in the radiant
section, that is whether the tubes are horizontal or vertical.
There are twelve different configurations currently used in the process industries.
The classification, layout and normal heating duty range for the most popular type are
discussed below.
Vertical-Cylindrical, All Radiant
In this design, the tube coil is placed vertically along the walls of the combustion
chamber. Firing is vertical, from the floor of the heater. Typical duties are 0.5 to 20
million BTU/hr. This type is generally low cost, but also has a low thermal efficiency.
Vertical-Cylindrical, Helical Coil
In these units the coil is arranged helically along the walls of the combustion
chamber, and firing is vertical from the floor. This design also represents low cost, and
low efficiency, however, one limitation on these units is that generally only one flow
path is followed by the process fluid. Heating duties range from 0.5 to 20 million
BTU/hr.
11-420
-------
Vertical-Cylindrical, With Crossflow Convection
These heaters feature both radiant and convection sections. The radiant section
tube coil is in a vertical arrangement along the walls of the combustion chamber. The
convection section tube coil is arranged as a horizontal bank of tubes positioned above
the combustion chamber.
This configuration provides an economical, high efficiency design. The majority
of new vertical-tube fired heater installations fall into this category. Typical heat duty
range is 10 to 200 million BTU/hr.
Arbor or Wicket
This is a specialty design in which the radiant heating surface is provided by U-
Tubes connecting the inlet and outlet terminal manifolds. This type is especially suited
for heating large flows of gas under conditions of low pressure drop. Typical applica-
tions in petroleum refining are in catalytic-reformer charge heaters and in various
reheat service. Firing modes are usually vertical from the floor. Typical heat duties
range from 50 to 100 million BTU/hr.
Vertical Tube - Double Fired
In these units vertical radiant tubes are arranged in a single row in each combus-
tion cell (usually two cells) and are fired from both sides of the row. Such an arrange-
ment yields a highly uniform distribution of heat transfer rates about the tube
circumference. A variation of these heaters uses multilevel side-wall firing. These
units are often used in fired reactor service and in critical reactor feed heating
services. Heat duty range for each cell is between 20 and 125 million BTU/hr.
Horizontal Tube Cabin
The radiant section tube coils of these heaters are arranged horizontally so as to
line the sidewalls of the combustion chamber and the sloping roof. The convection
section tube coils are positioned horizontally above the combustion chamber. Normally,
11-421
-------
these tubes are fired vertically from the floor, but they can also be fired horizontally
by sidewall mounted burners. These heaters represent the majority of new horizontal
tube heater installations. Duties run 10 to 100 million BTU/hr.
AIR SUPPLY AND FLUE GAS REMOVAL
Besides the major classifications according to service and configuration, fired
heaters can also be grouped according to their methods of combustion air and flue gas
removal.
The capability for inducing the flow of combustion air into a fired heater exists
when hot flue gas of relatively low density is confined in a structure and isolated from
higher-density air at ambient temperature. The buoyancy of the hot flue gas contained
in the fired heater creates "draft" (less than atmospheric pressure), which induces flow
of air into the combustion chamber. Since this draft results from a natural stack ef-
fect, it is termed natural draft. The majority of fired-heater installations are such
natural-draft types, where a stack effect introduces the combustion air and removes
the flue gas.
Obstruction to the flow of flue gas through a fired heater can result in a condition
of pressure greater than atmospheric (positive pressure) in the structure. It is the
function of the stack in a natural-draft heater to generate draft sufficient to overcome
such obstructions and to maintain a negative pressure throughout.
An induced-draft fired heater incorporates an induced-draft fan, in lieu of a
stack, to maintain a negative pressure and to induce the flow of combustion air and the
removal of flue gas.
In forced-draft fired heater combustion air is supplied under positive pressure by
means of a forced-draft fan. It is to be noted that even with air supplied under positive
pressure, the combustion chamber and all other parts of the fired heater are maintained
under negative pressure, and the flue gas is removed by the stack effect.
11-422
-------
A forced-draft/induced-draft heater uses a forced-draft fan to supply combustion
air under positive pressure; an induced-draft fan maintains the combustion chamber and
all other parts of the fired heater under negative pressure and removes the flue gas.
Most fired heaters equipped with air preheaters are of the forced-draft/induced-
draft type. The specific design of any of the previously mentioned heaters utilizing
gaseous fuels is based on a number of factors:
• heater service
• heat duty
• BTU value of the fuel gas
• contaminants contained in the fuel gas
The state-of-the-art in design of gas fired heaters whether on natural gas or
refinery by-product gas is well developed. The burner requirements, excess air fuel
volume and furnace volumes are all fixed by the heat duty, and fuel heating value.
Stack temperatures and heat load on the convection section are set in many instances
by contaminants which may be contained in the fuel and ultimately in the flue gas. Low
temperatures promote corrosion and fouling of tubes and stack due to condensing and
reaction of contaminants. The j?ffect on stack gas dew point is a critical parameter.
In general, all heaters used in refinery service and all by-product gas produced in
refinery operations are compatible. There are no major difficulties in utilizing refinery
gas and in fact is the preferred method used to supply fuel for process heat.
11-423
-------
BY-PRODUCT GAS AVAILABILITY AND USE IN THE ALPETCO REFINERY
By-product gas produced from refinery operations consists of non-condensable
gases comprised primarily of methane, ethane, and propane. These gases are produced
from crude distillation, cracking, reforming, and other thermal processes. The amount
and source of these gases available for refinery fuel depends on the actual processing
configuration used in the refinery.
At the Alpetco refinery, fuel gas will be produced in a number of units and
treated and processed in gas cleaning units before being added to the fuel system. The
primary sources of the C2 and lighter fuel gases include:
• Distillate hydrocracker
® Gas Oil Hydrotreater
® Fluid Catalytic Cracker
• Naphtha Hydrotreater
Propane is also used in the refinery fuel system. However, a portion of the
propane production is used for the manufacture of hydrogen. Primary sources of
propane include:
® Distillate hydrocracker
• HF Alkylation
® Fluid Catalytic Cracker light ends
An additional source of gaseous fuel at Alpetco will be low (130 BTU/SCF) BTU gas
produced from coke via gasification. Vacuum tower bottoms, a heavy high melting
point material will be sent to a flexicoker, where the stream will be coked and the
resulting coke gasified to produce the low BTU gas. This gas stream is treated for
removal of particulates and sulfur compounds and added to the fuel system.
11-424
-------
The combination of the methane, ethane, propane and low BTU gas results in a
refinery fuel mix with a heating value of 407 BTU/SCF. These gases represent 97
percent of the total refinery energy demand as shown in Table 2.3-1.
TABLE 2.3.1
REFINERY FUEL GAS SOURCES
Quantity
Description MMBTU/D
Fuel Gas 48,372
Flexicoker Low-BTU Gas 20,496
Propane 10,115
Total 78,983
Refinery by-product gas is a reliable fuel source since it is always available when
the refinery is operating. The use of this gas as fuel is the most logical disposition of
these streams since there is currently no market for LPG near the Alpetco facility and
the recovery and purification of methane and ethane would not be economically viable.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
The combustion of by-product gas generates five major pollutants of concern:
S02, NOx CO, particulates, and non-methane hydrocarbons. Currently S02 resulting
from the combustion of I^S in fuel gas is regulated and is limited to 0.10 gr I^S DSCF.
The other major pollutants must be limited in order to meet National Ambient Air
Quality Standards (NAAQS) and Prevention of Significant Deterioration regulations.
(See Section 3.4.3)
11-425
-------
Valdez is classified by the EPA as a Class II area and is an attainment area for all
the above-mentioned pollutants. This means that current discharge of emissions in the
Valdez area is below maximum allowable concentrations specified for Class II areas.
Of the five pollutants, there are precombusion controls for two: sulfur and
particulates. Light gases produced in refinery operations generally contain considerable
amounts of HgS which can be removed in amine gas scrubbing systems. This system has
been used in refinery operations for many years and is reliable. Concentrations of H0S
can be reduced to levels well within standards for sulfur emissions.
Particulates are not a problem in refinery gases. However, at the Alpetco
facility, the low BTU gas produced in the flexicoking operation will contain significant
amounts of particulates. These particulates are removed by either water or oil
scrubbing before introduction into the fuel system. NC>x formation cannot be controlled
prior to combustion but various modifications to firing operations can be made to
reduce NO .
X
NOx arises from the combustion of fuel bound nitrogen and also from the
fixation of atmospheric nitrogen in the combustion air. Fuel bound nitrogen in
low BTU gas is generally in the form of ammonia, but as in many refinery fuel
gases, it is not predominate. Control of the formation of NO from the fixation
of atmospheric nitrogen is usually accomplished by combustion modifications
which:
• Lower the peak flame temperature.
• Reduce the availability of oxygen in the flame.
• Alter the residence time/temperature profile in the combustion
zone.
Carbon monoxide and non-methane hydrocarbon are formed from inefficient
combustion of the fuel. This coupled with the complex dependence the above
factors have on each other, creates a requirement for proper design and precise
adjustment of a combustion system to minimize the production of NOx, CO, and
non-methane hydrocarbons.
11-426
-------
Specific control technology planned for the Alpetco refinery is discussed in
Section 3.4.3.
Overall, refinery gas is a clean burning fuel provided proper precombustion
cleanup and combustion modifications are used. The estimated emissions for
by-product gas firing are as follows in Table 2.3-2.
TABLE 2.3-2
ESTIMATED EMISSIONS FOR BY-PRODUCT GAS UTILIZATION
(lb/MMBTU)
Particulates SO„ CO NO NMHC
— d X
0.1 0.023 0.017 0.12 0.003
11-427
-------
THE PACE COMPANY CONSULTANTS & ENGINEERS, INC. 5251 WESTHEIMER
P.O. BOX 53473 HOUSTON, TEXAS 77052 AC 713 965-0311 CABLE: PACECO-HOUSTON TELEX 77-4150
EVALUATION OF LOW BTU GAS
AS AN ENERGY SOURCE
11-428
-------
EVALUATION OF LOW BTU GAS AS AN ENERGY SOURCE
This section will evaluate the use of low and medium BTU gas as an alternate
energy source for the ALPETCO refinery. The technical feasibility, economics, and
environmental effects of the manufacture and use of low and medium BTU gas will
be discussed.
There are two ways in which low and medium BTU gas could be produced for
use in supplying refinery energy needs. Flexicoking of the vacuum residuum is one
method and is included in the proposed project design. This technology is described
in Section 3.4.2. The second method, discussed in this section, is to produce low or
medium BTU gas by gasifying coal.
UTILIZATION OF LOW AND MEDIUM BTU GAS
The technology for burning low and medium BTU gas in process heaters, boilers
and other combustion devices is available; however, the specific combustion charac-
teristics of these gases need to be considered during design. Such items as gas volume,
flame temperature, flame length, flame stability, heating value and ignition charac-
teristics must be considered. Although the composition of the gas produced from
various gasifiers and by flexicoking will differ, a generalized discussion of the above
parameters can be presented.
Gas Volume
In comparing low or medium BTU gas to natural gas, a characteristic that is often
misinterpreted is the heating value of the fuel on a volume basis. Inspection of the
volumetric heating values of these fuels indicates that low and medium BTU gas must
to be delivered to the heater at 3.6 to 7.6 times the flow rate of natural gas to achieve
the same heat input.
11-429
-------
For inplant applications however, it is more appropriate to evaluate the heating
values in terms of the total volume of air-fuel mixture. This is particularly true when
the burners are of the pre mix type, where air and fuel gas are mixed prior to being
burned. As seen in Table 2.4-7, the heating values of natural gas, oxygen-blown coal
gas, air-blown coal gas and flexicoker gas are 96.1, 89.5, 73.1 and 66.3 BTU/SCF of
stoichiometric air-fuel mix respectively. Expressed in this way, the heating values of
the gases are not as different as might be expected upon initial study. In normal firing
with 10% excess air these values become even closer due to the high air/fuel ratio when
firing natural gas. Then the total gas volume, relative to that when firing natural gas,
is 1.07 for the oxygen-blown gas and 1.31 for air-blown gas produced from a bituminous
coal and 1.45 for flexicoker gas. The increased volume of gases, 7 to 45%, can have a
positive benefit by causing faster circulation of the combustion products and, therefore,
better heat distribution throughout the furnace. Unfortunately, the pressure drop at
the burner will always be higher than is the case with natural gas.
Flue gas volumes produced by burning low and medium BTU gas will be different
than when burning natural gas. Low BTU gas produces 12,500 SCF of flue gas per
million BTU fired, flexicoker gas 15,980 SCF and medium BTU gas produces only 9,823
SCF (this is lower than the value of 10,482 for natural gas).
Flame Temperature
Adiabatic flame temperatures for various gases are presented in Table 2.4-7. The
flame temperature of medium BTU gas, approximately 3,600°F, is somewhat above that
of natural gas at 3,560°F. Other medium BTU gas compositions can result in even
higher temperatures. The flame temperature of low BTU gas of 3,200°F and flexicoker
gas of 3,100, is lower mainly because of the high nitrogen content in the fuel. The
lower flame temperatures will significantly reduce the rate of radiative heat transfer
in, for example, furnace applications. To raise the flame temperature to a desirable
level, the fuel and the combustion air, or the air alone, may be preheated. Figure 2.4-1
shows the effect of feed preheating on the flame temperature of low BTU, medium
BTU, and natural gases. Low BTU gas can give a flame temperature of 3,560°F if both
the stoichiometric air and the fuel are preheated to about 650°F.
11-430
-------
TABLE 2.4-7
COMPARISON OF GAS COMBUSTION CHARACTERISTICS
i
-t-
u>
ANALYSIS %
CO
H2
CH4
C2H6
C2H4' C6H6
C02
°2
N-
TOTAL
VOLUME
SCF Air/ SCF Fuel
Fuel Mix, SCF/MM BTU
Flue Gas, SCF/MM BTU
Natural
Gas
99.0
0.2
0.2
0.6
100.0
9.47
10,406
10,482
Medium BTU Gas
(Oxygen-Blown)
37.9
38.4
3.5
18.0
2.2
100.0
2.15
11,173
9,823
Low BTU Gas
(Air-Blown)
28.6
15.0
2.7
3.4
50.3
100.0
1.30
13,680
12,500
Flexicoker
Gas
16.3
20.5
1.4
12.9
48.9
100.0
1.01
15,080
15,980
HIGHER HEATING VALUE
BTU/SCF Fuel Gas
BTU/SCF Air-Fuel Mix
BTU/SCF Flue Gas
FLAME TEMP.
RELATIVE FLOW RATE
(Compared to Natural Gas)
Fuel Gas
Air-Fuel Mix
Flue Gas
1006
96.1
95.4
3,560
1.0
1.00
1.00
282
89.5
101.8
3,600
3.57
1.07
0.94
168
73.1
80.1
3,200
5.99
1.31
1.19
133.3
66.3
62.6
3,100
7.55
1.45
1.52
-------
3000 -
Figure 2.4-1
FLAME TEMPERATURE vs FEED PREHEAT TEMPERATURE
4000
UJ
cc
3
QC
UJ
a.
Z
Ui
ui
2
<
_i
LL
3500 -
2000-
—I—
100
200
300
400
500
eoo
700
800
PREHEAT TEMPERATURE, F
11-432
-------
Flame temperature, however, is not the sole factor affecting radiative heat
transfer in a furnace. The thermal radiation properties of the combustion products vary
with each different fuel, and consequently the radiation from hot gases could be more
or less than that from natural gas even if the flame temperatures are identical. The
combustion products will contain varying amounts of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and
water vapor. Nitrogen radiates no heat and is transparent to radiation. Carbon dioxide
and water vapor, however, are good radiators. The individual emissivities of these two
radiating species varies with the concentration (or partial pressure), also the tempera-
ture level and the length of radiation path. Furthermore, the individual emissivities
interact in a complex manner to affect the total emissivity for C02 and HgO in a
mixture. For the purpose of comparing the relative radiant flux from the three
combustion gases, the emissivities at 3,600°F, 1 atm, and for one foot of radiation path
are summarized in Table 2.4-8. As can be seen, the combustion products from medium
BTU gas will radiate 2 percent more heat and the Flexicoker gas 4 percent more than
would natural gas under identical conditions. In contrast, the combustion products of
low-BTU gas will radiate 10 percent less even if the feed is preheated to produce a
3,600°F flame. This can be attributed partly to the relatively high content of inert
nitrogen.
It must be cautioned that actual conditions in a furnace may be quite different
from those which were assumed in arriving at the above figures. The combusted gases
may not be well mixed, and large gradients in the water and carbon dioxide
concentrations may exist in various areas. As noted earlier, the increased volume of
burned low-BTU gas may actually change the combustion pattern, affecting convective
as well as radiative heat transfer. Furthermore, the overall radiative heat transfer
consists of flame radiation as well as gas radiation. Controls on flame radiation, such
as on the luminosity of the flame by injecting a small amount of oil or pulverized coal,
can sometimes be used to at least partially offset changes in the gas radiation.
11-433
-------
Composition
(vol 96)
C02 9.52
H20 18.98
N2 71.50
Emissivity
(3600UF, 1 atm,
and 1 ft. path)
eC02 0.025
eH20 0.031
eC02 + H20 0.051
Relative Radiant Flux
From Combustion Gas
(Nat. Gas = 1) 1.00
TABLE 2.4-8
COMPARISON OF COMBUSTION PRODUCTS
Medium Btu Gas Low Btu Gas
Natural Gas (Oxygen-Blown) (Air-Blown)
21.45
16.40
62.15
0.038
0.026
0.052
1.02
16.71
9.82
73.47
0.035
0.015
0.046
0.90
Flexicoker
Gas
18.77
17.01
64.22
.037
.026
.053
1.04
Flame Length
Changes in flame length as a function of fuel heating value are important in
evaluating the performance within a furnace, because the size and shape of the flame
affect the rate of radiative heat transfer (flame radiation). When changing fuel gas, it
has been observed experimentally that the flame length generally decreases as the
higher heating value (expressed in BTU/SCF of pure fuel gas) decreases. When the ratio
of flame length to nozzle diameter is plotted against the higher heating value (HHV),
the relationship is nearly linear for a number of fuel gases, including low BTU gas. For
a given burner, therefore, low BTU gas will give a flame only one-fifth or one-sixth as
long as to that of natural gas. Oxygen-blown medium BTU gas can be expected to show
a proportionate decrease to about one-third or one-fourth.
11-434
-------
Flame length can be increased by enlarging the burner diameter. This is a costly
procedure however, and may encourage flame instability due to flash back. A simpler
procedure could be to vary the amount of air swirl, if the burner is of the type that uses
swirling (tangential) air flow and radial gas injection. By reducing the tangential-to-
radial flow components of combustion air, i.e., by decreasing the momentum of air-and-
fuel gas mixture in the radial direction, the flame length increases. Thus, by changing
the air register vanes or baffles to decrease the amount of air swirl (but not the total
amount of combustion air) it may be possible to hold a fixed flame length when
switching from natural gas to coal gases having lower heating values.
Flame Stability
Flame stability is often characterized in terms of flashback and blowoff limits.
The phenomenon of flashback, or the passing of flame into the port through which a
fuel-air mixture flows, occurs when the stream velocity is reduced to a certain critical
value. Similarly, the phenomenon of blowoff occurs when the velocity is increased
above a certain limit. These characteristic limiting values vary from fuel to fuel, and
can be summarized in a flame stability diagram for a range of fuel-to-air ratios.
Figure 2.4-2 is such a diagram for 100% methane, which may be taken to
represent natural gas. Plotted on the abscissa is the fuel gas concentration expressed in
fraction of stoichiometric, so that a rich mixture will have a value greater than unity
while a lean mixture a value less than one. The ordinate gives values of the critical
boundary velocity gradient (defined as the rate of change of stream velocity at the edge
of the exit plane of the burner port when flashback or blowoff occurs). This quantity is
roughly proportional to the average flow velocity divided by the characteristic burner
diameter. Thus, for a given burner, the critical velocity gradient at flashback is closely
related to the burning velocity of the flame. It is also considered to be related to the
ignition delay time and the peak frequency of the combustion roar spectrum.
As can be seen in Figure 2.4-2, the two critical curves define a region in which
natural gas (methane) can be burned to produce a stable flame. For comparison, the
flame stability diagram for a fuel containing 83.3% CO and 16.7% H2 is shown in Figure
2.4-3. Clearly, the stability region for this fuel is substantially different from that for
11-435
-------
Figure 2.4-2
FLAME STABILITY DIAGRAM FOR 100% CH4
105-
O
o
Ui
CO
10"
a
<
cc
(9
>
fc
O
o
-1
lil
>
cc
<
° 3
Z 10 -
BLOWOFF
O
CD
<
9
t-
£
o
102-
~T~
04
*
o
STABLE FLAME REGION
o
A
LEGEND
TUBE DIAMETER
CM
X
o
1.358
1.058
XX X
~
.873
oo
A
.811
XX
•
.488
¦
.294
XX |
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
2.4
2.8
3.2
GAS CONCENTRATION , FRACTION OF STOICHOMETRIC
11-436
-------
Figure 2.4-3
FLAME STABILITY DIAGRAM FOR 83.3% CO, 16.7% H2
7X105 —
W 105
z
o
o
UJ
z
UJ
a
<
cc
O
O 10"
-j
UJ
>
>
cc
<
a
z
3
o
CO
<
H
E
o 103-
102-
BLOWOFF
T~
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2 A 2.8 3.2
GAS CONCENTRATION, FRACTION OF STOICHIOMETRIC
11-437
-------
natural gas, mostly because H2 burns much faster than natural gas. Note also that, in
the case of natural gas, the flashback curve nearly reaches the maximum value when
the fuel air mix is stoichiometric. In the case of fuel, the maximum occurs at a
fuel-rich composition.
Because low and medium BTU gases contain mostly CO, Hg, and very little
methane (N2 and COj are considered as diluting inert gases), the characteristics of
these gases should resemble those of the CO-l^ fuel just shown. The low and medium
BTU gases would burn faster than natural gas because of the presence of hydrogen. For
a given burner, therefore, it is necessary to supply a coal gas/air mixture at a higher
stream velocity and richer in fuel than is necessary with natural gas to prevent
flashback and maintain a stable flame. The deviation from natural gas is slightly less
pronounced with low BTU gas because of the lower hydrogen content and high nitrogen
content.
Air emissions resulting from the combustion of low or medium BTU gas produced
from coal are estimated as follows:
TPY lb/MMBTU
S02
14
0.006
Particulates
2.2
0.010
CO
38
0.017
NO
x
269
0.120
NMHC
7
0.003
These estimates are based on burning 12,291 MMBTU/D of gas. Emission factors
used for the estimates are for firing natural gas with the exception of SOgWhich is
based on sulfur removal in the fuel gas to a level of 10 and 5 ppmv for the medium and
low BTU gas respectively. This level of sulfur removal is within the capabilities of
commercially available acid gas removal processes. The estimate is conservative for
low BTU gas which should have much lower NC>x emissions primarily due to lower flame
temperatures.
11-438
-------
APPLICATION OF LOW BTD FLEXICOKER GAS FOR ALPETCO REFINERY
The process description and estimated emissions resulting from the use of low Btu
gas produced from coke are discussed in section 3.4.2 and 3.4.3. The use of coke
produced from the refinery vacuum residuum is very desirable in that it utilizes a low
quality refinery byproduct (coke) and converts it into a clean refinery fuel.
Low Btu gas from coke supplies 25% of the refinery fuel needs. The low Btu gas
resulting from the gasification of flexicoker coke is treated to remove particulates and
sulfur so that a clean low sulfur (less than 0.2 wt %) gas is produced. This low Btu gas
is fed into the refinery fuel gas header and fired in conventional process heaters and
reactors.
11-439
-------
APPLICATION OF LOW/MEDIUM BTU COAL GAS FOR ALPETCO REFINERY
Although not environmentally nor economically desirable, low and medium BTU
gas produced from coal could be used to supplement the refinery by-product gas,
replacing propane and cycle oil in the fuel system.
The gasification plant would be a "stand alone" complex and classified as an
offsite in the overall refinery configuration. The gasifier system used for this
discussion is based on Lurgi technology. A typical flow diagram for the plant is shown
in Figure 2.4-4 for air blown operation and Figure 2.4-5 for oxygen blown. The plant
would produce cold, clean gas free of tar, oils and other contaminants such as sulfur and
ammonia. The produced gas would be mixed into the refinery fuel system via the fuel
header system.
Typical process operation of a gasification plant involves 5 separate steps.
Initially, coal is brought from the storage area and sized by crushing and grinding to the
proper size consist. For Lurgi technology, this is 1/8 inch x 1-1/2 inch. The sized coal
is fed through a lock hopper system to the gasifier where low or medium BTU gas is
produced. The hot, dirty gas is then sent to gas quenching and cooling which removes
particulates and hydrocarbon liquids, i.e. tars and oils. The cooled, quenched gas then
p,asses to the acid gas removal unit where H2S and ammonia are removed. The cleaned
gas produced is expanded to the proper system pressure and sent to the refinery fuel
system.
The capital and operating cost data is based on proposed commercial plants
utilizing western coal (similar in properties to Alaskan coal). The overall energy output
required is 12,291 MMBTU/D (equivalent to contribution from clarified oil and propane).
The plant would require 950 TPD of coal and a 45 day storage supply totaling 42,750
tons. The complex would produce 81,940 MSCFD of low (150 BTU/SCF) BTU or 40,970
MSCFD of medium BTU (300 BTU/SCF) gas.
Capital costs for a low BTU plant are estimated to be $34 million. The detailed
cost breakdown by area is given in Table 2.4-9. Medium BTU gas capital costs are
estimated to be $41.5 million, and an area cost breakdown is given in Table 2.4-9.
11-440
-------
I
¦p-
Figure 2.4-4
AIR BLOWN COAL GASIFICATION PLANT
STEAM
-------
Figure 2.4-5
OXYGEN BLOWN GASIFICATION PLANT
STEAM
-------
TABLE 2.4-9
CAPITAL COST ESTIMATE, 12,291 MMBTU/D
COAL GASIFICATION COMPLEXS
Low BTU Medium BTU
Units (M$) ($M)
Coal Handling 2,312 2,322
Gasification 3,026 3,028
Gas Cooling 510 498
Desulfurization 6,732 6,720
Sulfur Recovery 374 381
Ash Handling 177 182
Gas-Liquid Separator 748 746
Phenol Extraction 408 360
Ammonia Recovery 442 456
HgO Treatment
-------
TABLE 2.4-10
ESTIMATED ANNUAL OPERATING COST, LOW/MEDIUM BTU
COAL GASIFICATION COMPLEX
Low BTU Medium BTU
{$) ($)
Raw Materials
Coal @ $25.91/ton 8,675,700 8,149,300
Catalyst & Chemicals 918,000 1,119,960
Utilities
- Water 132,600 161,770
- Electricity 945,200 1,153,100
Supplies
- Operating 340,000 414,800
- Maintenance 1,360,000 1,659,200
Labor 1,020,000 1,244,400
Administration & Overhead 204,000 248,880
Taxes <5c Insurance 918,000 1,119,960
Depreciation 1,700,000 2,074,000
(20 year life St. line)
Total Operating Cost 16,213,500 17,345,370
H-44A
-------
Operating costs for both plants are based on a percentage of plant investment.
This method was used since no actual operating cost data for plants in these size ranges
exists. These percentages are derived from Department of Energy studies ( ) and from
proposed commercial plant designs. Operating costs, as a percent of plant investment,
are listed below:
• Raw materials (coal - calculate @75% gasifier efficiency
• Catalyst and chemicals - 2.7%
• Utilities
Water - 0.39%
Electricity - 2.78%
• Supplies
Operating - 1%
Maintenance - 4%
• Direct Labor - 3%
• Administration and overhead - 20% of Direct Labor
• Taxes and insurance - 2.7%
• Depreciation - 20 year straight line
The operating costs for both plants are given in Table 2.4-10.
H-445
-------
COAL GASIFICATION TECHNOLOGY
Gasification of coal to make low and medium BTU gas has been practiced for
many years in the United States, and in other countries where abundant supplies of coed
are found. At one time, a large number of gasifiers were in service in the U.S. but
were retired when inexpensive natural gas became available. These gasification
technologies can still provide a replacement fuel for gas and oil in process heaters and
boilers. Commercial processes for low/medium BTU gas are available with considerable
operating experience and are relatively dependable.
Approximately 68 different gasification processes can be identified which have
been used in the past, are being used now, or are currently under development. Of
these 68 gasifiers, there are 25 that are the most prominent in terms of existing
commercial use or near term development. These are listed in Table 2.4.1. A summary
of the characteristics of gasifiers with near term application in the U.S. is given in
Table 2.4.2. All of these processes involve the partial oxidation of coal and produce low
BTU ( — 150 BTU/SCF) gas when air is used, or medium BTU gas (— 350 BTU/SCF) with
the use of oxygen.
Ten of the gasifiers listed in Table 2.4-1 are being used currently to satisfy some
commercial demand for low/medium BTU gas. These are:
• Lurgi
• Wellman-Galusha (McDowell Wellman)
• Woodall-Duckham/Gas Integrale
• Koppers-Totzek
• Winkler
• Chapman (Wilputte)
• Babcock <3c Wilcox
• Riley-Morgan
• Foster Wheeler/Stoic
• Wellman Incandescent (ATC/Wellman)
In most cases, these processes represent "off the shelf" technology and could be
used for near term energy production. A summary of these units is given in Table 2.4-3.
11-446
-------
TABLE 2.4-1
U.S. AND FOREIGN STATUS OF LOW/MEDIUM-HTU GASIFICATION TECHNOLOGY
No. of gasifiers currently operating
(No. of gasifiers built)
t
¦P-
¦t-
Gasifier
Lurgi
Wellman-Galusha
Gas Integrale
Koppers-Totzek
Winkler
Chapman
Riley-Morgan
BGC/Lurgi Slagging
BI-GAS
Stoic
Pressurized Wellman-Galusha
GFERC Slagging
Texaco
BCR Low-Btu
Combustion Engineering
HYGAS
Synthane
COj Acceptor
COG AS
Foster Wheeler
Babcock & Wilcox
U-Gas
Westinghouse
Coalex
Wellman Incandescent
Licensor/Developer
Lurgi Mineraloltechnik GmbH
McDowell Wellman Engineering Co.
Woodall-Duckham (USA) Ltd.
Hoppers Company, Inc.
Davy Powergas
Wilputte Corp.
Riley Stoker Corp.
British Gas Corp. and Lurgi
Bituminous Coal Research, Inc.
Foster Wheeler/Stoic Corp.
DOE, MERC
DOE, GFERC
Texaco Development Corp.
Bituminous Coal Research, Inc.
Combustion Engineering Corp.
Institute of Gas Technology
DOE
DOE
COG AS Development Co.
Foster Wheeler Energy Corp.
The Babcock & Wilcox Co.
Institute of Gas Technology,
Westinghouse Electric Corp.
Inex Resources, Inc.
Applied Technology Corp.
Low-Btu
Gas
5
8(150)
(72)
2(12)
1
Medium-Htu
Gas
(39)
(23)
Synthesis
Gas
(22)
(8)
(39)
6(14)
Location
Foreign
U.S. Foreign
Foreign
Foreign
Foreign
US
US
Foreign
US
US/Foreign
US
US
US
US
US
US
us
us
us
us
us
us
us
us
US/Foreign
Scale
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Demonstration
Demonstration
Demonstration/
Commercial
Demonstration
Demonstration
Demonstration
Demonstration
Demonstration
Demonstration
(Iligh-Btu)
Demonstration
(High-fUu)
Demonstration
(High-Rtu)
Demonstration
(High-Btu)
Pilot
Pilot
Pilot
Pilot
Pilot/Com mercial
Commercial/
Demonstration
-------
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
TABLE 2.4-2
Gasifier
I.urgi
Wellman-Galusha
Woodall-Duckham/Gas
Integrate
COAL GASIFIERS WITH POTENTIAL NEAR-TERM COMMERCIAL APPLICATION IN THE U.S.
Plant/Location
Coal types
tested (U.S.)
Particulate
Removal
Quenching,
Cooling
Acid Gas
Removal
End Use
Koppers-Totzek
Winkler
Chapman
(Wilputte)
Riley-Morgan
Conlex
Pressurized
Wellman-Galusha
BGC/Lurgi Slagging
Gasifier
SASOL
Salsolburg, S.A.
Glen-Gery Brick Co.
Reading, PA.
National Lime Co.
Carey, OH
Chomutov Tube Works
Czechoslovakia
Azot Sanauyii T.A.S.
Kutahya, Turkey
Azot Sanayii T.A.S.
Kutahya, Turkey
Holston Arsenal
Kingsport, TN
Riley Research Center
Worchester, MA
Inex Resources, Inc.
Lakewood, CO.
DOE MERC
Morgantown WV
West field Centre
Westfield, Scotland
GFERC Slagging Gasifier DOE Grand Forks
Energy Research Center
Texaco
BI-GAS
Montebello Research Lab.
Montebello, CA
Bituminous
Anthracite
Bituminous
Lignite
Lignite
Lignite
Bituminous
Anthracite,
Bituminous
All types
Subbituminous,
Bituminous
Bituminous
WC
Lignite
Lignite,
Bituminous
Bituminous Coal Research, Lignite, Bit.,
Inc.,Homer City, PA. Subbituminous,
Foster Wheeler/Stoic
Wellman Incandescent
University of Minnesota
York, PA
Subbituminous
Bituminous
Hot cyclone
Hot cyclone
Hot cyclone/hot
ESP, WC
WHB, WC,
wet cyclone
WHB, hot cyclone,
WC
Hot cyclone
Hot cyclone
None
Hot cyclone
WC
WC
Water sprays,
quench tank,WC
Hot cyclone,
WC
Hot ESP, hot
cyclone
Hot F.SP, cyclone
WHB, WC
trim cooler
None
None
WC,
trim cooler
WHB, WC,
wet cyclone
WHB, WC
Water sprays,
WC
None
None
None
WIIB.WC
WC,
trim cooler
Water sprays,
quench, WC
WC
None
None
Rectisol
None
None
None
Sulfinol/
Rectisol
Iron oxide,
NaOH wash
None
None
Additive to
coal feed
None
Rectisol
None
DN A
Selexol
None
Stret ford
Synthesis gas
domestic fuel gas
Fuel gas for brick kiln
Fuel gas for lime kiln
Fuel gas for metallurgical
process
Synthesis gns for ammonia
production
Synthesis gas for ammonia
production
Fuel gas for acetic anhydride
process
PDU - product gas flared
Fuel gas to boiler
PDU - product gas flared
PDU - product gas flared
PDU - product gas flared
PDU - product gas flared
PDU - product pas flared
Fuel gas for steam boiler
Fuel pns
3
Commercially available; significant numbers of units currently operating in the U.S. or in foreign countries.
^Commercially available or operating; near-term application possible.
Operating or being constructed as demonstration units.
WHH = Waste lleat noilor
WC = Wash Cooler
ESP - electrostatic precipitator
PDU Process Demonstration Unit
-------
TABLE 2.4-3
GASIFIER GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Vendor/Gasifier
Gasifer
Type
Size
Range,
MM BTU/hr
Commercial
Installations
Operating
Pressure
Gas
HHV,
BTU/SCF
Source
ATC/Wellman Incandescent
GB
10-84
22
ATM
170-200
Air
Babeock & Wilcox
EF
300
1
1-15 ATM
300
Oxygen
Davy Powergas/Winkier
FB
750-1500
36
1-10 ATM
125-280
Air or
Foster Wheeler/Stoic
GB
22-90
20
ATM
160-200
Air
Koppers/Koppers-Totzek
EF
300-500
43
ATM
290
Oxygen
Lurgi
GB
400
58
20 ATM
195-307
Air or
McDowell Wellman/Wellman-Galusha
GB
26-63
150
ATM
168
Air or 02
Riley Stoker/Riley-Morgan
GB
84
1
ATM
160-306
Air or O^
Wilputte
GB
50
11
ATM
165-300
Air or 02
Woodall-Duckham
GB
72
100
ATM
176-285
Air or O^
GB = Gravitating Bed
EF = Entrained Flow
FB = Fluidized Bed
-------
Gasifier Technology
The objective of coal gasification is to produce a low/medium BTU gas by
reacting coal with a steam/air or steam/oxygen mixture. There are a number of
gasifiers which can accomplish this task, and each has characteristics that make it
unique from both a process and an environmental viewpoint.
Gasifiers are generally placed in three main categories depending on bed type.
The classifications are:
• Fixed or supported bed (also known as moving bed or gravitating bed)
• Fluidized bed
• Entrained bed
Within each of these major classes, gasifiers are further characterized by a
number of operating parameters. Included in this set of parameters are:
• Operating conditions
Pressure: atmospheric or pressurized
Temperature
Gasification Media
Reactants: steam, air, oxygen
Coal feed/reactant ratios
Method of reactant introduction
Coal Feeding
Method: continuous or intermittent
Mechanism: lock hopper, slurry, screw feeder
Location: top or center of gasifier
• Ash removal
Method: continuous or intermittent
Ash conditions: dry or slagged
Location: from the gasifier or from the product gas stream
11-450
-------
• Energy input for gasification
Autothermic: energy supplied by partial combustion of the feed coal
in the gasifier.
Solids circulation/heat transfer: energy supplied by external heating
and circulation of additives or inert solids.
In gasification systems, each process is trying best to exploit the chemistry and
thermodynamics of coal gasification. The common feature is that coal, in a reactor, is
being contacted with a gasification agent at temperatures of at least 1300°F and
converted from the solid to the gaseous state, with ash being the only residue. Almost
always, these gasification agents are HjO and CC^j with the latter being formed by the
reaction C + 02~* ^2' resu^n£ cru<^e £as consists of CO, H2, and CH^ as the
desired products, and CC>2, H20, and N2 as accompanying inert components, plus sulfur
compounds, carbonization products and trace components. The actual composition of
the gas is influenced by the type of coal, the composition of the gasification agent, and
the thermodynamics of the gasification reactions. Pressure, countercurrent or co-
current operation, and the influence of the particular coal ash also affect the
gasification process.
Gasification under pressure reduces gas velocities, and therefore the pressure
drop along the reactor. This minimizes the carryover of coal fines and favorably
affects the rates of heat and mass transfer. Much higher specific reactor capacities
can be obtained. Pressure also helps shift reaction equilibria for methane formation in
the desired direction because these reactions involve a decrease in volume. A
beneficial side effect of this shift is that of the increased heat release from methane
formation. This reduces oxygen consumption by providing part of the heat required for
the endothermic gasification reactions. Under high pressures, for every volume of
oxygen, five to ten volumes of dry crude gas are obtained.
Although it has been shown that operation at pressure produces distinct advan-
tages, in many applications pressurized operation will not be economical and operation
at atmospheric pressure is sufficient. Unfortunately for pressurized operation, it is
difficult to predict a general optimum pressure. It must be determined for each
particular application.
11-451
-------
Countercurrent flow of gas and coal is probably the ideal mode of operation for
complete gasification, that is without any output of residual char. It ensures that the
sensible heat of the gasification agent is being used largely for gasification and that the
preceeding steps of drying and carbonization result in a lower gas outlet temperature
and higher efficiency. With countercurrent operation, the residual char is being burnt,
supplying the reaction heat "in situ" for gasification. Cocurrent operation discharges
some unburned char, representing a heat deficit for the reactor. This heat can be
recovered by burning in other equipment and for some installations, represents a usable
multi-product process. However, for most industrial applications the secondary
recovery of heat from char does not represent the most economical method for total
coal utilization.
The varying composition of coal ashes also has a great influence on the process.
Gasification takes place in the range of 1300°F to 2700°F, and temperatures above
1800°F are necessary in at least part of the reactor to ensure complete gasification.
At temperatures exceeding 1800°F, the ash begins to sinter, then starts to soften, and
finally becomes a liquid.
Ash can be discharged either in slightly sintered condition by keeping the
temperature below the fusion point, or as a liquid by allowing temperatures to rise
above the ash fusion point. The fusion properties of ash can be divided into two groups:
• A "short" slag, where the temperature differential between softening and
flow point is rather small. Ashes with short slag characteristics generally
tend to have a low fusion point.
• A "long" slag, where the phases of sintering, clinkering, softening and
flowing extend over a wide temperature range.
For a slagging type gasifier, a short slag is desirable. In some instances, a fluxing
agent, usually lime, is added to the ash to aid in complete melting.
The coal-steam reaction is strongly endothermic. Thus, heat must be supplied,
with the amount required varying considerably with the particular process. Depending
on both process and coal properties, 15-35% of the coal's potential heat of combustion
11-452
-------
is consumed for this purpose. Countercurrent gasification in a moving bed has the
lowest heat consumption, while cocurrent gasification (the entrained suspension pro-
cess), can be found at the upper end of the range. Heat consumption for the fluidized
bed process lies between the other two.
There are various means for supplying the reaction heat to the process:
• Direct heat, supplied by partial combustion of raw coal or of residual char
with oxygen (or air) in the gasification reactor:
C + 02 C02 + 14,000 BTU/lb carbon
• Heat transferred from a heat carrier, which is heated in a separate reactor
by the combustion of coal or char with air. The heat carrier may be either a
solid or a liquid.
• Direct heat supply by parallel chemical reactions. Examples:
CaO + C02 —» CaCOg + 1,400 BTU/lb CaO
C + 2H2 p CH4 + 2,700 BTU/lb carbon
• Indirect heat transfer, where heat from a hot gas stream is transferred
through tube walls to the coal and gasification agent. Electric heat or
nuclear heat may be used also for an indirect heat supply.
Based on results from various bench scale and pilot plant studies for new
processes to supply the heat of reaction, it appears that the use of oxygen or air for the
direct combustion of residual char in the gasifier is not only the least expensive route,
but is preferable from a process control point of view.
Fixed Bed Gafifiers
Fixed beds have several inherent characteristics that are advantageous in
gasification processes. Flow of coal and residue is countercurrent to the gasification
medium and the products of gasification. This leads to maximum heat utilization. The
11-453
-------
countercurrent contacting permits both the coal and gaseous reactants to be preheated
in the gasifier prior to reaction, thus increasing the overall efficiency of these
reactions and ultimately the efficiency of the process. Also, increasing efficiency is
the fact that preheat can be supplied from the process itself, rather than from an
external source requiring an additional expenditure of energy. Relatively long
residence time implies low gasification rates, but because of the high carbon conver-
sion, thermal efficiencies are high. Low gas exit temperatures can be achieved,
resulting in low oxygen or air consumption in the combustion zone. The product gas is
not highly contaminated with solids, and plug flow of solids through the gasifier
minimizes loss of unconverted carbon in the residue.
The fuel bed is characterized by four different temperature zones designated as:
1. Drying Zone - Located at the top of the gasifier where raw coal is dried and
preheated by the hot gases flowing from below.
2. Devolatilization Zone - As the temperature continues to increase, volatile
matter is distilled off, including methane, oils and tars.
3. Gasification Zone - Hot, devolatilized coal reacts with steam and carbon
dioxide to form hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
4. Combustion Zone - Any remaining carbon in the coal char is burned with
oxygen to supply the heat required in the upper zones.
In normal operations of a fixed bed gasifier, the four zones described above often
overlap and no discrete separation exists. However, the chemical reactions and
temperature ranges defining each zone are presented below.
In the drying zone, raw coal comes in countercurrent contact with hot product
gas, which dries and preheats the coal. Depending on the coal and gasifier selected, the
temperature in this zone can run from 200-400°F for two-stage and 700-1100°F for
single-stage gasifiers. Two-stage gasifiers operate at the lower temperature range to
permit gradual, controlled drying and devolatilization, and thus prevent thermal
11-454
-------
cracking of the tars and oils. Because the removal of moisture absorbs heat, a coal
with a high moisture content requires a long residence time in this zone. Added
moisture lowers the temperature of the product gas and thus decreases overall thermal
efficiency.
Drying and devolatilization may occur simultaneously, depending on the rate of
heating. Additional moisture is removed as the temperature increases, then gases, oils
and tars begin distilling out. Coal contains certain occluded gases such as carbon
dioxide and methane, and inherent moisture. When the coal is heated the occluded
carbon dioxide and methane are driven off, their removal being more or less complete
at about 400°F. Above this temperature a certain amount of internal condensation
occurs in the molecules comprising the essential coal substances; this also is accom-
plished by the evolution of carbon dioxide and water vapor. The extent of these
reactions increases with decreasing coal rank.
In the temperature range 400°-900°F the organic sulfur constituents of coal
decompose to hydrogen sulfide and other organic sulfur compounds. Decomposition of
the nitrogenous compounds begins with the evolution of nitrogen and ammonia. In this
temperature range also, decomposition of the essentual coal substance begins, resulting
in the evolution of methane and higher hydrocarbons. The bulk, but no all, of the
combined oxygen is also released, and appears in the evolved gases mainly as water and
oxides of carbon.
The distillation of oils from coal begins at about 550°F to 750°F; the yield of tar
usually increasing to a maximum at 900° to 1000°F. With light oil and tar there is
usually an increase in aromaticity with increasing temperature. Thus, the liquids
produced from coal at the lower temperatures consist mainly of cyclic hydroaromatic
compounds with smaller quantities of olefins and paraffins. Few aromatic compounds
of the benzene series are produced at low temperatures, while higher temperature tars
contain quite high proportions of aromatic hydrocarbons.
The composition of gases and tars produced from coal varies with the type of
coal, the temperature, the heating rate, and the composition of the heating medium.
Yields of tar and gas increase with temperature and decreasing coal rank. The
composition of the gas also changes; the carbon dioxide and methane content going up
and the hydrogen content down with decreasing rank.
11-455
-------
The devolatilized coal (now referred to as char) continues to descend in the bed
and contacts steam and combustion gases rising up from the combustion zone. This
reaction forms the bulk of the fuel gas produced in a fixed bed gasifier. Carbon dioxide
rising from the combustion zone reacts with carbon resulting in the production of
carbon monoxide via the endothermic reaction:
C + C02 2CO - 6,200 BTU/lb Carbon
The extent to which the reaction occurs depends on the temperature and on the
solid residence time. The steam introduced also reacts with carbon in the gasification
zone via the two endothermic reactions:
C + H.,0 9- CO + II2 - 4,500 BTU/lb Carbon
C + 211.,G * C02 + 2H2 - 3,200 BTU/lb Carbon
The first reaction occurs almost exclusively at and above 1,800°F and the second
reaction dominates at 1,100°F. Between these two temperatures both reactions are
occurring. A high gasification temperature is desirable to avoid the production of
carbon dioxide.
The rate of the steam-carbon reactions is influenced by the quantity of steam
present. It is important that as much of the steam as possible be converted into carbon
monoxide and hydrogen. Endothermic carbon-steam reactions which occur during
gasification are highly temperature dependent. High temperatures favor carbon and
steam equilibrium conversion to produce fuel gas. The necessary endothermic heat of
reaction to promote the carbon-steam reaction is provided wholly by the exothermic
combustion of carbon and oxygen.
In addition to the steam/carbon dioxide/carbon reactions, sulfur will react
endothermically with hydrogen and carbon monoxide to produce hydrogen sulfide and
trace quantities of carbon disulfide and carbonyl sulfide. Approximately 90% of the
sulfur in the coal will appear as hydrogen sulfide.
11-456
-------
The combustion zone consists of a layer of gasified char supported by a layer of
dry ash. The remaining carbon in the char reacts with oxygen to generate heat via the
exothermic reaction:
C + 02 C02 + 14,000 BTU/lb Carbon
The ash layer in the combustion zone serves two purposes. The first is to
distribute the oxygen and steam feed evenly across the fuel bed, and the second is to
make it possible to recover sensible heat in the hot ash by preheating the oxygen and
steam mixture.
Fixed bed designs include:
• Lurgi
• Wellman-Galusha (McDowell Wellman)
• Woodall-Duckham (Gas Integrale)
• Foster Wheeler (Stoic)
• Riley-Morgan
o» Wellman Incandescent (ATC/Wellman)
• Chapman (Wilputte)
Fluidized Bed Gasifiers
In general, fluidized-bed processes can accept fuels with wide variations in ash
content and in sizes from 0 to 3/8 inch. Specific gasification rates are higher than with
fixed-bed units. The high fuel inventory minimizes the chance of oxygen breakthrough
and, therefore, gives a high degree of reliability and safety. A fluidized-bed system can
be operated over a wide range of output without a significant loss in efficiency.
Excellent heat transfer and particle mobility prevents local overheating or clinker
formation. Operational disadvantages include: (1) High sensible heat loss occurs in the
product gas as a result of the uniform temperature in the fluidized bed (some of the
heat can be recovered in waste heat boilers but is not available for fuel gasification as
in a fixed-bed process); (2) Carbon carryover in the product gas can result in high fuel
losses, particularly with unreactive or friable fuels; (3) A high steady-state ash content
is required in the fluidized bed to attain complete carbon conversion; (4) The range of
possible operating conditions is restricted by the fluidization characteristics of the fuel.
11-457
-------
Entrained Flow Gasifiers
Numerous systems for the gasification of pulverized coal while fully entrained in
the gasifying medium have been evaluated in the past, and there are a few systems in
commercial use today. The ability of the entrained suspension system to handle any
type of coal is the most important characteristics of the process and has continued to
hold considerable interest. Fuel is pulverized, and the individual fuel particles are
separated by the entraining gas. This makes the coal caking properties unimportant in
the operation of the process. Similarly, the ash fusion temperature is not important
except in determining conditions for slagging or non-slagging operation. An inherent
characteristic of entrained suspension is the production of synthesis or producer gas
which is free of tars and has very little methane.
Certain limitations in entrained gasification result from the low concentration of
fuel in the system and from the concurrent flow of fuel and the gasifying medium.
Carbon carryover is usually high and fuel conversions are usually limited to 85 to 90
percent. Char carryover can be separated from the product gas with cyclone collectors
and recycled to the gasifier to improve the fuel conversion. With cocurrent flow, the
temperature of the product gas is high (N 2700°F) and necessitates heat recovery from
the gases to achieve good process thermal efficiency. Heat recovery is complicated by
the presence of solids and, in some cases, by molten ash particles which must not be
allowed to contact heat transfer surfaces. On the positive side, the overall energy
production rate per unit volume of reactor is greater than in a fluidized-bed or fixed-
bed system.
There are several gasifier systems having sufficient commercial operating experi-
ence to serve as a basis for modern gasifier design. These include:
• Koppers-Totzek
• Babcock <5c Wilcox
Coal Preparation/Pretreatment
Coal pretreatment plays a significant role in the overall gasification scheme and
directly affects gasifier performance and operation. The primary function of coal
pretreatment is to supply a coal feedstock which satisfies the physical specifications of
11-458
-------
the gasification operation. Coal handling equipment and storage areas will be required;
grinding and screening equipment may be required depending on the match between the
run-of-mine coal and the requirements of downstream processing operations. Depen-
ding on the specific gasifier design chosen, the basic pretreatment sections required
might include:
• Crushing and sizing
• Pulverizing
• Drying/partial oxidation
• Briquetting
Crushing/Sizing
Crushing and sizing steps are required to produce coal in the size required for
gasifier feed. Crushing systems are used for fixed bed gasifiers for which particle size
requirements are in the 0.1-2.0 inch range. The system is designed for size reduction
and the elimination of over and undersize coal particles.
Equipment types would involve double and single roll crushers, rotary breakers,
impactors and cage mills. These are all stock type equipment and readily available.
Sizing of particles in the larger than two-inch range would utilize grizzly screens, while
medium size particles (*"0.08 in.) would be sized by oscillating screens.
The operation of this equipment in an optimum mode is important because
gasifiers are more sensitive to changes in particle size than direct combustion systems.
Crushing and sizing can be performed at the mine site as well as at the plant.
Pulverizers
Pulverizers are required for fluid or entrained bed gasifiers and the pulverization
step is performed on-site. Equipment used consists of hammer mills, cage mills,
impactors and ball mills. As with the grinding equipment, these machines are used in
direct combustion processes and are easily obtainable.
11-459
-------
Drying/Partial Oxidation
These two processes generally involve contacting coal with hot gases. Coal drying
is desirable when the moisture content of the coal is so high that the efficiency of the
gasification process would be adversely affected if the coal were fed directly to the
gasifier. Partial oxidation is used to reduce the caking tendency and increase the
softening temperature of the coal feedstock. This process is needed to prepare some
coals for certain fixed and fluid bed gasifiers that are unable to handle caking coals.
The oxidation is performed under controlled conditions such that most of the volatile
matter is retained.
Briquetting
In this process, coal fines are compacted into briquetts of sizes which are suitable
for feed to a fixed bed gasifier. The coal fines are fed between a pair of mated rolls
with recessed surfaces. The fines are compacted in these recessed areas as the rolls
come together. In some instances, a binder such as asphalt or tar may be required to
give the briquett sufficient structural strength. In addition, the briquett may need to
be baked for additional strength.
Purification of Coal Ossification Products
Following coal gasification, it is usually necessary to remove undesirable con-
stituents such as particulates, tars, oils, and acid gases from the raw product gas. The
performance specifications for each of these operations depend on the intended end use
of the product gas. Some basic product gas specifications for various end uses are
summarized in Table 2.4-4. Typical particulate and HgS ranges for the raw gas stream
are shown also.
Particulate Removal
Removal of coal dust, ash and tar aerosols entrained in the raw product gas
leaving the gasifier is the primary function of this process step. Specific techniques
commonly used are:
11-460
-------
TABLE 2.4-4
PRODUCT GAS SPECIFICATIONS FOR LOW/MEDIUM-BTU GAS
Typical Raw Gas Composition
Product Gas Specifications:
Direct Combustion
Gas Turbine
Chemical Synthesis or
Reducing Gas
Particulates
1-300 gr/SCF
Comply with NSPS
for stack gas.
0.2-1.5 vol %
Comply with NSPS
for stack gas.
Size
<2y m
<2pm
<10y m
Concentration
<0.01 gr/SCF Less than 100 ppmv
0.0001 gr/SCF total sulfur
None
Essentially particulate
free
Essentially sulfur
free (<4 ppmv
h2s)
Other
Total alkali metals
less than 0.040 ppm
Limits for other com-
ponents, e.g. NH_
will vary.
NSPS = New Source Performance Standards
-------
• Cyclones
• Electrostatic precipitators (ESP)
• Water or oil scrubbers
As was shown earlier in Table 2.4-2, cyclones are used as an initial cleanup step
on all of the commercial gasifiers which are currently operating in this country. The
popularity of cyclones stems from the fact that they are relatively inexpensive, low
energy consuming devices. Unfortunately, they are effective in removing only the
larger particulates; other techniques are necessary to achieve efficient removal of
small particulates. For example, cyclone collection efficiencies for removing 10
micron particles from a 1000°C (2000°F) gas stream have been reported to be 90%,
while the efficiency for removing one micron particles is only about 40%.
Extremely small particles (one micron or less) can be removed from the raw gas
stream only by using more costly and more energy-intensive devices such as electro-
static precipitators and/or wet scrubbers (which also serve to quench and cool the
product gas). Collection efficiencies of over 99.9% have been reported in removing
particulates from a raw gas produced by a Kopper-Totzek gasifier using an ESP/wet
scrubber in combination.
When extensive cooling of the raw gas is not necessary to meet temperature
constraints on the acid gas removal process, it is not particularly useful to use wet
scrubbers. For example, an end use involving the direct combustion of the gas may not
require sulfur removal to meet sulfur emission requirements. Because the use of a wet
scrubber lowers the temperature of the raw gas stream, the overall process thermal
efficiency is reduced. In the final analysis, the increased cost of obtaining additional
particulate removal at this point must be balanced against operating cost savings which
result from decreased particulate loadings in subsequent process steps.
A summary of gas purification equipment used in a variety of commercial and
demonstration coal gasification plants was given in Table 2.4-2. This table gives some
indication of how the types of gas purification equipment used are dictated by the end
use of the product gas and by the gasifier and feed coal type. For example, fuel gas
produced by gasification of anthracite coal usually requires only particulate removal,
because of the low sulfur content of this fuel and the negligible quantities of tars
11-462
-------
produced. The gasification of bituminous coal or lignite produces more tars and usually
more sulfur compounds than does the gasification of anthracite. The need to remove
these compounds, and the extent to which they must be removed, is again dictated by
the end use; fuels used in direct combustion may require only limited particulate
removal while those used as synthesis gases must be further purified.
All particulate removal processes produce a solid waste consisting mainly of the
collected particulates (unreacted coal fines and ash). Liquid effluents are also produced
from wet scrubbers in the form of blowdown liquids and other materials condensed or
scrubbed from the raw gas. These liquids will require considerable treatment to remove
dissolved and suspended organics and inorganics prior to disposal or reuse. The
composition and quantities of these liquids will depend upon the nature of the raw gas
and the scrubbing process employed.
Gas Quenching and Cooling
In gas quenching and cooling, tars and oils are condensed and particulates and
other impurities such as ammonia are scrubbed from the raw product gas. Quenching
involves the direct contact of the hot raw gas with an aqueous or an organic quench
liquor. Extensive cooling of the gas stream occurs primarily through vaporization of
the quenching medium. Further gas cooling can be accomplished using waste heat
boilers followed by air-and/or water-cooled heat exchangers.
The choice of gas quenching and cooling processes to be used depends upon the
nature of the hot raw gas and whether or not an acid gas removal process will be
needed. Waste heat recovery is always desirable, but fouling problems due to tar and
oil condensation in the waste heat boiler must be considered. In addition, it may be
necessary to remove tar and oil constituents from the gas prior to treatment in an acid
gas removal process to prevent contamination of the solvent. The amount of cooling
required is dictated by temperature constraints of the acid gas removal process.
Gas quenching and cooling is a source of liquid effluents and solid wastes. The
liquid effluents consist of the quench liquor and the tars and oils condensed in the
quenching process. The composition and amounts of these tars and oils depends on
gasifier process considerations (coal type, pressure, temperature, etc.) and the nature
11-463
-------
of the quenching medium (i.e., water or light oil). The amount of condensate produced
is directly affected by the temperature to which the gas is cooled. This liquid effluent
stream, typically referred to as a tarry gas liquor, requires extensive treatment prior to
reuse or disposal).
Solid wastes generated in the quenching and cooling module primarily consist of
coal dust and ash, suspended in the liquid effluents.
Acid Gas Cleanup
Acid gases, such as HgS, COS, and CS2» must be removed from the raw product.
Processes used for acid gas removal may remove both sulfur compounds and CC^ or
they may be operated selectively to remove only the sulfur compounds in cases where
carbon dioxide removal is not required to meet product gas specifications. For
example, it would not be desirable to remove C02 from a pressurized, combined-cycle
feed gas.
There are two reasons for removing sulfur compounds from low/medium-BTU
gases. One is to meet the emission regulations for a utilization process such as direct
combustion. The other is to meet product gas specifications which are dictated by the
end use of the gas. In this section the acid gas cleanup (AGC) processes which appear
to be best suited to low/medium-BTU gas cleanup needs are identified and compared.
Processes used for acid gas removal may be divided into two general categories:
• High-temperature processes requiring minimal cooling of the feed gas
before treatment.
• Low-temperature processes requiring extensive cooling of the feed gas
before treatment.
Each of these general categories is discussed below. Major emphasis is placed on
low temperature processes because the high temperature processes mentioned are
generally still in early stages of development.
11-464
-------
High-Temperature Processes. Presently, there are no commercially available processes
for removing acid gases from raw low-BTU gas at a high temperature (300°F).
Processes currently under development involve the use of molten salts, molten metals,
iron oxide, and dolomite as hot sorbents. The specific developers of these processes
are:
• Bureau of Mines (Iron Oxide)
• Babcock and Wilcox (Iron Oxide)
• Conoco (Dolomite)
• Air Products (Dolomite)
• Battelle Northwest (Molten Carbonate)
• IGT-Meissner (Molten Metal)
High temperature acid gas removal, if feasible, would have several advantages
over existing low temperature processes. The most significant of these is the higher
overall thermal efficiency which would result from the retention of the sensible heat in
the raw gas. Another potential advantage is the improvement of gas heating value due
to the reduced condensation of combustible mid-boiling range hydrocarbons. Cooling
equipment fouling by tars and oils could be minimized or eliminated also.
Due to these advantages, much research and development effort in the acid gas
removal area has been aimed at developing high temperature processes. These high
temperature processes will probably be tested initially in second generation combined-
cycle power generation systems.
Low Temperature Processes. For purposes of this discussion, AGC processes that
operate below (300°F) are defined as low-temperature processes. Processes of this
type are widely available, having been used in both the natural gas and chemical process
industries. The low-temperature processes considered here can be further divided into
the following categories:
• Physical solvent processes
• Chemical solvent processes
• Combination chemical and physical solvent processes
• Direct conversion processes
• Catalytic conversion processes
• Fixed-bed adsorption processes
11-465
-------
Table 2.4-5 presents the development of low-temperature AGC removal pro-
cesses.
Physical Solvent Processes. These processes remove acid gases from the raw product
gas by physical absorption in an organic solvent. They operate at high pressures in
order to increase the solubilities of acid gases in the solvents. Most of the solvents
used have an appreciably higher affinity for H2S than for C02> and can therefore be
used in a manner that allows for selective removal of HgS.
Chemical Solvent Processes. Here acid gases are removed by forming chemical
complexes. In most of these processes the solvent is regenerated by thermal
decomposition of the chemical complex. These processes are generally identified by
the type of solvent used. Amine, ammonia, and alkaline salt solutions are the three
solvents in common use.
Combination Chemical/Phsyical Solvent Processes. These processes use a physical
solvent together with an alkanolamine chemical solvent additive. The physical solvent
absorbs acid gases such as CS2, mercaptans, and COS, which are not easily removed by
chemical solvents, while the chemical solvent removes the bulk of the C02, HjS, and
HCN.
Direct Conversion Processes. Here elemental sulfur is produced from HgS by oxidation.
Some of these processes, such as the Claus and Stretford processes, are not classified as
acid gas removal processes in this report; however, they could be used as such. Direct
conversion processes are divided into two general categories; dry oxidation and liquid
phase oxidation.
Catalytic Conversion Processes. Catalytic conversion processes are divided into two
categories: (1) those that convert organic sulfur to HgS, and (2) those that convert
organic sulfur and HgS to S02. Most of these processes are generally not considered to
be acid gas removal processes; however, they can be used to convert hard-to-remove
acid gases such as COS, CS2, and mercaptans into compounds such as H2S and S02,
which can then be handled by other acid gas removal processes.
11-466
-------
TABLE 2.4-5
LOW-TEMPERATURE ACID GAS REMOVAL PROCESSES
Process Category
Physical Solvent
Process Name
Selexol
Fluor solvent
Purisol
Rectisol
Estasolvan
Union Oil
Chemical Solvent
- Amine Solvent
Alkaline Salt Solution
- Ammonia Solution
Combination Chemical/Physical
Solvent
Direct Conversion
- Dry Oxidation
Monoethanolamine (MEA)
Diethanolamine (DEA)
Triethanolamine (TEA)
Methyldiethanolamine (MDEA)
Glycol-amine
Diisopropanolamine (DIPA)
Diglycolamine (DGA)
Caustic Wash
Seaboard
Vacuum Carbonate
Hot Potassium Carbonate
Catacarb
Tripotassium Phosphate
Benfield
Alkazid
Sodium Phenolate
Lucas
Chemo Trenn
Collins
Amisol
Sulfinol
Iron Oxide (Dry Box)
Activated Carbon
Claus
Great Lakes Carbon Co.
- Liquid Oxidation Burkheiser
Ferrox
Konox
Gludd
Status
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Under
Development
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Obsolete
Obsolete
Obsolete
Commercial
Commercial
Obsolete
Commercial
Commercial
Obsolete
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Under
Development
Obsolete
Obsolete
Under
Development
Obsolete
11-467
-------
TABLE 2.4-5 (Cont.)
LOW-TEMPERATURE ACID GAS REMOVAL PROCESSES
Process Category
- Liquid Oxidant (Cont.)
Catalytic Conversion
- Organic Sulfur to HgS
- Organic Sulfur to H„S
and SO 2
Fixed-Bed Adsorption
Process Name
Manchester
Cataban
Thylox
Giammarco-Vetrocoke
Fischer
Staatsmijnen-Otto
Autopurification
Perox
Stretford
Takahax
CAS
Townsend
Wiewiorowski
Sulfonly
Nalco
Sulphoxide
Permanganate and Dichromate
Lacey-Keller
Sulfox
Direct Oxidation
Carpenter Evans
Peoples Gas Co.
Holmes-Maxted
British Gas Council
Iron Oxide Catalysts
Chromia-Aluminum Catalysts
Copper-Chrom iu m-Vanad iu m
Oxide Catalysts
Cobalt Molybdenum Catalysts
Appleby-Frod ingha m
Katasulf
North Thames Gas Board
Soda Iron
Activated Carbon
Haines
Molecular Sieve
Zinc Oxide
Status
Obsolete
Pilot Plant
Obsolete
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Obsolete
Commercial
Commercial
Pilot Plant
Pilot Plant
Pilot Plant
Pilot Plant
Pilot Plant
Pilot Plant
Commercial
Pilot Plant
Pilot Plant
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Pilot Plant
Commercial
Pilot Plant
Pilot Plant
Pilot Plant
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Commercial
Pilot Plant
Commercial
Commercial
11-468
-------
Fixed-Bed Absorption Processes. These processes remove acid gases by adsorption on a
fixed sorbent bed. The amount of acid gases removed depends on the surface area
available for adsorption. Regeneration of the sorbent is accomplished by thermal
methods or by chemical reaction.
The low temperature AGC processes identified in Table 2.4-5 hae been evaluated
by a number of organizations and by various EPA groups and contractors^. The basic
goal in all cases was to identify those processes which have high probability of near
term application in low/medium BTU gasification plants. The following areas were
evaluated with respect to low/medium BTU systems:
•
Applicability
•
Development status
•
Environmental impacts
0*
Energy requirements
•
Costs
•
Process limitations
The criteria listed above were applied to low-temperature acid gas removal systems in
the following manner:
Applicability to low/medium-BTU gasification. Those processes were eliminated which
are not capable of reducing acid gas concentrations to levels meeting specific end use
specifications and which are not capable of operating successfully in coal gasification
systems. At present, only two processes, Rectisol and Benefield, have been used in
commercial coal gasification processes. However, many other processes have been
operated successfully in the natural gas and petroleum refining industries and should be
technically acceptable for removing acid gases from coal gasification product gas.
Development status. This criterion note whether a process is under development,
commercially available, or in declining use. Only those processes which are currently
commercially available were given detailed consideration.
11-469
-------
Environmental impacts. Environmental considerations involve characterizing the
discharge streams from each process and investigating potential control technologies
for the hazardous constituents in those streams. There are commercially available
techniques for controlling all of the discharge streams from those processes which
appear to be applicable to low/medium-BTU gasification.
Energy requirements. Processes requiring excessive amounts of energy or special
utilities were eliminated from further consideration in this analysis.
Costs. Costs were not used in this study as a basis for the elimination of any acid gas
removal processes.
Process limitations. Process limitations with respect to unusual raw materials
requirements, and sensitivity to variations in feedstock and operating parameters, are
important considerations in the selection of a process. These limitations can take
several forms, including unfavorable economics and process operating problems. For
example, certain compounds which may be present in the raw gas can cause solvent
degradation. This is both an economic and operating problem, because of the cost of
replacing the solvent and because the degradation products may adversely affect the
process performance. Another example of an operating parameter limitation is the high
acid gas partial pressure required for economical operation of physical solvent
processes.
Promising Processes
Using the criteria described above, the following were identified as processes
having the greatest likelihood of near-term commercial applications for low/medium
BTU gas cleanup.
• Physical Solvent Processes
Rectisol
Selexol
Purisol
Estasolvan
Fluor Solvent
11-470
-------
• Chemical Solvent Processes
MEA
MDEA
DEA
DIPA
DGA
Benfield
• Combination Chemical/Physical Solvent Processes
Amisol
Sulfinol
Direct Conversion Process
Stretford
The primary acid gas removal processes just discussed are compared in Table 2.4-
6 with respect to:
• Control effectiveness
• Ability to operate selectively (removal of HgS)
• Utility requirements
• Discharge streams requiring further control
• By-products
• Process limitations
The following summarizes the major conclusions derived from the information in
the table.
Control effectiveness. Control effectiveness is reported in Table 2.4-6 as the
percentage removal of an input species that can be achieved by the process. In some
cases, a compound may be removed but in a nonregenerable manner. This is indicated
in the table by the symbol (D) indicating solvent degradation. An example of this is the
removal of COS, CS2, and R-SH with the MEA process. All of the processes can meet
the most stringent HgS product gas specification of 4 ppmv or less and most can meet a
COg specification of less than 1.0 vol. %.
11-471
-------
TABLE 2.4-6
COMPARISON OF LOW TEMPERATURE ACID GAS CLEANUP PROCESSES
Chemical Solvent Processes
MFA
Control Effectiveness
MDEA
DEA
DIPA
DG A
Benfielc
h2s
99.9+% 99.9+%
99.9+%
99.9+%
99.9+%
99.9+%
CO
o
O
99+%
99+%
95+%
DNA
99+%
99.9+%
COS/CS2
D
DNA
90-99%
DNA
D
75-99%
R-SH
D
DNA
DNA
DNA
D
68-92%
HCN
DNA
DNA
DNA
DNA
D
99+%
nh3
DNA
DNA
DNA
DNA
DNA
DNA
Selective Operation
(H2S only)
DNA
yes
DNA
yes
DNA
yes
Operating Requirements
Steam
X
X
X
X
X
X
Electricity
X
X
X
X
X
X
Cooling Water
X
X
X
X
X
X
Fuel Gas
Chemicals
X
Discharge Streams Requiring
Further Control
Gaseous
X
X
X
X
X
X
Aqueous
X
NR
NR
NR
X
X
Solid
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
By-Products
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Limitations:
Organic
compounds
degrade
solvent
Corrosion
problems
greater
than MEA
Corrosion
problems
greater
than MEA
Organic
compounds
degrade
solvent
NR = None Reported D = Solvent Degrades
DNA = Data not available X = Discharge present or utility required
11-472
-------
Control Effectiveness
TABLE 2.4-6 (Cont.)
COMPARISON OF LOW TEMPERATURE ACID GAS REMOVAL PROCESSES
Physical Solvent Processes
Rectisol Selexol
Purisol Metasolvan
Combination Processes
Fluor Solvent Sulfinol Amisol
H2S 99.9+%
99.9+%
99.9+%
99.9+%
99.9+%
99.9+%
99.9+%
C02 99.9+%
99.9+%
99.9+%
99.9+%
99.9+%
99+%
99+%
COS/CS2 99.9+%
99.9+%
99+%
98+%
DNA
90+%
99+%
R-SH 99.9+%
99.9+%
DNA
97+%
DNA
90+%
DNA
HCN DNA
DNA
DNA
DNA
DNA
DNA
DNA
NH3 DNA
DNA
DNA
DNA
DNA
DNA
DNA
Selective Operation
(H2S only) yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
DNA
Operating Requirements
Steam x
X
X
X
X
X
x
Electricity x
X
X
X
X
X
x
Cooling Water x
X
X
X
X
X
x
Fuel Gas x
X
X
X
X
Chemicals x
X
X
X
X
Discharge Streams Requiring
Further Control
Gaseous x
X
X
X
X
X
X
Aqueous x
NR
X
NR
NR
NR
NR
By-Products Naphtha
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
Limitations: Low temp.
retains heavy
HC, high
pressure
Retains
heavy HC,
high
pressure
Retains
heavy HC,
high
pressure
Retains
heavy HC,
high
pressure
Retains
heavy HC,
high
pressure
Solvent is
expensive
-------
Selective H^S removal. Most product gas utilization options require extensive
desulfurization of the raw gas. The need for selective removal of H2S (i.e. without,
removing COg) depends on the end use of the cleaned, desulfurized gas. If the gas is to
be used for combined cycle power generation, the removal of CC>2 is not desirable
because it would reduce the amount of useful work which would be recovered in the gas
turbine section. For simple combustion applications, removal of C02 will increase the
heating value of the gas. However, this advantage must be weighed against the added
cost of removing the C02-
Utility requirements. Entries in this section of the table indicate utility requirements.
This can be important in process selection as some utilities may not be readily available
at all sites. The presence of a check ( ) indicates a utility required by the process.
These utility requirements have not been quantified.
Discharge streams requiring further control. This section indicates the presence of
discharge streams, gaseous, aqueous, or solid which require further control prior to
disposal. All of these processes produce gas streams which must be treated further to
remove HjS and other sulfur compounds before the streams may be discharged to the
atmosphere. While most of the processes do not report an aqueous effluent stream, all
require periodic solvent blowdown to prevent buildup of contaminants and solvent
degradation products. Some of the processes, such as Rectisol and Purisol do produce a
condensate or blowdown stream which will require further treatment prior to disposal.
Solid wastes removed from these processes would include coal fines and ash entrained in
the process gas feed and solvent degradation products. These wastes will be contained
in the solvent blowdown stream.
By-products. In this entry, by-products from the acid gas removal processes are shown.
While only one process, Rectisol, is known to produce a naphtha by-product, many of
the other processes should produce similar by-products when used in coal gasification
systems.
Process limitations. In this section, major process limitations specific to each process
are briefly listed. In some cases these limitations may be serious enough to eliminate
the process from consideration for a particular application. For example, if the gas to
11-474
-------
be treated contains large amounts of organic sulfur compounds ( 150 ppmv), serious
consideration must be given to the economics and potential operating problems which
may occur if the MEA process is selected. In other cases, the limitation may present a
problem which is not serious enough to eliminate a process. For example, the corrosion
problems which have been experienced with the DEA and other processes may be
eliminated by a careful selection of construction materials.
Another limitation which affects AGC process selection is the pressure of the
cooled gas stream. Low pressure, less than (250 psia), eliminates physical solvent
processes from prime consideration because they require significant acid gas partial
pressures to be economical. At pressures greater than 250 psia, all of the processes can
be used succuessfully.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
All gasifiers produce various air, water, and solid waste streams that must be
controlled or disposed of in an environmentally acceptable manner. Discussion in this
section is limited to emissions and waste streams from the gasifier itself and any
primary (particulate, tar, tar oil) gas cleaning steps. The product gas stream will
contain, in the form of hydrogen sulfide, most of the sulfur originally present in the
coal. Purification of the product stream when necessary to remove acid gases has been
covered the section entitled, Purification of Coal Gasification Products.
Air Emissions
Air emissions from a gasification facility generally result from the processes of
feeding coal into, and removing ash from, the gasifier vessel. Other minor or
intermittent sources may be found, such as poke holes, used to insert rods for breaking
up clinkers and inspecting the bed level. Screening and crushing operations during feed
pretreatment produce coal dust which must be controlled and/or contained. In addition,
gas emissions can be given off at two places on the gasifier. These are the bin or feed
lock hopper vent and the ash hopper vent. The composition of these streams depends on
the mode of operation, and the problem must be evaluated for each installation.
11-475
-------
Coal Bin Gas
This gaseous discharge stream is created by the operation of the coal feed bin or
lock hopper. When the valve at the bottom of the coal feed hopper is opened to allow
coal to enter the gasifier some gas will blow by into the feed hopper. As the valve at
the top of the coal feed hopper is opened to admit another charge of coal, this blow-by
gas in the hopper may escape to the atmosphere. The composition of this stream is
similar to the raw product gas. It may be collected using hoods, and either treated or
injected into the air intake.
The quantity of gas emitted will be much greater for a high pressure gasifier, such
as the Lurgi, than for a gasifier operating at near atmospheric pressure. The
composition of the vent gas will then depend on the source of gas used for pressuri-
zation. This could be product gas, nitrogen, etc.
An entrained flow gasifier, such as the Koppers-Totzek, which uses pulverized
coal, may require blanketing the feed bin with nitrogen to prevent coal dust explosions.
The vent stream will also contain entrained coal dust, which can be removed with
filters, cyclones, or scrubbers prior to venting the nitrogen to the atmosphere.
Ash Hopper Gas
This gas stream is discharged when the ash hopper is opened to dump accumulated
a£h. Emissions from this source could potentially contain any of the components found
in the raw gas. Under normal operating conditions, this stream would consist mainly of
steam plus air or oxygen, with traces of particulate material from the ash. If the ash is
quenched prior to being dumped from the hopper, this gas stream could also contain any
volatile compounds found in the quench water. If any hazardous components are
present in significant concentrations, the ash hopper gas will have to be collected and
then either recycled, incinerated, or passed through a scrubber prior to discharge.
The Winkler gasifier uses nitrogen to blanket the dry ash bin and prevent further
reaction or combustion of the char in the ash. The vent stream will also contain some
raw product gas or gases evolved from the hot char.
11-476
-------
This vent stream may also contain entrained ash and droplets of quenching liquor
or ash slurry. These solid and liquid contaminants can be removed with filters,
cyclones, or scrubbers.
Liquid Wastes
Liquid wastes streams result from the processes of quenching and cooling the raw
product gas and ash streams, and in some cases from scrubbing the product gas.
Wastewater streams produced include process condenstate, gas quench liquor, and ash
quench water.
Process Condensate and Gas Quenching Liquor
If a direct quench is used, this stream will be composed mostly of water. It
consists of the raw gas scrubbing liquor plus raw gas condensate from waste heat boilers
and indirect coolers. They are composed of approximately 95% water. Other
components of these streams will be the constituents in the raw gas which condense or
dissolve in the quench water. The components most likely to be present in this stream
are:
The amounts of these components will depend on the raw gas composition and the
gas quenching and cooling processes used. A complex water treatment system will be
required to remove these contaminants and produce discharge water meeting federal
environmental standards.
Tar Oil
Naphthas
Phenols
Particulates
Water
Tar
Ammonia
Hydrogen Sulfide
Organic Sulfur Compounds
Thiocyanates
Hydrogen Cyanide
Trace Elements
11-477
-------
Ash which is washed out of the raw gas stream is separated from the quench
liquor in a settler, but some ash particles may be carried along in this blowdown stream.
Phenols are some of the more troublesome constituents. Large gasifier installa-
tions using fixed bed gasifiers may require extensive dephenolization treatment using
processes such as Phenosolvan, Koppers Light Oil Extraction, Barrett, Jones & Laughlin,
etc. Entrained flow gasifiers operate at higher temperatures and produce a few phenols
in the product gas.
Ash and Slag Quench Water
Ash quench water may be used for both cooling and ash transport. The
composition of this stream will depend on the source of the water used. Generally, the
gas quenching liquor is used to cool and transport the ash. Blowdown streams from
other process units may also be used, however. In addition to the components present in
these input streams, the ash quench water will also contain any of the components in
the ash hopper gas which dissolve in the water, plus suspended ash particles. This water
may be sent to evaporation ponds for disposal, but air emissions may result from
volatile components. Ash can be separated from the quench liquor in a settler. The
bottom product removed from a settler will be an ash slurry, containing approximately
25% to 35% solids. The ash in the slurry will consist of the mineral matter present in
the feed coal plus any unreacted carbon. Water recovered in solids removal processes
could be recycled to the process condensate and gas quenching liquor. The dewatered
ash or ash slurry is a waste product requiring ultimate disposal. Ash slurry may be
combined with the dry ash prior to disposal.
Liquid By-Products
Fixed bed gasifiers will produce a complex mixture of tars and tar oils along with
the product gas. The heating value of these constituents may represent as much as ten
percent of the total gasifier output. When recovered from the process condensate and
gas quenching liquor, these tars and tar oils may be sold as feedstock to coal tar
refineries, or burned as fuel. In some cases it is possible to inject them back into the
gasifier and recycle them to extinction.
11-478
-------
Other types of gasifiers operating at higher temperatures do not produce these
troublesome by-products. Single-stage fixed bed gasifiers will produce a high tempera-
ture tar which often condenses in the gas mains and must be cleaned out periodically.
Two-stage gasifiers generally produce a lighter tar and tar oil, which is more easily
recovered.
Solid Wastes
The chief solid waste produced in gasification is the coal ash. Ash consists mostly
of the mineral matter in coal, plus some unreacted carbon. The unreacted carbon
content can range from less than one percent for a fixed bed gasifier under certain
conditions, to five percent and up for entrained flow, to 10-30% for a fluidized bed. In
the last case, the ash may contain enough carbon to be salable as a by-product fuel. Or
it may be recycled to the gasifier. The exact composition of the ash depends on the
composition of the feed coal, the gasifier design, and the operating conditions.
The physical form of the ash varies from fine particles of dry ash to chunks of
slag, depending on gasifier type and on how the ash is quenched and removed.
If a cyclone is used for particulate removal, this stream will be composed of
small, hot particles of coal, ash and tar which are removed from the raw gas. Any of
the heavy solid or liquid constituents present in the raw gas could potentially be present
in this stream. Coal fines may be sent to disposal with the gasifier ash, recycled to the
gasifier coal feed in a briquett form, or burned as a fuel, depending on the carbon
content.
Ash from the gasifier is a solid waste product which requires ultimate disposal. It
may be separated from the quenching water and then disposed of in a landfill so as to
prevent contamination of groundwater and runoff water.
Specific emission factors have not been generated for coal gasification plants as
they have for combustion processes. In all cases to date, a preliminary design has been
required to estimate potential emission. However, it has been shown that gasification
plants can be designed to meet required environmental standards. A major considera-
tion involves the impurities in the final product gas, and there affect on emissions
during combustion. Using the gas cleanup methods previously described, a clean gas
11-479
-------
free of particulates, I^S and other trace contaminants can be produced which will
allow combustion of this gas within emission limits.
11-480
-------
THE PACE COMPANY CONSULTANTS & ENGINEERS, INC. 5251 westheimer
P.O. BOX 53473 HOUSTON, TEXAS 77052 AC 713 965-0311 CABLE: PACECO-HOUSTON TELEX 77-4350
PREFERRED ENERGY SOURCE
11-481
-------
PREFERRED ENERGY SOURCE
Refinery by-product gas (including Flexicoker low-BTU gas) is the major
fuel source planned for the ALPETCO refinery and accounts for 97 percent of
the total refinery energy supply. Table 3-1 lists the refinery fuel gas sources
and their quantity. These gases are produced in the cracking, hydrotreating and
flexicoking operations. The preferred disposition of these gases is refinery fuel.
There is no current market for LPG near the ALPETCO refinery. The recovery,
purification and separation of the by-product gases into marketable products
would be prohibitive due to the fluctuations which will occur in composition and
quantity of these gases.
TABLE 3-1
REFINERY FUEL GAS SOURCES
Quantity
Description MMBTU Per Day
Fuel Gas 48,372
Flexicoker Low-BTU Gas 20,496
Propane 10,115
TOTAL 78,983
Combustion technology for burning refinery by-product gases is highly
developed so that design of process heaters to handle these gases will not
present a problem. In addition, presently available control technology can
control pollutant emissions to meet applicable air quality standards.
Other competing sources of fuels evaluated for the ALPETCO refinery
are direct coal combustion; low BTU gas produced by gasification of coal; and
liquid fuels produced in the refinery.
11-482
-------
Direct coal combustion for the ALPETCO refinery could supply the
energy needed only for electricl power and steam generation because the
technology for combustion in process heaters has not been demonstrated.
Energy needed for electrical power and steam generation represents 28 percent
of total refinery energy needs. The technology for control of emissions
resulting from the handling, burning and disposing of waste streams for
coal-fired industrial boilers exists, although the resulting emissions will be
significantly greater than from burning refinery fuels.
Direct coal combustion is not considered to be the best fuel for the
refinery. In addition to the higher emissions a number of other obstacles
remain for use of coal. In order to supply the ALPETCO refinery with coal, the
capacity of the Usibelli mine would have to be doubled or a new mine opened in
another area; the existing railroad would have to be upgraded to handle unit
trains; and coal receiving and handling facilities for barge transport would have
to be installed. Coal would be a more expensive fuel for the refinery than using
by-product oil and gases.
Gasification of coal to produce low or medium BTU gas is technically
feasible for the ALPETCO refinery and could replace refinery by-product gas,
propane and clarified oil in the fuel system. However, this alternative fuel
source is faced with the same problems as direct combustion of coal related to
source availability, transportation, cost, and environmental emissions.
The ALPETCO refinery's planned fuel system will use a very small amount
of liquid fuel to supply refinery energy needs. Approximately 2.2 billion BTU
per day or 335 barrels per day of hydrotreated gas oil will supplement the
refinery fuel system which represents 3 percent of the total refinery energy
demand. The technology for burning liquid fuels is highly developed.
Selection of the hydrotreated (desulfurized) gas oil stream to supply
refinery energy needs was based on a tradeoff between value of the stream and
environmental (sulfur content less than 0.3 weight percent) considerations. The
use of the stream does reduce the amount of saleable refinery products;
however, due to the small quantities involved and other considerations such as
11-483
-------
availability of supply, environmental desirability, and relative interchange-
ability with refinery fuel gas, it is felt to be the most logical supplemental fuel
supply.
11-484
-------
THE PACE COMPANY CONSULTANTS & ENGINEERS, INC. 5251 WESTHEIMER
P.O. BOX 53473 HOUSTON, TEXAS 77052 AC 713 965-0311 CABLE: PACECO-HOUSTON TELEX 77-4350
AIR QUALITY STANDARDS COMPLIANCE
11-485
-------
AIR QUALITY STANDARDS COMPLIANCE
4.4.3.1 GENERAL DEFINITIONS
Since the ALPETCO refinery is located in an attainment area, there are three
main provisions of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 which apply:
• New Source Performance Standards (NSPS)
• Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD)
• National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)
The National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPS)
regulations do not presently apply to the ALPETCO refinery, since no products
from the refinery are now regulated under this section of the act. However,
benzene is likely to be regulated under the act in the near future and possibly
toluene and xylene.
NSPS is a set of standards for specific processing units in the refinery. PSD
regulations require the use of Best Available Control Technology (BACT) and
provide for specific increments of degradation for sulfur dioxide and
particulates. The NAAQS are standards which establish baselines above which
pollution levels are hazardous to public health (primary standards) or public
welfare (secondary standards).
4.4.3.2 NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
The ALPETCO refinery is controlled under the New Source Performance
Standards (NSPS) for refineries, 40CFR60, Subpart J. The standards which
apply to tank construction are Standards of Performance for Storage Vessels for
Petroleum Liquids (Subpart K). In addition, a NSPS for Stationary Gas Turbines
was proposed on October 3, 1977 and will be used as a guide for compliance.
Subpart D contains the NSPS for steam generators.
4.4.3.2.1 NSPS - Petroleum Refineries
Below is a brief summary of the NSPS which applies to the ALPETCO refinery.
4.4.3.2.1.1 Particulate Matter
Standards - The NSPS requires that particulate matter from the burn-off in the
catalyst regenerator in fluid catalytic cracking units not exceed 1.0 pounds per
1000 pounds of coke. The opacity of the gases cannot exceed 20 percent
averaged over any five minute period.
11-486
-------
Control - The Fluid Catalytic Cracking Unit (FCCU) will have an electrostatic
precipitator to remove particulates from the flue gases so that the actual
particulate emissions should remain well below the 1.0 pounds per 1000 pounds
of coke burn-off. The precipitator will eliminate any opacity problems which
might occur.
The CO boiler will use auxiliary fuel to supply the necessary heat input. It is
anticipated that this fuel will be process gas. However, the boiler will be
capable of accepting a liquid fuel. When this occurs the particulate emissions
will not increase by more than 0.1 pounds per million BTUs heat input of liquid
fuel. The additional particulates from the fuel oil combustion will not cause the
boiler flue gas to exceed the NSPS standard.
4.4.3.2.1.2 Carbon Monoxide
Standard - The flue gas from the regenerator on the FCCU may not contain
more than 0.05 percent (500 parts per million) carbon monoxide (CO).
Control - There are two acceptable methods of meeting the carbon monoxide
limit in the regenerator flue gas: high-temperature regeneration or the use of a
CO boiler. ALPETCO will employ high-temperature regeneration to reduce
carbon monoxide emissions below 500 parts per million.
4.4.3.2.1.3 Sulfur Dioxide
Standard - Any fuel which is burned must not contain more than 0.1 grains of
hydrogen sulfide per dry standard cubic foot (dscf). In addition, the offgas from
the sulfur recovery facility must be 0.025 volume percent sulfur dioxide or less.
Control - ALPETCO will use an amine stripper to remove the hydrogen sulfide
from the refinery fuel gas. The concentration of hydrogen sulfide will never
exceed the average 0.1 grains per dscf. The hydrogen sulfide removed will be
converted to elemental sulfur in a Claus plant. The gas from the Claus plant
will be treated in a tail gas unit which is 99.8 percent efficient in the removal
of sulfur dioxide, dropping the final concentration well below the 0.025 percent
ceiling.
4.4.3.2.2 NSPS - Storage Vessels for Petroleum Liquids
4.4.3.2.2.1 New Source Standard
If the true vapor pressure of the stored material is above 570 millimeters of
mercury [ 11.1 pounds per square inch absolute (psia) J , NSPS requires that
storage vessels utilize a vapor recovery system. If the vapor pressure is
between 78 millimeters of mercury (1.5 psia) and 570 millimeters of mercury
(11.1 psia), storage tanks are required to have a floating roof. If the vapor
pressure is below 78 millimeters of mercury (1.5 psia), no NSPS applies. This
standard applies to all tanks of at least 40,000 gallons capacity.
11-487
-------
4.4.3.2.2.2 Hydrocarbon Storage Controls
ALPETCO will store all products which have a vapor pressure above
570 millimeters of mercury (11.1 psia) in pressure vessels. The relief valves in
these vessels will vent to the flare. All remaining hydrocarbons will be stored
in cone roof tanks, with those materials having a vapor pressure above
78 millimeters of mercury having in addition an internal floating roof.
4.4.3.2.3 NSPS - Steam Generators
4.4.3.2.3.1 Nitrogen Oxides
Standards - The NSPS for nitrogen oxide emissions from steam generators
greater than 250 million BTUs is 0.2 pounds per million BTUs if fired on gas and
0.3 pounds per million BTUs if fired on fuel oil.
Control - ALPETCO in using best available control technology will be using low
nitrogen oxide burners with limited excess air. These controls reduce the
nitrogen oxide emissions to 0.08 and 0.11 pounds per million BTUs for gas and
fuel oil respectively.
4.4.3.2.3.2 Sulfur Dioxide
Standard - The sulfur dioxide NSPS for boilers is 0.8 pounds per million BTUs if
fuel oil is fired.
Control - By burning distillate fuel oil which contains 0.3 percent sulfur, The
emission rate will be 0.5 pounds per million BTUs.
4.4.3.2.4 NSPS - Stationary Gas Turbines
4.4.3.2.4.1 Nitrogen Oxides
Standards - This NSPS has been proposed but not yet promulgated. The
proposed NSPS for nitrogen oxides states that any turbine under
1,000 horsepower will require no controls; 1,000 to 10,000 horsepower turbines
will be limited to 150 parts per million nitrogen oxides; and turbines over
10,000 horsepower will be limited to 75 parts per million.
Controls - At present, ALPETCO does not plan to install any turbines over
10,000 horsepower. According to EPA's Research Triangle Park (RTP) office,
150 parts per million nitrogen oxides can be achieved with proper engineering
design of the turbine. These proper engineering design considerations will be
incorporated by ALPETCO when specifying turbines. If in the final design it
becomes necessary to use turbines greater than 10,000 horsepower, ALPETCO
will use water or steam injection to reduce the nitrogen oxides emissions to
75 parts per million maximum.
11-488
-------
4.4.3.2.4.2 Sulfur Dioxide
Standards - The proposed NSPS would limit the sulfur dioxide concentration in
the exhaust gas to 150 parts per million corrected to a 15 percent oxygen dry
basis or would limit the sulfur content of the fuel to 0.8 percent by weight.
Controls - The refinery fuel gas to be burned in the turbines will be 0.1 grains of
hydrogen sulfide per dscf as required by NSPS for refineries. Burning this gas in
a turbine produces less than 150 ppm sulfur dioxide in the exhaust gas. All fuel
oil burned in the refinery will be less than 0.8 percent to meet local sulfur
dioxide requirements; therefore, the NSPS will not be exceeded.
4.4.3.3 BEST AVAILABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY (BACf)
Since Valdez is attainment for all pollutants governed by the Clean Air Act
Ammendments of 1977, control standards are governed by the definition of Best
Available Control Technology (BACT). BACT is defined in the Clean Air Act
as:
. . the maximum degree of reduction of each pollutant. .. taking
into account energy, environmental, and economic impacts and other
costs..."
In actual practice this definition has become essentially the best proven control
in use unless considerable energy is wasted, emissions of other pollutants
increase, or cost increases substantially.
Each abatement device and each application is reviewed on a case by case basis.
Although there are some standard devices which are commonly accepted as
BACT for a refinery, other pollution control equipment may be substituted if it
shows a considerable cost saving or is as effective in reducing pollution.
4.4.3.3.1 BACT for Combustion Equipment
4.4.3.3.1.1 Combustion Fuel Alternatives
There are four alternate fuels which ALPETCO could use in combustion
equipment. They ares
• Coal
• Residual Fuel Oil
• Distillate Fuel Oil
• Refinery Fuel Gas (Process Gas)
Table 4.4.3.3.1-1 shows the relative uncontrolled emission factors on a pound
per million BTU basis using AP-42 as the source.
11-489
-------
TABLE 4.4.3.3.1-1
AP-42* EMISSION FACTORS FOR FUEL ALTERNATIVES
g
Pounds per 10
BTUs
TSP
so2
CO
NOx
NMHC
Coal(0.2%S)
Resid (0.796S)
Distillate (0.396S)
Process Gas
(0.1 gr H2S/dscf)
6.400
0.067
0.014
0.010
0.250
0.740
0.150
0.023
0.040
0.033
0.036
0.017
0.72
0.40
0.16
0.12
0.012
0.007
0.007
0.003
* Compilation of Air Pollution Emission Factors, AP-42, U.S. EPA
Office of Air and Waste Management, Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards, Research Triangle Park, August, 1979.
Of these four alternatives, coal and residual fuel were eliminated as possible
refinery fuels. Coal is the least desirable from an environmental standpoint. A
detailed discussion of the environmental effects of burning coal and the various
means of control which would have to be applied is given in section 4.4.2.2.2,
Environmental Considerations. Even with the addition of more expensive
particulate removal devices (i.e., scrubbers, the most common BACT
requirement for sulfur dioxide control for low sulfur coal), the emissions would
only be reduced to the equivalent of uncontrolled fuel oil emissions.
Residual fuel oil is also an undesirable option for the ALPETCO refinery. The
configuration of the refinery is designed to make low BTU gas in the Flexicoker
from vacuum residuum. The sulfur in this gas is removed in an amine stripper.
There are no residual desulfurization facilities planned for the refinery, since
residual desulfurization facilities are extremely expensive and would not be
installed solely to produce refinery fuel.
Without desulfurization ALPETCO cannot make 0.7 percent sulfur residual fuel
oil. A local ordinance which takes effect January 1, 1981, will forbid the
burning of greater than 0.7 percent sulfur resid in port-related facilities, and
these requirements would apply to the refinery.
ALPETCO will burn process gas as the major fuel source. Only in cases where
gas make is insufficient to provide refinery fuel needs will distillate fuel oil be
used. This situation would occur when a fuel gas producing unit is operating at
a low throughput or is shut down. The worst case would most likely be when the
Flexicoker, the major source of process gas, is shut down. Since the combustion
equipment will be designed to fire both oil and gas, the emissions estimates
were made assuming 100 percent firing on fuel oil as a worst case basis.
11-490
-------
4.4.3.3.1.2 Particulate, CO, and Hydrocarbon Emission BACT Controls
Particulate, CO, and hydrocarbon emissions from the combustion system will be
minimized by proper burner adjustment. An excess air monitor will be installed
in the flue gas to regulate the burners. While the primary function of this
monitor will be to reduce nitrogen oxides formation by limiting excess air, it
will also prevent the burners from becoming oxygen starved. Insufficient
oxygen increases the emissions in the form of unburned or partially burned
hydrocarbons.
4.4.3.3.1.3 Sulfur Dioxide Control
Sulfur dioxide will be controlled by burning refinery process gas as the basic
fuel. This gas has approximately one fourth the emissions as with fuel oil. Only
when there is insufficient gas will supplemental distillate fuel oil be fired as
mentioned above.
The distillate fuel oil will be FCCU cycle oil and will average less than
0.2 percent sulfur.
It is possible to further reduce sulfur dioxide emissions by scrubbing the flue gas
from each combustion unit. However, the cost far outweighs the benefits. In a
boiler or furnace of the size used in the Alpetco refinery, the capital cost would
be $25,000 to $50,000 per ton of sulfur dioxide removed per year and the
operating cost would be $2,000 per ton.
4.4.3.3.1.4 Nitrogen Oxides Control
Two nitrogen oxides reduction technologies will be used to limit nitrogen oxides
emissions from combustion equipment. The excess air will be limited to less
than 20 percent and low nitrogen oxides burners will be used.
Limiting excess air reduces the oxygen available for reaction with chemically
bound nitrogen. It also changes the flame pattern, reducing thermal nitrogen
oxides production. An oxygen analyzer will be installed to monitor the flue gas
and control oxygen to 3 percent in the flue gas (15 percent excess air). To
control the oxygen content much below this level would risk increasing the
unburned or partially burned hydrocarbons emitted to the atmosphere. AP-42
estimates a 10 to 30 percent reduction in nitrogen oxides by limiting excess air.
More recent studies (scheduled for publication by EPA in 1979) indicate the
actual reduction to be closer to 10 percent.
Low nitrogen oxides burners reduce nitrogen oxides production primarily by
changing the flame pattern such that the flame temperature is reduced. The
lower flame temperature substantially reduces thermal nitrogen oxides
formations. Several manufacturers produce burners which they claim reduce
nitrogen oxides formation by 35 to 50 percent. The most recent independent
data indicates that the lower of these two estimates is the more reasonable.
11-491
-------
Other alternative nitrogen oxides control mechanisms were examined from
conversations with various branches of EPA, boiler manufacturers and
combustion consultants, and from search of available literature. There appear
to be four other technologies applicable to reducing nitrogen oxides emissions
from refinery combustion systems. They are listed below:
• Flue Gas Recirculation - The EPA Air Pollution Engineering
Manual, AP-40, reports that recirculation of flue gas dilutes the
flame and thereby reduces nitrogen oxides emissions by reducing
the temperature.
• Ammonia Injection - A recently developed control method injects
ammonia into the flue gas at carefully controlled temperatures.
The ammonia reacts with the nitrogen oxides to form nitrogen
and water.
• Tangential Firing - If burners are placed in the corners of the
firebox and aimed at an angle to the diagonal, the flame pattern
is such that much of the combustion occurs in a cooler yellow
flame in the center of the firebox, reducing the thermal nitrogen
oxides formed.
• Two-stage Combustion - By supplying less than stoichiometric
quantities of primary air to the burners, substantial reduction in
nitrogen oxides emission can be achieved. Complete combustion
of the fuel is accomplished by injection of secondary air.
Although reported in AP-40, flue gas recirculation is generally unavailable. We
know of no equipment manufacturer who offers flue gas recirculation as an
option on larger utility plant boilers. The actual amount of nitrogen oxides
reduction available from flue gas recirculation is poorly defined, especially if
excess air is controlled. Estimates from boiler manufacturers varied from no
reduction to a slight reduction.
Ammonia injection is still in the experimental stage. It is presently being
tested extensively on large boilers in California, and while the preliminary
results are extremely promising, the final report on the full-scale testing will
take another three to six months according to EPA Region IX. This time frame
is such that ammonia injection has not yet been adequately demonstrated to be
considered BACT.
Both tangential firing and staged combustion are more common on large utility
boilers than refinery-size combustion equipment. The installation of these
nitrogen oxides reduction mechanisms is possible, but it is not common. The
low nitrogen oxides burners are an improvement over these two older means of
control. The effect of these control schemes in low nitrogen oxides burners has
never been adequately defined. Since low nitrogen oxides burners provide about
the same nitrogen oxides reduction as tangential firing and staged combustion
and operate according to the same principles it is likely that the combination of
the two would not provide a greater reduction in nitrogen oxides than would the
low nitrogen oxides burners alone.
11-492
-------
4,4.3.3.2 BACT for Sulfur Recovery
The sulfur recovery system is an amine stripper followed by a Claus plant. The
only appreciable emission from the units is sulfur dioxide from the Claus plant.
The sulfur dioxide emissions will be reduced with a tail gas recovery unit.
There are not alternative controls which are as effective.
4.4.3.3.3 BACT for FCCU
The primary emissions are from the FCCU regenerator. As the coke burns off
the catalyst, large quantities of particulates, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide,
and nitrogen oxides are formed.
4.4.3.3.3.1 Particulate Control
The particulates emitted from the regenerator are composed primarily of
catalyst fines with some incomplete combustion products. An electrostatic
precipitator will be used to remove these fines. The precipitator will be more
effective in TSP removal than most alternative abatement systems. The most
common alternative, flue gas scrubbing, has about the same efficiency as an
electrostatic precipitator.
4.4.3.3.3.2 Carbon Monoxide Controls
There are two commonly accepted means of controlling carbon monoxide
emissions from an FCCU regenerator: high temperature regeneration and CO
boilers. In high temperature regeneration temperatures of ly400°F are reached,
thereby oxidizing the carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide. The CO boiler
oxidizes carbon monoxide formed at lower temperatures in the regenerator to
carbon dioxide in a boiler. Either method is equally effective in reducing CO
emissions. ALPETCO will use high temperature regeneration for emissions
control.
4.4.3.3.3.3 Sulfur Dioxide Controls
The most common BACT definition for sulfur dioxide is flue gas scrubbing. Flue
gas scrubbing removes 90 percent of the sulfur dioxide in the flue gas if a
caustic scrubber is used. ALPETCO intends to substitute FCCU feed
desulfurization for flue gas scrubbing. Ninety-five percent of the sulfur will be
removed from the distillate oil charged to the FCCU, reducing sulfur dioxide
emissions from the regenerator by 95 percent. Thus, sulfur dioxide emissions
from the FCCU will be less with feed desulfurization than with flue gas
scrubbing.
n-493
-------
4.4.3.3.3.4 Nitrogen Oxides Controls
There are no acceptable BACT definitions for control of nitrogen oxides from
an FCCU. A search of literature and contact with EPA authorities indicated
that there is presently no means of reducing nitrogen oxide emissions from a
high temperature regeneration FCCU such as ALPETCO will be using.
4.4.3.3.4 BACT for Incinerator
The Alpetco refinery will utilize an incineration system to continuously collect,
store, and simultaneously incinerate both sludges from the Wastewater
Treatment Plant and process solid wastes from various sources. The incinerator
will be a rotary kiln type utilizing dual burners to permit firing either refinery
fuel gas or oil for auxiliary firing. The solid wastes which will be incinerated
will be a mixture of spent clays, catalysts, and other solid material which will
be removed from process equipment as it becomes spent. The intervals at
which these solid wastes are removed from process equipment for incineration
will vary with the degree of contamination, process throughput, and severity of
operation. In general, these materials become spent at six month or longer
intervals. In some cases, such as spent alumina, a three-year interval is
expected. Sludges from the wastewater treatment system will be generated
daily and will be collected, stored, and batch fed to the incinerator when
sufficient material is available.
4.4.3.3.4.1 Particulate Control
The two sources of particulate emissions from the incinerator operation are
products of combustion and fugitive dust from the transfer and storage of the
solid wastes. Some reduction in particulate emissions from combustion will be
realized by passing the incinerator off gases through an afterburner chamber.
Wet scrubbing of the afterburner offgases will remove the remaining products
of combustion.
Fugitive dust emissions will be controlled by storing those solid wastes which
generate dust in one of the following manners:
• In closed containers
• By mixing with set sludges
• By maintaining the waste in a wet condition using either watar
fuel oil.
4.4.3.3.4.2 Hydrocarbon, Nitrogen Oxides, and Carbon Monoxide Control
The emissions of the combustion products hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and
carbon monoxide will be controlled by incorporating good engineering design and
11-494
-------
maintaining adequate excess air in the combustion chambers. As with other
combustion equipment in the refinery, low nitrogen oxides burners will be
utilized. The afterburner chamber will ensure that no unburned or partially
burned hydrocarbons or carbon monoxide will be released to the atmosphere.
4.4.3.3.4.3 Sulfur Dioxide Control
Sulfur dioxide emissions will be controlled by firing either low-sulfur fuel oil or
refinery fuel gas. Scrubbing of the afterburner offgases will remove 90 percent
of the sulfur dioxide which is released during combustion.
4.4.3.3.5 BACT for the Flare
ALPETCO will have a flare to dispose of hydrocarbon waste streams which
exceed the capacity of the incinerator, such as during startup and shutdown. In
addition, all emergency releases will go to the flare.
Emissions control will be accomplished using steam injection. Steam injection
stimulates proper mixing of hydrocarbons and air to ensure complete
combustion. Complete combustion eliminates particulates and carbon monoxide
formation while preventing escape of hydrocarbons. In addition, steam injection
dilutes the flame reducing the thermal nitrogen oxides production.
Knock-out drums will be provided upstream of the flarestack. These drums will
remove any entrained liquids which could cause smoking and contribute to
opacity violations.
4.4.3.3.6 BACT for St wage Tanks
Storage of hydrocarbons having a true vapor pressure greater than 570 mm Hg
(11.1 psia) will be in a pressure vessel with the pressure relief valve discharging
to the flare. Emissions from this system will be zero. If the true vapor
pressure is less than 570 mm Hg (11.1 psia), but greater than 78 mm Hg (1.5
psia), the hydrocarbon will be stored in a cone roof tank with an internal
floating roof. The internal floating roof reduces emissions to the equivalent of
an external floating roof with a double seal. The double seal floating roof is
defined as BACT. In tanks where the true vapor pressure of the hydrocarbons is
less than 78 mm Hg, a cone roof without an internal floating roof will be
utilized.
4.4.3,3*7 BACT for Fugitives
Fugitive emissions are those emissions which are not confined to a specific vent
or stack. The only fugitive emissions within the ALPETCO refinery will be
hydrocarbons. Since all roads will be paved, no fugitive TSP emissions will be
generated.
11-495
-------
4.4.3.3.7.1 Control of Leaks from Pipes, Valves and Flanges
Construction of piping, valves, pump and compressor systems will conform to
applicable American National Standards Institute (ANSI), American Petroleum
Institute (API), and American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) codes.
Underground pipelines in carbon compound service will contain no buried valves,
flanges, or other similar piping connections to facilitate fugitive emission
checking or monitoring. To the extent that safe operating practice will permit,
valves and piping connections will be so located to be reasonably accessible for
leak checking during plant operation.
All two-inch diameter and larger piping connections in carbon compound service
will be welded or flanged. Welded connections will be used in preference to
flanged connections wherever possible. Screwed piping connections will occur
only on piping smaller than two-inch diameter. All piping connections will be
hydrotested or gas tested at least at the maximum operating pressure of the
process to ensure bubble-tight, leak-free performance.
All valves operated daily and in service on carbon compounds having an
aggregate partial pressure or a vapor pressure of 1.5 psia or greater at the
process conditions will be monitored by leak-checking for fugitive emissions at
least monthly using conventional soap testing, carbon compound detector or
other approved methods. All other valves in carbon compound service will be
leak-checked at least once per calendar year.
All carbon compound waste gas from point sources such as process vents, relief
valves, and analyzer vents will be routed to the flare, incinerator, or a recovery
system.
4.4.3.3.7.2 Control of Leaks from Pumps
All pumps in carbon compound service with an aggregate partial pressure of
1.5 psia or greater will be equipped with double mechanical seals, tandem
mechanical seals, or the equivalent such that emissions of carbon compounds to
the atmosphere are prevented. Single mechanical seals will be used only where
seal emissions are monitored with a carbon compound leak detector at least
monthly. Damaged or leaking seals or seals found to be emitting carbon
compounds will be replaced or repaired.
4.4.3.3.7.3 Control of Leaks from Compressors
New compressors will have the optimum sealing arrangement offered by vendors
to minimize hydrocarbon leakage and conform to API codes.
4.4.3.3.7.4 Control of Leaks from Process Drains and Separators
All process drains will be trapped to prevent hydrocarbons from escaping. All
oil/water separators will be covered.
11-496
-------
4,4.3.3.8 BACT for Marine Terminal
4.4.3.3.8.1 Ballast Storage
By the time the ALPETCO refinery is operational, all incoming ships to United
States ports will be required to have clean ballast tanks. Therefore, no special
ballast treatment or storage will be required.
4.4.3.3.8.2 Marine Terminal Fugitives
All pumps, piping, flanges, valves etc. will conform to section 4.4.3.3.7, BACT
for Fugitives.
4.4.3.4 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
There are two kinds of air quality standards of concern to the ALPETCO
refinery. The first is PSD increment consumption for sulfur dioxide and
particulates, and the second is the National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS).
4.4.3.4.1 Increments
The air quality increments were designed to keep those areas which are
relatively clean (areas which attain the NAAQS) from becoming polluted. In
order to accomplish this, the amount of degradation of the air quality in these
areas is limited. The allowable increases in pollution are termed increments
and are given in Table 4.4.3.4.1-1 for Class n areas such as Valdez.
TABLE 4.4.3.4.1-1
CLASS n AIR QUALITY INCREMENTS
Maximum Allowable
Pollutants
(Mg/m )
Particulate matter:
Annual geometric mean
Twenty-four-hour maximum
19
37
Sulfur dioxide:
Annual arithmetic mean
Twenty-four-hour maximum
Three-hour maximum
20
91
512
11-497
-------
These increments are increases in ambient air concentration over a baseline
concentration. The baseline concentration has a fairly complex definition but
for Valdez it is equivalent to the concentration as of January 6, 1975. Since
there has been no industrial construction since January 6, 1975 which would
consume increment, the entire increment is available for the ALPETCO
refinery.
4.4.3.4.2 National Ambient Air Quality Standards
EPA has established National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for sulfur
oxides, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, photochemical oxidants/hydro-
carbons, nitrogen oxides, and lead. These NAAQS are shown in Table
4.4.3.4.2 1.
Valdez presently attains all the primary and secondary standards. ALPETCO
must demonstrate that the NAAQS still will not be violated with the refinery in
operation.
4.4.3.4.3 Increment and Ambient Air Quality Standard Compliance
ALPETCO will comply with the increment and ambient standards using the
control techniques described in the BACT analysis, section 4.4.3.3. Alternate
controls which would have an effect on air quality are also discussed in the
section.
The detailed analysis of increment consumption and ambient air quality is given
in section 6.4.1.
4.4.3.5 STATE AND LOCAL REGULATIONS
ALPETCO will comply with all state and local air pollution control regulations.
A detailed analysis of these regulations and the controls ALPETCO will use to
comply with them can be found in the state construction permit application.
11-498
-------
TABLE 4.4.3.4.2.1
NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
(Mg/m3)
Primary Standard
Secondary Standard
Pollutant
Sulfur Oxides (SOx>
(measured as SC^)
Particulates
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Photochemical Oxidants
Hydrocarbons (HC)
Nitrogen Dioxide (NOg)
Lead
Annual
Mean
80
75
100
Maximum Concentration
(Allowed Once Yearly)
365
(over 24 hours)
260
(over 24 hours)
3
10 milligrams/m
(over 8 hours) g
40 milligrams/m
(over 1 hour)
234
(over 1 hour)
160
(over 3 hours-
6-9 a.m.)
1.5
(over quarter)
Annual Maximum Concentration
Mean (Allowed Once Yearly)
1300
(over 3 hours)
150
(over 24 hours)
60
Same as Primary Standard
Same as Primary Standard
Same as Primary Standard
Same as Primary Standard
Same as Primary Standard
-------
THE PACE COMPANY CONSULTANTS & ENGINEERS, INC. 5251 WESTHEIMER
P.O. BOX 53473 HOUSTON, TEXAS 77052 AC 71 3 965-0311 CABLE: PACECO-HOUSTON TELEX 77-4350
ALTERNATE WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS
11-500
-------
ALTERNATE WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEMS
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Several alternatives were considered in developing a wastewater treatment
system for the Alpetco refinery. The criteria used in evaluating the considered
alternatives were the following:
• All applicable federal, state, and local water quality standards
must be met or exceeded.
• The system selected must be economically feasible.
• The wastewater treatment system selected must be operation-
ally and mechanically reliable with a proven track record in
other similar plants.
By adhering to the criteria listed above, Alpetco has selected a wastewater
control system which will provide a high quality, low-volume effluent stream.
Refinery wastewater will receive efficient treatment which is based on proven
technology. Segregated sewer systems will be employed to maximize water
reuse and recovery, consistent with the goals of the Clean Water Act
Amendments. The various sewer systems can be classified as contaminated,
uncontaminated, sanitary, and storm water impoundment.
The secondary wastewater treatment system which was selected for the
Alpetco refinery is based on biological treatment. Biological treatment has
been proven cost effective in removing soluble organics from refinery waste-
waters, is highly dependable, and produces an excellent quality effluent. In
general, the goal of the biological process is to remove organic material either
by oxidation to carbon dioxide, water, and other derivitives, or by converting
the organic material into a settleable form that can be removed by sedimenta-
tion. A typical wastewater treatment system based on biological treatment for
a cracking refinery, such as the Alpetco refinery, is shown in Figure 4.4.5- .
The discussion concerning wastewater treatment alternatives which is given
below applies to the ballast water treatment system as well as contaminated
process water treatment. The one exception is that a gravity separator is not
included with the ballast water treatment system since removal of large
quantities of oil is not a necessity for ballast water which the Alpetco refinery
will be receiving.
11-501
-------
I
Cn
O
ho
FIGURE 4.4.5
TYPICAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT
SYSTEM FOR A CRACKING REFINERY
-------
TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES CONSIDERED
Activated Sludge
This discussion includes conventional activated sludge processes as well as
enriched air (oxygen) systems which are currently offered by several manu-
facturers. Activated sludge processes are used extensively for coagulating and
removing non-settleable colloidal solids, as well as to stabilize organic matter.
A high quality effluent is obtainable from a properly designed and operated
activated sludge system. The process is an aerobic biological procedure where
a high concentration of microorganisms is maintained within a reaction tank by
recycling thickened bio-mass (sludge). Oxygen is supplied to the wastewater in
the reaction tank either by mechanical aerators or a diffused-air system. Since
the microorganisms remove the organic materials by biochemical synthesis of
new cell mass and oxidation reactions, the converted organic matter must be
removed by sedimentation. The sludge removed from the sedimentation tank is
recycled to maintain the required concentration of microorganisms.
Nutrients - primarily nitrogen and phosphorus — are required to maintain a
healthy growth of microorganisms within the system. Generally, refinery
wastewater contains enough ammonia to supply adequate nitrogen, but it may
be deficient in phosphorus. Some of the sources of these elements are:
• Water condensate from the fluid catalytic cracking unit normally
containing ammonia and other nitrogen compounds.
• Spent phosphoric acid catalyst from catalytic polymerization
units. The phosphates can be leached from the catalyst with
water.
• Boiler or cooling tower blowdown containing phosphates.
An inadequate supply of nutrients results in poor stabilization of the wastes and
will stimulate fungi growth. This results in poor sludge settling characteristics
and longer periods of aeration.
The following removal efficiencies are typical of activated sludge processes:
Parameter
Removal Efficiencies
BOD
COD
TSS
Oil
Phenol
NHa
Sulfides
80 to 99 Percent
50 to 95 Percent
60 to 85 Percent
80 to 99 Percent
95 to 99+ Percent
33 to 99 Percent
97 to 100 Percent
11-503
-------
Some of the major advantages of the activated sludge system are:
• Low land requirements
• The excellent response of the activated sludge systems to
changing organic loads obtained by varying solids recycle.
• The ready availability of data on treatability of similar refinery
effluents by the activated sludge process.
Disadvantages of the activated sludge process include:
• Temperature sensitivity since the optimum temperature for the
activated sludge process is 20 to 30 C (68-86°F). In the Valdez
climate, this would present a problem.
• Energy consumption for this process is relatively high since
oxygen must be supplied either by mechanical aerators or a
diffused air system.
Activated Carbon
There has been a tremendous development in recent years in the use of
activated carbon for the removal of dissolved organic material from waste-
water. However, since experience with this system as secondary treatment on
a commercial scale has not been proven successful, it is normally used for final
polishing of the effluent from a biological treatment process. It is feasible only
if a very high quality effluent is needed.
Activated carbon removes organic contaminants from water by the process of
adsorption (the attraction and accumulation of one substance on the surface of
another.) In general, high surface area and pore structure are the prime
considerations in adsorption of organics from water; whereas, the chemical
nature of a carbon surface is of relatively minor significance. Granular
activated carbons typically have surface areas of 500 to 1400 square meters per
gram. Activated carbon has a preference for organic compounds and, because
of the selectivity, is particularly effective in removing organic compounds from
aqueous solutions.
A carbon adsorption unit consists of the adsorbers in which the
wastewater stream contacts the activated carbon bed; a transport system for
moving the carbon from the adsorbers to the regenerator and back; and a
regeneration system usually consisting of a rotary kiln furnace. The adsorbers
may be arranged in parallel, or a moving carbon bed in which carbon is
periodically removed from the bottom of the bed and fresh carbon is added at
the top. Of the various methods of carbon regeneration that have been used,
thermal regeneration is the most widely applicable because multiple-hearth
furnaces, rotary kilns, or fluidized bed furnaces may be utilized.
II-504
-------
As noted previously, experience with activated carbon as secondary waste-
water treatment has not proven successful. In one well documented instance, a
2.2 MGD filtration-carbon adsorption wastewater treatment plant was placed in
operation at the Marcus Hook refinery of BP Oil, Inc. in March 1973, after
extensive pilot plant testing. After more than two years in operation, it was
determined that this wastewater treatment system did not produce an effluent
equal to design expectations. The major problems experienced with this
activated carbon system were:
• A substantial reduction in the adsorptive capacity of the regen-
erated carbon was observed after several months.
• Design flow rate could not be maintained because of plugging of
the effluent septums (screens) by carbon fines.
• The production of sulfides across the carbon columns was observ-
ed and was shown to be the result of bacterial action as well as
influent characteristics.
• Various significant mechanical problems involving the carbon
transport system, automatic valves, and the regeneration fur-
nace were experienced.
Although granular activated carbon is unproven as sole secondary treatment for
refinery wastewaters, it has shown some promise as a polishing step following
biological treatment. Of particular interest is the possibility of using powdered
activated carbon for wastewater polishing, since this system would result in
substantially reduced costs and would eliminate the need for carbon transfer
and regeneration equipment.
Rotating Biological Contactors (RBC)
The RBC process is a fixed-film biological treatment system which has been
selected for secondary treatment of the Alpetco refinery wastewater. The
RBC system consists of a number of large diameter, high density polyethylene
discs, which are mounted on a horizontal shaft and placed in a basin with a
sloped floor. The discs rotate with approximately 40 percent of their surface
area submerged in the wastewater. Organisms naturally present in the
wastewater adhere to the rotating surfaces and cover the entire surface of the
discs with a bio-mass growth. During rotation, the discs carry a thin film of
wastewater into the air, where the water trickles down the surface of the discs
and absorbs oxygen. Organisms in the bio-mass then assimulate both dissolved
oxygen and organic materials from this film of wastewater. As the discs
continue to rotate through the wastewater in the basin, further assimulation of
dissolved oxygen and organic materials is performed by the bio-mass. Operat-
ing in this manner, the discs perform the following functions:
• Provide support media for the development and propagation of a
fixed biological growth.
11-505
-------
• Provide intimate contact of the growth with the wastewater.
• Provide an oxygen enriched wastewater film for high metabolism
rates.
• Provide an excess amount of aeration in the treated wastewater.
Shearing forces exerted on the bio-mass as it passes through the wastewater
cause excess bio-mass to slough from the discs into the water. This maintains a
fixed and relatively constant microbial population on the discs' surface. The
mixing action caused by the rotating discs keeps the sloughed solids in
suspension until the treated wastewater carries them out of the RBC unit for
separation and disposal.
The major advantages of the RBC system are:
• Low land requirements.
• Minimal energy requirements.
• Simplicity of operation, since it is a "once-through" system with
no recycle necessary and requires minimal operator attention.
• Quick recovery from major upsets is achieved, even in the case
of a complete bug population kill. Often only the organisms on
the discs of the first few shafts in series are affected by an
upset, leaving the bio-mass intact and functional on the last discs
in series.
• Should powdered activated carbon be proven as a reliable means
for polishing wastewater or for control of toxics or aromatic
hydrocarbons, the RBC system is readily adaptable to the
addition of powdered activated carbon at the bio-disc effluent
trough.
Disadvantages of the RBC system are:
• The initial capital cost is relatively high.
• Initial installations of these type systems experienced many
mechanical failures. The shafts, discs, and support members
have been redesigned however, and now appear to be mech-
anically sound.
11-506
-------
TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES NOT CONSIDERED
Stabilization (Oxidation) Ponds
A stabilization pond is simply a large shallow pond in which bacteria stabilize
the wastewater fed to the pond. The ponds are normally 4 feet deep, since
shallow ponds tend to have excessive weed growth and deep ponds do not get
adequate oxygen transfer to maintain aerobic conditions which are essential to
refinery wastewater treatment.
Stabilization ponds were not considered for the Alpetco refinery for the
following reasons:
• Large land requirements are essential.
• The soils on the proposed refinery site are extremely porous and
thus, would quickly diffuse any wastewater which might leak
through a crack in the pond liner into the ground water.
® Stabilization in an oxidation pond is influenced by climatic
conditions. During cold weather under ice cover, biological
activity is extremely slow. The process, for all practical
purposes, is reduced to sedimentation, and BOD reductions are
generally about 50 percent.
Trickling Filter
A trickling filter is an aerobic biological device that is used extensively in the
refining industry. Although it may be used as secondary treatment by itself,
whenever a high quality effluent is required a trickling filter is not used. This
system consists of a filter bed with a wastewater distributor and a sedimenta-
tion tank. The filter is usually a bed of broken rock, coarse aggregate, or
plastic sheets. Only at extremely low loadings can a high quality effluent be
obtained and it is at such loadings that the cost of the trickling filter is higher
than other comparative processes. Consequently, this filter is feasible only as a
"roughing" device rather than a complete treating system.
Deep Well Injection
It is generally agreed that deep well injection should be practiced only for those
wastes which are not amenable to conventional surface treatment. Since the
Alpetco refinery wastewater can be treated quite efficiently by conventional
processes, deep well injection has not been considered as a treatment alterna-
tive.
11-507
-------
Sulfide/Ammonia Stripping
Significant amounts of HgS and ammonia are found in refinery wastewaters due
to the breakdown of organic sulfur and nitrogen compounds during the various
refining processes. These compounds can be removed by air or steam stripping.
A discussion of this stripping operation may be found in Section 4.4.1, Alternate
Process Design Considerations.
Oil Removal
The traditional method of oil separation in refinery wastewater has been the
API gravity separator, which is sized to allow most of the free oil to float to
the surface and the heavier solids to fall to the bottom. These separators are
normally an integral part of the operation due to the amount of recoverable oil
in refinery wastewaters. Wastewaters that contain a high volume of free oil
are normally treated in the gravity separator before being mixed with other
non-oily streams. This allows a separator to be sized for a smaller throughput
volume.
Another type of gravity separator finding increased use in the refining industry
is the tilted plate separator. The corrugated plate interceptor (CPI) is one of
the most common tilted plate separators. This unit is made up of one or more
modules consisting of corrugated plates tilted at a 45° angle. As the water
flows between the plates, oil droplets collect on the underside and move to the
top of the module. Improved efficiencies at less cost and space than those
needed by the API separators have been reported.
The API separator has been selected as the Alpetco refinery gravity separator.
This decision was mainly based on the API separator's ability to handle an
accidental massive oil release into the wastewater system. The API separator
can retain larger quantities of oil than a CPI separator without permitting oil
breakthrough to the secondary treatment system.
Intermediate Oil and Suspended Solids Removal
Dissolved-air floatation (DAF) is normally considered an intermediate treat-
ment process for further removal of oil and suspended solids from API separator
effluents, prior to biological treatment. In the dissolved air floatation process
the waste stream is saturated with air under a pressure of several atmospheres.
The stream is then held in a retention tank for a period of minutes so that the
air will dissolve. As the stream exits from the retention tank it flows through a
pressure reducing valve — dropping the pressure to atmospheric — and then
into a floatation tank. When the pressure is released, the air comes out of
solution forming minute bubbles within the liquid. These bubbles, which are
about 30 to 120 microns in diameter, adhere to the suspended particles and an
aggregate is thus formed which rapidly rises to the surface and is skimmed from
11-508
-------
the floatation tank. Although the use of DAF as an intermediate treatment
step is not necessary for secondary treatment, its use generally does produce a
higher quality effluent from the downstream secondary biological treatment
system.
Final Filtration
A sand filter was selected for final filtration of the Alpetco refinery waste-
water effluent to obtain a very high quality effluent. Organic matter in
suspended or colloidal form will be filtered to reduce solids in the effluent to
extremely low levels. Multimedia filters or microscreens can also be used in
this service but were not selected for the Alpetco refinery. The multimedia
filter, which may be composed of anthracite and sand, activated carbon and
sand, or resin beds and sand, will not produce a higher quality effluent than the
sand filter in this application and will result in higher capital costs. Micro-
screens will not produce as high a quality effluent as either sand filters or
multimedia filters since available screen mesh size is too large.
11-509
-------
THE PACE COMPANY CONSULTANTS & ENGINEERS, INC. 5251 westheimer
P.O. BOX 53473 HOUSTON, TEXAS 77052 AC 71 3 965-0311 CABLE: PACECO-HOUSTON TELEX 77-4350
COOLING SYSTEMS
11-510
-------
COOLING SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
Most of the refining and petrochemical processes require heating of the feed
and intermediate streams with either steam exchangers or fired heaters to
initiate chemical reactions or effect separations by distillation. To conserve
energy the processes are designed to recover, to the greatest extent possible,
the heat from the product streams before routing them to tank storage. This
heat is recovered by exchange with feed streams or by raising steam.
Unfortunately it is not economically feasible (or technically possible) to recover
all of this heat for useful purposes and thus it is necessary to reject the
residuum heat by means of cooling water exchangers or air coolers.
DISCUSSION
With a few exceptions (discussed later) the Applicant has selected air cooling to
avoid the problems that would be inherent with either evaporative cooling (wet
cooling towers) or once-through seawater cooling with resulting thermal plume.
Evaporative cooling could cause fogging with reduced visibility and freezing
problems during cold weather and wastewater pollution problems (chromates) at
all times. Once-through seawater cooling could cause thermal discharge
problems in the receiving body of water such as upsetting the environment for
marine life. The areas where air cooling will not be used are as follows:
Alkylation Reactors - These reactors have been developed over a
number of years based on water cooling. An alternative to water
cooling would require a pioneer development effort.
Alkylation Coolers - Where cooling of an acid bearing stream is
required, water cooling must be used to guard against the possibility
of spraying acid about the unit in the event of a tube failure. Air
cooling would introduce that danger.
Pump and Compressor Cooling - It is necessary to use a liquid
coolant for cooling of the internals of these rotating machines.
Flexicoker Gasifier Condenser - Water cooling is used in this service
to minimize the required surface area. The stream being cooled is
extremely corrosive and therefore an expensive alloy must be used
for fabrication of the exchanger. As a result, there is a strong
economic incentive to use water cooling to minimize the required
exchanger surface area.
11-511
-------
In all of the above cases, the Applicant proposes to use a circulating glycol-
water stream for cooling. The glycol-water solution will be pumped to the
process for cooling and the heat picked up by the glycol-water will be
transferred to air in air coolers. The glycol-water will then be recirculated to
the various processes. It is necessary to use a glycol-water system for cooling
instead of a simple water system because of the extremely low ambient
temperatures at the plant site.
11-512
-------
THE PACE COMPANY CONSULTANTS & ENGINEERS, INC. 5251 westheimer
P.O. BOX 53473 HOUSTON, TEXAS 77052 AC 713 965-0311 CABLE: PACECO-HOUSTON TELEX 77-4350
ALPETCO GLOSSARY OF TERMS
11-513
-------
ALPETCO GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Acid Gas - Any stream made up of chiefly carbon dioxide and/or hydrogen
sulfide.
Aliphatic - Paraffinic compounds.
Alkylation - A reaction in which isobutane is combined with propylene and buty-
lenes to form a high octane branched paraffin for motor fuel.
Amine - An alkanol amine such as monoethanol amine used to remove acid gas
(HgS and C02) from gaseous or liquid hydrocarbon streams.
Anode Grade Coke - Coke that is of high enough quality as measured by low
concentration of sulfur and metals to be used as anodes in the aluminum
industry.
Aromatics - Compounds which contain six membered rings with each carbon
atom of the ring bound by two single bonds and one double bond.
Atmospheric Gas Oil - A portion of the crude oil boiling in the range of 650°F to
850°F.
Benzene - CgHL, a six carbon membered ring compound with one hydrogen on
each carbon. Benzene is the basic building block of all aromatic compounds.
CaFj - Calcium fluoride
Calcining - A process where the volatile content of coke is reduced by the
application of heat.
"Cat Gasoline" - The C,.-430oF boiling material produced from a fluid catalytic
cracker.
Caustic Wash - A procedure where a hydrocarbon stream is contacted with
caustic for removal of mercaptans.
CBM Pit - Sump where any acidity is neutralized.
Conradson Carbon - An analytical testing procedure which measures the rela-
tive tendency of a petroleum stream to form coke.
Deisohexanizer - A distillation column which distills isohexane and lighter
components overhead.
Deisopentanizer - A distillation column which distills isopentane overhead.
11-514
-------
Endothermic - A reaction in which a heat input is required to maintain a
constant temperature, i.e., heat is required by the reaction.
Exothermic - A reaction in which heat is liberated during the reaction.
FCC - Fluid catalytic cracking or fluid catalytic cracker.
Flash Point - Temperature at which a source of ignition can cause a hydrocabon
to ignite.
Flash Zone - The feed entrance area of a crude vacuum or distillation unit
where the initial separation of distillates from residue occurs.
Oas Oil - That portion of the crude oil boiling between 650°F and 1000°F.
Heat Exchange - The heating or cooling of a stream by another stream using a
heat transfer surface.
Heavier/Lighter - Relative terms which refer to boiling ranges.
Heaviest Crude Cut - In this context, vacuum resid. The specific gravity of
crude fractions increases with increasing boiling point. For this reason, vacuum
resid, which is the highest boiling fraction, has the highest specific gravity,
giving rise to the term "heaviest cut".
Hydrogenation - The addition of hydrogen onto unsaturated molecules. Produc-
tion of paraffins from olefins or naphthenes from aromatics are examples.
bohexane - A paraffinic compound with six carbon atoms arranged in a branch-
ed fashion.
Isopentane - A paraffinic compound with five carbon atoms arranged in a
branched fashion.
KOH Mix Tank - Vessel where KOH (potassium hydroxide) is dissolved in water.
LCO Saturation - Conversion of polycyclic aromatics in light cycle oil to
monocyclic aromatics.
Light Ends - Mixture of light gases e.g., methane, ethane, propane.
Light Olefins - In this context, propylene and butylene.
LPG -Liquid Petroleum Gas, a mixture of C, and C, hydrocarbons that is under
sufficient pressure to keep the components in tne liquid phase at ambient
temperatures.
11-515
-------
Mercaptans - Sulfur compounds of the type R-S-H where R represents an alkyl
group.
Merox Sweetening - A process utilizing caustic where mercaptans are converted
to disulfides.
Naphtha - A hydrocarbon stream boiling in the range of 130°F to 400°F.
Naphthenes - Hydrogen saturated ring compounds. Cyclohexane is the basic
naphthene.
Naphthene Dehydrogenation - The conversion of naphthenes to aromatics which
results in the production of hydrogen.
Net Hydrogen Make - The hydrogen produced from a reformer.
Olefins - Organic compounds with at least one double bond.
Overhead - That portion of the feed to a distillation column which is produced
as a top product.
Paraffin Cyclization - The formation of a carbon ring structure from a straight
chain paraffin.
Paraffinic Naphtha -A naphtha which contains only small concentrations of
naphthenes and aromatics.
Paraffins - Organic compounds with no double bonds.
Polyeyclic Aromatic Saturation - Conversion of aromatic rings to naphthenes by
hydrogenation.
Polymer - A high boiling, high molecular weight, organic compound.
Polymerization - The reaction of gaseous propylene or butylenes to produce a
high octane gasoline product.
ppmv - Parts per million by volume.
Raffinate - The paraffinic stream produced from an aromatics extraction unit.
Reduced Crude - Atmospheric distillation column bottoms product.
Reflux - A portion of a product returned to a distillation column to improve
separation.
11-516
-------
Research Octane Number, Clear - A number indicating the relative per-
formance of a fuel in an internal combustion engine. Clear refers to an absence
of lead.
RSH - A mercaptan; in organic chemistry, "R" is a general symbol used to mean
any saturated paraffin group (Alkyl). Therefore RSH could be C„SH, C.SH or
any other similar grouping.
USSR - A disulfide.
Saturates Butane - Mixture of isobutane and normal butane.
Saturates Gas - Gas streams containing only paraffinic hydrocarbons such as gas
produced by crude units and catalytic reformers.
SCF - Standard cubic feet.
Side Stream Fractions - Streams produced from the side of a distillation col-
umn.
Sour Water - Process water that is contaminated with ammonia or hydrogen
sulfide.
Stoichiometric - The balance of reactants such that there is no excess of any
reactant required to form a particular product.
Straight Run —Products produced directly from the crude unit with no other
processing.
Surge Drums - Vessels used to provide liquid capacity during minor fluctuations
in processing conditions.
Toluene - CRH,.CH«, a benzene ring with a single methyl group (CH J replacing
one hydrogen. 0
Unsaturates or Unsaturated Gas - Gas streams containing olefins and diolefins
in combinaton with paraffinic hydrocarbons. Unsaturated gas is produced by
cokers and Fluid Catalytic Cracking units.
UOP Continuous Reforming - A reforming process utilizing a circulating cata-
lyst system to provide continuous catalyst regeneration.
Vacuum Gas Oil - A portion of the crude oil boiling in the range of 650°F to
1050°F.
Vacuum Resid - The bottom product of the vacuum tower, all of which typically
boils over 1000°F.
Virgin Fuel Oil - Fuel oil as produced by the crude unit with no further
processing. Synonymous with "straight run".
11-517
-------
Xylenes - CgH4(CH3)2, Any of three isomers containing a benzene ring with
CH„ replacing nydro^en in two positions. The relative positions of the methyl
groQp to each other around the ring dictate whether the xylene is ortho, meta,
or paraxylene.
11-518
-------
REFERENCES
11-519
-------
American Petroleum Institute, 1977. "Water Reuse Studies,"
API Publication No. 949.
American Petroleum Institute, American Gas Association,
Canadian Petroleum Association, 1978. Reserves of
Crude Oi1, Natura1 Gas Liquids, and Natura1 Gas In
the UnitedStates and Canada as of December 31, 19777
(32).
Barnes, F.F., 1967. "Coal Resources of Alaska," U.S.G.S.
Bulletin 1242-B.
Bell, C.P., et al. , 1978. The Pace Energy and
Petrochemica1 Outlook to 2000. The Pace Company.
Beychok, M.R., 1967. Aqueous Wastes for Petrochemical
Plants. John Wiley and Sons.
Bland, W.F., 1979. "Alaska is Developing Plan to Use North
Slope Gas Liquids as Petrochemical Feedstocks,"
Petrochemical News, May 14.
Bland, W.F., and R.L. Davidson, 1967. Petroleum Processinq
Handbook. McGraw-Hill. '
Boland, R.F., J.L. Delaney, D.E. Earley and T.E.
Cturtnieek, 1976. Screeing Study for Miscellaneous
Sources of Hydrocarbon Emissions in Petroleum
Refineries. Monsanto Research Corp.
Bonamassa, F. and Yee, S.Y., 1957. Emission of
Hydrocarbons to the Atmosphere from Cooling Towers.
Air Pollution Control District County of Los Angeles
Western Oil and Gas Association.
Bottge, R., 1975. "Changing Economics of Alaskan Coals,"
Proceedings of the Conference, Focus on Alaska's Coal
1975, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, October 15-17,
1975. School of Mineral Industry, University of
Alaska, Fairbanks and Federal Energy Administration,
Anchorage.
Bush, K.E., April 12, 1976. "Refinery Wastewater Treatment
and Reuse," Chemical Engineering Magazine.
Cameron Engineers (Subsidiary of The Pace Company
Consultants and Engineers, Inc.), 1978. Multimedia
Environmental Control Engineering Handbook. Cameron
Engineers.
Chandra, U., 1971. Seismological Society of America
Bulletin,, (61). "Combination of P and S Data for the
Determination of Earthquake Focal Mechanism".
11-520
-------
Chapman, K. , 197 9. NO Reduction on Process Heaters with a
Low N0x Burner. Sir Pollution Control Association.
Cheremisinoff, P. N., September, 1976. "Biological
Wastewater Treatment," Pollution Engineering
Magazine.
Continental Oil Company, 1978. The Pipe line Gas
Demonstration Plant Economic Ana lysis. DOE, Division
of Coal Conversion.
Cornwell, C.N., 1977. Alaska. McGraw Hill.
Cornwell, C.N., 1977. "Land Reclamation Is An Integral
Part of The Only Operating Coal Mine in Alaska," The
Coal Miner, September.
Danielson, J.A. 1973. Air Pollution Engineering Manual,
AP4, 1973. U.S. EPA Office of Air and Water Programs,
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards.
E.P.A. Technology Transfer, "Capsule Reports,"
EPA-625/2-74-004, EPA-625/2/75-008, EPA-625/2/76-010,
EPA-625/2-78-018, EPA-625/2-78-016. Environmental
Protection Agency.
Engineering Science, 1978. "An Analysis of Alternative
Policies for Dealing with New Source Growth in
Non-attachment Areas." August.
Environmental Protection Agency, 1974. Survey Reports on
Atmospheric Emissions From the Petrochemical
Industry, (II). U.S. EPA Office of Air and Water
Programs, Office of Air Quality Planning and
Standards.
Environmental Protection Agency, 1978. Compilation of Air
Pollutant Factors, AP42. U.S. EPA Office of Air and
Waste Management, Office of Air Quality Planning and
Standards.
Environmental Protection Agency, 1978. 1977 Clean Air Act;
Prevention of Significant Air Quality Deterioration,
State Implementation Plans and Requirements. Federal
Register, (43) 118.
Environmental Protection Agency. Compilation of BACT/LAER
Determinations, Publication Pending. EPA, Pedco
Environmental Inc., Office of Air Quality Planning
and Standards.
Environmental Protection Agency. 1974. Development
Document for Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New
11-521
-------
Source Performance Standards for the Petroleum
Refining Point Source Category, EPA-440/1-74-014a,
Apri1.
Environmental Reporter Federal Laws. Clean Air Act
Amendment of 197 7/ PL 95-95, August 7, 1977.
Environmental Reporter, 1977. "Environmental Protection
Agency Proposed Changes to Regulations for Prevention
of Significant Air Quality Deterioration." November
3.
Exxon Research and Engineering Company, 1975. Fluid
Catalytic Cracking Unit Flue Gas Scrubbing. "
Exxon Research c;flnd Engineering Company, 1978. Exxon
Flexicoking—. Florham Park, New Jersey.
Federal Register, 1976. Title 40 - Protection of
Environment, Chapter 1 - Environmental Protection
Agency, Subchapter C - Air Programs, Part 52,
December 21, 1976. (41) 246.
Federal Register, 1976. Title 40, Chapter 1, Subchapter C,
Part 51 - Requirements for Preparation, Adoption, and
SubmittaT of Implementation Plans, December 21, (TIT
Federal Register, 1977. Title 40 - Protection of
Environment Chapter _1 - Environmental Protection
Agency, Subchapter C - Air Programs, Part 52
Approval and Promulgation of State Implementation
Plans, 1977 Clean Air Act Amendments to Prevent
Significant Deterioration, November 3, 1977. (42)
212.
Federal Register, 1979. Title 40, Chapter 1, Subchapter C,
Part 51 - Requirements for Preparation, Adoption, and
Submittal of Implementation Plans Emission Offset
Interpretative Ruling, January 16, 1979^ (44) lT^
Federal Register, 1979. Part III, Environmental Protection
Agency - General Preamble for Proposed Rule Making on
Approval of State Implementation Plan Revisions for
Non-attainment Areas, April 4. ("44) 66.
Gary, J.H. and G.E. Handwerk, 1975. Petroleum Refininq:
Technology and Economics. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New
York.
Gloyna, E.F. and D.L. Ford, 1970. Petrochemical Effluents
and Treatment Practices: The Characteristics and
Po1lutional Problems Associated with Petrochemical
Wastes. Federal Water Pollution control
11-522
-------
Administration Research Series 12020-2/70. February.
Gloyna, E.F., et al., September 9, 1974. "Storm Runoff
Handling for Industrial Installations" presented at
the 7th International Conference on Water Pollution
Research. Paris, France.
Gloyna, E.F.and D.L. Ford, October 10-11, 1974. "Control
of Refinery and Petrochemical Wastewaters and
Residuals" presented at the 1st International
Symposium on the Techniques of Liquid-Liquid
Separations^ Lamar University, Beaumont, Texas.
Gulf Publishing Company, 1968. "Waste Treatment and Flare
Stack Design Handbook.
Illinois Coal Gasification Group, 1979. Pipeline Gas
Annual Report. DOE, Division of Coal Conversion.
Ives, G., Jr., 1979. "Alaska Highway Project Gains
Momentum from Energy Bill," Pipe line Industry.
Mason, H.B., A.B. Shimizu, J.E. Ferrell, G.G. Poe, L.R.
Waterland and R.M. Evans, 1977. Preliminary
Environmental Assessment of Combustion Modification
Techniques: Volume I_ Summary, EPA-600/7-77-119a. EPA.
Mason, H.B., A.B. Shimizu, J.E. Ferrell, G.G. Poe, L.R.
Waterland, and R.M. Evans, 1977. Preliminary
Environmental Assessment of Combustion Modification
Techniques, Volume II Technical Results, EPA
600/7/77-119b. EPA.
McCrodden, B.A., 1979. Treatment of Refinery Wastewater
Using a FiItration-Activated~Carbon System.
McGraw Hill, 1979. "California Agency Threatens to Sue
Sohio Over Withdrawal from PACTEX PL Plan," Piatt's
Oilgram News. May 29.
Nelson, W.L. , 1964. Petroleum Refinery Engineering.
McGraw-Hill.
Oi 1 and Gas Journal, The, 1978. "Senate Opposition Awaits
Alaska Lands Act." May 29.
Oxidants Engineering Science, August, 1978. "An Analysis
of Alternative Policies For Dealing With New Source
Growth in Non-attainment Areas," (2).
Palmer, R.K., 1957. Hydrocarbon Losses from Valves and
Flanges. Air Pollution Control District County of Los
Angeles U.S. Department Gas Association.
11-523
-------
Parkinson, G., 1979. "Plans Made to Keep Alaskan Oil
Flowing," Chemical Engineering. April 23.
Patsch, B.J.G. 1975. "Exploration and Development of
Beluga Coal Field," Proceedings of the Conference,
Focus on Alaska's Coa1 1975, University oT Alaska,
Fairbanks, October 15-17, 1975. School of Mineral
Industry, University of Alaska, Fairbanks and Federal
Energy Administration, Anchorage.
PEDCo. Environmental Inc., 1977. Technical Guidance for
Control of Industria1 Process Fugitive Particulate
Emissions, EPA 450/3-77-010.
Robinson, J., 1979. NO Control by the Therma1 DENO
Process in a Tertiary Oil Recovery Steam Generator*
Air Pollution Control Association.
Salvesen, K.G., K.J. Wolfe, E. Chu and M.A. Herther, 1978.
Emission Characterization of Stationary NO , Sources:
Volume I Results. EPA 600/7-78-120a, 1978.
Salvesen, K.G., M. Herter, K. J. Wolfe and E. Chu, 1978.
Emission Characterization of Stationary NO j_ Sources:
Volume II, Data Supplement, EPA 600/7-78-l2ob.
Sanders, R.B., 1975. "Coal Resources of Alaska,"
Proceedings of the Conference, Focus on Alaska's Coal
1975, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, October
15-17, 1975. School of Mineral Industry, University
of Alaska, Fairbanks and Federal Energy
Administration, Anchorage.
Schalit, L.M. and K.J. Wolfe, 1978. SAM/1A:A Rapid
Screening Method for Environmental Assessment oT
Fossil Energy Process Effluents, EPA 600/7-78-015.
Sernco, 1974. Applicants Environmental Assessment for a
Proposed Gasification Project in Campbell ancT
Converse Counties, Wyoming.
United States Bureau of Reclamation, 1977. El Paso Coa1
Gasification Project San Juan County, New Mexico.
United States Bureau of Reclamation, Upper Colorado
region, 1976. Final Environmental Statement - Western
Gasification Company, Coal Gasification Project and
Expansion of Navajo Mine by Utah International.
11-524
-------
Usibelli, J. , 1975. "Mining Constraints and Operations at
Usibelli Coal Mine," Proceedings of Conference/ Focus
on Alaska1s Coal 1975, University of Alaska,
Fairbanks, October 15-17, 1975. School of Mineral
Industry, University of Alaska, Fairbanks and Federal
Energy Administration, Anchorage.
Wallace, M.J., 1979. "Controlling Fugitive Emisions,"
Chemical Engineering. August.
Waterland, L.R., H.B. Mason, R.M. Evans, K.G. Salvesen and
K.J. Wolfe, 1978. Environmental Assessment of
Stationary Source NO Control Technologies: First
Annual Report, EPA 6UTT/7-78-04 6. EPA.
Wetheroid, R., Radian Corporation, and P. Lloyd, 1979.
Emission Factors and Frequency of Leak Occurrence for
Fittings in Refinery Process Units. The Pace Company.
Wilson, H.M., 1979. "ALASKA CANADA REPORT: Alaska
Explorers Still Sure Big Finds Coming," The Oi1 and
Gas Journal. February 26.
11-525
-------
vx»
e°
\o&
I
-------
ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND HISTORIC FEATURES
-------
ARCHAEOLOGY
RELATED TO
ALASKA PETROCHEMICAL COMPANY
DEVELOPMENT
NEAR
VALDEZ, ALASKA
FINAL REPORT
prepared by
ALASKARCTIC
Glenn Bacon
Archaeologist
for
Dickinson - Oswald - Walch - Lee
Engineers
September 1979
11-527
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface page 1-26
Introduction 1-30
Summary of Regional History and Prehistory 1-31
Methodology 1-36
The Survey 1-39
Vicinity Map Showing Survey Areas .... 1-40
Schematic Map of the Plant Site Area. . . 1-41
Map Showing Dendrochronology Stations . . 1-42
Table 1: Age Estimates of Trees Sampled . 1-45
Conclusions 1-46
Report from the State Historic Preservation Office 1-49
Effects of Construction and Operation of the
Proposed Facility 1-49
Contingency Mitigation Plans 1-49
Unavoidable Adverse Environmental Impacts of
the Proposed Facility Development .... 1-50
References Cited 1-51
Appendix (letter from the State Historic
Preservation Office) 1-55
11-528
-------
PREFACE
On June 8, 1979, under contract to Dickinson-Oswald-
Walch-Lee Engineers (DOWL), Alaskarctic initiated a
program designed to locate any significant historic and/
or prehistoric sites within an area proposed for devel-
opment by the Alaska Petrochemical Company (ALPETCO)
near Valdez, Alaska. The Alaskarctic research program,
summarized in the following pages, was designed to meet
guidelines expressed in Federal Regulations 36 CFR 800,
Protection of Historic and Cultural Properties. That
set of regulations comprises a procedural program which
answers to concerns for cultural preservation expressed
in the National Historic Preservation Act, Presidential
Executive Order 11593 (Protection and Enhancement of the
Cultural Environment), and the President's Memorandum
on Environmental Quality and Water Resources Management
(July 12, 1978). In addition, objectives of the Alaska
Historic Preservation Act were recognized.
The Alaskarctic study was organized as a three phase
program. Phase I was designed as a search of appropriate
ethnographic and geological literature and maps. The
geologic aspect of this search focused on an attempt to
establish geologic parameters within which to conduct
an on-the-ground archeological survey for prehistoric
11-529
-------
sites (part of Phase II). In specific we were interested
in which portions of the project site might have been
uninhabitable due to the presence or effects, such as
runoff, of the Valdez Glacier.
The ethnographic aspect of the search was a review of
selected published and unpublished sources, some of
which were provided through the courtesy of Dr. William
Workman (University of Alaska, Anchorage), a noted
authority on the aboriginal peoples of the Pacific Gulf
Coast of Alaska. It was hoped that the ethnographic
research would reveal locations of early historic abor-
iginal settlements or aboriginal resource areas in the
vicinity of the project area.
Examples of resource areas would be such as hunting areas,
berry picking areas, salmon fishing sites, quarry sites
for material to manufacture stone tools, and wood cutting
sites. No aboriginal use of the project site could be
documented.
The Phase I literature search also reviewed the early
military activities in the Valdez area. Most of these
were in association with the Gold Rush just prior to the
11-530
-------
turn of the century. The literature search revealed no
documentation of any early historic use of the project
area, except as noted below.
Evidence does indicate that by 1911 several mining claims
were established on the Valdez Glacier outwash plain
(Storm 1911). Some of these appear to be in the same
area now proposed for ALPETCO development.
Following the ten day literature search, I initiated
Phase II on June 18, 1979. As during the literature
search, I was assisted by Ms. Roberta Goldman. We began
our Phase II study with an orientation tour of the
project site. The tour was guided by the DOWL hydrol-
ogist Toramen Sahin, who at that time had already been
on the project site for several months. At other times
during the Phase II effort we were assisted by DOWL's
field geologist, Terry Barber.
Seismic lines and access roads had already been cut
through the project site at the time of our field survey.
In addition to being key navigational features, these
lines and roads provided valuable clues as to the nature
11-531
-------
of near surface soils over the project site. In addition,
trees that had been felled during construction of the
seismic lines and roads were available for dendrochron-
ological study (tree ring dating) .
Phase III of the Alaskarctic research program consisted
of a review of data collected during the pre-field
literature search and during the field survey. In
addition, our attention was given to archival material
donated by Mrs. Dorothy Clifton to the University of
Alaska, Fairbanks. Much of the material documents the
early history of Valdez. Phase II concluded with the
preparation of this report.
11-532
-------
INTRODUCTION
Valdez, originally known as Copper City (Schrader 1899:
349) is located on the Pacific Gulf Coast of Alaska and
at the base of the Chugach Mountains (61°07'N, 146°16'W).
In the days following the Gold Rush of 1898, and until
recent times, Valdez has been a small town with a pop-
ulation under 600 persons (Orth 1967: 1016).
Since the beginning, Valdez Glacier has been a dominant
factor in the lives of Valdez residents. Annual flood-
ing and the possibility of a breakout of ice-dammed
lakes or of a glacial advance have posed a threat to
Valdez for over six decades (Field 1975: 362). For
some time now the Valdez Glacier has been undergoing a
rapid retreat (Tarr & Martin 1914: 238ff).
Today the Alaska Petrochemical Company is proposing the
construction of a large petrochemical complex on the
broad glacial floodplain the Valdez Glacier has left
behind. This is a report on an archaeological study of
the proposed site conducted in preparation of an Environ-
mental Impact Statement.
11-533
-------
SUMMARY OF REGIONAL HISTORY AND PREHISTORY
During the years following the discovery of the Cape
Krusenstern beach ridges and the deeply stratified arch-
aeological site at the Onion Portage (Giddings 1962),
an increasingly clear picture has developed of the pre-
history of the western portion of the North American
arctic. To date the most fruitful studies have been
conducted in the northwestern region of Alaska (see
Anderson 1968; Giddings 1967; Larsen & Rainey 1948)
where techno-environmental analysis is apparently
demonstrating a correlation between the rate of climatic
change and the rate of technological change.
Techno-environmental analysis is also being applied to
the Pacific Coast of Alaska. No full discussion is as
yet available, due in large part to a relative paucity
of archaeological data for that region. Nearly all of
the available evidence for prehistoric human occupation
along the Gulf Pacific Coast of Alaska has come from the
western portion of that region.
Archaeology of the western Pacific Gulf indicates human
presence since early Holocene times (the period since
the last major glaciation, roughly the last 10,000 years).
William S. Laughlin has led research in the Aleutian
11-534
-------
Islands and he concludes that material culture has under-
gone a relatively gradual change for the past 8,500 years
(Aigner, et. al. 1976; Laughlin 1951, 1962, 1963, 1967,
1975; Laughlin & Aigner 1966; Laughlin & March 1954).
Recent archaeological research on the Alaska Peninsula
suggests that this area too was occupied since early
Holocene times (cf. Dumond 1968, 1969a, 1969b, 1971,
1976; Dumond, et. al. 1975; McCartney 1974; Okada &
Okada 1974; Workman 1966).
A hand full of artifacts from the Ground Hog Bay site
and the Hidden Falls site in Southeast Alaska suggests
the early presence of man along that part of the Gulf
Coast (Robert Ackerman, oral communication, 1979).
Archaeological data dated to more recent times indicates
a series of cultures representing a Pacific maritime
adaptation, probably Eskimo, occupied the Pacific Gulf
Coast for the last 5,000 years (Fitzhugh 1975; De Laguna
1956).
The archaeology of Prince William Sound is almost entire-
ly the product of Frederica De Laguna (ibid.), who
studied the area during the summers of 1930 and 1933.
11-535
-------
Her work continues to dominate our understanding of the
area which has seen little additional research in sub-
sequent years. On the basis of her detailed investiga-
tions, De Laguna concluded that the most recent aborig-
inal inhabitants of central-north Prince William Sound
(which includes the Port Valdez area) were linguistic-
ally and otherwise Pacific Eskimo within the Kachemak
Tradition (De Laguna 1934).
Archaeological research from the interior of Alaska
(Workman 1977) and from northwestern Prince William
Sound (Birket-Smith & De Laguna 1938) indicates that
the coastal Chugachmiut were bordered by Indians of the
Athapaskan linguistic stock. They are now known as the
Eyak, of the Copper River Delta and Northwestern Prince
William Sound, and their cousins the Ahtna, who ranged
to the north.
Human prehistory of the Pacific Gulf Coast, both east
and west of Prince William Sound, appears to date back
to the early Holocene. It is therefore not unreasonable
to expect that sites dating to that early period may be
found in the vicinity of Valdez. In more recent times
Valdez represented a geographical interface between two
great cultural traditions in Alaska# Eskimo and Athapaskan.
11-536
-------
It is not unreasonable to anticipate elements of each
of these traditions also to be present in the Port Valdez
area. Yet, to date, we have no record of aboriginal
encampment near the present community of Valdez. This
may be due to a number of bio-geological factors.
Pertinent to aboriginal populations, the Port Valdez
area does not appear to have been as resource rich as
the nearby Copper River region. In addition much of the
Valdez area has been, and remains, subject to flooding
from glacial outwash during the summer months. That and
the difficulty encountered in attempting to travel from
the coast to the interior may have discouraged aboriginal
man from settling in the Valdez vicinity in any great
numbers.
The difficulty of travel from the coast to the interior
over Valdez Glacier was the first major hurdle faced by
the white men who surged into the area for the Gold Rush
of 1898 (Hazelet 1964; The Pathfinder of Alaska/ January
1924: 5-23). The U.S. Army quickly recognized the need
for an alternate overland route to the interior
(Abercrombie 1900); and work was begun on what was to
become known later as the Richardson Trail, which led
up over Thompson Pass.
11-537
-------
Begun in 1899, the Richardson Trail was passable to
wagon traffic by 1910 and by automobile by 1915. Yet
the trail remained so difficult that as late as 1925
the automobile trip from Valdez to Fairbanks usually
took two or three days (The Pathfinder of Alaska,
February, 1925; Valdez Transportation Company, n.d.).
Even today the mountain passes along the highway are
often closed by winter snow storms.
Early attempts at constructing a railroad link from
Valdez to the copper fields of the interior all ended
in failure. The Pathfinder of Alaska (April 1925: 7)
records, "Attempts were made by three companies to
start railroads into the interior, however
none succeeded. The first which was known
as the 'Home Railroad,' organized by Reynolds
endeavored to reach the Yukon but it became
bankrupt shortly after beginning operations.
The second by which the Guggenheim corporation
intended to bring ore from the Copper prop-
erties near Kennecott, after much trouble
decided to start from Cordova. In the summer
of 1904, O. P. Hubbard, representing Helm, a
California promotor, started surveying and
grading the unsuccessful Valdez-Yukon Railroad."
So dramatic were the struggles of the railroad companies
that famed northern author Rex Beach wrote The Iron
Trail (1913), a gripping fictional account of the race
to the interior. In writing the novel, Rex Beach perhaps
11-538
-------
best captured the energy, the vision, the hope and the
heartbreak that seems to have characterized the early
days of Valdez.
Not until the tragic events surrounding the Good Friday
earthquake of 1964 would Valdez see such an unleashing
of human energy. Then followed a period of relocation
and rapid change, perhaps culminating in the construct-
ion of the superport which services tankers moving
products from the Alyeska pipeline.
METHODOLOGY
Project methodology was linked to the field plan as
outlined under the Scope of Work. Three phases in the
study were recognized: a pre-field literature search,
a field survey and post-field analysis.
Prior to the field investigations we made a preliminary
search of the literature in order to establish parameters
within which to conduct the actual on-the-ground arch-
aeological survey. Already being generally familiar
with the ethnographic literature for the study area, we
concentrated our initial literature search on the sur-
ficial geology of the study area. It was our intent to
11-539
-------
discern geological phenomenon which would tend to limit
or to concentrate human exploitative patterns in the area.
We also searched the literature in order to cull the loc-
ations of any aboriginal or historic structures which
might lie within the study area. No mention of such
structures could be found. Yet the pattern of historic
use indicated that the area could contain the scattered
leavings of the thousands of gold seekers who were known
to have traveled through the Valdez vicinity.
Based on the results of the literature search and pre-
vious experience, we prepared for the on-site inspection
of the study area. The field aspect of the study plan
included on-the-ground archaeological survey, helicopter
borne aerial reconnaissance, dendrochronology and inform-
ant interviews.
The on-the-ground survey consisted of foot traverses
through portions of the project area. Abundant natural
erosion features revealed the uppermost subsurface geo-
logical deposits and obviated the need for hand excavated
test pits. Many of the erosion features, plus deposits
11-540
-------
revealed through road and seismic line construction,
were examined for evidence of past human use. In
addition, lithic materials contained or revealed in the
deposits were examined for their suitability as raw
material for stone tool production.
A helicopter borne aerial reconnaissance of the project
area was undertaken to augment the foot survey. Using
flight patterns refined during the archaeological survey
along the trans-Alaska pipeline route, we flew the
project site at low altitude and at a slow ground speed.
Our limited dendrochronological study consisted of field
counting the rings on eleven cottonwood trees which had
been felled as part of seismic and access road construct-
ion.
Directed interviews were conducted with several Valdez
residents. Other long time residents were queried by
letter questionaire.
Post field research included examination of archival
documents to which we were directed by Mrs. Dorothy
Clifton (Valdez resident). It was thought that these
documents of early Valdez history might reveal historic
period utilization of the project area.
11-541
-------
THE SURVEY
The on-the-ground archaeological survey concentrated on
the proposed plant site, an area encompassing approx-
imately 200 acres. In all, seven looping traverses
were made through the proposed plant site. Because the
eastern half of the plant site is cut by several braids
of an active and large stream, on-the-ground survey
concentrated on the western portion of the proposed
plant site.
Additional on-the-ground survey was conducted from the
corridors created by the seismic lines and roads.
Along the proposed pipeline corridor between the proposed
plant site and Solomon Gulch observations were made from
the parallel portions of the Dayville Road and the
Alyeska pipeline corridor. Visual penetration from these
clear areas into the proposed project areas varied from
an estimated twenty to seventy-five meters (60 to 225
feet) depending upon micro-vegetation patterns.
Along the proposed pipeline corridor between the south-
ern boundary of the project site and the Richardson
Highway, only the areas contiguous to stream crossings
11-542
-------
I
tn
•P*
U>
VICINITY MAP: Surveyed Areas
-------
DASHED LINES REPRESENT
SURVEY ROUTES
SCHEMATIC MAP OF PLANT SITE AREA
11-544
-------
-------
were examined closely on the ground. The remainder of
the pipeline corrridor along the east end of the Valdez
bay is highlighted by low lying marsh-floodplain and
steep hillsides. Neither area is likely to produce a
significant historic or prehistoric site.
Because the on-the-ground survey did not provide 100%
surface coverage of the project site and access corridors,
and because traditional survey techniques proved largely
ineffective in the thick jungle-like vegetation cover,
a field change was made in the survey plan. I decided
to utilize a technique which had proved very useful
when applied during the archaeological survey of the
Alyeska pipeline corridor during the early 1970's.
The technique is based on an aerial survey, and it
involves the use of a small, agile helicopter. An
available Bell 206 was secured from the locally based
ERA Helicopters. The pilot, Mr. John McCamish, was
instructed to fly at treetop altitude and at approximately
twenty miles per hour. Proceeding in this manner, he
flew us back and forth in parallel transects until we
had covered the entire project area, including offsite
facility areas (which included proposed pipeline and
11-546
-------
access corridors).
The day of the flight was clear and calm. As we could
clearly see the large devil club (Oplopanax horridus)
leaves below, we knew that we were visually penetrating
to within one-half to one meter (two to three feet) of
the forest floor. In many places we could see the
actual ground surface. Neither the pilot and myself
nor our two assistants (Ms. Goldman and Mr. Sahin)
noted the presence of any historic or prehistoric
feature during the flight over the project site.
A third part of our survey effort was an attempt to
determine the recency of the forest covering the project
site. We counted the rings on trees that had been felled
at various locations over the project site. Rings were
counted at four stations. The samples yielded the
following ages as listed in Table 1 below.
We also noted that the rings appeared thickest for the
period between about 35 and 65 years ago. This could
indicate a period of greater precipitation or perhaps
a greater amount of runoff during those years.
II-547
-------
TABLE 1
AGE ESTIMATES OF TREES SAMPLED
Station 1
Station 2
Station 3
Station 4
Sample 1
2
3
4
Sample 1
2
Sample 1
2
Sample 1
2
3
25+ 2 years
67 + 20
74+ 10
83+ 5
55+ 10 years
70+ 5
87+ 5 years
117+ 10
37+ 10 years
62+ 10
71+ 5
trees sampled were Populus trichocarpa
During the course of the field survey program, the
opportunity arose for us to speak with local informants.
Particularly helpful were: Dorothy Clifton, Director of
Archives Alive; Judy Kreitzer, Curator of the Valdez
Historical Museum; and Marion Ferrier and Dortha Schmidt,
both long time residents of the community. Later,
questionaires were mailed to John Kelsey, George Berg,
11-548
-------
Owan Johnson and James Dieringer, all of whom are long
time residents of Valdez.
None of these informants reported knowing of any historic
or prehistoric site within the project area. Mrs. Dortha
Schmidt did report an historic period hunting cabin,
built by her husband, to be near the project area. This
cabin, however, was built during the 1920's and was
recently burned to the ground.
CONCLUSIONS
Several lines of evidence suggest that no significant
historic or prehistoric sites are located within the
boundaries of the project site and related offsite
facility areas.
Prehistoric sites are not likely to be found on the
project site. The area has apparently only recently
been deglaciated. Subsequent to deglaciation the area
was, and still is, an outwash plain of the Valdez Glacier.
The lack of soil over the project site indicates an
unstable surface probably often scoured by wind and water
erosion. If small temporary aboriginal campsites did
11-549
-------
exist they would have been damaged or more likely de-
stroyed by these erosional processes.
Historic period aboriginal sites are also not likely to
be found on the project site. Of the many references
available, through memoirs and military reports, we
have found none that mention Indian or Eskimo encamp-
ments on or near the project site. Nothing in the settle-
ment/subsistence patterns described in the ethnographic
literature suggests that the project site would have
attracted aboriginal peoples.
Sites associated with the Gold Rush or related early
military explorations are not documented to have been
located within the limits of project boundaries.
Historical sites which might have been associated with
later mining claims are not significant within the
framework of existing historic preservation law; and if
they exist they are unknown to the Valdez residents with
whom we spoke.
This latter point suggests that no locally significant
historic sites are located within the boundaries of the
project site. Sites of this period, determined to be of
11-550
-------
significance, were not reported by the Alyeska pipeline
archaeological survey which covered the area of the
proposed product pipelines and terminal.
Recent historic period litter may be found on the project
site. This may even be likely since the floodplain has,
in the past, been used as a material source, as a hunting
ground, and as a pathway to mining claims on Slater
Creek and beyond. None of this litter, if it exists,
would be considered historically significant.
Finally, during the course of the field survey (approx-
imately fourteen person-days total), no remains from
prehistoric or historic human activities were found.
Both the on-the-ground and the aerial surveys produced
negative results.
Although Valdez appears to be one of the best documented
communities in Alaska, we were unable to find any
reference to significant historic sites within the pro-
ject area or related offsite facilities areas.
11-551
-------
REPORT FROM THE STATE HISTORIC PRESERVATION OFFICE
Consultation with the Alaska State Historic Preservation
Office produced confirmation that no sites listed on
the National Register of Historic Places, or known to
be eligible for listing on the Register, are located
within the boundaries of the project area or related
offsite facilities. A letter to that effect is attached
as an appendix to this report.
EFFECTS OF CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF THE PROPOSED
FACILITY
Construction and operation of the proposed ALPETCO
facility near Valde2 poses no known threat to any prop-
erty listed in, or eligible for inclusion in, the
National Register of Historic Places.
CONTINGENCY MITIGATION PLANS
In the remote possibility that construction or operation
activities unvail the presence of a property, determined
to be potentially significant on a local, state or
national level, the Alaska State Historic Preservation
Office should be contacted immediately. It is the
responsibility, under existing historic preservation
law, of the permitting Federal agency(s) and the State
11-552
-------
Historic Preservation Office and ALPETCO to develop
appropriate mitigation measures.
Such a discovered site would almost certainly be very
small in area. Avoidance of the area might be the
preferred mitigation plan. Any archeological site
could be quickly excavated; and any historic site or
object could be as quickly documented and removed to
an appropriate repository.
UNAVOIDABLE ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF THE
PROPOSED FACILITY DEVELOPMENT
With respect to cultural resources, when appropriate
mitigation measures are taken, we would not anticipate
any remaining adverse effects.
11-553
-------
REFERENCES CITED
Abercrombie, Captain W. R. , Copper River Exploring
Expedition in Alaska: 1899, U.S.
Government printing Office, 1900.
Ackerman, Robert, oral communication, 1979.
Aigner, Jean, Bruce Fullum, Douglas Veltrie and Mary
Veltrie, Preliminary Report on Remains from
Sandy Beach Bay, A 4300 - 5600 B.P. Aleut
Village., in Arctic Anthropology, 13(2),
University of Wisconsin Press, 1976.
Anderson, Douglas D., A Stone Age Campsite at the
Gateway to America, in Scientific American,
218 (6), 1968.
Beach, Rex E., The Iron Trail, A.L. Burt Publishers,
New York, 1913
Birket-Smith & Frederica De Laguna, The Eyak Indians
of the Copper River Delta, Alaska., Levin
& Munksgaard Publishers, Copenhagen, 1938.
Clifton, Dorothy, Clifton Collection, University of
Alaska Archives, Fairbanks, n.d.
Dumond, Don, A Summary of Archeology in the Katmai Region,
University of Oregon Anthropological Papers,
No. 2, University of Oregon Press, 1971.
Prehistoric Cultural Contacts in Southwestern
Alaska, in Science, 166: pp. 1108-1115, 1969a.
The Prehistoric Pottery of Southwestern Alaska,
Anthropological Papers of the University of
Alaska, 14(2), University of Alaska Press, 1969b.
On the Presumed Spread of Slate Grinding in
Alaska, Arctic Anthropology, 5(1), 1968.
& L. Conton, H. Shields, Eskimos and Aleuts of
the Alaska Peninsula, Arctic Anthropology, 12(1),
1975
11-554
-------
Field, William O., Glaciers of the Chugach Mountains.,
in Mountain Glaciers of the Northern Hemisphere.,
Volume 2, pp. 299-493, Department of Exploration
and Field Research, American Geographical Society,
Under Contract DA49-092-AR0-39(X) for the Earth
Sciences Division, U.S. Army Engineer Topographic
Laboratories, 1975.
Fitzhugh, William, Prehistoric Maritime Adaptations of
the Circumpolar Zone., Aldine Publishers, 1975.
Giddings, J. L., Ancient Men of the Arctic., Alfred A.
Knopf, New York, 1967.
Onion Portage and Other Flint Sites of the Kobuk
River., Arctic Anthropology, 1(1), 1962.
Hazelet, George C., The Journal of George C. Hazelet:
Being An Account of His Journey From Nebraska
to the Copper River Basin in Alaska Over the
Valdez Glacier in 1898 and Continued Exploration
of this Area to 1902., Puget Sound Maritime
Historical Society, 1964.
De Laguna, Frederica, Chugach Prehistory; the Archaeology
of Prince William Sound., University of Washington
Press, 1956.
The Archaeology of Cook Inlet, Alaska., University
of Pennsylvania Museum, Philadelphia, 1934.
Larsen, Helge & Froelich Rainey, Ipiutak and the Arctic
Whale Hunting Culture, Anthropological Papers of
the American Museum of Natural History 42, 1948.
Laughlin, William S., Aleuts: Ecosystems, Holocene History,
and Siberian Origin, Science, 189(4202), 1975
Human Migrations and Permanent Occupation in the
Bering Sea Area., The Bering Land Bridge, David
Hopkins, ed., Stanford University Press, 1967.
The Earliest Aleuts, Anthropological Papers of
the University of Alaska, 10(2), 1963.
11-555
-------
Laughlin, William S., Archaeological Investigations of
Umnak Island, Alaska., Arctic Anthropology, 1(1),
1962.
The Alaska Gateway Viewed from the Aleutian Islands,
in The Physical Anthropology of the American Indian,
Viking Fund Press, 1951.
Laughlin, William S. & Jean Aigner, Preliminary Analysis of
the Anangula Unifacial Core and Blade Industry,
Arctic Anthropology, 3(2), 1966.
Laughlin, William S. & G. Marsh, The Lamellar Flake
Manufacturing Site on Anangula Island in the
Aleutians., American Antiquity, 20(1), 1954.
McCartney, A. P., Prehistoric Cultural Integration Along
the Alaska Peninsula, Anthropological Papers of
the University of Alaska, 16(1), 1974.
Okada, H. & A. Okada, Preliminary Report of the 1972
Excavations at Port Moller, Alaska, Arctic
Anthropology, 11 (supplement), 1974.
Orth, Donald J., Dictionary of Alaska Place Names.,
Geological Survey Professional Paper 567, U. S.
Government Printing Office, Washington, 1971.
The Pathfinder of Alaska, published by the Pioneers of
Alaska, issues January 1924 and February and
April 1925.
Schrader, F. C., A Reconnaissance of a Part of Prince
William Sound and the Copper River DTstrict, Alaska,
in 1898., Twentieth Annual Report of the U. S.
Geological Survey, 1899.
Storm, L. W. S., Map of the Valdez Gold Region, publisher
unknown, 1911.
Tarr, Ralph S. & Lawrence Martin, Alaskan Glacier Studies,
The National Geographic Society, Washington, 1914.
Valdez Transportation Company, Alaska; a travelogue of the
Richardson and Steese HighwaysT 24 pp., circa 1925.
11-556
-------
Workman, William, Ahtna Archaeology: A Preliminary Statement.,
in Prehistory of the North American Sub-Arctic: The
Athapaskan Question, Proceedings of the Ninth
Annual Conference of the Archaeological Association
of the University of Calgary, pp. 22-40, 1977.
Prehistory of Port Moller, Alaska Peninsula, in
Light of Fieldwork in I960., Arctic Anthropology,
3(2), 1966.
11-557
-------
crpnq
4
crprp
iult
IZJL
JAY S. HAMMOND, GOVERNOR
DEPARTMENT OF SMUAL RESOURCES
DIVISION OF PARKS
619 Warehouse Or., Suite 210
Anchorage, Alaska 99501
July 19, 1979
Re: 1130-13
Mr. Glenn Bacon
Consultant Archaeologist
Alaskarctic
p. 0. Box 397
Fairbanks, AK 99707
pear Glenn:
Reference our telephone conversation yesterday concerning the ALPETC0 project and
Reference out v will confirm that there are no known properties
historic prese a National Register of Historic Places located in the project
££ nor are^there any properties which are already listed on the Register locate* to
that area.
Should we be able to provide any further assistance, please do not hesitate to con-
tact us.
Sincerely,
State Historic Preservation Officer
TLD:tld
11-558
-------
•• fi
-------
ACOUSTIC ENVIRONMENT
TOWNE, RICHARDS 4 CHAUDIERE, INC.
CoasuJtMats in Sound A Vibration
-------
SECTION 5.5.1 INTRODUCTION
Noise is usually defined as unwanted sound. Sound is a
pressure oscillation that propagates through an elastic
material such as air. Its characteristics can be described
by the following:
1. level, measured in decibels (dB) , which indicates the
magnitude (or loudness) of the sound pressure;
2. frequency, measured in Hertz(Hz), which indicates the
oscillation rate (or pitch) of the pressure oscil-
lations; and
3. time history, measured using various descriptors in
units of dB, which indicates the levels of sound that
occur over a particular time period.
Environmental noise is usually measured using the A-weighted
sound level, L^, in units of dB, sometimes symbolized dBA or
dB(A). The A-weighting is an adjustment based on human
hearing sensitivity at different frequencies.
The time history of noise can be indicated using the fol-
lowing descriptors:
Descriptor Symbol
Equivalent sound level (the A-weighted level of a L
eq
constant sound which, in a given situation and time
period, has the same sound energy as does the time-
varying sound being considered)
11-560
-------
Descriptor
Symbol
24-hour equivalent sound level
Day-night sound level (the 24-hour equivalent
sound level with a 10 dB penalty applied to the
10:00 p.m. - 7:00 a.m. nighttime levels)
Maximum A-weighted sound level for a given time
period or event
Background ambient sound level (usually indicated by
the statistical sound level the A-weighted
sound level exceeded 90 percent of the time)
Sound is also sometimes measured using the unweighted sound
pressure level, Lp, for each octave, 1/3 octave or 1/10
octave frequency band in order to show the frequency char-
acteristics. (An octave is the interval between two fre-
quencies having a ratio of 2:1. The preferred octaves have
middle frequencies of 31.5, 63, 125, 250, 500, 1000, etc.
Hz.)
The A-weighted sound level is used in this report because it
is most universally accepted and correlates well with human
judgments of a sound's loudness. A disadvantage of the A-
weighted level is that it does not indicate band sound
pressure levels, which are needed to accurately predict
long-range sound propagation or to evaluate whether annoying
characteristics such as pure tone components are present.
Calculations of refinery noise were therefore based on
octave band sound pressure level measurements for an ex-
isting refinery.
Leq (24)
dn
L
max
Lb
11-561
-------
Descriptors such as L^n which are based on the equivalent
sound level, Leq' are currently favored by EPA because they
are good indicators of cumulative noise exposure. A disad-
vantage of descriptors based on L is that they do not
indicate the magnitude of fluctuations in sound level and
therefore do not indicate the Lwhich might cause sleep
IuaX
interference, or certain other temporal characteristics such
as impulsiveness (having abrupt onset and rapid decay) or
periodicity (varying repetitively) which are potentially
annoying.
When comparing A-weighted sound levels, a difference of 1-2
dB is considered to be barely perceptible; a difference of
3-5 is clearly perceptible; and a difference of 7-10 dB is
judged as an approximate halving or doubling of loudness.
The judgment of a sound's loudness is therefore not directly
proportional to the sound level, since loudness is judged to
double for each 7-10 dB increase in level.
If two sounds are combined, the overall sound level is not
more than 3 dB greater than the level of the louder sound.
Therefore, if two equal sounds of level N dB are combined,
the overall sound level is N+3 dB, not Nx2 dB.
In general application, adverse effects of noise on people
include the following considerations:
1. Psychological effects such as annoyance or dissatisfaction
which sometimes result in community action. These
effects depend not only on the level of noise, but also
on the amount of increase in noise when new noise
sources are introduced into an area.
11-562
-------
2. Task or activity interference such as interference with
sleep or speech communication.
3. Physiological effects such as hearing loss.
Criteria for evaluating environmental noise are generally
based on considerations of the preceding effects and the
types of land use or activities being affected. A discus-
sion of criteria is contained in Section 6.5.2.
11-563
-------
SECTION 5.5.2 NOISE SENSITIVE LAND USES
Residential and recreational areas are considered the principal
noise sensitive land uses. The areas of primary concern are
shown in Figure 5.5.3-1, and include the following:
1. Robe River Subdivision. This is a permanent residential
development with 125 of 195 lots already developed.
2. Approximately 180 acres of land between Robe River
Subdivision and the Alpetco site. This area is pro-
posed for 300-600 permanent residences.
3. Rainbow Trailer Court. This area is proposed for
construction of 72 condominium units.
4. Several existing houses west of the Richardson Highway
one kilometer (2/3 mile) north of Dayville Road.
5. Zook Subdivision. The Planning Director indicates that
this area probably will be rezoned to a more intensive
zone and should therefore be considered a residential
area in transition to commercial or industrial use.
11-564
-------
6. Bay Port, Southcentral and Allied Trailer Courts.
These are located near the airport on land leased by
the City and designated for future industrial develop-
ment. The trailer courts are likely to be phased out
after the Alpetco construction or when permanent housing
becomes available elsewhere.
7. Residential areas in New Valdez. These are at least 7
kilometers (4-1/2 miles) from the Alpetco site, and are
therefore only indirectly affected by noise from the
project.
8. Glacier Wayside Campground. This is an overnight
facility just east of the airport.
9. Mile 1-1/2 Campground. This is a daytime facility
only.
Valdez averages 3.0 people per household. It is estimated
that between 1,500 and 2,500 people will eventually reside
in permanent residential areas within 1.6 kilometers (one
mile) of the Alpetco site.
11-565
-------
SECTION 5.5.5 EXISTING SOUND LEVELS
Sound levels were measured at potentially noise sensitive
locations in May, 1979 to determine the existing baseline
conditions. The measurements consisted of 24-hour digital
noise monitoring in the two residential areas which are
closest to the site, plus representative daytime and night-
time samples of shorter duration at these and six other
locations. Essential results of the measurements are shown
in Figures 5.5.3-1,2 and 3.
Sound levels in the Valdez area are quite low, with occasional
traffic or light aircraft flyovers being the only significant
sources of noise. Ldn is generally in the low-to-mid 40 dB
range, except near the Richardson Highway or the airport,
where it is about 10 dB higher. The L^n levels are typical
of a rural area with little traffic and no significant
industries. By comparison, residential areas near large
cities are usually about four times (15-25 dB) noisier.
The measured background ambient noise as indicated by the
statistical L^q level was mainly due to cascading water,
which was most noticeable at the northern measurement
locations near the mountains. This noise would only be
11-566
-------
present during spring and summer. During fall and winter,
the background ambient noise levels on which refinery noise
would be superimposed are estimated to be about 24 dB during
nighttime and 26 dB during daytime throughout the area,
based on the measurements made at the two southern locations.
(These are the average background ambient levels.
Minimum levels are below 17 dB.) The very low background
levels are typical of a wilderness area. By comparison,
background ambient levels in an air conditioned office are
usually four times (20 dB) louder, or about 45 dB.
11-567
-------
SECTION 6.5.1 SHORT-TERM EFFECTS
Construction noise would be generated by trucks and other
earthmoving equipment; materials handling equipment; station-
ary equipment such as pumps, generators and compressors;
portable power tools; impact equipment such as pile drivers;
and possibly blasting. Environmental impacts of construction
noise are generally considered temporary, with limited
potential for" mitigation. Criteria for evaluating environ-
mental noise are discussed in Section 6.5.2.
Because of the relatively large distances to noise sensitive
locations, construction within the site and traffic from the
dock area in Old Valdez to the site via the primary access
road is not expected to significantly affect residential or
recreational areas. However, pile driving is considered an
exception because of the high sound levels which are often
produced and the impulsive nature of the sound.
During construction of the secondary access road and product
pipeline, levels could be as high as 79 dB at residences
in Robe River Subdivision adjoining the construction site.
The impact of this noise would be significant, though temporary.
11-568
-------
During the peak construction year of 1982, increased vehic-
ular traffic in the Valdez area would increas levels by
about 4-7 dB, depending on the amount of heavy vehicle
traffic operating outside the construction corridor. Increased
automobile traffic alone would increase levels by about 4
dB. This impact would be temporary until 1984 when the
facility is in operation, at which time the traffic noise
would be about 3 dB above existing levels.
Increased air traffic would increase L, levels near the
dn
airport by about 3 dB during construction (based on air
traffic data for the Alyeska construction period), provided
that regular jet traffic is not introduced. If jets are
used, as they were during the Alyeska construction, the
noise increase would be greater. Service by one jet air-
craft per day would by itself produce an estimated L . of
max
about 90 dB and an L, of about 47 dB in New Valdez and the
an
other permanent residential areas. The increase in L,
dn
would generally be 5 dB or less. However, the increase in
^max woul^ generally be 10 dB or greater.
11-569
-------
SECTION 6.5.2 PERMANENT EFFECTS
Noise impacts of the facility are evaluated using guidelines
1
for preparing and reviewing Environmental Impact Statements
2
and the EPA Levels Document from the EPA Region 10 Environ-
mental Evaluation Branch. The basic levels discussed in
these documents are listed in Tables 6.5.2-1 and 6.5.2-2.
There are currently no Federal, State or local quantitative
limitations on levels of noise which the facility may produce
at receiving properties. A City nuisance ordinance does
prohibit unauthorized nighttime construction noise and noise
from unmuffled engines, blowers or fans which would "cause
annoyance to the public."
The maximum permissible noise exposure of workers during
construction and operation of the facility is established by
the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(OSHA) and the Alaska Department of Occupational Safety and
Health. The maximum permissible levels are 90 dB for an
eight hour exposure, or higher levels for shorter exposure
times. Occupational noise is regulated by the Federal and
State agencies.
Most refinery noise is caused by furnaces, flares, air
coolers, electric motors, control valves, centrifugal com-
11-570
-------
pressors, gas turbines, gears and engines. Sound levels
from facility operation were calculated using the following
information:
1. Octave band sound pressure levels measured at varying
distances from the ARCO refinery at Ferndale, Washington
during normal refinery operation. The levels were
normalized by 1 dB to account for the Valdez refinery's
higher capacity (150,000 versus 110,000 bpd). A-
weighted sound levels for the ARCO refinery were found
to be in good agreement with sound level data for other
refinery installations.
2. Atmospheric sound absorption for the average temperature
condition in Valdez and 70 percent relative humidity.
3. Excess attenuation (reduction of noise) due to ground
effects as measured for the relatively flat terrain
near the ARCO refinery. (Fresh snow has been found to
increase ground attenuation at low frequencies and
decrease attenuation at mid-to-high frequencies. The
effects of other snow conditions are not known.)
4. Excess attenuation for sound propagating through woods,
as reported in recent literature.
11-571
-------
5. The computed topographic attenuation provided by Knife
Ridge.
6. The currently proposed site plan, which would locate
the process area in the northern part of the site.
Results of the sound level calculations and comparisons
with existing levels are given in Tables 6.5.2-3 and 6.5.2-4
for normal and temperature inversion atmospheric conditions,
respectively. (Existing background ambient L^) levels,
which were estimated to be 24-26 dB throughout the area
during fall and winter when there is less noise from runoff
of water from the mountains, and measured in the mid-20 dB
range south of the site, are taken to be 25 dB.)
During normal atmospheric conditions, the noise increase due
to refinery operation would be slight or nonexistent at all
of the permanent residential areas. However, if trees are
cleared between the site and Robe River Subdivision, refinery
noise would probably become the predominant background
ambient noise in the subdivision. Substantial noise increases
of 10 dB or more are predicted for the Southcentral Trailer
Court, which is a temporary residential land use, and the
Glacier Wayside Campground. Because the campground has no
permanent residents, the noise increase per se should probably
11-572
-------
not be considered an impact. At these two locations, refinery
noise would be predominant but would not exceed the noise
impact criterion of L^n 55 dB.
During temperature inversion, when attenuation due to ground
effects, trees and topography is reduced or eliminated
because of refraction (bending) of the sound path, refinery
noise would be noticeable or predominant at most of the
noise sensitive locations. Impacts would be greatest at the
closest residential locations and the Glacier Wayside Camp-
ground. Background ambient levels could be increased by
more than 10 dB at these locations. However, Ldn would
probably not increase by more than 5 dB at any of the residential
sites, and L, would not exceed 55 dB at any sensitive
dn
location. The noise increases could be considered signi-
ficant or very serious impacts, depending on whether the
increase over existing levels is less than or greater than
10 dB. Surface-based inversions are estimated to be present
in the Valdez basin about 20 percent of the time, based on
stability classification data (see Section 5.4.1.2). Vertical
temperature profiles have not yet been measured, however.
During upset conditions, which would be expected to occur
less than 5 times a year, high noise levels would be pro-
duced at the emergency flare. Levels of approximately 60-70
dB (or 80 dB during inversions) could occur at the closest
11-573
-------
permanent residential locations (Robe River Subdivision and
the proposed adjoining subdivison) and close to 90 dB at the
Glacier Wayside Campground. Such high levels could result
in annoyance and complaints if they occur during daytime,
and could awaken people in the existing and proposed perma-
nent residential areas south of the Alpetco site if they
occur at night.
After the facility is in operation, about 580 workers would
enter and leave the facility each day by the primary access
road. The traffic noise from the access road would not
impact permanent residential areas such as Robe River Subdivision,
which are at least 1.6 kilometers (1 mile) from this road.
Estimated maximum noise levels, L , from trucks using the
' max ^
secondary access road would be 62 dB at the closest part of
Robe River Subdivision and 76 dB at the propsoed adjoining
subdivision. The existing average hourly L in Robe River
max
Subdivision was measured to be 59 dB during daytime and 51
dB during nighttime.
The proposed subdivision northeast of Robe River Subdivision
would be impacted more because it would be closer to the
road. Since it is likely that the road will be used mainly
for inspection and maintenance of the pipeline, frequent
truck traffic is not expected.
11-574
-------
There would be a permanent increase of about 3 dB in traffic
noise due to general population increases affecting New
Valdez and areas along the Richardson Highway. This increase
represents a slight impact.
The short-term noise impacts of introducing regular jet
aircraft service (see Section 6.5.2) could potentially
become permanent. However, it is likely that permanent jet
service would not be feasible (see Section 6.10.7.2).
Refinery noise is likely to cause avoidance or abandonment
of habitats by some species of wildlife. Fixed noise
sources tend to force wild animals back into quieter areas,
thereby reducing the land area available for habitation and
3 4
reducing population. ' It is generally believed that noise
which causes masking of signals can interfere with mating
and avoidance of predators by animals which rely on hearing.
Because only a limited amount of research has been done
concerning effects of noise on wildlife, it is not yet
possible to accurately quantify impacts or determine which
species would be most affected.
11-575
-------
SECTION 6.5.3 MITIGATION MEASURES
This section discusses various measures which could be used
to mitigate the noise impacts of refinery construction and
operation.
During the construction phase, avoid construction near
existing residential areas (such as Robe River Subdivision),
and pile driving during the nighttime hours. The distances
to existing residences will mitigate most noise impacts
commonly associated with construction. If excessive noise
is found to be a problem during construction of the secondary
access road and products pipelines adjacent to Robe River
Subdivision, limited mitigation is possible by using procedures
described in the EPA Noise Guidelines for Environmental
Impact Statements.
Numerous products for abatement of refinery noise are
available if abatement should be found necessary. Alpetco
has indicated that the latest design and technology will be
used to control noise emissions from the refinery to protect
the workers and to avoid an impact on areas surrounding the
g
facility. Considerations should be given to the following
suggested design goals:
11-576
-------
1. Avoid significant noise impacts by limiting the amount
of noise increase over existing conditions to 5 dB in
permanent residential areas. This goal should apply
during inversions, if these are found to occur frequently.
2. Attempt to maintain the present tranquility of the
permanent residential areas during non-inversion condi-
tions by reducing the refinery noise to a level where
it would not be distinctly noticeable above the existing
background ambient noise.
These goals imply noise reductions to a typical refinery of
approximately 7 dB if Robe River Subdivision is the closest
permanent residential area and 10 dB if the area between
Robe River Subdivision and the Alpetco site is developed for
residential use. It should be noted that noise reductions
are necessary only for the noisiest equipment in order to
achieve an effective overall noise reduction.
During infrequent upset conditions, the high noise levels
produced could result in sleep interference. The principal
noise sources would be the steam vents and flare stack.
Steam vent noise can be mitigated by using multiport or
Coanda-effeet nozzles on the steam injectors. Quiet type
"soft-mix" flares and enclosed ground flares without steam
7 8
injection are available and should be evaluated. '
11-577
-------
SECTION 6.5.4 UNAVOIDABLE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
During construction of the facility, temporary construction
noise would mainly affect the Robe River Subdivision while
the secondary access road and products pipelines are being
constructed. There would also be a general area-wide L.
dn
noise increase of 4-7 dB due to increased vehicular traffic
and an increase of at least 3 dB in aircraft noise near the
airport during the construction phase.
Noise from normal operation of the facility may be noticeable
at the closest residential areas and the Glacier Wayside
Campground during temperature inversion atmospheric conditions.
Noise levels in these areas would be highest during upset
conditions at the refinery unless noise from steam vents and
flares is mitigated.
There would be a permanent L^n increase of about 3 dB in
traffic noise affecting New Valdez and areas along the
Richardson Highway, and possible increases of 3-11 dB in
L affecting parts of Robe River Subdivision near the
max
refinery's secondary access road.
Refinery noise is likely to cause avoidance or abandonment
of habitats by some species of wildlife.
II-578
-------
REFERENCES
1. Noise Guidelines for Environmental Impact Statements, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency Region X, Seattle, Wa., January
1975.
2. Information on Levels of Environmental Noise Requisite to
Protect Public Health and Welfare with an Adequate Margin of
Safety, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.,
March 1974.
3. Ruth, J. S., Reactions of Arctic Wildlife to Gas Pipeline
Related Noise, NOISE/NEWS, 6, 1, 1977.
4. Janssen, R., Noise and Animals: Perspectives of Government and
Public Policy, Effects of Noise on Wildlife, Academic Press,
New York, N.Y., 1978.
5. Busnel, M. C. and Molin, D., Preliminary Results of the Effects
of Noise on Gestating Female Mice and their Pups, Effects of
Noise on Wildlife, Academic Press, New York, N.Y., 1978.
6. A Refinery and Petrochemical Facility for the Processing of
Alaska State Royalty Crude Oil in Alaska - Project Description,
Alaska Petrochemical Company, March 1979.
7. Straitz, J. F., Solving Flare-Noise Problems, Inter-Noise 78
Proceedings, NOISE/NEWS, Poughkeepsie, N.Y., 1978.
8. Seebold, J. G., Noise Control in the Petroleum Refining
Industry, Inter-Noise 76 Proceedings, NOISE/NEWS, Poughkeepsie,
N.Y., 1976.
TOWNE. RICHARDS & CHAUDIERE, INC.
11-579
Consultants la Sound A Vibration
------- |