LOWER COOK INLET, ALASKA
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT REVIEW MANUAL
USEPA REGION X
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technical proposal
RFP NO 79-A120
submitted to
xvEPA
REGION X
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WAPORA, Inc.
Environmental/Energy/Economic Studies
36 E. WACKER DRIVE, SUITE 490, CHICAGO. ILLINOIS 60601
PHONE: (312) 236-6016
Project No- 619
17 August 1979
LOWER COOK INLET, ALASKA
ENVIRONMENTAL EVALUATION/IMPACT REVIEW MANUAL
Prepared for:
USEPA, Region X
1200 W. 6th Avenue
Seattle WA 98101
Prepared by:
WAPORA, INC.
Approved by:
E. Clark Boll
Vice President
proinr'ioi
AUG - 9 ^
\2'. •
... i^ule.vVAdSlOl
Submitted by:
D • •iti
ng Project
AIR
¦olio waiti
WATKR
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF TABLES xiv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS XVi
1.0. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1-1
2.0. INTRODUCTION 2-1
2.1. Purpose, Goals, and Assumptions 2-1
2.2. Study Area Boundaries 2-2
2.3. New Source NPDES Program 2-2
3.0. STUDY AREA PROFILE 3-1
3.1. Physical Environment 3-1
3.1.1. Geology 3-1
3.1.1.1. Landforms 3-1
3.1.1.2. Geologic hazards 3-2
3.1.1.3. Geologic resources 3-8
3.1.2. Hydrology 3-13
3.1.3. Oceanography 3-13
3.1.3.1. Circulation patterns 3-13
3.1.3.2. Tides 3-15
3.1.3.3. Water chemistry 3-15
3.1.3.4. Hazards 3-16
3.1.4. Climatology and meteorology 3-19
3.1.4.1. Climatic setting 3-19
3.1.5. Ambient air quality 3-38
3.1.5.1. Existing ambient air quality 3-39
3.1.5.2. Data needs 3-42
3.1.6. Atmospheric emission sources 3-42
3.1.6.1. Industrial facilities. . 3-43
3.1.6.2. Vehicular traffic 3-43
3.1.6.3. Residential/commercial ... 3-43
3.2. Biological Environment 3-47
3.2.1. Marine biology 3-47
3.2.1.1. Major biotic zones 3-47
3.2.1.2. Biotic communities 3-48
3.2.1.3. Marine macrophytes 3-48
3.2.1.4. Commercial fisheries 3-51
3.2.1.5. Marine mammals 3-60
3.2.1.6. Birds 3-62
3.2.2. Freshwater biology 3-63
3.2.2.1. System components and limiting factors . 3-63
3.2.2.2. Productivity 3-64
i
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Page
3.2.2.3. Water quality . . . . v . . 3-64
3.2 ,;2.4. Predation ....-, 3-65
3.2.2.5. Spawning habitat. . . - 3-65
3»2.2»6. Habitat structure 3-66
3.2i.3_, Terrestrial biology . . . . 3-66
¦ ;.3..'2i3.1« Vegetation 3-66
-3._2.3.2. Terrestrial animals 3-69
3.2.4. . Endangered and threatened species 3-77
3.3... fcaftd;and Water-Use. . , , . 3-79
3.^2.1i -Settlement patterns 3-79
3.3.2..:Land ownership. . 3-79
3.3.2.1. Federal . . , 3-79
,3.3.2*2. State 3-80
3?2.2<.3. . Local • . . 3-80
3.3.2.4., Private 3-80
3.~.3;3i*- Recreational areas. ........ 3-81
-3.3.3.1. Federal 3-81
3.3.3.2. State . . . . . . . . ... 3-81
3.3.3.3. Local ; 3-82
?3.3^4.; Agriculture- . v . . ... ..... • • . . 3-82
3.3.5.. Forestry , . 3-82
3.-.ai6c: Land and. water use planning 3-82
3.3.6.I., Federal 3-82
3-3.6.2.. State 3-83
3.3.6.3.: Borough 3-86
3-3.6.4. Local 3-86
3.3.6.5., . Ex officio 3-86
3.4, Socioeconomic Environment 3-86
3.4.1. Sensitivity indicators and constraints 3-86
3.4.2-^i Economic bases 3-87
3.4.2.1./< Petroleum and natural gas 3-90
4.2.2. Fisheries 3-90
.'•-3.4.2.3. Agriculture 3-95
. 3.4.2;.4... Forestry. . . * . •.,¦> . .. • • • • • 3-95
3.4.2.5. Tourism 3-95
t Demography. . . . . ., < ,.; . . .- • . « .»* >; .... 3-96
.3.4.3.1. Census results. 3-96
.3.4.3.2..,- Population trends . . . . . . . . . . • 3-101
3.4.3.3. Population projections 3-102
3.'4.3.4. - -Public attitudes toward development j • 3-109
3.4.4. .Housing ... . 3-109
S&.4/5."" Education iP .... • 3-109
-3-4 ..6. .Transportation. .. i ...... . 3-110
•3,4.7, .Utilities .- . . . ... ..... - 3-110
.3,4,8, .Public finances 3-111
ii.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Page
¦3;5. Institutions 3-112
3;5.1. Federal government organizations and respons-
ibilities 3-112
3.5.1.1. US Environmental Protection Agency . . . 3-112
3.5.1.2. US Department of-the-Interior» •." .... 3-112
3.5.1.2.1. Bureau of Land Management. . 3-116
3.5.1.2.2. US fish aftd-Wildlife
Service, ¦"-i- . • 1 •. ¦ 3-116
3.5.1.2.3. US Geological Survey .... 3-118
3.5«1.2<4. US National Paxk Service . . 3-118
3.5.1.2.5. Alaska Resources Library . . 3-119
3.5.1<3. US Department of Commerce. . ... . . . . 3-119
3.5.1.3.1. National Oceanic and Atmo-
spheric Administration . . 3-119
3i5*1.4. US Department of Housing and Urban
Development. ..... 3-120
3.5.1.5. US Department of- Transportation. .... 3-120
3.5*1.6. Southcentral Water Resources Study . . . 3-121
3.5.1.7. US Department of the Army, Corps of
Engineers 3-121
3.5:2. state of Alaska government organizations.and
responsibilities i ...... . 3-122
3.5.2.1. Alaska Department of Environmental Con-
servation. . 3-122
3.5.2.2. Alaska Department of.Fish and Game . . . 3-123
3.5.2.3. Alaska Department of Natural Resources . 3-124
3.5.2.3.1. Division of.'Parks 3-124
3.5.2.3.2. Division of-Agriculture. . . 3-125
3.5.2.3.3. Division of Forest, Land,
and Water < Management j, . >. . 3-125
3.5.2.4. University of Alaska . ....... . . . . 3-126
3.5.2.4.1. Arctic Environmental Infor-
mation and Data Center . . 3-126
3.5.2.4.2. Institute of Social and
Economic Research 3-126
3.5.3. Borough government organization and respons-
ibilities. 3-127
3.5.4. City government organization; and respons-
ibilities. . 3-128
3.5.5. Alaska Native corporations . .. . < . . . 3-129
3.6. Cultural, Historical, Archaeological, and Aesthetic Re-
sources . . 3-130
3.6.1. Cultural, historical,and archaeological resources. 3-131
3.6.1.1. Native period. . . .. . ". . 3-131
3.6.1.2. Russian period . . . .. . 3-132
3.6.1.3. American period. . . 3-133
3.6.1.4. Sites in the National Register of His-
toric places 3-133
iii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Page
4.0. SUBAREA RATIONALE 4_i
5'.0-.-: SUBAREA I . . • 5-1
5.1. Subarea I BounSaries 5-1
5-2.. Physical Environment 5-1
5.2.1.. Landforms 5-1
5.2.2. Geology 5-1
5.2.2.1. Bedrock geology 5-1
5.2.2.2. Surficial geology 5-4
5.2.2.3. Soils 5-4
5.2.2.4. Geologic resources . 5-7
5.2.2.-5. Geologic hazards 5-13
5.2.3. Hydrology 5-17
5.2.3.1. Surface water hydrology . ....... 5-17
5.2.3.2. Groundwater resources . 5-18
5.2.3.3. Water supply 5-21
5.3. Biological Environment 5-22
5.3.1. Vegetation 5-22
5.3.2. Aquatic biota 5-27
5.3.3. Mammals ..... 5-35
5.3.4. Birds • 5-39
5.4. Land and Water Use 5-39
5.4.1. Settlement patterns ..... 5-39
5.4.1.1. Kenai 5-41
5.4.1.2. Soldotna 5-42
5.4.2. Land ownership 5-42
5.4.3. Recreational areas 5-42
5.4.4. Agriculture 5-43
5.4.5. Forestry 5-43
5.4.'6. Land-use planning 5-43
5.5. Socioeconomic Environment 5-43
5.5.1. Xevel of development 5-43
5.5.2. Demography . 5-43
5.5.2.1. Population • 5-43
5.5.2.2. Population projections. ". 5-47
5."5.2.3. Population composition. ........ 5-48
5.5.2.4. Employment 5-53
5.5.2.5. Housing 5-54
3.5.3. "Utilities . if . . . 5-56
5.5.3.1. Water supply 5-56
'5.5.3.2. Sewage disposal '.' . . . • 5-56
5.5.3.3. Electricity ........ f': . • • 5-57
5.5.3.4. Point-source discharges . . v . . . 5-57
5.5.3.5. Solid waste disposal. . . • • • 5-57
iv
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Page
5.5.4. Transportation 5-59
5.5.4.1. Roads * 5-59c
5.5.4.2. Airports 5-59
5.5.4.3. Water-based transportation . . . . . 5-62
5.5.5. Social services 5-62
5.5.5.1. Educational facilities . . . . . 5-62
5.5.5.2. Police protection . . . . . 5-62
5.5.5.3. Fire protection 5-62
5.5.5.4. Other services 5-64
5.5.6. Public finances 5-64
5.5.7. Public attitudes toward development . 5-68
5.6. Cultural, Historical, Archaeological, and Aesthetic Re-
sources ..... 5-70
5.6.1. Cultural, historical, and archaeological re-
sources 5-70
5.6.1.1. Native period 5.-70
5.6.1.2. Russian period . . 5-71
5.6.1.3. American period . ... .. . . •- 5-71
5.6.1.4. Sites in the National Register of His-
toric Places ...... 5-72
6.0. SUBAREA II 6-1
6.1. Subarea II Boundaries . . . . 6-1
6.2. Physical Environment 6-1
6.2.1. Landf orms 6-1
6.2.2. Geology 6-1
6.2.2.1. Bedrock geology 6-1.
6.2.2.2. Surficial geology 6-1.
6.2.2.3. Soils 6-4.'
6.2.2.4. Geologic resources 6-10
6.2.2.5. Geologic hazards . .
6.2.3. Hydrology ..... . . . 6-13
6.2.3.1. Surface water hydrology 6-3.3
6.2.3.2. Groundwater resources. ,, . .... . . . 6-19
6.3. Biological Environment • 6-19
6.3.1. Vegetation 6-22
6.3.2. Aquatic biota 6-22
6.3.3. Mammals . . . . 6-23
6.3.4. Birds 1 . . . . 6-26
6.4. Land and Water Use 6-26
6.4.1. Settlement patterns . 6-26
6.4.2. Land ownership ...... . 6-29
6.4.3. Recreational, areas 6-29
6.4.4. Agriculture 6-36
6.4.5. Forestry 6-36
6.4.6. Land-use planning 6-36
v
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Page
6.5. Socioeconomic Environment 6-38
¦6*5.1. Level of development 6-38
6*5*2. Demography 6-38
6.5.2.1. Population 6-38
6.5.2.2. Population composition 6-39
6.5.2.3. Employment 6-39
6.5.2.4. Housing 6-41
6-. 5.3. Utilities 6-41
6.5.3.1. Water 6-41
6.5.3.2. Sewage disposal 6-43
6.5.3.3. Electricity 6-43
6.5.3.4. Telephone service 6-44
6.5.3.5. Point-source discharges 6-44
6.5.3.6. Solid waste disposal 6-44
6.5.4. Transportation 6-44
6.5.4.1. Roads 6-44
6.5.4.2. Airports 6-46
6.5.4.3. Water-based transportation 6-46
6.5.5. Social services 6-47
6.5.5.1. Educational facilities 6-47
6.5.5.2. Police protection 6-47
6.5.5.3. Fire protection 6-47
6.5.6. Public finances 6-47
6.5.7. Public attitudes toward development 6-48
6..6.. Cultural, Historical, Archaeological, and Aesthetic Re-
sources ...... 6-48
6.6.1. Native period 6-52
6.6.2. Russian period 6-52
6.6.3. American period ..... 6-53
,6.6.4. Sites in the National Register of Historic
Places 6-54
7*0. SUBAREA III 7-1
7.1. . Subarea III Boundaries : 7_1
7.2; Physical Environment 7-1
7.2.1. Landforms 7-1
7.. 2.2. Geology 7-1
7.2.2.1. Soils . 7-4
7.2.2.2. Geologic resources. . . . 7-7
7.2.2.3. Geologic hazards 7-7
7.2.3.. Hydrology 7-10
7.2.3.1. Surface water hydrology . 7-10
7.2.3.2. Groundwater resources ... 7-10
7.3. - biological Environment. • • - • « 7-11
7.3.1. Vegetation •; 7-11
7.3.2.. Aquatic biota 7-11
7.3.3. Mammals • • 7-12
7.3.4. Birds 7-15
vi
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Page
7.4. Land and Water Use 7-15
7.4.1. Land ownership . . . 7-15
7.4.2. Agriculture 7-15
7.4.3. Forestry 7-15
7.4.4. Recreational areas 7-19
7.5. Socioeconomic Environment 7-19
7.5.1. Level of development 7-19
7.5.2. Housing 7-19
7.5.3. Utilities 7-19
7.5.4. Transportation 7-19
7.6. Cultural, Historical, Archaeological, and Aesthetic Re-
sources 7-22
7.6.1. Native period 7-22
7.6.2. Russian period 7-22
7.6.3. American period '7-22
7.6.4. Sites in the National Register of Historic Places. 7-22
8.0. SUBAREA IV 8-1
8.1. Subarea IV Boundaries 8-1
8.2. Physical Environment ...... 8-1
8.2.1. Landforms 8-1
8.2.2. Geology 8-1
8.2.2.1. Surficial geology h 8-1
8.2.2.2. Soils 8-4
8.2.2.3. Geologic resources ..... 8-4
8.2.2.4. Geologic hazards ...... 8-7
8.2.3. Hydrology 8-7
8.2.3.1. Surface water hydrology 8-7
8.2.3.2. Groundwater resources 8-10
8.3. Biological Environment 8-10
8.3.1. Vegetation -.J. . . . . 8-10
8.3.2. Aquatic biota 8-10
8.3.3. Mammals .... 8-16
8.4. Land and Water Use ...... . 8-16
8.4.1. Settlement patterns 8-16
8.4.2. Land ownership 8-19
8.4.3. Agriculture 8-19
8.4.4. Forestry 8-19
8.4.5. Land-use planning 8-19
8.5. Socioeconomic Environment. 8-19
8.5.1. Level of development . 8-19
8.5.2. Demography 8-22
8.5.2.1. Population 8-22
8.5.2.2. Population composition . . 8-25
8.5.2.3. Employment . , 8-25
8.5.2.4. Housing 8-25
vii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Page
8.5.3. Utilities 8-31
8.5.3.1. Water supply 8-31
8.5.3.2. Sewage disposal 8-32
8.5.3.3. Electricity . 8-32
8.5.3.4. Telephone service 8-32
8.5.3.5. Point-source discharges 8-32
8.5.3.6. Solid waste disposal 8-32
8.5.4. Transportation 8-32
8.5.5. Social services 8-34
8.5.5.1. Educational facilities 8-34
8.5.5.2. Police protection 8-34
8.5.5.3. Fire protection 8-34
8.5.5.4. Other services 8-34
8.5.6. Public finances 8-34
8.5.7. Public attitudes toward development 8-36
8.6. Cultural, Historical, Archaeological, and Aesthetic Re-
sources 8-37
8.6.1. Native period 8-37
8.6.2. Russian period 8-37
8.6.3. American period 8-38
8.6.4. Sites in the National Register of Historic Places . 8-38
9.0,. SUBAREA
'9.1. Subarea V Boundaries 9-1
9.2. Physical Environment 9-2
9.2.1. Landforms 9-1
9.2.2. Geology 9-1
9.2.2.1. Surficial geology 9-1
9.2.2.2. Soils 9-4
9.2.2.3. Geologic resources 9-4
9.2.2.4. Geologic hazards 9-4
9.2.3. Water resources 9-7
9.2.3.1. Surface water hydrology 9-7
9.2.3.2. Groundwater resources 9_7
9.3. Biological Environment 9-10
9.3.1. Vegetation 9-10
9.4. Land and Water Use 9-10
9.5. Socioeconomic Environment 9-13
9.6. Cultural, Historical, and Archaeological Resources 9-13
9.6.1. Native period 9-16
9.6.2. Russian period 9-16
9.6.3. American period 9-16
9.6.4. Sites in the National Register of Historic Places . 9-16
viii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)
Page
10.0. SUBAREA VI 10-1
10.1. Subarea VI Boundaries 10-1
10.2. Physical Environment 10-1
10.2.1. Landforms - 10-1
10.2.2. Geology 10-1
10.2.2.1. Surficial geology 10-1
10.2.2.2. Soils 10-5
10.2.2.3. Geologic resources 10-5
10.2.3. Hydrology. 10-8
10.2.3.1. Surface water hydrology ....... 10-8
10.2.3.2. Groundwater resources ........ 10-8
10.3. Biological Environment 10-8
10.3.1. Vegetation 10-8
10.3.2. Aquatic biota. .... ..... 10-11
10.3.3. Mammals 10-11
10.4. Land and Water Use- 10-14
10.5. Socioeconomic Environment 10-17
10.5.1. Demography 10-17
10.5.2. Utilities 10-17
10.5.3. Transportation 10-21
10.5.4. Social services 10-21
10.5.5. Public finances 10-21
10.6. Cultural, Historical, and Archaeological Resources. . . . 10-21
10.6.1. Native period 10-21
10.6.2. Russian period ..... 10-25
10.6.3. American period 10-25
10.6.4. Sites in the National Register of Historic
Places 10-25
11.0. SUBAREA VII, LOWER COOK INLET CENTRAL SUBAREA 11-1
11.1. Sub area VII Boundaries. . 11-1
11.2. Bathymetry and Oceanography 11-1
11.3. Geologic Resources * 11-4
11.4. Biological Environment 11-4
12.0. SUBAREA VIII, KAMISHAK BAY 12-1
12.1. Sub area VIII Boundaries 12-1
12.2. Bathymetry and Oceanography • 12-1
12.3. Geologic Resources
12.4. Biological Environment 12-1
ix
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (concluded)
Page
13.0. SUBAREA IX, KACHEMAK BAY 13-1
13.1. Subarea IX Boundaries 13-1
13.2. Bathymetry and Oceanography 13-1
13.3. Geologic Resources 13-2
13..4. Biological Environment 13-2
14.0. SUBAREA X 14-1
14.1. Subarea X Boundaries 14-1
14.2. Bathymetry and Oceanography 14-1
14.3. Geologic Resources 14-1
14.4. Biological Resources 14-2
15.0. LITERATURE CITED 15-1
APPENDIX A
APPENDIX 3-1
APPENDIX C~1
APPENDIX D_l
X
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LIST OF FIGURES
Page
1. The Kenai Peninsula Borough 2-3
2. Study area and subarea boundaries ...... 2-4
3. Geologic hazards in the Lower Cook Inlet Basin. 3-7
4. Beluga Coalfields. 3-10
5. Lower Cook Inlet petroleum lease sale tracts, 1977 3-11
6. Preliminary bathymetry of Cook Inlet 3-14
7. Net surface circulation in the Lower Cook Inlet - . . . 3-17
8. Tide rips in the Lower Cook Inlet 3-18
9. Kenai, Alaska, winter wind rose, all stabilities. ......... 3-23
10. Kenai, Alaska, spring wind rose, all stabilities 3-24
11. Kenai, Alaska, summer wind rose, all stabilities 3-25
12. Kenai, Alaska, autumn wind rose, all stabilities • • 3-26
13. Kenai, Alaska, annual wind rose, all stabilities ...... 3-27
14. Kenai, Alaska, summer wind rose, B and C stabilities 3-28
15. Homer, Alaska, winter wind rose, all stabilities 3-29
16. Homer, Alaska, spring wind rose, all stabilities. . . 3-30
17. Homer, Alaska, summer wind rose, all stabilities 3-31
18. Homer, Alaska, autumn wind rose, all stabilities 3-32
19. Homer, Alaska, annual wind rose, all stabilities 3-33
20. Homer, Alaska, summer wind rose, B and C stabilities 3"34
21. Industrial emission source area locations 3-46
22. Commercial fishery regulatory districts 3-55
23. Census enumeration districts 3-98
24. Tax code areas 3-113
25. Boundaries and topography of Subarea 1 5-3
26. Surface geology and faulting in Subarea I 5-6
27. Class II and Class III agricultural soils in Subarea 1 5-9
28. Mineral resources in Subarea I 5-12
29. Geologic hazards in Subarea I 5-15
30. Vegetation in Subarea I 5-26
31. Salmon stream habitat and spawning areas in Subarea I 5-33
32. Wildlife concentrations and critical habitats in Subarea 1 5-38
33. Land ownership in Subarea I 5-45
xi
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LIST OF FIGURES (continued)
Page
34. Results of the 1978 Special Census in Subarea I 5-50
35. Solid waste disposal sites and industries with NPDES permits in
Subarea I C£.
5-61
36. " Boundaries and topography of Subarea II
37. Surficial geology and faulting in Subarea II g_5
38. Class II and Class III agricultural soils in Subarea II 6-9
39. Slope hazards in Sttbarea II . . 6-12
40. Mineral resources in Subarea II 6-15
41. Geologic hazards in Subarea II 6-18
42. Vegetation in Subarea II., 6-25
43. Salmon stream habitat and spawning areas in Subarea II 6-28
44. Wildlife concentrations and critical habitats in Subarea II ... . 6-31
45. Land ownership in Subarea II 6-34
46. Critical hatjit^aC in Subarea II 6-35
47. 1978 Special Census preliminary results in Subarea II &-A2
48. Boundaries and topography of Subarea III 7_3
49. Geology of Subarea III 7_6
50. Potential hydrocarbon resources in Subarea III
51. Vegetation in Subarea III 7-14
52. Salmon stream habitat and spawning areas in Subarea III 7_17
53. Wildlife concentrations and critical habitats in Subarea III. . . . 7_^g
54. Land ownership in Subarea III 7-21
55. Boundaries and topography of Subarea IV 8-3
56. Surficial geology of Subarea IV 8-6
57. Slope hazards in Subarea IV 8-9
58. Mineral resources in Subarea IV 8-12
59. Geologic hazards in Subarea IV 8-15
60. Vegetation in Subarea
61. Salmon stream habitat and spawning areas in Subarea IV 8-21
62. Wildlife concentrations and critical habitats in Subarea IV ... • 8-24
63. Land ownership in Subarea IV 8-27
64. 1978 Special Census results for Subarea IV 8-28
65. Boundaries and topography of Subarea V and Subarea VIA 9-3
xii
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LIST OF FIGURES (concluded)
Page
66. Surficial geology of Subarea V and Subarea VIA 9-6
67. Mineral resources in Subarea V and Subarea VIA 9-9
68. Geologic hazards in Subarea V and Subarea VIA 9-12,
69. Vegetation in Subarea V and Subarea VIA 9-15
70. Wildlife concentrations and critical habitats in Subarea V and ^
Subarea VIA 9-18
71. Salmon spawning streams in Subarea V and Subarea VIA 9-19
72. Land ownership in Subarea V and Subarea VIA 10-3
73. Subarea VIB boundaries and topography 10-4
74. Surficial geology of Subarea VIB 10-7
75. Mineral resources in Subarea VIB 10-10
76. Geologic hazards in Subarea VIB ; . . 10-13
77. Vegetation in Subarea VIB 10-16
78. Salmon stream habitat and spawning areas in Subarea VIB 10-19
79. Wildlife concentrations and critical habitats in Subarea VIB . . 10-20
80. Land ownership in Subarea VIB 10-23
81. Location of the McNeil River Sanctuary and the Katmai National
Monument in Subarea VIB 10-24
82. Marine habitat 11-3
83. Wildlife habitat 11-6
84. Critical habitat in Kachemak Bay 13-5
xiii
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LIST OF TABLES
Page
1. Eruption history of Cook Inlet volcanoes 3-5
2. Oil and gas fields, Cook Inlet 3-9
3. Mixing heights, Anchorage, Alaska 3-35
4. Mixing heights, Kodiak, Alaska 3-36
5. Total suspended particulate data - Kenai Peninsula 3-40
6. Lower Cook Inlet industrial atmospheric emission sources 3-44
7. Study area vehicular atmospheric emission summary 3-45
8. Macrophytes from the Lower Cook Inlet 3-50
9. Commercial harvest of salmon,-herring, and shellfish 3-53
10. Types of plants consumed by Kenai Peninsula moose. . .- 3-75
11. Endangered and threatened species in the study area . 3-78
12. Species of Alaskan plants proposed for designation as endangered
species 3-78
13. Payrolls for nonagricultural wage and salary employment in the
Kenai-Cook Inlet Census Division 3-88
14. Nonagricultural wage and salary employment in the Kenai-Cook In-
let Census Division 3-Q9
15. Petroleum and gas fields in the Kenai-Cook Inlet region 3-91
16. Crude oil and gas production, Kenai-Cook Inlet 3-92
17. Estimated commercial catch value, Cook Inlet-Resurrection Bay. . . 3-94
18. Census data for Kenai Peninsula Borough, Kenai-Cook Inlet Census
Division, study area, and enumeration districts 3-99
19. Kenai Peninsula Borough special census results 3-100
20. Population projections for the Kenai Peninsula Borough and the
study area 3-104
21. Population projections for the Kenai Peninsula Borough 3-105
22. Population projections for the Kenai Peninsula Borough and the
study area; base case plus OCS medium scenario 3-107
23. Estimated additional school enrollment 3-110
24. Property and sales tax rates for Kenai Peninsula Borough 3-114
25. Bonded debt ratios for Kenai Peninsula Borough 3-115
26. Petroleum and natural gas fields in Subarea 1 5-10
27. Discharge records for major rivers in Subarea I 5-19
28. Selected chemical analyses of surface water in Subarea I 5-20
xiv
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LIST OF TABLES (concluded)
?aga
29. Relationship of 112 chemical analyses to US Public Health Ser-
vice water quality limits 5-23
30. Macroinvertebrates collected from the Kenai River System 5-28
31. Species of fish reported in the Kenai River System 5-34
32. Recreational areas in Subarea I 5-46
33. Projected population increases in Kenai and Soldotna 5-49
34. Demographic and economic composition of Kenai and Soldotna. . . . 5-51
35. Types of housing in Kenai and Soldotna 5-54
36. Industries with NPDES permits in Subarea I 5-58
37. Airport facilities in the Kenai-Soldotna area (Subarea I) . . . . 5-60
38. Kenai Peninsula Borough schools in Subarea I S-63
39. Selected financial data for Kenai and Soldotna 5-65
40. Bonded debt ratios for Kenai and Soldotna 5-66
41. Revenues and expenditures for Kenai and Soldotna 5-67
42. Preferred development sectors in Kenai and Soldotna 5-69
43. Discharge records for major rivers in Subarea II 6-16
44. Water quality of the Ninilchik River 6-20
45. Groundwater quality analyses for wells in Subarea II 6-21
46. Recreational areas in Subarea II 6-32
47. Demographic and economic structure of Homer . 6-40
48. Employment of persons in Homer and the surrounding area 6-41
49. NPDES wastewater discharge permits in Subarea II 6-45
50. Educational facilities in Subarea II 6-47
51. Selected financial data for the City of Homer 6-49
52. Population rating of services in Homer 6-50
53. Preferred development sectors in Homer 6-51
54. Hydrologic data for streams in Subarea IV 8-13
55. Demographic and economic composition of Seldovia 8-29
56. Occupations of persons in Seldovia 8-25
57. Airport facilities in Subarea IV 8-33
58. Kenai Peninsula Borough schools in Subarea IV 8-34
59. Selected financial data for the City of Seldovia 8-35
xv
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The following WAPORA personnel were Integral contributors to the preparation of
the Lower Cook Inlet Impact Review Manual:
Robert Cutler
Sherman Smith
Steven Wolf
Michael Black
•Guy McConnell
Wayne Lee
Lee Held
*Wayna Picbon
*David Marshall
A1 Hirich
*K«nt Peterson
Bill Bale
Jerry Gold
Steve Kullen
Marvanna 3raz«l
Judy Wrend
Stephanie Kaaalas
Harriet Delmar
Vanneeaa Clayton
Air Quality
Noise
Oceanography
Project Manager;
Aquatic and
Wildlife Biology
Project Manager;
Institutional Analysis;
Cultural, Historical,
Archaeological, and Aesthetic
Resources
Hater Quality
Terrestrial Biology
Socioeconomics
Geology; Soils
Manager, Graphics
Graphics
Graphics
Graphics
Graphics
Graphics
Production Assistant
Typist
Editorial and proofreading assistance was provided by Kathleen Brennan, Linda
Gawthrop, Garry Kelly, Richard McKean, and Ellen Renzas. The*a Inputs vara supple-
mented and Integrated Into the final Manual by E. Clark Boll.
A document as broad In scope as this requires inputs from many persons of varied
disciplines and backgrounds. WAPORA wishes to recognize the many contributions of
the individuals representing the private, local, Borough, State and Federal agencies
and organizations that vera contacted during the preparation of this report. Special
gratitude Is afforded Co Ms. Deborah Kirk and Ms. Franclne Duncan of Region X, USEPA,
for thalr assistance during this project.
*An asterisk (*) Indicates personnel who were not employed by WAPORA, Inc., or
by USEPA at the tine this Manual vaa finalized.
xvi
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1.0. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The New Source Environmental Evaluation/Impact Review Manual for the
Lower Cook Inlet, Alaska, is designed to assist personnel of the US
Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) in the review of new source
permit applications and in the preparation of environmental assessments
pursuant to the requirements of the National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) program and the National Environmental Policy
Act (NEPA). The Manual is not a site-specific document and does not
provide criteria for the issuance or denial of individual NPDES permits.
It is designed to be a useful tool that provides background information
on existing conditions In the Lower Cook Inlet study area. The
information presented in the Manual was developed through a review of
published and unpublished documents and by contact with Federal, State,
and local agencies.
The Lower Cook Inlet study area consists of all non-Federal lands
and waters contiguous to Cook Inlet in the Kenai Peninsula Borough south
of the Cook Inlet Forelands and north of an arbitrary line between Cape
Elizabeth on the eastern shore and Cape Douglas on the western shore.
Because of the large size and diversity of the study area, it was divided
into six land Subareas and four water Subareas. The overall study area
is profiled in Section 3.0., and the Subareas are described in Sections
5.0 through 14.0. Appendixes provide additional Information on USEPA
responsibilities In Lower Cook Inlet, air quality, key sources of
information, and existing NPDES permits In the study area.
The study area profile (Section 3.0.) presents information on an
area-wide basis. The discussion of the physical environment reviews the
geology, hydrology, and oceanography of the study area. Special
attention is directed at potential hazards and resources. A review of
the climate and meteorology Is included. Ambient air quality and
emission sources are described. Information is limited on many aspects,
therefore, data needs are Identified.
The discussion of the biological environment Includes sections
devoted to marine, freshwater, and terrestrial biology. Major living
systems and communities are presented. Important commercial fish species
are described in detail. The life histories of major terrestrial animals
also are presented. Consideration of critical habitat factors and of
threatened and endangered species is included.
The section on land and water use reviews settlement patterns, land
ownership, recreational lands, agriculture, forestry, and land and water
use planning. The roles of the Federal government and of State and local
agencies are described. Land ownership and land use planning are in a
state of flux in Alaska at the present time. Settlement of Native land
claims and conveyance of lands to the State of Alaska are important
considerations that remain to be clarified. It is likely that large
sections-of the study area will remain as part of the Federal holdings in
Alaska.
The Lower Cook Inlet study area has experienced significant growth
in recent years. The section on study area socioeconomics includes
reviews of demographics, housing, education, transportation, utilities,
and public finance, as well as a discussion of the economic bases that
l-l
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support the area. Commercial fishing and the petroleum industry are the
two major segments of the study area economy. Tourism is increasing and
is an additional important source of revenue. Population is expected to
continue to increase, although the magnitude of future growth is
difficult to project precisely. Some forecasts have included growth as a
result of the potential location of a major petroleum refinery in the
study area (Alpetco). Because Alpetco has selected Valdez as the site of
its new plant, scenarios that incorporate such growth must be regarded as
unsupported, but useful for comparison purposes.
Governmental institutions at the Federal, State, and local levels
have important responsibilities in the study area. Key organizations and
contacts are discussed in Section 3.5. of the study area profile. A
brief description of each agency's activities is presented, and the
mailing address and telephone number of key sources are listed. The
importance and background of Alaskan Native corporations also are
reviewed.
The cultural, historical, archaeological, and aesthetic resources of
the Lower Cook Inlet study area are described in Section 3.6. The study
area has a long history of human habitation, and the Native, Russian, and
American periods are reviewed. Key resource studies are identified, and
the problem of resource identification and listing is discussed.
Specific sites included in the National Register of Historic Places are
noted in the Subarea profiles.
The ten study area Subareas are described in Sections 5.0 through
14.0. Subareas I, II, III, IV, V, and VI are terrestrial in character.
Subareas VII, VIII, IX, and X are water (marine) areas. The format for
the discussion of the land Subareas is similar to that of the study area
profile. The water Subarea presentations focus on offshore and nearshore
conditions and resources. The most extensive information was available
for Subareas I, II, and IV. These Subareas include the majority of the
population of the study area and most of the industrial and economic
concentrations. Subarea I includes the Kenai-Soldotna area; Subarea II
is the Homer-Anchor Point region; and Subarea IV incorporates the
southeastern shore of Kachemak Bay (Seldovia, Port Graham, etc.).
Subarea III, the Fox River Plats at the head of Kachemak Bay, has few
residents and no utilities or other public facilities. Subareas V and
VI, on the west side of Cook Inlet, also are populated sparsely, with
activity concentrated at the Drift River Petroleum Terminal and at
Tuxedni Bay. Data for these latter Subareas are limited.
Discussion of the four marine Subareas is brief because of the
extensive material provided in the study area profile (Section 3.0.).
Sections 11.0. through 14.0 focus on the special characteristics that are
found in each of the water Subareas.
Numerous graphics are provided throughout the Manual to supplement
the textual descriptions. The visual presentations are designed to
highlight key topics and to portray existing conditions on a general
scale. They are not intended to define conditions at specific sites.
1-2
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2.0. INTRODUCTION
2.1. Purpose, Goals, and Assumptions
The Lower Cook Inlet region is one of the most important areas in
the State of Alaska. It is near the existing population centers and the
limited transportation network, and it is rich in natural resources,
including fossil fuels and minerals. Industry, commerce, and tourism are
expanding rapidly in the region, and recent development has increased the
number of applications for new source NPDES permits. USEPA permit
activity is expected to continue to increase as offshore oil and natural
gas, fisheries, and mineral resources are developed.
Although descriptions of existing conditions in the region are
contained in a number of documents that were prepared previously by
Federal, State, and local agencies, information usually was not assembled
in a form that was easily retrieved for new source permit evaluations.
The need for a single, comprehensive document for use by USEPA personnel
resulted in the preparation of the New Source Environmental
Evaluation/Impact Review Manual for the Lower Cook Inlet, Alaska
(hereinafter called the Manual).
The Manual is designed to assist USEPA personnel in the review of
new source permit applications and in the preparation of evironmental
assessments pursuant to the requirements of the NPDES program and the
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA). Information is presented in a
format that will enable users to obtain data regarding a particular
subject or locality rapidly. Background material provides a detailed
overview of local conditions and serves as a starting point for
additional data acquisition. The Manual is organized in a series of
profiles that present data pertinent to the overall study area and to
each of the designated Subareas. The study area and Subarea profiles
describe the physical and biological environment, land and water use,
socioeconomics, institutions, and cultural, historic, archaeological, and
aesthetic resources. The resource descriptions emphasize the factors
that potentially may limit development and elements that may sustain
adverse impacts. Sources of additional information, a list of ongoing
studies (as of June 1979), and descriptions of current NPDES permits (as
of June 1979) in the study area are appended.
It is anticipated that information contained in the Manual will be
combined with data from permit applicants and will be used In the initial
review process. Data gaps identified at this stage can be resolved by
contact with the applicant and with additional information from the
sources referred to in the Manual. The material gathered In this manner
will assist in the identification of significant issues and will provide
a firm foundation for the preparation of the environmental assessment by
USEPA. A brief description of the new source NPDES program is presented
in Section 2.3.
The information presented in the Manual was developed through a
review of published and unpublished documents and by contact with
Federal, State, and local agencies. No original data were collected.
2-1
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2.2. Study Area Boundaries
The study area boundaries are designed to include the geographic
areas and the natural and man-made communities that potentially will
experience the most significant effects of new development in the Lower
Cook Inlet region. The study area consists of all non-Federal lands and
waters in the Kenai Peninsula Borough south of the Cook Inlet Forelands
and north of an arbitrary line between Cape Elizabeth on the eastern
shore of Cook Inlet and Cape Douglas on the western shore. The general
location of the study area and the surrounding lands and waters are shown
in Figure 1 (adapted from Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning
Commission 1973b). Study area and subarea boundaries are depicted in
Figure 2 (adapted from Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission
1973b). Rationale for subarea designations are presented in Section 4.0.
of the Manual.
2.3. New Source NPDES Program
Section 402 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as amended,
(P.L.92-500) provides for the establishment of the National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). Regulated discharges are defined
In Sections 301, 302, and 502 of the Act; new sources are defined in
Section 306. Procedures for the determination of new sources are con-
tained in regulations promulgated by USEPA on 11 January 1977 (42 FR
2450), Section 6.906 and Appendix A. Issuance of a new source NPDES
permit is subject to the requirements of the National Environmental
Policy Act of 1969 (NEPA), 42 USC 4321 et seq., pursuant to Section
511(c)(1) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as amended (FWPCA).
NEPA provides that all agencies of the Federal government must prepare
detailed environmental statements on major Federal actions that may
affect significantly the quality of the human environment.
The Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) issued final regulations
on the implementation of the procedural provisions of NEPA on 29 November
1978 (43 FR 55978). The preparation of an environmental assessment (EA)
is discussed in Sections 1501.3 and 1508.9 of the new regulations.
Decisions on whether to prepare an environmental impact statement (EIS)
must comply with Sections 1501.4 and 1507.3. Preparation of the EIS is
detailed in Part 1502 of the new CEQ regulations. When a Federal agency
determines, on the basis of the EA that an EIS will not be prepared, a
finding of no significant Impact must be Issued (Section 1501.4). USEPA
procedures to supplement the new CEQ regulations (Section 1507.3)
currently are being developed.
In accordance with these regulations, USEPA Region X will be
required to prepare EAs and EISs for new source NPDES permits. The New
Source Environmental/Impact Review Manual for the Lower Cook Inlet,
Alaska, will be an important tool for use in these undertakings. The
Manual should assist USEPA personnel in achieving the goals of reduced
paperwork and the minimization of delays that were expressed in the new
CEQ regulations. Additional information regarding USEPA responsibilities
in the Lower Cook Inlet study area is presented In Appendix A.
2-2
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MILES
IHORAGE
I4»*^
'mtum
NATIONAL
MOOSE
SELDOVM
0ULF Of ALASKA
Sail Iti'X
FIGURE 1
•IHK KENA1 PENINSULA BOROUGH AND SURROUNDING LANDS AND WATERS. WATER IS
INDICATED BY A "STIPPLED" PATTERN,
2-3
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fsA \ T
\ • KEN A A—
' • sifiim |
|T pj SOLDOT NA • —• —•
V A.1,1. I.I..4 I | (* Skll»k L,
/ J
(
[T& fCJ
SELDOVIA^/ p { y: C?
» ' » J/6 "
V 4 / (/ '/
WMORA, INC.
FIGURE 2
STUDY AREA AND SUBAREA BOUNDARIES FOR
THE LOWER COOK INLET MANUAL. SUBAREAS
ARE NUMBERED 1 THROUGH 10.
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3.0. STUDY AREA PROFILE
3.1. Physical Environment
3.1.1. Geology
The Cook Inlet ts a 200-mile-long tidal estuary contiguous to the
Gulf of Alaska. The Inlet lies on a northeast-southwest axis and is
bounded on the northwest by the Aleutian Range and on the southwest by
the Kenai Peninsula. The Inlet is approximately 55 miles in width at Its
mouth. It expands into Kamishak Bay on the west and Kachemak Bay on the
east, then gradually tapers to the Forelands, where it is approximately
10 miles wide.
Geologically, the Cook Inlet Basin resembles a graben — a long,
narrow section of the earth's crust that has subsided between bordering
faults. Its origin, however, probably is associated more with geological
folding than with subsidence. The Cook Inlet Basin lies between the
Chugach Fault, the Bruin Bay Fault, and the Castle Mountain Fault. Only
the Castle Mountain Fault has been active in recent times. The folding
that initiated the Cook Inlet Basin occurred during the Tertiary Period
(approximately 70 million years ago). Five recognized cycles of marine
sediment deposition and mountain building during and following the
Tertiary Period have modified the Basin extensively (Bureau of Land
Management 1976).
3.1.1.1. Landforms
The terrestrial sections of the study area are composed of three
major landforms: mountains, coastal lowlands, and the Kenai Lowlands
Region. The landforms are defined both by present topography and by
origin. The Chigmit Mountains and other mountains of the Aleutian Range
rise from the western shores of the Cook Inlet and constitute the major
landform in the western part of the study area. The tallest peaks are
volcanoes more than 10,000 feet in height. The Chigmits primarily are
composed of metamorphlc and Igneous material that was modified
extensively by erosion and glacial action. The Kenai Mountains to the
east of the Inlet run the length of the eastern Kenai Peninsula, then arc
westward into the study area, where they form the southern boundary of
Kachemak Bay. These also are of metamorphic origin, but have less
igneous intrusion than the Chigmit Mountains. The Kenai Mountains
contain the Harding Icefield and a number of smaller glaciers, several of
which are located in the study area. Like the Chigmits, the Kenai
Mountains are primarily of Tertiary origin and have been modified
extensively by tectonic, glacial, and fluvial forces. Knife-edge ridges
and steep-walled, U-shaped valleys, indicative of glacial action, are
typical in the mountainous regions. Where the mountains are adjacent to
Cook Inlet, the coastline Is broken by deep bays and fiords.
The coastal lowlands represent less than 2 percent of the study area
and are composed of depositions of various origins. They are defined
separately because of their recent origin and their Importance as
land/sea Interfaces. They consist of shoreline accretions of current and
3-1
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tidal-borne slit, and depositions of glaclofluvlal slit In bays and at
river mouths. Soli particles range In size from coarse sand and shells
to very fine slit. Wet soils may be firm to very soft. The largest
coastal lowlands, the Bachatna Flats and the Fox River Flats, are on the
lower reaches of glacier-fed streams. They rise gradually from tidal
flats through saltmarshes and freshwater wetlands to low relLef plains
and terminate In the surrounding hills. These lowlands are dissected by
braided or divided stream channels and tidal guts.
The Kenai Lowlands (as defined by Karlstrom 1964) extend from the
Chugach Mountains to the Cook Inlet. Five periods of Pleistocene
glaclatlon and two periods of post-PieLstocene glaclatlon, the last
reaching Its largest extent approximately 5,000 years ago, produced the
present topography of this area. These repeated glacLations deposited a
composite morainal system that is several thousand feet thick In some
parts of the Kenai Lowlands. The Kustatan Lowlands, similar In topo-
graphy and origin to the Kenai Lowlands, extend Into the study area on
the western shores of Cook Inlet.
The Kenai Lowlands are bordered by steep bluffs along Cook Inlet.
Near the East Foreland the bluffs are approximately 100 feet In height.
They gradually rise to the south and reach their maximum elevation of
more than 700 feet at Bluff Point, near the mouth of Kachemak Bay. The
bluffs are an effective barrier between Cook Inlet and the Kenai
Lowlands, except where they are Incised by river valleys.
Topographically, the region consists of rolling hills of comparatively
low relief and wetlands. In the northern lowlands the maximum elevation
in the study area is approximately 400 feet. The lowlands rise to the
south, reaching elevations of more than 2,000 feet In the hills north of
Homer.
3.1.1.2. Geologic hazards
As modeled by the modern theory of continental drift, the continents
and the oceans of the earth rest on vast crustal plates that are in
constant motion due to convection of the molten inner earth. Two of
these crustal plates meet along the Aleutian Trench (west of the study
area), where the northward-moving Pacific crust is thrust beneath the
North American crustal plate. The underthrusting movement is not smooth,
but proceeds in sporadic "jerks" when the strain becomes too intense.
The 1964 Alaska earthquake, one of the strongest earthquakes ever
recorded, and many of the smaller earthquakes that are registered each
year in south central Alaska are manifestations of these "jerks."
Volcanism also Is produced by plate convergence. The volcanoes of the
Alaska Peninsula and the Aleutian Range, Including the five active
volcanoes in or adjacent to the Cook Inlet Basin, are located along the
100- to 110-kilometer depth contour of the underthrust Pacific crust.
Seismic hazards
A second major fault line in addition to the Aleutian Trench, is
located near the study area. This fault parallels the coasts of British
Columbia and Southeastern Alaska and terminates east of the study area,
where it contributes to the seismicity of the region. Since 1899, eleven
3-2
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earthquakes of 6.0 or more on the Richter Scale have been recorded in the
study area (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 1976). In
1971, the Federal Field Committee for Development Planning in Alaska (US
Army Corps of Engineers 1974) placed the study area in seismic zone 3;
the highest seismic risk zone of Alaska. In this zone earthquakes may
have magnitudes of 6.0 to 8.8, and major structural damage may result.
Although the Cook Inlet is seismically active, it is less active than
Prince William Sound to the east or the Alaska Peninsula-Aleutian Trench
region on the west, presumably because it ts north of the very active
crustal blocks that adjoin the Aleutian Trench.
If the seismicity gap theory of Kelleher (1970) is applied to the
Aleutian seismic belt, severe earthquakes are predicted for highly active
seismic areas that have not had severe earthquakes for a long period.
Because the Cook Inlet has not had an earthquake exceeding 7.3 on the
Richter scale since at least 1899, it might be considered by the Kelleher
theory to be susceptible to a severe earthquake. However, the Cook Inlet
Basin received comparatively few aftershocks following the 1964
earthquake. This is considered to be evidence that the seismicity gap
theory does not apply to the Cook Inlet Basin (US Army Corps of Engineers
1974).
Severe earthquakes outside the Cook Inlet Region will be attenuated
by distance, but may produce severe damage within the study area. The
epicenter of the 1964 Alaska earthquake was near Valdez, more than 100
miles from the study area, but it produced severe earth tremors, ground
fissuring, subsidence and slippage; injuries, fatalities, and property
damage in the Cook Inlet study area.
Tsunamis (tidal waves) frequently follow earthquakes that occur in
coastal regions. Tsunamis are caused by underwater subsidence, slippage,
faulting, volcanic eruption or other manifestations of seismic activity.
Tsunamis may affect points thousands of miles from their source, but
local tsunamis are more common and may reach larger magnitudes. The most
severe tsunami recorded in Alaska was the Lituya Bay Tsunami (not located
in the study area), which reached a maximum height of 525 meters above
sea level. Three tsunamis have been recorded in Cook Inlet (Cox and
Pararas-Carayannis 1976). They were:
Location Magnitude Date
Cook Inlet not recorded 30 December 1901
Port Graham 7.5 to 9 meters 6 November 1883
Seldovia 1.2 meters 27 March 1964
The 1883 and 1901 tsunamis were associated with eruptions by Mount
Augustine. Deep, narrow bays tend to funnel tsunamic waters, thus
amplifying the wave height and increasing the damaging effects. In the
study area, the Tuxedni Channel, a few of the deeper (uninhabited) bays
along the western Cook Inlet shore, and the deep bays of the lower Kenai
Peninsula are particularly susceptible to tsunamic damage. Mount
Augustine is considered to be the primary tsunami generation point in
Lower Cook Inlet. The location of Mount Augustine adjacent to the west-
3-3
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em inlet bays and directly across from the lower KenaL Peninsula
increases the chances that a tsunami generated by Mount Augustine would
reach a bay where substantial damage would be caused.
Volcanic hazards
Five volcanoes are located in or near the study area. From north to
south they are: Mount Spurr, Mount Redoubt, Mount Iliamna, Mount
Augustine, and Mount Douglas (Figure 3; adapted from Alaska Department of
Natural Resources 1978b). All but Mount Douglas have erupted in historic
time. The eruption history of the four recently active volcanoes is
summarized in Table 1.
The volcanoes of the Pacific Rim, including those in the Alaska
Peninsula and Cook Inlet Basin, are andesitic (i.e., composed of a dark
greyish rock that consists of oligioclase or feldspar). They tend to
erupt lava and more viscous materials than the basaltic volcanoes of the
Pacific Basin. Andesitic volcanoes are potentially more explosive than
basaltic volcanoes, and the eruption of Mount Katmai in 1912 was one of
the largest volcanic explosions ever recorded. Hazards associated with
volcanic eruptions include: ash clouds, nuees ardentes (glowing ash
clouds), mudflows, lava flows, landslides, corrosive rain, lightning
discharges, flash floods, tsunamis, and earthquakes. Damage may be local
or regional. The 1912 Katmai eruption covered much of Kodiak Island with
0.3 meter of ash and altered the vegetation of the upper Alaska
Peninsula, thus virtually eliminating caribou on the upper Peninsula.
Eruptions by Mount Spurr and Mount Augustine have deposited ash on
Anchorage in recent years. Activity by Mount Redoubt melted snow and
caused extensive flooding by the Drift River. The largest tsunami
recorded in Cook Inlet followed an eruption and mudslide from Mount
Augustine in 1883; Port Graham was destroyed.
Flooding
Flooding in the study area may be caused by runoff from rains, by
snow and glacial meltwater runoff, by ice jams, or by glacial outbursts.
Precipitation may result in flooding during the late spring, summer, or
early autumn, especially along streams that also receive glacial
meltwater runoff. Meltwater from snow usually is most voluminous during
the late spring, whereas glacial meltwater runoff peaks near the end of
the summer. Ice jams have caused the worst floods recorded on some
systems. They may occur anytime between freezing and breakup, but are
especially likely during breakup. Glaciers may cross valleys and
permanent or intermittent watercourses; dams may form that can, in turn,
create substantial temporary lakes. As a lake grows it exerts more and
more pressure against the glacial dam and erodes the ice surface.
Eventually, the stress causes the lake to break through the dam, either
overtop or beneath the glacier. The entire lake may be released In a
very short interval, and the resulting flash flood may be severe.
Depending on the nature of the glacier and the stream it dams, outbursts
may occur at fairly regular intervals or may be unpredictable.
Several of the river systems in the study area receive runoff and
glacial outburst flooding and may be expected to receive flooding in the
future. These rivers are identified in the Subarea profiles.
3-4
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Table 1. Eruption history of Cook Inlet volcanoes (US Army Corps of Engineers 1974).
Mt.
Augustine
Mt.
Redoub t
Mt.
Illiamna
Mt.
Spurr
Date
Activity
Date
Activity
Date
Activity
Date
Activity
1812
active
1778
active
1741
grew quiet
1953
ash eruption
(fallout on
1883
violent eruption
1819
smoke
1768
smoke
Anchorage)
with ash and
mudflows
1902
active
1778
active
1954
ash eruption
1885
steaming from shore
1933
smoke
1779
active
to summit
1966
recurrent explosions
1786
smoke
1895
crater steaming
thru
and turbulent clouds
1968
to elevations over
1867
ash eruption
1935
lava eruption
40,000 feet; caused
flooding of Drift
1876
smoke
1963
7 November
River in 1966
1933
smoke
1964
5 July and
9 August
1947
smoke
1976
recurrent eruptions,
1952
smoke
mudflows, glowing
cloud; ash to 40,000
1953
smoke
feet
-------
GEOLOGIC HAZARD
0
I I I
i Illinium
I -
LANDSLIDE AND SLUMP
VOLCANIC AREA
FAULT ZONE
COASTAL EROSION
TSUNAMI HAZARD
EXTENT OF ICE
AREA OF SUBSIDENCE
POTENTIAL MELTWATER AND RUNOFF FLOODING
POTENTIAL GLACIAL OUTBURST FLOODING
3-6
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FIGURE 3
GEOLOGIC HAZARDS
y GROUND
/ BREAKAGE
1964
KENAI
i KA^tlH ISLAND
CHISIK iSvftWD
AUGUSTINE ISLAM
SELOOVIA
CNGLt!
BAY
KAM'SHAK BAY
ELIZABETH ISLAND
KATMAI
NATIONAL
MONUMENT
-------
Other hazards
Avalanches and landslides are potential geological hazards in the
mountainous regions of the study area. Landslides and erosion are
hazards along the larger rivers of the study area and the bluffs of Cook
Inlet. With few exceptions, the mountainous regions are remote from
human populations and active resource extraction activities.
Avalanche/landslide hazards present little danger to existing
communities, industries, and communications, but should be considered
during future development planning. Areas with potential for avalanches,
landslides, and erosion are identified in the Subarea profiles.
3.1.1.3. Geologic resources
Commercially extractable concentrations and quantities of oil, coal,
natural gas, metallic and non-metallic minerals, and building materials
are found in the study area. Currently, the most economically important
of these non-renewable resources are oil and natural gas. Oil seepages
along the western shoreline (Oil Bay) were described by early settlers,
and unsuccessful attempts to develop this resource were conducted on the
Iniskin Peninsula in the early 1900s. On the Kenai Peninsula oil and
natural gas have been produced since 1957, first from the Swanson River
fields, then from the Upper Cook Inlet and from land sites around the
Inlet. The locations of known petroleum and natural gas fields in and
near the study area are shown in Figure 4 (adapted from Rao and Wolff
1975). Lease sales were conducted during October 1977 for petroleum and
natural gas exploration and development in Lower Cook Inlet and on parts
of the Kenai Lowlands. Exploratory drilling began during the summer of
1978. The drilling is expected to add to the known Cook Inlet reserves.
Proven recoverable oil reserves of the Cook Inlet region are
estimated to total more than 500 million barrels. Proven natural gas
reserves are estimated to total more than 5 trillion cubic feet. The oil
production is largely from the Hemlock and lower Tyonek Formations. Most
of the natural gas production is from the sands of the Beluga and
Sterling Formations. Proven reserves and production of petroleum and
natural gas until 1976 are listed in Table 2. Most of these wells are
located beyond the study area in the Upper Cook Inlet or in the Susitna
River Flats. Producing wells in the study area are discussed in the
Subarea profiles.
The 1977 Lower Cook Inlet Lease Sale offered 135 tracts — 89 on a
fixed royalty of 16.66 percent plus a cash bonus and 46 on a royalty bid
basis with a fixed cash bonus ranging from $193,848 to $3.4 million per
tract. A total of 81 bids were accepted, and leases were signed on
200,448 hectares (495,307 acres), for a total price of almost $400
million. The highest single bid for a cash bonus tract was slightly more
than $77 million. The highest royalty bid was 63.4444 percent. The
tracts that were leased, including the tracts that received the highest
bonus bids and the highest royality bids, are shown in Figure 5 (adapted
from Bureau of Land Management 1977b).
Before the bidding, the Bureau of Land Management (1976) had pre-
dicted that the Augustine-Seldovia arch that crosses the Lower Cook Inlet
3-8
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Table 2. Oil and gas fields, Cook Inlet (Magoon and others 1976).
Cumulative Production as of 31 December 1975
Oil fields
Beaver Creek
Granite Point
McArthur River
Middle Ground Shoal
Redoubt Shoal
Swanson River
Trading Bay
I
vO
Gas fields
Albert Kaloa
Beaver Creek
Beluga River
Birch Hill
Falls Creek
Ivan River
Kenai
Lewis River
McArthur River
Moquawkie
Nicolai Creek
North Cook Inlet
North Fork
North Middle Ground Shoal
Sterling
Swanson River
West Foreland
West Fork
Status
Producing
Producing
Producing
Producing
Shut-in
Producing
Producing
Status
Shut-in
Shut-in
Producing
Shut-in
Shut-in
Shut-in
Producing
Shut-in
Producing
Shut-in
Producing
Producing
Shut-in
Shut-in
Producing
Shut-in
Shut-in
Shut-in
Oil (bbl)
1,114,905
60,495,670
294,217,241
96,332,793
1,596
163,099,388
62,577,313
Dry gas (Mcf)
118,774
291,516
34,657,415
65,331
18,983
639,619,605
36,919,664
985,059
921,385
268,001,981
104,595
1,848,006
11,839,353
Casinghead gas (Mcf)
387,080
56,879,971
92,888,099
45,821,890
456
528,772,426
41,421,614
Natural gas
liquids (bbl)
9,888
Recoverable
Reserves
Oil (bbl)
49,504,000
208,784,000
89,166,000
60,101,000
Dry gas (Mcf)
400,000,000
687,000,000
20,000,000
80,000,000
5,000,000
2,250,000,000
785,000,000
785,000,000
50,000,000
1,410,000,000
20,000,000
125,000,000
200,000,000
300,000,000
120,000,000
100,000,000
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0 10 20
WAPOM, INC.
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I ' 1
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WAPORA, INC.
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might be the focus for oil exploration. The top three royalty bids and
the top three bonus bids, however, were for tracts off Anchor Point,
tracts (midway between Anchor Point and Augustine Island), and tracts
near the mouth of the Lower Cook Inlet (Figure 5).
Coal has been mined sporadically in the study area since the Russian
occupation during the nineteenth century. Known reserves of lignite and
subbituminous coal include fields in the Beluga region, north of the
study area, and fields on the Kenai Peninsula (Figure 4). Coal leases
exist for the Beluga area and the southern Kenai Peninsula, but currently
there is no coal mining at either location.
The huge coal reserves of Alaska (estimated at approximately 582
billion tons; Sanders 1975) are being exploited only at the Usibelli Mine
in the Nenana Coalfield at the rate of approximately 700,000 tons per
year. The remaining coalfields are undeveloped because of a wide range
of problems, including:
... the high cost of operations, general lack of
transportation, problem of land status, and the maze of
permits, environmental studies, and antidevelopment actions,
and unpredictably changing government policies ... (Sanders
1975).
Three major areas of coal resources have been reported from the Cook
Inlet region: the Beluga Coalfield, northwest of the study area; the
Matanuska Coalfield northeast of the study area; and the Kenai Coalfield
in the western Kenai Peninsula. The Beluga Coalfield includes the Capps
and Chuitna deposits that have been explored by Placer-Amex, Inc. Patsch
(1975), a Placer-Amex representative, reported that the Capps deposit
consisted of two major beds with a maximum thickness of 25 to 55 feet in
a local coal basin. He reported that the Chuitna area contains at least
six beds, at least one of which was a maximum of 40 feet in thickness.
Both areas have local structures that bring the coal beds close to the
surface. The Beluga coals are ranked as subbituminous "C" coals and are
similar to those of the western DS. Patsch (1975) reported that sulfur
concentrations in Beluga coals were low enough to meet air quality
criteria for direct burning.
Barnes (1967) estimated the coal reserves within 1,000 feet of the
surface in the Beluga-Yentna Region to total approximately 2,400 million
short tons. Of this total, he estimated that 2,100 million tons were in
a 40-square-mile area, including the Beluga Coalfield, south of the
latitude of Beluga Lake. These reserves contained the Beluga Bed (10
million tons), the Capps Bed (366 million tons), the Chuitna Bed (1,190
million tons), and others. The deposits are in simple beds that can be
developed without unusual difficulty and are within 30 miles of the Cook
Inlet. Patsch (1975) stated that development of these deposits and the
required infrastructure would be feasible only if at least 5 million tons
were extracted per year.
The Matanuska Coalfield contains reserves of approximately 112
million tons that are fairly close to the existing infrastructure. They
would be difficult to develop, however, because much of the deposition is
3-12
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deeply buried, intensely deformed, and lacks uniformity and continuity
(Rao and Wolff 1975).
The Kenai Coalfield was mined by early Russian and American
settlers, but has not been producing for many years. Estimated reserves
in the Kenai Coalfield total approximately 318 million tons. Much of
this coal is in accessible locations and could be developed economically
should a market arise.
Potential geotherraal energy sources have been identified on the
western side of Cook Inlet. These potential resources are unlikely to be
developed because of the associated tectonic hazards.
The potential for economically recoverable metallic deposits in the
study area is considered good in the mountainous regions of the southern
Kenai Peninsula and the western side of the Inlet. Gold, silver,
chromium, copper, lead, zinc, tungsten, molybdenum, iron, and nickel may
be present in commercial quantities.
Glacial deposits suitable for backfill and river gravel suitable for
concrete and road aggregate are present. Clay suitable for brick firing
also is available.
3.1.2. Hydrology
This section presents relevant data on the marine environments of
the study area. The profiles for Subareas VII, VIII, IX, and X
supplement the following discussion with specific Information on the
bathymetry, oceanography, and biology of the Lower Cook Inlet.
The Bureau of Land Management's Outer Continental Shelf Environ-
mental Assessment Program (OCSEAP) was a frequently used source of in-
formation in the development of this section. Studies on trace metals,
zooplankton, marine mammals, benthic organisms, marine birds, hydro-
carbons, and sediment transport in the study area have been completed.
The OCSEAP will continue to amass data on the Lower Cook Inlet that will
be of value to its understanding.
3.1.3. Oceanography
At the Forelands the maximum depth of the Inlet is approximately 75
fathoms (450 feet), but a few miles south the maximum depth decreases to
approximately 30 fathoms (180 feet). The Inlet gradually deepens between
the Forelands and Anchor Point, aboutx half way down the inlet, but the
maximum depth seldom exceeds 40 fathoms (240 feet). South of Anchor
Point the central part of the Inlet is approximately 25 to 40 fathoms
(150 to 240 feet) in depth almost to the Inlet mouth. Near the mouth the
Inlet deepens to 70 to 90 fathoms (420 to 540 feet). Preliminary
bathymetric data for the Lower Cook Inlet are presented in Figure 6
(adapted from Science Applications, Inc. 1977).
3.1.3.1. Circulation patterns
The circulation patterns in the Lower Cook Inlet have been studied
recently by numerous investigators. Drift cards, radar reflecting
drogues, and ERTS-1 and LANSAT 1 imagery have been employed in various
attempts to define the circulation patterns of Cook Inlet. Gatto (1976),
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W*ro*A, INC.
3-14
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Sharraa and others (1976), and Burbank (1977) have assembled considerable
data on the net circulation of the Inlet. The most recent, and possibly
the most accurate, circulation model was developed by Burbank (1977).
The following discussion is based on his work for the Alaska Department
of Fish and Game.
Water from the Gulf of Alaska flows into Cook Inlet through the
Kennedy entrance, located off the southern tip of the Kenai Peninsula.
As the ocean water enters, it encounters a comparatively steep ramp at
the mouth of the Inlet and upwells into the central part of the Inlet and
Kachemak Bay. The nutrients and plankton carried in by this water
contribute to the high primary productivity of the Kachemak Bay region.
The net flow pattern in Lower Cook Inlet circulates water from the
Gulf of Alaska up the coast of the Kenai Peninsula to Anchor Point,
across the Inlet, and south along the western shore. The net outflow
from Cook Inlet exits to the south through the Shelikof Straits. The
circulation patterns identified in the Lower Cook Inlet are shown in
Figure 7 (adapted from Burbank 1977). Turbid water from the Upper Inlet
mixes with clear water from the Gulf of Alaska north of Anchor Point.
The west side of the Inlet receives most of this suspended silt due to
the prevailing circulation pattern. The difference in the density
between the waters from the Upper Inlet and those from the Gulf of Alaska
tends to slow lateral mixing in the Inlet, although rapid currents keep
the Cook Inlet waters well mixed vertically. Lateral mixing may produce
convergence zones, in which denser saline waters flow under less saline
waters and produce tide rips. The tide rips also display considerable
horizontal shear, manifested by differing current velocities on either
side of the frontal zone. The tide rips may be identified by the oil and
flotsam that accumulate at the convergence. Tide rips may be important
determinants controlling the dispersion of oil and other floating
contaminants. The major tide rips in Lower Cook Inlet are charted in
Figure 8 (adapted from Burbank 1977).
3.1.3.2. Tides
The tides in Cook Inlet are some of the largest in the world. At
the mouth of the Inlet the mean diurnal tidal range is 13.7 feet. At
Kenai the mean range is 19.8 feet; at Anchorage it is 29 feet; and at the
ends of both the Knik Arm and the Turnagain Arm the mean range exceeds 35
feet. During the spring the highest and lowest tides may exceed the mean
high and low tides by more than 5 feet, producing tidal ranges of more
than 30 feet at Keriai and 40 feet at Anchorage. These maximum tides may
produce currents exceeding 7 knots at the Forelands. Under normal
conditions the currents at the Forelands are about 3.8 knots. Currents
usually are slower in the Lower Cook Inlet.
3.1.3.3. Water chemistry
The chemistry of the Inlet waters changes seasonally, due primarily
to variations in the volume of runoff and the rate of nutrient uptake by
plankton. In 1972, salinity near the mouth of the Inlet was reported to
be approximately 27 to 32 parts per thousand in May and approximately the
same in September (Smith and Tilsworth 1975). Smith and Tilsworth
reported a salinity of 28 parts per thousand in May at the Forelands. In
3-15
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September the salinity there was less than 24 parts per thousand,
demonstrating the diluting effects of the increased summer runoff. Gulf
of Alaska waters are the primary source of inorganic nutrients in Lower
Cook Inlet. Runoff, sewage from Anchorage, process wastes from Collier
Chemical Company at Nikiski, and rainfall contribute comparatively small
volumes of nitrogen to the Inlet. Active nitrate levels in the central
part of the Inlet range from 5 to 18 mg/1 (0.005 to 0.018 mg/1) at
mid-channel, but nitrate may be undetectable in shallower waters during
spring and summer plankton blooms (NOAA 1977). Levels of dissolved
oxygen typically are near the point of saturation. Sediment loads are
heavy near the Forelands, sometimes exceeding 100 mg/1 near the West
Foreland. The turbidity rapidly decreases south of Kalgin Island; near
the Inlet mouth the sediment load was reported to be 2 to 3 mg/1 (Sharraa
and others 1974).
The physical and chemical features of the Upper Inlet differ
distinctly from those of the Lower Inlet. Most of the freshwater flow
into Cook Inlet enters north of the Forelands from five rivers of glacial
origin: the Susitna, Matanuska, Little Susitna, Knik, and Chakachatna
Rivers. Besides diluting the seawater in the Upper Inlet, these rivers
carry heavy loads of glacial silt. Most of the estimated 200,000 tons of
silt that enters Cook Inlet each day from May through September is
deposited in the Upper Inlet (D. L. Peterson and Associates 1971).
Silt deposition has shoaled the Upper Inlet to the extent that broad
flats are exposed during low tide. The combination of fine silt
particles and rapid currents produces unstable substrates and suspended
solid loads as concentrated as 1,500 mg/1. Net outflow from the Upper
Inlet carries the turbid, low-salinity waters through the Forelands into
the Lower Cook Inlet.
3.1.3.4. Hazards
Sea ice may form in the Lower Cook Inlet by November or December and
last until April or May. The extent of the ice pack depends on the
severity of the winter. During a severe winter, continuous pack ice may
extend as far south as Anchor Point on the east and Cape Douglas on the
west. Sea ice tends to accumulate along the western shoreline as a
consequence of the prevailing winds and circulation patterns. Sea ice in
the Lower Cook Inlet may originate from the Lower Inlet, particularly on
the flats of Kamishak Bay, or from the Upper Inlet. Ice from the Upper
Inlet has a lower salinity, is harder, and consequently is more dangerous
to fixed structures and shipping. Sea ice frequently interferes with
winter shipping in the Upper Inlet and may cause problems at the Drift
River Terminal and the Nikiski docks in northern Lower Cook Inlet. The
Federal Power Commission (1976) reported that vessel casualty rates in
northern Lower Cook Inlet were approximately double those reported for
other locations in a survey of seven US harbors. Ice and currents were
implicated in the higher casualty rates.
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MAIN RIPTIDE
NCT SURFACE CIRCULATION
FIGURE 7
NET SURFACE CIRCULATION IN THE LOWER COOK INLET
MILES
I ' 1
0 10 20
WAPORA, INC.
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— MAIN RIPTIDE
••••« LESSER, FREQUENTLY OBSERVED RlfTIOC
FIGURE 8
TIDE RIPS IN THE LOWER COOK INLET
MILES
0 10 20
WAPONA, INC.
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3.1.4. Climatology and meteorology
The Lower Cook Inlet study area Includes a wide range of climate,
meteorology, and ambient air quality. Local conditions vary
significantly. Because there are only two data collection points for
meteorological and climatological data and only one major collection area
for ambient air quality information in or near the study area, the
following discussion must be regarded as a general review of the
conditions in the study area. It is likely that site-specific data will
need to be collected if a proposed new source is expected to have
significant air quality impacts.
3.1.4.1. Climatic setting
Characterization of the study area
The characterization of the dispersion climatology in the study area
presents some problems that are typical of such efforts in a coastal
environment. Because the vertical atmospheric profile of temperature and
wind varies within a short distance from the shoreline and with the
relative orientation of land and water, routine observations taken at one
location are not necessarily characteristic of an entire area. Moreover,
it is difficult to describe the climate of an entire area, which is
subject to various degrees of maritime influence, on the basis of
climatological data from one, or a few, locations.
The climate of the southern coastal section of Alaska is influenced
by contrasted air masses that originate in different regions during
different seasons. During the winter, cold, dry continental air masses
originate in the north; and mild, moist air masses with precipitation
originate in areas from the southwest through the southeast. During the
summer, warm, dry winds usually originate in the northeast and eastern
quadrant, while moist winds accompanied by cooler maritime air originate
in the southern quadrant.
Temperature and precipitation
In the southern coastal areas winters are mild, with a minimum
average mean temperature near freezing and an average daily temperature
in the range of 8°F (4°C). Summers are cool, with a maximum average mean
temperature of 55°F (13°C) and an average daily temperature in the range
of 10°F (6°C). Annual extremes of temperature may range from 0°F (-18°
C) to 80°F (27°C).
Annual precipitation in the study area is likely to range from
approximately 15 inches (38 cm) in the northern interior sections to 60
inches (150 cm) in the southern coastal sections. Some anomalies
exceeding that range are likely In mountainous areas.
Data representative of the average conditions in the study area are
contained in the Local Climatological Data Summary for Homer (National
Climatic Center 1976). A copy of this report is provided in Appendix B.
It should be noted that the applicability of these data is very general
with respect to the study area.
3-19
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Continental and maritime influences
The study area north of Kachemak Bay is affected most by the con-
tinental influence. The southern section and the Inlet waterway climate
is almost entirely maritime. There are two upper air observing stations
that are maintained by the National Weather Service in the general
vicinity of the study area, at Anchorage and at Kodiak. The Anchorage
climate is characterized by an alternation of continental and maritime
conditions and that of Kodiak is almost entirely maritime. An average of
the annual meteorological parameters between the two stations probably
would describe the average climate of the study area.
During the Alaskan winter, the continental climate is characterized
by very light winds and a steep temperature inversion, with mixing depths
near zero the entire day. The maritime climate is characterized by a
windspeed averaging 10 mph (4.5 meters/sec) or more and temperature lapse
rates near neutral through the day. Mixing depths usually are over 300
meters and vary little throughout the day because the day is as short as
5.5 hours and the declination of the sun is very low.
During the Alaskan summer, areas characterized by maritime climate
generally have more cloud cover than the interior, but the land warms
sufficiently during the day to create a temperature differential between
the land and the sea. This temperature differential causes the develop-
ment of an onshore breeze that continues throughout most of the day. The
summer night in both continental and maritime climates is characterized
by inversions and mixing depths of near zero, with light winds.
The dispersion conditions in the study area result from a
combination of continental and maritime influences throughout the year,
depending on the large-scale wind flow and the movement of air masses.
The northern section of the study area may be expected to have more
frequent continental conditions, with strong continental characteristics.
In the southern section of the study area, conditions may be expected to
be maritime more frequently.
Dispersion meteorology
Copies of the STAR program output for the Cities of Kenai and Homer,
Alaska, were examined to help describe the dispersion meteorology in the
study area (National Climatic Center 1972, 1978a) and can be reviewed in
Appendix B. The STAR program defines seasonal and annual wind
distributions for the various Pasquill stability classes. Five stability
classes are used to obtain the outputs: A, extremely unstable; B,
unstable; C, slightly unstable; D, neutral; and E, stable. The stable
class actually is a combination of Pasquill stabilities E (slightly
stable), F (stable), and G (extremely stable). These stability classes
are used to provide an indication of the atmospheric stability at the
surface and are based on a calculated surface heating or cooling factor.
This factor is a function of wind speed, cloud cover, and solar
declination during the daylight hours. The more the ground is heated,
the less stable the atmosphere becomes; the more the ground is cooled the
more stable the atmosphere becomes. The data are not actual observations
of atmospheric stability, but theoretical calculations of temperature-re-
lated stabilities immediately above the surface. The validity of the
3-20
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factors used in these calculations, however, has been observed at the
weather stations. Also, because the applicability of these stabilities
extends through a layer immediately adjacent to the surface, these data
do not indicate elevated inversions.
The average annual wind speed in the study area ranges from about 7
mph (3 meters/sec) in the interior sections to 10 mph (5.4 meters/ sec)
in the southern coastal sections. Wind gusts of up to 30 mph (13
meters/sec) are not uncommon in coastal sections during storms; however,
winds rarely reach 50 mph (22 meters/sec) except in the most exposed
coastal locations.
A stability wind rose was prepared for each season of the year from
STAR data for Kenai and Homer (Figures 9 through 20; adapted from
National Climatic Center 1972, 1978a)). A wind rose is a graphic pre-
sentation of the wind frequency for each of sixteen compass directions
(each direction contains 22.5 degrees). Each wind rose is oriented as if
it were superimposed on a map, and the direction in which the frequency
is plotted is the direction from which the wind comes.
As can be seen in the figures, Subarea V and the coastal sections of
Subareas VI and VII have a major summer wind directional maximum from the
south and a minor summer directional maximum from the northeast or
east-northeast. A substantial, but minor, frequency of winds should be
present from the east through the southeasterly quadrants. There are
expected to be very few situations having southwest through northerly
winds, due to the prevailing surface pressure gradients and the topo-
graphic blocking effect of the Aleutian Mountain Range.
The autumn and spring are transition periods in the study area with
respect to wind direction frequencies. The north-northeasterly peak is
present to varying degrees at both stations in the autumn and spring, as
is the south to southwesterly peak (Figures 10,12,16, and 17).
During the autumn, the north-northeasterly peak is predominant at
both stations, and the wind rose is more representative of winter than of
summer. This probably is because the declination of the sun is low in the
autumn, resulting in a lesser onshore wind component and a larger
offshore component. Also, the frequency of low pressure or storm systems
to the south and high pressure systems to the north increases over that
of the summer, producing a more frequent northeasterly pressure gradient.
There also is a minor southerly maximum present on the autumn wind roses.
This probably is caused by the passage of low pressure systems to the
west of the study area.
The spring wind rose for Homer shows about equal weight for the
north-northeasterly and southwesterly peaks, but the Kenai wind rose
shows that the north-northeasterly peak of winter still predominates.
This is an excellent example of the difference of the maritime influence
within the study area itself.
The trends observed at Homer and Kenai in the autumn and spring
generally are representative of the wind direction frequencies on the
eastern shores of Cook Inlet. The northern end should have more of the
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continental influence, the southern end more of the maritime influence.
The autumn and spring wind roses throughout the remainder of the Kenai
Peninsula Subareas are modified by the varying coastline and mountain
valley orientations.
The autumn and spring wind direction frequencies also should
represent a transition state between winter and summer. The winter
(north-northeasterly) and summer (southerly) peaks should be evident
during both seasons, with the north-northeasterly peak predominating in
the autumn. During the spring, the southerly peak is expected to be more
predominant in the southern section of Kamishak Bay and along the
Kamishak Bay coast, than it is in the north, due to the larger maritime
influence in the south. In the mountainous zones of Subarea VI, where
the wind is nearly always "up-valley" or "down-valley," the autumn and
spring wind frequencies are in a transition between the summer and winter
frequencies.
Mixing height data
The mixing height data presented herein are based on records of
daily atmospheric mixing heights at Anchorage and Kodiak during 1976 and
were obtained from the National Climatic Center (1978b, 1978c). For both
stations the data summarize the daily mixing height and average wind
speed through the mixed layer for the calendar year 1976.
A radiosonde upper air observation that measures temperature and
wind as a function of height is taken twice each day at 1200 and 2400 GMT
(0200 and 1400 Alaskan Standard Time). Early morning and afternoon
mixing heights are computed from these radiosondes. The mixing height is
the height above the surface up to which effective mixing of atmospheric
contaminants would be expected. (If a ground-based temperature inversion
exists, the mixing height is zero).
An indicator for each observation that notes precipitation and
specific instances of ground-based inversion is provided with the ob-
servation data. These data were analyzed to define frequencies of mixing
height as a function of average wind speed through the mixed layer for
non-precipitation cases. A separate frequency distribution was produced
for each station for each of the four seasons. Morning and afternoon
cases also were separated. A summary of these data, which contains
frequencies of mixing height only and does not include wind speed, is
shown in Tables 3 and 4.
It is not possible to describe the dispersion climatology of any
specific Subarea of the study area using the mixing height data for
Anchorage and/or Kodiak. It is possible, however, to make general
statements based on examination of these data plus a knowledge of the
geography and climatic variations within the study area.
It appears that mixing height data for Kodiak are fairly repre-
sentative of the onshore coastal sections south of 60 N within 5 miles of
the coast (Subareas II, III, IV, VI, VII, and IX). For land areas in
this latitude range more than 5 miles from the coast and up to the
mountains, the Anchorage data would be more representative. For the
section of the study area north of 60°N, the dispersion climatology for
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3-KT 3iCT ri IOm
20* 10* U 3 SO*
I I I I M 11 I I I I I I II I I || || | | | | | I | | II I
TTI
Figure 9. Kenai, Alaska, winter wind rose, all stabilities.
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Figure 10. Kenai, Alaska, spring wind rose, all stabilities.
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Figure 11. Kenai, Alaska, summer wind rose, all stabilities.
3-25
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Figure 12. Kenai, Alaska, fall wind rose, all stabilities.
3-26
-------
Figure 13. Kenai, Alaska, annual wind rose, all stabilities.
3-27
-------
jure 14. Kenai, Alaska, summer wind rose, B and C stabilities.
3-28
-------
Figure 15. Homer, Alaska, winter wind rose, all stabilities.
3-29
-------
1
1
-
-3
4
J
-4
—
—
3
-4
Figure 16. Homer, Alaska, spring wind rose, all stabilities.
3-30
-------
Figure 17. Homer, Alaska, summer wind rose, all stabilities.
3-31
-------
Figure 18. Homer, Alaska, fall wind rose, all stabilities.
3-32
-------
Figure 19. Homer, Alaska, annual wind rose, all stabilities.
3-33
-------
Figure 20. Horner, Alaska, summer wind rose, B and C stabilities.
3-34
-------
Table 3. Frequency of occurrence of mixing heights, Anchorage, Alaska, 1976 (National Climatic Center 1978b).
Frequencies are for non-precipitation cases only.
Mixing Height Morning Occurrences (Percent) Afternoon Occurrences (Percent)
(Meters)
Winter
Spring
Summer
Fall
Annual
Winter
Spring
Summer
Fall
Annua!
£ 250
58.9
17.2
30.1
45.4
36.5
56.8
6.0
1.3
37.5
20.4
251-500
26.7
31.6
24.4
29.0
28.0
29.4
24.8
10.4
25.0
21.1
501-750
3.6
21.6
12.8
16.0
14.0
11.5
19.1
12.0
16.5
14.9
751-1000
1.8
10.0
8.5
3.2
6.2
—
11.8
10.6
6.3
8.1
1001-1500
5.4
9.8
22.8
4.8
11.1
2.3
14.8
39.4
10.5
19.5
1501-2000
—
8.4
1.4
1.6
3.0
—
11.7
18.4
4.2
10.2
2001-2500
1.8
—
—
—
0.4
—
8.8
7.9
—
5.0
2501-3000
1.8
1.4
—
—
0.8
—
3.0
—
—
0.8
3001-3500
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
3501-4000
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
> 4000
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
Total
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
-------
Table 4. Frequency of occurrence of mixing heights, Kodiak, Alaska, 1976 (National Climatic Center 1978c).
Frequencies are for non-precipitation cases only.
Mixing Height Morning Occurrences (Percent) Afternoon Occurrences (Percent)
(Meters) Winter Spring Summer Fall Annual Winter Spring Summer Fall Annual
£ 250 20.3 13.5 19.7 14.4 17.0 47.3 3.2 14.4 5.7 14.9
251-500 15.3 10.2 15.1 18.2 14.7 18.4 14.4 13.1 13.7 14.5
501-750 16.9 5.1 12.1 5.4 10.0 21.3 6.4 11.6 13.8 12.3
751-1000 17.0 13.6 13.6 9.0 13.4 7.8 21.0 24.5 25.7 20.9
1001-1500 23.7 32.2 29.0 29.3 28.6 5.2 35.6 21.6 23.8 23.2
1501-2000 3.4 16.9 10.5 21.9 13.0 -- 14.5 5.9 11.7 8.7
2001-2500 1.7 8.5 — 1.8 2.9 — 4.8 7.4 3.8 4.6
2501-3000 1.7 — — — 0.4 — -- 1.5 -- 0.5
3001-3500 — — — — — — — -- 1.9 0.4
3501-4000
> 4000
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
-------
land areas from the coastline to the mountains would be approximated best
by the mixing height data for Anchorage (Subareas I, II, V, VI, and VII).
For mountainous areas, a representation of mixing heights would be very
difficult and data for either station are not likely to provide a close
approximation.
A latitude of 60°N was chosen arbitrarily to divide the study area
coastline into sections that are influenced predominantly by maritime
airmasses and cloudiness (south) or a modified continental climate
(north). Throughout the subareas that consist of water only, the data
for neither station would be applicable, primarily because of the
dependence of mixing height on ground heating and cooling.
Special dispersion considerations
Some special cases should be considered in which conditions are
conducive to ground-level impact of an elevated point source or other
type of plume. These special cases are the effects on dispersion of sea
breezes, inversion breakup, and mountainous terrain.
When a sea breeze occurs, a shallow mixing layer develops at the
shoreline and becomes thicker with distance inland, as the air becomes
heated by the land surface. The mixing depth is near zero over the water
and will be on the order of 100 to 200 meters within 1 mile (1.6 km)
inland, depending on windspeed and solar angle. A plume that enters the
stable maritime layer will experience very little mixing, but will
"fumigate" rapidly down to the surface when it encounters the rising
boundary of the mixed layer. This is a common coastal phenomenon during
the summer months.
The onshore breeze is the cause of many of the lower mixing heights
observed during the spring and summer afternoons at Kodiak and Anchorage.
This type of fumigation process would affect any elevated point source
located along the shoreline unless the source had enough plume rise to
carry the plume above the mixed surface layer. The farther inland such a
source is located, the less of a problem fumigation would be, because the
mixing height increases with distance from the shore and the "lid" at the
top of the mixed layer is not as strong farther inland. A low-level or
ground-level emission along a coastline also would be affected by a sea
breeze inversion in that it would be trapped vertically in this shallow
but expanding mixed layer as it tracks inland.
Inversion breakup is a dispersion condition that has a different
origin from that of a sea breeze but causes similar effects. This also
is a type of fumigation, and the atmospheric temperature and stability
profiles are quite similar to that of a sea breeze. A shallow, ground-
based mixed layer is present under a stable layer. One essential dif-
ference between an inversion breakup and a sea breeze is that the
proximity of a body of water is not needed for an inversion breakup to
occur. Any plume released into such a stable layer, which may extend to
heights of 200 meters or more, will experience very little horizontal or
vertical dispersion.
Soon after sunrise, the ground begins to heat up and an unstable or
3-37
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mixed layer is formed upward from the surface. The depth of this layer
increases with time, as does the surface temperature. As soon as the
upper boundary or "lid" of this layer reaches the height of a
concentrated, poorly dispersed plume, it will mix the plume rapidly to
the ground. This may result in a strong concentration at the surface.
Unlike sea breeze fumigation, which can reach a steady state and
last for several hours, inversion breakup fumigation usually lasts for
about 1.0 hour during the morning, because the rising mixing height must
approximately equal the plume height. After the mixed layer increases in
depth to encompass the plume throughout its dispersion, the effect is
terminated. At this time a less critical limited-mixing situation will
exist until the surface heating permits the stable layer to be penetrated
completely.
Both of these fumigation effects are most likely to occur in the
study area during the spring and summer months, when solar heating is the
strongest. Fumigation is one of the major causes of high, short-term
ground-level contaminant concentrations.
Finally, special consideration should be given to an effect that can
aggravate any type of dispersion situation. The effects of terrain can
cause a dispersing plume to become a serious problem. When a plume from
a source that is standing on the ground at a particular level is released
into a wind flow that carries it over terrain that is substantially
higher than the ground at the source, the height of the plume axis will
be reduced. This will increase the ground-level concentration over what
it would be without the effect of terrain, sometimes by orders of
magnitude.
Because there is so much mountainous terrain in the study area and
the ground elevation rises so abruptly from the shore at certain points,
the effect of terrain on plume dispersion must be considered in planning
the location of point sources in the study area. In addition, when the
effect of terrain is superimposed on a sea breeze or inversion breakup
situation, the effect would be amplified.
Aside from the effects of terrain on point-source dispersion, the
terrain in the study area has an effect on the overall air quality of the
area. The mountains on either side of Cook Inlet form a natural boundary
that restricts the movement of air at low levels to the east or west.
This can be seen by examining the wind roses for Kenai and Homer. Thus,
contaminants released from all kinds of sources at various levels will be
somewhat restricted in their dispersion through this natural basin,
especially in the narrower northern section. This restriction would be
further aggravated by the occurrence of a low mixing height and light
winds. The degree of this effect on contaminant concentrations is
difficult to assess quantitatively, but it most likely would be most
effective for averaging periods of 24 hours or more. In deeper, narrower
valleys, a stagnation effect such as this could be very serious, as would
the effect of point-source plume impact on higher terrain.
3.1.5. Ambient air quality
Although very little ambient air quality data exist for the study
3-38
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area, background air pollutant levels are assumed to be very low because
of the relatively low level of residential, commercial, and industrial
development in most of the study area. The few exceptions are
occasionally high total suspended particulate (TSP) levels and local
concentrations of other pollutants.
3.1.5.1. Existing ambient air quality
Total suspended particulates
The entire State of Alaska has been designated by the USEPA as being
in attainment with National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for
total suspended particulates (43 Federal Register 8963). Although
measured TSP level^ throughout Alaska sometimes exceed the 24-hour TSP
standard (150 ug/m ), these occurrences generally are due to fugitive
dust from traffic on unpaved roads and wind action on exposed, dry areas
of land (Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation 1977). The
USEPA recognizes that rural fugitive dust is less harmful than urban
fugitive dust and particulates from industrial point emission sources;
therefore, rural areas experiencing TSP violations attributable to
fugitive dust are considered to be in attainment with TSP NAAQS (43
Federal Register 8963).
TSP data have been collected at a few sites in the study area (Towns
1978). These data, from one station at Homer, two at Kenai, and one at
Nikiski, are summarized in Table 5. The annual geometric mean TSP
concentrations at these sites generally were low. The only violations of
the annual standard, at the Homer Fire Station site in 1975 and 1976,
were attributed to traffic on unpaved roads and construction work (Towns
1978). Violations of the 24-hour standard that occurred at Homer and
Kenai also may be attributed to fugitive dust.
In general, high TSP levels may occur in developing areas, such as
the coastal regions of Subareas I and II, due to construction activities
and traffic on unpaved roads. During the summer, fugitive dust caused by
wind action on the dry, exposed soil may result in high TSP levels in the
many regions of the study area where the land is not protected by
vegetation. During the winter, however, snow cover reduces this dust
noticeably.
Carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide (CO) pollution is associated primarily with motor
vehicle operation. Because motor vehicle usage in the study area is not
heavy, ambient CO levels are assumed to be low. CO levels probably are
highest in the more developed areas along the Kenai Peninsula coastline,
from Homer north to Nikiski (Subareas I and II) because of the relatively
concentrated motor vehicle traffic. The entire study area however, has
been designated by the USEPA as being in compliance with the CO NAAQS (43
Federal Register 8966). In the more heavily developed areas, such as
Nikiski and Homer, the ambient CO level is thought to be less than the
standards (Dames and Moore, Inc. 1976). To date, ambient CO levels in
the study area have not been monitored.
3-39
-------
Table 5. Total suspended particulate data - Kenai Peninsula (Towns 1978; Dames and Moore, Inc. 1976)
3
Sampling Results (ug/m )
Annual
Highest
Second
Station Location
Year
Geometric Mean
Value
Highest Value
Homer
1975
190
2,336
1,032
Fire Station (1)
1976
61
532
367
1977
42
314
259
Kenai
1975
48
271
175
Fire/Police Station (1)
1976
35
343
143
1977
33
176
168
Kenai
1972
16
147
106
Phillips Petroleum
1973
17
50
37
Plant (1)
1974
14
76
58
1975
36
346
123
1976
41
476
199
1977
22
158
134
Nikiski (1)
1970
16
<150
<150
1971
12
<150
<150
1972
15
<150
<150
1973
17
<150
<150
1974
14
<150
<150
1975
32
<150
<150
3
Alaskan Standard (ug/m )
Annual 24-Hour
Geometric Mean Maximum (1)
60 150
Note; (1) Not to be exceeded more than once per year.
-------
Nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and hydrocarbons
Atmospheric nitrogen dioxide (NO^), sulfur dioxide (SO ), and
hydrocarbon (HC) concentrations normally are influenced by the revel of
residential, commercial, and industrial development. For example,
atmospheric NO2 and SO2 result from fuel combustion for power generation,
space heating, and manufacturing; NO2 and HC result from motor vehicle
operation; and HC results from processing and transporting of petroleum
and petroleum products. Consequently, the highest levels of these air
contaminants in the study area would be expected in the more heavily
industrialized and populated cities and ports along the Kenai Peninsula
coast (Subareas I and II).
Although ambient concentrations of these pollutants have not been
measured in the study area, levels are believed to be low even in Sub-
areas I and II, based on limited data from areas such as Anchorage and
Valdez and on the low density of sources in the study area. Limited
monitoring dat^ from Anchorage indicate that Anchorage SO^ levels rarely
exceed 25 ug/m and that N0? levels are near zero (Alaska Department of
Environmental Conservation 1977). Because the study area is less
developed than Anchorage, ambient SO2 and NO2 levels in the study area
should be lower. Ambient HC measurements made at Valdez in 1977 indi-
cated thaf average non-methane hydrocarbon concentration ranged from 0 to
100 ug/m (for comparison, the USEPA guideline ^ for a 3-hour average
non-methane hydrocarbon concentration is 160 ug/m ) and that most of the
hydrocarbon measured was non-reactive methane, which averaged about 1,000
ug/m . However, the maximum recorded three-hour^ average non-methane
hydrocarbon concentration in Valez was 2,200 ug/m , which exceeds the
USEPA guideline. Such high concentrations are due to the operation of
petroleum vessels in the Valdez harbor. Ambient HC concentrations in the
port areas of the study area are not expected to reach such high levels
because the petroleum handling is on a much smaller scale, and the
dispersion conditions are superior to those of the Valdez harbor.
Ambient non-methane hydrocarbon concentrations at ports in the study area
are expected to be less than the 160 ug/m USEPA guideline.
Ammonia
The only major potential source of ambient ammonia in the study area
is the Collier Carbon and Chemical Corporation Ammonia-Urea Plant at
Nikiski (Subarea I). The ambient ammonia levels in other sections of the
study area are assumed to be negligible. The normal operation of the
Collier plant generally should not result in significant ambient ammonia
concentrations, according to atmospheric dispersion modeling of
calculated ammonia emission rates (Dames and Moore, Inc. 1976). It is
possible that occasional plant malfunctions may occur. During such
upsets, noticeable ammonia odors would be expected not more than ap-
proximately 10 km from the plant. Thus, ambient ammonia levels in the
vicinity of the Collier plant generally should be insignificant, and
ammonia levels elsewhere in the study area should be non-existent.
Odors
Sulfur compounds are emitted from petroleum refineries and terminals
and may cause an odor nuisance in the surrounding area. Petroleum
3-41
-------
operations in and adjacent to the study area are concentrated in the
Forelands area, in Subarea I, and in the Upper Cook Inlet. There are
isolated pumping stations and storage facilities elsewhere (Homer, Drift
River, Kenai, Naptowne), but the atmospheric impact of these is not
significant.
A potential odor source is the seafood processing industry on the
Kenai Peninsula. Odors from these facilities may be noticeable in the
vicinities of the processing plants, but usually do not impact
surrounding regions.
3.1.5.2. Data needs
Only limited ambient air quality data have been collected in the
study area. Consequently, the amount of data available is not sufficient
to characterize adequately the ambient air quality of locations in the
area with respect to most pollutants of concern. Ambient levels of the
major air pollutants (TSP, N02, SO^, HC, and oxidants) should be
monitored to establish background levels of these pollutants and to
follow changes in these levels that may accompany development in, and
outside of, the study area.
In particular, atmospheric oxidant concentrations are known to be
due to regional rather than local phenonmena. Oxidants and the precursor
pollutants responsible for oxidant formation may be transported great
distances from their origin. Oxidants formed as a result of pollutants
emitted in Valdez or Anchorage could affect ambient oxidant levels in the
study area. For this reason, it would be desirable to monitor oxidant
levels in the study area even though there are relatively few oxidant
precursor emission sources in the area.
t
Transport of S0_ and NO2 into the study area also must be
considered, although tfhe transport of these pollutants is considered to
be less extensive than that of oxidants. SO2 and NO2 monitoring is
needed primarily to determine background levels from development in the
study area. The monitoring of rainfall acidity, a parameter closely
associated with SO and NO pollution, also should be considered. As
with oxidant formation, rafnfall acidification is a regional phenomenon
and could result from SO and NO emissions outside of the study area.
xx
There is little reason to monitor the level of ambient CO in any
undeveloped part of the study area, because elevated CO levels usually
will be found only in developed areas, near heavily traveled roadways. CO
monitoring would be needed only in the principal urban areas, and even
there the CO levels are expected to be relatively low.
The determination of accurate background pollutant levels in the
study area will be particularly important for the evaluation of PSD
permits. Although the air quality of the study area can be characterized
to some extent by monitoring data from Anchorage, these data may not be
truly representative of air pollutant levels in the study area because of
its lower level of development.
3.1.6. Atmospheric emission sources
Industrial facilities, vehicular traffic, and residential/commercial
3-42
-------
development comprise the sources of atmospheric emissions in the study
area,
3.1.6.1. Industrial facilities
Industrial sources of atmospheric emissions within the study area
are concentrated primarily in a few locations. A list of the principal
industrial sources iti the study area is presented in Table 6, along with
the emission rates of each. The location of each source identified on
Figure 21 (adapted from Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation
1975; Dames and Moore, Inc. 1976) is listed in column 3, and the Subarea
location of each is shown in column 4. Emission rates, in tons per year,
are presented in columns 5 through 9. Summaries of the sources located
in and near each of the study area Subareas are presented in the Subarea
profiles.
3.1.6.2. Vehicular traffic
The only major roadway system in the study area of concern from an
air quality standpoint is the Sterling Highway and its principal
tributaries. From its origin in Homer, the Sterling Highway extends
northward along the coast of Subarea II for approximately 68 miles to the
southern boundary of Subarea I. The route then extends northeasterly for
approximately 50 miles to the eastern boundary of the study area. The
Kenai Spur Road, located in Subarea I, is a major tributary of the
Sterling Highway. From its junction with the Sterling Highway In
Soldotna, the Kenai Spur Road extends westward for approximately 10 miles
(16 km) to Kenai, then north along the Cook Inlet coast for approximately
18 miles (29 km) to the northern boundary of Subarea I at the East
Foreland. The Spur continues northeastward for approximately 10 miles
(16 km) to its termination. Traffic on the Sterling Highway and Kenai
Spur Road is responsible for the bulk of the vehicular emissions in the
study area.
The highest concentrations of vehicular emissions, which consist
primarily of HC, CO, and NO , have been reported in the principal cities,
particularly at intersections where traffic congestion nay occur.
However, traffic volumes In these cities are not sufficient to cause
excessive pollutant concentrations.
The 1976 traffic volume on the Sterling Highway and Kenai Spur Road
(Alaska Department of Highways 1976) and estimates of the yearly
vehicular emission rates of HC, CO, and NO are summarized in Table 7.
Emissions were calculated on the basis of thi USEPA emissions factors for
1978 (Office of Transportation and Land Use Policy 1978).
3.1.6.3. Residential/commercial
Atmospheric emissions from residences principally consist of SO-,
NO , and TSP from fuel combustion for heating. Because the population of
thi study area is sparse, these emissions have a minor impact on the air
quality.
An additional source of atmospheric emissions is the marine vessel
traffic in Cook Inlet. Marine vessels emit S0_, NO , and TSP from fuel
combustion during passage through the Inlet aftd dicing maneuvering in
port. Large vessel traffic in Cook Inlet totaled 613 arrivals and 615
3-43
-------
Table 6. Lower Cook Inlet industrial atmospheric emission sources (Alaska Department of Environmental
Conservation 1975, Dames and Moore, Inc. 1976).
u>
i
¦p-
¦P-
Industry
Chugach Electric
Kenal Pipeline
Phillips Petroleum
Standard Oil
Tesoro-A1aska
Petroleua
Amoco Production
Shell Oil
Union Collier
Shell Oil
Shell Oil
Anoco Production
Amoco Production
Marathon Oil
Marathon Oil
Union Oil
Cook Inlet
Pipeline
Kenal Pipeline
Standard Oil
Alaska Pipeline
Union Oil
Cook Inlet
Pipeline
Chevron USA
Arctic Asphalt
Paving
Alaska Pipeline
Source Description
Bernlce Lake
Power Station
Nlkiskl Terminal
LNG Plant
Alaskan Refinery
Alaskan Refinery
East Foreland
Onshore Facility
East Foreland
Onshore Facility
Amaonia/Urea Plant
Platfora A
Platfora C
Baker Platfora
Dillon Platfora
Dolly Varden Platfora
Trading Bay
Production Facility
Grayling Platfora
West Foreland
Puap Station
Soldotna Creek
Pump Station
Swancon River Gas
Naptovne Puap Station
Kenal Oil Storage
Drift River Terminal
Hoaer Storage Facility
Portable Asphalt Plant
Halifonskt Puap Station
Area Location
on Figure 21
Study Subarea
Loca
Ion
CO
173 (157)
Ealsalons
Metric Tons/year (Short tons/year)
HC
SO,
63
(57)
428
1
(388)
(I)
722 (655)
4,743 (4.302)
277 (206)
(1)
(2)
NO
x
564 (622)
1.417 (1,562)
40 (44)
TSP
19 (21)
50 (55)
3 (3)
1
21
(19)
2,826
(2,563)
180
(198)
16
(18)
1
7
( 6)
14
(15)
5
(5)
1
813
(739)
17
(19)
2
(2)
1
2,167
(1.965)
50
(45)
296
(268)
2,928
(3,228)
900
(992)
North of
11
53
(48)
19
(17)
171
(188)
7
(8)
North of
U
56
(51)
20
(18)
180
(198)
9
(10)
North of
11
23
(21)
8
(7)
71
(78)
5
(5)
North of
11
31
(28)
10
(9)
102
(113)
5
(6)
North of
5
164
(149)
58
(53)
1
(1)
528
(586)
23
(25)
North of
5
131
U19)
1,078
(978)
398
(439)
16
(18)
North of
5
144
(131)
50
(45)
1
(1)
465
(513)
21
(23)
North of
5
5
(5)
2
(2)
16
(18)
1
(1)
1
9
(")
33
(30)
26
(2r)
'
(1)
1
1
1
(1)
1
11
(10)
5
37
(34)
2,993
(2.715)
46
(42)
62
(68)
12
(13)
2
11
(10)
2
1
(1)
2
(2)
21
(23)
2
3
(3)
i
(I)
9
(10)
-------
Table 7. Study area vehicular atmospheric emissions summary (Alaska Department
of Highways 1976; Office of Transportation and Land Use Policy 1978).
Traffic Summary
Subarea
1
1
2
Route
Kenai Spur Rd.
Sterling Hwy.
Sterling Hwy.
Length
miles (km)
29.4 ( 47.2)
48.5 ( 78.1)
68.2 (109.7)
Average Daily Vehicle Miles (km)
Traffic per Day
4,593
1,973
1,437
134,800 (216,900)
95,750 (154,100)
97,940 (157,600)
Atmospheric Emissions
tons/year (metric tons/year)
NO
Subarea HC CO x
1 380 (344) 2,460 (2,230) 408 (370)
2 161 (146) 1,040 ( 943) 173 (157)
3-45
-------
1
I
I,
AREA C
KENAI^-
AREA G—3 ~7 — solootTaK, s,*in« ^
V /Kolgln liloni ( Stf/a* La**
/ c/ ^AREA F *
> S**t Htrber
Tut turn*no Loh*
K
Anchor f»9ii>t
AREA
/* Keehtmok^ , '
h2home^k"^
SELDOVf A£~"^
S
CPO,
MLES
1
o to »
WAMftA, IMC.
FIGURE 21
INDUSTRIAL EMISSION SOURCE AREA LOCATIONS
3-46
-------
departures in 1974. The two large vessel ports in the study area,
Nikiski and Drift River, received 373 and 153 vessel arrivals, respec-
tively, in 1974 (Dames and Moore, Inc. 1976). This level of vessel
traffic should not cause a significant impact on the air quality of the
study area.
3.2. Biological Environment
3.2.1. Marine biology
Cook Inlet supports a rich and diverse marine biological system that
is similar in composition to that present along much of the North Pacific
coast. The macrophytes (plants larger than microscopic size) and
phytoplankton (microscopic plants) that form the basis of this system
provide food and, in the case of some macrophytes, the habitat that
supports commercially valuable fish and shellfish.
3.2.1.1. Major biotic zones
Cook Inlet may be divided into three major biotic zones: intertidal,
subtidal benthic, and pelagic. Within each zone numerous abiotic factors
influence the composition of the community. These factors include:
• Light penetration
• Frequency and duration of exposure to air (in the intertidal
zone)
• Currents
• Waves energy
• Nutritive materials in the water (organic and inorganic)
• Water chemistry and temperature.
Currents, waves, and the benthic biological communities interact to
from a seventh abiotic feature, the substrate. Dames and Moore, Inc.
(1977) defined six basic intertidal habitats:
•
Pavement/bedrock, bench, or reef
•
Boulder field
•
Gravel/cobble beach
•
Brown or grey sand beach
•
Sand/gravel flats
•
Mud flats.
Generally the first three habitats were observed in both protected and
exposed locations, the fourth in exposed situations, and the last two in
protected areas. Protected areas were observed in embayments and, in the
3-47
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southern part of Kamishak Bay, behind offshore sandstone reefs and finger
reefs (Dames and Moore, Inc. 1977) .
DrLskell and Dames and Moore, Inc. (1977) recorded six major benthic
facies in the outer part of Kachemak Bay:
• Boulder-large cobble facies
• Shell debris facies
• Sand facies
• Mud sand facies
• Silt facies.
The subtidal facies from 10 to 100 meters in depth in outer Kachemak
Bay were composed of sand, shell debris, and silt (Driskell and Dames
and Moore, Inc. 1977). The southcentral portion of the Cook Inlet is
known to contain extensive areas of rippled, presumably dynamic sand
deposition. Based on other data it is apparent that extensive areas of
outcrops and boulders exist in subtidal zones within the Cook Inlet.
3.2.1.2. Biotic communities
The intertidal and near subtidal zones are of particular importance
to the Cook Inlet system. Macrophytes in the intertidal and subtidal
zones have been estimated to provide a considerable part of the primary
productivity that feeds the Cook Inlet system (Dames and Moore, Inc.
1977). Within these zones many species of fish and marine invertebrates
find habitat, food, and spawning substrates.
3.2.1.3. Marine macrophytes
The producer components of the intertidal and near subtidal zones
typically consist of various red (Rhodophyta), brown (Phaeophyta), and
green (Chlorophyta) algae that are attached to the substrate. Eelgrass
(Zostera marina) also is important in some localities. Within the
mid-intertidal zone, red algae (including Rhodymenia palmata.
Callophyllis spp., Halosaccion glandiforme, and Odonthalia) and two
species of brown algae, or rockweed (Fucus distichus, and Alaria spp.)
usually comprise most of the living producer component, both in blomass
and in bottom coverage. In the lower intertidal zone three laminarian
kelps (Laminaria groenlandica, Alaria spp., and Hedophyllum sessile)
usually form the majority of the macrophytes. In the subtidal zone, two
brown algae, bull kelp (Nereocystis luetkeana) and ribbon kelp (Alaria
fistulosa), may form dense canopies in the near subtidal zone (waters up
to 12 meters deep). In waters deeper than 25 meters, Laminaria
groenlandica and Agarum cribosum usually are the main components. At the
vertical extremes of the macrophyte range (from the upper limits of the
high tides to the depths where light penetration is minimal), there
usually is but a single layer, or canopy, of macrophytes. The macrophyte
communities become more complex as they approach the near subtidal zone
from each extreme, and distinct layers (canopies) develop. Mature
communities develop as many as five distinct canopies, with the great
3-48
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brown kelps (Laminarla or Nereocystls) in the uppermost layers and
crustose coralline algae forming the thin bottom layer against the firm
substrates.
On the east and west sides of the Inlet subtidal assemblages differ
both in species composition and in maturity. On the east side, the
subtidal assemblages typically are composed of larger individuals of the
upper canopy macrophytes and have larger species diversity. Eelgrass
beds are confined to coves and bays where the necessary substrates and
some shelter from the waves are available. Glacial silt may prevent
establishment of eelgrass beds (McRoy 1970). The locations of kelp and
eelgrass beds in the Lower Cook Inlet are illustrated in the subarea
profiles. The specimens of intertidal and subtidal algae collected by
Driskell and Dames and Moore, Inc. (1977), and Dames and Moore, Inc.
(1977) are listed in Table 8. A comprehensive literature search was not
conducted, but the more common intertidal and subtidal macrophytes and
many of the less common species as well are listed.
Dames and Moore, Inc. (1977) defined intertidal and subtidal com-
munities in terms of the net import and export of plant and detrital
material, and estimated that phytoplankton, subtidal and intertidal
macrophytes, and organic input from terrestrial sources were approxi-
mately of equal importance as food sources at the primary trophic level.
Communities with high aquatic macrophytic productivity usually are net
exporters of plant material. In the Lower Cook Inlet, high macrophytic
productivity occurs in rocky intertidal and subtidal zones in water
depths of less than 50 meters and in eelgrass beds. Communities with low
macrophytic production usually support low secondary (animal)
productivity unless they are located so that they receive transported
(exported) plant materials. These import communities occur in most of
the Lower Cook Inlet that is deeper than 50 meters (approximately 27
fathoms), and include many of the communities associated with sand or mud
substrate in waters shallower than 50 meters.
Three characteristic intertidal fauna assemblages occur in the Lower
Cook Inlet, each determined by the substrate. The three major substrate
types are mud flats, sand beaches, and rocks. These substrates may
intergrade gradually (for example, from a sand to mud beach) or abruptly
(such as a rocky outcrop on a sandy beach).
The mudflat assemblages usually occur in protected locations. The
assemblages are composed chiefly of deposit and suspension feeders,
including polychaete worms, the spoonworm (Echiurus echiuras alaskansus),
and soft-shell and pink clams. On mudflats covered with eelgrass, the
soft-shells largely are replaced by butter clams (Saxidonsus giganteus).
little-neck clams (Protothaca staminea), and gapers (Tresus capax).
Sandy beach assemblages typically are import communities and pri-
marily contain deposit and suspension feeders. Important fauna include
redneck clams, razor clams, butterfly tellinas, and annelid worms.
The rocky intertidal and subtidal assemblages may be import or
export communities. The intertidal fauna usually Is composed of sus-
pension feeders, such as mussels and barnacles, and their predators. The
biomass and diversity of the assemblages increase where abundant macro-
3-49
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Table 8. Macrophytes reported from the Lower Cook Inlet (Dames and Moore,
Inc. 1977; Driskell and Dames and Moore, Inc. 1977).
Brown Algaa - Phaecophyta
Ilea sp.
Melanoalphon sp.
f.aminaria groanlandlca
L. saccharina
Deamareatia sp.
D. virldls D. llaulaca
Aaarua crlbrosum
Soranthara ulvoldea
Coatarla coatata
Hedophyllua sessile
Cygcoaeira gemlaaca
Alarla marglnata
A. taeniata
A. praelonga
A. fistulosa
Nereocyatia lutkaana
Pvlaialla littoralls
Chorda f Hum
Analipua iaponicus
Scvtoalphon lomentaria
Chordarla flagalllformis
Ralfaia sp.
Ralfsla paclflca
Hlldenbrandia sp.
Fucua sp.
P. diaticua
Haterochordaria abiatina
Green Algaa - Chlorophyta
Enteromorpha ap.
E. linza
¥. cabuloaa
¥. incaatinaiis
Ulva sp.
Olochrlx sp.
Uroapora sp.
Monostroma sp.
M. Fuacun
Chlorophyta (unidantifiad)
Claopfrora sp.
Soongomorpha sp.
ll
Had Algaa - Rhodophyta
Conatantinaa sp.
£. subullfara
simplex
Mambranoptara waakalaa
Coralllna sp.
£. vancourveriansis
Red Algaa (continued)
Erythroglosaum 3p.
Caramlum sp.
Gracilariopai8 sp.
Gloiopeltis furcata
Bymanema sacchalli
Xridaaa lineara
Iridaaa sp.
Polvslphonia handrvi var. gardneri
Llthophyllua sp.
Llthothrix aapergillum
Phycodrys sp.
Rhodophyca (unidantifiad)
Encrusting coralline algaa
Opuntiella ap.
Caramlum ant-nn'tflTimn
Polvsiphonia
collinal
paclflca
Ptilota
P. tenuis
Rhodomela larix
Rhodomenia palmata
a. purtuaaa
Endocladia auricata
Endocladia sp.
Odonthalia
0. floccoaa
£. kamachatica
Ahnfeltla plicata
Porphvra ap.
Schizymanla
Heterochordarla
tallymania
Ptaroalohonia sp.
F. blpinnata
Cryptonamia
Codiua rittarl
Rhodoglossum afflna
Halaaaccion glandiforme
Foliose rad algae
Filamentous red algae
Callophvllls pilceanum
C,. flaballulata
Ungrouped Algae
Praaiola meridionalus
Ptarocelis
Cymathere triplicata
Chryptoalohonla woodl
Halicystia ovalis
3-50
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phytes are present (Dames and Morre, Inc. 1977) . The rocky subtidal
fauna consists largely of suspension feeders, both in biomass and in
numbers. Primary consumers include chitons, sea urchins, and limpets.
Starfish and demersal fish, including greenling, sculpins, and flatfish
are the most important predators. Subtidal faunal assemblages sampled by
Dames and Moore, Inc. (1977) on the west side of the Inlet typically were
less diverse and contained a smaller biomass than assemblages sampled on
the east side. The differences were attributed to siltation, lower
productivity, ice scouring, and more severe winter conditions on the west
side of the Inlet.
The intertidal and subtidal assemblages contain several species that
are of commercial and/or recreational importance, or are critical to the
Lower Cook Inlet system or to other key species. On the producer level,
Dames and Moore, Inc. (1977) estimated that phytoplankton, subtidal and
intertidal macrophytes, and organic input from terrestrial sources were
roughly equal in importance in fixing energy at the primary trophic
level. Thus perhaps one-third of the food resources of the Lower Cook
Inlet ultimately are derived from the macrophytes. Eelgrass plays the
same role in the intertidal mudflats and also serves as a food source and
staging area for migrating waterfowl. Both eelgrass and the macrophytes
alter the substrates and provide additional substrates, thereby
increasing both species diversity and productivity. The kelps also may
reduce wave shock to the beaches behind them.
At the consumer trophic levels, the intertidal and shallow subtidal
zones may provide essential habitats for the various life stages of
commercial crabs and the kelps are essential spawning substrate for
Pacific herring. The invertebrates, fish, and vegetation in these zones
constitute the sole food source for many shorebirds and ducks and also
are important sources of food for sea otters, seals, sea lions, sea
birds, and juvenile fish. Salmon, sea-run char, and sea-run trout spend
varying periods in this zone after they leave the freshwater streams.
In a general sense, the intertidal-shallow subtidal assemblages are,
as an entity, a key element of the Lower Cook Inlet system. Any
perturbation sufficient to affect one member of the assemblage will be
felt by the entire assemblage and, if sufficiently widespread, eventually
will be reflected by an alteration in the productivity of the system.
The most significant dangers to the assemblages come as the consequence
of their position at the interface between sea and land and their
functions of fixing solar energy and being the primary consumers of that
energy. Their position is perilous because anything floating on the sea
(such as oil) will be concentrated at the shoreline (Hayes and others
1977). Their function is tenuous because any element, such as silt, that
reduces light penetration also reduces production.
3.2.1.4. Commercial fisheries
Crabs, shrimp, salmon, halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis), and
Pacific herring (Clupea harengas pallas) are harvested commercially in
the southern third of Cook Inlet. The potential also exists for the
commercial harvest of groundfish and clams. Farther north, up the Inlet,
salmon become the mainstay of the commercial fishing. Some halibut and
clams are harvested commercially in the central part of the Inlet, but
3-51
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salmon constitute the principal commercial fishery resource north of
Anchor Point.
The Alaska Division of Commercial Fisheries has defined seven
regulatory districts for commercial fishing in the Cook. Inlet-Ressur-
rection Bay area (Figure 22; adapted from Alaska Department of Fish and
Game 1975). Four of those districts are included in the study area: the
Central District, the Kamishak Bay District, the Southern District, and
approximately 40% of the Barren Island District. Preliminary commercial
harvest data for these districts are presented in Table 9. Harvest data
for halibut are not available for the study area. Halibut catch is
controlled by the International Pacific Halibut Commission, and catch
data are reported directly to the Commission. The Commission publishes
the results for broad areas. The Cook Inlet data are included in the
results for the Gulf of Alaska.
Commercial fish harvests are controlled by complicated systems based
on closed seasons, emergency season openings and closings, harvest
quotas, escapement data, age class distributions, and management goals.
The systems are intended to provide an optimum sustainable yield to the
combined commercial and sport fisheries. Life history, critical
habitats, and factors limiting populations have been studied to varying
degrees for each commercial species.
Salmon
Five species of salmon are harvested in the Lower Cook Inlet:
Sockeye (red) salmon Onchorhyncus nerka
Chinook (kind) salmon Onchorhyncus tshawytscha
Coho (silver) salmon Onchorhyncus klsutch
Chum salmon Onchorhyncus keta
Pink salmon Onchorhyncus gorbuscha
Sockeye are the most valuable of the salmon — chum and pink salmon
bring substantially less at the dock, and stocks of Chinook were depleted
earlier in the century by commercial fishing. The catch now is
regulated, and comparatively few are harvested commercially each year.
Coho run later in the year than other species, and most reach the Inlet
after commercial salmon fishing ceases.
Salmon probably are the most studied group of fishes in the world.
The basic elements of their life history and requirements have been
understood for many years, but it is recognized that a population may be
discrete to a single river system or even a single tributary, and that
even multiple spawning runs to a common stream represent separate
populations that must be managed separately.
The life histories of the commercial salmon include a developmental
phase in the spawning substrate (generally in freshwater, but sometimes
in brackish or intertidal environments), development of the fry to
juvenile or other sub-mature stages in freshwater or shallow marine
environments, growth to near-maturity in open ocean, and migration to
spawning habitat. Often the spawning site is the same tributary or site
where the fry were "imprinted" with the "memory" of identifying olfactory
characteristics of the surroundings. The period spent in each life
3-52
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Table 9. Commercial harvest of salmon, herring, and shellfish in 1978 (preliminary data; Personal
communication, Mr. Dennis Haanpaas, Alaska Department of Fish and Game, to Mr, Guy McConnell,
WAPORA, Inc., 9 November 1978). Salmon data are numbers of fish; shellfish data are pounds
of fish; herring data are tons of fish. Shellfish data are for the period from 1 January to
30 September 1978; other data are for the full 1978 season. The locations/extent of the
districts are shown in Figure 22.
DISTRICT
Salmon
Eastern Northern
Central
Southern
Outer
Kamishak
Total
King
0 1,104
16,527
1,348
236
0
19,215
Red
2 66,003
2,547,371
141,049
10,707
4
,619
2,769,751
Coho
582 49,221
171,798
4,084
53
1
,589
227,327
Pink
29,738 342,129
1,314,419
249,017
70,091
4
,727
2,010,121
Chum
3,050 36,948
531,318
5,635
19,220
44
,918
641,089
Total
33,372 495,405
4,581,433
401,133
100,307
55
,853
5,667,503
Shellfish
Southern Kamishak-Barren
Central-Outer-Eastern
Total
(through September)
King crab
730,915
484,657
0
1,215,572
Tanner crab
1,115,942 2
,060,664
488,360
3,664,966
Dungeness crab
1,041,376
0
0
1,041,376
Trawl shrimp
4,123,802
0
640
4,124,442
Pot shrimp
249,558
0
8,430
257,988
Razor clams
0
0
45,931
45,931
Herring 463 tons
-------
history phase and each habitat type is different for each species and nay
differ^ appreciably between populations. Detailed descriptions of the
life histories of the five species of salmon harvested from Cook Inlet
are available from the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (1978a), Scott
and Crossman (1973), Hart (1973), and a large number of monographs on the
family Salmonidae. Salmon spawning sites are identified and discussed in
each of the subarea profiles.
Salmon production and the numbers in each population are determined
by escapement (numbers that survive to reach the spawning beds), spawning
success abiotic and biotic conditions in the "nursery habitats, water
temperatures and food availability in the open ocean, and predation
throughout the life cycle. Human activities, such as commercial har-
vesting and unintentional disturbance or alteration of spawning and
nursery habitat, may present the most serious threats to salmon
populations. Typically, salmon eggs develop and hatch in the interstices
of a gravel substrate, where the alevin remain until the yolksac is
absorbed and they emerge as swimup fry. For most salmon, development to
swimup fry requires several months, and the emergence of the fry
coincides approximately with the spring breakup. Any activity or event
that disturbs the gravel substrate, such as severe floods, dredging, or
other instream activity, will destroy the developing salmon. Reduction
of water flow through the gravel interstices from siltation, biochemical
oxygen demand from the decomposition of organic materials, drought,
freezing, or reduction of groundwater may destroy the fry in a spawning
bed.
Pink salmon and chum salmon fry typically begin migration to
saltwater immediately after they emerge from the gravel. Coho, chinook,
and sockeye salmon fry usually remain in rearing habitats in freshwater
lakes or streams for one to three years. The success of each year-class
of salmon is determined, in part, by the survival and growth rates of the
fry and juveniles in the rearing habitats. Predation, competition, water
auality and primary productivity are factors that influence salmon
year-class strength. In the typical oligotrophy environment of a salmon
spawning stream, comparatively minor alterations in habitat, water
aualitv or productivity may be important determinants of year-class
success. Alterations of habitat and water quality by erosion the
addition of chemical and organic wastes, dam construction and operation,
water diversion, and the introduction of competing species are activities
that have been cited as decreasing year-class success.
Pink and chum saloon fry usually reside in the shallow subtidal
. . . „ , *L^r first svunmer. Abiotic conditions and
productivity In 't^rnarl^ hSSt may be more stable than In a
freshwater habitat, but predation may be more intense. Salmon fry in a
marine habitat may be affected by broad shifts of productivity and by
local changes In habitat or water quality. Boat harbors and other marine
structures may form attractive habitats for salmon fry and pollution
associated with their operation may be detrimental to local salmon
populations.
Salmon normally attain most of their growth In the open ocean. In
that environment predators consist primarily of large fish, sea majmnals,
and man Productivity In the marine environment may be affected by
temperature and currents, which also may be factors in the determination
3-54
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ANCHORAGE
COMMERCIAL FISHERIES OfSTIWeT IOUNOAKY
FIGURE 22
COMMERCIAL FISHERY REGULATORY DISTRICTS
10 to
wapoka, inc.
3-55
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of salmon survival, growth rates, and the timing of their return to
spawning streams.
In the open ocean, salmon are caught commercially by trawling.
During their return to spawning streams salmon are caught by trolling, by
purse seining, by drifting gillnets, and in gillnets set along the
shoreline. In the inshore waters and en route to the spawning streams,
salmon are a major part of the summer hook-and-line sport and subsistence
fishery. In some localities they are collected for subsistence or
commercial purposes in set gillnets and in fish wheels.
The sport, commercial, and subsistence harvest seasons and quotas
are set for each year and for each spawning population. They are based
on expected returns and escapement goals and are modified throughout the
spawning season by emergency season openings and closures.
Halibut
Mature halibut seldom are harvested in quantity in waters less than
30 meters In depth. Most of the harvest is from the open waters in the
central and southern sections of Cook Inlet. A small percentage of the
harvest is taken by sport (rod and reel) fishermen, but the commercial
harvest is collected by set lines (skates), a series of hooks on a long
weighted line, the location of which is marked with a surface buoy at one
end. Skates are checked approximately every 24 hours. The Cook Inlet
halibut season usually consists of a series of open seasons that begin
during the spring, run for two weeks each month, and last until the Gulf
of Alaska halibut harvest quota is filled (usually during the autumn).
Comparatively little is known of the life history and critical habitat
requirements of halibut in the Cook Inlet. Habitats where spawning and
the early phases of life history occur should be considered critical at
least until the importance and extent of such habitats has been defined.
Known spawning/rearing localities are indicated in the Subarea profiles.
Pacific herring
Pacific herring (Clupea harengus pallas) were harvested In the early
twentieth century for salting and human consumption. That harvest ceased
after a few years and, until recently, the herring fishery was composed
of a few tons collected each year for fish bait. During the last decade,
the Japanese demand for herring roe has rejuvenated the market. Herring
are collected by seining during the spring. The fish are brought on
shore and stripped of their roe, which then is salted or sent to Japan
for processing. The carcasses are made into a low^value by-product.
Pacific herring concentrate in spawning aggregations during the
spring and may be extremely vulnerable to purse seining. Commercial
fishing probably is the major control mechanism for the Cook Inlet
herring populations. Herring spawn in macrophyte beds, and the eggs
attach to the macrophytes. These beds, particularly the kelps, should be
considered critical habitats. Herring are sensitive to petroleum-derived
material, and minute concentrations of light petroleum distillates may
reduce spawning success significantly.
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Dolly Varden
Depending on the climate and the availability of saltwater the life
history of the Dolly Varden char (Salvelinus malma) may vary considerably
from one river system to the next. In the simplest case, Dolly Varden
remain landlocked in the same freshwater system throughout their life
history. These landlocked "yellow fins" frequently overpopulate and are
stunted. Scott and Crossman (1973) described the life history of the
Dolly Varden. Landlocked Dolly Varden spawn during the autumn, when
water temperatures reach approximately 46°F, over medium- to large-
diameter gravel in rivers or streams with moderate currents. The eggs
hatch four to five months later during the early spring. The alevins
emerge from the gravel approximately 18 days later, after the yolk is de-
pleted. The young Dolly Varden eat a variety of insect larvae as well as
snails, leeches, and other invertebrates. Larger Dollys also consume
small fish and fish eggs. In streams accessible to saltwater, the Dolly
Varden life history is the same as described above until the fish are
several years old. At that time they may begin a cycle of migration
between freshwater and saltwater each year. The migration pattern varies
in different parts of Alaska and may become complex. Work by Armstrong
(1965) in southeastern Alaska showed that migrating Dolly Varden move
into the sea soon after breakup. They remain near the stream mouth for a
few days and then move away. During the summer they ascend one or more
freshwater streams and return to freshwater. In the autumn many return
to their home streams to overwinter if there is a lake on the stream
system. If the home stream has no lake, the Dolly Varden overwinter in
one of the streams they explored during the summer. Spawning usually
occurs in the home stream, but may occur in one of the streams the Dolly
Varden enters near the end of summer. Farther north, the cooler
temperatures and shorter summers tend to abbreviate the migration
patterns. Dolly Varden still sea run, but may not enter more than one
stream during the summer.
In Alaska, the major threats to Dolly Varden populations are over-
fishing in accessible streams, the disruption of spawning areas, and the
blockage of migration routes by culverts, fords, logging slash, or other
materials. Dolly Varden management efforts usually are directed toward
stocking Dollys in depleted systems and clearing streams of debris and
obstructions.
Rainbow trout
Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) occur throughout most of the Kenai
Peninsula and in a few streams on the western shore of the Cook Inlet.
Rainbows frequently share lakes and streams with Dolly Varden and Pacific
salmon, but may be unable to establish viable populations in the colder
waters that Dolly Varden and Pacific salmon may use. Rainbow trout spawn
during the late spring, generally in small streams, after the waters warm
to above 40°F. They construct their redds in fine gravel. The eggs
require two to four months to hatch, and the alevins may remain in the
gravel for several more weeks. After emerging they usually remain near
the spawning site for several years, then they may move into larger pools
or into deeper waters of lakes. Anadromous rainbow trout (steelheads)
may remain at sea for several years, then return to freshwater (usually
to the home stream) to spawn. Unlike salmon, some steelheads survive
spawning and return to the sea.
3-57
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Eulachon
Eulachon (Thaleichthys paclficus), also commonly known as hooligan,
is a smelt less than 8 inches in length that inhabits the Pacific Coast
north of California. Its range includes the Cook Inlet. Eulachon
migrate into tidal estuaries and the lower reaches of rivers to spawn in
the sand each year. Most die, but a few may survive to spawn again. In
the Cook Inlet, the major spawning areas are streams entering upper
Turnagain Arm and the lower Kenai River. Eulachon provide some of the
first openwater sportfishing of the year and support an intensive fishery
for a few weeks each spring. Management consists of regulating the har-
vest. The populations are most vulnerable to disturbances of the
spawning beds. This was illustrated by the 1964 earthquake, which
disrupted many spawning areas in southcentral Alaska and severely reduced
eulachon populations.
Crabs
Three crab species, king (Paralithodes camtschatica), Tanner or
snow (Chionoecetes bairdi), and dungeness (Cancer magister), are
harvested commercially in Cook Inlet. Seasons include various openings
and closures for each species. There also are size limits and
restrictions on the retention of females for each species. Crabs are
caught commercially with baited crab pots. Dungeness crabs typically are
found in shallower water (less than 50 meters) than either of the other
species. All three species migrate each year for mating, feeding, or
wintering. Crab populations in the Cook Inlet may be determined
primarily by the harvest effort. Critical habitats are areas where crabs
concentrate and areas where spawning and early development occur. Human
activities affect crabs primarily in the larval stages, when they are
most likely to be in shallow water, are most susceptible to pollution,
and are least mobile.
The major commercial crab harvest areas are indicated in the subarea
profiles. An area west of the Homer Spit that is especially important
for dungeness and Tanner crab spawning has been established as a marine
sanctuary, where crabbing is forbidden. This sanctuary also is shown in
the subarea profiles.
Shrimp
The shrimp harvest is composed of three families: Crangonidae,
Hippolytidae, and Pandalidae. Five species of the family Pandalidae
constitute virtually all the commercial harvest from the study area
(Trasky and others 1977). They are:
Pink shrimp Pandalus borealis
Coonstripe shrimp Pandalus hypsinotus
Humpy shrimp Pandalus goniurus
Spot shrimp Pandalus platyceros
Sidestripe shrimp Pandalopis dispar
Pink shrimp and humpy shrimp are harvested by trawling. The other
species usually are associated with substrates too rough for trawling and
are harvested through the use of baited shrimp pots. The trawl shrimp
3-58
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harvest in most years totals approximately 5.5-million pounds, and the
pot shrimp harvest approximately 0.5-million pounds. Individual pot
shrimp usually are larger than trawl shrimp and bring several times the
price per pound of the trawl shrimp.
Within the study area, almost the entire shrimp harvest is from
Kachemak Bay or adjacent Cook Inlet waters. Other areas may have
commercially harvestable shrimp populations, but rough substrates and the
distance to markets have prevented their development. The high pro-
ductivity of Kachemak Bay probably is an important factor determining
shrimp population levels in the Bay. Crow (1977) reported that pink and
humpy shrimp had ingested amorphous organic material, hard invertebrate
parts, diatoms, and fragments of macrophytes. The diatoms were epiphitic
algae associated with eelgrass; thus, it is possible that eelgrass beds
may be critical to trawl shrimp in Kachemak Bay.
The only identified concentrations of shrimp larvae were in Kachemak
Bay, indicating that spawning occurs in or near the Bay and that the Bay
provided critical spawning habitat. The currents form a gyre that may
hold the larvae in the bay during their early development. The areas of
largest shrimp larvae concentration are depicted in the subarea profiles.
Clams
Hard-shelled and soft-shelled clams and mussels, including the
following eleven species, are abundant or potentially abundant within the
study area (Paul and Feder 1975):
Razor Siliqua patula and S_. alta
Butter clam Saxidomus gigantea
Littleneck clan Protothaca stamlnea
Soft-shell clam Mya arenaria
Soft-shell clam Mya prlapus
Truncate soft-shell clam Mya truncata
Pinkneck clam Spisula polynyma
Butterfly tellin Tel Una lutea
Blue mussel Mytilus edulis
The bulk of the clams harvested commercially from the study area are
razor clams, which also form the basis for most of the recreational clam
harvest. The most abundant of the two species is Siliqua patula; the
less common, S_. alta, is collected infrequently, except in Kachemak Bay.
Most of the commercial razor clam harvest is used for crab bait. Alaska
statutes allow clams to be harvested for human consumption only from beds
that are certified to be safe by the Alaska Department of Natural
Resources. Clams may be harvested commercially from other sources, but
must be colored with yellow dye. The recreational razor clam harvest is
primarily from the Kenai Peninsula beaches between Anchor Point and
Kasilof. During 1972, approximately 437,500 razor clams were harvested
from this area by 15,400 recreational clam diggers (Paul and Feder 1975),
and the recreational harvest since has increased. The Alaska Department
of Fish and Game (1978a) estimated the 1978 recreational harvest at
approximately one million razor clams. The Alaska Department of Natural
Resources, recognizing the importance of this harvest, has designated the
major clamming areas as "critical habitats."
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The potential for an expanded commercial harvest is limited by
paralytic shellfish poison (PSP), a toxin accumulated by filterfeeding
molluscs, presumably from dinoflagellate phytoplankton. PSP has killed
several hundred Alaskans during the last 200 years and is present in
varying quantities in all clams. Acceptable quantities of the toxin have
been defined, and a complex chemical testing regime is used to approve
beds for harvest. Demand for clams and other bivalves is increasing, and
if a field technique for evaluating PSP were to be developed, commercial
harvest of clams might increase substantially.
Bivalve populations may be affected by predation, water temperature,
pollution, siltation, and disturbance of the substrate. These problems
may be amplified by the limited mobility of the bivalves. Because
bivalves typically are concentrated in import communities, any change in
the productivity of contributing export communities could be expected to
affect the bivalve communities.
Potential fisheries
The potential exists for two other commercial fisheries in the Lower
Cook Inlet. There is a potential fishery for scallops (Patinopecten
caurinus), but it has not been developed because concentrations are
marginal for commercial fishing. Also, scallop fishing could interfere
with crabbing and is not permitted by the Alaska Department of Fish and
Game. Groundfish, a general group of edible midwater and bottom fishes
not included in other fisheries, have only begun to be exploited in
Alaska. Exploratory trawls indicate that an ample stock of commercial
species is present in the Lower Cook Inlet. Development of this resource
has been delayed, because the expensive processing infrastructure and the
large trawlers needed for the industry are not present.
3.2.1.5. Marine mammals
Several groups of marine mammals, including harbor seals (Phoca
vitulina), northern fur seals (Callorhinus ursinus), Steller sea lions
(Eumetopias jubuta), and sea otters (Enhydra lutris), inhabit the study
area. Sea lions are restricted largely to the open marine environments
near the mouth of Cook Inlet. Harbor seals are found throughout the
Lower Cook Inlet. Beluga whales (Delphinapterus leucus) also may be
found throughout the Inlet and in the river estuaries. Sea otters are
found south of Anchor Point and the Iniskin Peninsula on both sides of
the Inlet. Dall porpoises (Phocoenoides dalli), harbor porpoises
(Phocoena phocoena), and killer whales, or orcas (Orcinus orca), enter
Cook Inlet.
Twelve other species of whales have been reported from the Lower
Cook Inlet:
Sperm whale
Minke whale
Grey whale
Humpback whale
Fin whale
Pacific right whale
Sei whale
Physeter catodon
Balaenoptera acutorostrata
Eschrichtius robustus
Megaptera novaeangliae
Babenoptera physalus
Balaena glacialis
Balaenoptera boraelis
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Stejneger's beaked whale
Goose-beaked (Cuvier's beaked) whale
Giant bottlenose (Baird's beaked) whale
Blue whale
North Pacific white-sided dolphin
Mescoplodon stejnegeri
Ziphius cavirostris
Balaenoptera musculus
Lagenorhynchus acutus
Berardius bairdi
Northern fur seals are only occasional visitors to the study area,
but harbor seals are widely distributed in the Lower Cook Inlet. The
Alaska Department of Fish and Game (1978b) estimated the Lower Cook Inlet
harbor seal population to be 3,000.
The Steller sea lions are concentrated throughout the year near
several hauling-out areas in the Lower Cook Inlet. The largest con-
centrations are in the Barren Islands, south of the study area. The
Alaska Department of Fish and Game (1978b) estimated the Lower Cook Inlet
sea lion population to be 20,000. More than half of these individuals
inhabited Sugarloaf Island in the Barren Island group.
Sea lions, harbor seals, and sea otters may be especially sensitive
to human activity. Population recruitment of both sea lions and harbor
seals may be affected; abandonment of pups and consequent mortality may
result. Disturbances such as boat, aircraft, or foot traffic are
especially detrimental during the early summer, soon after the seals bear
their young.
Sea otters apparently are affected less by activity than sea lions
or seals (as is evidenced by their abundance near the Homer boat harbor),
but are especially vulnerable to petroleum pollution. Schneider (1977)
reported:
Sea otters are probably the most vulnerable of all marine
mammals to the direct effects of oil. Unlike most marine
mammals they have no thick blubber layer. They rely on air
trapped in their dense fur for conservation of body heat and
buoyancy ... it appears that relatively small amounts of both
refined fuels and crude oil will cause death (by reducing the
insulative qualities of the fur).
Two large sea otter populations are located in the study area. The
first, centered around Augustine Island in Kamishak Bay, probably
developed from a population remnant from the early 1900s, when exploi-
tation by pelagic fur hunters almost caused the annihilation of the sea
otter. The second population is centered in Kachemak Bay and extends
north as far as Ninilchik and south to the outer Kenai Peninsula. Both
population centers should be considered critical sea otter habitats.
Sea otter populations in Cook Inlet still are recovering and are
expanding rapidly. As the populations approach the carrying capacity of
the Inlet, sea otters may have profound effects on the near-shore benthic
communities. Estes and Palmisano (1974) noted that sea otter populations
in the Aleutian Islands, with a reported density of 20 to 30 individuals
per square kilometer of habitat, reduced the populations of sea urchins
and chitons to approximately 10% and to less than 3%, respectively, of
the populations noted at sites not populated by sea otters. Foraging sea
urchins reduce macrophyte biomass in the intertidal zones. Loss of these
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macrophytes constitutes a loss of food, substrate, and habitat important
to many nearshore fish invertebrates. If the sea otters control sea
urchin populations in the Cook Inlet, as apparently they have on Rat
Island in the Aleutians, they may cause a habitat shift that will favor a
quite different nearshore community.
3.2.1.6. Birds
Erickson (1977) defines seabirds as "...species which, during some
part of their life cycle, come in contact with the marine environment;
this varies from a transitory association such as the migrating dabblers
to the truly pelagic species such as the shearwaters."
He listed six seabird habitats in Lower Cook. Inlet. They were:
• Offshore water — waters more than 3 nautical miles (3.45
miles) from land
• Inshore water — waters within 3 nautical miles of land
• Rock shore — steep rocks or rubble beaches
• Sea cliffs — near-vertical rock cliffs with little or no
vegetation
• Sea beaches and tidal flats — intertidal beaches
• Coastal floodplains — large areas of low, wet lands from
the normal high tide mark to the maximum storm water
level.
Sea ducks, shearwaters, murres, gulls, puffins, guillemots, murrelets,
and cormorants are the principal seabirds in offshore waters. These
birds also inhabit inshore waters, where they nest on seacliffs or rocky
shores. Many of the sea ducks and gulls nest and feed in the sea
beach-tidal flat and coastal floodplain habitats. Geese, dabbling ducks
(puddle ducks), and shorebirds, including black oystercatchers, plovers,
snipe, turnstones, sandpipers, yellowlegs, dulin, dowitchers, surfblrds,
and others, also nest and feed in these two wetland habitats.
Winter sea bird populations are small, consisting largely of sea
ducks overwintering in small bays and in the mouth of Kachemak Bay.
During the early spring and autumn, populations increase and decrease
rapidly as sea birds migrate into the Inlet to breed or as transients.
Summer nesting populations are centered around the rocky shores, sea
cliffs, or floodplains used as nesting sites and as the feeding areas
that support the nesting populations.
Critical seabird habitats include habitats that support dense
concentrations of seabirds and habitats that are essential to any phase
of a species' life history. Colonies and concentration areas for feeding
or overwintering birds are critical habitats for pelagic marine birds.
Nesting habitat may be critical for ducks and shorebirds. Staging areas,
where waterfowl congregate prior to, or during, spring or autumn
migration periods may be critical feeding and resting sites for geese and
ducks.
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3.2.2. Freshwater biology
3.2.2.1. System components and limiting factors
Freshwater streams and lakes typically are oligotrophic (lacking in
plant nutrients) and are either nearly transparent or extremely turbid,
depending on whether or not glacial meltwater is contributed to the
watershed* In most lakes and streams of the study area, members of the
sculpin, stickleback, and salmon families constitute the predominant
fishes. The Salmonids include the five species of salmon harvested
commercially — rainbow trout (Salmo galrdneri), Dolly Varden (Salvelinus
raalma), lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush), Arctic grayling (Thymallus
arcticus), and a species of white fish (Coregoninae). TWo stickleback
species are present — the treespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus)
and the ninespine stickleback (Pungitius pu ngi tius). Several species of
sculpin are present, including, at a minimum, the slimy sculpin (Cottus
cognatus), coastrange sculpin (Cottus aleuticus), and staghorn sculpin
(Leptocuttus armatus). Lampreys (Lampetra spp.), sturgeon (Acipenser
sp.), American shad (Alosa sapidissima), blackfish (Pallia pectoralis).
northern pike (Esox lucius), burbot (Lota lota), suckers (family
Catostomidae), and several species of smelt (family Osmeridae) also have
been reported to be present In these lakes and streams.
The diversity of fish species and of the organisms that comprise
their diet generally are less than those in warmwater systems. Fish
species often are adapted to utilize efficiently a broad range of food
sizes. Trout fry, for example, use zooplankton as a primary food source.
As they grow they are able to take larger invertebrates and fish, but
throughout their life trout retain the ability to collect zooplankton on
their gill rakers. Zooplankton may remain important components of their
diet.
In Alaska, most of the research conducted in freshwater systems has
focused on the salmonid species — salmon, trout, and char — and their
management. Regulations governing the usage of freshwater systems
generally are based on the assumption that protection of the public
health and of salmonid species will provide adequate protection for the
systems as a whole.
Factors limiting salmon, trout, and char production and populations
include;
• Productivity of the waters
• Water quality, including concentrations of dissolved
oxygen and other chemicals, mineral content, and
temperature
• Predation on eggs, young, and adults
• Quality of the spawning substrate
• Quality of the habitat structure, including natural rest-
ing places, overwintering pools, and diversity of habitat
types to meet other requirements of the various components
of the population.
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3.2.2.2. Productivity
Productivity determines the amount of plant material that is
available as food to the aquatic invertebrates and fish. The
productivity of a lake or stream is determined by the chemical
composition of the water, the water temperature, the amount of solar
radiation (insolation) the water receives, and other factors. In most
unpolluted, northern aquatic systems, the productivity is limited by the
availability of nutrients, particularly nitrogen, carbon, phosphates, and
minerals. This is true of most Alaskan systems in the summer. During
the colder months, when the water is covered with ice, insolation is
reduced and may become the limiting factor. In general, waters in Alaska
are much less productive than are most streams and lakes in the
colterminous United States. This low productivity is reflected in the
biomass, species diversity, and evolutionary adaptations of the fish and
invertebrates inhabiting the lakes and streams. Because nutrient levels
are the limiting factors in many systems, relatively small additions of
phosphorus, nitrogen, or organic carbon compounds, as may be found in
industrial and domestic waste water, can affect productivity
significantly.
Nutrient enrichment would tend to benefit some elements of the
system to the detriment of others. The degree of change effected by
nutrient enrichment would depend on the nature of the receiving community
and the composition and quality of the nutrients that would be added. In
the coldwater, oligotrophic communities typical of Alaska lakes and
streams, the addition of relatively small quantities of nutrients could
cause considerable increases in primary productivity and in fish
productivity. The benefits of increased fish production brought about by
nutrient addition may be outweighed by the unfavorable results, which may
include fish-kills when the water is ice and snow-covered for extended
periods. Additions of large amounts of organic waste may cause oxygen
depletion and elimination of desirable fish populations.
3.2.3. Water quality
Water, "the universal solvent," carries small quantities of many
naturally-occurring organic and inorganic substances. Carbon dioxide,
dissolved oxygen, and various metals, oxides, salts, and organic
(carbon-containing) compounds usually constitute most of the dissolved
material. Carbon dioxide and dissolved oxygen are necessary for plant
and animal respiration. Phosphates and nitrates are needed for tissue
growth and maintenance. A number of other minerals are needed in small
quantities for metabolism and growth. In unusual situations, excessive
amounts of naturally-occurring chemicals may drastically limit the
diversity and/or production of an aquatic community.
Chemicals in municipal wastes, and particularly in industrial
wastes, may be especially dangerous to aquatic systems because they may
contain substances for which there are no evolved ecological adaptations.
In addition, relatively high concentrations of toxins may occur. A broad
range of poisonous by-products are dispensed from modern industrial
processes. Most industrial wastes, when present in sufficient amounts,
present a threat to aquatic organisms. Unfortunately, the short-term
lethal doses to aquatic organisms are not well-defined for most indus-
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trial chemicals, and the chronic and synergistic effects of industrial
wastes are not understood.
3.2.2.4. Predation
Predation from other fish, birds, and mammals (including man),
affects each species at various stages in its life history. Small fish
prey on eggs and larval fish, as do some aquatic insects. Larval fish,
including young of their own species, may constitute an important segment
of the diets of trout, char, and juvenile salmon. In a natural system
unaffected by man, the greatest predation pressure is on the smallest and
youngest members of the population. As the fish age, a smaller percent-
age of each year-class is taken by predators. Angling and commercial
fishing usually act on the population in a very different manner,
selecting the older, larger individuals. Heavy fishing pressures usually
reduce the biomass of small streams and lakes and also decrease the
efficiency of nutrient cycling. Fishing pressures may become so intense
that populations of target species are reduced to the level where
insufficient stock remain to maintain reproduction. In these instances,
the populations may become depleted.
During the spawning season, adult salmon constitute a large mass of
available food for carnivorous birds and terrestrial mammals, especially
brown bears. Where bears are concentrated, they may remove an excess of
70 percent of the spawning run, but usually are not considered a major
factor limiting salmon recruitment of the spawning run (Gard 1971).
Alaska Department of Fish and Game management plans take predation by
bears into consideration when salmon escapement goals are established.
3.2.2.5. Spawning habitat
Each species of char, trout, or salmon requires specific spawning
habitat for successful reproduction. In general, these salmonids spawn
in a sand or gravel substrate in running water, or in sand and gravel
bottoms of lakes. In the more heavily used salmon streams, the spawning
substrate has been conditioned by years of redd (spawning bed)
preparation. During years when the spawning runs are light, salmon use
only the sites that most nearly resemble the optimum spawning substrates.
During heavier runs poorer spawning substrates are used more frequently.
During years when salmon escapement is large, redds of late-spawning
fish may be superimposed over earlier redds. This competition for
spawning substrate may cause high mortality among the developing salmon
fry. The destruction of an optimum habitat by siltation, modification of
stream flow, or construction activities may significantly reduce spawning
success in a stream.
Blocking of upstream migration routes also may reduce spawning
success by preventing utilization of the substrate. Dams, culverts, and
channel braiding caused by siltation or by fords may stop upstream salmon
migration.
Streamflow volumes are important determinants of spawning success.
If flooding occurs during the long period when the eggs and developing
yolk-sac embryo are beneath the spawning gravel, the substrate may shift
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and the embryonic salmon may be washed away. Severe floods may destroy
most of the recruitment from a stream or from all the streams in a
watershed. Flooding also may cause a shift in silt deposition that may
bury the salmon eggs or fry. Low streamflows may reduce water levels
sufficiently to dry the redds or to allow them to freeze during the
winter. Drainage of adjacent wetlands may decrease the flow of ground
water into the spawning redds during the winter, causing them to freeze
and thus killing the fry.
3.2.6. Habitat structure
Good fish habitat must provide a variety of structures (arrangement
of substrates, stream banks, submerged trees, and other objects in
water). Habitat structures alter water current direction and velocity,
provide resting stations and refuges from predators, and reduce stress by
providing reduced light levels and the presence of covering or
surrounding substrates. Deep pools are necessary for the survival of
overwintering fish in smaller streams and rivers.
3.2.3. Terrestrial biology
The various landforms and climatic characteristics in the study area
have produced diverse sets of abiotic conditions, which have resulted in
the formation of terrestrial vegetation assemblages that are transitional
between those characteristic of the coastal, mountainous interior, and
Alaska Peninsula systems.
3.2.3.1. Vegetation
Work conducted by the Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning
Commission (1973a) resulted in a broad classification scheme that
identified characteristic plant assemblages, which they termed
"ecosystems." The scheme largely is an adaptation of the work of
Spetzman (1963).
Plant communities
The following nine "ecosystems" identified by the Joint Commission
are present in the study area;
•
Coastal Western Hemlock-Sitka Spruce
•
Upland Spruce-Hardwood Forest
•
Lowland Spruce-Hardwood Forest
•
High Brush
•
High Brush (burned areas)
•
Low Brush, Muskeg-Bog
•
Moist Tundra
•
Wet Tundra
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• Alpine Tundra and Barren.
Coastal Western Hemlock-Sitka Spruce is an extension of the rainbelt
forests of the Pacific Coast. This type occurs throughout the lower
two-thirds of the study area. On the western side of Cook Inlet, Sitka
spruce (Picea sitchensis) is present north to Chitina Bay. Although some
stands of Sitka spruce are known to occur near Mt. Susitna, the northern
edge of the range of this species is thought to be near Chitina Bay,
where it hybridizes with white spruce (Picea glauca). On the eastern side
of the Inlet, Sitka spruce is present to the south of the City of Kenai.
Sitka spruce also Is present in the areas around Skilak Lake and Cooper
Landing. These inland sites, however, are outside the study area.
Trees associated with this forest type are large near the coast and
at lower elevations, particularly in valleys. Heights of up to 100 feet
and diameters as large as 24 inches have been observed. Trees on valley
slopes are smaller but closer together than those along the coastline or
in the valley bottoms. Black cottonwoods (Populus trichocarpa) are found
along streams.
A transition zone from coastal to interior forest occurs on the
Kenai Peninsula. In this zone western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and
Sitka spruce are replaced by white spruce and mountain hemlock (Tsuga
mertensiana). The latter often are associated with aspen (Populus spp.)
and birch (Betula spp.) .
The understory of this forest type consists of devil's club
(Oplopanax horridus), blueberries (Vaccinium spp.), Sitka alder (Alnus
sinuata)~juniper (Juniperus communis), salmonberry (Rubus spectabills),
willows (Salix sp.), bunchberry (Cornus canadensis), and various ferns,
bryophytes, and lichens.
Sitka spruce is the most important commercial species of this forest
type. It is the basis for logging operations at Port Graham and Jackolof
Bay. Stands with commercial potential are located near Red Glacier and
Polly Creek. The problem of accessibility and the uncertainty of land
ownership have limited the development of a timber resource on the
western side of Cook Inlet.
Upland Spruce-Hardwood Forest Is composed of moderately dense stands
of white spruce, birch, aspen, and balsam poplar (Populus balsamlfera).
Some black spruce (Picea mariana) is present on north-facing slopes and
poorly-drained flat areas.
White spruces occurring on south-facing slopes and well-drained
soils will average 40 to 80 feet in height and may be up to 16 inches in
diameter. White spruce and birch may be utilized commercially from this
forest type, but their utilization is minimal.
Birches typically are the initial invaders of wet slopes following
fire. The species establishes quickly and generally occurs in pure
stands or interspersed with aspen. White and black spruce will grow in
the stands at a later stage of succession. At maturity, birches average
60 to 80 feet in height and 8 to 9 inches in diameter.
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In dry upland sites following a fire, aspen will develop. This
species usually is replaced by white spruce or hemlock. Aspen trees
mature in 60 to 30 years. Typical understory plants of the upland
spruce-hardwood forest type include highbush cranberry (Viburnum edule),
mountain cranberry (Vaccinium vitis idaea), raspberry (Rubus spp.),
currant (Ribes spp.), and bunchberry.
Lowland Spruce-Hardwood Forest is an open, interior-forest type
consisting of both evergreen and deciduous trees. In some areas pure
stands of black spruce are present. Black spruce grows very slowly and
seldom will exceed 8 inches in diameter or 50 feet in height. The
species is especially prevalent on north-facing slopes and in poorly-
drained areas, and often is associated with muskeg.
More raesic (drier) areas usually support a mixture of white and
black spruce, birch, aspen, and poplar. Mesic areas will have an
understory consisting of willow, dwarf arctic birch (Betula nana),
blueberry, Labrador tea (Ledum spp.), and various lichens, mosses, and
ferns. In moist areas the understory contains thick mats of sphagnum moss
or other mosses and ferns.
Large regions of intermixed upland spruce-broadleaf and lowland
spruce-broadleaf forests are present throughout the study area. These
types can be separated only through a close examination of the
vegetation.
High Brush is divided into three separate subsystems: coastal alder
thickets, floodplain thickets, and birch-alder-willow thickets. Coastal
alder thickets occur in areas between beach and forest, between
timberline and alpine tundra meadows, and in avalanche paths on
mountainsides. In the upland regions high brush will vary in
successional stages between alder and grasses. In areas where grasses
are dominant^ bluejoint (Calamagrostis) may be cut for hay or utilized
directly by livestock.
Floodplain thickets develop along newly-exposed alluvial deposits.
These areas are flooded periodically and support a variety of shrubs.
Willows and alders initially are the predominant species, but later are
replaced by cottonwoods and poplars. These thickets occur along the
floodplains of most streams and many lake margins throughout the study
area. They are important wintering locations for moose.
Birch-alder-willow thickets typically occur near the timberline, and
also are found in regions that have been burned. These stands may be
quite dense, and usually consist of birch, several species of alder and
willow, and several species of low, heath-type shrubs. They provide
important browse habitat for moose. These areas are typical of secondary
succession patterns in. areas of the Kenai Peninsula that have been burned
or disturbed.
Low Brush, Muskeg-Bog is interspersed among the other plant
assemblages throughout the study area. These areas are found in wet
basins but also may occur in depressions and on flat areas and gentle,
poorly-drained slopes. Small ponds with a peat-like bottom may support
some aquatic vegetation. Most of the vegetation, however, is composed of
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mosses. Smaller herbaceous plants such as cottongrass, crowberry
(Empetrum nigrum), and several sedges (Carex spp.) are common. Shrubs
will replace sedges as the dominant plants on small, drier hummocks.
These muskegs may be feeding habitat for moose, particularly when
associated with shallow water.
Moist Tundra is characterized by uniform mats of cottongrass
(Sriophorum spp.) and stands of dense, low-lying shrubs. Other plants
associated with this type may include Labrador tea, American green alder
(Alnus crispa), blueberry, Lapland rosebay (Rhododendron laponicum). and
mountain cranberry. Moist tundra usually occurs at elevations between
2,000 and 4,000 feet.
Wet Tundra is characterized by standing water with large mats of
sedges and cottongrass. Few, if any, tussocks are present. Some woody
and herbaceous plants may occur above the water table. Rooted aquatics
occur along adjacent shorelines and in shallower waters. Isolated
pocket3 of this type occur in the study area. Plants found in this type
include small willows, dwarf arctic birch, Labrador tea, cinquefoil
(Potentllla spp.), lowbush cranberry, and bog cranberry (Vaccinlum
oxycoccos). Rooted aquatics include bur reed (Sparganium spp.), pondweed
(Potamogeton spp.), pendant grass (Arctophila fulva), and mare's tail
(Hippuris spp.). Lichens and bryophytes also are present.
Alpine Tundra and Barren systems are found in all mountain ranges.
Barren rock and rubble and mats of low plants are characteristic of this
type. In the Alaska Range white mountain-avens (Dryas octopetala) is
predominant, often covering entire slopes and ridges. Other species
include moss-campion (Silene acaulls), Arctic sandwort (Arenaria
arctica), blackish oxytrope (Oxytropis nlgrescens). grasses, and sedges.
Numerous lichens also are present. Alpine tundra usually occurs at
elevations of more than 2,500 feet.
3.2.3.2. Terrestrial animals
Amphibians and reptiles
Amphibian and reptile populations are limited by the long
cold-season quiesence required by ectotherms in the north. They also are
limited by permafrost and by cool mean summer temperatures that limit
morphological development of the larvae (Hodge 1976). No reptiles are
known to have been collected from the study area, and it is unlikely that
any will be collected, except possibly for escaped or introduced
specimens.
Three species of amphibians may be found in the study area. The
wood frog (Rana sylvatica) is found in much of Alaska and probably occurs
in suitable habitat (small streams and temporary ponds) throughout most
of the study area. The rough-skinned newt (Taricha granulosa) was
reported at Tyonek, just north of the study area (Hodge 1976). If the
report is valid, this species probably occurs in the study area. The
range of the boreal toad (Bufo boreas boreas) includes Prince William
Sound and possibly extends into the Kenai Peninsula. Little else is
known of amphibian distribution in the study area. Apparently, very
little effort has been directed to amphibians in the study area. There
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may be range extensions or even unclassified species in the study area.
It was not possible to identify critical habitats.
Amphibians may play a minor role in small pond ecology. They
utilize available plant and animal material and provide food to
predaceous fish, birds, and mammals. Despite their minor ecological
role, they deserve consideration in planning human activities because
they represent the highly-adapted, northernmost populations of the
species. These unique adaptations make them valuable objects of
scientific investigations and subjects of interest to naturalists.
Removal of habitat (drainage of small ponds) and water pollution are the
consequences of human activities that are most likely to affect amphibian
populations.
Mammals
Five species of large mammals are found in the study area:
Black bear Ursus americanus
Brown bear Ursus arctos
Moose Alces alces
Caribou Rangifer tarandus
Mountain goat Oreamnos americanus
The present ranges of these species probably are little changed from
those of 200 years ago, with the exception of the caribou. During the
last 200 years, population densities of large mammals have changed in
response to natural biologic, geologic, and climatic events and in
response to human activities. Pressures from human activities take the
form of population loss from hunting, from kills and harassment by
domestic dogs, and from accidental kills by vehicular traffic, fence
entanglement, and other accidents related to human development. Fewer
direct pressures occur when habitats are altered or their uses are denied
by segmentation or other means. Habitat may be altered by fire, land
clearing, lumbering, road building, or other construction or resource
extraction activities. Segmentation divides a habitat into tracts too
small to be used effectively by a population. The noise and activity
associated with development also may prevent utilization of a habitat.
Many diverse habitat types within the range of a species may be occupied
at least occasionally by the species, but one or several types may be of
particular importance. These can be termed "critical habitats," and
their size may limit the population of the species. Critical habitats
may be areas used for denning, wintering, calving, or feeding, depending
on the species. Usage of a critical habitat may vary from year to year,
depending on the extant vegetation in the critical habitat, the size of
the population using the habitat, and the stresses on that population.
Management techniques for wildlife frequently involve the reduction of
the effect of limiting factors by alteration of a critical habitat to
increase its carrying capacity (the number of animals the habitat will
support).
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Life history requirements for large mammals found in the study area
have been described by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game and other
sources. Critical habitats for these species have been defined and are
mapped in the discussion of existing conditions for each Subarea. The
more important life history elements of those large mammals are presented
below.
Brown/grizzly bear
Brown bears and grizzly bears are considered to be variants of the
same species, Ursus arctos. Both phenotypes may be found in the study
area, but the IJ. arctos of the coastal regions (including the study area)
usually is called brown bear, whereas the term "grizzly" is reserved for
the IJ. arctos of the interior. For the sake of brevity, Ursus arctos is
referred to as brown bear in this report. Brown bears are reported to be
absent from most of Subarea IV, but may be found in suitable habitats
throughout the study area.
Brown bears reach sexual maturity at 2.5 to 4.5 years of age,
although most males mature at 3 to 5 years (Alaska Department of Fish and
Game 1973; Glenn and Faro 1973). The bears mate in June or July, but
implantation of the embryo is delayed until autumn. An average litter
contains 2.2 cubs, which are born in the den during the following winter.
The cubs grow rapidly during their first summer, gaining more than a
pound a day. They remain with the sow for 2 years and are abandoned in
the third year before the sow breeds again. Cub mortality probably is
low if the female remains with them for a full 2 years. Litters of cubs
and yearlings observed by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (1973)
contained, on the average, slightly more than two cubs. This implies
that although reproduction occurs only every third year, this low rate
usually is ample in the absence of man.
Brown bears usually leave their dens in May and move to lower
elevations. Bears near the coast may move out onto the beaches in search
of marine animal carcasses cast up during the winter. Inland bears may
search moose yards for winter kills and prey on caribou and moose calves
at the calving grounds. As spring progresses, green vegetation,
especially young grasses, sedges, and horsetail, becomes the principal
diet. As the snow retreats the bears follow the spring growth away from
the open beaches to higher ground. Green vegetation, with occasional
small mammals, carrion, roots, and other plant materials, forms the diet
mainstay until the appearance of berries and salmon during the summer.
Salmon become the primary component of the brown bear diet soon
after they reach the spawning streams. The bears remain near the salmon
streams through the remainder of the summer. There they feed primarily
on salmon but supplement their diet with daily visits to berry patches.
The time that a bear spends at a salmon stream each day probably depends
on how intensively the stream is fished by bears. On streams that
support a large bear population, each of the bears usually remains only
for a short period. On streams receiving less intensive use, each bear
may remain for several hours. The bears apparently prefer ripe female
salmon. During the peak of the salmon runs the bears may eat only female
fish, and sometimes only the egg-filled ovaries. Feeding bears may
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reduce salmon spawning success, but their depredations generally are not
regarded as significant (Gard 1971). After the salmon runs are
completed, brown bears feed largely on berries, roots, and green
vegetation, supplemented with occasional small mammals and carrion.
Denning in the study area probably occurs in November. Pregnant
females usually den earlier than other bears. A bear may remain in the
vicinity of its den for several weeks, sleeping for a period, emerging,
feeding, and sleeping again. After settling for the winter, most bears
remain in their dens until May, although they may emerge for brief
periods during mild weather, or if disturbed.
The den site may be a cave or other preconstructed enclosure, or may
be constructed by the bear. The den may be a simple hole in the ground,
or the bear may spend considerable effort lining the den with leaves and
other vegetation. After entering the den, the bear may collapse the
entrance. Most bear dens are on hillsides. Glenn (1975) reported that
brown bears at Black Lake on the Alaska Peninsula denned in locations
from open tundra near sea level to 2,000 feet above sea level. The
majority denned approximately 1,300 feet above sea level.
Alaska Department of Fish and Game reports indicate that brown bears
are much more numerous on the west coast of the Cook Inlet than on the
coast of the Kenai Peninsula. Both areas contain excellent bear habitat
and food resources, but the human population on the Kenai Peninsula in
the study area is much larger than on the west side of the Inlet. Human
use of the fish resources and the land has forced the bears to retreat
into less accessible habitat. The reduced resources available to the
bears and bear-human conflicts have reduced brown bear populations on the
Kenai Peninsula. The west coast of the Inlet, however, virtually is
unsettled and is relatively inaccessible. Hunting pressure is low and
bears compete less often with humans for habitat and food. The Alaska
Department of Fish and Game (1976) considers brown bear populations on
the west coast of the Inlet to be about as large as they ever were.
Denning areas, spring feeding areas, and salmon streams are probably
the most critical habitats for brown bears. On the Kenai Peninsula,
humans largely have displaced brown bears from the regions near the coast
that comprise most of the study area. No critical bear habitat can be
identified in that segment of the study area. On the west side of the
Inlet, spring feeding areas include the flatlands at the head of most
bays, the Bachatna Flats, and especially the flatlands along Kamishak
Bay. Most of the salmon streams support brown bear concentrations and
may be considered critical habitat during the salmon runs. Denning areas
on the McNeil River and the Kamishak River should be considered critical
habitats.
The future of the brown bear inevitably will be determined by human
encroachment into bear habitat. The Alaska Department of Fish and Game
(1973) accurately assessed the future of the brown bear:
Of all Alaska's wildlife, brown-grizzly bears are probably
least compatible with human activities. Without special
consideration their numbers will be markedly reduced
wherever substantial and sustained human occupation and
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confrontation occur. Even with protection, a certain amount
of conflict and consequent attrition of bears can be
expected. The whole history of the species on this
continent since the advent of the explorers has followed
this pattern, and today grizzly bears have disappeared from
most of their former range in the contiguous United States
and Central America. Their numbers have been markedly
reduced over much of Canada and in small portions of Alaska.
The brown bear in Europe has suffered a similar fate. The
eventual survival of the brown-grizzly bear may not depend
entirely on the designation of vast tracts of unspoiled
"wilderness" as shown by conflicts occurring in large
national parks. Instead, the future of the bear lies in the
reassessment of human values to include reasonable
coexistence with it. Bears are not constant competitors and
the major conflicts usually have resulted from improper land
planning and classification, marginal economic pursuits, and
basic misunderstanding of bears and their behavior.
Within the study area, brown bears probably are more vulnerable to
the secondary effects of development, especially increased access by
hunters and increased incidental confrontations, than to most direct
habitat modification impacts associated with development. Any activity
that will increase human occupancy or access to the lands on the west
side of the Cook Inlet should be evaluated to determine the potential for
secondary impacts. Facilities should be designed to reduce bear-human
interaction, particularly in critical habitats during periods of
intensive bear usage.
Black bear
Black bears are primarily open forest animals. They tend to avoid
dense forests and large open areas. In the coterminous United States
black bears have received considerable attention from wildlife
biologists, and their life history and population dynamics are understood
fairly well. In Alaska, the comparatively little effort spent studying
black bears indicates that the life history of Alaskan black bears is
similar to that of black bears in the lower 48. Limited population
studies (primarily assessment of hunter success) in the study area and
observations by Alaska Department of Fish and Game biologists (Faro and
others 1976), indicate that suitable habitats throughout the Kenai
Peninsula support moderately large populations of black bear.
On the west side of the Inlet, populations became progressively
thinner south of the West Forelands. There are few reported black bear
sightings south of the Lake Illianma, Inisken Bay, and Chinitna Bay
areas, although rare sightings have been reported as far south as the
Douglas River (Alaska Department of Fish and Game 1976).
The Alaska Department of Fish and Game (1976) and Erickson (1965)
summarized Alaska black bear life history. Black bear usually reach
maturity in their third year, although some females may not breed until
they are 5 or 6 years of age. They mate in June or July, but implanta-
tion of the embryos is delayed until late autumn. The cubs, usually two
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to three per litter, are born in the den in midwinter. Black bears in
the study area generally emerge from their dens in May. Females with new
cubs may emerge later and den earlier than others. Cub survival is high.
Erickson (1965) reported that summer and fall litters average more than
two cubs per litter. The cubs are weaned by the next September, but
remain with the sow for another winter. They are abandoned in their
second spring, and the female breeds again. The average weight of an
adult black bear in Alaska probably is less than 200 pounds, although a
large male may weigh more than 300 pounds. The maximum recorded age in
captivity was 25 years. The average life span of wild black bears is
certainly much shorter.
Black bears eat a wide variety of plant and animal material. During
the spring, young grasses, sedges, horsetail (Equisetum), and early forbs
form the bulk of their diet, supplemented by winter-killed carrion,
insects, and occasional mammals. During the summer and early autumn,
berries, along with some of the kinds of vegetation and animal material
consumed in the spring, make up a large portion of the diet. In most
localities black bears are much less dependent on salmon runs than brown
bears, but in the study area, black bear concentrations and fishing
observed along salmon streams indicate that salmon is an important compo-
nent of the summer diet. In the autumn, leaves and grasses become more
important diet components again as salmon and berries become less
abundant.
Factors determining black bear mortality are well known. Hunting
and other human activities may become the major limiting factors in
accessible areas. Loss of habitat to development, loss of access to
salmon streams and berry patches, harassment (both intentional and
inadvertent) by outdoor recreation and transportation activities, and the
Incidence of nuisance bears that must be destroyed will increase as human
populations and bear populations interface more frequently. Small,
discrete black bear populations, such as those found along the Prince
William Sound, may be especially vulnerable to over-harvest (Mcllroy
1972). In the study area, where black bear populations infrequently are
isolated from one another, the bears are less vulnerable to the effects
of human activities.
Black bear usually inhabit open woodlands, avoiding extensive open
areas and large tracts of dense forest. Where human contact has not been
encouraged by dumps or handouts, habitat preference and native wariness
permit black bears to withstand considerable human pressure. Increased
development in the study area can be expected to depress local black bear
populations. The continued existence of moderately large black bear
populations on the Kenai Peninsula probably will be ensured by the large
areas of potential habitat in the Kenai National Moose Range and the
Chugach National Forest and by the management efforts of the Alaska
Department of Fish and Game.
No critical habitats are identified for black bear in the study
area. Protection of critical habitat for the other key species of large
mammals in the study area (moose, brown bear, and caribou) should protect
most of the areas that receive heavy black bear usage.
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Moose
Moose range throughout the study area, except tn Subarea IV, which
is too mountainous. Moose calve during the spring in muskeg or swamps.
One or two calves are the norm. Bulls and cows with calves from the
previous years usually summer on higher ground. In early to mid autumn,
bulls move down from the hills. Wintering grounds usually are In
lowlands and river valleys and may hold dense aggregations of moose in
"moose yards." "Yarding" occurs in response to heavy snow and difficult
feeding conditions {Rausch and Bishop 1968; Coady 1973; Edwards and
Ritchy 1956).
Moose eat a variety of vegetable matter, including browse (woody
plant stems, buds, leaves, bark, and twigs), lichens, fungi, grasses, and
forbs (non-woody annual and perennial plants other than grasses). The
percentage of each component in the diet is determined in part by its
seasonal availability. Moose were reported to eat alder and willow
preferentially throughout the year, but the quantities of these plants
that are available usually are less than sufficient for them to comprise
the bulk of the diet. LeResche and Davis (1973) reported the following
diet composition (based on the percentage of bites taken) for Kenai
Peninsula moose (Table 10).
Table 10. Types of plants consumed by Kenai Peninsula moose
(LeResche and Davis 1973).
Percentage of Bites
Plant
Summer
Normal Winter
Range
Depleted Winter
Range
Birch
60
72
22
Willow
5
3
1
Alder
trace
3
—
Poplar
trace
trace
—
Lowbush cranberry
trace
21
51
Aquatics
3
-
-
Sedges
4
-
-
Grasses
3
-
2
Forbs
25
trace
-
Lichens
trace
*
23
Birch, which
provide sufficient
LeResche and Davis
constituted a
nutrition to
reported dead
large percentage
support the moose
moose with rumens
of the diet, did not
for sustained periods,
full of birch browse.
They reported that low browse, forbs, and other plant material were
essential to moose diets. Typically, vegetation on the best moose range
is in the earlier serai stages (i.e., 5 to 25 years old).
Winter mortality of moose, including deaths associated with
starvation and losses to predators caused by the weakened condition of
the moose and loss of mobility in the deep snow, are the major factors
limiting natural moose populations. Winter mortality is determined
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primarily by food availability, which in turn is determined by
competition for the food resources and by the depth, duration, and
hardness of the snow. Adverse winter conditions first affect the calves,
then the cows, and finally the bulls. During severe winters moose calf
mortality may be nearly 100% (Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning
Commission 1974b).
Predation by bears, wolves, and human hunters also may affect
populations. Accidental kills by automobiles may be important locally,
and traffic mortality will increase when roads are constructed through
prime range or across migration routes. Automobile-moose collisions were
estimated to have killed approximately 100 moose each year on the
Sterling Highway (Kenai Peninsula) and are a major factor in the
determination of moose population abundance in the Anchorage area (Alaska
Department of Fish and Game 1976). Loss of moose habitat, both from
direct development and from exclusion resulting from migration blockage
are, and increasingly will be, determinants of moose populations on the
Kenai Peninsula.
Caribou
Caribou range through parts of the Kenai Peninsula and may
occasionally enter the study area on the west side of Cook Inlet. Two
small herds on the Kenai Peninsula comprise most of the caribou
population in the study area. The American Pass herd ranges over parts
of the Chugach National Forest and the Kenai National Moose Range, but is
not known to range into the study area proper. A smaller herd of fewer
than 100 caribou, the Kenai herd, occasionally ranges into the study area
near Kenai and is influenced by activities in the study area.
Caribou were eliminated from the Kenai Peninsula prior to 1920 by
forest fires and hunting pressure. The present herds are the descendants
of animals transplanted to the Kenai Peninsula during the 1960s by the
Alaska Department of Fish and Game. The Kenai Peninsula is not prime
caribou habitat, and extensive herds probably will never develop on the
Kenai. Caribou primarily inhabit open lands, especially tundra, in the
more advanced stages of succession. They eat a variety of browse, forbs,
grasses, fungi, and other materials, but lichens are the mainstay of
their diet. Destruction of tundra by fire or other causes may eliminate
caribou from an area.
Caribou are well-equipped to survive most Alaska winters, and during
a normal winter they may even gain weight. Ice storms, heavy snow
crusts, and snow cover lasting into the spring calving period may cause
mortality, and a very severe winter can almost eliminate caribou (Skoogs
1968). During the summer, the many species of biting flies that inhabit
the tundra parasitize the caribou heavily, forcing them to the hilltops
and ridgelines where the wind helps to repel the flies (Kelsall 1969) .
The principal limiting factors for caribou populations are predation
(principally by wolves and humans), disease, and food availability.
Caribou tend to migrate to and from the same areas during each annual
cycle. Disruption of these areas or the construction of barriers to
migration could affect caribou populations.
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Mountain goat
Mountain goats range through the coastal parts of the Chugach
Mountains and the Kenai Mountains and are present in the study area in
the Kenai Mountains near the southern end of the Kenai Peninsula (Subarea
IV). The Kenai population is near the northern extent of the species'
range and is subject to extensive declines during severe winters. Almost
a decade may be required to repopulate the range after a particularly
severe winter. During most of the year, the mountain goats remain well
above the timber line and away from human activity. They may move down
into heavy timber during the winter for protection and forage. Timbered
mountain slopes in mountain goat ranges are regarded as critical winter
mountain goat habitat (By telephone, Mr. Dave Hardy, Alaska Department of
Fish and Game, Homer AK, to Mr. Guy McConnell, WAPORA, Inc., 23 August
1978).
Birds
Most of the study area contains potential habitat for at least one
or two species of birds. A few areas have been identified as
particularly important habitats for waterfowl, shorebirds, and raptors
because they support concentrations of migratory, nesting, or
overwintering populations. Most of the coastline of the Kenai Peninsula
is inhabited by bald eagles during the summer, and open rivers are
important winter eagle habitats. Shorebirds migrating through the study
area may be present only for a few days, but during that time may number
in the millions. Shoreline habitat that these birds use may be essential
to these migrants and should be considered critical habitat. Ducks,
geese, and other waterfowl nest along potholes, lakes, and other bodies
of water throughout the lowlands of the study area. Migrating waterfowl
stage (assemble prior to or during migration) on tidal flats,
floodplains, and other lowlands near the mouth of rivers. Staging areas
and areas where nesting waterfowl are concentrated should be considered
critical habitats.
3.2.4. Endangered and threatened species
A list of the ten endangered species of animals that may be present
in the study area during part or all of the year is presented in Table
11. It is not known which of the subspecies of peregrine falcon is
present in the study area; thus both are noted. Both Federal and State
of Alaska designations are presented for each species. All of these
species, with the exception of both peregrine falcons, would inhabit or
utilize the study area only on an occasional basis. Because little is
known about the populations or movements of these species in the study
area, they are not described further in the Subarea profiles.
Although no species of Alaskan plants have been included in the
Federal list of endangered and threatened species, a number have been
proposed for endangered status, including the six species listed in Table
12. No State list of endangered and threatened plants is known to exist.
No threatened species of animal or plant is known to be present in the
study area.
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Table 11. Endangered and threatened species that may be present in
the study area (Bureau of Land Management 1976; US Fish
and Wildlife Service 1978a).
Status Designation
Common Name Scientific Name Federal State
American peregrine falcon
Falco peregrinus anatum
E
Arctic peregrine falcon
Falco peregrinus tundrius
E
Blue whale
Balaenoptera muscutus
E
Finback whale
Balaenoptera physalis
E
Gray Whale
Eschrichtius gibbosus
E
Humpback whale
Megaptera novaeangliae
E
Right whale
Eubalaena spp.
E
Sei whale
Balaenoptera borealis
E
Sperm whale
Physeter catodon
E
Table 12. Species of Alaskan plants proposed for designation as
endangered species (41 Federal Register 24524). Common
names indicated with an asterisk (*) are from Welsh (1974).
Family
Boraginaceae
Brassicaceae (cruciferae)
Cyperaceae
Fabaceae (Leguminosae)
Polygonaceae
Polypodiaceae
Scientific Name
Cryptantha shockletteana
Smelowskia borealis var. villosa
Carex jacobi-peteri
Eriogonum flavum var. aquilinum
Polystichum aleuticum
Common Name
Catseye (unnamed)
No common name
*Anderson sedge
*Kobuk locoweed
Wild buckwheat (unnamed)
^Aleutian holly-fern;
Aleutian shield-fern
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3.3. Land and Water Use
3.3.1. Settlement patterns
Land and water uses in the study area have developed near the
natural resources and are dependent on the extraction of those resources.
The earliest Native settlements were located along the Cook Inlet
coastline in protected areas near the marine biotic resources — sea
mammals, fish, marine invertebrates, and seabird colonies. In the Lower
Cook Inlet, these resources are most abundant and accessible in Kachemak
Bay, along the shoreline of the lower Kenai Peninsula, and along the
rocky western shoreline between Redoubt Bay and Iliamna Bay (De Laguna
1934). Later influxes of Natives either displaced the cultures in the
existing communities or utilized inland resources such as large mammals,
small mammals, fish (particularly salmon), and plants.
During the 18th century Russian trading companies exploited the
pelagic and inland fur resources. When those resources were depleted,
they sold their rights of possession to the United States. Both coal and
gold were mined in small amounts by the Russians and were the focus of
resource exploration during the last decade of the 19th century and the
first two decades of the 20th century. Salmon was the next major
resource developed. Salmon fishing and processing, along with
homesteading, determined land-use patterns during the period from 1920
through 1955. More recently, the fishing industry has diversified to
exploit other fish and shellfish resources. With the opening of the
Sterling Highway in 1957, tourism and transportation have become
important resources and have stimulated development along the highway and
the Kenai River, Kalifonsky Beach, Tustumena Lake, Clam Gulch, and the
Homer-Kachemak Bay recreational areas. The discovery of oil and natural
gas in the northern Kenai Peninsula brought an influx of workers during
the drilling phase and during the construction of the processing
facilities. The construction boom has ended, at least temporarily, but
the construction and operation of these facilities is a primary factor in
the determination of settlement and land-use patterns on the Kenai
Peninsula.
3.3.2. Land ownership
3.3.2.1. Federal
Ownership of the lands' of Alaska was assumed to have passed to the
Federal government at the time of the Alaska Purchase. During the
territorial period, comparatively small areas of Alaska passed into
private ownership via homesteading, patenting of mining and town site
claims, Native claims, grants, sales, and other means. The Alaska
Statehood Act provided for the transfer of 103.35 million acres of Alaska
land to the new State government, boroughs, and municipalites.
Following court action by Alaska Native groups, the Alaska Native
Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) was signed into law in 1971. The ANCSA
provided for the transfer of approximately 44 million acres of Federal
lands in Alaska to Native ownership. Selection was to be based on
historic use of the lands and was to transfer surface estates and mineral
rights to village corporations and to thirteen Native corporations that
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were established for that purpose. In cases where selections of tribal
lands by individuals, the State, or Federal government already had been
patented, provisions in the Act permitted Native selections to be made on
other lands. In addition to the Native selections, a maximum of 80
million acres was to have been withdrawn by the Federal Government to be
considered for National Park, Refuge, Wild and Scenic River, and Monument
statuses.
Conflicting claims and land selections by the Federal Government,
State and local governments, and by Native corporations have prevented
rapid settlement of the land distribution legislation. Following the
defeat of compromise legislation to determine the location and extent of
lands to be protected under Section d-2 of the ANCSA, approximately 64
million acres were added to the US system of National Parks by
Presidential Order under the provisions of the Antiquities Act of 1906.
Enabling legislation that would complete Federal withdrawals of Alaska
lands is pending. Conveyance of the bulk of the State's land will not
occur until the Federal selections are completed and the terms of the
Alaska Statehood Act are fulfilled. In many instances, selections by the
Native corporations overlap or otherwise conflict with State or borough
selections, and litigation has ensued or will ensue. In other instances,
land trades between Native corporations and the State of Alaska, or with
the US Government, have been proposed. Many of these actions still are
pending and will decide the future land use for vast areas.
3.3.2.2. State
By the close of 1978, the State of Alaska had selected approximately
72 million acres of the 103.35-million-acre statehood entitlement. Of
the selected acreage, the State has received title to approximately 21
million acres and tentative approval of an additional 15 million acres.
Native corporations have received patent to approximately 5.2 million
acres.
3.3.2.3. Local
The State of Alaska owns approximately 2.1 million acres in the
Kenal Peninsula Borough and has applied for an additional 1.2 million
acres under the Alaska Statehood Act. Under the provisions of the ANCSA
and State legislative actions, ownership of some of these State lands
will be transferred to Native corporations, the Kenai Borough, cities,
and private individuals. Approximately 750,000 acres may be transferred
from State ownership under these provisions, and village Native
corporations could receive up to 350,000 acres. The Cook Inlet Native
Corporation is entitled to 115,000 acres on the Kenai Peninsula and
188,000 acres on the west side of the Cook Inlet, and the Kenai Peninsula
Borough will receive 155,780 acres. Approximately one-third of the land
selected by the Borough has been conveyed.
3.3.2.4. Private
Land has been transferred to private ownership directly from the
Federal Government through homesteading, patenting of mining claims and
base camp sites, and direct sales and land transfers to Native corpora-
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cions. Much of the land tn prLvate ownership has come from land disposal
programs set up by the State of Alaska. Included are: sales of
agricultural lands, town lots, and other lands; small parcels claimed or
patented under State Open to Entry Programs; homesteadtng; and lands
transferred by other nieans. Sales of agricultural lands are intended to
Increase the low agricultural production of Alaska and usually include
the condition that the lands be used only for agricultural purposes.
During 1978, 68,200 acres of agricultural land were sold, including 2,900
acres in the study area. Mining claims on State lands are exclusive, but
cannot be patented. The State of Alaska is engaged in a continuing
program of land sales by auction or by lottery. These sales are
conducted only after the potential of the land has been studied and
recommendations have been considered. The Beirne Initiative, passed
during the 1978 general elections, would open up most of the State lands
and the lands to be transferred under the Statehood Act, to acquisition
by the citizens of Alaska. Under this initiative the amount of land
allowed to each "homesteader" would be 40, 80, or 160 acres, depending
upon the length of his or her residence in the State. The "homesteader"
would not be required to reside on the land to validate the claim. The
initiative required that the plan be implemented early in 1979. Almost a
million acres of the Kenal Peninsula could have been transferred into
private ownership under the terms of the initiative. The
constitutionality of the initiative has been challenged, and the work-
ability of the process has been questioned. Several years probably will
be required to determine the constitutionality of the Initiative and to
develop an equitable land distribution system if the initiative were to
be determined constitutional.
Legislation and judicial decisions that will determine land dis-
tribution under the Alaska Statehood Act, the ANCSA, and the Beirne
Initiative probably will be completed during the early 1980s and will
affect profoundly land-use patterns tn the study area. At present, most
of the lands on the west side of Cook Inlet are controlled by the Federal
Government. On the Kenal Peninsula ownership is more diverse, but most
of the land is in State or Federal ownership.
3.3.3. Recreational areas
3.3.3.1. Federal
Three US parks are In the study area: the Tuxedni National Wildlife
Refuge, the Kenal National Moose Range, and the Katmai National Monument.
Legislation proposed under Section d-2 of the ANCSA and implementation of
the Antiquities Act could expand the Katmai National Moose Range and the
Katmai National Monument. It also could create the proposed Lake Clark
National Park and the Lake Illamna National Wildlife Refuge on the west
aide of the Cook Inlet and the Kenal-Fjords National Monument on the
Kenal Peninsula.
3.3.3.2. State
One large State park, the McNeil River Bear Sanctuary, is in the
study area and might be expanded with lands transferred under the
Statehood Act. Another State park, the Kachemak Bay State Park, has been
proposed for the south shore of Kachemak Bay, and a third State park of
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approximately 4,000 acres may be proposed for the north side of Kachemak
Bay.
3.3.3.3. Local
Local parks are described in the subarea profiles.
3.3.4. Agriculture
The short growing season, cool temperatures, high costs, and
scarcity of good soils have limited agriculture in the study area. No row
crops are raised, and the principal crops are potatoes, hay, and truck
garden vegetables. The US Soil Conservation Service does not classify
any lands in the study area as Class I arable lands because of the cool
soil temperatures. Class II and Class III soils are considered
agricultural soils by the State and are sold for that purpose.
Cattle, hogs, chickens, and horses are raised in the study area.
Chickens and hogs primarily are used by the owners. Husbandry of cattle
and horses is centered in Subareas I, II, and III.
3.3.5. Forestry
White spruce and Sitka spruce are harvested from the study area. The
trees are sawn into rough lumber at local mills, turned to produce logs
of uniform diameter for home building, or exported. To satisfy US export
regulations, timbers are slabbed into cants before they are shipped.
Most of the logging in the study area is in Subarea IV and in the Kenai
Moose Range by permit.
3.3.6. Land and water use planning
Almost any legislation or action by a government agency may affect
land and water use. This may be done directly by land disposal,
regulation of uses through zoning, institution of permit requirements, or
regulation of resource exploitation. Indirect actions include
controlling or influencing occupational, recreational, economic, and
social opportunities offered to the potential populace and placing
restrictions, such as taxes, assessments, and regulations on the use of
those opportunities in the study area. The Federal Government, the State
of Alaska, the Kenai Peninsula Borough, and the various city governments
directly regulate public and private land and water use.
3.3.6.1. Federal
Of the Federal laws governing land and water use in Alaska, the most
important in the direct determination of land ownership are the Alaska
Native Claims Settlement Act, the Alaska Statehood Act, and the
Antiquities Act. In addition, the Organic Act of 1884 still is of some
importance in the distribution of land.
The activities of most Federal agencies influence land and water use
in Alaska. The various divisions of the Departments of Interior De-
fense, Transportation, and Energy and the USEPA are important det'erai-
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nants of land and water use practices in the study area through their
direct regulation and permit authority.
The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) in the Department of the
Interior controls the disposal, protection, and usage of unappropriated
Federal lands. BLM responsibilities include fire protection; permits for
rights-of-way across Federal lands; Outer Continental Shelf petroleum and
natural gas lease sales; and sales of timber, natural gas, coal, grazing
rights, and other materials and rights from the lands under BLM control.
The US Fish and Wildlife Service controls the use of land, water,
and other resources on Federal wildlife refuges. The Service has review
authority for proposed major Federal activities, plays a major role in
determining recreational and subsistence use of marine birds and mammals,
and also participates in Coastal Zone Management and Coastal Energy
Impact Planning. Within and adjacent to the study area, the Service
controls the Tuxedni National Wildlife Refuge and the Kenai National
Moose Range.
The US Department of Interior (USDI), through the National Park
Service, controls the use of National Parks, Monuments, Wild and Scenic
Rivers, and other specified Federal lands. This includes control of the
Katmai National Monument adjacent to the study area.
The US Department of Defense, through the COE, controls activities
in wetlands and navigable waters, and ocean disposal of dredged material.
The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 empowers the Corps to regulate con-
struction activities in and over the navigable waters of the United
States. Section 404 of the FWPCA gives the COE the authority to issue
permits for placement of fill material and dredged material into wetlands
and most waters of the United States. Section 103 of the Marine Pro-
tection Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 gives the COE permit
authority over the open-ocean dumping of dredged materials.
The US Department of Transportation Issues permits for structures
carrying materials over navigable waters and for waterfront facilities
handling hazardous materials. The Farmers Home Administration and other
Federal mortagage and loan assurance programs affect land use by denying
loans or other services for homes in areas not meeting specifications.
The Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission was formed
under Section 17 of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act to inventory
the resources that determine potential land values and to make
recommendations concerning the disposition and use of Alaskan lands. The
Commission was instrumental in developing present Alaska State land-use
policy, and the inventories developed by the Resource Planning Team of
the Commission are important planning tools.
3.3.6.2. State
Land and water use planning by the State of Alaska and Alaska State
permits directly affecting land and water use, are controlled primarily
by the Department of Natural Resources (DNR) and the Alaska Department of
Environmental Conservation (ADEC). The Alaska Division of Lands (ADL) of
the DNR is responsible for classifying, managing, and disposing of State
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land through implementation of the Land Policy Act (Chapter 181, SLA
1978). The Land Policy Act is the principal implementing legislation for
the State constitutional mandate to encourage the settlement of State
lands and the development of resources by making them available for
maximum use and development consistent with the public interest. The Act
specifies that a balanced combination of land should be made available
for both private and public use, and that:
In allocating land for private use and public retention, the
requirements of future generations shall be considered. To
this end, a supply of State land of a variety of types and
locations shall be reserved to provide an opportunity for
future decisions.
The Act requires that year-round settlement be guided to areas where
there is an existing or potential economic base, or where public services
exist or can be extended economically; that public open space and access
to resources be provided; and that State land beyond the range of
existing public services and sources of employment be made available for
recreational use or low-density settlement.
The Act lists the following uses for which lands should be retained
in public ownership:
• To make them available on a sustained-yield basis for a
variety of beneficial uses, including subsistence, energy
development, aquaculture, forestry, grazing, sport hunting
and fishing, hiking, snowmobiling, skiing, and other
activities of a type that can be made available to more
people and conducted more successfully if the land is in
public rather than private ownership
• To facilitate mining and mineral leasing
• To protect critical wildlife habitats and areas of special
scenic, recreational, scientific, or other environmental
concern
• To guide the location of settlement and development to
minimize public cost and maximize social and economic
benefits.
Implementation of the Act is through inventory of State lands,
waters, resources and hazards; development of a land management plan
through agency and public participation; and classification of the land
into sixteen categories, eight for retention and eight for disposal. The
eight retention categories are:
• Watershed
• Public recreation
• Reserved use
• Grazing
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• Material
• Mineral
• Timber
• Resource management.
The disposal categories are:
• Homesite
• Agricultural
• Commercial
• Industrial
• Private recreation
• Residential
• Utility
• Open to entry.
If the Beirne Initiative were to be instituted, land disposal,
easement rulings, and identification of lands to be retained as
State-interest lands would be accomplished by the ADL. The ADL is
in the process of developing a regional land-use plan for the Kenai
Peninsula and held public meetings during January 1979 to receive
public comments. In the announcement of the meeting (Anonymous
1978e) the ADL noted that there were many potential issues and
listed four examples: community expansion, public recreation,
protection of valuable resources, and environmental concerns. In the
same announcement, the ADL listed ten steps in the regional planning
process: information assemblage, resource inventory, regional
analysis, land-use plan, classification recommendation, and plan
approval, plus four public meetings during the process.
The ADL also Issues water use permits, and the Alaska Department
of Natural Resources issues special use permits for coal deposit
development, petroleum and natural gas leases, and tideland uses.
Through the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, the DNR controls the
recreational, subsistence, and commercial harvest of Alaska fish and
wildlife, and restricts the usage of designated critical habitats
and anadromous fish streams. Through the Division of Parks the DNR
controls the usage of State parks; plans new parks, waysides, and
recreation areas; and recommends archaeological sites for protection
under State or Federal statutes.
The ADEC may directly and indirectly affect land use through per-
mitting, assistance, and review programs. The ADEC issues permits
for solid waste disposal sites, wastewater discharge, open burning,
and emissions to the atmosphere.
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3.3.6.3. Borough
Land-use planning at the borough level primarily is the responsi-
bility of the Kenai Peninsula Borough Planning Commission. The
Planning Commission inventories the resources, compiles demographic
and economic data, and presents land-use planning programs to the
Borough assembly for consideration. The Planning Commission also
represents the interests of the Borough in Coastal Zone Management
and Coastal Energy Impact Plan studies. The planning commission has
presented zoning and land-use plans to the Borough assembly, but few
land-use regulations have been adopted thus far, and enforcement of
existing Borough regulations has been difficult. Zoning and
land-use planning are difficult to implement because the majority of
the populace is unwilling to accept controls over their individual
freedom. Friedmann (1973), in his discussion of urban fields,
explained that people moved from the cities into the surrounding
countryside or suburbs to achieve more control over their
environment. Borough residents have become accustomed to exercising
options in land use that would not be available to them in most of
the United States, and the privilege of exercising these options is,
for many, a strong incentive to live in rural Alaska.
3.3.6.4. Local
At the local level, Kenai, Soldotna, Homer, and Seldovia have Ad-
visory Planning Commissions, or committees appointed by those cities
as needed to develop zoning, land-use, water-use, sewage, or other
plans for their areas. The plans are submitted to the city council
or the voting public for consideration. Plan approval by the Kenai
Borough Planning Commission and/or the Borough assembly also may be
required for implementation.
3.3.6.5. Ex officio
Large tracts of land in some parts of the study area are or will
be owned and controlled by regional or village Native corporations.
Corporation policy is a major factor in the determination of the use
of these lands. Native corporation policies usually stress the pre-
servation of Native life-styles and subsistence and the distribution
of accrued profits to the corporate shareholders (Arnold 1976).
3.4. Socioeconomic Environment
3.4.1. Sensitivity indicators and constraints
The socioeconomic profile contains the economic and social
characteristics that may be used as indicators of the sensitivity or
insensitivity of the study area to changes that may occur in the
level of economic activity. Because the profile also includes the
numbers that reflect these characteristics, it provides a basis for
comparing the status quo with expected future changes in the social
and economic characteristics.
The sensitivity of an area to changes in economic activity is
reflected by four types of constraints: one physical, two financial,
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and one psychological. An area is sensitive to physical constraints
if potential growth is limited by the availability of water, land,
or other physical resources necessary for that growth. For example,
an aquifer may be incapable of supplying the demand for water
implied by the projected population and its per capita consumption.
The aquifer thus sets an upper limit on growth, in the absence of
other constraints, unless an additional source of water is obtaLned.
In this case, the area is sensitive to physical limits to the
projected population growth. This physical constraint may be removed
by financial outlays that yield a supplementary or alternative
source of water.
An area is financially sensitive in the first sense if the costs
of overcoming the physical constraint (or of providing the
infrastructure as a whole) are so great that the revenues required
to defray the costs can be obtained neither from the profits to be
derived from the sectors of economic activity causing the growth nor
from outside sources. It is financially sensitive in the second
sense if the revenues are obtainable, but the time period of their
availability does not coincide with the needs of the area. In this
case, an area may need to gear up, for example, by seeking front-end
monies from the industrial sectors or from outside short-term loans.
The need to gear up, and the extent to which it is required, may
cause social strains indicative of sensitivity.
The fourth sense in which an area may be regarded as sensitive is
the psychological sense. For example, even if a community is
convinced that there are no physical contraints and that the area
can financially afford the projected growth, the community may
decide against permitting the growth because in their view it would
disrupt a preferred life-style. Some data available on this issue
for parts of the study area are summarized in Subarea profiles.
3.4.2. Economic bases
Basic industries are industries that produce goods for export
from an area or that bring money into an area from outside. The
spending and respending of those imported dollars supports the local
trade and service sectors of the economy. The most important basic
Industries in the study area are the extraction and treatment of
petroleum and natural gas and the associated petrochemical
Industries, fisheries, and fish processing, and tourism. Most
agricultural and lumbering products are used locally; few export
dollars are derived from these industries.
The 1976 nonagricultural wage and salary employment data for the
Kenai-Cook Inlet Division, which is contained largely within the
study area, is listed in Table 13. The agricultural wage and salary
data do not include dollars paid to fishermen, farmers, or
independent loggers. Commercial fishermen constituted an additional
9 percent of the 1976 labor force and were paid $22 million for
catches landed at ports in the study area and at Seward. Forestry
and farming employed comparatively few full-time workers and were
primarily of local Importance. Data on the number of workers In
each employment sector in 1977 and 1978 are presented in Table 14.
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Table 13. Payrolls for nonagricultural wage and salary employment^in the Kenai-Cook
Inlet Census Division, 1976 (Alaska Department of Labor 1976).
Employment Payroll
Sector $1,000
Mining 23,272
Construction 30,524
Food Processing 4,023
Petroleum and Natural 1,599
Gas Manufacturing
Total Manufacturing 12,030
Transportation,
Communication, and 15,236
Public Utilities
Wholesale Trade 5,843
Retail Trade 7,534
Finance,
Insurance, and 1,860
Real Estate
Services 12,283
Miscellaneous 2,229
Federal Government 1,483
State and Local 17,240
Government
(1976) Percent
Average No. of of Total
Personnel Employed Payroll
741 17.2
1,057 22.6
445 3.0
70 1.2
960 8.9
549 11.3
221 4.3
727 5.6
157 1.4
774 9.1
103 1.6
83 1.1
1,093 12.8
Percent
of Total
Employment
11.0
16.3
6.9
1.1
14.8
8.5
3.4
11.2
2.4
12.0
1.6
1.3
16.9
Total
135,116
6,465
1.
Most, but not all, wage and salary employment is covered by these statistics.
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Table 14. Nonagricultural wage and salary employment in the Kenal-Cook
Inlet Census Division, 1977 and 1978.
Number of Workers
Employment Sector
1977
1978
Mining
721
806
Construction
1,808
464
Total Manufacturing
1,015
986
Transportation,
Communication, and
Public Utilities
652
574
Wholesale Trade
220
238
Retail Trade
833
970
Finance,
Insurance, and
Real Estate
186
195
Services
823
840
Miscellaneous
Not Available
51
Federal Government
77
88
State and Local
Government
1,140
1,321
7,332
6,526
Sata for the last 3 months of 1978 are estimates. (By telephone, Mr. Neil
Fried, Alaska Department of Labor, to Mr. Guy McConnell, WAPORA, Inc,, 16
March 1979).
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3.4.2.1. Petroleum and natural gas
Petroleum has been an Important natural resource since the
discovery of the Swanson River field in 1957. Most of the petroleum
and natural gas produced in the Kenai Peninsula Borough is extracted
from wells located north of the Forelands or on Federal lands
outside the study area. The majority of the construction and
operating personnel for these wells reside in the study area.
Petroleum and natural gas fields in the Kenai-Cook Inlet region are
listed in Table 15. Production figures are given in Table 16.
Natural gas and petroleum are cleaned and shipped out or are refined
or used as feedstocks for petrochemical manufacture. The main
terminal for unrefined crude oil is the Drift River Terminal on the
western shore of Cook Inlet. The petrochemical and refining in-
dustries in the study area are located north of Kenai, where
Standard Oil and Tesoro operate refineries, Phillips-Marathon
operates natural gas liquefaction plants, and Union Oil operates the
Collier Ammonia and Urea plant. An additional major natural gas
liquefaction plant is planned for the area by Pacific-Alaska LNG
Associates.
Development of the natural gas and petroleum fields has been of
major importance for industrial expansion and community development
in the study area since 1957, and the industry is still a major
basic industry in 1979. Almost all of the mining sector workers
(Table 13) and important segments of the manufacturing,
construction, transportation, and communication sector labor forces
are employed in basic industries supported by the petroleum and
natural gas industry. During 1976, the petroleum and natural gas
industry was estimated to have provided approximately 15 percent of
the nonagricultural employment of the Kenai-Cook Inlet census
division (CH2M Hill, Inc. 1978a).
3.4.2.2. Fisheries
In addition to fishermen, who are not represented in the non-
agricultural wage and salary statistics, the fishing industry in the
Kenai Borough employs virtually all of the personnel in the food
processing industry and workers from the construction,
manufacturing, and transportation industries. CH„M Hill, Inc.
(1978a) estimated that 15 percent of the Kenai Peninsula labor force
was involved in fisheries or fish processing. Petroleum extraction
is the primary basic industry in Subarea I, but fisheries and
tourism are more Important in the remainder of the study area. Most
of the catch indicated previously in Table 9 for the four regulatory
districts in the study area (the Central, Southern, and Kamishak Bay
Districts and a small portion of the Outer District) is taken by
fishing boats based in the study area and is processed in the study
area. In addition, fishermen from the study area fish the Northern,
Barren Island, Outer, and Eastern Districts and the surrounding
regions (Figure 22). Some of the catch from these areas also is
processed in the study area. Fishermen from Homer regularly fish as
far north as the Forelands, around Kodiak Island, and in Prince
William Sound, and may sell to processors in Kodiak, Anchorage, or
Seward, or on the Kenai Peninsula.
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Table 15. Petroleum and gas fields in the Kenai-Cook Inlet region
(US Army Corps of Engineers 1978).
Date of Discovery
Field
Type
Location
of Well
Swanson River
Oil and Gas
Onshore
August
1957
Kenai
Gas
Onshore
October
1959
West Fork
Gas
Onshore
September
1960
Falls Creek
Gas
Tidelands
May
1961
Sterling
Gas
Onshore
August
1961
West Foreland
Gas
Onshore
April
1962
Middle Ground Shoal
Oil
Offshore
June
1962
North Cook Inlet
Gas
Offshore
September
1962
Beluga River
Gas
Onshore
December
1962
North Middle Ground Shoal
Gas
Offshore
November
1964
Trading Bay
Oil
Offshore
June
1965
Birch Hill
Gas
Onshore
June
1965
Granite Point
Oil
Offshore
June
1965
McArthur River
Oil and Gas
Offshore
October
1965
Moquawkie
Gas
Onshore
November
1965
North Fork
Gas
Onshore
December
1965
Nicolai Creek
Gas
Onshore
May
1966
Ivan River
Gas
Onshore
October
1966
Beaver Creek
Gas
Onshore
February
1967
Albert Kaloa
Gas
Onshore
January
1968
Redoubt Shoal
Oil
Offshore
September
1968
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Table 16. Crude oil and gas production, Kenai-Cook Inlet, 1959 to 1976
(Alaska Department of Natural Resources n.d.).
Crude Oil Gas
Year (1,000 bbl) (ft3xl06)
1959 187
1960 578 137
1961 6,327 1,508
1962 10,259 3,556
1963 10,740 10,810
1964 11,054 11,865
1965 11,131 12,155
1966 14,365 41,218
1967 28,914 62,425
1968 66,143 99,849
1969 74,039 148,150
1970 82,414 216,620
1971 77,628 227,903
1972 72,638 222,789
1973 72,196 223,101
1974 70,098 228,528
1975 69,111 250,765
1976 62,404 264,762
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The economic benefits from the commercial fisheries are difficult to
determine. Fish may be caught in one area and processed in a second, and
the boat may be based in a third area and crewed by personnel from a
fourth. Further, harvest data for halibut and other important commercial
fish in the study area are reported by major region. The Cook Inlet
catch is included in the Gulf of Alaska total catch. Most fish caught
are reported by weight, but salmon are reported by pound and total
weights sold are difficult to obtain. Prices vary during the season and
from processor to processor, and frequently are not reported on the fish
tickets. The State of Alaska is approximately 3 years behind with
fisheries economic data. Harvest totals and prices paid have Increased
so rapidly that three-year-old data are inadequate.
A rough estimate of commercial fisheries sales value to the
fishermen is presented in Table 17. Wholesale prices typically are
approximately double those paid to the fishermen. Data for Table 17 were
obtained from the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (By telephone, Mr.
Tom Schroeder and Ms. Nancy Frieze, to Mr. Guy McConnell, WAPORA, Inc.,
13 and 14 March 1979). Salmon numbers were converted to weight by the
following factors:
King salmon 1 « 32 lbs
Coho (silver) salmon 1 ¦ 8 lbs
Chum salmon 1 ¦ 8 lbs
Red (sockeye) salmon 1 ¦ 7 lbs
Pink salmon 1 - 4 lbs
The conversion factors were provided by the Alaska Department of
Fish and Game (By telephone, Ms. Nancy Freize to Guy McConnell, WAPORA,
Inc., 14 March 1979) and are for Susitna River salmon populations.
Susitna River salmon may be smaller than salmon from other runs, so the
data were compared with average weights from Lower Cook Inlet catches for
1977 provided by a small processor (Personal communication, Dr. Lee Reid,
formerly of Saguya Foods, to Mr. Guy McConnell, WAPORA, Inc., 14 March
1979). Red salmon processed by Saguya averaged approximately 1-pound
heavier and chum salmon averaged approximately 1-pound lighter, than the
weights obtained by using the Alaska Department of Fish and Game
conversion factors. The weights of other salmon were approximately the
same. Where a number of different prices was paid, the average price was
used to calculate catch value.
Salmon, particularly red salmon, are the mainstay of the commercial
catch, and that the Cook Inlet was the source of most of the catch (Table
17). The commercial fishery is seasonal, with the main effort occuring
during the period from June through August. Employment also is seasonal.
The peak summer employment by fish processors usually is about 2.5 times
the yearly average. A comparison of the 1978 fisheries value and wages
paid to processing plant workers (Table 13) with wages paid to mining
sector workers indicates that within the study area commercial fishing,
as a basic industry, is at least as important as the petroleum
extraction/manufacturing industry in dollars paid to the community. It
also employs a larger segment of the population.
The Cook Inlet commercial fishery has grown as salmon returns in-
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Table 17. Estimated commercial catch value, Cook Inlet-Resurrection Bay Regulatory District, 1978.
A single asterisk (*) indicates an estimated figure; a double asterisk (**) indicates
that data are not available for the study area alone.
Pounds Caught
Value of Catch ($)
Species
Study Area
Region
Price Per
Pound ($)
Study Area
Total Regie
King Salmon
572,000*
614,880*
1.00-1.10
600,600
645,624
Red (Sockeye) Salmon
18,851,273*
19,388,257*
0.85-1.35
20,736,400
21,327,082
Coho (Silver) Salmon
1,419,768
1,818,976
0.70-1.35
1,455,262
1,864,450
Pink Salmon
6,272,652
8,040,484
0.35
2,195,428
2,814,169
Chum Salmon
A,654,968
5,128,712
0.61-0.80
3,281,752
3,615,748
Total Salmon
31,770,661
34,991,309
$28,269,442
$30,267,073
King Crab
1,215,572
1,215,572
1.23-1.77
1,823,358
1,823,358
Tanner Crab
3,176,606
3,664,966
0.55
1,763,016
2,034,056
Dungeness Crab
1,041,376
1,041,376
0.66-0.75
728,963
728,963
Trawl Shrimp
4,123,802
4,124,442
0.16
680,427
680,532
Pot Shrimp
249,558
257,988
0.70-0.75
180,929
187,041
Razor Clam
**
45,931
0.75-1.00
49,189
40,189
Herring
926,000**
0.35-0.40
317,250
Total
$33,486,324
$36,078,462
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creased and the shellfish industry expanded. The next major expansion
may be in the bottomfish industry. Exploitation of that resource,
however, will require commitments of more capital for boats and
processing facilities than is required for salmon and shellfish harvest
and processing. The price offered for bottomfish during March 1979
(approximately 6.5 cents per pound) probably is not enough to attract
development capital without some form of government protection or
subsidy. Implementation of the 200-mile limit and the economic
limitations that may be placed on foreign fishermen and processors may
alter the potential profitability of a bottomfishing operation
sufficently to encourage development of the industry. Should this occur,
the City of Kenai and the Kachemak Bay area would be potential industry
sites.
3.4.2.3. Agriculture
The entire 1974 production of agricultural products from the Kenai
Peninsula was valued at $521,000 (US Forest Service 1975). Most of that
production was consumed domestically. Thirty-one farms sold more than
$1,000 of produce, and the total farm sales (crops and livestock) was
$121,400. Between 1960 and 1975 the most important commercial crops were
grasses, oats, barley, mixed grains, and truck garden crops. Livestock
production in 1975 totaled 860 cattle, 20 hogs, and 300 chickens.
Farming in the study area is primarily conducted in Subareas I, II, and
III. The State of Alaska is encouraging the expansion of agriculture
with a continuing program of agricultural land sales and grazing leases.
The generally poor soil and high cost of farming in this area, however,
probably will preclude agriculture from becoming a major economic factor
in the near term.
3.4.2.4. Forestry
Lumbering in the study area is divided between the cutting of cants
for the Japanese market and the production of rough lumber and turned
logs for the local construction industry. Export lumbering is centered
in Jakalof Bay on the lower tip of the Kenai Peninsula. Additional
logging operations are planned for the Port Chatham area. There is a
chipping mill at Tyonek, north of the study area, although it is not in
operation at present. A similar mill may be feasible for the study area
when land ownership finally is determined.
3.4.2.5. Tourism
Data are not available on the economic importance of this sector for
the study area, its subareas, or its cities. Between 1964 and 1967,
wages from tourism grew faster in Alaska than wages from all other
sectors except oil and gas. During that period, the number of tourists
increased by 46 percent, tourist expenditures increased by 69 percent,
and wages in the tourism sector rose by 65 percent. In 1970, the number
of out-of-state tourists visiting Alaska was projected to increase from a
base figure of 86,700 in 1967 to 185,500 in 1975, to 233,700 in 1980, and
to 600,000 by the year 2000. The Borough, the Kenai-Cook Inlet Census
District, and by inference, the study area and its subareas and cities,
have shared and will share in this growth.
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One study estimates that 350,000 tourists visited the Kenai
Peninsula in 1973, spending half their time on the Kenai National Moose
Range and half elsewhere. Their gross expenditure was $31.5 million, of
which $11 million was spent in the Borough. Using a multiplier of 1.4
times tourism expenditures (direct and indirect) in the Borough, the 1973
grdss expenditures amounted to $15.4 million. This figure constitutes
just over 30 percent of the gross sales and services receipts in the
Borough in 1972, which totaled $50.4 million. Of the $15.4 million, half
is attributed to expenditures by tourists visiting the Kenai National
Moose Range, which is easily accessible from the Seward Highway both
inside and outside of the study area. Given the small size of the
communities east of the study area and the fact that in 1970 Seward (the
only city outside the study area) had only 25 percent of the population
of the study area's cities, it is not unreasonable to assume that the
bulk of the $15.4 million was spent within the study area. The
expenditures most likely were concentrated within three cities (Kenai,
Homer, and Soldotna). Seldovia is excluded because it cannot be reached
by road.
Tourist expenditures in the Borough are projected to increase from
$15.4 million in 1973 to $113.4 million in the year 2000. This
projection is based solely on a projected increase in the number of
tourists (from 350,000 to 2.6 million). No allowance has been made for
an increase in the number of recreation days, or in expenditures per
recreation day.
As regards sport fishing, it has been estimated that $52 million was
spent in the State in 1973, with 29 percent of the sport fishing effort
taking place in the Kenai Peninsula, which is wholly within the Borough.
If the gross assumption is made that the geographical distribution of
expenditures is the same as that of the effort, a direct expenditure in
the Borough of $15 million (0.29 x $52 million) occurred from sport
fishing. This is more than the $11 million estimated earlier for all
recreation, including sport fishing. There are insufficient data to
reconcile these figures. It is likely that most of the fishing tackle
and camping supplies used by tourists in the Kenai Peninsula were
purchased in other areas, especially in Anchorage.
In summary, tourism, including recreational hunting and fishing, is
a major basic industry in the study area, but the data are insufficient
to identify the value of the industry to the various job sectors and
other aspects of the economy. Because the population of Anchorage (a
major source of tourists to the Kenai Peninsula) has increased rapidly
since 1973 and other tourism also has increased, the 1973 data base is
not current and is inadequate to evaluate the importance of tourism to
the economy.
3.4.3. Demography
3.4.3.1. Census results
Population estimates for the Kenai Peninsula Borough are available
from three sources: the 1970 population census, a 1977 special census of
cities in the Kenai Peninsula and of the entire Kenai Peninsula Borough,
and a special census conducted during the summer of 1978 by the US Census
3-96
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Bureau. The results are difficult to compare because the enumeration
divisions differed. The 1970 census was conducted by census district;
the 1977 census was conducted for the Borough as a whole and the
individual cities; and the 1978 special census was conducted by voting
precinct. The 1970 census districts are indicated in Figure 23 (adapted
from US Bureau of the Census 1973). The data from the 1978 special
census are presented in Table 19.
The Kenai-Cook Inlet Census Division has 27 enumeration districts as
shown in Table 18. In 1970 the Division had a permanent population of
14,250. Of this total, 7,902 persons were in 20 districts that are
wholly within the study area, and 6,086 were in six districts that are
partially within the study area. Thus only one district, Tyonek
(population 232), is entirely outside the study area. The bulk of the
population of the three most populous districts that are partly within
the study area can safely be estimated to be in the study area. In 08
(East Foreland, etc.), Number Three Bay and Point Possession populations
are small; in 09 (Kalifonsky, etc.), the population around Skilak and
Tustumena Lakes is small relative to that along the Kalifonsky Beach; and
in 19 (Diamond Ridge), settlement tends to be linked to the population
nodes within the study area, rather than scattered throughout the
district. Based on our knowledge of the area, we would estimate that at
least 75 percent of the population of these three districts was within
the study area in 1970. This constitutes an additional 4,499 (0.75 x the
total population of 5,998). The 1970 total of 12,401 (7,902 x 4,499) is
87 percent of the total population of the Kenai-Cook Inlet Census
Division (14,250) and 75 percent of the total population of the Kenai
Peninsula Borough (16,586) in 1970.
Because the census districts do not coincide with the study area
boundaries, the exact population of the study area in 1978 is not known.
However, it can be assumed that the study area contains most of the
population of the Kenai Peninsula Borough. The 26 precincts censused in
1978, which contained a total population of 25,281 are listed in Table
19. Fifteen of these precincts, with a combined population of 17,395, or
68.8 percent of the total Borough population, are entirely within the
study area. Five of the remaining eleven precincts, including Sterling
(population 1,408), are partly within the study area. The population of
the Sterling precinct is distributed along the Sterling Highway and the
Kenai River. Observations from aircraft and automobiles suggest that
half of the Sterling precinct population, or 704 individuals, is within
the study area. Nikiski 2 (population 2,010) extends across the northern
boundaries of the study area, but should be considered a functional part
of the study area. It is contiguous with the North Kenai population
center, and essentially all government and services for Nikiski 2 come
from the study area. Road access also is through the study area. The
population of the Port Graham precinct is centered in Port Graham and
Portlock, with a logging camp at Koyuktolik Bay and cabins at Chrome Bay.
Perhaps 200 of the 230 persons censused in the Port Graham District live
within the study area. Judged by observation from aircraft and
automobile, more than two-thirds of the population of the Tustumena
District, or 582 persons, is in the study area — in Kasilof, Cohoe, and
Clam Gulch, and along the Sterling Highway. The Tyonek District popula-
tion is largely in Old Tyonek and New Tyonek, north of the study area.
3-97
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Kuskokwim Division
Matanuska-Susitna Division
Bristol Bay
Division
Kodiak Division
— — CENSUS ENUMERATION DISTRICT BOUNDARY
CENSUS DISTRICT NUMBER
MILES
I 1
0 10 90
WAPORA, INC.
FIGURE 23
CENSUS ENUMERATION DISTRICTS
3-98
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Table 18. Census data for Kenai Peninsula Borough, Kenai-Cook Inlet Census
Division, study area, and Enumeration Districts, 1970 and 1977
(US Bureau of the Census 1973; By telephone, Mr. Neil Fried,
Alaska Department of Labor, to Mr. Guy McConnell, WAPORA, Inc.,
16 March 1979).
Unit 1970 1977
Kenai: Peninsula Borough 16,586 24,611
Kenai-Cook Inlet Census Division 14,250
Study Area 12,401* 19,689*
Enumeration Districts
01 Sterling 30
02 Kenai 3,533 5,634
03 Soldotna 1,202 2,586
04 Cohoe 8
05 Kasilof 71
06 Clam Gulch 47
07 Ninilchik 134
08 East Foreland, etc.** 2,997
09 Kalifonsky, etc.** 2,160
10 Tyonek** 232
11 Beluga Lake, etc.** 33
12 Iniskin, etc. 5
13 Katmai National Monument** 0
14 Fritz Creek 27
15 Anchor Point 102
16 Homer 1,083 1,802
17 Kachemak 76 280
18 Halibut Cove 44
19 Diamond Ridge 841
20 Jakalof Bay 23
21 Seldovia 437
22 Port Graham 107 612
23 English Bay 58
24 Chugach Islands, etc.** 55
25 Wildwood Air Force Reservation 750
9900 East Foreland Waters 67
9901 Kachemak Bay 128
*Estimate, derived by WAPORA, Inc.
**Wholly or partly outside the study area.
3-99
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Table 19. Kenai Peninsula Borough special census results, 1978.
Precinct Population
Anchor Point
1,447
Bear Creek
687
Cooper Landing*
238
Diamond Ridge
433
English Bay
110
Fritz Creek
872
Halibut Cove
85
Homer
2,055
Hope*
92
Kalifonski
1,701
Kenai 1
1,728
Kenai 2
1,779
Kenai 3
864
Moose Pass*
268
Nikiski 1
1,479
Nikiski 2**
2,010
Ninilchik
468
Port Graham**
230
Ridgeway
1,472
Seldovia
582
Seward 1*
606
Seward 2*
1,150
Soldotna
2,365
Sterling**
1,408
Tustumena**
881
Tyonek**
311
25,281
*Wholly outside the study area.
**Partially outside the study area.
3-
100
-------
There are a few Tyonek Precinct residences along the West Foreland, near
Polly Creek, on Chisik Island, and scattered along the western Cook Inlet
coastline. These probably contain fewer than 50 people.
The total of the above estimates for the five precincts is 3,546.
This figure, added to the 17,395 population figure for the other fifteen
precincts, yields an estimated population of 20,941. Thus, approximately
83 percent of the Kenai Peninsula Borough population is within the study
area.
Population data for the four cities in the study area are listed
below:
1970
1977
1978
Kenai
3,533
5,364
4,371
Soldotna
1,202
2,586
2,365
Homer
1,083
1,802
2,055
Seldovia
437
612
582
Total
6,255
10,364
9,373
The 1977 figures were estimates produced by the municipalities and, in
light of the 1978 census data, probably were optimistic for Kenai,
Soldotna, and Seldovia.
3.4.3.2. Population trends
Assuming that the population of the study area was 12,401 in 1970
and 20,941 in 1978, the population has increased by 8,539 (approximately
70 percent) in 8 years. During those 8 years the population of Kenai
increased by 24 percent, that of Soldotna by 97 percent, that of Homer by
90 percent, and that of Seldovia by 33 percent. Homer and Soldotna
almost doubled in population, whereas Kenai and Seldovia grew at a much
slower rate.
The populations of the four cities combined grew from 6,255 to
9,373, an increase of approximately 50 percent. The combined growth of
the cities, and in particular the growth of Kenai and Seldovia, did not
keep pace with the remainder of the study area. The difference between
the 1970 and 1978 enumeration districts makes comparison of the data
difficult, but some growth trends are apparent. Sterling and Soldotna
have grown more rapidly than the norm. The Port Graham precinct and the
Seldovia precinct of the 1978 census approximate the Jakalof Bay,
Seldovia, Port Graham, and Chugach Islands district of 1970. The
population in those districts increased from 680 to 812, a 19 percent
increase. The Halibut Cove, Fritz Creek, Diamond Ridge, Anchor Point,
Homer, and Ninilchik precincts of 1978 are roughly equivalent to the
similarly-named census districts of 1970. In these districts the total
population has increased from 2,435 to 5,360, a 120-percent increase.
Excluding Homer, the population increased from 1,352 to 3,305, a
144-percent increase.
The northern half of the Kenai-Cook Inlet Census Division roughly
corresponds to the ten northern precincts used in the 1978 census. Both
3-101
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the northern census districts and precincts are indicated in the
following list:
Districts
Sterling
Kenai
Soldotna
Cohoe
Kasilof
Clam Gulch
East Forelands
Kalifonsky
Wildwood Air Force Reservation
East Foreland Waters
Precincts
Tustumena
Kalifonsky
Ridgeway
Kenai I
Kenai II
Kenai III
Soldotna
Nikiski I
Nikiski II
Sterling
In the northern districts the population increased approximately 44
percent, from 10,865 to 15,635. Of the 4,770 population increase, Kenai
increased by 838, and Soldotna by 1,163 (total — 2,001). This urban
increase amounted to a 45-percent expansion of the population. The
remaining population increase of 2,769 occurred outside the cities.
In summary, the population of the study area comprised an estimated
83 percent of the Borough in 1978. Almost the entire study area
population is on the Kenai Peninsula. Populations on the west side of
the Inlet are sparse. The population of the study area has increased by
approximately 70 percent since the 1970 census. Homer, Soldotna, and the
area around Homer received disproportionately large percentages of the
increase. Populations in Kenai and Seldovia increased at a slower rate
that the norm. Populations in the study area on the northern half of the
Kenai Peninsula increased by approximately 45 percent, a rate
intermediate between Kenai and Seldovia at one extreme and Soldotna and
the Homer area at the other.
3.4.3.3. Population projections
The most recent population projections for the Lower Cook Inlet
region have included the projected development that would accompany the
construction and operation of the planned Pacific-Alaska Associates
natural gas liquefaction (LNG) plant near Kenai and the petrochemical
complex that Alpetco had considered it might build on the Wildwood
Reservation north of Kenai. The LNG plant construction has been delayed
by objections to the planned receiving facilities in California, and
Valdez (pending EIS preparation and approval) has been selected for the
Alpetco site. The delay of the LNG plant will move the potential impacts
on the population at least one year into the future. The decision not to
build the Alpetco plant at Wildwood removes the potential impact of a
population increase of approximately 3,150 at the peak of construction
and operation in 1982. Although the projections for both facilities are
based on obsolete data, they are presented in the tables and narrative
that follow because they are useful indicators of the population shift
that could be expected to accompany future projects of similar scope.
Base-case population projections for the Kenai Peninsula Borough,
Base case
3-102
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the study area, and the part of the Borough that is outside the study
area are presented in Table 20. The projections assume that the annual
rates of growth experienced by the cities and unincorporated areas over
the period 1970 to 1977 will continue over the period 1977 to 1992. For
this base case only, the population of the study area is projected to
double between 1977 (19,689) and 1988 (40,624). Its share of the
population of the Borough is projected to increase over that period from
80 percent (19,689 to 24,611) to 85 percent (40,624 to 47,882).
Within the study area, the total population of the incorporated
areas is projected to grow at a slightly faster rate than that of the
unincorporated areas. The projections are based in part on the 1977
population estimates given in Table 22, which have been shown to be in
error. The projections may be high for the cities and low for the
unincorporated areas.
Other cases
Four sets of population projections for the Kenai Peninsula Borough
are compared in Table 21:
• Base case — the projected population increase without the
Lower Cook Inlet lease sale (the Outer Continental Shelf
development), as shown in Table 20.
• Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) case — the population
increment resulting from the lease sale. Three ranges of
estimates are given, which reflect different assumptions
as to the level of development expected from the sale (a
low scenario, a medium scenario, and a high scenario). The
medium and high scenarios each contain two sets of
alternative compositions and percentages of worker
residency within the Borough
• Alpetco — the population increment above the base case
and various OCS case totals that are associated with the
Alpetco refinery and petrochemical complex
• Pacific-Alaska Associates (P-A) — the population
increment above the base case and various OCS case totals
that are associated with the Pacific-Alaska LNG facility.
The first year for which projections are contained in the sources is
1979; the last is 1992. The other years are selected from the sources to
show the peak population levels estimated.
The base—case population of the Borough is expected to increase
approximately 89 percent, from 25,281 to 47,882, between 1978 and 1988.
By 1992, the population is expected to reach 61,487, a 143-percent
increase over the 1978 figure.
The additional population projected for the Borough by 1988 from the
Lower Cook Inlet Lease Sale ranges from a low of 1,559 in the OCS medium
scenario Mil to a high of 8,685 in the OCS high scenario HX2. The
additional population projected for the Borough by 1988 from the proposed
3-103
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Table 20. Population projections for the Kenai Peninsula Borough and the study area (base case), 1977-1992 (CH2M
Hill, Inc., 1978a, except as noted).
1977 1979 1980 1982 1986a 1987n 1988 1992
u>
I
M
O
-P-
Kenal Peninsula Borough
24,611
27,703
29.320
33,183
42,326
45,068
47,882
61,487
Study area
00
a*
22,471
23,880
27,327
35,598
38,060
40,624
53,101
Incorporated areas
10,644
12,304
13,151
15,356
20,658
22,316
23,992
32,449
Subarea Ia
7,950
9,260
9,915
11,690
15,960
17,315
18,670
25,605
Kenal''
5,364
6,168°
6,570
7,525
9,860
10,575
11,290
14,800
Q
Soldotna
2,586
3,092n
3,345
4,165
6,100
6,740
7,380
10,805
Subarea 11, Homer and Kachemak1'
2,082
2,384
2,551
2,921
3,828
4,096
4,382
5,744
Subarea IV, Seldovlae
612
660
685
745
870
905
940
1,100
f ft h
Unincorporated areas ,6'
9,045k
10,167
10,729
11,940
14,940
15,744
16,632
20,652
Kenal Borough outside study area*
4,922
5,232
5,440
5,856
6,728
7,008
7,258
8,386
Incorporated areas, Seward^
2,279^
2,513
2,639
2,910
3,537
3,714
3,900
4,741
Unincorporated areas^*'1
2,644-
2,719
2,801
2.946
3,191
3,294
3,358
3,645
aCalculated by WAPORA, Inc.
^7Z compound annual growth rate.
Q
10Z compound annual growth rate.
dThe 7Z compound annual growth rate estimated by Hill for Homer Is applied to the combined 1977 figure for Homer (1,802) and Kachemak (280).
42 compound annual growth rate.
Si compound annual growth rate.
^Assumed that this will rise from the 77Z of the unincorporated areas total for the Borough In 1977 to 851 In 1992.
''unincorporated areas In Borough as a whole are assumed to grow at the 5Z compound annual rate used by Hill for unincorporated areas In central
and southern Kenal Peninsula Borough.
Assumed to fall from 23Z of total unincorporated areas In the Borough In 1977 to 1SZ In 1992.
^Table 18.
''study area minus Incorporated areas In study area.
^Borough minus study area.
"Borough outside study area minus Incorporated areas outside study area.
DStraight-line Interpolation by WAPORA, Inc.
-------
Table 21. Population projections for the Kenai Peninsula Borough (Alaska Department of Community and Regional
Affairs 1977, unless otherwise noted).
Case
Employees Living
In Borough
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
Base Case
25,218®
27,703b
29,320b
31,352°
33,183
36,767
42,326
47,882
49,128
61,487
OCS Low Case
0
148
80
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Mil
20Z PSB + C
0
271
451
265
722
915
1,881
1,559
1,356
1,156
MI2a
BOX PSB + C
0
353
561
467
1,234
1,851
3,575
3.279
2,852
2,426
MX I
MX2
20Z PSB
80Z PSB
0
0
271
353
451
561
265
467
472
984
915
1,851
1,481
3,175
1,559
3,279
1,356
2,852
1,156
2,426
OCS High Case
HI I
20Z PSB + C
0
841
1,703
2,888
2,685
5,974
6,095
4,217
3,541
3,419
HI23
80Z PSB + C
0
979
1,980
3,764
4,470
10,650
11,550
8,685
7,241
7,005
HX1
HX2
20Z PSB
80Z PSB
0
0
641
1,062
903
1,180
1,388
2,264
1,985
3,773
4,174
8,850
5,095
10,547
4,217
8,685
3,541
7,241
3,419
7,007
Alpetco3
All Employees
0
0
0
1,260
3,150
600
1,200
1,200
1,200
1,200
Pacific-Alaska LNGa
All Employees
0
380
630
1,350
1,060
180
180
180
180
180
LEGEND: PSB ¦= Platforn and supply boat workers.
C » Construction workforce at teralnals and LNG plant.
aCH2M Hill, Inc. 1978a.
bTable 20,
cStraight-line interpolation froa 1980 and 1982 figures by KAPORA, Inc.
-------
projects combined is 1,380 (1,200 from Alpetco and 180 from
Pacif ic-Alaska) .
The total of the 1988 projections for the base case, the OCS high
scenario (HX2, with 80 percent of the platform and supply-boat employees
residing in the Borough), and the Alpetco and Alaska-Pacific LNG projects
results in a population figure for the Borough of 57,947 (47,882 + 8,685
+ 1,380). This constitutes a 135-percent increase, or 33,336 persons,
between 1977 and 1988. By 1992, with the same OCS case, the population
would have risen by 45,263 to 69,874, a 184—percent increase.
The detailed analysis underlying these numbers is contained in the
sources cited. In brief, the base case assumes that the compound annual
rates of growth experienced by the individual cities and by the unin-
corporated areas during the period 1970 to 1977 will continue through the
period 1977 to 1992. The OCS case is based on four major components:
the levels of development postulated in the three scenarios (millions of
barrels of oil and millions of cubic feet of gas, per unit time); the
direct and indirect employment associated with these levels; employment/
population ratios; and allocation of population increments to the
Borough's individual cities and its unincorporated areas. The Alpetco
and the Pacific-Alaska LNG cases use the same methods as the OCS case,
except that only one scenario (rather than three alternative scenarios)
is postulated for each.
In addition, further population increases may be expected in the
Borough when and if the bottom-fisheries industry and the Beluga
coalfields are developed. Estimates of these increases have not been
developed for the Borough.
Base case plus OCS, Alpetco, and Pacific-Alaska projects
The base case, OCS medium scenario, Alpetco, and Pacific-Alaska LNG
population projections for the Borough, the study area, and the Borough
outside the study area for 1977 and 1988 are shown in Table 22. The
medium scenario is chosen because the low and high scenarios have a low
probability of occurring (5 percent or less). The medium scenario (MI2)
selected includes the construction work force projected for the terminals
and the LNG plant (which is not the same as the Pacific-Alaska LNG
plant), and the assumption that 80 percent of the platform and
supply-boat employees will live in the Borough.
A comparison of 1977 and 1988 projections indicates that the
addition of the total OCS/Alpetco/LNG population increment changes the
base-case pattern. The increment adds 11 percent to the base-case
population projected for the study area in 1988, but changes the
relationship of the study area to the Borough, and the relationships of
the Subareas to one another within the study area, only slightly.
In the base case, the population of the study area is projected to
increase from 19,689 in 1977 to 40,624 in 1988, i.e., by 106 percent.
When the populations anticipated for the OCS scenario and the other two
projects are added, the total 1988 population becomes 44,902, or an
increase of 128 percent. This is approximately 11 percent more than the
base-case number of 40,624.
3-106
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Table 22. Population projections for the Kenai Peninsula Borough and the study area, 1977 and 1978;
base case, plus OCS medium scenario (MI2), Alpetco, and Pacific—Alaska (Table 21; CH^M Hill,
Inc. 1978a).
Base
Case
OCS Medium
Scenario0
Alpetco-
Paclflc-Alaska
Total
1977b
1988
1977
1988
1977
1988
1977
1988
Kenai Peninsula Borough
24,611
47,882
0
3,290c
0
1,380
24,611
52,552
Study area
19,689
40,624
0
3,014
0
1,264
19,689
44,902
Incorporated area
10,644
23,992
0
1,645
0
690
10,644
26,327
Subarea I
7,950
18,670
0
945
0
396
7,950
20,011
Kenai
5,364
11,290
0
565
0
237e
5,364
12,092
Soldotna
2,586
7,380
0
380
0
159e
2,586
7,919
Subarea II (Homer)
2,082
4,382
0
560
0
235e
2,082
5,177
Subarea IV (Seldovia)
612
940
0
140
0
59e
612
1,139
Unincorporated areas
9,045
16,632
0
l,369d
0
574
9,045
18,575
Borough outside study area
4,922
7,258
0
276
0
116
4,922
7,650
Incorporated areas (Seward)
2,279
3,900
0
0d
0
0e
2,279
3,900
Unincorporated areas
2,644
3,358
0
276d
0
116e
2,644
3,750
aIncludes construction workforce at terminals and LNG plant; assumes that 80Z of platform and supply boat workers live in Borough.
''All figures from Table 20.
°Minor discrepancy between two CHjM Hill sources; although the figure 3,279 is used in Table 3-3, the sum of Tables 3-4 to 3-9 Is 3,290, the
figure used here.
^Distribution of CH^M Hill total unincorporated areas using 1986 base proportions from Table 20.
distribution of Borough total using OCS medium scenario proportions.
-------
These facts do not mean that the additional population from the OCS/
Alpetco/Pacific-Alaska projects is so small relative to the base case
that the projects can be ignored. The impacts on a particular community
could be substantial, depending on the size of the community and the
time-phasing of the projects.
Further research
The base-case population numbers for the Borough in Table 22 are
those calculated by WAPORA, Inc., in Table 20, which give the base-case
numbers for the incorporated and unincorporated areas in the Borough.
The individual compound annual rates of growth for these areas over the
period 1970 to 1977 were assumed to extend over the period 1977 to 1992
(CH M Hill, Inc. 1978a). This assumption needs to be examined for its
appropriateness.
The OCS-case population numbers for the Borough in Table 22 are
derived from OCS employment projections. The employment projections (and
thus the population projections presented here) are those of the Alaska
Department of Community and Regional Affairs (DCRA 1977). They differ
markedly from those of the Bureau of Land Management (BLM 1976). The
high-case total Alaska direct employment from the Lower Cook Inlet Lease
Sale is projected by DCRA at 3,986 in 1992, whereas the BLM projection is
1,199. This difference stems not from different assumptions as to the
level of development, but from different assumptions as to the direct
employment required by that development: offshore production platforms;
onshore support for offshore facilities; and construction of onshore
terminals. These different assumptions need to be analyzed.
Summary
The foregoing has established that:
• The study area accounts for, and will continue to account
for, the bulk of the population in the Kenai-Cook Inlet
region and the Kenai Peninsula Borough.
This is important because data are not available for the study area as
defined, but are available for the region and the Borough. Thus trends
in the study area may be inferred from trends in the region and the
Borough.
• The cities and the related settlements account for the bulk
of the population in the study area.
This conclusion justifies the use of the cities as surrogates for the
Subareas into which the study area is divided. Data are available for
the cities (although to a lesser extent than for region and Borough), but
not for the Subareas.
• The population of the study area is projected to increase
by 106 percent between 1977 and 1988 in the base case, and
by 128 percent if the OCS, Alpetco, and Pacific-Alaska
projects are added to the base case. The OCS is the most
likely of these projects to be undertaken.
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This conclusion establishes a prima facie case that the study area as a
whole is sensitive to the expected new levels of economic activity, for
which new-source NPDES permits will be sought. This sensitivity is even
more strongly indicated for the cities and the Subareas.
3.4.3.4. Public attitudes toward development
The results of surveys conducted in cities of the Kenai Peninsula
Borough were presented in a document entitled A Profile of Five Kenai
Peninsula Towns (Bureau of Management and Urban Affairs and Anchorage
Urban Observatory 1977). Excerpts from those surveys concerning
attitudes on community growth are presented in the Subarea profiles. In
general, the respondents indicated that they preferred to live in
communities of the size in which they currently resided and that they
preferred that new development occur only in the education sector and in
the traditional industrial sectors of their communities.
3.4.4. Housing
Housing data are available only for the cities of the study area.
During 1976, 54 percent of the houses in the four cities were
single-family residences, 20 percent were multi-family residences, 24
percent were mobile homes, and 1 percent was other types of housing (CH M
Hill, Inc. 1978a). Outside the cities the percentage of multi-famify
housing probably was less. Housing vacancies in three of the four cities
totaled 74 (5.4 percent of the total number of units). This is a low
vacancy rate and indicates a tight housing market. Construction
employment has decreased from 1,057 in 1976 to 464 in 1978. The exodus
of construction workers that may have accompanied that decline may have
increased housing vacancies significantly. Housing statistics for the
individual cities are presented in the Subarea profiles.
3.4.5. Education
In the 1977-1978 school year the Kenai Peninsula Borough had 23
schools, 5,708 pupils, and a teaching staff of 355. The pupil/teacher
ratio was approximately 16 to 1. The Borough is responsible for the
construction and maintenance of the public schools throughout the study
area. Construction is funded by voter-approved bond issues initiated by
the Borough, with the State paying about 50 percent of the debt service
requirements. Administration is funded by Federal, State, and local
monies. Operating expenses rose from $12.7 million in the 1975-1976
school year to $15.4 million in the 1976-1977 school year, an increase of
22 percent. A study by the Kenai Peninsula Borough School District
(1977) projected enrollment until the 1981-1982 school year (exclusive of
additional enrollment from non-base-case activities), and recommended
expansion. The projected additions are slightly different in a 1978 bond
prospectus (Kenai Peninsula Borough 1978). The bulk of the Borough's
1978 $26 million school bond issue is for the new high school and
elementary school at Soldotna ($18 million and $4 million, respectively).
At present, Kenai serves Soldotna students of high school age. The
prospectus notes that "the combined total costs of [additional] needed
[school] projects is estimated at approximately $20 million." Additional
projects still are under discussion. The estimated additional enrollment
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in the Borough by 1992 is given in Table 23 for the three OCS scenarios.
Table 23. Estimated additional school enrollment for the Kenai Peninsula
Borough, 1977-1992 (Kenai Peninsula Borough 1978).
OCS Low OCS Medium OCS High
Base case 7,430 7,430 7,430 - 7,430
Increment 20 560 1,590 - 1,645
Total 7,450 7,990 9,020 - 9,075
3.4.6. Transportation
The two-lane Sterling Highway runs on a north-south axis through the
study area on the Kenai Peninsula. It is the only road linking the study
area to Anchorage. With the exception of a trail and a marine railroad
from Iliamna Bay to Iliamna Lake, there are no roads in the subareas on
the Alaska Peninsula. The Sterling Highway runs east from Soldotna to
Seward and Anchorage, and south from Soldotna to Homer. Seldovia is not
connected by road to the other subareas. Soldotna is linked by a
two-lane highway to Kenai, North Kenai, and Nikiski. There is a two-lane
loop road (the Kalifonsky Beach Road) off the Sterling Highway (southwest
of Soldotna), a new bridge across the Kenai River linking Kenai to this
loop road, and two loop roads off the road connecting Soldotna and Kenai
(the Kenai Spur Road).
Commercial airline flights link the cities of Anchorage, Kenai,
Soldotna, and Homer. From Homer an air taxi can be hired to Seldovia. A
ferry links Homer and Seldovia. The Cook Inlet is an important shipping
route for imports of commodities into Anchorage and for exports of
petroleum products from the study area, and also is a major commercial
fishing area. There are publicly- and privately-owned ports and docks at
most of the population centers along the Kenai Peninsula coast. Specific
transportation facilities are described in the subarea profiles.
3.4.7. Utilities
Each of the four largest communities in the study area provides
public water and sewage facilities to at least a part of its population.
The remainder of the population takes water from wells, cisterns,
streams, or lakes, and disposes of its domestic wastes in septic systems,
holding tanks, or privies. On the Kenai Peninsula, electricity is
generated by the Chugach Electric Company at Bernice Lake, at Cooper
Lake, and at Beluga (outside the study area). The Chugach Electric
Company distributes electricity in the northern part of the Kenai
Peninsula, and the Homer Electric Association distributes it in the
southern part of the Kenai Peninsula. Smaller communities utilize
diesel-powered generators. Several of the larger industries generate
their own electricity. Anchorage Natural Gas Company, Kenai Utility
Service Corporation, and the Collier and Phillips petrochemical plants
distribute natural gas to parts of the study area on the Kenai Peninsula.
Solid waste is collected at transfer points on the Peninsula and buried
at landfill sites operated by the Borough.
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3.4.8. Public finances
The tax base of the Borough is adequate to provide the desired level
of services. The financial welfare of the Borough is important to the
study area, because the Borough provides areawide education and selected
services in the aci hoc service areas. Specific financial data for the
cities is presented in the Subarea profiles.
The finances of the Borough and the study area, however, are com-
plicated by three factors that render both entities sensitive to rapid
growth or to abrupt changes in the level of economic activity. The first
factor is the difference between the geographical distributions of the
tax base (property value) and the population, primarily because the oil
and gas properties are outside the cities. They are concentrated in the
Nikiski area, outside the corporate limits of Kenai and Soldotna. The
assessed value of these properties is about half that of the total
assessed value for the Borough. Although Kenai and Soldotna are affected
significantly by the economic and social impacts of these properties, the
cities lack the power to tax them. This is shown in Table 24 for the 11
Tax Code Areas (TCAs), including five cities, in the Borough. The
boundaries of each Tax Code Area are indicated in Figure 24 (adapted from
CH-M Hill, Inc. 1978a). The cities have only one percent of the assessed
value of oil and gas properties in the Borough, but 43 percent of the
population of the Borough. The assessed value (oil and gas only) per
capita in the cities is $450, as compared with $39,165 for the service
areas combined. Thus, even with millage rates in the cities very much
higher than outside (19.36, versus 6.32 for the service areas), the
property tax (oil and gas) levied per capita is very much less ($7,
versus $247 for the service areas).
The second complicating factor is the complex nature of the pro-
vision of services in service areas that have overlapping boundaries, and
contain the cities. The third factor is the time lag between expendi-
tures and receipt of revenues. The result of these complications is that
"Kenai's [recent] financial condition has been chaotic [as it struggled]
to recover from the last oil boom" (CH-M Hill, Inc. 1978a). Inter-
governmental agreements (where one jurisdiction agrees to provide a
service in another), which have been permitted by enabling legislation in
Colorado, for example, "... could add to the already chaotic situation of
identifying which agencies are providing which services and where tax
monies are going" (Kenai Peninsula Borough 1976).
The 1976 property tax and sales tax rates for the eleven TCAs in the
Borough are shown in Table 24. There are five first-class cities, one
second-class city, and 5 service areas, including one "other" (TCA 50),
which consists of the remainder of the Borough not included in the other
four service areas. The Borough's ati valorem property tax rate, levied
on 100 percent of full value, is 5 mills. The TCAs (except for TCA 50)
have additional ad valorem property tax rates, so that the total property
tax rates in the TCAs ranged from 5.2 to 25.0 mills in 1976. The sales
tax rate for the Borough is 2 percent. Most of the TCAs have additional
sales taxes, so that the total sales tax rates in the TCAs ranged from 2
to 5 percent in 1976.
With the 1978 $26 million school bond issue, the outstanding general
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obligation debt of the Borough more than doubled. The bonded debt ratios
for the Borough are shown in Table 25.
The signs of financial health are the low ratios of debt to assessed
value, even with the recent doubling in debt (upwards of 19 percent, bond
issues become increasingly difficult to market); the favorable bond
rating (A); and the high assessed value per capita (reflecting the
importance of oil and gas properties). Other indicators are that the
State reimburses the Borough for 50 percent of the debt service
requirements on the bond issue; the Borough is taxing oil and gas
properties at $121 per capita, as compared with the $1,500 limit; and two
oil and gas facilities that are at present untaxed (as a result of the
10-year tax moratorium established by the State as an inducement) will
add $257 million to the tax base in 1979. The relatively high per capita
debt figure ($2,018, as compared to $271 for all US cities having a
population of less than 50,000 in 1975-1976) reflects these phenomena.
3.5. Institutions
Governing institutions in the study area essentially exist at four
levels: Federal, State of Alaska, Kenai Peninsula Borough, and local.
The Alaska Native corporations are not governing bodies, but they control
land use in sufficiently large areas that, for land-use planning
purposes, they can be considered to be an additional level of
organization. Areas of responsibility frequently overlap between these
institutions.
3.5.1. Federal Government organizations and responsibilities
The role of the government probably is more significant in Alaska
than in any other state. This results from the vast amount of
Federally-owned land, the significant Native American population, the
long history of direct Federal rule (1867-1959), and a variety of other
factors. It is beyond the scope of this report to discuss each Federal
agency and its responsibilities. Subsequent sections briefly will review
the major Federal organizations and their roles in the study area.
3.5.1.1. US Environmental Protection Agency
The US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) administers the
Federal laws on air, water, and noise pollution; solid waste disposal;
toxic substances; etc. USEPA activities play a major role in the Lower
Cook Inlet study area. The importance of USEPA was discussed in Section
2.3.
3.5.1.2. US Department of the Interior
The US Department of the Interior (USDOI) has the major respon-
sibility for activities on Federal lands and on the Outer Continental
Shelf (0CS). USDOI agencies have an important role in the regulation of
these areas. Specific information regarding the Kenai National Moose
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FIGURE 24
TAX CODE AREAS
MILES
0 10 20
WAPOftA, INC.
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Table 24. Property and sales tax rates for Kenai Peninsula Borough Tax Code Areas, 1976 (Mielke and
others 1977; Waltes and Brogan 1977a, 1977b, 1977c).
ci b
TCA Name Property Tax Sales Tax
(mills) (percent)
Service Areas
50 Other 5.0 2.0
51 Central Hospital 5.2 2.0
52 South Hospital 7,0 2.0
53 Nikiski Fire 8,8 2.0
54 North Peninsula
Recreational
Cities
Study Area
Subarea I
30 Kenai (1st class) 21.2 5.0
70 Soldotna (1st class) 15.2 4.0
Subarea II
20 Homer (1st class) 19.0 4.0
52 Kachemak (2nd class) 9.0 2.0
Subarea IV
10 Seldovia (1st class) 21.5 3.0
Outside Study Area
40 Seward (1st class) 25.0 2.0
Borough 5.0 mills included.
^Borough 2 percent tax included.
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Table 25. Bonded debt ratios for the Kenai Peninsula Borough as of June
30, 1977 (Kenai Peninsula Borough 1978).
Assessed value $1,188,172,242
Direct debt $ 49,662,097
Direct and overlapping debt $ 60,375,097
Ratio of direct debt to assessed value (percent) 4.18
Ratio of direct and overlapping debt to assessed value (percent) 5.08
Population 24,611
Assessed value per capita $ 48,278
Direct debt per capita $ 2,018
Direct and overlapping debt per capita $ 2,453
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Range and the Tuxedni National Wildlife Refuge may be obtained from:
Mr. Robert Frates, Refuge Supervisor
US Fish and Wildlife Service
Kenai National Moose Range
P. 0. Box 500
Kenai AK 99611
Telephone: (907) 283-4877
3.5.1.2.1. Bureau of Land Management
The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) has authority over unclassified
Federal lands. BLM is engaged in management, leasing, permitting,
classification, planning, and enforcement. It also is responsible for
offshore resource development activities on the Outer Continental Shelf
(OCS). Public lands are managed under the principles of multiple use and
sustained yield and are in accordance with appropriate land-use
development plans.
The key contact for BLM activities in the Lower Cook Inlet study
area is:
Mr. John Merrick, Manager
Peninsula Resource Area
4700 E. 72nd Avenue
Anchorage AK 95507
Telephone: (907) 344-9661
Leasing of Federal OCS land is managed by the Alaska OCS Office of
BLM.
The mailing address is:
US Department of the Interior
Bureau of Land Management
Alaska OCS Office
P. 0. Box 1159
Anchorage AK 99510
The office is located at 800 A Street; telephone number (907) 276-2955.
Key contacts include:
• Dr. Dean Yoesting, Coordinator, Socioeconomic Studies Program
• Mr. Jerry Imm, Field Coordinator, Environmental Studies
• Ms. Connie Wassink, Public Affairs Officer.
The schedule for leasing of Alaskan OCS lands currently is before the US
Congress. The latest available planning schedule for these activities is
dated March 1978.
3.5.1.2.2. US Fish and Wildlife Service
The US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) is responsible for the
management of National Wildlife Refuges and National Wildlife Ranges. It
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also administers the Federal Threatened and Endangered Species programs.
Within the Lower Cook Inlet study area, USFWS manages the Tuxedni
National Wildlife Refuge. It also is responsible for the Kenai National
Moose Range, adjacent to the study area. Agency activities are designed
to protect and conserve fish and wildlife resources. This includes
enforcement of international treaties and conventions relating to
wildlife.
Overall management of USFWS activities In the study area is carried
out by agency offices in Anchorage, Alaska. The main office address is:
US Fish and Wildlife Service
1011 E. Tudor Road
Anchorage AK 99507
Telephone: (907) 276-3800
Key contacts with USFWS at this office include:
• Mr. Mel Monson, Supervisor, Land and Water, Alaska
• Mr. Calvin Lensick, Supervisor, Office of Biological Sciences.
Information from the USFWS library is available through:
• Ms. Janet McNaughton, Library Technician.
An extensive computerized data retrieval system is operated by USFWS.
The key contact regarding this system is Mr. Robert Blansett, Supervisor,
Alaska Information Management System. Many of the activities of USFWS in
the Lower Cook Inlet study area are administered by the Western Alaska
Ecological Services office. The mailing address is:
US Fish and Wildlife Service
733 W. 4th Avenue
Anchorage AK 99501
Telephone: (907) 276-8242
The key contact at this office is:
• Mr. Bob Bowker, Supervisor, Western Alaska Ecological Services.
Tentative sale dates are:
State/Federal Beaufort Sea (Nearshore) . . December 1979
Gulf of Alaska June 1980
Kodiak October 1980
Cook Inlet March 1981
Bering Sea/Norton Sound December 1981.
Draft environmental impact statements relating to each proposed sale are
scheduled to be issued from 8-12 months prior to the tentative sale date.
Specifics of the proposed Cook Inlet sale include the following:
Call for Nominations December 1978
Nominations Due February 1979
Tentative Tract Selection May 1979
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Draft Environmental Impact Statement .... February 1980
Public Hearing
June 1980
Final Environmental Impact Statement .... October 1980
Proposed Notice of Sale
Notice of Sale ....
Sale
December 1980
February 1981
March 1981.
3.5.1.2.3. US Geological Survey
The US Geological Survey supervises offshore activities related to
OCS development and is a key agency for earth resources information. The
office with responsibility for the Lower Cook Inlet study area is:
US Department of the Interior
US Geological Survey
508 W. 2nd Avenue
Anchorage AK 99501
Telephone: (907) 271-4138
The key contact for general questions is Mr. Harry Hulsing, Chief, Alaska
District, Water Resources Division.
Questions regarding oil and gas activities should be directed to Mr.
Joseph M. Jones, Assistant Conservation Manager, Conservation Division.
The address for this office is:
US Department of the Interior
US Geological Survey
800 A Street, Room 109
Anchorage AK 99501
Telephone: (907) 271-4304
3.5.1.2.4. US National Park Service
The US National Park Service (NPS) is responsible for the management
of national parks, national monuments, and national historic sites. The
recent designation of large areas of Federal land in Alaska as national
monuments affects areas in and near the Lower Cook Inlet study area. The
new Kenai Fjords National Monument is adjacent to the study area, as is
the enlarged Katmai National Monument. Portions of the Lake Clark
National Monument are within the boundaries of the study area. All of
these lands are administered by NPS. Headquarters for NPS operations in
Alaska are in Anchorage. The address for this office is:
US Department of the Interior
National Park Service
540 W. 5th Avenue
Anchorage AK 99501
General questions may be directed to Mr. Bailey Breedlove, Professional
Services. Mr. Breedlove's telephone number is (907) 271-4216.
Additional key individuals include:
• Mr. John E. Cook, Director, Alaska Area Office
• Mr. Douglas Warnock, Deputy Director, Alaska Area Office
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• Mr. Howard Wagner, Professional Services
• Mr. Paul Haertel, Chief of Operations
• Mr. James Larson, Chief Scientist.
3.5.1.2.5. Alaska Resources Library
The Alaska Resources Library (ARL) of the US Department of the
Interior serves to assist research involving natural resources in the
State of Alaska. It offers reference assistance, computerized search of
bibliographic information, and circulation service. Over 25,000 articles
are available on micro-fiche that have been reprinted and Indexed by the
US Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratories (CRREL). ARL
also has a complete set of the resource inventory maps of Alaska prepared
by the Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission.
The key contact at ARL is Martha Shepard, Librarian. The office address
is:
US Department of the Interior
Alaska Resources Library
701 C Street
Anchorage AK 99513
Telephone: (907) 271-5025
3.5.1.3. US Department of Commerce
The US Department of Commerce serves the business and commercial
needs of the nation. A variety of agencies exist within this department.
These range in mission from the Bureau of the Census and the Economic
Development Administration to the National Weather Service and other
scientific divisions of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis-
tration.
3.5.1.3.1. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) conducts
scientific and research activities in a wide variety of areas.
Information may be obtained from:
US Department of Commerce
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Environmental Data and Information Service
707 A Street
Anchorage AK 99501
Telephone: (907) 271-4063
General information regarding fisheries is available through the office
of:
Mr. Harry L. Rietze
Director, Alaska Region
National Marine Fisheries Service
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
709 West 9th
Juneau AK 99801
Telephone: (907) 586-7221
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Specific inquiries for scientific data may be directed to the office of:
Dr. Bill Smoker, Director
Auk.e Bay Fisheries Laboratory
National Marine Fisheries Service
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
P. 0. Box 1668
Juneau AK 99801
Telephone: (907) 789-7231
3.5.1.4. US Department of Housing and Urban Development
The US Department of Housing and Urban Development administers the
Federal flood insurance program. At the present time, there are no
official flood hazard areas maps for the Lower Cook Inlet study area.
Hazard determinations are made on a case-by-case basis and utilize
information from the US Army Corps of Engineers. Additional information
may be obtained from:
US Department of Housing and Urban Development
Federal Housing Administration
Anchorage Area Office
334 W. 5th Avenue
Anchorage AK 99501
Telephone: (907) 271-4177
3.5.1.5. US Department of Transportation
The US Department of Transportation is responsible for a wide range
of transportation-related activities. Its agencies include:
• US Coast Guard
• Federal Aviation Administration
• Federal Railroad Administration
• Federal Highway Administration
• National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
• Urban Mass Transportation Administration.
The United States Coast Guard (USCG) is a key agency of the Department of
Transportation. Marine sanitation devices (MSDs) are regulated by the
USCG. In addition, vessel traffic and safety may be important
considerations in the operation of proposed new source NPDES activities.
The USCG is a valuable source of information on these issues. Informa-
tion may be obtained from:
Commander (dpi)
US Coast Guard
17th Coast Guard District
Planning Office
P. 0. Box 3-5000
Juneau AK 99802
Telephone: (907) 586-7348
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3.5.1.6. Southcentral Water Resources Study
The Southcentral Water Resources Study (SWRS) primarily is funded by
the US Water Resources Council and will study the present and potential
uses of the water resources of southcentral Alaska. The SWRS is the
first comprehensive regional water and related land resources study to be
carried out in the State of Alaska. More than 30 agencies and groups are
involved, including Federal, State, borough, and local bodies, Native
corporations, and the Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission.
The SWRS should be a valuable source of information on the status of
water resources planning for the southcentral Alaska region, including
the Lower Cook Inlet study area. Information may be obtained from:
Study Director
Southcentral Water Resources Study
1675 C Street
Anchorage AK 99501
Telephone: (907) 271-4313
3.5.1.7. US Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers
The most important functions of the US Army Corps of Engineers (COE)
that are related to NPDES activities are carried out under the provisions
of Section, 10 of the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 (33 USC 403) and
Section 404 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as amended
(commonly referred to as the Clean Water Act; Pub. L. No. 92-500, 33 USC
1344). The Clean Water Act has been amended numerous times, most notably
in 1972 and 1977.
Section 10 of the River and Harbors Act of 1899 prohibits the
construction of any structure in or over any navigable water of the
United States without a permit from the US Army COE. Permits for the
discharge of dredged or fill material, usually referred to as filling,
into all waters of the United States, including wetlands, also must be
obtained from the Department of the Army, pursuant to the provisions of
Section 404 of the Clean Water Act.
A detailed discussion of these programs is contained in the
Kenai River Review, issued in April 1978 by the US Department of the
Army, Alaska District, Corps of Engineers.
The US Army COE office with jurisdiction over the Lower Cook Inlet
study area is:
US Department of the Army
Alaska District, Corps of Engineers
P. 0. Box 7002
Anchorage AK 99510
One of the key contacts is:
Mr. William Lloyd
Chief, Environmental Section
Telephone: (907) 752-2572
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Additional information may be obtained through the office of:
Chief, Regulatory Functions Branch
Telephone: (907) 752-4942
3.5.2. State of Alaska government organizations and responsibilities
Although all State organizations have an important role in the Lower
Cook Inlet study area, three agencies have particular prominence. These
are the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation (ADEC), the
Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADFG), and the Alaska Department of
Natural Resources (ADNR). Brief descriptions of agency responsibilities
and key contacts will be presented in subsequent sections.
Many other State agencies are involved in the regulation of business
activities in the State of Alaska. There are a variety of permits,
certificates, and licenses that are required by these organizations. A
key source of information on this subject is the Alaska Permit Directory,
compiled by the Alaska Department of Commerce and Economic Development in
1978. The Directory is a useful reference tool in the review of new
source NPDES applications because it provides detailed information on
permits, licenses, and certificates that an applicant may be required to
obtain from the State of Alaska.
In addition to the information available from State regulatory
agencies, data may be obtained from State-funded sources such as the
University of Alaska. Key organizations that operate within the
University of Alaska include the Arctic Environmental Information and
Data Center (AEIDC) and the Institute of Social and Economic Research
(ISER). Key contacts for these groups are listed in Sections 3.5.2.4.1.
and 3.5.2.4.2., respectively.
3.5.2.1. Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation
The mission of the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation
(ADEC) is to protect and enhance the natural and man-made environment,
while permitting appropriate use of Alaska's natural resources. ADEC is
charged with enforcement and setting standards for the prevention and
abatement of pollution and with coordination and formulation of environ-
mental policies and programs. Major permit programs deal with wastewater
discharges, air pollution, and solid waste disposal. It is likely that
new source NPDES applicants also will require permits from ADEC. Key
contacts include:
• Mr. Kyle Cherry
Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation
Southcentral Regional Office
338 Denali
Anchorage AK 99501
Telephone: (907) 274-5527
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• Mr. Howard R. Reiser
Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation
Kenai Field Office
Farnsworth Building
P. 0. Box 587
Soldotna AK 99669
Telephone: (907) 262-5210
3.5.2.2. Alaska Department of Fish and Game
The major areas of responsibility of the Alaska Department of Fish
and Game (ADFG) include commercial and sport fisheries; fisheries
rehabilitation, enhancement, and development; and game management. ADFG
operates major fish hatcheries and rearing and incubation facilities. Its
operations affect both commercial and sport fishermen. Wildlife
biologists from ADFG provide expert information to local, State, and
Federal agencies and organizations. Personnel also work with Federal
agencies on international problems. ADFG reviews hundreds of documents
each year, including EISs, permit applications, development proposals,
etc.
ADFG has a number of internal divisions that may be involved in
regulatory and informational activities. The following information on
key contacts was obtained from the Southcentral Regional Office of ADFG.
Anchorage (Southcentral Regional Office)
Phone: (907) 344-0541
Address: 33 Raspberry Road, Anchorage AK 99502
Commercial Fisheries Division: Regional Supervisor - Mr. Kenneth M. Middleton
Sport Fisheries Division: Regional Supervisor - Mr. Russ Redick
Game Division: Regional Supervisor - Mr. John Vania
FRED Division: Regional Supervisor - Mr. David Daisy
Habitat Protection Section: Regional Supervisor - Mr. Thomas Trent
Permits - Mr. Bruce Barrett
Marine and Coastal Habitat
Management Project
(Environmental Review and
CZM Project): Supervisor - Mr. Lance Trasky
Soldotna (area office)
Phone: (907) 262-9368
Address: Box 1809, Soldotna AK 99669
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Commercial Fisheries Division: Area Management Biologist - Mr. Gary Sanders
Research Biologist - Mr. Tom Namvedt
Sport Fisheries Division: Area Management Biologist - Mr. Sid Logan
Game Division: Area Management Biologist - Mr. Ted Spraker
Homer (area office)
Phone: (907) 235-8191
Address: Box 234, Homer AK 99603
Commercial Fisheries Division: Area Management Biologist - Mr. Tom Schroeder
Shellfish Research Biologist - Mr. Joe Wallis
Game Division: Area Management Biologist - None (see Soldotna)
FRED Division: Fisheries Biologist - Mr. Nick Dudiak
FRED » Fisheries Rehabilitation, Enhancement and Development
3.5.2.3. Alaska Department of Natural Resources
The Alaska Department of Natural Resources (ADNR) is responsible for
administration of "...the State program for the conservation and
development of natural resources, including forests, parks and
recreational areas, lands, waters, agriculture, soil conservation, and
minerals, but excluding fish and game. It also develops, protects, and
administers the State program for historic and archaeological sites,
objects, and related matters" (State of Alaska 1977b). The authority of
ADNR in the areas of land management, lease of State lands, granting of
easements, and water appropriation make this agency a key factor in many
activities. In addition to its regulatory role, ADNR is a valuable
source of information on a variety of subjects. A comprehensive
discussion of the many activities of the Alaska Department of Natural
Resources and its divisions is beyond the scope of this report. Key
contacts for some of the divisions that are likely to be involved in
NPDES-related activities are presented in subsequent sections.
3.5.2.3,1. Division of Parks
The Division of Parks administers State parks and waysides and is
involved in identification and protection of cultural, historic, and
archaeological resources. Information on parks and waysides may be
obtained from:
Director
Division of Parks
Alaska Department of Natural Resources
619 Warehouse Avenue, No. 210
Anchorage AK 99501
Telephone: (907) 274-4676
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Information on cultural, historic, and archaeological resources may be
obtained from:
State Archaeologist
Division of Parks
Alaska Department of Natural Resources
619 Warehouse Avenue, No. 210
Anchorage AK 99501
Telephone: (907) 274-4676
3.5.2.3.2. Division of Agriculture
The Division of Agriculture is active in marketing and promotional
programs, animal and plant inspection services, and agricultural
development. It is possible that seafood processors applying for a new
source NPDES permit also may require a "Certificate and Permit" from the
Division of Agriculture. Information on this subject may be obtained
from:
Director
Division of Agriculture
Alaska Department of Natural Resources
Sims Building
P. 0. Box 1088
Palmer AK 99645
Telephone: (907) 745-3236
3.5.2.3.3. Division of Forest, Land, and Water Management
The Division of Forest, Land, and Water Management is responsible
for a wide variety of programs and regulatory activities. These include
the management of State forest lands, development and implementation of
State land policies, performance of hydrologic studies, and coordination
of activities, etc. Many new source NPDES permit applicants may be
required to obtain a Water Use Permit and Certificate of Appropriation to
use the waters of the State of Alaska. General information may be
obtained from:
Mr. Theodore G. Smith, Director
Division of Forest, Land, and Water Management
Alaska Department of Natural Resources
323 East 4th Avenue
Anchorage AK 99501
Telephone: (907) 279-5577
Key contacts in the three sections of the division are:
• Forestry Section
Mr. Rod Ketchum
Deputy State Forester
• Land Management Section
Mr. Dick LeFebvre
Chief
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• Water Management Section
Mr. Brent Petrie
Chief
Additional information is available from:
Mr. Lawrence A. Dutton, Manager
Southcentral Land District
3327 Fairbanks Street
Anchorage AK 99504
Telephone: (907) 279-7691
3.5.2.4. University of Alaska
The University of Alaska is the single, state-wide public university
system and is responsible for the public service, research, and teaching
services that characterize public institutions of higher education. The
research activities of the University of Alaska are carried out by the
various academic departments and by specialized research units. These
groups are important information sources. Key contacts for two of these
specialized research units are presented in Sections 3.5.2.4.1. and
3.5.2.4.2.
3.5.2.4.1. Arctic Environmental Information and Data Center
The Arctic Environmental Information and Data Center (AEIDC) is a
specialized research unit of the University of Alaska. AEICD personnel
conduct research for a variety of local, State, and Federal agencies and
groups. Extensive data retrieval facilities are available. AEIDC
publishes numerous documents, including the Current Research Profile for
Alaska (see Appendix C). Key contacts include:
• Ms. Linda Dwight, Supervisor
Information Services
• Ms. Stetson Pennel
Information Services
• Ms. Barbara Sokolov
Information Services.
These individuals may be contacted at:
University of Alaska
Arctic Environmental Information and Data Center
707 A Street
Anchorage AK 99501
Telephone: (907) 279-4523
3.5.2.4.2. Institute of Social and Economic Research
Another specialized research unit of the University of Alaska is the
Institute of Social and Economic Research (ISER). ISER is a valuable
source of Information on the socioeconomic aspects of many activities in
the State of Alaska. Key contacts include:
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• Mr. Lee Gorsuch, Director
• Ms. Ellie Clifford, Executive Assistant
These individuals may be contacted at:
University of Alaska
Institute of Social and Economic Research
707 A Street
Anchorage AK 99501
Telephone: (907) 275-5575
3.5.3. Borough government organization and responsibilities
The State of Alaska is divided into local governmental units called
boroughs. "The name was chosen by the Convention as the best compromise
designation for a new local area government unit that would not be con-
fused with or limited by traditional units which exist in the older
states" (State of Alaska 1977a). Areas of the State that meet specific
criteria may petition to become an "organized borough." The remainder of
the State is included in the "unorganized borough." A detailed dis-
cussion of the borough system is contained in the Alaska Blue Book (State
of Alaska 1977a).
The Lower Cook Inlet study area is within the boundaries of the
Kenai Peninsula Borough (KPB). The KPB was created as a second-class
borough by a vote of the electorate on 3 December 1963. The Borough has
area-wide responsibilities for assessment, taxes, air pollution control,
education, solid wastes, planning, and zoning. The voters also have
created special assessment service areas for hospitals, fire protection,
and water distribution.
The Borough Assembly is the governing body and is represented by
appointed members from city councils, elected members from within the
cities, and elected members at large. The mayor, who is elected at
large, provides administrative guidance and retains veto power over
certain assembly actions.
Two members of the Borough Assembly sit as commissioners on the Cook
Inlet Air Resources Control Commission. The Commission governs the Cook
Inlet Air Resources Management District, which is a cooperative venture
between the Anchorage Borough and Kenai Peninsula Borough. The District
prepares ordinances and regulations, monitors ambient air quality,
enforces regulations, and issues permits. It has the primary
responsibility for air quality control throughout the study area except
for large point sources, which the State of Alaska also regulates. The
District is in the process of revising the regulations to bring about
conformity with applicable Federal air quality standards.
Planning and zoning within the Borough and the cities is the re-
sponsibility of the Borough Planning Commission. It also is involved in
coastal zone management studies. A subcommittee of the Commission forms
the Platting Authority. Within the cities a local planning advisory
committee reviews and comments on proposed planning and zoning cases
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before the Commission. Appeals of the Commissions's actions are made to
the Borough Assembly.
An interim coastal zone management (CZM) plan for the KPB currently
is being prepared. In addition, a study of ports and harbors is
underway. A major source of information on KPB activities is the Borough
Planning Department. The key contact is:
Mr. Phillip Waring, Planning Director
Planning Department
Kenai Peninsula Borough
P.O. Box 850
Soldotna AK 99669
Telephone: (907) 262-4441
3.5.4. City government organization and responsibilities
There are five incorporated cities in the study area: Kenai,
Soldotna, Homer, Kachemak City, and Seldovia. First-class cities Include
Kenai, Soldotna, Homer, and Seldovia. Kenai has adopted a home-rule
charter and is designated as a "home-rule city," a special case within
the first-class city category. Kachemak City is a second-class city.
First-class cities have a six-member council and a
separately-elected mayor. A manager form of government may be used. If
the manager form of government is used, a mayor still is elected but the
council or assembly employs a manager to carry out the responsibility for
implementing the policies set by the governing body. All first-class
cities in the study area utilize the manager system of government.
Second-class cities are governed by a seven-person council. One
member of the council serves as mayor of the city. The manager form of
government may be used. Kachemak, the only second-class city in the
study area, does not employ a city manager.
Because all of the cities in the study area are in the Kenai
Peninsula Borough, the area-wide powers of taxation, education, planning,
platting, and zoning reside with the Borough government. Municipalities
may levy two taxes — real and personal property taxes and sales and use
taxes. Generally the maximum property tax is 30 mills in first-class
cities and 5 mills in second-class cities. Sales taxes are limited to
3%, although home-rule cities may exceed this limit. Sales taxes imposed
by cities in the study area are:
Kenai
3%
Soldotna -
2%
Homer
2%
Kachemak -
None
Seldovia -
1%
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Four of the cities provide municipal utility services of various
kinds. Municipally-owned utilities include:
Kenai
Water, sewer, airport
Soldotna
Water, sewer, airport
Homer
Water, sewer, dock, harbor
Seldovia
Water, sewer, dock, refuse
collection.
Specific information relating to each of the cities in the study
area may be obtained from the respective municipal offices. Mailing
addresses and telephone numbers are listed below:
City Manager
City of Seldovia
P.O. Drawer B
Seldovia AK 99663
Telephone: (907) 234-7643
3.5.5. Alaska Native corporations
To settle long-standing Native claims in Alaska, the US Congress
passed, and President Nixon signed into law, the Alaska Native Claims
Settlement Act of 1971 (ANCSA 43 USC 1601 et seq.) in December of that
year (Arnold 1976). Among the provisions of the Act and amendments to
the Act were a land settlement of approximately 44 million acres and a
monetary payment of $962.5 million to the Native Alaskans. The Act also
directed the formation of a ten-member Joint Federal-State Land Use
Planning Commission to assist in the land selections and planning.
Section 17(d)(2) of ANCSA authorized the Secretary of the Interior to
withdraw up to 80 million acres of Federally-owned land for study and
potential addition to National Parks, National Monuments, and National
Wildlife Ranges and Refuges. Controversy over the provisions of Section
17(d)(2) resulted in a Congressional stalemate in 1978, and as the legal
deadline for action approached, President Carter set aside 56 million
acres of Alaska in new or enlarged National Monuments. The land was set
aside under the provisions of the Antiquities Act of 1906. Part of the
new, 2.5-million-acre Lake Clark National Monument is located in the
Lower Cook Inlet study area, on the western shore of Cook Inlet north of
Illlamna Bay.
City Manager
City of Kenai
P.O.Box 580
Kenai AK 99611
Telephone: (907) 283-7535
City Administrator
City of Soldotna
P.O. Box 409
Soldotna AK 99669
Telephone: (907) 262-4492
Homer AK 99603
Telephone: (907) 235-8121
City Manager
City of Homer
P.O. Box 335
Planning Director
City of Kachemak
P.O. Box 701
Kachemak via Homer AK 99603
Telephone: (907) 235-8748
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The formation of Native corporations was an integral part of ANCSA.
Regional Native corporations received money and land that were to form
the "capital assets" of the new enterprises. The regional corporations
would receive title to the subsurface rights on all 44 million acres.
They were to pass along monies, lands, and profits to "shareholders" and
to the village corporations.
Village corporations were to be formed based on three main
eligibility criteria:
• At least 50 percent of the village must be Native population
• There must be at least 25 Native residents
• The village must not be modern or urban in character.
The village corporations could be either profit or non-profit in nature
and were designed to provide various services to their residents
("stockholders"). Land entitlement of the village was determined by the
Native enrollment as of 14 September 1974. The total amount of land to
be conveyed was based on the following schedule:
No. of Townships
Enrollment of Entitlement Area (Acres)
25 - 99 3 69,120
100 - 199 4 92,160
200 - 399 5 115,200
400 - 599 6 138,240
More than 600 7 161,280
As could be expected, this distribution schedule has a number of excep-
tions and there are many restrictions on land selections. Overall
land distribution was to be:
• 22 million acres to regional corporations
• 16 million acres to village corporations
• 2 million acres to special corporations
• 4 million acres to corporations that had received
partial compensation prior to 1971.
3.6. Cultural, Historical, Archaeological, and Aesthetic Resources
Alaska has a rich and varied history, and the Lower Cook Inlet study
area has had an important place in the development of the State. It has
been occupied in turn by Eskimos, Indians, Russians, and Americans.
Prehistory is represented well in the study area, and it is likely that
additional Indian artifacts will be discovered. Numerous Russian
settlements occurred in the area, and various examples from the period
still exist today. The Americans were the latest group to be attracted
by the natural resources of Alaska.
The beauty of Alaska has been documented from the earliest written
records of the Lower Cook Inlet area. Aesthetic resources in the study
area range from beaches to mountain peaks and from swift-flowing streams
to smoking volcanoes. Abundant wildlife add to the grandeur of the
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physical environment. This wealth of aesthetic resources plays a vital
role in attracting thousands of visitors each year to the study area.
3.6.1. Cultural, historical, and archaeological resources
The history of the Lower Cook Inlet has been a succession of
settlement and exploration by a variety of peoples, including Eskimo,
Tanaina Indian, Russian, and American. Explorations by the English,
French, and Spanish also were Important factors in the history of the
study area. Three major periods of interest, designated as the Native,
Russian, and American, are presented below. More specifics are presented
in each Subarea profile.
3.6.1.1. Native period
Available evidence indicates that man has been present in Alaska for
thousands of years. Anthropologists are not in agreement as to the
origins of the prehistoric and recent native inhabitants. Dispersal
across an inferred land bridge between Asia and North American frequently
is hypothesized. The presence of this land bridge is indicated by the
fossil record of animals rather than by direct geological or other
evidence. According to Vaughan (1972), "when the fossil record in-
dicates that a genus of mammal occurred in both Asia and North America
during a given period, one can assume that at that time, or for some
period before it, intercontinental migrations occurred across the Bering
land bridge." Thus the passage of humans across this intermittent con-
nection potentially was possible. To date, no skeletal remains of man
that are contemporary with the remains of extinct Pleistocene animals
have been found. However, Hulley (1970) stated that " ... the presence
of ancient village sites in western Alaska and the finding of occasional
flint implements in various parts of the territory suggest that man has
been in Alaska for many thousands of years."
Three cultural subperiods have been identified within the Native
period of the Lower Cook Inlet by De Laguna (1934). The first two
periods, Kachemak I and II, were characterized by the use of bone and
shell materials. The last period, Kachemak III, included Native use of
copper fur knives, bracelets, and beads.
The earliest inhabitants of the study area appear to have been
Eskimos. They are believed to have been responsible for the rock and
cave paintings found in the area. There are indications of a settlement
on Yukon Island, Kachemak Bay, dating back to 1500 B.C. The natives of
the Lower Cook Inlet are thought to have been hunters and fishermen,
primarily occupying the coastal and riverine areas. Widespread settlement
is indicated by the many collapsed barabara (sunken houses) that have
been discovered in the district (Barry 1973; Workman 1974).
The Eskimos were superceded by Tanaina Indians, initially in the
northern sections near Cook Inlet and later in the southern areas.
Indian culture existed in the study area for many years, and the early
reports of European and Russian explorers contain a variety of accounts
that describe the later part of the Native period.
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3.6.1.2. Russian period
Documentation of the period of exploration of the Alaskan region by
European man is more complete. Vitus Bering generally is credited with
the discovery of the Aleutian Islands (and thus Alaska) in 1741, as part
of the Second Kamchatka Expedition sponsored by the Russian government.
Cook Inlet was not visited by the earliest Russian explorers, but it is
possible that Cape Elizabeth was sighted by A. Chirikov in 1741 (Sherwood
1974). Chirikov was in command of the Russian vessel Sv. Pavel, which
accompanied the Sv. Petr of Vitus Bering on the Second Kamchatka
Expedition (Fedorova 1971). Cape Elizabeth was named by Captain James
Cook in 1778. Cook was the first European explorer to venture into Cook
Inlet (Sherwood 1974). Accounts of a possible 16th-century Russian
village on the Kenai Peninsula have been exaggerated and generally
discounted (Pierce 1973).
Russian fur-hunting expeditions slowly worked their way eastward
along the Aleutian Islands, first setting up temporary camps and later
permanent settlements. Major stations were established on Unalaska and
Umnak. In 1784, G.I. Shelikhov arrived at Kodiak Island with a fleet of
three vessels. When the expedition left Alaska in 1786, three
settlements/forts were in place or under construction. In addition to
the Kodiak settlement, forts were built on Afognak Island and at English
Bay (Fedorova 1971). A rival merchant company founded Fort St. George at
Kasilof about 1787 and the Nikolaevsk Redoubt at Kenai in 1791 (Sherwood
1974). English and Spanish voyagers to the area from 1786 to 1790 were
not well-received by the Russians, who viewed the newcomers as poachers
(Sherwood 1974). Foreign competition was minor, however, and the major
rivalry was between two competing Russian merchant firms, those of
Shelikhov-Golikov and Lebedev-Lastochkin. In 1791 Alexander Baranov
became manager of the Shelikhov-Golikov company, and by 1799 his firm
received a monopoly on all business in Alaska. The newly-privileged firm
was designated as the "Russian-American Company." As Fedorova (1971)
notes, "the Russian government was interested in transforming the still
sparse network of fur trading factories into support bases on the
Aleutian Islands and in northwestern America. In this the government
interests coincided with those of influential groups of Russian
merchants, which had acquired the experience of exploiting fur trade
resources in the Pacific Ocean waters." By 1867 the Russian-American
Company had set up posts at approximately 34 populated points in Alaska.
In the Cook Inlet region, one-man posts were established at various
points on Kodiak Island and at Afognak, Ukamok, Katmai, Nushagak,
Iliamna, and Mednovsk. A redoubt stood at Kenai and a fort at Elena.
Overexploitation of the natural resources of Alaska led to a decline
in the fortunes of the Russian-American Company during the period prior
to 1867. The Crimean War had brought Imperial Russia to the brink of
financial ruin and had shown that Russia was unable to protect her remote
possessions against a strong naval power. Russian officials felt that
Alaska was a liability and that the most effective means of disposal was
a sale of the territory to the United States. This course of action,
they believed, would thwart any ambitions of Great Britain and would
strengthen the position of the United States in the Pacific (Hulley
1970). "The friendly state of Russian-American relations facilitated the
sale of Alaska to the Americans, but there is no truth in the legend that
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the Russians sold Alaska primarily because they loved the United States.
The Czar and his advisors decided to unload their American possessions in
such a way as to secure the maximum benefits to the Russian Empire. The
United States fitted better than any other power into their schemes, and
in pushing the sale they naturally capitalized on the warm friendship
that had developed between Russia and United States during the 1860s"
(Hulley 1970). Negotiations between the two nations took place during
March 1867, and the highly secret talks resulted in an agreement by the
United States to purchase Alaska for the sum of $7,200,000. The treaty
for the sale was signed on 30 March 1867. Ratification by the Senate met
with only minor opposition. Passage of an appropriations measure by the
House of Representatives was stalled by lengthy debate, and the payment
of the agreed-upon sum did not take place until the summer of 1868.
Alaska was formally turned over to the United States on 18 October 1867,
at a ceremony in Sitka, Alaska.
3.6.1.3. American period
The new territory of Alaska was placed under the control of the War
Department and was governed by the US Army from 1867 to 1877. For many
years, executive orders were the only legislation for Alaska. The
Customs Act of July 1868 was the only body of law during the early years
of Alaska. Throughout this period, the general feeling of the Congress
was that Alaska was of little value, was too distant, and was too
sparsely populated to merit much attention. The last American military
detachment in Alaska was removed in 1877, and for the next seven years
the territory of Alaska was under the control of a US customs collector
at Sitka and a US Navy captain. In May of 1884 a bill entitled "An Act
Providing a Civil Government for Alaska" was passed by the Congress and
was signed into law by President Arthur. According to Hulley (1970),
"the law, solely judicial in purpose, was designed rather to regulate the
administration of privileges to the territory."
The next 20 years saw much exploration and prospecting in Alaska.
In particular, the gold strikes in the Klondike region and at Nome
spurred the influx of individuals seeking to "make their fortune." Many
did not stay, but the search for precious metals resulted in the opening
of new lands. "Boom towns" sprang up wherever discoveries were made.
Many later were abandoned, but some continued to exist, as in the case of
Juneau and Nome. The gold strikes almost literally put the Alaskan
region "on the map." They demonstrated that the territory that had been
considered worthless held many natural riches. The full extent of those
riches still is not completely known.
In the Lower Cook Inlet area, the Modern American period has been
characterized by resource discovery and exploitation. The fur trade of
the early days has given way to coal extraction, fishing, gold, and
chromite mining, and finally to the development of oil and natural gas
fields. The study area has experienced rapid growth during the most
recent phase of Americanization.
3.6.1.4. Sites in the National Register of Historic Places
Alaska has a wide variety of sites that are of National, State, or
local significance. The Lower Cook Inlet study area contains hundreds of
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such sites. Some are listed in the National Register of Historic Places,
others have been designated as "eligible" for that register, and still
others have been classified as possible National Register candidates.
Information available from the Alaska Division of Parks, DNR, lists five
sites within the study area as included in the National Register of
Historic Places. Two other sites are described as "eligible," and six
sites are indicated as possible candidates. In addition, there is one
site that is designated as a National Historic Landmark.
Pursuant to Alaskan Statutes and an agreement with the US Department
of the Interior, the State of Alaska has undertaken a state-wide survey
of historic and prehistoric properties in Alaska, regardless of ownership
(Alaska Department of Natural Resources 1978a). The results of that work
are included in the Alaska Heritage Resources Survey (AHRS). When
professional judgement indicates that a site fulfills minimal criteria in
any one of a variety of categories, the property is included in the AHRS
data file.
All archaeological sites are entered in the belief that any
one of them may yield information important in history and
prehistory. Extant historical features associated with local,
state, national, or international events or personages;
commemorative locations to which popular importance is
attached; and loci of phenomena reported in folk tradition are
also recorded (Alaska Department of Natural Resources 1978).
The magnitude of the problem of identifying and listing important
sites in the AHRS is exemplified by the observation that "the inventory
is, however, an incomplete listing of known sites (perhaps by a factor of
more than 50 percent) and individual entries exhibit a high probability
of inaccuracy" (Bureau of Land Management 1977a). The AHRS lists over
300 sites in, or adjacent to, the study area, and additional sites are
added as they are identified and evaluated.
Another important survey was conducted in 1975 — the Cook Inlet
Region Inventory of Native Historic Sites and Cemeteries. The Inventory
contains 220 sites in the Cook Inlet region, many of which are within the
study area boundaries. Although there is a considerable overlap between
the Cook Inlet inventory and other listings (such as the AHRS), the Cook
Inlet inventory team made 51 original site identifications (Cook Inlet
Native Corporation 1975).
It is beyond the scope of the present study to include detailed
information on all sites of cultural, historical, or archaeological
importance. Because of the likelihood of the discovery of additional
sites, and because some sites may be added to the National Register in
the future, it is important that contact be established with State and
local historians and agencies on a case by case basis when an application
is reviewed by USEPA personnel.
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4.0. SUBAREA RATIONALE
The study area includes a large part of the Cook Inlet and of the
adjacent lands. Because the study area is large (approximately 10,000
square miles) and encompasses several diverse geologic, biologic,
geographic, and socioeconomic environments, the information in this
report is presented both for the entire study area as a regional profile
and for selected areas as Subarea profiles. The rationale for the divi-
sion of the study area into six land Subareas and four marine Subareas
includes:
• A logical method of presenting more homogeneous data on
the topic discussed
• Less generalization and, consequently, less dilution of
the specific data available
• More convenient and useful product for USEPA's use in
understanding the local factors important to NPDES permit
decisions.
The Subareas were selected because of their common characteristics.
Subarea I contains the two largest cities in the study area, and
virtually all of the hydrocarbon processing facilities in the Cook Inlet
region. The most potential for future development and consequently for
NPDES permit applications occurs in this subarea. Although Subarea II
has landforms similar to Subarea I, the area is more rural. Growth in
this Subarea is dependent on the future of Homer, and Homer's future is
joined inextricably with the results of Lower Cook Inlet petroleum explo-
ration, the future development in the fishing industry, and the popular-
ity of the area to tourists. Subarea III is distinguished by a wide,
flat-bottomed valley with many wetlands and few people. There are no
communities, schools, public facilities, or significant roads in this
subarea. Subarea IV is distinguished by rugged terrain and is character-
ized by glaciers in the eastern part and small fishing villages along the
coast. Subarea V encompasses the extensive Bachatna tidal flats west of
Cook Inlet. Sparse development and valuable estuarine wetlands distin-
guish this Subarea. Subarea VI contains the remaining land in the study
area west of Cook Inlet. It includes rugged mountains, extensive
glaciers, and short, glacier-carved floodplains. Subarea VII is a marine
Subarea with extreme depths and is strongly influenced by the Gulf of
Alaska. Subarea VIII is a broad, shallow embayment of the western shore-
line of Cook Inlet with a rocky, rugged bottom. Subarea IX is located on
the eastern shoreline of Cook Inlet and encompasses the extremely
productive waters of Kachemak Bay. Finally, Subarea X includes the large
estuarine part of Cook Inlet where the silt-laden waters of Upper Cook
Inlet mix with clearer, more saline marine waters from the Gulf of
Alaska.
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5.0. SUBAREA I
The two largest cities in the study area, most of the proven petro-
leum and natural gas reserves in the study area, and virtually all of the
hydrocarbon processing facilities in the Cook Inlet region are in Subarea
I. More than half of the population of the study area and nearly all of
the heavy industry also are in Subarea I; consequently, there is more
information on the resources in Subarea I than for any other subarea.
5.1. Subarea I Boundaries
Cook Inlet forms the western boundary of Subarea I, and the Kenai
National Moose Range surrounds most of the remainder of Subarea I. The
northern boundary is defined by the study area boundary. The southern
boundary is in the transitional zone between the Kenai-Soldotna
population center of Subarea I and the Homer "urban field" in Subarea II.
This boundary also is a logical separation between the lower, rolling
terrain of the northern Kenai Lowlands and the more elevated terrain
farther south. The Subarea I boundaries are indicated on the topographic
map (Figure 25; adapted from Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning
Commission 1973b).
5.2. Physical Environment
5.2.1. Landforms
Subarea I contains low hills; broad, level plains; bogs and muskegs;
and many small lakes. Although elevations never exceed 500 feet above
mean sea level (msl), many of the hills are steep or extremely rough and
hummocky. The topography of Subarea I is shown in Figure 25. Thin
lignite beds of the Kenai Group (Tertiary Period) outcrop at a few loca-
tions in the southern and eastern parts of Subarea I. However, through-
out most of Subarea I the bedrock surface is buried by thick glacial,
alluvial, and aeolian deposits.
Most of Subarea I is covered by forest. Other types of vegetation
include low shrubs and sphagnum moss associated with muskeg environments,
and sedges, grasses, and forbs that grow near the mouth of principal
streams. Suitable agricultural land may be found on broad plains border-
ing major rivers, on much of the western coastline, and on many less
steeply sloping hillsides.
5.2.2. Geology
5.2.2.1. Bedrock geology
The bedrock surface of Subarea I is composed predominantly of rocks
of the Beluga (Miocene) and Sterling (Miocene-Pliocene) Formations of the
Kenai (Tertiary) Group (US Army Corps of Engineers 1978). The section of
the Kenai Group in Subarea I consists of alternating strata of moderately
indurated sand, silt, clay, and lignite. The depth to bedrock is ex-
tremely variable. The bedrock outcrops as sea cliffs and river bluffs
near the southern border of Subarea I. Northward, the depth to bedrock
increases to a maximum of approximately 700 feet near the City of Kenai,
then gradually decreases to a minimum of approximately 300 feet near the
northern boundary of Subarea I.
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5.2.2.2. Surficial geology
The surficial geology of Sufaarea I Is mapped in Figure 26 (adapted
from Magoon and others 1976). Surficial deposits of the study area
include glacial moraine, outwash, coastal plain, abandoned channel,
terrace and floodplain, and aeolian deposits. Lake, swamp, and aeolian
deposits are not shown in Figure 26, because they occur as thin veneers.
Although at most places the unconsolidated deposits differ in form,
physical characteristics, and water-bearing properties, not all deposits
can be classified precisely. Morainal deposits are transitional to
outwash and shore deposits, which in turn are transitional to alluvium.
Locally, moraine and outwash deposits are closely associated and are
mapped as a single unit.
Two anticlines known to extend through the study area also are
indicated in Figure 26. One runs north-south near Kenai and the other
runs northeast-southwest immediately east of Soldotna. A buried fault
(running northeast-southwest) occurs in the eastern part of Subarea I.
Although some Triassic and Permian metamorphic and volcanic rocks have
been mapped in the Chugach Terrain of the Kenai Peninsula, none are known
to exist within Subarea I.
5.2.2.3. Soils
The soils of the Kenai-Kasilof area can be categorized into three
general groups according to their topographic position: upland soils,
mineral soils of depressions and valley floors, and soils of muskegs or
bogs. Upland soils are excessively-drained to moderately well drained,
silt loam to sandy loam soils on the uplands and terraces. Depressions
and valley floors contain imperfectly-drained to very poorly drained,
mineralized, silt loam to sandy loam soils. Soils of muskegs or bogs
consist predominantly of poorly-drained and very poorly drained peat. In
this section the soils of Subarea I are discussed in terns of wetland
classification and their suitability for development and agriculture.
The soil survey of the Kenai-Kasilof Area (Rieger and others 1962) was
the only source of information for this discussion.
Wetlands
Twenty-eight soil series have been recognized and mapped in Subarea
I. Twelve have constant water at depths of 1.0 foot or less. Soil
series in this category include Clam Gulch silt loams, Clunie peat,
Doroshin peat. Foreland silt loam, gravelly beach, Kalifonsky silt loam,
Moose River silt loam, Moose River silt loam shallow, Salamatof peat,
Salamatof peat forested, tidal flats, and tidal marsh. Field investi-
gations conducted by WAPORA, Inc. in 1977 Indicated wetland vegetation
associated with these soil series. These twelve soils and the associated
vegetation were the bases for delineation of the areas considered as
wetlands for the Corps of Engineers Section 10 and Section 404 permit
evaluations.
Agricultural soils
There are no prime (Class I) agricultural soils in Subarea I. Soils
categorized as Class II or Class III soils are sold as agricultural land
5-4
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GEOLOGY
SYNCL1NE
CONTACT
ANTICLINE
NORMAL FAULT - DOTTED WHERE CONCEALED
U-UPTHROWN SIDE
D-DOWNTHROWN SIDE
THRUST OR REVERSE FAULT - DOTTED WHERE CONCEALED
SAWTEETH ON UPTHROWN BLOCK
-------
r„-6
-------
by the State of Alaska. Class II and Class III soils in Subarea I
include:
These soils are mapped in Figure 27 (adapted from Rieger and others
1962). No data are available that define the location or total area of
land currently in agriculture, but informal observations indicate that
most of this land in Subarea I is undeveloped or is developed for uses
other than agriculture.
5.2.2.4. Geologic resources
The major mineral and hydrocarbon resources of Subarea I are mapped
in Figure 28 (adapted from Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning
Commission 1973b). Currently, extraction of geologic resources from
Subarea I is limited to gas and petroleum extraction (mostly from lands
adjacent to Subarea I) and extraction of gravel and other fill and
building materials.
Petroleum and natural gas
Petroleum and natural gas fields in the adjoining Upper Cook Inlet
lie between Kalgin Island and the Susitna River. Although most of the
producing fields in the area lie offshore, significant amounts of petro-
leum and natural gas are produced from the Kenai Lowlands. The
second-largest producing oil field, the Swanson River Field, lies to the
north of Subarea I. This field contains about 60 million bbl in
recoverable reserves of oil and 300 million Mcf in recoverable reserves
of natural gas (Magoon and others 1976). The Kenai Gas Field, located
about 6 miles south of Kenai, contains reserves of over 2 billion Mcf and
is the largest producing gas field in the Cook Inlet region. The oil and
gas fields that exist within Subarea I or in the immediate vicinity are
listed in Table 26.
Soil Type
Class
• Boulder Point very fine sandy loam, gently sloping
• Cohoe silt loam, nearly level
m Cohoe silt loam, gently sloping
• Cohoe silt loam, moderately sloping
• Island silt loam, nearly level
• Island silt loam, gently sloping
• Kenai silt loam, nearly level
• Kenai silt loam, gently sloping
• Longmare silt loam, nearly level
• Longmare silt loam, gently sloping
• Naptowne silt loam, nearly level
• Naptowne silt loam, gently sloping
• Naptowne silt loam, moderately sloping
• Niklshka silt loam, nearly level
• Nikishka silt loam, gently sloping
• Pincher silt loam
• Soldatna silt loam, nearly level
• Soldatna silt loam, gently sloping
• Soldatna silt loam, moderately sloping
• Tustumena silt loam, nearly level
• Tustumena silt loam, gently sloping
• Tustumena silt loam, moderately sloping
II
II
II
III
II
II
III
III
III
III
II
II
III
III
III
III
II
II
III
II
II
III
5-7.
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PRIME AGRICULTURAL SOILS
CLASS 1 AND HI AGRICULTURAL SOIL
5-8
-------
p
2?
A I
LTURAL SOILS
-------
Table 26. Petroleum and natural gas fields in or near Subarea I (Magoon and others 1976).
Cumulative Production to 12 December 1975
Oil Fields
Beaver Creek
Swanson River
Gas Fields
Beaver Creek
Birch Hill
Kenai
Sterling
Swanson River
West Fork
Status
Producing
Producing
Status
Shut-in
Shut-in
Producing
Producing
Shut-in
Shut-in
Oil (bbl)
1,114,905
163,099,388
Dry gas (Mcf)
291,516
65,331
639,619,605
1,848,006
11,839,353
Casinghead gas (Mcf)
387,080
528,772,426
Natural gas
liquids (bbl)
9,888
Recoverable
Reserves
Oil (bbl)
60,101,000
Dry gas (Mcf)
400,000,000
20,000,000
2,250,000,000
200,000,000
300,000,000
100,000,000
-------
MINERAL RESOURCES
MAJOR MINERAL
SECONDARY MINERAL
MINERAL PROVINCE BOUNDARY
COAL PROVINCE BOUNDARY
COAL PROVINCE BOUNDARY IN WATER
PETROLEUM PROVINCE BOUNDARY
COAL FIELD
OIL FIELD
GAS FIELD
POTENTIAL GEOTHERMAL AREA
5-11
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5-12
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Eighty percent of the oil and gas production comes from the Hemlock
Conglomerate (Late Tertiary), and much of the remaining 20% comes from
the overlying Tyonek Formation. All fields are associated with major
anticlines, which act as structural barriers or traps to the migration of
hydrocarbons within the reservoir rock.
Coal
The western half of the Kenai Peninsula (the Kenai Lowlands) is
underlain by considerable quantities of lignite to subbituminuous coal
(Rao and Wolff 1975). In the southern part of the Kenai Lowlands, near
Homer, coal beds are exposed at the surface. However, the most favorable
coal-bearing section in Subarea I occurs only in the subsurface, where
valuable coal reserves are not economically recoverable at the present
time. McGee and O'Connor (1975) proved the intensity and continuity of
the coal-bearing section under Cook Inlet. Resource estimates for the
Beluga-Cook Inlet-Kenai region are 100 billion tons to the 2,000-foot
depth and 1.7 trillion tons to the 10,000-foot depth.
Metallic resources
Placer deposits have been found in the foothills of the Kenai Moun-
tains and southeast of Skilak Lake. Principal minerals were gold, sil-
ver, tungsten, and chromium. Based on available information, however,
the exploitability of these deposits is not yet public (US Army Corps of
Engineers 1978; Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission 1974c).
There are no known metallic mineral deposits in Subarea I.
Nonmetallic and industrial minerals
River gravel deposits generally are suitable as sources for road and
concrete aggregate. Potential source areas of river gravel in the Kenai
Lowland generally lie along the lower reaches of major streams and
rivers. Glacial material may or may not be suitable for backfill mate-
rial; suitability generally is determined on the basis of size distribu-
tion and the nature of the intended use. Glacial deposits generally are
not suitable as economic, sources for road and concrete aggregate because
of the inordinate effort required to remove fines and other harmful
materials.
Deposits of diatomaceous earth that may be developable commercially
occur near the City of Kenai. This resource has not been developed.
5.2.2.5. Geologic hazards
Several types of geologic hazards exist in the Kenai Lowlands. Many
are related directly to, or are made more severe by local earthquake
activity. Those hazards include earthquake shocks, ground fissures,
ground subsidence or uplift, earthquake-induced tidal waves, and ground
failure. Other hazards, such as those associated with volcanic activity,
most flooding, and erosion, are independent of local earthquake activity.
The identified geologic hazards in Subarea I are indicated in Figure 29
(adapted from Alaska Department of Natural Resources 1978b).
5-13
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GEOLOGIC HAZARD
^ LANDSLIDE AND SLUMP
VOLCANIC AREA
FAULT ZONE
COASTAL EROSION
TSUNAMI HAZARD
EXTENT OF ICE
AREA OF SUBSIDENCE
POTENTIAL MELTWATER AND RUNOFF FLOODING
POTENTIAL GLACIAL OUTBURST FLOODING
1 I 1
I illinium
*.:;U
5-14
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5-15
-------
The Kenai Lowlands are included in Seismic Risk Zone 3, defined as
areas susceptible to earthquakes of Richter magnitude 6.0 to 8.8 and
where major structural damage could occur. The last major earthquake to
affect the Kenai Lowlands occurred on 27 March 1964 near Prince William
Sound, and registered a Richter magnitude of between 8.3 and 8.7. Since
1899, 82 earthquakes of Richter magnitude 6.0 or more have occurred in
the Cook Inlet area.
Earthquake shocks, or ground shaking, can produce heavy damage to
man-made structures. Susceptibility of the ground to intense shaking
usually is highest in areas underlain by saturated unconsolidated sedi-
ments and lowest in areas underlain by solid bedrock. Ground shaking
also can destroy the competency of unconsolidated sediments, and thereby
produce landslides, mudslides, avalanches, and ground fissures or cracks.
Foster and Karlstrom (1967) reported extensive ground fissures and
groundwater eruption from the 1964 earthquake in the Kenai Lowlands study
area. They speculated that the fissuring could be located over a buried
fault. Tysdal (1976) cited extensive geophysical evidence to refute the
burled fault hypothesis, but offered no independent explanation of the
phenomenon.
Earthquakes may accompany permanent movement of the ground surface,
either horizontally or vertically, or a combination of both. These move-
ments may occur as relative displacement along a fault, or as a change in
ground surface elevation. After the 1964 earthquake, it was found that
ground surface elevations had been lowered by as much as 2 feet in the
Kenai Lowlands, and by as much as 6 feet in the Kenai-Chugach Mountains.
Horizontal displacements of up to 70 feet were recorded in the
vicinity of the earthquake epicenter at Prince William Sound. Horizontal
surveys for the Kenai Lowland were not reliable enough to yield meaning-
ful displacement data. Moreover, these displacements did not necessarily
take place along known or suspected faults, although they were related to
the fault distribution pattern in a complex way (Plafker 1969).
Tsunamis or seismic sea waves are produced by displacement of large
volumes of sea water either by uplift of the sea floor or by landslides.
Tsunamis produced by the 1964 earthquake caused extensive damage along
the coast of the Kenai Peninsula, and a wave of 30 feet was reported to
have run up on the shore of Kenai Lake (Plafker 1969). Historically,
Subarea I has been less affected by earthquake-induced tsunamis and
flooding than most other regions of the study area.
There is no evidence of any volcanic activity in the Kenai Lowlands.
However, eruptions from Mt. St. Augustine, Mt. Iliamna, Mt. Douglas, Mt.
Redoubt, and Mt. Spurr may have regional effects that would be felt in
Subarea I. Regional damage would be in the form of ash falls or from
tsunamis generated by lava flows or mud flows into shoal waters (Bureau
of Land Management 1976).
Flooding of rivers due to ice jams, spring thaw, and storm events
also presents a significant problem. One of the most serious types of
flooding results from the sudden release of water from lakes that axe
5-16
-------
dammed by glaciers. These sudden surges, termed glacial outbursts,
present a serious hazard to property and human life.
During the spring and summer, meltwater runoff and runoff from heavy
rains may cause flooding. During the winter, ice jams may block river
channels and cause severe flooding. The highest flood level recorded in
the Kenai River (22.62 feet above gauge height at Soldotna) occurred when
an ice jam dammed the river. Glacial outbursts may cause flooding during
any season, but are most frequent during the late summer. Glacial out-
bursts on the Kenai River system are from two sources: an unnamed lake
blocked by the Skilak Glacier and an unnamed lake blocked by a glacier on
the Snow River (Post and Mayo 1971). The record-setting maximum dis-
charge reported for the Kenai River (33,100 cubic feet per second) oc-
curred after the simultaneous outburst of these glacial lakes. Outbursts
also may cause flooding in the Tustumena Lake-Kasilof River system, but
Tustumena Lake is large enough to ameliorate some of the impact.
5.2.3. Hydrology
5.2.3.1. Surface water hydrology
The major river in Subarea I, and the largest river in the study
area, is the Kenai River. It begins at the outlet of Kenai Lake, near
Cooper Landing, and flows about 18 miles to Skilak Lake at an average
gradient of 24.2 feet per mile. The Kenai River flows about 50 miles
from the outlet of Skilak Lake to its mouth at Cook Inlet at an average
gradient of 4.1 feet per mile. Ten tributaries enter the Kenai River:
• Beaver Creek at River Mile 10.5
• Slikok Creek at River Mile 19
• Soldotna Creek at River Mile 22
• Funny River at River Mile 30.5
• Moose River at River Mile 36.5
• Killey River at River Mile 44
• Skilak River at Skilak Lake (near River Mile 64)
• Russian River at River Mile 73.5
• Cooper Creek at about River Mile 79
• Juneau Creek at River Mile 79.5.
The Kenai River is subject to tidal action inland as far as River
Mile 12 (Anderson and Jones 1972). Salinity in the lower reaches of the
River is as high as 25 percent (Gatto 1976).
5-17
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Streamflow in the watersheds of Subarea I is of two types: glacial
streams that originate in the Kenai Mountians or Chugach Mountains and
that derive much of their flow from snowfields and glaciers, and nongla-
cial streams that derive their flow from precipitation runoff. Flow in
glacial streams is high, and reflects the larger precipitation in the
mountains. At Cooper Landing the average flow of the Kenai River is
equivalent to 58.4 inches of precipitation in the watershed. In
contrast, the flow near the mouth of Beaver Creek, a nonglacial stream
located entirely in the Kenai Lowlands, is equivalent to 5.89 inches of
precipitation annually in the watershed (Anderson and Jones 1972).
Glacial streams typically display a period of high flow during the summer
months and a period of low flow during the winter months. Nonglacial
streams generally exhibit high flows during late autumn and during the
spring. Low flows occur in midwinter, and baseflow is maintained by
groundwater recharge in the Kenai Lowlands and by discharge from large
lakes in the mountains. The discharge records for all large streams in
Subarea I are presented in Table 27.
Water quality
Surface waters of Subarea I are generally of good quality and can be
classified as calcium-bicarbonate waters. Table 28 indicates that con-
centrations of all major dissolved solids generally are low. Suspended
sediment loads are relatively low because the sediment settles in the
large lakes (Anderson and Jones 1972).
The chemical characteristics of stream water vary with the volume of
flow and with the proportion of groundwater recharge to surface runoff.
In general, concentrations of dissolved solids decrease with increasing
flow and increase with increasing groundwater recharge (Anderson and
Jones 1972). Many small streams, such as Beaver Creek, have a wider
range of dissolved solids concentrations than the Kenai and Kasilof
Rivers. During low-flow periods, runoff is sustained by groundwater
recharge, which is high in dissolved solids. During high flows, ground-
water recharge is diluted with rain and snowmelt, which are low in dis-
solved solids. The Kenai River and the Kasilof River have little varia-
tion in dissolved solids because the principal source of runoff is snow-
melt, which is regulated throughout the year by lake storage.
5.2.3.2. Groundwater resources
Sand and gravel in glacial drift, alluvial, and coastal plain depos-
its constitute excellent aquifers for the Kenai-Kasilof area. Available
data indicate that groundwater from bedrock formations is not used within
Subarea I. Groundwater in surficial deposits exists under both water
table and artesian conditions.
Water-table aquifers
Water-table aquifers that range in thickness from 5 feet to 100 feet
occur in most parts of Subarea I and can yield modest quantities of
potable water (Anderson and Jones 1972). Recharge to the water table
aquifers was estimated to range from 4 to 15 inches of precipitation.
5-18
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Table 27. Discharge records for major rivers in Subarea
I (USGS 1978).
River
Kenai River at Cooper Landing
Kenai River at Soldotna
Beaver Creek near Kenai
Killey River near Sterling
Funny River near Soldotna
Moose River at Sterling
Soldotna Creek near Soldotna
Slikok near Soldotna
Bishop Creek near Kenai
Swanson River NE of Kenai
Kasilof River near Kasilof
Drainage
Area
(Mi )
634.0
2,010.0
51.0
40.4
33.9
738.0
Period of
Record
1947-1975
1965-1975
1967-1975
2 Nov.
1968-
1951-
1968-
1968-
1968-
1968-
1949-
1967
1970
1968
1971
1971
1971
1970
1970
Mean Annual
Discharge
(cfs)
2,677.0
5,365.0
26.6
233.0
55.0
96.6
12.1
4.8
14.7
43.6
2,385.0
Maximum
Discharge
(cfs)
23,100.0a
30,000.0
598.0
107.0
128.0
16.0
9.3
30.0
98.0
12,300.0
Minimum
Discharge
(cfs)
190.0b
770.0
8.2°
30.0
62.0
8.8
0
4.2
22.0
19.0
Glacial outburst.
3No flow on 27 and 28 March 1964 due to earthquake.
C
Temporary ice storage.
-------
Table 28. Selected chemical analyses of surface water
(Anderson and Jones 1972).
* Sag
Mean u « -h • 9
Date of Discharge il S S • h 4 5>g>
Si to Number
and Location Collection (cfs) w
M 0 0 H ^
a Sfc 32 3* «5
15-2420 Kasilof River 12 Dec 1957 2,020.0 S.O 0.17 4.8 1.2 1.6
near Kasilof
15-2661 Kenai River 2 Nov 1967 3,230.0 3.1 0.60 10.0 O.B 0.7
at Skilak Lake Outlet
15-2661.2 Killey River 2 Nov 1967 233.0 9.B 0.20 B.2 1.0 3.1
near Sterling
15-2661.6 Kenai River 2 Nov 1967 3,150.0 3.6 0.S3 10.0 0.B O.B
near Sterling
w 15-2661.8 Moose River 1 Nov 1967 126.0 15.0 0.69 23.0 4.2 4.2
| near Sterling
10
O 15-2662.1 Funny River 1 Nov 1967 107.0 18.0 0.91 10.0 3.6 3.0
near Soldotna
15-2662.9 Soldotna 2 Apr 196B 15.6 29.0 0.83 19.0 5.3 5.5
Creek at Soldotna
15-2662 Kenai River 7 Nov 1970 5,980.0 3.5 *0.03 9.B 1.0 1.6
at Soldotna
15-2662 Beaver Creek 1 Oct 1970 19.9 28.0 *1.20 18.0 3.9 5.1
near Kenai
15-2669 Bernice Creek 3 Apr 1968 1.3 20.0 0.51 7.8 2.4 3.9
near Kenai
15-2670 Bishop Creek 30 Sep 1970 15.1 14.0 *0.70 12.0 2.9 4.2
near Kenai
15-2670.5 Svanson 2 Dec 1958 — 15.0 1.10 21.0 5.5 6.5
River near Sterling
15-2671.6 Swanson 20 Aug 1969 — 16.0 *0.48 29.0 6.4 10
River near Kenai
in the Kenai-Soldotna region of Subarea I
_ Hardness u 0
9 c • » as CaCO u S ¦§ -
m jj „ 3 3 3 * Dissolved 3 £ "
3 SI cT " o O M "<-> Solids Calcium, Non- ;J 3 £ £
OK ^ sS 3 * Uesidge «agne- carbon- J c -g ^
« ^ o t*. Z at 180 C) alum ate v> u ~ 1 pil Color
1.7 20 3,0 1,0 0.0 0.3 28 17 0 43 6.6 20
1.0 2 7 6.0 0.4 0.0 0.7 36 29 7 64 7.2 5
0.7 26 7.0 1.4 0.0 1.2 46 25 4 71 7.1 0
0.9 28 8.0 0.4 0.0 0.6 39 29 6 64 7.3 5
1.3 98 0.0 0.7 0.1 2.6 99 76 0 159 7.8 10
0.9 54 0.0 0.4 0.0 0.6 64 41 0 93 7.3 15
2.3 96 0.0 1.4 0.1 0.4 111 70 0 158 7.4 15
1.0 29 6.3 0.0 0.1 1.2 39 29 5 69 7.0 0
2.1 79 3.0 3.5 0.2 0.1 106 61 0 137 8.0 20
1.8 38 1.0 5.3 0.1 0.3 6 2 30 0 8 5 7.0 5
1.6 51 3.0 3.2 0.2 0.3 66 42 0 100 7.4 10
1.8 103 1.0 3.5 0.1 0.3 107 75 0 171 7.0 45
2.5 140 0.4 3.5 0.1 0.0 129 99 0 229 8.3 —
-------
Following infiltration, flow in the water-table aquifer Is from
areas of recharge, which typically are permeable topographic highs, to
topographically lower areas of discharge. Discharge from the water-table
aquifer occurs from a number of seeps along the cliffs of Cook Inlet and
the banks of the Kenai River, where underlying clay forces water to the
surface, and as groundwater recharge of streams. Groundwater recharge
constitutes the base flow of the streams in the Kenai Lowlands. Avail-
able data are limited, but Anderson and Jones (1972) report that ground-
water recharge to Beaver Creek was equivalent to 4 inches of precipita-
tion during the 1969 and 1970 water years.
The water table in Subarea I shows marked seasonal fluctuations and
long-term fluctuations that result from changes in precipitation. The
water table usually is highest during the latter part of the summer and
the early autumn. This period corresponds with the rainy season in the
Kenai Peninsula. Recharge rates to the aquifer are reduced after the
ground freezes in autumn. The lowest water-table levels, therefore,
normally occur during the early spring. As the ground thaws, recharge to
the water-table aquifer resumes, and the water table rises.
The elevation of the water table also responds to changes in precip-
itation. From the autumn of 1967 to the winter of 1970, the water table
dropped 4 feet. During the same interval, the precipitation deficit was
18 inches (Anderson and Jones 1972).
Artesian aquifers
During 1970, about 2.8 million gallons per day (mgd), or 82 percent
of the 3.4 mgd pumped came from artesian aquifers 100 feet to 300 feet
below the surface. The artesian aquifers underlie sediments composed of
clay, silt, and till that act as semipervious beds and retard the free
flow of water vertically. These leaky, confining beds, many of which
were deposited directly by glaciers, range from 20 feet to 100 feet in
thickness. The artesian aquifers are discontinuous beds of fine sand
that are interbedded with coarse sand or gravel. Although they are
discontinuous, and some may be lens-shaped, the artesian aquifers are
hydraulically connected. They form an artesian system that extends over
much of the Kenai Lowlands.
5.2.3.3. Water supply
The major consumers of water in Subarea I are the Cities of Kenai
and Soldotna and the industrial complex north of the City of Kenai. The
City of Kenai is situated on outwash and coastal plain shoreline sedi-
ments. The principal aquifer is unconfined, ranging in thickness from 10
feet to 80 feet. Water pumpage in Kenai was estimated to be about
200,000 gpd during 1970, almost all from the water-table aquifer; the
estimated sustainable yield ranges from 2 mgd to 7 mgd (Anderson and
Jones 1972).
Water pumpage from the area of Soldotna is principally from the
artesian aquifer, which consists of up to 60 feet of sand and gravel
occurring from 75 feet to 220 feet below the surface. Well yields from
the artesian aquifer range from 10 gpm to 516 gpm. Although there has
5-21
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been a decline of the potentiometric head of the artesian aquifer in the
vicinity of the high—yield wells, the decline is normal and there may be
sufficient groundwater for future development.
The industries north of the City of Kenai use approximately 3 mgd of
groundwater, and total usage in the area has been estimated to be approx-
imately 4 mgd (Federal Power Commission 1976). It has been suggested
that this withdrawal rate may exceed the recharge rate during drought
years. The question is complicated by the possibility that more than one
aquifer may be contributing groundwater to existing users and by the lack
of data on the extent of the aquifers. The US Geological Survey is con-
ducting a survey of the aquifers in Subarea I, which is expected to
define the aquifers present and to evaluate the availability of ground-
water for proposed new consumers in the area. The results of these
investigations are expected to be available during 1979.
Groundwater quality
Water in the Kenai Lowlands varies in quality from excellent to
objectionably hard, due to quantities of iron or chlorides. The most
significant difference locally occurs between the water quality of the
water-table aquifer and that of the artesian aquifer (Table 29).
Water-table aquifers generally produce hard water (having carbonates and
bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium) that may contain objectionable
quantities of iron. Iron commonly is found in objectionable quantities
in water-table aquifers along the coast and near Sterling; iron content
is most objectionable from the water-table aquifer wells near the City of
Kenai, where the aquifer is associated with poorly-drained, swampy areas.
The quality of water from artesian wells varies from superior to
objectionable. Artesian-aquifer water often fails to meet one or more US
Public Health Service standards for drinking water in the vicinity of the
City of Kenai, as well as elsewhere along the coast of Cook Inlet (Table
29). Water from artesian aquifers near Cook Inlet may contain in excess
of 250 milligrams per liter (mg/1) of chloride and may taste salty. The
salty water probably was trapped in sediments when they were deposited,
and the sediments have not been completely flushed by fresh water (Ander-
son and Jones 1972). Artesian water may contain objectionable quantities
of iron near the inland recharge areas, but water from artesian aquifers
is superior in the part of Subarea I between the recharge areas and the
coastline.
5.3. Biological Environment
Subarea I has more industrial and residential development than any
other area in the Lower Cook Inlet region. Because of this development,
the importance of the Kenai River and other large streams in Subarea I to
the commercial and recreational resources, and the proximity of the Kenai
National Moose Range, Subarea I has been studied more thoroughly than the
other subareas.
5.3.1. Vegetation
Eight biological communities, characterized by vegetation type, have
been described in the Lower Cook Inlet study area (Joint Federal-State
5-22
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Table 29. Relationship of 112 chemical analyses by geohydrologic groupings to US Public Health Service
water quality limits (US-PHS 1962).
Water quality
groupings
Iron
Dissolved
solids
Chloride
Color
Average Percent Average Percent Average Percent Average Percent
mg/1
greater
0.3mg/l
mg/1
greater
500mg/l
mg/1 greater
250mg/l
units greater
15 unit
Percent
with no
excessive
concen-
trations
1. Water 2.28 66 111 0 3.7 0 15 23 38
table
aquifers
(32 samples)
2. Artesian 0.52 52 203 0 18 0 15 26 38
aquifers-
gene rally
suitable
(50 samples)
3. Artesian 0.54 52 420 27 99 20 70 44 30
aquifers-
generally
inferior
quality
(30 samples)
-------
Land Use Planning Commission 1973a). Descriptions of the eight communi-
ties are presented in the biological profile for the region (Section
3.2.3.1.). All of these communities are found in the Kenai River drain-
age, and the following five are present in Subarea I:
• Upland spruce/hardwood
• Lowland spruce/hardwood
• High brush
• Muskeg
• Tidal marsh.
The upland spruce/hardwood and muskeg vegetation covers most of
Subarea I. The bluffs along the Inlet are covered by upland spruce/
hardwoods. Behind the bluffs, muskeg covers a wide belt of
poorly-drained lowlands. Inland, the low hills along the Kenai River
system are forested by white spruce and hardwoods on the well-drained
hillsides and by black spruce and hardwoods or mixed black spruce, white
spruce, and hardwoods on the poorly-drained terrain. Poorly-drained
lowlands are muskegs in burned areas along the Kenai River east of
Sterling. Reforestation has succeeded to the high brush stage. Where
the coastal bluffs are dissected by the Kenai River and the Kasiloff
Rivers, some of the mudflats along the meandering river courses support
tidal marshes. The lower flats are scarred by tidal currents carrying
abrasive silt and are nearly barren.
A vegetation map of Subarea I is presented in Figure 30 (adapted
from Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission 1973b). Vegetation
may be more precisely defined through the use of the soil survey of the
Kenai—Kasilof Area (Rieger and others 1962), which lists characteristic
vegetation for each soil series, and in the files of the Alaska District
Corps of Engineers (COE), which list vegetation inventoried on the Kenai
River Lowlands and the associated soil types. The COE data are only for
lowland soils near the Kenai River, but these data are recent and will
serve to characterize vegetation on the soils for which they are avail-
able. These vegetation maps, plus the topographic maps and field obser-
vations by area biologists, are used to define wildlife habitats for
land-use planning purposes and to produce the critical habitat maps that
are presented later in this profile.
In Subarea I and in the surrounding Kenai National Moose Range, the
upland spruce/hardwood and lowland spruce/hardwood forests are utilized
directly by berry-pickers, and for firewood and building timber. Manage-
ment includes timber sales, controlled burning, and tree-crushing to
maintain the early successional stages that provide the most favorable
moose feeding habitat. In southeastern Alaska, where logging is a major
industry, acceptable logging methods, transportation methods, and buffer
zones have been defined to protect the watersheds. These management
techniques are applied to the Federal— and State—owned spruce/hardwood
forests in Subarea I.
5-24
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VEGETATION
X
V//X'//
wmt
Im
IMi,
sua
gjl||
12#;
•®3it
COASTAL WESTERN HEMLOCK/SITKA SPRUCE
UPLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD
UPLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD/LOWLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD
UPLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD/HIGH BRUSH
LOWLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD
HIGH BRUSH
HIGH BRUSH BURNED
HIGH BRUSH BURNED/COASTAL WESTERN HEMLOCK/
SITKA SPRUCE
HIGH BRUSH/MOIST TUNDRA/ALPINE TUNDRA
LOW BRUSH/MUSKEG-BOG
MUSKEG
MOIST TUNDRA
WET TUNDRA
ALPINE TUNDRA/BARREN
ALPINE TUNDRA/BARREN/MOIST TUNDRA
M
MUD
5-25
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FIGURE 30
SUBAREA I
VEGETATION
TUSTUMENA LAKE
WAPORA, INC.
MILES
1
4
5-26
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The high brush vegetation may be a successional stage in areas
disrupted by flooding, landslides, or fire, but frequently is the later
serai stage in marginal soils, particularly at higher elevations.
Land-use policies may be implemented to preserve high brush vegetation on
steep, erosion-susceptible slopes.
Muskegs may be "perched" on poorly-drained soils or may be associ-
ated with the water table and adjacent water bodies. Management of these
areas usually is limited to preservation through Corps of Engineers and
State of Alaska permits, or removal by draining.
There are tidal marshes at the mouths of the Kenai River and the
Kasiloff River in Subarea I. The vegetation in both is above most tides,
or is flooded only briefly during the tidal cycle. During extreme high
tides both marshes are flooded extensively. The Kenai River tidal flats
are zoned for heavy industry and are being usurped by construction. The
Kasilof River tidal marshes are unzoned and are sites for light fishing
industries. Both tidal marshes qualify for protection under Corps of
Engineers Section 404 permit regulations.
5.3.2. Aquatic biota
Lists of macroinvertebrates and fish collected by WAPORA, Inc., and
the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (US Army Corps of Engineers 1978)
are presented in Tables 30 and 31. The primary emphasis of fisheries
management and research efforts in the study area has been the
compilation of salmon life history and population data and the management
of salmon stocks by escapement. Little research has been conducted on
the other anadromous and freshwater fishes of the region. Fish species
lists are not available for other streams in Subarea I. The species
collected in the Kenai River probably are typical of the region, and
similar species might be expected to be present in other streams in
Subarea I.
Rainbow trout, Dolly Varden char, grayling, lake trout, steelhead,
burbot, eulachon, and coho, pink, chinook, and sockeye salmon are har-
vested in the subsistence/sport fishery in Subarea I. Lake trout and
burbot distribution is limited to lakes and the Kenai River. Grayling
are stocked in a few lakes by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game.
Eulachon spawn in the lower Kenai River during April and May and are the
target of subsistence/sport gillnet fishing. Steelhead run in the
Kasilof River during the autumn. Rainbow trout and Dolly Varden are
present in most streams and lakes. Most streams and the larger lakes on
the Kenai River and Kasilof River receive salmon spawning runs and are
rearing habitat for one or more salmon species. The distribution of
freshwater game and commercial fish species in Subarea I is reported by
the Alaska Department of Fish and Game (1978a).
Salmon spawning areas have been identified in many streams of Sub-
area I and are considered to be critical habitat by State and Federal
resource agencies. Mainstream spawning areas have not been defined for
other rivers and lakes because of turbidity and collecting difficulties,
but discontinuous spawning is known or suspected to occur in many of
them. Known salmon spawning areas in Subarea I are shown in Figure 3
(adapted from Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission 1973 ).
5-27
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Table 30. Macroinvertebrates collected during June 1977 by WAPORA, Inc. ,
from the Kenai River System.
Taxa
Phylum/Class/Order/Family/Genus and species
P-Annelida
C-Hirundinella (leeches)
Haemopsis marmorata (tentative)
Placobdella parasitica (tentative)
P-Arthropoda
C-Crustacea
O-Amphipoda (s cuds)
F-Gammaridae
Gammarus lacustris
G. (Anisogammarus) confevicolus
C-Insecta
O-Coleoptera (beetles)
F-Gyrinidae
Gyrinus picipes
G. minutus
G. pleuralis (tentative)
F-Hydraenidae
Octhebius disrectus
F-Dytiscidae
Agabus anthracinus
A. verus
Illybius augustior
Hydroporus tartaricus
H. occidentalis
H. qriseostriatus (tentative)
H- tademus
Hygrotus sp.
Rhantus wallisi (tentative)
R. suturellus
F-Hydrophilidae
Helophorus auricollis
H. fenniculus
H. splendenoides (tentative)
Hvdrobius fusxpes
5-28
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Table 30; Macroinvertebrates collected from the Kenai River System
(continued).
O-Diptera (flies)
F-Chironomidae (at least four species)
F-Dolichopodidae (undetermined genus, larvae
in coastal marsh)
F-Empididae
Wiedomannia sp. (tentative)
Undetermined genus
F-Tipulidae
Tipula sp.
F-Simuliidae (diversity not considered)
F-Tabanidae
Tabanus sp. (coastal marsh only)
O-Ephemeroptera
F-Ephemerellidae
Ephemerella (Prunella) doddsi
—' ^nermis
F-Baetidae
Baetis sp. (two tails)
Baetis sp. (three tails)
Baetis sp.
F-Heptageniidae
Epeorus (Ironopsis) sp.
Cinygma sp.
Cinygmula sp.
F-Siphlonuridae
Ameletus validus
O-Hemiptera (true bugs)
F-Corixidae
F-Saldidae
Soldula sp.
O-Odonata (dragonflies and damselflies)
F-Aeshnidae
Aeshna juncea
5-29
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Table 30. Macroinvertebrates collected from the Kenai River System
(continued).
O-Plecoptera (stoneflies)
F-Pteronarcidae
Pteronarcella badia
F-Perlidae
Alloperla sp.
F-Perlodidae
Isoperla sp.
F-Nemouridae
Nemoura (Zapoda) sp.
F-Leuctridae
Leuctra occidentalis (tentative)
F-Capniidae
Eucapnopsis brevidens
O-Trichoptera (caddisflies)
F-Rhyacophilidae
Rhyacophila (three species)
F-Glossosomatidae
Glossosoma alascense
G. intermedium
Glossosoma sp.
F-Philopotamidae
Wormaldia sp.
F-Hydropsychidae
Arctopsyche ladogensis
Hvdropsyche sp. (H. bifida group)
F-Hydroptilidae
Oxvethira sp.
F-Limnephilidae
Ecclisomyia conspersa
Nemotaulius hostilis
Hesperophylax designates
Onocosmoecus unicolor
Limnephilus sp.
Unidentified genera -
white median stripe, gills all single
5-30
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Table 30. Macroinvertebrates collected from the Kenai River System
(concluded).
F-Leptoceridae
Ceraclea excisa
F-Lepidostomatidae
Lepidostoma roafi
F-Brachycentridae
Brachycentrus americanus
P-Mollusca
C-Gastropoda (snails)
Stagnicola sp. (heavy-bodied)
Staqnicola sp. (slender-bodied)
Gyraulus sp.
C-Pelycypoda (clams)
F-Unionidae
Anodonta imbecilis
F-Sphaeriidae
Sphaerium sp.
5-31
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SALMON HABITAT
SALMON PRESENT
SALMON SPAWNING
5-32
-------
i WILDWOOD
' MILITARY
[reservation
KENAI
SOLDOTNA
KALIFONSKY
COHOE
O/kasilof
MILES
I ' "I
0 *
WAPORA, INC.
FIGURE 31
SUBAREA I
SALMON HABITAT
TUSTUMENA LAKE
EAST
FORE
land/^
'¦J2L
nikishka
5-33
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Table 31. Species of fish reported to occur in the Kenai River System
(U5 Army Corps of Engineers, Alaska District 1978).
Common Name
Arctic lamprey
King (chinook) salmon
Sockeye (red) salmon
Silver (coho) salmon
Chum salmon
Pink (humpback) salmon
Rainbow trout
Dolly Varden
Northern pike
Lake trout
Eulachon
Longfin smelt
Sculpin
Slimy sculpin
Coastrange sculpin
Staghorn sculpin
Round whitefish
Threespine stickleback
Ninespine stickleback
Pacific herring
Starry flounder
Longnose sucker
Arctic grayling
Scientific Name
Lampetra japonica
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
Oncorhynchus nerka
Oncorhynchus kisutch
Oncorhynchus keta
Oncorhynchus gorbuscha
Salmo gairdneri
Salvelinus malma
Esox lucius
Salvelinus namaycush
Thaleichthys pacificus
Spirinchus thaleichthys
Cottus sp.
Cottus cognatus
Cottus aleuticus
LePtocottus armatus
Prosopium cvlindraceum
Gasterosteu aculeatus
Punqitius pungitius
Clupea harengus pallasi
Platichthys stellatus
Catostomus catostomus
Thvmallus arcticus
5-34
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The two most Important salmon spawning systems on the Kenai Penin-
sula are the Kenai River and the Kasilof River, including their lakes and
tributaries. These systems received an escapement of 850,000 sockeye
salmon during 197 7, along with smaller numbers of pink, coho, and Chinook
salmon. Virtually all of the sockeye salmon migrated through the study
area and spawned in lakes and tributaries to lakes farther upstream in
the Kenai National Moose Range or the Chugach National Forest. Most of
the pink salmon and some of the coho and chinook salmon spawned in rivers
and streams inside Subarea I. Regardless of the spawning site, these
salmon used the rivers as migratory corridors and the young use them
during their early development phases and during their migration to the
sea.
Spawning areas are protected by permit requirements under the Ana-
dromous Fish Protection Act (permits are required from the Alaska Depart-
ment of Fish and Game). Each of the population-limiting factors des-
cribed in Section 3.2.2.1. may act on salmon eggs and fry in Subarea I.
In addition, because Subarea I is undergoing rapid development, human
activities that disrupt spawning redds, reduce groundwater flow, or
introduce pollutants are more likely to occur in Subarea I than in any
other subarea.
5.3.3. Mammals
Most of the terrestrial mammal species in the study area (Section
3.2.3.2.) are present at least occasionally in Subarea I. Exceptions
include arctic fox, marten, arctic ground squirrel, mountain goat, Dall
sheep, and a few upland small mammals. No endangered or threatened
mammals are known to inhabit Subarea I. Type localities for several
subspecies, including subspecies of the northern red-backed mouse, red
fox, gray wolf, black bear, marten, wolverine, mountain sheep, and river
otter are on the Kenai Peninsula. Merriam (1904, 1917) described two
species of brown bear found only on the Kenai Peninsula. For one of
them, Ursus kenaiensis, the species type locality was Kasilof Lake in
Subarea I.
The four species of large mammals present — moose, caribou, black
bear and brown bear — represent the most important commercial and recre-
ational terrestrial wild animal resources in Subarea I. They also may be
the mammals most affected by development and habitat alteration.
Moose are present throughout Subarea I and occur in high densities
during all seasons in most of Subarea I (Figure 32; adapted from Joint
Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission 1973b). Moose usually winter
in one area, calve in another, and summer in a third. The large,
year-long concentrations in Subarea I indicate that each of the required
habitat types — wintering yards, black spruce bogs and muskegs for
calving, and summer browse — are available. Development in Subarea I
has eliminated some moose habitat, and road mortality is becoming impor-
tant in population dynamics. These detrimental impacts have been miti-
gated in part by the access provided by roads, reduction of natural
predators, and the successionally earlier, more favorable vegetation
types that have followed burning and clearing. Future development in
Subarea I will continue to remove habitat and increase highway mortality
and hunting pressures. In the Anchorage area, the comparatively isolated
5-35
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moose population has declined gradually as the City has grown. The Kenai
National Moose Range that surrounds Subarea I will act as a population
reservoir for Subarea I, replenishing the losses and masking the effects
of human activities.
Caribou were extirpated from the Kenai Peninsula prior to 1920.
Small herds have been re-established on the Kenai Peninsula from animals
introduced by the Alaska Department of Fish and Game in 1965 and 1966.
One herd winters north of Skilak Lake in the Kenai National Moose Range
and summers on the flats north of the City of Kenai and the Kenai Spur
Road. The summer range of this herd extends almost to the coast and
includes portions of the Wildwood Military Reservation and other lands
outside the Moose Range (Figure 32). The calving grounds for this por-
tion of the Kenai herd are located almost entirely outside the western
boundaries of the Moose Range.
The quality of caribou food resources is determined, in part, by the
successional stage of the vegetation. Caribou will consume a variety of
browse, forbs, grasses, and even fish and small mammals, but depend upon
foliose lichens and other late-successional vegetation for at least part
of the year (Skoggs 1968; Kelsall 1969) . Forest fires during the past 50
years have reduced range quality in Subarea I. Land development and road
building have removed caribou habitat and hindered migration.
Two major threats to the segment of the Kenai herd in the study area
are the continued industrial development in the Nikiski area and the
possibility of fire removing the required late successional vegetation.
Existing development in the North Kenai area includes petrochemical,
refining, and transportation facilities. Planned development would
remove between 50 and 100 acres for a liquefied natural gas (LNG) plant.
Approximately 3,000 acres that are anticipated to be used for the pro-
posed Alpetco petrochemical plant eventually may be used for other indus-
trial sites. These sites are near the identified Kenai caribou herd
calving grounds and probably will increase the frequency of caribou-man
interactions. Continuing loss of critical calving grounds and summer
habitat, plus the additional stresses associated with increasing human
contact, eventually may eradicate the herd. A major forest fire could
produce the same results.
Black bears are present throughout Subarea I. A large area used
intensively by black bears in the spring coincides with the portions of
the moose calving grounds that are located on the Kenai National Moose
Range north of Sterling. This intensive use area, as identified by the
Alaska Department of Fish and Game (1976), extends slightly into Subarea
I. No other important black bear habitat has been identified in Subarea
I. Continued commercial, residential, and industrial development in
Subarea I will remove habitat and increase bear-human contact, probably
to the eventual detriment of both. Black bears, however, can adapt to
considerable human pressure. Black bear populations are not immediately
threatened in Subarea I.
Brown bears occasionally range through Subarea I. On the Kenai
Peninsula, humans largely have displaced brown bears from the regions
near the coast that comprise most of the study area. Denning areas,
5-36
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WILDLIFE HABITAT
SEA LION HAULING OUT AREA
HARBOR SEAL
BLACK BEAR
BROWN BEAR
MOOSE
GOAT
CARIBOU
5-37
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FIGURE 32
SUBAREA I
WILDLIFE HABITAT
N! KtSHKA
KENAI
EAST
FORELANO
MILES
I ' 1
WAPORA, INC.
/
tustumena
lake
S-38
-------
spring feeding areas, and salmon streams are critical habitats to brown
bears. The Alaska Department of Fish and Game (1976) has not identified
any critical brown bear habitat within Subarea I. Aspects of brown bear
life history are described in Section 3.2.3.2. As that discussion sug-
gests, increases in human populations and development in Subarea I may
continue to reduce brown bear populations.
5.3.4. Birds
Species lists of birds observed in Cook Inlet and nearby regions
(the Anchorage area and Prince William Sound) are available in Erickson
(1977) and Isleib and Kessel (1973). Two subspecies of the peregrine
falcon, an endangered species (Federal Register 1976), might be found in
Subarea I.
Subarea I contains several important bird habitat types. The most
important types, both in terms of concentrated usage and unique value,
are the waterfowl habitats. Subarea I habitat is important to both
breeding and migrating waterfowl. Most of the many potholes and ponds
that dot the area contain one or two pairs of breeding waterfowl each
summer, and densities have been estimated at five breeding pairs per
square kilometer in suitable habitat. Migrating waterfowl, including
snow geese, Canada geese, sandhill cranes, trumpeter swans, whistling
swans, and several species of ducks stage (concentrate prior to migra-
tion) on the Kenai River and Kasilof River tidal marshes (Figure 32).
These flats may receive concentrated use for only a few days each year,
but during that period they may be extremely important to migrating
waterfowl. The flats also are important sites for waterfowl hunting and
photography. The Kenai River Flats adjacent to the City of Kenai are
zoned for industrial use, and the value of the Flats as a staging area
will be reduced if they are developed. Industrial and residential devel-
opment of the Flats, or construction of bridges, roads, or electrical
transmission lines, would reduce the available habitat and would cause
direct mortality to waterfowl.
5.4. Land and Water Use
5.4.1. Settlement patterns
Human habitation in Subarea I has developed close to natural re-
sources, processing sites for those resources, and along transportation
corridors. Prior to World War II, resource exploitation in Subarea I was
concentrated in fisheries and fish processing, with lesser portions of
the population involved in mining, agriculture, and lumbering. Kenai,
the largest of the villages, had a population of approximately 300 people
that was concentrated around the old town site near the mouth of the
Kenai River, close to the fisheries, the canneries, and water transporta-
tion. South of Kenai, the villages of Kasilof, Cohoe, and Kalifonsky
were low—density aggregations of fishermen of Native, Russian, and
American ancestry. There also were scattered habitations west of Kenai,
especially along the Kenai River. Following World War II the area was
opened to homesteading, and low—density populations became established on
the better soils.
5-39
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Three events occurred between 1950 and 1960 that profoundly affected
population growth and settlement patterns in Subarea I:
• Seward Station (now Wildwood Military Reservation), an
Army communications center, was constructed north of
Kenai. The influx of military personnel, although small,
was important to the community
• The Sterling Highway was opened, connecting Kenai to
other towns on the Peninsula and to Anchorage. This
was a major benefit to trade, and, as Anchorage grew,
to tourism and development of recreational resources
• The Swanson River Oilfield came into production. The
Swanson River, and eventually the oil resources in the
Upper Cook Inlet, exerted a strong influence on population
growth. Oil and gas facility development that began
after the Swanson River strike still determines settle-
ment patterns in Subarea I.
These events, particularly the development of hydrocarbon resources,
caused rapid population increases that exceeded available services and
determined land-use patterns throughout much of Subarea I.
Development during the period from 1960 to 1970 was related primar-
ily to oil and gas development in the Cook Inlet and the Kenai Peninsula
fields. In 1963, Standard Oil of California constructed a refinery at
Nikiski off the North Kenai Road and residential development began in the
North Kenai area. Additional hydrocarbon plants were constructed in the
North Kenai area by Collier Carbon and Chemical Co., Phillips Petroleum
Co., Marathon Oil Co., and Tesoro-Alaska Petroleum Co. Residences and
service businesses developed along the North Kenai Road between the
industries that provided the economic base and the Kenai City core that
provided the required services.
During this period Soldotna grew rapidly, and residential dwellings
also were constructed in Sterling, many of them for people employed in
various oil-related jobs. Major development at both towns was adjacent
to the Kenai Spur Road or the Sterling Highway, with little off-highway
(lateral) development.
The total Kenai Peninsula Borough population in 1976 was estimated
at 21,843. This Included Seward and several smaller settlements outside
the study area. An estimated 8,215 Borough residents, approximately 37%
of the Borough population and most of the Subarea I population, were in
the greater Kenai or greater Soldotna areas. Kenai and Soldotna contain
such a preponderance of the Subarea I population that settlement patterns
and land use in those cities are discussed separately later in this
section. Outside Kenai and Soldotna, residential development is occur-
ring in the community of Sterling, as single residences and small subdi-
visions, near the highways at points along the Kenai River that can be
reached by lateral roads from the highways, and on the bluffs along the
coast of Cook Inlet. Land in Subarea I that supports commercial or
relatively dense residential usage is associated with the city cores or
with higher population densities along the highways.
5-40
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5.4.1.1. Kenai
Kenai Is located south of Anchorage, approximately 60 miles away by
air and 160 miles by highway. Kenai is the center of the oil industry
service and supply activities in the Cook Inlet area and also is the
center for fishing and fish processing industries in the central district
of the Inlet.
The City of Kenai grew as a core around the original settlement and
along the Kenai River. This development pattern was not interrupted
until after World War II, when the Sterling Highway and the Kenai Spur
Road were opened. Under the pressure of a growing work force employed in
the nearby Swanson River oilfields and gasfields, new commercial and
public facilities moved away from the Kenai City core to form a corridor
along the highways. The development of oilfield support facilities in
nearby Soldotna and a great influx of tourists on the highways have
reinforced the corridor pattern.
The service and commercial businesses have concentrated along the
highways, but the fisheries processors have remained on the lower Kenai
River, where they are close to the fishing boats and to a convenient
disposal site for the quantities of high biological oxygen demand (BOD)
wastes generated by fish processing. Under current regulations the pro-
cessing wastes (washwater, bones, skin, scales, shells, and other inedi-
ble parts) are passed through a grinder and are discharged into the
River. Heavy industries, in the form of refinery, petrochemical, and LNG
facilities, are concentrated north of Kenai, adjacent to the coast in the
Nikiski area. Their locations are described later, in the discussion of
NPDES point-source discharges (Section 5.5.3.). A major LNG facility
also is planned for the North Kenai (Nikiski) area.
Residential development is centered around the Kenai core and in
subdivisions or single family residences linked to the highways by secon-
dary roads. Much of the land along the highways identified on the land
ownership map as privately-owned has been subdivided for rural resi-
dences. A wide right-of-way, limited-access, and frontage roads have
protected the Kenai Spur Road traffic flow. The Borough recognizes the
problem associated with unrestrained residential development (CH?M Hill,
Inc. 1978a), particularly the difficulties in providing utilities, roads,
and services to outlying residences, but zoning remains liberal. The
same general pattern of residential development is occurring along the
Kalifonsky Beach Road, south of the Kenai River.
Zoning for heavy industry in Kenai is confined to the lowlands along
the lower Kenai River and to higher ground south of the River mouth.
Both sites are, at best, marginal for heavy industry. The lowland site
is advantageous only to fish processors; any other plant would necessi-
tate extensive filling and would require approval of the Corps of Engi-
neers. The other area zoned for heavy industry is being surrounded by
residential housing. A large facility in this area probably would meet
resistance from neighbors and access could be restricted.
Light industrial zoning is applied to lots along the North Kenai
5-41
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Zoning for heavy industry in Kenai is confined to the lowlands along
the lower Kenai River and to higher ground south of the River mouth.
Both sites are, at best, marginal for heavy industry. The lowland site
is advantageous only to fish processors; any other plant would necessi-
tate extensive filling and would require approval of the Corps of Engi-
neers. The other area zoned for heavy industry is being surrounded by
residential housing. A large facility in this area probably would meet
resistance from neighbors and access could be restricted.
Light industrial zoning is applied to lots along the North Kenai
Road and in the Cook Inlet Industrial Park adjacent to the Kenai Munici-
pal Airport. Both areas have been developed only sparsely.
5.4.1.2. Soldotna
Soldotna is located in the central part of the Kenai Peninsula
Borough, on the north bank of the Kenai River. The economy is based on
service companies (drilling, tool, and equipment firms) for the Swanson
River Oilfield and on government, finance, and tourism. It is located
strategically at the junction of the major highway system from Anchorage
and the petroleum facilities of the Kenai Peninsula. The offices of the
Kenai Peninsula Borough are located in Soldotna.
The City is located between the Kenai River, the Kenai Spur Highway,
and the Sterling Highway, and extends along the Kenai Spur Highway. Most
of the commercial activity is concentrated along the Kenai Spur Highway
and the Sterling Highway in a strip development pattern. Residential
development is scattered, with many vacant areas between residences.
Unlike Kenai, where much of the land in the City belongs to the Borough
or the City, most of Soldotna is in private ownership. Major exceptions
are a half-section in the southwest corner of the City owned by the
Borough, and the airport, which is owned by the City. There are three
basic zoning categories: industrial, commercial, and residential. The
industrial and commercial zones are located along the highways. Much of
the City is not zoned.
Soldotna does not have the industrial base that has been the heart
of the Kenai City development. Soldotna commerce is centered around
providing goods and services to tourists, Soldotna residents (many of
whom work in Kenai), and residents of the remainder of the Kenai Borough.
5.4.2. Land ownership
Land ownership in Subarea I is mapped in Figure 33 (adapted from
Alaska Department of Natural Resources 1977). Most of the land is owned
by the State of Alaska or is privately owned. Privately-owned land is
concentrated in the vicinity of Kenai, along the highway west of Kenai,
and along the Cook Inlet coastline. The Wildwood Military Reservation
has been transferred to Kenai Native Corporation ownership or Federal
Reserve status.
5.4.3. Recreational areas
The major recreational areas in the vicinity of Subarea I are asso-
ciated with the 2,700-square mile Kenai National Moose Range, which forms
5-42
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the boundary for much of Subarea I. The Moose Range offers camping
hunting, fishing, boating, sightseeing, hiking, picnicking, and other
outdoor activities. The cities of Kenai and Soldotna and the State of
Alaska operate parks and other recreational facilities in the study area
(Table 32).
5.4.4. Agriculture
Agriculture is not a major commercial resource in Subarea I. The
Kenai Peninsula Borough (1976) reported that only 31 farms on the entire
Kenai Peninsula sold more than $1,000 worth of crops in 1975. The
15-year average of commercial truck garden acreage, primarily planted in
potatoes, was approximately 40 acres. An additional 1,300 acres were
planted in livestock feed. Kenai Peninsula livestock production in 1975
was 860 cattle, 20 hogs, and 400 chickens. The total value of all
agricultural production in 1974, including produce consumed domestically,
was estimated at approximately $400,000.
5.4.5. Forestry
Information on forestry is not available for Subarea I as a unit.
Data for the entire study area are contained in the regional profile.
5.4.6. Land-use planning
No overall plan or zoning ordinance exists for Subarea I. Zoning is
controlled by the cities and is discussed in the land and water use and
institutional sections of the regional profile (Section 3.3. and 3.5.,
respectively).
5.5. Socioeconomic Environment
5.5.1. Level of development
More than half of the population of the study area resides in Sub-
area I. Subarea I contains two first-class cities, Kenai and Soldotna;
the communities of Sterling, Kasilof, Kalifonsky, and Cohoe; and an
unincorporated area north of the City of Kenai that includes several
unincorporated communities and generally is referred to as North Kenai.
Socioeconomic data usually have been compiled for the cities and for
the whole Kenai Borough, so comparatively little data can be presented
for Subarea I alone. The data for the cities of Kenai and Soldatna are
representative of the remainder of Subarea I in most instances.
5.5.2. Demography
5.5.2.1. Population
The population of Subarea I has not been determined. The precincts
in Subarea I censused during 1978 and their populations were as follows:
Kalifonsky 1,701
Kenai I 1,728
•5-43
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LAND OWNERSHIP
FEDERAL LAND
STATE LAND
TENTATIVELY APPROVED PATENTED
T1DELAND PATENTS
MANAGEMENT RIGHTS SELECTION APPROVED PATENTED
TIDELAND PATENTS
INTERIM CONVEYANCE PATENTED
TIDELAND PATENTS
5-44
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FIGURE 33
SUBAREA
LAND OWNERSHIP
TUSTUMENA LAKE
MILES
WAPORA, INC.
5-4D
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Table 32. Recreational areas in Subarea I.
Name Location No. Acres
Birch Park Kenai 1
Kenai Municipal Park Kenai 2
Beaver Creek Park #1 Kenai 0.025
Beaver Creek Park #2 Kenai 0.025
Cunningham Park Kenai 2
Arc Lake Soldotna 12
Swiftwater Camper Park Soldotna 60
Centennial Park Soldotna 167
Kasilof Boat Dock Kasilof River
Facilities
Toilets
Camping, picnicking
Camping, picnicking
Toilets, boat launch,
fishing
Picnicking, fishing,
boating, toilets
Picnicking, fishing,
boating, toilets,
drinking water,
camping
Picnicking, fishing
boating, toilets,
drinking water,
camping
Boat ranp
5-46
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Nikiski II
Kenai II
Kenai III
Nikiski I
1,779
864
1,479
2,010 (part is outside Subarea I)
Ridgeway
Soldotna
Sterling
1,472
2,365
Total
1,408 (part is outside Subarea I)
$14,806
The boundaries of these precincts are illustrated in Figure 34 (adapted
from US Bureau of the Census 1978). Two precincts include parts of areas
outside Subarea I. Because most of those areas are part of the Kenai.
National Moose Range, which is virtually unpopulated, the majority of the
population of those two precincts is assumed to have been in Subarea I.
Compared with the 1970 census, the population of Kenai in 1978 had
increased by 24% to 4,371, and the population of Soldotna had increased
by 96%, to 2,365. Census data for the entire study area are presented in
Section 3.4.3.1 (Tables 18 and 19). With the exception of the Kenai and
Soldotna results, the data are difficult to compare because different
census unit boundaries were employed. Although there can be no direct
comparison of census units outside of Kenai and Soldotna, the fact that
the population of Subarea I in 1978 approximately equaled the entire 1970
population of the Cook Inlet Census Division indicates that the Subarea I
pollution increased rapidly during the 1970s.
5.5.2.2. Population projections
CH2M Hill, Inc. (1978a) prepared population projections from the
1977 census of the Kenai Peninsula Borough and the Borough cities, and
from the official I960 and 1970 census results. The projected population
for the cities of Kenai and Soldotna were developed for five possible
cases:
• Base case — assumes no outer continental shelf (OCS)
petroleum or natural gas development in the Lower Cook
Inlet
• Low case — assumes that only minor OCS petroleum or natur-
al gas discoveries are made but not developed and that all
OCS activities cease within 3 years
• Medium case — assumes that petroleum and natural gas are
discovered but that the volumes discovered are not suffi-
cient to necessitate construction of new onshore support or
shipment facilities
• Two high cases — assume that substantial petroleum and
natural gas discoveries will be made and that one or two
new petroleum terminals and/or a new natural gas lique-
faction facility would be required. One high case assumes
the additional facilities would be located in the southern
Kenai Peninsula, the other assumes they would be located in
the central Kenai Peninsula.
5-47
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Population projections based on these five cases are presented in Table
33 for the years 1977 through 1992, in 2-year intervals. The compound
annual growth rates used for the base case for each city were derived
from population increases reported by the 1960, 1970, and 1977 censuses
and assume that future population increases will match those of the
previous two decades. The 1978 special census results indicate that the
1977 Kenai and Soldotna population figures, upon which the projections in
Table 33 were based, were inflated. If the population projections were
based on the 1978 census data instead of the 1977 census data, a smaller
compound growth rate multiplier and a smaller base population figure
probably would be used. Recalculation of the projection from the 1978
census data would produce lower population projections for Kenai and
Soldotna. The data are not sufficient to determine whether the differ-
ence in population would be added to areas outside of the two cities, or
would not be located in Subarea I.
The projection data indicate that the population increase from
high-case OCS development would be largest in Kenai and Soldotna if the
support facilities were to be located in the central Peninsula. The
maximum population added to both communities by OCS activities alone was
projected to be approximately 3,300. This peak would be reached during
the mid-1980s and would present a population addition of approximately 20
to 25 percent more than the base-case population. The projections for
added population are based on industry manpower needs and do not consider
the avaLiability of residences or services in the affected cities. The
shortage of housing and public services that would occur during the peak
of high-case OCS development could be expected to distribute some of the
influx into the surrounding communities. Development of other resource
bases also could cause influxes of population. Projections have been
made for population expansion that would result from mining of the Beluga
Coalfield or the Kenai Coalfield, establishment of a major groundfish
industry, or construction of major industries not related to OCS, with
two exceptions. The exceptions were the projections for the Alpetco
petroleum refinery that was considered for the Wildwood Station north of
Kenai City and the Alaska-Pacific liquefied natural gas plant that is to
be constructed in North Kenai. Projections for both projects are pre-
sented in Section 3.4.3.3. In both cases the majority of the work force
could be expected to live in Subarea I. The Alpetco refinery is to be
built in Valdez, so the populations associated with the refinery are
obsolete. The Alpetco data are presented because they may be useful for
predicting population from future industrial development.
5.5.2.3. Population composition
The Kenai and Soldotna populations were censused during 1976. The
results are summarized in Table 34. The no-children household predomi-
nated in both cities, while households with two or fewer children ac-
counted for 87 percent of the households in Kenai and 81 percent of those
in Soldatna. The two—person household predominated in Kenai; the
three-person household in Soldotna. Households with four or fewer
persons accounted for 82 percent of the households in Kenai and 81
percent of the households in Soldotna. As a result, the two-adult
household accounted for 72 percent of the households in Kenai and for 73
percent of the households in Soldotna. Most of these were one male-one
female households, as shown by the fact that households with one adult
5-48
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Table 33. Projected population increases in Kenai and Soldotna (CH^M Hill, Inc. 1978a).
Base Case
Kenai Soldotna
7% Annual 10% Annual
Year Growth Rate Growth Rate
1977 5,365
2,585
Low Case
Kenai Soldotna
Hi£h_ Case High Case
(Southern Peninsula- (Central Peninsula-
Mediura Case
Based)
Kenai Soldotna Kenai Soldotna
Based)
Kenai Soldotna
1980 6,570
Ui
I
¦C*
vO
1982
1984
1986
7,525
8,615
9,860
1988 11,290
3,345
4,165
5,040
6,100
7,380
6,590 3,455 6,685 3,520 6,745
7,750 4,315 8,040
8,940 5,255 9,880
10,495 6,525 11,280
11,855 7,760 12,390
3,560 6,990 3,725
4,510 8,350 4,715
5,885 10,545 6,325
7,045 11,915 7,470
8,110 12,795 8,385
1990 12,930
8,930
13,420 9,260 13,845
9,540 14,190 9,770
1992 14,800
10,805
15,386 11,065 15,684 11,395 16,020 11,615
-------
— rr_ FIGURE 34
Is N1XISHKI SUBAREA I
^ A„J.
xlEk A PRECINCT POPULATION CENSUS
¦"-\i I MA O
i
V-
ir' r* i Na2
£J (2-0l0)
STERLING PRECINCT
(1,408)
KENAI PRECINCTS'"
NO. 1,2,83
(4,371)
TUSTUMENA LAKE
MILES
1
0 4
WAPORA, INC.
5-50
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Table 34. Demographic and economic composition of Kenai and Soldotna
during August and September 1976 (Bureau of Management and
Urban Affairs and Anchorage Urban Observatory 1977).
Kenai Soldotna
Percentage of househoIda with:
1 parson
6
7
2 parsons
32
20
3 parsons
22
29
4 parsons
22
25
5 parsons
12
9
6 or mora parsons
6
10
No children
44
32
1 child
19
24
2 childran
23
24
3 childran
10
9
4 or mora childran
3
7
1 adult
9
11
2 adults
72
73
3 adults
14
11
4 or mora adults
6
5
No adult males
4
8
1 adult mala
78
77
2 adult males
16
13
3 adult malas
2
2
4 or mora adult malas
0
0
No amployad adults
3
5
1 employad adult
60
66
2 employed adults
28
26
3 amployad adults
3
3
4 or mora employed adults
1
1
Parcant of all household members who are male
51.3
51,
Percent of population in household that is:
0-9 years old
16
21
10-19 years old
21
20
20-59 years old
38
56
60 years old or more
5
3
Parcant of all adults who are:
Employed
67
64
Unemployed
5
6
Other (retirad/studant/houaewife)
28
30
Percent of all amployad adults employed:
Full-tima
91
90
Part-time
9
10
Locally
66
61
Within Borough
26
31
Parcant of household heads who worked 12 months
73
in previous year
74
Percent of unemployed heads of household:
Receiving unemployment compensation in
7S
42
previous 12 mos.
Not receiving unemployment compensation
25
in previous 12 mos.
58
5-51
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Table 34. Demographic and economic composition of Kenai and Soldotna
(concluded).
Persent employed heads of household employed in:
Agriculture/commercial fishing S S
Mining/oil and gas production 26 12
Construction 16 17
Manufacturing !lumbar and fish processing;
oil and gas refining) 14 6
Transportation, comnunications, utilities 6 14
Wholesale and retail trade 3 14
Finance> insurance, real estate 1 5
Services (hotel, law, medicine, etc.) 12 19
Government 13 8
Other 0 1
Median school years completed, all adults 12 12
Median total family income ($1,000) 29.9 26.9
Percent of all household members who are:
White 97 98
Eskimo Q o
Aleut 0 0
Native not specified, Indian, Black, Asian 3 2
Percent of family's food supply from subsistence
None 41 46
Less than 25% 43 31
25 - 49* 9 17
50-74% 2 4
75% or more 0 1
Median number of respondents' years in
community 5 3
Percentage of respondents who lived in 1970
in:
Sane community 37 34
Other Kenai Peninsula 3 10
Other Alaska 13 14
Outside Alaska 47 42
5-52
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male accounted for 78 percent of the households in Kenai and for 77
percent in Soldotna. Households with three or more adult males accounted
for only 2 percent of the households in each city. In Kenai, 60 percent
of the households had one employed adult, and 28 percent had two. The
corresponding figures for Soldotna were 66 percent and 26 percent. That
is, 88 percent of the households in Kenai, and 92 percent of those in
Soldotna, had at least one employed adult.
The proportion of non—working to working population is an important
economic indicator. The data require that persons aged 19 or less plus
those 60 or more be compared with those aged 20 to 59. This ratio was
0.72 for Kenai. That is, for every adult aged 20 to 59 (and thereby pre-
sumed to be in the labor force) there was 0.72 people outside that age
range. The corresponding number for Soldotna was 0.79. The age-range 15
to 19, for vfaicYi data tvot available, is a significant component of
the ratio: the more individuals of those ages in the age-range 10 to 19,
the lower the ratio will be in the near future, other things being equal.
Data from the 1970 census (not given here) showed that the 15- to
19-year-olds accounted then for about one half of the 10- to 19-year-olds
(US Bureau of the Census 1973). Males slightly outnumbered females in
both cities.
5.5.2.4. Employment
Kenai and Soldotna showed similar employment patterns: about
two-thirds of all adults were employed; of these, 90 percent were
employed full-time, about two-thirds were employed locally, and less than
10 percent were employed outside the Borough.
The data do not permit a comparison between the percent of household
heads who worked 12 months in 1976 and in 1975. For 1975, the numbers
were 74 percent for Kenai and 73 percent for Soldotna. However, for
those households whose head was unemployed In 1975, 75 percent in Kenai
received unemployment compensation, but only 42 percent in Soldotna. The
reasons for this are not clear, but may reflect the fact that a much
higher proportion of the employed heads of household in Soldotna than in
Kenai were employed in the tertiary sectors. The predominance of the
mining sector in Kenai is evident. It alone accounted for 26 percent of
the total household heads employed, and its links with the construction,
manufacturing, and transportation sectors are strong. It has been esti-
mated that, for the Borough, 60 percent of construction, 70 percent of
manufacturing, and 30 percent of transportation payrolls are directly
linked to the mining sector (Kenai Peninsula Borough 1976). Applying
these percentages to Kenai and to employment, mining accounted for 47
percent of the total employed heads of households in 1976. For Soldotna,
the corresponding number was 31 percent. Construction of major petro-
chemical facilities in Subarea I was completed recently, and the influ-
ence of the mining sector on the construction sector declined.
In 1975, the median total family income in Kenai was $29,000 —
somewhat higher than in Soldotna ($26,900). The number of adults em-
ployed and the composition of employment were the most important factors
5-53
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Chat determined these figures. In Kenai, 37 percent of the households
were households with two or more employed adults, whereas (from the
above) 47 percent of the employed heads of households were employed tn
the relatively highly-paid mining sector or in sectors directly related
to it. By contrast, 30 percent of the Soldotna households had two or
more adults employed, and 31 percent worked in mining or in sectors
directly related to mining.
Other factors explaining the income levels and differences were the
differential earnings and the unemployment rates of males and females,
which were reflected especially in the lower earnings of female-headed
households (which averaged $14,300) than of male-headed households (which
averaged $30,000). Racial composition does not explain the difference in
income in Kenai and Soldotna. Kenai was 97 percent white, and Soldotna
was 98 percent white, with few or no Eskimos or Aleuts.
Kenai and Soldotna were roughly comparable in that between 40 per-
cent and 50 percent of the households obtained none of their food from
subsistence efforts (such as clamming, hunting, and fishing), although
such supplies are significant for both: between 50 percent and 60 per-
cent of the households supplied up to half their food from subsistence.
In both cities, the residents had not been there long: 5 years was
the median period of residency in Kenai; 3 years in Soldotna. About
one-third of the residents who lived in each city in 1976 also resided
there in 1970. More than 40 percent of the 1976 residents did not reside
in Alaska in 1970.
The educational level was uniform. The median number of school
years completed by all adults in each city was 12.
5.5.2.5. Housing
In Kenai and Soldotna, single-family and mobile homes predominated.
They accounted for 73 percent of the occupied units in Kenai and 82
percent in Soldotna (Table 35).
Table 35. Types of housing in Kenai and Soldotna by occupied unit3 and
by vacancy rates, 1976 (CH^M Hill, Inc. 1978a).
Type of
Kenai
Soldotna
Occupied Unit
No.
%
No.
%
Single-family
684
52.0
311
52.0
Multi-family
350
27.0
110
18.0
Mobile home
274
21.0
180
30.0
Other
1
0.6
0
0.0
Total occupied units
1,309
100.0
601
100.0
Vacant units
46
15
Vacancy rate
3.4
2.4
Mob ile homes were
more common
in Soldotna,
where they accounted for
30 percent of the housing units, as compared with 21 percent in Kenai.
The 1976 vacancy rates, 2.4 percent in Soldotna and 3.4 percent in Kenai
5-54
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(Table 35), suggest a tight housing market; 5 percent to 6 percent is
regarded as flexible. The 1977 vacancy rate in Kenai may have been
somewhat higher because of the addition to the market of some apartment
units that formerly were occupied by construction workers at the Collier
Carbon (ammonia/urea) Plant at Nikiski and of 100 apartment units that
were under construction in late 1977 (CH^M Hill, Inc. 1978a). During the
period 1970 to 1977, population growth exceeded growth in total housing
units in Kenai, whereas the opposite was true in Soldotna. However,
Kenai had a housing surplus in 1970 after completion of oLl-related
construction. Assuming that the vacancy rates of 1976 applied also in
1977, the implied occupancy rates (number of people per occupied housing
unit) in 1977 were 3.2 percent in Kenai and 3.0 percent in Soldotna.
In 1976, there were no monthly rent or mortgage payments made for 10
percent of the units in Kenai and 6 percent of those in Soldotna; it is
presumed that these units were owned by the occupant. Median rent was
$311 per month in Kenai, where a two-bedroom apartment cost $400 per
month and a three-bedroom apartment cost up to $600 per month. The
typical price of a new home in Kenai was $60,000, whereas a single-family
lot ranged from $12,000 to $16,000. The Farmers Home Administration
(FmHA) since 1974 has played a significant role in transforming the
demand for housing units into constructed units. In Fiscal Year (FY)
1976-1977 the Soldotna office of the FmHA lent $6.2 million for 128
single-family dwellings and $2.1 million for 69 rental units (including
24 for senior citizens) in Kenai. Its provision of long-term financing
at low rates assisted in the transition from mobile homes to houses. It
also stimulated the growth of interim financing loans by local commercial
banks to the construction sector through its "conditional commitment"
program. Thus, instead of financing individual homes at a rate of 20 to
30 per year, the FmHA began to finance homes for contractors building 12
or more homes at a time. The FmHA expected that its loans in FY
1977-1978 would be slightly less than the level of FY 1976-1977,
primarily because of the reduction in industrial construction in Subarea
I.
The FmHA finances about one-third of all housing in the
Kenai-Soldotna area. The National Bank of Alaska finances another third,
acting both as a normal commercial bank and as the conduit for monies
from the Alaska Housing Finance Corporation and the Fannie Mae (Federal
National Mortgage Association) and Freddie Mac (Federal Home Loan Mort-
gage Corporation) programs. The remaining one-third is financed by the
State of Alaska, the First Federal Savings and Loan Association, and
other sources (CH„M Hill, Inc. 1978a). It does not appear that lack of
housing finance wul constitute a constraint to growth in Subarea I. The
FmHA has recently reorganized, so that it now has a state office. Sol-
dotna is to be the headquarters of the new, State-chartered, Peninsula
Savings and Loan Association.
Gas is the major source of home heat, supplying 76 percent of the
homes in Kenai and 70 percent of those in Soldotna. Oil is next, sup-
plying 13 percent of the homes in Kenai, and 25 percent of those in
Soldotna. Electricity is the source of heat for only 9 percent of the
homes in Kenai and 3 percent of those in Soldotna. Wood or a combination
of energy sources provides heat for the remainder of the homes in the two
cities.
5-55
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City water and well water are the main domestic water sources.
Stream water supplies only a negligible proportion of the homes in the
cities. In Kenai, 61 percent of the homes are supplied by city water; in
Soldotna, 57 percent. Sewers and septic tanks are used for sewage dis-
posal. Only a few homes have outhouses or chemical toilets. The city
sewerage system serves 61 percent of the residences in Kenai and 68
percent of those in Soldotna. About two-thirds of the homes in each city
have a telephone and one or two cars.
5.5.3. Utilities
5.5.3.1. Water supply
Two wells in the Beaver Creek aquifer supply the Kenai City Water
System. The System serves approximately 1,000 residential units and 90
businesses in the City center, adjacent areas, and the Wildwood Military
Reservation. Service to other areas is restricted because the cost of
installation increases with increased distance between residences, while
assessments are limited by the City charter. The pumping capacity of the
system is approximately 2,300 gallons per minute (approximately 3.3
million gallons per day). The storage system is being upgraded to three
million gallons by the construction of a reservoir on the Kenai Airport
property. Pump, storage, and line capacity are sufficient to meet im-
mediate and near-future requirements. Groundwater usage in the
Kenai-Soldotna area was estimated at approximately 1 million gallons per
day, and the North Kenai industrial complex used approximately 3 million
gallons per day (Federal Power Commission 1976). Most of the water
consumed in the North Kenai complex was used by Union Carbon and Chemi-
cal. The recharge rate to the North Kenai groundwater system was esti-
mated to be more than 6.5 million gallons per day (Anderson 1972). Tests
of aquifer recharge rates and configuration were scheduled to be
conducted during 1978 and 1979 by the US Geological Survey.
During 1976, Soldotna supplied water to 320 customers and served a
total of 408 living units, including motel rooms. The system has been
expanded since that time. Water for the system is pumped from two wells
with a combined capacity of approximately 713 gallons per minute. A
500,000-gallon reserve supply is maintained in a storage tank. Water use
data for the system are not available, and future demands have not been
projected. The low residential density composition of much of Soldotna
has resulted in a low volume of water use per pipe length in many areas.
Low flow rates and deep frost penetration have caused freezing of pipe-
lines and associated damage in some parts of the water system. Many
users run water all winter long to prevent such freezing, and the wasted
water may overload the sewage treatment system.
5.5.3.2. Sewage disposal
The Kenai City Wastewater System serves 975 residential units and 85
commercial units in approximately the same area as the water system (CH9M
Hill, Inc. 1978b). The sewage is pumped through five lift stations to a
secondary treatment plant with a design capacity of 0.5 million gallons
per day. The treatment plant operates at more than design capacity for
several months each year, partly because of inflow and infiltration from
5-56
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water tables higher than some of the sewage lines. The treatment plant
is located on the Kenai River due south of the airport and discharges
into the River. The system is outdated and in poor condition, and
frequently is plugged. A new system has been proposed.
Soldotna provided wastewater collection and treatment for 530 living
units in June 1977 (CH M Hill, Inc. 1978b). The treatment facility,
located on Kobuk Street, is designed to treat 0.26 million gallons of
wastewater per day and to handle a peak of 0.4 million gallons per day.
The peak recorded flow was 0.6 million gallons per day. The effluents
are discharged into the Kenai River. Treatment capacities frequently are
exceeded during the winter and spring. The shallow gradient in much of
the system, combined with a lack of maintenance, has caused plugging.
Rural sewage disposal usually is by septic system. Gas toilets,
chemical toilets, and holding tanks also may be used, but use data are
not available. Tryck, Nyman and Hayes (1976), in a study of the Kenai
Borough, noted that septic system disposal probably was satisfactory,
provided the system was at least 4 feet above ground water level, the
soil was sufficiently permeable (passed a percolation test), and there
was at least 80,000 square feet of land per residence. Where these
requirements could not be met, they recommended chemical or gas toilets
or joint-venture sewage treatment systems.
5.5.3.3. Electricity
The Homer Electric Association purchases electricity from the Chu-
gach Electric Association. Chugach Electric operates a generating sta-
tion at Bernice Lake in the North Kenai area and also transmits electri-
city from a hydroelectric generating station on Cooper Creek and from
generating stations in the Anchorage and Susitna Valley areas. Several
of the heavy industries north of Kenai generate their own electricity but
rely on the Homer Electric System for emergency power.
5.5.3.4. Point-source discharges
Discharges into the Kenai River and Cook Inlet by the municipalities
of Kenai and Soldotna, and by seafood processors, pipeline terminals,
refineries, and a petrochemical company, are currently licensed under
NPDES regulations (Table 36, Figure 35; personal communication with
Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation to Mr. Guy McConnell,
WAPORA, Inc.).
5.5.3.5. Solid waste disposal
Solid waste disposal sites in Subarea I are shown in Figure 35. The
Kenai Peninsula Borough operates sanitary landfills near Kenai and Sol-
dotna and a special waste disposal site at Sterling. The Borough also
operates solid waste transfer sites in Sterling and North Kenai, from
which wastes are transported to the Kenai or Soldotna landfill sites.
There are two private sanitary landfill sites in Subarea I licensed by
5-57
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Table 36. Industries with NPDES permits for wastewater discharges in Subarea I.
Discharger
Phillips Petroleum Co.
Kenai Pipeline Co.
Tesoro-Alaskan Petroleum Co.
Union Oil Co.
Standard Oil Co.
City of Soldotna
R - Lee Seafoods
City of Kenai
Columbia Hards Co.
Collier Carbon & Chemical Co.
Dragnet Fisheries
Salamatof
Kenai Salmon Packing Co.
Location
Kenai
Nikiski
Nikiski
Kenai
Kenai
Kenai
Kenai
Kenai
Nikiski
Kenai
Kenai
Kenai
Receiving
Water
Cook Inlet
Cook Inlet
Cook Inlet
Cook Inlet
Cook Inlet
Soldotna Kenai River
Kenai River
Kenai River
Kenai River
Cook Inlet
Type of
Facility
Refinery
Pipeline terminal
Refinery
Gas plant
Refinery
Secondary treatment
facility
Seafood processor
Secondary treatment
facility
Cannery
Urea plant
Kenai River Seafood processor
Kenai River
Kenai River
Seafood processor
Seafood processor
Waste Description
Oil, grease, phenols,
biodegradable materials,
sewage
Oil, grease, suspended solids
Oil, grease, phenols,
biodegradable materials,
sewage
Oil and grease
Oil, grease, phenols,
biodegradable materials,
sewage
Municipal sewage
Ground fish parts and washwater
Municipal sewage
Wastewater, boiler water,
cooling water, fish parts
Ammonia, organic nitrogen,
oil, grease
Ground fish parts and wash-
water (permit applied for)
Ground fish parts and wash-
water (permit applied for)
Ground fish parts, canning
wastes, washwater, cooling
water, sewage
-------
5.5.4. Transportation
5.5.4.1. Roads
The Sterling Highway is the major truck road running from the Seward
Highway to Homer. The Kenai Spur Road and the Kalifonsky Beach Road lead
from the Sterling Highway to Kenai. Secondary roads run from the Ster-
ling Highway to Kasilof and Cohoe. In 1976, the system was considered to
have adequate capacity by the Kenai Peninsula Overall Economic Develop-
ment Program (Kenai Peninsula Borough 1976). The major highway serving
Kenai is the Kenai Spur Road. It originates at the Sterling-Soldotna
Highway and runs through Kenai and northward along the coast to the
Nikiski industrial complex. A smaller highway, the Kalifonsky Beach
Road, crosses the Kenai River. The City of Kenai maintains 40 miles of
roads (CH2M Hill, Inc. 1978a).
Three paved, State-maintained highways serve Soldotna: the Kenai
Spur Road, the Sterling Highway, and the Kalifonsky Beach Road to the
south of the town. With the exception of a short, paved access road to
the hospital, the remaining 20 miles of City-maintained streets in Sol-
dotna are unpaved. Daily average use is within the capacity of the
system, but is increasing rapidly. Increasing commercial development
along the Kenai Spur Highway and the Sterling Highway and unlimited
traffic access eventually will cause traffic congestion on the major
thoroughfares.
5.5.4.2. Airports
The two major airports in Subarea I are the Kenai Municipal Airport
and the Soldotna Airport. There are several smaller airports recognized
by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and a number of short,
private bush airstrips. Data for FAA—listed airfields in Subarea I are
presented in Table 37.
The City of Kenai operates the Kenai Municipal Airport. The Airport
is located Immediately north of town. It consists of a small, modern
terminal and a single, hard-surfaced runway that is 7,500-feet long. An
FAA flight-service station and an FAA control tower (part-time) are
located at the airport. The Airport is served by scheduled flights to
Anchorage, Homer, Kodiak, and other Alaskan cities. Air taxi service
from the Airport provides off-the-road transportation and freight service
to hunters, fishermen, prospectors, and others on the Kenai Peninsula and
the western side of Cook Inlet.
The City of Soldotna owns and operates the Soldotna Airport. The
Airport consists of a 5,000-foot asphalt runway and a small passenger
terminal that is managed by the City Director of Public Works. There is
no control tower. Aircraft entering and leaving the Soldotna traffic
pattern receive traffic advisories from the FAA Kenai flight service
station. Scheduled airline service is provided to Homer, Kenai, and
Anchorage. Charter services to airstrips on both sides of Cook Inlet
operate out of the Airport. The Airport is capable of handling much
heavier traffic volumes, but increased usage will require expansion of
the terminal, commercial, and tie-down facilities.
5-59-
-------
Table 37. Airport facilities in the Kenai-Soldotna area (Subarea I) charted by the Federal Aviation
Administration.
Name
Arness Lake
Kenai Municipal
GAEDE
Morgan Homestead
Soldotna
Kasilof
Butler Aviation
Rigtenders Heliport
Location
6.1 mi NW of Kenai
Adjacent to Kenai
6 mi W of Soldotna
6 mi NE of Soldotna
0.9 mi SE of Soldotna
1.6 mi N of Kasilof
8.7 mi NW of Kenai
7.4 mi NW of Kenai
Runway
Length (ft.)
1,700
7,500
2,700
2,300
5,000
2,400
1,700
240 x 270
Runway
Surface
Gravel
Asphalt
Unpaved
Unpaved
Asphalt
Gravel
Gravel
Gravel
Facilities
Also seaplane basin
Terminal, control tower,
flight service station,
repairs, fuel
Private, use restricted
Also seaplane lake, private,
use restricted
Small terminal, fuel, repairs
Attended
-------
CHEVRON USA 0016
TESORO-ALASKAN 0084
KENAI PIPELINE CO. 0105
PHILLIPS PETROLEUM 01
2539
UNION CHEMICAL 0050
KENAI WASTEWATER TREATMENT 2137
R. LEE SEAFOODS 2451
COLUMBIA-WARDS FISH 0056
FIGURE 35
SUBAREA I
SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL SITES
KENAI PACKING 2506
DRAGNET SEAFOODS 27 31
SALAMATOF SEAFOODS 2729
wy
•/sterling
L^O%qtnaJ I '
i d\
fP
/V
^^^SOLDOTNA0
f4
SOLDOTNA WASTEWATER 2003
LANDFILL SITES
TRANSFER SITES
HAZARDOUS (oily-industrial) LANDFILL SITE
TUSTUMENA LAKE
WAPORA, INC.
MILES
1
4
5-61
-------
5.5.4.3. Water-based transportation
Two marine transportation facilities are operated in Kenai: the Port
of Kenai (privately-owned) and the Kenai Cook Dock (City-owned). The
Port of Kenai provides a 300-foot-long dock, cranes, ramps, water, and
warehousing and can dock medium-draft vessels. Approximately 60 fishing
boats use the facility (Mielke and others 1977). The wharves at Nikiski
constitute one of the major ports of Cook Inlet. They receive
approximately 250 vessels each year, primarily tankers and LNG vessels.
Approximately 17 percent of the Cook Inlet shipping is moved through
Niskiski (Kenai Peninsula Borough 1976). The Niskiski wharves provides
ample water depth, but tides, currents, and ice constitute significant
docking hazards (Federal Power Commission 1976). There are no
established shipping lanes in Cook Inlet, and fishermen report extensive
fixed-gear destruction by ships. In addition to these port facilities,
the City of Soldotna operates a small-boat dock and launching facility at
Kasilof.
5.5.5. Social services
5.5.5.1. Educational facilities
Public educational facilities in Subarea I are listed in Table 38.
The Kenai Peninsula Borough School District (1977) indicated the need for
a new 10-room elementary school in Soldotna, an 800-student high school
in Soldotna, and additional classrooms in Nikolaevsk, Sterling, and
Tustumena. Base-case projections (CH.M Hill, Inc. 1978a) indicate that
400 to 500 students will be added to the entire Kenai Peninsula Borough
School System each year. Under projected peak OCS development condi-
tions, an additional 2,622 to 2,718 pupils would be added to the School
System during the 1985-1986 school year. Assuming that the development
would occur in the central Peninsula, almost all of these new pupils
would be enrolled in the Subarea I schools, and the present enrollment
capacity would be exceeded. The projected additional enrollment would
require an additional 109 classrooms during peak OCS development (CH»M
Hill, Inc. 1978a).
5.5.5.2. Police protection
The Kenai Police Department employs ten officers, has six vehicles,
and has short-term jail facilities. The Police Department is undermanned
(CH2M Hill, Inc. 1978a).
The Soldotna Police Department has six officers, three police cars,
and a small jail. The Public Safety Building needs replacement and the
staff workload is full (CE^M Hill, Inc. 1978a). Alaska State Troopers
provide police protection outside Soldotna and Kenai on the Kenai Penin-
sula.
5.5.5.3. Fire protection
Kenai has ten full-time firemen, several volunteers, one crash
truck, three pumper trucks, and one tanker truck. The Soldotna Fire
5-62
-------
Table 38. Kenai Peninsula Borough schools in Subarea I (Cl^M Inc. 1978a),
Schools
Kenai Elementary
Kenai Junior High
Kenai Central
Nikolaevsk
Community
Kenai
Kenai
Kenai
Near Kenai
Grades
4-6
7-9
10-12
K-8
Capacity
500
600
800
150
Enrollment
1976-1977
School Year
279
492
687
118
North Kenai
Sears
Soldotna Elementary
Soldotna Junior High
Sterling
Tustumena
Kenai
Kenai
Soldotna
Soldotna
Sterling
Sterling
K-6
K-3
K-6
K-9
K-8
K-6
425
550
650
450
150
100
364
353
572
315
190
112
-------
Department has a paid staff of three, twenty volunteers, two pumper
trucks, two tanker trucks, and one rescue truck. The Nikiski Fire Ser-
vice Area provides fire protection to part of Subarea I outside Kenai and
Soldotna. The cities of Kenai and Soldotna have provided fire protection
to outlying areas, but Kenai has indicated that these services will
cease unless the unincorporated areas form a fire protection district to
help share expenses.
5.5.5.4. Other services
Kenai and Soldotna operate a joint mental health program organized
by the Kenai Mental Health Association. The Association's budget for
1977 was $120,000. The State-funded Cook Inlet Council on Alcoholism
(with a staff of four), and two private groups organize alcoholism pro-
grams.
Both Kenai and Soldotna have small libraries staffed by paid em-
ployees. Both provide services to non-residents at no charge.
Park and recreation areas in Subarea I are operated by the cities of
Kenai and Soldotna, the Kenai Peninsula Borough, and the Alaska Division
of Parks. They range from small waysides and day parks to boat-landing
and full-camping facilities. Kenai has six parks, totaling 117 acres.
Soldotna has three city parks and a total of 264 acres of recreational
land.
5.5.6. Public finances
Many of the data presented for the Kenai Peninsula Borough as a
whole (Section 3.4.8.) are applicable to the discussion of Subarea I
finances. Data specific to Subarea I are presented in this section.
Selected financial data for Kenai and Soldotna for the period 1970
through 1976 are presented in Table 39. Kenai1s deficits and revenue
swings are substantial. Changes in assessed property value and in mil-
lage rates have occurred in response to, and affect, these balances. The
deficits especially reflect attempts to cope with the growth in popula-
tion. For example, Kenai undertook substantial bond Issues for its
water, sewer, and other systems during the period 1965 through 1972. As
a result, its water and sewer system has twice the capacity of the system
at Soldotna. Such systems incur debt. The bonded debt ratios of the two
cities are presented in Table 40. Both cities have low direct debt
ratios, high debt per capita, and high assessed value per capita. The
low debt ratios indicate financial strength. The direct debt of Kenai is
three times that of Soldotna.
The patterns of general revenues and expenditures in the two cities
during Fiscal Year 1976 are shown in Table 41. Their own sources of
revenue (property and sales taxes, and business licenses) were critically
important, accounting for 72 percent of total general revenues in Kenai
and 62 percent of those in Soldotna. State and Federal revenues ac-
counted for just over 10 percent in each city. Police, fire, and streets
combined accounted for 58 percent of the general expenditures in both
Kenai and Soldotna.
5-64
-------
Table 39. Selected financial data for Kenai and Soldotna, 1970-1976 (Hielke and others 1977 ; Waites and
Brogan 1977b).
Year
(ending
June 30)
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
Expenditures
($)
a
N/A
1,820,000
1,130,087
1,371,026
1,156,824
1,056,800
1,486,058
Revenue
($)
N/A
1,772,538
1,345,846
989,951
1,318,654
1,015,136
1,961,514
End-Year
Balance
($)
N/A
(232,170)
299,200
(339,313)
(24,330)
(403,696)
71,760
Assessed
Property
Value
($/million)
29.6 b
47.0
48.5
49.4
48.4
54.7
60.7
Millage
(c/$l,000)
8.00
7.00
7.00
10.50
12.00
16.75
16,00
Sales Tax
Rate
(%)
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.0
1.0
3.0
3.0
Soldotna
1970 N/A N/A N/A 13.6 6.0 0.0
1971 193,368 229,551 51,458 14.8 6.0 0.0
1972 270,834 227,971 8,595 16.5 10.0 0.0
1973 407,448 387,596 (12,755) 18.1 14.0 0.0
1974 529,309 519,778 27,392 19.7 15.0 0.0
1975 592,277 682,718 87,441 22.8 12.0 1.0
1976 798,598 836,978 123,821 30.9 10.0 2.0
aN/A = Data not available.
Only real property assessed.
-------
Table 40. Bonded debt ratios, 30 June 1978, for Kenai and Soldotna
(CH2M Hill, Inc. 1978a).,
Kenai Soldotna
Assessed value
$85,178,136
$43,356,480
Direct debt
4,690,000
1,648,000
Direct and overlapping debt
6,295 ,482
2,465,217
Ratio of:
Direct debt to assessed value (%)
5.5
3.8
Direct and overlapping debt to
assessed value (%)
7.4
5.7
Population
5,364
2,586
Assessed value per capita
15,880
16,766
Direct debt per capita
874
637
Direct and overlapping debt per capita
1,174
953
5-66
-------
Table 41. General fund revenues and expenditures for Kenai and Soldotna, FY 1976"^
(CH^M Hill, Inc. 1978A)-
Kenai
Soldotna
en
I
On
Category
Revenues
Property tax
Sales tax
Business licenses
State shared revenues
Federal revenue sharing
Public Employee Program
Other
Expendi ture s
Government administration
Police
Fire
Streets
Library
Communications
Municipal shop
Non-departmental
Parks
Airport
Debt service
Transfer to other funds
Other
2,443,971
1,028,387
677,353
126,097
220,750
40,849
350,535
1,822,970
355,547
311,194
278,124
127,411
50,977
82,608
178,595
333,667
%
10Q.0
42.1
27.7
5.2
9.0
1.7
14.3
100.0
18.4
17.1
15.3
7.0
2.8
4.5
9.8
IB.3
1,212,602
363.345
323,894
75,195
112,768
42,349
42,981
252,070
1,106,182
198,788
232,626
94,286
114,322
23,795
16,117
43,491
33,061
158,425
191,271
%
100.0
30.0
26.7
6.2
9.3
3.5
3.5
20.8
100.0
18.0
21.0
8.5
10.3
2.2
1.5
3.9
3.0
14. 3
17.3
"Sfear ending 30 June
-------
5.5.7. Public attitudes toward development
The Bureau of Management and Urban Affairs and the Anchorage Urban
Observatory (1977) conducted surveys of the attitudes of people in five
Kenai Peninsula towns toward their communities. Their findings are
discussed in the following section.
The population of Kenai was 4,371 in 1978. In 1976, 55 percent
preferred a city with a population of 5,000 and 27 percent preferred one
of 6,000 to 15,000. At the extremes, 11 percent preferred a city of
4,500 or less, and 7 percent preferred one of more than 15,000. The
industrial sectors its residents would prefer to encourage in the City
are matched, in exactly the reverse order, by those they would discourage
(Table 42). Education, agriculture, commercial fishing, and a small-boat
harbor were encouraged by over 90 percent of the respondents. Light
manufacture, transport, tourism, and a deepwater port were encouraged by
less than 90 percent, but by more than two-thirds of the respondents.
Supply bases, petrochemical industries, and lumbering were encouraged by
two-thirds or less of the respondents.
In general, if a respondent ranked a sector highly as a sector to be
encouraged, he or she also rated it highly in terms of desirability. The
petrochemical industry is an obvious, anomalous, and unexplained excep-
tion. It ranked tenth (of the eleven sectors) in terms of the percent of
respondents who would encourage it in Kenai (55.0%), first in terms of
the percent of respondents who placed it as most desired in Kenai
(22.5%), and third in terms of least desired (17.0%).
Several related questions were asked. (The data for these are not
presented in Table 42.) For example, when asked if they would like to
see onshore facilities in this area, between 55 percent and 66 percent of
the residents answered positively, depending on which of five facilities
was specified. In descending order of preference these were: liquefied
natural gas (66%), support bases (64%), pipelines (62%), refineries and
petrochemical plant (60%), oil storage and tanker terminal (55%). When
asked if the City and the Borough should prevent the location of a supply
base for one of these facilities in this area, 63 percent responded
affirmatively, and 28 percent negatively. Finally, when asked if the
facilities should be located inside or outside the City limits, 74 per-
cent preferred outside and 19 percent inside. These results do not
clarify the attitudes of Kenai residents toward onshore oil and natural
gas development, or the psychological sensitivity of the area.
The population of Soldotna was 2,365 in 1978. In 1976, 34 percent
of the residents preferred to have a population of 3,000 to 4,500.
However, the next largest group (32%), preferred a city of only half that
size (1,500 population). Eighteen percent preferred a city with a
population of 5,000 to 15,000, with 4 percent preferring one of less than
1,000, and 5 percent one of more than 15,000.
In Soldotna, as in Kenai, the encourage/discourage rankings of
industrial sectors were a mirror image of each other. The rankings in
Soldotna were similar to those in Kenai, with the obvious exception of
5-68
-------
Table 42. Preferred development sectors in Kenai and Soldotna (Bureau of Management and Urban Affairs and
Anchorage Urban Observatory 1977 }.
Kenai
Education and research
Agriculture
Commercial fishing
Small boat harbor
Light manufacture
Transport and storage
Tourism
Deep water port
Supply bases for offshore oil
Petrochemical industries
Lumber industry
None and don't know
Soldotna
Education and research
Agriculture
Commercial fishing
Small boat harbor
Light manufacture
Transport and storage
Tourism
Deep water port
Supply bases for offshore oil
Petrochemical industries
Lumber industry
None and don't know
Encourage
Discourage
Most
Desired
Least
Desired
(%) (Rank)
(%)
(Rank)
(%)
(Rank)
(%)
(Rank)
95.4
1
2.0
11
15.9
2
0.7
11
95.4
1
8.6
8
6.6
7
3.5
7
92.1
3
7.3
10
11.9
3
2.1
9
90.1
4
7.3
9
7.3
6
2.8
8
84.8
5
10.6
7
8.6
5
6.4
5
81.3
6
14.7
6
4.0
9
0.7
10
77.5
7
21.2
4
9.3
4
19.1
2
75.8
8
18.8
5
6.0
8
3.5
6
66.2
9
27.2
3
2.6
11
7.8
4
55.0
10
41.0
2
22.5
1
17.0
3
37.7
11
57.0
1
4.0
1.4
10
28.4
7.8
1
96.4
1
2.2
11
17.8
2
0
11
80.4
4
13.0
9
10.4
5
4.7
6
87.7
2
10.9
10
9.6
6
0.8
10
61.3
9
30.7
4
2.2
10
2.3
7
81.2
3
13.0
8
13.3
4
10.2
4
71.7
5
21.0
7
3.0
9
0.8
9
67.9
6
29.2
5
18.5
1
16.4
3
65.0
7
30.7
3
3.7
8
5.5
5
63.0
8
26.8
6
3.7
7
0.8
8
43.5
10
51.4
2
16.3
3
27.3
1
31.9
11
60.9
1
0.7
11
25.0
2
0.7
—
6.2
—
-------
tourism (ranked higher) than in Kenai and small-boat harbor (ranked
lower). Again, the anomalous ranking of petrochemicals is seen. It was
ranked tenth in terms of encouragement (43.5%), but third as most-desired
(16.3%), and first as least-desired (27.3%). The percentage who re-
sponded positively to the location of onshore facilities in the area was
less than the percentage in Kenai for the five facilities. The range was
44 percent to 60 percent in Soldotna, versus 55 percent to 65 percent in
Kenai. Fifty-five percent of the respondents in Soldotna felt that a
supply base in the area should be prevented (63% in Kenai), and 74
percent (the same as in Kenai) felt that oil and natural gas facilities
should be outside the City.
5.6. Cultural, Historical, Archaeological, and Aesthetic Resources
Subarea I includes the area from the East Forelands of Cook Inlet to
the shoreland near Clam Gulch. It extends eastward along the Kenai River
to the border of the Kenai National Moose Range. The Subarea contains a
wide variety of cultural, historic, and archaeological resources, and the
aesthetic pleasures of the region are enjoyed by thousands of residents
and visitors each year.
5.6.1. Cultural, historical, and archaeological resources
The Master File of the Alaska Heritage Resource Survey (AHRS)
(Alaska Department of Natural Resources 1979) lists 62 sites in Subarea
I. The sites range from simple mounds of Native origin to surviving
buildings from the Russian and Early American periods in Alaska. The
Cook Inlet Region Inventory of Native Historic Sites and Cemeteries (Cook
Inlet Native Association 1975) lists 31 sites in Subarea I as having
important historical value. It is likely that additional sites will be
discovered.
5.6.1.1. Native period
The early human history of Subarea I is not well understood. The
Lower Cook Inlet study area appears to have been located in a region
where a number of various cultures met and competed (Bureau of Land
Management 1976). Dispersed Eskimo settlement sites are believed to have
existed throughout the Cook Inlet area. The displacement of the Eskimo
culture by the Tanaina group of Athabaskan (also called Athapaskan)
Indians appears to have begun in the northern sections of the Kenai
Peninsula and later spread southward. Tanaina settlements near the mouth
of Kenai River may have been established as long ago as 1000 B.C. (Peter-
sen 1976). The population expanded slowly In the region adjacent to the
Kenai River. At the time of the first Russian contact, an estimated
1,000 Tanaina inhabited the Kenai area. It is believed that a Native
population of 50,000 inhabited the Kenai Peninsula prior to Russian
contact (Cook Inlet Native Association 1975).
The Native economy prior to European contact was based on hunting,
trapping, fishing, and trading. Wood, stone, and other natural materials
were employed (Cook Inlet Native Association 1975). The use of copper
and coal was observed by early explorers (Barry 1973).
5-70
-------
Seasonal movement appears to have been common, with permanent or
winter villages established In coastal areas. A topical village seems to
have consisted of 17 to 20 houses in a central section and a few outlying
buildings. A site of this type, near Kalifonsky, has been designated as
the Jackinsky Village (Cook Inlet Native Association 1975).
The transition from one culture to another during the Native period
seems to have occurred gradually, although it is likely that occasional
violent encounters may have occurred during the era of change. The
coming of European man to the area increased the rate of change and
resulted in virtual eradication of the old Native ways of life.
5.6.1.2. Rus sian pe riod
Early Russian exploration of Alaska concentrated on the Alaska
Peninsula and the Kodiak Island area. The first Russian permanent set-
tlement on the mainland was established at Kasilof in 1786 (Barry 1973).
Referred to as Fort St. George, the settlement consisted of two log
buildings protected by a stockade (Bancroft 1886). The Fort was an
outpost of the Lebedev-Lastochikin Company and served as a base for the
fur trade. In 1791 the Company established the Nikolaevsk Redoubt set-
tlement at the site of modern Kenai. This settlement also was known as
Fort St. Nicholas. The leader of the personnel at Fort St. Nicholas was
Grigor Konovalof. According to Barry (1973), "Konovalof proved to be a
bother to everyone — he raided the Indians, the Shelikov hunters and
even his fellow companyman at Kasilof." Konovalof finally was captured
and sent back to Siberia by forces under the command of Alexander
Baranof.
The fortunes of the Russian-American Company declined in the Kenai
area, as they did throughout Alaska. The report of gold along the Kenai
River in 1834 by a Russian named Malakoff apparently drew little atten-
tion and even less action. The deteriorating trade situation led Russia
to the sale of Alaska to the United States in 1867.
5.6.1.3. American period
In 1869 the US Army took over Fort St. Nicholas, and the post was
renamed Fort Kenay (Kenai). Commercial activity revolved mainly around
the fur trade, and there was little need for a military garrison. The
soldiers stationed at Fort Kenay were in demand as the Indian Wars in the
western United States continued. In the fall of 1870 the garrison was
transferred and Fort Kenay officially was closed. Little growth occurred
subsequently in the Kenai area; the 1880 census listed a population of 44
in Kenai.
The opening of the first salmon cannery in Kenai in 1882 resulted in
a modest boom, and the permanent population began to grow slowly. By
1920 the official figure stood at 332. The population began to Increase
more rapidly after World War II, with the opening of the Kenai area for
homesteading in 1947. The completion of a road linking Kenai to Anchor-
age, the increased construction in the area, and the discovery of oil and
gas in the vicinity of Kenai stimulated extensive new growth. The towns
of Soldotna and Sterling developed during this period of available land
and increased access (Federsen 1976).
5-71
-------
The Kasilof-Cohoe area had been the site of Fort St. George under
Russian rule. After the purchase of Alaska by the United States, there
was an inflow of new settlers, principally homesteaders and fur farmers
(Lewis 1976). The periodic decline in fur prices limited the growth in
that industry, and population in the area grew slowly. As in the Kenai
area, growth increased after World War IX, especially with the completion
of new road connections. Growth in the Kasilof-Cohoe area has not ap-
proached the magnitude of the population increase in the
Kenai-Soldotna-Sterling area.
5.6.1.4. Sites in the National Register of Historic Places
Subarea I includes two sites listed in the National Register of
Historic Places and one site designated as a National Historic Landmark.
In addition, six sites have been designated as possible candidates for
inclusion in the National Register by the AHRS. The following discussion
of these sites is based on information obtained from the Master File of
the AHRS, from the Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Proposed
1976 Outer Continental Shelf Oil and Gas Lease Sale, Lower Cook Inlet
(Bureau of Land Management 1976), and other authors as noted.
The Victor Holm cabin, located near Kasilof, is listed in the Na-
tional Register of Historic Places. The cabin was built in 1890 by
Victor Holm. It has been converted into a museum that contains many
handmade articles fashioned by Mr. Holm (Lewis 1976). The cabin is the
oldest remaining example in the area of the dovetail method of construc-
tion. This technique was used prior to the Alaskan gold rushes and was
replaced by the saddle corner method, which required the use of steel
pins. The structure is located on private property and may be viewed by
arrangement with the present owner. It is designated as KEN 038 by the
AHRS.
The Moose River Site also Is listed on the National Register of
Historic Places. It is located within the Izaak Walton Wayside at the
junction of the Moose River and the Kenai River. The Site is believed to
date from approximately 400 A.D. It demonstrates Native occupation and
resource utilization of the Kenai River area. The site is owned by the
Alaska Division of Parks, State of Alaska, and is designated as KEN 043
by the AHRS.
The Assumption of the Virgin Mary Orthodox Church, located at the
intersection of Mission Street and Overland Street in Kenai, is desig-
nated as a National Historic Landmark. The existing structure, built in
1894, was preceded by a log chapel (1841) and a log church (1849). It is
an exceptional example of the vessel-quadrilateral ground plan and is the
best-preserved Russian Orthodox church of its kind in Alaska. The Church
still is in active use. The adjacent mission house has been designated
as a possible candidate for listing on the National Register of Historic
Places. The Church is privately owned and is designated as KEN 036 by
the AHRS.
Six additional sites in Subarea I have been designated as possible
candidates for inclusion in the National Register. Five of these are log
cabins located in Kenai that date from the late 1800s to the early 1900s.
5-72
-------
They are designated as KEN 069, 070, 071, 072, and 073 by the AHRS. The
sixth site, known as the Petersen Complex, also is located in Kenai, near
the Russian Orthodox church. It contains structures dating from 1880 to
1924 and is listed as KEN 080 by the AHRS,
Numerous additional sites of potential historic Importance are
listed in the Cook Inlet Region Inventory of Native Historic Sites and
Cemeteries (Cook Inlet Native Association 1975). Many more sites may be
discovered.
5-73
-------
6.0. SUBAREA II
6.1. Subarea II Boundaries
Subarea II is bounded by Cook Inlet on the west, Kachemak Bay and
Subarea III on the south and southeast, and the Kenai National Moose
Range and Subarea I on the north and east (Figure 36; adapted from Joint
Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission 1973b).
6.2. Physical Environment
6.2.1. Landforms
Subarea II is located in the southwestern section of the Kenai
Lowlands. It is similar in landform and origin to Subarea I. In Subarea
II the Kenai Lowlands tilt upward from north to south, as evidenced by
the increased elevation of the terrain and improved drainage, than in
Subarea I.
Landforms within Subarea II consist of plains, terraces, and glacial
moraines. Steep eroded escarpments, sea cliffs, and canyons exist in
sandstone and shale bedrock in the southern part of Subarea II. Eleva-
tions are generally less than 800 feet, but exceed 3,000 feet in the
Caribou Hills. Other areas of high elevation include the Ninilchik Dome,
Epperson Knob, Bald Mountain, and Lookout Mountain. Subarea II is
drained by numerous streams that are tributaries to the Cook Inlet and
Kachemak Bay. The most important streams are the Anchor River, the
Ninilchik River, and Deep Creek (Figure 36).
6.2.2. Geology
The geologic structure of Subarea II consists of a series of
northeast-southwest-trending anticlines and synclines. The axes of the
most Important folds are illustrated in Figure 37 (adapted from Magoon
and others 1976). A burled fault is located immediately west of Bald
Mountain. Available data suggest that it is a "normal" fault that
roughly parallels major fold axes. No intrusive or volcanic rocks are
known to exist in Subarea II.
6.2.2.1. Bedrock geology
The bedrock surface in Subarea II consists of gently-folded strata
of the Kenai Group (Magoon and others 1976; Hinton 1971). The Kenai
Group in this area consists of moderately Indurated sand, silt, and clay
that occurs in thin Integrated beds and lenses. Thin lenses of con-
glomerate and beds of bituminous and lignite coal also occur. Outcrops
of the Sterling Formation (Miocene-Pliocene) occur along the coastline of
the Cook Inlet and Kachemak Bay, along reaches of Deep Creek and Fox
Creek, and in the uplands of the southern part of Subarea II. The Beluga
Formation (Miocene) comes to the surface in the uplands near Homer and
along the southern coastline of Subarea II. This formation forms a steep
escarpment that extends from Diamond Creek to Fritz Creek.
6.2.2.2. Surficial geology
The most Important surficial deposits in Subarea II are depicted in
6-1
-------
6-2
-------
KiOU;':t .'/o
SU::AI:"A 2
topography
MILES
1
i n C H C * PC KT
Boff P^K"1
-------
Figure 3 7. These deposits consist predominantly of glacial morain de-
posits, alluvial sediment, outwash, and lacustrine sediment (Karlstrom
1964). Uplands throughout Subarea II are mantled by deposits of aeolian
silt (Hinton 1971). These deposits attain thicknesses of up to 60 inches
and probably are mixtures of glacial material and ash from volcanoes in
the Aleutian Range. Minor deposits of tidal silt, beach sand, and gravel
occur at Ninilchik, Cape Starichkof, Anchor Point, and Homer (Hinton
1971; Karlstrom 1964; Waller and others 1968).
6.2.2.3. Soils
Soils in Subarea II have been categorized into six soil associations
based on soil texture, topography, and character of the parent material:
• Cohoe-Salamatof association: deep, nearly level to moder-
ately-sloping, well-drained silt loams that occur on
uplands; and very poorly drained peat soils of muskegs
• Mutnala-Salamatof association: nearly level to steep,
well-drained silt loams that are shallow over gravelly
glacial till and occur on uplands; and very poorly drained
peat soils of muskegs
• Kachemak association: nearly level to steep, well-drained
silt loams that are shallow to moderately deep over shale
and sandstone; on uplands
• Beluga association: nearly level to strongly-sloping,
poorly-drained silt loams that are moderately deep and
deep to stratified fine sandy loam to silty clay loam;
on foot slopes
• Alluvial land-tidal marsh association: nearly level,
very poorly drained to excessively-drained alluvial sand,
silt, and clay; and very poorly drained soils on tidal
marsh
• Rough broken land association: steep and very steep,
eroded escarpments, sea cliffs, and canyon walls.
The soil types in Subarea II are discussed in the following para-
graphs in terms of their suitability for development and agriculture. The
soil survey of the Homer-Ninilchik Area, Alaska, by the US Soil Conserva-
tion Service was the only available source of information (Hinton 1971).
Wetlands
Twenty-two soil series have been recognized and mapped in Subarea II
(Hinton 1971). Twelve are characterized by groundwater at depths of 1.0
foot or less. Soil series in this category include Beluga silt loam,
Coal Creek silt loam, Doroshin peat, gravelly beach soils, Moose River
silt loam, Nikolai silt loam, Salamatof peat, Slikok mucky silt loam,
Spenard silt loam (nearly level), Starichkof peat, tidal marsh soils, and
tidal flat soils. Available soils data Indicate that wetland vegetation
is associated with these soil series. Potential wetland areas (based on
soils data) can be determined from the US Soil Conservation Survey (Hin-
6-4
-------
GEOLOGY
SYNCLINE
CONTACT
ANTICLINE
NORMAL FAULT - DOTTED WHERE CONCEALED
U-UPTHROWN SIDE
D-DOWNTHROWN SIDE
THRUST OR REVERSE FAULT - DOTTED WHERE CONCEALED
SAWTEETH ON UPTHROWN BLOCK
-------
FIGURE 37
SUBAREA 2
GEOLOGY
NINILCHIK
CAPE STARlChfrOf
ANCHOR POINT m^JL^NCMOA
6-6
-------
ton 1971), but documentation of existing conditions would require field
confirmation surveys.
Prime agricultural land
Prime agricultural soils include those mapped as Soil Capability
Classes I and II by the Soil Conservation Service. Soils included in
these classes are suitable for most field crops, and few (Class I) or
moderate (Class II) limitations reduce the choice of crops because of
soil limitations. No Class I soils were identified in Subarea II. Class
II and Class III soils are sold for agricultural lands in Alaska. These
potential agricultural soils include the following types:
Soil Type
Class
•
Beluga silt loam, nearly level
III
•
Beluga silt loam, gently sloping
II
•
Beluga silt loam, moderately sloping
III
•
Cohoe silt loam, nearly level
II
•
Cohoe silt loam, gently sloping
II
•
Cohoe silt loam, moderately sloping
III
•
Island silt loam, nearly level
II
•
Island silt loam, gently sloping
II
•
Island silt loam, moderately sloping
III
•
Kachemak silt loam, gently sloping
III
•
Kachemak silt loam, moderately sloping
III
•
Mutnala silt loam, nearly level
III
•
Mutnala silt loam, gently sloping
III
•
Mutnala silt loam, moderately sloping
III
•
Nikolai silt loam
III
•
Spenard silt loam, moderately sloping
III
The distributions of Class II and Class III agricultural soils in Subarea
II are shown in Figure 38 (adapted from Hinton 1971).
Slope capability
Light industrial structures, light-duty rbads, residences, and most
other construction can be built on slopes of less than 15% if the proper
6-7
-------
PRIME AGRICULTURAL SOILS
CLASS 3E AND HI AGRICULTURAL SOIL
6-8
-------
FIGURE 38
SUBAREA 2
PRIME AGRICULTURE SOILS
CLAM ;
-------
construction methods are used and the soli type is suitable (Personal
communication, Mr. Lou Fletcher, US Soil Conservation Service, to Mr. Guy
McConnell, WAPORA, Inc., 1978). Soils on slopes in excess of 25% are
likely to present severe erosion hazards (Hinton 1971). Slope gradients
of 0 to 15 percent, 15 to 25 percent, and more than 25 percent are mapped
for Subarea II in Figure 39 (adapted from Hinton 1971).
6.2.2.4. Geologic resources
Coal and gold were mined at various times on the Kenai Peninsula,
and coal is still collected along the beaches for domestic use. The
extent of petroleum and natural gas resources in Subarea II has been
explored initially and may be investigated further as the Lower Cook
Inlet Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) leases are drilled for oil and na-
tural gas. The locations of identified geologic resources in Subarea II
are shown in Figure 40 (adapted from Joint Federal-State Land Use
Planning Commission 1973b).
Coal
Subarea II, like Subarea I, is part of the Kenai Coalfield (Rao and
Wolf 1975), and coal-bearing beds of the Kenai Group are exposed in many
places. Surface mines have been operated in the vicinity of Homer since
1888, but total production was only a few thousand tons. Barnes (1967)
estimated that coal reserves for the southern part of the Kenai
Coal-field (Homer District) were approximately 318 million tons, in beds
2.5-feet to 10-feet thick (Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning
Commission 1974c).
Oil and gas
Two small, non-producing gas fields exist in Subarea II. Gas is
produced predominantly from the Beluga and Sterling Formations and is not
associated with petroleum (Magoon and others 1976). The majority of this
gas probably was formed by bacterial degradation of organic matter in
coal deposits. The Falls Creek Field, located offshore south of Clam
Gulch, had a cumulative production (as of 1975) of 18,983 million cubic
feet (Mcf) and estimated reserves of up to 80,000 Mcf. The North Fork
Field, located along the North Fork River near Epperson Knob, has a
cumulative production of 104,595 Mcf and estimated reserves of up to
20,000,000 Mcf. Both fields are associated with major structural
features.
Metallic minerals
Although a small amount of placer gold has been mined on the beaches
near Anchor Point, there is no evidence of any economically significant
metallic mineral deposits within Subarea II. Available information,
however, indicates a high potential for metallic mineral development in
the Kenai Mountains to the east. Lode mines in this region have been
worked for gold, silver, and chromium, as well as minor amounts of
copper, lead, zinc, and nickel (Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning
Commission 1974c).
6-10
-------
SLOPE HAZARDS
O TO 15 PERCENT
15 TO 25 PERCENT
GREATER THAN 25 PERCENT
6-11
-------
FIGURE 39
SUBAREA 2
SLOPE HAZARDS
CLAM
GULCH,
N1NILCHIK
WAPORA,
CARIBOU LAKE
CAPE STAfttCHKOFy
ANCHOR POINT
-------
Nonmetallic and industrial minerals
Clay, sand, and gravel are the only nonmetallic resources mined in
Subarea II. Clay deposits that can be used for the manufacture of bricks
occur near Homer. River gravel deposits generally are suitable as
sources for road and concrete aggregate. Potential source areas of river
gravel in the Kenai Lowlands generally lie along the lower reaches of the
major streams and rivers. Glacial material may or may not be suitable
for backfill material; suitability generally is determined from grain
size distribution and from the intended use. As a rule, glacial deposits
are not suitable as economic sources for road and concrete aggregate
because of the effort required to remove fines and other harmful mater-
ials .
6.2.2.5. Geologic hazards
The geologic hazards that exist in Subarea II (Figure 41; adapted
frm Alaska Department of Natural Resources 1978b) are predominatly
related to earthquake activity. These include vibration damage, ground
fissures, ground subsidence or uplift, mudslides, landslides, ground
failure, and earthquake-induced waves (tsunamis). The higher elevations
and steeper slopes in Subarea II, particularly along the coast, increase
erosion hazards and may contribute to local flooding. Erosion and local
runoff flooding problems, for example, affect some areas of the City of
Homer and present an economic problem, because the Farmers Home
Administration will not guarantee home mortgages in certain areas until
the problem is resolved.
The Homer Spit is a low, narrow strip of sand, cobbles, and mud
accreted by the tides of Kachemak Bay. During the high spring tides,
especially when the tides coincide with westerly or southwesterly winds,
the waters of Kachemak Bay may wash over the spit, flooding the lower
sections of the Spit, and damaging the road. The Homer spit also is
vulnerable to tsunamic flooding, and it subsided several feet during the
1964 earthquake.
6.2.3. Hydrology
6.2.3.1. Surface water hydrology
Subarea II comprises several watersheds, including the Anchor River
Basin, the Ninilchik River Basin, and parts of the Kasilof River Basin.
Discharge records for major and important minor streams are summarized in
Table 43.
The Ninilchik River, Deep Creek, Stariski Creek, Anchor River,
Diamond Creek, Fritz Creek, and all other streams tributary to Cook Inlet
are subject to tidal action. This action decreases with increasing dis-
tance from the mouth of each stream. Because the gradient of each stream
is comparatively steep near the stream mouth, tidal action affects only a
short section of these streams. A tidal chart for Cook Inlet (Bureau of
Land Management 1977a) indicates that the tidal amplitude (0.5 x mean
tidal range) for Anchor Point is approximately the same as that for
Kenai. Higher amplitudes can be expected for other coastal areas. No
records of current velocities in the tidal segment of these streams are
available.
6-13
-------
MINERAL RESOURCES
MAJOR MINERAL
SECONDARY MINERAL
MINERAL PROVINCE BOUNDARY
COAL PROVINCE BOUNDARY
COAL PROVINCE BOUNDARY IN WATER
PETROLEUM PROVINCE BOUNDARY
COAL FIELD
OIL FIELD
GAS FIELD
POTENTIAL GEOTHERMAL AREA
6-14
-------
FIGURE 40
SUBAREA 2
MINERAL RESOURCES
NINILCHIK
MILES
WAPORA, INC.
CARIBOU LAKE
CAPE STARICMKOFi
(CHO*
OINT
•LOaKOUT *"1
\hpuiy>.
iO*ER
SPIT
-------
Table 43. Discharge records for major rivers in Subarea II (USGS 1978).
River
Twitter Creek near Homer
Anchor River near Anchor Point
Anchor River at Anchor Point
Ninilchik River at Ninilchik
Fritz Creek NE of Homer
Palmer Creek NE of Homer
Diamond Creek NW of Homer
Beaver Creek NE of Homer
Bridge Creek N of Homer
North Fork of Anchor River
at Anchor Point
Stariski Creek N of Anchor Point
Cook Inlet Tributary SW of
Ninilchik
Deep Creek SW of Ninilchik
Crooked Creek SE of Kasilof
Coal Creek SE of Kasilof
Drainage
Area
(mi )
16.1
133.0
226.0
131.0
10.4
5.4
1.7
53.8
32.0
Period of
Record
1971-1973
1965-1973
1953-1966
1963-1975
1962-1975
20 Mar. 1970
1962-1975
29 July 1970
1970-1973
1951-1952
1951-1952
1966-1974
1951-1968
1951-1975
3 Aug 1973
Mean Annual
Discharge
(cfs)
21.2
184.0
299.0
104.0
39.0
2.3
24.5
8.9
4.2
22.5
15.5
18.8
255.3
31.9
4.8
Maximum
Discharge
(cfs)
536a
2.2403
3,030a
1,2403
349
147
16
26
17
73
1,480
50
Minimum
Discharge
(cfs)
3.9
28.0
28.0
30.0
0,85
0,56
0.86
19.0
14.0
0.76
43.0
18.0
Temporary ice storage.
-------
GEOLOGIC HAZARD
0
• ••
I I I
i illinium
m
m
LANDSLIDE AND SLUMP
VOLCANIC AREA
FAULT ZONE
COASTAL EROSION
TSUNAMI HAZARD
EXTENT OF ICE
AREA OF SUBSIDENCE
POTENTIAL MELTWATER AND RUNOFF FLOODING
POTENTIAL GLACIAL OUTBURST FLOODING
6-17
-------
CL*M
GULCH
NINILCI
MILES
WAPORA, INC,
CARIBOU LAKE
CAPE STARICMKI
ANCHOR
\ POINT
ANCHOR PO'i
*LrJ-e*
•LOOKOUT Ml
£"amohD
OMER
't&pn
FIGURE 41
SUBAREA 2
GEOLOGIC HAZARD
-------
There are no glacial streams in Subarea II, thus, there is no poten-
tial for glacial outburst flooding. However, the formation of ice jams
may produce severe flooding. The streams in this subarea display high
flows during the late autumn due to increased precipitation and during
the spring due to snowmelt. Low flows occur in midwinter and are main-
tained by groundwater recharge.
Surface waters within Subarea II are generally of good quality and
can be classified as calcium-magnesium bicarbonate waters. Water quality
data for the Ninilchik River in Subarea II are presented in Table 44.
Concentrations of silica (SiO„)* total dissolved solids (TDS), iron (Fe),
calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) are consistent with other analyses of
non-glacial streams. These concentrations are particularly high in the
1967 analysis of the Ninilchik River, probably because the samples were
taken during a period of low flow when the proportion of groundwater
recharge was high.
The only large user of surface water in Subarea II is the City of
Homer, which has a 145-million-gallon reservoir on Bridge Creek as its
primary municipal water source. There are a number of small streams in
moderately permeable soils that could be impounded to form surface water
reservoirs. Some of these sites may be developed as populations grow and
water demand increases.
6.2.3.2. Groundwater resources
Groundwater is used extensively throughout Subarea II for water
supplies. It occurs under both water table and artesian conditions in
Quaternary sand and gravel deposits, alluvium, and coastal plain depos-
its. Sandstones of the Kenai Group also may yield large quantities of
water to wells. These sandstones probably constitute the most extensive
and productive aquifer in the Homer area (Waller and others 1968).
Groundwater typically is composed of calcium bicarbonate and sodium
bicarbonate types and contains as much as 30 mg/1 of iron (Table 45).
The water usually contains moderate amounts of dissolved solids but
probably is suitable for most purposes. Water from the Kenai Group
typically is soft, but water from Quaternary deposits is hard. The pH
generally ranges from 6.6 to 8.5 (Waller and others 1968).
Saline water intrusion may present a problem in coastal areas.
These waters are characterized by high concentrations of dissolved
solids, chloride, and sodium. The potential for encroachment of saline
water increases with well depth and proximity to the coast.
In some locations the groundwater contains large amounts of methane
gas, which probably is derived from coal-bearing formations in the Kenai
Group. This gas can Ignite as it emerges from hot water taps in homes,
and serious accidents may occur if its presence is not recognized.
Proper venting of all gas-producing wells is recommended, and additional
precautions should be exercised if the wells are enclosed within
buildings.
6.3. Biological Environment
The terrain in Subarea II rises gradually from north to south, and
6-19
-------
Table 44. Mater quality of the Ninllchik River (Balding n.d.).
Date
Hinilchik River at
Hlnllchlfc
21 August 1958
29 March 1967
* Concentrations in ug/1.
m
o
•H
W
H
¦•4
W
c
s
&
S
£
O
a
-i
U
£
I i
3
£
O
§
1
u
- 29.0
51 36.0
780
800
8.7 3.3 5 8 1.6 56
10.0 4.6 9.7 2.7 80
0 1.5 2.0 0.1 14 81 JS
0 .0 2.1 0.1 .14 106 44
97
131
6.6
6.8
-------
Table 45. Groundwater quality analyses for selected wells in Subarea II (Waller and others 1968).
Concentrations are reported in milligrams per liter (mg/1).
Location (Township,
Kanqe, Section)
Year of
Collection
Nell
Depth
P"
« —
O M
-H O
H "H
•H U>
M "
iTotsi Iron
(Fe)
.Calcium
(Ca)
§
u
SB
I
ii
m —
Potassium
(K>
•
V
«
c
o
¦a —
So"
zu
m —
•
•) ~
^ o
0 U>
u> —
Chloride
Fluoride
ib
-H Z
2 —
Dissolved
Solids
T6S R13W
SIB
NW
SE
1962
112
8.5
26.0
0.12
8.0
1.0
292.0
4.4
772
4.0
6.0
0.0
0.6
735
T6S R13W
sia
HW
SE
1962
195
B.3
50.0
0.90
6.4
1.0
117.0
6.3
310
2.0
8.5
0.2
0.2
348
T6S R13W
S19
NW
NE
1955
107
7.6
31.0
4.60
39.0
4.9
40.0
2.9
226
0.7
14.0
0.0
0.4
246
T6S R13W
S10
SE
SE
1963
72
7.5
40.0
6.80
13.0
3.B
127.0
3.4
354
4.0
14.0
0.2
0.8
363
T6S R13W
S16
NE
SW
1963
SO
6.9
21.0
1.90
2.4
1.0
40.0
1.0
88
3.0
16.0
0.1
0.7
130
T6S R13W
S12
SE
NW
1962
187
7.2
17.0
0.72
4.0
0.0
308.0
4.0
800
1.0
16.0
0.2
0.3
744
T6S R13W
S20
SE
NW
1953
119
7.7
34.0
0.59
1.6
0.0
184.0
2.4
466
0.0
16.0
0.1
0.1
467
T6S R14W
S15
NE
SW
1960
73
6.7
40.0
11.00
25.0
4.2
8.0
1.2
90
1.0
19.0
0.2
0.0
154
T6S R14W
S15
HE
SW
1963
247
6.6
37.0
8.50
42.0
17.0
20.0
4.3
235
15.0
12.0
0.0
0.1
263
T6S R14H
52
SW
SW
1963
550
7.0
48.0
3.10
15.0
13.0
7.0
6.4
112
1.0
6.0
0.3
e.o
170
T6S R13W
SI
SW
SW
1963
115
6.8
41.0
6.80
49.0
21.0
12.0
8.2
270
6.0
11.0
0.3
0.2
283
T6S R13W
S21
SW
NW
1962
41
8.2
33.0
10.00
25.0
11.0
13.0
1.7
88
7.0
41.0
0.1
0.0
175
T6S R13H
S8
NW
NW
1966
224
7.0
47.0
2.00
14.0
10.0
5.1
5.0
110
1.4
6.4
0.1
0.3
144
-------
inland from the Cook Inlet and Kachemak Bay to the highest elevations in
the Kenai Lowlands part of the study area. Drainage from the Kenai
Mountains east of Subarea II flows into the Tustumena Lake system north
of Subarea II and into the Fox River watershed in Subarea III. Drainage
patterns in Subarea II radiate from the 2,000-foot-high Caribou Hills and
from the Ninilchik Dome and Epperson Knob Highlands. Because the streams
receive no glacial meltwater, they are nearly transparent and have com-
paratively low volumes. The radial drainage pattern produces a number of
small, low-discharge streams that run only a short distance to the Cook
Inlet and thus rarely converge to form rivers. The higher ground region
in Subarea II contains some of the most well-drained areas of the Kenai
Lowlands, and thus the vegetation, habitats, and wildlife populations
differ from those of the Subarea I lowlands.
6.3.1. Vegetation
The vegetation in Subarea II, shown in Figure 42 (adapted from Joint
Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission 1973b) differs according to
the elevation of the terrain, the soil drainage, and the proximity to
Cook Inlet or Kachemak Bay. In the northern lowland part of Subarea II,
muskeg-bog and spruce-hardwood communities are approximately equal in
area. Farther south, the muskeg-bog vegetation is confined to a band
paralleling the coastline and to the bottomlands adjacent to streams.
The remainder of Subarea II is covered by Sitka spruce and/or a hybrid of
Sitka and white spruce along much of the coast, and by spruce-hardwood
forest on the lower and moderate elevations. At higher elevations there
is a transition from spruce-hardwood forest to high brush. Moist tundra
may occur on the highest hilltops. The plants characteristic of each
vegetation type are discussed in Section 3.2.3.1.
6.3.2. Aquatic biota
Inventory data are not available for the fish and macroinvertebrates
In the streams of Subarea II. In the absence of other data, the species
lists of organisms collected from the Kenai River in Subarea I (Table 30
and 31) probably are representative of those to be found in Subarea II.
Pink salmon, coho salmon, and chinook salmon spawn in the streams of
Subarea II. The spawning sites and the areas where these salmon have
been seen are indicated in Figure 43 (adapted from Joint Federal-State
Land Use Planning Commission 1973b). Pink salmon spawn in the lower
reaches of most of these streams. Coho salmon may be present in any of
the indicated areas. Chinook salmon migrate up the Anchor River, the
Ninilchik River, Deep Creek, and Chakok' Creek. Because there are no
large lakes on the streams that drain Subarea II, the Subarea does not
experience the sockeye salmon runs that are the major component of the
Subarea I fishery. The only sockeye salmon migration recorded in Subarea
II is a small run up the Fox Creek to Caribou Lake.
Dolly Varden char and rainbow trout are present In many of the lakes
and streams. Steelheads migrate up the Anchor River, the Ninilchik
River, Deep Creek, Chakok Creek, and Stariski Creek during the late
summer and autumn to spawn.
Each of the streams mentioned is a critical rearing habitat for
salmon, trout, and char and is an important, or potentially important,
6-22
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recreational fishing stream. Deep Creek, Stariski Creek, and the
Ninilchik River receive the most intensive recreational angling pressure
each spring during the chinook salmon spawning runs. The Anchor River
has not been open for chinook fishing during recent seasons. Several
streams, particularly the Anchor River, receive moderately intensive
steelhead fishing during the late summer.
One of the most intensive recreational-subsistence fisheries is on
the beaches at Clam Gulch, Deep Creek, and Whiskey Gulch, where during
the last few years approximately 900,000 razor clams were harvested each
year as a result of approximately 25,000 to 30,000 person-days of effort
per year (By telephone, Mr. Steve Hammarstrom, Alaska Department of Fish
and Game, to Mr. Guy McConnell, WAPORA, Inc., 1978).
6.3.3. Mammals
The species of terrestrial mammals present are approximately the
same as those in Subarea I. Most of the terrestrial mammals found in the
Lower Cook Inlet study area are present in Subarea II, except for arctic
fox, arctic ground squirrel, mountain goat, and mountain sheep. No
endangered or threatened terrestrial mammals have been reported from
Subarea II. Type localities for the following subspecies occur in Sub-
area II:
Common name
Gray wolf
Red fox
Black bear
Wolverine
Scientific name
Canis lapis pambasileus
Vulpes fulva kenaiensis
Ursus americanus perniger
Gulo luscus katschemakensis
Type locality
Kachemak Bay
Kenai Peninsula
Homer
Kachemak Bay
Three species of big game animals — moose, black bear, and brown bear —
are present in Subarea II. These species, as well as lynx, wolf, coyote,
wolverine, and other large carnivores, are the mammals most likely to be
affected by human activities.
Moose
Moose range throughout Subarea II. They concentrate in summer
feeding areas, on calving grounds, and in winter "moose yards" in river
bottoms and on low-elevation plains. Each of these habitats is critical
for moose populations, but the winter habitat probably is the most
population-limiting of the three. Habitats identified as supporting
winter concentrations of moose are shown in Figure 44 (adapted from Joint
Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission 1973b). The lowlands around
Homer constitute some of the most intensively-used moose winter habitats.
Impacts such as loss of habitat, hunting pressure, highway mortality, and
intentional and/or unintentional harassment have accompanied the
development of the Kenai Peninsula. As in Subarea I, these impacts have
been mitigated partially by reduction of natural predators and by
man-induced changes in the vegetation. Moose populations may decline as
the City of Homer expands and more habitat along the stream beds is
utilized for homesites and farms.
6-23
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VEGETATION
mm#
mmm
HkI
mSM
7}m
W- \0M
IL&V.V
COASTAL WESTERN HEMLOCK/SITKA SPRUCE
UPLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD
UPLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD/LOWLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD
UPLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD/HIGH BRUSH
LOWLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD
HIGH BRUSH
HIGH BRUSH BURNED
HIGH BRUSH BURNED/COASTAL WESTERN HEMLOCK/
SITKA SPRUCE
HIGH BRUSH/MOIST TUNDRA/ALPINE TUNDRA
LOW BRUSH/MUSKEG-BOG
MUSKEG
MOIST TUNDRA
WET TUNDRA
ALPINE TUNDRA/BARREN
ALPINE TUNDRA/BARREN/MOIST TUNDRA
M
MUD
6-24
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FIGURE 42
SUBAREA 2
VEGETATION
NINILCHIK,
CAPE STARICMKOFp
ANCHOR POINT
6-25
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Bear
Black bear range throughout Subarea II. Intensive spring usage of
the nearby Fox River flats has been reported, and the beaches along
Kachemak Bay are used intensively (By telephone, Mr. Dave Hardy, Alaska
Department of Fish and Game, to Mr. Guy McConnell, WAPORA, Inc., 1978).
The Alaska Department of Fish and Game (1976) reported that black bear
are common in Subarea II, but that hunting pressure has reduced pop-
ulations in the Homer area. Increased human populations and activity,
the secondary impacts of industrial development, are the most potentially
harmful threats to black bear in Subarea II.
Brown bear also may be found throughout Subarea II, although the
population is small. As in Subarea I, most of the brown bear have been
destroyed or forced out by human activities. No brown bear concentra-
tions or critical habitat were identified in Subarea II.
6.3.4. Birds
Waterfowl nest in ponds and potholes throughout Subarea II, but no
staging areas or other critical migratory waterfowl habitat have been
reported. Shorebirds occur along the coast, and large numbers may con-
gregate during the fall and spring migrations, especially on the Homer
Spit. Eagles also over-winter on Homer Spit, on the Bluffs overlooking
Cook Inlet, and along the Kachemak Bay shoreline. The peregrine falcon,
an endangered species (Federal Register 1976), may be found occasionally
in Subarea II.
6.4. Land and Water Use
6.4.1. Settlement patterns
Non-native settlement in Subarea II began with the Russians in the
eighteenth century. They explored and traded in the area, rained coal,
and established a village at Ninilchik.
Homer, the major population center in Subarea II, was settled by
gold miners in the late 1800s. A number of natural features made Homer
the base for resource development in the lower Kenai Peninsula:
• Kachemak Bay offers a protected, deepwater boat shelter and
moderates the climate
• Most of the northern shore of Kachemak Bay is hemmed by
bluffs hundreds of feet high; the Homer town site was es-
tablished on a break In the bluffs, where there is access
to the Bay
• The town site is close to the fisheries resource and the
surrounding agricultural and grazing lands.
These advantages were recognized by the early settlers and, along
with smaller settlements in protected coves on the south side of Kachemak
Bay, Homer became the base for much of the Lower Cook Inlet fishery.
6-26
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SALMON HABITAT
SALMON PRESENT
SALMON SPAWNING
6-27
-------
-------
Homesteaders claimed some of the surrounding land, and by 1969 Homer was
surrounded by a low-density population engaged in subsistence and commer-
cial agriculture, trapping, mining, and fishing.
The completion of the Sterling Highway in the mid-1950s joined Homer
with the other towns on the Kenai Peninsula and with Anchorage and opened
the area to increased industry and tourism. Vacation and retirement
homes began to be built along the highway, especially where the highway
approached the bluffs and allowed a view of Cook Inlet. Small, resource-
and tourist-oriented settlements have developed near Ninilchik, Anchor
Point, and Clam Gulch. North of Anchor Point, development along the
highway is sparse and follows a corridor pattern. Nearer to Homer,
lateral roads radiate into the nearby low hills. Much of the lower
terrain has been developed, and residents, especially those looking for
large homesites, are building in the surrounding hills.
6.4.2. Land ownership
Subarea II is primarily in State and private ownership (Figure 45;
adapted from Alaska Department of Natural Resources 1977). Private
ownership is concentrated along the Cook Inlet bluffs between Kasilof and
Anchor Point, around Homer, and on the hillsides overlooking the north
shore of Kachemak Bay. Most of the coastline of Kachemak Bay is
State-owned. The State of Alaska holds periodic land sales in the Homer
region. During 1978 the State sold 15 parcels, totaling 2,960 acres, to
be used for residential development and agriculture. Land ownership in
Subarea II is unlikely to be affected significantly by Alaska Native
Claims Act conveyances. Ownership will continue to be primarily by
individuals, the Kenai Peninsula Borough, and the State of Alaska.
6.4.3. Recreational areas
The major recreational areas in Subarea II are associated with the
Kenai National Moose Range, which forms the eastern boundary of Subarea
II, and with Kachemak Bay and Cook Inlet, which form the southern and
western boundaries. The Moose Range contains approximately 2,700 square
miles of the Kenai Peninsula and offers opportunities for a wide range of
outdoor activities, including camping, hiking, skiing, boating, hunting,
fishing, and sightseeing. The Cook Inlet shoreline is used by boaters,
fishermen, campers, hikers, picnickers, and clam diggers. With the
exception of a short stretch of shoreline north of Anchor Point, the
shoreline in Subarea II has been designated as "critical habitat" by the
State of Alaska (Figure 46; adapted from Joint Federal-State Land Use
Planning Commission 1973b). Several large streams in Subarea II flow
into Cook Inlet. These streams, along with the Kenai River System, are
the major recreational fishing streams on the Kenai Peninsula. The
Alaska Department of Transportation and the Alaska Division of Parks have
established highway waysides and campgrounds near the streams. These
campgrounds usually are filled during the salmon sportfishing seasons.
Other public recreational facilities are operated by the City of
Homer on the Homer Spit and in the City. The public recreational facili-
ties in Subarea II are summarized in Table 46. In addition to the City
campgrounds, camping is allowed on City land on the Spit. Homer 1
planning to use funds from the Federal Coastal Impact Program to develt
6-29
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WILDLIFE HABITAT
SEA LION HAULING OUT AREA
»*«»»«„»•
« • *
, / * * -
k .k * * k
¦ * * i I » 1
»* V" " » »' . •
HARBOR SEAL
BLACK BEAR
BROWN BEAR
MOOSE
GOAT
CARIBOU
6-30
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FIGURE 44
SUBAREA 2
WILDLIFE HABITAT
CLAM
QULCH
NINILCHIK
MILES
U'APORA, INC.
CtmtOU LAKE
CAPE STAKICMKOI
Lomond
lUFf POINT
SUBAREA 3
6-31
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Table 46. Recreational areas in Subarea II.
Name
Location
Facilities
Hillside Campground
Homer
Camping, picnicking,
toilets, drinking
water
Homer Spit Campground
Homer
Boat harbor, fish-
ing, boat ramp,
restrooms, camping
allowed
Kasilof River Wayside
Sterling Highway
Crossing of
Kasilof River
Camping
Johnson Lake Wayside
Near Sterling
Highway and
Kasilof River
Picnicking, camping
Clam Gulch Recreation Area Clam Gulch
Picnicking
Ninilchik Wayside
Ninilchik
Boat harbor,
picnicking, camping
Deep Creek Wayside
Ninilchik
Camping, picnicking,
fishing, boat ramps
Stariski Wayside
Anchor River Wayside
North of Anchor Point Camping
Anchor River
Camping, fishing
6-32
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LAND OWNERSHIP
FEDERAL LAND
STATE LAND
TENTATIVELY APPROVED PATENTED
TIDELAND PATENTS
MANAGEMENT RIGHTS SELECTION APPROVED PATENTED
TIDELAND PATENTS
INTERIM CONVEYANCE PATENTED
TIDELAND PATENTS
6-33
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FIGURE 45
SUBAREA 2
LAND OWNERSHIP
NINILCHIK
CAPE
ANCHOR POINT
BUFF
MILES
I ' 1
0 6
WAPORA, INC.
kenai national moose range
I
6-34
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FIGURE 46
SUBAREA 2
CRITICAL HABITATS
KENAI NATIONAL MOOSE RANGE
CLAM GULCH
CRITICAL
HABITAT
CAPE STAKICMKOfl
ANCHOR »OINT j|,0T"
6-35
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a new 8-acre to 10-acre campground at the base of the Spit. The present
campground near the end of the Spit may be lost as commercial and indus-
trial development continues on the Split (Anonymous 1978c).
A proposed bond issue to expand the Silver King Wayside near the
Anchor River will be voted on in the next election; the present wayside
is being destroyed by the meandering Anchor River. The new facility, if
approved, would expand capacity from the 28 campsites available at pre-
sent by the addition of a 230-car camping-parking lot, trails, toilets,
and a well (Anonymous 1978b).
The Alaska Department of Natural Resources (1976b) published an
inventory of public recreational facilities near the coast of Cook Inlet.
The Department recommended the establishment of a number of new
facilities and the expansion of existing facilities. This publication
also presents excellent data on bluff and shoreline stability.
6.4.4. Agriculture
Subarea II has a moderate climate, comparatively gentle topography,
and some of the better soils in the Lower Cook Inlet study area. Much of
the agriculture in the study area is conducted in Subarea II north and
northeast of Homer. Agricultural production statistics are not available
for Subarea II alone. The US Forest Service (1975) reported that the
entire Kenai Peninsula produced approximately $521,000 of agricultural
products in 1974, most of it for domestic consumption. Thirty-one farms
sold more than $1,000 of produce, and total farm sales (all crops and
livestock) were $121,400. Between 1960 and 1975 the most important
commercial crops were grasses, oats, barley, mixed grains, and truck
garden crops. Livestock production in 1975 totaled 860 cattle, 20 hogs,
and 300 chickens.
6.4.5. Forestry
Commercially-acceptable stands of Sitka spruce and white spruce
occur In Subarea II and in the surrounding Kenai Moose Range. Logging
rights are sold periodically by State and Federal agencies. Most of the
timber is sawn locally Into rough lumber or Is turned to produce cabin
logs of uniform diameter. These timber products are used primarily for
local construction.
6.4.6. Land-us e planning
No comprehensive planning document or zoning ordinance exists for
Subarea II. The City of Homer is zoned in three categories: Industrial,
commercial, and residential.
The entire Homer Spit is zoned industrial. This is the only indus-
trially-zoned land in Homer. A broad band of land zoned for commercial
activity, varying from approximately 0.5 to 1.0 mile wide, extends north-
west from the Homer Spit Road and surrounds the airport. Another commer-
cially-zoned area adjoins Lake Street and the junction of Lake Street and
East End Road. The remainder of Homer is zoned residential.
Much of the planning conducted by the City of Homer has been con-
cerned with the Homer Spit, most of which is owned by the City. The
6-36
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Homer Spit is a narrow accretion of sea-borne silt, sand, and gravel that
extends approximately 7 miles into Kachemak Bay from the blyffs that
overlook much of the Kenai Peninsula coastline. At the voidest point it
is a few hundred yards across, and its maximum elevation is n0£ much
higher than the spring tides. A two-lane asphalt road runs the entire
length of the Spit, and, for a short length, almost its entire breadth.
A combination of extreme high tides and storm waves sends seawater over
the road, closes the Spit, and frequently washes out the road.
Although the Spit is relatively insignificant as a landmass, it is
the center of industry, commerce, recreation, social interaction, and
tradition for most of the Lower Cook Inlet and the southwestern Kenai
Peninsula. Homer is a town that grew up around commercial fishing, and
Homer's entire commercial fishing fleet docks in the harbor near the end
of the Spit. The Whitney-Fidalgo and Alaskan Seafoods plants, the only
heavy industries in Homer, process the catch adjacent to the harbor and
load their products into freighters calling at the Spit. An Alaska
Marine Highway ferry, the Tustumena, also docks at the Spit, landing
autos, trucks, and passengers. Nearly every visitor to the lower Kenai
Peninsula comes to the Spit, where there is an unobstructed view of the
mountains hemming Kachemak Bay, access to the beaches and boat ramps,
fishing boats to view, a variety of retail establishments, and a private
campground with the amenities of fences, showers, and toilets. in pre_
vious years the City has allowed free camping on parts of the Spit, and
tents or "visqueen palaces" of driftwood and polyethylene have sheltered
transients each summer.
The Spit is being used at near-capacity (some would say at
over-capacity) for its present stage of development. The City must plan
carefully the allocation of each parcel of land, considering each of the
City's needs and balancing the use of each parcel between several poten-
tial users.
It is probable that the most-intensive, biggest-money industries
will take over the Spit. Already the City is planning to relocate the
campgrounds to a new site below the bluffs near the base of the Spit.
Fish processors are petitioning for ground to build additional plants,
and the fishermen want a bigger harbor. In addition to these potential
users, the petroleum companies that expect to begin exploration in the
Lower Cook Inlet during 1979 would like to use the Spit as a support base
for drilling production.
The people of Homer recognize that the future of their City is
inextricably joined with the future of the Spit. They view each poten-
tial change from a variety of perspectives, but with equal concern.
The use to which the Spit is put during the next few years will
determine the growth patterns of Homer and eventually will decide the
character of the town and of much of the southeastern Kenai Peninsula.
The population of Homer in 1978 is about 2,000. The economy, tradition,
and social structure are based on fishing and tourism, strongly influ-
enced by the homestead-subsistence fishing tradition. A major influx of
petroleum-based commerce and population would alter the character of
Homer permanently and significantly.
6-37
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6.5. Socioeconomic Environment
6.5.1. Level of development
Subarea II contains one first-class city, Homer; and one
second-class city, Kachemak. The majority of the citizens of Kachemak
voted to dissolve the incorporated city, but Alaska courts to date have
denied petitions to allow the dissolution. The most recent decision is
being appealed. The other incorporated communities in Subarea II are
Clam Gulch, Ninilchik, and Anchor Point. Most of the socioeconomic data
available for Subarea II are for Homer or for tax code areas. Although
not representative of the entire subarea, these data reflect the services
available to a substantial part of the Subarea II population and probably
reflect the general attitudes of most of the populace.
6.5.2. Demography
6.5.2.1. Population
The results of the 1970 census, the 1977 special census, and the
1978 special census are presented in Section 3.4.3.1. The 1978 data are
shown for Subarea II in Figure 47 (adapted from US Bureau of the Census
1978). The most reliable data are those from the 1970 census and the
1978 special census. They indicate that the population of Homer
increased from 1,083 to 2,055 (almost 90%) during the period 1970 to
1978. The population of Homer in 1977 was estimated to be 1,802.
Kachemak had 280 people in 1977. The data for the other communities and
enumeration districts are not comparable, because different boundaries
were used during each census.
The population of Homer in 1988 was projected to be 4,382 (Table 20;
Section 3.4.3.3.). This projection was based on a 10% compound annual
population growth (similar to the Homer population increase during the
period 1970 through 1978). In the medium scenario for the outer conti-
nental shelf (OCS) oil lease development (Table 22), an increase of
approximately 560 people would be expected in the Homer area by 1988
(Table 22). A petrochemical complex comparable in scope to the Alpetco
project that was proposed for North Kenai could add another 235 people to
the population of Homer. Thus, it is estimated that a medium scenario
OCS development would increase the population by 12.8% by the end of a
10-year period and that construction and operation of a major petrochemi-
cal complex would cause an additional 5.3% increase. The total of these
increases plus the base case projections is small compared to the total
projection for the City of Kenai, but would be sufficient to require
additional planning for facilities and social services if they were to
occur in a town the size of Homer. Ultimately, the projections indicate
that OCS development or the construction and operation of a major indus-
trial complex at any place in the study area could be expected to affect
populations in Subarea II significantly and would require special consi-
deration and planning. Full-scale OCS development based in Homer, or
construction and operation of a major petrochemical facility in the Homer
area, could be expected to cause population increases similar to those
projected for the cities of Kenai and Soldotna (Table 20).
6-38
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6.5.2.2. Population composition
Data that describe the demographic and economic composition of the
Homer population, including sex and age of household members, employment
percentages, education, median family income, and racial composition are
contained in Table 47. In 1976, the two-person household predominated in
Homer, accounting for about the same percentage of total households as in
Kenai, but for a significantly higher percentage than in Soldotna. At
the same time. Homer had the highest percentage (of any of the cities) of
households with six or more persons. Its male/female ratio was the same
as in the other cities, whereas the percentage of its population in the
20-59 year age range was appreciably lower than that of the other cities.
The percentage of employed adults was significantly larger than In Kenai
or Soldotna. This may be accounted for by a larger proportion of female
adults working to offset lower pay-scales. The percentage of full-time
adults employed was slightly less than in Kenai and Soldotna. However,
the percentage of household heads who worked for 12 months in 1975 (59%)
was significantly lower than in Kenai or Soldotna. This may reflect the
relative importance of (low-paid) seasonal work in Homer. The median
household income ($21,350) was significantly less than that in Kenai or
Soldotna. Although some reasons for this difference are suggested above,
the data required for a definitive explanation are not available. Racial
composition is not an explanatory factor. However, it is known that
"fishing is Homer's primary industry ...[with] industrial activity
limited principally to fish processing and a limited amount of light
manufacturing and fabrication" (City of Homer 1978). Tourism is an
Important but non-quantified economic stimulus, providing employment in
the services sector. There is little or no mining sector employment,
nor, as a consequence, any mining-related employment in the construction,
manufacturing, and transportation sectors. Fifty percent of Homer fam-
ilies rely on subsistence for 27 percent or more of their food supply, as
compared with 11 percent of the families In Kenai and 25 percent of those
in Soldotna. Residents of Homer in 1976 have not lived there long; 4
years is the median residency. This is between the 4.5 years reported
for Kenai and the 2.5 years reported for Soldotna. Homer adults have
completed a median of 13 years of schooling, slightly more than the
adults in the other three cities.
6.5.2.3. Employment
Employment by occupation in the City of Homer and the surrounding
area is listed in Table 48. Service workers, professional and technical
personnel, and laborers and fishermen constitute most of the work force.
More persons were employed in technical and professional, farming, and
service occupations, and fewer in management, clerical and sales, and
craftsmen and foreman occupations, than in most other Kenai Peninsula
towns. The employment patterns were similar to those of Seward, another
town that depends primarily on fishing and tourism. Seasonal employment
data are not available for Homer or for Subarea II. Data for the entire
study area (CH_M Hill, Inc. 1978a) indicate that employment in the manu-
facturing, construction, sales, and service sectors is seasonal. The
fishing and farming sectors also contain seasonal jobs. The categories
for seasonal employment do not coincide with those for employment in
6-39
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TabLe 47. Demographic and economic structure of Homer during August and September
1976 (Bureau of Management and Urban Affairs and Anchorage Urban Ob-
servatory 1977).
Percentage of households with:
1 person 11
2 persons 30
3 persons 16
4 persons 19
5 persons 13
6 or more persons 11
Percent of all household members who are male 50.7
Percent of population in household that is:
0-9 years old 21
10-19 years old 2 3
20-59 years old 50
60 or more years old 6
Percent of all adults who are:
Employed 70
Unemployed 2
Other (retired/student/housewife) 28
Percent of all employed adults who are employed:
Full-time 88
Part-time 12
Percent of household heads who worked 12 months
in previous year 59
Median school years completed, all adults 13
Median total family income $21,350
Percent of all household members who are:
White
Eskimo
Aleut
Native not specified, Indian, Black, Asian
Percent of family's food supply from subsistence;
None
Less than 25%
25-49%
50-74%
75% or more
Median number of respondents' years in community:
97
3
0
0
21
29
23
20
7
4
6-40
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Homer (Table 48), but there is sufficient correlation to indicate that a
significant part of the employment in the Homer area (and presumably that
in the rest of Subarea II) is seasonal.
Table 48. Employment of persons surveyed in Homer and in the surrounding
area during August and September 1977 (Bureau of Management
and Urban Affairs and Anchorage Urban Observatory 1977).
Percent of Total Employment
Occupation Homer Homer and Surrounding Area
Professional, technical 21.0 17.1
Manager, official, proprietor 12.0 9.1
Clerical and sales 7.5 6.6
Craftsman, foreman 9.0 13.1
Operative Workers 6.5 6.6
Service workers 23.0 23.4
Laborers, fishermen 20.0 18.9
Farmers, farm managers — 5.1
6.5.2.4. Housing
In Homer, single-family and mobile homes constitute 89 percent of
the occupied housing units (58% single—family; 31% mobile). Data on
vacancy rates and monthly rents are not available. During the period
1970-1977 the population rose at a faster rate than the number of housing
units. The National Bank of Alaska provides the bulk of the financing;
most mortgages held by the Bank are sold to the Alaska Housing Finance
Corporation. Both Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac backing are used, but are
limited. FmHA financing has been available since the mid-1960s, but
always has been a small part of the market. For example, in FY 1976-1977
eight FmHA loans were made in Homer. However, FmHA financing probably
will play an increasing role in the community after Homer implements a
drainage plan to improve areas that presently are ineligible for these
loans. Loans in FY 1979-1980 may total about $1 million, or approxi-
mately 15 to 17 loans at $60,000 to $65,000 per loan. The Alaska Bank of
Commerce opened an office in Homer during March 1978 and currently is
extending home mortgages.
Data are not available on the sources of heat used, or on homes with
or without telephones. Sixty-six percent of the homes have city water,
and 23 percent have wells. Fifty-four percent used the city sewer, 42
percent have septic tanks, and 4 percent have outhouses.
6.5.3. Utilities
6.5.3.1. Water
The City of Homer provided water to 293 customers in 1975. Total
water consumption in 1976 averaged 7.2 million gallons per month.
Approximately 57 percent was used by seafood processors (Waites and
Brogan 1977a). By 1978 the system had been expanded to serve approxi-
6-41
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6-42
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mately 1,200 customers (CH_M Hill, Inc. 1978a). Groundwater resources in
the Homer area are considered unreliable for municipal purposes and are
of poor quality (Waites and Brogan 1977a). Following recommendations of
a 1971 study by Clair A. Hill and Associates, the City dammed nearby
Bridge Creek to form a reservoir with a 145-million-galIon capacity. The
City has rights to withdraw a maximum of 1,200 gallons per minute. The
Homer water system is operating at capacity to meet current demands.
Expansion of the water treatment plant to more than double the present
capacity has been approved (CH^M Hill, Inc. 1978a).
The water main that serves the Homer Spit recently was suspected to
have a large electrolysis failure. This leak is believed to have been
local, but the cause has not been reported (CH^M Hill, Inc. 1978a).
Surveys conducted in Homer during 1976 (Bureau of Management and
Urban Affairs and Anchorage Urban Observatory 1977) found that 65.7
percent of the homes visited used city water, 22.7 percent used well
water, and 11.4 percent hauled water or used streams and other sources.
Outside the area served by the Homer municipal water system, individual
household wells and surface water probably are the primary water sources.
6.5.3.2. Sewage disposal
Homer is the only community in Subarea II that is served by a sew-
erage system. Homer operates a secondary treatment plant adjacent to
Beluga Slough that has a capacity of 277,000 gallons per day. The plant
was designed for a population of less than 2,500 (Waites and Brogan
1977a). In 1977 this facility treated approximately 125,000 gallons per
day, and discharged the treated wastewater into Kachemak Bay. The system
served 224 customers in 1975 and was expanding rapidly. CH„M Hill, Inc.
(1978a) reported that the system served approximately 1,0(T0 customers,
that there were two potential service-limiting bottlenecks, and that
additional service expansion was desired by the residents, who used
private disposal systems. Upgrading of the bottlenecks was not
considered necessary for the present level of service.
The Bureau of Management and Urban Affairs and the Anchorage Urban
Observatory (1977) reported that 53.4 percent of the residences surveyed
used the municipal sewage system for waste disposal, 41.9 percent used
septic tanks, and 4.1 percent used outhouses, chemical toilets, or other
disposal methods. Septic tanks and outhouses are the predominant waste
disposal systems in the parts of Subarea II outside of Homer.
6.5.3.3. Electricity
The Homer Electric Association, a cooperative, supplies electricity
to most of the west side of the Kenai Peninsula, including Subarea II.
The Association purchases power from the Chugach Electric Corporation,
and the electricity is transmitted from a connection north of Kenai and
Soldotna. The Homer Electric Association served 7,208 customers in 1977
(Waites and Brogan 1977a). The number of these customers in Subarea H
is not known. Waites and Brogan (1977a) reported that the present
electrical generation available from Chugach Electric Company was
inadequate and that the Homer Electric Association was predicting winter
6-43
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power shortages in Homer. The impending electrical shortage has revived
public support in the lower Kenai Peninsula for the proposed
hydroelectric project on the Bradley River (in Subareas III and IV).
6.5.3.4. Telephone service
Telephone service in Subarea II is provided by the Glacier State
Telephone Company. In September 1976 there were 817 stations in the
Homer area (Waites and Brogan 1977a). Telephone service data are not
available for the remainder of Subarea II.
6.5.3.5. Point-source discharges
Industry and commerce in Subarea II are centered in Homer. There
also are small seafood-freezing operations in Ninilchik and Clam Gulch.
Holders of NPDES permits Issued to dischargers in Subarea II are listed
in Table 49. All of the industrial permits are for seafood processing
wastes, either canning wastes (head, scales, bones, boiler water, cooling
water, and processing water) or freezing wastes (usually limited to
process wastewater and the gut sac). In general, the permits require
grinding of the fish parts and monitoring of sedimentation and water
quality. The two seafood processing facilities in Homer are located near
the end of the Homer Spit.
Municipal wastes from the City of Homer are given secondary treat-
ment and are discharged into Kachemak Bay.
6.5.3.6. Solid waste disposal
Public solid waste disposal facilities in Subarea II consist of
transfer points at Ninilchik and Anchor Point and a landfill site in a
quarry east of Homer. The transfer points are collection sites for
public solid waste disposal. Material collected at these sites is
trucked to the Homer landfill or to a landfill in Subarea I. A second
solid waste disposal site is planned for the Diamond Ridge area northwest
of Homer. There is controversy over the selection of the site, but
despite a series of appeals by neighboring landowners, the site was
approved by the Kenai Borough Assembly and the Alaska Department of
Environmental Conservation. Unless further appeals are successful, the
site probably will be opened during 1979.
6.5.4. Transportation
6.5.4.1. Roads
Congestion occurs during the summer along the Sterling Highway
because of the volume of traffic, the existence of only two lanes, and
the narrow berm. (This congestion is particularly acute in Homer, the
terminus of the Highway.)
The proposed Homer Bypass (a road through Homer that bypasses the
main commercial road, replacing it as a link between the Sterling Highway
and the Spit) is expected to reduce congestion in the City center, but
6—44
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Table 49. NPDES wastewater discharge permits issued in Subarea II.
Discharger
City of Homer
Dan's Cold Storage
Whi tney-Fidalgo
Alaskan Seafoods
Location
Homer
Homer
Receiving Water
Kachemak Bay
Operation
Wastes
Homer
Ninilchik Ninilchik River
Kachemak Bay
Kachemak Bay
Osmar's Ocean Specialties Clam Gulch Cook Inlet
Sewage treatment facility Treated sewage
Seafood processor
Seafood processor
Seafood processor
Seafood processor
Ground fish, process
wastewater
Ground fish, process
wastewater
Ground fish, process
wastewater, treated
sewage
Ground fish, process
wastewater (permit
applied for)
-------
not on the more congested Spit. Level-C capacity on the Sterling Highway
near Homer is projected to be reached by 1983 with base-case residential
growth, and by 1980 with the base case in combination with the OCS high
scenario. Annual average daily traffic on the Sterling Highway at Ninil-
chik increased by 73 percent from 1970 to 1975.
6.5.4.2. Airports
The Alaska Department of Transportation owns and maintains the Homer
Airport, which has a paved runway 7,500 feet by 150 feet. It has a
partial instrument landing system. Two commercial airlines link Homer to
Anchorage, Kenai, and Kodiak. Two private carriers and many private
planes also use the Airport. There is a float-plane landing area on
nearby Beluga Lake. Present and future plans call for the construction
of a parallel taxiway, expansion of the ground facilities, and a connec-
tion between Beluga Lake and the Airport's general aviation facility. A
2,500-foot gravel runway approximately 6 miles southeast of Ninilchik is
capable of handling most single-engine aircraft.
6.5.4.3. Water-based transportation
Homer has the only deep-water port in Subarea II. The port, 30 feet
deep at mean low water (MLW), can handle ships of up to 500 feet in
length, with no weight restrictions. The dock is 410 feet by 60 feet.
The main users are the ferry (Alaska Marine Highway System,
Seward-Homer-Kodiak), seafood processors, Standard Oil, and the CJS Coast
Guard. Other users include the lumber industry and offshore oil supply
ships. It has a warehouse, cranes with up to a 70-ton capacity, and
related facilities. Ferry traffic increased from 2,800 passengers and
1,250 vehicles embarking or disembarking in 1967 to 8,400 passengers and
3,200 vehicles in 1977. (There were 11,000 passengers and 3,200 vehicles
in 1976.) Standard Oil tankers supply Homer oil distributors. Typical
OCS supply boats are 200-feet long and need a minimum of 15 feet of water
at low tide. The port has spare shipping capacity at present.
The Homer small-boat harbor is operated by the City, although major
maintenance is the responsibility of the State. The harbor is severely
congested. It has mooring berths, a loading wharf (fish dock with
hoists), ramps, a grid for maintenance of boats below their water-level
line, and floats with fuel and electrical power. The 433 berths (most
for boats less than 75-feet long) are filled year-round, and there is a
waiting list of over 800 boat owners. As many as 1,100 boats may be
moored in the harbor in summer, 8 abreast. The congestion reflects the
attractiveness of the Kachemak Bay area for tourism and sport fishing.
The commercial fishing fleet uses the harbor extensively in winter.
If OCS-stimulated expansion of the port is to occur, a solution to
the problem of wind-driven ice will be needed, and onshore land use
conflicts (commercial and industrial, recreational, transportation,
utilities, small-boat needs, etc.) will need to be resolved. A 50 per-
cent expansion of the small-boat harbor is planned.
A small-boat launch at Anchor Point is used by recreational fisher-
men, and there is a small half-tide harbor at Ninilchik Harbor. The
6-46
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Ninilchik Harbor is virtually empty during most of the year, but during
the summer it provides moorage for commercial salmon fishermen and recre-
ational boaters.
6.5.5. Social services
6.5.5.1. Educational facilities
Schools are built and maintained by the Borough and administered
with local funds and State and Federal grant monies (CH^M Hill, Inc.
1978a). Construction costs are financed through bond issues. Descrip-
tions of school facilities in Subarea II are presented in Table 50.
Table 50. Educational facilities in Subarea II (CH^M Hill, Inc. 1978a;
Kenai Peninsula Borough School District 13*78).
Enrollment as
Enrollment Percent of Capacity
314 84
414 83
98 98
183 49
School
East Homer
Homer Junior/
Senior High
Anchor Point
Ninilchik
Grades Capacity
K-6 375
6-12 500
K-8 100
K-12 375
6.5.5.2. Police protection
Homer has six police officers, two dispatchers, one animal-control
officer, and two part-time dispatcher/secretaries (CH2M Hill, Inc.
1978a). The police department leases three patrol cars. The police
station has four cells and is considered adequate for a population of
5,000 (C^M Hill, Inc. 1978a). The police department was considered
adequately staffed for the permanent population but understaffed for the
summer population, which contained an Influx of seasonal workers and
tourists (CH2M Hill, Inc. 1978a). Police protection for the remainder of
Subarea II is provided by the Alaska State Troopers. Two Troopers, one
stationed in Anchor Point the other in Homer, are responsible for all of
Subareas II, III, and IV outside of Homer and Seldovia.
6.5.5.3. Fire protection
Homer has a volunteer fire department with 25 firemen, 2 pumpers, 2
tankers, a service truck, and an ambulance. The fire department answers
calls outside the City of Homer. Garage and storage facilities are
considered to be inadequate (CH^M Hill, Inc. 1978a).
6.5.6. Public finances
Selected financial data for Homer for the period from 1970 to 1976,
including debt ratios and the pattern of expenditures and revenues, are
6—47
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given in Table 51. Homer has had an increasing surplus in this decade,
with expenditures and revenues both rising. Revenues doubled during the
period from 1970 to 1976. The assessed value of Homer rose by 140 per-
cent over the period. The millage rate Ls lower than in the other
cities, and a sales tax was instituted in 1974. Debt ratios are low
relative to the "10% or more" rule of thumb, whereas assessed value per
capita and direct debt per capita are high in comparison with similar
areas with a population of less than 50,000. Property taxes alone ac-
count for 5 7 percent of the total revenue for the City. Sales taxes (at
60% of property taxes) are earmarked for retirement of outstanding gen-
eral obligation and revenue bonds for water and sewer facilities, the new
public safety building, and others. The City has no oil or gas property.
Administrative costs account for a lower proportion of expenditures than
in the other cities in Subarea II, but the CETA program has provided from
9 percent to 16 percent of Homer's general fund revenues annually during
the period from 1972 to 1977.
6.5.7. Public attitudes toward development
The Anchorage Urban Observatory surveyed populations on the Kenai
Peninsula regarding the attitudes of the populace toward their communi-
ties, the services available, and future development (Bureau of Manage-
ment and Urban Affairs and the Anchorage Urban Observatory 1977). The
responses to questions concerning services are presented in Table 52.
The majority of the respondents considered recreational facilities and
road maintenance less than adequate. Other services were considered to
be adequate or more than adequate. When polled as to their preferences
for service or facility improvement, the respondents listed streets and
roads, harbor and port facilities, cultural facilities, recreational
facilities, and fire protection, respectively, in order of priority for
improvement.
The 1978 population of Homer was 2,055. Forty-one percent of the
survey respondents preferred a community population of 1,500, 29% prefer-
red a population of 1,500 to 2,000, 9% preferred a population of less
than 700, and 6% preferred a population of more than 6,000 people.
Responses to questions regarding preferred development in Homer are
summarized in Table 53. In general, the respondents preferred to encour-
age research and education, industries utilizing renewable resources, and
light manufacturing and service industries, and they ranked those indus*
tries as most desirable. The majority of the respondents did not want
heavy industry, the petrochemical industry, or support bases for the
petrochemical industry, to be encouraged. They consider those to be
undesirable.
6.6. Cultural, Historical, Archaeological, and Aesthetic Resources
The southern section of Subarea II, including Homer and Kachemak
Bay, is famous for its beautiful vistas and varied wildlife. Important
archaeological discoveries have been made in Subarea II, and there are
excellent examples of the Russian influence in Ninilchik.
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Table 51. Selected financial data for the City of Homer, 197Q-1976
(Waites and Brogan 1977a).
Year
(ending
30 June)
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
Expenditures
IS)
231,597
188.749
320,726
276,481
363,069
465,567
471.763
Revenues
(S)
251,546
249,171
312.078
290,327
287,736
490,877
569,343
End-year
Balance
(S)
32,730
95,311
99,276
113,721
149,131
160,041
265,814
Real and
Personal
Property
Assessed
Value
(1 million)
N. av.
12,969.350
12,551,740
17,615,935
22,788,675
25,406,160
31,241,669
Mlllage
12.0
12.0
14.0
12.0
Sales
Tax Race
(*)
N/A1
N/A
N/A
N/A
1.0
1.0
2.0
Debt ratios (FY 1976)
Assessed value
Direct debt
Direct and overlapping debt
Ratio of direct debt to assessed value (percent)
Ratio of direct and overlapping debt to assessed value (percent)
Population
Assessed value per capita
Direct debt per capita
Direct and overlapping debt per capita
Revenues ( FY 1976)
$42,918,151
2,366.000
3.174,942
5.5
7.4
1,802
523,817
1,313
1,762
Revenue source (FY 19761
Revenue
Percent
Property tax
$417,189
57.3
State shared revenue
61,825
a.s
Business licenses
58,447
8.0
Public employees prograa
75,351
10.4
Mental health grant
39 , 356
5.4
Other
75,407
10.4
Total
$727,575
100.0
Expenditures (FY 1976)
Expenditure
Percent
Government administration
$125,020
17.1
Police
194,645
26.7
Fire protection
39,274
5.4
Streets
" 76,696
10.5
Parks and recreation
9,156
1.3
Dept. service funds and
water bond amortization
47,314
6.5
Comprehensive Employment
Training Ace and Public
Employees Program
75,608
10.4
Judicial
13,722
1.9
Animal control
16,214
2.2
Public works
45,820
6.3
Other
85,354
11.6
Total
$728,823
100.0
N/A » Data not available.
6-49
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Table 52. Population rating of services in Homer, 1976 (Bureau of Urban
Management and the Anchorage Urban Observatory 1977).
Service Less Than
Adequate* (%)
City recreational facilities 55.5
Police services 14.9
Road maintenance 68.8
Hospital and health services 21.7
Water service 31.4
Sewer system 30.8
Elementary school 9.0
Junior-senior high school 29.4
Fire protection 26.3
Adequate or More
Than Adequate* (%)
37.5
80.6
31.2
75.3
61.3
58.1
56.5
40.5
64.4
* Percent of responses in each rating; discrepancy in totals is due to
nonre spondent s.
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Table 53. Preferred development sectors in Homer (Bureau of
Urban Observatory 1977).
Sector
Education and research
Agriculture
Commercial fishing
Light manufacture
Transport and storage
Tourism
Supply base for offshore
oil
Petrochemical industries
Heavy industry
None and don't know
Encourage
(%) (rank)
88.6 3
90.6 2
91.8 1
80.3 4
62.2 5
59.2 6
27.7 7
17.4 9
21.9 8
Discourage
(%) (rank)
6.2 8
6.3 7
4.5 9
16.2 6
28.2 5
32.0 4
64.4 3
74.7 1
72.9 2
Management and Urban Affairs and Anchorage
Most Desired Least Desired
(%) (rank) (%) (rank)
23.0 1 1.1 6
0.0 9 Not asked
20.1 3 0.4 8
20.5 2 1.8 5
5.3 5 0.7 7
10.6 4 10.7 4
4.6 6 30.2 1
2.8 7 22.1 3
2.1 8 29.2 2
5.5 — 3.9
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The Alaska Heritage Resource Survey Master File (Alaska Department
of Natural Resources 1979) lists 23 sites in Subarea II. The nature of
the resources is similar to that of Subarea I. The Cook Inlet Region
Inventory of Native Historic Sites and Cemeteries (Cook Inlet Native
Association 1975) lists 12 sites. There is some overlap between the two
sources, and it is likely that additional sites will be discovered.
6.6.1. Native period
Early human settlement in the northern section of Subarea II appears
to have been similar to that of Subarea I. Little work has been done
between the Kasllof River and Homer, although various archaeological
sites are known to exist (Workman 1974). It is believed that the Tanaina
Indians inhabited the area, and it is possible that the Eskimos preceded
that group, or that both groups coexisted at a few locations for a period
of time.
More data have been gathered from the southern section of Subarea
II. A pioneering study by Dr. Frederica De Laguna (1934) included exca-
vations at Cottonwood Creek, northeast of Homer. The Kachemak Bay area
appears to have been occupied for several thousand years by Eskimo peo-
ples. The record between 1 and 1,000 A.D. is the best known (Workman
1974). The Eskimos of Kachemak Bay practiced a high level of craftsman-
ship and artistry. Hunting and fishing were the dominant pursuits.
Solid wood houses were constructed, and objects such as stone saws, slate
awls, elaborate stone lamps, and jewelry have been identified with this
period (Kachemak III). Earlier Eskimo cultures are not as well docu-
mented .
The successors to the Eskimos were the Tanaina Athabascans. The
Kachemak Tanaina have been characterized as hunters and fishermen whose
culture was influenced heavily by Eskimo ways (Workman 1974). Occupation
by the Tanaina persisted until contact with the Russians. The monograph
on the Tanaina by Osgood (1937) provides insights into the life of that
group gathered from a variety of informants, including Fitka Balishoff,
who lived near Cottonwood Creek in the 1920s. Workman (1974) noted that
by the early 1930s "...the cultural and physical dispersal of the
Kachemak Bay Tanaina was virtually complete."
6.6.2. Russian period
The major focus of Russian influence in Subarea II was at Ninilchik.
The date of original settlement is not known, but usually is placed
during the period from 1800 to the 1840s. There is agreement that Ninil-
chik was an agricultural community. Various accounts describe it as a
colony of retired personnel from the Russia-American Company (Sherwood
1974; Dlmmick 1976):
Few of the employees could afford to take their families back
to Russia, had they desired to do so. They were unwilling to
leave them when their contract was up, so many renewed their
contracts until they were too old for the hardships Imposed by
life as a hunter for the Company. The agricultural colony
would seem to be the logical solution for all concerned.
Certainly they were a self-sufficient community long before
6-52
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the UnLted States purchase of Alaska, raising cattle, pigs,
chickens, and vegetables; catching fish, fur farming, hunting
and trapping (Dimmick 1976).
There is no mention of Russian activities on the north shore of
Kachemak Bay. There may have been some isolated gold mining on the
beaches between Homer and Ninilchik (Barry 1973). It is likely that a
small amount of fur trading was carried on between the Russians and local
groups of coastal natives throughout Subarea II.
6.6.3. American period
American interests in Subarea II initially focused on minerals.
Gold was sought at Ninilchik, Anchor Point, and the beaches south and
east to Homer. The high tidal range hampered efforts at Anchor Point,
and the miners spent more time in moving their equipment than in actual
sluicing (Barry 1973). The most ambitious project was organized in 1896
by Homer Pennock, after whom the present town of Homer was named. His
consortium used the Homer area as a staging base for beach mining north
of Ninilchik. Modest amounts of gold have been recovered sporadically
since those early efforts.
The presence of coal also drew attention to Subarea II. The de-
posits on the north shore of Kachemak Bay had been noted by the Russians,
but they had made no formal attempts at commercial mining (Barry 1973).
The 1880s saw a concerted effort to develop the coal seams near Homer.
The first mines probably were those of the Alaska Coal Company in 1888
(Barry 1973). A succession of coal-mining concerns worked the deposits
in the area, but the total cumulative commercial production probably
amounted to only a few thousand tons (Barry 1973).
The mining efforts brought in small groups of people, but no true
"rush" developed. Growth in Subarea II was slow. Fishing grew in impor-
tance and canneries were established at various points, including Homer.
The largest period of growth occurred after World War II, when lands were
opened for homesteading. The completion of road links between Anchorage
and Subarea II (the Sterling Highway and branch roads) also encouraged
population growth. Homer has grown significantly, and future expansion
in the oil industry may add new developmental pressures. The degree to
which the Homer Spit is to be developed is a serious local issue.
The Village of Nikolaevsk is an interesting new settlement in Sub-
area II. It was founded in 1967 by a group of Russians emigrants and
their descendants, referred to as "Old Believers" (Moore 1976). The Old
Believers had suffered religious persecution in Czarist Russia, and a
group of emigrants traveled from eastern Russia to China, through Hong
Kong, thence to Brazil, on to Oregon, and finally to Alaska. In 1975, 59
residents of Nikolaevsk became US citizens. According to Moore (1976),
"it is foreign, yet it stands for the same principles as did America's
founding fathers. It is simple, yet so complex it baffles the imagina-
tion of its visitors. It is tradition with new ways of doing things."
Nikolaevsk is an important ethnic community that is sensitive to outside
pressures and customs.
6-53
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6.6.4. Sites in the National Register of Historic Places
No sites in Subarea II are listed Ln the National Register of His-
toric Places. Two sites have been designated as eligible for inclusion
in the National Register by the Alaska Department of Natural Resources,
Alaska Heritage Resource Survey (AHRS). The discussion of these sites
that follows is based on information from the Master File of the AHRS,
from the Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Proposed 1976 Outer
Continental Shelf Oil and Gas Lease Sale, Lower Cook Inlet (Bureau of
Land Management 1976), and from other authors as noted.
The Holy Transfiguration of Our Lord Chapel has been designated as
being eligible for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places.
The church is located in Ninilchik and was built around 1901. It is
privately-owned and has been in continuous use since its construction.
The cemetery behind the building is tended carefully and still is used
(Dimmick 1976). The structure was built on the modified cruciform ground
plan and faces west. It has been designated as KEN 047 by the AHRS.
The Cottonwood Creek Site also has been designated by the AHRS as
being eligible for the National Register of Historic Places. It is
located on the north shore of Kachemak Bay, northeast of Homer. Cotton-
wood Creek was investigated by Dr. Frederica De Laguna, and the Site
provided important evidence used in the formulation of the Kachemak III
tradition of the archaeology of the Lower Cook Inlet. It is likely that
the larger part of the midden (refuse heap) at the Site was destroyed by
erosion prior to 1930 (De Laguna 1934). The investigations at Cottonwood
Creek revealed numerous artifacts, including adzes, projectile points,
and stone lamps. The Site is owned by the State of Alaska and has been
designated as SEL 030 by the AHRS.
Many additional sites of potential importance are located in Subarea
II. Of particular note are the older structures in Ninilchik, most of
which now are empty and deteriorating. These buildings have been refer-
red to collectively as the Ninilchik Historic District (Bureau of Land
Management 1976).
6-54
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7.0. SUBAREA III
7.1. Subarea III Boundaries
Subarea III is bounded by the Kenai National Moose Range on the
east, Kachemak Bay on the west, the 200-foot contour of the hillsides of
the Kenai Mountains on the south, and bluffs that form the southernmost
extension of the Kenai Lowlands on the north. The boundaries and topo-
graphy of Subarea III are shown in Figure 48 (adapted from Joint
Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission 1973b).
7.2. Physical Environment
7.2.1. Landforms
The major portion of Subarea III is characterized by a wide, flat-
bottomed valley consisting of alluvial land and tidal marsh. Elevations
in this region are less than 200 feet. The southeastern part of the
area, however, consists of the northwest flank of the Kenai Mountains.
Elevations at the southeast boundary of Subarea III may exceed 1,800
feet. The overall topography of Subarea III drops to the northwest at
approximately 900 feet per mile. The northwestern part of Subarea III
consists of eroded escarpments, sea cliffs, and canyon walls associated
with Kachemak Bay, Fox Creek, and the Fox River. Subarea III is
dissected repeatedly by divergent channels of the Fox River and the
Bradley River and by the tidal guts at the mouths of their numerous
channels.
7.2.2. Geology
Subarea III can be subdivided into three regions on the basis of
surficial geology and soils. The northwestern region consists of sand-
stone, siltstone, and shale beds of the Sterling Formation
(Miocene-Pliocene) and the Kenai (Tertiary) Group. Thin lenses of
conglomerate and beds ranging from a few inches to 7 feet in thickness
commonly occur. Several coal beds contain thin layers of volcanic ash.
These rocks have been eroded intensely by the waters of Fox Creek, Fox
River, and Kachemak Bay, and form sea cliffs, canyon walls, and eroded
escarpments (Hinton 1971).
The central and most extensive section of Subarea III is composed
predominantly of deltaic, floodplain, and coastal plain sediments (Figure
49; adapted from Magoon and others 1976). Alluvial material (deltaic and
floodplain) consists of sandy, silty, and clayey sediment that was de-
rived from the Chernof Glacier and the Dinglestadt Glacier and deposited
by the Fox River and Sheep Creek. This alluvial land is dissected by
many sloughs and streams that continually change position. Tidal marsh
occupies areas near the mouth of the Fox River and consists of fine-tex-
tured sediments that were deposited by the Fox River and reworked by the
tidal action of Kachemak Bay (Hinton 1971; Magoon and others 1976).
The southeastern part of Subarea III is composed primarily of the
weakly metamorphosed graywackes, argillites, and siltstones of the Valdex
Group and the McHugh Complex. Conglomeratic sandstone, arkose, meta-
chert, and greenstone also are present in the McHugh Complex. These
metamorphic rocks are highly resistant to erosion and form steep north-
westerly slopes. Sheep Creek forms a deep gorge in the Valdez Group in
7-1
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7-2
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FIGURE 48
SUBAREA 3 y
TOPOGRAPHY
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the northeast part of Subarea III.
Subarea III is located on the border between the Matanuska-Wrangell
Forearc Basin and the Chugach Terrain (Magoon and others 1976). The
Border Ranges Fault, which separates the two structural regions, extends
through the western part of Subarea III. The regional and local trend of
this fault is northeast-southwest. This thrust fault is considered to be
the boundary between the Oceanic Plate and the Continental Plate. Miner-
alogical evidence suggests that the major displacement occurred between
the Late Triassic and the Early Jurassic. Because Mesozoic rocks are
faulted, although Middle Tertiary rocks are not displaced, the most
recent movement along the Border Ranges Fault probably occurred in Late
Mesozoic or Early Tertiary times. Another major thrust fault exists in
the southern part of Subarea III. Displacement along this fault may be
similar to that of the Border Ranges Fault.
7.2.2.1. Soils
Soils information for Subarea III was obtained from the Soil Survey
of the Homer-Ninilchik Area (Hinton 1971) and a surficial geology map of
the Cook Inlet Region (Magoon and others 1976). Based on this informa-
tion, soils can be categorized into three groups:
• Alluvial-tidal marsh association, consisting of nearly
level, very poorly drained to excessively-drained alluvial
sand, silt, and clay; and very poorly drained soils on
tidal marsh
• Rough, broken land association, consisting of steep and
very steep eroded escarpments, sea cliffs, and canyon
walls formed in sandstone and siltstone of the Sterling
Formation (Miocene-Pliocene)
• Rough, broken land, consisting of steep and very steep
slopes formed on weakly ^metamorphosed, sedimentary rocks
of the Valdez Group (?) and the McHugh Complex (Juras-
sic) .
Wetlands
Practically all of the alluvial-tidal marsh association is char-
acterized by periodic flooding due to high tides and freshwater streams.
However, wetlands are restricted to the tidal marsh environments at the
mouth of the Fox River. The water table in this region is always at or
near the surface (Hinton 1971).
Agricultural land
The rough, broken land association near the southeastern and north-
western boundaries of Subarea III have no potential for farmland. The
alluvial lands and tidal marshes that comprise Subarea III also are
Question mark (?) indicates age of material is uncertain. The
Group may contain some Cretaceous rocks.
7-4
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GEOLOGY
SYNCL1NE
CONTACT
ANTICLINE
NORMAL FAULT - DOTTED WHERE CONCEALED
U-UPTHROWN SIDE
D-DOWNTHROWN SIDE
THRUST OR REVERSE FAULT - DOTTED WHERE CONCEALED
SAWTEETH ON UPTHROWN BLOCK
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considered useless for crop production (Hinton 1971). The Beluga silt
loams that lie over the lower slopes along the northwestern boundaries of
Subarea III may be too wet for crop production, but may be suitable if
drained. Much of the alluvial land that makes up the bulk of Subarea III
is covered by grasses and horsetail and is leased by the Fox River Valley
Cattlemen's Association for pasture.
7.2.2.2. Geologic resources
Coal
Because coal-bearing formations of the Kenai (Tertiary Group) lie at
or near the surface in the northern and western parts of Subarea III,
there may be potential for the development of coal resources. However,
the thickness and extent of these formations is not known.
Petroleum and natural gas
The northwestern portion of Subarea III is within the region of high
petroleum potential, as indicated in Figure 50 (adapted from Joint
Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission 1973b). Although reservoir
rock (Kenai Group) and structural traps (Border Ranges Fault) are
present, the economic potential for petroleum production is questionable.
No wells or dry holes are known to exist within Subarea III.
Metallic minerals
The metamorphic rocks of the Valdez Group and the McHugh Complex may
contain metallic mineral deposits, particularly in fault zones and frac-
tures. Lode mines in the Kenai Mountains of the Homer District have been
worked for gold, silver, chromium, and minor amounts of copper, lead,
zinc, and nickel. Some of these minerals may be present as placer de-
posits in the Fox River and Sheep Creek. However, no information con-
cerning metallic minerals is available for Subarea III.
Nonmetalllc minerals
No information concerning nonmetallic mineral resources is available
for Subarea III. However, potential nonmetallic resources may consist of
alluvial sand and gravel from the Fox River and Sheep Creek and clay from
the tidal flats.
7.2.2.3. Geologic hazards
Geologic hazards for Subarea III consist predominantly of flooding
and wave damage, landslides and avalanches, ash falls from volcanic
eruptions, and earthquake-related damage. Due to the nearly level
character of the tidal marsh and alluvial land, the potential for
flooding is high. Because the Fox River and Sheep Creek are glacial
streams, floods due to glacial outbursts can be expected.
Steep slopes in weathering rock on either side of the Fox River
Lowlands present a potential for rock falls, landslides, and mudslides.
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MINERAL RESOURCES
MAJOR MINERAL
SECONDARY MINERAL
MINERAL PROVINCE BOUNDARY
COAL PROVINCE BOUNDARY
COAL PROVINCE BOUNDARY IN WATER
PETROLEUM PROVINCE BOUNDARY
COAL FIELD
OIL FIELD
GAS FIELD
POTENTIAL GEOTHERMAL AREA
7-8
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Avalanches may occur in the Kenai Mountains southeast of the Lowlands.
Rockfalls, landslides, mudslides, and avalanches may be triggered by
seismic activity.
Earthquake-related hazards include vibration damage, ground
fissures, ground subsidence or uplift, landslides or avalanches, ground
failure, and tsunamis. Although the Border Ranges Fault is considered to
be inactive, displacement along this Fault or other minor faults is
possible.
There is no evidence of any volcanic activity in Subarea III, and
therefore the potential for damage due to volcanic eruptions is low.
However, Subarea III may be subject to ashfalls from eruptions in the
Aleutian Range.
7.2.3. Hydrology
7.2.3.1. Surface water hydrology
There are no streamflow or water quality data for any stream in
Subarea III. However, the following conclusions can be made on the basis
of existing topographic and geologic maps:
• Both the Fox River and Sheep Creek are glacial streams.
They derive water from the Chernof and Dinglestadt Glac-
iers, respectively
• Because they are glacial streams, they are probably charac-
terized by ice jams and glacial outbursts. The flood
potential is high for the entire Fox River Valley within
Subarea III
• Because there are no large lakes to regulate streamflow,
stage and discharge probably exhibit a high degree of
seasonal variation
• During the spring and summer months, streams would proba-
bly have high flows derived from glacial meltwaters. High
sediment loads and low dissolved solids contents would be
associated with these flows
• During the winter months, streams would probably have low
flows that would be sustained by groundwater recharge.
The dissolved solids content probably would increase due
to groundwater recharge and encroachment of saline water
from Kachemak Bay
• Water levels, flows, and water quality of channels and
streams near the mouth of the Fox River are subject to
the tidal action of Kachemak Bay.
7.2.3.2. Groundwater resources
Although no information is available on groundwater resources in
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Subarea III, the following conclusions can be made from existing geologic
information:
• Sandstones of the Kenat (Tertiary) Group may yield large
quantities of water to wells. The water may be soft,
but saline water encroachment and methane gas may pre-
sent problems
• Metasedimentary rocks of the Valdez Group (?) and the
McHugh (Jurassic) Complex are probably poor aquifers,
although joints and fractures may yield small quantities
of water to wells
• Alluvial deposits of sand and gravel probably would yield
large quantities of water to wells. However, this aquifer
may be subject to contamination from surface sources due
to permeable surface deposits and high water levels
• The alluvial aquifer may be subject to saline water en-
croachment. The potential for encroachment can be expected
to increase with depth and with proximity to Kachemak Bay
and associated tidal channels.
7.3. Biological Environment
Subarea III consists of approximately 30 square miles of uninter-
rupted lowlands. The topography and soils are distinctly different from
those of the surrounding hills. Because of their low elevation and
protected location, the Fox River Lowlands become snow-free each year
before most other lands in the Cook Inlet Region. The early thaw and the
broad, damp areas of alluvial and tidal lands contribute to the producti-
vity potential of the region. The topography, climate, productive soils,
and the' proximity of Kachemak Bay, make the Fox River Lowlands especially
valuable habitat for several species of waterfowl and wildlife.
7.3.1. Vegetation
In Subarea III the vegetation changes from barren mud to low, upper-
tidal salt marsh vegetation, to taller salt marsh and freshwater marsh
vegetation, and then to open spruce-hardwoods and brush (Figure 51;
adapted from Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission 1973b). On
the higher ground, in the eastern part of Subarea III and on the lower
slopes of adjacent hillsides, stands of Sitka spruce and areas of barren
soil and rock are present. Over most of the forested areas, the stands
of spruce or spruce-hardwoods are open timber or are interspersed with
broad areas of grasses, forbs, and low brush. Characteristic vegetation
for each of the vegetation types mapped in Figure 51 is described in
Section 3.2.3.1. Hinton (1971) reported that alluvial soils and tidal
marsh supported horsetail, willow, goosetongue, and cottonwood, and that
Beluga soils had bluejoint, fireweed, cow parsnip, horsetail, lupine,
devilsclub, red currant, wild cucumber, and elderberry bushes, plus
sparse stands of Sitka spruce, paper birch, alder, and cottonwood.
7.3.2. Aquatic biota
The aquatic biology of Subarea III has received little attention.
7-11
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Coho salmon and pink salmon are reported to migrate up and spawn in the
multiple channels of the Fox River, Sheep Creek, and the Bradley River
(Figure 52; adapted from Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission
1973b). Rainbow trout and Dolly Varden char also are present in Subarea
III.
As the most extensive tidal marsh-lowland area bordering Kachemak
Bay, the Fox River Flats may be an important factor contributing to the
high productivity of Kachemak Bay and the Lower Cook Inlet. Kachemak Bay
is the most productive area of Cook Inlet and is the primary spawning and
nursery site for much of the Cook Inlet crab and shrimp catch. The
productivity of Kachemak Bay is believed to result from nutrients that
upwell as the Gulf of Alaska waters enter Cook Inlet, from the relatively
slow exchange rate of Kachemak Bay water, and from organic input from the
Kachemak Bay wetlands. The wetlands, composed of mudflats and salt
marshes, contribute nutritive detritus and living material from macro-
phytes and epibenthic microscopic algae. This material is believed to be
a major part of the food taken up by some species of shrimp in Kachemak
Bay (Crow 1977). The detrital material is also a primary food resource
for many other marine invertebrates. Nutrients released by decomposed
detritus and organic material from the Fox River and Sheep Creek may
enrich the waters of Kachemak Bay and increase phytoplankton and inverte-
brate production. The wetlands also are spawning habitat for inverte-
brates and fish important in both commerce and in the marine food web.
The comparative importance of the various shallow bays, mudflats, and
salt marshes to the Kachemak Bay marine system has not yet been examined,
but there is little doubt that they are important in the primary and
secondary trophic levels of the system and that they ultimately contri-
bute to the productivity of the Lower Cook Inlet.
7.3.3. Mammals
Most of Subarea III is critical habitat for black bear and moose
(Figure 53; adapted from Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission
1973b). Because of the low elevation, the maritime climate, and the
windbreak formed by the surrounding hills, the Fox River Lowlands are
some of the first areas in the Cook Inlet region to produce green vegeta-
tion each year. The late winter-early spring season is the period when
the fat reserves of moose are depleted (Le Resche 1968; Le Resche and
Davis 1973). During this period, the early availability of quality
forage on the Fox River Lowlands may be an important factor that in-
creases the viability of the moose population and the carrying capacity
of Subarea III. Snow depth also is an important factor in moose mortal-
ity (Coady 1973; Rausch and Bratlie 1965), and the earlier snow melt on
the Fox River Lowlands may increase moose survival rates. Subarea III
also contains important calving grounds for the moose that utilize the
surrounding range, and it provides food and shelter for moose through the
late autumn and winter.
Brown bear have been reported to concentrate in Subarea III im-
mediately following their hibernation period. Horsetails, grasses,
sedges, and forbs are important elements in the early spring diets of
both brown bear and moose (Wood 1973; Glenn 1975), and the availability
of these foods may contribute to brown bear winter survival rates in
Subarea III and the surrounding range.
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VEGETATION
COASTAL WESTERN HEMLOCK/SITKA SPRUCE
UPLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD
UPLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD/LOWLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD
UPLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD/HIGH BRUSH
LOWLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD
HIGH BRUSH
HIGH BRUSH BURNED
HIGH BRUSH BURNED/COASTAL WESTERN HEMLOCK/
SITKA SPRUCE
HIGH BRUSH/MOIST TUNDRA/ALPINE TUNDRA
LOW BRUSH/MUSKEG-BOG
MUSKEG
MOIST TUNDRA
WET TUNDRA
ALPINE TUNDRA/BARREN
ALPINE TUNDRA/BARREN/MOIST TUNDRA
MUD
7-13
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7.3.4. Birds
The tidal marshes, potholes, and bogs in Subarea III provide habitat
and food for shorebirds, geese, and dabbling ducks each spring and au-
tumn. The northward migration of geese each spring is paced by the ad-
vance of spring as reflected by the presence of open water and the
availability of food. The Fox River tidal marsh is a staging area for
geese because plant seeds and sprouting vegetation are available here
before such food is available in most other parts of the Cook Inlet.
Erickson (1977) counted 1,032 Canada geese on the Fox River tidal flats
during May 1976, after the migration had peaked. During the autumn 1976
census (conducted prior to the peak Canada goose migration), he reported
1,821 dabblers and 3 70 geese on the Fox River Lowlands,, and stated that
the Lowlands supported low concentrations of nesting waterflow. The
tidal flats also support several species of seagulls and migrating and
nesting shorebirds.
In 1972, the State of Alaska recognized the value of the Fox River
Flats by declaring approximately 6,720 acres of the tidal marsh as
critical habitat area (Figure 53). This status requires special review
procedures for projects proposed for the critical habitat area.
7.4. Land and Water Use
7.4.1. Land ownership
Land ownership in Subarea III is mapped in Figure 54 (adapted from
Alaska Department of Natural Resources 1977). The majority of Subarea
III is owned by the State of Alaska or the Federal Government.
Exceptions include tideland or homestead patents and a 64-acre tract of
agricultural land sold during the summer of 1978. The parcels in private
ownership are on the lower slopes of the hillsides along the northwestern
boundaries of Subarea III and near the mouth of the Bradley River. At
present, 22,000 acres of the State-owned land is leased by the Fox River
Cattlemen's Association for grazing purposes.
Portions of Subarea III near the Kenai National Moose Range boundary
could be annexed into the Moose Range under proposed Federal withdrawals
authorized by Section d-2 of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act.
Native selections probably will not play an important part in the future
land ownership of Subarea III.
7.4.2. Agriculture
Statistics for livestock production specific to Subarea III are not
available. It is probable that a significant percentage of the total
Kenai Peninsula cattle production can be attributed to the Fox River
Cattlemen's Association members, who hold the livestock grazing lease
that lies partly in Subarea III. Aerial observation showed that there
were truck gardens at some of the cabins in Subarea III, but no other
agriculture was observed.
7.4.3. Forestry
No commercial harvesting of timber is known to occur in Subarea III.
7-15
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SALMON HABITAT
SALMON PRESENT
SALMON SPAWNING
WILDLIFE HABITAT
SEA LION HAULING OUT AREA
HARBOR SEAL
BLACK BEAR
BROWN BEAR
MOOSE
GOAT
CARIBOU
7-16
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LANDING
STRIP
BRADLEY
FIGURE 52
SUBAREA 3
SALMON HABITATS
7-17
LAKE
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MILES
WAPORA, INC.
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KKtfs
>* // \N *
M * * ^Ti
*>» y(«*i
* v'VC.
RGURE 53
SUBAREA 3
WILDLIFE HABITATS
p TXr;—Q-
MILES
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WAPORA, INC.
BRADLEY
LAKE
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7.4.4. Recreational areas
There are no designated recreational areas in Subarea III. The
Kenai National Moose Range is northeast of Subarea III. Horseback pack
trips organized by residents of Subarea III provide occasional income for
the packers, and recreation and access for a small number of hunters and
campers each year. The Fox River Flats are used by a few duck hunters
each year.
7.5. Socioeconomic Environment
7.5.1. Level of development
There are no communities, schools, or other public facilities in
Subarea III. There are no population data or employment data. Aerial
observation by WAPORA personnel indicated that there were only a few
residences in Subarea III. Because access to the local job market is
difficult, the populace probably consists of several workers, farmers, or
persons living on a combination of subsistence and occasional short-term
employment. Many of the community services offered in the more populated
subareas are available only on a limited basis in Subarea III.
7.5.2. Hous ing
No housing data are available for Subarea III. Because of the
nature of the area, it is probable that all of the residences are
single-family dwellings.
7.5.3. Utilities
Water for domestic purposes can be assumed to come from streams or
from wells. Both solid and sanitary wastes would be disposed of on the
individual properties. It is unlikely that electrical service reaches
any of the residences. There are no public utilities in Subarea III, and
no data regarding sanitary facilities, potable water usage, or electrical
generation. If the Bradley Lake hydroelectric project were to be imple-
mented, a high-voltage electrical transmission line probably would be
constructed through Subarea III to the trunk lines of the Homer Electric
Association.
7.5.4. Transportation
There are no roads in Subarea III. The closest ground access is by
a footpath/horseback-riding trail from the terminus of the East End Road,
which runs to the east of Homer through the hills overlooking Kachemak
Bay. The extensive mudflats and shoals limit boat access, but parts of
Subarea III can be reached by small boat. The National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Survey (1978) reported that there was one airfield in Subarea
III. The airstrip is 1,200-feet long, unpaved, and privately owned.
Bush pilots occasionally land at smaller, uncharted airstrips or on
unimproved, open land. The proposed Bradley Lake hydroelectric project
probably would improve access to Subarea III through construction of
roads or an airfield. It is probable that access to Subarea III will
improve even without this project, either from a gradual extension of
residential development along Kachemak Bay or as an extension of the
7-19
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LAND OWNERSHIP
FEDERAL LAND
STATE LAND
TENTATIVELY APPROVED PATENTED
T1DELAND PATENTS
MANAGEMENT RIGHTS SELECTION APPROVED PATENTED
T1DELAND PATENTS
INTERIM CONVEYANCE PATENTED
T1DELAND PATENTS
7-20
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State highway system to communities on the south side of the Bay.
7.6. Cultural, Historical, Archaeological, and Aesthetic Resources
Subarea III includes a limited area at the head of Kachemak Bay.
This section is bounded by the Fox River to the northwest and by the
200-foot contour to the southeast. This delta area includes limited
grassy areas and has attractive vistas of Kachemak Bay.
There are no sites in Subarea III listed in the Master File of the
Alaska Heritage Resource Survey (Alaska Department of Natural Resources
1979) . The Cook Inlet Region Inventory of Native Historic Sites and
Cemeteries (Cook Inlet Native Association 1975) does not include any
sites in Subarea III. Apparently, very little work has been done in
Subarea III, and the potential for future discoveries is unknown.
7.6.1. Native period
No information was available on Native settlement in or use of
Subarea III. Because of the habitations located on the north and south
shores of Kachemak Bay, it is possible that undiscovered Native sites are
located on or adjacent to the Fox River Flats.
7.6.2. Russian period
No information was available on Russian utilization of Subarea III.
7.6.3. American period
Subarea III has experienced little permanent impact during the
American period. A proposed settlement in the early 1900s never mate-
rialized. Utilization has centered on sports activities because of the
limited access to the area. There is some farming and cattle ranching in
the Fox River Valley, and approximately 22,000 acres of land are under
lease to the Fox River Cattlemen's Association.
7.6.4. Sites in the National Register of Historic Places
There are no sites in Subarea III that are listed in the National
Register of Historic Places. The potential for the future discovery of
significant archaeological sites is unknown.
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8.0. SUBAREA IV
8.1. Subarea IV Boundaries
Subarea IV encompasses the part of the Kenai Peninsula south of
Kachemak Bay that is in the study area. It is bounded on the east by the
Kenai National Moose Range, on the north by Kachemak Bay, on the west by
Cook Inlet, and on the south by the study area boundary, which
approximately follows the divide between the drainage of Cook Inlet and
the drainage of the Gulf of Alaska (Figure 55; adapted from Joint
Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission 1973b).
8.2. Physical Environment
8.2.1. Landforms
Subarea IV encompasses the southernmost mountains of the Kenai
Range. This Subarea is characterized by rough mountainous terrain carved
by glaciers, numerous streams, and tidal channels. Steep, eroded
escarpments, sea cliffs, and deep valleys and canyons segment the land.
Narrow, nearly-level floodplains occur along Kachemak Creek, the Naka
River, the Wosnesenski River, Jakolof Creek, the Seldovia River, the
Graham River, and the English Bay River. Tidal flats occur at Port
Graham, Seldovia Bay, and McKeon Flats, and north of Halibut Cove.
Glaciers are prevalent in the eastern part of the study area. Elevations
range from sea level at the seaward boundaries and tidal flats to more
than 4,000 feet msl in glaciated regions. The topography of Subarea IV
is indicated in Figure 55.
8.2.2. Geology
8.2.2.1. Surficial geology
The surficial geology of Subarea IV (Figure 56; adapted from Fisher
and Magoon 1977) consists largely of exposed sedimentary and
metasedimentary rock. The most extensive geologic unit is the McHugh
Complex, which contains weakly metamorphosed siltstone, graywacke,
arkose, and conglomeratic sandstone. In the northern part of Subarea IV,
metagraywacke and metasiltstone of the Valdez Group appear at the bedrock
surface. Contorted chert and greenstone of Late Triassic age and pillow
basalt of similar age occur locally along the northwest coast of Subarea
IV. On the western tip of the Subarea, the Talkeetna Formation
(Jurassic) and deposits of limestone and fine-grained tuff (Jurassic)
occur in faulted blocks. The Talkeetna Formation consists predominantly
of volcanic breccia, tuff, and lava flows (Magoon and others 1976). An
ultramafic intrusion of peridotite, dunite, and pyroxenite exist in the
southern part of Subarea IV.
The primary structural feature in Subarea IV is the Border Ranges
Thrust Fault, which parallels the coastline. Thrust faults also exist in
the northern part of Subarea IV and around the ultramafic intrusion
(Paleozoic or Mesozoic) in the southern part of the Subarea (Figure 56).
Two sets of normal faults exist in the western part. One set is located
to the north of the Border Ranges Fault and trends approximately N 30 E,
whereas the other set lies to the south of the Border Ranges Fault and
trends approximately N 75° E.
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8-2
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FNGUSH sat
FIGURE 55
SUBAREA 4
TOPOGRAPHY
MILES
1 1
7
WAPORA, INC
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Subarea IV is dissected by many streams and tidal channels. Long,
narrow floodplains occur along Kachemak Creek, the Naka River, the
Wosnesenski River, the Seldovia River, the Graham River and the English
Bay River. Sediments in these areas consist of alluvial sand and gravel.
Tidal deposits can be found north of Halibut Cove, McKeon Flats, Seldovia
Bay, and Port Graham, and at Koyuktolik Bay.
8.2.2.2. Soils
Soils in Subarea IV are formed over volcanic rock, metasedimentary
rock, alluvial sand and gravel, and tidal deposits. There are no soils
data for Subarea IV, but existing geologic information indicates that
there is no prime agricultural land within the area. It is possible that
some alluvial land may be used for farming, but high groundwater levels
and periodic flooding probably would present severe limitations.
Slopes of more than 25 percent are severely limiting to residential,
road, and light industrial construction, and may present severe erosion
potential and avalanche-landslide danger. Slopes of more than 25 percent
are mapped in Figure 57 (adapted from Kline 1977).
8.2.2.3. Geologic resources
Potential geologic resources in Subarea IV are shown in Figure 58
(adapted from Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission 1973b).
Coal
Magoon and others (1976) indicated the presence of the Tyonek
(Oligocene-Hiocene) Formation northeast of Seldovia. This Formation is
coal-bearing, but the limited thickness and extent of the Formation at
this location probably would discourage mining.
Oil and gas
With the exception of a small area near Seldovia, no Tertiary-age
sediments exist in Subarea IV. Consequently, there is no potential for
oil or gas development. However, thick deposits of potentially
oil-bearing Tertiary rocks may exist under Kachemak Bay.
Metallic minerals
Subarea IV has a high potential for metallic mineral development.
Numerous mining claims have been made in regions southwest of Tutka Bay
(Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission 1974c). Lode mines
have been worked for gold, silver, and chromium. Copper, lead, zinc, and
nickel occur as minor by-products. Minerals present in Subarea IV
include native gold, native silver, native copper, pyrite, arsenopyrite,
chaleopyrite, sphalerite, galena, tetrahedrite, covellite, and
chalcocite.
Nonmetalllc minerals
Available data indicate that there is no development of nonmetalllc
resources at this time. However, surficial geology maps (Magoon and
others 1976) suggest that a potential exists for development of sand and
gravel, limestone, clay, and gypsum.
8—4
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GEOLOGY
SYNCL1NE
CONTACT
ANTICLINE
NORMAL FAULT - DOTTED WHERE CONCEALED
U-UPTHROWN SIDE
D-DOWNTHROWN SIDE
THRUST OR REVERSE FAULT - DOTTED WHERE CONCEALED
SAWTEETH ON UPTHROWN BLOCK
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FIGURE 56
SUBAREA 4
GEOLOGY
"Re
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Sand and gravel may be quarried from alluvial deposits in the
floodplains of Grenwingk Creek, the Wosnesenski River, the Seldovia
River, the Graham River, and the English Bay River. The economic po-
tential of these deposits is dependent on the sorting of the material,
the extent of suitable deposits, hydrologic conditions, accessibility of
potential sites, and the existence of surface transportation.
Mud flats associated with major bays may contain clay that can be
used for the manufacture of bricks and ceramics, but no information on
the quality of the clay is available.
Limestone is a potential resource in Subarea IV. Extensive surface
exposures of Upper Triassic limestone exist in the western part of
Subarea IV. However, the limestone is interbedded with fine-grained
volcanic tuff (Magoon and others 1976) and may have limited suitability.
8.2.2.4. Geologic hazards
Geologic hazards in Subarea IV consist of flooding and wave damage,
landslides and avalanches, ash falls from volcanic eruptions, and damage
associated with earthquakes. Flooding is a potential hazard in all river
valleys. Broad floodplains are associated with Grenwingk Creek, Humphrey
Creek, the Wosnesenski River, the Seldovia River, the Port Graham River,
and the English Bay River. Glacial outburst flooding can be expected in
glacial streams in the northeastern part of the study area. Identified
hazards are mapped in Figure 59 (adapted from Alaska Department of
Natural Resorces 1978b).
Steep rocky slopes, which are prevalent throughout Subarea IV, pre-
sent a high potential for rockfalls, landslides, and mudslides. This
condition exists along the coastlines of many bays, harbors, and coves,
and may be hazardous to navigation in these areas. Rockfalls, land-
slides, mudslides, and avalanches may be triggered by seismic activity.
Earthquake-related hazards include vibration damage, ground fis-
sures, ground subsidence or uplift, landslides or avalanches, ground
failure, and tsunamis. Although the Border Ranges Fault is considered to
be inactive, displacement along this Fault or other minor faults is
possible.
There is no evidence of any volcanic activity in Subarea IV, and
therefore the potential for damage due to volcanic eruptions is low.
However, the area may be subject to ashfalls from eruptions in the
Aleutian Range.
8.2.3. Hydrology
8.2.3.1. Surface water hydrology
Most of Subarea IV is characterized by mountainous terrain that is
dissected by many rivers and streams. Most stream valleys have steep
canyon walls and little or no floodplains. The predominant alluvial pro-
cess in these valleys is erosion. However, broad floodplains containing
alluvial deposits of sand and gravel are associated with Grenwingk Creek,
Humphrey Creek, the Wosnesenski River, the Seldovia River, the Port
Graham River, and the English Bay River.
8-7
-------
SLOPE HAZARDS
O TO 15 PERCENT
15 TO 25 PERCENT
GREATER THAN 25 PERCENT
8-8
-------
EMGLISH *»"
WILES
1
7
WAPORA, INC
FIGURE 57
SUBAREA 4
SLOPE HAZARDS
OVJLL ISLAND
-------
A summary of streamflow data for major streams in Subarea IV is
given in Table 54. Stream discharge generally is quite low, although
Barbara Creek attained a maximum discharge of 744 cfs near Seldovia on 29
June 1975. Flooding is due primarily to spring thaw and storm events,
although glacial outbursts may occur in the northeastern part of Subarea
IV.
8.2.3.2. Groundwater resources
Groundwater in Subarea IV occurs predominantly in joints and
fractures in limestone of the Kamishak Formation (Upper Triassic), in
volcanic breccias and tuffs of the Talkeetna Formation (Lower Jurassic),
in Triassic mafic rocks, and in metasedimentary rocks of the McHugh
Complex. These formations have low permeabilities and can be expected to
yield less than 10 gpm (Feulner 1973). However, higher yields might be
obtained locally from alluvial deposits of sand and gravel. No
groundwater data are available for Subarea IV.
8.3. Biological Environment
The steep mountains, deep valleys and fiords, and barren rock that
make up much of Subarea IV are ecological barriers that segment the plant
and animal communities to an extent not observed in the other subareas on
the Kenai Peninsula. Isolated pockets in the river valleys and on the
lower mountain slopes provide suitable habitat for all the large mammals
except the mountain goat. The streams are short, and many are steep and
laden with glacial silt.
8.3.1. Vegetation
The vegetation in Subarea IV is mapped in Figure 60 (adapted from
Joint Federal-State Planning Commission 1973b). The valleys, the
coastline, and the lower mountain slopes are covered with coastal western
hemlock-Sitka spruce forests. At higher elevations and on the steeper
slopes, the hemlock-spruce forest changes to a mixture of high brush,
moist tundra, and alpine tundra. The highest elevations contain alpine
tundra or are barren. The glaciers and the recent glacial moraines also
are barren. Most bays along the Subarea IV coast that have tributaries
of glacial origin also have a small tidal marsh and associated lowlands.
These lowlands are vegetated with grasses, forbs, sedges, and shrubs
similar to those of the Fox River Lowlands. The tidal marshes typically
are productive and may be important primary production areas for Kachemak
Bay invertebrates.
8.3.2. Aquatic biota
Comprehensive inventories have not been made of freshwater fish or
invertebrates in the streams of Subarea IV. Salmon have been reported
from most of the streams in Subarea IV, and the spawning areas have been
defined (Figure 61; adapted from Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning
Commission 1973b). Several of the salmon streams have only a short reach
that is used for spawning, but that reach may be utilized intensively.
Although all five species of Pacific salmon spawn in Subarea IV, most of
the escapement is of pink salmon. Pink salmon and chum salmon may spawn
in the intertidal zone as well as in the freshwater sections of the
spawning streams. Recent fish rehabilitation efforts by the Alask,
Department of Fish and Game have improved salmon returns
8-10
-------
MINERAL RESOURCES
MAJOR MINERAL
SECONDARY MINERAL
MINERAL PROVINCE BOUNDARY
COAL PROVINCE BOUNDARY
COAL PROVINCE BOUNDARY IN WATER
PETROLEUM PROVINCE BOUNDARY
COAL FIELD
OIL FIELD
GAS FIELD
POTENTIAL GEOTHERMAL AREA
8-11
-------
FIGURE 58
SUBAREA 4
-------
Table 54. Hydrologic data for streams in Subarea IV (USGS 1978)
River
English Bay River SE of
Alexandrov.sk
Drainage
Area
(square miles)
Period of
Record
12 March 1968
Seldovia River 7.5 miles SE
of Seldovia
1954
Fish Creek SE of
Seldovia
3.8
1967-1973
Seldovia Lagoon
Tributary E of
Seldovia
0.9
1967-1973
Kachemak Bay
Tributary 1.5 miles N
of Seldovia
Seldovia River 3.7
miles SE of Seldovia
Kachemak Bay
Tributary 2 miles N
of Seldovia
Barbara Creek near
Seldovia
0.7 1972-1973
1967-1968
1.3 1972-1973
20.7 1972-1975
Mean Annual
Discharge
(cfs)
99.0
83.2
7.9
1.9
1.2
54.0
3.7
81.1
Maximum
Discharge
(cfs)
166.0
25.0
8.3
3.7
72.0
9.4
744.0
Minimum
Discharge
(cfs)
0.5
0.98
0.17
0.17
36.0
0.34
16.0
-------
0
GEOLOGIC HAZARD
LANDSLIDE AND SLUMP
VOLCANIC AREA
i I I
FAULT ZONE
COASTAL EROSION
illinium
TSUNAMI HAZARD
EXTENT OF ICE
AREA OF SUBSIDENCE
POTENTIAL MELTWATER AND RUNOFF FLOODING
POTENTIAL GLACIAL OUTBURST FLOODING
8-14
-------
FIGURE 59
SUBAREA 4
8-15
-------
to Subarea IV and introduced chinook salmon to streams in Subarea IV.
Salmon stocked in Subarea IV, in the Homer Spit area, and in other areas
of the Cook Inlet region are hatched or reared at facilities at Tutka Bay
and at Halibut Cove. Most of the streams in Subarea IV contain Dolly
Varden char. Rainbow trout also are present in Subarea IV.
8.3.3. Mammals
The wildlife populations of Subarea IV are more typical of montane
regions than of the hills and lowlands of the Kenai Peninsula Lowlands.
Coyote, moose, and brown bear are not abundant or are not present in
large areas of Subarea IV. Muskrat and red fox are excluded from almost
the entire Subarea. Marten, mountain goats, and Dall sheep, which are
not present in the other Kenai Peninsula subareas, occur locally in Sub-
area IV. Wildlife concentrations and critical habitats in Subarea IV are
shown in Figure 62 (Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission
1973b).
Moose largely are restricted to the river valleys and the lower
hillsides along the southern shores of Kachemak Bay. Winter moose
ranges, probably the major factor that limits moose populations, are
indicated in Figure 62. Dall sheep are reported to be present on the
upper elevations near Bradley Lake, but are not reported from the re-
mainder of the Subarea. Mountain goats are found on the upper elevations
throughout Subarea IV. The Alaska Department of Fish and Game (1976)
expressed concern that logging was removing mountain goat winter range.
Winter mountain goat range also is identified in Figure 6Z.
Black bears are present in suitable habitat throughout Subarea IV,
and concentrations have been reported along most of the salmon streams
and in the vicinity of Halibut Cove (Figure 62). Brown bears are limited
to the northeastern section of Subarea IV. No critical brown bear
habitats have been reported.
Waterfowl overwinter in China Poot Bay and in the upper, sheltered
reaches of most other bays. The bays also provide feeding areas and
resting areas for migrating waterfowl and nesting areas for limited
numbers of some species. Seabirds, primarily gulls, cormorants, puffins,
and murres, nest along the rocky coast of Subarea IV. The most
intensively-used sites are on the small, steep, rocky islands that occur
off much of the coastline. The largest colony, on Gull Island, contains
approximately 3,000 nesting pairs of seabirds and is the third largest
seabird colony in the study area (Erikson 1977). Because it is easily
accessible by boat from Homer, the Island is a popular attraction for
photographers. Gull Island has been recommended for sanctuary status
(Erikson 1977).
8.4. Land and Water Use
8.4.1. Settlement patterns
Since prehistoric times the settlements in Subarea IV have been
close to the resources of Kachemak Bay and Cook Inlet. The present
communities of Seldovia, Port Graham, and English Bay have grown from
Native villages that were built on the small areas of comparatively level
ground available at the heads of fiords off Kachemak Bay and Cook Inlet.
8-16
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VEGETATION
COASTAL WESTERN HEMLOCK/SITKA SPRUCE
UPLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD
UPLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD/LOWLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD
UPLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD/HIGH BRUSH
LOWLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD
HIGH BRUSH
HIGH BRUSH BURNED
HIGH BRUSH BURNED/COASTAL WESTERN HEMLOCK/
SITKA SPRUCE
HIGH BRUSH/MOIST TUNDRA/ALPINE TUNDRA
LOW BRUSH/MUSKEG-BOG
MUSKEG
MOIST TUNDRA
WET TUNDRA
ALPINE TUNDRA/BARREN
ALPINE TUNDRA/BARREN/MOIST TUNDRA
MUD
8-17
-------
8-18
FIGURE 60
SUBAREA 4
VEGETATION
E*i6w!S»« 3W
MILES
f I 1
0 7
WAPORA, INC
OULL ISLAND
KOfVl*'
ELIZABETH ISLAND
CA«
-------
The marine resources have remained the principal income source for the
inhabitants of Subarea IV and are major components of the subsistence
lifestyle. Because the commercial fishing industry does not require
large population concentrations and because the land suitable for
residential and industrial use is scarce and is segmented by topography,
the populations in Subarea IV tend to be grouped in small fishing
villages.
8.4.2. Land ownership
Land ownership patterns in Subarea IV are shown in Figure 63
(adapted from Alaska Department of Natural Resources 1977). The
westernmost section of Subarea IV is in private (primarily Native
corporation) ownership. Most of the remainder is owned by the State of
Alaska or the Federal Government. There also are small, private holdings
along the shoreline, concentrated primarily around Yukon Island, Halibut
Cove, Seldovia, and Bear Cove. An area of 117,000 acres located
immediately south and east of Subarea IV has been proposed for inclusion
in the Kenai National Moose Range. The 420,000-acre Kenai Fiords-Harding
Ice Field National Monument southeast of Subarea IV was established by
Presidential decree during 1978. Some of the lands in Subarea IV
adjoining the southern shoreline of Kachemak Bay are in Kachemak Bay
State Park. These lands have been selected by the Seldovia Native
Corporation under d-2 provisions and may pass into private ownership.
The State is attempting to trade other. State-owned acreage for the
selected park lands (Anonymous 1978a).
8.4.3. Agriculture
There are no data on agriculture in Subarea IV. Truck gardens are
planted in suitable soils, but their products probably are used entirely
by the gardeners and their neighbors. It is unlikely that agriculture
would have a significant role in the economic base of Subarea IV because
of topographic limitations.
8.4.4. Forestry
Stands of Sitka spruce on the valleys and hillsides have been
harvested for several years. During 1978, timbering companies began to
expand the logging operations southwestward into the Koyuktolik Bay area.
One sawmill at Jakolof Bay saws cants for the Japanese market from
locally-cut logs.
8.4.5. Land-use planning
There is no comprehensive land-use plan for Subarea IV. The City of
Seldovia is developing zoning ordinances. Use of the large land areas
that will be conveyed to Natives under d-2 provisions will be controlled
by the Cook Inlet Native Corporation and the Native corporations of the
various villages in Subarea IV.
8.5. Socioeconomic Environment
8.5.1. Level of development
Subarea IV contains one first-class city, Seldovia, and a number of
8-19
-------
SALMON HABITAT
SALMON PRESENT
SALMON SPAWNING
8-20
-------
FIGURE bl
SUBAREA 4
SALMON HABITAT
VALLAPC BAT
CULl- ISLAND
UftlTfHA
IELDOVI*
CWGLlSW BAT
WW*®'
ELIZABETH ISLAND
CA*£ tU7AKT*e£
WAPORA, IMC
-------
smaller villages. Some are thriving, but others are almost extinct. The
smaller communities include Port Graham, English Bay, Halibut Cove, Bear
Cove, and the many small groups of people in almost every bay or cove.
Fishing, the major resource base, does not require large communities, and
the limited level land areas and difficulty of land transportation tend
to discourage large communities.
8.5.2. Demography
8.5.2.1. Population
The results of the 1970 census, the 1977 special census, and the
1978 special census are presented in Section 3.4.3.1. The results of the
1978 special census in Subarea IV and the surrounding area are presented
in Figure 64 (adapted from US Bureau of the Census 1978). Subarea IV
includes part or all of the Halibut Cove, Seldovia, English Bay, and Port
Graham precincts. Three of these precincts include areas south of the
Kenai Mountain Divide that are outside the study area, but populations in
that region are extremely sparse. Disregarding those small populations,
the total population of the four precincts (1,017) roughly approximates
the population of Subarea IV. These results cannot be compared directly
with the 1970 or 1977 census results because different boundaries were
used. However, if the Halibut Cove and Diamond Ridge enumeration
districts of the 1970 census and the Halibut Cove Precinct of the 1978
special census are disregarded, the remainder of Subarea IV is in units
that can be compared. The Seldovia, Jakalof Bay, Port Graham, English
Bay, and Chugach Islands enumeration districts of the 1970 census include
very nearly the same areas as the Seldovia, Port Graham, and English Bay
precincts used for the 1978 special census. The total population of this
area was 698 in 1970 and 932 in 1978. The data are not adequate to allow
comparisons of village populations between 1970 and 1978.
The population of Seldovia in 1970 was 437 (US Bureau of the Census
1973). In 1977 the population was estimated to be 612 (Alaska Department
of Community and Regional Affairs 1977).
The population of the entire Seldovia Precinct (which included the
lands around Soldovia shown in Figure 64) during the 1978 census was 582,
less than the estimate for the City of Seldovia alone in 1977. It is
possible that different population enumeration methods were employed or
that the 1977 estimates were optimistic.
The population projections for Seldovia that were presented in
Section 3.4.3.3. (Table 20) assumed that the 1977 population of Seldovia
was 612 and that a compound annual population growth rate of 5 percent
was appropriate. Under those conditions and with no impetus from 0CS
development, the population of Seldovia was projected to exceed 900 by
1987 and to reach 1,100 by 1992.
Projections that included medium case OCS development (Table 22)
indicated that an additional 140 persons would be present in Seldovia by
1988. It was predicted that if a major petroleum refinery and a natural
gas liquefaction plant were to be built in the North Kenai area, and if
construction were to begin during 1978, another 59 people would be added
to the population of Sedovia by 1988. There are no projections for the
population increases that would accompany the construction of a major
8-22
-------
WILDLIFE HABITAT
SEA LION HAULING OUT AREA
HARBOR SEAL
BLACK BEAR
BROWN BEAR
MOOSE
GOAT
CARIBOU
8-23
-------
FIGURE
SUBAREA 4
WILDLIFE HABITAT
§CA* CCHfl
DULL ISLAND
YUKON
ISLAND
uS.it
SCLOOVtA
CN6LISN BAT
POUT
C.RAHl
' ro«T
CHATHAM
ELIZABETH ISLAND
l
7
WAPORA, INC
-------
hydrocarbon facility in the southern Kenal Peninsula or the development
of a major bottomfish industry in the Kachemak Bay area.
8.5.2.2. Population composition
Data that describe the demographic and economic composition of
Subarea IV in 1976 are presented in Table 55. The most striking fact
about Seldovia was that whites constituted 74% of the population, as
compared with 97% to 98% for the other cities. The percentage of its
employed adults who were employed full time was 78%, significantly less
than in the other cities. The Bureau of Management and Urban Affairs and
the Anchorage Urban Observatory (1977) stated that the lower employment
in Seldovia reflected "the much higher unemployment rate among heads of
households who are natives and/or females." However, the percentage of
adults who were employed was significantly higher than in the other
cities. Twenty-seven percent of its household consist of one-person
households, and 48 percent of the households had no children. At the
same time, households with no adult males constituted 19 percent of the
total, as did those with no employed adults. Only 14 percent of its
families did not rely on subsistence for any of their food (compared with
21 percent in Homer, and over 40 percent in Kenai and Soldatna). Yet the
median family income of $21,600, although significantly lower than those
of Kenai and Soldotna, was slightly higher than that of Homer. A higher
proportion of adults employed in Seldovia, and the high percentage (81%)
of unemployed heads of households who receive unemployment compensation
in the previous years, may partially explain this level of income.
8.5.2.3. Employment
The occupations of Seldovia citizens in 1976 are summarized in Table
56. Fishing was the primary occupation, and a large percentage of the
workers in the other sectors were engaged in activities that supported
the fishing or the processing of the catch.
Table 56. Occupations of persons surveyed in Seldovia during August and
September 1976 (Bureau of Management and Urban Affairs and
Anchorage Urban Observatory 1977).
8.5.2.4. Hous ing
Sixty-seven percent of the homes in Seldovia in 1976 were
single-family residences, 18 percent were mobile homes, and 9 percent
were multi-family dwellings (Bureau of Management and Urban Affairs and
Occupation
Percent of
Total Employment
Professional, technical
Manager, official, proprietor
Clerical, sales
Craftman, foreman
Operative worker
Service Worker
Labor, fisherman
Farmer, farm manager
11.5
9.8
13.1
6.6
9.8
9.8
39.3
0.0
8-25
-------
LAND OWNERSHIP
FEDERAL LAND
STATE LAND
TENTATIVELY APPROVED PATENTED
TIDELAND PATENTS
MANAGEMENT RIGHTS SELECTION APPROVED PATENTED
TIDELAND PATENTS
INTERIM CONVEYANCE PATENTED
TIDELAND PATENTS
8-26
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AU*0«A
UAL I A*D BAY
1 UkC'H
ISLAND
EMGLISM BAT
•*> M>*r
ELIZABETH ISLAND
FIGURE 63
SUBAREA 4
LAND OWNERSHIP
MILES
——I 1
7
WAPORA, INC
GULL ISLAND
-------
FIGURE 64
SUBAREA 4
SPECIAL CENSUS DISTRICTS
STUMENA PRECINCT
(681)
ENGLISH BAY
PRECINCT
(110)
ELIZABETH ISLAND
CArt £U7A«CTh
WAPORA, INC
-------
Table 55. Demographic and economic composition of Seldovia, August - September,
1976 (Bureau of Management and Urban Affairs and Anchorage Urban
Observatory 1977).
Percentage of households with:
1 person 27
2 persons 23
3 persons 15
4 persons 14
5 persons 17
6 or more persons 4
No children 48
1 child 15
2 children 15
3 children 17
4 or more children 4
1 adult 33
2 adults 62
3 adults 2
4 or more adults 4
No adult males 19
1 adult male 73
2 adult males 4
3 adult males 4
4 or more adult males 0
No employed adults 19
1 employed adult 39
2 employed adults 39
3 employed adults 2
4 or more employed adults 2
Percent of all household members who are male 51.7
Percent of population in household that is:
0-9 years old 21
10-19 years old 19
20-59 years old 54
60 or more years old 5
Percent of all adults who are:
Employed 74
Unemployed 7
Other (retired/student/housewife) 19
Percent of all employed adults employed:
Full-time 78
Part-time 22
Locally 88
Within Borough 3
8-29
-------
Table 55. Demographic and economic composition of Seldovia (concluded).
Percent of household heads who worked 12
months in previous year 35
Percent of unemployed heads of household:
Receiving unemployment compensation in
previous 12 months 81
Not receiving unemployment compensation in
previous 12 months 19
Percent of employed heads of household employed in:
Agriculture/commercial fishing 37
Mining/oil and gas production 7
Construction 2
Manufacturing (lumber and fish processing, oil
and gas refining) 17
Transportation, communications, utilities 12
Wholesale and retail trade 5
Finance, insurance, real estate 5
Services (hotel, law, medicine, etc.) 7
Government 7
Other 0
Median school years completed, all adults 12
Median total family income $21,600
Percent of all household members who are:
White 74
Eskimo 1
Aleut 12
Native not specified, Indian, Black, Asian 13
Percent of family's food supply from subsistence
None
I
-------
Anchorage Urban Observatory 1977). Most of the single-family and mobile
homes were occupant-owned, and most of those who lived in mobile homes
owned the land on which the homes stood. Half of the homes were not
encumbered. The average costs for the other homes were appreciably less
than were the costs for homes in the other first-class cities in the
study area. Approximately 50 percent of the homes in Seldovia were
adjacent to graveled or paved roads. City water supplied 88.6 percent of
the homes, 64.2 percent were connected to city sewers, and approximately
64 percent had telephone service. Most of the homes were heated by oil.
The housing vacancy rate during the 1976 survey was 5.4 percent. This
indicated that the housing market was flexible but could not withstand a
major population influx.
8.5.3. Utilities
8.5.3.1. Water supply
Water and sewage collection services are provided in Port Graham and
in Seldovia. In Port Graham, water is piped from a small impoundment to
individual residences. The available flow averages approximately 50
gallons per minute.
An impoundment on an unnamed tributary provides the primary water
source for Seldovia. This primary reservoir has a capacity of 6 million
gallons. A diversion on nearby Fish Creek that holds approximately
500,000 gallons provides a secondary source. However, leaks from the
primary reservoir result in a significant loss of water, and silting in
of the basin and destruction of the diversion by floods have reduced the
usefulness of the secondary reservoir. Also, water from the secondary
source is of doubtful purity, and in the present system it bypasses the
treatment plant. Seldovia has encountered water shortages, and continued
shortages are predicted. The average water consumption was approximately
460,000 gallons per day in 1976 (Waites and Brogan 1977b). Approximately
100,000 gallons per day were used by industry. The remainder was resi-
dential consumption. The large residential usage volume was attributed
to wastage resulting from the absence of water meters and the continuous
winter flows maintained to prevent freezing. Tryck and others (1976)
projected a 600,000 gallon per day usage in the year 2000, based on
increased domestic usage but without consideration of Industrial demands.
The projection was based on a slow population growth rate (3% per year),
which could be upset easily by petroleum development in the Lower Cook
Inlet. Proposed industries, including the recently approved fish pro-
cessing facility, would place additional demands on the water system. If
surplus water becomes available, it may be used for petroleum exploration
and development activities. The Tryck, Nyman and Hayes study (1976)
recommended improvements to the water system that Included:
• Repair of water lines from the primary reservoir
• Elimination of leakage from the primary reservoir
• Construction of a better dam at the Fish Creek source
• Provision of treatment for water from Fish Creek
8-31
-------
• Protection of the primary and secondary watersheds
• Construction of a 250,000-gallon storage tank
• Expansion of the area served by the system.
8.5.3.2. Sewage disposal
In Port Graham, sewage is treated in multiple-residence septic
systems. In Seldovia, the sewage is collected from approximately 75 per-
cent of the buildings by a City-operated system and then is emptied into
Seldovia Bay without treatment.
8.5.3.3. Electricity
Electricity is provided to Seldovia by the Homer Electric
Association (HEA). HEA also operates generators at Port Graham and
English Bay.
8.5.3.4. Telephone service
Glacier State Telephone Company provides telephone service to
approximately 120 stations in Seldovia. A RCA radio-telephone provides
service to a single telephone at Port Graham and another at English Bay.
8.5.3.5. Point-source discharges
There are three point-source dischargers with NPDES permits in
Subarea IV: the City of Seldovia (municipal wastewater), the Wakefield-
Pacific Pearl Company at Seldovia (seafood-processing wastes), and the
Whitney-Fidalgo Company at Port Graham (seafood-processing wastes). The
Seldovia Native Association recently won approval from the City of
Seldovia to purchase City land to construct the first phase of a $600,000
salmon, herring, and bottomfish processing plant (Anonymous 1978d). When
completed, this plant also would require a NPDES point-source discharge
permit.
8.5.3.6. Solid waste disposal
The Kenai Peninsula Borough operates landfills at Seldovia, Port
Graham, and English Bay. There are no other publicly-operated solid
waste disposal sites in Subarea IV.
8.5.4. Transportation
The City of Seldovia operates a wharf 40-feet wide and 220-feet
long. The wharf is used by the State ferry system, fishermen, small
tankers, freighters and the US Coast Guard. The marine traffic at the
Seldovia City Dock and the air traffic at the Seldovia, Port Graham and
English Bay airports provide communication between Subarea IV and the
remainder of Alaska. Airports in Subarea IV are listed in Table 57.
There are no highways in Subarea IV. A State-maintained road
connects Seldovia with logging operations at Jakolof Bay, and there are
logging roads across some of the Subarea. The City of Seldovia maintains
six miles of unpaved roads. Land travel between Port Graham, English
Bay, and Seldovia is by footpath.
8-32
-------
Table 57. Airport facilities in Subarea
Administration 1978).
IV (National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Airport Name
Halibut Cove
Jakalof Bay
Seldovia
English Bay
Port Graham
Location
Mouth of Halibut Cove
4.3 mi. E of Seldovia
0.9 mi. E of Seldovia
Adjacent to town
Adjacent to town
Runway
Length (ft)
600
1,100
2,600
1,800
1,800
Runway
Surface
Unpaved
Gravel
Gravel
Gravel
Gravel
Facilities
None
None
Also sea-
plane basin
None
None
-------
8.5.5. Social services
8.5.5.1. Educational facilities
There are three schools in Subarea IV (Table 58). Students unable
to attend these schools may receive their education from public-financed
correspondence courses and local, State-paid, part-time, or temporary
tutors. The data indicate that enrollment is slightly less than capacity
in all three schools, but that OCS development or any other development
that would significantly enlarge the population of Subarea IV would
exceed existing classroom capacity.
Table 58. Kenai Peninsula Borough schools in Subarea IV (CH M Hill, Inc
1978a). 2
School Grades Enrollment Capacity
English Bay K-8 18 25
Port Graham K-8 33 50
Susan B. English K-12 168 230
(Seldovia)
8.5.5.2. Police protection
Seldovia has one police officer and one police vehicle. Two State
Troopers, one in Homer and one in Anchor Point, are responsible for the
remainder of Subarea IV.
8.5.5.3. Fire protection
Seldovia has two pumper trucks, one jeep pumper truck, and 24
volunteers. The volunteer fire department provides services to Seldovia
and to the parts of the surrounding area that can be reached by road or
by trail.
8.5.5.4. Other services
The City of Soldotna operates an outpatient clinic staffed by a
doctor, two nurses, and a visiting dentist. The City has 48 acres of
parks and is attempting to acquire an additional 2.5 acres of beach
parkland from the State. The new $200,000 library has approximately
5,000 books. It is staffed by volunteers. Nonresidents may use the park
and library facilities at no charge.
8.5.6. Public finances
Selected financial data for the City of Seldovia are presented in
Table 59.
Seldovia has had a fluctuating deficit each year over the period
from 1970 to 1976. Both expenditures and revenues have risen. The
former increased by 125 percent over the period. Even with a significant
increase in the millage rate in 1976, property taxes rose by a smaller
percentage than expenditures over the period from 1971 to 1976. The
8-34
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Table 59. Selected financial data for the City of Seldovia, 1970-1976
(CH^M Hill, Inc. 1978a; Waites and Brogan 1977c).
Year
(ending Expendi tures Revenues
20 June) (5) (S)
102,172 117,128
19?1- 109,098 129,835
1972 91,521 130,008
1973 133,751 127,335
197*» 160,065 134,720
"75 172,592 199,835
197& 230,332 219,582
Heal and
Personal
Property Sales
End-year Assessed Tax
Balance Value Race
(S) (1 niillion) .'tillage (*>
(85,222) MA1 — 0.0
(66,148) 2,549,960 « 0.0
(57,758) 2,476,795 -- 0.0
(6,856) 3,293,970 13.50 0.0
(32,002) 3,786,300 13.50 0.0
(4,099) 3,736,300 13.50 0.0
(16,249) 5,181,424 16.50 1.0
Debt ratios (FY 1976)
Assessed value $6,733,035
Direct debt 505,000
Direct and overlapping debt 631,907
Ratio of direct debt to assessed value (percent) 7-S
Ratio of direct and overlapping debt to assessed value (percent) 9.1
Population 612
Assessed value per capita $11,002
Direct debt per capita 325
Direct and overlapping debt per capica 1,033
Revenues (FY
Revenue source
Property tax
Sales tax
State-shared revenue
Dock revenues
Small boat harbor
Sewer fees and assessments
Airport contract
Other
Total
Revenue
$62,499
17,436
28,966
34,353
17,485
22,981
16,603
74,348
$275,671
Percent
22.7
6.3
10.5
12.5
6.3
8.3
6.0
27.4
100.0
Expenditures (FY 1976)
Expenditure Item
Government administration
Police department
Fire protection
Harbor and dock
Maintenance
Transfers to other funds
Other
Total
^NA " Data not available.
Expenditure
$62,499
16,314
3,154
17,356
57,918
71,224
29,911
$287,766
Percent
8-35
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increase in the millage rate was for the water system, which in previous
years had been supported by a service area levy of 3.0 mills. The sales
tax was instituted in 1976. Seldovia's debt ratios were the highest of
any of the cities in the study area, and its assessed value per capita
was the lowest — only half that of Homer. The property and sales taxes
accounted for a relatively small proportion of its revenues. Dock and
harbor revenues and government assistance provided most of the revenues.
The largest expenditures were for administration, maintenance, and
transfers to other funds (including debt service). They accounted for 79
percent of general fund expenditures in 1976.
An important component of Seldovia's financial status in 1976 was
its eligibility for HUD Community Development Block Grant monies, which
it could use directly or as local matching funds. The grant was for
$496,000, of which $123,00 was applied in 1977 for capital improvements.
The remainder was to be disbursed over the next two years. The Economic
Development Administration (EDA) also provided $390,000 for improvements
to the water system, and Seldovia has requested an additional $650,000
from EDA for the system in 1979. Other grants received by Seldovia
included:
• $149,000 from EDA for the City's health facility
• $10,000 (plus 10,000 in local matching funds) from the State
Department of Transportation for dock improvements
• $150,000 (plus $50,000 in local matching funds) from the State of
Alaska for library improvements.
8.5.7. Public attitudes toward development
Public attitudes in Seldovia were reported by the Bureau of Manage-
ment and Urban Affairs and the Anchorage Urban Observatory (1977).
Seldovia had a population of 582 in 1978. Fifty-two percent preferred a
city size of 700, and 28 percent one of 700 to 1,500. At the extremes, 4
percent preferred a population of 700 or less, and 8 percent preferred
one of 3,000 to 10,000.
The predominance of commercial fishing and the small-boat harbor in
the economic life of the City was preferred. The third-ranked sector was
education, with onshore facilities (and related transport) ranked as
least-preferred. Tourism and the small-boat harbor received anomalous
rankings. Tourism was ranked second (behind commercial fishing) of nine
sectors as the first choice for the most-desired type of development, but
only seventh in terms of the percentage of the City residents who would
encourage it. The small-boat harbor, which was ranked second in terms of
sectors that should should be encouraged, was the least-desired sector.
The percentage of those responding favorably to the location of
onshore facilities in the area was the lowest of the three cities in the
study area. (This question was not asked in Homer). Seventy-three
percent of the respondents in Seldovia thought that a supply base in the
area should be prevented, and 70 percent indicated that oil and natural
gas facilities should be located outside the City.
8-36
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In summary, a majority of the residents of Seldovia wanted con-
ditions to remain the same. They did not favor population growth, they
were wary of oil and natural gas development, and they preferred that
growth occur in the renewable-resource sector (fishing/harbors) and the
education sector.
8.6. Cultural, Historical, Archaeological, and Aesthetic Resources
Subarea IV has a rich history of Native, Russian, and American
endeavors, and contains some of the most beautiful terrain in the study
area. It has steep mountains, fiords, glaciers, and ice fields.
The Alaska Heritage Resource Survey (AHRS) Master File (Alaska
Department of Natural Resources 1979) lists 92 sites in Subarea IV.
These include important sites of Native occupation, especially those of
the Kachemak Bay Eskimos. In addition, there are significant remnants of
the Russian period and of Early American activities. The Cook Inlet
Region Inventory of Native Historic Sites and Cemeteries (Cook Inlet
Native Association 1975) lists 48 sites in Subarea IV. There is
considerable overlap between the two sources, although the latter
inventory does not include English Bay and the areas south of English
Bay. It is very likely that additional sites will be discovered and that
the significance of known sites will be determined more completely.
8.6.1. Nat ive period
Archaeological evidence indicates that Subarea IV was inhabited for
thousands of years by Eskimo peoples. The discussion of the Kachemak Bay
Eskimo in Section 6.6.1. is pertinent to the Native period of Subarea IV.
The available data are more numerous for this subarea than for any other.
Even today, there are residents of English Bay and Port Graham who speak
Suxston Eskimo (locally-termed Aleut; Workman 1974). The origin of these
communities is not known, but they may extend back to the Kachemak Bay
Eskimo period. Rock paintings were found at three locations in Subarea
IV. Those on Yukon Island were simple, vertical streaks of red paint.
The paintings found on Bear Island and at Sadie Cove were small in scale
and exhibited considerable artistry. The paintings are believed to be of
Eskimo origin (De Laguna 1934).
The Eskimo culture in Subarea IV lasted longer than in any other
part of the study area. Finally, as in the other subareas, the Tanaina
Athabaskan Indian group spread to Subarea IV. "Why much of Kachemak Bay
was ultimately abandond after 2,000 years or more of successful occupancy
remains one of the pressing provisions for future research" (Workman
1974). There are indications of trade and conflict between the Eskimo
and the Tanaina, and subsequent Tanaina artifacts show a strong Eskimo
influence. Future studies In Subarea IV may lead to a better understand-
ing of the transitional period between Eskimo and Tanaina cultures. It
is possible that the Native presence may date back beyond 5,500 years in
Kachemak Bay, as it has on Kodiak (Workman 1974).
8.6.2. Russian period
It Is believed that the Russian explorer A. I. Chirikov sighted Cape
Elizabeth on 1 August 1741 (Sherwood 1974). There seems to have been a
8-37
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period without further Russian activity, between 1741 and 1786, during
which more attention was paid to the Aleutian Islands, Kodiak Island, and
the Alaska Peninsula. In May 1778, Captain James Cook sighted Cape
Elizabeth. After exploring the inlet that now bears his name, the
expedition continued onward. By the time the English returned, the
Russians had become established in Cook Inlet (Sherwood 1974).
The Shelikhov-Golikov Company established a post at English Bay
called Alexandrovsk. The Russians initially concentrated on the pro-
fitable fur trade. The potential for other resource exploitation was
apparent after the discovery of coal deposits near the mouth of Port
Graham in 1786 by the English explorer Portlock. He named the area Coal
Harbor (now Coal Cove). Small quantities of the coal were used occasion-
ally by Russian vessels until full-scale mining was started in 1855 by
the Russian-American Company (Barry 1973). The mine was the first in
Alaska and may have been the first on the Pacific Coast of North America.
Although more than 2,700 tons of coal were mined from 1857 to 1862, the
inefficient operation and low grade of the coal resulted in financial
loss. The mine continued to supply small amounts of coal for local use
until 1867 (Barry 1973).
8.6.3. American period
The American purchase of Alaska resulted in the transfer of the
holdings of the Russian-American Company to a new firm known as the
Alaska Commercial Company. The US Census of 1880 listed the population
of Seldovia-Ostrovki as 74 and the population of Alexandrovsk (English
Bay) as 88. By 1890 the population of Seldovia had grown to 99 and that
of English Bay had increased to 107 (Pedersen 1976). Development was
slow and centered on fishing and trapping. Seldovia began to grow
consistently, while Port Graham and English Bay remained small. Salmon
canneries helped to spur the local economies. Fur farming became pro-
fitable after World War I. After the decline in fur prices, local
economies again turned to fishing. Herring were an important product
until the resource was depleted. The economy of Subarea IV rose and fell
with the fishing industry's fortune. The king crab fishery increased,
and in 1963 Seldovia appeared to be headed for an economically-sound
future (Pedersen 1976).
The increased population brought problems as well as economic
prosperity. Then the 1964 earthquake struck. The waterfront of Seldovia
was lowered by up to 4 feet, and the higher tides inundated the area. A
controversial urban renewal scheme changed the old town substantially.
The town was slow to recover but now appears to be thriving again.
8.6.4. Sites in the National Register of Historic Places
Subarea IV includes three sites listed in the National Register of
Historic Places and one site that has been designated as a National
Historic Landmark. The multitude of other known sites and the likelihood
of significant new discoveries make it possible that additional locations
will be afforded protection. The discussion of the sites that follows is
based on information from the Master File of the Alaskan AHRS, from the
Final Environmental Impact Statement of the Proposed 1976 Outer Continen-
tal Shelf Oil and Gas Lease Sale. Lower Cook Inlet,and from other sources
sources as noted.
8-38
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Chugachik Island (Indian Island) is listed in the National Register
of Historic Places. It is located near the head of Kachemak Bay. Shell
middens have been found adjacent to a number of coves on the island.
Excavations have revealed a large number of artifacts, and the site has
been described as the best representative of the Kachemak II (possibly
Sub—III) tradition in Kachemak Bay (Bureau of Land Management 1976). The
main midden is approximately 300-yards long and from 8-feet to 10-feet
deep. The site is subject to tidal erosion. It has been designated as
SEL 033 by the AHRS.
The Coal Cove Village Site, located near Port Graham, is listed in
the National Register of Historic Places. The site was called English
Bay by the Russians and is believed to date from as early as 1787. The
site contains the remains of the Russian-American Company's coal-mining
venture during the mid-1800s. The mine probably was the first on the
Pacific coast of North America (Barry 1973). Only structural
foundations, mine depressions, and parts of a small railroad remain
today. The site is owned by the State of Alaska, but is under Native
claim. It has been designated as SEL 021 by the AHRS.
The Coal Cove Village Site, located near Port Graham, is listed in
the National Register of Historic Places. The Site is located on the
north shore of Port Graham and is privately owned. It is hoped that the
unexcavated, large shell midden will provide valuable insights into the
prehistory of the area. The AHRS designation for this Site is SEL 054.
The Yukon Island Main Site has been designated as a National
Historic Landmark. It is on Yukon Island in Southwestern Kachemak Bay,
almost due south from Homer. The site includes a large midden that was
examined by Dr. Frederica De Laguna in the early 1930s. It was important
in her formulation of the Kachemak Bay tradition. The site was damaged
by the 1964 earthquake, and the remains of the midden now are subject to
tidal erosion (Bureau of Land Management 1976). The site is under
multiple ownership and has been designated as SEL 001 by the AHRS.
The importance of Subarea IV is demonstrated by the large number of
identified sites and by their significance. A great deal of work remains
to be done, and careful consideration should be given to the preservation
of all archaeological and historic resources.
8-39
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9.0. SUBAREA V
9.1. Subarea V Boundaries
Subarea V consists of that part of the Bachatna Flats south of the
West Foreland and less than 200 feet MSL elevation. Subarea V is
bordered on the north by the study area boundaries (an east-west
extension of a line between the Cook Inlet Forelands), on the west and
south by the Subarea VI boundaries, and on the east by the waters of
Redoubt Bay. The boundaries, topography, and major landform features of
Subarea V are illustrated in Figure 65 (adapted from Joint Federal-State
Land Use Planning Commission 1973b).
9.2. Physical Environment
9.2.1. Landforms
The northeastern section of Subarea V consists predominantly of
alluvial land, tidal marsh, and tidal flats. The topography is nearly
level and elevations generally are less than 100 feet MSL (Figure 65).
The alluvial land is dissected by many streams and sloughs, which may
change position with time. Similar landforms exist near the mouth of
Redoubt Creek and at Harriet Point.
There is an area of rough, broken land northwest of Harriet Point.
The land surface in this area consists of sandstones and conglomerates of
the Tyonek, Hemlock, and West Foreland formations. The remainder of
Subarea V includes the lower slopes of steep, mountainous terrain. Rock
formations in these areas are composed of intrusive rocks and weakly
metamorphosed sedimentary rocks. This mountainous topography is
dissected by broad, flat-bottomed valleys and floodplains associated with
the North Fork River, Montana Bill Creek, the Drift River, and Redoubt
Creek. Floodplains also are associated with Harriet Creek, Cannery
Creek, and other small tributaries of the Cook Inlet.
9.2.2. Geology
9.2.2.1. Surficial geology
The surficial geology of Subarea V consists predominantly of
tertiary siltstones, sandstones, and conglomerates overlain by
Pleistocene and Holocene sediments (Figure 66; adapted from Magoon and
others 1976). Unconsolidated sediment consists of glacial drift and
recent alluvial deposits. Alluvial material is mostly sand, silt, and
clay that was deposited in deltas and floodplains. The alluvium was
derived largely from glaciers in the Aleutian Range and was transported
by the Drift River, the Big River, and the North Fork River. Coastal
regions of Subarea V are characterized by tidal marsh and tidal flats of
fine-grained sediments that have been reworked by the tidal action of
Redoubt Bay (Rao & Wolff 1975; Magoon and others 1976).
Subarea V lies on the northwestern flank of the Matanuska-Wrangell
Forearc Basin (Magoon and others 1976). It is bounded on the west by
surface exposures of undifferentiated metasedimentary rocks (Jurassic
and/or Cretaceous) and the Talkeetna Formation (Lower Jurassic). The
9-1
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9-2
-------
FIGURE 65
SUBAREA 5,6A
TOPOGRAPHY
ACIER
DOUBL,
SUBAREA 5
KAL6IN ISLAND
.r c
CHISIK ISLAND
SUBAREA 6B
MILES
1
WAPOHA. INC.
-------
major structural feature of the Subarea is the Bruin Bay Fault, a buried
thrust fault that trends northeast-southwest through the area (Figure
66).
9.2.2.2. Soils
Soils in Subarea V were formed over glacial drift and recent
alluvium and probably are variable. At present, there are no soil data
for Subarea V.
9.2.2.3. Geologic resources
Coal
The Beluga Coalfield contains a high grade of low sulphur lignite
and subbituminous coal in the Beluga and Tyonek Formations of the
Tertiary Kenai Group (Magoon and others 1976; Rao and Wolff 1975). The
Beluga Coalfield (described in Section 3.2.2.) may underlie Quaternary
deposits in Subarea V. In recent years, this area has been explored
extensively. The geologic structure is simple, and the coal beds are
well-suited for exploration.
Oil and gas
Subarea V is in a region of high petroleum potential (Alaska
Department of Natural Resources n.d.). Potential reservoir rock consists
predominantly of sandstones and conglomerates (Tertiary) of the Kenai
Group (Magoon and others 1976). Oil and gas also may exist in upper
Mesozoic rocks beneath Subarea V (Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning
Commission 1974a). It is possible that the Bruin Bay Fault or other
minor faults may act as structural traps. None of the oil and gas wells
that have been drilled in Subarea V have been productive.
Metallic minerals
Subarea V belongs to the Redoubt Mining District. There is no
record of any mining in the Subarea. The Aleutian Range to the southwest
and west of Subarea V offers some potential for metallic mineral develop-
ment, but the potential for development in Subarea V is very low (Figure
67, Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission 1973b; Joint
Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission 1974c).
Nonmetallic resources
No information concerning nonmetallic resources of Subarea V is
available. Potential nonmetallic resources include alluvial sand and
gravel from the numerous streams and clay from the tidal flats.
9.2.2.4. Geologic hazards
Geologic hazards in Subarea V consist largely of flooding and wave
damage, ash falls from volcanic eruptions, and earthquake-related damage
(Figure 68; adapted from Alaska Department of Natural Resources 1978b).
The nearly level topography of the tidal marsh and alluvial land creates
a high potential for flooding. Because the North Fork River, the Big
River, and the Drift River are glacial streams, flooding from glacial
9-4
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GEOLOGY
SYNCLINE
CONTACT
ANTICLINE
NORMAL FAULT - DOTTED WHERE CONCEALED
U-UPTHROWN SIDE
D-DOWNTHROWN SIDE
THRUST OR REVERSE FAULT - DOTTED WHERE CONCEALED
SAWTEETH ON UPTHROWN BLOCK
-------
FIGURE 66
SUBAREA 5,6A
GEOLOGY
SUBAREA 5
KALG1N ISLAND
r
CHISIK ISLAND
IlIAMMA
VOLCANO .
SUBAREA 6A /
SUBAREA 6B -v
-------
outbursts may occur. Glacial outbursts of the Drift River may be trig-
gered by volcanic activity of the Redoubt Volcano. Landslides, rock-
falls, mudslides, and avalanches may occur in mountainous regions to the
west of Subarea V; however, these hazards would not affect the majority
of the Subarea.
Potential earthquake-related hazards include vibration damage,
ground fissures, ground subsidence or uplift, horizontal displacement,
landslides or avalanches (on the western border of the Subarea), and
tsunamis. Due to the nearly level character of Subarea V, wave damage
from tsunamis could extend inland for large distances.
Subarea V is located less than 25 miles northeast of the Redoubt
Volcano, an active and potentially eruptive volcano (Magoon and others
1976). Potential hazards associated with this volcano include ash falls,
lava flows, gas clouds, mud flows, landslides, flash floods, corrosive
rains, lightning discharges, earthquakes, and tsunamis. Although most of
these phenomena are local in their effects, flash flooding and ash falls
may present a serious hazard in the Subarea. The activity of the Redoubt
Volcano is summarized in Section 3.1.1.2. (Table 1). During 1966, the
heat generated by the Redoubt Volcano during a period of activity melted
snowfields on the flank of the volcano and caused severe flooding of the
Drift River floodplain.
9.2.3. Water resources
9.2.3.1. Surface water hydrology
Subarea V is dissected by a complex system of streams and sloughs.
The major streams of the subarea are Bachatna Creek, West Fork, North
Fork, South Fork, the Big River, the Seal River, Montana Bill Creek, Rust
Slough, and the Drift River. At present, there are no hydrology data for
any of these streams. However, the following conclusions can be made
based on previous studies of similar environments:
• Glaciers in the Aleutian Range are the primary source of water
for the streams of Subarea V
• The spring and summer stream flows are derived primarily from
glacial meltwaters. High sediment loads and low concentrations
of dissolved solids are associated with these flows
• During the winter, streams have low flows that are sustained by
groundwater recharge; dissolved solids concentrations probably
increase because of the contributions from groundwater and
encroachment of saline water from Redoubt Bay
• Water levels, flows, and water quality at the mouths of channels
and streams are subject to the tidal action of Redoubt Bay
• There is a potential for flooding caused by ice jams and glacial
outbursts.
9.2.3.2. Groundwater resources
There are no groundwater hydrology data for Subarea V. The prima'
9-7
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MINERAL RESOURCES
MAJOR MINERAL
SECONDARY MINERAL
MINERAL PROVINCE BOUNDARY
COAL PROVINCE BOUNDARY
COAL PROVINCE BOUNDARY IN WATER
PETROLEUM PROVINCE BOUNDARY
COAL FIELD
OIL FIELD
GAS FIELD
POTENTIAL GEOTHERMAL AREA
9-8
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FIGURE 67
SUBAREA 5,6A
MINERAL RESOURCES
SUBAREA 5
SUBAREA
KAL6IN ISLAND
CHISIK ISIANO
wJUAWMA
> J/CFtfANp'
SUBAREA 6B
WAPORA, INC
1
»0
-------
sources of groundwater probably are sand and gravel deposits In alluvium
and glacial drift, and underlying tertiary sandstones and conglomerates.
9.3. Biological Environment
Ecologically, Subarea V is distinctly different from the surrounding
lands of the study area. Subarea V is the southernmost member of a
series of lowlands or flats originating east of the Susitna River.
Although the flats overlie the huge, untapped Beluga Coalfield, it
essentially is undisturbed except at the mouth of the Drift River where a
petroleum storage site is operated. Drilling sites and their service
roads are scattered through the area.
9.3.1. Vegetation
Much of Subarea V is treeless. The upper intertidal zone supports
sparse sedge and marsh grasses. Farther inland the vegetation becomes
thicker but remains predominantly wetlands (muskeg). The muskeg is
broken by occasional potholes, tidal guts, and streams. Along the
streams, the largest of which is the Drift River, alluvial deposits have
formed natural dikes vegetated by spruce-hardwood or occasional stands of
Sitka spruce-western hemlock. Where higher ground rises from the muskeg,
brush becomes the prominent form of vegetation. The flats are dotted
with sharp, rocky outcropplngs and lower, more gentle mounds. The mounds
support white spruce or Sitka spruce at the upper levels, grading into
black spruce and then into muskeg. The outcrops and mounds become more
abundant toward the western boundary of the flats, and mixed
spruce-hardwoods become the prominent form of vegetation. The vegetation
is mapped in Figure 69 (adapted from Joint Federal-State Land Use Plan-
ning Commission 1973b). The vegetation types are described in Section
3.3.
The Bachatna Flats support concentrations of black bears and brown
bears in the spring and along the salmon streams in the summer (Figure
70; adapted from Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission 1973b).
The most significant value of the Flats as wildlife habitat is in the
numbers of nesting/ and migrating waterfowl that use them. Timm (1976)
reported 29,369 breeding waterfowl on the Flats adjoining Redoubt Bay and
Trading Bay. During migration the Flats are major staging areas for
geese and ducks. The Alaska Department of Fish and Game (1976) considers
the Bachatna Flats critical habitat for waterfowl. The Drift River and
other streams crossing Subarea V are spawning streams for pink salmon and
silver salmon, but the runs are comparatively small. The salmon streams
are mapped in Figure 71 (adapted from Federal-State Land Use Commission
1973b).
9.4. Land and Water Use
Subarea V is populated only by the workers at the Drift River
Terminal, the residents of cabins along the south shoreline of the West
Foreland, and seasonal residents of fishing cabins along the West
Foreland and the Bachatna Flats shoreline. There are no population data
specific to Subarea V. The land in Subarea V primarily is owned by the
Federal Government; exceptions are several small private holdings.
(Figure 72; adapted from Alaska Department of Natural Resources 1978b).
9-10
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GEOLOGIC HAZARD
0
LANDSLIDE AND SLUMP
— VOLCANIC AREA
1 I I
11 III 111 H111
FAULT ZONE
COASTAL EROSION
TSUNAMI HAZARD
EXTENT OF ICE
AREA OF SUBSIDENCE
POTENTIAL MELTWATER AND RUNOFF FLOODING
POTENTIAL GLACIAL OUTBURST FLOODING
9-11
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FIGURE 68
SUBAREA 5,6A
GEOLOGIC HAZARD
SUBAREA 5
REDOUBT
VOLCAHO
SUBAREAK6A
¦ r
CHJSIK tSLANO
ILiAMMA
VOLCANO
miles
SUBAREA 6B
-------
At present there is no reported agriculture in Subarea V and no
reported commercial timber usage. Most of the land probably is too wet
to support cultivated crops, but possibly could produce hay or could be
used for pasture land. Most of Subarea V is open grassland and shrubs.
The few stands of spruce and other trees are of little commercial timber
value.
There is no zoning or comprehensive land use plan for Subarea V.
The Alaska Division of Lands, the Bureau of Land Management, and the
Kenai Peninsula Borough may be involved in land use planning for Subarea
V. In large part, land use in Subarea V will depend on the economic and
other factors that will determine development of the coal resources under
the Bachatna Flats.
9.5. Socioeconomic Environment
With the exception of the Drift River Terminal and a few cabins and
fish camps (setnet sites) along the shoreline, Subarea V is undeveloped.
Employment probably consists entirely of jobs at the Drift River Terminal
and seasonal fishing. The Terminal employees probably will maintain
their permanent residences outside Subarea V.
The Drift River Terminal has a small domestic wastewater treatment
facility and potable water system. Wastewater disposal and water data
for other parts of the Subarea V are not available. There is no public
telephone, electrical, or other public utility service to Subarea V.
There are no licensed solid waste disposal sites in Subarea- V. The Drift
River Terminal is the only NPDES permit holder in Subarea V. The
Terminal discharges sanitary wastes and industrial wastewater associated
with cleaning and maintenance.
Transportation to Subarea V is by boat, airplane, or helicopter.
There is an unpaved airstrip at the Drift River Terminal that is suitable
for most light planes, and there are several small "bush" airstrips along
the coast that may be used by experienced bush pilots in specially-
adapted light airplanes. Equipment and supplies for the Drift River
Terminal are brought in by aircraft or by boat. The Drift River Terminal
loads approximately half of the total tonnage shipped from Cook Inlet
each year.
There are no educational facilities in Subarea V. There is no
public fire protection. Police services are provided by State Troopers
from Anchorage and from the Kenai Peninsula. No library or other social
services are provided in Subarea V.
There are no public finance data specific to Subarea V. Property
would be taxed by the Kenai Peninsula Borough. There are no retail trade
establishments and, presumably, there is no sales tax collected. There
are no data that describe the attitude of the residents toward economic
development.
9.6. Cultural, Historical, and Archaeological Resources
There has been very little archaeological investigation of the
9-13
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VEGETATION
COASTAL WESTERN HEMLOCK/SITKA SPRUCE
UPLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD
UPLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD/LOWLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD
UPLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD/HIGH BRUSH
LOWLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD
HIGH BRUSH
HIGH BRUSH BURNED
HIGH BRUSH BURNED/COASTAL WESTERN HEMLOCK/
SITKA SPRUCE
HIGH BRUSH/MOIST TUNDRA/ALPINE TUNDRA
LOW BRUSH/MUSKEG-BOG
MUSKEG
MOIST TUNDRA
WET TUNDRA
ALPINE TUNDRA/BARREN
ALPINE TUNDRA/BARREN/MOIST TUNDRA
MUD
9-14
-------
-------
western shoreline of Cook Inlet. In recent times the area was occupied
by the Tanaina Indians.
The Alaska Heritage Resource Survey Master File (Alaska Department
of Natural Resources 1979) lists one site in Subarea V. There are three
sites noted in the Cook Inlet Region Inventory of Native Historic Sites
and Cemeteries (Cook Inlet Native Association 1975). The limited number
of known sites reflects the lack of field studies in Subarea V.
9.6.1. Native period
There is little information on the Native period in Subarea V. The
possibility of early settlement of Kustatan by Eskimo peoples was
indicated by the discovery of artifacts that were suggestive of types
characteristic of the Kachemak Bay Eskimo (De Laguna 1934). Data on
settlement by the Tanaina are limited. De Laguna (1934) described a
"modern village" of Tanaina from Polly Creek at Kustatan. Trails in the
area indicate the presence of the Tanaina in less recent times (Cook
Inlet Native Association 1975).
9.6.2. Russian period
Little specific information was available relevant to Russian
presence in Subarea V. Because of the importance of the fur trade, it is
likely that there were occasional Russian contacts with Natives near
Kustatan. A map showing areas of contact between Russians and Aborigines
is not detailed enough to document occurrences in Subarea V (Fedorova
1971).
9.6.3. American period
Subarea V has changed little under American rule. What activity has
occurred has centered around Kustatan and the Drift River. Fishing has
been the main industry of the area and several canneries were in
operation in the 1930s (Cook Inlet Native Association 1975). The dis-
covery of offshore oil and natural gas in Cook Inlet led to the building
of the Drift River Petroleum Terminal at the mouth of the Drift River.
9.6.4. Sites in the National Register of Historic Places
There are no sites in Subarea V that are listed in the National
Register of Historic Places. A description of the Kustatan area is
contained in the Cook Inlet Region Inventory of Native Historic Sites and
Cemeteries (Cook Inlet Native Association 1975). Future investigations
may reveal significant historical sites.
9-16
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WILDLIFE HABITAT
* 1 ¦ I » I ¦ i '
» * * » < 4 » 1 *
*.-» ¦ * - - -«
'v'v^V-V^^
! ft: '• l*\ i s !••! i:
SEA LION HAULING OUT AREA
HARBOR SEAL
BLACK BEAR
BROWN BEAR
MOOSE
GOAT
CARIBOU
SALMON HABITAT
SALMON PRESENT
SALMON SPAWNING
9-17
-------
FIGURE 70
SUBAREA 5,6A
WILDLIFE HABITAT
SUBAREA 5
DfflFT
REDOUBT
VOLCANO
SUBAREA K6A
KALGlN ISLAND
CHISIK ISLAND
)L!AMMA
VOLCANO
MILES
WAPORA.INC
SUBAREA ;6B
-------
-------
10.0 SUBAREA VI
10.1. Subarea VI Boundaries
Subarea VI includes all of the study area on the western side of
Cook Inlet; except for the Bachatna Flats (Subarea V). It is bounded on
the north by the study area boundary and Subarea V, on the west by the
study area (Kenai Peninsula Borough) boundary, on the south by the Katmai
National Monument and the study area boundary (a line extending west from
Cape Douglas), and on the east by Cook Inlet. The boundaries and major
terrain features in Subarea VI are presented in Figures 65 and 73
(adapted from Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission 1973b).
10.2. Physical Environment
10.2.1. Landforms
Subarea VI includes part of the Chigmit Mountains of the Aleutian
Range, other mountains of the Aleutian Range south of Kamishak Bay, and
part of the southern end of the Alaska Range that extends into the north-
western quarter of Subarea VI. These mountains dominate the Subarea VI
landform. The tallest peaks are more than 10,000 feet MSL, and extensive
areas are more than 5,000 feet high (Figures 65 and 73). The mountain
ranges have been scoured by glaciers, and U-shaped, steep-walled valleys
and knife-edge ridgelines typical of glaciated terrain are the
characteristic forms in Subarea VI. Extensive glaciers still overlie
terrain above 5,000 feet, and many glaciers extend much lower on the
mountain slopes. The very difficult terrain and the extensive glaciated
and barren rock areas are major barriers to the establishment of plants
and to human movement.
There are no extensive lowlands or plateaus in Subarea VI. Lowland
terrain is restricted to the lower hills and mountain slopes, valleys,
and small coastal lowlands, particularly near the mouths of rivers that
are of glacial origin. Lower terrain occurs at the southern end of the
Chigmit Mountains between Kamishak Bay and Iliamna Lake, In the Polly
Creek area north of Tuxedni Bay, and on the Iniskin Peninsula.
10.2.2. Geology
10.2.2.1. Surficial geology
Subarea VI is located on the northwestern flank of the
Matanuska-Wrangell Forearc Basin. Rocks of Subarea VI are faulted
internally and folded. The principal structural feature in the area is
the Bruin Bay Fault, which extends through the region from northeast to
southwest. Magoon and others (1976) consider this to be a high-angle
reverse fault that juxtaposes Jurassic granitic rock and early Jurassic
and pre-Jurassic sedimentary rocks on the west side against middle
Jurassic and younger sedimentary rocks on the east. Sedimentary rocks on
the southeast or downthrust side of the fault are steeply dipping to
overturned. Figures 66 and 74 (adapted from Joint Federal-State Planning
Commission 1973b) depicts the geologic formations and major structural
features in Subarea VI.
10-1
-------
LAND OWNERSHIP
FEDERAL LAND
STATE LAND
TENTATIVELY APPROVED PATENTED
T1DELAND PATENTS
MANAGEMENT RIGHTS SELECTION APPROVED PATENTED
T1 DEL AND PATENTS
INTERIM CONVEYANCE PATENTED
T1 DEL AND PATENTS
10-2
-------
FIGURE 72
SUBAREA 5,6A
LAND OWNERSHIP
OOC'BlE GlAC/E*
DffiFT
RE DOUBT
VOLCANO
SUBAREA }6A
¦r e«£*
CHIS1K fSlAND
ILIAMMA
VOLCANO
chinitn*
SUBAREA 6B
-------
FIGURE 73
SUBAREA 6B
TOPOGRAPHY
URSUS COVE
AUGUSTINE ISLANO
\ (VOLCANO)
BRUIN
A BAY
MILES
£
-------
Exposures of Tertiary volcanic rocks occur throughout the southern
half of the area. They are most prevalent southwest of Subarea VI in the
vicinity of Iliamna Lake. Exposures of Quaternary lava flows occur at
the Redoubt, Iliamna, Mt. Douglas, and Augustine Volcanoes.
Pleistocene and Holocene sediments occur in the floodplains of major
streams throughout the area. Deposits probably consist of alluvial
gravel, sand, silt, and clay.
10.2.2.2. Soils
Soils are formed over exposed rock throughout most of Subarea VI and
over alluvial sediment in the floodplains. Erosion generally has
prevented the soils on the hillsides and mountain slopes from becoming
well developed. The soils of Subarea VI have not been mapped.
10.2.2.3. Geologic resources
Coal
The northeastern part of Subarea VI is located in the Beluga
Coalfield (Figures 67 and 75; adapted from Joint Federal-State Land Use
Planning Commission 1973b). The Beluga (Tertiary) and Tyonek (Tertiary)
formations of the Beluga Coalfield are estimated to contain large amounts
of high grade, low-sulfur coal. At present the Beluga Coalfield is un-
developed. There is little or no potential for coal development through-
out the remainder of Subarea VI.
Oil and gas
Oil and gas resources currently are being developed from offshore
oil fields in the West Foreland region (Magoon and others 1976). Oil and
gas resources also may exist east of Subarea VI in Cook Inlet. The oil
and gas exists predominantly within the Hemlock and Tyonek Formations
(Tertiary). Upper Mesozoic (upper Jurassic and Cretaceous) rocks also
may contain oil and gas reservoirs (Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning
Commission 1974c). The potential for oil and gas development within
Subarea VI generally is considered to be moderate to low.
Metallic minerals
Subarea VI lies within the Redoubt Mining District. Figures 67 and
75 depict areas that show high potential for mineral development.
Although local metal production has been insignificant, several lode
deposits are of significant size (Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning
Commission 1974c). Mineral deposits are predominantly magnetite, which
occurs in faults and fractures near plutons in metamorphosed volcanic and
sedimentary rocks.
Nonmetalllc resources
There are no data available on nonmetallic resources in Subarea VI.
However, potential resources may include sand and gravel from alluvial
deposits, clay from glacial drift or tidal flat deposits, and limestone
from the Kamishak Formation (Triassic).
10-5
-------
GEOLOGY
SYNCLINE
CONTACT
ANTICLINE
NORMAL FAULT - DOTTED WHERE CONCEALED
U-UPTHROWN SIDE
D-DOWNTHROWN SIDE
THRUST OR REVERSE FAULT - DOTTED WHERE CONCEALED
SAWTEETH ON UPTHROWN BLOCK
10-6
-------
-------
Potential geologic hazards in Subarea VI include flooding, wave
damage, volcanic activity, landslides and avalanches, and earthquake-re-
lated damage. The major potential geologic hazards that may occur in
Subarea VI are presented in Figures 68 and 76 (adapted from Alaska
Department of Natural Resources 1978b).
Earthquake-related hazards include vibration damage, ground
fissures, ground subsidence or uplift, horizontal displacement,
landslides and avalanches, and tsunamis. Hazards related to volcanic
activity include lava flows, ash falls, fissures, gas clouds, mudflows,
landslides, glacial outburst floods, corrosive rains, lightning
discharges, earthquakes, and tsunamis. Most of these hazards are local
in their effects, but ash falls and corrosive rains may affect large
areas. Potentially eruptive volcanoes within Subarea VI include Mt.
Augustine and Redoubt Volcano (Magoon and others 1976). Other volcanoes
include Mt. Douglas (quiescent), Iliamna Volcano (active but recently
quiescent), and Mt. Spurr (active but recently quiescent).
10.2.3. Hydrology
10.2.3.1. Surface water hydrology
Most of Subarea VI is characterized by mountainous terrain that is
dissected by numerous rivers and streams. Although deep canyons and
ravines are the most common features, broad, level floodplains and deltas
occur. Both glacial and non-glacial streams are present in Subarea VI.
Major glacial streams include the Drift River, Redoubt Creek, the North
Fork River, the Lake Fork River, the Tuxedni River, the Johnson River,
the Red River, West Glacier Creek, and numerous streams associated with
Mt. Douglas. Because they are of glacial origin, these streams can be
expected to have large sediment loads and potentials for glacial
outbursts. There are no stream flow data or surface water quality data
for Subarea VI.
10.2.3.2. Groundwater resources
Groundwater resources in Subarea VI have not been described.
Existing geologic information suggests that the most important aquifers
of the subarea consist of sandstone formations and sand and gravel
deposits in alluvium and glacial drift.
10.3. Biological Environment
The biological resources of Subarea VI have received little
attention because access is difficult, because the area is undeveloped,
and because human usage is infrequent. Vegetation south of Ursus Cove is
unmapped, game and fish populations have not been inventoried, and
critical habitats largely are undefined.
10.3.1. Vegetation
The vegetation north of Ursus Cove is mapped in Figures 69 and 77
(adapted from Joint Federal—State Land Use Planning Commission 1973b).
The higher elevations are barren glacier and rock, or are alpine tundra.
Below the alpine tundra, the slopes and lower hilltops generally are
10-8
-------
MINERAL RESOURCES
MAJOR MINERAL
SECONDARY MINERAL
MINERAL PROVINCE BOUNDARY
COAL PROVINCE BOUNDARY
COAL PROVINCE BOUNDARY IN WATER
PETROLEUM PROVINCE BOUNDARY
COAL FIELD
OIL FIELD
GAS FIELD
POTENTIAL GEOTHERMAL AREA
10-9
-------
FIGURE 75
SUBAREA 6B
MINERAL RESOURCES
UftSUS CCVi
AUGUSTINE ISLAND
\ (VOLCANO)
/ V BRUIN
cp-
CAPE
DOUGtA#
Miles
WAPORA, INC
-------
brush-covered. Well-drained lower slopes support upland spruce/hardwood
forests, or stands of Sitka spruce or western hemlock. Poorly-drained
lowlands are muskeg. South of Bruin Bay the land is swept by strong
winds, and the prevailing weather conditions are more severe than farther
north. In this region the timberline is at lower elevations than farther
north, and even the lowest slopes may not support forests. Sedges,
saltgrasses, and, where silt loads are light, eelgrass grow on the tidal
flats.
10.3.2. Aquatic biota
Except for salmon, the aquatic biota of Subarea VI have not been
inventoried. Invertebrate and fish populations probably are similar in
many respects to those found in the Kenai River system, but may be
modified by the more severe weather conditions and possibly poorer
nutrient loads in Subarea VI. Rainbow trout, burbot, and northern pike
are absent from the Cook Inlet drainage in most of Subarea VI, but are
present west of the Chigmit Mountain divide in the Iliamna Lake-Lake
Clark drainage. Dolly Varden are present in suitable habitat throughout
Subarea VI.
Salmon streams in Subarea VI are comparatively short, and there are
fewer large rivers and large lakes than on the Kenai Peninsula.
Consequently, the salmon species that typically use smaller streams and
coastal streams are the most common species in Subarea VI. Salmon
spawning areas in Subarea VI are mapped in Figures 71 and 78 (adapted
from Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission 1973b). Pink
salmon, coho salmon, and chum salmon are the most common species.
Sockeye salmon spawn in the Packer Creek system on Kalgin Island, in
Crescent Lake and its tributaries, in several smaller lakes, and in the
Kamishak River system, the Little Kamishak River system, and in several
small streams tributary to Kamishak Bay (Alaska Department of Fish and
Game 1978a). King salmon spawning has been reported in Subarea VI in the
Little Kamishak River and in the McNeil River.
Several potential salmon streams are blocked by waterfalls at the
mouth and cannot be ascended by salmon. The Alaska Department of Fish
and Game has studied the possibility of removing these obstacles to
spawning. If such action is taken, the Paint River in lower Kamishak Bay
probably would be one of the first rivers to be opened.
10.3.3. Mammals
The major mammal concentrations and critical habitats reported in
Subarea VI are shown in Figures 70 and 79 (adapted from Joint
Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission 1973b). The ranges and
habitats of the wildlife in Subarea VI are limited by elevation barriers
to movement and other ecological barriers. Moose are present in the
valleys and on the lower slopes in most of Subarea VI, but critical
habitats are reported only in the upper end of valleys on the Iliamna
Lake drainage. Caribou are reported to range into Subarea VI south of
Kamishak Bay, but no concentrations have been reported. Black bear range
over the lower elevations in much of northern Subarea VI, but are much
less common south of the Iniskin Peninsula and rarely have been reported
in the southern part of Subarea VI. Spring feeding areas that hold
10-11
-------
GEOLOGIC HAZARD
^ LANDSLIDE AND SLUMP
VOLCANIC AREA
FAULT ZONE
COASTAL EROSION
TSUNAMI HAZARD
EXTENT OF ICE
AREA OF SUBSIDENCE
POTENTIAL MELTWATER AND RUNOFF FLOODING
POTENTIAL GLACIAL OUTBURST FLOODING
1 I 1
;,V w;
ir-
Pitt
10-12
-------
FIGURE 76
SUBAREA 6B
GEOLOGIC HAZARDS
U*SUS*£QV£
AUGUSTINE ISLANO
V \[VOLCANO)
MOUNT
DOUGLAS
MILES
WAPORA, INC
-------
concentrations of black bears have been reported for several areas in the
northern half of Subarea VI. Principal areas include the coastal
lowlands along northern Tuxedni Bay and the south- and east-facing
hillsides overlooking the Drift River, Montana Bill Creek, and the
Bachatna Flats.
Brown bear concentrations have been reported in denning areas, along
salmon streams, and in spring feeding areas. Brown bear spring feeding
concentrations have been reported on the Bachatna Flats and the
surrounding hillsides, and on the flats at Tuxedni Bay. South of Tuxedni
Bay the lowlands that occur at the heads of most bays are spring feeding
areas for brown bears. Most of the salmon spawning streams south of
Tuxedni Bay are feeding areas for brown bears during the salmon spawning
runs. One major denning area, on the McNeil River, is in Subarea VI.
Most of this denning area and one major concentration are in the McNeil
River Bear Sanctuary.
Dall sheep and mountain goats are absent from Subarea VI. Most of
the furbearers and predatory mammals found on the Kenai Peninsula are
present in Subarea VI.
Much of the coastline and adjacent lands in Subarea VI are important
waterfowl and seabird habitat. Ducks, geese, and shorebirds feed and
nest along the tidal flats and the many streams, rivers, and tidal guts
entering the Inlet. Staging areas for migrating ducks and/or geese have
been reported on the mud flats off the Douglas River, in Bruin Bay,
Chinitna Bay, Tuxedni Bay, and on Kalgin Island. The few bays that
remain ice-free hold overwintering seaducks.
Seabird colonies are abundant on the small islands and on the steep,
rocky shoreline that comprise much of the coast. The largest seabird
colony in Cook Inlet is at the Tuxedni National Wildlife Refuge on Chisik
Island and Duck Island in Tuxedni Bay. Erickson (1977) reported
approximately 75,000 seabirds, primarily gulls, murres, and puffins, at
the refuge during his summer survey in 1976.
The western coastline also is important habitat for sea otters and
harbor seals. The present, expanding Cook Inlet sea otter population
probably arose from a few sea otters around Augustine Island or the
shores of Kamishak Bay that were missed by pelagic fur hunters before the
turn of the century. Sea otter life history and habitat requirements are
discussed in Section 3.3.
Several species of clams are found along the coast of Subarea VI.
The razor clam is the only species harvested in any quantity, although
other edible species are present and often are numerous. Most of the
harvested razor clams from Subarea VI are collected from the Polly Creek
area, on the north coast of Tuxedni Bay, by recreation clam diggers.
Polly Creek supports an intermittent, small commercial clam fishery.
10.4. Land and Water Use
There are no permanent settlements in Subarea VI except for Iniskin
Village on the Iniskin Peninsula and a group of residences around Tuxedni
Bay and the Snug Harbor Cannery. Historically, there were trading posts
10-14
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VEGETATION
COASTAL WESTERN HEMLOCK/SITKA SPRUCE
UPLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD
UPLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD/LOWLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD
UPLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD/HIGH BRUSH
LOWLAND SPRUCE/HARDWOOD
HIGH BRUSH
HIGH BRUSH BURNED
HIGH BRUSH BURNED/COASTAL WESTERN HEMLOCK/
SITKA SPRUCE
HIGH BRUSH/MOIST TUNDRA/ALPINE TUNDRA
LOW BRUSH/MUSKEG-BOG
MUSKEG
MOIST TUNDRA
WET TUNDRA
ALPINE TUNDRA/BARREN
ALPINE TUNDRA/BARREN/MOIST TUNDRA
MUD
10-15
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FIGURE 77
SUBAREA 6B
VEGETATION
UfiSUS COVE
AUGU5TINC ISLAND
K (VOLCANO)
BRUIN
A BAY
¦2&<
>V.\<-.v,
livVv?'
MILES
<«
-------
and Native villages in Subarea VI, but during the past century
populations were not large.
Subarea VI is Federally-owned with the exception of few parcels of
private land smaller than 100 acres, a few parcels of State-owned land on
the Iniskin Peninsula, and the State-owned McNeil River Bear Sanctuary
(Figures 72 and 80; adapted from Alaska Department of Natural Resources
1978b). One national wildlife refuge and two national monuments are in,
or partially in, Subarea VI (Figure 81; adapted from Joint Federal-State
Land Use Planning Commission 1973b). The Katmai National Monument covers
2,399,000 acres south of Kamishak Bay and the Tuxedni Wildlife Refuge on
Chisik Island at the mouth of Tuxedni Bay was established to protect
seabirds. The Lake Clark National Monument, approximately 2.4 million
acres, was formed by Presidential action during 1978.
Disposition of the remaining lands will be determined by withdrawals
and selections under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act and the
Alaska Statehood Act. The McNeil River Sanctuary may be expanded. The
Katmai National Monument was expanded by Presidential action. Most of
the remaining lands between the McNeil River Sanctuary and the Lake Clark
National Monument have been selected by Native corporations and probably
will be conveyed to them or will be incorporated in the proposed Iliamna
National Wildlife Refuge.
There are no data on agriculture in Subarea VI. Most of the
agriculture in Subarea VI probably is gardening for domestic use.
No commercial forestry has been reported in Subarea VI. The Joint
Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission (1973a) estimated that there
were approximately 45,000 acres of commercial grade timber in Subarea VI
between Iniskin Bay and the Drift River. Commercial species primarily
were white spruce, Sitka spruce, and poplar. There are no commercial
sawmills in Subarea VI.
There is no comprehensive land use plan for Subarea VI. The State
of Alaska, the Cook Inlet Native Corporation and village corporations,
the Kenai Peninsula Borough, the US Bureau of Land Management, the US
Fish and Wildlife Service, and the US National Park Service, each have a
role in land use planning in Subarea VI.
10.5. Socioeconomic Environment
10.5.1. Demography
There are no population data, housing data, or employment data
specific to Subarea VI. Most of the population of Subarea VI is con-
centrated around Tuxedni Bay and the Snug Harbor Cannery on Chisik
Island. The cannery is the only industry in Subarea VI and may be the
most important single employer. Most of the remainder of the population
probably is engaged in commercial fishing and subsistence activities.
Part of the population is seasonal, present only during the summer or
part of the summer.
10.5.2. Utilities
There are no public utilities in Subarea VI. Snug Harbor Cannery
operates its own water supply, sanitary waste system, radio communica-
10-17
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SALMON HABITAT
SALMON PRESENT
SALMON SPAWNING
WILDLIFE HABITAT
SEA LION HAULING OUT AREA
HARBOR SEAL
BLACK BEAR
BROWN BEAR
MOOSE
GOAT
CARIBOU
10-18
-------
FIGURE 78
SUBAREA 6B
SALMON HABITAT
U*SUS COVE
AUGUSTINE ISLAND
\ (VOLCANO)
BR JIN
A BAY
MOUNT
DOUGLAS
WAPORA, INC
1
10
k
-------
FIGURE 79
SUBAREA 6B
WILDLIFE HABITAT
URSUS cove
AUGUSTINE ISLANO
V (VOLCAMP!
BRUIN
A BAY
WAPOHA, INC
£
£
-------
tions, and electrical system. There are no data on private utilities.
Other residents probably obtain water from surface water sources or from
wells, and dispose of sewage in septic systems, privies, or by other
methods.
The Snug Harbor Cannery is the only point discharge source in
Subarea VI. The cannery discharges ground fish parts and processing
wastes. There are no licensed solid waste disposal sites in Subarea VI.
10.5.3. Transportation
Access to Subarea VI is by boat over Cook Inlet, by aircraft, or
overland during the winter when lakes, rivers, and muskeg are frozen.
There are no roads into Subarea VI, and there are only two unpaved roads
in the Subarea. One lies between Chinitna Bay and the village of
Iniskin; the other follows a narrow-gauge marine railroad that was used
to haul fishing boats overland between Iliamna Bay on Cook Inlet to Pile
Bay on Iliamna Lake. There are four unpaved "bush" airstrips in Subarea
VI. There is no scheduled air service or marine ferry service to Subarea
VI.
10.5.4. Social services
There are no libraries, public fire protection, or educational
facilities in Subarea VI. Police protection is provided by Alaska State
Troopers stationed outside Subarea VI.
10.5.5. Public finances
There are no financial data specific to Subarea VI. Taxes are
collected by the Kenai Peninsula Borough, and expenditures for Subarea VI
are primarily by the Borough or the State of Alaska. Tax code areas that
include parts of Subarea VI are presented in Section 3.5.
10.6. Cultural, Historical, and Archaeological Resources
As noted in the discussion of Subarea V, only minimal archaeological
investigations have been conducted on the western shores of Cook Inlet.
The Lake Clark-Iliamna Lake area, west of Subarea VI, incorporates many
significant prehistoric and historic sites, but the connection of those
artifacts to possible sites in the study area is not defined. Native
trails apparently were used for travel between Cook Inlet and Lake Clark
and Iliamna Lake (Cook Inlet Native Association 1975).
The Alaska Heritage Resource Master File (Alaska Department of
Natural Resources 1979) lists eight sites in Subarea VI. Seven sites are
included in the Cook Inlet Region Inventory of Native Historic Sites and
Cemeteries (Cook Inlet Native Association 1975). There is substantial
overlap between the two sources. Future investigations may discover
additional significant locations.
10.6.1. Native period
Early Eskimo culture in Subarea VI is suggested by the cave paint-
ings at Tuxedni Bay and the midden on a rocky point at the mouth of the
Crescent River (De Laguna 1934). More modern sites appear to be of
10-21
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LAND OWNERSHIP
FEDERAL LAND
STATE LAND
TENTATIVELY APPROVED PATENTED
T1DELAND PATENTS
MANAGEMENT RIGHTS SELECTION APPROVED PATENTED
T1DELAND PATENTS
INTERIM CONVEYANCE PATENTED
TIDELAND PATENTS
10-22
-------
FIGURE 80
SUBAREA 6 B
LAND OWNERSHIP
u*sus cove
AUGUSTINE ISLAND
\ (VOLCANO)
BRUIN
(\BAY
MOUNT
DOUGLAS
MILES
WAPORA, INC
-------
FIGURE 81
SUBAREA 6B
MCNEIL RIVER BEAR SANCTUARY AND
KATMAI NATIONAL MONUMENT
uhsus cove
AUGUSTINE ISLAND
V (VOLCANO)
BDUIN
r\etr
MCNEIL RIVER
BEAR SANCTUARY
KATMAI
NATIONAL
MONUMENT
£
-------
Tanaina origin. This would be consistent with the inferred pattern of
cultural succession in other sections of the study area. The life-styles
of the Eskimo and Tanaina of Subarea VI probably were similar to those of
the peoples of Subarea IV. This conclusion is based on the similarity of
the artifacts and paintings thought to be Eskimo by De Laguna to those of
the Katchemak Bay tradition. As for the Tanaina, De Laguna recounts
informant reports that the Polly Creek clan supposedly drifted across
Cook Inlet on the ice. To the extent that this represents an origin on
the Kenai Peninsula, it is reasonable to suppose that the Tanaina
cultures on both sides of Cook Inlet shared similar cultures.
10.6.2. Russian period
Little specific information was available. The presence of "an old
Russian and later American trading post" on Iliamna Bay is noted in the
Cook Inlet Region Inventory (Cook Inlet Native Association 1975). The
Russian post on Iliamna Lake may have been reached by portage from
Iliamna Bay. In any case, it is likely that Russian explorers, fur
traders, and missionaries passed through Subarea VI on at least an
occasional basis.
10.6.3. American period
The remote and inhospitable nature of much of Subarea VI has limited
development. Access is only feasible by boat or aircraft, and the
frequent storms and other severities of the weather make many endeavors
difficult.
At the head of Iliamna Bay, the small town of Williamsport is
located at the eastern terminus of a road that connects with Pile Bay on
Iliamna Lake. This is the only maintained road in the area. It
primarily is used to transport fishing boats (and to some degree,
supplies) between Cook Inlet and Bristol Bay.
Limited mineral prospecting has not resulted in commercial mining.
Oil exploration focused on the Dry Bay-Oil Bay area, but the efforts of
the early 1900s did not result in producing fields.
Fishing in Cook Inlet, and to some extent in the less-exposed bays
adjacent to Subarea VI, continues as a modest industry. The cannery on
Chisik Island is the only operating facility on the west side of Cook
Inlet. The clam beds of Polly Creek Beach attract many weekend clam
diggers during the clamming season. The area also attracts small numbers
of hunters and fishermen.
The future development of this area may be influenced by new
petroleum exploration in the Lower Cook Inlet. It is impossible to
predict what significant discoveries would mean to Subarea VI. The
remoteness and limited accessibility of this subarea may constrain
development for many years.
10.6.4. Sites in the National Register of Historic Places
There are no sites in Subarea VI that are listed in the National
Register. It is possible that sites may be discovered in the future
10-25
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11.0 SUBAREA VII, LOWER COOK INLET CENTRAL SUBAREA
11.1. Subarea VII Boundaries
The boundaries of Subarea VII are delineated in Figure 82 (adapted
from Joint Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission 1973b). The Lower
Cook Inlet Central Subarea includes the open water of Cook Inlet between
Kachemak Bay and the southern Kenai Peninsula on the east and Kamishak
Bay and the Iniskin Peninsula on the west. The southern boundary of
Subarea VII is the southern boundary of the study area (a line between
Cape Douglas and Cape Elizabeth), and the northern boundary is a line
between Chinitna Point on the Iniskin Peninsula and Anchor Point on the
Kenai Peninsula. Subarea VII includes only two relatively short segments
of coastline: a segment approximately 20-miles long between Chinitna
Point and Oil Bay, and a segment of approximately 50 miles from Point
Pogishi to Cape Elizabeth.
11.2. Bathymetry and Oceanography
With the exception of shallow areas off the mouth of Kachemak Bay
(14 fathoms or 84 feet) and the southern shore of the Iniskin Peninsula
(12 fathoms or 72 feet), Subarea VII is more than 20-fathoms (120-feet)
deep. The largest depths, ranging from approximately 50 to 100 fathoms
(300 to 600 feet), occur at the mouth of Cook Inlet along the southern
boundary of the subarea. Farther north, from the center of the Subarea
to its northern boundary, the maximum depth encountered is approximately
30 fathoms (180 feet).
Tidal action is the predominant circulatory mechanism. There is net
inflow of water from the Gulf of Alaska on the east side of the inlet and
an outlow along the western side of the inlet. Upwelling of inflow
waters may contribute substantially to the high productivity of Kachemak
Bay. Turbid, low-salinity water, originating from glacial runoff in
Upper Cook Inlet, enters Subarea VII from the north, flows southward
through the Subarea and Kamishak Bay, and eventually flows out through
the Shelikof Straits (Figure 7; Burbank 1977). Circulation may be
relatively sluggish in the middle of the Inlet. Circulation patterns for
Cook Inlet as a whole are discussed in Section 3.1.3.1.
The waters of Subarea VII are slightly more saline during the cooler
months than during the summer when the increased runoff volumes from
tributaries to the Inlet decrease the salinity slightly. Sediment loads
in the southern part of the Subarea are low, ranging from approximately 2
mg/1 on the eastern side to approximately 20 mg/1 on the western side.
The differences reflect the inflow of clear, Gulf of Alaska water on the
east side and the outflow of water carrying glacial silt on the west side
(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 1977). Near the
northern boundary of Subarea VII silt loads may be larger.
Substrates in Subarea VII predominantly are poorly-sorted sands with
areas of shells and shell fragments, gravel, cobbles, and boulders. There
are extensive fields of sand waves that are presumed to be dynamic.
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FIGURE 82
MARINE HABITAT
EEL GRASS BED
SEA BIRD COLONY
WATER FOWL STAGING AREA
MACROPHYTE KELP BED
TRAWL SHRIMP MAJOR CATCH
AREA
DUNGENESS CRAB MAJOR CATCH
AREA
KING CRAB AND TANNER CRAB
MAJOR CATCH AREA
KJkUISHAK BAY
WAPOftA, INC.
-------
11.3. Geologic Resources
There are no proven reserves of oil or gas in this marine subarea.
However, Che 1977 Lower Cook Inlet Lease Sale clearly demonstrated that
the major oil companies are interested in the production potential of
parts of Subarea VII. As indicated in Section 3.1.1.3., the highest
three royalty and bonus bids received from the lease sale were for tracts
near Anchor Point, a tract midway between Anchor Point and Augustine
Island, and tracts near the mouth of the Lower Cook Inlet. These high
bids can be considered a reliable indicator of the areas where the com-
panies expect to find substantial amounts of oil and gas.
Lease Sale No. 60 for Lower Cook Inlet-Shelikof Straits, scheduled
for 1981, will offer additional areas in Subarea VII. The results of
this offering will provide further evidence of the potential hydrocarbon
resources of the Lower Cook Inlet.
11.4. Biological Environment
Primary production in Subarea VII is from both phytoplankton and
attached macrophytes. Phytoplankton probably account for a larger pro-
portion of the total primary production in Subarea VII than in either
Kachemak Bay or Kamishak Bay because of the larger proportion of deep
water, which is too deep to support attached macrophytes. Larrance
(1976) reported that the peak phytoplankton productivity coincided with
the onset of thermal stratification during late May and that
phytoplankton production was not nitrogen limited. There are kelp beds
along the short segments of shoreline in Subarea VII and eelgrass beds at
Port Graham, at Bede Point, and in Koyuktolik Bay (Figure 82). The
Koyuktolik Bay Lagoon eelgrass bed is one of the largest in the State of
Alaska (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 1977).
The fauna of Subarea VII are pelagic, demersal, and benthic forms
characteristic of both the shallower subtidal region and the continental
shelf. Communities in the deeper regions probably are net importers of
fixed energy. The principal benthic primary consumers are clams (Feder;
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 1977). Several species
of shrimp, Tanner crabs, king crabs, halibut, and herring are present.
Along with migrating salmon they represent the commercial seafood species
present in Subarea VII. The 1978 commercial catch results are presented
in Table 9. The major shellfish fishing areas are shown in Figure 82.
Subarea VII includes parts of the Southern, Kamishak, and Barren Islands
Commercial Fisheries Regulatory Districts; data specific to the Subarea,
however, are not available. The salmon harvest in those districts was
principally pink salmon, coho salmon, and chum salmon. Halibut
apparently are abundant in parts of Subarea VII. Blackburn (1977)
reported maximum catches of approximately 40 halibut per 20-minute trawl.
The biggest catches that he reported were from the eastern side of
Subarea VII near the mouth of Kachemak Bay and from Kamishak Bay
immediately west of the Subarea. Blackburn (1977) also reported maximum
catches in the subarea exceeding 100 pounds per 20-minute trawl for
Pacific cod, butter sole. Tanner crab, walleye pollack, and Irish lords.
His catches indicate that a potential commercial groundfish resource is
present. This resource is likely to be exploited during the next decade.
11-4
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Most of the pelagic sea mammals listed in Section 3.2.1.5. are
present at least occasionally in Subarea VII. Concentrations of most
species have not been defined. There is one Steller sea lion hauling-out
area tn the Subarea on Elizabeth Island (Figure 83; adapted from Joint
Federal-State Land Use Planning Commission 1973b). Another large
hauling-out area is located in the Barren Islands, south of Cook Inlet.
Sea lions from both areas may feed in Subarea VII. No large
concentrations of harbor seals have been reported, but harbor seals are
abundant on some of the nearby beaches (Figure 83) and probably feed in
and migrate through the Subarea. Sea otter concentrations have been
reported tn the adjacent waters of Kamishak Bay and Kachemak Bay. The
sea otter range extends along the Cook Inlet coastline in Subarea VII to
south Kachemak Bay, and sea otters from other areas feed in the Subarea.
Pelagic seabirds, including murres, gulls, shearwaters, fulmars,
puffins, cormorants, seaducks, and others are present in Subarea VII.
Erickson (1977) reported that pelagic seabirds were sparse in Lower
Central Cook Inlet during the winter, but that during the summer some of
the densest concentrations of pelagic seabirds in Cook Inlet were in
Kachemak Bay and off the coast of the lower Kenai Peninsula in the
western part of Subarea VII. Seabird colonies in Subarea VII are at the
mouth of Oil Bay, on Flat Island, and on Elizabeth Island. The US Fish
and Wildlife Service (1978b) reported almost 4,000 seabirds, mostly
tufted puffins, in the Flat Island Colony.
11-5
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MILES
1
WAPOd*. IKC.
~ SEA LION HAULING OUT AREA
HARBOUR SEAL
£553 BLACK BEAR
f 1 BROWN BEAR
r~i MOOSE
GOAT
FIGURE 83
WILDLIFE HABITAT
11-6
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12.0. SUBAREA VIII, KAMISHAK BAY
12.1. Subarea VIII Boundaries
Subarea VIII includes all of Kamishak Bay west of a line between Oil
Bay on the Iniskin Peninsula to the north and Cape Douglas to the south
(Figure 82).
12.2. Bathymetry and Oceanography
Kamishak Bay is a broad, shallow, open embayment. Almost half the
Bay is less than 10-fathoms (60-feet) deep, and there are only a few
small areas more than 30-fathoms (180-feet) deep. In general, the
deepest waters of Kamishak Bay are in the southeastern sector.
East of Augustine Island most of the Bay is less than 10-fathoms
(60-feet) deep, and there are extensive shelves and shallows only a few
feet deep during low tide (National Ocean Survey 1977). The floor of the
Bay is uneven and rocky; outcrops and reefs are numerous.
Kamishak Bay is a relatively low energy environment. Tidal currents
that average less than 0.5 mile per hour are the main circulatory force.
The net circulatory movement through Kamishak Bay carries silt-laden
water from the western side of Cook Inlet, into the upper bay and out
through the lower bay to the Stevenson Entrance and the Shelikof Strait.
Because of this influx of silt, the average concentrations of suspended
solids in Kamishak Bay are several times higher than for the eastern side
of Cook Inlet.
In contrast with Kachemak Bay, the Kamishak Bay environment is
affected severely by prevailing winds from the Gulf of Alaska and by ice.
During severe winters, sea ice may accumulate along most of the shoreline
of Kamishak Bay. The sea ice scours the intertidal zones, and during
severe winters the abrasion is a major determinant of intertidal
productivity in Kamishak Bay (Dames and Moore, Inc. 1977).
12.3. Geologic Resources
Proven oil or gas resources do not exist in Subarea VIII. Hard rock
mining in Subarea VIII is unlikely because of the uncertainty of the
resource and the unfavorable economics of submarine mining.
12.4. Biological Environment
Although turbidity reduces light penetration, productivity in
Kamishak Bay is high; 3 to 4 grams of carbon per square meter per day
(Larrance and others 1977), possibly because of stratification (National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 1977). Productivity in the
intertidal zones has not been determined. Compared with the coast of the
southern Kenai Peninsula, the Kamishak Bay intertidal zone supports a
sparse, less diverse macrophyte and invertebrate community. The larger
perennial forms of macrophytes that are a substantial part of the
intertidal and shallow communities in western Cook Inlet are less
abundant and smaller in Kamishak Bay. High turbidity levels and glacial
silt deposition restrict eelgrass beds and may be an additional factor
12-1
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limiting the Kamishak Bay intertidal macrophyte productivity (McRoy
1970). Eelgrass beds and beds of attached algal macrophytes in Kamishak
Bay are located in Figure 82.
Dames and Moore (1977) reported that the more common invertebrates
on the rocky intertidal areas of Kamishak Bay were crabs, sea stars, sea
urchins, barnacles, sea anemones, and an unknown species of sponge. In
the siltier intertidal and shallow subtidal regions, spoonworms, several
species of polychaetes, and soft-shelled clams were common. Juvenile
king crabs were reported to be locally abundant under rocks in the lower
intertidal zone at Iniskin Bay (Dames and Moore, Inc. 1977). Adult king
crab and Tanner crab are abundant in the deeper waters of Kamishak Bay
and in the adjacent waters. A substantial percentage of the commercial
king crab and Tanner crab catch comes from the Kamishak Bay-Barren Island
District (Table 9).
Herring, halibut, and salmon are the most important commercial
fishes harvested from Kamishak Bay. The Cook Inlet herring catch, 463
tons during 1978, has been almost entirely from Kamishak Bay in recent
years (Table 9). Kamishak Bay also is a major herring spawning area and
may be an important spawning area for halibut (National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration 1977). English (1976) reported that of the
sites sampled, the Kamishak Bay sampling site was second only to inner
Kachemak Bay in numbers of larval fish per unit of collecting effort.
Most of the streams tributary to Kamishak Bay are short; many are
blocked by falls or ledges near the mouth; and there are few lakes on the
tributaries. Consequently, pink salmon and chum salmon, species that are
well-adapted to spawning in short streams and in the intertidal zones,
are the major components of the salmon fishery in Kamishak Bay. The
Kamishak Bay salmon fishery yielded only approximately 55,000 salmon,
mostly chums, during 1978 (Table 9). The fishery probably is under-
utilized because of adverse fishing conditions and special gear
requirements mandated by the shallow, rocky bottom.
Most of the marine mammals that occur in Subarea VII also may be
present occasionally in Kamishak Bay. The most abundant marine mammals
are harbor seals (Figure 83) and sea otters. The present sea otter
population in Cook Inlet probably expanded from a remnant population in
the Augustine Island region that escaped pelagic fur hunters. The
Augustine Island region has 9ne of the two largest concentrations of sea
otters in the Lower Cook Inlet, and that population may be approaching
the carrying capacity of the habitat (Schneider 1977).
Seabird colonies in and adjoining Kamishak Bay are mapped in Figure
82. The rocky shores and uninhabited coastline provide excellent nesting
habitat for several species, and several of the larger seabird colonies
in the study area are in Subarea VIII. The largest colonies are
clustered at the mouth of McNeil Cove, at the mouths of Iniskin Bay and
Iliamna Bay, on Contact Point, and a single colony on Shaw Island. The
US Fish and Wildlife Service reported a total of 15,281 seabirds from
Subarea VIII. The most numerous species were glaucous-winged gull
(4,930), tufted puffin (4,819), common murre (2,500), pelagic cormorant
(765), horned puffin (762), and double-crested cormorant (707). Some of
12-2
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the bays remain ice-free during the milder winters and may hold
overwintering seabirds and ducks. Sea ice and severe weather usually
restrict overwintering seabird populations in Kamishak Bay, and
overwintering seabirds are much more common on the eastern side of Cook
Inlet. Waterfowl staging areas are present on the Douglas River tidal
flats and in upper Bruin Bay (Figure 82).
12-3
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13.0. SUBAREA IX, KACHEMAK BAY
13.1. Subarea IX Boundaries
Subarea IX includes all of Kachemak Bay east of a line between
Anchor Point and Point Pogisbshi. The Subarea IX boundaries are shown in
Figure 82.
13.2. Bathymetry and Oceanography
Kachemak Bay lies between two geologic formations that are very
different in origin and physiography. The northern shoreline and the
floor of the northern part of Kachemak Bay are the southernmost extension
of the Kenai Lowland. The Lowland drops abruptly to a narrow beach that
extends the length of Kachemak Bay, then slopes gently toward the
centerline of the Bay. The southern shoreline of the Bay is formed by
the southern extension of the Kenai Mountains. The Kenai Mountains are
much older than the Kenai Lowlands to the north. They were extensively
folded by the up thrusting forces that formed them and have been dissected
by glacial and fluvial actions. The southern shoreline of the Bay is a
series of steep, rocky fiords divided by ridges that reach 3,000 feet or
more above sea level. The bottom of the southern part of Kachemak Bay
drops steeply to a depth of several hundred feet.
Tutka Bay, the deepest of the Kachemak Bay fiords, is less than
1.0-mile wide, but is reported to be more than 400-feet deep. There is
deep water close to shore along almost all of the southern coastline
(National Ocean Survey 1977).
The substrates of outer Kachemak Bay were defined by Driskell and
Dames and Moore (1977). They reported that along most of the shoreline
of the outer bay (west of the Homer Spit) the intertidal substrate and
the subtidal substrate to a depth of approximately 60 feet were boulders
and large cobbles. In deeper waters, to approximately 250 feet, the
substrate was usually a mixture of cobbles, shell debris, sand, and silt
where the bottom was swept by currents, and muddy sand where the currents
were slower. The substrate in the outermost sections of Kachemak Bay was
sand formed into "waves" with a maximum height of 6.0 feet. In the
deepest part of Kachemak Bay, in the trough past the Homer Spit that
connects the outer and inner bays, the substrate was silty. The
substrate of inner Kachemak Bay, east of Homer Spit, has not been studied
as intensively. Substrates in the inner bay may be similar to those of
outer Kachemak Bay, but because the inner bay receives glacial silt and
because the currents usually are slower, substrates probably contain
larger amounts of silt. Siltation is evident along the northern
shoreline of the bay and in the tidal flats on the east side of Homer
Spit.
The major geologic hazards in Kachemak Bay are associated with
tectonic activity. The 1964 Alaska earthquake caused subsidence and
uplifting that affected the intertidal regions adjacent to Homer Spit and
in bays along the southern shore of Kachemak Bay. Tsunamis produced by
the 1964 earthquake and by other earthquakes and volcanic activity have
caused extensive damage to Kachemak Bay settlements. These hazards are
13-1
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threats to developments along the shoreline of Kachemak Bay, to offshore
drilling and support facilities, and to the biota of Kachemak Bay. The
sand waves in outer Kachemak Bay are presumed to be dynamic (Bouma and
others 1977) and could endanger pipelines or other structures that might
be laid over them (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 1978).
Net inflow into Kachemak Bay is composed of marine waters and
freshwater runoff. Waters from the Gulf of Alaska circulate into Cook
Inlet through the Kennedy Entrance and are circulated into Kachemak Bay
by a gyre in the outer bay and by tidal action (Figure 7). The inflowing
ocean water is clear (sediment loads are approximately 1-2 mg/1), high in
salinity compared to other Cook Inlet waters, and, through the upwelling
of nutrients, may contribute to the productivity of Kachemak Bay.
Freshwater runoff principally is from the Fox River and associated
streams entering at the head of Kachemak Bay. This freshwater carries
glacial silt, other inorganic silt, detritus, and dissolved nutrients
into Kachemak Bay. The runoff volume from the Fox River system and the
salinity of the inner bay varies with the season; salinities are lowest
during the summer, highest during the winter. The nutrient loads in
influent freshwater and stratification of the water column during the
spring and summer may contribute to the high productivity of Kachemak Bay
(National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 1977; Larrance and
others 1977).
13.3. Geologic Resources
The geologic resources of Kachemak Bay have not been explored. The
oil and gas rights to the State of Alaska interests in outer Kachemak Bay
were sold at the 28th Alaska Oil and Gas Lease Sale in 1973. In response
to public concern over potential environmental impacts from oil and gas
development, the lease tracts were repurchased by the State of Alaska.
The tracts have not been explored or developed.
13.4. Biological Environment
The combination of high nutrient loads, stratification, good light
penetration, and favorable currents make the Kachemak Bay waters highly
productive. This productivity is reflected by the summer phytoplankton
and macrophyte biomasses and in the richness and diversity of the marine
fauna.
Diatoms comprise most of the phytoplankton in the Lower Cook Inlet.
Of the more than 30 species in Lower Cook Inlet, Chaetoceros debilis,
Thalassiosira sp., and Ceratulina sp. are the most numerous in Kachemak
Bay (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 1977). Eelgrass and
attached algae (discussed in Section 3.2.1.3.) are important primary
producers. Much of the intertidal and shallow subtidal waters of outer
Kachemak Bay support kelp and other macrophytes (Figure 82). Eelgrass
beds are located in Port Graham, Seldovia Bay, Tutka Bay, Sadie Cove, Mud
Bay, and on Point Bede (Figure 82). The eelgrass and attached algal
macrophytes provide attachment sites, structural habitat, and spawning
sites for fish and invertebrates; are consumed by invertebrates, fish,
and waterfowl; and are important sources of detritus. The diatoms and
13-2
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other phytoplankton taxa are consumed by fish, particularly juveniles,
and invertebrates, and are important as food for shrimp in Kachemak Bay
(Crow 1977). The China Poot Bay was one important source of diatoms in
the shrimp diet.
Zooplankton in Kachemak Bay are primarily holoplankton (organisms
that remain planktonic throughout their life cycle), but meroplankton
(organisms that are planktonic only during part of their life cycle) are
significant components (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
1977). Copepods, euphausiids, and chaetognaths are abundant
holoplankton. The meroplankton include the early life history stages of
shrimp, crabs, other invertebrates, and fish. Plankton collections in
the Kachemak Bay region (English 1976) indicate that most of the Kachemak
Bay meroplankton are derived from reproduction in Kachemak Bay and not
imported into the Bay from other sources.
Kachemak Bay contains a variety of intertidal and subtidal
substrates that support both import and export communities. Polychaetes
and clams are abundant in soft sand, silt, and mud substrates. Sponges,
chitons, snails, barnacles, sea star, and urchins are the principal
components of communities on hard substrates. Several species of clams
are collected locally in the subsistence/recreational fishery but are not
harvested commercially. Some of the charter boat operators transport
clammers from the Homer small-boat harbor to clam beds on the south side
of Kachemak Bay.
Crabs and shrimp are the main commercial shellfish caught in
Kachemak Bay. All three commercial crab species are taken, primarily
from the outer bay. Crab harvests vary, but usually exceed 3.5 million
pounds per year. In 1978, 730,915 pounds of king crab and 1,115,942
pounds of Tanner crab were harvested. The trawl shrimp harvest exceeded
4 million pounds in 1978, and 24,558 pounds of pot shrimp were caught
that year (Table 9). The major commercial fishing areas for king crab,
dungeness crab. Tanner crab, and trawl shrimp are shown in Figure 82.
Kachemak Bay is a critical spawning area for several shrimp species and
for all three commercial crab species. Reproduction in the Bay may be of
major Importance to the shellfish harvest in the central Cook Inlet. The
principal king crab and Tanner crab spawning areas are protected by a
State sanctuary established in outer Kachemak Bay (Figure 84; adapted
from Traskey and others 1977).
The deeper waters of Kachemak Bay are halibut fishing areas for
commercial and subsistence fishermen. No data specific to Kachemak Bay
are available. Prior to 1970, Kachemak Bay was the site of most of the
Lower Cook Inlet herring fishery. Populations since have declined, and
other areas of Cook Inlet now receive the major herring fishing effort.
There are both recreational and commercial fisheries for salmon in
Kachemak Bay. Approximately 400,000 salmon, mostly sockeye and pink
salmon, were netted by commercial fishermen in the Southern District
(Kachemak Bay and nearby waters) during 1978 (Table 9). Salmon spawn in
several of the streams tributary to Kachemak Bay (Figures 43, 52, and
61). The salmon juveniles remain in Kachemak Bay for varying time
periods after they leave the spawning streams.
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The unique physical attributes of Kachemak Bay have produced a
highly productive environment that is especially suited to the
requirements of a number of ecologically, recreationally, and commer-
cially important marine organisms. To protect this exceptionally rich
environment, the State of Alaska has classified Kachemak Bay as a
"Critical Habitat" (Figure 84).
13-4
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RGURE 84
13-5
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14.0. SUBAREA X
14.1. Subarea X Boundaries
Subarea X includes all of the Cook Inlet south of the Forelands and
north of a line between Anchor Point and the north side of the mouth of
Chinitna Bay (Figure 82). Subarea X is bounded by the Kenai Peninsula on
the east and the western coast of Cook Inlet on the west.
14.2. Bathymetry and Oceanography
Cook Inlet in Subarea X is divided laterally into two troughs by
Kalgin Island and the associated shoals that trend south-southeast and
north-northwest from Kalgin Island through the middle of the central Cook
Inlet. The water over the shoals is less than 10-fathoms (60-feet) deep,
and parts of the shoals are exposed during extreme low tides. The
deepest regions of Subarea X are near the West Foreland where the bottom
is scoured by currents that may exceed 5 miles per hour. At the West
Foreland the maximum recorded depths exceed 75 fathoms (450 feet). South
of the Foreland on both sides of Kalgin Island the bottom gradually rises
from maximum depths of approximately 30 fathoms (180 feet) to the Kalgin
Island shoals and to the Kenai Peninsula and western coastline. Along
most of the coastline in Subarea X the 10-fathom (60-feet) depth line is
approximately 3 to 5 miles offshore. South of the mid-inlet shoal, the
floor of the inlet slopes gently deeper toward the center of the inlet
and toward the south.
Circulation in Subarea X is controlled by a combination of tidal
action, net influx of low-salinity, silt-laden water from Upper Cook
Inlet, and net influx of clearer, more saline marine waters from the Gulf
of Alaska via the eastern side of Lower Cook Inlet (Figure 7). The
system is dynamic; tide levels exceed 13 feet, current velocities may
exceed 5 miles per hour, and there are strong tidal rips where the
lighter, low-salinity waters from Upper Cook Inlet converge with the
denser, more saline waters from Lower Cook Inlet (Figure 8).
Concentrations of suspended solids vary in Subarea X, but generally show
a gradual increase toward the west and toward the north. Concentrations
in Subarea X are the highest found anywhere in the marine part of the
study area, exceeding 100 mg/1 near the West Foreland.
Near shore substrates in most of Subarea X consist of gravel, sand,
and silt. In the deeper areas, the more dynamic circulation may scour
the bottom and produce substrates of larger particles or rocks.
14.3. Geologic Resources
The proven oil reserves of all of the Redoubt Shoal Field and a part
of the Middle Ground Shoal Field occur in Subarea X. The Kenai Gas Field
is located south of Kenai along the eastern shoreline of the Subarea.
The existence of these proven reserves increases the possibility of
additional hydrocarbon resources occurring in the subarea.
Subarea X has been impacted in the past by significant oil spills.
The Drift River spill occurred about 6:00 am on 30 December 1967. A
total of 1,700 barrels of crude oil spread south past Tuxedni Bay and
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coated vegetation on the shoreline with a brown, oily material (Evans
1972).
Other than the Beluga Coalfields, perhaps the low-grade titaniferous
magnetite (iron) deposits and associated cooper, silver, and gold
occurrences are the most promising hard rock minerals in the study area.
These deposits form a 200-mile belt extending from Tuxedni Bay west to
Iliamna Lake. The deposits in Tuxedini Bay may represent, therefore, a
future exploitable resource.
14.4. Biological Resources
The combination of rapid currents, scouring, scarcity of attachment
substrates, and high turbidity keep primary productivity of both
phytoplankton and macrophytes lower in Subarea X than in the other Cook
Inlet Subareas. Macrophyte beds are restricted to the shoreline south of
Ninilchik on the eastern side of the Subarea and to the area around
Chisik Island and the Iniskin Peninsula on the western coast (Figure 82).
These macrophyte beds are smaller in extent, generally are sparsely
vegetated, and are less productive than many of the beds in other parts
of Lower Cook Inlet.
Macroinvertebrate populations in Subarea X probably include larger
percentages of filter feeders and scavengers than the other Subareas in
Cook Inlet and smaller percentages of herbivores. This is especially
true of the more turbid areas, such as Chinitna Bay, Nikishka, the mouth
of the Kenai River, and the Kasilof River. Dames and Moore (1977)
sampled intertidal and subtidal organisms in a variety of environments on
both sides of Cook Inlet in Subarea X. Their report indicates that at
Chinitna Bay and Polly Creek razor clams and other clams were the most
common larger invertebrates in the softer substrates. The hard
substrates, boulders, and rocky outcrops generally supported a more
diverse assemblage. The community structure on rocky substrates was
restricted by ice. In soft, sandy, and silty beaches at Deep Creek, Clam
Gulch, and Whiskey Gulch, Dames and Moore (1977) reported that the
macroinvertebrate community relied almost entirely on imported organic
material at the primary consumer level. The macroinvertebrate fauna in
the beach substrates was predominantly clams, worms, and other filter
feeders. Small Tanner crabs are abundant at times on these beaches, and
the eastern coastline of Subarea X may be important habitat for both
juvenile and adult Tanner crabs. Rocky substrates generally supported
simple assemblages Including barnacles, snails, and mussels. Near Anchor
Point at the southern boundary of Subarea X, the photic zone was deeper,
beds of attached algae were present, and macroinvertebrate species
diversity increased. North of Cape Kasilof the intertidal fauna was very
sparse, particularly near the mouth of the Kasilof River where the
turbidity was high. The substrates were sticky mud, and salinity levels
may have been variable.
The commercial fishery in Subarea X is focused on salmon. Subarea X
approximately corresponds with the Central Gillnet District of Cook
Inlet, the most productive salmon fishing district in the Inlet. During
1978, more than 4.5 million salmon were caught in the Central District by
commercial fishermen. This was approximately 80% of the total 1978
14-2
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commercial salmon harvest from the study area. Approximately 2.5 million
of these salmon were sockeye, 1.3 million were pink salmon, 0.5 million
were chum salmon, and the remainder were coho and king salmon. The
salmon were migrating toward spawning areas in Upper Cook Inlet, in the
Kenai and Kasilof River systems, and the many other river systems
tributary to the upper and central Inlet.
Trawl sampling reported by Blackburn (1977) indicated that fish
stocks north of Anchor Point generally were sparser than south of the
Point. There may be some halibut fishing in the southern part of Subarea
X.
Beluga whales and harbor seals are the major marine mammals in
Subarea X. Belugas are observed frequently in Subarea X during the
months when the central inlet is ice-free. During the salmon runs they
may concentrate off the mouths of the major salmon streams on the west
side of Cook Inlet. Harbor seal concentrations have been reported in
Chinitna Bay, Tuxedni Bay, Harriet Point, the West Foreland, and at both
the north and south ends of Kalgin Island.
The largest seabird colony in Cook Inlet is on Chisik Island. There
are other seabird colonies near the mouth of Chinitna Bay, in Tuxedni
Bay, and on the steep, rocky coastline south of Tuxedni Bay (Figure 82).
These colonies are described in the Subarea VI profile (Section 10.3).
14-3
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15.0. LITERATURE CITED
Alaska Department of Commerce and Economic Development. 1978. Alaska
permit directory. Juneau AK.
Alaska Department of Community and Regional Affairs. 1977. Planning
for offshore oil devlopment: economic forecasts Lower Cook Inlet
lease sale. Juneau AK.
Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation. 1977. State of Alaska
proposed revisions to air quality control plan. Volume 1. Juneau
AK, 54 pp.
Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1973. Alaska's wildlife and habi-
tat. Juneau AK, 144 pp. plus maps.
Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1975. Alaska catch and production.
Commercial Fisheries Statistics, Juneau AK.
Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1976. A compilation of fish and
wildlife resource information for the State of Alaska. Volume
1, Wildlife. Juneau AK, 873 pp.
Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1978a. Alaska's fisheries atlas.
Volume 1. Juneau AK, unpaged.
Alaska Department of Fish and Game. 1978b. Resource report for Cook
Inlet sale. Number 60. Juneau AK, variously paged.
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Anchorage AK, pp. 175, 185.
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industry and area. Juneau AK, variously paged.
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paged.
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The inventory. Second edition. State of Alaska Division of Parks,
Anchorage AK, 49 pp.
Alaska Department of Natural Resources. 1978b. Natural hazards. Juneau
AK, 1 sheet.
15-1
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Alaska Department of Natural Resources. 1979. Master file. Division
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Anonymous. 1978b. Parks personnel braced for Anchor River fishing
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Anonymous. 1978d. Processing plant, motel approved in Seldovia. The
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brown bear life history. Project W-17-4 & W-17-5. Job 4-2R.
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of Canada, Bulletin 180. Ottawa, Ontario.
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morphology and sedimentation-Lower Cook Inlet, Alaska, ^n Trasky,
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studies of Kachemak Bay and Lower Cook Inlet, Volume 2. Juneau AK,
107 pp.
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Alaska. US Soil Conservation Service, Department of Agriculture,
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Timm, D. 1976. Report of survey and Inventory activities — waterfowl.
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Waites and Brogan. 1977a. OCS — a blessing or a headache — the choice
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surficial geology of the Homer area, southcentral Alaska. US
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APPENDIX A
USEPA Responsibilities in the Lower Cook Inlet
-------
The Lower Cook Inlet of Alaska will require increasing attention by
USEPA. It includes one of the State's most populous areas and the
population is expected to continue to grow with increasing development.
Offshore land-based petroleum and natural gas activity is likely to
increase and additional production of seafoods products can be expected.
New industries will require permits under the provisions of the National
Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). Growing populations will
require centralized wastewater treatment and will generate large amounts
of solid wastes. Developmental pressures will add to current air
pollution problems. These and other issues will result in increased
involvement by USEPA.
A major part of the involvement of USEPA in the Lower Cook Inlet
will result from the provisions of the Federal Water Pollution Control
Act, as amended (FWPCA), especially in the area of NPDES permit
activities. Section 402 of FWPCA provides for the NPDES program. This
section is designed to supplant the provisions of the Supervisory Harbors
Act of 1888 and the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 that had been used to
regulate pollutant discharges prior to the enactment of FWPCA. Imple-
mentation of the NPDES program is designated as the responsibility of the
Administrator of USEPA. The Act also provides for state administration
of the NPDES program when a state desires such authority and presents
proof of its ability to manage and enforce the regulations. Although a
number of states have received NPDES authority, the State of Alaska has
not and the program is administered by USEPA.
Regulated discharge
The legal definitions of the discharges regulated under FWPCA are
contained in Sections 301, 302, and 502 of the Act. All point-source
discharges are included, with the exception of return flows from
agricultural irrigation and pollutants resulting from dredging and
filling operations covered by Section 404 of the Act. Permits for
discharges may be Issued under the provisions of Section 402.
Prior to issuance of a new source NPDES permit, an environmental
review is performed by USEPA under the auspices of the National Environ-
mental Policy Act of 1969, as amended (NEPA). The USEPA new source
permit program is discussed in Section 2.3.
Finding of no significant impact
If, upon review of an application for an NPDES permit, USEPA
determines that an environmental impact statement (EIS) will not be
prepared, it will issue a written announcement called a "finding of no
significant impact". This is an explanation of the proposed action and
includes the reasons why an EIS will not be prepared. It also will
include an environmental assessment (EA) or a summary.
Environmental impact statements
If the proposed action is determined to fall into the category of "a
major Federal action" that significantly will affect the quality of the
human environment, an EIS normally would be required. USEPA procedures
A-l
-------
for EIS preparation pursuant to the new regulations of the Council on
Environmental Quality (CEQ) (43 FR 55978) currently are being developed.
The responsibilities of USEPA extend beyond the provisions of FWPCA.
It is not possible to discuss in detail all of the USEPA programs in the
Lower Cook Inlet study area. The following sections will describe
briefly several major areas of involvement.
Clean Air Act
USEPA has the primary Federal responsibility for implementation and
enforcement of the provisions of the Clean Air Act (42 USC 1857 et seq.).
Ambient air quality standards include primary and secondary standards.
The primary standards are designed to protect the public health and
include regulation of particulate matter, sulfur oxides, hydrocarbons,
carbon monoxide, photochemical oxidants, oxides of nitrogen, and lead.
The intent of Congress was to place the burden of air pollution
prevention and control programs on individual states. The role of the
Federal Government was to be that of overseer and technical assistant.
To that end, Congress required the submission of State Implementation
Plans (SIPs) to USEPA. After review, SIP revisions must be submitted and
approved. The process has fallen behind schedule, but it appears that
the states are attempting to comply with the requirements.
Air pollution is a complicated problem and the situation in Alaska
is no exception. There are indications that air quality has improved in
Alaska over the past five years, but problem areas still exist.
One of the areas in the State of Alaska in which primary standards
are being exceeded is the Kenai-Cook Inlet Election District, the bulk of
which is included in the Lower Cook Inlet study area. Total suspended
particulates (TSP) are the major problem in the Kenai-Cook Inlet area.
The average annual number of days on which the primary standard for TSP
is exceeded is the largest of all Alaskan areas for which data are
available. Standards are violated almost 40 days per year, with over 50%
of the violations reaching the "alert" level (USEPA 1978).
Although there is some question as to the role of natural conditions
in the air pollution problem in the Kenai-Cook Inlet area, USEPA involve-
ment in air quality management will continue to be significant. This
especially is true when potential industrial development in the study
area is considered.
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976 (Pub. L.
94-580) was enacted "...to deal with the environmental problems posed by
solid waste and to promote resource recovery and other resource conser-
vation measures as waste management alternatives" (USEPA 1978). Solid
waste disposal practices have been Implicated in water quality problems
in many locations. Implementation of RCRA will help to achieve the goals
of FWPCA by reducing contamination of surface waters and groundwaters.
A-2
-------
Although industrial and farm wastes are minimal in Alaska, climate,
geology, and population distribution present serious solid waste disposal
problems. Siting of disposal facilities may be constrained by the lack
of surface transportation, unsuitability of soils, contested ownership of
lands, distance from the waste source, and a variety of climatic factors.
Approximately 67% of Alaska's population is served by approved solid
waste disposal facilities (USEPA 1978). Recovery studies are underway in
Anchorage and Sitka.
The Lower Cook Inlet study area faces significant solid waste
management problems. As the population increases and development con-
tinues, the volume of waste also will increase. The Kenai-Soldotna area
and Homer are likely to experience the greatest impacts. A major concern
will be the potential expansion of the petroleum and chemical industries.
In addition to other solid wastes, these industries may produce
substantial quantities of wastes that are designated as toxic. USEPA
will have an important role in solid waste and resource recovery programs
in the Lower Cook Inlet study area.
Toxic Substances Control Act
In an effort to learn more about the dangers of chemicals and to
protect human health, Congress enacted the Toxic Substances Control Act
(TSCA) in 1976 (Pub. L. 94-469). It directs USEPA to gather data on
chemicals and chemical mixtures and to regulate their manufacture, pro-
cessing, distribution, use, and disposal. The mandate overlaps, to a
certain extent, a variety of other legislation, including the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act, the Clear Air Act, and the Resource Con-
servation and Recovery Act.
USEPA involvement in the Lower Cook Inlet study area as a result of
TSCA will focus on the development of commercial chemical industries and
on the use and distribution of chemical materials. Disposal of hazardous
waste basically is covered under RCRA. Certain products regulated under
other laws are exempt from the provisions of TSCA, including tobacco,
pesticides, nuclear material, food, food additives, drugs, cosmetics, and
firearms and ammunition.
Safe Drinking Water Act
In recognition of the need to protect the Nation's public water
supplies, Congress passed the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 (Pub. L.
95-190). "Under the Safe Drinking Water Act, the Federal Government-EPA
has the primary responsibility of establishing the national standards;
the states are responsible for enforcing the standards and otherwise
supervising public water supply systems and sources of drinking water"
(USEPA 1975). The Act provides that a state may qualify for primary
enforcement responsibility and the State of Alaska was granted primacy in
September 1978.
The regulations include primary and secondary standards for public
water supplies. The primary standards are designed to ensure public
health, while the secondary standards deal with taste, odor, and the
physical appearance of water for human consumption. The Safe Drinking
A-3
-------
Water Act includes provisions for the protection of underground sources
of drinking water, such as aquifers. Special attention is directed at
those aquifers that have been designated as the "sole-source" of public
water supplies.
Public water supplies in the Lower Cook Inlet study area generally
are taken from wells. Increasing industrialization and development may
threaten these sources. The problem of water use by industry already is
a major issue in the Kenai area. In many cases, the specific boundaries
and recharge areas for aquifers is not known. Studies will be required
to determine the extent of underground water supplies. Utilization of
surface water presents difficulties in those areas where the water
contains large amounts of "glacial flour". Public water supply
eventually may be a significant constraint to growth in some sections of
the study area.
Other responsibilities
In addition to participation in the programs under its direct
control, USEPA is involved in many other activities, especially in the
review of a wide variety of permits and projects. USEPA frequently works
with such Federal agencies as the US Army Corps of Engineers, the US Fish
and Wildlife Service, the Department of Housing and Urban Development,
the Bureau of Land Management, and many others. In some cases, review by
USEPA is mandatory, while at other times reviews are sought because of
USEPA's environmental expertise. USEPA also prepares and funds numerous
reports and research activities.
While it is beyond the scope of this report to discuss all of
USEPA's responsibilities and activities in the Lower Cook Inlet study
area, the preceding sections have attempted to present a brief review of
the major aspects of USEPA involvement. It is clear that USEPA will be
active in future developmental decisions affecting the study area.
A—A
-------
APPENDIX B
Climate and Meteorology
-------
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
NATIONAL OCEANIC AND ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION
ENVIRONMENTAL DATA SERVICE
.'OB NO. ] 3373 i'
' ' A . ^ ' ' >
SEASONAL AMD ANNUAL —
HIND DISTRIBUTION BY PAf:
-------
tNl.UAL
DIRECTION 0 - 3
H 0.017176
HUE 0.025767
HE 0.022872_
EHE 0.018319
E 0.014951
£S£ 0.009132
SE 0.00**11
SSE 0.006019
S 0.0101)82
4-6
0.035851
0.049904
0.045654
0.033178
0.027146
0.016178
0.011859
0.014375
0.024267
SStf 0.003978
SU 0.003823
HSU 0.003241
0.011174
0.011242
0.008294
U 0.003S09
UMU 0.002215
Hh 0.002230
0.008157
0.005964
0.005690
SFCCOIKTSI
7-10 11-16 17 - 21 CHEATER THAN 21 TOTAL
0.020242
0.042569
0.0525C9
0.012202
0.035788
0.041*67
0.002742
0.010351
0.009484
0.001645
0.002125
0.000069
0.0^
) • 16jl
).ltf
7861
0.16:6704
0.107854
0.031944
0.014464
0.006032
0.011242
0.004319
0.001645
0.000274
0.0004U
0,000137
0.000000
0.000000
0.000000
0.09,5457
I
O.OC4456
0.007472
0.000*23
0.001371
0.000000
0.000000
0.024952
0.009049
0.000411
0.000000
0.000000
0.0002P6
0.025226
0.018714
0.002399
0.000480
0.033384
0.021662
0.001028
0.000137
0,029992
0.008980
0.000069
0.000000
0.012819
0.002194
0.000000
0.000069
0.006501
0.001234
0,000000
0.000000
0.005827
0.001097
0.000069
0.000000
0.008363
0.J17795
0.006718
0.001302
0.327186
0.173087
W.W 0.004292
TClT»l 0.153519
TQTil REUT1VE FRgQUENCV OF OOSERVATimH ¦ 1.000000
TOTu RELATIVE FKE0U6NCV OF CALHS DISTRIBUTED A8DVE . 0.096038
0.000137
0.000069
0.023512
0.004798
0.0<|1291
0.033124
0.0215*9
i
0.030537
0.068966
,
0.06)1971
0.o|l276^
0.0^4577
0.027047
0.015993
0.014912
0.0
-------
ANNUAL
SPEEO(KTS)
DIRECT I OH 0 - 3 * - 6 I - 10 11-16 17-21 GREATER THANJl TOTAL
N 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
NNE 0.000000 0,000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
NE 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
EKE 0.000000 0.000000 O.OUOOOO 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
E 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
ESE 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0,000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
SE 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
SSE 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
S J).000000 0.000000 0.000000 0,000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
SSM 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
Sw 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
WSM 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0,000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
M 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
UNW 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0,000000 0.000000 0.000000
r.H 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 O.OOOOOO 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
MNM 0.000000 0,000000 0.000000 0.000000 0,000000 0.000000 0,000000
TOTAL 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0,000000 0,000000 0.000000
RLLaTIVE FREQUENCY OF OCCURENCE OP A STABILITY ¦ 0.000000
RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF CALHS DISTRIBUTED ABOVE N1TH A STABILITY - 0.000000
-------
ANNUAL
RELATIVE FREQUENCY bISTRlSUTlUN
SFEEDIKTSI
STATION -Z6523 KENAI, ALASKA 66-70 24 OSS
DIRECTION 0 -
» 4-6
7 - 10
11 - 16
17 - 21
GREATER THAN 21
TOTAL
N
O.OOOBT6
0.000206
0.000206
0.000000
0.000000
0,000000
0.001280
iiiie
0.0005B1
0.000069
0.0J0069
0.000000
0.000000
0.000000
0.000718
NE
0.000)64
0.00006V
0.000069
0.000000
0.000000
0.000000
0.000501
EtIE
0.000333
0.000206
0.000069
0.000000
0.000000
0.000000
0.000610
E
0.0005*1
0.000000
0.000069
0.000000
0.000000
0,000000
0.000610
ESE
0.000216
0.000000
0.000000
0.000000
0.000000
0.000000
0.000216
. SE
0.000000
0.000000
0.000000
0.000000
0,000000
0.000000
0.000000
SSE
o.oooioa
0.000000
0.000000
0.000000
0.000000
0.000000
O.oooioa
S
0.000256
0.000069
0.000137
0.000000
0,000000
0.000000
0,000462
SStf
0.000523
0.000343
0.000206
0.000000
0.000000
0,000000
0,001071
Stl
0.000425
0.000940
0,000794
0.000000
0.000000
0,000000
0,001720
W5W
0.000584
O.OOOB23
0.00066$
0.000000
0.000000
0.000000
0.002092
U
0.000375
0.000274
0.000206
0.000000
0.000000
0.000000
o.oooess
W Nil
0.00023S
0.000411
0.000206
0.000000
0.000000
0,000000
0.000655
NW
0.00007?
0.000137
0.000343
0.000000
0.000000
0.000000
0.000559
NNW
0.000117
0.000137
0.000000
0.000000
0,000000
0.000000
0.000329
total
0.00)690
0.003290
0.003016
0.000000
0.000000
0.000000
RELATIVE
FREQUENCY OF
OCCURRENCE OF B
STABILITY
¦ 0.011996
_ RELATIVE
FREQUENCY OF
CALMS DISTRIBUTED
ABOVE WITH
B STABILITY •
0,003290
-------
ANNUAL
RELATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
SPEEO(KTS)
DIRECTION 0 - 3 ~ - 6 7 - 10 11 - 16 17 - 21 GREATER THAN tl TOTAL
H 0.002607 0.002536 0.0U39(i7 O.OOOI37 0.000000 0.000000 0.0091 It
NH£ 0.002)64 0.002673 0.0(j3222 0.000137 0.000000 0.000000 O.OOBV97
NE 0.002700 0.000960 0.0U3085 0.000069 0.000000 0.000000 0.006813
ENE 0.002311 0.0016*5 C.002536 0.000069 0.000000 0.000000 0.006S61
E 0.002373 0.000091 0.O009C0 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.004224
_ ESE 0.001057 0.000023 C.000544 _0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.002426
SE 0.000311 0.000480 0.000137 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.00052B
SSE 0.000^09 0.0004R0 0.000206 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.001195
S _0.001253 0.001714 0.000274 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.003241
SSU O.OOOOM 0.0017112 0.004044 0,000206 0.000000 0.000000 0.006921
SM 0.001116 0.001851 0.008226 0.000617 0.000000 0.000000 0.011810
MS« 0.001041 0.001234 0.010488 0.000617 0.000000 0.000000 . 0^0133 8 0_
W 0.000881 0.001097 0.006169 0.000411 0.000000 0.000000 0.008539
WNW 0.000463 0.000823 0.0(12811 0.000206 0.000000 0.000000 0.004302
N'«| 0.000372 0 .000617 0.002331 0.0Q0069 0.000000 0.000000 0.003388
NHtf 0.000677 0.000411 0.001308 0^000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.002396
TOTAL 0.021525 0.020016 __ 0.050452 0.002536 0.000000 0.000000
RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE of C STABILITY ¦ 0.094S30
RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF CALHS 01STRI8UTE0 ABOVE WITH C STABILITY ¦ 0.012790
-------
ANNUAL RELATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION STATION >26923 KENAI* ALASKA 66-70 24 OSS
SPEEOIKTSI
DIRECTION
0-3
4-6
7-10
11 - 16
17 - 21
GREATER THAN 21
TOTAL
N
0.003083
0.013647
0.019946
0.01206S
0.002742
0.001649
0,0)3330
HUE
0.00*52*
0.019194
0.032696
0.035851
0.010351
0.002129
0,104743
HE
0.00*695
0.019057
0.042775
0.041196
0.005464
0.000069
0,113477
ENE
0.003678
0.015061
0.025432
0.011174
0.000274
0.000000
0,055638
E
0.003353
0.014670
0.012613
0.004319
0.000411
0.000000
0,035365
ESE
0.002595
0.009166
0.004936
0.001645
0.000137
O.OOOOQO
0.018499
SE
0.001134
0.006512
0.003427
O.OOOB23
0.000000
0.000000
0.011896
SSE
0.00219a
0.006569
0.005756
0.001371
0.000000
0.000000
0.017696
S
0.00314V
0.012065
0.019262
0.009049
0.000411
0.000206
0,044141
SSU
0.000960
0.005964
0.016645
0.016506
0.002399
0.000460
0.046977
Si1
0.001360
0.005695
0.021319
0.021045
0.001026
0.000137
0.050785
HSU
0.000660
0.004113
0.012407
0.006363
0.000069
0,000000
0,025832
M
0.001334
0.005141
0.006032
0.001762
0.000000
0.000069
0.0143S9
WNU
0.000654
0.003359
0.003153
0,001026
0.000000
0.000000
0.006395
Ktf
0.000675
0,002946
0.002536
0.001026
0.000069
0.000000
0,007456
Mttf
0.001306
0.004367
0.003907
0.001302
0.000137
0.000069
0.011111
TOTAL
0.036400
0.149966
0.234850
0.170551
0.023512
0.004798
relative frequehcv of OCCURRENCE OF D
STABILITY
¦ 0.620099
RELATIVE
FREQUEHCV OF CALHS DISTRIBUTED
ABOVE MITH
D STABILITY
¦ 0.022621
-------
ANNUAL
SPEEDCKTSt
DIRECTION 0 - 3 4-6 1- 10 11- i> II - 21 CREATE* THAW 21 TOTAL
N 0.011322 0.019262 0,0041*2 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.034766
HUE 0.0184)8 0.027968 0.0065*1 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.033047
NE 0.0150C9 0.025569 0,006581 0.000000 O.OCOOOO 0.000000 0.047230
E>'E 0.012432 0.016246 0.003907 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.032586
E 0.00*381 _ 0.01158J 0.000823 0.000000' 0.000000 0.000000 0.020788
_ ESE 0.004903 0.006169 0.000548 0.000000 0.000000 O.OQOOOO 0.01 ItZO
SE 0.002666 0.004667 0.000691 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.008424
SSE 0.003521 0.005127 0.001508 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.010GS6
S 0.005099 0.010420 0.005278 0.000000 O.OQOOOO 0.000000 0.020797
SSW 0.001634 0.003085 0.002331 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.007050
SW 0.000955 0.002948 0.003085 0,000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.006987
W5M 0.000)61 0.002125 0,000411 0.000000 0.000000 O.OQOOOO 0.003497
W 0.001077 0.001645 0,000411 0.000000 0,000000 0.000000 0.003134
Why 0.000626 0,001371 0,000*11 O.OOOCOO 0.000000 0.000000 0.002408
l.w 0.000825 0.001988 0.0U0617 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0,003430
NI'W 0.002018 0,003427 0,001302 0,000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.006748
Tl/Ul 0.090005 0,144502 0.038868 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
MLftTI VE FKEO'JEHCY OF OCCURRENCE Of * STABILITY ¦ 0.273375
RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF CALMS DISTRIBUTED AbOVE WITH E STABILITY • 0.057376
-------
Local Climatologies! Data
Annual Summary With Comparative Data
1975
HOMER, ALASKA
S 0? *
Narrative Climatological Summary
Hcr.er Airport is located at Che head of Coal Bay, on the north shore of Kachemak Bay
jusc co che ease of ics confluence with Cook Inlec. The shore line co either side of
the scacioti curves toward the north, such that water lies within a distance of less
chan one mile through south from west to east. To the northwest through nornheast th®
ground has a gradual rise to 500 feet at a distance of one and one half mile and Chen
rises abruptly to 1,000 feet at a distance of two miles from the station. The nearest
1,500 feet elevation in this direction is Lookout Mountain, four miles to the north
and northeast. The nearest 2,000 feet elevation lies about 12 miles to the southeast
across Kachemak Bay, in che foothills of che Kenai Mountains. The width of che Bay in
chis direccion is approximately nine miles. Continuing southeastward beyond Kachemak
Bay, at a distance of 15 to 20 miles is the ridgeline of the northeast-southwest ori-
ented Kenai Mountains with elevations of 4,000 to 6,000 feet.
The climate of Homer is marine but with precipitation amounts modified by the Kerai
Mcuntains. The annual precipitation is reduced when air being lifted over mountains
leaves most of its moisture on the windward side. For this reason the usual Gulf
Coast anount of near 60 inches is reduced to less chan half chat amount. The relatively
low annual snowfall is a reflection of the mild winter temperatures. Often precipita-
tion will begin as snow but turn to rain shortly afterwards. The occurrence of the
heaviest monthly amounts during the fall and winter months is the result of the increased
frequency of storms into the Western Gulf of Alaska during those months.
Tenperatures experienced, aC Homer are more nearly represenCative of marine climate than
is precipitation. Winters are mild, seldom getting colder than zero and summers *re cool
with the maximum temperature seldom going above 70°. The range between average maximum
and minimum temperatures does not exceed 16 degrees during any of the 12 months. The
freeze-free period on the average begins in late May and ends in mid September with an
effective growing season of about 100 days.
Surface winds at the station are seldom strong even in winter. However, a short distance
to che southeast, over Kachemak Bay, and to the west over Cook Inlet, wind speeds reiutr-
i-g warnings to small craft are fairly common in winter and summer.
The occurrence of a thunderstorm is rare. Heavy fog is infrequent and of short
but pacchy ground fog is common in spring and fall.
NATIONAL OCEANIC AND /ENVIRONMENTAL / NATIONAL CLIMATIC CENTEf
!wwi?C* ATMOSPHERIC ADMINISTRATION / OATA SERVICE / ASHEVILLE. N.C.
-------
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-------
Average Temperature
Heating Degree Days
Y*ar
Jan !
'
Feb
Mar
Apr
Juna
Jufy
Aug
Sept
oc
Nov
Dac
(Annual
19*3 '
16.:'
26.2
2*.I! 36,5' 42.2
49.4
52.31 91.4
45.7
40.11 33.St 29.9
37.1
29. *
34.9
29.4
34.9
44 |*
50.9
54.2
55,9
47.3
39.6; 30.9
27.9
39.5
.'•5
33, J
29.9' 27.7
31.11 41.6j 49.9
33.1
46.4
37.6
20.8
22.9j 37.5
2*.*
2*.2
21.1
33,7; 42.0
47.% 31.7
30.1
46.o! 39.*
26.2
12.91 33.0
.94*
9 a *
26.4
It.1 36.3
42.3
47.JI 31.7
50.1
49.A
37.*' 32,61 26.2
36.7
'.9-J
25.1
21.1
2«.2| 31,9; *2.2
40.L 50.4
49,4
44.0
36.2
21.5
17.7
34.6
22.1
;».l. 32.0
32.1
39.2
46.9
50.4
51*4
47.6
37.91 32.S
17.9' 35.3
19 50
23 a I
16.0
32.1) 34,9' 40.2
47,2
50.6
92.1
47.2
J6.2
20.4j 34*9
. i. »
23.1
I".3
36.*
41.7
41.2
52.2
32.9
47,9
39.3
30. l! 21.3' 35.3
:ii2
I*.4
4».S 2T.0! 33.2
31.6
45.3
52.0
52.9
46.1
39.9
35.21 25.6' 36*4
:®ji
19.0
2«.4
2».S
37. i; *2.1
52.2
3 3.9)
53.3
47.2
33.1
29.2
27.5
37.5
: a. 3
1*. 1
26.J| 32.7
43.61 49.2
52.1
52.4
41.9
.1.1
32.9
14.6
35.6
; *5 5
27.1:
23.3
2«.6I 32.0
«.»
46.5
n.j
51.6
46.2
39.0
22.3
15.0| 35.2
:436
14,i:
r.4
22.9
34.1
41.4
46.7 51.5
91.3
44,9
32.3
23.6
14.7f 32.9
1957
2*.a
20.3
32.9
36,7
43.1
90.6
52.9
93.6
41.6
41.4
37.9
11*71 31*4
;*5i
26. T
2*.l
33.1! 31,41 44,4
3Q« 5
53.6
52.7
49 >4
34.0
26.7
24.91 31*3
'.9J9
19.61
29.1' 17,*
93.1
42,9
49,91 52.0
32.4
46.5
37.7
31.9
23.5
36*4
I960
25.31
30.5
26.3
33,7
45.1! 47.9
53.2
90.1
49.9
31.0
27.3
32.6
31.1
'.96'.
27.5;
23.0
ZA.3
39.3
42,9
49.3
52.7
92.1
47,6
33.6
25.0
14.3! 39.3
1962 :
22.0)
2».«
24.9
36.3
4L.2
41.7
53.0
32.9
43.1
3*.l
29.9
23.1
36.1
l«6 3
27.>
27.1
2».7
33,2
43.2
47.1
53.1
53.7
49«7
31.9
20.0
32.3
37.9
l«6*
24.5
25.4- 24.9
34.1
39.0
90.1
31.1
52.7
41,7
38.1
21.6
12.2
35.S
;96
19, *
;i.9
3i.r
36.0
40.4
49.9
51.1
31.1
90.4
33.0
27.0
11.6
39.1
19«6
22.61
23.l| 19.!
39.6
39.*
49.4
52.5
52.21
4*.9
34. 7
27.4
20.6
39.4
1967
11.1
23.4
30.9
36,7
*4.J
50.2
53.2
55 .01
49.3
37.3
33.0
22.71 37.9
;96i
11.7
27.4.
30.4
34,2
43.a
49,6
93.4
34.J
49.3
39. 3
31.3
19.2
36.6
;969
13.2
22.* 31.4
3i. a
43.1
50.9
33.3
30*7
47.1
42.1
27.3
33*4
37.1
197:
16.1
33.3| 39.1
39.0
43.6
41.9
51.3
31.3
45.1
34.3
32.9
19.7
37.3
1971 >
9.7
24.41
l«.l
32.4
3>.4
46.6
31.1
33*2
4S.9
36.1
29.9
23*9
33*9
1972
13.2;
19.1
!*•«
27.1
40.01
66.6
52.1
33.4
46.9
37.7
30 .0
21.7
33.1
1973
11.6
21.«
2* *61
41.9
41.2
32.4
31*3
49.1
33.9
22.9
24*6
197- :
i*.:,
19.3
26.0
36.1
42.7
49.4
32.9
53.9
49.7
31*4
2**7
24*1
36*6
1975
II.61
11.7
26.4
32.7
42.1
47.9
32.9
32*3
47.9
36.9
22*2
19.1
34*1
KfCSlCt
1
1
KiiN ;
20.2
24.0
26.7
34.91
42.0
41.6
52.4
32.4
46.9
37,3
21.3
21.1
36*2
«4*
26.«
31.G
34.3
41.11
49.1
36.4
60*2
60.0
34.9
44.1
36.5
27.9
41*4
l»*5j
I
16.9
l*.l
27.2
36.1
40.7
44.6
44.1
39.3
30.4
22.0
19.6
29.0
S.isanj Julyj Aug jSeptj Oct |Not
I960*oii
1961-62!
1962-6:
1964-631
1965-661
1966*471
1967-6*
1968-6*
1969-7ti
197Q-7J
19TI-72J
1972-731
1973-741
1974-79
3*2{ "3
374) 39
56S
s\<
3 6 9> 16»
u<* *iq
197J-74 367
<•27
302
347
*14
360
351
*16
336
SI
3^
5*4
5M
• HI 1 117
*6* 1162
I0» 1359
•I* 134*
•2«j t0«7
~a^ iijj
93*1 UM
IU 993
91 * 100*
T04j 1123
9*6 960
1*4 1166
1*1' 10*5
I94( 1231
• 17 1052
I
•6* LIT*
Dac [ Jan | Feb | Mar [ Apr) May jjunaj Total
99 5
1966
1275
ICO#
1*31
1*31
13«l
1337
1535
971
139*
1297
1332
12*7
1261
I* 13
U**i 117C.
13291 1C66
1160 1036
ISlJ
1**4
U2i
1601
1900
17». t
13311
16*5
1971
1439
1166
1157
lots
1119
It*
1131
1324
1201
1264
1293
1371 (|4
1239 152
112^ 949
1243 920
90 L 661
1411 |76
1071 143
1064 920
1033|
144* 956
1339 1126
•4*
960
676 iJ6| 10024
732|
670
797
734
710
631
649
652
651
<20
764
720
666
701
4*0| 106*6
?>0i 9664
~ ji! loioa
!6* 10977
*59
OS
*52
• 16
*75
S4f
942
*64
506
10440
10276
9T93
10410
944*
11>4<>
U*'l
10607
15119
Cooling Degree Days
Yaar
Jan
Fab
Mart Apr [May
Juna
July
Aug
Sapt
Oct
Nov
Doc
Tot*
1969
a
0
a
0
0
0
0
0
c
0
o
0
a
1970
0
0
c
0
0
0
0
0
c
0
0
0
a
1971
0
0
(
0
0
0
0
1
c
0
0
o
1972
0
0
a
0
0
0
0
0
c
a
0
0
4
1973
0
0
0
0
0
0
c
0
0
J
1974
0
0
a
0
0
0
0
0
c
0
0
o
1973
G
G
<
<1
0
0
0
0
c
0
0
0
»
¦ -
Precipitation
Year ( Jan I Fab Mar
Apr | May | Juna 1 July | Aug 1 Sapt | Oct | Nov | Dac [Annual
1.67
1.12
3.97
2.26
1.19
0.61
0.40
0.16
0.90
0.71
3.571
0.76i
1.04
0.19
0.13
0.4*
1.10
1.31
2.57
0.36
1.50
4.07
0.90
'¦"i
i:i3
3.1*1
• 70| U,
0.90
0*19
0.33
1*26
1*11
0*42
0.71
1.46
0*36
1.51
2.99
1.44
2.33
3.36
3.30
3.67
2.21
3.87
2.33
3.30
6.32
1*20
0*69
0*00
0.90
2*79
1*96
0*76
0*70
0*48
0*30
0.39
0.3Q
0*62
2.21
1.40
1.44
2.11
3.79
1.45
1.02
2.04
2.19
2*31
1.34
1.34
2*60
3*64
2.40
3*46
2*63
6.10
3.61
3.46
2.64
2.3*
1.42
0*64
1.49
O.Ol
1*10
0*16
0*27
2.04
0.43
0*36
2.08
0*48
0.74
0.26
2.76
0*72
1.69
0*16
1.90
0.92
2.14
1.99
4.81
4.13
4.02
3*01
2.16
2.43
1.47
1.94
1.40
4.39
3. *2
4.63
3.71
1*69
0.76
O.tl
3*49
1*30
1*17
0*37
I *12
0.66
1*37
0*52
0*09
1*12
0.12
0.37
1.45
2.26
2.4t
3.32
2.62
2.26
3.06
2.8*
1.64
2*41
l.ll
6.30
2.37
1*61
3.19
1.41
3.63
2.01
2.23
2.81
1*47
1.4*
0*9*
1*22
1.1*
0*96
1*44
0*42
1*39
1*10
0.87
2*47
1.6*
0.12
1*79
1.40
1.02
1.16
0.93
2.31
1.19
0.92
2.20
2*37
2*04
9.30
2.18
2.47
1.71
6.3t
2.12
3.22
3.14
3.27
1.66
0.60
0.73
0.62
0.36
2*03
1*67
0*29
1.96
1*22
0*36
0.71
1.70
0.39
0*43
0.4*
2.79
0.86
0.1*
1.21
1.23
5.29
3*69
1.16
0.9*
2.37
4*60
9.39
I.10
0.83
1.29
2.32
2.3*
2.16
8.39
3.69
1*02
1.20
1.32
2.17
1*90
1.03
2.30
0*96
1*94
1.17
0.97
2*03
0*43
0*93
1.99
9.79
0.32
1.3*
0.99
1.99
3.41
2.10
1.94
0.91
1.39
4.76
2.82
6.01
3.41
4.23
3.16
1.39
3.33
1.90
1.12
0*91
0*93
1.66
2.50
2.19
3.36
7.291
6.00
2.92
1.3*1
2.14
O.tS
1.13
0.01
1.14
1.99
2.74
1.44
0.12
2.*9
6.00
6.72
1.21
1.19
3.69
2.15
0.4S
2**t
1.59
1.32
2.13
1.17
3.*l
1.77
1.6*
;.*9
1.77
*.36
1.02
3«0l
l.tO
1.30
1.31
2.71
0,31
2.16
1.64
0.21
3. *5
2.20
1.3*
2.36
0.16
2.45
1.09
6.27
3.22
1.19
1.4*
4.44
0.41
2.62
1.30
3.35
0.69
7.19
1.19
1.69
0.22
2.01
3.St
4.07
28.4*
27.7*
36*1*
26*09
22.67
19.31
2*.39
15.67
15*10
27.*7
25.19
20.62
21*06
15.14
26.9*
24*62
23*66
29.3*
26*30
19.92
22**7
21*09
23*10
26*29
23.97
14*36
29*23
20*11
22*29
19.39
26*6?
24*93
Snowfall
S.a.on | July | Aug ls.pt) Oct j Hov | Dtc I Jin | Ftb [ Mirl Apr | Mayjji/n«|Tot*t
1942*63
19*3-4*
1944-49
1949-46
19*6-47
19*7-46
19*1-46
1949-30
1990*31
1991-92
1992-93
1993-54
1994-55
1993-96
199*«37
1997-91
1951-59
1999-60
1960*61
1961-62
1962*63
1963-64
1966-65
1963-66
1966-6?
1967-61
1*66-69
1969-70
1970-71
1971-72
1972-73
1*73-74
1974-79
197J-7*
MCOHO
MI61
0*0 T
0*0 T
0.0
T
0*6
T
1*1
T
2*2
T
1.2
r
2.3
2.0
0.0
1*3
0*9
0.3
11*9
7.*
T
1*6
3*7
2.9
4.9
2.0
0.0
3*6
1*7
T
T
T
O.I
0.3
a. 3
1*7.4
1.6
a.3
1.1
2*1
t
••9
5.6
1,0
1.9
1.0
*•3
i«a
\U *
>•9
10.•
17.6
a-t
1.*
10.3
It.6
1.7
o.a
».6
a-1
•.7
V*.*
*•3
20.3
ia.o
7.0
16.3
6.3
3.0
11.2
16.3
24.1
6.0
12*3
U.7
6.6
3.6
17.3
23*0
17*2
3.1
11.0
3.9
*4.2
3.3
13**
9.3
6.2
6.6
12*0
13*0
*.3
19.3
24*1
16.6
17.1
1.9
6.0
31*3
12.9
1*.3
0.2
13.4
7.6
121.7
LI.I
3.6
9.3
2.2
6.0
13.3
10.0
16.9
3.0
t9*3
7.6
10*3
3.1
33.1
11.6
3.9
6.6
6.1
1*1
4.6
6.7
6*3
«•*
13.1
9.6
t.9
16*3
7.3
3.5
120.0
*.7
6*6
6.2
6*4
7
1*1
|U.I
13.0
U.l
I.T
12.4
13.0
1*3
[15.5
" 3
13.6
6.3
6.0
16.6
17.1
14.*
11.t
5
<1.0
3.3
U*2
12.2
3.3
k6.Q
LI.*
2*0 T 0.0 0.0 37.7
10*7 0*7 0.0 0.0 90.6
34.0 7 2.0 0.0 *3*7
leua
3*1
*.l
11.1
T
6*3
3*2
3.*
23.2
2*5
9.6
T
2.3
10.0
US
0.3
16.0
24.0
1.1
3.1
13*0
T
16.0
9. a
3.0
21.6
12.9
6.1
17*1
4.6
T
0.0
*.7
1.3
2*3
4.1
0.6
T
7.1
t*l
T
7
2*2
9*7
0*9
1*0
4.7
6.6
1.3
2.0
2*0
4.0
0*3
1*0
10.1
17.4
4.5
9.6
# Indictees 6 «C6Cion novo or r«loc*eion of in«en«Mnes. S«« Station Location c«bl«.
fUcord m*«n v«lu«« «bov« 6r« aw«n« through eh* curr«ne y««r Cor eh« period boclrattaK In
1943. •
-------
-------
annual relative frequency distribution y^IipN'25507 Jomjr, ak eons 1966-70
SPEEOJKIAJ
01RFCIign 9.-_3 4^- 6 7-10 II - 16 17 , 21 CHEATER THAN 21 191AL __
N QjQQOQOO O.OQOOOO. _Q.OOOOOQ> O.OQOOOO Ot000000 0.000000 O.OQOOOO
NNJ P.,000000 0. 000900.. Q.MpOOO 0.000000 0,000000 0,000000 OjOOOOOO
NE 0.000000 £.000000 O.OQOOOO 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
ENJ 0,000000 0.000000 P^pooooo 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000
E _OfQ0po_O0 0,000000 OjOOOOOO, 0.000000 0.000000 O.OQOOOO 0.000000
ESE 0.000000 O.OQOOOO O.OQOOOO O.OQOOOO 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 _
_ SE 0,000000 0,001)000 o.oonooo 0.000000 0,000000 0.000000 O.OQOOOO
SSE 0.000000 0,000000 0 , OyOpOO O.OQOOOO 0.000000 0.000000 0,000000
5 0.000000 o.oonooo q.oqoooo 0.000000 0,000000 0.000000 0.000000
S5W 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0,000000 0,000000 0.000000 O.OQOOOO
Sw 0.000000 0,000000 i>,JtQOooo 0.000000 0,000000 0.000000 0^.000000
HSw 0,000000 0,000000 0.000000 0.000000 0,000000 0.000000 0.000 ono
y 0,000000 0,000000 o^oooooo 0,000000 0.000000 0.000000 OtOOOOOO
MNJ 0.000000 0. 000000 p.opppop 0.000000 0,000000 0.000000 O.OQOOOO
0.000000 0.000000 O.OQOOOO 0.000000 0,000000 0,000000 0.000000
NNW 0,000000 0. 000000 O.OQOOOO 0.000000 0,000000 0.000000 0.000000
TOT A L 0.«J>Opppp 0,000000 O.OQOOOO O.OQOQOO 0,000000 ?.*00000p
RE IATIVE FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE Of » STA01UTY ¦ 0.000000
RftLATlVf FREQUENCY OF CALMS DISTRIBUTEDABnVp WITH A STABILITY » O.OQOOOO
-------
j ^rv, VM- I ¦ ¦¦ ¦¦ . V ,- ^ ^EOUENC V DISTRIBUTION STATION ¦25507 HoHER. AK PPHS 1966-70
| - ,. . . SPEED(KJS >
j DIRECTION 0-3 4-6 7-10 11 - 16 17 - iI GREATER THAN 21 TOTAL
I h Qjooolpo o, oonooo o.oaooOQ o.oooooo o.oooooo o,oqqooq q,opoioa
NNE OiOQOl?* n.oonono O.OOOQOp O.OOOOOO OtOOOQOO 0.000000 0.000324
N£ 0.000324 0,000000 O.OOOOOO 0.000000 0.000000 O.OOOPOP 0.000324
E Mf £b j>0GQ36 0 , OP 0Q72 0,000072 Oi 000000 OtOOOQOO 0.000000 O.OQOlBQ
E_ DiOQO±?? 0.000216 O.OQOQ72 0.000000 0 >000000 0.000000 0.000720
ESE 0.0006*6 0,000216 O.OQOOOO 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0,000Qf>4
Si 0.O00144 0,000072 O.OOqQ,?? 0.000000 O.OOOOOO 0.000000 0.00028 a
SSE 0.000648 0.000648 0,000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.001297
S 0.0Q1333 0.000504 0.0004*2 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.002269 _
SSW O.OOQ6B4 0'000937 O.OQ1Q09 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.002629
Sjj OW) 00648 0.000648 0,000144 0.000000 OtOOOQOO 0.000000 0.001441
WSH 0.000282 Q.0002B8 0.0Q02I6 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000756
W 0.000216 0.000000 0.000144 0.000000 OtOOOQOO 0.000000 0^000360
_ _ WNW 0.000108 0,000000 O.OOOOOO 0,000000 OtOOOQOO 0.000000 0.000108
HH 0.000108 0,000000 O.OQOOOO 0.000000 OtOOOQOO 0.000000 o.oooioa
NNW 0«j0qpq36 0.000072 O.OQOOOO 0.000000 OtOOOQOO 0.000000 0,000108
TOTAL 0,006051 0,003674 0.0Q?1<>1 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 _
1 RtlATlVE FREQUENCY OF PCCURPENCg OF B STABILITY * 0.011887
RpLATIVf FRFQIJeNCY nF CALMS OISTRIBUTfO ARnVF WITH D STABILITY - 0.003242
-------
ANNUAL
relative frequency distribution
STATION *25507HnHER# AK 80QS
1966-70
SPEEP(KTS)
PTRfCTION
0-3
4-6
7-10
H - 16
17 , 21 GREATER THAN 21
TOTAL
0.002066
0.00050*
0.00028B
0.000000
0(000000
0.000000
NNE
0.002984
NE
0.0019*8
n.00)7?9
O.POJBOl
0.001009.
0.0014*1
0.000000
OtOOOOOO
0.000000
0.000000
0.000000
0.000000
SSE
0.000738
.0,001297
0.000504
0.000000
OiOoogoo
0.000000
0.002396
0.003602
0.002666
0.000072
0(000000
0(000000
0.002859
0.005721
0.005109
] E
0.002894
O.003746
Kf « WU* » * U
0.001729
0.000000
0(000000
0.000000
0.006969
| ESE
0.001270
0.001729
0.001369
0.000000
0,000000
0.000000
0.00*366
J SE
0.000989
0.001153
0.001)504
o.ooioooo
0(000000
0.000000
0.002646
0.002539
0.008735
i
JJ3L
SH
0.002180
O.O0381B
0.007636
0.000144
0(000000
0.000000
0.001061
o.ooioni
0.007132
0.000792
OtOOOOOO
0.000000
wsw
0.001772
O.001441
0.00*213
0.001441
OtOOOOOO
0.000000
0.01377H
0.010067
0.012667
0.000567
0.000514
O.OOO864
0.000144
0.000000
0.000000
WNW
0.000319
0.000216
0.000216
0.000072
OtOOOOOO
0.000000
LU.
¦NW
0.000000
0.000000
0.000216
0.000000
OtOOOOOO
0.000000
¦
NNW
% JT"Tal_.
#1 MIATIVE
0.000785
0.023918
0.000072
0.0Q036Q
0.000000
0(000000
0.000000
0.024494
0.037317
0.002666
0(009000
0.000000
MUT1VE FREQUENCY OF OtyURPEHCg OF C STABILITY ¦ Q.QBB394
ft,'!—1~
0.002080
0.000824
0.000216
0.001217
LATIVE FREQUENCY OF CALMS DISTRIBUTED A»»fjVE WITH C STABILITY
0.015049
-------
> - j < .« i ^ m • : >
4 ; )!. 1 ••• •
i • ' ' H >; i
v „ i r . . . v, • .
>
rvi i am
^NNl'At
¦ V. ' /j'-" *¦'
' RVLAtrVE fRtttfjENCY DISTRIBUTION
STATION -25507 HOMER,
AK BOBS 1966-
r-'f 0
• * 'T-
¦ » ¦ } ¦) *
V 0
' < : < • •
'J
F
t :<:!•• 0
* (K'i t - ; • * > t
si*.
• ' SPEEO(KTS)
DIRECTION" 0-3
* - V"
7-10
11-16
17 „ 21
greater than 21
total
N
0.01409B
o.n2a7**
0.012391
0.00*®99
0*000937
0.000792
0.061842
! NNE
0.015361
0.034692
0.0300*1
0.01*0*8
0.001729
0.0001**
0.095975
1
0.007*32
0.020243
0,02^007
0.017*3*
0.002305
0.000*32
0.073874
i BUB
0.00*262
0.012319
0.015129
0.012391
0,002666
0.001225
0.0*7991
t
E
0.0035B2
0.008429
0.012607
0.009365
0*001369
0.000216
0.035568
ESE
0.001862
0.00*322
0.00*276
0.005979
0.000792
0.00014*
0.020376
SE
0.001187
0.003026
0.003962
0.007*20
0.001657
0.000504
0.017716
5SE
0.001577
0.003690
0.00*1^8
0.006*12
0.000792
0.000000
0.016B5o
S
0»00*6l7
0.009365
0.0091*9
0.00<>*84
0.000360
0.000000
0.029975
ssw
0.003536
0.010**6
0.01390*
0.009509
0.000360
0.0001*4
0.037900
SM
0.00**®2
0.011382
0.022117
0.02168*
0.001873
0.0001*4
0.061682
WSM
0.006163
0.0160*5
0.027i59
0.031050
0.001873
O.OOOl**
0.082454
w
0.003980
0.007*92
0.010158
0.00*755
0.000288
0.000072
0.026745
WNW
0.0021*0
0.00*39*
0.002**9
0.002017
OtOOOl**
0.000000
0.01U54
MM
0.002299
0.002810
0.002521
0.001585
0|000360
0.000072
0.009647
NMW
0.00*006
0.005763
O.OO'o'B
0.002161
0.0002R8
0.000286
0.015605
total
o.ofloM*
0.18334*
0.2o21*6
0.157193
0.017794
0.00*322
1 RELATIVE
FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE (IF 0
stability
¦ 0.645*19
...1 .T.W.- tnrnii,„fu „c tai.jc hf^TO!rIITcn AftnVc WITH 0 STABILITY * 0.051797
-------
ANNUAL RELATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION STATION -25507 HOMFR, AK BOBS 1966-70
SPEED(KTS)
OIRfCTIOH
0-3 4.6
**1
«
O
11 - 16
17 i 21
GREATER THAN 21
total
N
0.020401
0.045818
0.009005
0.000000
o.oooodo
0.000000
0.075224
NNE
0.013982
0.04J7I2
0.016353
0,000000
0.000000
0.000000
0.072047
NE
0.004696
0,012535
0.004899
0,000000
0.000000
0.000000
0.022089
ENE
0.001*47
0.003026
0.001441
0.000000
0,000000
0.000000
0.005914
E
0.000862
0.001945
0.000432
0.000000
C). oonooo
0.000000
0.003234
ESE
0.000*91
n,000937
0.000216
0.000000
0,000000
0.000000
0.001444
SE
0.000182
O,000432
O.OOO2B0
0,000000
0,000000
0.000000
0.000902
SSE
o.oooBol
0.000576
O.O0O144
0.000000
0.000000
0.000000
0.001021
S
0.000833
0,001009
0.000864
0.000000
0,000000
0.000000
0.002706
ssw
0.000609
0,0011'3
0.00'»72o
0.000000
0,000000
0.000000
0.002562
sw
0.000862
0,001945
0.001657
0,000000
0,000000
0.000000
0.004464
wsw
0.002?1B
0,005763
0.002954
.0,000000
0,000000
0.000000
0.010935
M
0.002657
0.005763
0.002305
0.000000
0.000000
0.000000
0.010725
HNW
0.003803
0,006196
0.000648
0,000000
0.000000
0.000000
0.010647
i Ntf
6^002591
0,006268
0.00»2'7
0.000000
0.000000
0.000000
0.010155
_. NNM
Q.Q09821
0,012247
0.002161
0, 000000
0.000000
0,000000
0.020229
total
0.061595
n,147323
0.045386
0,000000
0.000000
0.000000
RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF
occurrence of e
stability •»
0,254304
RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF CALMS DISTRJBUTED above with E STABILITY ¦ 0.037317
-------
ANNUAL
ftflative frequency distribution
station >29107 HdmfR* ak crms
1966-70
OlfttCTfON
!
i m
1
O
i
i
i
4-6
7-10
11 - 16
17 « fl
GREATER THAN 21
TOTAL
N
ft.03173*
0.075Q67
0.02168«
0.004899
0*000937
0.000792
0.l4
2133 -
NNE
0.034100
0.078092
0.047403
0.014048
0.001729
0.000144
0.17
5516
NE
0.014550
0.034580
0.032346
0.017434
0*002305
0.000432
0.10
1647
ENE
0.007392
0.017218
0.0198U
0.012991
0*002666
0.001225
0.06
3702
E
0.006636
0.014336
0.014840
0.009363
0*001369
0.000216
O
• 1
O
[>962 -rr
ESE
0.003563
0,007204
0.00B861
0.005979
0*000792
0*000144
0.02
6544
SE
0.00219*
0.0046P3
0.004827
0.007420
0*001657
0.000504
0.02
1204
SSE
0.002817
0.006412
0.004827
0.006412
0*000792
0*000000
0.02
1260
S
0.008139
ft, 014480
0.013111
0.006556
0*000360
0.000000
0.04
!647 —
SSH
0.006uBS
0.016353
0.023269
0-009653
0*000360
0.000144
IA
O
•
O
1®!
jS
I
1
! i
1
; ;
SW
0.006749
0.015097
O.OSIO'O
0,022477
0,001873
0*000144
0.07
7349
WSH
0.010281
0.023537
0.03«542
0,032490
0*001673
0*000144
0.10
se*8
w
0.007593
0,013760
0.013472
0.004899
0,000288
0.000072
0.04
O0B3 —
wnm
0.006656
0.010B06
0.003314
0.002089
0*000144
0.000000
0.02
3009
MW
0.00'309
0.009077
0.004034
0.001585
0*000360
0.000072
0.02*0437
NNM
0.011160
0.018134
0.00'619
0,002161
0*000288
0.000288
0.0^7672
TOTAL
0.172177
0.358835
0.2B7011
0.159058
0*017794
0.00*322
1
total relative frequency of pbservaHons ¦ i.popupi
TOTAL RELATIVE FREQUENCY OF CALHS DISTRIBUTED ABOVE ¦ 0.108205
-------
APPENDIX C
Key Information Sources
-------
The Kenai Peninsula and Cook Inlet have been the subject of numerous
studies and a large body of information has been amassed. Additional
investigations currently are underway and, undoubtedly, more will be
conducted in the future. This appendix will describe five important
sources of information which discuss a variety of available data sources.
Essentially annotated bibiliographies, these sources can provide valuable
assistance in obtaining information regarding a specific project or
location.
Current Research Profile for Alaska
The Current Research Profile for Alaska is prepared by the Arctic
Environmental Information and Data Center (AEIDC), Anchorage, Alaska. It
lists research in the physical, biological, and social sciences on a
yearly basis. The fifth edition was issued in 1978 and covered studies
conducted in 1977. Each entry includes the following information:
• Principal investigator, affiliation, address, and tele-
phone number
• Co-investigator and affiliation
• Fund agency, funding period, and funding amount
• Geographic location of research site
• Objectives of research.
Geographic locations are listed as "Statewide", if appropriate, or are
included in one of 7 major geographic regions. Four indexes are provided
in the fifth edition. These include an investigator index, an affi-
liation index, a funding source index, and a general key word index.
Information for inclusion in the document is obtained through contacts
with investigators and program managers with Alaskan, out-of-state, and
foreign organizations and with investigators listed with the Smithsonian
Science Information Exchange and the US National Oceanographic Data
Center's OASIS/ENDEX system.
Entries are assigned to the following
Atmosphere
Geology
Geomorphology
Minerals and fossil fuel
Seismology
Glaciology
Snow
Permafrost
Hydrology
Oceanography
Limnology
Botany
F*. try
Sc s
27 categories:
Birds
Fish
Marine invertebrates
Mammals, marine
Mammals, terrestrial
Agriculture
Archaeology
Socio-cultural
Land use planning
Economics
Technology
Water supply and utility systems
Transportation
C-l
-------
The Catcent Reaeapch; Profits¦fpr Alaska is an excellent source of infor-
mation on current research. Searches for information Regarding specific
geographic areas take some time, however, because "the-entries are not
grouped into listings.by location. The usefulness of £his publication is
not impaired greatly by this minor "Shortcoming.
Bibfrfcogrgphy^of.'Products -S Alaska Coastal Management Prpgray, Office of
Coastal iteatagwroent
This-fldoQianent sis another publication of the Alaska Environmental
Information and Data Center (AEIDC), Anchorage, Alaska. Issued in 1978,
it lists the products available from a variety of programs.
Kenai Resource Inventory
llulai ^publication, dated 1977, was prepared by Mr. Roger Maggard
under the auspices of the Western Interstate Commission for Higher
Education, Boulder, Colorado, through an internship program with the
State to* Ala»k*}-.Department of Natural Resources. It is an annotated
bibll&g-tfapfty : that lists sources of information relating to the Kenai
PerfJSfflRiias Borough- The sources are organized into 8 categories. These
include:
4 Socioeconomic characteristics
-« Recreation
• Fortstry
a* 'Hydrology t
r4 -'Land status
'£i*h aild wildlife
f» Solid
-• Geology.
The^-Ksnai Resource.Inventory especially is useful for data searches re-
lating 6o*pr6jects?.in the Ken*l Peninsula Borough.
Annotated? BtMllLbgcaphy of iWritings in,: the Kenai Peninsula Borough
Planning flgpaii'taent - Library
^Pal^ddhad tttvflfecemt>er,, -1977, this document contains an annotated
listing of- materials in the Kenai Peninsula Borough Planning Department
Library. It is arranged in a topical sequence and is divided into 'six'
categories;
o Land use
o Natural resources and environment
o Public facilities and services
o Demography
o Government, law, and public policy
o Miscellaneous and interdisciplinary.
The majority of the sources listed in this document especially are
pertinent to the Kenai Peninsula Borough. In addition to making a
searcher aware of sources of data, this publication indicates that the
C-2
-------
sources are available in the library of the Kenai Planning Department.
There is significant overlap between th * listings in this*document-and
those in the Kenai Resburce Inventory.
Alaska PCS Socioeconomic Studies Program, Literature Survey
This report was prepared for the US Department of--the Interior*
Bureau of Land Management, Alaska Outer Continental Shelf OfficeL ar.d wes
issued in April 1977. It focuses on literature pertincat tcT
developmental activities affecting the Alaskan Outer Continental Shelf
(OCS). The report is organized in sixteen category chapters,: including
the following:
Economy Cultural patterns
Oil and gas resources Subsistence
Population Land use and land status
Revenue and taxation Transportation, coiiJt..nicatioiisr,
Government utilities
Education Housing
Health Archaeological /histooical^ and.
Social services recreational/scenic resources.,
Public safety Natural constraints to-development
Discussions also are organized by regions, These are the Beaufo.rt, Sea
Region, the Bering Sea Region, the Southwestern Region, aaid th^e Qul4 of
Alaska Region. Literature of statewide importance also : is advened.
Subject chapter and master bibliographies are provided. . Mate^ial^^is
indexed by subject, key word, and by region. An important-item included
in this document is a discussion of data gaps for each^ of £ha.. subject
chapter topics. Although these gaps are those that arp pertinent, to the
Alaska OCS Socioeconomic Studies Program, they indicate areas of info^a-
tion that lack documentation.
There undoubtedly are other Important bibliographies- fihat^lijidress
key studies and information sources for the State of Alaska. In addition,
the key agency contacts discussed elsewhere in this dopumejrvJ^ can t be
valuable sources of information or current and propped 'aLtiifljEes- Ttf^d.
reports. A combination of personal contacts with thesj, ."ancT otKjer",
individuals and use of literature surveys and bibliographies>^^14 -fee a
most effective method of obtaining information relevant . to--S&*c$fic
projects and geographical areas.
C-3
-------
APPENDIX D
NPDES Permit Holders in the Lower Cook Inlet Study Area
-------
Current NPDES permit holders in the Lower Cook Inlet study area were
determined by a review of the May, 1979, Permits Issuance Tracking System
listing prepared by Region X, USEPA. The majority of permits were issued
for three main activities: seafood processing; petroleum and natural
gas-related industries; and, municipal wastewater treatment plant
discharges. Appendix D presents NPDES permit holders by subarea.
Land-based operations were relatively easy to identify. The situation
regarding offshore permit holders (i.e., mobile drilling platforms) is
not as clear. These platforms are moved periodically and it is not
possible to determine exact locations from the permit tracking system.
Therefore, the permit holders listed are those that appear most likely to
be operating in the Lower Cook Inlet study area, based on information
available from the permit tracking system and from knowledge of the study
area. It is probable that most, or all, of the offshore operations are
conducted in Subarea VII. Numerous offshore petroleum production
platforms are located Immediately north of the study area, especially in
the Trading Bay area. NPDES permit information for those facilities is
not included in this report, but is listed in the Permits Issuance
Tracking System.
Additional information is available from the latest edition of the
Permits Issuance Tracking System and from the individual permit files of
USEPA. Specific data concerning permits and permit holders may be ob-
tained from these sources.
D-l
-------
SUBAREA 1 - Current NPDES Permit Holders
Permit
ID #
Name
AKQ000027
Kenai Salmon Packing Co.
AKO000167
Chevron USA, Inc.
AR00005Q7
Union Chemical Div. of Union Oil
AK0000841
.Tesoro-Alaskan Petroleum Corp.
AK0001058
Kenai Pipeline Co.
AKOOOii55
Phillips Petroleum Co.
AK0020036
City of Soldotna
AK0021371?
City of Kenai
AK00245U
Sea Catch, Inc.
A&>024554
Union 6il Co.
AKGD27294**
Sal-amatof Seafoods, Inc.
AK0OOOS66
Columbia-f^arda Fisheries
**Permit applied for - pending issuance
Source
Location
Activity
Kenai AK
Seafood processing
Kenai AK
Petroleum
Kenai AK
Chemicals
Kenai AK
Petroleum
Kenai AK
Petroleum
Kenai Alt
Pe?£role6tn'
Soldotna AK
Muriic i'pal Was tewater
Kenai AK
vMuni
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SUBAREA II - Current NPDES Permit Holders
Permit
ID #
AK0000159
AK0000639
AKQ001007
AKOQ212A5'
SUBAREA IV
AK0001031
AK0021512
AK0026743**
AK0028!j47~***
Name
Seward Fisheries
Seward Fisheries
Whitney'Fidalgo Seafoods
City of'Homer
Current NPDES Pefinit Holders
Whitney Fldalgo Seafoods
City of Seldovia
S-A Packers
Pacific Pearl Seafoods
Location
Ninilchik AK
Homer AK"
Homer AK,
Homer AK
Source
Activity
Seafood processing
Seafood processing
S^|po4. procesisipg.
Municipal wastewater
Port Graham AK
Seldovia AK
Seldovia AK
STeldovi^ AK
Seafood processing
Municipal wastewater
Seafood processing
Seafood processing
**I>ermit application only
***Permit application and new source determination completed - determined to be existing source
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SUBAREA V - Current NPDES Permit Holders
u
Permit
IP #
AK0000396
AK0023337
Name
Cook Inlet Pipeline Co.
Cook Inlet Pipeline Co.
SUBAREA VI - Current NPDES Permit Holders
AK0021849 Snug Harbor Packing Co.
OFFSHORE - Current NPDES Permit Holders
AK0024635
AK0025208
AK0027553**
AK00^6&
-4W&W
4K0P,$Ua5
AKPP.28^15
AK002822.3
^002&23,1
Phillips Petroleum Co.
Amarex, Inc.
Japan Drilling Company
CjlqbaJ., Marine prilling, Inc.
Od^pq, Inc.
Octeco, In,c.
Global Marine , grilling, Ipc.
Marathon Oil Co.,
J-ap^an Drilling Cqmp^ny
Location
Drift River Terminal
Drift River Terminal
Chisik Island
Offshore
Offshore
Offshore
Offshore
Offshore
Offshore
Offshore
Offshore
Offs&ojre
Source
Activity
Petroleum
Petroleum
Seafood processing
Petroleum
Petroleum
Petroleum
Petroleum
Petroleum
Petroleum
Pe^pleum
Petroleum
Petroleum
*'*£'<&rmit application and draft permit complete - permit issuance pending
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OFFSHORE -
Current NPDES Permit Holders (concluded).
Pertait
Source
ID #
Name
Location
Activity
AKCP2824Q,
Japan., Drilling. Cpmpgpy
Of f sfyare
Petroleum
AK0028258
Global Marine Drilling, Inc.
Offshore.
Petroleum
AKOQ28266
Qlobal Marine Drilling, Inc.
Offshore
Petrol/ejjpn
AWK)2827f4
Exxon. Corp.
Offshore
Petroleum
A1«X) 26232
Western pffshore Drilling
Offshore
Petroleum
f *
A^oa284^*
* Diamonfi M.Vpeneral"
Offshore
Petroleum
!—— i ' II- ¦ .. .. c ——
**Draft permit complete; determined to be existing source - permit issuance pending
w
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