AIR POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
PROGRAM STRATEGY
FY 1976
March 31, 1975
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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
PROGRAM STRATEGY, FY 1976
INDEX
ITEM PAGE
I. BACKGROUND 1
Agency Mission 1
Role of Research and Development 2
Strategy Definition 5
Organization of Strategy 7
II. SUMMARY OF PROBLEMS 10
Administrative 11
Coordination of Research Planning 11
Communication 11
Technical Assistance 12
Urban Background Particulate 13
Particulate Source Control 14
Fugitive Dusts 15
Fine Particulate Characterization and Control 16
Sulfur Oxide 18
Nitrogen Oxide 20
Hazardous 22
Oxidants 25
Hydrocarbon Control, Stationary Source 26
Smelter Control 27
Sulfates 28
Solid Waste 29
Odor Control 30
Fertilizer Processes 31
Open Combustion Sources 32
Control Equipment Reliability 33
Industry Control, Specific 34
Iron and Steel Proceses Control 35
III. STRATEGY 36
Communication/Administrative 37
Particulate 38
Sulfur Oxide 44
Nitrogen Oxide ' 50
Hazardous and Other Pollutants 55
Automobile Pollution 60
TABLE I CROSSWALK-CLIENT REQUIREMENTS TO OBJECTIVES 62
TABLE II FUNDING LEVELS 65
APPENDIX CATALOGUE OF CLIENT RESEARCH NEEDS 67
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I.
BACKGROUND
AGENCY MISSION
The overall mission of the Agency is to protect the public health and welfare
from adverse effects of air pollution. This objective must be accomplished with-
out creating a secondary problem such as water pollution, solid waste or major
unacceptable impact on land use or esthetics. Also, this mission must be accom-
plished at a reasonable and acceptable cost and in such a way as to not seriously
upset or endanger vital national functions such as defense, food and energy supplies,
and individual liberties.
In his FY 1975 Air Program Policy Statement, the Administrator of the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Mr. Russell E. Train, stated the following:
"The Clean Air Act (CAA), in order that air pollution be reduced and prevented,
provides for the establishment of a set of environmentally important goals, sets
forth the process by which the goals are to be attained, and expresses a philosophy
with respect to both the goals and their method of attainment."
"The goals are quantified in the National Ambient Air Quality Standards, which
set forth the allowable concentration in air of a set of air pollutants associated
with diverse sources widely distributed throughout the Nation. A second set of
standards impact directly on emitting sources through the establishment of Federal
national emission limitations. These standards include National Emission Standards
for Hazardous Air Pollutants, National New Source Performance Standards, and
nationwide limitations on pollutant emissions from mobile sources."
"The philosophy of the Act gives first priority to the achievement of standards
protective of health. Where protective of health, the Act established mandatory
times for the attainment of the standard. Where protective of welfare, the Act
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provides for administrative discretion as to the time of attainment of standards."
" The Act mandates the adoption of regulations setting forth legally
enforceable emission reduction plans. It provides for the adoption of certain
technologies in the private sector on a nationwide basis; for example, best
adequately demonstrated technology in the case of new stationary air pollution
sources and a mandated reduction from new light duty motor vehicles. The Act
furthermore requires the use of certain controls not traditionally applied for air
pollution control, such as the control of land use and transportation, when control
technology seems inadequate to meet the environmental goals within the mandatory
time schedules set forth in the Act."
"The highest priority for Federal and State action has generally been directed
towards those Air Quality Control Regions where pollutant concentrations exceed
national standards which are protective of health. After three years of experience
with the Act, it has become clear that for some pollutants in some areas the
standards protective of health cannot be attained in the mandatory time period with
the available control technology In the case of pollutants emitted primarily
by motor vehicles in some Air Quality Control Regions requiring transportation
controls, the level of social and economic change which may be required to meet
ambient standards may be unacceptable in terms of economic and social impact."
"For some Regions, control will not be feasible due to circumstances beyond
control agencies' control (i.e., natural dust sources) or without unreasonable
control measures."
Role of Research and Development
The principal tools of the Agency provided by the Clean Air Act are
regulatory and enforcement. The function of the research and development activities
are to provide the scientific and technical information and support required to
carry out the regulatory and enforcement functions. The objective of the Air
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Pollution Control Technology Program is to conduct research, development and
demonstration to assure the availability of air pollution control processes,
methods and devices to adequately control air pollution.
The Administrator noted that the CAA, " expresses a philosophy with
respect to both the goals and their method of attainment." Perhaps the single
most important and responsible tool provided by the CAA to assure sound responsible
and achievable regulation is the mandate, "The Administrator shall establish a
national research and development program for the prevention and control of air
pollution...."
The prescribed use of the research and development (R&D) tool is to assure an
adequate technical basis for the establishment of sound responsible regulations that
can be achieved at reasonable cost. It is further clear that all practical means
are to be used to develop a sound technical data base for contracting and setting
regulations; implying that the R&D tool is not to be the exclusive source of
technical information and data. Coordination of programs to develop a technical
base with other agencies, industry, foreign countries, universities, etc. is
essential.
We have not always been successful in our efforts to develop defensible
regulations. The Administrator's Air Program Policy Statement noted some of the
existing and impending unsuccessful efforts. In several instances time and
resources have mitigated against achieving the optimum product. In other cases
the Agency's attempts to rely on the regulated industry or others for an adequate
technical data base have been largely responsible for the subsequent difficulties
encountered. This experience indicates the need for an Agency R&D program as a
basis for their technical support.
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Almost immediately upon its enactment, the 1970 Amendment of the Clean Air
Act required setting regulations. Fortunately because of earlier R&D activity a
data base was available for setting SO2, particulate and N0X standards. These
standards were largely the direct products of the R&D programs; the technical
standards for SO2 and N0X were actually prepared by ORD personnel. Much of the
Agency's success in carrying out its air pollution regulatory and enforcement mission
has been due to the existence and subsequent strengthening of this technical data
base. Conversely, many of the problems facing the Agency are due largely to lack
of control technology and related data. Because of the strong dependency of the
regulatory mission on a sound technical data base the future success or difficulties
of the Agency will undoubtedly continue to reflect our technical expertise.
The Agency's policy is now to emphasize implementing existing standards. This
policy and the maturing activities of the Agency in implementing standards is
resulting in the need for ORD to spend a larger effort in supporting the Agency's
implementation and enforcement activities as opposed to sole support of new
regulations. Experience gained by EPA regulatory and enforcement personnel over
the past four years has provided a sound basis for defining and prioritizing
technology requirements for carrying out their programs. Difficulties experienced
by ORD in the past in identifying technology support needs have been largely
overcome as clients gained firsthand experience in defending and enforcing exist-
ing standards. Technical assistance and data relating to technology application
and verification are now in high demand.
Agency experience over the past four years has demonstrated the need to
anticipate technology requirements and to initiate programs so that there is
sufficient lead time to assure that the necessary data base is available when it
is needed. Although there is bound to be some differences depending upon which
pollutant is involved, on the average, it can be expected that about 10 years lead
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time is required to set a responsible, defensible standard assuming the Agency
starts from a condition in which there is no existing repository of data. It
should be noted that EPA and its predecessor organization, DHEW, have been working
for at least 9 years on the development of criteria for sulfur oxide and, as of
yet, we do not have adequate verified criteria. Research and development to
provide the needed control technology requires from 4-10 years, depending upon
the complexity of the technology and its level of maturity. Again, drawing from
sulfur oxide experience, it has taken about 8 years to arrive at the present status
of technology development. We are still a year away from having a fully demonstrated
technology.
There exists ample information to establish that there are health and welfare
affects from pollutants such as fine particulates, carcinogens, sulfur oxide,
nitrogen oxide, nickel, lead, arsenic, cadmium, vanadium, copper and other trace
materials. Most of this information is only qualitative and will require substan-
tial portions of 10 years to quantitatively determine the health and welfare affects.
Considerable information is available to help guide the decisions as to what
pollutants might be selected for intensive, effects research control approach
development and possible regulations. Such information includes identification of
sources of pollutants, and correlations between gross health effects with the
proximity of receptors to the sources.
Strategy Definition
In carrying out its primary environmental protection mission, EPA as well as
the regulated sources of pollution are dependent on the availability of processes,
equipment and methods for preventing or controlling sources of pollution. This
document is a strategy for a research and development program to assure availability
of the necessary air pollution control technology to support the Agency's overall
mission.
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This strategy has been based on the premise that a strategy is an overall
plan to achieve a defined mission. As such,a strategy defines the problems to
be solved and sets goals and objectives to be achieved. It is sufficiently
comprehensive to permit sub-strategies and program plans to be developed and
provides a basis for measuring the degree of their accomplishment. The major
components of a strategy therefore include:
(1) A statement of organizational mission and goals.
(2) A statement of the major problems to be addressed.
(3) A summary of the status of the several technologies involved.
(4) Identification of the research needs that must be filled to
achieve a solution.
(5) A list of priorities and time schedule for accomplishment of objectives
goals and ORD missions.
It is assumed that a strategy differs from research plans in that research plans
are the detailed road map for implementation of programs and projects to achieve
the goals and objectives of the strategy.
Strategies are appropriate at various levels of detail. Clearly, there must
be one overlying strategy that addresses itself to the Agency's and ORD's mission,
goals, "and objectives while subordinate strategies respectively address areas,
sectors, problems, or even projects. This strategy focuses on that control
technology needed to support the Agency's mission in the area of air pollution
control.
A single but major exception to the above perspective was made; namely,
pollution control related to energy production. Recent attention to this specific
component of the air pollution control problem has resulted in the establishment
of a separate program to address the problems associated with energy production.
From almost any standpoint there are obvious overlaps of technology research
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undertaken under energy and non-energy related programs. For example, the
effects, transport or control technologies in general are only indirectly
sensitive to the specific source. Nevertheless, for purposes of this strategy,
energy-specific air pollution control technology has not been included.
In the development of this air pollution control technology R&D strategy,
an attempt has been made to consider and be responsive to all available inputs
and factors that combine to influence the R&D function. These have included the
congressional mandates, agency policies and guidelines, where they exist, data
implied by budget levels, personnel distribution, stated and implied needs of
the Regulatory and Enforcement Offices, and the stated needs of the Regions.
The primary clients, for purposes of this strategy include, {1) Office of
the Administrator, (2) Office of Air Programs, (3) Office of Enforcement, and
(4) the Regional Offices. Other key clients include State EPA offices, environ-
mental organizations, other Federal agencies and Industry. The audience to which
this strategy is addressed includes not only all clients listed above but also
includes other EPA and ORD offices, Congress, certain Federal government offices
such as 0MB and CEQ, the general public and, of course, offices responsible for
the implementation of the research objectives.
Organization of Strategy
This strategy first examines the missions, objectives and priorities of the
Agency as found in the Clean Air Act and as provided by the Administrator. Since
the primary missions of the Agency are regulatory and enforcement, the objectives
and strategies of the regulatory and enforcement offices have been carefully
reviewed for further guidance to the R&D Droaram.
Considerable effort was made to identify and understand the views and
technology requirements of the users of research and development (R&D) products.
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The results of interviews with these users (clients) are presented in an appendix
to the strategy document. This appendix attempts to state the clients' views and
requirements as they were received without editing or analysis. It should be noted
however that the clients' interests and technology requirements generally covered
a broad range of R&D disciplines including health effects, monitoring regulations
and enforcement. Since this strategy deals only with control technology R&D
programs, only those clients' inputs that relate to control technology have been
included here.
In Section II of the strategy, the clients' inputs have been collected and
aggregated along lines of common problems and requirements. This was the first
step in the development of a coherent, responsive R&D program.
The final section is a research and development program strategy to provide
the Agency and clients with the air pollution control technologies possible within
the constraints of available resources.
Because clients' backgrounds and interests differ widely and because control
technology requirements are seldom stated by the clients in terms used by the
researcher or research program, it has been necessary in some cases to restate
the clients' technology needs and convert them to specific research programs.
This was done in conjunction with the clients to assure that the meaning and
intent of clients' needs were preserved.
The strategy is organized by program area and program element to correspond
to the administrative (Federal Accounting System) categories under which the
research is conducted. For convenience each major area or element is preceded by
a brief background that summarizes relevant Agency and program history, Agency
goals and clients' needs. A statement of the problem is included as a concise
basis against which the program strategy and specific research objectives are stated.
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Finally a tabular cross-walk between client's needs and strategy objectives
is provided to assist the client in relating his problem to the R&D objectives
and to assist those executing the program in identifying specific problems to
be addressed by the objectives. A schedule of resources assigned to each major
work area of the strategy is given in the attached tables.
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II.
SUMMARY OF PROBLEMS
To be responsive to the Agency's mission and to provide support to the
regulatory, enforcement and other offices of EPA, it is essential that ORD have
a clear understanding of the clients' technology requirements. To assure that
our understanding of the clients' technology needs is current and complete,
each client was interviewed. Appendix A lists the needs identified by each
client. These needs were then analyzed and aggregated to produce this section.
In addition to the specific and largely immediate needs identified in
Appendix A, several clients expressed concern over the need for long-range
technology programs to support the Agency's mission. Their concerns included
both the requirement to further define or quantify problems such as sulfates,
fine particulate or hazardous pollutants and larger range problems that relate
to emerging industries and industrial expansion. These longer range needs were
noted and have been summarized and included in this section.
In the following summary of R&D problems, common needs have been aggregated
to improve readability and organization. An attempt has been made to preserve
the statement of the problem from the client's viewpoint. Only those problems
that relate to control technology requirements have been included. Therefore,
the problems contained in this summary do not include all the problems/needs
identified by the clients. Since each client (e.g., each region) has a somewhat
different set of priorities it is not possible to assign overall priorities to each
agqreqation of clients' needs. However, an attempt has been made to reflect overall
priority of aggregate by placing those of higher priority first in their order of
appearance in this section.
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ADMINISTRATIVE
Almost all of the clients expressed a need for improved coordination of
R&D planning, communication of research finding and technical assistance. The
following aggregates the needs in these areas.
Coordination of Research Planning
The research needs of EPA's operating groups should receive more consideration
in programming, planning and execution than they have in the past. For example,
many high priority regional problems may not be addressed if all priorities are
derived from a generalized national viewpoint. Often the research needs of the
operating groups within the Agency have special restraints and requirements
on problem solutions, such as short time requirements, economic or special
intermedia concerns. These requirements must be understood and accounted for
in the planning and execution of work if the output is to be used to the maximum
Agency benefit. Client offices need to make sure that their problems are well
explained and to follow thru with changing requirements. A coordination
mechanism is needed to allow OR&D to be more responsive to these time dependent
and special needs, it is also recommended that ORD become better aligned with
the operational activities to improve its overall responsiveness to the agency's
total research requirements. Objectives and outputs of the R&D program should
be more directed to developing technology thru the stage that it is capable of
being applied to solve emission problems. Objectives should be directed at
specific problems to a larger extent than in the past.
Communication
The client organization's work in solving air pollution problems requires the
use and implementation of the scientific information and technology that has
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been developed by ORD. Many of the ORD research reports do not provide
the information needed to translate research findings into problem solutions.
It is important that control technology be developed to the point of learning
to apply the technology and that research findings be reported with greater
emphasis on implementation and solutions to specific problems. Additionally,
state-of-the-art summaries, seminars and executive reports to provide and
update technical information are needed. Design manuals, and technical transfer
documents were mentioned as being particularly useful in this regard.
Technical Assistance
Periodically the clients require technical assistance from a variety
of R&D programs. This assistance usually consists of technical consultation
and/or assistance in prepration for hearings or court cases. Many problems
requiring technical assistance are industry rather than scientific discipline
related. As such designating focal points of expertise for specific industries
within ORD would also be desirable.
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URBAN BACKGROUND PARTICULATE
Particulate matter in urban areas caused by sources such as tire wear, brake
lining, reentrained street dust, and open disposal sources cause National Air
Quality Standards for particulates to be exceeded in many areas. Research is
needed to better identify and quantify important sources of this background
particulate. Appropriate technology is required to limit controllable sources.
New reference methods for sampling particulates which differentiate among
particle sizes will have to be developed.
Problem Characteristics
1. Identification, quantification and characterization of
reentrained dust and dusts from open sources.
2. Development and demonstration methods for control
of fugitive sources.
Referencing Groups
OAWM, Regions 2, 3 and 10
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PARTICULATE SOURCE CONTROL
There is a pressing need for applicable technology to control all sources of
particulates such as power plants, asphalt plants, chemical processes, iron & steel
processes, wood burning fireplaces and sawmill operations. This need includes
development of fabric filters which can function with high temperatures. Better
modeling procedures are needed for control equipment design and specification.
There is a need for further characterization of both open and contained particulate
sources, especially with respect to particle size and associated health effects.
This information will help determine if the standard should be changed to reflect
particle size, and whether the existing or new standard can be met with available
control methods. Note: ice fog is a unique form of this particulate problem.
Problem Characteristics
1. Industrial control problem includes a wide range of point
and non-point sources.
2. Characterization requires size distribution and
specie identification.
3. Several control methods to cope with full range of
problems are needed to meet standards.
4. Lower cost control systems are needed.
Referencing Groups
OGE, Regions 5, 7, 9 and 10
(AISI) American Iron & Steel Institute
(APCA) Air Pollution Control Association
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FUGITIVE DUSTS
Today no effective means exist to control fugitive dust emissions. Fugitive
dusts from sources such as strip mines, iron & steel process disposal sites,
tailings piles, unpaved roads, forest fires, agricultural operations, construction
and recreational activities contribute to the background levels of dust. Some are
thought to have associated health risk due to their heavy metal and silica content.
A technical data base is needed which includes characterization, source evaluation,
effects and possible control methods for this class of particulates.
Problem Characteristics
1. There is a need to quantitatively identify sources and
assess importance of major sources of fugitive dusts.
2. Control techniques are needed for the more serious sources
of fugitive dust.
3. Where control is impractical or unnecessary, methodology
to compensate for fugitive dust source background
measurements is needed.
Referencing Groups
OAWM, Office of Legislation
Regions 6, 8 and 9
AISI
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FINE PARTICULATE CHARACTERIZATION AND CONTROL
Fine particulates are a health hazard because in contrast to coarse particles
they can bypass the body's respiratory filters and penetrate deeply into the lungs.
Fine particles released into the atmosphere remain airborne for extended periods
of time, obstruct light and cause limited visibility typical of air pollution
haze and smog. They have been identified as transport vehicles for gaseous pollutants.
The health hazards of fine particulates are intensified by the tendency of metallic
materials from high-temperature processes, such as pyrometallurgical and combustion
processes, to condense as chemically and catalytically active fine particulates. Many
toxic and potentially hazardous compounds are also emitted as fine particulate.
Particulate matter formed in the atmosphere from the reaction and condensation of
gasses is another major source of fine particulate pollution. These gas-phase
reactions make it difficult to relate atmospheric particulate pollution levels to
specific sources. This has hampered the development of effective control strategies
and the establishment of meaningful emission standards. The control of these
secondary forms of particulate must be through control of their precursors.
Many years will be required to develop a sound data base to quantify the
health effects problem of fine particulates. Sufficient information does exist,
however, to conclude that fine particulates must be controlled if public health
is to be protected.
EPA has established a goal of setting fine particulate standards. To develop
these standards, research and development is necessary to provide a minimum data
base. This data base and the necessary technology does not now exist. Key among
the R&D needs is a program to identify and characterize fine particulate sources.
Work is needed in three areas: 1) identification and characterization of fine
particulate point sources, 2) identification and characterization of gaseous
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precursors and the conditions under which gas-phase reactions form fine particu-
lates, and 3) identification and characterization of open sources of particulates.
A second major need is in the area of control technology for fine particu-
lates. This involves upgrading conventional particulate collection equipment
to improve its efficiency to remove fine particulates. Also, development of new
control methods is needed as part of the control technology program. Several
new control mechanisms appear to have promise.
The performance of control equipment often decays with time, so that sources
brought in compliance with new equipment may fail to meet emission standards after a
period of time. A study characterizing the long-term performance of control equipment
as needed to guide policy and enforcement decisions.
Problem Characteristics
1. Identify, characterize and quantify fine particulate sources.
2. Determine fine particulate control capabilities of conventional
control equipment.
3. Develop and demonstrate fine particulate measuring equipment
for sources and ambient concentrations.
4. Demonstrate control technology capabilities capable of
controlling both large and small sources.
5. Develop effective collection devices with lower energy requirement
and lower pressure drop.
Referencing Groups
OAWM, OGE, Region 6, AISI, Manufacturing Chemists Association (MCA),
Industrial Gas Cleaning Institute (IGCI), Air Pollution Control
Association (APCA).
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SULFUR OXIDE
Past emphasis on control of utility emissions has resulted in demonstrated
ability to control SO2. The same degree of control does not yet exist for
smaller sources including area sources, industrial processes and industrial
combustion. This is due, in part, to the higher costs associated with adapting
power plant control processes to control of these smaller sources. Yet it is
important to control these smaller sources because it has been determined that
these smaller sources contribute more than would be originally expected to the
ambient levels of sulfur oxides. Although utilities contribute nearly 75% of the
total inventory, they actually contribute only about 221 of the ambient concentrations.
The remainder is contributed by these smaller sources of pollution. A viable, lower
cost method of controlling these smaller sources is needed.
Control of SO2 emissions from industrial processes such as coke ovens,
secondary smelters (junk dealers), acid plants, pulp and paper, petroleum processing,
gas sweetening and other industrial sources remain a significant problem. Develop-
ment and demonstration of adequate technologies are needed for many of these sources.
There is also a need for suitable control technology for small industrial boilers
which will have to comply with state SO2 regulations starting in 1975. As low
sulfur fuels decrease in availability, higher sulfur oil and coal will have to be
burned resulting in higher emissions of SO2- Industrial groups pointed out that
non-regenerative processes generate large quantities of waste which is expensive
to haul away and difficult to dispose of for small SO2 sources. There is also a
need for improved efficiency of the S0X scrubber and the demister used on larger
SO2 sources such as utilities and large industrial combustion processes.
EPRI indicated that specifically lime/limestone scrubbing needs to be
evaluated and tested to provide engineering companies with data which will enable
them to design and build large scale scrubbers to be used with high and medium
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sulfur coal* Better understanding of the relationship between bench, pilot
and large scale scrubbers has to be developed. Many industrial groups indicated
further need to study SO2 scrubber chemistry. Scaling and corrosion were
mentioned by the industrial groups as persistent problems. They also pointed
to a need to continue working on the dry-adsorbent systems for small boilers.
It was the opinion of IGCI that the government should increase its support
of new processes to make their utilization practical for industrial boilers.
Demonstrations for industrial boilers are needed for one more throw-away process
and two or three recovery processes.
Problem Characteristics
1. There is a need for control technologies to economically and
effectively handle the industrial process and small combustion
sources of SO2.
2. Many sources are low technology, low profit margin sources
that require simple low-cost control solutions.
3. Achieving NAAQS in many areas will require control of small industrial
processes and area sources.
4. Sludge fixation and disposal work is needed.
Referencing Groups
OGE, 0PM, Regions 1, 4, 7, 8 and 9
Manufacturing Chemists Association, IGCI, Electric Power Research Inst. (EPRI),
Air Pollution Control Association (APCA)
*Energy-related R&D is identified in the Energy Research Program
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NITROGEN OXIDE*
Presently, control technology is not available to meet the NAAQS, (100
micrograms/meter3), for N02- Two regions (ACQRs), Chicago and Los Angeles
exceed the NAAQS while several others are marginal. Future growth of both
industrial and transportation sources will ensure exceeding the N0X NAAQS in
several other areas.
The allowable emissions from light duty vehicles (automobiles and small
trucks) as established by the 1970 Clean Air Act have been increased by the "Energy
Supply and Environmental Coordination Act of 1974." The Agency has adopted a
policy to emphasize the control of stationary sources and to deemphasize the
stringent control of mobile sources. This strategy, known as the Maximum
Stationary Source Strategy (MSST), will require application of control technology
to a wide variety of stationary combustion sources.
Under the MSST strategy the stationary sources that require control include
a wide range of large utility boilers, industrial combustion processes and small
domestic heaters that use a full spectrum of fuel types; all of which respond
differently to control techniques and all of which have special restraints and
requirements on the application of controls.
While large utility sources account for most of the N0X mass emissions, area
sources, which include small domestic and commercial heaters and some small
industrial boilers, are responsible for the largest impact on ambient air quality
because of their locations and short stacks. Industrial boilers also have
significant impact on air quality and will require control in some cities.
Nitrogen oxides react with hydrocarbons in the atmosphere to produce
oxidants. This reaction is one important mechanism that causes oxidant standards
*Also see Oxidant & Hydrocarbons
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to be exceeded in many regions.
The major R&D needs include the further development of control techniques
applicable to the smaller sources of N0X and the development of methodology to
apply this technology to the broad range of sources.
Field tests and demonstration programs to prove the applicability and
effectiveness of these technologies are required.
Problem Characteristics
1. Agency policy is to emphasize control of N0X from Stationary Sources.
2. Control technology for variety of sources needs to be demonstrated
on major source categories.
3. Sources need to be better characterized for strategy planning.
Referencing Groups
OAWM, 0PM, Region 9, AISI, Manufacturing Chemists Association.
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HAZARDOUS
Trace metals and other potentially hazardous gaseous and particulate
substances are emitted into the air from a large number of industrial sources
in amounts that could threaten human health. The Agency's policy and attitude
toward dealing with these kinds of pollutants is unclear largely due to the lack
of data to define the problems, i.e. source characterization and health effects
data. Difficulties that relate to the setting and enforcement of hazardous
pollutant standards have to a large extent been responsible for Agency inactivity
in this area. Nevertheless these pollutants represent a class of air pollution
that cannot be long ignored. Episodes and localized problems of lead, hydrogen
sulfide, freon, mercury, asbestos, etc. pollution force a reminder that the EPA
charter is designed to include this type of problem. To date only three
materials have been the subject of hazardous pollutant standards (mercury,
asbestos and beryllium). Beyond these pollutants (and to a great extent for these
pollutants) little is known.
There are other pollutants for which further control action will be required
in the not too distant future. Some of the leading candidates would appear to be
arsenic, lead, cadmium and antimony from copper and other non-ferrous primary and
secondary smelters. Other pollutants of concern include chromium from primary
manganese production; nickel from oil-fired power plants, ferroalloy operations
and primary nickel production. Still others are barium, copper, fluorides,
polynuclear organic material, selenium, boron, chlorine, zinc, vinyl chloride,
tin, and vanadium.
Hydrocarbon emissions are also of great concern to the Agency. In addition
to studies linking benzopyrenes with increasing incidents of lung cancer, many
of the higher hydrocarbons undergo changes in the atmosphere that result in damage
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to vegetation, eye irritation and reduced visibility. A principal complication
of this class of pollution is that the sources of hydrocarbons are quite numerous.
Major sources of hydrocarbons include petroleum refineries, chemical manufacturing
plants, coal coking operations, fuel burning (stationary and mobile sources)
waste disposal; food processing and the manufacturing and end use of organic
solvents.
Like most air emissions, hazardous air pollutants involve multimedia pollution.
The origin and fate of hazardous materials involve not only air but land and
water as well. For example, airborne asbestos from mining and milling operations,
manufacturing of asbestos products, demolition of buildings with asbestos fire-
proffing and insulation, ore dumps, tailinq piles and land filled disposal areas
contribute to asbestos particles found in street dust, rivers etc. The multimedia
aspect relative to hazardous and potentially hazardous pollutions is not unique to
asbestos but is also common to many trace materials (e.g., mercury, vanadium and
cadmi urn).
The main problem facing the Agency in its attempt to establish standards and
strategies for controlling potentially hazardous pollutants lies in the fact that
the data base necessary to define and quantify the extent of the problem is
essentially non-existent. The need exists for a program that will identify,
quantify and characterize all potentially hazardous pollutants and the major
sources. This information is required as the only logical starting point for
selecting and prioritizing pollutants to initiate an effective health effects
program.
As part of the hazardous and trace material identification, quantification
and source characterization program, the availability and adequacy of control
methods for these pollutants should be determined. Many of these pollutants
are particulate and would be amenable to control by technologies deve1 ed for
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fine particulates. Thus this control technology development for this class
of pollutants will require little work beyond that which is proper in other
program areas. Rather adaption and demonstration of these methods on specific
sources is required.
The OAWM expects that many toxic emissions will be controled as fine
particulates. The Agency is now considering new regulations aimed at fine
particulates. Data are needed to define the potentially toxic emissions that
might be controled incidental to controlling fine particulates.
Problem Characteristics
1. Identify, quantify and characterize potentially hazardous
pollution by major sources.
2. Determine availability and adequacy of control methods.
3. Develop and demonstrate control methods as needed.
Referencing Groups
OAWM, Office of Legislation, Regions 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
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OXIDANTS
The relationships of ozone levels to hydrocarbon emissions and concentration
of nitrogen oxides is not well understood. These relationships are further
complicated by a lack of understanding of the transport, transformation and
removal of oxidant and its precursor in urban areas and in rural locations. New
control strategies are needed for photochemical oxidant and its precursors,
hydrocarbons and N0X> over many large areas of the country (especially the
northeast) in order to meet the ambient air quality standards.
Problem Characteristics
1. Transport of oxidants is not understood.
2. Oxidant-HC-NOx chemical interactions need to be established.
3. Source-receptor relationships are not understood.
4. Control of automotive and stationary HC & N0X emissions.
Refereeing Groups
OAWM, Regions 1, 2,3,4,5,6,7, and 9
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HYDROCARBON CONTROL, STATIONARY SOURCE
Measures to control hydrocarbons (HC) from sources such as fuel evaporation,
solvents, degreasing operation, food processing, paints, cooling, coking,
chemical manufacturing, etc. are urgently needed. Many AQCRs will never meet
oxidant standards even if mobile controls are implemented. Standards in other
AQCRs will be exceeded shortly as growth in the automotive population increases
emissions. Major action to control non-vehicular sources is essential. Specific
programs to characterize the large number of potential sources, especially
industrial and commercial processes are needed in order to determine the degree of
control currently possible and to determine the control technology needs. Several
control technologies now exist to deal with many of these control problems.
They need adaption, modification and demonstration to support existing and
developing control strategies.
Problem Characteristics
1. The large number of small HC sources need to be
identified and characterized.
2. Control methods need to be identified, developed
and demonstrated.
Referencing Groups
OAWM, Manufacturing Chemists Association
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SMELTER CONTROL
The non-ferrous smelter industry, (mainly: lead, copper and zinc) con-
stitutes a major air pollution control problem. The industry has successfully
resisted regulations primarily because of arguments about the adequacy and
economics of control technologies. In addition to being a major source of SO2
these smelters are major sources of cadmium, lead, copper, arsenic, zinc and
other toxic emissions. Although existing control technology for strong SO2
streams may be applicable to these smelters, control methods for weak S02 streams
and the heavy metals are needed. Also the degree of control possible by
applying conventional technology is not well established. Technical assistance
is required in establishing the degree of control for specific plants and to
assist in the implementation of these plans.
Problem Characteristics
1. Complete characterization of smelter pollutants is needed.
2. State-of-the-art data on applicable control technology is required.
3. Technology to control fugitive smelter emissions is needed.
4. Control technology capable of adequately collecting weak-stream
SO2 and trace material requires demonstration.
Referencing Groups
OGE, Regions 6,7,8,9, and 10
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SULFATES
Due to the potential impact of sulfates on the Agency control strategy
currently used for SO2, the priority for research in this area has greatly
increased.
Efficient means to control sulfates is needed. Whether they originate
mainly from stationary, mobile sources or are formed by reactions of S0X in the
atmosphere must be known. Measurement and control technology along with an under-
standing of the atmospheric chemistry is needed.
Problem Characteristics
1. As the principal precursor of sulfates, SO2 emissions may have to
be controlled to another order of magnitude.
2. Little is known about the origin and fate of sulfates.
Atmospheric chemistry and transport information is insufficient.
3. Measurement methods are inadequate.
Referecing Groups
OAWM, Regions 1, 2, 7, 9 and 10
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SOLID WASTE
Incineration of sewage sludge and raw chemical sludges are principal means
of disposal. Incineration may, however, lead to significant emissions of such
pollutants as mercury, cadmium, lead, copper, chromium, pesticides, pathogens
and other toxic substances. Information regarding control technology applicable
to incineration operations is needed. New control technology may be required.
Bacteria and virus transport from sewage aeration is also a concern.
Problem Characteristics
1. Pollutants from sewage sludges and raw chemical sludges need
to be more completely characterized.
2. Municipal and industrial incinerators control methods
require demonstration.
3. Methods for trace pollutant control is needed.
Referencing Groups
Regions 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9
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ODOR CONTROL
Characterization of the nature and magnitude of the odor control problems
associated with processing agriculture and industry wastes is needed.
Particularly, odors from feedlots, waste treatment composting piles and lagoons,
raw chemical sludge composting piles, food, and animal feed processing need to
be characterized and odor control techniques developed.
Problem Characteristics
1. Measurement technology is needed.
2. Control technology, applicable at a reasonable cost is needed.
3. Environmental impact including both health and welfare
effects are needed.
Referencing Groups
Regions 3, 5, and 7; Manufacturing Chemists Association
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FERTILIZER PROCESSES
There is a need for improved stack gas sampling of gas streams from
fertilizer processes including prilling towers and nitric acid plants
associated with the fertilizer industry. Pollutant characterization is needed
and new control methods developed and demonstrated.
If the fertilizer industry expands to meet growing needs this class of
source may have significant effects on ambient air quality.
Problem Characteristics
1. Stack sampling and monitoring methods are needed.
2. Pollutant characterization and new control methods are needed.
Referencing Groups
Regions 7 and 10
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OPEN COMBUSTION SOURCES
Methods are needed to reduce the risk and to extinguish landfill fires
that develop via spontaneous combustion. This is particularly a problem with
landfills receiving construction debris and where old strip mines are used as
landfill sites. Carbon monoxide resulting from such fires may be a severe
problem.
Problem Characteristics
1. Technology is needed to reduce the risk of spontaneous combustion.
2. Develop fire control methods.
Referencing Group
Region 3 , 10
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CONTROL EQUIPMENT RELIABILITY
A limited amount of data indicates that control equipment, particularly
electrostatic precipitators, deteriorate rapidly after an initial period of
three to six months. It has been noted, for example, that even if steel mills
were completely equipped with electrostatic precipitator scrubbers and baghouses,
the standards still would not be met because of lack of proper maintenance and
operation. An engineering study is needed to assess performance deterioration
and to develop new design and maintenance features to reduce deterioration of
control equipment and to provide guidelines to scheduling compliance checks.
Problem Characteristics
1. Methods and specifications relating to both the quality of
construction and the degree and quality of maintenance of
control equipment is needed.
2. Design maintenance and operating manuals that can be used by
regulatory and enforcement personnel are needed.
3. Data defining performance deterioration is needed.
Referencing Groups
OAWM, OGE, Region 5
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INDUSTRY CONTROL, SPECIFIC
Technology to control emissions from several specific industries that
have unique characteristics and control problems is lacking. These include
sources such as: sinter machines, electric furnaces, aluminum mills, pulp and
paper charcoal kilns and freon sources. The source-specific problems range from
inadequate coke oven door closures and collection sneas for control of unsopnisticatea
charcoal kilns. In each case, pollutant characterization is needed along with
definition of control technology that will provide acceptable multi-pollutant
control of the industry. Methods of modelling are needed to show the best
overall control strategy considering cost benefit analysis, cost effectiveness,
energy, and total environmental impact.
Problem Characteristics
1. Control of industries with problems that do not respond to
"Conventional" control technologies.
2. Industries because of lack of technology and resources, may
be unable to economically solve their specific problems with
existing control technology.
Referencing Groups
Regions 4,5,7,8, and 9; AISI; Manufacturing Chemists Association
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IRON AND STEEL PROCESSES CONTROL
The iron and steel industry listed a number of needs that require that
they be listed separately. These problems are industry specific and could not
be fitted into other categories in this section.
Problem Characteristics
1. Development of methods for reuse, recycling, recovery or disposal
of melt shop dust.
2. Development of processes for practical control of CO from sinter
machines.
3. Development of processes for processes for practical control or removal of
H2S from coke over gas and disposal of H2S.
4. Development of processes for practical control for collection or
suppression of oil vapors form changing of oily scrap in electric
furnaces and basic oxygen furnaces.
Referencing Groups
AISI
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III
STRATEGY
Section I of this document described the relationship between the mission
of the Agencyand the mission of the Office of Research and Development. The
definition and function of air pollution control technology was discussed in
relation to these missions. Section II addresses specifically the research and
development needs as identified by ORD clients. Section III describes a research,
development and demonstration strategy for air pollution control technology which
is aimed at responding to clients' problems and, at the same time, responding to
the longer range anticipated needs of the Agency.
The technology requirements of the Agency have been derived from specific
problem statements and anticipated future needs of the Agency. Client organiza-
tions have also identified communications and administrative problems related
to the ORD program. In this section, the R&D activities and objectives derived
from these problems and required to support the Agency's mission are presented.
Table I is provided as a convenient crosswalk between the clients' needs in
Section II and the R&D objectives called for in the strategies. For the
convenience of the reader, research and development program objectives in this
section are identified in italics. Finally, resource summary Table 2 is
provided to show the distribution of resources required to support the FY-76
program.
The strategies that follow are developed to the point of stating specific
research objective statements. They stop short of defining specific research
and development plans for their accomplishment. The objective statements
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address the question of what R&D is needed to be responsive to clients' needs
and the Agency missions. It is anticipated that a detailed research program
plan will be developed which will describe the R&D activities being done to
support these objectives. Indeed, to the extent that this strategy correlates
with the ongoing program, research objective statements can be related to
current program EROS and ROAPS.
COMMUNICATION/ADMINISTRATIVE
Each client has identified and strongly emphasized the need to effectively deal
with past communications and administrative problems outlined in Section II and in
the appendix. These problems generally include the following:
- The need for better communications between all clients and ORD
researchers in defining problems, in planning, and in executing
to ORD program and in reporting results.
- The need for ORD to be responsive to specific client problems.
- The need for ORD's work to be carried to the point that application of
problems are solved and the ORD output can (new technology and information)
actually be applied to solve problems.
A principal objective of this strategy is to focus on the importance of this
problem area to establish a high priority and to make available the resources
required for their solution.
The solution of these problems depends mainly on the commitment of the
research laboratories and the individual researchers to the concept that sharing
in the responsibility for understanding and solving the specific client's problems
is required to support the Agency's goals. The communication required to support
this concept cannot be effectively handled through a third party but requires positive
coi,muni cat ion efforts between the ORD researchers and all of the client offices.
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PARTICULATE
BACKGROUND
Particulate matter can be classified into coarse and fine. The principal
problem lies in controlling the latter. The four principle control devices
(electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters, scrubbers, and cyclones) are
in general an efficient means of removal of coarse material. For particles
less than 3 microns in diameter, major losses of collection efficiency occur.
With most heterogeneous sized dusts, the fine particulate frequently
represents a minor fraction of total mass, (e.g. in average fly ash 3% or less
of total mass). This fraction, however, remains airborne for extended periods
of time and as a result accumulates in the atmosphere.
Particles of this size range tend to have maximum effect on light obstruction
because their sizes frequently approach the wavelengths of light. Because they
also tend to act more like molecules of gas than particles of dust, they are
capable of being inhaled deeply into the lung passages. The high surface area
per unit of mass tends to make fine particulates highly reactive both within
the respiratory system and while suspended in air.
Fine particulates in ambient air can be classified by their origin as
(1) primary when emitted as particulate from a source and (2) secondary, when
formed in the atmosphere.' Emitted fine particulates most frequently result
from the condensation of gaseous emissions from processes such as combustion,
metallurgical processes, pyrolysis, and processes involving organic and other
materials that are gaseous at high temperature. Emitted fine particulates
include all significant forms of metallic and metallic oxide fine particulates
and most of the major carcinogenic hydrocarbons introduced into the atmosphere.
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Emitted fine particulate, therefore, accounts for the major source of particulate
hazardous or potentially hazardous air pollutants. Secondary fine particulates
are formed by the reactions of gases, liquids, and solids in the atmosphere.
Except as they may contain irritants or carcinogenic hydrocarbons, secondary
particulates are generally less hazardous. It appears, however, that there is
a strong interrelationship between the primary and secondary particulate. The
primary emissions may supply the catalyst, the reaction surfaces and nuclei
for the formation of secondary fine particulates.
The importance of fine particulate, both as an intrinsic pollutant and as
a major form of hazardous and potentially hazardous pollutant, has been long
recognized, however, no attention has been given to their control until about
two years ago. Initially the Agency intended to set standards on those pollutants
by 1974. The efforts have been unsuccessful principally because of the lack of
technology and inadequate data base. It is the goal now to set standards within
the next two years.
Statement of the Problem
In order to achieve the goal of setting standards for fine particulates
as far as the control technology program scope is concerned, several problems
will need to be addressed.
First of all, no reliable method for measurement of fine particulates
in ambient air or in sources is yet available. Such methods are necessary for
any useful research.
Because fine particles have a tendency to agglomerate easily it is
difficult to measure the true effective size in the entrained or insitu
i
condition. It is the entrained size distribution that affects the particulate
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collector efficiency, identifies real concentrations in the ambient air, and
determines factors such as lung penetration and light scattering.
The most important parameter for fine particulate measurement is the
surface area which is important in chemical kinetics and probably in health
effects. Because particle count for a given size fraction is directly pro-
portional to the surface area, particle count would appear to be a valid
parameter for measurement of fine particulates. Several measurement techniques
are available. Optical techniques can be used for particles down to about 0.5
microns. Below that, the particles approach the wavelengths of light so that
measurement techniques which utilize light begin to fail. Other techniques,
however, like those using electrostatic and diffusion characteristics are
available. Attempts to cross-calibrate these several methods have met with
limited success and there is no standardized method that presently exists.
The second problem area is the lack of quantitative knowledge of fine
particulate sources, characterization of those sources and sources of precursors
of fine particulates and the relationship between those sources and concentrations
of fine particles in ambient air. That information is necessary for development
of control technology and as a general data base for development of standards.
The third problem area, and the one for the solution of which the responsi-
bility lies mainly in this program is the lack of technology to control fine
particulate emissions. Three conventional control technologies, electrostatic
precipitators, filters, and scrubbers, are capable of some level of fine
particulate matter control but it is not known if these devices can be applied
to the many sources that need to be controlled.
Filters appear to have the greatest promise of the three conventional
devices. High collection efficiencies have been measured even for very fine
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particulates. Unfortunately, filters have limited application. They cannot
be used at high temperatures or with corrosive gases. When the particulate
being collected is wet or sticky, it will clog the filter until it can no longer
be used.
Under ideal conditions, relatively high particulate control efficiencies
are possible with the use of electrostatic precipitators. They have been used
successfully with high power inputs and with long exposure paths. Improved
electrostatic precipitator designs are needed to increase the efficiency, reduce
the cost and increase applicability for fine particulate control.
The use of conventional scrubbers as collectors of fine particulates poses
several problems. Very large energy inputs are required for fine particulate
control. As particles decrease in size the efficiency of scrubbers drops quite
rapidly. The use of scrubbers does not appear attractive unless devices which
augment efficiency by increasing the size of the particles are developed. Some
of the techniques to increase particle size appear to have promise but need more
research and development. Possible techniques to increase agglomerate or increase
particles are based on a variety of phenomena such as condensation, nucleation,
electrostatic, sonic, and diffusion agglomeration.
Research Program
Two years ago the emphasis of the particulate control program was shifted
to emphasize fine particulate control as opposed to the general upgrading of
the collection equipment. Presently, in addition to the program considered by
this strategy, fine particulate control technology program is also supported
by the newly created Office of Energy Research within ORD which has the responsi-
bility for pollution control from energy-related sources. The two programs will
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complement each other in development of technology and will provide input to
the hazardous pollutant program.
The strategy calls for achievement of several objectives in this program
area. The program consists of four major parts.
1. Identification and characterization of fine particulate sources
and emissions (both mobile and stationary).
2. Assessment of capabilities and upgrading of conventional particulate
control technology for collection of fine particulates.
3. Development of new technology for collection of fine particulates.
4. Development and or selection of standard methods and equipment for
measurement of fine particulates.
Fine particulates originate from many sources (combustion, mechanical and
chemical processes, fugitive dusts and open sources). The extent to which these
sources contribute to ambient air pollution or type of particulate they emit is
unknown. The specific objectives are to identify the fine particulate sources,
and characterize the chemical and physical properties of particles that are
important to their collection. Some fine particulates in ambient air result
from atmospheric reactions. Therefore, it will be necessary to identify and
characterize population of sources of the precursors to secondary particulates.
An R&D program which might be needed to reduce these emissions most likely
would be carried out under another more appropriate area.
The degree to which the conventional particulate collection equipment is
capable of fine particulate collection is still unknown. The objective of this
strategy is to assess the capabilities of filters, electrostatic precipitators
and scrubbers to collect fine particulates. This is to include an evaluation of
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the fractional efficiency of the most promisingbest operating equipment
and characterization and evaluation of the cormercially available equipment.
Resulting from this program it can be foreseen that upgrading of the design
and operation parameters will be required to increase the efficiency of the
conventional equipment to collect fine particulates.
This part of the strategy addresses the identification and development of
the new promising mechanisms which will increase efficiencies of fine particulate
collection. The objective here is to develop new control devices or mechanisms
which can be used as augmentation of the control devices. These most likely
will be based on the special properties of fine particulates. The promising
techniques include use of particulates as nuclei for condensation of liquids or
solids, electrostatic agglomeration, sonic agglomeration, diffusion agglomeration,
and electrostatic augmentation of scrubbers and filters.
At the present time there is no available standardized reliable equipment
and method for measurement of fractional distribution of fine particulate sizes.
The number of available methods decreases with the decrease in particle size.
It is an objective of this strategy to select from the available equipment or
develop methods capable of efficient and reliable measurement of fine particulates
in ambient air and in sources or to develop methods for this purpose. The
availability of such methods and equipment is an indispensible part of the control
technology program.
The performance of particulate control devices may deteriorate with time.
The objective is to assess the long-term performance of control equipment and if
needed determine the operating, maintenance and design features required to
maintain performance.
To provide the needed control technology for ice fog, control methods for
major sources will be svaluated and developed.
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SULFUR OXIDE
Background
The S0X control program has historically been the largest signle EPA
air pollution control research activity in terms of resources. As such, it has
absorbed over 50% of the total air pollution control R&D budget through FY-74.
Through FY-72, almost the entire effort was devoted to controlling utility power
plant emissions, mainly through flue gas desulfurization processes (FGD) such
as lime injection and scrubbing using lime/limestone, sodium, magnesia, or
ammonia as the alkaline medium. Emphasis was placed on utility emissions
recognizing that utilities are the single largest contributor by man to air
pollution. Starting in 1968, additional emphasis was placed upon prevention of
sulfur oxide emissions (as opposed to post-treatment) through the clean fuels
program. This effort involved coal cleaning, coal/oil gasification and
fluidized bed combustion. As a result of these previous activities, the state-
of-the-art of flue gas desulfurization is far advanced. Large scale demonstration
of scrubbing technology is nearing completion and many utilities are constructing,
or planning construction of units based upon this past R&D.
Statement of the Problem
About 80% of all sulfur oxide emissions originate through the combustion
of fossil fuels. The remainder comes from process industries such as smelters,
refineries, pulp and paper mills and sulfuric acid plants. Nearly 50% of the
emission inventory originates from utility power combustion of fossil fuels, coal
and oil. Natural gas contributes very little to the inventory. However,
the total emissions do not reflect the actual environmental impact. It has
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been determined that in the average industrial city while the utility emissions
account for about 53% of the inventory, the actual distribution in the ambient
air is around 22%. This is because power plants usually have tall stacks and
are located in more rural areas remote, from the population centers. On the
other hand the smaller, industrial and commercial sources and area sources account
for about 46% of the emissions inventory but contribute 78% of the actual distri-
bution in ambient air. This largely because these sources are lower, and closer
to the affected population. This major environmental impact of non-utility
sources is responsible for a major change in the emphasis in the SOx control
program.
S02 Research Program
Starting in 1973, the R&D emphasis was shifted from utility power plant
emissions to industrial/commercial combustion sources and industrial process
sources. While flue gas desulfurization is practical for large sources this
same technology was economically impractical for smaller sources and marginally
profitable industries. An assessment of technology applicability indicated that
sources smaller than lOMWe (megawatt electrical equivalent) as a practical matter
could use only clean fuels for SO2 control. Only the larger sources should be
considered for FGD. Intermediate size sources, comparable to 10-100MW can
probably use FGD technology when it becomes available. Scale-down and demonstration
on these smaller sizes is needed. Several clients (OGE, 0PM, Regions) have
focused on the need to develop applications data to support regulatory and
enforcement functions. One of the specific objectives of this strategy is to
io^&evelop and demonstrate effluent treatment technology for non-utility combustion
sources capable of controlling SO2 emissions from industrial boilers with
regenerable or non-regenerable processes. This technology shall consider units
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with emissions equivalent to a range of 10MW to 100MW. The program shall
include consideration of already proven processes useful on large utility boilers
as well as additional processes which have not been developed as yet.
Attention is called to the fact that in the present strategy, a major
segment of the ORD program for the development and demonstration of SO2 control
is not included. As mentioned previously the Office of Energy Research has
responsibility for pollution control of all utility and energy related emissions.
This includes the FGD program and the clean fuels program. Therefore, the
principal problem areas considered in this document are: (a) non-utility
combustion sources, (b) industrial process sources, and (c) small industrial,
commercial, institutional and residential sources (commonly called area sources).
Industrial sources such as coke ovens, pulp and paper mills, sulfuric acid
plants, and refineries are significant SO2 emitters. While technology exists
for controling the more concentrated sulfur streams, control of significant SO2
emissions from the numerous weak S02 streams has been largely ignored.
Primary smelters are one major industrial source which because of their
size and importance are treated separately from other industrial sources. While
only 15 copper smelters, 6 lead smelters and 8 zinc smelters exist in the U.S.,
these units contribute over 10% of the total SO2 emissions. These primary
smelters are concentrated in the Western portion of the U.S. and contribute
significantly to the total ambient air pollution in those areas. Control of
primary smelters was specifically identified by Regions 8, 9 and 10 as a
significant problem area. Again, technology for the control of numerous
streams with low SO2 concentrations, is needed. These smelters require high
priority attention from R&D.
The development and demonstration of SO2 control technologies for control
of Industrial Process Sources is one of the major goals of this program.
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Specifically the objective is to develop and demonstrate emission treatment
technology capable of controlling SO2 sources. These technologies may include
either or both regenerable or non-regenerable processes. Where technically and
economically more desirable the technology should include process changes which
have the effect of reducing the pollution potential of the subject industry.
The primary industries to be considered include smelters, refineries, coke
plants, pulp and paper mills and other industries which may be significant SO2
emitters.
Area sources of SO2 are characterized by their very large number and small
size. They include very small industrial processes and large numbers of small,
commercial, industrial and domestic combustion systems. Being generally in
the few hundred to a few thousand cubic feet per minute size range and owned and
operated by the general public there is practically no possibility for the use
of even slightly complicated control systems. The only options for control are
clean fuels (for the combustion sources) and simple control systems for the rest.
The simple control technologies could approach the water softener or air filter
technologies in that they could include control cartridges or systems that could
be serviced by an agent or handled as a replacement filter or element. A key R&D
objective of the SO2 program therefore is to develop and demonstrate area source
control technologies capable of controlling SO2 emissions from commercial,
institutional and other area sources. Reevaluate the potential of systems and
processes developed for larger scale sulfur oxide producing systems for economic
and technical application in controlling smaller emissions as well. Also conduct
R&D to evaluate, develop, and demonstrate new technologies for accomplishing this
purpose. Consider add-on devices, process modification and alternate fuels as
high priority candidates in this objective.
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The conversion of sulfur oxides to sulfuric acid mist and secondary
particulate sulfate pollutants has recently received considerable attention as
perhaps the most significant sulfur air pollutant. It is postulated (but not
proven) that the major health and welfare effects noted in the past were actually
due to sulfuric acid and secondary particulate rather than to S02- Since these
sulfates are believed to form in the atmosphere from S02> their control will
require a higher level of control of the SO2 precursor. Therefore, if the sus-
pected adverse health effects of sulfates are confirmed it may be necessary to
push SO2 control technology another order of magnitude from its present design
capabilities. To assist the Agency in identifying and prioritizing its options
with regard to the control of sulfates, a study is needed to assess the technical
and economic feasibility of increasing the control capability of existing and
developing technologies. An objective of this program will be to assess options
for a High Level SO2 Control. Determine the technical and economic potential
for achieving high level control of sulfur oxide emissions. Assess the practicality
of achieving at least 99% control from some sources.
Both the Office of Enforcement and several Regions have made the point
that the control technology data base upon which standards are set almost without
exception represents only one set of operating conditions (flow rate, temperature,
production rate, pressure, etc.) for either or both the polluting process and
control technology. In reality, however, both the polluting process and the
control technologies operate over a wide range of conditions including start-ups,
shutdowns and process upsets. A further complication is that polluting and
pollution control processes change with age and use. In order to ensure that
sustained compliance is possible or to develop a data base to establish the
degree of control possible under various conditions of operation, it is necessary
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to perform long-term studies and determine the deterioration of such systems
over a period of time. Emissions must be characterized as to their nature and
extent for these various operating conditions in order for the enforcement arm
of EPA to properly perform its regulatory functions. One of the important
objectives of this program is to provide the necessary data base to characterize
emissions from various sources during plant start-up3 shut-down and process
upsets to determine the potential emissions during these transient events. Also}
characterize the long-term performance of existing control systems to determine
the deterioration with time. The information should be in sufficient detail as
to allow the Office of Enforcement to determine and implement appropriate
regulatory options. The sources chosen for study should be among those with
the highest priority as defined by the Office of Enforcement.
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NITROGEN OXIDE
Background
The National Ambient Air Quality Standards for NOx cannot be met in
five regions, classed as Priority I, because adequate control technology is
not available. Continued growth is expected to cause other ACQRs to exceed
standards if controls are not applied.
About 98% of the ambient N02 comes from combustion sources. Nationally,
about 60% is from stationary sources and 40% from mobile sources. This ratio,
however, varies widely from city to city so that control of both stationary and
mobile source, must be considered.
From the standpoint of ambient air quality impact, the control of automotive
sources is the most important component of the nitrogen oxide control problem. .
Several years ago, however, EPA adopted the policy that control of automobile
pollutants was the problem of the industry and that the necessary research and
development should be undertaken by the industry. All significant EPA-sponsored
research in this area was terminated. The advanced automotive power system
program was continued as a forcing mechanism to assure the industry would be
responsive. So far, the product of the industry's R&D effort has been little
more than the fine tuning of the conventional internal combustion engine to
minimize pollutants and the further development of the stratified combustion
engine (which was done primarily under sponsorship by the Department of Defense).
Except for the tired and controversial approach of using catalysts (an approach
developed by EPA many years ago) the conclusions of the automobile industries
appear to have been reached. The results are not satisfactory, particularly
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in view of the need to achieve better fuel economy. The AAPS program was
transferred to ERDA in January 1975. As a result, there is essentially no
driving force to prompt the industry to do any further research and development.
Therefore, automotive source N0X control technology will probably not make
significant gains in the foreseeable future.
The Agency has adopted a policy, known as the Maximum Stationary Source
Strategy (MSST), which will require control technology to be applied to a wide
variety of stationary sources, and which deemphasizes the stringent control of
mobile sources. This policy, based both on considerations of national costs and
the relative availability of technology to control N0X from these two sources
would enable achievement of NAAQS in all areas except Los Angeles where stringent
automobile emission controls will also be required.
Under the MSST strategy the stationary sources that require control include
a wide range of large utility boilers, industrial combustion processes, small
domestic heaters and stationary engines and turbines that use a full spectrum
of fuel types; all of which respond differently to control techniques and all of
which have special restraints and requirements on the application of controls.
Nitric acid plants which contribute heavily to local pollution is the
principal industrial source of NO2 that will require control.
The present program addresses all of these sources with primary emphasis
on the development of technology to control N0X from boilers and commercial
and residential heaters. Industrial process furnaces are next in emphasis and
stationary turbines/engines have recently received attention.
Three technical approaches have been pursued in the existing program,
combustion modifications, flue gas treatment for combustion sources and
molecurlar sieves for nitric acid plants. Molecular sieves will soon be
adequately demonstrated. Owing to the difficulty of absorbing and dissolving
-------
52
nitrogen oxide, only one scrubber system for N0X has been found worthy of
continued development and is being piloted.
Combustion modifications which include low excess air, overfire air,
staged combustion and flue gas recirculation can be accomplished by combustion
process design and/or burner design for almost any size combustion unit and
appear to be the lowest cost control method applicable to these sources.
Initial field tests and pilot tests show that these methods can be expected to
reduce uncontrolled N0X emissions by more than 50%. Each class of combustion
sources, however, varies in its response to combustion modifications depending
on size, geometric design and fuel.
The current program has two major parts. Since N0X control is a relatively
new technology area, the chemistry and kinetics of N0X formation and control is
not well known. One part of the N0X R&D program, therefore, focuses on develop-
ing fundamental information to support the RD&D of specific N0X control
technologies. The second part of the program is primarily empirical. It is
built on earlier work that has indicated that changes in furnace and burner
design parameters can reduce N0X production. A major portion of this empirical
program is being supported by the current energy program.
The Problem
Within each major class of stationary N0X source (utilities, area
sources, industrial boilers) a full spectrum of fuel is used and a variety of
designs exist. Each combination of design and fuel responds differently to
controls and each has special restraints and requirements on the application of
control technology. Fundamental combustion control techniques have been
developed to reduce N0X emissions, the main problem now is to learn to apply this
technology to the wide variety of sources that will require control.
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53
The experience with S0X from combustion sources suggests that the smaller
area sources would contribute more to the ambient air degradation than to the
total emissions inventory. Recent studies on N0X have shown this to be true
and of the five cities studied, the ambient concentration of N0X resulting from
area sources was greater than from any other class of source. There is a need for
technologies to effectively control the smaller sources of N0X emissions.
Research Program
One of the major thrusts of the N0X control program is to pursue the emp.rical
development and demonstration of modifications of combustion control technologies.
This is aimed principally at control of large utility combustion sources. Since
projects of this type have been transferred to the energy program for implementation,
they are not included in detail in this strategy.
The primary thrust in this program continues to be the research and
development of basic information on process chemistry and kinetics which will
serve as a basis for control technology development and design. It also includes
the bench pilot-scale and full-scale demonstration of approaches for the control
of non-utility sources of NOx- This includes both combustion chamber and
burner design. New combustion concepts including catalytic combustion and surface
combustion are investigated for their potential in dealing with the N0X problem.
The specific objective for research in this area is to solicit, evaluate, develop
and demonstrate commercial3 industrial and area combustion control processes for
the removal of nitrogen oxides. A further objective to provide a data base of
emissions and control technology for which environmental impacts3 control
strategies, and RD&D strategies can be determined. The technology developed is
to be directed toward the broadest possible range of new, existing, and future
emitters including both point and area sources.
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54
While efforts to identify or develop processes for removing nitrogen
oxide once formed from emission streams have been relatively unsuccessful, it
is important that existing and future prospects for post-treatment be explored.
One such approach includes the recently developed use of hydrogen (or other
fuel) for selective reduction of nitrogen oxide. It is essential that ORD remain
alert to and evaluate any promising processes that may arise. An objective of
the research and development program, therefore3 will be to continue at a relatively
low level the existing task of assessing the potential promising NOX} control
processes. This objective will involve the establishment and systematic review
of known and future technologies to seek out and develop new ideas for effluent
treatment processes and evaluate these processes for their potential or as
candidates for further development.
The molecular sieve has been shown to have considerable promise for the
control of nitrogen oxides as well as other pollutants. They are particularly
useful where high levels of control are required. At present, molecular sieve
technology for the removal of nitrogen oxides has demonstrated the capability of
control to levels lower than required by any standards that EPA currently has
or is contemplating. Demonstration of this technology is in progress. It is
the objective of this program to demonstrate molecular sieve for nitrogen oxide
control technology to permit confident assessment for the performance and
economic factors associated with the commercial application of this process.
Every effort should be made to assure the supply of application and economic
data to stimulate the broader application of this technology to suitable
industrial processes.
-------
ba
HAZARDOUS AND OTHER POLLUTANTS
Background
Emission standards have been set for three hazardous pollutants; asbestos,
beryllium and mercury. However, there are many trace materials and potentially
hazardous emissions for which standards may be necessary, but the data are not
available at this time for the Administrator to make the necessary determinations.
For example, pollutants such as barium, copper, fluorides, polynuclear organic
material, lead, zinc, hydrogensulfide, tin, cadmium, vanadium and vinyl chloride
are among the substances considered to be potentially hazardous. Among the major
sources of these emissions are the primary non-ferrous smelting industry
(lead, zinc, copper, etc.), the iron and steel industry, utility and industrial
boilers, incinerators, refineries, chemical plants and the ferroalloy industry.
Many of these pollutants are emitted as fine particulate and fumes that will have to
be controlled by devices which are being developed in the fine particulate RuD program.
Statement of the Problem
The most serious example of the Agency's inadequate technical background
is found in the area of trace materials and hazardous or potentially hazardous
materials. Several lists of known toxic materials have been assembled. Yet,
little or nothing is known about their importance and the need for their control
as air pollutants. It is not possible to launch the broad, expensive and time
consuming (about 10 years) program to assess the health affects on even a small
list of the leading hazardous pollutant candidates.
Difficulties in setting and administering hazardous standards in the past
have caused the Agency to effectively withdraw from regulatory activity in this
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56
area; yet it is probably the most important area for air pollution concern
for the Agency. One of the most pressing needs is for an overall identification
of sources of hazardous and potentially hazardous materials. This inventory
would provide a basis for the Agency to make a responsible decision concerning
top priority hazardous pollutants that should be explored to determine their
health effects.
The most pressing need relating to the control of hazardous and trace
materials is to complete an overall emissions inventory and to develop a mass
balance for hazardous and trace materials. This emissions inventory should start
with the assessment of hazardous and potentially hazardous materials emitted from
the spectrum of industries. This program now in progress should yield conclusions
regarding the kinds and amounts of hazardous and trace materials being emitted
into the air. This information should be made available as it is developed to all
parts of the Office of Research and Development and the Agency to be used as a
basis for establishing priorities for health effects R&D. The objective of this
program, therefore, is to identify, characterize} and quantify all significant
hazardous, trace and potentially hazardous materials being emitted into the
atmosphere. Identification and characterization of pollutants and sources
should be in sufficient detail to assess the necessary degree of control and
potential of control using conventional control technologies.
The Agency has identified and has set standards for asbestos, mercury
and beryllium. Because of difficulty with the analysis of asbestos and even
greater difficulty with its control in the fine particulate form, and because
of the large number and chemical species of emissions involving mercury, these
two pollutants pose particularly difficult control problems. To support its
regulatory mission} additional information is needed concerning the sources
-------
57
and methods for control of these specific pollutants. To the extent that
control technology is inadequate, new control technologies should be identified,
developed and demonstrated. To support the Agency's regulatory mission with
respect to the three established hazardous pollutants as well as additional
hazardous pollutants, an objective of the R&D program in hazardous pollutants
is to develop technology for control of major pollutant emissions from new cend
existing point and area sources whose principal emissions are one of the
hazardous or potentially hazardous pollutants.
Organic hydrocarbon emissions constitute a special class of problems
requiring special attention. Hydrocarbons not only represent an important source
of carcinogens but also represent a major component of the oxidant problem
associated with photochemical smog. In addition, most odorous materials are
organic or of organic, hydrocarbon origin. An attempt to deal with the hydrocarbon
and oxidant problem by control of automotive sources has been only partially
successful. Several air quality control regions will never meet standards while
others will soon violate standards because of the increasing number of automobiles.
A much greater emphasis is required on the control of stationary sources of
hydrocarbons.
An array of technologies exist that might be applied for dealing with many
of the large numbers of different kinds of hydrocarbon sources. Many of these
processes must be better identified, developed, and demonstrated. To support
the Agency's mission of regulating hydrocarbons from stationary sources, it is
the objective of this R&D program to develop technology for the control of
emissions, particularly the most significant sources of reactive hydrocarbons
in and near population centers. Develop technology and/or procedures for the
control of odor compounds, emission from rendering plants, feedlots, chemical
plants, service stations and solid waste disposal systems.
-------
58
A unique problem faced by the Agency and local regulatory groups is the
control of open sources. Particulate, hazardous materials, hydrocarbons, nitrogen
oxides, carbon monoxides, oxidants, and sulfur oxides are included in the
pollutants emitted from various kinds of open sources. These include open dump
sites, street dust, mining operations, agricultural burning, forest fires,
agricultural activities, coal culm piles, etc. Some are controllable, others
are not. These sources present a major problem in that they contribute to the
background concentration of many of the above pollutants. In many cases such as
culm piles and mining operations, they contribute to severe local pollution
problems. An objective of the control technology research and development
program in this area is to develop the ability to control emissions generated
from open sources including operation such as ore mining3 milling, materials
handling operations, etc. Major sources are to be identified and classified as
to their controlability. Where control technology does not exist} it is to be
developed and demonstrated.
One of the unique problem areas involving primarily particulate control is
that of controlling fugitive dusts from non-point, natural and manmade sources
such as agriculture activities, road dust, forest fires, etc. Because of the
non-point nature of these sources, conventional control equipment is not applicable.
It is the objective of the program to identify, characterize and to the extent
possible quantify emissions from these sources. It is also the objective of the
program to identify and assess control options and alternatives to control
technology to deal with the problem.
Several specific processes have been identified as representing known major
sources of hazardous, trace or potentially hazardous materials. Programs have
-------
59
been initiated to proceed with developing controls for these offending sources
rather than wait for the outcome of a general source survey. These include
specific sources such as smelters, aluminum processes and iron and steel
production. Specific objectives identified to initiate or continue research in
these areas are listed in the following paragraphs:
Develop effective control technology for industrial operations with primary
emphasis on non-ferrous smelters and halide emitting operations. Specific
processes include roasting, retorting, sintering and other operations associated
with non-ferrous industries. Halide emitting industries include fertilizer
industry pulp and paper and bleaching operations.
Develop technology for control of hazardous pollutant emissions from
fossil fuel fired heat and power generating systems. Special emphasis is to be
placed on the control of trace materials emitted as fine particulate. Burning of
residual oil is particularly important and should receive special attention.
Solicit and evaluate, develop and demonstrate control technology for the
removal of hazardous and trace materials from the iron and steel industrial
processes.
Demonstrate, at commercial scale, technology for the control of air pollution
emissions from the secondary aluminum smelting industry. Primary attention
should be given to the control of halide and other toxic and trace materials
from this industry.
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60
AUTOMOBILE POLLUTION
Background
The automobile is the single most important source of air pollution
contributing major portions of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, hydrocarbons,
and particulate. Being relatively small in its individual contribution but
very large in number and located near the groundlevel and among the population,
it ranks as the major single contributor to ambient air pollution. More recently,
the automobile has come into focus as potentially the major contributor of
sulfates and other trace materials including phosphates and metallic ions from
fuel additives.
When EPA came into existence (1971) the policy was adopted that control of
automobile pollutants was an industry problem and that the necessary research
and development to control the problem should be undertaken by the industry.
At that time, all significant EPA-sponsored research and development in the
area was terminated. In its place, the Advanced Automotive Power System Program
was emphasized as a mechanism for forcing the industry to be responsive.
The industry responded by mounting a limited research and development
program. Details of this program are not available to EPA. Products of the
program have been minimal. The two most significant developments that relate
to the control of pollution from the automobile were not a product of this
industry R&D program. They were the stratified charge engine which was developed
largely under a Department of Defense contract and the catalyst oxidation-
reduction system which was developed years before and adopted to automotive use
-------
61
by a predecessor EPA organization.
Recently, the AAPS program was transferred to ERDA as part of the formation
of that Agency. With it went the last vestage of an EPA R&D program in the
automotive area. As a result, the EPA technology data base is essentially
empty. The industry has exposed its air pollution control technology research
and development results which are little more than fine tuning of the conventional
internal combustion engine. (The Wankle engine does not represent a significant
air pollution improvement over the internal combustion engine).
As a result, the Agency is in a difficult position with regard to carrying
out its regulatory mission in the automotive area. Forced by the lack of
viable developed technology, and under the pressure of the need to conserve
energy, the Agency is faced with the almost certain need to request a change
in the Clean Air Act to back off of existing standards.
Statement of the Problem
The Agency is in need of a technology base which could supply options to
permit it to effectively deal with the regulatory mission relative to vehicular
sources. A data base which will provide the Agency the technical qualification
for dealing with the automotive industry is needed.
-------
62
TABLE I (P.l of 3)
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63
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64
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TABLE 2 (P.] of 2)
FUNDING LEVELS
1976 RESOURCES FOR AIR CONTROL TECHNOLOGY R&D OBJECTIVES
(THOUSANDS OF $)
SULFUR OXIDES
Dev. SO2 Controls for
Nori-Utility Combustion
Assess & Dev. SO2 Control
for Industrial Processes
Assess & Dev. Controls for
Area Sources
Hi Level SO2 Control
Start-Up, Shut-Down, Long
Term Performance of FGD
SUB TOTAL
NITROGEN OXIDES
Dev./Demo Combustion Control for
Area & Industrial Sources
Characterize Sources
Assess New Control Processes
Molecular Sieves
SUB TOTAL
Technical Transfer and Assistance
Program Support
TOTAL
1974
Base
968
449
100
00
220
1,737
1,400
1,088
25
102
2,615
85
1,440
10,828
1975
Base
Energy
200
283
867
00
399
1,749
1,550
400
82
00
2,032
128
1,600
13,276
5,260
00
00
00
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5,260
2,515
00
00
2,515
1976
Base Energy
10,875
275
275
275
75
60
960
245
100
15
10
370
365
600
7,365
1,850
1,850
1,315
1,315
150
3,915
CTi
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-------
TABLE 2 (P.1 of 2)
FUNDING LEVELS
1976 RESOURCES FOR AIR CONTROL TECHNOLOGY R&D OBJECTIVES
(THOUSANDS OF $)
PARTICULATES
Identify Sources Charac. Emissions
Ident/Charac. FP Precursor Sources
Assess FP Control Tech. Capability
Develop FP Control Technology
FP Measurement Techniques
Long Term Performance of Controls
SUB TOTAL
HAZARDOUS & OTHER
Sources/Charac, Emissions
Dev. CT for Point & Area Sources
Dev. CT for HC & Odors
CT for Fugitive & Open Sources
Assess CT Alternatives (Open Sources)
Dev. CT for Specific Industries
SUB TOTAL
1974
Base
100
300
485
1,245
00
2,130
520
1,100
130
0
0
1,071
2,821
1975
Base
Energy
250
100
1,669
2,089
4,108
1,256
300
1,359
175
569
3,659
00
00
1,100
2,000
00
3,100
00
00
00
1976
Base Energy
00
130
50
800
1,450
50
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2,580
350
800
300
300
350
390
2,490
0
100
500
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600
00
00
00
00
CTi
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APPENDIX
CATALOGUE OF CLIENT RESEARCH NEEDS
This appendix contains a listing of the air pollution control
technology problems for each of several EPA offices, (client
organizations). The lists were compiled principally from three sources
o reports, position papers and comments on previous ORD
programs by the client groups;
o interview reports based on the Air Strategy Task
Force's needs, discussion with each of the various
EPA organizations; interviews with several of the EPA
regions conducted by the Air Pollution Control Division
staff, and
o responses to a memorandum dated November 22, 1974 from
the Acting Assistant Administrator for Research, and
Development requesting EPA organizations to prepare
lists of major areas requiring specific R&D outputs.
The problem areas have been screened to focus on air pollution
control technology related topics. Thus, needs for health effects,
monitoring and socio-economic studies are not included except where
needed to provide perspective on some of the problems.
-------
OFFICE OF AIR AND WASTE MANAGEMENT
URBAN PARTICULATE BACKGROUND
A most pressing need is for information on fugitive and reentrained
dust or what we might call the "urban particulate background." What are
the sources, what is their magnitude, and how can they be controlled?
At present, we have very little knowledge about the urban area sources
of particulate matter, how they can be controlled, and their impact on
air quality and our ability to meet the particulate standards. Informa-
tion on the size distribution of particulate matter emitted from sources
after good equipment has been installed is another need.
FUGITIVE DUSTS
As no effective means exists today to control fugitive dust emissions,
it is not possible to approve or disapprove SIP regulations on TSP. It
has been suggested that fugitive dusts from such sources as tailing piles,
unpaved roads and construction activities may have an associated health
risks due to their potential heavy metal content. Pesticides and ferti-
lizers absorbed on fugitive dust aerosols may add to this risk. Silica,
a major constituent of most fugitive dusts, may also have health effects
not presently identified. A technical data base is needed which includes
characterization, source evaluation, effects and possible control methods
for this class of particulates.
FINE PARTICULATE CHARACTERIZATION AND CONTROL
An effective way to control fine particulate emissions is needed.
By controlling fine particulates we will also control many of the
trace metals and many potentially harmful compounds. While work is
underway leading to a possible standard and control program on fine
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particulates, more work is needed on quantifying the additional pollu-
tants that will be controlled by the application of specific control
systems for fine particulates. Particulates present a difficult,
long-term air pollution control problem and we need better control of
particulate matter with emphasis on specific toxic pollutants and fine
particulates.
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In conjunction with this control technology research, more
information is needed on the atmospheric formation mechanisms for
fine particulates and on the relationship between emitted fine
particulates and those found in the atmosphere.
N02 FROM STATIONARY SOURCES
The NO2 standards for automobiles have been changed. To meet
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) the Agency has adopted a
strategy emphasizing control of stationary sources of N0X. This strategy
is expected to be less costly on a national basis than requiring the most
stringent emission standards to mobile sources. Control of stationary
sources is necessary to maintain ambient air quality levels of N0X. To
implement the national N0X control stategy, OAQPS needs to know that R&D
efforts for demonstrating N0X control are being carried out. A few
demonstrations of control technology on major N0X sources are needed initially.
SULFATES
Due to the impact of the sulfate issue on the current control stategy
for SO2, the priority for research in this area is quite high. The
health effects, measurement technology, understanding of atmospheric
chemistry, knowledge of source to receptor relationships, and control
methods are all needed.
OXIDANTS
The type and level of control needed to attain the air quality
standards for oxidants is not established since the relationship
between N0X and HC emissions to oxidant concentrations is not well
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known. The potential health effects of oxidants are serious and they
are one of the most pervasive pollutants. Transportation Control
Plans would have great social impact and will not be adequate over
the longer term. Increased population is expected to override their
corrective trend within a very few years. Therefore, considerably
expanded control of stationary sources are needed now.
STATIONARY SOURCE HYDROCARBON CONTROL
Measures to control HC evaporation and substitute other solvents
where possible will probably need to be taken. New source performance
standards (NSPS) will be used to control new sources, it is expected
that NSPS for small ItC sources will be set soon. Also changes in
the Clean Air Act to allow equipment standards which will be applicable
to the manufacturer are foreseen. A significant growth in HC emissions
will require control of many sources of widely varying size, OAQPM may
also need to control all sources of non-methane hydrocarbons, not just
urban emissions.
Perhaps most important is the need for the capability to relate
equipment specifications to control of emissions. Having this capability,
the degree of control could be predicted and the approval or disapproval,
of equipment specifications could be made before the manufacturer makes
the investment in production.
LONG TERM PERFORMANCE OF CONTROL EQUIPMENT
Assessment of the long term performance of control technology should
be considered in the control technology program since equipment performance
may deteriorate with time. Knowledge of the long term performance
will help to establish the need for monitoring.
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COMMUNICATIONS/COORDINATION MEETINGS
Meetings of ORD managers with the Office of Air and Waste
Management personnel to describe how their particular research
project impacts on OAWM activities or proposed standards are needed.
These meetings would be useful on a twice a year basis. Such meetings
would be discussions of results of research and future plans of the
project.
TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE.
ORD's direct support and technical assistance is most important to
OAWM because it is essential to the day-to-day operation of the program.
Two major areas of direct support needed from ORD in the control
technology are:
o Consultation on Control Technology. This includes assistance
in determining the availability, efficiency, and costs of control
devices and from time to time participation in special committees
such as a Control Techniques Advisory Panel,
o Reviews. Requests of particular individuals to act as reviewers
and consultants on technical papers which are to be used as
backup to various ORD efforts.
AIR CONTROL TECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS
OAQPS suggests that ORD should take steps to be sure that the
results of control technology developments are widely disseminated
and put into practice where reasonable. That is, there should
probably be a formalized way to be sure that the technology is
applied, and perhaps this might be the final task of a demonstration
project. For example, coal cleaning may have great potential use in
connection with the evolving supplementary control system guidance,
but it has yet to be accepted or considered by utilities.
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SCIENCE ADVISORY BOARD
COMMUNICATIONS
Response on technical/scientific matters should be rapid and
direct from ORD to client organizations, but broader matters of
resource levels and plan revisions should be routed through appropriate
channels. R&D efforts should foster better communications between
people working on the solutions to problems in all areas inside EPA,
and with other agencies, industry, and local government.
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OFFICE OF LEGISLATION
POLLUTANTS NOT COVERED BY STANDARDS
Many pollutants, for example a number of toxic substances emitted
to the air, do not yet have standards established. Nevertheless, many
of them can reasonably be expected to have standards established in the
near future, so that research on means to control these pollutants should
be underway.
Research and development needs to continue for means to control
pollutants which are likely to have standards established eventually.
CONTINUAL ASSESSMENT OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
In order to provide accurate and timely information required for
legislation and court action, continuing assessment of control processes,
especially those in the early developmental states, is required.
COMMUNICATIONS
Both for longer term planning and for more rapid response to in-
formation requirements, ORD needs to be more responsive and maintain
communication channels to clients.
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FUGITIVE DUSTS
Little is now presently known concerning fugitive dust. The
information required includes sources, particle sizes, health effects,
transport, measurement, and control.
OFFICE OF EDUCATION AND MANPOWER TRAINING
AVAILABILITY OF TRAINED PERSONNEL
Controls for most stationary sources require highly trained
personnel in research and development, design, construction and operation,
as well as for testing, monitoring and enforcement.
ORD should be aware of the shortage of trained personnel for
environmental protection, R&D planning and should consider ways to
contribute to training where possible.
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OFFICE OF ENFORCEMENT
EMPHASIS ON DETECTION AND CORRECTION
In the opinion of the Office of Enforcement fOEj,
it is unlikely that any of the basic standards will be subject to challenge
with the possible exception of NO2 standards subsequent to the development
of an appropriate reference method. Rather, their concern is with the
mechanics of detecting and correcting violations.
SOx SCRUBBER AND DEMISTER EFFICIENCY
The most important priority in control technology is the SOx scrubber.
Demisters are installed behind most wet scrubbers to remove entrained
water droplets from the efficient gas stream. The effect of the scrubber
is largely negated if the demister is inefficient.
Test methods for measuring carryover from the demister are needed
to evaluate performance, and to improve demister design.
DEVELOPMENT OF PARTICULATE SAMPLING METHOD FOR CONDENSABLE PARTICULATES
The second most important priority in control technology is the
control of total particulates. EPA has developed Method 5 for NSPS
particulate measurements, but Method 5 is not always applicable. Special
problems have been encountered with asphalt drum driers and saturators
and with fiber glass furnaces and forming lines. These sources contain
a high percentage of condensable particulates that gum up the sampling
train.
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A modified method is needed for such sources. There is also a need
for test methods for other particulate sources.
SOx CONTROL FOR SMALL INDUSTRIAL BOILERS
By July, 1975, many small industrial boilers will need to comply
with State SO2 regulations. In order to meet these standards and
adequately enforce the regulations, suitable control technology for small
industrial boilers must be developed and demonstrated.
COKE OVENS
Emissions from coke ovens remain a significant problem. Sheds are
now being used to control these emissions and more needs to be known
about both detecting and controlling emissions from sheds.
SMELTERS
Smelter gas streams rich in SO2 have adequately demonstrated controls.
Weak SO2 streams, however, are more difficult to treat. Demonstration
of control techniques for the weak streams is needed.
INVESTIGATIONS OF FINE PARTICULATE CONTROL TECHNIQUES
Recent epidemiological surveys have suggested that fine sulfate
particulates are causal factors in chronic bronchitis and other respira-
tory illnesses. Presently available control techniques are typically
less efficient in the collection of submicron particulates.
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There is a need to develop several fine particulate control
techniques and demonstrate that these systems are both economical and
efficient in the removal of submicron particulates. In order to maximize
the applicability of these systems, power usage and space requirements
should be minimized.
LONG-TERM CONTROL EQUIPMENT PERFORMANCE
A compliance test done within three to six months following startup
of a new system is generally asserted as proof of compliance by control
agencies. A limited amount of data indicates that control equipment,
particularly electrostatis precipitators, deteriorate rapidly following
this period even with proper maintenance. A detailed engineering study
is needed to develop new design and maintenance features to reduce deteri-
oration of control equipment and thereby maintain compliance with standards.
The project should concentrate on the problem encountered in the power
industry, where equipment deterioration also causes forced outages of power.
COMMUNICATIONS AND PROGRAM PLANNING
GR&O often is, not responsive to the research, retire-
ments put forth in CEE NEEDS Statements. The impression given is that
only the NEEDS that can be fitted into ongoing research programs are
given consideration, rather than the research programs being derived from
the NEEDS Statements.
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Dialogue to communicate the importance of their problems is needed.
For example, short-term response problems ma.y °xtremety important to
enforcement objectives and therefore should not be dismissed simply
because they are short-term.
TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE
Technical assistance is needed by oe in order to prepare testimony
and to keep abreast of the latest available control technology. Expert
testimony may also be required during hearing and court cases and should
be made available upon request.
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OFFICE OF PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
MAJOR EMPHASIS - SOx AND NOx
Based on emphasis derived principally from the EPA Steering
Committee, both SOx and NOx are important problems requiring work in
health effects, atmospheric chemistry; control technology and moni-
toring.
SOx CONTROL FROM POWER PLANTS
Information is reqired on the actual status of SOx control tech-
nology for power plants. This item is relatively high on OPM's priority
list.
SUPPORT OF AGENCY OPERATIONS
A balanced R&D program is needed which both supports the immediate
research needs of the operating portions of EPA and is responsive to
longer range research needs. In developing future research plans, ORD
should become more fully aligned wfth the operational activities of the
Agency. The latter is necessary if ORD activities are to gain.greater
acceptance from the rest of the Agency.
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ENCOURAGE R&D BY INDUSTRY
ORD should identify ways to encourage control technology R&D by
industry. Ways to spur such participation should be identified and
put into practice.
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EPA REGIONS
This part of the appendix catalogues the problems areas expressed
by each of the ten EPA regions. Each of the regions expressed varying
degrees of concern over the three administrative problems of coordination
of research planning, communication of research findings and provision of
technical assistance. As such, three problem areas are documented below
and apply across all regions. Technical problems expressed by each
region are reported separately following these administrative areas.
COORDINATION OF RESEARCH PLANNING
Each of the regions expressed the feeling that their research needs
should receive greater consideration than they have in the past. Many
high priority regional problems may not be addressed if all priorities
are derived from a generalized national viewpoint. Often the research
needs of the operating groups within the agency have associated short
time requirements and a coordination mechanism is needed to allow OR&D
to be more responsive to these time dependent needs. It is also
recommended that OR&D become better aligned with the operational
activities to improve its overall responsiveness to the agencies total
research requirements.
COMMUNICATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS
The region's work with state and local agencies in solving air
pollution problems requires the use and implementation of scientific
information and technology that has been developed by ORD. Many of
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the ORD research reports do not provide the information needed to
translate research findings into problem solutions. It would be most
beneficial if research findings could be reported with greater emphasis on
implementation and solutions to specific problems. Additionally,
state-of-the-art summaries, seminars and executive reports to
provide and update technical information are needed. Design
manuals, and technical information transfer documents were mentioned
as being particularly useful in this regard.
TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE
Periodically the regions require technical assistance from a
variety of R&D programs. This assistance usually consists of technical
consultation or providing expert witnesses for hearings or court
cases. Many problems requiring technical assistance are industry
rather than scientific discipline related. As such designating
focal points of expertise for specific industries with OR&D would
also be desirable. (Note: the technical assistance mentioned here
is only that required in the control technology area and does not
include the requirements for the greater technical assistance required
for monitoring activities.)
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REGION I
REDUCTION OF OXIDANT CONCENTRATIONS
Oxidant concentrations exceeding national ambient air quality
standards have been recorded in early morning hours in metropolitan
Boston. It is unknown if the oxidant is being transported from other
industrialized areas. An extensive oxidant monitoring and formation
study is needed to identify the source of this problem. Study results
will also help speed a final decision of Region I's Transportation
Control Plan, presently tied up in litigation.
SULFATE ISSUE
Region I is concerned with the sulfate issue as they have
measured sulfate levels of 20-30 mg/m3 per cubic meter and once as
high as 70 iig/m^. More information is needed to strengthen the weak
data base which the Agency used to set S0X standards.
RELIABILITY OF FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION
Of the approximately 35-40 power plants in this region all but
three are relying on low sulfur oil to meet compliance schedules.
The switch back to coal is being retarded by the belief
that FGD systems are not reliable.
INCINERATOR EMISSIONS
Emissions from incinerators, although not a problem today, is
anticipated to be a major problem in the future.
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ROLE OF INDUSTRY
Policies should be developed to induce industry to undertake
technology development rather than government.
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REGION II
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HC EMISSIONS AND OZONE CONCENTRATIONS
The data which has been collected over the past two years shown
that the ozone standard in Region II is exceeded approximately 70% of
the time. A better understanding of hydrocarbon and ozone sources,
distribution, and transport is needed.
FORMATION OF ATMOSPHERIC SULFATES
It is believed that reactions take place in the atmosphere
whereby sulfur oxides are oxidized, possibly with suspended fine metal
particulates acting as catalysts, to form sulfates which are suspected
of presenting even greater health consequences. The effect of various
area and point emission rates and the interaction of S0X and fine
particulates in the light of a given terrain on meteorology need to
be determined and effective control strategies developed.
NATURE AND ORIGINS OF THE NEW YORK CITY AEROSOL
A summary of quantitative relationships between particulate
characteristics and combustion parameters is needed. A description is
needed of the effects on local concentrations of topography, buildings,
surfaces, etc. as well as source position and meterological conditions.
A catalogue of in-situ processes which produce morphological and chemical
changes in the aerosol specific to the New York City atraospHere is also
needed. Recommendations of preferred sampling techniques are needed to
determine the ambient air quality.
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INDUSTRIALIZATION OF PUERTO RICO AND ST. CROIX
It has been pointed out that with increasing industrialization
of Puerto Rico there was a good possibility that standards for SO2,
particulates and carbon monoxide would be exceeded regularly. A
similar situation is anticipated in the industrialization of St. Croix.
Both cases could result in urban pollution problems. The control of
particulates is likely to be the first priority. Control technology
is needed to alleviate these potential problems
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PARTICULATE MATTER FROM TIRES
Vehicle tire particulate matter pose a potential problem. A
tire is only one third rubber by weight and the health effects of
carbon black and other components of tires needs to be established.
Appropriate monitoring and control of this particulate source may
be needed.
REENTRAINED DUST IN CITIES
Reentrained dust in major cities is creating a situation where
particulate standards may not be met. Consequently, it is possible
that control of stationary sources alone will not allow the particulate
ambient standards in major cities to be met.
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REGION III
URBAN "BACKGROUND" PARTICULATE MATTER
Background levels of particulate matter, consisting mainly of
tire rubber and ground dust, are reaching Air Quality Standards.
Should health effects research indicate a need for reducing
this background, appropriate control technology will be required.
If health effects research shows no significant impact, a new
reference method for sampling suspended particulate matter will
have to be developed.
PHOTOCHEMICAL OXIDANT, HYDROCARBONS AND NOx RELATIONSHIP
The relationship of ozone levels to hydrocarbon emissions and
concentration of nitrogen oxides is not well understood. These
relationships are further complicated by a lack of understanding
of ozone precursor transport between urban areas and rural
locations. New Air Quality Criteria are needed for photochemical
oxidants, hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen along with a new
standard for oxidants. The results of these efforts may lead to
the need for new control strategies and technology.
HEAVY METALS AND TOXIC COMPOUNDS FROM SEWAGE SLUDGES
Incineration of sewage sludges, considered by many communities
as a viable approach, may lead to emissions of mercury, cadmium, lead,
copper, chromium pesticides and other toxic substances. Information
is needed on collection efficiencies for various scrubber config-
urations to deal with this potential problem. Ash retention for
various incineration temperatures also needs to be defined.
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UTILIZATION OF MUNICIPAL BY-PRODUCTS
Composting has been identified by the Region as the most
desirable process for resource recovery from waste treatment plants
and raw chemical sludges. However, odors generated by the composting
process are a major problem in its use requiring the development
of odor control techniques.
FIRE PREVENTION AND EXTINCTION IN LANDFILLS
Methods are needed to reduce the risk and to extinguish
fires that develop via spontaneous combustion - particularly a
problem with landfills receiving construction debris and where
old strip mines are used as landfill sites. Carbon monoxide
resulting from such fires is a particularly severe problem.
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REGION IV
STUDY OF TEXTILE INDUSTRY EMISSIONS
For effective control, more needs to be known about emissions
in textile and textile-related industries. Areas to investigate
include the following:
Fiber manufacture (e.g., polyester, polyamide, acrylic)
Dyeing processes
Bleaching processes
Finishing processes
IDENTIFICATION OF PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY EMISSIONS
A number of exotic chemicals are introduced into plant streams
in the pulp and paper industry. For standards setting and control,
more specific information is needed on whether these chemicals exit -
from the stack.
PHOSPHATE INDUSTRY EMISSIONS
Measurement and control of fluoride emissions from the phosphate
and fertilizer industries is a major problem.
S02
More research and development is needed for SO2 control in order
to obviate the need for tall stacks and supplementary control systems.
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OXIDANT
The phenomena of oxidant transport is thought to be a very
important aspect of the oxidant problem in this area. It is
suspected that high oxidant levels are caused by emissions from
other parts of the country being transported to Region IV.
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REGION V
INDUSTRIAL EMISSIONS
The present technology is not sufficient to control emissions
from the following sources.
1. Coke battery doors
2. Blast Furnaces - casting and hot metal transfer operations
3. Basic Oxygen Furnaces - charging, tapping and blowing operations
4. Secondary Aluminum smelters
PUBLIC UTILITY PARTICULATE EMISSIONS
There is an indication that public utilities may not achieve
particulate emission standards. Research is needed in determining the
effect of sulfur in fuel changes on precipitator efficiency.
WASTE WATER TREATMENT PLANT EMISSIONS
There is a problem resulting from the proposed construction of a waste
water treatment plant in the city of Des Plains. The problem relates
to possible atmospheric transport for virus and odors from the
plant to the surrounding residential area.
ENERGY
Consideration a^r pollution in the form of particulates and
gaseous emissions is needed for coal gasification development. This
is increasingly important when it is considered that the high
sulfur coal in the Region V States will be used for this purpose.
Development of alternate and more effective methods of sulfur
removal from raw coal before shipment to a power plant or other
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user should be encouraged.
OXIDANTS
A better understanding of the oxidant, hydrocarbon, NOx
relationship is needed. In considering this problem, differentiation
between reactive and non-reactive hydrocarbons should be made as this
may impact the value of current control technology.
RELIABILITY OF STEEL MILL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
The Region feels that even if the steel mills were completely
equipped with esp's, scrubbers, and baghouses, the standards still
would not be met because of lack of proper maintenance and operation.
A need exists for studies in the area of control equipment performance
decrease with its operation.
INTERiMEDIA
Research has indicated that much of the trace metals found in the
lake waters do not result from industrial point sources but result
from fallout of air pollutants. Coordinated research in this area is
needed.
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REGION VI
SMELTERS
In both stack emissions of toxic materials such as lead, and in
fugitive emissions, several large smelters are a major control
problem, in the Region. Until cause-and-effeet of emissions and, for
example, high blood lead levels are proved, effective control can't
be instituted.
FINE PARTICULATE CONTROL
Fine particulate emission control and specifically control of
emissions from ammonium nitrate prilling towers, is a major problem.
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OXIDANTS
The hydrocarbon/ozone/NOx formation interaction and
transport is not understood and the approach to control by TCP and other
regulations is hindered.
FUGITIVE DUST
There is a real need for a better mass loading measurement
system, especially for short time periods. There is a problem of
unknown magnitude with fugitive dusts.
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REGION VII
EMISSION-AMBIENT RELATIONSHIPS
There is a lack of well-defined relationships between ambient air
quality and stationary source emissions. This is creating problems
relative to implementation of control strategies.
FERTILIZER INDUSTRY
There is a need for improved stack gas sampling of gas streams
from prilling towers and NOx sampling from nitric acid plants
associated with the fertilizer industry. Pollutant characterization
is needed and possibly new control methods.
ALUMINUM MILL FLUORIDE EMISSIONS
Characterization of the emissions* and control of fluorides'
from aluminum mills is needed.
LEAD SMELTING
An epidemiological study indicates there are excessive deaths
in horses around the areas of lead smelters. A study is needed to
determine the forms of lead emitted. Control methods for lead
sulfate from smelters may be warranted.
ODORS FROM FEEDLOTS AND AGRICULTURE
Methods are needed for characterization of odors from
agricultural activities, particularly feed lots.
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WASTE RECOVERY
Solid waste burning facilities for energy recovery constitute
a new class of source. Some of these facilities (e.g., the St. Louis
project) burn a combination of coal and solid waste. Potential
emissions of trace pollutants exist for these new plants.
Many utilities are now using oil and gas to meet standards.
If a switch back to coal is necessary then better control for
utilities will be needed.
CHARCOAL KILNS
There is a need for emissions measurement, analysis and
possible emission control for the large number of charcoal kilns in
the region. Many of these are small "Mom and Pop" facilities
with varying degrees of sophistication and control may be difficult
if at all possible.
OXIDANTS
Problems associated with oxidants are the high rural backgrounds
and the averaging time for the NAAQS relative to health effects and
control programs.
SULFATE ISSUE
The region is concerned with the sulfate issue and how it may
impact the SO2 standard and mobil and stationary sources in the region.
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REGION VIII
ENERGY
Strip Mining of coal and construction on western land will
cause a serious fugitive dust problem in the Region. Control
technology is needed to combat this problem.
Region VIII is trying to stay ahead of the coal situation. More
research by ORD on coal gasification emissions and control is needed.
Control technology for hydrocarbons should be stressed.
The increase in residential and commercial development with an
expanding energy industry is expected to have an impact on air quality.
RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES
There is a need for low cost control technology to control
particulates from fireplaces in congested resort areas. Serious
visibility problems result in some resort areas from fireplaces,
automobiles not properly tuned for high altitude, and recreational
activities.
TRACE ELEMENTS
Trace elements are a problem. Research should be done on the
toxicity of trace elements.
INTERMEDIA AND DISCIPLINARY PROBLEMS
Research is needed to solve media and disciplinary problems.
OR&D has given no response on these problems. Region VIII has set up
a task force to attack inter-disciplinary problems - recreation,
agriculture and other industry, smelters and mining.
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SMELTERS
A major problem in this region is to bringing the smelter
industry into compliance with the SIP. The data base to determine
the capabilities of current control technology to smelters is
considerably less than adequate.
ALFALFA PLANTS
Considering the present shortage of natural gas, presently used
to control particulate emissions from alfalfa dehydrating plants, fuel
switching that will diminish present control capability may become
necessary.
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF MOLYBDENUM MINING AND PROCESSING
There is a need to control windblown mine tailings from molybdenum
mining and processing. High velocity winds (up to 100 m/h) contribute
to high background particulate levels.
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REGION IX
SULFATES
The issue of sulfates needs to be clarified. Without firm
guidelines from the Agency regarding its position on sulfates, regional
decisions concerning S0X control by way of tall stacks and supplementary
controls cannot be firmly made.
COPPER SMELTERS
The emissions from smelters include SOx>lead, arsenic, zinc and
other pollutants. The Region needs to know what the best available
control technology is and what reduction in emissions can be expected
by application of best available control technology in order to determine
if AAQS will be met.
FUGITIVE DUSTS
The particulate standard will not be met in some areas because
the background concentration of windblown dust is very high.
OXIDANTS
The Region has experienced high oxidant concentrations in remote areas
and has been unable to determine if the high oxidant levels are the
result of transport factors or natural background levels. Further, the
Region feels that a better inventory of oxidant emissions is needed to
facilitate control.
The Region also feels that total emissions of hydrocarbon in the
Los Angeles area are too high and that all sources of hydrocarbons-
should be identified in order to come up with a control plan.
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N0X
NOx in the Los Angeles area exceed the NAAQS. City and state
officials are presently developing a control stategy.
S0X
Since most power plants burn natural gas, SO2 emissions are not
a major problem. However, since natural gas is in short supply, low
sulfur crude oil will be burned in the future resulting in higher emissions
of SO2.
ENERGY
It is anticipated that emissions of hydrogen sulfide and mercury
from geothermal energy production will be a problem. Better data is
needed to quantify control requirements.
Control technology for krypton 85 and tritium emissions from
nuclear power plants will be needed.
INTERMEDIA
The ORD system should be able to better respond to intermedia
problems and to provide technology that fully considers intermedia problems.
The disposal of pathogenic hospital wastes, residuals from control devices
and municipal sludge incineration are examples of intermedia problems.
PARTICULATES
The Region would like to have further analysis to determine the
particle size distribution of ambient particulates in order to determine
if the standards can be met with traditional control equipment.
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REGION X
SMELTERS
The American Smelter and Refining Company owns a Cu smelter
which is located in Tacoma, Washington and it has been identified
as the largest single source of S0X in the area. There is also a
lead smelter in Kellogg, Idaho which is the primary source of sulfur
and lead emissions.
The region has identified areas within the region where heavy
metals and/or arsenic contamination pose potentially hazardous
exposure to populations near the respective plants. From preliminary
studies the following associations have been made 1) cadmium with lead and
zinc smelting in Kellogg, Idaho and copper smelting in Tacoma,
Washington; 2) Arsenic with copper smelting in Tacoma, Washington;
3) Lead with lead smelting in Kellogg, Idaho, and copper smelting in
Tacoma, Washington.
AGRICULTURAL AND SLASH BURNING
The grass seed industry routinely burns their fields for weed and
disease control and thus creates a serious pollution problem in this
region. As of now no solution for control has been discovered and
if an extension is not granted, the industry faces a shutdown.
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Slash burning is also a problem since a good portion of the
lumber industry is included in this Region. The unusable parts of
trees are routinely burned as a means of disposal and cleaning the
land for replanting. This type of open burning along with that practiced
by the grass seed industry poses a significant fugitive particulate
problem.
PARTICULATES
Asphalt batch plants and sawmill operations are a source of
particulate matter and require control.
CHARACTERIZATION OF PUGET SOUND AND WILLAMETTE VALLEY HAZE
The problem of haze in the Willamette Valley and Puget Sound is
increasing each year. Major polluters are in compliance schedules and
their emissions are decreasing; however, the haze especially over
major metropolitan areas does not appear to be decreasing and is in
fact getting worse. A physical and chemical characterization of
particulate components is needed to ascertain the relative contribution
of diverse sources.
SULFITE PLANTS
There are several old sulfite plants in this region for which
control is lacking and ORD has not responded to requests for assistance.
Area Source S0X control is not being considered.
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CADMIUM FROM PHOSPHATE FERTILIZER PRODUCTION
A fertilizer plant is now marginally meeting the AAQ standard
with one uncontrolled old unit and another unit which meets NSPS.
If the fertilizer industry expands as expected, the AAQS will be
violated.
CARBON MONOXIDE
TCP are in effect in an effort to control CO emissions emitted
from the automobiles. CO emissions are often aggravated by ground-
level inversions.
ICE FOG
Ice fog is in Alaskan cities frequently during the winter months.
Sources are automobiles, cooling towers and warm water discharges.
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INDUSTRIAL PROBLEMS
The industrial community is one of the principal users of air
pollution control technology and as such is considered to be one of
the clients of Agency R&D. This appendix catalogues the air pollution
control technology problems and research needs as identified by a number
of industrial trade and professional organizations. Only a few of the
many organizations that could contribute were contacted. Therefore,
the needs listed here are not the result of a complete survey but they
are felt to be a good sample and indicate the nature of the industrial
needs for air pollution control technology. Although some industrial
groups included areas other than control technology in their response, for
the purpose of this strategy only problems related to control technology
have been included.
The American Iron and Steel Institute
~ Develop methods for reuse, recycling*, recovery or disposal of
melt shop dust.
~ Develop processes for practical control of fugitive emissions
from steelmaking shops.
Develop processes for practical control of fugitive emissions
from blast furnace cast houses.
Develop practical methods to continuously monitor emissions from
open baghouses.
Develop practical instrumentation to determine particle size
in exhaust gases.
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- Develop low pressure drop devices to control fugitive emissions.
- Develop processes for practical control for collection or suppression
of oil vapors from charging of oily scrap in electric furnaces and
BO vessels.
Develop processes for practical control of CO from sinter machines.
- Develop processes for practical control of N0X from steelmaking
processes.
- Develop processes for practical control of H2S from coke oven
gas and disposal of H2S.
- Develop methods of modeling both new and oil steel producing
facilities to show the best overall control strategy considering
cost/benefit analysis, cost effectiveness, energy, and total
environmental impact (air, water, and land).
Air Pollution Control Association
The Division of Basic Science and Technology submitted a list of
research problems which covers the entire field of air pollution. The
list attached considers only related control technology.
Control Technology
A. For specific pollutants
1. Particles
a. Cost effectiveness of methods for fine particle control
should be determined.
b. Effects of particle properties need more study.
c. Better modeling procedures are needed for control equipment.
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d. Scale-up factors to permit pilot plant data to be used
for full-scale system design are needed.
e. Improved understanding of all parameters involved in
apparatus is needed.
f. Lower cost systems are needed.
2. Gases
a. Energy conserving methods are needed to replace incineration.
b. Improved SO2 systems are needed for small installations.
B. By equipment type
1. Scrubbers
a. 3etter, cheaper materials of construction are needed.
b. S(>2 scrubber chemistry needs more study to define role
of chlorides, pH, etc.
c. Entrainment separators less susceptible to plugging are
required and more information on the nature of solids
emission in entrained mist is needed.
d. Sludge and sludge-fly ash. mixture.
e. Disposal methods which are acceptable over the long range
are needed. Slurry pumps less susceptible to erosion are
needed.
f. Effects of particle composition on condensation and growth
need research.
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2. Electrostatic Precipitators
a. Develop correlations between coal composition and fly-
ash resistivity.
b. A data bank on fly ash resistivity would be useful
Manufacturing Chemists Association
The Air Quality Committee, identified the following research and
development needs in air pollution control:
The most frequently mentioned need for improved technology is that of
fine particle collection, particularly as it relates to the ability to
design collection systems to meet tight standards of plume opacity.
Emissions of sticky or hygroscopic particulates, that clog either mist
eliminator pads or baghouse filters, seem to be especially troublesome.
In general, some better collection device is necessary than the very energy-
demanding high pressure-drop wet scrubbers.
Improving filter fabrics is another frequently mentioned subject for
research. Improvements are needed in service temperature limits, mechanical
strength and resistance to abrasion, and freedom from blinding.
A matter of great practical and immediate interest to the chemical
industry is the anticipated shift from oil and gas to coal as a fuel for
industrial boilers. Such boilers, in the size range from approximately
50,000 to 250,000 pounds of steam per hours, are large enough to make the
cost premium for low-sulfur coal an unattractive means of compliance with
sulfur dioxide emission standards, and small enough that the capital costs
for the installation of flue-gas scrubbers, of current design, become an
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More work is needed on fly ash utilization. Very few utilities have
found market for all of their fly ash.
There is a need to develop fabric filters which can function with high
temperature but are not costly. Presently high temperature bags are
too expensive and cost of cooling hot gasses is significant.
There is a great need for a library of - coal analysis
- ash analysis
- dust size analysis
Even though a handbook of coal analysis presently exists, it does not
account for coals from new sources in the West and East. The data are
available but scattered and not organized. Builders of the electrostatic
precipitators are taking chances in design if they do not have exact data
on the coal to be used. Boiler manufacturers face a similar problem.
Several members of IGCI would expect to contribute to the work but the
lead should come from EPA.
ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE
Guidelines and technology need to be developed for the implementation of
supplementary controls.
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excessive portion of total facilities costs. Additionally, the non-regen-
erative processes generate huge quantities of sludge that is expensive
to haul away, and difficult to dispose of without creating water pollution
or soil pollution problems.
Scaling and corrosion of flue gas desulfurization equipment to which
no completely satisfactory solutions have been found.
Small boilers, usually with stacks of only moderate heights, and
located in closely built-up industrial areas, must employ flue-gas reheat
to avoid plume down-wash problems if they use wet-scrubbing for SO2 control.
In spite of the difficulties associated with current dry-adsorbent treatment
systems, the value of a successful process of this type justifies continued
effort.
Acceptable controls for organic vapor from large-volume, low-strength
gas streams remain elusive. Fume incineration requires expensive and/or
unavailable preium fuels, such as natural gas, and waste precious natural
resources. The capacity of solid adsorbents is often grossly inadequate
achieve a high reductions in emissions.
If present proposals for more stringent limitations on nitrogen oxide
emissions from combustion operations become final, improved means of pre-
venting the formation of, or removing. NOx from flue gases vill be of
immediate importance. The interest of the chemical industry in this
problem are not unique.
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