LAKE WALLENPAUPACK
WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT STUDY
FINAL REPORT
DECEMBER 1982
PREPARED FOR
LAKE WALLENPAUPACK WATERSHED
MANAGEMENT DISTRICT
F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
220 SOUTH BROAD STREET
LANSDALE, PA 19446
VOLUME I
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LAKE WALLENPAUPACK
WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT STUDY
(EPA Phase 1 Diagnostic-Feasibility Study)
Final Report, December 1982
PREPARED FOR
Lake Wallenpaupack Watershed Management District
c/o Pike County Planning Commission
106 Broad Street
Milford, Pennsylvania 18337
PREPARED BY
F. X. Browne Associates, Inc.
P. 0. Box 401
Lansdale, Pennsylvania 19W
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Lake Wallenpaupack Watershed Management District-
board of directors
Gerald Ehrhardt, Chairman
Willis Gilpin, Vice-Chairman
Robert Carmody, Vice-Chairman
Coulby Dunn, Secretary
Paul Buehler, Assistant Secretary
Samuel Kutz, Treasurer
Theodore Kostige, Assistant Treasurer
William Bergstresser, Past Chairman
Aurel Petrasek, Past Secretary
William Rubrecht
James Coccodrilli
Carson Helfrich, Recording Secretary
F. X. Browne Associates, Inc.
project participants
Frank X. Browne, Ph.D., P.E., Project Manager
H. Kirk Horstman, P.E., Assistant Project Manager
Ingrid K. Ostrowski, Laboratory Supervisor
Janis B. Orr, Administrator
Kurt C. Schroeder, Assistant Project Scientist
Irene S. Kropp, Assistant Project Scientist
Kenneth Wagner, Limnological Associate
past directors
Edward Cykosky
Fred Enger
John Price
Burtin Gilpin
James Duffy
Joseph Pinto
MAJOR CONTRIBUTORS
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F X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Phase 1 Diagnostic-Feasibility Study was partially funded
by the US Environmental Protection Agency's 314 Clean Lakes
Program. Gerald Pollis of EPA's Region III office was the
EPA Project Officer. The project was administered by
James Ulanoski of the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental
Resources.
Special appreciation is extended to those organizations which
contributed significantly to the success of this study including
Pike and Wayne Counties, Palmyra Township, Pennsylvania Power
and Light Company, the Lake Wallenpaupack Watershed Association,
and the townships in the watershed.
J'
Special thanks are due those individuals who contributed signif-
icantly of their time in providing administrative and technical
assistance throughout the study, including Bill Bergstresser,
Slim Petrasek, Carson Helfrich, Paul Buehler, Jerry Ehrhardt,
and Jimmy Coccodrilli.
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
PREFACE
The draft report for the Lake Wallenpaupack Water Quality Management Study
was first submitted to the Lake Wallenpaupack Watershed Management District
(LWWMD) in June 1982. This final edition of the report presents a number
of revisions and corrections based on comments provided by representatives
from the following organizations:
- Lake Wallenpaupack Watershed Management District
- Lake Wallenpaupack Watershed Association
- Technical Review Committee (LWWMD)
- Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resources
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
- Pennsylvania Power and Light Company
Comments were also received from local residents and other concerned
officials. A formal public meeting was held on August 27, 1982 to discuss
the conclusions and recommendations of the report. A summary of the public
participation activities conducted by the LWWMD is presented in Appendix C.
Portions of the report that were significantly changed include the following
sections:
2.4 Recommendations - Conservation Districts
2.6 Recommendations - LWWMD
2.8 Recommendations - Priority Action Plan
5.5.1 Point Source Loads
6.2 Lake Operations
6.4.10 Fisheries Resources
6.8 Possible Effects of Lake Operations
7.6 Earthmoving Activities Controls
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC
Some of the questions raised by reviewers of the draft Water Quality Manage-
ment Study will be addressed in further detail in the supplemental report
due in May 1983. That report, commissioned under a separate contract with
LWWMD, will present revised1 watershed management and lake restoration plans
based on additional data which has been collected during 1982.
This report has been published in two volumes:
Volume I - Water Quality Management Study
Volume II - Data Appendices
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F. X BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Table of Contents
Volume I
List of Figures 1
List of Tables ij-
1.0 Conclusions 1
1.1 Lake Water Quality 1
1.2 Pollutant Sources 2
t
2.0 Recommendations 5
2.1 General 5
2.2 Counties 5
2.3 Townships 6
2.4 Conservation Districts 6
2.5 Department of Environmental Resources 7
2.6 Lake Wallenpaupack Watershed [Management Di str ict 7
2.7 PP&L 3
2.8 Priority Action Plan 8
3.0 Project Description 10
3.1 Background 10
3.2 Formation of Watershed Management District 10
3.3 Project Objectives 11
4.0 Demographic Information 14
4.1 Watershed Description 14
4.2 Land Use 16
4.3 Population 21
4.4 Socio-Economic Structure 21
4.5 Lake Uses 25
5.0 Pollutant Source Analysis 29
5.1 Watershed Characteristics 29
5.2 Rainfall 30
5.3 Hydrology 30
5.4 Watershed Monitoring Program 33
5.5 Pollutant Loads 37
5.6 Bacteriological Data 62
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Table of Contents
(continued)
Page
6.0 Lake Water Quality 66
6.1 Lake Characteristics 66
6.2 Lake Operations 66
6.3 Lake Storing Program 68
6.4 Lake Data 70
6.5 Trophic State Determination 94
6.6 Potential Human Health Effects 97
6.7 Water Quality Trends 99
6.8 Possible Effects of Lake Operation 100
6.9 Lake Modeling 102
7.0 Watershed Management Plan 105
7.1 Introduction 105
7.2 In-Lake Treatment and Management 105
7.3 Point Source Controls 111
7.4 Development Control 111
7.5 Agricultural Controls 115
7.6 Eartomoving Activities Controls 118
7.7 Septic System Waste Controls 120
7.8 Individual Homeowner Practices 121
7.9 Institutional Implementation 122
710 Potential Assistance Sources 127
7.11 Monitoring Program Continuation ]28
Appendix A - Glossary 130
Appendix B - References 136
Appendix C - Summary of Public Participation Activities 140
Volume II
Appendix D - Lake Data
Appendix E - Watershed Data
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X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES. INC.
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure 1 -
Figure 2 -
Figure 3 -
Figure 4 -
Figure 5
Figure 6 -
Figure 7 -
Figure 8 -
Figure 9 -
Figure 10
Figure 11 -
Figure 12 -
Figure 13 -
Figure 14 -
Figure 15 -
Figure 16 -
Figure 17 -
Figure 18 -
Figure 19 -
Lake Wallenpaupack Watershed 15
Regional Location of Lake Wallenpaupack 27
Location of Stream Monitoring Stations and Waste-
water Treatment Facilities in Watershed 36
Total Phosphorus Load versus Storm Runoff Volume
Relationships for Monitored Subbasins 43
Total Nitrogen Load versus Storm Runoff Volume
Relationships for Monitored Subbasins 44
Total Suspended Solids Load versus Storm Runoff
Volume Relationships for Monitored Subbasins 45
Location of Land Use Monitoring Sites 57
Location of Lake Sampling Stations ' 69
Representative Temperature and Dissolved Oxygen
Profiles for Station 3 - 1981 72
Total Suspended Solids Concentrations at Three
Depths for Station 1 73
Mean Secchi Depths for All Lake Stations 77
Total Phosphorus and Soluble Orthophosphate Con-
centrations at Three Depths for Station 1 79
Mean Total Inorganic Nitrogen:Soluble Orthophos-
phate Ratios for All Sampling Stations 83
Phytoplankton Data for Station 1 84
Mean Epilimnetic Chlorophyll a and Pheophytin a
Concentrations 88
Vollenweider Phosphorus Loading Curves for Trophic
State Classification 96
Probability Distribution for Trophic Classification 98
Historical Secchi Depth Measurements 101
US OECD Relationship for Mean Epilimnetic Chloro-
phyll a versus Phosphorus Loading Term 103
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 1 -
Table 2 -
Table 3 -
Table 4 -
Table 5 -
Table 6
Table 7 -
Table 8 -
Table 9 -
Table 10 -
Table 11 -
Table 12 -
Table 13 -
Table 14 -
Table 15 -
Table 16 -
Table 17 -
Table 18 -
Table 19 -
Table 20 -
Existing Land Use in Lake Wallenpaupack Watershed
Number of Primary Road-Miles in Each Subbasin
Potential Ultimate Residential Development for the
Watershed
Amount of Publicly Owned Land in Watershed
Existing and Projected Population for Townships
Assumed 1982 Summer Peak Population
Example Pennsylvania Lakes within a 50 km Radius
of Lake Wallenpaupack
Lake Wallenpaupack Watershed Area Rain Distribution
Estimated Tributary Flows into Lake Wallenpaupack
Total Number of Storm Hydrographs in Each Subbasin
Monthly Inflows and Outflows for Lake Wallenpaupack
Hydraulic Budget for Lake Wallenpaupack
Pollutant Loads from Wastewater Dischargers
Comparison of Average Nutrient Concentrations for
Base and Storm Conditions
Summary of Tributary Pollutant Source Loads
Polluant Budget for Lake Wallenpaupack for 1980 to
1981 Monitoring Period
Normalized Annual Pollutant Loadings for the Lake
Wallenpaupack Watershed
Unit Areal Subbasin Loadings for Normalized
Tributary Loads
Synopsis of Subbasin Land Uses
Range of Literature Values for Land Use Loadings
17
19
20
22
22
23
27
31
32
32
34
35
40
41
46
49
52
53
53
55
ii
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
LIST OF TABLES
(continued)
Page
Table 21 -
Table 22 -
Table 23 -
Table 24 -
Table 25 -
Table 26 -
Table 27 -
Table 28 -
Table 29 -
Table 30 -
Table 31 -
Instantaneous Storm Loads for Selected Land Use
Monitoring Sites 58
Average Total Phosphorus and Soluble Orthophosphate
Concentrations in Stream 60
Stream Bacteriological Data 63
Land Use Bacteriological Data 65
Physical Characteristics of Lake Wallenpaupack 67
Mean Secchi Disk Depth for Individual Lake Stations 78
Mean Lake Concentrations for Total Phosphorus and
Orthophosphate 81
Mean Epilimnetic Chlorophyll a^ and Pheophytin a
Concentrations for Lake Subbasins 89
Bacteriological Data for Lake Stations 92
Lake Sediments Data 93
Comparison of Lake Wallenpaupack Data to Eutrophic
Classification Criteria 95
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I- X BROWNE ASSOCIATES. INC.
1,0 Conclusions
1.1 Lake Water Quality
1. Lake Wallenpaupack is eutrophic as evidenced by high nutrient levels
in the lake, algal blooms, low water transparency, and depleted oxygen
in the bottom waters of the lake during warm weather months.
2. Despite the eutrophic condition of Lake Wallenpaupack, the recreational
uses of the lake have not been diminished. If the rate of eutrophi-
cation is not abated, however, the recreational uses of the lake may
be impaired.
3. No water related human health problems were reported during 1980 and
1981.
4. Based on limited water quality data from 1973 to the present, water
quality in Lake Wallenpaupack has decreased continuously over the years.
5. Algal blooms in Lake Wallenpaupack are dominated by blue-green algae
that can cause unaesthetic conditions, odors, and toxins.
6. Phosphorus is the nutrient that limits algal growth during most of
the year. Consequently, phosphorus entering the lake from point and
nonpoint sources should be controlled.
7. Based on a fisheries study by the Pennsylvania Fish Commission,
eutrophication-related problems in Lake Wallenpaupack may have adversely
affected the fishery in the lake. Adverse temperature and dissolved
oxygen conditions in the lake during periods of warm weather appear to
stress cold water fish populations in the lake.
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F X BROWNE ASSOCIATES. INC.
8. The present water quality data base for Lake Wallenpaupack is inconsis-
tent and insufficient for evaluating long-term water quality trends.
Annual water quality monitoring of the lake is needed to evaluate
long-term water quality trends in the lake.
9. The timing of PP&L's hydroelectric discharges may have a beneficial
affect on water quality. Further study is needed to evaluate the
impact of lake drawdown on water quality.
1.2 Pollutant Sources
1. Nutrients and sediments enter Lake Wallenpaupack from many sources
including runoff from various land uses and activities (e.g. cropland,
pasture, development, resorts, roadways, and construction), point
sources (wastewater treatment plants), septic system, rain, and stream-
bank erosion.
2. Streams tributary to Lake Wallenpaupack account for most of the
nutrients and sediments entering the lake. Streams account for 84%, 88%,
and 98% of the phosphorus, nitrogen and sediments entering the lake,
respectively. Most of these stream pollutant loads (67 to 83%) enter
the lake during rain events, indicating that storrawater runoff and
erosion are significant pollutant sources.
3. West Branch subbasin and the area around the lake have the highest non-
point pollutant loadings per acre of land as shown below:
Pollutant Loading (lb/acre/year)
Total
Total
Basin
Phosphorus
Suspended Solids
Area Around Lake
0.38
122
West Branch
0.26
101
Purdy Creek
0.19
37
Ariel Creek
0.18
35
Main Stem
0.16
37
Mill Brook
0.15
56
The actual loading amounts
for each subbasin
are shown in Table 17
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I- .< BHOWNI; AobULIAI L o. INC
The lakes and wetlands in Ariel Creek and Purdy Creek appear to
effectively remove nutrients and sediments from the streams by
sedimentation and biological uptake. Although these lakes appear to
reduce the pollutant loadings to Lake Wallenpaupack, the pollutant
accumulation in these lakes probably causes localized eutrophication
problems in these lakes. Upstream lakes and regional sedimentation
basins may effectively reduce the pollutant loadings to Lake Wallen-
paupack.
Main Stem and Mill Brook had the lowest pollutant loadings per acre
of land.
4. Based on a comprehensive literature review, cropland and developed land
(including roadways) produce relatively high nutrient and sediment
loadings per acre of land. Construction activities, although temporary,
generally produce the highest nutrient and sediment loadings per acre
of land. Runoff and erosion from these land use activities should be
controlled.
5. Septic systems throughout the watershed are a significant source of
phosphorus to Lake Wallenpaupack. Soils in the watershed are generally
not suitable for septic systems.
6. Wastewater treatment plants (point sources) account for less than 2%
of the nutrients entering the lake each year.
7. The relative importance of phosphorus discharged by wastewater treat-
ment plants and septic systems, however, may be greater than their
numerical value since wastewater discharges from treatment plants and
septic systems increase significantly during the summer when algae
problems occur and when stream flow is low; thus, the relative magni-
tude of treatment plants and septic systems is increased.
Also, the phosphorus discharged by treatment plants and septic systems
is generally in a form more readily usable by algae.
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F X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
8. High fecal bacteria levels, indicative of fecal pollution and possibly
pathogenic (disease producing) bacteria, were repeatedly measured
in West Branch, Ariel Creek and Purdy Creek.
9. Further monitoring of stream water quality is necessary to refine the
annual pollutant budget calculated in this study and to further identify
specific pollutant sources.
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
2.0 Recowendations
2.1 General
1. The Lake Wallenpaupack Watershed Management District (LWWMD) and the
townships and counties in the watershed should adopt and implement
the watershed management plan proposed in this report.
2. Watershed management activities should be coordinated by the Lake
Wallenpaupack Watershed Management District.
3. A Management Plan Implementation Committee should be formed within
LWWMD to assist in the adoption and implementation of the management
plan.
4. The counties and townships in the watershed should continue to provide
technical and financial support to LWWMD.
2.2 Counties
1. The counties in the watershed should jointly develop a stormwater
management plan in accordance with the requirements of Pennsylvania
Act 167. The Stormwater Management Act, passed in October 1978, requires
counties to adopt a watershed stormwater management plan for each water-
shed in the county. The Lake Wallenpaupack watershed has been designated
by DER to be studied as an Act 167 watershed. The LWWMD and the counties
should consider petitioning DER to allow a phased approach to implementing
Act 167. Phase 1 would consist of identifying runoff characteristics,
floodplains and land use patterns. It would also include the development
of stormwater control criteria and ordinances. Phase 2 would involve "site-
specific" investigations based on the results of Phase 1.
2. Each county should enact an ordinance requiring licensing of septage
haulers.
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F. X
BROWNE ASSOCIATES. INC
2.3 Townships
1. Each township in the watershed should develop a comprehensive plan
and zoning for the township.
2. Each township should adopt a septic system ordinance that provides
greater power for septic system inspection and enforcement activities
(including requiring system maintenance and upgrading).
3. Each township should adopt a runoff control ordinance to control runoff
from new developments. As an alternative, each township should amend
existing subdivision regulations to include runoff control requirements.
4. Each township should adopt an erosion control ordinance similar to DER's
erosion control regulations to control erosion during construction. As
an alternative, each township should amend existing subdivision regulations
to include erosion control requirements.
2.4 Conservation Districts
1. The Wayne and Pike County Conservation Districts should actively enlist
more farm cooperators. The plans of all landowners who are not required
to obtain erosion control permits should be routinely inspected.
2. The Wayne County Conservation District should advance to Level 5 (voluntary
and induced compliance) in its administration of the soil erosion and
sedimentation control plan review and permitting process. Presently the
Wayne County Conservation District is at Level 3 (complaint handling)
while Pike County is at Level 5.
3. The Conservation Districts should petition the DER to reduce the present
25 acre size limitation for requiring erosion control permits. The size
limitation should be reduced to 5 to 10 acres to include more developments
in the permitting process.
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[- X BROWN Li ASSOCIATES. INC
A. To handle the increased work load produced by implementing the above recom-
mendations, the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) should increase the size
of their technical staff.
2.5 Department of Environmental Resources
1. The Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Resoruces (DER) should main-
tain the present phosphorus limit of 0.5 mg/1 for all wastewater treat-
ment plants in the watershed.
2. The DER should require formal laboratory quality assurance procedures for
all laboratories analyzing wastewater treatment plants in the watershed.
2.6 Lake Wallenpaupack Watershed Management District
1. The LWWMD should continue to monitor water quality in Lake Wallenpaupack
and its tributaries. A long-term data base for water quality in Lake
Wallenpaupack should be developed.
2. The LWWMD should conduct field investigations of land use activities in
the watershed.
3. The LWWMD should review the effluent monitoring reports (NPDES reports)
of the wastewater treatment plants in the watershed.
4. The LWWMD should provide technical assistance to the townships and
counties in the watershed.
5. The LWWMD should assist the townships and counties in regulating septage
haulers in the watershed.
6. The LWWMD should conduct workshops for Sewage Enforcement Officers (SEOs)
and treatment plant operators.
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I- X BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
7. The LWWMD should pursue funding for a 201 Facilities Plan to study com-
munity wastewater treatment and sludge disposal alternatives, and to
design remedial measures. An EPA 201 Grant would pay 75% of the con-
struction costs and a portion of the planning and design costs.
8. The LWWMD should continue its public education program via fact sheets,
signs, and presentations.
9. The LWWMD should encourage homeowner practices designed to improve water
quality in Lake Wallenpaupack (e.g. a voluntary phosphate detergent
limitation; proper lawn fertilization).
10. The LWWMD should channel information concerning watershed problems and
violations to appropriate officials and follow up on enforcement actions.
11. The LWWMD should investigate funding sources for implementing Best Manage-
ment Practices (BMPs) in the watershed.
12. The LWWMD should work closely with the Pennsylvania Fish Commission and
PP&L on the management of the fishery in Lake Wallenpaupack.
2.7 PP&L
1. PP&L should continue to provide technical, administrative and financial
support to LWWMD.
2. PP&L should assist LWWMD in evaluating the affect of lake level drawdown
on water quality in Lake Wallenpaupack.
2.8 Priority Action Plan
1. Control of nonpoint sources from land use activities and septic systems
throughout the entire watershed should be given high priority.
2. Nonpoint source control efforts should be concentrated in the West Branch
subbasin and in the area immediately around the lake.
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I- x. UROWNf. ASSOClA.'FS, INC
3. Both physical and institutional nonpoint source pollution control
measures should be implemented.
Action Plan
LWWMD Sets Up Management Plan Implementation Committee
V
LWWMD Makes Presentations to Counties, Townships
Conservation Districts and Other Groups
V
LWWMD
Develops &
Submits 201
Septqge/Sludye
Disposal Grant
Application
V
LWWMD
Performs 201
Study and
Design
V
Construct
Septage/Sludge
Facilities
V
LWWMD
Develops Model
Runoff & Septic
System Control
Ordinances
V
LWWMD
Presents
Ordinances to
Townships
V
Townships
Adopt
Ordinances
V
Conservation
Districts
Petition DER
to Reduce
25 Acre
Limitation
V
Wayne County
Accepts Level 5
Erosion Control
Status
V
SCS Increase
Staff Size
V
LWWMD
Investigates
167 Stormwater
Study Funding
V
LWWMD
Submits Act 167
Application
V
LWWMD
Performs Act 167
Study
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F X BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
3.0 Project Description
3.1 Background
i
Lake Wallenpaupack is a vital resource in the northeastern Pennsylvania
region. Over the past years, the water quality of Lake Wallenpaupack
has deteriorated. The 1975 EPA National Eutrophication Survey (NES)
Study stated that the lake was mesotrophic, but the appearance of blue-
green algal blooms indicated that it was becoming eutrophic. In addition
to the algal blooms, evidence of the oncoming eutrophic condition of the
lake was found in reduced water clarity, increased nutrient concentrations,
the appearance of excessive rooted plants around the lake, and the out-
break of water-borne infections. Recent data and lake problems indicate
that Lake Wallenpaupack is now eutrophic. In August 1979, a bloom of
the blue-green alga, Anabaena, reportedly caused numerous cases of
algae-related infections that produced such symptoms as allergic reactions
and gastro-intestinal disorders. This outbreak of water-contact dermatitis
and other symptoms led to the posting of warning signs around the lake.
3.2 Formation of Watershed Management District
Because of the importance of the lake as a natural and economic resource,
the Pennsylvania Comprehensive Water Quality Management Plan (COWAMP,
1977) recommended the formation of a watershed management district for
Lake Wallenpaupack. Recognizing the need for such a district, the Wayne
and Pike County Commissioners and the supervisors of the 14 townships in
the watershed established the Lake Wallenpaupack Watershed Management Dis-
trict (LWWMD) in September 1979. The District was formed because of the
complexity of the lake problems, requiring a strong management organization
backed by local government. The organization plan for the LWWMD was.
devised by F. X. Browne Associates, Inc. in 1979.
The general objectives of the watershed management district include, but
are not limited to, the following:
1. To protect or improve Lake Wallenpaupack and its
tributaries.
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f- X BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
2.
To
protect
public health and welfare.
3.
To
protect
public rights.
4.
To
promote
environmental values.
5.
To
provide
for orderly lake and watershed management
Specific objectives include the performance of diagnostic studies to
evaluate lake and watershed problems, determine pollutant sources, develop
a watershed management plan, and implement a continuing watershed manage-
ment program. Specific objectives also include the implementation of
best management practices (BMPs) to control pollutant loadings to the lake.
Such pollutants include, but are not limited to, sediments, nutrients
(especially phosphorus), organic materials, heavy metals, pesticides,
fecal bacteria, and other toxic or harmful materials.
As described in the organization plan, specific powers and responsibilities
of the LWWMD include the following:
1. Conduct lake and watershed monitoring programs.
2. Provide technical assistance, review, and advisory
service.
3. Develop public educational programs and model
ordinances.
4. Coordinate watershed management activities.
5. Provide financial management of the District.
Members of the LWWMD Board of Directors include representatives from Wayne
and Pike Counties, the various townships in the watershed, and a repre-
sentative from the Lake Wallenpaupack Watershed Association.
3.3 Project Objectives
This study was conducted under the EPA 314 Clean Lakes Program. As
described in the EPA Clean Lakes Program Guidance Manual, grants can be
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F X BROWNE ASSOCIATES. INC
provided for Phase 1 or Phase 2 projects. A Phase 1 project, such as this
one, is defined as a diagnostic-feasibility study. The diagnostic portion
of the study is conducted to determine the lake's water quality condition,
identify existing problems, and determine the pollutant sources which are
causing the problem(s). The feasibility part of the study involves the
development of alternative management programs based on the results of the
diagnostic study. These alternatives can include watershed management
practices- and/or lake restoration methods.
After completing a Phase 1 study, if funding is available, a Phase 2 grant
can be applied for and used to implement the recommended management
practices.
The primary objectives of this Phase 1 Diagnostic-Feasibility Study were:
1. To evaluate the trophic conditions in the lake and
determine their relative impacts on recreational
uses of the lake and its watershed.
2. To determine the location and magnitude of point
and nonpoint sources of pollution to the lake and
develop a nutrient budget.
3. To develop a feasible watershed management plan to
abate both point and nonpoint sources of pollutants
and thereby allow for the natural rehabilitation of
the lake.
4. To collect the appropriate information to be used
for the implementation of specific watershed manage-
ment practices.
Other secondary objectives of the study included: (1) determining the
magnitude of nonpoint pollutant loadings from certain land uses; (2)
evaluating the significance of septic tank leachate as a nutrient source;
and (3) providing for the proper education of the general public as to
matters which affect the water quality in Lake Wallenpaupack.
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Tliis project was administered by the Pennsylvania Department of
Environmental Resources (PaDER). In-kind services for the performance
of the study were contributed by the various organizations and munici-
palities comprising the LWWMD, and the Pennsylvania Power and Light
Company (PP&L).
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F X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
4.0 Demographic Information
4.1 Watershed Description
Lake Wallenpaupack is one of the largest lakes in northeastern Pennsylvania.
Its watershed covers 219 square miles and includes the following major
tributaries: Wallenpaupack Creek (East Branch, Main Stem, and West Branch),
Ariel Creek, Purdy Creek, and Mill Brook. The watershed is comprised of
portions of four counties and 14 townships as shown in Figure 1, and as
listed below:
Wayne County
Paupack Township
Salem Township
Dreher Township
Lake Township
Sterling Township
Lehigh Township
Palmyra Township
Pike County
Palmyra Township
Greene Township
Blooming Grove Township
Monroe County
Coolbaugh Township
Barrett Township
Lackawanna County
Jefferson Township
Madison Township
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC,
Wayne County
PALMYRA
PAUPACK
LAKE
JEFFERSON
SALEM
MADISON
PIKE
COUNTY
STERLING
GREENE
BLOOMING
GROVE
LEHIGI
BARRET
PENNSYLVANIA
COOLBAUGH
Figure 1. Lake Wallenpaupack Watershed
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
4.2 Land Use
Existing land uses for the monitored and unmonitored subbasins within the
watershed are given in Table 1. These figures were developed by the Pike
and Wayne County planning staffs. Sources of information for the land use
evaluation included subdivision surveys, aerial photographs, PP&L computer
maps, and field investigations. All of the land within the watershed was
classified into one of the following categories: residential, commercial,
cropland, pasture, wetlands, water, and forest. Resorts and recreational
areas were usually included in the commercial category.
For the monitored subbasins, Ariel Creek and Purdy Creek have the highest
percentages of residential development and cropland. These subbasins
also have the highest percentage of water surface area. The West Branch
and Ariel Creek subbasins have the largest relative areas of pasture land.
Main Stem and Mill Brook have the highest percentages of undeveloped land.
The unmonitored subbasins primarily include all of the smaller streams
around the lake in addition to those areas which drain directly into the
lake. These subbasins combined contain the highest percentage of resi-
dential and commerical development. The Waynewood Lake subbasin consists
of approximately 29% cropland. Overall, the same percentage (approxi-
mately 70%) of the combined monitored subbasins and combined unmonitored
subbasins is undeveloped.
In general, cropland and residential development are the land use activities >
which most impact tributary water quality. Therefore the subbasins of poten-
tial concern from a pollutant loading standpoint should be Ariel Creek,
Purdy Creek, and all of the unmonitored drainage area. Also of concern
should be the West Branch subbasin based on its size and amount of cleared
area.
16
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Table 1
Existing Land Use In Lake Wallenpaupack Watershed
To tal
Residential
Commercial
Cropland
Pasture
Wetlands
Water
Forest
Acres
X
Acres
X
Acres
Acres
_Z
Acres
X
Acres
X
Acres
X
Acres X
unitored Subbasins
Main Seem
48,115
100
1,804
3.7
47
0.1
718
1.5
3,824
7.9
1,665
3.5
1,087
2.3
38,970 HI
West Branch
43,536
100
1,103
2.5
212
0.5
2,153
4.9
10,364
23.8
546
1.3
1,273
2.9
27,885 64
Ariel Creek
9,899
100
587
5.9
78
0.8
1,508
15.2
1,177
11.9
277
2.8
831
8.4
5,441 55
Purdy Creek
5,778
100
280
4.9
19
0.3
877
15.3
129
2.2
488
8.4
488
8.4
3,497 60
Mill Brook
2,998
100
73
2.4
<1
0
<1
0
51
1.7
47
1.6
36
1.2
2,791 93
Subtotal
110,326
100
3,847
3.5
356
0.3
5,256
4.8
15,545
14.1
3,023
2.7
3,715
3.4
78,584 7)
Unmonltored Subba3lns
Spinner Brook
1,741
100
89
5.1
6
0.3
82
4.7
128
7.4
19
1.1
169
9.7
1,248
71
Goose Pond
2,843
100
148
5.2
50
1.8
171
6.0
395
13.9
162
5.7
243
8.5
1,674
58
Waynewood Lake
3,636
100
65
1.8
1
0
1,059
29.1
300
8.3
96
2.6
96
2.6
2,019
55
Klelnhans Creek
2,553
100
221
8.7
<1
0
<1
0
28
1.1
71
2.8
37
1.4
2,196
86
Minor Tributaries &
Immediate Drainage
18,809
100
2,905
15.4
319
1.7
293
1.6
1,102
5.9
343
1.8
44tl
2.3
13,40b
71
Subtotal
29,582
100
3,428
11.6
376
1.3
1,605
5.4
1,953
6.6
691
2.3
986
3.3
20,543
69
Total
139,908
100
7,275
5.2
732
0.5
6,861
4.9
17,498
12.5
3,714
2.7
4,701
3.4
99,127
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F X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Another measure of the amounts of development in different subbasins is
the number of miles of primary roadway. Roads are important with respect
to water quality because they increase the amount of impervious area.
Also, significant quantities of pollutants can be washed off road surfaces
during storms. The number of road-miles (including Interstate 84) per acre
for each subbasin are presented in Table 2. The subbasins do not significantly
differ from one another. The West Branch subbasin had the highest percentage
of road-miles; whereas Purdy Creek had the lowest percentage.
Most of the past large scale land subdivision occurred in the late 1960's
and early 1970's when economic conditions were more favorable. At that time,
subdivisions of over 100 lots were not uncommon. Recently, however, smaller
subdivisions with larger lot sizes have become more common. As has been
the case throughout the Poconos, time-share developments and condominiums
are also becoming more prevalent.
Since only a few of the townships in the watershed have comprehensive plans
or zoning ordinances, it is difficult to project which areas might be developed
as future growth occurs. It is likely that as the economy improves, lots
in existing subdivisions will be sold and improved rather than raw land
being developed into new subdivisions. Another possibility for future
development involves subdivisions which are currently classified as
recreational developments. The lots in these developments, located mainly
in the Main Stem subbasin, are currently to be used for recreational purposes
only and not for permanent residence. There is a potential, however, for
this status to be changed in the future.
Estimated ultimate acreages for residential development are presented in
Table 3. On an areal basis, the Main Stem and Immediate Drainage subbasins
have the most potential for development. On a percentage basis, it is
estimated that the Ariel Creek and Purdy Creek subbasins will experience
the most growth.
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES. INC.
Table 2
Number of Primary Road-Miles in Each Subbasin
No. of
Primary Road-Miles
Subbasin Road-Miles per Acre
Main Stem 123.5 0.003
West Branch 160.1 0.004
Ariel Creek 30.1 0.003
Purdy Creek 8.0 0.001
Mill Brook 7.0 0.002
Spinner Brook 4.2 0.002
Goose Pond 8.5 0.003
Waynewood Lake 9.6 0.003
Kleinhans Creek 6.9 0.003
Minor Tributaries &
Immediate Drainage 58.9 0.003
Total Watershed 416.8 0.003
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F X BROWNE ASSOCIATES. INC
Table 3
Potential Ultimate Residential Development for the Watershed
Residential Development (acres) Percent
Existing Est. Ultimate Increase
Main Stem 1,804 4,649 158
West Branch 1,103 1,685 53
Ariel Creek 587 2,320 295
Purdy Creek 280 1,086 288
Mill Brook 73 84 15
Spinner Brook 89 250 181
Goose Pond 148 311 110
Waynewood Lake 65 198 205
Kleinhans Creek 221 588 166
Minor Tributaries &
Immediate Drainage 2,905 5,894 103
Total 7,275 17,605 135
Source: Information provided by Wayne and Pike County Planners.
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES. INC.
Table 4 shows that 8% of the total watershed is publicly owned land. This
land is comprised mainly of State Forest and Came Lands, and is located
solely within Pike County. There are several relatively minor quasi-public
lands in Wayne County including the Lacawac Sanctuary and four PP&L recrea-
tional areas. The amount of public owned land in a given subbasin is impor-
tant since it is unlikely that these areas will be changed from their un-
developed states.
4.3 Population
Table 5 presents current populations and future population estimates for the
townships in the watershed. The figures for 1970 and 1980 were obtained
from US Census information. The projections for 1990 were developed by the
Wayne County and Pike County planning staffs. They were based upon assumed
buildout rates for improved and unimproved vacant lots. The projections
also included the estimated conversion of second homes into permanent resi-
dences. Two different growth rates were assumed in order to provide for a
range of possibilities depending on future economic conditions.
Perhaps even more important than the permanent population, is the number
of persons living in the watershed during the summer months. A summer peak
population, as shown in Table 6, has been developed by assuming that all
available seasonal homes are occupied by an average maximum of five indi-
viduals. Although this situation could probably only occur on a holiday
weekend, it is possible that the resident population in the watershed nearly
quadruples during certain portions of the summer.
4.4 Socio-Economic Structure
The Lake Wallenpaupack area is dependent upon a recreation-based economy
with the lake itself being the economic backbone of the region. The economies
of both Wayne and Pike Counties are heavilv suDoort-ed hy recreational and
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Table 4
Amount of Publicly Owned Land in Watershed
Area Percent of
Subbasin (acres) Subbasin
Main Stem 8,293 17.2
Kleinhans Creek 1,442 56.5
Mill Brook. 285 9.5
Minor Tributaries & 1,125 6.0
Immediate Drainage >
Total Watershed 11,145 8.0
Table 5
Existing and Projected Populations for Townships
Township
Pike County
Greene
~
Palmyra
Wayne County
Dreher
Lake
Lehigh
Palmyra
Paupack
Sal en
Sterling
To Lai
Permanent Population
1970
1,023
1,204
705
1,755
637
528
644
1,581
526
8. t> 5 8
1980
1,462
'1,722
743
2,453
884
773
1,379
2,538
7 30
1 2,b84
Estimated 1990
10% Growth
1,780
2,215
828
2,554
1,102
837
1,836
2,804
826
14.782
25% Growth
2,383
3,156
1,053
2,711
1,635
954
2,733
3,364
1,113
19,102
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F X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES. INC.
Table 6
Assumed 1982 Summer Peak Population
Township Summer Peak
Pike County*
Greene 7,807
Palmyra 12,632
Wayne County
Dreher 1,613
Lake 2,813
Lehigh 4,254
Palmyra 1,313
Paupack 8,969
Salem 6,278
Sterling 1,440
Total 47,120
*Note: Blooming Grove Township was not included due to its distance
from the lake, and the relatively small amount of populated
land area located within the watershed boundary.
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F X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES. INC
resort activities. Although tourism is most significant during the summer
months, growing interest in autumn and winter sports provides year-round
revenue to many of the local businessmen.
In the portions of Wayne and Pike Counties located within the watershed,
industry is primarily service-related. The major services include con-
struction, restaurants, resorts, realtors, and retail establishments.
This service group is reflective of an environment which caters to the
second homeowner and tourist trade. In Pike County overall, for example,
the composition of the work force is as follows:
Pike County
Work Force
Craftsmen, foremen 20%
Service workers, operative 29%
Professionals, managers 24%
Clerical, labor 27%
Total 100%
Pike County employment figures show that the total labor force increased by
1000 to 7200 from January to June 1981, with the unemployment rate dropping
from a high of 12.9% in Feburary to a low of 5.5% in August. These numbers
indicate the fluctuation of employment conditions in the Lake Wallenpaupack
area.
In addition to the recreation-related businesses, Wayne County also has a
fair percentage of agriculture. Most of the farms primarily practice dairy
and/or livestock production.
Compared to statewide figures, average per capita incomes for the townships
in the watershed are in the low to medium range; as shown below:
Pike*
Palmyra $6,303
Greene 5,792
*1979 estimates (US Dept. of Commerce)
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F X BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC
Wayne County**
Paupack $3,664
Salem $2,868
Dreher $3,881
Lake $.3,223
Sterling $3,421
Lehigh $4,383
Palmyra $4,219
**1975 estimates (Wayne County Data Book)
Data for Greene and Palmyra Townships in Pike County show that the median
ages in these townships are high among those for the State (40.5 and 47.5,
respectively). This high median age is mainly due to the inward imigration
of retired persons to the second homes in the area.
Property values in the watershed are strongly connected to the health of
the lake.
4.5 Lake Uses
Since its construction in 1926, Lake Wallenpaupack has been an important
recreational resource in northeastern Pennsylvania. The lake has 52 miles
of shoreline, and is used extensively for the following purposes: swimming,
fishing, boating, water-skiing, and snowmobiling.
In addition to the numerous private resorts and marinas located around
the shoreline, there are a number of other public access sites. The following
recreation areas provide public boat ramps:
Mangan Cove Access Area (PP&L and Pennsylvania Fish
Commission)
Caffrey Campground (PP&L)
Wilsonville Campground (PP&L)
Ironwood Point Campground (PP&L)
Ledgedale Campground (PP&L)
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
There are also several picnic and nature areas located around the lake,
including:
Five Mile Point
Tafton Dike Observation Area
Lake Wallenpaupack Overlook
Beech House Creek Wildlife Refuge
Shuman Point Natural Area
Ledgedale Natural Area
PP&L Visitors Center
Palmyra Township Swimming Beach
As shown in Figure 2, Lake Wallenpaupack is within convenient vacationing
distance of millions of inhabitants of the mid-Atlantic states. According
to the Pocono Mountains Vacation Bureau, approximately 34% (2.7 million)
of the region's 8 million annual visitations occur in the Pike/Wayne area
(visitation is defined as the number of separate times that an individual
travels to the area).
The main access routes to the watershed include Interstates 84, 81, and 80,
and US Route 6. Bus transportation to the lake area is also available.
Lake Wallenpaupack is the largest lake in northeastern Pennsylvania.
Although, there are a number of other lakes (both public and private) in
the region, Lake Wallenpaupack receives the most usage. Examples of other
Pennsylvania lakes located within a 30 mile (50 kilometer radius) are
provided in Table 7.
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F. X, BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Lane WallenpaupacK
StroudsDurg
r\ nEaston
Allentown
& Bethlehem
Harnsburg
Trenton
Philadelphia
Wiiimington
Washington
Figure 2. Regional Location of Lake Wallenpaupack
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F X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES. INC.
Table 7
Example Pennsylvania Lakes
within a 50 km Radius of Lake Wallenpaupack
Pocono Lake
Corilla Lake
Lake Naomi
Jadwin Reservoir
Stillwater Lake
Glass Pond
Trait Lake
Tagoin Lake
Gouldboro Lake
Blue Heron Lake
Promised Land Lake
Peck's Pond
Lake Henry
Lake Maskenozha
Scranton Reservoir
Salus Lake
Crystal Lake
Mountain Lake
Newton Lake
Fairview Lake
Duck Harbor Pond
Lake Laura
Stanton Pond
Francis E. Walter Lake
Teedyuskung Lake
Lake Ariel
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I: X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES. INC
5.0 Pollutant Source Analysis
5,1 Watershed Characteristics
The physical characteristics of a watershed have a direct bearing on the
types and quantities of pollutants which enter a lake. Pertinent factors
include topography, soils, and geology.
5.1.1 Topography
There are two physiographic provinces within the northeast region of
Pennsylvania: the Ridge and Valley; and the Allegheny Plateau. The
southeastern portion of the Allegheny Plateau is a distinct subsection
in and of itself. Commonly referred to as the Pocono Plateau, it covers
all of Monroe, Pike, and most of Wayne Counties. Its landscape is more
diverse than the main body of its province. It is characterized by rough
terrain and an abundance of lakes and streams created by glacial scouring
of the land which disrupted the internal drainage.
The Lake Wallenpaupack watershed is bound along the northwest by the
Moosic Mountains. Elevations in the watershed vary from 2300 feet mean
sea level (MSL) in the northwest and 2200 feet MSL in the south to
1190 feet MSL at the dam (top of spillway gates).
5.1.2 Geology and Soils
Since the beginning of the Pleistocene, the Upper Delaware area has been
affected by three glacial episodes which have influenced the landforms,
mineral resources, and drainage of the area. Glaciated areas are charac-
terized by poor drainage, abundance of wetlands, and stony to extremely
stony soils. Glacial deposits consisting of unsorted clay, gravel, pebbles,
sand, mud, and boulders, form a patchy cover over most of Wayne and Pike
Counties (PaDER, 1981).
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F X BROWNE ASSOCIATES. INC.
In Pike County, the soils are mainly from the Culvcrs-Cattaraugua-Morris
Associations (US Soil Conservation Service, 1969). This soil association
is gently sloping to moderately steep. The soils are generally deep and
are well-drained to somewhat poorly drained. The soils were formed in
reddish or brownish glacial till that was derived from red sandstone and
shale. Large areas of the association are very stony. Much of the
association is underlain by a well-developed fragipan that slows movement
of water through the soil. In general, the soils are of moderate fertility.
The soils of Wayne County are relatively young with slight or weak develop-
ment. They are all acid and are not very fertile. Most of the soils are
formed on material deposited by the Wisconsin glacier. Bedrock outcrops
and ledges are numerous. The soils on the mountains and plateaus contain
many boulders, stones, and rock fragments. Most of the soils are wet,
shallow, slowly permeable, and steep. In general, they are not suitable
for septic systems.
5.2 Rainfall
The available rainfall data for the watershed during the monitoring period
is presented in Table 8. Since the records are maintained by volunteers,
the data are not complete. The estimated total rainfall over the entire
watershed for 16 months was 44.9 inches. This was considerably shy of the
average annual rate of 47.2 inches. The rainfall was not evenly distributed
over the watershed, as more rain appeared to fall in the southern and western
portions.
5.3 Hydrology
Daily tributary flows for each of the streams were modelled using the
limited flow and rain data available, along with USGS records for several
similar stations in the nearby Lackawaxen River basin. The resulting flow
estimates are summarized in Table 9. The Main Stem, West Branch, and
30
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Table 8
Lake Wallenpaupack Watershed Area
Rainfall Distribution for Monitoring Period
03
ZD
O
Palmyra Township Paupack Township Sterling Township Lake Township Dreher Township
Month
Pike County
(inches)
Wayne County
(inches)
Wayne County
(inches)
Wayne County
(inches)
Wayne County
(inches)
Aug. 1980
2.01
1.70
1.01
-
-
Sept. 1980
1.15
0.88
1.10
-
-
Oct. 1980
3.16
2.18
2.55
-
-
Nov. 1980
2.96
2.86
-
-
-
Dec. 1980
0.82
1.36
-
-
-
Jan. 1981
0.58
-
-
-
-
Feb. 1981
8.31
-
-
-
8.83
March 1981
0.44
-
-
-
0.93
April 1981
4.31
2.87
-
-
4.86
May 1981
4.45
3.66
3.36
-
3.93
June 1981
3.57
3.21
4.83
-
4.56
July 1981
3.62
3.46
2.81
-
2.96
Aug. 1981
1.26
1.13
0.95
0.21
0.91
Sept. 1981
6.33
5.19
4.93
3.43
2.95
Oct. 1981
3.52
3.09
-
-
-
Nov. 1981
1.76
1.95
-
-
-
Totals
48.25
—
—
-
>
CO
CD
O
O
>
H
m
cn
O
Estimated Average for Watershed = 44.90 inches
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Table 9
Estimated Tributary Flows into Lake Wallenpaupack
for Monitoring Period
Subbasin
Total Volume
(ft?)
Mean Flow
(cfs)
Mean Flow
(cfs/mi^)
Main Stem
3.88
X
109
92.2
1.23
West Branch
3.71
X
109
88.2
1.30
Ariel Creek
0.37
X
109
8.7
0.56
Purdy Creek
0.19
X
109
4.6
0.51
Mill Brook
0.22
X
109
5.1
1.09
Minor Tributaries and
Immediate Drainage
1.50
X
10 9
35.6
0.77
Total Watershed
9.87
X
109
234.4
1.07
Table 10
Total Number of Storm Hydrographs in Each Subbasin
for Monitoring Period
No. of Storm
Subbaa in Hydrographs
Main Stem 36
West Branch 33
Ariel Creek 31
Purdy Creek 26
Mill Brook 28
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
and Mill Brook subbasins produced the most runoff per square mile. Ariel
Creek and Purdy Creek experienced considerably less runoff during the moni-
toring period. This was probably due to the rainfall distribution in the
watershed, as discussed above. The actual number of modeled storm hydro-
graphs for each subbasin is shown in Table 10. Main Stem and West Branch
had the most storm hydrographs.
Monthly flows into and out of the lake are given in Table 11. The largest
flows into the lake occurred during February 1981. The largest withdrawals
from the lake occurred during May and September 1981. More water was dis-
charged from the lake than entered it during the overall monitoring period.
Accurate discharge records for the hydroelectric outlet are maintained by
PP&L and the USGS. Table 12 presents a water budget for the lake for the
monitoring period. The table indicates a difference between total inputs
and total outputs of 12.4%. This error could be due to the following
possible reasons:
1) tributary flows into the lake were overestimated,
2) evaporation was underestimated,
3) there may be a net groundwater outflow from the lake.
This error is considered acceptable, however, based on the amount of data
available.
5 A Watershed Monitoring Program
Tributary monitoring was performed for dry and wet weather conditions at
six stations as shown in Figure 3. For much of the study, instantaneous
flow readings had to be manually obtained using the existing USGS wire-
weight staff gages at each of the five stream stations. Continuous, auto-
matic monitoring equipment was installed at the three major stream stations
(Main Stem, West Branch, and Ariel Creek) by the LWWMD in the summer of 1981.
This equipment included recording flow meters, automatic water samplers,
activation switches, and protective housings.
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Table 11 -
Monthly Inflows and Outflows for Lake Wallenpaupack
Tributary Flows into Lake Outlet Flow from Lake
Month/Year (cfs) (cfs)
August 1980 55.6 286.1
September 42.8 373.7
October 51.8 48.1
November 80.1 97.6
December 211.0 91.4
January 1981 244.6 27.5
February 1320.5 29.4
March 263.0 235.5
April 304.5 249.3
May 516.8 630.9
June 185.6 371.4
July 109.8 341.0
August 51.7 245.4
September 62.6 434.2
October 124.9 87.0
November 213.4 279.0
Weighted Average 234.4 239.8
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Table 12
Hydraulic Budget for Lake Wallenpaupack
for Monitoring Period
Volume (ft^)
Inputs
Tributary Flows*
Direct Precipitation
Net Storage Loss
Total
9.87 x 109
0.94 x 109
1.91 x 109
12.72 x 109
Outputs
PP&L Discharge
Evaporation *
Total
*Estimated Values
10.09 x 109
1.05 x 109
11.14 x 109
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F. X, BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC,
Stream Stations
Main Stem Wallen. Cr.
West Branch Wallen. Cr.
Ariel Creek
Purdy Creek
Dam Outlet
Hill Brook
Wastewater Treatment Facilities
1. Wallenpaupack Lake Estates
2. White Beauty View Resort
3. Cove Haven Resort
4. Promised Land State Park
5. The Hideout
6. The Escape
7. Wallenpaupack Area High School
8. Twin Rocks Restaurant
9. Pocono Plateau Christian Assoc.
0. 1-84 Rest Areas
Figure 3. Location of Stream Monitoring Stations and Waste-
water Treatment Facilities in Watershed.
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Dry weather samples were collected once per month for 16 months (August
1980 through November 1981) in order to establish base load conditions.
Wet weather samples were collected over the storm hydrograph at each
stream station for eight rain events. The storm events monitored repre-
sented a variety of storms with respect to intensity, duration, and season
of the year. Wet weather samples were flow-composited for analysis. Grab
samples were collected at the PP&L hydroelectric plant during periods when
water was being discharged from the lake.
Tributary samples were analyzed for the following parameters:
Total Phosphorus (total and dissolved)
Orthophosphate (total and dissolved)
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
Nitrate/Nitrite
Fecal Streptococcus (periodically)
Suspended Solids
pH
Fecal Coliform (periodically)
Ammonia
5.5 Pollutant Loads
Pollutant loads occur from both point and nonpoint sources. Point sources
are defined as all of the wastewater effluent discharges (including
domestic and/or industrial discharges) within the watershed. Nonpoint
sources are all other pollutant sources which effect the lake via the
tributaries or immediate drainage areas. Examples of nonpoint sources
include: stormwater runoff, groundwater inflow, channel erosion, and
precipitation. Nonpoint sources usually contribute the most significant
portion of nutrients to a lake.
Calculating pollutant loads requires large amounts of data analyses, and
hydrological and engineering assumptions. In performing such analyses,
many sources of error may be incorporated into the results. Obvious
sources of error include built-in errors in flow measurements, water
quality analyses and sampling. These sources of error cannot be avoided
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
because they are inherent in the analytical methodologies presently
available. Errors caused by statistical and hydrological analyses and
engineering assumptions can only be avoided or minimized by continuous
monitoring of all tributaries to the lake. Such a program would be
technically impractical and economically infeasible. Therefore, the
loads presented in this report should be considered as "best possible
estimates", and not absolute values.
5.5.1 Point Source Ldads
The known wastewater dischargers in the Lake Wallenpaupack watershed are
shown in Figure 3. The receiving waters for each wastewater discharger
are listed below:
Wastewater Treatment Facility
Receiving Water
1.
Wallenpaupack Lake Estates
Tributary to Lake Wallenpaupack
2.
White Beauty View Resort
Lake Wallenpaupack
3.
Cove Haven Resort
Lake Wallenpaupack
4.
Promised Land State Park
East Branch Wallenpaupack Creek
5.
The Hideout
Ariel Creek
6.
The Escape
Lake Wallenpaupack
7.
Wallenpaupack Area High School
Lake Wallenpaupack
8.
Twin Rocks Restaurant
Tributary to West Branch
9.
Pocono Plateau Christian Assoc.
Tributary to Main Stem
10.
1-84 Rest Areas
Tributary to Mill Brook
The above facilities treat domestic and/or commercial wastewater. There are
no known industrial dischargers located within the watershed. All of the
facilities have NPDES Permits, with the exception of Wallenpaupack Lake
Estates, White Beauty View Resort, and the Escape, which are currently
certified under the Pennsylvania Clean Streams Law. At least two of these
three dischargers (White Beauty View and Wallenpaupack Lake Estates) have
applied for NPDES Permits. Those treatment facilities which discharge
directly to the lake theoretically have a greater impact on the lake water
quality.
38
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Wastewater effluents from the above facilities were monitored twice during
the study through the combined efforts of F. X. Browne Associates, Inc.
and the PaDER. These data were combined with data from monthly monitoring
reports available from the PaDER to estimate the loads shown in Table 13.
In a review of the data for all treatment facilities, only infrequent violations
of effluent requirements were detected.
The Hideout wastewater treatment facility has the largest capacity, but it did
not have the highest phosphorus loads due to its extensive phosphorus removal
practices. White Beauty View Resort and Wallenpaupack Lake Estates discharged
slightly higher phosphorus loads. The Hideout discharged the largest quantities
of suspended solids and nitrogen.
5.5.2 Nonpoint Source Loads
Nonpoint sources are comprised of tributary, groundwater, septic system, and
atmospheric inputs to the lake. Nonpoint sources of pollutants are much more
difficult to regulate.
Tributary Loads
Tributary loads are divided into base (dry weather) loads and storm (wet
weather) loads. A comparison of nutrient concentrations between dry and wet
weather conditions is presented in Table 14. Few general patterns can be
distinguished between the different streams. Total suspended solids and
total phosphorus concentrations increased at all of the stations during
storm periods. This was due to the larger amounts of particulate matter
which are eroded from the land and stream banks during storms. These higher
concentrations coupled with higher flows result in greatly increased stream
loads during storm periods. West Branch had the highest total suspended
solids concentrations during both base and storm periods. The nitrate/
nitrite concentrations in Mill Brook were low compared to the other
stations. Ammonia, which is a soluble parameter, decreased during storm
runoff at Ariel Creek, indicating that the high concentrations of ammonia
found during base flows at Ariel Creek were produced by the treatment
facility at the Hideout. This ammonia is actually diluted during storm
events.
39
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Table 13
Pollutant Loads from Wastewater Dischargees
during Monitoring Period
CD
00
O
.e-
o
White Beauty View Resort
Promised Land State Park(a)
The Hideout
The Escape
Twin Rocks Restaurant
Wallenpaupack High School
Wallenpaupack Lake Estates
Cove Haven Resort
Pocono Plateau Christian
Association(a)
1-84 Rest Areas(b)
Total
Average Flow
(MGD)
0.036
0.025
0.115
0.012
0.004
0.011
0.043
0.038
0.001
0
0.284
Total Phosphorus
(lbs as P)
247
89
133
71
44
37
160
128
9
0
Total
Suspended Solids
dbs)
1,900
257
5,091
2,633
81
268
4,244
1,412
4
0
Total Nitrogen(c)
(lbs as N)
1,548
3,468
5,063
727
772
992
1,317
2,083
7
0
m
>
CO
CD
o
o
>
—I
m
05
O
918
15,890
15,977
Notes: (a)
(b)
(c)
Facility in operation during only portion of the year.
Not in operation during study.
Does not include organic nitrogen (not measured by wastewater treatment plants).
-------
Table 14
Comparison of Average Nutrient Concentrations
for Base and Storm Conditions
Total Phosphorus Nitrate/Nitrite
Ammonia
Total Suspended Solids
Station
Base
Storm
Base
Storm
Base
Storm
Base
Storm
Main Stem
0.024
0.030
0.229
0.300
0.019
0.037
3.8
10.6
West Branch
0.030
0.045
0.276
0.319
0.038
0.024
7.9
14.3
Ariel Creek
0.032
0.041
0.282
0.264
0.073
0.032
4.4
6.9
Purdy Creek
0.036
0.037
0.227
0.248
0.033
0.034
5.6
5.5
Mill Brook
0.023
0.030
0.055
0.075
0.017
0.024
3.2
5.1
03
ID
O
m
>
cn
in
O
O
>
—i
m
co
o
Note: Base conditions = discrete samples
Storm conditions = composite samples
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Pollutant loads for base flow conditions were calculated by taking the
average base flow concentrations for each month and multiplying by the
base volume. Where applicable, point source loads were subtracted from
the monthly nonpoint base loads.
Eight storms were monitored at each station by flow-compositing samples
taken throughout the storm hydrographs. The relationships between the
monitored loads and the volume of runoff were statistically analyzed
using a log-log regression method. The resulting regression curves are
shown in Figures 4, 5, and 6 for total phosphorus, total nitrogen, and
total suspended solids, respectively.
The steeper curves in Figures 4, 5, and 6 represent the basins with more
severe storm runoff problems. For example, in all cases, West Branch
produces more pounds of pollutant per volume runoff than Main Stem. This
would be expected since the West Branch subbasin contains about three times
as much agricultural land on a percentage basis. The Main Stem subbasin,
on the other hand, is comprised of 81% forest land. Runoff from agricultural
and developed land usually produces higher loadings than undeveloped areas.
These land use relationships, however, do not seem to apply as readily to
the smaller subbasins. Based on their percentages of agricultural and
developed land, it would be expected that the Ariel Creek and Purdy Creek
subbasins would exhibit much higher loadings than Mill Brook, which is
mainly forested. More data need to be collected to explain these dis-
crepancies.
A summary of the tributary loads to the lake for the monitoring period is
presented in Table 15. Loads for the unmonitored storm periods were esti-
mated using the load/runoff regression curves. The modeled storm loads
were then superimposed on the base loads to develop total tributary loads
for each subbasin. A proration technique based on land use characteristics
was used to estimate the nonpoint source loads from the unmonitored areas.
The West Branch contributed by far the largest quantities of nutrients and
suspended solids to Lake Wallenpaupack during the monitoring period.
42
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
-V/
Qjf
•>/
W
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 .3.0
Storm Runoff Volume (ft3 x 10^)
3.5
Figure 4. Total Phosphorus Load versus
Storm Runoff Volume Relationships
for Monitored Subbasins.
43
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
18,000-1
15,000-
12,000-
*H
V-/
9,000_
d
(U
oo
o
i-j
¦u
6,000-
rH
U
O
H
3,000-
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
Storm Runoff Volume (ft^ x 10®)
Figure 5. Total Nitrogen Load versus Storm Runoff
Volume Relationships for Monitored Subbasins
44
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
2.0
Lf\
H 1.5
X
rO
cd
3
CO
2 1.0
rH
o
W
0)
c
0)
ft
Cfl
3
co
rH
a
-p
o
E-t
0.5 -
y/
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Storm Runoff Volume (ft3 x 10^)
3.5
Figure 6. Total Suspended Solids Load versus
Storm Runoff Volume Relationships
for Monitored Subbasins.
45
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Table 15
Summary of Tributary Pollutant Source Loads
for the Monitoring Period
Total
Total Phosphorus Total Nitrogen Suspended Solids
Subbasin (lbs as P) % (lbs as N) % (lbs) %
Main Stem
6,420
27.0
164,240
34.4
1,487,000
19.8
West Branch
10,040
42.2
178,900
37.5
3,857,900
51.4
Ariel Creek
700
2.9
14,930
3.1
131,800
1.7
Purdy Creek
380
1.6
7,810
1.7
73,700
1.0
Mill Brook
330
1.4
3,950
0.8
58,400
0.8
Minor Tributaries and
Immediate Drainage
5,920
24.9
107,210
22.5
1,897,000
25.3
Total
23,790
100.0
477,040
100.0
7,505,800
100.0
46
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F X BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Since the rainfall distribution over the watershed was not uniform, the
relationships between the pollutant loads for each subbasin are not
necessarily indicative of the relative magnitudes which would occur under
more homogeneous rainfall conditions.
Septic System Loads
In some watersheds, pollutant loads from septic tank leachate are a sig-
nificant source of nutrients and/or bacteria to a lake. In the Lake
Wallenpaupack watershed, many of the individual septic systems were either
designed or built improperly. For example, many of the systems were in-
stalled before regulations were instituted establishing criteria for
acceptable soils, slopes, and bedrock conditions. In addition, many
vacation homes have been upgraded to year-around residences without a
concurrent increase in septic system capacity.
Nutrient loads from septic systems can occur in two forms: (1) surface
breakthrough, and (2) groundwater contamination. The first form indicates
a failing septic system which should be immediately repaired. The second
source is much more difficult to control. Phosphorus compounds are usually
removed to some degree in most soils due to precipitation and adsorption
reactions. Nitrogen compounds, however, are usually readily transported
through most soils. Suspended solids are only a factor for systems ex-
periencing a direct breakthrough to the ground surface.
A detailed evaluation of soils and geology was performed for the watershed
area. The suitaibiiity of each soil type for septic systems was determined
based on the following considerations:
- depth to water table
- depth to bedrock
- percolation rate
- slope
Most of the areas in the watershed have severe limitations for septic
systems.
47
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Data from Che above analysis were combined with information from field
investigations in order to estimate total septic systems loadings to
the lake. There are approximately 5400 septic systems in the watershed.
These systems contribute the following estimated annual loads:
Total phosphorus - 3,970 lbs as P
Total nitrogen - 29,000 lbs as N
Total suspended solids - 24,150 lbs
Atmospheric Sources
Another source of nutrients is the direct precipitation of rain and dust
onto the lake. Rain and snow contain measurable amounts of nutrients and
particulate matter. Several samples of rain water were collected and
analyzed. The following annual loads are estimated for direct precipitation:
Total phosphorus - 1,850 lbs as P
Total nitrogen - 56,080 lbs as N
Total suspended solids - 184,900 lbs
5.5.3 Total Watershed Loads
The overall pollutant budget for Lake Wallenpaupack for the 1980 to 1981
monitoring period is presented in Table 16. For each parameter, tributary
sources accounted for the major portion of the pollutants entering the
lake. Tributary sources were responsible for 96.2% of the total suspended
solids load, 78.7% of total nitrogen, and 73.3% of total phosphorus. Septic
systems were the second largest contributor of phosphorus to the lake.
Point sources were the least significant contributors for all three parameters
As a matter of fact, the relatively low amounts of rainfall which occurred
during the monitoring period may have actually caused an overemphasis in
the relative proportions of the loads attributed to point sources.
48
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES. INC.
Table 16
Pollutant Budget for Lake Wallenpaupack
for 1980 to 1981 Monitoring Period *
Total
(lbs as P)
%
(lbs as N)
%
(lbs)
%
Inputs
Tributaries
23,790
73.3
477,040
78.7
7,505,800
96.2
Point Sources
920
2.8
15,980
2.6
15,900
0.2
Septic Systems
5,290
16.3
38,660
6.4
32,200
0.4
Direct Precipitation
2,460
7.6
74,770
12.3
246,500
3.2
Total
32,460
100.0
606,450
100.0
7,800,400
100.0
Output
PP&L Discharge
17,590
-
415,730
-
3,294,500
-
Accumulation
14,870
190,720
4,505,900
*Represents 16 month period.
49
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC
All loads are presented in weight units (pounds), which are the product
of pollutant concentration times the volume of water. Despite relatively
low pollutant concentrations, the tributary loads are higher because of
the large volumes of water which enter the lake from streams. For example,
an average stream flow of one cubic foot per second is equivalent to greater
than 235 million gallons of water per year.
Tributary loads are generally the highest during the winter and spring
when stream flows are high. (On the contrary, point source and septic
system loads are generally higher in the summer when the area's population
is at its peak.) The largest tributary loads during the study period
occurred during February 1981; whereas the smallest loads occurred during
August 1981.
5.5A Pollutant Accumulation in Lake Wallenpaupack
According to the accumulation rates shown in Table 16, the following per-
centages were retained in the lake during the monitoring period:
Parameter Percent Retained
Total phosphorus 45.8
Total nitrogen 31.4
Total suspended solids 57.8
Since most of the solids entering the reservoir are settleable, a high
retention is expected. A relatively high retention of phosphorus is also
expected since over 50% of the total phosphorus load to the lake is in
the particulate (i.e. settleable) form. Low nitrogen retention is expected
since most of the nitrogen is in the soluble form. The amounts of nutrients
and solids discharged from the lake depend partly on the timing and quantity
of PP&L withdrawals during the year.
50
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
5.5.5 Normalized Pollutant Idads
Table 17 presents normalized annual pollutant loads to the lake. The
tributary loads were normalized to reflect average annual runoff conditions,
assuming a uniform rainfall distribution throughout the watershed. The
annual point source loads were assumed to remain constant. Hence, the
normalized loads more accurately reflect the relative significance of each
subbasin and of each pollutant source. As would be expected, tributary
sources are even more significant under normalized conditions (i.e. 84% of
total phosphorus, 88% of total nitrogen, and 98% of total suspended solids
loads come from tributary sources).
5.5.6 Comparison of Tributary Loadings
The normalized tributary loads measured for this study were higher than
the phosphorus and nitrogen loads which were estimated in the 1975 US EPA
National Eutrophication Survey (NES) Report for Lake Wallenpaupack. This
is mainly due to the more extensive watershed monitoring program conducted
as part of this study; particularly during storm runoff events. The NES
report did not provide a loading estimate for total suspended solids.
Subbasin Loadings
Unit areal loading rates for the tributary loads in each of the subbasins
are presented in Table 18. The loading rates (in pounds/acre/year) for
Main Stem, Ariel Creek, Purdy Creek, and Mill Brook were approximately
the same. Mill Brook had a slightly higher total suspended solids loading
rate. The West Branch and Immediate Drainage subbasins had the highest
loadings for all three parameters. For the Immediate Drainage area, the
high loads are due to the relatively large percentages of residential and
commercial development. The higher loads in the West Branch subbasin are
due to the high percentage of agricultural land, including cropland and
pasture.
51
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES. INC.
Table 17
Normalized Annual Pollutant Loadings
for the Lake Wallenpaupack Watershed
Total Phosphorus
(lbs/yr) (%)
Total
Total Nitrogen Suspended Solids
(lbs/yr) {%)_ (lbs/yr) (%)
Inputs
Tributaries
Main Stern
7,685
19.1
196,770
25.6
1,781,000
16.6
West Branch
11,385
28.3
202,760
26.3
4,372,000
40.8
Ariel Creek
1,825
4.5
38,970
5.1
344,000
3.2
Purdy Creek
1,090
2.7
22,510
2.9
213,000
2.0
Mill Brook
445
1.1
11,380
1.5
169,000
1.6
Immediate Drainage
11,300
28.1
204,680
26^6
3,622,000
33.7
Subtotal
33,730
83.8
677,070
88.0
10,501,000
97.9
Point Sources
White Beauty View
Resort
185
0.5
1,160
0.2
1,400
<0.1
Promised Land State
Park
70
0.2
2,600
0.3
200
<0.1
The Hideout
100
0.2
3,800
0.5
3,800
<0.1
The Escape
50
0.1
550
0.1
2,000
<0.1
Twin Lakes Rest.
30
<0.1
580
0.1
100
<0.1
Wallenpaupack H.S.
30
<0.1
740
0.1
200
<0.1
Wallenpaupack Lake
Estates
120
0.3
990
0.1
3,200
<0.1
Cove Haven Resort
100
0.2
1,560
0.2
1,100
<0.1
Pocono Plateau
Christian Assoc.
10
<0.1
10
<0.1
<10
0
Subtotal
695
1.7
11,990
1.6
12,000
0.1
Septic System Leachate
3,970
S. 9
24, 150
3.1
/ 29,000
0.3
Direct Precipitation
1,850
4.6
56,080
1. 4
184,900
1.7
TOTAL
40,245 100.0 769,290 100.0 10,726,900 100.0
52
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F X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES. INC.
Table 18
Unit Areal Subbasin Loadings for
Normalized Tributary Loads
Subbasin
Main Stem
West Branch
Ariel Creek
Purdy Creek
Mill Brook
Minor Tributaries &
Immediate Drainage
Total Phosphorus
(lb/ac/yr)
0.16
0.26
0.18
0.19
0.15
0.38
Total Nitrogen
(lb/ac/yr)
4.1
4.7
3.9
3.9
3.8
6.9
Total
Suspended Solids
(lb/ac/yr)
37
101
35
37
56
122
Table 19
Synopsis of Subbasin Land Uses
Subbasin
Main Stem
West Branch
Ariel Creek
Purdy Creek
Mill Brook
Minor Tributaries &
Immediate Drainage
Residential/
Commercial (%)
3.8
3.0
6.7
5.2
2.4
17.1
Cropland
(%)
1.5
4.9
15.2
15.3
0
1.6
Pasture
(%)
7.9
23.8
11.9
2.2
1.7
5.9
Undeveloped Forest
(%)
81.0
64.1
55.0
60.5
93.1
69.5
53
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Based on the land use synopsis presented in Table 19, much higher loadings
would be expected from the Ariel Creek and Purdy Creek subbasins. These
basins both contain relatively high percentages of developed and agri-
cultural land use. However, as was shown in Table 1, these subbasins
also contain the largest percentages of wetlands and surface waters. For
example, these subbasins contain the following lakes:
It is hypothesized that these lakes act as retention basins for much of
the nutrients and solids eroded from the land in these subbasins. Also,
these lakes dampen storm flows in the tributary systems by storing portions
of the runoff during rain events. This serves to reduce stream velocities,
which in turn reduces the magnitude of channel erosion.
Land Use Loadings
Loading rates for individual land uses have been obtained from a literature
review and are summarized in Table 20 . Due to the soils and geological
conditions in the Lake Wallenpaupack watershed, the lower ends of these
ranges apply. The actual pollutant loadings from specific land uses in
various subbasins will vary based on actual land use activities and the
amounts and intensities of rainfall received.
The loadings in Table 20 can be used to compare the relative nutrient and
sediment contributions of different land uses. In general, cropland and
developed land are the most significant contributors of pollutants.
These loadings can also be used to estimate the potential effects of
future land use changes on the annual pollutant budget.
Ariel Creek
Purdy Creek
Lake Ariel
Paupackan Lake
Locklin Pond
Butler Pond
Wildwood Lake
Roamingwood Lake
Lake Genero
Craft Pond
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Table 20
Range of Literature Values for
Land Use Loadings
Export Coefficients (lb/ac/yr)
Land Use
Undeveloped
Pasture
Cropland
Developed
Total
Total Phosphorus Total Nitrogen Suspended Solids
0.1
0.5
1.5
0.8
0.4
1.0
4.6
1.8
1-3
3-9
9-26
5-10
50
100
800
420
150
340
2000
900
Sources: (a) Browne and Grizzard, 1979.
(b) Northern Virginia Planning District Commission et^ £l., 1978.
(c) Reckhow et^ al. , 1980.
(d) Rast and Lee, 1978.
55
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F. X BROWNE ASSOCIATES. INC.
5.5,7 Land Use Monitoring
In an effort to verify the above relationships, three locations were
selected for specific land use monitoring, as listed below:
Land Use Category Location Drainage Area
Residential Wallenpaupack Lake Estates 739 acres
Agricultural Little Chapel Area 687 acres
Bungalow Resort Hemlock Grove Cottages 160 acres
The locations of these monitoring sites are shown in Figure 7. Each of
the sites represents a small subbasin with relatively homogeneous land use
of the type described. The agricultural subbasin contained both pasture
and cropland. The residential subbasin was not fully developed.
An intermittent stream which flows only after a storm is located at each
site. Grab samples and flow measurements were taken at each site during
four storms. These data were used to develop the instantaneous pollutant
loads in Table 21. The loads shown are a product of the quantity of
runoff and the pollutant concentrations measured. Although the results
are inconclusive, the following observations were made:
1. Due to the relatively large amount of impervious
area, the bungalow resort generated the greatest
runoff flows per unit area.
2. Despite lower flows, high pollutant concentrations
at the agricultural site caused that station to
have the highest loadings for most of the parameters.
5.5,8 Phosphorus Availability
The impact of phosphorus loads to the lake, whether from point or nonpoint
sources, depends on many factors including the chemical state of the phos-
phorus (i.e. organic phosphorus, polyphosphate, or orthophosphate) and
whether the phosphorus is in the particulate or soluble form. In general,
56
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
A Little Chapel Area
B Wallenpaupack Lake Estates
Hemlock Grove Motor Lodge
Figure 7. Location of Land Use Monitoring Sites
I
57
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Table 21
Instantaneous Storm Loads for Selected Land Use Monitoring Sites
Ul
00
Storm Date
10/6/81
Residential
Agricultural
Bungalow Resort
10/26-27/81
Residential
Agricultural
Bungalow Resort
11/16-17/81
Residential
Agricultural
Bungalow Resort
12/2-3/81
Residential
Agricultural
Bungalow Resort
Average
Flow
(cfs/ac)
0.0009
0.0002
0.0023
0.0005
0.0001
0.0014
0.0005
0.0008
0.0009
0.0005
0.0005
0.0006
Total
Phosphorus
(x 10~7)
1.3
2.7
2.9
0.9
30.0
1.9
1.0
31.0
1.5
0.5
11.0
1.0
Instantaneous Loads (lbs/ac/hr)
Total
Orthophosphate
(x 10~')
0.6
0.8
1.2
0.2
1.4
0.5
0.2
1.4
0.4
0.2
6.3
0.2
Total
Kjeldahl
Nitrogen
(x 10-6)
0.8
1.6
8.9
1.6
4.8
2.7
1.8
5.7
1.8
1.0
1.5
0.9
Nitrate/
Ammonia Nitrite
(x 10~7) (x 10~6)
0.8
0.7
4.9
0.2
1.1
0.2
0.9
3.1
0.5
1.3
3.4
0.2
8.9
1.8
2.9
0.9
8.9
7.1
1.8
19.0
8.0
6.3
9.8
7.1
Total
Suspended
Solids
(x 10~5)
1.7
4.6
5.9
0.7
1.4
2.0
1.0
1.9
1.4
0.9
1.5
1.4
CD
33
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o
m
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F. X BROWNE ASSOCIATES. INC
algae utilize phosphorus in Che orthophosphate chemical state. Soluble
orthophosphate is more readily available for algal uptake than particulate
phosphorus. The amount of soluble orthophosphate entering the lake,
therefore, is a good indicator of the readily available phosphorus. Other
phosphorus forms may not be available for algal growth or they may require
significant time and chemical transformations before they are available for
algal growth. Organic phosphorus, for example, needs to be chemically
transformed into orthophosphate by bacterial decomposition or enzymatic
reactions before it becomes available for algal growth.
Total phosphorus loads from tributary sources are generally comprised of a
relatively low percentage of soluble orthophosphate. Average stream con-
centrations of total phosphorus and soluble orthophosphate are shown in
Table 22 for both base and storm flow conditions. Total phosphorus con-
centrations were high at all stations for storm conditions indicating the
erosion of particulate matter which takes place. During base flow con-
ditions, soluble orthophosphate accounted for 21 to 33% of the total
phosphorus, with an average of 28%. During storm conditions, soluble
orthophosphate accounted for 19 to 23% of the total phosphorus, with an
average of 20%. These results indicate that the phosphorus in dry weather
stream flow is generally more available for algal growth than the phosphorus
in wet weather flow. This should be expected since wet weather flows carry
eroded soils and impervious surface washoff into the lake. Dry weather
flows, however, generally consist of groundwater and point source discharges,
both of which usually have higher percentages of soluble phosphorus. Overall,
approximately 25% of the tributary phosphorus loads are comprised of soluble
orthophosphate.
Wastewater effluent and septic system leachate both usually contain fairly
high percentages of available phosphorus. Based on a review of the scien-
tific literature, these combined sources could therefore effectively account
for approximately 15.8% of the readily available annual phosphorus load to
the lake. This is considerably more than the 11.6% of the total phosphorus
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F X BROWNE ASSOCIATES. INC
Table 22
Average Total Phosphorus and Soluble Orthophosphate
Concentrations in Stream
Avg. Total Avg. Soluble Percent Soluble
Phosphorus Orthophosphate Orthophosphate
Stream (mg/1 as P) (mg/1 as P) (%)
Main Stem
Base Flow 0.024 0.005 21
Storm Flow 0.030 0.006 20
West Branch
Base Flow 0.030 0.007 23
Storm Flow 0.045 0.009 20
Ariel Creek
Base Flow 0.032 0.009 28
Storm Flow 0.041 0.008 20
Purdy Creek
Base Flow 0.036 0.012 33
Storm Flow 0.037 0.007 19
Mill Brook
Base Flow 0.023 0.007 30
Storm Flow 0.030 0.007 23
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F X BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC
load shown in the normalized load section (Table 17). This phenomenon
could be particularly important during the summer algae season when
tributary loads to the reservoir are generally lower.
In general, results of the watershed monitoring program indicate that both
point and nonpoint sources of phosphorus should be controlled to protect
Lake Wallenpaupack.
5.5,9 Detergent Phosphate Loads
The average phosphorus content of household laundry detergents in non-
regulated areas of the country is approximately 5.5%. This is about half
as much as the average for a decade ago. According to the Soap and Detergent
Association (Sedlak, 1980), laundry detergents currently account for about
35% of the phosphorus in the annual wastewater loads from an average home
in non-regulated areas. This is broken down as follows;
Source Quantity Percent
Human Wastes 1.2 lbs/capita/year 46.2
Laundry Detergents 0.9 lbs/capita/year 34.6
Dishwasher Detergents 0.2 lbs/capita/year 7.7
Kitchen Wastes 0.3 lbs/capita/year 11.5
Total 2.6 lbs/capita/year 100.0
These percentages will vary for other living units such as second-homes,
resorts, and campgrounds.
Since septic systems and point sources are collectively responsible for
11.6% of the annual phosphorus load to the lake, the complete elimination of
phosphorus detergents could result in as much as a 4% reduction in the phos-
phorus load. Such a reduction could be even more significant when considering
the factor of phosphorus availability. The exact amount of reduction
depends on the phosphorus removals obtained in individual treatment
facilities and septic systems. Although the overall amount may not be sub-
stantial enough to warrant a detergent phosphorus ban, the voluntary use of
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F X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
low-phosphate products should definitely be encouraged. Besides having
a positive effect on the loads entering the lake, such a recommendation
provides a tangible action for homeowners in the watershed.
Table 23 presents the bacteriological data for the stream stations for
both dry and wet weather conditions. No fecal coliform violations (i.e.
coliform bacteria count greater than 200/100 ml) were measured in Mill
Brook. Main Stem exhibited only two fecal coliform violations; whereas
West Branch, Ariel Creek, and Purdy Creek all exhibited numerous violations.
Fecal streptococcus counts were also often high in West Branch, Ariel Creek
and Purdy Creek.
Fecal coliform and fecal streptococcus bacteria are indicator organisms;
that is, they indicate the possible presence of pathogenic (disease pro-
ducing) bacteria. Coliform and streptococcus bacteria are harmless, they
only indicate the possible presence of harmful bacteria. The ratio of
fecal coliform to fecal streptococcus can be used to indicate whether the
observed bacteria levels are caused by human activities (wastewater dis-
charges, septic tanks) or stormwater runoff (animal wastes). Fecal coliform/
fecal streptococcus ranges and their use as indicators are listed below
5.5 Bacteriological Data
(Geldreich, 1972):
FC/FS <0.7
Ratio less than or equal to 0.7 indicates
pollution derived from livestock or poultry.
Ratio between 0.7 and 1.0 suggests a pre-
dominance of livestock or poultry wastes in
mixed pollution.
Ratio bewteen one and two represents a "gray"
area of uncertain interpretation. Samples
should be taken nearer the suspected source of
pollution.
Ratio between two and four suggest a pre-
dominance of human wastes in pollution.
FC/FS 0.7-1.0
FC/FS 1-2
FC/FS 2-4
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m
Table 23
Stream Bacteriological Data
Dry Weather
6-15-81
7-07-81
8-4/5-81
9-30-81
11-09-81
Station
FC
FS
FC/FS
FC
FS FC/FS
FC
FS
FC/FS
FC
FS
KC/FS
FC
FS FC/JJi
Main Stem
TNTC
TNTC
= 1
90
2 45.0
5
21
0.2
17
11
1.5
39
29b 0.1
West Branch
TNTC
100
>2.0
TNTC
o
A
45
7
6.4
TNTC
38
V
o
72
312 0..'
Purdy Creek
TNTC
100
>2.0
TNTC
1 >4.0
93
87
1.1
TNTC
TNTC
~1
10
1J20 --U. I
Ariel Creek
TNTC
110
>2.0
TNTC
V
£«¦
o
228
71
3.2
18
TNTC
<0.7
23
322 0.1
Mill Brook
2
37
0.1
12
1 12.0
21
78
0.3
12
306
<0.1
1
244 <0.1
CD
;o
O
m
>
oo
CO
o
n
m
CO
Wet Weather
5-12
-81
10-28-
•81
11-16-81
12-02-
-81
Station
FC
FS
FC/FS
FC
FS
FC/FS
FX
FS
FC/FS
FC
FS
FC/FS
Main Stem
210
108
1.9
20
46
0.4
102
50
2.0
54
10
5.4
West Branch
TNTC
172
>2.0
1200
430
2.8
346
874
0.4
120
62
1.9
Purdy Creek
160
95
1.7
490
360
1.4
66
429
0.2
114
66
1.7
Ariel Creek
TNTC
134
>2.0
650
310
2.1
59
86
0.7
34 2
46
7.4
Mill Brook
70
47
1.5
10
23
0.4
36
56
0.6
29
13
2.2
Notes: FC ° Fecal Coliform {11/100 ml)
FS = Fecal Streptococcus (0/100 ml)
TNTC = Too Numberous To Count (>200/100 ml)
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
FC/FS >4.0 - Ratio greater than or equal to four indi-
cates pollution derived from human wastes.
This method of analysis may not always be accurate, particularly when
fecal streptococcus counts are below 100/100 ml.
The ratio data indicate that the bacteria in the West Branch and Ariel
Creek are probably from human wastes. This is supported by the fact that
higher bacterial concentrations were measured in these streams during base
flow periods. Since wastewater effluents are usually heavily disinfected,
these bacteria are more likely to be from septic system wastes. The data
for Purdy Creek are less conclusive, but seem to indicate a combination of
human and animal contamination.
Table 24 presents the bacteriological data collected at the land use
monitoring sites. Only one fecal coliform violation was detected at
Wallenpaupack Lake Estates, and that was probably caused by animal wastes
(perhaps pets). Several violations were detected in the stream which flows
through Hemlock Grove. These appeared to be caused by a combination of
contamination sources. Repeated fecal coliform violations were measured
at the agricultural monitoring site. The fecal coliform-to-fecal strepto-
coccus ratios indicate that the bacteria came from livestock.
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Table 24
Land Use Bacteriological Data
Wallenpaupack Lake
Estates
Tributary 1
Tributary 2
Hemlock Grove
Cottages
&
Ui
Little Chapel
Area
10-06-81
FC FS FC/FS
122 1250 0.1
438 1500 0.3
280 720 0.4
309 TNTC <0.7
10-26-81
FC ITS FC/FS
20 115 0.2
5 125 <0.1
222 45 4.9
1610 5000 0.3
11-16-81
FC FS FC/FS
47 249 0.2
75 286 0.3
37 142 0.3
610 1100 0.6
12-02-81
FC FS FC/FS
78 10 7.8
108 21 5.1
152 73 2.1
470 9800 <0.1
Notes: FC
FS
TNTC
= Fecal Coliform (///100 ml)
= Fecal Streptococcus (#/loo ml)
= Too Numerous To Count (>200/100 ml)
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F X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
6,0 Lake Water Quality
Water quality is determined by a complex system of chemical, physical, and
biological interactions. A primer on these ecological processes can be
found in the Clean Lakes Program Guidance Manual (US EPA, 1980). The
actual definition of water quality must be based on lake usage. For
example, the primary uses of Lake Wallenpaupack are for hydroelectric
power generation and recreation. Since hydroelectric power generation
does not require high water quality, the main objective of future manage-
ment activities will be to protect the recreational uses of Lake Wallen-
paupack. These include fishing, swimming, boating, and general aesthetics.
6.1 Lake Characteristics
Lake Wallenpaupack is relatively large and deep. The lake has a moderate
drainage area to water surface area ratio of 24.3:1. This ratio indicates
the need for proper watershed management to protect water quality in the
lake. Physical characteristics of the lake are listed in Table 25 .
The elevation of the top of the dam spillway gates is 1190 ft MSL. The
outlet pipe is over 14 feet in diameter and is located at the bottom of
the dam (invert elevation = 1140 MSL).
6.2 Lake Operations
There are several factors which govern PP&L's operation policies for the
lake. These include:
- lake user needs
- peak periods for power demand
- downstream flow augmentation
- prevention of ice buildup in outlet pipe
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Table 25
Physical Characteristics of Lake Wallenpaupack
Normal Maximum Summer Elevation* 1187 ft MSL
Surface Area 2.47 x 10® ft^
Volume 7.31 x 10^ ft^
Mean Depth 29.5 ft
Maximum Depth 52.0 ft
Mean Annual Discharge** 366 ft^/sec
Mean Residence Time 231 days
Mean Flushing Rate 1.6 times/year
*A11 values given are for this elevation.
**From USGS records for PP&L discharge at Wilsonville.
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
In general, PP&L discharges large quantities of water during the winter
months in order to accomodate inflows during the spring runoff period.
This practice is advantageous since the utility experiences a high power
demand during the winter. PP&L then attempts to maintain a maximum ele-
vation of approximately 1187 feet MSL through June 1 (this is the maximum
elevation which can be attained without substantially increasing the
possibility of having to release water over the dam during a significant
storm event). The lake is drawn down steadily over the summer to a
minimum recreational elevation of 1179 feet MSL by October 1. This annual
cycle was temporarily altered in 1980 and 1981 when the lake was drawn
down more than usual during September in order to perform repairs on the
dam structure.
G.3 Lake Monitoring Program
Lake monitoring was performed for 14 months from August 1980 through
October 1981. A contract extension funded by local sources enabled the
monitoring of one complete algal growing season in 1981. A total of 21
regular lake sampling surveys was performed for the study. Monitoring
was conducted on a bi-weekly basis during the summer and on a monthly basis
during the winter. Samples for phytoplankton analysis were collected at
several cove and beach locations on five additional monitoring dates.
The locations of the lake monitoring stations are shown in Figure 8. At
each station, chemical samples were collected at three depths: surface,
middle, and bottom. Phytoplankton samples were collected at the surface
(0.5 meters) and at the Secchi disk depth for that date. Temperature and
dissolved oxygen profiles and Secchi disk depth measurements were made at
each of the regular lake monitoring stations. Ambient conditions were
recorded including general weather, air temperature, percent cloud cover,
wind speed and direction, and antecedent rainfall.
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¦ y^High School
®/ Dam mU
Martins
Cove
Goose Pond ^
Cove )
Ironwood /•
Cove i |
Figure 8. Location of Lake Sampling Stations
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Parameters measured in the laboratory included:
- Total Phosphorus (total and dissolved)
- Orthophosphate (total and dissolved)
- Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
- Nitrate/Nitrite
- Ammonia
- Total Suspended Solids
- Alkalinity
- PH
- Chlorophyll a and Pheophytin a^
- Phytoplankton
- Fecal Coliform
- Fecal Streptococcus
6,4 Lake Data
6.4.1 General
The annual water quality response in a lake is determined by a number
of factors. The major factor is the amount of nutrients and sediments
delivered to the lake via the tributaries. These pollutant loads
are mainly determined by the amount and distribution of rainfall over
a given period. Other factors which affect lake response include variations
in ambient temperature and sunlight. Physical, chemical, and biological
characteristics of the lake are discussed in the following sections.
6.4.2 pH and Alkalinity
The pH, alkalinity and hardness of a water are interrelated. pH is a
term used to express the intensity of the acidity or alkalinity of a
water. It is important because most chemical and biological reactions
are controlled or affected by the pH. The alkalinity of a water is
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
a measure of its buffering capacity; that is, its capacity to neutralize
acids. Alkalinity of natural waters is due primarily to salts of weak
acids such as bicarbonates, carbonates, borates, silicates and phosphates.
Although many materials contribute to the alkalinity of a water, most of
the alkalinity in natural waters is caused by hydroxides, carbonates and
bicarbonates. The bicarbonates represent the major form of alkalinity in runoff
because they are formed by the action of carbon dioxide with basic
materials in the soil.
In lake ecosystems, interactions between pH and alkalinity occur when
phytoplankton utilize carbon dioxide in their photosynthetic activity.
As carbon dioxide is removed by algae, the pH of the water increases,
transforming both carbonate and bicarbonate forms of alkalinity into
carbon dioxide, which the algae use for further growth. Thus, alkalinity
acts as a food source for the algae, supplying carbon dioxide as a
carbon source for algal growth.
Alkalinity values in the lake varied from 9 to 50 mg/1 as CaCOg, with an
overall lake average of 15 mg/1 as CaCO^. This level of alkalinity is
relatively low for surface water. Hence, the lake has a low buffering
capacity and can be sensitive to fluctuations in pH such as those caused by
algae.
Most pH readings in the lake were in the neutral range from 6.5 to 7.5 pH
units. The lowest reading was 6.0 units and the highest was 7.9 units. In
general, higher pH values occurred at the surface where they would be
expected due to algal photosynthetic activity. The measured pH range
during the monitoring period was acceptable for fish habitat.
6.4,3 Temperature and Dissolved Oxygen
Presented in Figure 9 are representative temperature and dissolved oxygen
profiles for Station 3 during 1981. The surface elevation of the lake
71
-------
X
1190,
1180-
\ 1170-
3ii6a
5
3
1150-
1140-
MAY 13
Temp. 6
10
26
36 b
1
10
2b
3l
0.0. 0
JULY 14
JULY 28
10
15
10
15 0
10
15
W
¦JO
a
m
>
CO
co
o
o
m
CO
1
0
1
10
1
20
1 1
10 0
1
10
20
1
30
10
15
1190-,
ro
1180-
AUGUST 11
AUGUST 25
(m 1170
u 1160-
3 1150.'
1140'
SEPTEMBER 10
SEPTEMBER 23
I
' I
(I
::
GO
Temp. 0
1
10
20
1 1
30 0
1
10
1
20
1 1
30 0
1 ¦
10
1
20
u
0 -
10
20
30
r1 ¦
D.0. 0
1
5
1
10
1 1
15 0
1
5
1
10
1 1
15 0
5
1
10
15 0
5
10
15
Temperature (®C)
-O-—O- Dissolved Oxygen (rag/1)
Figure 9. Representative Temperature and Dissolved Oxygen Profiles
for Station 3 during 1981.
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC
(and therefore the depth of the lake) declined throughout the summer as
shown in the profiles. Thermal stratification began to form in May and
was well pronounced by the middle of June. The elevation of the top of the
thermocline decreased from 1167 ft MSL in the middle of July to 1152 ft
MSL on September 10th after the initiation of bottom withdrawal by PP&L.
Maximum temperatures in the epilimnion (surface waters) reached 24°C
(75°F) in July and August of 1980. Surface temperatures for the same
period in 1980 exceeded 24°C(79°F). Destratification (fall turnover)
occurred during mid-September in both years. This phenomenon which would
normally occur during October was induced by PP&L drawdown practices for
those years. In the periods following destratifcation, the lake was very
turbid and had visible algae blooms.
Dissolved oxygen concentrations in the lake were greater than 10 mg/1
before the onset of thermal stratification. Severe oxygen depletion
occurred in the hypolimnion by the June 29th sampling date (not shown).
Oxygen depletion is caused by bacterial decomposition of dead algae and
other organic matter as they settle into the bottom waters of the lake.
Anoxic conditions persisted in the hypolimnion until the time of fall
turnover. When bottom waters become devoid of oxygen (anoxic), there is
an alteration of the chemical properties of the sediments. Increased
rates of phosphorus release from sediments to the water column occur during
anoxic conditions. The sediments can therefore become another source of
nutrients to the lake during summer periods.
During daylight hours, algal photosynthesis exceeds respiration causing
dissolved oxygen concentrations to increase. When high algal concentrations
are present this can cause oxygen supersaturation of the surface waters.
Extreme fluctuations in dissolved oxygen content can also cause water
quality problems. However, no significant supersaturation values were
detected for Lake Wallenpaupack during 1981.
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Cold water fish species (such as trout) generally need temperatures less
than 22°C and dissolved oxygen concentrations greater than 5 mg/1 in
order to survive and grow. These required conditions were not present
at any depth in the lake during the period from July 28 through August 11.
Therefore, trout populations were stressed during this period and were
probably forced to oscillate above and below the thermocline in order to
survive.
6A4 Total Suspended Solids
Total suspended solids is a measure of the amount of particulate matter
in the water column. Suspended solids are comprised of both organic
(e.g. algae) and inorganic (e.g. minerals) matter. Suspended solids con-
centrations for three depths at Station 1 are shown in Figure 10. Con-
centrations at the surface and middle depths were responsive to the
suspended solids loads entering the lake, and to increasing and decreasing
algae levels. Suspended solids concentrations were generally higher in
the bottom waters due to the settling of particulate matter from the
surface (note that the vertical scale of the bottom plot is different from
the other two plots). A large peak occurred in the bottom waters during
August 1981 indicating the settling of large quantities of algal biomass
after a significant bloom in July.
5,4.5 Transparency
An indirect measurement of the total amount of organic and inorganic
turbidity in a lake is the Secchi disk depth. This measurement is taken
by lowering a special disk into the water until it can no longer be
clearly seen. Therefore, higher Secchi disk depths represent better
water transparency. This testing method probably best represents the
conditions which are most readily visible to the common lake user.
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
7.5
5.0 -
2.5
~i 1 1 i i i i i i i i i i i r
7.5n
5.0-
2.5.
Middle
~l 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r
1 i i r
25.0-
£ 20.0"
15.0"
10.0-
5.0-
Bottom
i i i i i i I i I i i i i i I
July Aug. Sepc. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. March April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct.
1980 1981
Figure 10. Total Suspended Solids Concentrations at
Three Depths for Station 1.
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
The mean Secchi disk readings for the overall lake are shown in Figure 11.
The mean values ranged from 1.0 to 2.0 meters and were well correlated with
the patterns displayed by surface suspended solids concentrations. Secchi
disk depths less than 2.0 meters are generally considered undesirable for
recreational lake uses.
Mean Secchi disk depths for individual stations are presented in Table 26
for 1980 and 1981. These values show that transparency improved as water
flowed through the lake. Average water transparency was lowest at the
upstream lake stations. This indicates that much of the particulate
matter settles out as water flows through the lake.
6.4.6 Nutrient Concentrations
Phosphorus and nitrogen compounds are important for the growth of algae.
Figure 12 shows the temporal and spatial variations in total phosphorus
and soluble orthophosphate during the monitoring period. Total phosphorus
represents the sum of all forms of phosphorus, including both soluble and
particulate forms. Total phosphorus also includes both the organic and
inorganic forms of phosphorus. Thus, total phosphorus includes live algae,
dead algae, other microorganisms, organic phosphorus, polyphosphates and
orthophosphate. Soluble orthophosphate is the form most readily used by
algae. Total phosphorus levels depend on the phosphorus loads entering
the lake. Soluble orthophosphate levels, however, are affected by algal
consumption during the growing season. This is illustrated by the decline
of soluble orthophosphate to the minimum detectable limit on-June 29, 1981
and August 25, 1981 when significant increases in phytoplankton were
measured.
As illustrated in Figure 12, phosphorus concentrations throughout the lake
were usually higher at the bottom and middle depths, especially during July
through September (note that the vertical scale of the bottom plot is
different from the other two plots). Higher phosphorus levels occur in
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC,
Ice Conditions
1980
Months
Figure 11. Mean Secchi Depths for All Lake Stations
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Table 26
Mean Secchi Disk Depth for
Individual Lake Stations
Secchi Disk Depth(m)
Station 1980* 1981**
1 1.7 2.0
2 1.5 1.7
3 1.5 1.7
4 1.5 1.6
5 1.1 1.4
*Data represents 6 sampling dates.
**Data represents 13 sampling dates.
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
—o— Soluble Orthophosphate
O.OfH
— — Total Phosphorus
A
Surface
0.02-
0.00
0.06-1
Middle
0.04-
0.02-
oo
0.00
o
•rf
4J
U
0.50—i
Bottom
0.40-
0.30-
0.20-
0.10"
0.00
-TV
July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. March April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct.
1980 1981
Figure 12. Total Phosphorus and Soluble Orthophosphate Concentrations at
Three Depths for Station 1.
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
the bottom waters of the lake because algae and other microorganisms settle
to the bottom, and because the bottom sediments become anoxic (void of
oxygen) and release phosphorus to the bottom waters.
Mean total phosphorus and orthophosphate concentrations for each lake
station, presented in Table 27, are relatively similar throughout the
lake except for Station 5, located upstream near Ledgedale. The Ledgedale
station is atypical and is more representative of a stream than a lake
station. The mean total phosphorus concentration for all stations ex-
ceeded 0.02 mg/1, a level usually considered indicative of eutrophic
conditions.
Limiting Nutrient
Phytoplankton growth depends on a variety of nutrients including phosphorus,
nitrogen, carbon, iron, manganese, and certain trace minerals. According
to the law of the minimum, biological growth is limited by the substance
that is present in minimal quantity with respect to the needs of the
organism. Nitrogen and phosphorus are usually the elements in least
relative supply in most natural water systems. Depending on the species,
algae require approximately 15 to 26 atoms of nitrogen for every atom of
phosphorus. On a mass basis, this ratio converts to 7 to 12 mg of nitrogen
per each 1 mg of phosphorus. Therefore, the following ratios can be used
to define nutrient limiting conditions:
TIN:SOP
(mg/1 N: mg/1 P)
Nutrient Limiting
Phytoplankton Yield
<7
7-12
>12
Nitrogen
Nitrogen and/or Phosphorus
Phosphorus
TIN = Total inorganic nitrogen
SOP = Soluble orthophosphate
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Table 27
Mean Lake Concentrations for
Total Phosphorus and Orthophosphate
Station Parameter
1 Total Phosphorus
Soluble Orthophosphate
2 Total Phosphorus
Soluble Orthophosphate
3 Total Phosphorus
Soluble Orthophosphate
4 Total Phosphorus
Soluble Orthophosphate
5 Total Phosphorus
Soluble Orthophosphate
Mean Minimum Maximum
(mg/1 as P) (mg/1 as P) (mg/1 as P)
0.042 0.002 0.312
0.025 0.002 0.395
0.040 0.007 0.348
0.025 0.002 0.313
0.039 0.002 0.328
0.026 0.002 0.300
0.046 0.009 0.289
0.024 0.002 0.150
0.039 0.014 0.146
0.013 ¦ 0.002 0.049
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES. INC.
Figure 13 shows the mean TIN:SOP ratios for samples collected at the surface
and over the total depth. There was considerable variation in the ratios
throughout the monitoring period. The TIN:SOP ratios varied considerably
throughout the year due to complex algae/nutrient interactions and periodic
tributary nutrient inputs during storm events. In general, the ratios were
high early in the growing season, indicating phosphorus limitation. This
period is critical in determining the phytoplankton levels for the rest of
the summer. As phosphorus limitation is reached in the early summer, a
competitive edge is given to the blue-green algal species which require
less phosphorus per unit of nitrogen. As the blue-green algae increase,
nitrogen compounds are consumed and the TIN:SOP ratios drop to below 12.
During the middle of the summer, nutrient conditions vary between nitrogen
and phosphorus limitation, with short periods of absolute nitrogen limitation.
Under these conditions, however, some species of blue-green algae can fix
dissolved elemental nitrogen (not included in TIN) which is present in the
water from contact with the atmosphere. During the nitrogen fixation
period, phosphorus again becomes limiting.
In summary, the pattern of nutrient limitation in Lake Wallenpaupack is
similar to other eutrophic lakes where phosphorus is limiting for much of
the time, but temporary nitrogen limitation develops as blue-green algae
populations increase. Since it is usually not feasible to control nitrogen
sources, watershed management practices must concentrate on reducing phos-
phorus loads to the lake. If phosphorus is reduced sufficiently, overall
phytoplankton levels can be decreased on an average annual basis.
6 A 7 PHrrOPLANKTON
Phytoplankton densities for the surface depths and the Secchi disk depths
at Station 1 are shown in Figure 14. This station was represenative of
the phytoplankton dynamics for the rest of the lake. The vertical scale
in the figure is logarithmic, rather than linear. Algal densities frequently
exceeded a total of 10,000 cells/ml indicating eutrophic conditions. The
peak algal density occurred on July 28, 1981 when the average for the
82
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. BKUWNt MbbUL1MI Lb, 1NL.
Surface
—A Total Depth
35 "
30 -
20 -
M
H
15 "
Phosphorus
Limitation
Nitrogen
Limitation
A
S
0
F
N
D
J
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
0
N
1980 1981
Figure 13. Mean Total Inorganic Nitrogen:Soluble Orthophosphate
Ratios for All Sampling Stations
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Diatoms
~
Green Algae
Flagellates
^Blue-Green Algae
Surface Depth
2*135
K-UZ*i
•jJlIsfc
& IS*
3:18
I
Secchl Depth
>1 fesa
i
3/31 4/27 5/12 5/27 6/16 6/29 »/1* 7/28 S/ll HI 25 9/1(1 9/25 10/14
1981
3/Jl 4/27 5/12 5/27 6/16 6/29 7/14 7/2» 8/11 8/25 9/10 9/23 10/14
1981
Figure 14. Phytoplankton Data for Station 1
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
lake reached 78,000 cells/ml. A second bloom occurred on September 10, 1981
when the lake average peaked again at 26,000 cells/ml. Both blooms were
comprised primarily of blue-green algal species. With few exceptions,
there was little significant difference between the algal types and
densities for the two sampling depths.
In the spring of 1981 the dominant alga in Lake Wallenpaupack was
Asterionella formosa, a diatom. Diatoms are often the representative
algae during the spring when weather conditions are cool and water tempera-
tures are beginning to increase above 5°C. The diatoms remained the
dominant algal form through mid-June when there was a shift in species
predominance. Asterionella formosa receded in number and Tabellaria
fenestrata replaced it as the representative species. By the end of June,
as the lake temperatures continued to increase, the diatoms rapidly
decreased in number dropping from 80-100% of the total phytoplankton
count to 6-13%. In July the only diatom that appeared in any number
was Synedra delicatissima.
Green algae in Lake Wallenpaupack were present in a wide variety of species,
yet they never became the dominant genera, and rarely exceeded 15% of the
algal population. By the end of July they were essentially absent from
the lake, falling below 1% in most stations.
With the decline of the diatoms in June there was a marked increase in
blue-green algae. This steady increase in blue-greens is common and is
due to their favoring of warmer waters (18-24°C) and longer periods of
light due to increased day-length. The blue-green algae comprised
86-99.5% of the phytoplankton count by the end of June. Low species
diversity and high biomass characterize blue-green algae blooms. In
Lake Wallenpaupack three bloom forming algae accounted for 100% of the
blue-green count in June and July. These three algae were Anabaena sp.,
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae and Oscillatoria acuminata. Succession among
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
the blue-greens started off with Oscillatoria being the primary alga
during the end of June and throughout most of July. Anabaena followed
Oscillatoria in dominance but was quickly succeeded by Aphanizomenon
which remained the representative alga through the end of September.
Coelosphaerium naegilianum, another bloom forming species, appeared
occasionally in significant quantities but was confined to three stations
in the downstream half of the lake. The blue-greens continued to com-
prise 80-100% of the phytoplankton count through the end of the summer
and into the fall.
Statistical analysis of the phytoplankton data collected for the coves
sampled indicates that there were no significant differences between
the types and numbers of algae present (F. X. Browne Associates, Inc.,
1982). Also, cross-sectional sampling done at 0.5 meters at Stations
2 and 4 showed relatively consistent phytoplankton concentrations across
the lake. This is exemplified in the data shown below for September 4,
1981:
Transect
A
B
C
D
E
Average
Station 2
33,450 cells/ml
35,610
37,185
29,010
32,475
33,546 cells/ml
Station 4
29.595 cells/ml
41,110
17,475
32,100
32,700
30.596 cells/ml
Wind speed and direction for the above date were 8 mph from the southwest.
On no sampling dates did the wind seem to have an effect on the distribution t
of algal populations in the lake.
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6.4.8 Chlorophyll a
Samples collected at the surface depth and at the Secchi depth were also
analyzed for chlorophyll £ and pheophytin a. Chlorophyll a is the green
pigment which causes photosynthesis to take place in algal cells.
Pheophytin a is the degradation product of chlorophyll a which is found
in dead algal cells. Therefore chlorophyll a_ and pheophytin a. are indi-
cators of the amounts of live and dead algal biomass, respectively. Not
all algal species, however, contain the same relative proportions of chloro-
phyll a_.
Mean epilimnetic chlorophyll ja and pheophytin concentrations for the
lake monitoring period are plotted in Figure 15. The mean chlorophyll £i
concentrations followed the same general patterns as the phytoplankton counts,
although there were a few exceptions. The discrepancies may have been due
to the varying chlorophyll a contents of different algal species. Also,
the algae present during September 1980 may have been larger in cell size,
thereby containing more chlorophyll a_ per cell. The peak summer concentration
for 1980 occurred on October 16 at 15.3 ug/1. The peak summer concentration
for 1981 was 15.8 ug/1 on September 10.
The mean epilimnetic chlorophyll a and pheophytin a^ concentrations for each
of the lake stations are presented in Table 28. The average levels for
both parameters were generally lower during 1981. This occurred, however,
because sampling began in raid-summer of 1980 and therefore did not include
any late winter or spring values. The highest chlorophyll a concentrations
were measured at Station A indicating that the largest algal populations
developed at the upper end of the main body of the lake. The algae then
slowly decreased as the nutrients were consumed in the lower portion of
the lake. Pheophytin ji concentrations were relatively constant throughout
the lake for both years.
Unlike the phytoplankton data, the chlorophyll a data showed higher con-
centrations at the Secchi depth indicating that some light inhibition of
the algae occurred at the lake surface.
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC,
20.0-1
—O— Ch lo ro phy 11 a
—O—Pheophytin a
t>0
D
C
O
•H
4->
cfl
M
4J
c
0)
CJ
c
o
O
15.0-
10.0-
5.0-
^ b"aoaxx J
O
—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i—i i i i i i r
J ASOND JFMAMJ JASO
1980 1981
Figure 15. Mean Epilimnetic Chlorophyll and
Pheophytin a Concentrations
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Table 28
Mean Epilimnetic Chlorophyll a_ and Pheophytin
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
6.4.9 Bacteria
Fecal coliform and fecal streptococcus data for the lake are presented in
Table 29. No significant levels of bacteria were found at any regular
lake station. Bacteria samples were not collected at any beaches or coves
as part of this study.
6.4.10 Fishery Resources
After collecting data in 1980, the Pennsylvania Fish Commission (Billingsley
and Bourke, 1981) prepared a report on fisheries management for Lake
Wallenpaupack. The report concludes that the predominant fish populations
in the lake include walleye (Stizostedion vitreum), alewife (Alosa pseudo-
harengus), pumpkinseed (Lepomis gibbosus), and perch (Perca flavescens).
Smaller populations include smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieui), large-
mouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), brown trout (Salmo trutta), chain
pickerel (Esox niger), and tiger muskellunge (Esox masquinongy x lucius).
Cisco (Coregonus artedii) populations have declined since the early 1950's.
History of the Fishery
There is a long-term record of fish stocking in Lake Wallenpaupack, ex-
tending from 1932 to the present, with most stocking done under the auspices
of the Pennsylvania Fish Commission. Many species of fish have been stocked,
including percids, centrarchids, esocids and salmonids. In addition, various
forage fish and non-piscine forage species (such as frogs, crayfish and Daphnia)
have been stocked. Until 1954, the stocking program emphasized warmwater fish,
primarily percids and centrarchids. From 1954 until the early 1970's a
mixture of salmonids and warmwater species (mainly trout and walleye) were
stocked. During the 1970's the number of species and quantities of fish
stocked declined, with trout and walleye continuing as the major species
stocked. In 1981 the Pennsylvania Fish Commission began stocking striped
bass yearlings along with a small number of trout fingerlings.
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Over the past twenty years, fishermen have been actively seeking a great
variety of fish species in Lake Wallenpaupack, including walleye, yellow
perch, bass, sunfish, trout, catfish and carp. Fishermen are now
reported to be anxious for the start of good striped bass fishing. How-
ever, there appears to have been a decline in fishing pressure over the
past decade, most notably during the ice fishing season. For the steadfast
Wallenpaupack fisherman, a decline in catch per unit effort has been noted.
The fish that have been taken have been observed to possess full stomachs,
and were generally larger than fish of the same species taken in past years.
The Pennsylvania Fish Commission reports higher than average growth rates
for all species investigated. While an accurate assessment is made diffi-
cult by the reluctance of many fishermen to discuss their cathces, it
appears that fish populations have not noticeably declined, and that
piscivores are simply harder to catch due to an overabundance of forage
fish. Large schools of the alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus), not observed
prior to about 1975, have been reported in the lake in recent years.
Unfortunately, organized surveys of the fish community of Lake Wallenpaupack
have been few and sporadic. Interpretation of the data acquired through the
organized surveys is complicated by inconsistent methods and survey timing.
This is a universal problem in fisheries biology and is by no means a
reflection of the quality of the surveys performed. Obtaining representative
samples of fish populations is simply a very difficult task. With this in
mind, the results of fish surveys performed, the stocking record, the more
reliable fishing reports, and observations by local residents and officials
have been integrated to produce a general assessment of the fish community
over time.
Until about 1970 Lake Wallenpaupack afforded a diverse and apparently well-
balanced fishery. Populations were reportedly large with a desirable size
distribution, and reproduction was supplemented through stocking. During
the 1970's increased phytoplankton levels, consisting largely of blue-
green species, were apparently caused by higher nitrient concentrations
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
in the lake. Also, the alewife became established in the early 1970's,
probably after repeated introduction by bait fishermen. It was not inten-
tionally stocked by any group with the authority to do so. The alewife
became abundant by 1975, and is presently the dominant planktivore and
forage fish in the lake. The filterfeeding habit of the alewife makes it
a superior competitor for zooplankton under conditions of low zooplankton
biomass or low visibility. Analyses conducted over the past few years
suggest that these conditions do indeed exist in Lake Wallenpaupack. There-
fore, it appears that the alewife population has increased at the expense
of other planktivores. This would include adult planktivores, such as
sunfish, and the young of the year of most gamefishes (notably walleye and
perch). While total elimination of the visually feeding planktivores by
alewife competition is not likely, reduced recruitment to the piscivore
populations is undoubtedly, occurring, causing the age distribution of the
piscivore populations to be skewed toward older, larger fish. While no
obvious decline in gamefish abundance has been noted, such a decline will
eventually occur. The decline in actual catches appears related to the over-
abundance of food for piscivores and the inability of the piscivore popu-
lations to expand in response to the increased food base. As a result,
there has been a slight decline in the quality and popularity of the
Lake Wallenpaupack fishery.
Environmental stresses on the gamefish of Lake Wallenpaupack might provide
an alternative explanation for the lack of a population surge in response
to increased alewife abundance. The anoxic condition of the lake's hypo-
limnion during the summer is certainly not a benefit to any fish species,
and in conjunction with the high summer temperatures in the epilimnion could
adversely affect salmonids. However, most Wallenpaupack fish species spawn
before or after the anoxic hypolimnion period, or out of the lake entirely,
moving into tributary streams to spawn. Damage to certain tributary
streams as a result of inadequate erosion control has been reported, and
has apparently reduced successful salmonid spawning. Great success by
spawning walleye has been noted, however, and no significant fishkills have
been reported for the lake. Therefore, it does not appear that the present
situation can be explained strictly in terras of abiotic environmental variables.
The large alewife population does appear to be the major disruptive force in
the Lake Wallenpaupack fishery.
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Based on the limited information available, the following standing crop
hierarchy can be tentatively established for Lake Wallenpaupack fish species,
in decreasing order:
Alewife > Walleye, Perch > Bass, Sunfish > Other Species
Management Response
It is generally considered desirable to have a self-regulating fish community.
In most cases this takes the form of a set of piscivore populations preying
primarily on the young of that same set of species. Environmental and food
resource constraints will set an upper limit for young of the year sur-
vival, with that limit reduced by predation. If predation is too great,
recruitment to the piscivore population declines, reducing predation pres-
sure the next year. Too little predation will result in greater recruitment
to the adult piscivore populations and greater predation pressure in the
following year. Fishing pressure- on the adult piscivores becomes the
major disruptive force, and regulations are generally promulgated so as to
minimize the effects of fishing mortality.
The occurrence of a large alewife population in addition to increased phyto-
plankton concentrations in Lake Wallenpaupack has upset whatever balance
previously existed, providing increased food supplies for adult piscivores
but preventing concurrent population expansion through competition with
the young of the piscivore species. The logical solution is to artifically
increase the number of piscivores in the system, either by adding adults
or piscivorous juveniles of an existing species (walleye would be the
logical choice) or by introducing a new piscivore species.
The Pennsylvania Fish Commission has chosen the latter route, and is cur-
rently stocking Lake Wallenpaupack with striped bass (Morone saxatilis).
The rationale behind this selection is based on the ravenous appetite of
striped bass, their popularity among fishermen, and their inability to repro-
duce in freshwater lake systems such as Lake Wallenpaupack. Two critical
assumptions are involved here. The first is that the striped bass will
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F X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
make the alewife its primary prey, and the second is that overstocking will
not occur. Assuming the above to be true, the stocking of striped bass
should result in a decrease in the alewife population, an increase in
survival of young of the year gamefish, and an increase in recruitment to
piscivore populations.
After two years of striped bass stocking, it remains to be seen if the above
sequence will take place. This is a relatively short period, but it must
be remembered that assumptions have been made that are not necessarily
true. If the above sequence does occur, at some point the striped bass and
other piscivore populations will come into direct competition for a limited
food base, which should include a significant fraction of young of the year
gamefish, exclusive of striped bass, which are being stocked as yearlings.
At that point a decision will have to be made regarding future stocking of
striped bass. Some reduction in stocking or an increase in catches by
fishermen will be necessary if other gamefish populations are to be
maintained. The potential popularity of striped bass may outweigh at
least some reduction in other piscivore populations. Public discussion of
preferences and alternatives should be encouraged.
The problems in the lake are magnified by the depletion of dissolved oxygen
during the summer. Severe temperature and dissolved oxygen conditions
stress both the survival and growth rates of salmonids. Hence, these
species are forced to live within a limited zone, outside of which they
do not compete well.
Another problem involves the monitoring of fish populations over time.
The Pennsylvania Fish Commission is expected to continue their work with
the lake until at least 1985, but no provisions have been made for time
thereafter. Successful management of the fishery will require an ongoing
monitoring program. Also, present Fish Commission monitoring efforts do
not include all species of interest or all trophic levels. Additional
monitoring is warranted. Records of fishing clubs and voluntary angler
reports should be solicited in an organized fashion, and some assessment
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of zooplankton populations should be made. Additional parameters of
interest include the diet of striped bass in the lake, the survival of
young of the year fish, and recruitment to various piscivore populations.
Defining Fishery Priorities
Lake Wallenpaupack will have to be managed as a warm water fishery until
eutrophic conditions in the lake are significantly improved. At the present
time there is no official fishery policy in effect for Lake Wallenpaupack.
While a formalized policy is not essential, it will greatly minimize con-
fusion over management goals and provides a framework for evaluating
potential management actions. Discussions with representatives of parties
with an interest in the Lake Wallenpaupack fishery has suggested the
following unofficial priorities:
1. Many catchable fish - Everyone should be a successful
angler.
2. A fair proportion of large fish - There are many
trophy fishermen.
3. A high species richness - Diverse preferences among
fishermen exist.
The general order of preference should probably be:
1. Striped Bass, Walleye, Perch
2. Trout, Smallmouth and Largemouth Bass
3. Sunfish
4. Catfish, Carp, other species
The current management response is consistent with these priorities. Further
interaction between lake managers and the concerned public is desirable, with
a resultant open formulation of priorities and goals with respect to
fishing and other recreational uses of Lake Wallenpaupack.
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Table 29
Bacteriological Data for Lake Stations
4-27-
FS
-81
FC
5-27-
FS
-81
FC
5-16-
FS
-81
FC
7-14-
IS
-81
FC
8-25-
FS
-81
FC
9-23-
FS
-81
FC
Station
1
<2
<2
<2
<2
<1
<1
<1
<1
>1
>1
<1
<1
Station
2
<2
<2
<2
<2
<1
<1
3
1
>1
>1
5
<1
Station
3
<2
<2
<2
4
<1
<1
<1
<1
>1
>1
<1
<1
Station
4
<2
<2
<2
<2
<1
8
<1
<1
>1
>1
<1
<1
Station
5
4
22
<2
6
<1
2
4
2
17
>1
<1
1
Notes: FC = Fecal Coliform (///100 ml)
FS = Fecal Streptococcus (///100 ml)
6 A11 Sediment .Analyses
Three lake sediment samples were collected for analysis by the Lake
Wallenpaupack Watershed Association. The results of these analyses are
shown in Table 30. No criteria have been established for most of these
parameters in sediments. The values for lead and chromium appear to be
high. Most of the other parameters were present in concentrations below
the minimum detectable limit.
If performed again in the future, the same parameters should be measured
at each location so that comparisons can be made. In addition, the EP
Toxicity testing procedure should be used since criteria have been estab-
lished by the US EPA with respect to landfill requirements for dredged
spoils (see Federal Register; May 19, 1980).
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Table 30
Lake Sediments Data
Ariel Creek
Ledgedale White Beauty View Outlet
Total Phosphorus (mg/kg)
—
92.4
Mercury (mg/kg)
-
0.0035
-
Lead (mg/kg)
-
6.04
-
Cadmium (mg/kg)
<0.0001
0.134
-
Phenols (mg/kg)
<0.001
<0.001
-
Cyanide (rag/kg)
<0.01
-
-
Arsenic (mg/kg)
0.4
-
0.76
Chromium (mg/kg)
-
-
2.49
Lindane (ug/kg)
-
-
<0.7
Endrin (ug/kg)
-
-
<0.4
Toxaphene (ug/kg)
-
-
<8.0
Methoxychlor (ug/kg)
-
-
<3.0
2,4-D (ug/kg)
<0.7
-
-
2,4,5-TP Silvex (ug/kg)
<1.0
—
"
Note: Dash indicates that
the parameter was
not analyzed.
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6.5 Trophic State Determination
Eutrophication is a natural process whereby sediments and nutrients from
the watershed accumulate in the lake. Ultimately, all lakes evolve into
bogs and eventually become extinct. This process is often accelerated by
the activities of man in a given watershed. Contrary to the popular
opinion that a eutrophic lake is "dead", it is actually suffering from an
over abundance of living organisms (plant and animal). These organisms
are usually coniprised of relatively few species. An oligotrophic lake,
on the other hand, contains small populations of many diverse organisms.
The term "mesotrophy" refers to a condition in-between oligotrophy and
eutrophy.
The 1975 US EPA study concluded that Lake Wallenpaupack was progressing
from a mesotrophic to a eutrophic state. The data collected for this
Phase 1 Study during 1980 to 1981 indicate that the lake is eutrophic.
As shown in Table 31, nutrient concentrations were excessive, chlorophyll a
concentrations were high, and water transparency was low. Algal densities
often exceeded 10,000 cells/ml, and were dominated by blue-green algae.
Dissolved oxygen concentrations in the hypolimnion became severely depleted
by early summer.
Another commonly accepted method of determining the trophic status of a
lake is demonstrated in Figure 16. This classification approach, developed
by Vollenweider (1975), is based on the areal phosphorus loading to the
lake and the physical and hydrologic characteristics of the lake. Using the
normalized phosphorus load presented in Chapter 5.0, the areal phosphorus
loading to the lake is 0.783 gm/m^/yr. This loading places Lake Wallen-
paupack into the "eutrophic" zone. A phosphorus load reduction of about
30% would be required to bring the lake below the "Excessive loading"
line. It should be noted, however, that this line represents a general
guideline based on data from a number of lakes. The exact excessive
loading limit for Lake Wallenpaupack may be slightly higher or lower.
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Table 31
Comparison of Lake Wallenpaupack Data to
Eutrophic Classification Criteria
Eutrophic 1981 Mean
Parameter Criteria* Concentrations
Total Phosphorus (mg/1 as P) >0.020-0.030 0.029
(winter)
Chlorophyll a (ug/1) >6-10 9.2
(summer)
Secchi Depth (m) <1.5-2.0 1.65
(summer)
*US EPA, 1980
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b
»>
30
20
10
EUTROPHIC
ZONE
Excessive
Loading
/
/ /
y / Permissible
/ * Loading
/ / —
Wallenpaupack f /
OLIGOTROPHIC
ZONE
It II III
111 I I II I llll
i 11 i ii
0.01
1 10 100
Mean Oepth/Hydraul 1c Residence Time (m/yr)
1000
Figure 16. Vollenweider Phosphorus Loading Curves for
Trophic State Classification.
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In actuality, the classification of trophic state is a subjective deter-
mination based on the most important uses of a lake. The primary uses
of Lake Wallenpaupack (in addition to hydroelectric power generation) are
for recreation. A probability distribution for trophic classification is
shown in Figure 17, as developed by Vollenweider (1979). This distribution
indicates that based on the average annual chlorophyll a^ concentration for
1980 to 1981 (9.8 ug/1), lake observers would perceive water quality according
to the following breakdown:
3% - Oligotrophic
38% - Mesotrophic
52% - Eutrophic
7% - Hyper-Eutrophic
6.6 Potential Human Heal.™ Effects
In August 1979, a bloom of the blue-green alga, Anabaena, reportedly caused
numerous cases of algae-related infections that produced such symptoms as
allergic reactions and gastrointestinal disorders. This outbreak of water-
contact dermatitis and other symptoms led to the posting of warning signs
around the lake. However, the outbreak was not well documented. It should
be emphasized that no such outbreaks have been reported since 1979.
Certain genera of blue-green algae, particularly Anabaena, Aphanizomenon,
Microcystis, and Oscillatoria, have been shown to produce endotoxins which
are toxic to animals. Documented cases of algal toxicity have usually
involved livestock, waterfowl, or domestic animals. However, a review of
the literature (Kadis e£ aL.) indicates that there have been several recorded
cases of human health impacts caused by these species. Blue-green algal
effects, as they relate to humans, can be classified as gastrointestinal,
respiratory, and dermatological in nature. In the case of drinking water,
ordinanry water treatment procedures apparently have little effect on the
toxins.
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Hyper- Eu trophic
1.0
Ultra-Oligotrophlc
Eutrophic
Oligotrophlc Mesotrophlc
52%
0.5
38%
20 30 50
100
2 3 4 5
10
0.4
Chlorophyll ^concentration (ng/m )
After Vollenwelder (1979)
Figure 17. Probability Distribution for Trophic
Classification
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In order for an algal bloom to be poisonous to humans, It must be predominatly
composed of a known toxic species, possessing 80 to 90% toxic algal strains
(Gorham, 1977). The conditions under which these toxic strains form are
impossible to predict. Should another outbreak be suspected, area physicians
should be alerted and requested to maintain detailed records. Also, the
LWWMD should initiate a short-term extensive sampling survey in the lake
in order to detect the cause of the problem.
Another possible source of human health problems is pathenogenic bacteria.
Fecal bacteria tests are used to indicate whether possible human contami-
nation of a given lake or stream has occurred. High bacterial counts are
often associated with blue-green algal blooms. However, no significant
fecal bacterial concentrations were detected at the regular lake stations.
Bacteriological samples for beaches and coves are collected by local munici-
palities or private organizations and are reported to PaDER officials.
Although much data has been collected over the years for Lake Wallenpaupack,
monitoring strategies have been somewhat inconsistent with respect to
sampling stations, types of parameters, number of dates, and laboratory
methods. This has been particularly true for those parameters which
measure lake response, such as phytoplankton counts, chlorophyll a concen-
tration, and turbidity. For example, the identification and counting of
phytoplankton has not been performed since 1973 when samples were analyzed
on one date by the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, and on
three dates by the US EPA.
Chlorophyll a data were collected by PP&L during the period from June through
October in 1978 and 1979 at the same.five stations as for this study. The
mean for that data is compared below to the mean for the same period in 1981:
6.7 Water Quality Trends
Mean Chlorphyll a
(surface)
Summer, 1978
Summer, 1979
Summer, 1981
7.5 ug/1
9.0
9.6
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Water transparency data has been collected by several observers over the
last decade. Mr. Aurel Petrasek (an LWWMD Director) took a Secchi depth
reading at the same point in the lake every June between the years of
1973 and 1979. PP&L took Secchi disk measurements at numerous stations in
the years 1975, 1976, 1978, and 1979. The mean values for these data are
compared to the FXB mean data for 1980 and 1981 in Figure 18. There has
been a significant decrease in water transparency since 1973.
Dissolved oxygen data collected by PP&L each year between 1975 and 1979,
show that hypolimnetic oxygen depletion has also become more severe in
recent years. Whereas only one or two meters of the lake bottom were
devoid of oxygen in the mid-summers of 1975 and 1976, zero dissolved oxygen
concentrations were measured for five to six meters above the bottom in
1977, 1978, and 1979.
6.8 Possible Effects of Lake Operations
The manner in which water is withdrawn from the lake by PP&L may also have
an impact on water quality. It has been PP&L policy in the past to wait
until mid-winter to withdraw large quantities of water from the lake in order
to accomodate spring inflows. In 1980 and 1981, however, the lake was lowered
substantially in September in order to perform repairs on the dam. Due to
the high concentrations of nutrients and suspended solids in the hypolimnion
before fall turnover (See Figures 10 and 12), the latter practice may
actually benefit water quality in the lake since the outlet is located at
the bottom of the dam. The greatest quantities of phosphorus discharged
during the monitoring period occurred in September of both years.
Hence, discharging large quantities of water from the lake before and during
fall turnover may actually cause reduced phosphorus concentrations during
the following summer. This practice has also reportedly reduced the amount
of rooted plants around the lake shore. This situation is being studied
further in order to make specific recommendations to PP&L regarding their
lake operation policy. Another alternative which is being investigated is
f
the possibility of increasing the discharge around the time of spring turnover.
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
5.0^1
—-o-.
¦Petrasek Data (mid-June)
PP&L Data (summer mean)
¦FXB Data (summer mean)
CO
M
a)
¦u
at
s
x:
4J
O,
a)
P
4.0_
3.0-
2.0-
jr
o
u
a>
in
1.0-
~T~
'75
~T~
•78
'73
~r
1 74
'76
'77
Year
'79
»80
'81
Figure .'18.. Historical Secchi Depth Measurements
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6.9 Lake Modeling
The US OECD (Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) relation-
ship for chlorophyll a versus phosphorus load (Rast and Lee, 1978) is pre-
sented in Figure 19. This empirical relationship was developed from phos-
phorus load and chlorophyll a_ data for 38 US lakes. The relationship can
be used to predict the change in chlorophyll which should result from a
decrease in the phosphorus load to a lake. The terms used in the relation-
ship are defined below:
L(P) => Surface areal total phosphorus loading rate
(mg P/m2/yr).
qs = Hydraulic loading rate (m/yr) = z/t^j.
z = Mean depth (m) = water body volume (m^)/surface
area (m ).
= Hydraulic residence time (yr) = water body volume
(m^)/annual inflow volume (m"Vyr).
The mean chlorophyll ji concentration for Lake Wallenpaupack during the
monitoring period (9.8 ug/1) was higher than would.be predicted by the
US OECD line of best fit. Therefore, a line parallel to the US OECD line
was used in order to determine the relative changes in chlorophyll a which
can be expected for assumed changes in phosphorus load. Using this line,
it was determined that a 30% reduction in the normalized annual load (as
discussed in Section 6.5) would result in a 24% reduction in the mean
epilimnetic chlorophyll a concentration. The actual predicted concentrations
are shown below:
Chlorophyll a
Normalized Annual Load 10.9 ug/1
30% Load Reduction 8.3 ug/1
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100
US OECD Line of
Best Fit
10 -
9 1980 to 1981 Load
A Normalized Annual Load
® 30% Load Reduction
¦ ¦ ' ¦ '
' ¦ ¦ ¦
10
100
[L(P)/qs]/ [1 +/TJ
1000
Figure 19. US OECD Relationship for Mean Epilimnetic
Chlorophyll a^ versus Phosphorus Loading Term
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According to the probability distribution presented in Figure 17, a
chlorophyll a_ concentration of 8.3 ug/1 represents water quality which
equal percentages of lake observers would classify as mesotrophic or
eutrophic.
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7,0 Watershed Management Plan
7.1 Introduction
Management practices available to reduce the effects of nutrients and
sediments entering Lake Wallenpaupack include in-lake treatment and
management practices and point and nonpoint source control practices.
A successful watershed management plan must incorporate all of the above
controls. If the eutrophication process within the lake is not abated,
the recreational uses of the lake could be jeopardized.
7.2 In-Lake Treatment and Management
Available lake treatment and management techniques include algal control,
nutrient control, dredging, lake aeration, dilution-flushing, lake level
drawdown, and biological controls.
Algal Control
Algae in the lake can be controlled by the addition of chemicals or by
algal harvesting. The primary purpose of these controls is to reduce
the number of algae in the lake.
Algal harvesting consists of the removal of algae by physical techniques.
Although shown to be successful on small lakes and impoundments, algal
harvesting is impractical for large impoundments such as Lake Wallenpaupack.
Chemical control of algae by the addition of algicides is the most common
lake management technique. Available algicides include copper sulfate,
potassium permanganate, triazine derivatives, organic mercurial compounds,
resin amines, and mixtures of copper sulfate, silver nitrate and ammonia.
Of these, the most promising algicides are copper sulfate, potassium per-
manganate, and Cutrine-Plus (a brand name compound containing copper
aklanolamine). When used properly, these algicides can be added to a lake
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without causing health problems or detrimental effects to aquatic organisms.
Commercial literature indicates that Cutrine-Plus applied at a rate of one
gallon per acre of lake is effective in reducing planktonic, benthic and
filamentous algae. The application of Cutrine-Plus, however, is signifi-
cantly more costly than copper sulfate or potassium permanganate.
Copper sulfate is the most commonly used general algicide. The solubility
of copper sulfate and subsequently its effectiveness is influenced by pH,
alkalinity and temperature. Copper sulfate is most effective in soft,
mildly acidic waters such as Lake Wallenpaupack. If added in excessive
amounts, copper sulfate can be toxic to fish and other aquatic life. It
can also accumulate in the lake sediments. One of the problems with the
use of copper sulfate is its specificity for only certain algae (McKnight,
1981). It is successful in causing a change in the dominant species of
algae in a body of water. There are times when the algae replacing the
original problem species cause problems of their own, and these latter algae
are not controlled by usual treatments of copper sulfate (Fitzgerald and
Faust, 1963; Fitzgerald, 1966, 1971; Funk and Gaufin, 1965; Allen, 1966).
Potassium permanganate is a general algicide that is rapidly gaining in
popularity since it is toxic to more algal species than copper. In addition,
since potassium permanganate is an oxidant, it not only inactivates algae,
but it also raises the dissolved oxygen level of the water. Potassium
permanganate, like copper sulfate, can be potentially harmful to fish and
other aquatic organisms.
Algal control in the lake can be maintained by adding either copper sulfate
or potassium permanganate to the lake during the algal growth periods. The
selected algicide should be added periodically during the warm weather months
to control the algae population prior to the formation of algal blooms.
Algicides should only be used to control severe algal blooms, and they should
only be applied to select areas of the lake where the blooms occur and cause
the most severe problem for lake users.
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Nutrient Control
The magnitude of the algal problems in Lake Wallenpaupack could be signif-
icantly reduced through control of nutrients. The best method is to limit
the nutrients entering the lake by controlling them at their source with
watershed management practices such as land use controls, septic system
maintenance, and erosion control. In-lake nutrient controls, however, are
also effective but are usually not cost-effective for large lakes. In-
lake nutrient control practices include nutrient inactivation, sediment
sealing, and physical-chemical treatment.
1. Nutrient Inactivation
Nutrient inactivation usually consists of adding alum (aluminum sulfate) to
the lake surface to chemically precipitate phosphorus. Removal of the phos-
phorus from the water column usually increases the water transparency by
removing particulate phosphorus, organic material and algae. Precipitation
of phosphorus also removes the nutrient most needed for algal growth,
resulting in a temporary reduction in the algae population. If sufficient
alum is added, the chemical floe can cover the bottom sediments, reducing
the release and recycling of sediment nutrients to the water column.
Chemical precipitation of phosphorus has several significant disadvantages:
(1) it is considerably more costly than algicide application (even though
it is applied in a similar manner using a chemical-dispensing system and a
boat), (2) the beneficial results are temporary and depend on the rate at
which phosphorus enters the lake, (3) several applications may be needed
during one growing season if sufficient phosphorus enters the lake during
the warm weather months, and (4) the beneficial results of chemical precip-
itation are inconclusive; conflicting results have been reported in the
scientific literature. Based on these disadvantages, chemical precipitation
of nutrients is not a viable management technique for Lake Wallenpaupack.
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2. Sediment Sealing
Sediment sealing consists of sealing the lake sediments with various materials
such as plastic sheets, sand, clay or fly ash. The purpose of sediment
sealing is to prevent the release of nutrients from the sediment to the
lake water. Sediment sealing has the following disadvantages: (1) it is
costly, (2) the beneficial results are inconclusive, and (3) it may adversely
affect bottom organisms and fish spawning. Sediment sealing is not a viable
management technique.
3. Physical-Chemical Treatment
A relatively novel approach to nutrient control is to install a physical-
chemical treatment plant at the inlet to the lake and to chemically remove
phosphorus from the water entering the lake. This approach was used to
treat the water entering the Wahnbach Reservoir, a highly eutrophic reservoir
in West Germany (Bernhardt and Schell, 1982). An energy-input controlled
direct filtration system with phosphorus precipitation was used. The
Wahnbach plant, in operation since 1977, has reduced the average total
phosphorus concentration to below 0.01 mg/1; increased the transparency from
an average of 3 meters to one of 6 meters; significantly reduced the algae
population (reduction of 99% in the chlorophyll concentration during algal
development periods); and changed the algal composition (small blue-green
algae disappeared). The reservoir is now described as oligotrophic to
mesotrophic rather than eutrophic.
This approach, combined with watershed management practices, may be a viable
management technique for Lake Wallenpaupack. Further study of the technical
and financial aspects of a physical-chemical treatment system is needed.
Dredging
Dredging can be used to remove the nutrients in the bottom sediments,
increase the lake depth, and reduce the rooted aquatic plants in the lake.
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Dredging has the following disadvantages: (1) it is extremely costly,
(2) the bottom biological community is destroyed, (3)dredging operations
increase the turbidity in the lake, and (4) nutrients and organic matter
can be released into the lake water.
Dredging of the entire lake is not feasible; dredging of select areas in
the lake, such as small inlets, coves or marinas, however, is a viable
management technique.
Lake Aeration
Lake aeration consists of adding air to the lake water during critical
warm weather conditions. The air is usually added to the lake area near
the dam. Lake aeration has the following advantages: (1) the dissolved
oxygen level is increased, and (2) anaerobic conditions near the lake bottom
are eliminated or reduced, resulting in a reduction in the release of
nutrients from the sediments. Allegedly, lake aeration also reduces the
algal biomass and produces a shift in algal dominance from blue-green
algae to green algae. These changes, however, have not been substantiated.
A recent study of the Rivanna Reservoir in Virginia indicated that aeration
had no observable effects on water quality, algal population or algal diversity
(F. X. Browne Associates, Inc., 1982). The aeration system increased the
dissolved oxygen level of the bottom waters during periods of severe oxygen
depletion, but did not improve water quality. Lake aeration, therefore, is
not a viable management technique.
Dilution-Flushing
Dilution-flushing is a lake management technique that consists of reducing
the amount of algae or nutrients in a lake by introducing large volumes
of low nutrient water into a lake. Since there is no low nutrient water
supply available in the Lake Wallenpaupack area, dilution-flushing is not
a viable management technique.
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Lake Level Drawdown
Lake level drawdown is a multipurpose lake management technique that has
been used to attempt control of nuisance aquatic weeds, to manage fish, to
consolidate flocculent sediments, and to remove algae and nutrients from the
lake. Negative aspects of lake level drawdown can include the occurrence of
algal blooms caused by mineralization of nutrients in organic-rich sediments;
the occurrence of fish kills, especially during a summer drawdown; and the
destruction of food animals used by fish.
Lake level drawdown is performed every year by PP&L. The timing and magni-
tude of this drawdown may significantly affect water quality in Lake Wallen-
paupack. In theory, if the timing of lake drawdown was properly selected
based on the thermal and nutrient characteristics of the lake, significant
amounts of algae and nutrients would be removed from the lake, enhancing
water quality. Further study is needed to evaluate the potential impact of
lake level drawdown on Lake Wallenpaupack.
Biological Controls
Biological controls of nuisance plants and algae are still in the experi-
mental stage. Most scientists view biological controls with caution since
the introduction of a different organism to a water body may cause more
problems than it solves.
Two promising biological controls are: (1) the introduction of herbivorous
fish which eat algae and certain rooted plants; and (2) the use of biomanip-
ulation, the alteration of the food web to favor that portion of the animal
community that grazes on algae. Although these are promising techniques,
they are still in the experimental stage and are not viable management
techniques for Lake Wallenpaupack at this time.
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7.3 Point Source Controls
The current effluent requirements for phosphorus removal should be main-
tained for all wastewater dischargers in the watershed. This is particu-
larly necessary due to the proportion of biologically available phosphorus
which is discharged from wastewater treatment facilities compared to non-
point pollutant sources. The laboratories performing analyses for each of
the treatment facilities should be tested for quality assurance at least
once per year. These laboratories should be required to maintain a formal
documented quality assurance program that includes the periodical analysis
of standard solutions, spiked samples, duplicates and known samples. The
laboratories should be allowed to use only those analytical methods and
equipment approved by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the
Pennsyvlania Department of Environmental Resources (DER).
7.4 Development Control
Development of an area increases the quantity of runoff by removing protective
vegetative cover, disturbing the earth , modifying natural drainage contours,
and increasing the impervious ground area. Runoff from developing and de-
veloped areas contains significant amounts of sediments and nutrients which
are detrimental to Lake Wallenpaupack. The basic concept in the control of runo
from development is that the runoff characteristics after development should
be the same or similar as those existing before development. Water falling
on a given site should, under ideal conditions, be absorbed or retained on-
site to the extent that after development the quantity, rate and quality of
water leaving the site would not be significantly different than if the site
had remained undeveloped. A major new emphasis should be placed on the
application of natural engineering techniques to preserve the natural features
of a site and maximize economical-environmental benefit. Emphasis should be
placed on onsite detention storage and the use of land treatment systems for
handling and disposal of stormwater. There is a need to recognize that
temporary ponding on an individual lot is a potential solution rather than a
problem in many situations.
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Control of runoff from development can best be accomplished by enactment
of a comprehensive runoff control ordinance based on environmental per-
formance standards.
Environmental Performance Standards
Traditionally, specification standards have been used to control land use.
Specification standards determine the desired pattern of land use activities
by specifying locations and development standards through zoning, subdivision
controls, building codes, and other devices. Specification standards, by
indicating what one can or cannot do, restrict innovation and are aimed at
controlling man-made features rather than at protecting the environment.
Environmental performance standards, unlike specification standards, set
specific goals to be obtained. The stipulation that post-development runoff
characteristics be the same or similar to pre-development characteristics,
for instance, is an environmental performance standard. A performance
standard eliminates the need for the enforcing agency to know about and test
all available runoff control processes. Instead, the developer must prove
that the proposed control processes will perform as required. Performance
standards, in effect, are concerned with results and not with the type of
process used.
Runoff Control Ordinance
It is beyond the scope of this study to develop a site-specific runoff
control ordinance. Such an ordinance would require intensive evaluation of
existing and proposed land uses in the watershed. However, this section
describes various components that should be incorporated into a runoff con-
trol ordinance.
An effective runoff control ordinance should include the following com-
ponents :
1. Environmental performance standards
2. Submittal of a runoff control plan
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3. Permit requirements
4. Control of construction on steep slopes
5. Provisions for field inspection and review of control
facilities
The environmental performance standards should, in general, stipulate that
post-development runoff characteristics should be the same or similar to
pre-development characteristics.
A runoff control plan should be required for all land use activities
except the following:
1. Farming and forestry
2. Existing developed lots
3. Wells and sewage disposal systems
4. Small developments (e.g., less than one-half acre, less than
500 square feet of impervious coverage, less than 100 cubic
yards of earthmoving)
The runoff control plan should include the following:
1. Topographic features of project area
2. Soil and slope characteristics
3. Proposed development or alteration of the area
4. Projected runoff quantity and characteristics
5. Staging of earthmoving and construction activities
6. Temporary control measures and facilities for use during
earthmoving and construction activities
7. Permanent control measures and facilities for long-term
protection
8. Maintenance program for the control facilities.
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The runoff control plan should be thoroughly reviewed and evaluated prior
to the issuance of a construction permit. If various proposed control
processes are questionable, the applicant should be required to submit
additional information. Development should not be permitted on slopes
greater than 25%. For slopes between 15 to 25%, strict runoff control
measures should be required.
An alternative to adopting a separate runoff control ordinance would be
to integrate runoff control requirements into existing subdivision regu-
lations .
i
Existing Development
For existing developments with known stormwater runoff problems, there are
a number of Best Management Practices (BMPs) that can be installed to
reduce the quantities of water and pollutants entering nearby tributaries.
These BMPs include:
- sedimentation ponds
- detention basins
- infiltration pits and trenches
- french drains
- level spreaders
- grass swales
- terraces
- porous pavement
Under current legal conditions, these BMPs would have to be installed
either voluntarily by the homeowners or at the expense of the township.
Besides the above onsite BMPs, another possible management practice is the
construction of regional sedimentation ponds. Sedimentation ponds are
effective in removing large percentages of particulate matter, including
nutrients, from the tributaries before they reach the lake. Regional sedi-
mentation ponds can be used in subbasins containing all types of land use,
including development and agriculture.
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7.5 Agricultural Controls
Produce farms and dairy farms generally contribute significant quantities
of nutrients, suspended solids, and bacteria to nearby streams. Crop pro-
duction can generate nonpoint source pollution by the following activities:
1. Disturbance of the soil by tillage operations or
the compaction of the soil with large equipment.
2. Disturbance of natural vegetation and the substituting
of crop plants in its place, and leaving the soil bare
during periods of the year.
3. Addition of commercial fertilizers or animal wastes as
fertilizers.
4. Application of pesticides.
5. Application of surface or groundwaters as irrigation
water.
Livestock activities can generate nonpoint source pollution in the fol-
lowing ways:
1. Concentration of animals and their wastes in holding
areas for extended periods of time and improper
methods of waste disposal.
2. Overgrazing that results in inadequate vegetation
protection for the soil.
3. Concentration of animals along streambanks in such
numbers that streambank erosion occurs along with
direct deposition of manure into the streams.
According to Title 25, Chapter 102 of the Pennsylvania Administrative Code,
all earthmoving activities, including plowing and tilling, must be conducted
in such a way as to prevent accelerated erosion and the resulting sedimentation.
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The methods proposed to control accelerated erosion must be developed by an
experienced person and set forth in a conservation plan. The plan must be
available from the landowner or his lessee at all times. However, no earth
disturbance permit is required for agricultural activities, regardless of
the size of the disturbed area.
In an effort to preserve the soil and water resources of the Commonwealth,
conservation districts have been established in every county. The main
purpose of these districts is to assist farmers and other individuals in
preventing soil erosion. This goal benefits both the farmer and downstream
users of the effected tributary. Each conservation district formulates and
carries out its own conservation program. Individual landowners may receive
assistance in preparing their farm conservation plans by becoming conservation
district cooperators. The conservation district requests a representative of
the US Soil Conservation Service (SCS) to provide technical assistance in
preparing a conservation plan to meet the needs of the landowner and the
standards of the SCS. The plan covers all agricultural land activities
and is approved by the conservation district. This assistance is provided
at no direct cost to the landowner but is subject to priority assignments
by the conservation district.
Based on the results of the watershed monitoring program, it is necessary
to intensify control efforts directed toward the reduction of agricultural
pollutant loadings. Specific recommendations for the conservation districts
in both counties include:
- districts should actively pursue the enlistment of
more cooperators
- districts should call for the inspection of conser-
vation plans for non-cooperators
- districts should pursue federal and state funding for
the implementation of agricultural BMP projects in
the watershed
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The objective of the first two recommendations is somewhat obvious. A
district conservation program cannot be successful if only a small per-
centage of the farmers cooperate. The third recommendation realizes that
some farm management practices are beyond the economic means of many
farmers. Therefore the conservation districts and the LWWMD need to investi-
gate possible sources of funding to assist the farmers. More information
will be presented on this topic in a later section.
A number of BMPs, both structural and non-structural, have been developed
and tested for the control of runoff and pollutants from agricultural
sources. These include BMPs for both cropping practices and livestock
practices, as listed below:
Cropping Practices
- crop rotation
- cover cropping
- contour farming
- strip cropping
- crop residue management
- minimum tillage
- cropland terraces
- fertilizer and pesticide management
Livestock Practices
- pasture management
- barnyard diversions
- manure storage pits
- streamside fencing
- controlled feed and water access points
Both Practices
- grassed waterways
- buffer strips
- sedimentation ponds
- drainage channels
- streambank protection
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A number of handbooks describing specific agricultural BMPs are available
from the SCS and PaDER.
7.6 Earthmoving Activities Controls
As discussed previously, Pennsylvania law requires that every earthmoving
activity (regardless of size) within the state develop, implement, and main-
tain a plan for the control of erosion resulting from the activity. According
to the regulations, the following factors must be considered in the plan:
- the topographic features of the project area
- the types, depth, slope, and areal extent of the
soils
- the proposed alteration to the area
- the amount of runoff from the project area and the
upland watershed area
- the staging of earthmoving activities
- temporary control measures and facilities for use
during earthmoving
- permanent control measures for long-term protection
- a maintenance program for the control facilities in-
cluding disposal of materials from the control
facilities or project area
In general, every earthmover is required to obtain a permit except:
1) those activities involving plowing or tilling for
agricultural activities,
2) those activities affecting less than 25 acres,
3) those activities affecting more than 25 acres, but
which are subdivided into parcels of less than 25
acres that are non-contiguous and where each parcel
is stabilized before the next parcel is disturbed,
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4) those activities which have acquired a permit under
the Water Obstruction Act, the Surface Mining and
Reclamation Act, the Clean Streams Law, or Chapters
91-101 of the PaDER's Rules and Regulations.
Due to the high nutrient and sediment loadings which can be discharged from
construction sites, the 25 acre exclusion criteria is too liberal and should
be reduced. Many of the construction activities which were recently under-
taken in the watershed involved less than 25 acres. These activities can
still have a significant impact on water quality in the streams and in the
lake. A more suitable range for the maximum area exclusion criteria might
be between five and ten acres. This revision can be accomplished by
petitioning the PaDER.
Depending on the county, earthmoving permit applications are reviewed and
enforced to varying degrees of involvement by conservation district and/or
PaDER personnel as outlined below:
Level 1 - Public Education
Level 2 - Permit Plan Review
Level 3 - Complaint Handling (office procedure)
Level 4 - Problem Assessment (field procedure)
Level 5 - Compliance (voluntary and induced)
Level 6 - Legal Enforcement
The Pike County Conservation District has recently advanced to Level 5;
whereas the Wayne County Conservation District is currently at Level 3.
Due the generally accepted premise that more effective administration
can be achieved at the local level, as opposed to the state level, it is
recommended that the Wayne County Conservation District take the appro-
priate steps to progress to Level 5. The conservation district would
therefore be responsible for the field assessment and compliance tasks.
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An even more effective approach for the control of erosion from construction
activities would be for the townships to adopt their own soil erosion and
sedimentation control ordinances. These ordinances could be as restrictive
or more restrictive than the state regulations.
7,7 Septic System Waste Controls .
Another nonpoint source which needs to be controlled is septic system wastes.
Due to poor soil and geological conditions, many portions of the watershed
are unsuitable or only moderately suitable for septic system disposal. While
current Pennsylvania regulations are helping to avoid the future installation
of improper systems, a number of existing septic systems in the watershed
are contributing large quantities of nutrients to the lake. Where possible,
these systems should be upgraded to meet current standards. In addition,
all townships should implement ordinances requiring the routine maintenance
and pumping of septic tanks in order to improve their operation and prevent
clogging of the drainage fields.
The COWAMP Study (PaDER, 1981) recommended that local municipalities
consider the formation of septic system management districts for areas
where septic system pollution is an acknowledged problem. The appropriate
mechansims for dealing with this problem in the Lake Wallenpaupack water-
shed already exist between the townships and the LWWMD. However, if the
programs recommended in this report are not successful at controlling the
problem it may be desirable to investigate the formation of a formal septic
system district at a future date.
Because of the number of suspected septic system problem areas within the
watershed, the LWWMD should investigate potential funding sources for the
performance of a facilities planning study. Such a study would include the
following elements:
- identify wastewater treatment problem areas,
- evaluate possible solutions such as sewers, aerated
septic systems, community systems, and holding tanks
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- further assess the impact of septic system effluent
on the lake, and
- evaluate septage sludge disposal alternatives
Such a study for the Lake Wallenpaupack area has been given a high priority
by the PaDER in their 1982 statewide inventory of municipal sewerage con-
struction needs (PA Bulletin, January 16, 1982). Recent changes in EPA
construction program regulations provide for 75% federal funding of the
actual construction cost. Local funds must be used for planning and
design of wastewater and sludge facilities, but, if the facilities are
constructed, EPA will reimburse a portion of the planning and design costs.
7.8 Individual Homeowner Practices
There are a number of practices which private residents of the watershed
can follow in order to supplement the above watershed management activities.
These include:
- the proper maintenance of septic tanks and drain fields,
including regular cleaning of the system
- the maintenance of a good vegetative cover in order to
avoid exposed soil areas
- the installation of terraces or retaining walls on
steep slopes
- the installation of splash blocks below gutters and
pipe outlets
- the washing of cars over grassy areas where phosphates
will be partially absorbed
- the protection of drainage channels using stone, tall
grass, or logs
- the planting of trees and shrubs to protect the ground
and to induce evapotranspiration
- the controlled use of lawn fertilizers with respect to
both time and quantity of application (clippings and
leaves should be mulched and left on the lawn)
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
- the limited use of pesticides and herbicides
- the maintenance of an uncleared buffer strip along
stream channels
- the diversion of runoff to grassy areas rather than
directly to drainage channels
- the proper disposal of animal wastes
- the avoidance of trash and litter disposal in stream
channels
- the voluntary use of low-phosphate detergents
7.9 Institutional Implementation
When planning for watershed management, it is important to emphasize local
solutions. Many of the state and local institutions necessary for the
management of activities in the Lake Wallenpaupack watershed already exist.
For some of these institutions, a certain amount of strengthening or
re-focusing is necessary in order to address the objective of improving
water quality in the lake. The following sections discuss the recommended
roles and responsibilities of each municipality or agency concerned. In
order for watershed management to be effective it is important that all
of the municipalities involved (Pike and Wayne Counties, and the 13 town-
ships) follow the recommendations in this plan.
1
Lake Wallenpaupack Watershed Management District
The LWWMD should assume primary responsibility for the implementation of
the watershed management plan. In order to accomplish this, the LWWMD
will have to expand its role according to the existing authorities
established in the Organization Plan (F. X. Browne Associates, Inc., 1979).
Also, certain additional authorities will have to be given to the LWWMD
by townships and/or county resolutions.
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Specific recommendations for future LWWMD activities include:
1. Continue field monitoring and laboratory analysis
activities.
2. Inspect wastewater treatment facilities, provide
operational assistance, review monthly monitoring
reports and quality control results.
3. Conduct field investigations of land use activities
such as construction, agriculture, and silviculture.
4. Provide technical assistance to township officials
including assistance in developing ordinances.
5. Implement the watershed management plan through
meetings with local officials.
6. Conduct workshops for sewage enforcement officers
and wastewater treatment operators.
7. Regulate septage haulers.
8. Perform a more detailed study on the affects of
septic systems on the lake, using the following
possible approaches:
- groundwater monitoring program
- Septic Snooper survey for lake
- aerial infra-red photography
- septic system survey and/or public questionnaire
9. Pursue funding for a facilities planning study to
evaluate wastewater treatment alternatives for portions
of the watershed; the study to include the following
elements:
- identification of septic system problem areas
- evaluation of community treatment alternatives
- evaluation of sludge disposal alternatives
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
10. Continue public education program through the use
of news releases, fact sheets, signs, civic presen-
tations, and meetings.
11. Channel complaints and formally follow up on actions
by enforcement officials including:
- sewage enforcement officers
- conservation district inspectors
- waterways patrolmen
- PaDER representatives
- PP&L lake superintendent
12. Investigate funding sources for the implementation
of agricultural and roadway BMPs in the watershed.
The Pike County Planner would still be needed by the LWWMD for administrative
and planning tasks.
Wayne and Pike Counties
Both Wayne and Pike Counties should continue to provide technical and
financial support to the LWWMD. The Counties should also implement the
following specific recommendations:
1. Wayne and Pike Counties should jointly develop a stormwater
management plan for the Lake Wallenpaupack watershed
according to the requirements of the Pennsylvania Storm-
water Management Act (P.L. 864, No. 167). Although
this Act is directed mainly at controlling runoff
quantity, such a stormwater management plan will
inherently help to improve the quality of the waters
entering the lake.
2. Each County should enact an ordinance requiring all
septage haulers who operate within the watershed
boundaries to be permitted. This program could be
administered by the LWWMD if no appropriate depart-
ment exists at the county level.
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Townships
Like the counties, all townships within the watershed should continue to
actively support the objectives of the LWWMD. Specific recommendations
for the townships are listed below:
1. Townships should continue to influence the quality
of development in the watershed through the use of
existing subdivision ordinances. Each township should
adopt runoff control and erosion control ordinances
or integrate these ordinances into their existing sub-
division ordinance.
2. Townships should develop master plans and zoning
ordinances to channel growth toward suitable areas
which will not have an adverse impact on the lake.
3. Townships should pass septic system ordinances which
include the following elements:
- provide sewage enforcement officers with more
authority where needed
- require regular septic system maintenance including
cleaning at a rate of at least once every two to
four years.
- require upgrading of existing systems which are
determined to be a potential hazard to public or
environmental health
Many of these ordinances will probably be required after the development of
a stormwater management plan for the watershed according to Pennsylvania
Act No. 167.
Conservation Districts
The Wayne County and Pike County Conservation Districts must continue to
play a major role in preventing soil erosion from earthmoving and agri-
cultural activities in the watershed. The following specific recommendations
apply to the conservation districts:
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F. X BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
1. Both districts should attempt to increase the number
of agricultural cooperators. The farm plans of non-
cooperating landowners should be inspected for compliance
with the Clean Streams Law.
2. Wayne County should make an agreement with the PaDER
to advance to Level 5 in the soil erosion and sedi-
mentation control plan review and permitting process.
The PaDER does not have the resources to effectively
administer this program at the regional level.
Additional financial assistance is available from
the state for districts accepting Level 5 responsi-
bilities.
3. Both districts should petition the PaDER to have the
maximum acreage for exclusion from the earthmoving
permit requirement reduced for the Lake Wallenpaupack
watershed. The current statewide requirement allows
persons conducting earthmoving activities up to 25
acres (250 acres for forestry activities) to proceed
without obtaining a permit. This requirement should
be made more restrictive by reducing the limit to a
range of from five to ten acres (50 to 100 acres for
forestry). To offset this more restrictive require-
ment, it may be desirable to arrange the process such
that only applications for earthmoving activites of
more than 25 acres need to be sent to the PaDER for
permit approval. All other permit applications could
be reviewed and approved by the conservation district.
US Soil Conservation Service
In order to manage the additional administrative and technical workload
which ig expected to be generated by the recommendations stated in this
watershed management plan, the number of SCS staff members assigned to
Wayne and Pike Counties should be increased. Due to their common boundaries
and interests, the two counties should continue to be serviced from the
same SCS office.
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Pennsylvania Fish Commission
Waterways patrolmen should use the fullest extent of their enforcement
powers under the Clean Streams Law. They should also notify the LWWMD of
actual or suspected violators.
Pennsylvania Department of Transportation
If not already practiced, the following provisions should be included in
all private contracts:
- All contractors should adhere strictly to soil erosion
and sedimentation control plans.
- A cited violation of the Clean Streams Law should be
grounds for immediate termination of the contract.
PennDOT roadway maintenance procedures should be reviewed to evaluate their
impact on water quality.
7.10 Potential Assistance Sources
The implementation of watershed management practices can be expensive and
often requires funding assistance from state and federal programs. The
LWWMD should actively pursue funding assistance in cooperation with other
concerned agencies.
The EPA Clean Lakes Program (under which this Phase 1 Study was partially
funded) has been re-authorized for FY83 but funds have not been appropriated.
If funds are appropriated for the program, the LWWMD should submit a Phase 2
Grant Application to obtain partial funding for the implementation of Best
Management Practices (BMPs) throughout the watershed.
There are a number of assistance programs directed at financially helping
farmers to install BMPs. Several of these programs are listed below:
- Rural Clean Water Program
- Agricultural Conservation Program (ACP)
- Resource Conservation and Development Program (RC&D)
- Small Watershed Protection Program
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
These programs are administered by the US Agricultural Stabilization and
Conservation Service (ASCS). Loans for landowners to make watershed
improvements can be obtained from the Farmers Home Administration (FmHA).
Funding for a 201 Facilities Planning Study to evaluate wastewater and
sludge disposal needs in the watershed may be available through the EPA/
PaDER Construction Grants Program. Other possible funding sources for
the construction of wastewater treatment systems are:
- Rural Water and Waste Disposal Systems Program
(Farmers Home Administration).
- Economic Development Grants for Public Works and
Facilities (Economic Development Administration).
- Appalachian Region Development Grants (Appalachian
Regional Commission)'
According to the Stormwater Management Act, (Act 167), the PaDER is authorized
to provide grants up to 50% of the allowable costs of preparing stormwater
management plans. Although no funds were authorized for fiscal year 1982,
grants may become available in the future.
7.11 Monitoring Program Continuation
The LWWMD is currently conducting a continuation study which includes
monitoring of the lake and watershed. The study is aimed at identifying
specific problem areas in each of the subbasins relating to land use
activities, point source discharges and septic systems. The current moni-
toring program is scheduled to end by December 1982.
The LWWMD should continue the monitoring efforts for Lake Wallenpaupack and
its watershed on an annual basis. Water quality date for the lake are needed i
establish long-term water quality trends. Also, the lake data should be used
in an attempt to develop an early detection system with respect to the
potential occurrence of algae-related water quality problems. Eventually,
it might be possible to develop a water quality response model specifically
for Lake Wallenpaupack.
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F X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
The automatic stream stations shouId be maintained in continuous operation.
Watershed data should be used to refine the pollutant load budget and to
detect any improvements in water quality caused by the implementation of
watershed management practices.
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Appendix A
GLOSSARY
(Taken from EPA Clean Lakes Program Guidance Manual,
,EPA-440/5-81-003, 1980)
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Appendix A
GLOSSARY OF LAKE AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENT TERMS
Aeration: A process in which water is treated
with air or other gases, usually oxygen. In lake
restoration, aeration is used to prevent
anaerobic condition or to provide artificial
destratification.
Algal bloom: A high concentration of a specific
algal species in a water body, usually caused by
nutrient enrichment.
Algicide: A chemical highly toxic to algae.
Alkalinity: A quantitative measure of water's ca-
pacity to neutralize acids. Alkalinity results from
the presence of bicarbonates, carbonates,
hydroxides, salts, and occasionally of borates,
silicates, and phosphates. Numerically, it is ex-
pressed asNthe concentration of calcium carbon-
ate that has an equivalent capacity to neutralize
strong acids.
A/lochthonous: Describes organic matter pro-
duced outside of a specific stream or lake
system.
Alluvial: Pertaining to sediments gradually de-
posited by moving water.
Artificial destratification: The process of induc-
ing water currents in a lake to produce partial or
total vertical circulation.
Artificial recharge: The addition of water to the
groundwater reservoir by activities of man, such
as irrigation or induced infiltration.
Assimilation: The absorption and conversion of
nutritive elements into protoplasm.
Autochthon: Any organic matter indigenous to a
specific stream or lake.
Autotrophic: The ability to synthesize organic
matter from inorganic substances.
Background loading of concentration: The con-
centration of a chemical constituent arising from
natural sources.
Base flow: Stream discharge due to ground-
water flow.
Benthic oxygen demand: Oxygen demand exert-
ed from the bottom of a stream or lake, usually
by biochemical oxidation of organic material in
the sediments.
Benthos: Organisms living on or in the bottom
of a body of water.
Best management practices: Practices, either
structural or non-structural, which are used to
control nonpoint source pollution.
Bioassay: The use of living organisms to deter-
mine the biological effect of some substance,
factor, or condition.
Biochemical oxidation: The process by which
bacteria and other microorganisms break down
organic material and remove organic matter
from solution.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), biological
oxygen demand: The amount of oxygen used by
aerobic organisms to decompose organic mate-
rial. Provides an indirect measure of the concen-
tration of biologically degradable material
present in water or wastewater.
Biological control: A method of controlling pest
organisms by introduced or naturally occurring
predatory organisms, sterilization, inhibiting
hormones, or other nonmechanical or non-
chemical means.
Biological magnification, biomagnification: An
increase in concentration of a substance along
succeeding steps in a food chain.
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Biomass. The total mass of living organisms in a
particular volume or area.
Biota\ All living matter in a particular region.
Blue-green algae: The phylum Cyanophyta,
characterized by the presence of blue pigment in
addition to green chlorophyll.
Catch basin: A collection chamber usually built
at the curb line of a street, designed to admit sur-
face water to a sewer or subdrain and to retain
matter that would block the sewer.
Catchment: Surface drainage area.
Chemical control: A method of controlling pest
organisms through exposure to specific toxic
chemicals.
Chlorophyll: Green pigment in plants and algae
necessary for photosynthesis.
Circulation period: The interval of time in which
the thermal stratification of a lake is destroyed,
resulting in the mixing of the entire water body.
Coagulation: The aggregation of colloidal parti-
cles, often induced by chemicals such as lime or
alum.
Coliform bacteria: Nonpathogenic organisms
considered a good indicator of pathogenic bac-
terial pollution.
Colorimetry: The technique used to infer the
concentration of a dissolved substance in solu-
tion by comparison of its color intensity with that
of a solution of known concentration.
Combined sewer: A sewer receiving both
stormwater runoff and sewage.
Compensation point: The depth of water at
which oxygen production by photosynthesis and
respiration by plants and animals are at equilib-
rium due to light intensity.
Cover crop: A close-growing crop grown prima-
rily for the purpose of protecting and improving
soil between periods of permanent vegetation.
Crustacea: Aquatic animals with a rigid outer
covering, jointed appendages, and gills.
Culture: A growth of microorganisms in an artifi-
cial medium.
Denitrification: Reduction of nitrates to nitrites
or to elemental nitrogen by bacterial action.
Depression storage: Water retained in surface
depressions when precipitation intensity is
greater than infiltration capacity.
Design storm: A rainfall pattern of specified
amount, intensity, duration, and frequency that
is used as a basis >or design.
Detention: Managing stormwater runoff or sew-
er flows through temporary holding and con-
trolled release.
Detritus: Finely divided material of organic or in-
organic origin.
Diatoms Organisms belonging to the group
Bacillariopliyceae, characterized by the presence
of silica in its cell walls.
Dilution: A lake restorative measure aimed at re-
ducing nutrient levels within a water body by the
replacement of nutrient-rich waters with
nutrient-poor waters.
Discharge. A volume of fluid passing a point per
unit time, commonly expressed as cubic meters
per second.
Dissolved oxygen (DO): The quantity of oxygen
present in water in a dissolved state, usually ex-
pressed as milligrams per liter of water, or as a
percent of saturation at a specific temperature.
Dissolved solids IDS): The total amount of dis-
solved material, organic and inorganic,
contained in water or wastes.
Diversion: A channel or berm constructed across
or at the bottom of a slope for the purpose of in-
tercepting surface runoff.
Drainage basin, watershed, drainage area: A
geographical area where surface runoff from
streams and other natural watercourses is car-
ried by a single drainage system to a common
outlet.
Dry weather flow: The combination of sanitary
sewage and industrial and commercial wastes
normally found in the sanitary sewers during the
dry weather season of the year; or, flow in
streams during dry seasons.
Dystrophic lakes: Brown-water lakes with a low
lime content and a high humus content, often se-
verely lacking nutrients.
Enrichment: The addition to or accumulation of
plant nutrients in water.
Epilimnion: The upper, circulating layer of a
thermally stratified lake.
Erosion: The process by which the soils of the
earth's crust are worn away and carried from
one place to another by weathering, corrosion,
solution, and transportation.
Eutrophication: A natural enrichment process of
a lake, which may be accelerated by man's ac-
tivities. Usually manifested by one or more of
the following characteristics: (a) excessive
biomass accumulations of primary producers;
(b) rapid organic and/or inorganic sedimentation
and shallowing; or (c) seasonal and/or diurnal
dissolved oxygen deficiencies.
Fecal streptococcus: A group of bacteria normal-
ly present in large numbers in the intestinal
tracts of humans and other warm-blooded
animals.
First flush: The first, and generally most pollut-
ed, portion of runoff generated by rainfall.
Flocculation: The process by which suspended
132
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particles collide and combine into larger parti-
cles or floccules and settle out of solution.
Gabion. A rectangular or cylindrical wire mesh
cage (a chicken wire basket) filled with rock and
used to protect against erosion.
Gaging station: A selected section of a stream
channel equipped with a gage, recorder, and/or
other facilities for determining stream discharge.
Grassed waterway: A natural or constructed
waterway covered with erosion-resistant
grasses, used to conduct surface water from an
area at a reduced flow rate.
Green algae: Algae characterized by the pres-
ence of photosynthetic pigments similar in color
to those of the higher green plants.
Heavy metals: Metals of high specific gravity, in-
cluding cadmium, chromium, cobalt, copper,
lead, mercury. They are toxic to many organisms
even in low concentrations.
Hydrograph: A continuous graph showing the
properties of stream flow with respect to time.
Hydro/ogic cycle: The movement of water from
the oceans to the atmosphere and back to the
sea. Many subcycles exist including precipita-
tion, interception, runoff, infiltration, percola-
tion, storage, evaporation, and transpiration.
Hypolimnion: The lower, non-circulating layer of
a thermally stratified lake.
Intermittent stream: A stream or portion of a
stream that flows only when replenished by fre-
quent precipitation.
Irrigation return flow: Irrigation water which is
not consumed in evaporation or plant growth,
and which returns to a surface stream or
groundwater reservoir.
Leaching: Removal of the more soluble materi-
als from the soil by percolating waters.
Limiting nutrient: The substance that is limiting
to biological growth due to its short supply with
respect to other substances necessary for the
growth of an organism.
Littoral: The region along the shore of a body of
water:
Macrophytes: Large vascular, aquatic plants
which are either rooted or floating.
Mesotrophic lake: A trophic condition between
an oligotrophic and an eutrophic water body.
Metalimnion: The middle layer of a thermally
stratified lake in which temperature rapidly de-
creases with depth.
Most probable number (MPN): A statistical indi-
cation of the number of bacteria present in a giv-
en volume (usually 100 ml).
Nannoplankton: Those organisms suspended in
open water which because of their small size.
cannot be collected by nets (usually smaller than
approximately 25 micrdns).
Nitrification: The biochemical oxidation process
by which ammonia is changed first lo nitrates
and then to nitrites by bacterial action.
Nitrogen, available: Includes ammonium, nitrate
ions, ammonia, and certain simple amines read-
ily available for plant growth.
Nitrogen cycle: The sequence of biochemical
changes in which atmospheric nitrogen is
"fixed," then used by a living organism, liberat-
ed upon the death and decomposition of the or-
ganism, and reduced to its original state.
Nitrogen fixation: The biological process of re-
moving elemental nitrogen from the atmos-
phere and incorporating it into organic
compounds.
Nitrogen, organic: Nitrogen components of bio-
logical origin such as amino acids, proteins, and
peptides.
Nonpoint source: Nonpoint source pollutants
are not traceable to a discrete origin, but gener-
ally result from land runoff, precipitation, drain-
age, or seepage.
Nutrient, available: That portion of an element
or compound that can be readily absorbed and
assimilated by growing plants.
Nutrient budget-. An analysis of the nutrients en-
tering a lake, discharging from the lake, and ac-
cumulating in the lake (e.g., input minus output
= accumulation).
Nutrient inactivation: The process of rendering
nutrients inactive by one of three methods: (1)
Changing the form of a nutrient to make it un-
available to plants, (2) removing the nutrient
from the photic zone, or (3) preventing the re-
lease or recycling of potentially available nutri-
ents within a lake.
Oligotrophic lake: A lake with a small supply of
nutrients, and consequently a low level of prima-
ry production. Oligotrophic lakes are often char-
acterized by a high level of species
diversification.
Orthophosphate: See phosphorus, available.
Outfall: The point where wastewater or drainage
discharges from a sewer to a receiving body of
water.
Overturn, turnovers: The complete mixing of a
previously thermally stratified lake. This occurs
in the spring and fall when water temperatures
in the lake are uniform.
Oxygen deficit: The difference between ob-
served oxygen concentrations and the amount
that would be present at 100 percent saturation
at a specific temperature.
Peak discharge: The maximum instantaneous
flow from a given storm condition at a specific
location.
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Percolation test: A test used to determine the
rate of percolation or seepage of water through
natural soils. The percolation rate is expressed
as time in minutes for a 1-inch fall of water in a
test hold and is used to determine the accept-
ability of a site for treatment of domestic wastes
by a septic system.
Perennial stream : A stream that maintains water
in its channel throughout the year.
Periphyton: Microorganisms that are attached to
or growing on submerged surfaces in a
waterway.
Phosphorus, available: Phosphorus which is
readily available for plant growth. Usually in the
form of soluble orthophosphates.
Phosphorus, total (TP): All of the phosphorus
present in a sample regardless of form. Usually
measured by the persulfate digestion procedure.
Photic zone: The upper layer in a lake where suf-
ficient light is available for photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis: The process occurring in green
plants in which light energy is used to convert in-
organic compounds to carbohydrates. In this
process, carbon dioxide is consumed and oxy-
gen is released.
Phytoplankton: Plant microorganisms, such as
algae, living unattached in the water.
Plankton: Unattached aquatic microorganisms
which drift passively through water.
Point source: A discreet pollutant discharge
such as a pipe, ditch, channel, or concentrated
animal feeding operation.
Population equivalent: An expression of the
amount of a given waste load in terms of the size
of human population that would contribute the
same amount of biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD) per day. A common base is 0.17 pounds
(7.72 grams) of 5-day BOD per capita per day.
Primary production: The production of organic
matter from light energy and inorganic materi-
als, by autotrophic organisms.
Protozoa: Unicellular animals, including the cili-
ates and nonchlorophyllous flagellates.
Rainfall intensity: The rate at which rain falls,
usually expressed in centimeters per hour.
Rational method: A means of computing peak
storm drainage runoff (Q) by use of the formula
Q = CIA, where C is a coefficient describing the
physical drainage area, I is the average rainfall
intensity, and A is the size of the drainage area.
Raw water: A water supply which is available for
use but which has not yet been treated or
purified.
Recurrence interval: The anticipated period in
years that will elapse, based on average prob-
ability of storms in the design region, before a
storm of a given intensity and/or total volume
will recur; thus, a 10-year storm can be expected
to occur on the average once every 10 years.
Sewers are generally designed for a specific de-
sign storm frequency.
Riprap: Broken rock, cobbles, or boulders placed
on earth surfaces, such as the face of a dam or
the bank of a stream, for protection against the
action of water (waves).
Saprophytic: Pertaining to those organisms that
live on dead or decaying organic matter.
Scouring: The clearing and digging action of
flowing water, especially the downward erosion
caused by stream water in sweeping away mud
and silt, usually during a flood.
Secchi depth: A measure of optical water clarity
as determined by lowering a weighted Secchi
disk into a water body to the point where it is no
longer visible.
Sediment basin: A structure designed to slow
the velocity of runoff water and facilitate the set-
tling and retention of sediment and debris.
Sediment delivery ratio: The fraction of soil
eroded from upland sources that reaches a con-
tinuous stream channel or storage reservoir.
Sediment discharge: The quantity of sediment,
expressed as a dry weight or volume, transport-
ed through a stream cross-section in a given
time. Sediment discharge consists of both sus-
pended load and bedload.
Septic: A putrefactive condition produced by
anaerobic decomposition of organic wastes,
usually accompanied by production of malodor-
ous gases.
Standing crop: The biomass present in a body of
water at a particular time.
Sub-basin: A physical division of a larger basin,
associated with one reach of the storm drainage
system.
Substrate: The substance or base upon which an
organism grows.
Suspended solids: Refers to the particulate mat-
ter in a sample, including the material that set-
tles readily as well as the material that remains
dispersed.
Swale: An elongated depression in the land sur-
face that is at least seasonally wet, is usually
heavily vegetated, and is normally without
flowing water. Swales conduct stormwater into
primary drainage channels and provide some
groundwater recharge.
Terrace: An embankment or combination of an
embankment and channel built across a slope to
control erosion by diverting or storing surface
runoff instead of permitting it to flow uninter-
rupted down the slope.
Thermal stratification: The layering of water
bodies due to temperature-induced density
differences.
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7 hortuochnc Sec metalimnion.
hit; drainage. Land drainage by means of a se-
ries of tile lines laid at a specified depth and
9 rack;
Total solids' The solids in water, sewage, or oth-
er liquids, including the dissolved, filterable, and
nonfilterable solids. The residue left when a
sample is evaporated and dried at a specified
temperature.
Trace elements. Those elements which are
needed in low concentrations for the growth of
an organism.
Trophic condition: A relative description of a
lake's biological productivity. The range of trop-
hic conditions is characterized by the terms
oligotrophic for the least biologically productive,
to eutrophic'for the most biologically productive.
Turbidity. A measure of the cloudiness of a liq-
uid. Turbidity provides an indirect measure of
the suspended solids concentration in water.
Urban runoff: Surface runoff from an urban
drainage area.
Volatile solids The quantity of solids in water,
sewage, or other liquid, which is lost upon igni-
tion at 600° C
Waste load allocation -. The assignment of target
pollutant loads to point sources so as to achieve
water quality standards in a stream segment in
the most effective manner.
Water quality. A term used to describe the
chemical, physical, and biological characteristics
of water, usually with respect to its suitability for
a particular purpose.
Water quality standards. State-enforced stan-
dards describing the required physical and
chemical properties of water according to its
designated uses.
Watershed. See drainage basin.
Weir: Device for measuring or regulating the
flow of water.
Zooplankton: Protozoa and other animal micro-
organisms living unattached in water.
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Appendix B
REFERENCES
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
REFERENCES
Allen, C. K., "Use of Copper Sulfate in Water Treatment", Water and Sewage'
Works, 113LR71-72, R74-75 (1966).
Bernhardt, H. and H. Schell, "Energy-Input-controlled direct filtration to
control progressive eutrophication:, Jour. Amer. Water Works Assoc.,
Vol. 74, No. 5 (May 1982)
Billingsley and Bourke, "Lake Wallenpaupack (501-C) Management Report",
Pennsylvania Fish Commission (1981).
Browne, F. X. and T. J. Grizzard, "Nonpoint Sources", Jour. Water Poll.
Cont. Fed., Vol. 51, No. 6 (1979).
Everhart, W. H. and W. D. Youngs, Principles of Fishery Science, second ed.,
Cornell University Press, Ithaca, N.Y. (1981).
F. X. Browne Associates, Inc., "Addendum to An Evaluation of the Impact of
the Cove Haven Wastewater Treatment Plant Expansion on Water Quality in
Lake Wallenpaupack" (April 1982).
F. X. Browne Associates, Inc., "Organization Plan for the Formation of the
Lake Wallenpaupack Watershed Management District", Lansdale, PA (1979).
F. X. Browne Associates, Inc., "208 Watershed Management Study of the South
Rivanna Reservoir", Report to Albemarle County, Charlottesville, VA
(May 1982).
Fitzgerald, G. P., "Use of Potassium Permanganate for Control of Problem
Algae", Jour. Amer. Water Works Assoc., Vol. 58, 609-614 (1966).
Fitzgerald, G. P., "Algicides, Literature Review No. 2", the University of
Wisconsin, Water Resources Center (1971).
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F. X. BROWNE ASSOCIATES, INC.
Fitzgerald, G. P. and S. L. Faust, "Bioassay for Algicidal Versus Algistatic
Chemicals", Water and Sewage Works 110:296-298 (1963).
Funk, W. H. and A. R. Gaufin, "Control of Taste and Odor Producing Algae
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of Anabaena", Journal of Phycology, 13(2):97-101 (1977).
Kadis, S., al., "Algal and Fungal Toxins", Microbial Toxins, Vol. VII,
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McKnight, D., "Chemical and Biological Processes Controlling the Response
of a Freshwater Ecosystem to Copper Stress: A Field Study of the CuSO^
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Northern Virginia Planning District Commission, et al., "Occoquan/Four
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Reckhow, R. H. et al., "Modeling Phosphorus Loading and Lake Response Under
Uncertainty: A Manual and Compilation of Export Coefficients".
EPA 440/5-80-0-1 (1980).
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(March 17, 1980).
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externen Enigriff in den Eutrophierungsprozeb stehender Gewasser and
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der Vortrage", Z. F. Wasser-und Abwasser—Forschung, 12, Jahrgang Nr
2/79 (1979).
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Appendix C
SUMMARY OF
PUBLIC PARTICIPATION ACTIVITIES
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Summary of Public Participation Activities
The LWWMD actively participated in numerous public education activities.
Presentations regarding the study were made at civic meetings including
those for clubs, business groups, community associations, and marina owners.
A detailed fact sheet was distributed to all property owners in the water-
shed at the initiation of the Water Quality Management Study. Signs describing
the existence of the LWWMD and the importantce of maintaining acceptable
water quality have been printed courtesy of the Lake Wallenpaupack Watershed
Association (LWWA, a local citizens' group which has been active in water-
shed matters for over a decade). These signs some large, and some small,
are currently being posted at various locations throughout the watershed at
the time of this report revision.
The activities of the LWWMD have been reported frequently in newspaper
articles and on local radio programs. A video documentary of the condition
of Lake Wallenpaupack was prepared by the State College Public Broadcasting
Station and was telecast statewide on at least two separate occasions.
All meetings of the LWWMD are open to the general public. The LWWMD and
LWWA jointly sponsored annual public meetings on August 2, 1980 and
August 14, 1981. The status of this study was the main topic at each of
those meetings.
In addition to the meeting at which the final draft report was formally
presented to the LWWMD on June 23, 1982, an official public meeting was
held on August 27, 1982 to discuss the proposed conclusions and recommendations
of the study. The format for the latter meeting included a slide presentation,
handouts, and a question and answer period. Formal notification for both
meetings was provided via advertisements in two local newspapers.
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