Assessment for Future
Environmental Problems
- Ocean Dumping
EG and G Environmental Consultants, Waltham, MA
Prepared for
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC
Dec 83
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
National Technical Information Service
NTIS
1
-------
PB64-126770
EPA-600/6-84-001
December 1983
ASSESSMENT FOR FUTURE ENVIRONMENTAL
PROBLEMS - OCEAN DUMPING
by
C, A. Menzie
F. Babin
J. Cura
G. Mariani
EG&G Environmental Consultants
WalthamJ. Massachusetts 02254
Contract No, 68--02-3724
Project Officers
Stephen 0. Wilson
Marvin Rogul
Office of Strategic Assessment and Special Studies
Office of Exploratory Research
Washington, DC 20460
OFFICE OF EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, DC 20460
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO. 2.
EPA-600/6-84-001
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSIO*NO.
PBS U 1 2 f\7 7 o
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Assessment for Future Environmental Problems -
Ocean Dumping
5. REPORT DATE
December 1983
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Menzie, C.A., F. Babin, J. Cura, G. Mariani
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
EG&G Environmental Consultants
151 Bear Hill Road
Waltham, Massachusetts 02254
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
*4. tfiKIY^AiY/'flMAKjT Kid.
68-02-3724
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Office of Exploratory Research
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, DC 20460
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final Report
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/20
1S. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
The objective of this report 1s to provide the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency's Office of Strategic Assessment and Special Studies with a technical
basis for making decisions on research priorities and resource allocation as
these relate to the question of ocean dumping. The program was organized Into
four tasks. First, historical trends 1n waste generation, disposal, and
legislative and technological factors (as of 1982) were reviewed to indicate the.
likelihood that a particular waste type would be ocean dumped in the future.
Second, the environmental implications of land-based alternatives were reviewed
to provide background on the nature of risks associated with these alternatives.
Third, the environmental implications of ocean disposal were reviewed ftfr wastes
and their constituents. Finally, based on the Information generated in the first
three tasks, recommendations are provided on future research needs and these are
assigned either high, moderate, or low priority status.
17. KEY WORDS ANO DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
a. DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATi Field/Croup
Ocean Dumping
Waste Management
Research Planning
Marine Pollution
*8. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT •
Released to Public
19. SECURITY CLASS (Thij Report)
Unclassified
21. NO, OF PAdES
30. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
SPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
-------
NOTICE
This document has been reviewed in accordance with
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency policy and
approved for publication. Mention of trade names
or commercial products does not constitute endorse*
ment or recommendation for use.
ii
-------
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This report was prepared by Dr. Charles A Menzie, Mr. Frederick Babin, Ms.
Elaine Burke, Dr. Jerome Cura, Dr. Reginald Gillmor, Mr. Douglas Levin, Mr.
Russell Wilder, and Dr. George Mariani of EG&G, Environmental Consultants.
Sections relating to land-based disposal alternatives for sewage sludge were
prepared, in part, by Drs. Warren Litsky and Chun-Kwun Wun of the University of
Massachusetts at Amherst. Sections relating to land-based disposal alternatives
for industrial wastes were prepared, in part, by Mr. William Potter of Princeton
Environmental Engineering. Dr. Menzie coordinated the overall scientific effort
and preparation of the report. Mr. Daniel Marini of EG&G provided administrative
support. Dr. Steven Wilson of EPA served as Project Officer and guided the
direction and focus of the program*
iii
-------
SUMMARY
The objective of this report is to provide the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency's Office of Strategic Assessment and Special Studies with a technical
basis for making decisions on research priorities and resource allocation as
these relate to the question of ocean dumping. The program was organized into
four tasks. First, historical trends in waste generation, disposal, and
legislative and technological factors (as of 1982) were reviewed to indicate the
likelihood that a particular waste type would be ocean dumped in the future.
Second, the environmental implications of land-based alternatives were reviewed
to provide background on the nature of risks associated with these alternatives.
Third, the environmental implications of ocean disposal were reviewed for wastes
and their constituents. Finally, based on the information generated in the first
three tasks, recommendations are provided on future research needs and these are
assigned either high, moderate, or low priority status.
The following waste types were considered in this program:' sewage sludge,
dredged material, fly ash, flue-gas desulfurization (FGD) sludge, gypsum, acid
iron waste, industrial sludges, and low-level radioactive waste (LLW)'. All of
these waste types are expected to increase in volume in the future. With regard
to the probability that these wastes will be ocean dumped in the future, the
review of trends in disposal as well as legislative, economic and political
factors suggests the following: sewage sludge (moderate-high probability),
dredged material (high probability), fly ash (moderate probability), FGD sludge
(moderate probability), gypsum (low-moderate probability), acid-iron waste
(moderate-high probability), industrial sludges (low-moderate probability), LLW
(moderate probability).
A review of land based alternatives indicated that no alternative is risk
free, although some alternatives pose greater risks than others. The information
presented underscores the need for a cross-media risk analysis approach to waste
management. The following land-based waste disposal alternatives were examined:
landfills and land burial (sewage sludge, dredged material, some industrial
wastes, LLW); land spreading (sewage sludge, dredged material, some industrial
wastes); incineration (sewage sludge, some industrial wastes); solidification
(some industrial wastes); and deep well injection (some industrial wastes).
The fate and effects of ocean dumped wastes were reviewed in general and a
more detailed review was provided on the fate and effects of specific classes
of contaminants. Special attention was given to specific constituents because
1) major concerns regarding long-term effects of ocean dumping arise from
questions related to the persistence and biological fate and effects of particular
contaminants within the wastes; 2) many wastes have a number of contaminants in
common (e.g., chlorinated hydrocarbons, heavy metals) and by focusing on these
it is possible to formulate research recommendations that address one or more
iv
-------
types of wastes; and 3) some wastes are highly variable and an evaluation of the
effects of such wastes requires an understanding of the major contaminants of
concern. The fates and effects of the following classes of waste constituents
were reviewed: nutrients, metals, halogenated hydrocarbons, polynuclear aromatic
hydrocarbons, and radionuclides.
Recommendations for future research are presented for twelve general
categories of studies. Relative priorities (high, moderate, low) are assigned
for each category of study for each waste type. For example, studies on uptake,
storage, and depuration of metals are assigned a high priority status for
industrial sludge but moderate priority status for other waste categories.The
categories of studies assigned high priority status for two or more types of
wastes include physical fate of particulate materials; uptake, storage,
depuration of halogenated hydrocarbons; effects of sediment alterations on
benthic larval settlement; site monitoring; inventory of waste constituents; and
methodologies for cross-media risk assessment. Particular recommendations within
these and other lower priority categories of studies are presented.
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS iii
SUMMARY , iv
1 INTRODUCTION 1-1
2 TREND ASSESSMENT 2-1
2.1 Quantities of Waste Generated 2-1
2.1.1 Sewage Sludge. 2-1
2.1.2 Dredged Material 2-1
2.1.3 Coal Ash and Flue Gas Desulfurization Sludge
from Coal Use by Electric Utilities 2-3
2.1.4 Gypsum from the Basic Production in the
Titanium Dioxide Industry 2-9
2.1.5 Waste Acid Production in the Titanium
Dioxide Industry 2-11
2.1.6 Low-Level Radioactive Waste 2-12
2.1.7 Seafood Processing Waste 2-13
2.2 Current Distribution of Wastes Among Disposal
Options 2-16
2.2.1 Sewage Sludge 2-16
2.2.2 Dredged Material 2-16
2.2.3 Coal Ash from Coal Use by Electric Utilities. 2-16
2.2.4 Flue Gas Desulfurization Sludge 2-17
2.2.5 Gypsum from the Basic Fertilizer Materials
Industry 2-17
2.2.6 Waste Acid from the Titanium Dioxide
Industry 2-17
2.2.7 Low-Level Radioactive Waste 2-18
2.2.8 Seafood Processing Waste 2-18
2.2.9 Industrial Hazardous Wastes 2-18
2.3 Survey of U.S. EPA Regions.. 2-19
2.3.1 Sewage Sludge 2-19
2.3.2 Dredged Material 2-21
2.3.3 Fly Ash 2-21
2.3.4 RCRA-Driven Chemical Waste and Pretreatment
Requirements 2-21
"vi
-------
Section Page
2.3.5 Gypsum 2-21
2.3.6 Low-Level Radioactive Waste 2-21
2.3.7 Ocean Incineration 2-22
2.3.8 Construction/Demolition Debris 2-22
2.3.9 Seafood Processing Waste 2-22
2.3.10 Waste Liquor 2-22
2.3.11 Secondary Sludge from Pulp and Paper 2-22
2.3.12 Phosphate Mining 2-22
2.3.13 Drilling Muds 2-23
2.3.14 Deep Ocean Mining 2-23
2.3.15 Tires 2-23
2.3.16 Vessels 2-23
2.4 Survey of Municipalities 2-23
2.5 Survey of Industries 2-24
2.5.1 Pulp and Paper 2-24
2.5.2 Chemical 2-25
2.5.3 Pharmaceutical 2-25
2.6 Regulatory Factors 2-25
2.6.1 The Marine Protection* Research, and
Sanctuaries Act 2-25
2.6.2 The Federal Water Pollution Control Act
and National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System 2-26
2.6.3 Pretreatment 2-26
2.6.4 Waivers from Secondary Treatment 2-27
2.6.5 Ocean Discharge Criteria 2-27
2.6.6 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 2-27
2.6.7 Safe Drinking Water Act 2-28
2.6.8 Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Act 2-28
2.6.9 State and Local Regulatory Factors 2-28
2.7 Costs of Alternative Waste Disposal Methods 2-29
2.7.1 Sewage Sludge .2-29
2.7.2 Dredged Material 2-29
2.7.3 Coal Ash and Flue Gas Desulfurization Sludge. 2-31
2.7.4 Waste Gypsum 2-31
2.7.5 Waste Acids 2-32
2.7.6 Low-Level Radioactive Waste 2-32
2.7.7 Seafood Processing Wastes 2-33
2.7.8 Industrial Hazardous Wastes 2-33
3 ENVIRONMENTAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF LAND-
BASED DISPOSAL ALTERNATIVES 3-1
3.1 Landfills and Land Burial 3-1
vii
-------
Section Page
3.1.1 Sanitary Landfills 3-1
3.1.2 Hazardous Waste Landfills 3-4
3.1.3 Shallow Land Burial and Low-Level Radioactive
Waste 3-5
3.2 Land Spreading 3-9
3.2.1 Land Spreading of Sewage Sludge 3-9
3.2.2 Land Spreading of Industrial Wastes 3-18
3.3 Incineration 3-18
3.3.1 Incineration of Sewage Sludge 3-18
3.3.2 Incineration of Hazardous Organic Wastes 3-19
3.4 Solidification 3-22
3.5 Deep-Well Injection 3-22
4 ENVIRONMENTAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF OCEAN
DUMPING 4-1
4.1 Dispersion Processes for Dumping Methods 4-1
4.1.1 Liquids from Ships 4-2
4.1.2 Sludges, Dredge Materials, and Precipitates.. 4-5
4.1.3 Slow Bottom Releases 4-9
4.2 General Effects of Ocean Dumping 4-10
4.3 Fate and Effects of Waste Constituents 4-12
4.3.1 Nutrient/Organic Enrichment 4-12
4.3.2 Metals 4-16
4.3.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 4-20
4.3.4 Halogenated Hydrocarbons 4-22
4.3.5 Low-level Radioactive Waste 4-25
5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 5-1
5.1 Physical Fate of Dissolved Constituents 5-1
5.2 Physical Fate of Particulate Materials 5-4
5.3 Effects of Nutrient Enrichment 5-5
5.4 Uptake, Storage, and Depuration of Metals 5-6
5.5 Uptake, Storage, and Depuration of PAHs 5-7
5.6 Uptake, Storage, and Depuration of Halogenated
Hydrocarbons 5-8
5.7 Uptake, Storage, and Transport of Radionuclides 5-9
5.8 Effects of Sediment Alterations of Benthic
Larval Settlement 5-10
5.9 Toxicity Studies 5-10
viii
-------
Section Page
5.10 Site Monitoring 5-11
5.11 Inventory of Waste Constituents 5-11
5.12 Cross-Media Risk Assessment 5-11
6 REFERENCES 6-1
Appendix
A NATIONAL MARINE POLLUTION CONCERNS REGARDING MARINE WASTE
DISPOSAL FROM THE NATIONAL MARINE POLLUTION PROGRAM PLAN:
FEDERAL PLAN FOR OCEAN POLLUTION RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT,
AND MONITORING FISCAL YEARS 1981-1985 A-l
ix
-------
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
2-1 Volume of sewage sludge produced in the U.S., with
projections 2-2
2-2 Volume of dredged material produced in the U.S. 1974-1981. . 2-4
2-3 Quantity of coal ash produced in the United States by
electric utilities 1975-1981 2-6
2-4 Quantity of flue gas desulfurlzation sludge produced by
electric utilities in the United States 1975-1980 2-7
2-5 Quantity of gypsum produced as a byrproduct in the.basic
fertilizer industry 1976-1981 with projections . 2-10
2-6 Volume of low-level radioactive waste produced and
disposed of at commercial facilities 1n the United States
1962-1979 with projections 2-14
2-7 Seafood waste quantities 2-15
2-8 Map of U.S. EPA standard federal regions and regional
offices 2-19
4-1 Lateral diffusivity Ka as a function of horizontal scale
for a variety of areas and experimental conditions 4-3
4-2 Bathymetric change at the dredge spoil dump site 4-7
4-3 A schematic illustration of the physical fate of solids in
wastes disposed of at sea 4-8
4-4 Relative contribution of various sources of metals to the
New York Bight 4-17
4-5 A summary of the major steps in metabolism of DOT 4-26
4-6 Possible routes of radionuclide transport in the marine
environment. 4-29
X
-------
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1-1 Materials that require special care or permits
for ocean dumping 1-3
1-2 Materials generally prohibited from ocean dumping. . . 1-3
2-1 Volume of dredged material produced in the U.S. ... 2-3
2-2 Coal use 1n the United States by electric utilities
1975-1981 . . . . 2-5
2-3 Projections of ash and FGD sludge production for
electric utilities burning coal 2-9
2-4 Basic fertilizer materials industry production
capacity, phosphate-based materials 2-11
2-5 Waste acid production in the titanium dioxide
industry 1972-1974 2-12
2-6 Sewage sludge disposal methods and relative use. . . . 2-16
2-7 Coal ash disposal options and their relative use . . . 2-17
2-8 Results of telephone survey of U.S. EPA regional
ocean dumping coordinators 2-20
2-9 Cost and benefit items for consideration 2-30
2-10 Cost estimates for disposal of sewage sludge by
various options 2-31
2-11 Cost estimates for disposal of FGO sludge by
various options 2-31
2-12 Cost estimates for disposal of industrial
hazardous wastes by various options ... 2-33
3-1 Concentration range of pollutants 1n leachate
from typical domestic refuse 3-3
3-2 Weighted comparative analysis for alternatives .... 3-8
xi
-------
Table Page
3-3 Major organisms of health concern that may be
present in sewage from U.S. communities 3-12
3-4 Parasites found 1n sludge samples from 27
municipal plants 1n southern United States 3-14
3-5 Reported pathogen survival times 3-15
3-6 Particulate emissions from the furnace of a
modern waterwall incinerator 3-20
3-7 Properties of particulates leaving furnaces 3-20
3-8 Typical wastewater analyses.' 3-21
4-1 General effects of ocean dumping various kinds
of wastes 4-11
4-2 Characteristics and constituents of selected classes
of wastes which may be ocean dumped 4-13
4-3 Major radionuclides 1n low level radioactive waste . . . 4-27
4-4 Total amounts of LLW dumped at the northeast Atlantic
site and corresponding IAEA release rate limits 4-31
5-1 Categories of studies and their relative priorities
with regard to ocean dumping of various waste types. . . 5-2
xii
-------
1. INTRODUCTION
The objective of this report is to provide the U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency's (EPA's) Office of Strategic Assessment and Special Studies (OSASS)
with a technical basis for decisions on research priorities and resource alloca-
tion as these relate to the question of ocean dumping. The need for such
information is clear. A number of factors (e.g., legislative, sociological, and
technological) will have to be taken into account when considering various
alternatives for waste disposal. For example, under the Marine Protection,
Research, and Sanctuaries Act, ocean disposal of various wastes is being phased
out. However, at the time of this writing (1982) the Act 1s up for reauthorization
and ocean disposal is the subject of extensive congressional hearings. Other
regulations will continue to result in changes in composition and amounts of
various waste types. As an example, implementation of the Clean Water Act result-
ed 1n construction of numerous secondary sewage treatment plants and has contri-
buted to an increase in sewage sludge volume; population increases will further
contribute to an increase in sludge. In its report to Congress and the President,
the National Advisory Committee on Oceans and Atmospheres calls the legislated:
ban on ocean dumping of sludge "unreasonable" and suggests that some of the
earlier concerns about ocean waste disposal were "overstated."
Implementation of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act has focused
and will continue to focus attention on various wastes and alternatives for their
disposal; for some, ocean dumping may be a better alternative than land-based
disposal options. As increased emphasis 1s given to the use of coal over oil
for power generation, there will be an increase in coal ash and slag; the U.S.
may wish to consider ocean dumping of this waste as is presently being done by
the United Kingdom. For certain wastes there has been increased international
(through the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization [IMCO]) and
national interest in incineration at sea.
. The U.S. discontinued ocean dumping of low level radioactive waste (LLW)
in 1970. However, other countries (e.g., England, Belgium, France, Switzerland,
and the Netherlands) have continued to dispose of LLW in the northeast Atlantic
under the review of the Organisation for Economic Cooperative Development (OECD)
Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA); Japan, which is also a member of NEA, is considering
ocean disposal of LLW in the Pacific. Although the London Convention (and U.S.
regulations) prohibits ocean disposal of "high level radioactive waste," the
convention (and U.S. regulations) also calls for the issuance of permits for the
disposal of radioactive matter other than "high level." In issuing such permits,
the contracting parties should take full account of the recommendations of the
competent international body in this field, at present the International Atomic
Energy Agency. There is still interest in the United States for future ocean
disposal of LLW.
Among the various factors related to future consideration of ocean dumping
as a waste disposal alternative is the assimilative capacity of the ocean for
1-1
-------
pollutants. The philosophy is that the oceans can accept or assimilate certain
pollutants at some rate of disposal in particular areas. Determination of these
levels through technical means (e.g., studies of fates and effects combined with
appropriate modeling techniques) then provides a basis for permitting or restrict-
ing discharges. Preliminary efforts to assess the assimilative capacity of the
ocean were made at the Crystal Mountain Workshop held by NOAA in December 1979.
A panel on sources attempted to identify anticipated amounts and types of indus-
trial, agricultural, and domestic wastes for which disposal in the ocean might
be considered. Six other panels studied the assimilative capacities of water
bodies. Two of those considered problems related to estuaries and the coastal
and open ocean. The four remaining panels studied the site specific problems
of Dumpslte 106, Puget Sound, the New York Bight, and the Southern California
Bight. While the workshop Indicated that evaluating the assimilative capacity
of the ocean was useful in determining limits on discharges, the inadequacies
of present-day models to predict impacts to ecosystems, with respect to long-
term, low-level effects, was well recognized. The long-term chronic effect of
marine pollution also was Identified as a primary concern 1n the Global 2000
Report to the U.S. President prepared by the Council on Environmental Quality.
An initial task in our program was to determine classes or types of wastes
which might be considered for future ocean dumping. Several criteria were used
to select the wastes considered in this study. These criteria were:
1. The study included wastes permitted for ocean dumping by the London
Convention (Table 1-1) but not those prohibited. (Table 1-2). There-
fore, wastes such as organochlorines, which are prohibited from ocean
dumping but which may be incinerated at sea, are not discussed. The
incineration at sea alternative, —hich would be used for wastes general-
ly prohibited from ocean dumping, is not discussed within this report.
2. The study considered classes of wastes that, if disposed of at sea,
would be typically "ocean dumped" (e.g., sewage sludge) as opposed to
"discharged" (e.g., effluent from coastal treatment plants). The
former classes of wastes and disposal methods are presently regulated
under the Ocean D"mp1ng Permit Program, the latter under the NPDES
Permit Program.
3. The study included nonhazardous wastes that, because of their high
volume and characteristics, may pose problems for land disposal (e.g.,
sewage sludge and fly ash); the study did not consider low volume non-
hazardous wastes.
4. The study Included wastes defined as hazardous under EPA's hazardous
waste criteria but which are not excluded from ocean dumping by the
London Convention (Table 1-2).
These criteria led to the selection of three broad categories of wastes
consisting of a number of different waste types. These include:
A. High Volume Nonhazardous Wastes
• sewage sludge
• dredged material
• fly ash
1-2
-------
TABLE 1-1. MATERIALS THAT REQUIRE SPECIAL CARE OR PERMITS FOR OCEAN DUMPING.
(ANNEX II OF LONDON CONVENTION)
1. Wastes containing significant amounts of the matters listed below:
arsenic
lead and their compounds
copper
zinc
organos i1i con compounds
cyanides
fluorides
pesticides and their by-products not covered in Annex I (see Table 112).
2. In the issue of permits for the dumping of large quantities of acids and
alkalies, consideration shall be given to the possible presence in such
wastes of the substances listed 1n Number 1 and to the following additional
substances:
beryllium
chromium
nickel
vanadium
and their compounds
3. Containers, scrap metal, and other bulky wastes liable to sink to the sea
bottom which may present a serious obstacle to fishing or navigation.
4. Radioactive wastes or other radioactive matter not included in Annex I. In
the issue of permits for the dumping of this matter, the recommendations
of the competent agencies in this field should be considered.
5. Dredge spoils.
6. Substances that, though of a non-toxic nature, may become harmful due to
the quantities in which they are dumped, or that are liable to seriously
reduce amenities.
7. Titanium dioxide (specified by Council of European Communities).
1-3
-------
TABLE 1-2. MATERIALS GENERALLY PROHIBITED FROM OCEAN DUMPING.a»b (ANNEX I OF
LONDON CONVENTION)
1. Organohalogen compounds and compounds that may form such substances in the
marine environment, excluding those that are non-toxic, or that are rapidly
converted in the sea into substances that are biologically harmless.
2. Organosilicon compounds and compounds that may form such substances in the
marine environment, excluding those that are non-toxic, or that are rapidly
converted in the sea Into substances that are biologically harmless.
3. Substances that are likely to be carcinogenic under conditions of disposal.
4. Mercury and mercury compounds.
5. Cadmium and cadmium compounds.
6. Persistent plastics and other persistent synthetic materials that may float
or may remain in suspension in the sea so as to interfere materially with
fishing, navigation, or other legitimate uses of the sea.
7. Crude oil, fuel oil, heavy diesel oil, lubricating oils, hydraulic fluids,
and any mixtures containing any of these, taken on board for the purpose
of dumping.
8. High-level radioactive wastes or other high-level radioactive matter, de-
fined on public health, biological, or other grounds, by the competent
international body in this field, at present the International Atomic Energy
Agency, as unsuitable for dumping at sea.
9. Materials in whatever form (e.g., solids, liquids, semiliquids, gases, or
in a living state) produced for biological and chemical warfare.
a. This table does not apply to substances that are rapidly rendered
harmless by physical, chemical, or biological processes in the sea,
provided they do not:
(i) make edible marine organisms unpalatable, or
(ii) endanger human health or that of domestic animals.
b. This table does not apply to wastes or other materials (e.g., sewage
sludges and dredged spoils) containing the matters referred to 1n Num-
bers 1-7 above as trace contaminants.
1-4
-------
• flue gas desulfurization (F6D) sludge
t gypsum waste
• seafood wastes
B. Low-Level Radioactive Wastes (LLW)
C. EPA Hazardous Wastes Not Excluded by the London Convention
• These wastes Include those identified by the EPA as hazardous under
the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. Although there may be a
number of waste types within this category, the only one for which
we have a reasonable data base for the purposes of this assessment
is waste acid.
The Program was organized into four tasks. First, historical trends in
waste generation, distribution among alternative disposal methods, and disposal
costs were reviewed, and legislative, technological, and economic factors that
may influence these were examined. This task served to Indicate the likelihood
that a particular waste type would be ocean dumped in the future. Second, the
environmental implications of land-based alternatives were reviewed to provide
•background on the nature of risks associated with these alternatives. These
risks would have to be considered during formal cross-media risk analyses. Third,
the environmental implications of ocean disposal were reviewed for the selected
wastes and their constituents. This review aided in identifying technical areas
where there was a lack of information, research, or analytical techniques for
evaluating environmental impacts associated with ocean disposal. The final task
was to provide recommendations for future research.
1-5
-------
2. TREND ASSESSMENT
2.1 QUANTITIES OF WASTE GENERATED
2.1.1 Sewage Sludge
Quantities of sewage sludge produced in the U.S. have been increasing
steadi ly as the nation1 s population has grown, as the proportion of the population
served by municipal wastewater treatment plants has grown, and as more efficient
treatment methods were developed and applied at individual treatment plants.
Figure 2-1 presents estimates of past and possible future quantities of sludge
generated in the U.S. beginning in 1972 as compiled by several investigators
(NRC, 1977; Booz, Allen, and Hamilton, 1982; NACOA, 1981; Litsky [citing others],
1982). For the most part, these estimates have been reasonably consistent,
although the Booz, Allen, and Hamilton (BAH) estimates for 1980 and projected
2000. exceed the other estimates by a factor of two. The projections compiled
by NRC show .an- increase of 100% (3.44 to 6.88 million metric tons dry weight)
between 1972 and 1980. By 1990, both NRC arid NACOA anticipate that approximately
10 million metric tons of sewage sludge solids will be produced, with this
quantity rising to 12.2 million metric tons in the year 2000. The BAH projection
for the year 2000 is 18.9 million metric tons.
As pointed out in the NRC report, there are significant regional differ-
ences in quantity projections, with the Atlantic and southern Pacific coastal
areas showing estimated 200% and 90% increases, respectively. These two regions
are projected to generate more than 40% of the U.S. total sludge in 1990.
To gain additional insight into future sludge quantities, a telephone
survey was conducted of selected municipalities on the east and west coasts. In
general, sludge volumes are expected to increase due primarily to expanded service
and the introduction of improved solids removal technology. The anticipated
increases for individual systems ranged from 0% (South Essex Sewage District,
Massachusetts) to 60% (Nassau County, New York).
2.1.2 Dredged Material
Dredged material results from the dredging of harbors, rivers, and channels
to maintain or improve navigability. Particular dredging projects are generally
defined as either maintenance or improvement projects, undertaken by the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers (COE) or by entities other than the COE. Maintenance
projects involve the periodic redredging of navigation channels to authorized
depths. These projects result from the deposition of sediments in navigable
areas and are influenced by oceanographic and meteorological conditions in
particular geographic areas. Improvement projects involve the deepening and/or
2-1
-------
Figure 2-1. Volume of sewage sludge produced 1n the U.S., with projections.
Sources include 1) NRC (1977); 2) BAH (1982); 3) NACOA (1981);
4) Utsky (1982).
2-2
-------
widening of channels, anchorages, or turning basins conducted in existing or new
areas.
Between 1974 and 1981, a total of 2493 million cubic yards of material were
dredged in the U.S. for an annual average of 311.6 million cubic yards. The
range in annual quantities was 386 to 272 million cubic yards in 1974 and 1979,
respectively. Table 2-1 and Figure 2-2 summarize dredging activity in the U.S.
over this 8-year period. Projecting future quantities of dredged materials is
difficult because of the dependency of dredging projects on federally authorized
funding programs and of dredging needs on weather conditions. It is probably
safe to assume, however, that dredging activity will continue much as it has in
the past. Increasing attention to deepwater port development may lead to large
volumes of materials in need of disposal.
2.1.3 Coal Ash and Flue Gas Desulfurization Sludge
from Coal Use by Electric Uti11 ties"
According to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE, 1981), electric utilities
in the U.S. produced 2286 billion kilowatt hours (kwh) of electric energy in
1980. This figure represents a 1.7% increase over the 1979 figure of 2247 billion
kwh, and a 19% increase over the 1975 level of 1918 kwh. The use of coal in
electricity generation has also increased steadily over this period, in both
absolute (approximately a 40% increase between 1975 and 1980) and relative (14%
increase between 1975 and 1980) terms. In 1975, coal was utilized as the basic
fuel in producing 44.5% of the total electricity output of the U.S. During 1980,
coal accounted for nearly 51% of the basic fuel used in electricity generation.
Coal use on the part of electric utilities is expected to continue to
increase in the future. The U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment (OTA,
1979) has reviewed a number of alternative projections and ccnsiders 775 million
tons and 1410 million tons to be maximum utility coal consumption estimates for
1985 and 2000, respectively. The same report also recognizes that continued
slow growth in electricity demand is likely, resulting in more conservative
estimates of coal use of 725 and 1275 million tons in 1985 and 2000, respectively.
This growth will come about as existing plants which burn oil and/or gas are
converted to coal combustion systems, and as new coal burning capacity is
installed.
TABLE 2-1. VOLUME OF DREDGED MATERIAL
PRODUCED IN THE U.S.
1974-1981 (106 yd3)
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
386
332
301
298
280
272
289
335
2-3
-------
Figure 2-2. Volume of dredged material produced 1n the U.S. 1974-1981.
2-4
-------
Coal combustion produces two major wastes of concern due to their compo-
sition and volume - ash and flue gas desulfurization (F6D) sludge. In 19/5,
nearly 70% of the' coal consumed in the U.S. was burned to produce electricity
(OTA, 1979). This represents a significant change from 1950 when industrial and
residential/commercial use of coal accounted for approximately 80% of coal
consumption. Since the mid-1950s, the consumption of coal in the U.S. has been
increasing steadily while the electric utility share of this consumption has
grown from 55% to 80%. Clearly, electric utilities represent the key sector
when considering future disposal options for the by-products ash and FGD sludge.
Figures 2-3 and 2-4 depict waste generation characteristics for the 1975-
1981 period by electric utilities in the U.S. The quantities presented are those
associated with "coastal" and "non-coastal" states as well as for the U.S.,
because when considering the potential of ocean disposal of coal combustion waste
products, generators located in states in coastal regions will probably be more
likely to utilize this option. The ash and FGD sludge estimates are dry weight
figures, and were derived by considering the quantity of coal consumed, the ash
and sulfur content of the coal, and typical ash and sulfur recovery rates of
existing pollution control technology. The FGD sludge estimates also incorporate
data describing the capacity of FGD systems in place in each year (DOE, 1978,
1979, 1980) and include a range in estimates based on the type of technology
employed (limestone or double alkali systems). As reported by the U.S. Nuclear
Regulatory Commission (USNRC, 1977),. the limestone and double alkali techniques
bracket the range of FGD sludge generation rates for available air emissions
sulfur recovery systems.
An examination of Table 2-2 shows that electric utility coal use has been
increasing as discussed above. As a result, quantities of ash generated (Figure
2-3) have also been rising steadily from nearly 50 million tons in 1975 to
approximately 68 million tons in 1981. The increase has been most pronounced
in coastal states, with ash quantities increasing from 26 million tons in 1979
to an estimated 31 million tons in 1981. Because ash recovery systems are typi-
cally capable of capturing over 99% of the ash generated in the form of fly ash,
bottom.ash, or slag (USNRC, 1977), there is little potential for ash quantities
to increase further as a rsult of improved ash recovery technology. Rather,
future ash generation will change as the use of coal by electric utilities
increases, and as the characteristics of coal change.
TABLE 2-2. COAL USE IN THE UNITED STATES BY ELECTRIC UTILITIES 1975-1981.
(1000 TONS)
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
Coastal states
209,979
213,780
233,751
218,028
206,192 ,
235,542
265,156
Non-coastal
. states
222,453
242,098
258,189
299,688
350,353
358,456
347,767
Total U.S.
432,432
455,878
491,940
517,716
556,545
593,998
612,923
2-5
-------
Figure 2-3. Quantity of coal ash produced 1n the United States by olectrlc
utilities 1975-1981.
2-6
-------
Figure 2-4. Quantity of flue gas desulfurlzatlon sludge produced by electric
utilities 1n the United States 1975-1980.
2-7
-------
FGD sludge quantities (Figure 2-4) present a more complex situation, with
quantities generated being dependent on a wider variety of factors including the
sulfur content of the coal, the age and load factor of particular power plants,
and the FGO technology utilized (lime, limestone, or double alkali). Beforo
1975, very few power plants employed FGD systems. The introduction of more
stringent air emissions limitations and New Source Performance Standards have
and will continue to result in increasing levels of sulfur recovery through the
installation of FGD systems. Between 1975 and 1980, the capacity of electric
power plants with FGD systems has increased more than 600% from 3.86 million
megawatts in 1975 to 27.92 megawatts in 1980 (DOE, 1981). The .quantities of FGD
sludge generated have risen similarly over this period by roughly 430%. In 1975,
just over 1.1 million tons of FGD sludge were produced, which compares to an
estimated 6 million tons in 1980. (These estimates assume the utilization of
limestone systems. The use of double alkali technology would result in estimates
of 760,000 tons and 3.9 million tons in 1975 and 1980, respectively.) An
examination of the total quantity of sulfur dioxide (SO2) produced by electric
utilities helps to put these estimates in perspective. Based on the quantities
and sulfur content of coal consumed by utilities, an estimated 15.2 million tons
of SO2 were produced in 1980 and 12.6 million tons in 1975 (an increase of 21%).
It can be Inferred, therefore, that in 1980, less than 11% of the SO2 produced
was captured in the form of FGD sludge. (Approximately 543 pounds of SOg are
incorporated into each ton of limestone FGD sludge produced.) Clearly, the
quantities of FGD sludge which could be generated in the future are dependent
on factors other than the quantity of coal likely to be consumed. The sulfur
content of this coal, along with the trends in FGD system installation and
technological advances, will also be influential factors.
According to the U.S. Bureau of Mines (1975, 1976), nearly 55% of U.S. coal
reserves are located in the western half of the country, and nearly 80% of these
reserves have a sulfur content under 1%. Roughly 80% of eastern coals have a
sulfur content which exceeds 1%. Western coals are also characterized by higher
ash content and lower heat value, and are more readily available using surface
recovery techniques. OTA (1979) projections indicate that coal production from
western mines will increase 1n importance through the year 2000. In 1977, only
22% of domestically produced coal came from western states while the OTA projec-
tions call for the proportion to increase to more than 50%.
Although there is some controversy over the effectiveness, reliability, and
economics of FGD systems, their use, is expected to continue to increase in the
future. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 1979) estimates that the
quantity of electricity generated by plants with FGD systems will rise from 2.5
billion kwh to 500 billion kwh by 1985. Since the EPA report was published, FGD
capacity has increased by less than 50%, making such a radical increase in FGD
capacity by 1985 difficult to achieve at best.
With regard to technological improvements, SO2 removal efficiencies of 90
to 95% appear to be achievable (OTA, 1979). The major problem with FGD systems
has been one of reliability, and advances in this aspect of operation are likely.
Recent experience in Japan has shown that 95% operating reliability and 90%
sulfur removal efficiencies can be regularly achieved (Maxwell, 1978).
In summary, it is apparent that the quantities of both ash and FGD sludge
generated by electric utilities are likely to increase 1n the coming years. Ash
quantities will rise as coal grows in importance as a utility fuel, and as western
2-8
-------
coals become a more important component in the overall use of coal. The situation
with FGD sludge is more complex, but an increasing trend in its generation is
likely. Estimates presented by the EPA (1979) and OTA (1979) support, this
observation. Table 2-3 sunmarizes these and other estimates of future ash and
FGD sludge quantities.
TABLE 2-3. PROJECTIONS OF ASH AND FGD SLUDGE PRODUCTION FOR ELECTRIC UTILITIES
BURNING COAL.
(106 TONS)
Ash
FGD Sludqe
Source
1985
1990
1985 1990
EPA (1979)
108
m w m
28
OTA (1979)
80
90
19 35
U.S. Bureau of Mines (1982)
100
112
--
National Ash Association (1982)
90
125
— ~ —
Mean
94.5
109
23.5 35
The means of these estimates for ash in 1985 and 1990 represent increases
of 40% and 60%, respectively, from 1981 levels. The FGD sludge estimates indicate
increases of 400% and 580%, over 1980 levels.
2.1.4 Gypsum from the Basic Fertilizer Materials Industry
Gypsum is an important by-product of fertilizer production. The manufacture
of ortho-phosphoric acid, ammonium phosphate, and concentrated superphosphate
represents a key component in the U.S. fertilizer industry. Consequently, the
generation of waste gypsum from the fertilizer industry is closely related to
both U.S. and worldwide fertilizer usage, which is dependent, in turn, upon the
level of agricultural activity and cropping patterns. From 1954 through 1970,
fertilizer consumption in the U.S. increased 83% from 22.3 to 40.8 million tons
(EPA, 1974 and CEQ, 1981). Worldwide consumption of fertilizer increased by
more than 100% during the same period (CEQ, 1981).
The production capacity of U.S. plants producing phosphate-based fertilizer
materials has increased steadily since 1975. Plant capacity figures published
by the Tennessee Valley Authority (1979) are sunmarized in Table 2-4, and indicate
a 3.6% increase in capacity between 1976 and 1979. The projected total capacity
in 1983 is 19.2 million tons, which represents an increase of 14% over 1979
levels. Waste quantities of gypsum resulting from production at capacity levels
were derived by applying waste coefficients presented in EPA (1977). These
estimates and projections through 1983 are shown in Figure 2-5. Production at
levels less than capacity would results in proportional decreases in the genera-
tion of gypsum waste.
2-9
-------
100
90 -
80
40 -
30 ~
20 -
10 -
J ' i ' I I I I I 1 I I I !
1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990
Figure 2-5. Quantity of gypsum produced as a by-product in the basic ferti-
lizer industry 1976-1981 with projections.
2-10
-------
TABLE 2-4. BASIC FERTILIZER MATERIALS INDUSTRY PRODUCTION CAPACITY PHOS-
PHATE-BASED MATERIALS. (1000 TONS)
1976
1977
1978
1979
%
Increase
Wet-Process Phosphoric Acid
8,951
9,296
9,561
9,689
8.2
Ammonium Phosphate
4,721
5,155
4,682
4,725
0.1
Concentrated Superphosphate
2,596
2,440
2.440
2,440
-6.0
Total
16,268
16,891
16,683
16,854
3.6
2.1.5, Waste Acid Production 1n the Titanium Dioxide Industry
The mining and concentrating of titanium and the production of titanium
dioxide results in the generation of large quantities of wastes. As noted by
the EPA (1977), the disposal of these wastes presents a major environmental
problem to the industry. The major waste of concern consists of sulfuric acid
that has been either neutralized or ocean dumped.
The most common processes for producing titanium dioxide are the sulfate
and chloride processes. According to the EPA (1977), each metric ton of titani'im
dioxide produced by the sulfate process results in the generation of 2.4 metric
tons of sulfuric acid, 90% of which is "weak" acid (1.3556 H2SO2) and 10% of which
is "strong" acid (18% H2SO2). The chloride process produces lesser volumes of
waste acids (typically 0.6 metric ton/metric ton output), with roughly the same
acid content.
During 1972, the production capacity of the titanium dioxide industry in
the U.S. was 852,300 metric tons, of which 458,400 metric tons were based on the
chloride process and 393,900 metric tons on the sulfate process. During 1972,
the industry operated at approximately 82.5% of capacity for an implied output
of 703,148 metric tons of titanium dioxide. In 1973 and 1974, the industry
produced approximately 650,000 and 715,000 metric tons of product, respectively
(May and McManus, 1977 and EPA, 1977). According to Trees et al. (1979), 15% of
the acid in the raw waste stream can be recovered and reused. Assuming that
industrial capacity remained constant during the 1972-1974 period, the quantity
of waste acid can be estimated by combining the waste acid coefficients and the
titanium dioxide production estimates. These quantities are presented in Table
2-5.
As shown, an estimated annual average of 838,882 tons of waste acid was
produced from 1972 to 1974. Since the actual waste stream contains a number of
other compounds (including ferrous sulfate and other assorted sulfates and metal
salts), the quantities in need of disposal will be somewhat higher. For example,
an estimated 1.7 million metric tons of iron-acid sludge and 146,000 metric tons
of iron-chloride sludge were produced in 1972 (EPA, 1977).
2-11
-------
TABLE 2-5. WASTE ACID PRODUCTION IN THE TITANIUM DIOXIDE INDUSTRY
1972-1974. (METRIC TONS)
1972 1973 1974
Titanium Dioxide Production
Chloride Process
378,294
349,700
384,670
Sulfate Process
324.854
300,300
330,330
Total
703,148
650,000
715,000
Waste Acid Production
Weak Acid
905,963
837,486
921,235
Strong Acid
100,663
93,054
102,359
Total
1,006,626
930,540
1,023,594
Reprocessed Acid
150,994
139,581
153,539
Net Waste Acid
855,632
790,959
870,055
Acid wastes dumped in the New York Bight by NL Industries contain approxi-
mately 8.556 sulfuric acid (Anderson et al., 1979). If this is representative
of "typical" acid waste from titanium dioxide production, the estimates in Table
2-5 can be adjusted to figures which represent the total quantity of waste
material in need of disposal. For 1972 to 1974 these quantities would have been
10.1, 9.3, and 10.2 million metric tons, respectively.
Titanium dioxide is used as a pigment in paint, paper, plastics, floor
coverings, synthetic fibers, and rubber manufacturing. Consequently, the quanti-
ties of acid wastes generated by the production of titanium dioxide are closely
related to trends in these associated industries. There is, at present, no
reason to believe that these industries' use of titanium dioxide will decline
in coming years.
2.1.6 Low-Level Radioactive Waste (LLW)
Low-level radioactive wastes result from the generation of electricity in
nuclear power plants, government and industrial research, medical isotope produc-
tion and use, and industrial manufacturing. In 1978, commercial nuclear power
plants accounted for 43% of the volume of LLW generated in the U.S. and disposed
of at commercial disposal sites (NUS, 1980a). During 1979, the electric utility
share of LLW production increased to nearly 50% (NUS, 1980b). Institutional and
industrial sources accounted for 50* and 4156 during 1978 and 1979, respective-
ly. Figure 2-6 illustrates the volume of commercially (non-government) produced
LLW annually from 1962 through 1979.
2-12
-------
The vast majority of LLW produced by government facilities is disposed of
at government-operated sites and is not considered in these figures. More than
two-thirds of the LLW disposed of at U.S. burial sites through 1975 was of
government origin. Obviously, LLW activity at government facilities is impor-
tant, particularly when considering the volumes of waste in need of disposal in
future years.
Figure 2-6 also presents two assessments of such future quantities. The
DOE (1980) estimate is for commercially produced LLW only, while that of the
California Energy Commission (CEC, 1979) considers both commercial and government
sources. The figures for 1990 reflect past LLW disposal experience with
commercial wastes estimated at roughly 264,000 cubic meters, compared to the
1-1.2 million cubic meter estimate for the combined commercial/government waste
volume. The CEC estimates assume fairly significant growth in the nuclear power
industry through 1990, with nuclear generation capacity increasing 128-150%. By
1990, they speculate that nuclear power plants will generate 58-63% of the U.S.
total LLW.
Given recent emphasis on increased utilization of coal for electricity
generation and the diminishing emphasis on continued nuclear power growth, the
CEC projections are not likely to be realized. A volume estimate of 500,000
cubic meters of LLW in 1990 is probably more reasonable. Volume reduction
technologies may further modify these future volumes.
2.1.7 Seafood Processing Waste
Seafood wastes are generated by firms that process and package finfish and
shellfish. The volumes of waste generated are a function of the type of fish
processed, the degree of processing, and the quantity of fish involved. The
seafood waste quantities presented in Figure 2-7 for the 1970-1980 period were
derived by applying waste quantity coefficients to particular types of fish
landed each year. Fish landing data were obtained from various National Marine
Fisheries Service statistical reports (NMFS, 1973-1981). Waste quantity data
for specific fish types were obtained from a variety of studies including Murray
(1981), Perry (1981), Brown (1981), NMFS (1973), Pigott (1981), and Webb et al.
(1976).
Between 1970 and 1980, the weight of landed fish meat increased 33% (2442
thousand tons to 3241 thousand tons). Landings of clams, oysters, shrimp, and
lobsters declined by an aggregate total of 6%, while scallop, crab, and finfish
landings increased by 38%. Over the same 10-year period, seafood wastes increased
in quantity by an estimated 35-41%. The range in waste output shown in Figure
2-7 stems from the possible ranges in waste composition associated with particular
types of fish and processing techniques. During 1980, approximately 1.4-2.0
million tons of seafood waste were produced in the U.S. This compares to the
estimated 0.9-1.5 million tons generated in 1970. The vast majority of these
wastes (35-51%) resulted from the processing of finfish.
Future waste quantities will be influenced by several factors, including
the quantities of fish landed and processed, the composition of the landings
(shellfish versus finfish), and the degree to which waste'products-are utlrzed
for animal feed and fertilizer.
2-13
-------
I960 1963 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1993
Figure 2-6. Volume of low-level radioactive waste produced and disposed of at
commercial facilities 1n the United States 1962-1979 with projec-
tions.
2-14
-------
Figure 2-7. Seafood waste quantities.
2-15
-------
2.2 CURRENT DISTRIBUTION OF WASTES AMONG DISPOSAL OPTIONS
2.2.1 Sewage Sludge
An estimated 6.5 million dry metric tons of sewage sludge were generated
in 1980. The primary disposal methods for sewage sludge are landfilling,
incineration, land application, wet ponding, and ocean dumping. The quantities
of sewage sludge disposed of by these various options have been estimated by
several investigators (Farrel, 1975; Champ and Park, 1981; Hyde, 1981; and U.S.
GAO, 1978) and show considerable variation. Table 2-6 summarizes this informa-
tion.
TABLE 2-6. SEWAGE SLUDGE DISPOSAL METHODS AND RELATIVE USE.
%
Landfill
15-33
Land Application
25
Wet Ponding
0-11
Incineration
22-35
Ocean Dumping
4-15
Landfilling is the major disposal option for sewage sludge when one considers
that the ash resulting from incineration is almost exclusively landfilled. Land-
based disposal (including landfilling, land application, ponding, and incinera-
tion) accounts for 85-96% of the disposed sludge. This translates to roughly 6
million dry metric tons annually. The remaining tonnage is ocean disposed by
either dumping or pipeline discharge.
2.2.2 Dredged Material
The ultimate disposal options employed for dredged materials are diffi-
cult to identify. Data are collected only for the ocean dumping option and
"other methods" (e.g., beach replenishment, upland disposal) are not accounted
for in terms of quantities. In 1981, an estimated 22% (74 million cubic yards)
of the 335 million cubic yards of dredged material were ocean dumped. Between
1974 and 1980, an annual average of 21.6% (66.7 million cubic yards) of dredged
material was ocean*dumped.
2.2.3 Coal Ash from Coal Use by Electric Utilities
Coal ash, produced as fly ash, bottom ash, and boiler slag, has found
increasing use in commercial applications. In 1981, the production of fly ash,
bottom ash, and slag totalled 48.6, 14.1, and 5.2 million tons, respectively.
Table 2-7 summarizes the relative utilization of various disposal options for
these three types of coal ash.
2-16
-------
TABLE 2-7. COAL ASH DISPOSAL OPTIONS AND THEIR RELATIVE USE.
(MILLION TONS [%])
Fly Ash Bottom Ash Boiler Slag Total
Commercial Use
6.2
(13)
4.7
(33)
3.1
(60)
14.1
(21)
Landfill
21.4
(44)
4.8
(34)
1.0
(20)
27.2
(40)
Wet Ponding
20.9
(43)
4.7
(33)
1.0
(20)
26.6
(39)
Landfilling and wet ponding, represent the key disposal options for coal
ash. The choice between the two depends primarily on the moisture content of
the ash, which depends in turn.on the combustion and ash recovery technologies
utilized at particular power plants. Dry disposal in landfills appears to be
the preferred future option, due in part to regulatory constraints at local and
federal levels. Commercial uses for coal ash are expected to grow in importance
in the future, particularly in more applications related to cement manufacture,
road bedding, sand blasting, roofing, and snow and ice control.
2.2.4 Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) Sludge
More than half of the FGD sludge generated in the U.S. during 1980 was
disposed of in either lined or unlined ponds. Unlined ponds have been the
dominant method, receiving between 2 and 3 million dry tons in 1980. Roughly
30% of the FGD sludge produced was disposed of in landfills, and about half of
this volume was chemically treated prior to landfilling. A small quantity of
sludge (2%) was disposed of 1n mines.
Growing concerns with groundwater protection and land reclamation are likely
to lead to increased emphasis on secure landfills and lined ponds as FGD sludge
disposal options.
2.2.5 Gypsum from the Basic Fertilizer Materials Industry
Data describing volumes and methods for the disposal of waste gypsum are
sparse. In general, gypsum by-products are stored on-site by wet ponding, or
if the wastes are dewatered, by stockpiling. An estimated 10% of the total
volume of gypsum produced in the fertilizer industry is utilized commercially
in construction-related activities. There is no evidence that commercial users
of gypsum will be able to expand their consumption of this material.
2.2.6 Waste Acid from the Titanium Dioxide Industry
Approximately 25% of the by-product acid resulting from titanium dioxide
production has been used commercially in recent years. The purification process
is costly and places this source of industrial acid in a relatively weak
competitive position. Other disposal options for the waste acid include chemical
neutralization (with lime or limestone), dilution and discharge, and ocean
2-17
-------
dumping. Neutralization accounts for approximately 25% of the waste acid
produced. The resulting by-product is gypsum, which, as described for fertilizer
producers, must be stored on-site due to unfavorable market conditions for
commercial gypsum suppliers. An estimated 20% of the waste acid is discharged
to temporary on-site storage, diluted, and discharged; or diluted and discharged
without temporary storage. The remaining 30% of produced waste acid is ocean
dumped, primarily on the northeast continental shelf.
Other available options exist for waste acid disposal, including submerged
combustion to produce sulfur oxides for iron oxide and/or sulfuric acid produc-
tion, and neutralization with ammonia, caustic or soda ash, or magnesium hydrox-
ide. The former was judged extremely costly in terms of both energy use and
maintenance requirements by Trees et al. (1979). The other neutralization
processes, which lead to marketable products, were thought to be of limited value
because the resulting products' markets are saturated. It appears as though
neutralization with lime or limestone will be a key future disposal option,
leading to the generation of waste sludges and gypsum.
2.2.7 Low-Level Radioactive Waste (LLW)
At the present time, LLW is disposed of exclusively by landfilling. since.
1978 there have been only three sites available for LLW disposal, in South
Carolina, Nevada, and Washington. Of the 80,000 cubic meters of LLW disposed of
at commercial disposal sites in 1979, 79% went to the South Carolina site,
accounting for 66% of the radioactivity contained in the LLW. The key states
in terms of volume produced in 1979 were New York (12%), South Carolina (10%),
Illinois (8%), Pennsylvania (9%), North Carolina (7%), and Massachusetts (6%).
In terms of radioactivity content, Massachsuetts (29%), Florida (19%), New York
(17%), and California (17%) represent the major producers.
A study completed by the California Energy Commission in 1979 (CEC, 1979)
estimates that the three operating sites could be filled by 1990. The study
identifies shallow land burial and on-site storage and disposal as the two most
viable disposal options in the future. Ocean dumping of LLW, practiced by the
U.S. between 1946 and 1970, was cited by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (USNRC,
1978) as an option that is technically feasible but politically difficult.
2.2.8 Seafood Processing Waste
Several alternative disposal methods have been used for seafood processing
wastes, including landfilling, land application, grinding/drying for meal, NPDES-
controlled discharging, and ocean dumping. Unfortunately, data do not exist
which describe the distribution of waste quantities among the available disposal
options.
2.2.9 Industrial Hazardous Wastes
A survey conducted as part of this study' revealed that approximately 84%
of the industrially produced hazardous waste was recycled or disposed of at
industrial sites via methods other than offsite disposal. The remaining 16%
were disposed offsite by landfilling (4.9%), ocean dumping (4.0%), chemical
treatment (3.5%), deep-well injection (1.3%), land application (0.9%), resource
recovery (0.7%), and incineration (0.7%). Specific "on-site" disposal methods
2-18
-------
were not identified. Regulatory constraints are likely to cause landfill
utilization to decline in the future in favor of incineration, resource recovery,
deep-well injection, and other methods.
2.3 SURVEY OF U.S. EPA REGIONS
In an effort to assess likely trends in ocean dumping practices that may
result from promulgation of less stringent ocean dumping guidelines, a survey
was conducted of all U.S. EPA Regional Ocean Dumping Coordinators. Officials
at EPA coastal regions I, II, III, IV, VI, IX, and X (see Figure 2-8) were
surveyed to ascertain what they perceived will be the demand for ocean dumping
in the future. The results of this survey are summarized in Table 2-8.
Figure 2-8. Map of U.S. EPA standard federal regions and regional offices.
The survey results indicate likely trends for ocean dumping, based on the
historical perspective of the regional coordinators together with their views
of recent events in their regions. The significance of these projections should
be viewed in light of the history of ocean dumping in each region, as well as
current and projected industrial and population growth of major economic centers
within each region. The following is a short summary, organized by waste type,
of expected ocean dumping trends or demands on using this alternative as expressed
by the EPA regional coordinators.
2.3.1 Sewage Sludge
The thrust of the.1977 ocean dumping regulations has been to phase out
sewage sludge dumping. The current version of 301(h) regulations also prohibits
ocean disposal of sewage sludge. The Region II coordinator believes that this
position will prevail and ocean disposal of sewage sludge will continue to be
prohibited. However, officials interviewed at all the other regions, except
Region IV, believe that municipalities will be able to demonstrate that no
reasonable alternatives exist and that the dumping will not unreasonably degrade
UNITED STATES
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ACENCY
2-19
-------
TABLE 2-8. RESULTS OF TELEPHONE SURVEY OF U.S. EPA REGIONAL OCEAN DUMPING COORDINATORS
USEPA REGIONS
1
2
3
4
6
9
10
ntnnnKj
Sewage Sludge
I
D*
I
I
I
I
I
~Region 2 believes 1977 regulations will prevail and
continue to prohibit this disposal.
Dredged Material
S
S
S
S
II
12
12
Js.U. Ind. Growth.
'Deepening Projects.
Fly Ash
I
I
S
S
NR
S
S
Region 10 has very little now.
RCRA Driven Chemical Waste
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Also avoiding pretreatment requirements.
Gypsum Sludge
NR
I
I
NR
I
s
NR
Gypsum sludge parallels the Increase In chemical waste.
Low-Level Rad Haste
I
I
I
I
Ocean Incineration
I
I
NR
I
I
NR
NR
Ships being built for operation in any region.
Const rue 11 on/Demo1111on
Debrl s
I
S
S
NR
NR
NR
I*
•Primarily from Alaska.
Cannery Uaste
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
I
NR
Only reported In Region 9.
NSSC Liquor
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
I
Only reported In Region 10.
Secondary Sludge from Pulp
and Paper
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
I
Only from Region 10.
Phosphate Mining
NR
NR
NR
I
NR
NR
NR
Reported only in Region 4, uncertain whether O.D.
permit will be required.
Dr1lling Muds
NR
NR
NR
I
I
I
NR
Likely only where nearby deep water 1s available.
Deep Ocean Mining
NR
NR
NR
NR
NR
I*
NR
•May or nay not be an Ocean Dumping permit.
T1 re s
I
I
I
D
NR
NR
NR
Principally as proposals to construct fish reefs.
Vessels
S
S
S
S
NR
NR
S
Vessels will continue to be scuttled for various
reasons.
I » Increase
0 ¦» Decrease
S •> Same
NR » Not Reported
-------
the marine environment. Some municipalities such as the South Essex Sewage
District, Massachusetts, may find it economically attractive to ocean dump rather
than incinerate or build a long outfall pipe to meet a 301(h) demonstration.
2.3.2 Dredged Material
All coastal EPA regions are involved in the issuance of ocean dumping permits
for dredged material by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The Corps' own dredging
projects must also comply with ocean dumping criteria if dredged material is
disposed of in the "ocean" (seaward of the baseline). Most of the regions believe
that the demand for dredging (maintenance dredging of federal projects) will
continue, dependent on sedimentation rates and the availability of federal funds.
Increases in the ocean disposal of dredged material are expected in Region VI
as industrial growth in the southwest continues, and in Regions IX and X due to
deepening projects to accomodate larger draft vessels.
2.2.3 Fly Ash
Officials at Regions I and II believe that there will be an increased demand
for ocean dumping of fly ash. The use of coal for generating electricity is
expected to increase in these regions (see subsection 2.1) and there will be
more fly ash produced than can reasonably be landfilled. Other coastal regions
do not anticipate any demand for ocean dump ash; in the west and northwest the
coal plants are relatively far inland, resulting in economic disincentives for
the ocean disposal option.
2.3.4 RCRA-Oriven Chemical Waste and Pretreatment Requirements
All the coastal regions are convinced that there will be increased pressure
for ocean dumping due to regulatory control of solid wastes under the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) and requirements for pretreatment of indus-
trial waste. Many of these wastes, produced by industrial processes and con-
sidered hazardous by the EPA, would be prohibited from ocean dumping by the
London Dumping Convention. Ocean disposal of these wastes may be less expensive
for waste generators in the long run because of the high cost of long-term
monitoring and land-disposal sites. Another possible candidate for ocean dumping
is stabilized hazardous waste. This material can be rendered nonhazardous by
chemical processing and dumped at sea, thus avoiding the costly siting, closure,
and monitoring requirements of a landfill.
2.3.5 Gypsum
Although not reported in Regions I, IV, and X, production of gypsum sludge
(from the basic fertilizer materials industry and the neutralization of waste
industrial acids) and the need to ocean dump this material is likely to increase
and follow the trend of increased amounts of chemical waste.
2.3.6 Low-Level Radioactive Waste (LLW)
Most regions believe that there will be an increased demand for dumping
low-level radioactive waste at sea.
2-21
-------
2.3.7 Ocean Incineration
Region VI currently has active permits for high-temperature incineration
at sea. The materials being incinerated (e.g., agent orange) are loaded at
Mobile, Alabama in Region IV. This technique is capable of thermally destroy-
ing waste pesticides, herbicides, and other chlorinated organic compounds at
greater than 9955 efficiency. At-Sea Incineration is building two ships for this
purpose, and Ocean Combustion is building a ship similar to the original VULCANUS.
The Region I and II coordinators also believe that their regions have potential
locations for ocean incineration.
2.3.8 Construction/Demolition Debris
Regions I, II, and III have traditionally permitted dumping of inert
materials resulting from the demolition of buildings and other structures. In
Region I, the amount dumped is expected to increase as landfills become increas-
ingly expensive to use. Regions II and III have always dumped significant amounts
of debris and, although the quantity generally has been decreasing, dumping is
expected to continue and may show increases. Region X expects an increase in
debris dumping in the near term, primarily from military bases 1n Alaska.
2.3.9 Seafood Processing Waste
Only'Region IX reported that 1t may receive requests to dump seafood
processing wastes,1 primarily the wastewater treatment sludge from tuna canner-
ies. This waste category does not include unprocessed seafood waste (from
cleaning fish prior to processing), which is excluded from regulation by 40 CFR
220.1(c)(1).
2.3.10 Waste Liquor
Waste liquor from paper pulping may have to be dumped if markets cannot
absorb the amount produced. Paper plants located in Washington state may find
it less costly to barge this material offshore for dumping than to treat and
discharge it.
2.3.11 Secondary Sludge from Pulp and Paper
The Region X coordinator reported that there will be a demand to dump
secondary sludge from pulp and paper waste treatment. Mills located in the Puget
Sound area may find it economically advantageous to transport this sludge beyond
the nearby continental shelf edge for dumping.
2.3.12 Phosphate Mining
Region IV reported that phosphate mining contemplated for Pamlico County,
North Carolina, and in shallow water off Georgia may generate waste mining and
beneficiation material that could potentially be ocean dumped. This is the only
region in the country that reported this potential activity, and the likelihood
of it occurring or the quantities of material involved are not known at this time.
2-22
-------
2.3.13 Dri11inq Muds
In some locations, direct discharges of drilling muds offshore is prohibited
by regulatory agencies due to the ecological sensitivity of the area surrounding
the drill site. Regions IV, VI, and IX have required that muds be barged and
dumped away from drilling sites. As offshore activity increases and new lease
areas are explored, it is expected that the number of applications for ocean
dumping permits for this material will increase.
2.3.14 Peep Ocean Mining
Region IX may be requested to issue ocean dumping permits for deep ocean
mining activities. The requirement for ocean dumping permits for this type of
operation will depend on the type of discharge (bulk discharge from a vessel or
continuous point source) and whether the mining equipment will be considered a
"vessel or other floating craft" (33 (JSC 466 Sec. 502).
2.3.15 Tires
Rubber tires have been disposed of offshore by creating "tire reefs" out
of thousands of tires which are bound together and sunk. To date, no land-based
disposal method has been developed to successfully deal with the huge quantity
of discarded tires generated each year. As this material builds up at various
land locations, regions in the northeast believe they will be presented with
more proposals to. create "reefs."
A major reason for disposing of rubber tires as reefs is that under 40 CFR
220.1(c)(2) the placement of materials for fishery enhancement is exempt from
regulation under the Ocean Dumping Act, provided that the placement of these
materials is part of an authorized state or federal fisheries enhancement program.
Also the placement of tires as a reef unit helps to ensure that they will remain
where they are placed.
2.3.16 Vessels
Vessels are often towed out to sea and sunk because this is the least
expensive disposal method. Regulation 40 CFR 229.3 provides for a general permit
to allow this disposal, provided that all material that may pollute the marine
environment is removed from the vessel and provided that the dump site is at
least 12 miles from the nearest land and at least 300 feet deep. The need for
this type of ocean disposal is expected to continue.
2.4 SURVEY OF MUNICIPALITIES
Representatives of the Conference on Coastal Agencies (CCA), a subcoirenittee
of the Association of Metropolitan Sewerage Agencies (AMSA), were surveyed to
determine current and future interest in ocean dumping for their districts'
sewage sludge disposal needs. We contacted 14 urban coastal sewage districts,
from Alaska to Maryland, with populations ranging from 175,000 (Anchorage,
Alaska) to 8 million (New York City). Although this was not a statistical survey,
the results do highlight issues critical to the ocean dumping decision process.
2-23
-------
In general, municipalities only appeared interested in ocean dumping when
land-based alternatives were unavailable, expensive, or prohibited. Otherwise,
the capital and operational costs of sludge barging, the time and expense
associated with dump site selection and approval, and public opinion make the
ocean dumping option less desirable.
Most of the sewage districts surveyed foresaw at least a minor increase in
sludge volume from 1) population increase, 2) enlargement of sewage districts
(e.g., Orange County Sanitation Districts, California), 3) start-up of secondary
treatment plants (e.g., Passaic Valley Sewerage Commission, Newark, New Jersey),
and 4) increase in the proportion of the population sewered (e.g., Nassau County,
New York). However, prediction is often difficult; for example, the Director
of Public Works, City of Baltimore, Maryland, said future trends in sewage volume
in his district depend on the the housing market and population shifts between
the city and suburbs. The South Essex Sewage District, Massachusetts, actually
may experience a volume decrease as industry (leather tanning) moves out of the
area.
Representatives of several districts remarked on legislative guidelines
that make land-based sludge utilization options impractical and may increase the
desirability of ocean dumping. For example, the Public Works Utility Services,
Tacoma, Washington, has had a sludge utilization plan (fertilization) for 30
years. However, EPA guidelines specifying secondary treatment and trace metal
levels are limiting the continuation of this land-based alternative.
2.5 SURVEY OF INDUSTRIES
In addition to assessing the ocean dumping prospects of the major waste
categories considered above, we also surveyed representatives of several other
waste-generating industries that have ocean dumped in the past. The intent was
to assess the potential future attractiveness of ocean dumping to industries
that have already developed land-based disposal. The three major industry groups
surveyed were pulp and paper, chemical, and pharmaceutical companies.
2.5.1 Pulp and Paper
According to the National Council of the Paper Industry for Air and Stream
Improvement, Inc. (NCASI), the main use of the ocean by the paper industry has
occurred in the Pacific Northwest where proximity to deep water made ocean
disposal of process effluents attractive, economically and environmentally. In
addition, some paper mills have used municipalities (-10% of the industry) or
private contractors to barge solid and liquid wastes to sea. In these cases the
barging was cost effective relative to concentrating and disposing of these
wastes on land (James J. McKeown, NCASI, pers. comm.).
Although the paper industry has not extensively used the ocean to dispose
of its wastes, there are cases where the ocean offers an economical and feasible
alternative for disposal. Therefore, NCASI is interested in seeing research
supported that will determine the impact and fate of various paper industry waste
materials if ocean disposed. Large pulp and paper operations are able to burn
much of their wastes for heat recovery, product recovery, or waste volume
reduction. However, for small companies, the cost of a furnace is high and a
small-scale furnace has poor heat balance.
2-24
-------
One factor that has reduced industry interest in ocean dumping is that many
existing companies have already installed Best Practical Technology (BPT). A
major determinant of the attractiveness of the ocean dumping option, therefore,
will be which guidelines are in effect for new facilities.
2.5.2 Chemical
According to a representative of a major chemical company, it appears
unlikely that wastes previously disposed of in the ocean and now land disposed
would again be ocean dumped if this option were available. Most large companies
have made substantial investments in incinerators, deep wells, and other land-
based facilities to dispose of their wastes. Future applications for ocean
disposal would depend on regulatory requirements and the results of evaluating
alternatives for the disposal of specific wastes (R.F. Schwer, E.I. duPont de
Nemours & Company, pers. comm.). A representative of another major chemical
company discussed the possibility that industrial wastes similar to those present-
ly being ocean dumped (e.g., waste acids) would continue to be dumped and would
perhaps increase in the future.
Other industry representatives surveyed specified heavy metal disposal as
a major category of concern, because of difficulty in heavy metal "detoxifica-
tion." They expressed particular Interest in research on the fate of heavy
metals in the ocean.
2.5.3 Pharmaceutical
Most pharmaceutical companies now have large financial commitments to land-
based disposal (e.g., on-site incineration, secondary waste treatment), made in
response to EPA regulations. Ocean dumping would only be an option for drug
companies that do not yet have secondary treatment.
2.6 REGULATORY FACTORS
Whether or not ocean dumping will become a more attractive disposal option
in the future depends largely on its legal availability. Recent and proposed
changes in federal, state, and local regulatory controls seem to favor considera-
tion of the ocean for disposal of certain waste types. The most significant
controlling regulations are examined below for their potential effect on ocean
disposal.
2.6.1 The Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act
This law and its regulations currently prohibit or strictly limit the ocean
dumping of all types of material that would adversely affect human health,
welfare, amenities, the marine environment, or economic potentialities. Amend-
ments to the Ocean Dumping Act under consideration by the EPA would regulate the
dumping of all materials into ocean waters that will result in degradation of
the marine environment. It would encourage the removal of particular contaminants
from materials before dumping occurs and prohibit the dumping of materials into
any ocean waters until their effects have been adequately studied. This would
not categorically exclude sewage sludge or industrial waste.
2-25
-------
2.6.2 The Federal Water Pollution Control Act (Clean Mater Act) and
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
(Sec. 402)
The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) controls the
discharge of pollutants from point sources. Discharges must comply with effluent
guidelines, not violate applicable water quality standards and, in the case of
ocean waters, must comply with Ocean Discharge Criteria (Sec. 403). Implementa-
tion of this program has resulted in the generation of treatment sludges that
could be ocean disposed but are currently being disposed of in landfills,
incinerated, or, in some cases, recycled and reclaimed.
2.6.3 Pretreatment (Sec. 307)
According to U.S. EPA regulations (40 CFR 403.5), municipalities operating
Publicly Owned Treatment Works (POTW) must have an approved pretreatment program
in place by July 1, 1983. A municipality must require all industrial dischargers
using its facility to control particular pollutants in their discharge to the
facility. Pollutants of concern are those which pass through or interfere with
the treatment process. National pretreatment standards currently in effect
prohibit the discharge of pollutants that: 1) create a fire or explosion hazard;
2) cause corrosive structural damage to the POTW, and in no case have a pH less
than 5 (unless the POTW is specifically designed to accommodate low pH waste);
3) are solid or viscous enough to obstruct sewer flow or otherwise interfere
with the POTW; 4) create a.large oxygen demand and interfere with POTW operation;
or 5) interfere with the biological treatment function of a POTW by addition of
heat, and in no case create a temperature greater than 40°C (104°F) unless the
POTW is designed to accommodate it.
Specific federal pretreatment standards for all priority industries are due
to become effective by mid-1984. These standards are principally designed, to
require removal of pollutants that would pass through a POTW with essentially
no treatment. Since municipalities are required to have their programs in place
6 months earlier, and these programs may be more stringent, whether or not the
federal regulations take effect on the projected date may not be important.
The principal industrial sludges of interest that will be produced from
pretreatment will be metal hydroxide sludges. The metals found in these sludges
are generally prohibited from ocean dumping by the London Dumping Convention.
No acids currently discharged to POTWs would comply with general pretreatment
requirements. Increased amounts of acids and acid-neutralized sludges could be
generated for potential ocean dumping as surveillance and enforcement programs
succeed in eliminating these discharges.
Metal hydroxide sludges generated now by industries treating their waste
to meet NPDES limitations, and generated in the future by pretreatment, could
be retained for their metal value. Alternatively, these sludges, considered
hazardous waste because of their metal content, could be solidified and dumped
at sea. There have been recent proposals to stabilize hazardous waste by
solidification and then landfill the solid material. Companies proposing such
facilities have had a very difficult time siting them because, among other things,
local conmunities do not want their towns to be the repositories for this material,
stabilized or not. These materials may be suitable for disposal at sea, a burial
ground that is perhaps more politically acceptable.
2-26
-------
2.6.4 Waivers from Secondary Treatment. (Sec. 301[h])
Section 301(h) provides for a waiver from secondary treatment requirements
for a POTW provided that, among other things, such a waiver will not violate
water quality standards, will not require reductions from other point sources
to attain water quality standards, and that there is a pretreatment program in
place and sources of toxic pollutants are controlled. Secondary sludge is not
generated if only primary treatment is required.
Recommended amendments to the Clean Water Act by GAO (1981) would eliminate
the time limit for making 301(h) applications. GAO recommends that the U.S. EPA
revise its definition of Best Practicable wastewater treatment Technology (BPT)
to allow primary discharges. (This is being considered for all municipalities
[Inside EPA, 15 January 1982].) GAO also recommends that Step I facilities
planning grant applications in coastal areas be required to consider discharging
primary wastes into marine waters as an alternative to secondary treatment. GAO
would revise the waiver application approach to consider separately communities
by size and type of population served, making it easier for smaller cotmiunities
with just domestic waste to obtain waivers. The EPA would provide small coastal
communities with technical assistance in obtaining waivers. A recent court
decision in Orange County, California, requires the EPA to consider applications
to discharge sewage sludge and to make a determination (finding of fact) of
whether there will be a significant adverse impact.
2.6.5 Ocean Discharge Criteria (Sec. 403)
Ocean Discharge Criteria are promulgated by 40 CFR 125.121 and require that
all discharges of pollutants from a point source into the territorial seas, the
contiguous zone, and the oceans must not unreasonably degrade the marine environ-
ment. "Unreasonable degradation of the marine environment" means 1) significant
adverse changes in ecosystem diversity, productivity, and stability of the
biological community within and surrounding the area of discharge; 2) threat to
human health through direct exposure to pollutants or through consumption of
exposed aquatic organisms; or 3) loss of aesthetic recreational, scientific, or
economic values that is unreasonable in relation to the benefit "derived from the
discharge. Ocean Discharge Criteria do not materially affect, by themselves,
the type or amount of ocean dumping that would be controlled by the MPRSA.
2.6.6 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) controls at the federal
level the generation, transport, treatment, storage, and disposal of material
classified by regulation as hazardous. Material that was formerly disposed of
as solid waste or discharged to waste treatment plants without regard to potential
toxic effects is now controlled and can no longer be discarded improperly. The
effect of this law has been to identify increasing amounts of wastes that are
hazardous and, because of the lack of suitable disposal sites, has resulted in
pressure to have states try to identify proper hazardous waste disposal sites.
..Siting acceptable hazardous waste disposal facilities has not been very
successful. In Massachusetts, communities have successfully opposed siting such
facilities within their borders. While publicly recognizing the need for proper
facilities, communities have not been willing to accept them. Offshore disposal
of solidified, detoxified hazardous waste may comply with ocean dumping
2-27
-------
regulations because the waste will no longer be toxic. Also, offshore disposal
may be politically attractive because the burden of the disposal site is shared
by all.
2.6.7 Safe Drinking Water Act
The Underground Injection Control Program of the Safe Drinking Water Act
controls the injection of wastes into wells, to protect water supplies from
contamination. Recent relaxation of EPA rules (July 1981) allows states imple-
menting this program to exempt from protection certain underground water sup-
plies, and to exempt oil shale and geothermal wells completely. Regulation of
waste injection into wells might force waste disposers currently discharging to
wells to seek other disposal alternatives, including ocean dumping. However,
by designating certain subsurface areas for disposal and reducing the cost of
such disposal, the need to seek alternatives is lessened.
2.6.8 Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Act
The Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Act (PL96-573) requires each state
to be responsible for LLW wastes generated within its borders (except defense-
related waste). States may enter into regional compacts, and, after January 1,
1986, compact states may refuse wastes from non-compact states. This act has
clear implications for the number of shallow land burial sites. States where
LLW waste generation is highest (e.g., the Northeast states) will have to develop,
disposal options long before-1986 in order tohave them implemented by then.
Massachusetts has responded by passing legislation providing for an investigation
and study by,a special commission relative to low-level radioactive waste. This
commission is required to assess current laws and regulations, determine whether
Massachusetts should participate in a regional LLW facility, and recommend a
comprehensive process for siting a LLW facility.
2.6.9 State and Local Regulatory Factors
As state and local governments become increasingly aware of the problems
associated with land disposal of solid and hazardous waste, more laws and
ordinances are being enacted to control this activity. In many cases, this
tightening of regulatory control at the state and local level is severely limiting
disposal options for waste material, especially solid and hazardous waste. This
tightening of control for land disposal, in combination with court rulings and
proposed amendments to existing federal regulations that would force EPA to
consider ocean disposal as a feasible alternative, tend to favor an increase in
ocean disposal proposals for all types of solid waste. Some examples of these
factors nationwide include:
• A ban on land disposal of sludge by the state of New Jersey.
• City of New York versus the U.S. EPA. Sewage sludge can be considered
for ocean dumping by the EPA based on its actual effect on the marine
environment.
• States being delegated federally mandated programs: RCRA, NPDES,
Pretreatment, UIC - likely to be more strict.
2-28
-------
• Orange County Court of Appeals decision. The EPA must develop a satis-
factory procedure enabling municipal agencies to apply for 301(h)
modified NPDES permits to put sludge in the ocean.
• Zoning and Home Rule may keep hazardous waste disposal facilities from
being located on land.
2.7 COSTS OF ALTERNATIVE WASTE DISPOSAL METHODS
Waste disposal costs have been estimated and discussed by several investiga-
tors., and the results show considerable variation. Factors which contribute to
inconsistent cost estimates include: the type(s) of waste considered; ,the geo-
graphic setting; the time frame of the analysis; the interest rate selected;
whether indirect (social) costs are included; the volume of waste handled and
plant capacity; and whether transportation/handling costs are included. A
majority of the studies available have focused their attention on particular
types of waste and the costs of alternative disposal methods for that waste. We
will follow the same basic approach.
2.7.1 Sewage Sludge
The NRC (1977) study of sewage sludge management options provides a thorough
discussion of factors which influence sewage sludge disposal costs and which can
lead to disparate results for otherwise similar analyses. They also explicitly,
consider indirect costs' and benefits but do not attempt to quantify these items.
Table 2-9, taken from the NRC report, lists some of the types of direct, indirect,
and social costs and benefits associated with sewage sludge management. Table
2-10 presents cost estimates for alternative sewage sludge disposal options as
presented by the NRC.
Each disposal option exhibits significant variation in direct costs, trace-
able in part to differences 1n land, labor, energy, and other costs at particular
facilities. The ocean disposal option appears to present a relatively attractive
method in terms of direct costs. Other options, including incineration and land
application, offer certain indirect benefits as well (heat recovery and soil
enrichment, for example) which could improve their relative standing with regard
to costs.
2.7.2 Dredged Material
The critical costs associated with dredged material disposal are transporta-
tion costs. Indirect and social costs, potentially important in areas of
intensive fishing or recreational activity, and indirect benefits associated
with beach replenishment, have not been quantified in the available studies.
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1979) presents cost data for dredging projects
in the New York District for the 1972-1976 period. The costs presented include
both dredging and disposal and range from SI.32 to $1.44 per cubic yard of
material dredged. Transport costs represented roughly 70% of this unit cost.
Similar estimates from other sources range as high as $2.28 per cubic yard for
ocean disposal and $3.05 for land disposal.
2-29
-------
TABLE 2-9. COST AND BENEFIT ITEMS FOR CONSIDERATION.
Types of direct, indirect, and social costs and benefits associated with sludge
management are illustrated, but this list is not exhaustive. In addition to the
water quality benefits attained by wastewater treatment, there are several
potential benefits which may accrue from the use of sludge. A review of
information presented here could aid in arriving at a decision concerning sludge
management. (From NRC, 1977.)
Cost and Benefit Items for Consideration Direct Indirect Social
Cost
Capital Expense: treatment, disposal,
reclamation X
Operating Expense: treatment, disposal,
reclamation X
Land Values: proximate to treatment site X
Health Hazards: proximate to treatment site X X
Aesthetic Values: proximate to treatment site X
Transport Costs: treatment site to disposal
or reuse site X
Acquisition Costs: land for disposal or reuse X
air for disposal X
water, e.g.,.ocean, for disposal X
Land Values: proximate to disposal site X
Health Hazards: proximate to disposal site X X
Aesthetic Values: proximate to disposal site X
Productivity Cost: labor and capital for
agriculture X
Governmental Cost: regulatory, research, etc. X
Raising and Disbursing Tax Monies X
Effects on Fisheries X
Industrial Wastewater Pretreatment X X
Benefit
Revenues from fertilizer sales X
Revenues from other reclaimed products X
Proceeds from sales of land reclaimed X
Land values adjacent to reclaimed site X
Value of goods produced on reclaimed land X
Use of treated water produced in course
of generation of sludge X X
Ocean productivity X
Alternate employment for fertilizer, labor,
and capital X
2-30
-------
TABLE 2-10. COST ESTIMATES FOR DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE SLUDGE BY VARIOUS OPTIONS.
(1976S/DRY TON) (From NRC, 1977.)
Wet 011 Land Ocean
Pyrolysls Oxidation Incineration Drying Dehydration Composting Landfill Application Lagoon Disposal
48-88 59-113 33-173 50-134 41-116 22-177 27-141 46-160 138 9-61
2.7.3 Coal Ash and Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD) Sludge
Estimates of FGD sludge disposal costs reported in the literature and summarized
by EPRI (1979) range from $1 per dry ton (ponding after fixation) to $25 per dry
ton (dry disposal with fixation) in 1977 dollars. Unfortunately estimates in
different studies are difficult to compare because of inconsistencies in
assumptions. EPRI reports operating data for four power plants that indicate
FGD sludge disposal costs of $8.53 to $22.47 per dry ton. Table 2-11 summarizes
cost estimates for several FGD sludge disposal methods.
TABLE 2-11. COST ESTIMATES FOR DISPOSAL OF FGD SLUDGE BY VARIOUS OPTIONS.
(1977S/DRY- TON.) (From EPRI, 1979.)
Wet Disposal 1n Wet Disposal 1n Wet Disposal 1n Dry Disposal Dry Disposal General Disposal
Ponds with Ponds with Ponds with without- with with
Artificial Liner Natural Liner Fixation Fixation Fixation Fixation
3.50-18.00 4.00-5.62 1.00-17.90 3.70-11.00 8.30-25.00 5.00-15.00
Disposal costs for coal ash have been estimated by EPA (1979) in an attempt
to determine the impacts of RCRA on the waste handling procedures of electric
utilities. Their methodology involved a consideration of current disposal
practices and costs, in conjunction with incremental cost increases brought about
by RCRA-mandated design changes. The analysis also assumes that ash and FGD
sludge are combined prior to disposal.
The disposal cost for the ash/sludge mixture was estimated to be $7.51 per
metric ton for an unlined pond, and $3.00 per metric ton for landfilling.
Incremental costs resulting from RCRA-required treatment or containment measures
were estimated to be $8.23 to $9.47 per metric ton for liners and $6.32 per
metric ton for chemical stabilization. The total ash/sludge mixture disposal
costs were estimated to fall in the $3.00 to $17.00 per metric ton range depending
on the degree of containment and pre-treatment implemented.
2-31
-------
2.7.4 Waste Gypsum
Most gypsum by-product is stockpiled at the sites where the material is
produced, often in wet ponds. The distribution of waste gypsum among disposal
options and conmercial uses is not known, nor are the costs associated with the
various end uses. However, the costs of wet ponding gypsum sludge are probably
similar to those of wet ponding FGD sludge. These cost estimates are discussed
in subsection 2.7.3.
2.7.5 Waste Acids
In 1974 GAF Corporation examined alternative methods for disposing of a
waste product consisting of sodium chloride, sodium sulfate, and several,species
of nitrobenzoic acid (Klein, 1974). The methods examined included deep-well
injection, incineration/deep-well injection, and ocean dumping, with estimated
disposal costs of $1.71, $6.46, and $8.33 per ton, respectively. These estimates
have probably doubled since the time the GAF report was prepared.
Neutralization of waste acid at a titanium dioxide pigment manufacturing
plant has resulted in a $95 per metric ton increase in the cost of producing the
pigment (Trees et al., 1979). This cost was not presented on a dollar per unit
of waste basis, nor was the disposal/storage cost of the by-product gypsum
estimated. If it is assumed that each ton of product'.yields 2.4 tons of waste
acid* a treatment cost of $39.58 per ton of waste acidvcan be derived. Most of
the resulting, gypsum has: been stockpiled on-site; and a small portion has been
sold for wallboard manufacture. Estimates of the associated storage costs and
sales revenue were not presented in the report.
Acid wastes are typically ocean dumped in bulk form, which is less costly
than disposal of other industrial wastes in containerized form. Reed (1975)
presents cost estimates for bulk ocean dumping of industrial wastes which do not
include treatment, storage, loading, monitoring, and any associated indirect or
social costs. For the U.S., the disposal cost averaged $1.70 per ton and ranged
from $0.60 to $9.50 per ton in 1968, and is probably much closer to $30 to $60
per ton today.
2.7.6 Low-Level Radioactive Waste (LLW)
Transportation costs are an important consideration in LLW disposal because
of the limited number of disposal sites available in the U.S. The 00E (1980)
reports disposal costs at two existing LLW disposal facilities to be in the $6.00
to $7.75 per cubic foot range, exclusive of transportation costs. Shipping costs
for a standard (1140 cubic foot) truck load of material would add approximately
$1.50 per mile, while shipping costs for material shipped in special protective
containers (300 cubic foot) would add roughly $3.00 per mile to the disposal
fee. Material shipped 1000 miles by these methods would result in total disposal
costs of approximately $7.32 to $10.75 per cubic foot.
The same report estimates disposal costs for 1985 assuming centralized
disposal sites, thereby reducing the transportation cost share. The analysis
2-32
-------
includes costs of land, buildings, equipment, licensing, operation and main-
tenance, disposal fees, and transportation. The per cubic foot disposal cost
estimate ranges from $13.87 to $66.16 depending on the site location and handling
capacity. Estimates are also provided for incineration of low activity materials
prior to landfilling at appropriate sites. These cost estimates range from $7.65
to $16.01 per cubic foot, depending once again on site location and capacity.
2.7.7 Seafood Processing Wastes
Unfortunately, cost data are unavailable for disposal of seafood process-
ing wastes. In many cases, the wastes are discharged after some level of
treatment, or ocean dumped. The ocean dumping methods and costs are probably
well represented by those of sewage sludge.
2.7.8 Industrial Hazardous Wastes
Hansen and Rishel (1981) and the present program obtained cost estimates
for disposal of a variety of "industrial hazardous wastes." These disposal costs
exhibit significant variation depending on the composition of the material being
disposed of and the disposal technique being considered. Table 2-12 summarizes
this cost information.
TABLE 2-12. COST ESTIMATES FOR DISPOSAL OF INDUSTRIAL HAZARDOUS WASTES BY
VARIOUS OPTIONS. ($/T0N)
Present
Hansen and Rishel
Program
(1978 $)
(1982 $)
Incineration
537-566
100-3000
Land Disposal
111-341
20-500
Chemical Fixation with Solids
199
50-100
Chemical Fixation without Solids
53
50-100
Encapsulation
95-103
Deep-well Injection
40-70
Chemical Treatment/Sludge Disposal
25-200
The estimates for incineration cover the largest range, with PCB incinera-
tion being most costly. Land disposal costs also show a wide range of estimates,
with chemical landfilling of drums being the most costly. As with other waste
categories, however, these cost estimates fail to consider external (social)
costs which can be of critical importance in waste handling decisions.
2-33
-------
3. ENVIRONMENTAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH IMPLICATIONS
OF LAND-BASED WASTE DISPOSAL ALTERNATIVES
This section of the report summarizes information on the environmental and
public health implications of land-based alternatives. The information indicates
that no alternative is risk-free, although some alternatives pose greater risks
than others. We have not attempted to quantify the relative risks of various
alternatives as this is beyond the scope of our present project. However, we
believe the information presented does underscore the need for a cross-media
risk analysis approach to waste management. No alternative should be rejected
outright without consideration of the risks to health and the environment posed
by other alternatives.
Several cross-media risk analyses are presently underway. The EPA's Sludge
Policy Committee has contracted with Booz Allen & Hamilton Inc. to gather
information that can be used in a cross-media analysis of sewage sludge disposal.
The EPA's office of Solid Waste Management.has contracted with ICF Inc. to examine
the public health and environmental implications of various methods of hazardous
waste disposal. In addition, New York City (New York) and the South Essex Sewage
District (Massachusetts) have conducted cross-media risk analyses on their sewage
sludges. Undoubtedly, other examples of the application of this approach could
be found.
We present below discussions of environmental and public health implications
of several land-based disposal alternatives: landfills, land burial, land
spreading, incineration, solidification, and deep well injection. This review
is not meant to be exhaustive, but rather to provide background information on
the kinds of risks associated with these alternatives.
3.1 LANDFILLS AND LAND BURIAL
Sanitary or hazardous waste landfills have been used for disposal of a
number of waste types including sewage sludge, dredged material, fly ash, FGD
sludge, industrial sludge, and low-level radioactive wastes (shallow land buri-
al).
3.1.1 Sanitary Landfills
Depending upon its design and location, a wide range of wastes can be
deposited in sanitary landfill. The amount of waste it is capable of receiving
is governed by site size and available equipment. Leachate is controlled by
using an impervious liner, made of either clay or plastic, and a drainage and
collection system that returns the leachate for treatment.
3-1
-------
The landfill option is fairly straightforward with relatively low initial
and operating costs. Land use is an important consideration, for once the land
is used for this option, it cannot be readily used for other purposes. As land
is consumed for landfill, the availability of land in the community will decrease,
and while this will not become a pressing problem only because of landfill, it
will become more acute. It has also been suggested that landfills may require
hundreds of years of maintenance due to settlement, methane-gas generation, and
leachate formation (Stone, 1977).
A major concern when employing this option for waste disposal is that many
landfills are not operated properly, leaving unstable cells to collapse, causing
slides and exposing refuse. This usually is not a dramatic slide, but rather a
small opening through which insects and rodents can enter with the possibility
of picking up and spreading diseases. Pollution of surface and groundwater due
to runoff and leachate may also have long-term effects on the environment and
human health.
Leachate contains high concentrations of organic and inorganic compounds
and is a result of percolation of water through landfill. It is highly variable
in nature depending on the characteristics of waste material; the chemical and
physical conditions of landfill, such as temperature, pH, redox potential,
moisture, and age; the quality and quantity of external sources of water; and,
the composition of covering soils.
After the waste.is placed in a sanitary landfill, it undergoes a number of
biological, physical, and chemical changes simultaneously. The biological
activities depend, to a large extent, on the composition of the waste and the
moisture content in the landfill (Eliasson, 1972). The concentration of free
oxygen, on the other hand, determines the mode of decomposition. It has been
reported that in aerated landfills, the rate of refuse settlement was approximate-
ly five times greater than that for the anaerobic landfills. The former have
higher internal temperatures and greater rates of waste stabilization (Merz and
Stone, 1969). Because landfill cells are generally sealed by compacting,
anaerobic decomposition of organic matter is the prevailing reaction. As a
result, large quantities of organic acids are formed. Methane, carbon dioxide,
hydrogen sulfide, and hydrogen are the major constituents of the gaseous products.
Solubilization of organic compounds by ionization, formation of hydrogen bonding,
and hydrolysis contributes to the leachate enrichment in dissolved solids.
Oue to the anaerobic condition, the redox potential generally favors reduc-
tion. Thus, elements are more stable in the reduced state. Reduction of insoluble
Fe^+ and Mn4+ to the soluble forms of Fe'+ and Mn'+, followed by the reduction
of nitrate, ferric hydroxide, alcohol, carbohydrate, sulfate, sulfur, and carbon
dioxide, not only lead to an increase of hardness and alkalinity in leachates,
it is also a source for groundwater contamination. Furthermore, weathering
reactions such as dissolution of calcite, apatite, and alumino-silicates by
carbonic acid, produced through the solution of CO2 from landfills in percolating
water, also contributes to the mineral contents of the leachate. Since minerals
continue leaching for indefinite periods of time, they present more of a problem
than do organic leachates (Chen and Bowerman, 1974).
Due to the great variance in the elements contributing to leachates forma-
tion, their compositions vary widely. The concentration range of components
found in leachates and in well water adjacent to sanitary landfills in the Los
3-2
-------
Angeles Basin was reported by Chen and Bowerman (1974). It was found that
leachates with a high concentration of total hardness were generally low in trace
metals (lead, zinc, and cadmium) but contain high concentrations of ammonia and
have a high chemical oxygen demand (COD). The pollutant concentration ranges
in leachate for typical domestic refuse have been reported by Stone (1977). It
was suggested that landfill leachates may contain dissolved and suspended materi-
als of all sorts within these limits (Table 3-1).
TABLE 3-1. CONCENTRATION RANGE OF POLLUTANTS IN LEACHATE FROM TYPICAL
OOMESTIC REFUSE. (Stone, 1977)
Ion
Concentration Range (mg/1)
phosphate
5-130
sulfate
25-500
chloride
100-2400
sodium
100-3800
nitrogen
20-500
hardness (as CaC03)
200-5250
chemical oxygen demand
100-51000
total residue
1000-45000
iron
200-1700
zinc
1-135
nickel
0.01-0.80
copper
0.10-9.0
PH
4.0-8.5
The primary transport medium for leachate products is the groundwater flow
system which is governed by hydrogeologic properties of the earth materials,
hydrology of groundwater, and pumping of wells in the area. Due to the low flow
velocities and low diffusion rates in groundwater reservoirs, serious conse-
quences may result when leachate pollution is present (Chen and Bowerman, 1974).
Pollution of surface water can also lead to contamination or eutrophication of
the water body.
Deterioration of air quality can result from organic chemicals evolved from
sludges after landfilling. The type and quantity of volatile chemicals emitted
depend largely on the nature of the waste, pH, the oxidation-reduction potential,
the moisture content, and the temperature of the soil environment. Certain of
the compounds from sewage sludge have been identified (Rains et al., 1973).
These include alcohols, carbonyl-containing compounds, nitrogen-containing com-
pounds, sulfur-containing compounds, and simple organics.
The chemicals which contain sulfur, reduced nitrogen, and carbonyl moieties
are malodorous. Additional malodorous compounds may be contributed by- the
microbial methylation and volatilization of inorganic elements such as selenium,
mercury, arsenic, lead, and tellurium (Becker et al., 1974; Doran, 1976; Doran
and Alexander, 1975; Wong et al., 1974; Wood, 1974). Methylation is an essential
3-3
-------
metabolic process of all biological systems and certain of these elements are
indigenous to soil. However, the methylated forms of these elements are greatly
increased by landfilling of wastes such as sewage sludge due to an increase in
both carbon and metal availability.
Although there is no apparent correlation of toxicity and odor of gases,
nor is there any definite relationship between odor of gases and specific organic
diseases, malodors have been frequently identified as air pollutants of greatest
concern by public surveys (Osag and Crane, 1974). In addition to their adverse
economic effects on the growth and development, property values, and tax revenues
of a community (Sullivan, 1969), physiological responses, some of them of
subjective nature, may also be induced by malodors (Mosier et al., 1977). These
include poor appetite, lower water consumption, impaired respiration, nausea and
vomiting, insomnia, mental stress, and allergic responses.
Dust emission is also frequently associated with landfills. The nature and
quantity of the background dusts are conceivably a function of the types of
covering soils and their susceptibility to wind erosion. Depending on the
composition of disposed wasted various organics, volatile compounds, and micro-
organisms may be present on these particles.
3.1.2 Hazardous Waste Landfills
Much of the previous discussion concerning general risks associated with
sanitary landfills applies .to.hazardous waste landfills. However, a few key
points are emphasized here.
Most of the operating hazardous waste landfills in the United States isolate
their contents by combinations of the following: geologic isolations, natural
or synthetic liners, and leachate collection. The protection of groundwater
from leachate generated by mobile liquids in the landfill or the interaction of
waste with rainfall, groundwater, or surface water is of prime concern.
The operating chemical landfills are almost exclusively designed with clay
soils used as liners or barriers. The suitability of natural and compacted clay
soils used for lining of waste management facilities has recently come under
close scrutiny by the EPA. Two recently published papers have suggested some
problems with increased permeation of organic fluids through clay soil liners
(Green et al., 1981; Anderson et al., 1981). The permeabilities of clay soils
in contact with solvents such as carbon tetrachloride and xylene showed rapid
increases that may be due to structural changes in the soil. Solvent breakthrough
phenomenon was observed in the number of solvent/clay-soil systems. Benzene,
xylene, and carbon tetrachloride all were observed to cause shrinking and cracking
of clays resulting in bulk permeability or channel flow through the clay liner.
The implication of these studies is that the state-of-the-art hazardous
waste landfills will leak organic leachate faster than predicted. An unreleased
Princeton University study of leakage at four secure chemical landfills was
referenced during testimony given to the House Government Operations Subcommittee
on November 4, 1981. The study showed that "significant leakage" from these
facilities had occurred.
Additional documentation of the potential ineffectiveness of clay liners
was a December 22, 1981 St. Louis Post-Dispatch report of the unexpected migration
3-4
-------
of leachate at the SCA Landfill in Wilsonville, Illinois. State environmental
officials announced the finding of organic solvents in a disposal site well.
Permeability calculations predicted the solvents would have taken 500 years to
reach this well. The material, however, had been buried in mid-1978 and had
migrated to the well in only 42 months.
Concern over the control of leachate from hazardous wastes disposed of in
landfills has generated some new controls on this disposal activity. California
has enacted legislation that will ban the land disposal of six types of "high
priority wastes" beginning January 1, 1983. Those wastes are: PCBs, pesticides,
toxic metals, cyanides, halogenated organics, and non-halogenated organics. The
California Office of Appropriate Technology's report, "Alternatives to the Land
Disposal of Hazardous Wastes: An Assessment for California," estimates that
these six categories of wastes account for 40% of all wastes landfilled in the
state. The report proposed that "it is technically feasible to recycle, treat,
or destroy approximately 75* of all the hazardous wastes now disposed of in Class
I and II-1 landfills." The concern with these classes of wastes is again the
eventual migration and persistence of leachate from landfills.
Estimates of between three and six new treatment and incineration facilities
will be required in order to safely manage California's high-priority wastes.
It should be noted though that recovery, incineration, or detoxification facili-
ties will still require ultimate land disposal for residues from these operations.
Additionally, there are groups of wastes, such as spent fluorinated solvents
generated by the-semiconductor industry, that cannot be recycled or Incinerated
because of severe corrosion caused by the formation of hydrofluoric acid during
thermal decomposition.
3.1.3 Shallow Land Burial of Low-Level Radioactive Waste
Current disposal practices involve waste volume reduction, packaging, and
ultimately shallow land burial. Liquids from power plants are treated by
evaporation, filtration, and ion exchange. After evaporation of water, the
concentrated liquid is solidified with a binding agent like cement. Filtration
is used to remove contaminated suspended solids from water and ion exchange is
used to remove dissolved radionuclides from solution. Institutional wastes
(generally from academic and medical centers) consist mainly of organic liquids
and are mixed and packed with vermiculite, a process which increases volume.
Solids are generally compacted. After volume reduction, wastes are packaged
in metal drums or tanks, fiberglass reinforced plywood boxes, or, in the Case
of dry trash, strong, tight cardboard or wooden boxes.
Present disposal practices and the status of commercial and government
shallow land burial was summarized by the National Low-Level Waste Management
Program (1980) from which the following is taken.
Commercial low-level wastes currently can be received at three commercially
operated disposal sites. These shallow land burial facilities were all open
before 1971; the criteria applied to the establishment of these sites reflected
the knowledge of that time. Current criteria for site selection include environ-
mental factors such as soil types, groundwater conditions, terrain, annual
precipitation, and geologic features. Other criteria refer to population
3-5
-------
concentrations, transportation access, current and future land use, and general
location.
Wastes are buried in shallow trenches, typically 40 feet wide at the top,
25 feet wide at the bottom, 20 feet deep, and 600 feet long. Waste containers
are placed into the trenches and covered daily with about 4 feet of dirt. Another
2 to 6 feet of soil, some of which may be compacted clay, is placed on top to form
a cap. After the trenches are filled and capped, their locations are marked
with permanent stone or metal markers indicating the locations as well as the
volume and radioactivity of the buried material. Records are kept to verify the
placement and location of waste shipments.
Trenches are constructed as close together as possible, usually about 20
feet apart, depending on the slope. The local terrain may force less efficient
use of land if hills or ravines are present. Space is also reserved around the
perimeter of the trench area for a buffer zone.
Shallow land burial has been used for the disposal of low-level wastes since
the 1940s. At first, burial grounds were operated by the U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission, a predecessor of the Department of Energy. The first commercial
disposal site was opened near Beatty, Nevada, in 1962. By 1971, six commercial
sites had been licensed to dispose of low-level radioactive wastes. Since 1975,
three of these six sites have closed. The West Valley and Maxey Flats sites
closed in 1975 and 1977, respectively, as a result of operational problems related
to water management. Because ofrpoor trench design and site selection, rainwater
collected in the trenches and became contaminated with radionuclides. The
rainwater had to be collected and processed to protect groundwater and surface-
water systems.
Water management problems persist at both sites despite their closure. At
Maxey Flats, the trench water continues to be processed in an evaporator. Remedial
programs are underway at West Valley to minimize water infiltration into the
trenches and provide for surface runoff. The only radionuclide that has migrated
off the site at both locations is tritium. Tritium, which becomes part of the
water molecules, has traveled limited distances beyond the site borders through
surface and atmospheric waters. It has not been detected off the site in
groundwater systems. At Maxey Flats, unexpected migration of other radionuclides
has also been restricted to the site.
In 1978, the available trenches at the Sheffield site were filled, and the
site operator applied to the Nuclear Regulatory Commission for a license for
additional disposal space. Action on the application was delayed; hence, the
site was closed in March 1979 when the site operator withdrew the application.
While Sheffield had not experienced water management problems like the other two
closed sites, geologic evidence indicated a possible hazard. Tritiun has now
migrated in groundwater a few meters off the site at Sheffield.
The three sites that remain open are the Barnwell, Beatty, and Hanford
facilities.. Possible restrictions on the volumes of wastes accepted at Barnwell
and Hanford could divert large volumes of wastes to the Beatty site, causing
that site to be filled in the mid-1980s. The disposal capacity at the remaining
two sites would then be insufficient to handle all low-level radioactive wastes.
The disposal capacity at Department of Energy sites appears sufficient for the
3-6
-------
near future. It has been suggested that some of this space be used for commercial
waste.
MacBeth et al. (1979) considered the environmental impacts associated with
shallow land burial. There are both radiological and non-radiological impacts.
Non-radiological impacts include routine hazards to construction workers as are
found in the construction and surface mining industries. Radiological hazards
include exposure during transportation and handling of wastes by site workers.
Currently waste disposal workers at burial sites do not receive doses in excess
of Department of Transportation guidelines.
Long-term hazards include exposure of future reclamation workers, contamina-
tion of agricultural land during future site excavation, and groundwater contami-
nation. In considering hazards due to future reclamation, the future- is con-
sidered as 150 years after disposal, since it would take str.ontium-90 (one of
the longest lived of the common radionuclides in LLW), 150-300 years to decay to
a level of acceptable hazard (National LLW Management Program). MacBeth et al.
(1^79) consider that if a site is reclaimed in 150 years, the dose to workers due
to inhalation of dust will be 110 millirems (mrems)1 over 500 hours. A dose of
625 mrems/year would be encountered by an individual who consumes 10% of his
food from a dust-contaminated field. If an individual were to obtain 100% of
his drinking water from a well on-site 12 years after disposal-, he would be
exposed to 80 mrems/year. After 150 years, decay, dilution, and adsorption would
reduce this figure to a level similar to that for nearby off-site wells.
The Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) (MacBeth et al., 1979) has evaluated
alternative methods for the disposal of low-level radioactive wastes. The
alternatives evaluated include: shallow land burial (presently practiced),
improvements to shallow land burial, deeper burial, mined cavity disposal,
disposal in structures, and ocean disposal. At present, only shallow land burial
is being used in the U.S. Each alternative was evaluated on the basis of nine
factors. These included factors associated with technological status (compati-
bility with waste, site selection, safeguards, environmental effects, availabili-
ty of techniques); factors associated with sociopolitical acceptability (institu-
tional control, public acceptance); and factors associated with economic feasi-
bility (individual consumer costs, industrial costs). Improvements to shallow
land burial involve better disposal trench capping, improved trench design,
better operational and water management techniques, improved waste forms, and
in situ encapsulation of buried wastes. Deeper burial is similar to shallow
burial except that the tops of the disposal trenches would be 10-15 meters below
the surface. Disposal in mined cavities (natural features or mined caverns)
would reduce hazards associated with reclamation and contamination of ground-
water. Disposal in structural facilities of reinforced concrete would provide
an added barrier to release. The structure may be an exposed structure or may
be earth covered. Table 3-2 presents a weighted comparison of alternatives
1. Roentgen equivalent man (mammal) (rem) This unit is the quantity of ionizing
radiation such that the energy imparted to a biological system per gram of living
matter by the ionizing particles present in the locus of interest has the same
biological effectiveness as one rad of 200 to 250 kilovolt X rays. The unit was
proposed and named by H.M. Parker about 1950. A millirem is 1/1000 of a rem.
3-7
-------
TABLE 3-2. WEIGHTED COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS FOR ALTERNATIVES. (After MacBeth et al., 1979)
Evaluation
Factora
Compatibility
vlth Vaata
Slta
Selection
Safeguarda
environmental
Eflecta
Availability
of Techniques
Institutional
Control
Public
Acceptance
Cwauair
CoeCe
' Industrial
Coats
Weighted
Coartrlaon'
Height
0.08
0.12
0.06
0.11
0.10
O.U
0.16
0.14
0.11
UunutlTM
lhallor-U«4 Burial -
Saatern Slta
0.08
0.12
0.06
0.11
0.10
O.U
0.16
0.14
0.12
1.0
Shellow-Laad Bnrlal-
Veetern Slta
0.08
0.11
0.06
0.19
0.10
O.U
0.16
0.29
0.23
1.4
Iaproved Burlal-Eaatera
Slta
0.08
0.11
0.06
0.10
0.10
O.U
0.14
0.14
0.12
0.96
Slta
0.08
0.11
0.0«
0.18
0.10
O.U
0.14
0.29
0.25
1. J
Deeper Burlal-Eaatera
Slta
0.08
0.14
O.OS
0.07
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.15
0.13
0.18
Deeper Barlei-Weetern
Slta
0.08
O.U
0.0)
0.1*
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.31
0.26
1.3
AbanJoaed Hloe-Eaetern
Slta
0.08
0.18
0.05
O.OS
0.12
0.1)
0.13
0.15
0.13
l. :
Abandoned Hlae-Westers
Slta
0.08
0.17
0.05
0.15
0.12
0.1)
0.13
0.32
0.28
1.4
Rev'norleootel Shaft
IUw-!iitm Slta
0.08
0.17
O.OS
0.0?
0.1)
0.13
O.U
0.21
0.18
1.2
Rev Rorlnatal Shaft
Hlaa Haatara Slta
0.08
0.18
0.05
0.17
0.13
0.13
O.U
0.38
0.32
1.5
¦w Vertical Shaft
Hlaa-gaetera Slta
0.08
0.16
0.05
0.09
0.13
0.13
O.U
0.22
0.19
l.J
Re* Vertical Shaft
Hlaa-Heatarn Slta
0.08
0.14
0.05
0.17
0.13
0.13
0.11
0.38
0.32
1.5
Aboie Grade Stroc ture-
Baatarn Slta
0.08
0.11
0.07
0.14
0.11
0.12
0.14
0.53
0.46
1.8
Abote Crada Strwture-
Ueetern Slta
0.08
0.10
0.07
0.22
O.U
0.12
0.14
0.67
0.58
2.1
tariid Strocture-
taatern Slta
0.08
0.11
0.07
0.15
O.U
0.12
0.14
0.56
0.48
1.8
Varied Stnjetnre-
Veetem sit*
0.08
0.10
0.07
0.22
O.U
0.12
0.14
0.71
0.61
2.2
Direct Ocean Duaplng
0.0b
0.14
U.UJ
O.^U
0.10
0.13
0.22
0.42
0.36
1.7
Ocean Projectile Dlepoeal
0.08
0.17
0.0)
0.20
0.1)
0.1)
0.19
1.27
1.09
1.)
a Weighted Coaparlson !• the ni of the weighted evaluation factors for each alternative. Hither valuta lnJlrcted lea* dealrablllty.
-------
(including ocean disposal). Shallow land burial and improved or deeper land
burial are the most favorable options on the basis of the NRC analysis (MacBeth
et al.f 1979).
3.2 LAND SPREADING
Land spreading is used for disposal of sewage sludge and for certain kinds
of industrial wastes. Land disposal of industrial sludge and wastewater by
mixing into surface soil is called soil incorporation or landfarming.
3.2.1 Land Spreading of Sewage Sludge
The application of sewage sludge on agricultural and forest land primarily
serves as a means of disposal. However, the sludge can benefit the land by
improving soil physical properties and providing it with essential plant nutri-
ents. In addition to its high organic contents, sludge contains the three major
plant nutrients, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), but at lower
levels than in commercial fertilizers. If managed properly, sludge can meet a
portion of the N, P, and K requirements of crops.
Different methods can be used to handle sewage sludge depending on its
solids content. Sludge with 25 to 30% total solids are handled as a solid (e.g.,
by shovel or fork). Sludge of up to 10% solids content can be pumped with special
equipment, while sludge slurries with total solids up to 5 to 6% may be applied
with field sprinklers (McCal1 a et al., 1977). By adjusting sludge sol ids content,
most farmers may possess the required equipment for sludge handling and applica-
tion. Therefore, the farmers will absorb the operational and maintenance costs
of land spreading machinery. With this in mind, the economics of land spreading
is very interesting compared to other high-cost alternatives. The major cost
would be in a suitable pretreatment process for the raw sludge. Although the
raw sludge from the treatment plant can be spread directly on land, suctva
practice is undesirable due to the possible existence of pathogenic organisms
and odor problems.
Land spreading is not a new concept. Originally it was a major alternative
to dumping raw sewage into waterways. The raw s&wage was poured over land and
its water content remained in the soil. The difficulty in locating suitable
land sites, the constant dwindling of freshwater resources, and the ecological
problems and health hazards associated with such a disposal method have resulted
in the abandonment of this practice. Currently, there is renewed interest in
applying sewage sludge to farmland due to three factors: the increasing amount
of sludge; the desire to utilize "wastes" as renewable resources; and application
on farmland is generally the lowest cost option for ultimate sludge disposal.
To minimize the potential adverse environmental impacts and health hazards,
pretreatment of sewage sludge prior to its land .application is necessary. A
number of methods can be used for this purpose. The most common ones are
composting, aerobic digestion, anaerobic digestion, and lime or chemical treat-
ment.
The comparative effectiveness of conventional municipal sludge stabiliza-
tion processes for reducing density levels of indicator and pathogenic organisms
has been evaluated by Pederson (1981). It was found that:
3-9
-------
A. Mesophilic composting reduces total coliform and fecal coliform density
levels by more than 3 and 4 logs, respectively. Salmonella densities
are generally reduced by 1 to 3 logs, resulting Tn Tess than 10
organ isms/gram dry weight of sludge. The numbers of Shigella sonnei t
Staphylococcus aureus, and Serratia marcescerfs are also significantly
reduced. Most viruses of concern are vulnerable to composting. However,
fecal streptococcus and Mycobacterium tuberculosis are quite resistant
and the pathogenic fungus Aspergillus fumigatus thrives under the
mesophilic composting conditions.
B. Aerobic digestion appears to be ineffective.in reducing the number of
pathogenic organisms in sludge.
C. Anaerobic digestion consistently results in an approximately 10- to
100-fold reduction in density of indicator and pathogenic bacteria and
viruses.
D. Lime treatment also results in a 10- to 1000-fold reduction of indicator
and pathogenic bacteria.
E. Ova and cysts of parasitic tapeworms, flatworms, and roundworms are
quite resistant to these'1 sludge treatments.
Soil is the domain of myriads of microflora and-micro- and macro-fauna.
The intense competition among these organisms for the available nutrients are
important mechanisms helping to control pathogens that may be introduced to soil
as a result of sludge application. Their biochemical activities, together with
the chemical and physical actions of the soil, also transform, solubilize, and/or
immobilize the organics and inorganics of the sludge resulting in an increase or
a decrease of their availability as plant nutrients and as environmental pollu-
tants.
Application of sludge to soil, in addition to increasing its plant nutrient
contents, also .increases soil organic matter content, which improves both the
soil chemical properties by increasing its cation exchange capacity (CEC) and
the soil physical properties by increasing the percentage of its water-stable
aggregates and its moisture retention capacity (Epstein, 1975; Epstein et al.,
1976). CEC is one of the most ^important soil characteristics affecting the
availability of nutrients and essential elements to plants and the leaching of
toxic metals and certain other pollutants. It also provides the soil with a pH-
buffering capacity. In fact, CEC, together with the measured pH (active acidity)
and the degree of saturation of jbhe exchange complex with Al^+ and Al (0H)^+
(reserve acidity), are the factors governing the true soil acidity (Keeney and
Wildung,. 1977). Water, on the other hand, is a key constituent affecting
practically every physical process within the soil (Letey, 1977) and is one of
the most significant factors influencing the growth and the biochemical activi-
ties of soil micro-organisms. Increased water retention could also decrease
water stress in crops during the growing season.
It has been estimated that the plow layer (about six inches deep) of an
acre of soil weighs approximately 2xl06 pounds. Thus, adding 20 tons of sludge
with a 50% dry weight organic matter would increase the surface soil organic
matter by 1% (Christensen, 1977). However, the actual increase depends upon the
3-10
-------
balance between the added organic matter and the rates of decomposition by soil
microorganisms.
Major organisms of health concern that may be present in sewage and sewage
sludge are presented in Tables 3-3 and 3-4. The survival times of certain
pathogens in soil and on plant surfaces are shown in Table 3-5 (Doran et al.,
1977). Similar results have been reported by a number of investigators. Beard
(1938) and Mallmann and Litsky (1951) have found that S. typhosa could survive
up to 85 days in soil, but with soils which have poor moisture-retaining power,
survival in periods of drought may be as brief as two days. Mycobacteria, on
the other hand, can survive dry conditions in soil for more than 150 days and
survival times as long as 15 months have been reported (Greenberg and Kupkan,
1957). While protozoan cysts are sensitive to dessication, Ascaris and Ancylos-
toma ova remain viable for long periods and have withstood conditions where the
moisture content of soil was less than 6% and temperatures above 40°C for 60 to
80 days (Cram, 1943). Viable Ascaris eggs have been recovered up to 170 days
under more favorable conditions. Little definitive information on the survival
of virus in soil exists, but one could expect it to be of the same order of
magnitude as survival in wastewater where persistence as long as 100 days has
been reported (Akin et al., 1971).
The movement of bacterial and viral pathogens in percolation and runoff has
been extensively reviewed in the literature (Krone, 1968; Krone et al., 1958;
Romero, 1970). Generalizations are difficult but it appears that viral and
bacterial movement in soils is related directly to the hydraulic infiltration
rate and inversely with media particle diameters. Factors influencing bacterial
and viral inactivation in soil, such as oxygen tension, temperature, and the
presence of competing organisms and antimicrobial agents, will also be determin-
ing variables. Other factors that have an influence on adsorption phenomena in
soils such as pH value, multivalent cation concentration, and clay content of
the soil, will influence removal of pathogens, particularly virus, in soils.
The majority of the studies reviewed indicate that the upper layers of soil are
most efficient in removing bacteria.
It should be noted that pathogens removed in the upper layers of soil will
be concentrated near the soil area where crops will be grown. Pathogens could
directly pass to crops such as lettuce or beets from soil contamination or be
carried to above-ground crops by flies or dust. The dustborne epidemic of
Salmonellosis in Israel indicates that this is not outside the realm of possibili-
ty. Fractures or channels in underlying geological formations will also affect
pathogen movement in soil. Vogt (1961) reported a waterborne epidemic of
infectious hepatitis that followed limestone fractures from a septic tank to
individual wells considerable distances away from the source. Laboratory and
field studies cannot be completely relied upon as to distance of travel since
small quantities of pathogens may escape removal, particularly in fractured
geological formations. Epidemiological evidence of bacteria and viruses travel-
ing considerable distances to water supplies is discomforting, particularly since
levels of pathogens sufficient to result in infection may not be detectable in
dilute solution with presently available techniques. Since the survival time
of the organisms may be quite long in soil, continuous application of sludge
onto soil could result in an accumulation of pathogens. An equilibrium value
could be reached where die-off and removal through percolation and runoff are
balanced by the daily input of new pathogens. The longer the survival time in
soil, the greater the equilibrium level.
3-11
-------
TABLE 3-3. MAJOR ORGANISMS OF HEALTH CONCERN THAT MAY BE PRESENT IN SEWAGE FROM
U.S. COMMUNITIES. (Akin et , 1978)
Organisms
Disease
Reservoir(s)
BACTERIA
Salmonellae
(Approx. 1700 types)
Shi gel 1ae (4 spp.)
Escherichia coli
(enteropathogenic types)
II. ENTERIC VIRUSES
Enteroviruses
(67 types)
Rotavirus
Parvovirus-1ike agents
(at least 2 types)
Hepatitis A virus
Adenoviruses
(31 types)
III. PROTOZOA
Balantidium coli
Entamoeba histolytica
Giardia lamblia
IV. HELMINTHS
Nematodes (roundworms)
Ascaris 1umbricoides
Ancylostoma duodenale
Necator americanus
Typhoid fever
Salmonellosis
Shigellosis
(Bacillary dysentery)
Gastroenteritis
Man, domestic and wild
animals and birds
Man
Man, domestic animals
Gastroenteritis,
heart anomalies,
meningitis, others
Gastroenteritis
Gastroenteritis
Man, possibly lower
animals
Man, domestic animals
Man
Infectious hepatitis Man, other primates
Respiratory disease, Man
conjunctivitis,
others
Balantidiasis
Amebiasis
Giardiasis
Man, swine
Man
Man, domestic and wild
animals?
Ascariasis
Ancylostomiasis
Necatoriasis
Man, swine?
Man
Man
3-12
-------
TABLE 3-3. MAJOR ORGANISMS OF HEALTH CONCERN THAT MAY BE PRESENT IN SEWAGE FROM
U.S. COMMUNITIES. (Akin et al., 1978) (CONT.)
Organisms
Disease
Reservoir(s)
Ancylostoma braziliense
(cat hookworm)
Cutaneous larva
migrans
Cat
Ancylostoma caninum
(dog hookworm)
Cutaneous larva
migrans
Dog
Enterobius vermicularis
(pinworm)
Enterobiasis
Man
Strongyloides stercoral is
(threadworm)
Strongyloidiasis
Man, dog
Toxocara cati
(cat roundworm)
Visceral larva
migrans
Carnivores
Toxocara cants
(dog roundworm)
Visceral larva
migrans
Carnivores
Trichuris trichiura
(whipworm)
Trichuriasis
Man
Cestodes (tapeworms)
Taenia saginata
(beef tapeworm)
Taeniasis
Man
Taenia solium
(pork tapeworm)
Taeniasis
Man
Humenolepis nana
(dwarf tapeworm)
Taeniasis
Man, rat
Echinococcus granulosus
(dog tapeworm)
Unilocular
echinococcosis
Dog
Echinococcus
multilocularis
Alveolar hydatid
disease
Dog, other
carnivores
3-13
-------
TABLE 3-4. PARASITES FOUND IN SLUDGE SAMPLES FROM 27 MUNICIPAL PLANTS IN
SOUTHERN UNITED STATES. (Reimers et al., 1981)
Parasite Found
Probable Identity
Definitive Host
Ascaris eggs
Toxocara eggs
Trichuris trichiura
Trichuris vulpis eggs
Ascaris lumbricoides^-
Ascaris suum^
Toxocara canis2
Toxocara cati^
Trichuris trichiura
Trichuris suis^
Trichuris vulpis
Humans
Pigs
Dogs
Cats
Humans
Pigs
Dogs
Toxascaris-1ike eggs
Ascaridia-1ike eggs
Trichosomoides-1ike eggs
Cruzia-1ike eggs
Capillaria spp. eggs
(3 or more types)
Hymenolepsis diminuta
eggs
Hymenolepsis nana eggs
Hymenolepsis sp. eggs
Taenia sp. eggs
Tpxascaris leonina
Ascaridia gal 1i
Heterakis gal 1inae
Dogs, cats
Domestic poultry
Domestic poultry
Trichosomoides crassicauda Rats
Anatrichosoma buccal is Opossums
Cruzia americana
Capillaria hepatica
Capillaria gastrica
Capillaria spp.
Capi11 aria spp.
Capillaria spp.
Hymenolepsis diminuta
Hymenolepis nana
Hymnenolepis spp.
(possibly more than
one species)
Taenia saginata4
Taenia pisiformis^
Hydratigera
taeniaeformis^
Opossums
Rats
Rats
Domestic poultry
Wild birds
Wild mammals
(opossums,
raccoons, etc.)
Rats
Humans, rodents
Domestic and/or
wild birds
Humans
Cats
Dogs
3-14
-------
TABLE 3-4. PARASITES FOUND IN SLUOGE SAMPLES FROM 27 MUNICIPAL PLANTS IN
SOUTHERN UNITEO SJATES. (Reimers et a.l., 1981) (CONT.)
Parasite Found
Probable Identity
Definitive Host
Acanthocephalan eggs
Macracanthorhynchus
hirudinaceus
Pigs
Entamoeba coli-like eggs
Entamoeba coli^
Entamoeba spp.
Humans
Rodents, etc.
Giardia cys.ts
Giardia lamblia
Giardia spp.
Humans
Dogs, cats, mammals
Coccidia oocysts
Isospora spp.
Eimeria spp.
Dogs, cats
Domestic and wild
birds, mammals
^¦Eqqs of A. Lumbricoides and A. suum are indistinguishable
^Toxocara eggs were probably mostly T. canis.
^T.suis eggs were probably only rarely seen.
^Eggs of these worms are indistinguishable.
^An intestinal amoeba that is a commensal, not a parasite.
•
TABLE 3-5. REPORTED PATHOGEN SURVIVAL TIMES.
(Doran et al., 1977)
Survival
Time
Organism
Plant Surface
Soil
Bacteria
Salmonella
Shigella
Mycobacterium
Leptospira
Erysipelothrix
1-42 days
1-7 days
10-49 days
7-168 days
3-15 months
15-43 days
21 days
Viruses
Enterovirus
Poliovirus
4 days
25-170 days
32 days
Parasites
Entamoeba histolytica
Ascaris lumbricoides ova
3 days
27-35 days
8 days
2-6 years
3-15
-------
Sewage sludges contain a variety of mineral elements, such as Cu, Zn, Ni,
Cd, Pb, Co, Hg, and Cr, which, when present in significant quantities, may be
toxic to plants and animals, as well as a source of groundwater pollution.
Generally, they tend to be absorbed strongly in soil. However, when the cation
exchange capacity of the soil becomes exhausted due to exposure to more heavy
metal ions than can be absorbed, the ions remain in solution and move with the
groundwater. The tightly bound metals can also be transported to surface water
and sediment by erosion of soil or sludge particles. Furthermore, solubilization
of metals can occur as a result of biological reactions.
In their review of literature concerning potential groundwater pollution
by trace elements in sludge-treated soils, Page and Chang (1975) concluded that,
except for boron, movement of these elements in soil is restricted. However,
significant downward movements of zinc, mercury, chromium, and others in soils
to a depth ranging from 30 cm to 150 cm have been reported (MacLean, 1973; Lund
et al., 1974; Boswell, 1975). The time necessary for these metals to travel
through the soil profile may be iiuite long (Lieber and Welsch, 1954; Johnson et
al., 1974; Josephson, 1976). The fact that deterioration of groundwater quality
may result due to trace elements contamination cannot be ignored. The increasing
use of subsurface sludge injection may cause more leaching of these elements to
groundwater. Upward flow from a water table or when groundwater tables are high
would also increase their pollution potentials.
The toxicity of many elements, such as hydrogen, lead, mercury, arsenic,
sulfur, selenium, and tellurium, can also be enhanced by microbial methylation.
This process would undoubtedly be intensified by land spreading of sludge, which
increases both the microbial activity and the availability of these metals.
Although little information is available with respect to the phytotoxic
substance formation from sludge applied to soil, the anaerobic decomposition of
organic matter, resulting from excess application rates, will lead to the
production of ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and alcohols, all of which can be toxic
to seed germination and plant growth. Volatilization of ammonia could also
enhance eutrophication of surface water with readsorption.
Accumulation of nitrate in crops resulting from high concentrations of this
plant nutrient in soil is well recognized. Plants also require small amounts
of some trace metals, such as copper and zinc, for nutrition. These metals,
together with, others which have no known useful function, can also accumulate
in plant tissues when their soil contents are high. Of the various trace metals,
copper, zinc, and especially cadmium are of primary concern in most municipal
sludges applied to agricultural land and forest due to their well-known plant
and/or animal toxicities.
A recent review of literature concerning the effects of land application of
sewage sludge on the cadmium and zinc content of crops (Council for Agricultural
Science and Technology, Ames, Iowa, 1981) has concluded that plant uptake of
these trace elements from soils is affected by the inherent differences among
plant species, varieties within sprcics, and differ-outt. i'.Mirs within the same
variety. Generally, Cd and Zn concentrations are iiro.it or in lo.ify voijrt.le<,
and the vegetative parts of crops than in fruit, grain, or tubers. Among the
soil properties, pH is the most critical factor in controlling plant uptake of
Cd and Zn. Their concentrations in plants generally decrease with an increase
3-16
-------
in soil pH. Calcareous soils also minimize their uptake by crops. Nevertheless,
the Cd concentration in crops grown on sludge-treated soil are generally elevated.
It has been suggested that a Cd:Zn ratio of less than 1% in the applied waste
should be maintained to generate protection of the ultimate food chain (Chaney,
1974).
One of the objectives of applying sewage sludge to land is to increase crop
production and to substitute plant nutrients contained in the residues for those
that would otherwise be supplied by commercial fertilizers. Phytotoxicity from
compounds produced under anaerobic conditions and.from Zn, Cu, and Ni resulting
in crop failure or diminished yield is clearly undesirable. A greater concern
is the accumulation of those toxic chemicals by plants that subsequently move
to the human food chain, leading to potential human long-term toxicity. Present-
ly, evidence on heavy metals toxicity through the food chain is focused on a
relatively few elements such as cadmium, lead, and mercury. Because plant
translocation of mercury and lead is limited, these elements do not pose as great
a problem as cadmium.
Animals fed on sludge-grown forage may accumulate high concentrations of
cadmium in their tissues, especially the liver and the kidneys. Bioaccumu-
lation/biomagnification of this heavy metal not only adversely affects the health
of animals, it can also be transferred to the human body.
Cadmium has no known biological function. However, after it is absorbed,
the human body has no mechanism to excrete it. This trace element interferes
with the actions of essential divalent ions, especially zinc, by displacing them
from the functional sites. Bioaccumulation of cadmium has been associated with
hypertension, deleterious effects on testicular function, and renal damage.
Plant accumulation of nitrates or nitrites and certain other trace elements
has also been reported to affect animal health, ranging from loss of animal
products and production to death. Careful analysis of sludge-grown forage crops,
allowing for the supplement of macronutrients and diluting with nonsludge ferti-
lized crops to reduce levels of micronutrients and heavy metals, may be necessary
to protect animal and human health.
The presence of halogenated hydrocarbons (e.,g., PCBs, DDT) and polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons in some sewage sludges is also of concern with the land-
spreading alternative (Dacre, 1980).
The environmental and health impacts of land application of sludge depend
primarily upon the biological, chemical, and physical properties of both the
sludge and the soil. Alteration of the organic/inorganic chemicals in sludge
by the complex, dynamic soil systems may lessen or .increase their environmental
hazard. Many of these reactions are interrelated and/or interdependent. Because
of these unique characteristics of each municipal sludge, differences in the
soil properties and the environmental parameters, jt is difficult to generalize
as to whether or not a sludge.can be used successfully for crop fertilization.
Evaluation must be made locally and each case should be judged by its own merit.
Special attention should be paid to the potential impacts of sludge application
on groundwater quality deterioration and on bioaccumulation of toxic chemicals
in crops. Its short- and long-term effects on anjmal and human health must be
carefully considered.
3-17
-------
3.2.2 Land Spreading of Industrial Wastes
Ross and Phung (1980) have summarized information related to land spreading
(landfarming) of industrial wastes and the following is taken from their review.
Industrial wastes that have been disposed of by this method are primarily from
food processing, oil refinery, paper and pulp, tannery, and pharmaceutical
industries. The wastes are composed mainly of organic material and are thus
biodegradable. This practice is' limited and will likely remain limited in
applicability to about 3% of all industrial wastes. The landfarming alternative
has been in use for 15 to 20 years by the petroleum industry for nonchlorinated
organic waste.
Ross and Phung (1980) note that data on environmental contamination from
landfarming of industrial wastes are scarce. However, it is reasonable to assume
that some of the environmental concerns regarding landspreading of sewage sludge
also apply to industrial wastes.
3.3 INCINERATION
Incineration is used in the disposal of sewage sludge and certain organic
industrial wastes. We discuss first the incineration of sewage sludge and then
examine some additional aspects associated with incineration of hazardous organic
industrial wastes.
3.3.1 Incineration of Sewage Sludge
The major advantage of incineration is that it can destroy the potential
biological pathogens and the organic matter present in sewage sludge, leaving
an odorless ash. It may also eliminate certain hazardous chemicals or render
them less toxic and/or harmless. Incineration generally reduces the total solid
waste mass by about 90%. Thus, a great.deal of problems associated with sewage
sludge disposal is minimized. The current trend of fossil fuel price increase
may also make the utilization of a heat recovery system that generates electricity
or steam heat economically attractive.
The problems that may be associated with incineration are air and water
pollution and the presence of heavy metals in the ash residues. These problems
are accentuated when municipal solid waste is coinciner,ated with sewage sludge.
It is generally agreed that carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, oxygenated hydrocar-
bons, and other complex compounds can be produced due to poor combustion. Emission
of some of these compounds is the source of odors. Jnorganic gases such as
sulfur oxides, ammonia, and halide gases are commonly produced from the sulfur,
nitrogen, and halide content of the waste. A certain amount of nitrogen oxides,
formed from the nitrogen constituents of the waste or from high temperature
oxidation of nitrogen in the air, is also emitted. In the coincineration process,
hydrogen chloride is of particular concern. There has been an increasing emission
of this acid due to increased disposal of halidecontaining compounds such as
polyvinyl chloride (PVC). In addition to its adverse health effects, it may
cause corrosion of tube metal surface in steam-generating systems (Weinstein and
Toro, 1976). Most of the inorganic gaseous emissions, however, can be
significantly minimized by we 11-designed combustion chambers and careful control
of operating conditions.
3-18
-------
Of greater concern than the chemical gaseous emissions are the particulate
emissions. Data showing particulate emission of a modern waterwall steam-
generating incinerator upstream of the pollution control device are presented
in Table 3-6 (Stabenow, 1972). Similar median values of particulate emissions
(8.5 to 17.5 kg/metric ton of refuse) have been reported by various investigators
(Chass and Rose, 1953; Duprey, 1968; Jens and Rehm, 1966; Niessen, 1970; Walker,
1964). Properties of particulates emitted from three conventional incinerator
furnaces are shown in Table 3-7 (Walker and Schmitz, 1966). Particulate emissions
can be significantly reduced by employing air pollution control devices such as
electrostatic precipitators and various types of scrubbers. Certain percentages
of the particulate matter, nevertheless, escape into the atmosphere. Deteriora-
tion of air quality is possible if incineration is widely employed. The
"greenhouse" effect due to the release of overwhelming quantities of CO2 resulting
from combustion cannot be ignored.
It has been estimated that wastewater ranging from 2 to 12 tons per ton of
solid waste processed may be generated in incinerator plants depending on the
extent and mode of water uses in air pollution control equipment, residue
conveying, and stack gas temperature control (Achinger and Daniels, 1970; Jens
and Rehm, 1966; Weinstein and Toro, 1976). This process wastewater is contamina-
ted by both dissolved and suspended materials (Table 3-8) .(Achinger and Daniels,
1970) and is a potential source of pollution of streams and underground water.
Incinerator residues are classified into grate residue, grate siftings, and
fly ash. Residues of sewage sludge incineration is mainly in the fly ash fraction.
Significant quantities of the other two components are obtained if municipal
solid waste is coincinerated, especially when front-end resource recovery is not
practiced. These residues are commonly disposed in sanitary landfills. Although
incineration destroys most of the organics and may render the inorganic salts
less soluble (Ebherhardt and Mayer, 1968), pollution of surface and groundwater
by heavy metals due to landfilling disposal of these residues deserves our
attention.
3.3.2 Incineration of Hazardous Organic Wastes
Disposal of hazardous wastes by high temperature oxidation or destruction
is considered by many to be the ultimate disposal alternative. Temperatures
ranging from 1000 to 3000°F can reduce hazardous liquid, solid, or gaseous waste
to harmless compounds. Incineration of hazardous organic wastes can and has
been carried out at sea. Incineration at sea may prove to be an environmentally,
economically, and politically attractive alternative for waste disposal in the
future (Halebsky, 1980).
One of the more versatile types of commercial incineration facilities found
in the U.S. is a combination of liquid injection incineration and rotary kiln
incineration. Spent solvents and other combustible;, 1 iquids containing hydrocar-
bons or halogens are injected into a combustion chamber through an atomizing
nozzle that mixes the waste liquids with air. Proper mixing with enough air
allows complete waste combustion when kept at the elevated temperature for times
approaching several seconds.
3-19
-------
TABLE 3-6. PARTICULATE EMISSIONS FROM THE FURNACE OF A MODERN WATER-
WALL INCINERATOR. (Stabenow, 1972)
Refuse charging rate, short tons/hr
Volume % CO2 in flue gas (dry basis)
Dry catch particulates, lb/hr
Wet catch particulates, lb/hr
Total particulates, lb/hr
Dry catch particulates, lb/short ton
Wet catch particulates, lb/short ton
Total particulates, lb/short ton
Total particulates, kg/metric ton
16.6
9.5
379
13
397
22.8
0.8
23.9
12.0
16.7
10.1
427
30
457
25.6
1.8
25.2
13.7
TABLE 3-7. PROPERTIES OF PARTICULATES LEAVING FURNACES.
1966)
(Walker and Schmitz,
Installation
Physical Analysis
(250 TPD)
(250 TPD)
(120 TPD)
Specific gravitv, g/cc
2.65
2.70
3.77
Bulk density, g/cc (lb/CF)
--
0.495(30.9)
0.151(9.4)
Loss on ignition at 750°C, wt %
18.5
8.15
30.4
Size distribution (% by weight)
2 microns
13.5
14.6
23.5
4 microns
16.0
19.2
30.0
6 microns
19.0
22.3
33.7
8 microns
21.0
24.8,
36.3
10 microns
23.0
26.8
38.1
15 microns
25.0
31.1
42.1
20 microns
27.5
34.6
45.0
30 microns
30.0
40.4
50.0
Particulate emission rate,
6.1(12.1)
12.3(24.6)
4.6(9.1)
kg/MT (lb/ST)
TPD = short tons per day
MT = metric ton
ST = short ton
CF = cubic foot
3-20
-------
TABLE 3-8. TYPICAL WASTEWATER ANALYSES. (Achinger and Daniels, 1970)
Final Effluent
Quench
Range
Scrubber
Range
Range
Average
PH
3.9-11.5
1.8-9.4
4.5-9.9
Temperature, °C
20-54
28-74
18-52
32
(°F>
(68-130)
(82-165)
(65-125)
(90)
Suspended solids, mg/1
140-1860
90-1350
40-5803
210
Dissolved solids, mg/1
360-2660
520-8840
320-4060
1190
Total solids, mg/1
610-3960
610-9160
610-4200
1400
Alkalinity, mg/1 CaCOj
90-720
0-80
15-310
135
Chlorides, mg/1
98-850
180-3540
95-1710
455
Hardness, mg/1
95-980
190-3430
100-480
240
Phosphates, mg/1
0.5-58
3-90
1-67
14
aAfter settling.
High Btu waste liquids are usually burned to provide heat to help operate
a connected rotary kiln. The kiln is a cylindrical furnace, mounted horizontally
at a slight Incline, that turns slowly as heat is applied to the hazardous waste
inside the unit. The rotary kiln can handle solids or semi-solids in 55-gallon
drums. The drums are loaded into the kiln on a conveyor belt delivery system.
Gases generated in the kiln are heated even further in a secondary chamber or
afterburner, that also increases residence time. High Btu liquid wastes are
normally incinerated in the afterburner during operation of the kiln to help
attain the 2000 to 3000°? operating temperatures without using extensive amounts
of auxiliary fuel. The solid residue or ash produced in the kiln is usually
disposed of in a chemical landfill. The U.S. EPA has received a petition from
an incineration facility to have its kiln ash delisted as a hazardous waste.
This ash apparently passes all of the federal hazardous waste criteria and
presents no concern for land disposal.
Combustion gases pass through several pollution control units before being
emitted to the atmosphere. Particulates are removed by venturi scrubbers or
electrostatic precipitators. Incinerators handling chlorine-containing waste
generate gases containing hydrochloric acid {HC1>" that are removed in a chemical
scrubber by contacting with an alkali solution such as lime or sodium hydroxide.
The alkali scrubber is purged as the HC1 is neutralized. The purge stream or
scrubber '.'bottoms" contains, negtral salts of the .alkali. This stream is tysuaUy
treated and closely monitored before discharge to a surface water or publicly
owned sewage treatment works. Parameters of concern include heavy metals and
temperature.
3-21
-------
Incinerator stack gases also contain carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur
dioxide, water vapor, and traces of organics. Measured destruction efficiencies
for organics are stated to be at 99.999+* removal.
The U.S. EPA has estimated that more than half of all hazardous waste could
be safely disposed of via incineration. Only 6% of all hazardous waste has been
disposed of by incineration because the landfilling alternative is expensive.
3.4 SOLIDIFICATION
Solidification is a detoxification process that physically stabilizes inor-
ganic sludges by reducing the leaching rate of hazardous constituents such as
heavy metals. There are five specific solidification techniques:
• cement-based, which incorporates the waste material into a cement-like
material that can be disposed of in a landfill;
t lime-based, in which lime is mixed with the waste to increase the pH
and therefore decreases the mobility of heavy metals;
• thermoplastic, in which the waste is encapsulated in a lightweight,
sponge-like plastic that can be disposed of in a landfill;
t organic polymer, in which wet or dry wastes are blended with various
resins such as urea-formaldehyde, resulting in solidification;
• glassification, which is used when the material is extremely dangerous
or radioactive and the waste is combined with silica to form glass or
a synthetic silicate material.
Solidification has been used to stabilize materials such as one-time pond
cleanouts and other hazardous waste sludges. Most of these activities are done
at the generator's site with solidified sludges disposed of at the same location.
There is only one off-site commercial solidification operation in the eastern
United States with its own disposal site. The stabilized sludges disposed of
at this facility would pass the RCRA hazardous waste E.P. toxicity testing for
leachate. The solidification disposal costs, however, approach those of regular
land disposal in a chemical landfill, which has hindered acceptance of this
disposal method.
Solidification of hazardous sludges creates a new waste material that can
be land disposed without as great,a concern about migration of metals into the
environment. The solidification of organic sludges is not as successful in
encapsulating the organic constituents. Compatibility testing is necessary to
ensure that the sludge candidate for solidification can be successfully stabil-
ized.
3.5 DEEP-WELL INJECTION
Deep-well disposal is the emplacement and storage of liquid wastes in the
pores of deep subsurface geological formations that already contain unusable
saltwater. Liquids potentially suitable for deep-well disposal include dilute
3-22
-------
or concentrated waste acids, weak or strong alkaline solutions, solutions of
heavy metals, inorganic solutions, chlorinated hydrocarbons, various organic
wastes, and solvents.
Amstutz (1980) has reviewed various aspects of deep-well disposal. He
reports that deep-well disposal should be considered only when the liquid wastes
cannot be treated or disposed of economically in other ways. The fundamentals
of deep-well disposal are those of geology and the nature of the waste. There
are areas in 36 of the 48 contiguous states which are underlain by sedimentary
strata geologically attractive for deep-well injection.
The primary risk (other than waste handling and transportation) associated
with deep-well disposal is the potential contamination of usable aquifers as a
result of improper disposal or poorly designed deep-well injection systems.
Satisfactory disposal in most but not all cases is limited to liquids that are
free of suspended sediments or that can be filtered to provide a suitable filtrate
(Amstutz, 1980).
3-23
-------
4. ENVIRONMENTAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH IMPLICATIONS
OF OCEAN DUMPING
This section of the report summarizes information on the fate and effects
of ocean dumped materials. The intent of this section is to provide an overview
of what is known regarding fates and effects rather than an exhaustive review
of the literature. The objective of this overview is to aid in identifying gaps
in our information regarding the fate and effects of materials dumped at sea in
order to provide a basis for making recommendations for future research. Th*»«p
recommendations are provided in Section 5 of this reDort.
This section of the report is organized into three parts. Dispersion
processes for ocean dumped wastes are summarized in subsection 4.1; general
effects of ocean dumped wastes are reviewed in subsection 4.2; and a more detailed
review of fate and effects of specific classes of contaminants (e.g., chlorinated
hydrocarbons, radionuclides) is presented in subsection 4.3. We have chosen to
focus on particular classes of contaminants for several reasons. First, major
concerns regarding long-term effects of ocean dumping arise from questions
related to the persistence and biological fate and effects of particular contami-
nants within the wastes. It is therefore necessary to understand the fate and
effects, of these contaminants in order to better evaluate the fate and effects
of the whole wastes. Second, many wastes have a number of contaminants in common
(e.g., chlorinated hydrocarbons or heavy metals) and, therefore, by focusing on
classes of contaminants, it is possible to formulate research recorranendations
that address one or more types of wastes. Third, some wastes (e.g., dredge
material, sewage sludge) are highly variable and an evaluation of the effects
of such wastes requires an understanding of the major contaminants of concern;
research that focuses on these contaminants will be more generally applicable
than research directed solely at a particular type of waste.
4.1 DISPERSION PROCESSES FOR DUMPING METHODS
The impacts of wastes dumped in the ocean will depend on where, when, and
in what concentration the wastes arrive at areas of concern such as shellfish
beds, fisheries, or beaches. Movement and dilution or dispersion of waste will
depend on the methods of dumping, the characteristics of the waste, and on the
regional character of the ocean.
D"mping may occur from ships either directly or in containers such as drums.
The dumped materials will vary in their density, in their phase (liquid, solid
or particulate), and in their solubility and chemical characteristics. The local
characteristics of the ocean that will affect waste dispersion include water
depth, density stratification of the ocean, turbulence and wave activity in the
area, and immediate and long-term currents. The following subsections discuss
in general terms the dispersion processes in the ocean for three types of releases:
liquids from ships, sludges and dredge materials, and slow bottom releases as
from drummed wastes.
4-1
-------
4.1.1 Liquids from Ships
In this subsection, we consider the release of wastes in the form of chemicals
dissolved in water from boats or barges proceeding along a course in the ocean.
This is a common method of disposing of acidic or basic wastes from chemical
processes. Waste may be carried to specified dump sites in boats or barges with
tanks that may hold hundreds of thousands of gallons of liquid. Commonly, the
material is released into the ocean while the transporting vessel is proceeding
along some specified course or pattern in the dump area. Regulatory control of
such releases can include limits on the nature and concentration of the discharged
material, location of the dumping site, times during which releases are permitted,
and the steaming pattern and discharge rate in both liters per kilometer and
liters per hour.
In the immediate wake of the discharge vessel, the waste material will be
present in a specified concentration of liters per linear kilometer determined
by the pumping rate from the discharge boat. The material will be spread in the
vertical and horizontal in a pattern determined by the so-called "near-field"
processes which include the speed and turbulent wake of the vessel, the momentum
and discharge jet characteristics of the pumping system, and the position of the
discharge relative to the boat wake. However, these complicated local processes
are usually not of significance, because within a short time (generally less
than an hour) natural processes in the ocean will spread the discharged material
into a pattern much larger than the initial discharge wake.
The discharged material will undergo both lateral (horizontal) and vertical
diffusion. Both of these processes are very dependent on the particular condi-
tions prevailing at the location and time of the discharge, and specific measure-
ments are needed for precise and quantitative calculations. However, consider-
able work has been done in the study of these dispersions and some generalizations
are available which are often adequate for preliminary estimates of dumping
impacts. An overall summary of measurements of lateral diffusion has been
presented by Okubo (1971). These results, summarized in Figure 4-1, indicate
the typical plume dispersion as a function of the size of the plume. Although
a considerable range of dispersion is found among the,measurements considered,
there is sufficient information to make preliminary estimates.
The particular dispersion coefficient effective during a dump will depend
on local conditions. Conditions which will tend to increase dispersion are
strong waves, strong currents, and strong current shears. Current shears, in
turn, will be induced by the presence of strong winds or -the presence of currents
in shallow water or near coastlines or oceanic fronts. For regulatory purposes,
it is common to be concerned about worst case conditions that may occur when
dispersion is minimal. For measurements to represent worst case conditions,
they should occur during calm and wave free periods. .Dispersion measurements
are obtained by direct measurements of the area occupied by the plume of dumped
material as a function of time. The concentration of dumped material in the
wake, of a discharge vessel can be measured directly in the case of certain
chemicals that have properties easily measurable with shipboard equipment.
Alternatively, barge loads or ship loads of discharge material may be spiked
4-2
-------
Figure 4-1. Lateral diffusivity Ka as a function of horizontal scale for
a variety of areas and experimental conditions. (From Okubo
1971.)
4-3
-------
with fluorescent dyes and the concentration of dye which represents the discharqed
material concentration can be measured with convenient, accurate, and sensitive
fluorometers.
Vertical diffusion of discharged wastes is controlled by processes similar
to those described above for lateral diffusion, and is also strongly affected
by the density structure of the ocean and the relative density of the discharged
material. In most cases, the discharge material is initially denser than seawater
simply because it is most economical to concentrate the chemicals before barging
them out to sea. This is advantageous from the point of view of dispersion,
since discharges lighter than seawater would tend to pool on top of the ocean
and be subject to considerably less dispersion as a function of time.
Discharges denser than seawater initially fall through the surrounding
seawater in a turbulent process. As they fall, they entrain seawater and are
diluted, and thus the density difference becomes smaller. This process clearly
tends to be self-limiting. Discharges that are much denser than seawater are
more turbulent and initially fall more rapidly, but also entrain seawater more
rapidly. In any case, the discharged material gradually approaches the density
of the surrounding water. The plume, now only slightly denser than surrounding
water, sinks until it encounters a level in the ocean where the density of the
ocean increases.
In most places in the ocean the first density increase, called a "pycno-
cline," is found at depths from 10 to 100 meters. The density above this
pycnocline is frequently quite uniform as the ocean is stirred and mixed by
surface winds. Thus, discharged material tends to rapidly diffuse down to the
level of the pycnocline and then encounter denser water which may prevent it
from sinking further. The most common form of vertical mixing, then, is for
discharged material to be well mixed in the vertical from the surface down to
the first major density discontinuity. This process generally takes a few hours.
Many variations on this basic pattern are possible. In shallow water where
no pycnocline is present the waste will be mixed from surface'to bottom. In the
case of; particularly dense waste with a strong shallow pycnocline, the waste
material may fal 1 down to the level of the pycnocl ine and not be found at shal lower
levels. In some cases the waste may still be dense enough at the time it reaches
the pycnocline to fall through it into still deeper waters.
Worst case conditions for vertical dispersion will depend upon the partic-
ular biological communities of concern. If bottom communities such as shell-
fish are important, then well-mixed ocean conditions with no pycnocline present,
which would allow wastes to fall rapidly to the bottom, could represent the worst
case. In other circumstances, poorly mixed conditions, when winds are low and
strong shallow pycnoclines are found as in the summer, would cause near-surface
trapping of the waste which might represent worst case conditions for shallow
planktonic communities.
As the discharge wake disperses under the processes described above, it is
also advected away from the initial discharge region by the local currents.
Ocean currents may be caused by tides, by wind driving, and by much more
complicated large-scale ocean variability. It is important to remember that the
actual current at the discharge time is going to advect the discharged wastes
and that this actual current may be very poorly represented by an average or
4-4
-------
typical current. Variability of ocean currents is often quite pronounced and
representation of the currents by a mean flow is rarely an accurate description.
However, for regulatory purposes, it is often possible to generalize on upper
bounds of local currents in order to determine worst case effects. Dispersion
of discharged wastes generally reduces the concentrations to negligibly low
values in the space of a few days time and circles can be drawn around the
discharge region indicating the maximum extent to which currents may carry the
significant concentrations of waste. Experimentally, in the study of discharges,
it is common to place several drogues in the discharge wake of a barge in order
to study the currents as they apply to a particular discharge. These drogues
also have an experimental advantage in that they make it possible for a boat
measuring the dispersion to keep track of the location of the discharge wake.
In general, it may be said that in the open coastal ocean, liquid wastes
are diluted rapidly and their effects are local in time and space. However,
this picture may be quite different in restricted bays or estuaries where long-
term accumulation may be possible. In such cases, the history of the waste may
have to be considered for time periods much longer than the day or two typical
of the open ocean. Calculations of residence time of water in the restricted
region may have to be made and consideration may have to be given to cumulative
effects of many sequential dumps.
4.1.2 Sludges, Dredge Materials, and Precipitates
These wastes differ from the liquids described above in having a solids or
particulates content as well as liquid. When discharged from ships, they behave
in a manner bearing some similarities to the liquids considered above, but with
differences that will be discussed here.
Initially these materials tend to be much denser than discharged liquids
and, hence, tend to fall more rapidly through the water column. Their initial
dilution is a matter of much greater complexity due to the variability that may
be found in the behavior of the particulates content. The particles may have a
wide range of sizes and they may also have varying tendencies to flocculate to
form larger particles as they interact in physical and chemical processes with
seawater.
Generally, discharges of such materials from ships sink in the ocean as an
expanding cloud, which gradually increases in volume as it entrains surrounding
water. It is important to note that the settling rate of this cloud may exceed
the settling rate that would be measured for individual particles in laboratory
experiments. This is because the aggregate collection of particles carries the
water with it, and is less restrained by friction than individual particles
moving through still water.
Some generalizations can be made. If the waste contains sufficiently large
particles they will sink independently of the cloud in a rapid manner and proceed
directly to the bottom. The remaining cloud will behave like a liquid but tend
toward rapid settling characteristics. It may proceed directly to the bottom,
passing through any intermediate pycnoclines, and then spread laterally on the
bottom as a dense cloud. In the presence of a strong pycnocline, the descending
cloud may be impeded at the density interface and spread horizontally while
collapsing vertically into a thin "pancake" at the pycnocline. In any of these
processes, there will be vertical separation of particles with different sizes
4-5
-------
and fall velocities. It should be noted that although these differing processes
are intuitively comprehensible, they are much more difficult to model analytical-
ly or numerically than simple liquid discharges. A summary discussion of the
calculations necessary to consider this kind of discharge is found in Koh and
Chang (1973) and Brandsma and Divoky (1976).
A time series of seismic profiles shows a buildup of sludges in the New
York Bight (NOAA, 1975). In the New York Bight, ocean dumping is the main source
of modern sediments. The 30-foot (10-meter) accumulation of dredge spoil in
approximately 33 years has resulted in the bull's eye pattern shown on Figure
4-2. This pattern indicates that the dumping activity has taken place at the
properly designated site, and that transport of coarse sediments away from the
site by natural processes did not keep up with the rate of dumping.
Some fraction of sufficiently fine particles will be left in suspension
along with any liquid component of the waste. Since settling times for these
fine particles mayvbe days or weeks, their settling will be negligible compared
with the dispersion processes acting on the liquids. They may be considered as
simply another component of the liquid wastes, and their behavior may be calcu-
lated accordingly.
The behavior of a cloud of descending material that reaches the bottom
rapidly will vary according to the bottom topography. On steep slopes, the cloud
may flow downslope in the manner of a geological turbidity current. On flatter
terrain, the cloud will be carried by the prevailing bottom currents and settle
onto the bottom near to the discharge site. In the case of dredge material where
the sediments are chemically and physically similar to the bottom materials
already present, the discharge may be little noticed^ However, other wastes
with solid contents that differ chemically from the surrounding bottom may
experience long-term chemical leaching.
Where pycnoclines or density fronts occur, finer particulate materials may
accumulate, at least for short periods of time. This has been observed for
sewage sludge, dredge material, acid iron waste, and drilling muds (Proni and
Hansen, 1981; Orr, 1981a,b; Ayers et al., 1980; Pequegnat et al., 1978). This
process and other processes affecting fate of discharged particulates in the
water column are illustrated in Figure 4-3. As will be discussed later in this
report, many contaminants (e.g., chlorinated hydrocarbons such as PCB") tend to
be associated with the finer particulate materials. Processes that enable these
materials to accumulate and be available to biota are therefore important from
the standpoint of addressing possible effects of these discharges. Further,
density fronts are often areas of higher biological activity, and, therefore,
there is a greater opportunity for organisms that congregate along these fronts
to contact contaminants which may have accumulated there.
Contaminants associated with particulates accumulated along density sur-
faces pose special sampling problems. Acoustic techniques have been used to
track these particulates for short periods of time (Proni and Hansen, 1981) and
various sampling arrays, including multiport samplers, have been used to collect
water samples. The problems are mainly defining the layers and then sampling
these in some continuous or discrete fashion.
Much effort has been directed at measuring and estimating dispersion rates
for materials within the water column. However, the fate of contaminants
4-6
-------
MUO DUMP SITE
NET CHANGE MAP (936-1973
CONTOURS IN FEET Z~
*AUTtC%LWL
'i
73° 51.5- 73°50'
( Nf> A A. 1Q7«n
-------
TEMPERATURE (*C)
100
200
300
s
!
!
g 400
900
CURRENT
' \
K
tO'TSon/uc
i - VK
~T~
20
M NET PRMARY
PROOUCTON
~in
I i
1
90
TEMPERATURE
"COLLAPSE* ,
r ( ^ ^ ^ f]
( ( „ i constant
-> x / u UPWILUNO RATI
r*WS. ¦:{ /' / ,0'CRMO-PTCWOCL>g
NO NET PRMARY PRODUCTION
CURRENT
SO cm/—c
COARSE MATERIAL
r-AA
CURRENT
==)
Bcm/mc
SO
334
MX>
M4
uuinny
_L
sbjo
36A
840
Figure 4-3. A schematic illustration of the physical fate of solids in wastes
disposed of at sea (Pequegnat et al, 1978).
4-8
-------
associated with particulates on the seafloor is more difficult to assess and at
present no dynamic description of the behavior of sediment-fluid interactions
exists that can be used in a practical application of a computer model (Ansyferov,
1980). It has been suggested that suspended load during major storms or other
energetic events is responsible for the greatest flux of sediment transport and
that other modes of transport (bedload transport, bedform translation) can be
ignored on the continental shelf (Smith, 1977). During a transport event, the
surface sediment will be reworked to a scour depth; eroded sediment will be
laterally displaced. The erosional process will tend to homogenize the surface
sediments (owing to turbulent mixing of the suspension), the transport and
depositional process will tend to grade the sediment. Quiescent depositional
areas are regions where contaminants associated with finer particulates could
accumulate; therefore, information on the location of such areas in relation to
the disposal and subsequent transport and dilution of wastes is important in
assessing possible long-term effects from their contaminants.
4.1.3 Slow Bottom Releases
This category includes any materials released at the bottom from slow
physical or chemical dissolution processes such as eventual leakage from drummed
waste, decomposition of rubble or granular waste, or chemical leaching from
accumulating mounds of sludge disposal. (It does not consider releases from
bottom discharge pipes.) Some materials, such as radionuclides which may leak
from drums, will become adsorbed to sediments and their fate will depend on
sediment dynamics and adsorption coefficients. This will be discussed in more
detail later in this report. Clearly, the release rates for the varying processes
are quite dependent on the particular mechanisms in action. For liquids dropped
to the bottom in containers, for example, some casually designed containers could
break on impact but Greek amphora have been recovered still containing wine after
two thousand years on the bottom. We will not attempt to consider the release
mechanisms here, but simply discuss where released materials from the bottom
will be transported and dispersed in the ocean.
The transport of bottom-released materials may be divided into shallow and
deep cases. The shallow cases include those regions where the water column is
frequently well mixed with no pycnocline and wave action is an effective turbu-
lence mechanism at the bottom. Depending upon local conditions, this shallow
category may apply only to waters less than 10 meters deep or as much as a hundred
meters deep. In shallow waters, as defined, the transport and dispersion of
material released at the bottom will be essentially similar to the calculations
for liquids released from ships as described above. Considering the slow
discharge rates that will probably apply, the concentrations resulting from such
processes may be expected to be quite low. However, it is important to bear in
mind that these concentrations may be chronic and persist for sufficiently long
times to cause effects that would not be found for isolated releases.
For slow bottom releases in deep water, the released material will be found
in a region of the ocean known as the bottom boundary layer. This region is the
near-bottom analog of the well stirred region found below the surface winds and
represents the adjustment of interior currents in the ocean to the friction of
the bottom. The bottom boundary layer may range up to 75 to 100 meters in
thickness, though it is generally less than this. Water within the bottom
boundary layer will be moving somewhat more slowly than the prevailing currents
and will be turned by the Coriolis force.
4-9
-------
In regions of intermediate depth (10 to 100 meters), conditions will vary
throughout the year such that the region may sometimes behave as a shallow region
and sometimes as a deep region. That is, the density structure and turbulence
within the ocean will vary and releases from the bottom will similarly vary in
their dispersion and direction of travel. Evaluation of chronic releases in
such areas may require several years of field measurements for adequate statisti-
cal characterization.
Several peculiarities of bottom releases may occur in particular regions.
In canyons extending offshore of river mouths through the continental shelf
region, it is typically found that the prevailing bottom flow is directed upslope
toward the river mouth. This result, somewhat contrary to expectations, is an
extension of the typical estuarine circulation pattern. It tends to be a variable
phenomenon, fluctuating with time, location, and the particular geometry of the
canyon. There are also regions of the ocean noted for their general upwelling
characteristics, where deeper and denser offshore water is brought to the surface
by a combination of winds, prevailing currents and bathymetry. In such regions,
material released near the bottom will tend to be brought back to the shore and
surface, and obviously such regions should be avoided, where possible, for dumped
waste.
4.2 GENERAL EFFECTS OF OCEAN DUMPING
The effects of ocean dumping may be considered in terms of the nature of
effect (physical, chemical, biological), duration of effect, and spatial extent.
Much of the information on effects of ocean dumping of various wastes have been
reviewed in several recent reports (National Academy of Sciences, 1976; NOAA,
1979a,b; NACOA, 1981; Ketchum et al., 1981). Many other reports on effects of
ocean dumping are listed in the Reference section of this report.
The general effects of ocean dumping particular classes of wastes are
presented in Table 4-1. Many of these effects are well known and have been
studied extensively. Others either have posed problems from the standpoint of
study or still remain as major concerns. In particular, the long-term fate and
effects of persistent contaminants within the wastes appear to pose the major
problems for study. For this reason we have in the following subsection of this
report, focused on the fate and effects of major classes of contaminants. One
of the general effects presented in Table 4-1 is substrate modification. Change
in sediment characteristics can effect benthic larval recruitment. We mention
this here because there is evidence that it occurs but that it has not been
specifically addressed in past studies. Physical or chemical alterations of the
sediments could render them less attractive to settling benthic larvae. Larvae
of many benthic invertebrates are planktonic and, when ready to settle on the
seafloor, have the ability to "test" the sediment and either settle (if appropri-
ate factors are in order) or be carried further along in search of a more
appropriate substrate (Chia and Rice, 1978). Such "avoidance behavior" could
result in a reduction of population size of invertebrates for which the sediments
have been rendered unattractive. This kind of sublethal effect cannot be
evaluated by standard toxicity tests. Evidence for such effects is available
from studies of drilling muds (Menzie et al., 1980; Tagatz et al., 1980) and
possibly fly ash (based on our review of available field and laboratory studies
which show low toxicity but also depauperate bottom areas).
4-10
-------
TABLE 4-1. GENERAL EFFECTS OF OCEAN DUMPING VARIOUS KINDS OF WASTES
Waste Type
Effect
Sewage
Sludge
Dredge
Material
Coal
Ash
Acid
Waste
Fish
Waste
LLW
(Drum)
PHYSICAL
• Burial
• Turbidity
• Reef effect
• Substrate
modification
§ Pycnocline
accumulat ion
CHEMICAL
• Changes in
solubility of
hydrocarbons
• Contaminants In
water column
• Contaminant
levels in
sediments
• pH changes
BIOLOGICAL
• Biostimulation
of phytoplankton
• Bioaccumulation
Limited
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Increased
DOC
Temporary
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Mi nor
Yes No
Yes Yes
Yes (if blocks) No
Yes No
Yes
No
Temporary Temporary Temporary
Yes Yes Yes
No
Yes
No
No
Metals
Metals
Hydrocarbons Hydrocarbons
• Benthic impacts Yes Yes
• Pathogens Yes Limited
Metals
Yes
No
Limited
Limited
No
Limited
Yes (Iron Waste) Limited
Temporary
Temporary
Limited
Temporary
No
Metals
Limited
No
No
Minor
No
Yes (drums)
No
No
No
Temporary No
Limited Yes (if leaks)
No
Yes
No
No
Limited Radionuclides
Yes
No
Limited
No
-------
The following subsection of this report considers the fate and effects of
particular classes of chemicals discharged into the oceans.
4.3 FATE AND EFFECTS OF WASTE CONSTITUENTS
Various wastes that may be ocean dumped have a number of waste constituents
in common (Table 4-2). These constituents vary among wastes as well as within
a particular kind of waste. Sewage sludge and dredge material provide good
examples of variable wastes. Such variability can be found in levels of metals,
halogenated hydrocarbons, and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons. By focusing
on particular constituents, it 1s possible to develop information that can be
used to assess effects of ocean dumping of a number of wastes. It also facilitates
identifying gaps in information or analytical techniques and in making appropri-
ate research recoircnendations.
The major classes of waste constituents provided in Table 4-2 include those
that may result in coastal eutrophication (nutrients) or that tend to be persis-
tent, possibly resulting in long-term effects (e.g., halogenated hydrocarbons).
Constituents that tend to be rapidly lost from the system upon discharge (e.g.,
volatile liquid hydrocarbons) are not considered; these constituents may be
acutely toxic and such effects tend to be relatively well documented. Based on
our review of available information and discussions with other researchers, it
is evident that the fate and long-term effects of various waste constituents is
of primary concern. An additional class of waste constituents which will be
considered in this section of the report are radionuclides associated with low-
level radioactive waste.
4.3.i Nutrient/Organic Enrichment
Since the work of Ryther and Dunston (1971), the biostimulatory effects of
nutrient enrichment upon marine systems has been clearly recognized. Well-
documented examples of these effects have been summarized by Curl et al. (1979)
for Chesapeake Bay, New York Bight, San Pedro Bay, San Francisco Bay, Kaneohe
Bay, the Baltic, Aegean, and Adriatic Seas, Oslo Fjord, and several bays in Japan
and Long Island, New York. These effects generally result from nutrient enrich-
ment, particularly nitrogen. Since nitrogen apparently limits biomass production
in marine environments, considerable effort has been expended by marine biolo-
gists to understand the nitrogen cycle. Recent reviews of nutrient cycling in
coastal ecosystems (Nixon, 1981) and seawater (Fogg, 1982) summarize the present
state of knowledge. An understanding of the processes involved in this cycle
and the biological and geochemlcal agents responsible 1s essential to predictions
involving the consequences of overloading the cycle directly by anthropogenic
input or short circuiting It due to ocean disposal of materials harmful to the
biological transformation processes. Inputs to the oceanic nitrogen cycle
include nitrogen fixation, river flow, precipitation, and dry deposition. Preci-
pitation is the largest single input. River input is the second major source
and is growing apace with world industrialization. Walsh et al. (1981) estimated
that the nitrate content of rivers draining developed areas has doubled in the
last 25-50 years. Losses of nitrogen from oceanic environments occur during
denitrification and loss of nitrous oxide. Denitrification is the major loss
and both Fogg (1982) and Nixon (1981) stress its importance to the global nitrogen
4-12
-------
TABLE 4-2. CHARACTERISTICS AND CONSTITUENTS OF SELECTED CLASSES OF WASTES WHICH MAY
BE OCEAN DUMPED.
Sewage Sludge
Dredge Materials
Fly Ash
FGD Sludge
Acid Iron Waste
Fish Waste
General Characteristics
Density (g/cm^)
0.58-1.2
1.08-1.15
X Solids
5-10
20-80
98-992
30-80
<1-2
28-38
PH
5.3-11.7
3-12
2.8-12.8
<0.1-2.2
Nutrients
Negligible
Negligible
Organic C (ppm)
65.000-480,000
3-3,600
Total N (ppm)
1,000-176,000
200-4,000
14,000-23,000
NH4-N (ppm)
1,000-67,600
100-2,000
NO3-N (ppm)
9-4,880
Total P (ppm)
1,000-61,000
500-2,000
21,300-29,500
Total S (ppm)
6,000-15,000
Metals
Aluminun (ppm)
1,000-35,000
139-759
Arsenic (ppm)
6.0-230
0.1-585
3.2-74
4.0-12.0
<5-525
Barium (ppm)
21-8,980
700-15,000
20-4,400
2.0-9.3
Beryl 1ium (ppm)
Boron (ppm)
4-757
179-1,040
42-211
6.0-14.0
Cadmiun (ppm)
4-846
0.01-97.2
0.39-5.3
0.4-25
<0.025-900
Chromium (ppm)
17-99,000
1.0-1,127
3.6-28.0
1.6-5.2
2-900
4.7-9.3
Copper (ppm)
84-10,400
0.05-5,680
43-238
39-104
0.12-8.17
7.5-13.4
Iron (ppm)
0-15,300
1,000-9,400
14,000-75,200
83-860
Lead (ppm)
13-19,730
<1-1,595
4.0-27
1.6-290
0.27-76
Manganese (ppm)
18-7,100
24-4,680
157-374
56-340
<1.0-31.6
Magnesium (ppm)
300-19,700
1,700-2,200
Mercury (ppm)
1-10,000
0.006-4.77
0.01-0.46
<0.005-71
Molybdenum (ppm)
5-39
5.9-12.0
8-81
Nickel (ppm)
10-3,515
2.3-6,925
34-108
13-75
0.2-65
Selenium (ppm)
Silver (ppm)
1.7-16.4
2-4
T Itanium (ppm)
70-33,700
Vanadium (ppm)
5-194
<25-<100
50-100
Zinc (ppm)
101-27,800
0.009-15.5
92-386
14-2,050
5-530
61-88
-------
TABLE 4-2. CHARACTERISTICS AND CONSTITUENTS OF SELECTED CLASSES OF WASTES WHICH
MAY BE OCEAN DUMPED (CONT).
Halogenated Hydrocarbons
Polychlorlnated
Blphenyls (ppm)
Dleldrin (ppm)
Aldrln (pom)
DDTR (ppm)
Chlordane (ppm)
Polynuclear Aromatic
Hydrocarbons
Benzofalpyrene (ppm)
Benzo[eJpyrene (ppm)
Benzo[b+k]fluoanthene (ppm)
D1benz[a,j]anthracene (ppm)
Chrysene (ppm)
Indeno(1,2,3,c,d)pyrene (ppm)
Fluranthene
Benzo(g,h,iIperylene (ppm)
Pyrene (ppm)
Sewage Sludge Dredge Materials Fly Ash FGD Sludge Acid Iron Waste Fish Waste
(Very Limited Information) Unknown Unknown Expected to be
Minor
0-352 0.033-7,762
0.03-2.2 <0.008-0.088
0-16.2 <0.004-0.055
0.1-1.1 <0.002-0.238
3.0-32.2
Many Other Compounds
(Very Limited Information) Unknown Unknown Expected to be Unknown
Minor
0.01-1.7 <0.0003-15
0.02-1.4 0.059-1.000
1.0-5.78
0.03-0.26
0.11-1.31 0.40-3.000
0.38-1.87
4.28 0.110-0.790
0.02-1.10 0.66-0.280
0.2 0.50-7.200
-------
cycle- Regeneration and recycling of these nutrients occur in both the water
column and in underlying sediments. As Nixon points out, however, it is not
clear which major group of organisms is responsible- for most of the organic
matter decomposition and nutrient regeneration in coastal waters, although the
role of microplankton and free-living bacteria is being examined (Fogg, 1982).
A clear positive relationship has been established between primary production,
organic input, and benthos consumption of organic matter (Nixon, 1981). There-
fore, inputs of nitrogen to the marine system have implications not only for
water column production but also for the benthos.
An example of relative contributions of nitrogen by ocean dumping to a local
nitrogen budget is provided by the New York Bight (O'Connor et al., 1981). The
total nitrogen input to the Bight from all sources is estimated to be 520 metric
tons/day (MTD). Approximately 85 MTD (16X) is due to ocean dumping.' Dredge
material contributes 63 MTD of this while sewage sludge (17 MTD) and chemical
waste (5 MTD) contribute the remainder. Curl et al. (1978) point out that ocean
dumping has little effect on the eutrophication problems of the New York Bight.
Urban discharge is a far greater contributor of nitrogen to the system.
Shiff and Morel (1979) have summarized the fate of dissolved nutrients and
organic matter introduced to marine systems. Depending upon hydrographic condi-
tions, introduced nutrients/organics will be diluted and advected upon disposal.
As much as 90% of ammonia nitrogen will be volatilized from surface slicks but
may be resolubilized over adjacent areas, thus .increasing the areal distribution.
Hydrolysis of dissolved organic matter may occur in the water column; however,
nitrification, particularly of particulate material, occurs more frequently in
the sediments (Bellen, 1978). Dissolved inorganic nitrogen (NH4+, NO3, and NO2)
will be taken up by the phytoplankton, with ammonia taken up most rapidly.
Maximum uptake rates for ammonia within sewage plumes may be high enough to
remove the dissolved fraction on time scales of days. The particulate organic
fraction may be transported out of an area or may settle to the benthos and
enrich sediments. Under stratified conditions, fine particulates may accumulate
on density surfaces.
The effects of the above enrichment extend from the water column to the
benthos. Increased primary production will result from increased nutrients.
This has clearly occurred in the New York Bight. Increase in production results
in increased extracellular release of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) by the
phytoplankton. This has apparently occurred in the New York Bight (Thences et
al., 1979). Increased DOC results in increased solubility of alkanes and
isoprenoid hydrocarbons as demonstrated in Narragansett Bay (Boehm and Quinn,
1979). Phytoplankton composition often changes under nutrient-rich conditions
to nearly monospecific assemblages such as Nannochloris atomus in Moriches Bay
(Ryther and Dunstan 1971) and the large mats of Microcystis aeroginosa often
found in Chesapeake Bay (Curl et al., 1979). Marine Ecosystem Research Laboratory
(MERL) tank experiments have demonstrated depressed zooplankton fecundity and
abundance under nutrient enrichment probably as a consequence of various chemical
changes resulting from increased primary production (C. Oviatt, pers. coran.).
In Kaneohe Bay, Hawaii, shifts to microzooplankton have been observed (Curl et
al., 1979) with increased primary production. Finally, organic enrichment of
sediments may result in physical changes (grain size) or chemical changes that
result in changes in community structure. Organically enriched sediments may
serve as storage areas for metals, chlorinated hydrocarbons, or PAHs.
4-15
-------
4.3.2 Metals
The fate and effects of metals in the marine environment and their public
health implications have received considerable attention over the past decade.
Much of the current literature has been reviewed by Forstner and Wittman (1981).
As indicated in Table 4-2 on waste constituents, most of the wastes that may be
ocean dumped contain metals, sometimes in relatively high concentrations. Ocean
dumping can represent a significant input of metals to the marine environment.
For example, the relative contributions of total metals due to dumping in the
New York Bight have been estimated by Mueller et al. (1976) as follows: cadmium
(82%), chromium (50%), copper (51%), iron (79%), mercury (9%), lead (44%), and
zinc (29%) (Figure 4-4). While these appear to be relatively significant
contributions, it is important to note that the effects of metals will depend
not on the total amount dumped but on their availability to biota (Lee, 1977).
The fate of metals in the marine environment is dependent upon several
factors including metal speciation, physical nature of receiving environment,
physical nature of waste (liquid, sludge, solid), precipitation, complexation,
sorption-desorption processes, and redox conditions of bottom sediments. The
greater part of dissolved heavy metals transported by natural water systems is,
under normal physicochemical conditions, rapidly adsorbed onto particulate ma-
terial and eventually becomes part of the sediments. Thus, the fate of particulate
and sedimentary material is an important factor determining the fate of metals
in the marine environment. Studies supported by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
as part of their program to develop dredge materials disposal.criteria, have
shown that sediment-associated metals (i.e., Cu, Pb, Cd, Zn, Ni, Hg) are not
readily released to the water column when contaminated sediments are resuspended
in laboratory tests (Lee. et al., 1975a,b, 1978; Lee and Mariani, 1977; Lopes,
1977). In general, these studies have shown that iron and manganese are the
only metals released to the water column in large amounts from dredged sediments.
All other metals tested were either sorbed, not released, or released in suffi-
ciently small quantities to not significantly change the concentrations of metals
at an open-water disposal site.
Forstner and Wittman (1981) have noted that heavy metals immobilized in
bottom sediments can be released as a result of particular chemical changes.
Remobilization is mainly caused by four types of changes in waters:
1. Elevated salt concentrations, whereby the alkali and alkaline earth
cations can compete, with metal ions sorbed onto solid particles.
2. Changes in the redox conditions, usually in conjunction with a decrease
in the oxygen potential due to advanced eutrophicatlon. Iron or
manganese hydroxides are partly or completely dissolved, part of the
heavy metal load being released.
3. Lowering of pH, which leads to dissolution of carbonates and hydroxides,
as well as to increased desorption of metal cations due to competition
with H+ ions.
4-16
-------
\
Copper
Zinc
Figure 4-4. Relative contribution of various sources of metals to the New
York Bight (Mueller et al., 1976).
4-17
-------
4. Increased use of natural and synthetic complexing agents, which can
form soluble metal complexes (sometimes of high stability) with heavy
metals that are otherwise adsorbed to solid particles.
In addition to these four processes, there are other biochemical transforma-
tion processes by which heavy metals are transferred from the sediment to animal
or plant organisms. Microbial activity can also play a role in mobilization of
heavy metals.
There are three major microbial processes leading to mobilization of metals:
1. The destruction of organic matter to lower molecular weight compounds,
which are more capable of complexing metal ions.
2. Changes in the physical properties of the environment by metabolic
activities.
3. Conversion of inorganic compounds into metal complexation with organic
substances, by means of oxidative and reductive processes. This final
mechanism is exemplified by the alkylation of the elements mercury,
arsenic, and selenium.
When uptake of toxic substances by microbiota occurs, these organisms are
frequently able to "detoxify" these chemicals but, in the process, yield products
that may be more toxic to higher organisms (Wood, 1974). This is the case for
bacterial production of methyl mercury. The abil ity of microorganisms to detoxify
their environment through organo-metallic transformation is not restricted to
mercury, although the process is particularly important with regard to the
widespread pollution by mercury. It has been established that mechanisms of
biologic methylation are also effective in the formation of volatile compounds
of As, Pb, and Se (Forstner and Wittman, 1981). The subject is also discussed
in Craig (1980).
Recent reviews of the bioaccumulation of trace metals by marine organisms
(Bryan, 1977, 1980; Cole, 1979; F'orstner and Wittman, 1981) indicate that
accumulation is largely governed by the speciation and bioavailability of the
metals. Although dissolved metals in solution are generally the most available
to organisms, metals in food organisms and particulate matter can also be
important sources of metals to marine animals (Bryan, 1980). Bioaccumulation
has been shown to be dependent on the form of the metal, its competition between
chemically similar ions, environmental factors (e.g., temperature, salinity,
0.0., pH, light), the state, of the organisms, and the organisms' ability to
regulate or metabolize the metal. Bioaccumulation by some marine species is
directly proportional to external concentrations, while others have the ability
to regulate uptake.
Biomagnification of potentially toxic metals up the food chain is an
important consideration because of possible effects on man from eating contami-
nated seafood. Available evidence suggests that most metals are not biomagnified
up the food chain (Bryan, 1979, 1980). A possible exception is methyl mercury,
which does not appear to be regulated by any of the lower organisms or the
majority of fish. However, it should be noted that, even for this metal, the
high concentrations observed at higher trophic levels may not be attributable
solely to food intake. In fact, water may be the most important source. In
4-18
-------
this context, the speciation of heavy metals in the water plays a role which is
decisive not only for the acute toxicity but also for the bioavailability of the
metals. The reason that the thesis of bioamplification of heavy metals along
the food chain is not generally valid lies in the discrepancy between past,
overly simplified investigations and more recent, better differentiated studies
of food web enrichment processes (Forstner and Wittman, 1981).
Organisms differ in their ability to store and/or excrete metals that have
been absorbed (Bryan, 1979, 1980). Storage may involve binding to proteins
(e.g., metallothionein types), deposition in skeletal material, or intracellular
storage. Losses to surrounding water occur via diffusion over general body
surface, secretions, excretions, and molting. Toxic effects on organisms probab-
ly depend, in part, on the degree to which they can "handle" the metals taken
up from the environment. Organisms have been shown to exhibit three types of
metal contaminant regulation: the contaminant is excreted at a rate proportional
to the body burden (e.g., Pb in Mytilus edulis); the contaminant is stored rather
than excreted (e.g., Pb in Scorbicu laria plana), and organism excretes most of
any excessive input (e.g., Zn in Carcinus maenas). Generally, fish and decapods
are the best regulators, and essential metals such as Zn and Cu are better
regulated than nonessential metals such as Cd and Hg.
Jenkins et al. (1981) have discussed the role of metallothioneins in
sequestering and detoxifying metals in fish. These proteins have a high affinity
for metals including Ag, Au, Cd, Cu, Hg, and Zn (Kagi and Nordberg, 1979).
Synthesis of metallothionein is induced by low levels of Zn, Cu, Cd,and Hg, thus
allowing organisms to respond to increasing quantities of trace metals by
synthesizing this specific metal-binding protein (Brady et al., 1979; Bremer and
Davis, 1975; Richards and Cousins, 1975).
Metallothionein is thought to exert its protective effect by sequestering
free metal ions and partitioning them away from potential sites of toxic action
(Jenkins et al., 1981). These authors note, however, that the ability of an
organism to synthesize metallothionein may be exceeded so that additional metals
are no longer sequestered. This saturation of the detoxification mechanism could
result in spillover of excess trace metals and a concomitant onset of metal
toxicity. Because of organisms' ability to detoxify trace metals, it has been
suggested that the toxicological impact of trace metals may be evaluated most
effectively by examining the relative distribution of trace metals between
metallothioneins and potential sites of toxic action (Bayne et al., 1980; Engel
and Fowler, 1979).
Arute toxic effects of metals in the marine environment are not likely
except, perhaps, in the immediate vicinity of the discharge. However, sublethal
and chronic lethal effects of metals on marine organisms may occur. Yet, there
is little field evidence of such effects. Most observations of these effects
have come from laboratory experiments (Bayne, 1979, 1980). Sublethal and chronic
lethal effects of metal contamination are more likely to occur in benthic and
epibenthic species because of elevated levels of metals in sediments. However,
uptake of metals from sediments will depend on their availability. Combinations
of metals may have synergistic or antagonistic effects (Forstner and Wittman,
1981). For example, mixtures of Cu and Zn or Cu and Cd produced more than
additive effects in depressing embryonic development in sea urchins; Cu and Ni
act additively. Synergisms or antagonisms may occur between metals and hydrocar-
bons. As already discussed, the toxic effect of metals taken up by organisms
4-19
-------
will depend, In part, on the ability of the organism to handle (e.g., detoxify
or excrete) the metal.
An aspect of metal contamination which is not strictly "toxicity"-related
is the possible effect on phytoplankton growth rates and species composition.
Laboratory evidence suggests (as does a basic knowledge of factors affecting
phytoplankton growth) that shifts in the composition of dissolved metals in the
euphotic zone can alter the growth rates and species composition of phytoplankton
(Murphy, 1981). Under realistic ocean dumping conditions, factors such as
dilution and duration of exposure would be important in determining the extent
to which such changes could occur.
With regard to effects on man it should be noted that with the exception
of the Minamata experience for methyl mercury, there are few documented cases
of human poisoning as a result of metals in seafood. Nevertheless, elevated
levels of nonessential metals, such as Cd and Hg, are of some concern.
4.3.3 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are composed of two or more fused'
aromatic (benzene) rings. Of primary environmental concern are the mobile
compounds ranging in molecular weight from naphthalene to coronene. Two classes
of PAHs have been delineated according to molecular weight: the lower molecular
weight 2-3 ring aromatics and the higher molecular weight 4-7 ring aromatics.
Compounds in the lower molecular weight class are acutely toxic to aquatic
organisms, whereas those in the higher molecular weight class are not. However,
all of the proven PAH carcinogens are in the higher molecular weight class.
It is estimated that nearly 700 metric tons of the PAH benzo[a]pyrene (BP)
alone and 230,000 metric tons of total PAH enter the aquatic environment annually
(Neff, 1979). Of this, domestic and industrial wastes account for an estimated
29 metric tons/year (MTY) (4%) of BP and 4400 MTY (2%) of total PAH. As indicated
in the table of waste constituents (Table 4-2), sewage sludge and dredge material
are two waste types that may contain PAHs and may be ocean dumped. Although
ocean dumping of these wastes is not a major contributor of PAHs to the marine
environment, it may be locally Important.
Information on the fate and effects of PAHs in the marine environment has
been reviewed by Neff (1979) and Stegeman (1981). PAHs entering the marine
environment are rapidly adsorbed to organic and inorganic particulate materials
and, as sedimentation occurs, they become associated with bottom sediments.
There, PAHs may accumulate in high concentrations. Marine organisms often contain
tissue PAH concentrations orders of magnitiude higher than aqueous concentra-
tions, but equal to or less than those in bottom sediments.
Marine organisms are able to accumulate PAHs from water, food, and sediment.
In most cases, accumulation from water is more efficient than from food or
sediment. However, the widespread occurrence of PAHs in sediments suggests that
bioavailability of sedimentary PAH is critical in determining exposure for
animals, especially benthic and demersal species (Stegeman, 1981). Bioavailabil-
ity is strongly influenced by association of PAHs with colloidal or particulate
material. Sorption-desorption equilibria of PAHs with particulate matter clearly
indicate that some fraction of PAHs is in solution in sediment pore water.
Therefore, animals "compete" with sedimentary material for the available PAHs
4-20
-------
in solution. The dynamics of these competing processes determines, in part, the
rate of PAH uptake.
PAHs are acutely toxic to marine animals at concentrations of about 0.2-10
ppm (in water) and deleterious sublethal responses are sometimes observed at
concentrations in the 5-100 ppb range (Neff, 1979). The work of Hutchinson et
al. (1979) has indicated that hydrocarbons with low vapor pressure and low water
solubility (e.g., PAHs such as anthracene, phenanthrene, and pyrene) are more
toxic on amolar basis than the high vapor pressure, highly water soluble compounds
(e.g., benzene). These investigators postulate that the strongly lipophilic
nature of hydrocarbons causes them to be rapidly and powerfully absorbed by
1 ipid-containing cells and suggest that the lipoprotein cellular membrane may be
a key site of action. However, the limited bioavailability of sediment-adsorbed
PAHs would tend to render them substantially less toxic than aromatic hydrocarbons
in solution. This underscores the importance of sorption-desorption processes
in the sediments in affecting the availability of PAH.
Most animals are able to degrade PAHs to more polar metabolites and excrete
them (Neff, 1979). Biotransformation of PAHs by marine animals appears to involve
cytochrome P-450-dependent mixed-function oxidase systems. Species lacking PAH-
metabolizing systems are able to release accumulated PAHs if placed in a PAH-
free environment. Thus, food-chain biomagnification of PAHs occurs only to a
very limited extent, if at all.
Some PAH metabolites are carcinogenic, mutagenic, or teratogenic. Rather
than enhancing detoxification, metabolism of some carcinogenic PAHs in induced
animals could result in a higher steady-state level of toxic products (Stegeman,
1981). Although studies with various carcinogens have demonstrated that chemi-
cals can cause cancer in aquatic species, most attempts to demonstrate carcino-
genesis by PAHs in aquatic species have produced equivocal results (Pliss and
Khudoley, 1975). Although recently there has been some evidence that PAH can
cause cancer in aquatic animals, there is to date no demonstration of PAH-induced
carcinogenesis in marine vertebrate or invertebrate species (Neff, 1979; Stege-
man, 1981). Recent studies in the Duwamish River and Hudson River estuaries
have identified populations of Dover sole and Atlantic tomcod with very high
incidences of hepatocellular carcinoma (McCain et al., 1977; Smith et al., 1979),
and higher incidences of similar diseases have been reported for the Southern
California and New York Bights. Although the etiology of such diseases in fish
is uncertain, there is reason to suspect that the chemical environment is
responsible, and PAHs have not been exonerated (Stegeman, 1981). The question
of whether PAHs induce cancer in marine species, particularly at known ambient
levels, is yet to be answered.
The importance of PAH occurrence in marine species as a source of these
compounds to man is not well known. Neff (1979) concludes that PAH-contaminated
water and fishery products represent minor sources of PAH toxicity for man.
However, Stegeman (1981) notes that although PAHs in marine' species, including
bivalve molluscs, generally represent only a modest contribution to the total
of these compounds in the human diet, there are occasional samples that can
contribute substantial amounts of these carcinogens. Yet even these may be minor
relative to other mutagens in the diet (Nebert et al., 1979).
4-21
-------
4.3.4 Halogenated Hydrocarbons
The fate and effects of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and other haloge-
nated hydrocarbons (Dieldrin, PBBs, DOT) in the marine environment is of concern
because a number of these compounds are persistent (not easily degraded), can
be accumulated in marine organisms, and can exert short- and long-term effects.
Among the wastes which can be ocean dumped (Table 4-2), sewage sludge and dredge
materials contain variable amounts of halogenated hydrocarbons, depending on
regional inputs from industrial and municipal sources. Ocean disposal of
halogenatetf/chlorinated hydrocarbon wastes or products is prohibited and these
materials are generally disposed of by land-based alternatives or incineration
at sea. The concern, with regard to ocean disposal, is for the fate and effects
of these chemicals when they occur as contaminants in other wastes (e.g.,, sewage
sludge). These sources can be important on a regional scale. For example, for
the New York Bight it is estimated that sewage sludge contributes approximately
30% of total PCB loading and dredge materials contribute most of the remainder
(Swanson et al., in press). However, the bioavailability of PCBs associated
with sewage sludge 1s probably greater than that for dredge materials.
PCBs have received a great deal of attention because they have been widely
used, have been produced in large amounts, are persistent, are widely distributed
throughout the world's oceans and throughout all trophic levels, and may cause
acute and long-term effects. Although PCB manufacture and use in the United
States were halted, the existing "reservoirs" make PCBs a present and future
environmental concern. Because a comparatively large amount of information has
been generated for PCBs, much of this subsection on halogenated hydrocarbons
will focus on this particular family of chemicals. Where appropriate, information
based on studies of other halogenated hydrocarbons (e.g., DDT) will be presented.
It is hoped that this subsection will provide a general background on what is
known about the fate and effects of halogenated hydrocarbons. However, it is
important to note that the various hydrocarbons differ in their relative solubil-
ities, persistence, and effects. It is also important to point out that for
many (if not most) of these chemicals there is little data on their concentrations
in sources and within the marine environment.
Studies of the fate of PCBs in aquatic and marine systems have shown that
a major portion of PCBs becomes associated with particulate matter and is
deposited in sediments (Maurer et al., 1977; Murakami and Takeishi, 1976; Frank
et al., 1977). PCB properties of low solubility, high specific gravity,and
high affinity for particulate matter indicate that waterborne contaminant trans-
port will be highly correlated with sediment transport phenomena (Frank et al.,
1977; Wilson et al., 1978). Further, the attraction of PCBs to finer-grained
sediments (Maurer, 1977) and preference to certain species of clay (Murakami et
al., 1976) and organic matter (Stoffer et al., 1977) strongly suggests that the
distribution of PCBs in marine or aquatic environments will be associated with
fine-grained sediment transport (Gilbert et al., 1973). Higher concentrations
of PCBs in marine environments will be concentrated in low-energy areas which
promote deposition (Stoffer et al., 1977). Other chlorinated hydrocarbons (e.g.,
DDT, Kepone) have also been shown to have a high affinity for sedimentary material.
Once PCBs are assimilated in sediments, they are persistent and resistant
to degradation. A year after an accidental point discharge of the PCB Arochlor
1254 to an estuary was eliminated, oysters had depurated PCBs until a low, steady
concentration was attained, while concentrations in sediments, although low,
4-22
-------
were unchanged (Wilson et al., 1978). Veith (1972) found the same concentration
of PCBs in sediments 10 miles from the discontinued point source over a year
after the initial investigation. During this same study, some evidence was
obtained that PCBs with a lower percentage of chlorination may be degraded in
marine aquatic sediments by microbial metabolism.
As was previously discussed for PAHs, the bioavailability of sedimentary
PCBs and other persistent halogenated hydrocarbons will be critical in determin-
ing exposure for animals, especially benthic and demersal species. The dynamics
of sorption-desorption processes within the sedimentary environment will deter-
mine, in part, the rate of uptake.
PCBs have been shown to accumulate and have both acute and chronic, effects
in a variety of marine organisms at all trophic levels. In phytoplankton and
zooplankton, PCBs decrease the frequency of cell division (Fisher, 1975), and
inhibit cell growth, carbon fixation, chlorophyll production, oxygen consumption,
and protein and nucleic acid synthesis (Ewald, 1976). PCBs initially associated
with microparticulates are rapidly incorporated into marine diatoms (Iseki et
al., 1981). The accumulation of PCBs by diatoms occurs where PCB concentrations
in water are nondetectable indicating a degree of bioaccumulation. Moore and
Harris (1972) demonstrated that the PCBs Arochlor 1242 and 1254 reduced radiocar-
bon uptake at concentrations in water between 1 and 2 ppb. Laboratory LC50
values for marine phytoplankton were 6.5 ppb while in a natural community LC50
increased to 15 ppb (Moore and Harris, 1972).
PCBs introduced to a controlled ecosystem (Iseki et.al., 1981) decreased
primary productivity by 30% and replaced the population of diatoms with micro-
flagellates. This type of community shift has been observed in pollution-effect
experiments using copper and mercury (Thomas and Seibert, 1977). The initial
introduction of PCBs to the water column also increased settling velocities of
particulate matter but did not increase gross sedimentation rates due to reduced
primary productivity (Smayda, 1970). PCBs eliminated zooplankton from the water
column of a 64 m^ enclosure within 15 days after addition of concentrations
equivalent to 50 ppb (Iseki et al., 1981).
The chronic effects of PCBs to invertebrates have been demonstrated using
predominantly laboratory, closed-system experiments (Iseki et al., 1981). Con-
centrations that produce the toxic effects are not normally found in ambient
seawater. Due to the low concentrations of PCBs in water, there are strong
indications that the primary mode of contamination is affected by the organisms'
respective food source (McLease et al., 1980). In-situ studies indicate a strong
correlation between PCB-contaminated sediments and concentrations in benthic
organisms (McDermott et al., 1976; Halter and Johnson, 1977).
Fiddler crabs (Uca puqilator) continuously exposed to the PCB Arochlor 1242
under laboratory conditions exhibited a depressed rate of molting. Upon transfer
to unpolluted water, the molting rate increased by 7-12%. However, residual
effects from the accumulated PCBs prohibited molting from returning to normal
rates for the duration of the experiment (Fingerman and Fingerman, 1979). The
effects of bioaccumulation of PCBs on lobsters are presently being sought
(Farrington, 1981).
The biological effects of PCBs on fish have been reviewed by Califano (1981).
He reports that PCB toxicity in fish can result in direct mortality and, without
4-23
-------
observable sublethal effects, accumulated PCB residues may affect populations
through reproductive failures and alteration of growth and activity patterns in
young fish. Sublethal effects such as modification of biochemical and physiologi-
cal processes can also result from PCB intoxication.
Toxicity to fish has been found to vary depending upon the PCB compound,
species studied, and age of the fish. In general, PCB toxicity decreases as the
percent chlorine content of the PCB increases. Early life stages are more
susceptible to toxic effects than later life stages. The mechanisms of toxic
action of PCBs in fish are not known and may be different for the various
chlorinated biphenyls (Callfano, 1981). PCBs may be directly toxic to fish or
may become toxic following metabolic alteration.
Enzyme assays have indicated activation of microsomal enzyme systems and
ATPase inhibition in PCB-exposed fish. On the basis of cytochrome P-450,
cytochrome b5, and NADH-cytochrome reductase, induction of liver mixed function
oxidase system occurred with acute exposure to PCBs (Lipsky et al., 1978). It
is thought that PCBs can induce metabolism of other compounds such as PAHs via
the mixed-function oxidase system. This could result in an increased production
within the animal of reactive metabolites of PAHs, assuming that there was a
sufficient source of available PAH.
Halogenated hydrocarbons such as PCBs and DDT are much more resistant to
metabolism by marine organisms than are PAHs. Therefore, they may accumulate
in tissues to a greater degree than PAHs and have a greater potential for food-
chain biomagnification. However, much of the apparent effects of food chain
biomagnification would still occur if residues were not transferred along food
chains, since levels tend to be related to lipid pools of organisms, and top
predators such as seals have large fat deposits. Trophic-level effect and age
effect may apply to a greater degree in larger organisms not capable of direct
uptake from water, whereas influence of partitioning from water to body lipids
is more likely to apply to small organisms. Organisms containing PCBs in their
tissues have been found to be able to depurate these chemicals to varying degrees
when placed in a PCB-free environment.
Although relatively few studies have examined the metabolic fates of PCBs
in fish, there are indications that some chlorobiphenyls are metabolized at slow
rates (Califano, 1981). The ability to metabolize PCBs is apparently species
specific and the liver is the main organ involved in metabolism and excretion
of PCBs in fish. Petersen and Guiney (1979), in their literature review on PCB
metabolism, report that green sunfish and goldfish rapidly metabolize trichloro-
biphenyl whereas bullheads and trout metabolize it only very slowly or not at
all. While PCB metabolism is indicated 1n some fish species (Hinz and Matsumura,
1977; Sanborn et al., 1975; Srugen et al., 1976), the identity of PCB metabolites
is virtually unknown.
Brown et al-(1981) have examined the metabolic fates of DOT, DOE, and ODD
in white croakers (Genyonemus lineatus) from Southern California. The authors
noted that although a considerable number of studies have been done on the
detoxification of trace metals in organisms exposed in their natural habitats
(discussed in Jenkins et al., 1981), little has been done to elucidate the ability
of these organisms to detoxify xenobiotic hydrocarbons.
4-24
-------
Brown et al. (1981) briefly reviewed the biochemical metabolism of xeno-
biotic hydrocarbons and the following is taken from that review. Metabolism
usually involves, first, the addition of oxygen to the hydrocarbon to form a
highly reactive and toxic epoxide intermediate. This intermediate can attach
to macromolecules (e.g., proteins, DNA) with concomitant toxic effects, or
alternatively, can be further metabolized to water soluble, less toxic metabo-
lites. It has been suggested that the occurrence of toxic effects (i.e., whether
epoxide intermediates will react with cellular macromolecules) depends on the
ratio of the rates of bioactivation processes to deactivation processes. If the
rate of deactivation processes is less than that of bioactivation processes,
then levels of toxic epoxide intermediates will increase, causing toxic effects.'
It should also be noted that the parent compounds (e.g., DOT, DDE, DDD) also may
have direct toxic effects.
Brown et al. (1981) summarized the major steps in metabolism of DDT (Figure
4-5). The first, and most likely rate-limiting step is the removal of chlorine
to form DDE or DDD. The next series of steps can result in conversion of these
to epoxides (described as reactive toxic intermediates) which can alternatively
be converted, either spontaneously or enzymatically, to a variety of water-
soluble products which may be excreted. Results of the study on white croakers
indicated that fish from a site with low levels of contaminants and also a highly
contaminated site (Palos Verdes), have the ability to metabolize (detoxify) one
or more of DDT, DDE, and DDD (Brown et al., 1981). The Investigators reported
an increase in amounts of lipids in both liver and muscle-tissue of croakers
from Palos Verdes and presumably these lipids provide a reservoir for deposition
of hydrophobic hydrocarbons. Quraishi (1977) notes that it is essential that
DDT, DDE, and DDD be partitioned into lipid pools since otherwise they could act
as severe neurotoxins.
As in the case of PCBs, the ability of animals to metabolize DDT and its
derivatives appears to be species specific. Although Brcwn et al. (1981)
observed metabolism in white croakers (as revealed by the presence of meta-
bolites), Addison et al. (1977) indicated that trout do not have the ability
to metabolize either DDT or DDE.
The information presented above indicates that the fate and effects of
halogenated hydrocarbons depend on a number of processes ranging from physical
transport mechanisms to enzyme reactions. The major processes include sediment
transport and deposition, sorption-desorption rates, uptake of available hydro-
carbons, and subsequent storage, metabolism, and excretion. The rates of
processes are important in determining effects of halogenated hydrocarbons on
particular organisms. Absolute concentrations in the sediments, water column,
or biota do not necessarily indicate which effects are or may be occurring. It
is also important to note that species differ in their ability to store,
metabolize, or excrete xenobiotics and, therefore, results generated for a few
species, while instructive, should not be extrapolated to the marine community
as a whole.
4.3.5 Low-Level Radioactive Waste (LLW)
Low-level radioactive wastes (LLW) that may be disposed at sea include those
which have low radiation levels at the outside of the container (9056 fraction)
as well as those (10% fraction) which may require remote handling or shielding
(Table 4-3). The United States currently does not dump LLW at sea. However,
4-25
-------
BIO ACTIVATION
MFOs
+o
HYDROPHOBIC
R—C—R
CI
DOMU epoxide
DEACTIVATION
DDNU epoxide
Enzymes
RNA
DNA
OH
1
R—C—R
OH
H
R—C—R
H
1
R—C—R
H
1
H—<|—H
OH
?H
R—^—R
H—
-------
TABLE 4-3. MAJOR RADIONUCLIDES IN LOW LEVEL RADIOACTIVE WASTE, (from MacBeth
et al., 1979)
Concentration in
Concentration in
Higher Radiation
Low-Level Waste
Level Waste
Half!ife
(90% Fraction)
(10% Fraction)
Nuclide
(y r)
(Ci/m3)
(Ci/m3)
3H
14c
51Cr
54Mn
55Fe
58C°
59Ni
60co
63Nl-
90Sr
99Tc
125sb
129!
134Cs
137Cs
152Eu
226Ra
230Th
232jh
235y
237Np
238|j
238pu
239Pu
240Pu
241Pu
242Pu
24lAm
243 Am
243cm
244Cm
12.3
0.12
5730
3.8 x
0-3
0.08
4.3 x
°i
65
0.86
2.5 x
0-2
40
2.7
4.3 x
O"1
—
0.19
4.3 x
0-2
65
8 x 104
1.3 x
n-3
5.27
0.13
200
100
0.24
29
4.8 x
0-3
--
2.1 x 105
3.2 x
0-5
__
2.73
5.3 x
0-3
1.6 X 107
6.4 x
0-6
...
2.06
4.8 x
°i
70
30.2
8.6 x
0"2
130
13
4.8 x
°i
„
1600
1.2 x
0-4
7.7 x 104
7.1 x
0"5
1.4 x 1010
8.4 x
°-7
7.0 x 108
3.2 x
0-6
--
2.1 x 106
4.6 x
0-8
4.5 x 109
7.1 x
°i
87.8
3.2 x
o-J
2.4 x 104
4.3 x
°i
6540
6.7 x
0-5
«
15
1.6 x
0-2
3.9 x 105
2.4 x
°-J
433
3.0 x
0-5
7370
2.1 x
0-6
• •
28
6.0 x
O"7
17.9
1.9 x
0"4
TOTALS
1.2
570
4-27
-------
between 1946 and 1970 the U.S. dumped 60,000 curies of packaged LLW at coastal
and offshore sites. Thirty-five sites were used, but 95% of the radioactivity
was dumped at four sites: two off the Maryland-Delaware coast, one off San
Francisco, and one off the Farallon Islands, Pacific Ocean (Dyer, 1981).
The fate of LLW in the sea includes radioisotope decay, sediment adsorption,
transport due to erosion-deposition, release to the water column, biological
uptake, and food-chain transfer. Table 4-3 presents the half lives of the coimion
radionuclides in LLW. As indicated in subsection 3.1, 300 years are required
to render the average LLW nonharmful. Release of radionuclides could occur if
the containers in which LLW is packaged are breached.
Once released, radionuclides may be adsorbed to suspended particulates or
sediments (IAEA, 1978). Concentration factors for radionuclides adsorbed to
sediments are high for most radionuclides in LLW and generally range between 500
and 50,000 x that of water (NEA, 1980). The sediments of the seabed generally
have strong sorption characteristics. The contaminated sediments may be trans-
ferred near bottom by transport of erosional sediments and particulates in the
deep nepheloid layer (MacCave, 1978). Bioturbatlon may also effect sediment
redistribution at dumpsites (Pneumo Dynamics Corp., 1961) and evidence exists
that this may be the dominant mechanism by which at least cesium is redistributed
(Dayal et al., 1979). These authors also conclude that migration of cesium via
diffusion through pore water is insignificant. In general, they felt that the
sediments are a barrier to release of cesium to the overlying water column (0.3%
of cesium released from barrels enters water column).
Radionuclides can be bloaccumulated in the same manner as their cold
isotopes. The return of radionuclides to the surface via the food chain pathway
will depend, in part, upon the extent of benthopelagic coupling. The magnitude
of such coupling and the degree to which radionuclides might be tranferred via
marine food chains is unknown. However, fish associated primarily with the
bottom have been caught far up in the water column (Haedrich and Henderson,
1977). A schematic illustrating possible fates of radionuclides in the marine
environment is provided in Figure 4-6. As indicated, biological and physical
routes of transport from deep-sea sediments to the upper water column are least
known.
The dumping of LLW at sea may result in various effects. Radionuclides
released from containers could be bioaccumulated by marine organisms and this
may result in somatic or genetic damage. Increases in the radionuclide concentra-
tions of invertebrates in the vicinity of the northeast Atlantic LLW dumpsite
have been observed (Feldt et al., 1980) and radionuclides are known to accumulate
in tissues of various marine organisms. The degree to which these accumulations
would result in damage is presently unknown. However, at the implied maximum
dose rates in both water and sediment at the northeast Atlantic site, the IAEA
(1978) concluded that no significant deleterious effects would be expected on
populations of marine organisms (including plankton). In the case of all the
activity dumped over several decades remaining in the sediments of a very
restricted area, the partial or complete destruction of the local benthic fauna
could not be excluded. Regarding effects on mutation rates in populations of
marine organisms, two IAEA expert panels have examined the effects of ionising
radiation on aquatic organisms and ecosystems (IAEA, 1976). The evidence
indicates that at the maximum doses inferred from estimated release rate limits,
4-28
-------
Figure 4-6. Possible routes of radionuclide transport 1n the marine environ-
ment. Dotted lines Indicate routes for which there is little
Information (from International Atomic Energy Agency).
4-29
-------
no significant deleterious effects of a genetic nature are likely to be produced
in populations of marine organisms.
Effects at the invertebrate community level have not been observed (Reish,
1977; Polloni and Williams, draft). Surveys of invertebrates at the Atlantic
and Pacific dumpsites revealed no difference compared to control stations. Musick
and Sulak (1978) came to a similar conclusion regarding the demersal fish
comnunity, but qualified their conclusions by noting that the mobility of the
fish may have affected their results.
Increased biological production around the dumped cannisters due to "reef
effects" also may occur. The strongest evidence of such increased production
is the enrichment of nitrogen and organic carbon in a core taken from around a
cannister at the Farallon Island site (Dayal et al., 1979). The authors suggest
that although this finding may be due to a reef effect, the enrichment also may
be due to paint that flaked off the cannisters.
Possible effects of deep ocean disposal of LLW on public health have been
evaluated as part of a review of the continued suitability of the dumping site
for radioactive waste in the northeast Atlantic (NEA, 1980). The evaluation
utilized a generic approach developed by the IAEA. There are two parts to the
IAEA assessment — an oceanographic model which derives wa£er concentrations of
radionuclides related to release rates and a radiological component which takes
the water concentrations and evaluates the doses to man and the ecosystem which
may result. The NEA (1980) note that ideally a site-specific model is required
which correctly represents the oceanographic and biological processes in the
area in question. Unfortunately, the understanding of these processes, being
very limited at present, is not adequate to permit a site-specific model to be
constructed in a satisfactory manner. The NEA report stated that eventually the
necessary knowledge must be acquired. The first priority is considered to be
continued investigations aimed at identifying critical pathways.
The rates of dumping of wastes at the northeast Atlantic site are summarized
in Table 4-4, where they are also compared with the IAEA release rate limits.
The IAEA figure for alpha-active wastes is based on long-term processes, which
only become limiting for the dominant radionuclide Pu-239 after a long period
of time (about 4000 years). Because wastes have been dumped for less than 30
years, the short-term rate limit which for Pu-239 is a factor of ten larger
should be used, thereby reducing the percentage for overall alpha-active wastes
to 0.08% (NEA, 1980).
4-30
-------
TABLE 4-4. TOTAL AMOUNTS OF LLW DUMPED AT THE NORTHEAST ATLANTIC SITE AND
CORRESPONDING IAEA RELEASE RATE LIMITS. (NEA, 1980)
Total Amounts Maximum
Dumped (Assum- Dumping Average IAEA Release
ing no Decay Rate In Any Dumping Rate % of IAEA
Group Took Place) One Year Rate Limits^3) Release
Rate
Limit
Ci Ci/y C1/y Ci/y
Alpha activity 8.3 x 103 1.4 x 103 750 105 0.8
Alpha activity
(Ra-group) 100INFCIRC/205/Add. 1/Rev. 1
(^Estimate, no detailed information available over all years
(c)Average over 1975-1979
(d)Average over 1974-1979
-------
5. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
The purpose of this section is to provide recommendations on future research
needs regarding environmental fate and effects of wastes dumped at sea. These
reconmendations are based on our review of available information and our assess-
ment of gaps in that information. Naturally, some research needs are greater
than others either because there is a dearth of information on a particular
subject or because the potential risks associated with ocean disposal of a
particular waste require close inspection. We have attempted to take this into
account and have assigned priorities to the various categories of study discussed
in this section of the report.
During preparation of this report, the five-year marine pollution monitoring
plan (Interagency Committee on Ocean Pollution Research, Development and Monitor-
ing, 1981) was received. Its recorrcnendations are generally similar and consistent
with our assessment. That report's section dealing with research related to
ocean waste disposal is presented here as Appendix A.
Our recommendations are more specific and presented within a different
framework. Suggested categories of studies and their relative priorities with
regard to various classes of wastes are presented in Table 5-1. A matrix format
was chosen because research needs related to ocean dumping are often common to
a number of waste categories. Priorities are ranked high (H), moderate (M), and
low (L). Priority assignment is based on a number of factors including the
extent of information already available and the relative environmental and public
health risks associated with various classes of chemical contaminants. The
priority levels provided in Table 5-1 are based on our assessment of the above
factors, from literature reviews, discussions among the scientists who prepared
this report, and discussions with a number of investigators at various laborator-
ies.
Research needs can also be considered in terms of the probability that a
particular waste will be ocean dumped and the comparative quantities of wastes.
Based on information given in Section 2 of the report, the likelihood that wastes
presented in Table 5-1 will be ocean dumped is as follows: sewage sludge (moderate-
high), dredge materials (high), fly ash (moderate), FGD sludge (moderate), gypsum
(low-moderate), acid iron waste (moderate-high), industrial sludges (low-moder-
ate), low-level radioactive waste (moderate).
5.1 PHYSICAL FATE OF DISSOLVED CONSTITUENTS
Information on the physical fate of dissolved constituents (e.g., liquids
discharged from ships) was discussed in subsection 4.1.1. The basic information
required to assess physical fates include the scale of mixing and dispersion at
5-1
-------
TABLE 5-1. CATEGORIES OF STUDIES AND THEIR RELATIVE PRIORITIES WITH REGARD TO OCEAN DUMPING OF VARIOUS
WASTE TYPES. PRIORITY LEVELS ARE HIGH (H), MODERATE (M), AND LOW (L). SEE TEXT FOR FURTHER
DISCUSSION.
Acid
Sewage Dredged Fly FGD Iron Industrial
Categories of Studies Sludge Materials Ash Sludge Gypsum Waste Sludges LLW
A. Physical fate of dis-
solved constituents MMLLLM M L
B. Physical fate of par-
ticulate materials HHHHHM H H
C. Effects of nutrient
enrichment HMLLLL L L
D. Uptake, storage, depu-
ration of metals MMMMMM H M
E. Uptake, storage, depu-
ration of PAHs MMLLLL L L
F. Uptake, storage, depu-
ration of halogenated
hydrocarbons HHLLLL L L
G. Uptake, storage, trans-
port of radionuclides
H. Effects of sediment
alterations on larval
settlement MHHHML H L
I. Toxicity studies
(lethal/sublethal) MMLLLM M L
J. Site monitoring HHHHHH H H
K. Inventory of wastes
constituents H H LLMM H L
L. Cross-media risk
assessment HHHHHH H H
-------
a dumpsite and within adjacent areas to which the waste would be transported.
These data are provided by standard physical oceanographic measurement programs
and are usually obtained as part of ocean dumping site selection and monitoring
programs. We believe that this information is important in assessing fate of
dissolved materials and measurements need to be made at new as well as existing
sites. However, because there are ongoing programs providing this information,
and because mixing and advection processes tend to be relatively straightforward,
this category of study has been assigned a low to moderate priority status.
Design of a field program to determine appropriate physical oceanography
parameters can be outlined as follows:
1. Parameters to be measured
The choice of parameters to be measured include: density stratification,
determined by hydrographic (temperature, salinity) profiles taken from ships or
by moored temperature-salinity recorders; current patterns, determined with
moored current meters or by drogue tracking; direct dispersion coefficients, by
survey of the concentration of discharged waste or dye tracer; and dispersion
influences, by measurement of waves, current shears, and meteorological para-
meters such as surface winds.
2. Choice of time and duration of measurements
Measurements for dumping activities planned for months or years of
continuing operations will have to provide a characterization of the statistical
variation of oceanic parameters, and thus will have to span appropriate meteoro-
logical seasons, tidal variations, and fluctuations in the significant ocean
conditions- such as waves, fronts, eddies, and hydrographic seasons.
Measurements for individual or infrequent dumping procedures can be
briefer attempts to represent expected "worst-case" conditions, such as calm
conditions when dispersion will be minimal, or other conditions appropriate to
the type of dumping.
Monitoring measurements of ongoing dumping activities are of value to
verify predicted behavior of discharges and their impacts. Scheduling of such
measurements is obviously limited by the schedule of the dumping activities. It
is important to realize that, because of the oceanic variability, such measure-
ments must be considered for their monitoring value rather than as predictive
examples. Predictive value could result only from the monitoring and analysis
of numerous individual dumping exercises.
3. Determination of spatial extent of measurements
The extent of the region impacted by dumped materials will vary with
the planned volume of material to be dumped and repetition rate of dumping
activity, the toxicity of the material and its tendency for neutralization through
chemical or biological processes, the transport and dispersion processes that
are present at the site, and the biological, economic, or political sensitivity
of adjacent areas that may be affected. Field program planning must therefore
be preceded by preliminary estimates of the impacted area based on the proposed
dumping activity, the best available estimates of the concentrations of pollut-
ants that will be of concern, dispersion estimates, best available estimates of
5-3
-------
currents in the region, and considerations of possible sensitive areas. If
initial estimates show that the affected area may be of comparable size to a
partially enclosed proposed dumping region such as a bay, gulf, or strait, then
studies of that entire region may be required.
4. Consideration of special topics
Special conditions that may require particular field studies include:
oceanic fronts in the vicinity of the proposed site; estuarine circulation
patterns which may extend out to the site; or bottom boundary layer flows,
sediment resuspension processes, and turbidity currents where dumped material
may come to rest on the bottom.
5.2 PHYSICAL FATE OF PARTICULATE MATERIALS
This category of studies has been assigned high priority status because:
1) many of the more persistent contaminants in the marine environment (i.e.,
metals, PAHs, halogenated hydrocarbons, radionuclides) tend to become associated
with particulate material; and 2) our ability to adequately sample and predict
the fate of particulates in the water column and sediments is limited (see
subsection 4.1.2).
Key 'areas where additional Information is needed include the following:
1) The fate of discharged.particulates in the vicinity of density fronts.
Of particular interest is the degree to which particulates will accumulate along
density surfaces, both in terms of duration and concentration. Multiport water
sampling systems combined with acoustic techniques have been shown to be helpful
in monitoring the fate of particulates. We recommend that the development and
application of such systems continue. A research program should be carried out
to provide adequate ground truth for acoustic measurements under a variety of
conditions.
2) The fate of particulate materials when they reach the seafloor and
become part of the sediments. Although much attention has been given to the
dispersion and settling of discharge plumes within the water column, comparative-
ly little Information is available for predicting the fate of this material once
it has reached the seafloor. However, the short- and long-term fate of this
material 1s important with regard to possible effects on the marine environment.
We recommend that an appropriate sediment transport model be developed to aid
in evaluating the fate of contaminated sediments. The model(s) should be
developed for major dump sites and would use appropriate physical oceanographic,
geologic, and meteorologic data for the regions of interest. Alternatively,
generic models may be employed where a number of sites have common conditions.
Additional data required for developing and verifying the model(s) should
be provided by two basic kinds of studies. Laboratory sediment flume studies
should be used to provide information on shear stress required to resuspend
various sedimentary waste types (e.g., sludges, dredge materials) associated
with particular sediment types. Other conditions which should be considered in
these laboratory studies include various micro- and macrobiological factors that
would tend to stabilize the sediments or which could be important in physical
5-4
-------
movement of contaminated sediment within the upper sediment layers (bioturha-
tion).
The second study that Is needed involves field verification measurements.
These include well designed field monitoring programs to measure the spatial
extent of contaminants associated with sediments at and around dumpsites. Many
past programs have emphasized collecting replicate samples at several stations.
However, it is our opinion that sampling should be spatially extensive and that
sampling effort would be better allocated by increasing the number of stations
at and around dumpsites rather than the number of replicate samples at a station.
Prior to the onset of future sampling programs, the design of such programs
should be examined by statisticians with expertise in the areas of sampling
design and allocation of sampling effort. Their recommendations should be
evaluated and incorporated as appropriate into the program.
An evaluation should be made of various sediment sampling techniques (grabs,
cores, box cores, etc.) in order to establish which techniques are most suitable
for obtaining undisturbed sediment samples. Contaminants associated with sedi-
ments should not be analyzed in entire large volume (e.g., 10 cm long) cores
because of dilution effects. Analyses should be conducted on discrete layers
of sediments. At the sediment surfaces, analyses should be restricted to the
upper few millimeters; analyses should be conducted at 1-3 cm intervals in lower
sediment layers.
Tripod camera/current meter systems should be employed at a few major
dumpsites in order to establish physical oceanographic (and, to some extent,
biological) conditions under which resuspension of sedimentary material occurs.
These systems are capable of providing month-long records of bottom conditions
and probably constitute the most useful field verification technique. We
recommend that tripods be established at a few major dredged material dumpsites,
and at the existing and proposed sewage sludge dumpsites.
Two other monitoring systems appear to be valuable as field verification
techniques. These include camera systems designed to obtain still photographs
or video data from the sediment surface and sediment profiles, and high frequency
(high resolution) side-scan systems. The camera systems are capable of providing
detailed "point sampling" data 1n an efficient and quick manner; the side-scan
systems provide larger-scale information on the nature of the sediment surface.
Together, these two "remote sampling methods" could be an effective means for
rapidly monitoring dumpsites. We recommend that the application of these
techniques be further investigated.
5.3 EFFECTS OF NUTRIENT ENRICHMENT
This category of studies has been assigned a high priority status for sewage
sludge, moderate for dredged material and low for other waste types. This
reflects the relative nutrient contributions of these waste types.
A considerable number of studies have investigated the effects of nutrient
levels on phytoplankton growth rates and species composition. Processes related
to nutrient regeneration are continuing to be studied. The fate of dissolved
nutrients and the degree to which "excessive" levels are reached depends strongly
upon physical oceanographic processes (dispersion, mixing, advection) and the
5-5
-------
studies recommended in subsection 5.1 of this report are directed at providing
that information.
There is evidence that elevated nutrient levels can affect the health of
the zooplankton and the concentrations of other chemicals in the water column
(see subsection 4.3.1)C In particular, MERL experiments in progress have shown
that elevated nutrient levels can reduce zooplankton fecundity; the causal
agent(s) have not been identified. We recommend that mesocosm experiments (like
MERL) continue, to provide additional insights into the effects of elevated
nutrient concentrations. We further recoimiend that an evaluation be made of the
extent to which the MERL system can represent offshore (as opposed to purely
estuarine) conditions, for the purpose of examining the effects of elevated
nutrient levels (derived from sewage sludge) on offshore plankton communities.
5.4 UPTAKE, STORAGE, AND DEPURATION OF METALS
This cateogry of studies was assigned a primarily moderate priority status
(high for industrial sludges) because: 1) there have been a considerable number
of laboratory studies on bioaccumulatlon and depuration of metals; 2) with the
possible exception of methyl mercury, there is little evidence that metals are
biomagnified up the food chain; and 3) there are few documented cases, based on
field studies, of metals causing environmental damage to marine organisms or
public health problems (the Minamata incident is a notable exception.) On the
other hand, metals are a class of contaminants found in almost all wastes that
may be ocean dumped (see Table 4-2) and in some cases ocean.dumping can represent
a significant source of metals. Based on our review, we recommend studies in
the following areas.
1) Studies (see subsection 4.3.2) have shown that marine organisms vary
in their ability to regulate the uptake, storage, and excretion of metals. One
mechanism which has been described as important with regard to an organism's
ability to "detoxify" accumulated metals involves the protein metallothionein.
It has been suggested that an organism's ability to sequester or otherwise
detoxify or eliminate metals can be exceeded. This might occur if the amount
of bioavailable metals increases, if the rate of bioaccumulation increases, or
if an organism's ability to detoxify or eliminate metals decreases. We recommend
that studies be conducted on various organisms' abilities to physiologically
regulate accumulated metals.
Two basic kinds of studies are recommended. First, laboratory/mesocosm
(e.g., MERL) studies using realistic exposure conditions would provide needed
information on the uptake and subsequent fate of metals in marine organisms.
Analyses of metals should be carried out for specific tissues or organs. The
objectives of these studies would be to determine the uptake rates and internal
concentrations that exceed the organisms' abilities to sequester, detoxify, or
excrete the accumulated metals. These experiments should be carried out on a
range of species.
Second, careful analyses should be made of metal concentrations in organism
collected in the field. The objective of these field studies should be to
evaluate the extent to which levels of accumulated metals have reached or exceeded
the organisms natural storage or excretion systems. These patterns in organism
5-6
-------
concentration should be related to information on the concentrations of available
metals.
2. The rate at which metals associated with sediments will become available
for biological uptake will depend on adsorption-desorption rates as well as other
chemical factors (see subsection 4.3.2). Additional information is required on
these geochemical processes.
3. Items 1 and 2 above refer to rates and processes related to metal
availability, uptake, metabolism, storage, and excretion. The aggregate of these
processes will determine the effects that metals discharged into the marine
environment will have on organisms. In order to assess or predict these effects,
we recommend that a modeling approach which incorporates these various processes
be developed.
4. Phytoplankton growth rates and species composition have been shown in
the laboratory to be affected by changes in the concentrations of dissolved
metals. Such effects could have important consequences at the ecosystem level,,
should chronic inputs of metals actually result in these changes. Effects will
depend on the exposure, duration, and concentrations of various metals resulting
from discharges. It is likely that at present rates of ocean dumping, such
effects are insignificant. However, they should be considered more closely
should frequency and volume of ocean dumping increase. Effects should be
evaluated by means of laboratory growth rate studies as well as field data on
baseline metal concentrations, and physical oceanographic conditions.
5.5 UPTAKE, STORAGE, AND DEPURATION OF PAHs
This category of studies was assigned a low or (for sewage sludge and dredged
materials) moderate priority status because: 1) ocean dumping of most wastes
either contribute little or no PAHs; in the case of sewage sludge and dredge
materials, local inputs may be important; and 2) available evidence indicates
that PAHs are metabolized or excreted rapidly by marine organisms and that there
is little biomagnification up the food chain. The following studies are recom-
mended.
1) The availability of PAHs associated with sediments to marine organisms
will depend on adsorption-desorption rates. Organisms "compete" with particu-
late material for the available PAHs. Information on the rates of these processes
and the ability of organisms to take up PAHs from sedimentary material is needed.
These studies should be carried out 1n laboratory/mesocosm systems. Radiolabel-
ed PAHs should be used in these experiments in order to quantify the rates of
physicochemical processes as well as the rates of uptake by marine organisms.
2) Marine organisms have the ability to metabolize PAHs. However, some
of the metabolites are reactive with concomitant toxic, mutagenic, or carcino-
genic effects. The degree to which toxic effects will occur probably depends
on the rates of uptake, metabolism (i.e., activation), and deactivation to more
polar metabolites. Laboratory studies using radiolabelled PAHs should be used
to evaluate these rates. Of particular interest are differences in the rates
of activation and deactivation.
5-7
-------
3) There is little or no information relating diseases in fish to environ-
mental concentrations of PAHs. However, an ongoing effort should be made to
relate histopathologic and other conditions in fish to concentrations of PAHs,
halogenated hydrocarbons, metals, and other contaminants. Part of the problem
of establishing cause and effect relationships is that there are a number of
potential causal agents, and effects are not necessarily tied to any one of
these. From a statistical standpoint, this is a multifactoral problem. We
recommend that existing or proposed field sampling programs be carefully evalu-
ated by statisticians with expertise in experimental design. Their recommenda-
tions should be incorporated into ongoing programs.
4) As the recommendations presented above suggest, effects of PAH on the
marine environment are the result of a number of processes and the rates at which
they occur. Information presently existing and generated from the recommended
studies should be used in a modeling approach to evaluate possible effects of
PAHs on marine organisms. This model would be qualitatively similar to those
recommended for trace metals and halogenated hydrocarbons.
5.6 . UPTAKE, STORAGE, AND DEPURATION OF HALOGENATED HYDROCARBONS
This cateogry of studies has been assigned a high priority status for sewage
sludge and dredge materials (which contain variable amounts of these compounds)
and low priority status for other wastes. High priority status was assigned
because: 1) these wastes can be significant sources of halogenated hydrocarbons;
2) information on the long-term fate and effects of these compounds is needed;
and 3) these compounds are persistent and not rapidly metabolized (as are PAHs);
consequently there 1s a greater likelihood for Increased accumulation in tissues,
transfer up the food chain, and effects on man. Recommended studies are presented
below.
1) As with PAHs, the availability of halogenated hydrocarbons associated
with marine sediments will depend on adsorption-desorption rates. As these
hydrocarbons are desorbed into the interstitial pore water or near the surface
of the sediments, they become more available to marine organisms. Additional
information is needed on the rates of these processes. Experiments designed to
examine these processes should be carried out in laboratory systems. The use
of radiolabeled compounds would enhance the sensitivity of these experiments and
would permit experiments in which organisms are exposed to a variety of compounds
(each differentially labeled). Laboratory exposures should be comparable to
probable ambient levels.
2) Some marine organisms have the ability to metabolize certain halogenated
hydrocarbons (e.g., DDT, PCBs). This is Important inasmuch as the long term
effects of such compounds 1s related, 1n part, to their persistence. The limited
information presently available indicates that the ability of marine organisms
to metabolize, eliminate, or otherwise "detoxify" halogenated hydrocarbons is
species dependent and compound dependent. This data base needs to be further
developed in order to allow for a more complete evaluation of organisms' abilities
to deal with accumulated halogenated hydrocarbons. We suggest that this informa-
tion should be brought together in a logical fashion. This could involve
developing information on major classes of halogenated hydrocarbons for major
t.axa (of fish and invertebrates).
5-8
-------
Two basic kinds of studies are recommended. The first involves laboratory
studies designed to measure rates of metabolism and composition of metabolites.
The second includes careful tissue analyses of organisms takpn from areas which
have been exposed to contaminants and from tarn fita ted deeds, i>r ^diKama
should be analyzed for the concentrations of compounds and metabolites. Collec-
tions should be made at major disposal areas.
3) There is evidence that halogenated hydrocarbons can induce MFO systems
of organisms to metabolize PAHs. This could result in an increased rate of
production of reactive metabolites. Assuming there is an adequate supply, of
PAHs to the organism, this effect could be important. At present, there is
inadequate information with which to evaluate its significance. We recommend
that laboratory studies be conducted to provide this information.
4) As indicated above, the effects of halogenated hydrocarbons will depend
on a number of processes and the rates at which these occur. We recorrenend that
a modeling approach be developed which incorporates these processes. This will
assist in evaluating effects of these hydrocarbons discharged with ocean-dumped
wastes.
5.7 UPTAKE, STORAGE, AND TRANSPORT OF RADIONUCLIDES
This cateogry of studies has been assigned high priority status for LLW and
is not considered applicable to other waste categories. Based on our review of
existing information the following studies are recommended.
1. Among the key concerns with regard to deep ocean disposal of LLW are
possible biological and physical mechanisms which would transport radionuclides
to the more productive surface layers. We recommend that existing information
on these processes be reviewed and a status report prepared. The report should
identify gaps in the information and recommend the studies on how the information
should be obtained.
2. Existing predictive models should be evaluated for their adequacy in
assessing public health and environmental risks associated with ocean disposal
of LLW off the coasts of the United States. Two models which should be considered
are the IAEA model used to assess continued suitability of LLW disposal in the
northeast Atlantic and the model being developed as part of the U.S. Seabed
Disposal Program. The IAEA model, which has been used to assess LLW disposal, is
a generic rather than site-specific model. The Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA),
which used the IAEA model, recognized that a site-specific model was the Ideal
but that at the time information was inadequate for developing such a model.
3. Site-selection criteria for disposal of LLW have been developed for the
Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. These criteria will be used to select one or more
candidate disposal areas. At present, there is little data on the environmental
conditions of deep ocean (-4000 m) regions on which to completely evaluate the
suitability of these areas as disposal sites. We recommend that once candidate
sites are identified, appropriate field programs be implemented to provide
necessary baseline information. These programs should focus on physical oceano-
graphic, geological, chemical, and biological conditions at and above the benthic
environment. Additional Information should be obtained on physical and biologic-
al features of the water column inasmuch as these could be important in the
5-9
-------
transport of radionuclides from the deep ocean to the more productive surface
1ayers.
4. An assessment should be made of the integrity and anticipated lifetime
of containers used to dispose of LLW. (IAEA has specified container design.)
The consequences of container failure (in terms of potential radionuclide leak-
age) should be determined for various intervals (immediately, 1, 10, 100, 300,
1000 years). This information could be used to refine estimates of risks
associated with LLW disposal at sea.
5.8 EFFECTS OF SEDIMENT ALTERATIONS ON BENTHIC LARVAL SETTLEMENT
This cateogry was assigned a high priority status for several of the waste
types with significant solids content because: 1) there is evidence (e.g., studies
with fly ash) that substrate modification can render sediments unattractive to
settling benthic larvae, and; 2) there 'is little information on these kinds of
effects. As discussed in subsection 4.2 of this report, settling benthic larvae
respond to physical/chemical factors and, as a result, may avoid some substrates
and select others. Substrates which have been modified as a result of dumping
could experience diminished larval recruitment and consequently a reduction in
benthic populations. These potential effects are not evaluated by current
standard bioassay programs. We recommend that well-designed laboratory experi-
ments be carried out to examine the effects of substrate modification by various
waste types (e.g., fly ash, dredge materials, sludges) on benthic larval recruit-
ment.
5.9 TOXICITY. STUDIES (LETHAL/SUBLETHAL)
A number of the studies recommended 1n previous subsections Involve labora-
tory studies designed to provide information on lethal and sublethal effects.
Therefore, recommendations presented here are restricted to a few topics. Stan-
dard ocean dumping bioassay programs are designed to provide information on the
relative acute toxicities of various wastes. Generally, these tests do not
provide direct information on sublethal or chronic effects. However, these
latter effects are of primary concern with regard to the continued use of the
ocean as a waste disposal medium.
There have been a number of workshops (e.g., the recently held "Meaningful
Measures in Marine Pollution") and there are a number of laboratories involved
in addressing the problem of how to use laboratory mlcrocosm/mecocosm systems
to evaluate long-term and "ecosystem level" effects of ocean pollution. We
believe that mesocosms, 1n particular, can provide a bridge between strictly
laboratory studies and data generated from field programs. We recommend that
studies using these systems continue in order to develop a base of information
that can be used to relate results of field monitoring programs with those of
more practical (less expensive, more rapidly performed, and better controlled)
laboratory studies. Particular studies in which mesocosms could be used have
already been discussed.
5-10
-------
5.10 SITE MONITORING
Certain aspectsf site monitoring for physical, chemical and biological
conditions have already been presented in earlier sections. Those recommenda-
tions will not be repeated here. Site monitoring has been assigned a high
priority status because field verification of the effects of ocean dumping is
essential for sound waste management.
We recorronend that the following aspects of site monitoring be considered.
1. Site monitoring programs should be designed to provide useful informa-
tion. In most cases, a sampling design should be used that will provide data
amenable to statistical analyses. A number of site monitoring and marine
pollution monitoring programs which we have examined, have been ineffective in
sampling appropriate parameters, have sampled parameters that are not useful or
provide little information, have utilized inappropriate techniques, or have not
allocated sampling effort in an efficient or useful manner. We recommend that
future site monitoring programs be carefully designed with the assistance of a
statistician with particular expertise in the allocation of sampling effort and
with biological, chemical, and physical oceanographers familiar with current
state-of-the-art techniques. Available information on existing sites provided
by the U.S. EPA's past monitoring programs and Information on the fate and effects
of various contaminants should be used as a basis for determining what parameters
should be measured in the future. Exhaustive "shotgun" sampling is expensive,
time consuming, and can impair the implementation of well designed and focused
programs.
2. To some extent (that is impossible to quantify) our present ability to
monitor the marine environment, and, thus, assess the effects of waste disposal
is limited by present sampling technology. For example, 1n the field of benthic
ecology, we are using the same point sampling grab techniques that were first
introduced over 50 years ago. In this field, as in other fields of biological
and chemical oceanographic studies, there is a need for systems and instruments
which can provide large scale reconnaissance as well as fine scale detail on
environmental conditions in an efficient and cost-effective manner. Among the
systems used more frequently for monitoring are various camera systems (e.g.,
sediment profile systems and water column shadow photography), high resolution
side-scan, bat-fish water column profilers, and satellite remote sensing systems.
We recommend that an assessment be made of recent developments in sampling
technology in terms of how these could aid (perhaps more cost effectively) in
the acquisition of site monitoring data. Of particular interest are remote
sensing systems and systems which monitor benthic conditions.
5.11 INVENTORY OF WASTE CONSTITUENTS
This category of studies has been assigned high priority status for sewage
sludge, dredged material, and Industrial sludges because of the variability of
these wastes and because studies have revealed (in particular for sewage sludge
and dredged material) the presence of various chlorinated hydrocarbons which are
of concern with regard to effects on marine organisms and public health. The
constituents of fly ash, FGD sludge, and LLW are generally well known and waste
constituent studies on these wastes have been assigned low priority status.
5-11
-------
We recommend that available information on waste constituents be brought
together. A number of data sources were identified as part of this program. A
number of these have not been published. In particular, data on waste constituents
in sewage sludge are available from the Association of Metropolitan Sewage
Agencies (AMSA) and the Southern California Water Research Project (SCWRP). A
number of chemical analytical studies have been Initiated on waste constituents.
Some (e.g., MacLeod et al., 1981), serve as reconnaissance surveys, providing
preliminary information on constituents.
We recorrariend that state-of-the-art analytical techniques be used to identify
and characterize the variability of constituents 1n wastes which may be ocean
dumped. Of particular interest are measurements of halogenated hydrocarbons
inasmuch as the composition, content, and variability of these are least known
although they are of key concern with regard to potential effects.
5.12 CROSS-MEDIA RISK ASSESSMENT..
This category of studies has been assigned high priority status because,
in our opinion, it is essential to a technically sound waste management strategy.
Environmental and public health risks of various alternatives for waste disposal
were reviewed in Section 3 of this report. What is needed is the continued
development of approaches (methodologies) for comparing the various alternatives
in terms of their public health, environmental, social and economic Implications.
Several cross-media risk analyses are presently underway as described in
Section 3 of this report. These Include EPA-funded programs involving sewage
sludge and hazardous wastes, NRC-funded programs Involving LLW, and several
municipal-funded programs on sewage sludge. Our review of these programs
indicated that most were in progress (i.e., the first few phases had been
completed). We recommend that these programs, in particular those being funded
by EPA, be carried through to completion. Further, we recoiranend that a mechanism
be established to facilitate exchange of information among the various federally
and state-funded programs. One possible way this might be accomplished is through
a series of workshops. Our communications with the various principal investi-
gators indicated that there had been little exchange of Information. The products
of these workshops would be a recommended approach, trial applications of this
approach, a compilation of data required to implement the approach, and identifi-
cation of gaps in information.
5-12
-------
6. REFERENCES
Achinger, W.C., and L.E. Daniels. 1970. SW-51-ts-lj. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
Addison, R.R., M.F. Zinck, and D.E. Willis. 1977. Mixed function oxidase enzymes
in trout (Salvelin us fontinalis) liver: absence of induction following
feeding of p,p'-DDT or p,p'-0DE. Biochem. Physiol. 57C: 39-43.
Akin, E.W., W. Jakubowski, J.B. Lucas, and H.R. Pahren. 1978. Proc. Conference
on Risk Assessment and Health Effects of Land Application of Municipal
Wastewater and Sludges. University of Texas at San Antonio, Texas.
Akin, E.W., W.H. Benton, and W.F. Hill, Or. 1971. Thirteenth Water Quality
Conference, University of Illinois: 59.
Amstutz, R.W. 1980.. Deep-well disposal: A valuable natural resource. Jru Toxic
and Hazardous Waste Disposal. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann
Arbor, Michigan 4: 313.
Anderson, A.R., P.W. Anderson, W.M. Dunstan, L.L. Falk, J.E. Kerrigan, C.D. Rose,
and R. Tollefson. 1979. Sources. In: Proceedings of a Workshop on the
Assimilative Capacity of U.S. Coastal Waters for Pollutants. Crystal
Mountain, Washington. U.S. Department of Corranerce, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration.
Anderson, D.C., D.W. Brown, and J. G-een. 1981. Organic leachate effects on
the permeability of clay liners. Presented at the National Conference on
Management of Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste Sites, Washington, D.C. October
28-30, 1981.
Antsyferov, S.M., and R.D. Kos'yan. 1980. Sediments suspended in stream flow.
ASCE Proc. JHD, 106 (HY2): 313-330.
Ayers, R.C., Jr., T.C. Sauer, Jr., D.O. Stuebner, and R.P. Meek. 1980. An
environmental study to assess the effect of drilling fluids on water quality
parameters during high rate, high volume discharges to the ocean. Jii: Proc.
Symposium Research on Environmental Fate and Effects of Drilling Fluids and
Cuttings. Lake Buena Vista, Florida. January 21-24, 1980.
Bayne, B.L., D.A. Brown, F.L. Harrison, and P.P. Yevich. 1980. Mussel health.
Jtk International Mussel Watch, Report on a Workshop at Barcelona, Spain,
December 1978. National Academy of Science, Washington, D.C.
6-1
-------
Beard, P.J. 1938. J. Am. Wat. Wks Ass. 30: 124.
Becker, W.F., A.A. Moghissi, F.H.F. Au, E.W. Brethauer, and J.C. McFarlane. 1974.
Nature (London) 249: 674.
Billen, G. 1978. A budget of nitrogen recycling in North Sea sediments off the
Belgian coast. Est. Coastal Mar. Sci. 7: 127-146.
Boehm, P.D., and J.S. Quinn. 1973. Solubilization of hydrocarbons by the
dissolved organic matter in sea water. Geochimica and Cosmochimica-Acta
37: 2459-2477.
Booz, Allen, and Hamilton. 1982. Multi-media risk assessment of municipal
sludge disposal options; Task 1 - Report on data availability. Booz, Allen,
and Hamilton, Inc.
Boswell, F.C. 1975. J. environ. Qual. 4: 267.
Brandsma, M.G., and D.J. Divoky. 1976. Development of models for prediction of
short-term fate of dredged material discharged in the estuarine"
environment. Contract Report D-76-5, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi.
Brady, F.O., M. Panemangalore, F.A. Day, A.M. Fiskin, and G. Peterson. 1979.
In vivo and ex vivo Induction of rat liver metallothionein.
fietallothionein: Proceedings of the First International Meeting on
Metallothionein and other Low Molecular Weight Metal-Binding Proteins,
J.H.R. Kaji and M. Nordberg (eds.). Brikhauser Verlag, Boston,
Massachusetts.
Bremner, I., and N.T. Davies. 1975. The induction of metallothionein 1n rat
liver by injection and restriction of food intake. Biochem. J. 149: 733-738.
Brown, D.A., R.W. Gossett, and K.D. Jenkins. 1981. Contaminants in white
croakers (Genyonemus 11neatus) from the southern California Bight: II.
Xenobiotic hydrocarbon detoxification. Submitted for publication in Fifth
Symposium on Pollution and Physiology of Marine Organisms. Academic Press,
New York.
Brown, K.F. 1981. Crab meal production: Tragic impact on the blue crab industry
unless viable alternatives are established. In: M.S. Otwell (ed.): 280-284.
Bryan, G.W. 1980. Recent trends in research on heavy metal contamination in
the sea. HelogoVander Meeresunters 33: 6-25.
Bryan, G.W. 1979. Bioaccumulation of marine pollutants. Phil. Trans. R. Soc.
Lond B. 286: 483-505.
Califano, R.J. 1981. Accumulation and tissue distribution of polychlorinated
biphenyls (PCBs) in early life stages of the striped bass, Morone saxatilis.
Ph.D. Dissertation. New York University, New York. 163 pp.
6-2
-------
CEC. 1979. Power-reactor low-level radioactive waste generation and waste
management practices evaluation; Report 2 - Policy recommendations,
conclusions, and summary. Prepared by NUS Corporation, Palo Alto,
California, for the California Energy Commission.
CEQ. 1981a. The global 2000 report to the President. Volume two. The technical
report. The Council on Environmental Quality and the Department of State.
CEQ. 1981b. The global 2000 report to the President. Volume three. Documentation
on the government's global sectoral models: The government's "global model."
The Council on Environmental Quality and the Department of State.
CEQ. 1981c. Environmental quality - 1980. Council on Environmental Quality,
Washington, D.C.
Champ, M.A., and P.K. Park. 1981. Ocean dumping of sewage sludge: A global
review. Sea Technology 22: 18-24.
Chaney, R.L. 1974. Agr. Res. Serv., U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville,
Maryland.
Chass, R.L., and A.H. Rose. 1953. Air Repair 3: 119.
Chen, K.Y., and F.R. Bowerman. 1974. In: T.F. Yen (ed.), Recycling and disposal
of solid wastes. Ann.Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan:
349-367.
Chia, F.S., and M.E. Rice (eds.). 1977. Settlement and metamorphosis of marine
invertebrate larvae. Elsevier, New York. 290 pp.
Christensen, R.L. 1977. Massachusetts Agriculture Experimental Station, College
of Food and Natural Resources, University of Massachusetts, Amherst,
Massachusetts.
Cole, H.A. 1979. Pollution of the sea and its effects. Proc. R. Soc. Lond B.
205: 17-30.
Council for Agricultural Science and Technology. 1981. EPA 600/8-81-003. Ames,
Iowa.
Craig, P.J. 1980. Metal cycles and biological methylatlon. In: The Handbook
of Environmental Chemistry, Vol. 1A. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Cram, E.B. 1943. Sew. Works J. 15: 1119.
Curl, H., R. Dugdale, E. Jenne, D.P. Larsen, R. Lasker, J.M. De Manche, C.
Officer, J. Ryther. 1979. Biostimulants in scientific problems relating
to ocean pollution. E.D. Goldberg (ed.). NOAA.
Dacre, J.C. 1980. Potential health hazards of toxic organic residues in sludge.
Jn; Sludge Risks of Land Application. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc.,"
Ann Arbor, Michigan. 367 pp.
6-3
-------
Dayal, R., A. Okubo, I.W. Duedall, and A. Ramamoorthy. 1979. Radionuclide
redistribution mechanisms at the 2800-m Atlantic nuclear waste disposal
site. Oeep-Sea Res. 26A: 1329-1345.
Dean, R.B. 1973. Proc. Conference on Land Disposal of Municipal Effluents and
Sludges. Rutgers University, New Jersey.
DOE. 1981a. Cost and quality of fuels for electric utility plants - July 1981.
U.S-. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C.
DOE. 1981b. Cost and quality of fuels for electric utility plants - 1980 Annual.
U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C.
DOE. 1980. Cost and quality of fuels for electric utility plants - 1979 Annual.
U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C.
DOE. 1979. Cost and quality of fuels for electric utility plants - 1978 Annual.
U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C.
Doran, J.W. 1976. Ph.D. Dissertation, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.
Doran, J.W., and M. Alexander. 1975. Ann. Mtg. Amer. Soc. Microbiol. New York.
Doran, J.W., J.R. Ellis, and T.M. McCalla. 1977. In: Land as a Waste Management
Alternative, R.C. Loehr (ed.). Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann
Arbor, Michigan: 343-362.
Duprey, R.L. 1968. Public Health Service Publication No. 999 AP-42.
Dyer, R.S. 1980. Sea disposal of nuclear waste: A brief history. 2H: Nuclear
Waste Management, T.C. Jackson (ed.). Pergamon Press, New York. 124 pp.
Eberhardt, H., and W. Mayer. 1968. Proc. National Incinerator Conf., New York,
Amer. Soc. Mechanical Engr.: 76-77.
Eliasson, R. 1972. Eng. News Record 128: 912.
Engle, D.W., and B.A. Fowler. 1979. Factors influencing cadmium accumulation
and its toxicity to marine organisms. Health Perspectives 28: 81-88.
EPA. 1979. Economic impact analysis of hazardous waste management regulations
on selected industries. Prepared by Energy Resources Company, Cambridge,
Massachusetts, for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. December.
EPA. 1977a. Industrial process profiles for environmental use: Chapter 22.
The phosphate rock and basic fertilizer materials industry. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
EPA. 1977b. Industrial process profiles for environmental use: Chapter 26.
Titanium industry. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
EPA. 1974. Polluted groundwater: Estimating the effects of man's activities.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Las Vegas, Nevada.
6-4
-------
EPR1. 1979. FGD sludge disposal manual. Prepared by Michael J. Baker, Jr.,
Inc., Beaver, Pennsylvania.
Epstein, E. 1975. 0. environ. Qual. 4: 139.
Epstein, E., J.M. Taylor, and R.L. Chaney. 1976. J. environ. Qual. 5: 422.
Ewald, W.G., J.E. French, and M.A. Champ. 1976. Toxicity of polychlorinated
biphenyls to Euglena gracilis cell population growth, carbon fixation,
chlorophyl level, oxygen consumption, and protein and nucleic -acid
synthesis. Bull, environ. Contamin. Toxicol. 16: 71-80.
Farrell, J.B. 1974. Overview of sludge handling and disposal. Jn^: Proceedings
of the National Conference on Municipal Sludge Management, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania.
Farrington, J.W. 1981. Biogeochemistry of PCBs in New Bedford Harbor and
Buzzard*; Bay, Massachusetts. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Chemical
Processes and Pollution. Sea Grant Proposal.
Feldt, W., G. Kanisch, and R. Lauer. 1980. Radioactive contamination of NEA
dumping sites. IAEA Symposium on the Impacts of Radionuclide Release into
the Marine Environment. Draft report. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency.
Fingerman, S.W., and M. Flngerman. 1979. Comparison of the effects of fourteen-
day and chronic exposures to a polychlorinated biphenyl, Arochlor 1242, on
molting of the fiddler crab, Uca pugilater. Bull, environ. Contamin.
Toxicol. 21: 352-357.
Fisher, N.S. 1975. Chlorinated hydrocarbon pollutants and photosynthesis of
marine phytoplankton: A reassessment. Science 189: 463.
Fogg, G.E. 1982. Nitrogen cycling in sea waters. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond.
B29654-520.
Forstner, U., and G.T.W. Wittman. 1981. Metal pollution in the aquatic
environment. Springer-Verlag. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York. 486 pp.
Frank, R., M. Holdrinet, E.H. Braun, R.L. Thomas, A.W.L. Kemp, and J.J. Jaquet.
1977. Organochlorines, insecticides and PCBs in sediments of Lake St. Clair
(1970 and 1974) and Lake Erie (1971). Science of the total environment,
Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food, Canada 8(3): 205.
GAO. 1981. Billions could be saved through waivers for coastal wastewater
treatment plants CED-81-68. U.S. General Accounting Office, Gaithersberg,
Maryland.
GAO. 1978. Sewage.sludge - How do we cope with it? U.S. General Accounting
Office report to Congress, CED-78-152.
Goldberg, E.O. (ed.). 1980. Proceedings of a Workshop on Assimilative Capacity
of U.S. Coastal Waters for Pollutants. Crystal Mountain, Washington, July
29 - August 4, 1979. Second Printing, Revised. U.S. Department of Commerce,
Boulder, Colorado.
6-5
-------
Green, W.J., G.F. Lee, and R.A. Jones. 1981. Clay-soils permeability and
hazardous waste storage. JWPCF 53(8).
Greenberg, A.E., and E. Kupka. 1957. Sew. and Indust. Wastes, 29: 524. Gruger,
E.H., Jr., T. Hruby, and N.L. Karrick. 1976. Sublethal effects of
structurally related tetrachloro-, pentachloro-, and hexachlorobiphenyl on
juvenile coho salmon. Environ. Sci. Technol. 10: 1033-1037.
Haedrich, R.L., andN.R. Henderson. 1974. Pelagic food of Coryphaenoids armatus,
a deep benthic rattail. Deep-Sea Res. 21: 739-744.
Halebsky, M. 1980. Ocean incineration of toxic chemical wastes, ^n: Toxic and
Hazardous Waste Disposal. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor,
Michigan 4: 313.
Halter, M.T., and H.E. Johnson. 1977. A model system to study the description
and biological availability of PCBs in hydrosails. Presented at ASTM Aquatic
Toxicology 1st Annual Sym., Memphis, P(178) (18).
Hansen, W.G., and H.L. Rishel. 1981. Cost comparisons of treatment and disposal
alternatives for hazardous materials, project summary. EPA-600/52-80-188.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio.
Hinz, R., and F. Matsumura. 1977. Comparative metabolism of PC8 isomers by
three species of fish and the rat. Bull, environ. Contamin. Toxicol. 18:
631-639.
Hutchinson, T.C., J.A. Hellebust, D. MacKay, D. Tarn, and P. Kauss. 1979.
Relationship of hydrocarbon solubility to toxicity 1n algae and cellular
membrane effects. In: API, EPA, and USCG, 1979 Oil Spill Conf. (Prevention,
Behavior, Control, Cleanup). American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C.
Hyde, H. 1981. Incineration (thermal reduction). In: The Sludge Management
Syndrome: Burn, Barge, Bury, or Bust! Proceedings of the Association of
Metropolitan Sewage Agencies, Eastsound, Washington.
IAEA. 1978a. The oceanographic basis of the IAEA revised definition and
recommendations concerning high level radioactive waste unsuitable for
dumping at sea. IAEA-210, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna,
Austria. 59 pp.
IAEA. 1978b. The radiological basis of the IAEA revised definition and
recommendations concerning high-level radioactive waste unsuitable for
dumping at sea. IAEA-211. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna,
Austria. 58 pp.
Interagency Committee on Ocean Pollution, Research, Development and Monitoring.
1981. National Marine Pollution Program Plan. Federal Plan for Ocean
Pollution Research, Development, and Monitoring. Fiscal Years 1981-1985.
NOAA, Environmental Research Laboratories, Boulder, Colorado.
6-6
-------
Iseki, K., M. Takahashi, E. Bauerfelnd, and C.S. Wong. 1981. Effects of
polychlorinated biphenyls on a marine phytoplankton population and
sedimentation in controlled ecosystem enclosures. Marine Ecology - Progress
Series 5: 207-214.
Jenkins, K.D., D.A. Brown, G.P. Hershelman, and C. Meyer. 1981. Contaminants
in white croakers (Genyonemus lineatus) from the southern California Bight:
I. Trace metal detoxification. Submitted for publication in Fifth Symposium
on Pollution and Physiology of Marine Organisms. Academic Press, New York.
Jens, W., and F.R. Rehm. 1966. Proc. National Incinerator Conf., New York,
Amer. Soc. Mechanical Engr.: 74-83.
Johnson, R.D., R.L. Jones, T.D. Hinesly, and O.J. David. 1974. Selected chemical
characteristics of soil, forages, and drainage water from the sewage farm
serving Melbourne, Australia. Department of the Army Corps of Engineers.
Josephson, J. 1976. Environ. Sci. Technol. 10: 226.
Kaji, J.H.R., and M. Nordberg. 1979. Metallothionein: Procaedings on the First
International Meetings on Metallothionein and other Low Molecular Weight
Metal-Binding Proteins, J.H.R. Kaji and M. Norberg (eds.). Brikhauser
V^rlag, Boston, Massachusetts.
Keeney, D.R., and R.E. Wildung. 1977. In: Soils for Management of Organic
Wastes and Waste Waters. ASA, CSSA, "S5SA, Madison, Wisconsin: 75-97.
Ketchum, B.H., D.R. Kester, and P.K. Park (eds.). 1981. Ocean Dumping of
industrial wastes. Proceedings of the First International Ocean Dumping
Symposium, University of Rhode Island, West Greenwich, Rhode Island, 10-13
October 1978. Plenum Press, New York. 525 pp.
Klein. 1974.
Koh, R.C.Y., and Y.C. Chang. 1973. Mathematical model for barged ocean disposal
of wastes. EPA-660/2-73-029. Prepared for Office of Research and
Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Krone, R.B. 1968. Proc. Symposium on the Use of Municipal Sewage Effluent for
Irrigation, Louisiana Polytechnic Institute, Ruston, Louisiana.
Krone, R.B., G.T. Orlob, and C. Hodkinson, 1958. Sew. and Indust. Wastes 30: 1.
Lee, G.F. 1977. Contamination in the New York Bight. Discussion of the paper
by J.A. Mueller, A.R. Anderson, J.S. Jeris (1976). J. Wat. Pollut. Control
Fed. 49: 1920-1921.
Lee, G.F., R.A. Jones, F.Y. Sa.leh, G.M. Mariani, D.H. Hanover, J.S. Butler, and
P. Bandyopadhzy. 1978. Evaluation of the elutriate test as a method, of
predicting contaminant release during open water disposal of dredged
sediment and environmental impact of open water dredged material disposal.
Final Report, prepared for Office, Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army,
Washington, D.C. 1186 pp.
6-7
-------
Lee, G.F.. J.M. Lopez, and G.M. Marlani. 1975b. Leaching and bioassa.v studies
on the significance of heavy inetals In dredged sediments. Pre-.ented at the
International Conference on Heavy Metals 1n the Environment: 731-764.
Lee, G.F., and G.M. Mariani. 1977. Evaluation of the significance of waterway
sediment associated contaminants on water quality at the dredged material
disposal site. Aquatic Toxicology and Hazard Evaluation, ASTM STP 634:
196-213.
Letey, J., Jr. 1977. In: Soils for Management of Organic Wastes and Waste
Waters. ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, Wisconsin: 101-112.
Lieber, M., and W.F. Welsch. 1954. J. Am. Wat. Wks Ass. 46: 541.
Lipsky, M.M., J.E. Klannlg, and D.E. Hinton. 1978. Comparison of acute response
to polychlorinated biphenyl 1n liver of rat and channel catfish: A
biochemical and morphological study. J. Toxicol, environ. Hlth 4: 107-121.
LLWMP. 1980a. Managing low-level radioactive waste, a proposed approach LLWMP-
1. Low-level Waste Management Program, EG&G Idaho, Inc., Idaho Falls,
Idaho. 90 pp.
LLWMP. 1980b. Understanding low-level radioactive waste, LLWMP-2. Low-level
Waste Management Program, EG&G Idaho, Inc., Idaho Falls, Idaho.
Lopez, J.M. 1977. Significance of heavy metals associated with dredged
materials. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Texas at Dallas, 220 pp.
Lund, L.J., A.L. Page, and C.O. Nelson. 1974. Agron. Abstr. 66: 33.
MacBeth, P., G. Wehmann, B. Thamer, and D. Card. 1979. Evaluation of alternative
methods for the disposal of low-level radioactive waste. U.S. Nuclear
Regulatory Commission. NRC FIN No. B1521.
MacCave, I.N. 1978. Sediments in the abyssal boundary layer. Oceanus 21: 29-33.
MacLean, A.J., B. Stone, and W.E. Cordukes. 1973. Can. J. Soil Sci. 53: 130.
MacLeod, W.D., Jr., L.S. Ramos, A.J. Friedman, D.G. Burrows, P.G. Prohaska, D.L.
Fisher, and D.W. Brown. 1981. Analysis of residual chlorinated
hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons, and related compounds in selected
sources, sinks, and biota of the New York Bight. NOAA Technical Memorandum
OMPA-6. National Oceanographlc and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),
Boulder, Colorado. 128 pp.
Mailman, W.L., and W. Litsky. 1951. Amer. J. publ. Hlth 41: 38.
Maurer. J.t J. Calambokides, N. Musgrove, B. Drager, M. Berg, and S.G. Herman.
1977. Polychlorinated biphenyls in cottids, mussels, and sediment in
southern Puget Sound, Washington. Bui. environ. Contamln. Toxicol. 18: 588.
Maxwell, M.A., et al. 1978. Sulfur oxides control technology in Japan. Prepared
for Henry M. Jackson, Chairman, Senate Comnittee on Energy and Natural
Resources.
6-8
-------
May, T.G., and T.J. McManus. 1977. Environmental and economic assessment of
effluent standards for a chemical facility. Plymouth Meeting, Pennsylvania.
McCain, B.B., H.O. Hodgins, W.D. Gronlund, J.W. Hawkes, D.W. Brown, M.S. Myers,
and J.H. Vandermeulen. 1978. Bioavailability of crude oil from
experimentally oiled sediments to English sole (Parophrys vetulus), and
pathological consequences. J. Fish. Res. Bd Can. 35: 657.
McCalla, T.M., J.R. Peterson, and C. Lue-Hing. 1977. In: Soils for Management
of Organic Wastes and Waste Waters. ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, Wisconsin:
11-41.
McDermott, D.J., D.R. Young, and T.C. Heesen. 1975. Polychlorinated biphenyls
in marine organisms off southern California. Southern California Coastal
Water Research Project,'Summary Report, 1971-1975, El Segundo, California,
49 pp.
Mcleese, D.W., C.D. Metcalfe, and D.S. Pezzack. 1980. Bioaccumulation of
chlorobiphenyls and endrin from food by lobsters (Homarus americanus).
Bull, environ. Contamin. Toxicol. 25: 161-168.
Menzie, C.A., D. Maurer, and W.A. Leathern. 1980. An environmental monitoring
study to assess the impact of drilling discharges in the Mid-Atlantic. IV.
The effects of drilling discharges on the benthic correnunity. In: Proc.
Symp. Res. Environ. Fate and Effects of Ori11ing.Fluids and Cuttfngs, Lake
Buena Vista, Florida, January 21-24, 1980.
Merz, R.C., and R. Stone. 1969. Special studies of sanitary landfills, final
summary report (January 1, 1964 - December 31, 1968) to USPHS, HEW.
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California.
Moore, S.A., and R.C. Harris. 1972. Effects of polychlorinated biphenyls (A
1242) on marine phytoplankton coiranunities. Nature 240: 356-358.
Morel, F.M., and S.L. Schiff. 1980. Geochemistry of municipal waste in coastal
waters. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Civil Engineering
Report No. 259.
Mosier, A.R., S.M. Morrison, and G.K. Elmund. 1977. In: Soils for Management
of Organic Wastes and Waste Waters. ASA, CSSA, S^SA, Madison, Wisconsin:
531-571.
Mueller, J.A., J.S. Jeris, A.R. Anderson, and C.F. Hughes. 1976. Contaminant
inputs to the New York Bight. N0AA TW ERL MESA-6. Marine Ecosystems
Analysis Program Office, Boulder, Colorado, 347 pp.
Murakami, K., and K. Takeishi. 1976. Behavior of heavy metals and PC8s in the
removal and treatment operations of bottom deposits. Presented at Toxic
Substances 2nd Experts Meeting, Tokyo, Japan. Ministry of Construction.
Murphy, L.S., P.R. Hoar, and R.A. Belastock. 1981. The effects of industrial
wastes on marine phytoplankton. In: Ocean Dumping of Industrial Wastes,
B.H. Ketchum, D.R. Kester, and P.K. Park (eds.), Plenum Press, New York and
London. 525 pp.
6-9
-------
Murray, T.J. 1981. Seafood waste management in Virginia. w-s* Otwell
(ed.): 3-9.
Musick, J.A., and S.J. Sulak. 1978. Characterization of the demersal fish
community of a deep sea radioactive dump site. Draft. Submitted to the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
NACOA. 1981. The role of the ocean in a waste management strategy. A special
report to the President and the Congress. National Advisory Committee on
Oceans and Atmosphere, Washington, D.C. 103 pp.
National Ash Association. 1982. Personal communication.
National Research Council. 1976. Disposal in the marine environment - an
oceanographic assessment. 76 pp.
Nebert, D.W., S.W. Bigelow, A.B. Okey, T. Yahagl, Y. Mori, M. Nagao, and Y.
Sugimura. 1979. Pyrolysis products from amino acids and protein: highest
mutagenicity requires cytochrome P,-450. Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 76:
5929.
Neff, J.M. 1979. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the aquatic environment.
Applied Science Publishers, London. 262 pp.
Niessen, W.R. 1970. NTIS Report PB 192-378. Springfield, Virginia.
Nixon, S.W. 1981. Remineralization and nutrient cycling in coastal marine
ecosystems. Jn: Estuaries and Nutrients, B.J. Nielson and E.l. Cronin
(eds.). Humana Press, Inc. Clifton, N.J.
NMFS. 1973-1981. Fisheries statistics of the United States. National Marine
Fisheries Service, Washington, D.C.
NOAA. 1979a. Assimilative capacity of U.S. coastal waters for pollutants. E.D.
Goldberg (ed.), U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA Environmental Research
Laboratories, Boulder, Colorado. 284 pp.
NOAA. 1979b. Chemical pollutants of the New York Bight: Priorities for research.
J.S. O'Connor and H.M. Stanford (eds.). U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA
Environmental Research Laboratories, Boulder, Colorado. 217 pp.
NOAA. 1975. Ocean dumping 1n the New York Bight. NOAA Technical Report ERL
321-MESA-2. Boulder, Colorado. 78 pp.
NRC. 1977. Multimedium management of municipal sludge. National Research
Council, Washington, D.C.
Nuclear Energy Agency. 1980. Review of the continued suitability of the dumping
site for radioactive waste in the Northeast Atlantic. Nuclear Energy Agencv,
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. Paris, France. 100
pp.
6-10
-------
NUS. 1980. The 1979 state-by-state assessment of low-level radioactive wastes
shipped to commercial burial grounds. Prepared by NUS Corporation, San
Francisco, California.
Okubo, A. 1971. Ocean diffusion diagrams. Deep-Sea Res. 18: 789-802.
Orr, M.H. 1981a. Qualitative dispersion characteristics of the particulate
phase of Dupont Edgemoor Plant acid-iron waste and grassell: plant wastes
for summer and winter. In: Assessment Report on the Effects of Waste Dumping
in 106-Mile Ocean Waste Disposal Site: Dumpsite Evaluation Report 81-1.
NOAA Special Report, Boulder, Colorado.
Orr, M.H. 1981b. Qualitative dispersion characteristics of sewage sludge
released in the presence of a shallow seasonal thermocline. In: Assessment
Report on the Effects of Waste Dumping in 106-Mile Ocean TJaste Disposal
Site: Dumpsite Evaluation Report 81-1. NOAA Special Report, Boulder,
Colorado.
Osag, T.R., and G.B. Crane. 1974. EPA-450/1-74-006. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
OTA. 1979a. The direct use of coal - prospects and problems of production and
combustion. Office of Technology Assessment, Congress of the United States,
Washington, D.C.
OTA. 1979b. The direct use of coal. Office of Technology Assessment, Congress
of the United States, Washington, D.C. 411 pp.
Otwell, W.S. (ed). 1981. Seafood waste management in the 1980s. Conference
Proceedings, Orlando, Florida, September 23-25, 1980. Report Number 40.
Florida Sea Grant College, Gainesville, Florida. 365 pp.
Page, A.L., and A.C. Chang. 1975. Proc. Second Nat. Conf. Water reuse: Water's
interface with energy, air, and solids, Chicago, Illinois. Sponsored by
Amer. Inst. Chem. Eng. and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Tech.
Transfer.
Pederson, D.C. 1981. EPA-600/52-81-170. Contract No. 68-03-2803. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.
Pequegnat, W.E., D.D. Smith, R.M. Darnell, B.J. Presley, and R.O. Reid. 1978.
An assessment of the potential impact of dredged material disposal in the
open ocean. Dredged Material Research Program Technical Report D-78-2.
Office, Chief of Engineers, U.S. Army, Washington, D.C. 642 pp.
Perry, A. 1981. Seafood waste management in the Gulf of Mexico. In: W.S.
Otwell (ed.): 72-77. ~
Peterson, R.E., and P.D. Guiney. 1979. The disposition of polychlorinated
biphenyls in fish. In: Pesticide and Xenobiotic Metabolism 1n Aquatic
Organisms, M.A.Q. Kahn, J.J. Lech, and J.J. Menn (eds.). American Chemical
Society Symposium Series 99, Washington, D.C.
6-11
-------
Pigott, G.M. 1981. Seafood waste management in the northwest and Alaska. In:
W.S. Otwell (ed.): 78-95. ~~
Pliss, G.B., and V.V. Khudoley. 1975. Tumor induction by carcinogenic agents
in aquarium fish. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 55: 129.
Pneumo'Dynamics Corporation. 1961. Technical report: Survey of radioactive waste
disposal sites. Prepared under Contract AT(04-3)-331 for the U.S. Atomic
Energy Cormiission. July.
Proni, J.R., and D.V. Hansen. 1981. Dispersion of particulates in the ocean
studied acoustically: The importance of gradient surfaces in the ocean.
In: Ocean Dumping of Industrial Wastes. B.H. Ketchum, D.R. Kester, and
P.K. Park (eds.), Plenum Press, New York. 525 pp.
Quraishi, M.S. 1977. Biochemical Insect control. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
Rains, B.A., M.J. DePrimo, and I.L. Groseclose. 1973. EPA-670/2-73-098. Grant
No. WPRD 23-01-68. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Reed, A.W. 1975. Ocean waste disposal practices. Noyes Data Corporation, Park
Ridge, New Jersey.
Reimers, R.S., M.D. Little, A.J. Englande, D.B. Leftwich, D.D. Bowman, and R.F.
Wilkinson. 1981. EPA-600/52-81-166. Grant No. 805107. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency.
Reish, D.J. 1977. Survey of the benthic invertebrates collected from the United
States radioactive waste disposal sites in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
Draft. Prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency by Reish
Marine Studies, Inc., Los Alamitos, California.
Richards, M.P., and R.J. Cousins. 1975. Influence of parenteral zinc and
actinomycin D on tissue zinc uptake and the synthesis of a zinc binding
protein. Bioinorg. Chem. 4: 215-224.
Romero, J.C. 1970. Ground Water 8: 37.
Ross, D.E., and H.T. Phung. 1980. Soil incorporation (landfarming) of industrial
wastes. Jji: Toxic and Hazardous Waste Disposal. Ann Arbor Science
Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, Michigan 4: 313.
Ryther, J.H., and W.M. Dunstan. 1971. Nitrogen, phosphorous and eutrophication
in the coastal marine environment. Science, 141: 1008-1013.
Sanborn, J.R., W.F. Chllders, and R.L. Metcalf. 1975. Uptake of three
polychlorinated biphenyls, DDT and DDE by the green sunfish, lepomis
cyanellus rat. Bull, environ. Contamin. Toxicol. 13: 209-217.
Smayda, T.J. 1970. The suspension and sinking of phytoplankton in the sea.
Oceanogr. mar. Biol. Rev. 8: 353-414.
6-12
-------
Smith, C.E., T.H. Peck, R.J. Klauda, and J.B. McLaren. 1979. Hepatomas in
Atlantic tomcod Microqadus tomcod (Walbaum) collected in the Hudson River
estuary in New York. J.Fish. Dis. 2: 313.
Smith, J.D. 1977. Modeling of sediment transport on continental shelves. In:
The Sea, Vol. 6. E.D. Goldberg, I.N. McCave, O.J. O'Brien, and J.H. Steele
(eds.), Wiley-Interscience, New York.
Stabenow, G. 1972. Proc. National Incinerator Conf., New York. Amer. Soc.
Mechanical Engr.: 178-194.
Stegeman, 0.0. 1981. Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons and their metabolism
in the marine environment. In: Polycyclic Hydrocarbons and Cancer, H.V.
Gelboin and P.O.P. Ts'o (eds.T. Academic Press, New York.
Stoffers, P., C. Summerhayes, U. Fbrstner, and S.R. Patchineelam. 1977. Copper
and other heavy metal contamination in sediments from New Bedford Harbor.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts.
Stone, R. 1977. J£: Handbook of Solid Waste Management, D.G. Wilson (ed.).
Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, New York: 226-263.
Sullivan, R.J. 1969. Dept. of Health, Educ. and Welfare. No. PH-22-68-25.
Tagatz, M.E., jiM. Ivey, H.K. Lehman, M.Tobia, arid J.L. Oglesby. 1980. Effects
of a drilling fluid on development of experimental estuarine macrobenthic
communities. In: Proc. Symp. Res. Environ. Fate and Effects of Drilling
Fluids and Cuttings, Lake Buena Vista, Florida, January 21-24, 1980.
Tennessee Valley Authority. 1979. North American production capacity data.
National Fertilizer Development Center.
Thomas, J.P., J.E. O'Retlly, A.F. Draxler, J.A. Babinchak, C.N. Robertson,
W.C. Phoel, R.I. Waldhaver, C.A. Evans, A. Matte, M.S. Cohn, M.F. Nitkowski,
and S. Dudley. 1979. Biological processes: Productivity and respiration.
In: Oxygen Depletion and Associated Benthic Mortalities in New York Bight,
1976, R.L. Swanson and C.J. Sondermann (eds.). NOAA Professional Paper.
Thomas, W.H., and D.L.R. Selbert. 1977. Effects of copper on the dominance and
the diversity of algae: Controlled ecosystem pollution experiment. Bull,
mar. Sci. 27: 23-33.
Trees, W.E., G.L. Roberts, and C.R. Priesing. 1979. Neutralization of sulfate
process titanium dioxide wastes with limestone and Hme. J. Wat. Pollut.
Control Fed. 51: 158-162.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1979. Disposal of dredged material within the
New York District: Volume 1, Present practices and candidate alternatives.
Prepared by the MITRE Corporation, McLean, Virginia.
U.S. Bureau of Mines. 1982. Personal corrcnunication.
6-13
-------
U.S. Bureau of Mines. 1976. Cited in Coal reserves data reported in OTA, 1979.
U.S. Bureau of Mines. 1975. Cited in Coal reserves data reported in OTA, 1979.
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. 1979. The environmental effects of using
coal for generating electricity. Draft. Argonne, Illinois.
Veith, E.D. 1972. Recent fluctuations of chlorobiphenyls (PCBs) in the Green
Bay, Wisconsin region. Environ. Health Perspectives 1: 51-54.
Vogt, J.E. 1961. Proc. 1961 Symp. on Groundwater Contamination. USPHS Tech.
Rept. W61-5: 87.
Walker, A.B. 1964. Proc. National Incinerator Conf., New York, Airier. Soc.
Mechanical Engr.: 13-19.
Walker, A.B., and F.W. Schmitz. 1966. Proc. National Incinerator Conf., New
York, Amer. Soc. Mechanical Engr.: 64-73.
Walsh, J.J., G.T. Rowe, R.L. Iverson, and C.P. McRoy. 1981. Biological export
and shelf carbon is a sink of the global CO2 cycle. Nature (London) 291:
196-201.
Webb, et al. 1976. A pilot research investigation and demonstration on the
processing and marketing,of selected fishery species in the coastal plains
area. Coastal Plains Center for Marine Development Services. Cited in
R.E. Caruvan and F.8. Thomas. 1981. In; W.S. Otwell (ed.): 10-25.
Weinstein, N.O., and R.F. Toro. 1976. Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann
Arbor, Michigan.
Wilson, A.J., and J. Forestor. 1978. Persistence of arochlor (trade name) 1254
in a contaminated estuary. Bull, environ. Contamin. Toxicol. 19: 637-640.
Wong, P.T.S., Y.K. Chan, and P.L. Luxon. 1975. Nature (London) 253: 263.
Wood, J.M. 1974. Biological cycles for toxic elements in the environment.
Science 183: 1049-1052.
6-14
-------
APPENDIX A
NATIONAL MARINE POLLUTION CONCERNS REGARDING MARINE WASTE
DISPOSAL FROM THE NATIONAL MARINE POLLUTION PROGRAM PLAN:
FEDERAL PLAN FOR OCEAN POLLUTION RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT,
AND MONITORING FISCAL YEARS 1981-1985
A'I
-------
APPENDIX A
NATIONAL MARINE POLLUTION CONCERNS REGARDING
MARINE WASTE DISPOSAL FROM
THE NATIONAL MARINE POLLUTION PROGRAM PLAN:
FEDERAL PLAN FOR OCEAN POLLUTION RESEARCH,
DEVELOPMENT, AND MONITORING FISCAL YEARS 1981-1985
(INTERAGENCY COMMITTEE ON OCEAN POLLUTION RESEARCH,
DEVELOPMENT, AND MONITORING, 1981)
MARINE WASTE DISPOSAL
Marine Waste Disposal is one of Che most important areas in
the Program. Some materials, such as dredged sediments, are now
routinely disposed of in the oceans. Others, such as some types of
radioactive wastes, may undergo ocean disposal in the near future.
Pressure Is growing to allow continued and increased disposal of
sewage sludge in the oceans. For the purposes of this Plan, dredged
material, Industrial wastes, sewage wastes, radioactive materials,
and brine discharges from Strategic Petroleum Reserve activities are
considered under marine waste disposal. Each of these is discussed
A-l
-------
NATIONAL MARINE POLLUTION CONCERNS
separately In the following sections. In addition, some general
aspects of ocean waste disposal are presented In Chapter 5.
The principal agencies conducting research on marine waste
disposal are the Department of Energy, the Environmental Protection
Agency, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and the
Army Corps of Engineers (the Corps). The FY-1981 expenditures for
waste disposal were spread relatively evenly among the four agencies
as shown in the following figure.
FY 1081 Expenditures
Marina Waste Disposal
(millions of dollars)
/ DOE
/ $7J
/ (»*)
/ NOAA \
/ $5.9 \
/ (24%) \
\ EPA
\ $6.4
\ (25%)
Corps I
of J
Engineers /
$5.7 /
(22%) y
Department of Energy funds were largely devoted to studies of
brine disposal, and the Corps research focused on disposal of dredged
material. Research funded by NOAA and EPA was more evenly distributed
among the major types of wastes discussed in this section. The
following table provides Information on funds expended and percent of
budgets allotted for research on each type of waste disposal In FY 1981.
MATERIAL
PERCENT OF
PERCENT OF
DISPOSED
DOLLARS
WASTE DISPOSAL
TOTAL POLLUTION
(Millions)
BUDGET
PROCRAM BUDGET
Dredged material
$9.3
36Z
5.41
Industrial waste
3.5
14
2.0
Sewage waste
4.4
17
2.6
Radioactive waste
2.2
9
1.3
Brine
6.0
24
3.5
TOTAL
$25.4
100*
14.8X
A-2
-------
Marine Waste Disposal
DREDGED MATERIAL DISPOSAL
Dredging of new channels and maintenance dredging of existing
channels are required to provide safe and efficient navigation con-
ditions for commercial and recreational marine transportation.
Channel dredging generates significant amounts of dredged material
consisting of the sediment and water mixture excavated from areas
dredged. On the basis of volume, dredging is the largest single
source of materials that are ocean dumped. During 1979, more than
72 million cubic yards of dredged material were deposited in the
marine environment (COE, 1980). Of the 1979 total, 68% was disposed
of in the Gulf of Mexico, 18Z in the Atlantic Ocean, and 14X in the
Pacific Ocean. The total 72 million cubic yards of dredged material
constituted nearly eight times the combined tonnage of Industrial
wastes, sewage sludge, construction debris, and other waste materials
disposed of in the marine environment during 1979 (CEQ, 1980).
Compared with other materials that are disposed of in the ocean,
most of the dredged material excavated in the United States is rela-
tively innocuous, in many instances containing no harmful pollutants
and, in most of the remaining cases, containing only trace levels of
contaminants. In these cases, the primary concern associated with
disposal of the relatively innocuous materials centers around the
direct physical effects of disposal. These physical effects include
burial of organisms, Increased levels of suspended sediments, and
accretion of disposed materials (COE, 1978). However, dredged material
taken from highly polluted areas is usually contaminated with harmful
chemical constituents such as heavy metals, synthetic organlcs, and
oil and grease. Open-ocean disposal of these materials carries the
threat of acute or chronic toxic effects on marine organisms, and
potential contamination of human food resources. Much research has
been conducted to describe the effects of dredged material disposal
in the marine environment, and to evaluate disposal options that may
be preferable to ocean dumping. A regulatory process based on the
results of such scientific research has evolved to evaluate dredged
material for ocean disposal, and to designate and monitor disposal
sites.
Proposals for disposal of dredged material in freshwater and in
coastal areas to the outer boundary of the territorial sea are regu-
lated under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA). The
jurisdiction of the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act
(MPRSA) extends outward from the baseline from which the territorial
sea is measured. Therefore, a1 zone of jurisdictional overlap exists
between the baseline and the outer boundary of the territorial sea
. where, strictly speaking, the provisions of both the FWPCA and the
MPRSA would apply. To eliminate this problem, EPA and the Corps have
reached an agreement stipulating that only the MPRSA will be applied
in the zone of overlap. Therefore, the vast majority of ocean-disposed
dredged material must be evaluated under the MPRSA and pursuant
A-3
-------
NATIONAL MARINE POLLUTION CONCERNS
regulations. The guidelines contained in the MPRSA take into account
the international provisions of the London Ocean Dumping Convention.
The intent of MPRSA, as it pertains to dredged material disposal, is to
limit adverse ecological effects of ocean dumping. Title I of MPRSA
stipulates that the Department of the Army reviews applications for
permits and, when appropriate, issues permits for the transportation of
dredged material to ocean disposal sites (Section 103). The Corps of
Engineers has been designated by the Secretary of the Army to implement
this authority. ErA designates ocean disposal sites and develops
criteria for dredged material disposal. The Corps of Engineers reviews
permit applications in accordance with the EPA criteria (Section 102).
These review procedures are followed for applications to carry out
private dredging operations. However, the bulk of dredged material is
actually generated by Corps navigation projects, and MPRSA stipulates
that the Corps must apply these same procedures and review criteria
to disposal of materials generated by Corps projects. Title II of
MPRSA requires that NOAA, in coordination with the EPA and the U.S.
Coast Guard, conduct a continuing program of monitoring and research
regarding the effects of ocean dumping of materials including dredged
material.
In'addition-to the provisions of MPRSA and FVIPCA, the Fish and
Wildlife Coordination Act (FWCA) stipulates that Federal agencies
involved in permitting or licensing dredging and dredged material
disposal activities must consult with the F&WS and the National
Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) to ensure consideration of wildlife
conservation.
The goal In regulating dredged material disposal is to allow
dredging and disposal activities while avoiding unacceptable environ-
mental risks. To ensure that the best practical procedures are
employed in evaluating applications for ocean disposal of dredged
material, the Corps of Engineers and EPA have worked jointly to
develop a guidance manual for implementing Section 103 of MPRSA
(EPA/COE, 1977). The manual summarizes and describes procedures for
ecological evaluation of dredged material before ocean disposal. In
overview, the permit evaluation and review process involves some or
all of the following aspects: initial evaluation of sediment character-
istics and potential for contamination; liquid, suspended-particulate,
and solid-phase bloassay; evaluation of alternative disposal methods
and justification for proposing ocean disposal; evaluation of bio-
accumulation potential based on field or laboratory data; and general
consideration of impacts on esthetics, recreation, economics, and
other ocean uses. Recently a "matrix" approach has been applied on a
trial basis in the New York District to assist In evaluating bioassay
results. The purpose of the approach is to compare concentrations of
specific pollutants (e.g., PCB, DDT, Hg) associated with dredged
material with existing concentrations at the disposal site and at
reference sites in the surrounding area. The Corps and EPA are
A-4
-------
Manne Waste Disposal
jointly evaluating the "matrix" approach and other Innovative guidance
methodologies to improve the regulatory process.
Permits may be approved under MPRSA for disposal of dredged
material at one of more than 100 EPA-deslgnated interim sites. In
1979, 50 of the designated sites were actually used for dredged
material disposal. The amount of dredged material that is disposed
of in the ocean varies from year to year as a result of major new
work or improvement navigation projects, weather patterns, and the
fluctuating nature of maintenance dredging activities. Between 1973
and 1979, total volumes placed In ocean disposal sites ranged from
41 tQ 99 million cubic yards annually; no consistent time trends
were evident during that period (CEO, 1980). In addition, more than
100 million cubic yards are dredged annually in coastal areas and
disposed of by some means other than ocean dumping, e.g., upland
disposal, beach nourishment (Samuels, 1981). Volumes of dredged
material may Increase because of future port improvements. On a
regional level, disposal of dredged material from port improvements
may have significant impacts.' For example, it is anticipated that
the improvements under consideration for Mobile and Norfolk would
generate about 140 million and 35 million cubic yards, respectively.
Analysis and Conclusions
Dredged material disposal is recognized as a potential pollution
threat in coastal areas. The severity of the threat can be controlled
to a considerable degree by management of disposal activities. Research
efforts conducted to date have concentrated on defining risks associ-
ated with dredged material disposal and evaluating the various disposal
options, Including ocean dumping. The principal Federal agencies
involved in research on dredged material disposal are the Corps, EPA,
and NOAA.
The Dredged Material Research Program (DMRP), conducted by the
Corps of Engineers Waterways Experiment Station in Vicksburg,
Mississippi, was completed in March 1978. The DMRP explored the
physical and chemical impacts of dredged material disposal, and a
variety of disposal alternatives, including beneficial uses of dredged
material. The program was well planned, and DMRP results are thoroughly
documented by technical reports on specific issues, synthesis reports,
and summaries. At the planning and policy level, two major conclusions
can be drawn from the results of DMRP (COE, 1978):
1) No single disposal alternative is preferable In all cases..
Each dredging project is unique, and disposal options should
be considered on a case-by—case basis.
A-5
-------
NATIONAL MARINE POLLUTION CONCERNS
2) An effective solution to the problem of dredged material
disposal can be derived only from long-range regional planning
and management of disposal activities.
The DMRP Involved an expenditure of more than $32 million and
covered a span of 5 years. The DMRP Is the most comprehensive study
performed on the disposal of dredged material and provides a large
volume of background Information along with the conclusions drawn
from the engineering and scientific data accumulated during the study.
Because of the limited time frame Involved, 5 years, conclusions can
be drawn only for the short term effects of the disposal of dredged
material. To evaluate long-term effects, additional scientific and
engineering data are needed. Therefore, the Corps of Engineers is
continuing to collect data during FY 1982, although funds available to
conduct the program are limited. Future Corps efforts will concentrate
on those areas that relate to the long-term effects of dredging and
disposal activities and will include the continuation of monitoring
and evaluation of various parameters at selected DMRP field sites.
Other ongoing or planned research activities of the Corps include
monitoring and management studies conducted by the Corps district or
division offices.
Past and ongoing EPA programs addressing dredged material disposal
relate to the regulatory functions of the agency. Specifically, EPA,
In conjunction with the Corps, is further developing bioassay tech-
niques and innovative methodologies for evaluation of dredged material,
researching the effects of PCB in dredged sediments, performing a field
study at a dredged material disposal site, and conducting evaluations
of potential dredged material disposal sites. Under the mandate of
MPRSA, Section 201, the Department of Commerce, through MOAA, conducts
a research and monitoring effort to improve our understanding of the
effects of ocean dumped materials, Including dredged material.
Cooperative studies between NOAA and the Corps are being conducted at
disposal sites In the New York Bight, near the mouth of Chesapeake Bay,
and near the Mississippi River delta. These studies include baseline
observations prior to dumping and long-term field and laboratory studies.
Dredged material disposal Is also being studied under the Long-Range
Effects Research Program conducted under the mandate of MPRSA,
Section 202.
Research or Information needs related to the physical effects,
chemical effects, and management of dredged material disposal have
been Identified. The needs and pertinent Federal activities are
discussed below.
Physical effects on the ecosystem
This area is adequately addressed by ongoing Federal research
programs. The disposal of dredged material may cause physical or
A-6
-------
Marine Waste Disposal
chemical effects. Important examples of physical effects Include
burial of bottom-dwelling organisms, effects of Increased turbidity
and sediment type alteration, and the Implications of changes In
bottom topography. It Is necessary to understand these effects to
evaluate the Implications of dredged material disposal.
This area Is adequately addressed by ongoing Federal research
programs. The DMRP has laid groundwork at the generic level for
studying physical effects of dredged material disposal. Ongoing COE
and NOAA programs are studying physical effects on a site-specific
basis at several disposal sites. The generic aspects of physical
effects have been adequately addressed. Site-specific studies performed
on a limited basis continue to provide valuable Information on long-term
physical Impacts.
Chemical effects on the ecosystem
The chemical effects of dredged material disposal become Important
when toxic or harmful constituents are present in dredged sediments.
Research topics related to these contaminants include release and
bioavailability, long-term fates, acute and chronic effects, and
bloaccumulation in marine organisms Including human food resources.
In cases where dredged material is contaminated, information on the
impacts of the contaminants is essential in evaluating disposal
alternatives. Information on the effects of contaminants in dredged
material is considered to be a most important need.
DMRP explored the generic aspects of dredged material contamination
Including contaminant release during and Immediately after disposal,
effects of contaminants, and bloaccumulation potential. Ongoing EPA,
NOAA, and Corps of Engineers research and monitoring projects are
also continuing to increase our understanding of chemical impacts.
This highly complex Issue is not yet fully understood. Although
this area is, now addressed by ongoing programs, It is of continuing
importance and should receive emphasis in the future.' Studies of over-
all effects on biological communities and marine ecosystems should be
emphasized to promote assessments of resource impacts. One way in which
research on contaminated sediments might be advanced would be to carry
out a synthesis and analysis of currently available Information on the
biological effects of contaminated sediment disposal. This would help
describe the existing body of information, determine whether any
conclusions can be drawn, and identify the most productive areas for
future research. It is recommended that the value of such a study
be determined by the Corps of Engineers, NOAA, EPA, and F&WS, and
the study be conducted if appropriate. Although this area Is now
addressed by ongoing programs, it is of continuing Importance and
should receive emphasis in the future.
A-7
-------
NATIONAL MARINE POLLUTION CONCERNS
Disposal management
Long-range management of dredged material disposal requires that
basic information be available about potential disposal sites, estimated
future volume and quality of dredged material, feasibility and cost of
^alternative disposal methods, prediction of Impacts, and assessment of
possible benefits of using Innovative dredging technologies. In
addition, disposal management requires development of a long-term
strategy and provision of feasible disposal alternatives including
ocean disposal. Although this area is now addressed by ongoing
programs, it is of continuing importance and should receive emphasis
in the future.
Research, development, and monitoring related to this need fall
largely within the purview of Corps of Engineers Headquarters, and
coastal divisions and districts, and EPA and NOAA. In addLtion, the
Corps and EPA are continuing to improve bioassay techniques for
evaluation of dredged material prior to disposal.
There is a need for long-term regional planning for dredged
material disposal. Information is required to develop regional
management plans that would include projections of dredged material
volumes and quality, rigorous analysis of the costs, risks, and benefits
of the various disposal alternatives, development of several disposal
options depending on the nature of dredged material involved, guidelines
for selection of disposal options, and an assessment of the effects of
the management program on ocean resources. More information is also
needed to describe the cumulative effects of individual dredged
material disposal actions on a regional and national basis. Where
possible, evaluation of disposal Impacts should be extended to the
level of effects on fisheries stocks, recreational utility, and other
ocean use impacts on a regional or national level.
INDUSTRIAL WASTE DISPOSAL
The manufacturing and processing techniques commonly used in our
technological society convert raw materials Into two types of outputs:
products and wastes. Products are generally distributed and sold to
consumers before final disposal; wastes may be processed and recycled,
or, more commonly, disposed of in some other way. Industrial wastes
may contain potentially harmful constituents including synthetic
organlcs, heavy metals, and oil and grease. Commonly used disposal
options for industrial wastes are secure landfills, ocean dumping,
pipeline discharges to coastal and.inland waters, and incineration.
This discussion addresses the following industrial waste disposal
options that involve the marine environment: ocean dumping, incinera-
tion at sea, and ocean outfalls.
A-8
-------
Marine W/os/e Disposal
Each of these activities differs from the others because of the
type of discharge, the nature of the substances discharged, the level
of treatment prior to discharge, or the regulatory procedures that
apply. Therefore, background information on each of the three activi-
ties Is presented separately below. However, research conducted on
marine waste disposal is often pertinent to several disposal optl'ons.
For example, basic fates and effects research conducted on a specific
chemical constituent would provide useful information whenever that
constituent enters the marine environment, regardless of the disposal
technique used. To promote the application of general research to
all three industrial waste disposal alternatives, a single group of
research and information needs is presented in "Analysis and Conclu-
sions," which follows the discussions of the options themselves.
Ocean dumping
When industrial wastes are ocean dumped, the waste materials are
barged to a designated disposal site and discharged. The table below
provides a summary of the volumes of industrial wastes that were ocean
dumped from 1973 to 1979 (EPA, 1980b).
INDUSTRIAL WASTE OCEAN DUMPED
(Thousands of tons)
Geographic
Locations 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979
Atlantic 3,643 3,642 3,322 2,633 1,784 2,584 2,577
Gulf of Mexico 1,408 938 120 100 60 0.17 0
Pacific 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
TOTAL U.S. 5,051 4,580 3,442 2,733 1,844 2,548 2,577
In 1979, about 2,577,000 tons of Industrial wastes were dumped in
the ocean. There has been a trend toward reduction of total ocean
dumping of industrial wastes since 1973 when ocean dumping became
regulated by the Federal Government. Industrial waste dumping has
been reduced by about 30% in the Atlantic, totally eliminated in the
Gulf of Mexico, and was not practiced in the Pacific between 1973 and
1979. Three industrial-waste dumpsites were used in the Atlantic
during 1979. These are the acid waste site in the New York Bight
Apex, the Deepwater 106 Dumpsite located 106 nautical miles southeast
of New York Harbor, and the Puerto Rico site located 40 nautical miles
A-9
-------
NATIONAL MARINE POLLUTION CONCERNS
north of Puerto Rico. About 75Z (by wet tons) of the industrial wastes
ocean dumped in 1979 were acid byproducts of the titanium dioxide manu-
facturing process; the remaining 25% of the materials consisted of
wastes from the manufacture of various chemicals including insecticides
and pharmaceuticals.
Ocean dumping of Industrial wastes is regulated under authorities
assigned in the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of
1972 (MPRSA), as amended. Under the legislation, transportation of
industrial wastes for the purpose of dumping in ocean waters, the
territorial seas, or the contiguous zone Is prohibited except when
authorized by a permit Issued by the Administrator of EPA. Title I
of MPRSA establishes a permit system and assigns to EPA the responsi-
bility for review of permit applications and granting of permits,
designation of dumpsltes, and establishment of criteria to be used
In reviewing permit applications. Title II of MPRSA assigns responsl—
bility to the Department of Commerce (implemented through NOAA) to
conduct, in coordination with EPA and the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG), a
comprehensive and continuing program of monitoring and research
regarding the effects of dumping materials, Including industrial
wastes, into ocean waters, coastal waters, and the Great Lakes.
Incineration at sea
The first incineration at sea of chemical waste officially
sanctioned in the U.S. occurred in the Gulf of Mexico between
October 1974 and January 1975 when M/T Vulcanus incinerated 16,000
metric tons of organo-chlorlne wastes at a designated site about 140
nautical miles southeast of Galveston, Texas (EPA et al., 1980). In
1977, 17,600 tons of chemical waste were incinerated in the Gulf of
Mexico, and 12,100 tons were Incinerated in the Pacific Ocean (EPA,
1980b). Nearly all incineration at sea has been conducted under
research permits granted by EPA under authority provided-'by MPRSA.
From studies of these early burns, It has been concluded that incinera-
tion at sea for organic chemical wastes does not cause unacceptable
environmental consequences, at least on a limited basis for some
chemicals and' at these specific sites (EPA et al., 1980). Candidate
wastes for incineration at sea are generated primarily by the following
industries: petroleum refining, organic chemical production, synthetic
fibers and resins manufacture, and pesticides production.
Although incineration at sea has been conducted on a limited
basis, it is likely to become more common in the future. Increasing
amounts of industrial waste are produced each year, and increased
regulatory pressure through Implementation of the Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act (RCRA) is eliminating some of the traditionally used
land-based disposal options because of potential environmental hazards.
The effects of RCRA implementation will be to prohibit inexpensive but
A-10
-------
Marine Waste Disposal
potentially hazardous land disposal techniques, and to require costly
site preparation, monitoring, and closure to ensure that industrial
wastes are effectively isolated from the environment. As a result of
these factors, RCRA Implementation may indirectly promote incineration
at sea, which will become more economically attractive as land disposal
becomes more costly and highly regulated. Indicators of increasing
pressure to promote Incineration at sea are already evident. EPA
(1980c) is considering designation of an incineration site in the
North Atlantic. An ad hoc interagency work group has recently con-
cluded that incineration at sea constitutes an environmentally
acceptable and efficient means for destroying liquid, hazardous,
organic chemical wastes (EFA et al., 1980).
Like ocean dumping, Incineration at sea is regulated primarily
under the authority of the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries
Act and the London Ocean Dumping Convention. The responsibilities of
Federal agencies are essentially the same as for ocean dumping.
Ocean outfalls
Industrial ocean outfalls are pipeline discharges of industrial
wastes that directly enter estuaries, coastal waters, or oceans.
Industrial wastes mixed with domestic and other municipal wastes are
not specifically addressed in this section.
Ocean outfalls of industrial wastes are regulated by the EPA
through the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES).
In 1979, more than 5,000 NPDES permits were held for pipeline dis-
charges by industries in coastal counties. In addition, about 7,500
operational discharges were associated with offshore oil and gas
facilities. Pollutants that may be associated with various industrial
effluents Include synthetic organlcs, heavy metals, oxygen-consuming
materials, suspended solids, and nutrients.
Authority for administration of the NPDES permitting procedure
is Assigned to EPA under Section 402 of the Clean Water Act. The
Act requires that EPA establish limitations to effluent quality on
an industry-by-industry basis. Specifically, for all point sources
other than publicly owned treatment works, it is stipulated by the-
Clean Water Act that best practicable control technology currently
..available be attained by July 1, 1977, and best available technology
economically achievable be attained by July 1, 1983.
In addition to the NPDES permit procedure described in Section 402
of the Clean Water Act, Section 403(c) of the Act requires the Admin-
istrator of EPA to develop ocean discharge criteria to be used in
evaluating the effects of a discharge into the territorial seas, the
contiguous zone, and the oceans. The provisions of Section 403(c)
A-ll
-------
NATIONAL MARINE POLLUTION CONCERNS
apply only to coastal and ocean waters and demonstrate the special
concern of the Congress £or the protection of marine water quality
and marine resources. Final regulations under Section 403(c) were
published on October 3, 1980, In the Federal Register 45:65942-65954.
Analysis and Conclusions
Determining the Implications of Industrial waste disposal In the
oceans Is difficult for several reasons. Many potential toxicants
are present In these materials. In addition, composition of waste
varies depending on the industry and the stage at which wastes are
generated In the overall manufacturing process. To provide an extra
measure of safety, wastes to be ocean dumped or incinerated are
taken offshore, where dispersion and dilution can better mitigate
adverse effects. However, dilution further complicates evaluation
of pollution Impacts because th? focus shifts from acute impacts to
sublethal, but possibly significant, effects that may occur in marine
organisms, even at low concentrations of the discharged materials.
Both acute and chronic effects on marine organisms must be understood,
and risks to human health evaluated, industrial outfalls are quite
numerous in some areas and may adversely affect coastal ecosystems
known to be highly sensitive to chemical and physical disruption,
and essential to the maintenance of commercial marine fisheries, and
recreational and aesthetic resources.
EPA and NOAA are the principal Federal agencies that conduct
research and monitoring on ocean disposal of industrial wastes. EPA
research is largely related to the regulatory functions of the agency.
The Marine Disposal Research Program conducted by EPA Includes an
emphasis on industrial wastes. Research conducted Involves a general
assessment of human health risk associated with industrial waste
disposal, development of the benthlc microcosm as an analytical tool
for predicting contaminant fates and assessing effects, and develop-
ment of bloassay techniques for evaluating potential disposal sites.
Information generated by EPA's Water Ouality Research Program may
also improve understanding of the effects of industrial waste disposal.
These studies Include investigations on the transport, transformation,
and fates of toxic materials in marine ecosystems, studies on the
effects of toxic materials on marine organisms, and evaluation of
water quality criteria.
Within NOAA, the Ocean Dumping Program conducts research and
monitoring on the effects of dumping waste materials In the ocean.
Field research and monitoring are being conducted at the Deepwater
106 and Puerto Rico dumpsltes to study the fate and effects of disposed
industrial wastes. Complementary laboratory studies are also performed.
In addition, the objectives of the Long-Range Effects Research Program
are to determine potential long-range effects of ocean dumping on
A-12
-------
Marine Waste Disposal
human health and ocean ecosystems, develop early warning systems to
detect adverse changes in ecosystems, and improve understanding of
basic ecosystem attributes and functioning. NOAA's Ocean Resources
Coordination and Assessment Program is collecting inventory information
on all pollution discharges, including industrial effluents, on a
coast-by-coast basis (excluding the Great Lakes) with the following
schedule for completion:
Gulf of Mexico - FY 1981
Alaska and Uest Coast - FY 1982
East Coast - FY 1983
In addition, the Microconstituents Program collects information on
levels of contaminants in marine organisms.
The Food and Drug Administration, Department of Health and Human
Services, also conducts a program relating to industrial waste. The
Pesticides and Metals in Fish Program monitors and assesses contaminant
levels in seafood.
Research or information needs related to the management of
industrial wastes and the effects and risks associated with industrial
waste disposal have been identified. The needs and pertinent Federal
activities are discussed below.
Management of industrial wastes
Long-range planning and management of industrial waste disposal
is essential to anticipate and mitigate pollution problems. Such
planning requires that basic scientific and engineering information
be available on future disposal requirements, options, risks, and
costs. For example, the following tasks should be addressed:
• Identify wastes that will be generated on a national and
regional level in the next 10 to 20 years.
• Characterize constituents of wastes and assess the potential for
adverse environmental effects under various disposal options.
• Determine feasibility, environmental risk, and economic cost
of the various disposal options, including land-based options
and recycling.
• Develop long-range management strategies that would Indicate
preferred options for various wastes, potential sites for
disposal, and any regulatory changes that would be appropriate.
Although this area is now addressed by ongoing programs, it is of
continuing Importance and should receive emphasis in the future.
A-13
-------
NATIONAL MARINE POLLUTION CONCERNS
EPA regulatory programs conducted under the mandates of the
Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act, and the Clean
Water Act, and coordinated activities In EPA's Office of Research
and Development are now addressing this need. In addition, NOAA
.research programs provide basic information that can be used in
predicting the fates of disposed materials and their effects in .
marine ecosystems. However, these Issues are complex, and in many
cases detailed site-specific analyses are required. Support for
research and development that will provide Information needed for
management of Industrial wastes should be continued. In addition,
individual industries in the private sector should be encouraged to
characterize and evaluate their respective waste products. States and
local governments should work together to Implement management
strategies.
Ecosystem effects & human health risks
Waste disposal management decisions must be based on an
understanding of the fates of contaminants in marine ecosystems,
their effects on organisms, and the pathways by which humans, may be
exposed to contaminants. Although this area is now addressed by
ongoing programs, it is of continuing importance and should receive
emphasis in the future. Future emphasis is required in the following
areas:
• Fates and transformations of disposed materials.
• Bloaccumulatlon of contaminants in commercial and recreational
marine species.
• Human risk assessment models including health risks associated
with various waste constituents, containment levels in human
food resources, and consumption patterns in various human
populations.
• Effects on marine ecosystems, especially In sensitive coastal
areas.
• Significance of chronic sublethal effedts in marine organisms
(e.g., mutagenicity, community alteration, reduced fecundity).
• Effects on fisheries yields.
• Field verification of laboratory results.
Most of these issues are under study by EPA or NOAA. However, the
current level of effort in EPA is now limited by availability of
funding; it is estimated that In FY 1981 less than $600,000 was expended
A-14
-------
Marine Waste Disposal
on industrial waste disposal research under EPA's Marine Disposal
Research Program. The acquisition of information on the fates and
effects of ocean disposal Industrial waste could be accelerated by
(1) Improved coordination and communication between managers of NOAA
and EPA research programs, and (2) Increased funding to EPA's Marine
Waste Disposal Program.
SEWAGE DISPOSAL
Disposal of the various types of wastes generated by the densely
populated coastal areas has created economic, environmental, and
political conflicts. Historically, the nation's rivers, estuaries,
and coastal waters have received municipal waste discharges since
collection and treatment of domestic wastes was initiated. Prior to
the 1970's, ocean disposal was largely unregulated, and adverse impacts
on human health and the environment were observed. The principal
hazards to human health from sewage waste disposal are associated with
the transmission of human pathogens and the Ingestion of seafoods
contaminated with toxic metals and synthetic organic compounds. In
the Great Lakes there are additional risks from pathogens and toxics
because these waters are used as a source of drinking water. Food
poisoning, dysentery, and transmission of a variety of human and
animal parasites are commonly associated with the discharge of untreated
sewage waste. Other adverse impacts are the loss of recreational and
commercial resources where beaches or wetlands are fouled with floating
waste materials or are closed to fishing and shellflshing because of
sewage contamination.
Public concern over the pollution of coastal waters during the
1970's precipitated the enactment of two major legislative measures
aimed at improving the quality of the marine environment. The Marine
Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 (P.L. 92-532), also
known as the Ocean Dumping Act, was enacted to regulate ocean dumping
of all materials and prevent or strictly limit the dumping of any
material that would adversely affect human health, welfare, amenities,
the marine environment, ecological systems, or economic potentialities.
The Act was further amended In 1977 mandating that the ocean dumping
of harmful sewage sludge cease by December 31, 1981 (NACOA, 1981).
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act, also known as the Clean
Water Act, regulates, among other things, municipal waste disposal, by
pipeline discharge into the oceans. The Act was substantially amended
in 1972 (P.L. 92-500) to establish a single standard for the nation as
a whole by requiring all publicly owned treatment works (POTW) to
achieve by 1983 an effluent water quality based on secondary treatment.
Exemption from the secondary treatment mandate for coastal POTW
dischargers on a case-by-case basis was later provided under Section
301(h) of P.L. 95-217 in the 1977 amendments. The EPA regulations
A-15
-------
NATIONAL MARINE POLLUTION CONCERNS
developed under the Clean Water Act also require compliance with
State water quality standards.
EPA authority under the Ocean Dumping Act Includes review, award,
and enforcement of ocean dumping permits, designating and managing
disposal sites, and developing criteria to evaluate ocean dumping -
permit applications. EPA's posture has been, until recently, that
any practical (i.e., feasible and available) disposal alternative Is
preferable to ocean dumping. However, oh the basis of new informa-
tion about environmental effects and economic costs of ocean dumping
and its alternatives, and the Increasing rate at which sewage wastes
are generated at the national level, the EPA is reevaluating its
restrictive position (EPA, 1981).
During the 1970's EPA, under its ocean dumping permit program,
developed stringent tests and criteria to restrict ocean dumping.
The environmental Impact criteria require that the candidate material
pass two bloassay tests: a test for toxicity of the liquid, suspended
particulate, and solid phases; and a bloaccumulatlon test. Failure
of either test results in permit denial, except for emergency or
research permits. However, owing to problems In the testing procedure,
the results of these tests have been ambiguous.
EPA's permit program authorized by Section 402 of the Clean Water
Act establishes limits on pollutants that can be discharged from
municipal point sources through outfalls, including sludges and waste-
water effluents, into marine waters. The factors used to evaluate
whether a discharge will cause "unreasonable degradation" of the
marine environment include the chemical constituents of the discharge,
their potential for causing adverse impacts on the environment and
to human health, the sensitivity and importance of the biological
community, and the Impact on special aquatic environments and fisheries.
Upgrading of POTWs to secondary treatment as required by this Act will
significantly Improve the quality of wastewater effluents but will
result in the generation of greater volumes of sewage sludge.
The Ocean Dumping Act prohibits ocean dumping of harmful sludge
after December 31, 1981, and EPA regulations under the Clean Water
Act will prohibit the disposal by outfall pipes after July 1985.
However, there is mounting evidence that the environmental effects
and costs of other methods of waste disposal would exceed those of
disposal in the oceans, and the scientific information available to
date does not justify the total ban on ocean disposal of harmful
sewage sludge (NOAA, 1979a). The feasibility of land disposal is
limited by shortage of available land near urban centers and the
threat of pollution to groundwater resources. Recycling of sludge
is possible, but expensive. Tertiary treatment would cost substan-
tially more than the currently used treatment levels. For all of
these alternatives, sludge solids remain and would have to be disposed
A-16
-------
Marine IVos/e Disposal
of on land unless they were incinerated. Incineration could contribute
significantly to the air pollution problems already existing in many
heavily populated areas.
Sewage effluents that have been treated still contain substantial
quantities of suspended solids, toxic metals, synthetic organic
compounds, fecal coliforms, and other potentially pathogenic micro-
organisms. Effluents also contain oxygen-demanding organic substances,
and various forms of the nutrients nitrogen and phosphorus (NACOA,
1981). Secondary sewage treatment is moderately effective in reducing
the number of pathogenic microorganisms. Combined primary and secondary
treatment reduces the fecal collform level in the effluent. Discharge
of the effluents through outfall pipes is regulated by the EPA under
Sections 402 and 403 of the Clean Water Act (as amended). Sewage
effluents are discharged directly Into the oceans through outfall
pipes, primarily by Los Angeles, New York, Boston, and Miami.
Sludge is a byproduct of sewage treatment. In primary treatment
plants, floatable materials are removed and solids are settled to
produce the sludge. In a secondary treatment plant, bacteria are
employed to decompose dissolved and colloidal organic matter from
the wastewater stream, and the bacterial debris becomes part of the
sludge. Generally, a portion of secondary sludge is anaeroblcally
digested, a process that decomposes much of the solid organic matter
to gaseous byproducts such as methane. This process reduces the
collform and viral content of the sludge to very low levels. The
chemical composition of sewage sludge is highly variable and depends
on the content of receiving wastes, the level of treatment, and
operating efficiency of plants. POTWs receive wastewater streams
from a variety of sources, including residences, businesses, small
industries, and even major industries in some Instances. Many cities
have combined sewer systems, with rainwater and street runoff entering
the POTWs along with sanitary wastes. During the treatment process,
the fates of particular constituents, organic and inorganic, are
dependent upon the specific physical, chemical, and biological con-
ditions of plant operations. Generally, however, the sludge concen-
trates toxic metals (cadmium, copper, lead, mercury, and zinc),
pathogens, organic matter, petroleum hydrocarbons, and synthetic
organic compounds such as polychlorinated blphenyls (PCBs).
About 6 million dry metric tons of sewage sludge are produced
annually by the 14,500 POTWs In the United States. Sewage sludge
generation is projected to increase to about 10 million dry metric
tons per year by 1990, after all POTWs have converted to secondary
treatment. In the United States sewage sludge Is disposed of by
land application (20Z); landfill (40Z); Incineration (residual ash
landfllled) (252); and ocean disposal (15Z) (Vaccaro et al., 1981).
In 1979, 5.9 million wet metric tons of sewage sludge were ocean
dumped, and 2.8 million wet metric tons were discharged through the
A-17
-------
NATIONAL MARINE POLLUTION CONCERNS
Los Angeles and Boston outfalls. (As a rule of thumb, wet sludge
may be assumed to consist of 90% water and 10Z solids.) Discharges
through outfalls are regulated by EPA under Sections 403 and 405
of the Clean Water Act and those by ocean going vessels under
Section 102 of the Ocean Dumping Act.
Under Title II of the Ocean Dumping Act, NOAA has the lead
responsibility for conducting comprehensive research and monitoring
on the fates and effects of ocean dumping. NOAA has concentrated its
research and monitoring efforts at the 12-mile dumpsite in the New York
Bight, where much of the dumping occurs, at the 106-mile dumpsite,
which is primarily used for Industrial wastes, and at the the recently
deactivated Philadelphia sewage sludge dumpsite. The efforts Include
baseline observations prior to dumping, experiments during dumping,
and long-term field and laboratory observations. Studies at the
Philadelphia dumpsite continue to describe any changes that occur
following the cessation of dumping. NOAA's region-specific research
programs to determine the fate and effects of pollutants such as
sewage Include the Hudson-Rarltan Estuary Project, the New York
Bight Project, Puget Sound Project, the Great Lakes Pollution Studies,
and the Habitat Investigations Program.
Analysis and Conclusions
Sewage effluents and sewage sludge are recognized as pollutants
and pose a potential threat to the marine environment. However, other
sources of contaminants also contribute to the pollution of the coastal
waters. The GAO estimated that less than one-half of the pollutants
entering the waters is from municipal treatment plants and other regu-
lated point sources (CEO, 1980). The remaining amount is contributed
by the combined discharges of estuaries and rivers, direct runoff from
nonpolnt sources, atmospheric fallout, and ocean dumping (NOAA, 1979a).
EPA's effort related to the ocean disposal of sewage is focused
on evaluation of ocean dumpsltes and studying the impacts of discharges
from ocean outfalls. Under EPA's Dumpsite Evaluation Program, con-
ducted by the Office of Water and Waste Management, ocean dumping
sites are being evaluated. Evaluation consists of biological, water,
and sediment surveys followed by assessment of the environmental effects
that would result from use of the dumpsite.
The Ocean Outfall Research Program (Municipal Waste Disposal)
deals with the fate and effects of the discharge of wastewater
effluents. The research involves assessment of the impacts associated
with municipal wastewater discharges into estuarlne and marine environ-
ments. Emphasis is placed on the following areas: marine food chain
contamination by toxic materials; transport and transformation of
pollutants in the marine environment; assessment of human risk asso-
ciated with the consumption of contaminated seafood; and surveys of
A-18
-------
Marine Waste Disposal
sediment quality and benthos contamination near municipal outfalls.
In addition, studies on ecosystem level effects of wastewater pollution
(and pollution abatement), monitoring techniques (including bloassays),
and site-specific outfall studies (including the use of remote survey
techniques) are being conducted.
EPA is studying also sewage treatment and sludge disposal options
not related to ocean disposal, such as landfill applications, incinera-
tion, and composting. These may be considered alternatives to ocean
disposal of sewage wastes.
Research and information needs related to the effects of ocean
outfalls, the effects of ocean dumping, and management of sewage
wastes have been identified. The needs and pertinent Federal activities
are discussed below.
Effects of sewage outfalls
More information is needed on the fates-and effects of materials
discharged through outfalls to describe the implications to marine
populations including long-term sublethal effects on aquatic species,
and human health risks. Full understanding is needed of marine food
webs and the movements of various waste constituents through marine
ecosystems. Although this area is now addressed by ongoing programs,
it is of continuing importance and should receive emphasis in the future.
EPA's Municipal Waste Program provides basic Information needed
to implement Section 301(h) of the Clean Water Act, which allows
relaxation, under certain conditions, of the requirement for secondary
sewage treatment. Research is conducted on marine food chain contami-
nation by toxic materials, transport and transformation of pollutants,
human health risks associated with seafood consumption, and sediment
quality and contamination of benthlc communities near outfalls.
NOAA conducts research to determine the fates and effects of
human-induced and natural changes on the abundance, distribution, and
functioning of living marine resources, assess the health of fishery
stocks, and assess risks to human health associated with ingestion
of contaminated seafood.
Present research programs conducted by EPA and NOAA should
continue. In addition, EPA should perform a review and synthesis of
the statistical data resulting from site-specific studies conducted
by states in conjunction with Section 301(h) waivers. EPA should
use the review to determine the overall value and effectiveness of
secondary municipal waste treatment, and of the 301(h) exemption
program. The review should be completed by the end of 1984. To
accomplish this, planning for the review should be initiated in FY 1982.
A-19
-------
NATIONAL MARINE POLLUTION CONCERNS
Effects of sludge dumping
Sewage sludge contains substances that are potentially harmful to
living marine resources, ecosystems, and human health. More informa-
tion is needed to describe changes that occur in an ecosystem after
dumping is stopped and to determine the Impacts on the immediate
dumping area and how far from the dumping site impacts occur. In
general, this area is adequately addressed by ongoing Federal research
programs.
NOAA's Ocean Dumping Program includes baseline observations prior
to dumping, experiments during dumping, and long-term field and
laboratory observations. This program is also laying the groundwork
for determining the changes in the marine ecosystem following cessation
of sludge dumping at the recently deactivated Philadelphia dumpslte.
These are complex issues that have not been fully addressed. NOAA
and EPA should continue research to determine the effects of dumping.
Continuing and improved coordination between EPA and NOAA is required.
EPA should focus on case-specific studies directly related to the
regulatory process, and NOAA should conduct research to obtain a more
general understanding of natural and altered marine ecosystems, with
the expectation that dumping will continue or resume at certain sites.
Studies should focus on ecological effects beyond the designated
dumpsltes. In particular, research should be conducted on the pathways
and fates of key pollutants such as PCBs and heavy metals.
As dumping of sludge is discontinued at a specific site, NOAA
should conduct monitoring; research activities to obtain informa-
tion on the changes in the marine ecosystems should continue. NOAA's
study of the abandoned Philadelphia dumpslte is under way.
Management of sewage wastes
Long-range management of sewage disposal requires multimedium
assessments including the environmental impacts, economic costs, and
energy consumption of disposal methods Including land application,
landfill, land and ocean Incineration, and ocean disposal using
barges or outfalls. Specifically, the following actions are needed:
• Determine the volumes of sewage to be generated in coastal
areas during the next 20 years.
• Compare the disposal options, such as ocean dumping or outfall
disposal of sludges.
• Ouantlfy cost and describe effectiveness and environmental
gain of the different levels of treatment technologies.
A-20
-------
Marine Waste Disposal
• Conduct special environmental and economic studies related to
Section 301(h) exemptions.
• Select the most appropriate ocean disposal sites.
Although this area Is now addressed by ongoing programs, It Is of-
continuing Importance and should receive emphasis In the future.
The EPA has only recently begun a program to compare directly the
environmental risks and costs of various methods of land disposal,
Incineration, and ocean disposal.
Higher levels of treatment result In cleaner effluent discharges
while producing larger quantities of sludge containing concentrations
of heavy metals. Decisions have to be made to determine the most
appropriate level of treatment, the preferred method of waste disposal,
and the best site for disposal.
Although planning and Implementation of sewage disposal programs
are the responsibility of State and local governments, EPA and NOAA
should assist In determining the effects of various ocean disposal
options. The following require special attention: (1) determining
the chemical composition of wastes entering POTWs in order.to remove
contaminants through treatment; (2) determining the relationships
among treatment type, effluent quality, environmental effects, and
human health effects; and (3) selecting the ocean disposal sites
that are the least disruptive to the marine environment.
RADIOACTIVE WASTE DISPOSAL
For the past three decades, radioactive wastes have been produced
by a variety of activities in the United States. Low-level wastes
generated by medical, industrial, and research activities contain
low-level but potentially harmful quantities of radionuclides. High-
level waste is produced by our national defense programs and generally
requires shielding and long-term Isolation from the environment. Sub-
stantial quantities of both high- and low-level wastes are generated
by the nuclear power industry. There is no method of reducing the
time that a particular substance remains radioactive; therefore, the
wastes must be effectively Isolated from the environment until they
become harmless. Vhlle the medical use of radioactivity can be
beneficial to man, uncontrolled exposure may be harmful. Because of
the increasing volumes of wastes generated by the various activities,
waste disposal management has become an urgent national concern. Safe
disposal of the waste produced by the nuclear power industry is one
of the factors affecting the industry's growth (NOAA, 1980b). .A
thorough understanding of the fate and effects of these materials in
the marine environment is required to evaluate radioactive waste
disposal options.
A-21
-------
NATIONAL MARINE POLLUTION CONCERNS
On February 12, 1980, culminating nearly 2 years of technical and
policy review, the nation's first comprehensive program for managing
radioactive waste was announced. Under this program, priority efforts
for the disposal of high-level radioactive waste will be focused on
•land-based mined repositories with the use of emplacement In stable
ocean sediments as a longer range alternative. The Department of
Energy (DOE) will have lead responsibility for planning the non-
regulatory waste management program and interfacing with the regulatory
agencies, i.e., the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) (Congressional Record, 1980).
Because low-level and high-level radioactive wastes are fundamentally
different in character and In disposal requirements they are discussed
separately. Three study needs of major Importance are then identified
as subjects for Analysis and Conclusions.
Low-Level Waste Disposal
Between 1946 and 1970 the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) licensed
the dumping of more than 86,000 containers of low-level radioactive
wastes at 28 recorded dumpsltes in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans
and the Gulf of Mexico^'' The Farallon Islands sites received approxi-
mately 97Z of the radioactive materials dumped in the Pacific Ocean.
Approximately 961 of the recorded radioactive metals dumped in the
Atlantic were received in two sites more than 100 miles off Sandy
Rook and approximately 150 miles apart. Only two dumps were made In
the Gulf of Mexico (EPA, 1980e).
In I960, the AEC placed a moratorium on the issuance of new
licenses for at-sea disposal of nuclear waste and designated two
land locations at Idaho Falls, Idaho, and Oak Ridge, Tenn., a6 interim
low-level waste burial sites for AEC licensees. In 1962, the first
permanent commercial disposal site on land for low-level radioactive
waste (in Nevada) was licensed and available for use by private
organizations. Shortly thereafter, licensed facilities for commercial
land burial were established in Illinois, Kentucky, New York, South
Carolina, and Washington. As land burial facilities became available,
AEC stopped Issuing new licenses to commercial firms to collect
radioactive waste to be dumped. Between 1965 and 1970 only a small
amount of low-level radioactive waste was dumped, largely because land
disposal is cheaper. Capacities have been reached at three of the six
commercial sites, and only three sites remain open. In addition, the
DOE has 14 active and 2 closed land burial sites (NSF, 1971).
Ocean dumping was discontinued in June 1970 following a policy
recommendation by the President's Council on Environmental Quality
(CEO) in its 1970 report to the President. This report recommended
that low-level wastes be dumped only when "no practical alternative
A—22
-------
¦ Marine IVas/e Disposal
offers less risk to man and his environment" (CEO, 1970). This policy
was incorporated into AEC regulations and, in 1972, was included in
the Ocean Dumping Act. The Ocean Dumping Act, among other things,
designates the EPA as the agency responsible for issuing ocean disposal
permits and for environmental guidelines and standards applicable to
ocean disposal of radioactive waste.
Hlgh-Level Waste Disposal
High-level radioactive wastes are generated by facilities that
reprocess irradiated nuclear reactor fuel. Spent nuclear reactor fuel
assemblies, if discarded, are also high-level wastes. Materials con-
taminated with transuranic elements from the reprocessing of reactor
fuels and the fabrication of plutonium to produce nuclear weapons also
require long-term Isolation methods. High-level wastes are temporarily
stored at reactor sites and at Federally managed sites In Washington,'
South Carolina, and Idaho. The United States has never disposed of
its high-level wastes in the oceans, and In 1972 two major legislative
initiatives were enacted prohibiting future disposal of high-level
wastes into coastal waters and rivers. The Ocean Dumping Act, in
addition to regulating ocean disposal of low-level waste, prohibits
the dumping of high-level waste and radiological warfare agents in
ocean waters. Soon after the Ocean Dumping Act was enacted, the
Clean Water Act was amended to extend the prohibition to all navigable
waters. Although not immediately contemplated, subseabed emplacement
of high-level radioactive wastes is a future option. Present inter-
national conventions preclude the dumping of high-level wastes in
the oceans; it is uncertain at this time, however, if these conventions
extend to the emplacement of high-level wastes in the geologic formations
of the subseabed.
Analysis and Conclusions
In 1971, the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) concluded that,
in terms of ecological effects, the consensus of the scientific
literature was that radionuclides are not likely to be significantly
deleterious to populations of marine organisms at the dose rates
estimated for the most contaminated environments. Although the NAS
predictions are subject to revision in the light of new knowledge,
there has been no evidence to date that past practices for radioactive
waste disposal In the oceans have jeopardized the health of humans or
any marine species (Dyer, 1976; Hawkins, 1980).
In 1978, scientific experts reviewed the status of our scientific
knowledge on all ocean pollutants and recommended areas where further
study was necessary. These experts concluded that to date, no impacts
on human health have been documented from the ocean disposal of
A-23
-------
NATIONAL MARINE POLLUTION CONCERNS
radionuclides and no effects harmful to marine organisms are known,
even at the sites of large discharges. These experts did recommend,
however, that existing dumpsltes be monitored for leakage of radio-
nuclides to test the validity of present assumptions about the
retention of disposed materials in the sediments, and to provide a
basis for the selection of potential future disposal areas for low-
level wastes (NOAA, I979f).
Research and information needs related to existing low-level
disposal sites, management of low-level wastes, and the possible
subseabed disposal of high-level wastes have been identified. The
needs and pertinent Federal activities are discussed below.
Effects at disposal sites for low-level radioactive wastes
Existing disposal sites provide an excellent experimental
situation to study the physical, chemical, and biological processes
that incorporate, transform, and accumulate radioactive elements and
cause these toxic substances to migrate from the disposal canister
to biological receptors (including humans). In general, this area
is adequately addressed by ongoing Federal research programs.
The EPA supports research to evaluate problems and limitations
associated with ocean disposal as one alternative In a low-level radio-
active waste management program. The objectives of the program are
to determine the fate and behavior of the radioactive waste packages
that were dumped in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans between 1946 and
1970 so that predictions of future environmental impact can be made
if use of the ocean disposal alternative is again contemplated.
Since September 1980 EPA and NOAA have been discussing the areas
where NOAA could assist EPA In Its study of the long-term impacts of
low-level ocean disposal and have jointly developed a monitoring plan.
EPA and NOAA plan to enter into a memorandum of understanding by
September 1981 to Implement the monitoring plan.
Studies undertaken by EPA and NOAA should employ existing disposal
sites to determine release rates of radioactive materials to sediments
and water, to detect uptake by organisms, particularly sedentary species,
and to identify bloaccumulatlon processes. Monitoring programs should
be designed to detect any physiological or morphological abnormalities
in resident biota and to identify in situ conditions where more subtle
physiological processes Involving radionuclides might be studied.
Management of low-level radioactive wastes
A disposal management strategy baaed on social, environmental,
and economic factors is needed to determine the appropriate technique
A-24
-------
Marine Waste Disposal
for low-level waste disposal on land and In Che oceans. In general,
this area is adequately addressed by ongoing Federal research programs.
The EPA's Dumpsite Evaluation Program is considering sites for
potential marine disposal of low-level wastes. Previously used
radioactive dumpsites have been surveyed to assist in developing
criteria for selection of potential disposal sites and for the
development of practices for monitoring future dumpsites.
Environmental risks of subseabed disposal of high-level radioactive wastes
Assuming the environmental and technical feasibllty, the technology
for subseabed disposal will be another 10 years, at least, In develop-
mental stages. Under present national and international laws, ocean
dumping of high-level radioactive wastes is prohibited. However, on
both the national and international levels, the subseabed disposal
option for emplacement in submarine geologic formations is being
considered as a potential technical alternative.
The Subseabed Disposal Program focuses on an investigation of
the environmental and technical feasibility of subseabed disposal of
high-level radioactive wastes. This program is considered a long-range
concept for waste isolation and is still in the evaluation stage. The
program's nearterm objective is to determine whether the deep-ocean
sediments are effective barriers for confinement of wastes emplaced
within geologically stable and biologically inactive regions of the
deep-ocean floor.
Although the subseabed disposal of high-level radioactive waste
would not occur, at the earliest, until after 1995, decisions to
employ this disposal option will probably be made much earlier.
Environmental risks must be assessed before decisions to dispose of
high-level wastes In the subseabed can be made. Basic information
is needed on the stability of deep-sea sediments when exposed to
different temperature conditions that might exist in the vicinity of
high-level waste disposal canisters. Information on sediment character-
istics is also essential in order to evaluate different emplacement
technologies. A better understanding of the advection and diffusion
characteristics of deep ocean waters and the migratory patterns of
deep-sea animals is important for identifying potential pathways of
radioactive material back to man. This area is adequately addressed
by ongoing Federal research programs.
DOE and NOAA have under consideration a memorandum of understanding
for cooperation to investigate the feasibility of seabed emplacement.
NOAA's involvement and assistance could be in activities such as site
surveying and charting of the ocean floor (using the oceanographic
fleet), assessing engineering emplacement methods, reviewing the
A-25
-------
NATIONAL MARINF. POLLUTION CONCERNS
characteristics of deep-water biological communities, reviewing data
on ocean sediments as geological barriers, using the satellite system
to transmit data, and assessing pollution on site.
During the period of time covered by this Plan (through FY 1985),
DOE and NOAA should undertake activities to designate environmentally
acceptable and geologically stable disposal sites. These joint
activities should include the charting of the ocean floors at and in
the vicinity of potential disposal areas, reviewing data and analyses
of sediment samples to assure that the sediments are effective barriers
for confinement of the waste materials, and assessing the data on
biological communities at the proposed disposal sites.
BRINE DISPOSAL
A concentrated brine solution needing disposal results from the
development and operation of salt dome storage cavities associated with
the Strategic Petroleum Reserve Program (SPRO). Mandated by the Energy
Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 (P.L. 94-163), SPRO is intended to
help protect the United States from severe disruptions in the world oil
supply by stockpiling crude oil. To store crude oil, cavities are
formed in salt dome structures by injecting freshwater or seawater,
which forms a concentrated salt solution by dissolving a portion of the
solid salt structure. After alternating injections of water and with-
drawals of saturated brine, the cavity is completed in which crude oil
may be stored. The storage area Is equipped with separate pipes to the
top and bottom of the cavity. Crude oil pumped In through the top pipe
rides above the saturated brine, which is denser than the oil. The
addition of oil to the top layer forces brine up and out through the
pipe at the botton of the cavity. Crude oil Is extracted by pumping
seawater to the bottom of the cavity, thus forcing oil out through
the pipe at the top of the cavity.
All SPRO salt dome storage sites are located along the coast of
the Gulf of Mexico from Texas to Louisiana. Sixteen dome cavities
were available to SPRO because of previous salt dome storage by the
chemical and petroleum industries. Some existing cavities will be
used as is, some will be expanded, and a limited number of new cavities
will be created to provide the total volume needed. Large volumes of
brine at 280 parts per thousand, about eight times the concentration
that occurs in full-strength seawater, are produced by the process
of cavity formation. For example, to mine a new 100-million-barrel
storage cavity, a volume of about 700 million barrels (111 billion
liters) would be injected as seawater and extracted as brine. During
the routine operation of filling the cavity with crude oil, a volume
of saturated brine equal to the volume of emplaced oil would normally
be discharged. Seawater Injected to effect removal of crude oil
dissolves salt from the cavity walls, causing storage area growth as
A-26
-------
Marine Waste Disposal
a byproduct of crude-oil removal. This limits the number of fill
cycles a storage cavity can undergo. SPRO engineers generally assume
a cavity lifetime of five cycles over a period of at least 25 years
(NOAA, 1980c). Currently, about 160 million barrels of crude oil are
stored under SPRO (POE, 1980). It Is planned that by 1989, 750 million
barrels of oil will be stored and maintained in Culf Coast salt dome
cavities.
Disposal of large volumes of nearly saturated brine solution is
the primary marine environmental problem associated with SPRO. The
brines are normally discharged into the Gulf of Mexico through diffusers
to promote rapid dilution to background salt concentrations. However,
the brines are denser than seawater and tend to flow along the sea
floor, affecting bottom-dwelling organisms until sufficient dilution
has been achieved. In addition, hydrocarbons and other harmful
constituents may be dissolved in or entrained with the brine discharge.
Brine discharges are regulated by the EPA under the National Pollution
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES).
Analysis and Conclusions
To assess the environmental implications of brine discharges,
the fate of brines should be predicted and monitored, and effects on
marine ecosystems studied. In addition, any other potentially harmful
chemical constituents found in brine require special studies.
A substantial research and monitoring program was initiated in
1977 to study the environmental Implications of SPRO brine discharges.
The program is funded by DOE and managed by the Environmental Data
and Information Service (EDIS) in NOAA. Between 1977 and 1982, about
$14.5 million was Invested in modeling the fate of discharged brine
and studying the effects of the discharges in the Gulf of Mexico. In
general, the results of the studies indicate that the environmental
effects of SPRO brine disposal are of relatively little consequence
in most cases. In the future, environmental studies and monitoring
are planned to continue, but possibly at a reduced level.
Information needs in this area are considered to be of lesser
Importance in the context of national marine pollution concerns.
The interagency program funded by DOE adequately addresses the needs
related to environmental implications of brine disposal. Results of
earlier studies appear to justify a reduction In the intensity of
these studies; information needs have been met.
A-27
------- |