United States Office of Solid Waste and
Environmental Protection Emergency Response
Agency (5201G) September 2001
www.epa gov/superfund
Superfund
*>EPA Chemistry for Environmental
Professionals - Fundamentals
(165.21)
Student Manual
7 Recycled/Recyclable
7~ \ \ Printed with Soy/Canola Ink on paper that
' / , 1 "/ contains at east 50% recycled fiber
^ J ปr'
-------
Agenda
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
New York, New York
January 27-28, 2004
COURSE DIRECTOR: Tom Savin Tetra Tech NUS, Inc.
INSTRUCTORS: Steve Okulewicz Tetra Tech NUS, Inc.
Tom Bobowski Nobis Engineering Inc.
DAY and TIME SUBJECT SPEAKER
Tuesday, January 27
8:00 -
- 9.10
a.m.
Orientation/Intro, to Environmental Chemistry
T.
Savin
9:20 -
- 10:40
a.m.
Measurements and Unit Conversions'
T.
Bobowski
10:50 -
- 12:00
p.m.
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure I
S.
Okulewicz
12:00 -
- 1:00
p.m.
LUNCH
1:00 -
2:20
p.m.
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure II
S.
Okulewicz
2:30 -
- 3:40
p.m.
Chemical and Physical Properties
T.
Bobowski
3.50 -
5 00
p.m.
Organic Chemistry I
T
Savin
Wednesday, January 28
8:00 -
- 9:40
a.m.
Organic Chemistry II
T.
Savin
9.50 -
- 12:00
p.m.
Environmental Chemical Reactions
S.
Okulewicz
12:00 -
- 1:00
p.m.
LUNCH
1:00 -
- 4:30
p.m.
Analytical Chemistry
S.
Okulewicz
- Spectrograph^ Methods
S.
Okulewicz
- Chromatographic Methods
T.
Bobowski
- Electrochemical Methods
T.
Bobowski
- Titrimetric Methods
T.
Savin
- Gravimetric Methods
T.
Savin
- Analytical Methods Exercise
T.
Bobowski
4:40 -
5.00
p.m.
Closing Remarks/Evaluation
T.
Savin
-------
,to sr,
vT
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI. OHIO 45268
It is the policy of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's
Environmental Response Training Program to maintain a learning
environment that is mutually respectful.
Please refrain from any actions or comments, including jokes,
which might make another class participant feel uncomfortable.
The Course Director is prepared to take, appropriate action to
ensure your full participation and benefit from our training.
Please present your concerns to the Course Director, or to the
U.S. EPA Project Officer, Bruce Potoka at (513) 569-7537.
-------
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5^-
-------
Section 1
-------
Introduction
CHEMISTRY
FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL
PROFESSIONALS
presented by
Tetra Tech NUS, Incorporated
for the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's
Environmental Response Center
(Contract #68-C7-0033)
Environmental Response
Training Program (ERTP)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Solid Waste and Emergency
Response (Superfund)
Office of Emergency and Remedial
Response
Environmental Response Center
ERTP Training Courses
Are offered tuition-free for environmental
and response personnel from federal,
state, and local agencies
Vary in length from one to five days
Are conducted at EPA Training Centers
(Cincinnati, Ohio or Edison, New Jersey);
and at other locations throughout the
United States
. U.S. EPA ?
i,
OSWER
OERR \
_p
ERC
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 1
-------
Course Materials
Student Registration Card
Student Evaluation Form
Course Agenda
Student Manual
PAGE 2
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Introduction
II
MJC C Kk
/ฐ\nAn/
CHEMISTRY
CH
FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL
PROFESSIONALS
What is Chemistry?
1.
Something to avoid at all costs
2.
Part of a project that is delegated to
someone else
3.
Something done by mad scientists in
B-movies
. 4.
"The science of the composition,
structure and properties of substances
and the transformations they undergo"
Scope of Chemistry
Chemistry is used in many scientific applications
and has a wide impact in our everyday lives
Pharmaceuticals
Petroleum
Medicine
Food Science
Biotechnology
Cosmetics
Mining
Agriculture
Metallurgy
Plastics
Environment
Apparel
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 3
-------
CHEMISTRY
IS
EVERYWHERE!
Environmental Chemistry
The study of sources, reactions,
transport, effects and fates of
chemical species in water, soil,
and air environments
Source Manahan S E Environmental Chemistry. 1991
Environmental Chemistry
vs.
Laboratory Chemistry
PAGE 4
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Introduction
Laboratory Systems
"Classical" chemistry in a laboratory
setting allows the system under study
to be controlled
Laboratory Systems
Characteristics
Simple
Closed
Well-defined
Static
Laboratory Systems
Closed System Example
Air/oxygen
Pure water
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 5
-------
Introduction
Laboratory Systems
Closed System Example
Control System
- Temperature / ฐ%
- Pressure ฐ.2 / \
eg
- Components \Ft\ \
- Quantities C..
Two phases (gas, liquid)
Environmental Systems
Characteristics
Complex
Open
Not well-defined
Dynamic
Environmental Systems
Open System Example
co- ฆ<
W " CO, O; CO
u -u Q
-*00, j-*o, '
r'-e-O; rซ-ca
i .!
co. a /
V ซ H
PAGE 6
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS-FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Introduction
Environmental Systems
Open System Example
No control
More complex
Many components
All phases
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-------
Introduction
CEP - Fundamentals
Basic Chemical Concepts
Measurements and Unit Conversions
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure
Chemical and Physical Properties
Introduction to Organic Chemistry
Environmental Chemical Reactions
CEP - Fundamentals (cont.)
Analytical Chemistry
General laboratory method descriptions
Common field methodologies
CEP - Applied
Process chemistry
Survey of four industries
- Process overview
- Key chemicals
- Process details
- Modes of release
- Analytical considerations
PAGE 8
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Introduction
CEP - Applied (cont.)
Chemical Fate and Transport
Vadose zone
Groundwater
CEP - Applied (cont.)
Data Evaluation
Data usability
Data quality objectives
The Real World
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Case Study
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 9
-------
Introduction
-------
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS- FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 11
-------
Measurements and Unit Conversions
MEASUREMENTS
AND
UNIT CONVERSIONS
Measurements and Unit Conversions
Objectives
Describe the basic characteristics of the
English, metric, and Systeme Internationale
(SI) measurement systems
Identify general measurement units for
environmental matrices
Given conversion factors, convert measured
data to required units
Identify the appropriate number of significant
digits in a calculation
Measurement Systems
English
Metric
Systeme Internationale (SI)
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS PAGE 1
-------
Measurements and Unit Conversions
English System
United States system
Discouraged in scientific disciplines
English System (cont.)
Common Units
Distance - foot (ft)
Weight - pound (lb)
Time - second (s)
Temperature - degrees Fahrenheit (ฐF)
Pressure - pounds per square inch (psi)
Energy - British Thermal Units (BTU)
Metric System
International system
Units expressed in increments of 10
Preferred system for chemistry
PAGE 2 CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS-FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Measurements and Unit Conversions
Metric System (cont.)
Common Units
Distance - centimeter (cm)
Weight - gram (g)
Time - second (s)
Temperature - degrees Celsius (ฐC)
Pressure - torr (mmHg)
Energy - calorie (cal)
Metric Prefixes
Prefix
Abbreviation
Multiple
Example
tera
T
1012
terameter
giga
G
109
gigawatt
mega
M
106
megajoule
kilo
k
103
kilogram
deci
d
io-1
decibel
cent!
c
10'2
centimeter
milli
m
IO-3
milligram
micro
10"6
micrometer
nano
n
10-9
nanogram
pi CO
P
10-12
picocurie
Systeme Internationale (SI)
International system
Derived metric units
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 3
-------
Measurements and Unit Conversions
SI (cont.)
Common Units
Distance - meter (m)
Weight - kilogram (k)
Time - second (s)
Temperature - Kelvins (K)
Pressure - Pascal (Pa) (N/m2)
Energy - Joule (J) (kg-m2/s2)
Common Units (cont.)
Mass - quantity of matter in a body
Weight - measure of earth's gravitational
attraction for mass
Mass
ฆrSKiiiS
Weight
' -ฃ<3...
Moon ( -0 5 kg)
- Earth (2 kg)
Jupiter (-5 3 kg)
Common Units (cont.)
Volume - three-dimensional space
Cubic inch = in3
Cubic centimeter = cm3
Cubic meter = m3
Note: Cubic centimeter is same as milliliter (cm3 = mi)
PAGE 4
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Measurements and Unit Conversions
Common Units (cont.)
Density - mass per unit volume
Pounds per cubic inch (lb/in3)
Grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3)
Kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3)
Common Units (cont.)
Common densities:
- Wood: 0.8 g/cm3
- Water: 1.0 g/cm3*
- Table salt: 2.2 g/cm3
- Iron: 7.9 g/cm3
- Lead: 11.3 g/cm3
*Water: 1 g/cm3 = 1 g/ml
Units of Environmental Chemistry
Matrices
Matrices
- Solid
- Liquid
- Gaseous
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 5
-------
Measurements and Unit Conversions
Environmental Units
Solids
- Weight per weight
- Normally given as weight of the particular
substance per total weight of sample
- mg/kg (ppm)
- ng/kg(ppb)
Environmental Units (cont.)
Liquids (aqueous)
- Weight per volume
- Normally given weight (solid or liquid)
per liter of sample, usually as an
aqueous solution
- mg/l (ppm*)
- jig/I (ppb*)
'dilute aqueous solutions only (11 = 1 kg)
Environmental Units (cont.)
Gaseous Matrix
Weight per volume - mg/m3
Volume per volume - ppm (ml/m3)*
(mg/m3)x(24.45) _
mol-weight rf-""
(ppm)ซ(mol-weight) _ / 3
23T5 mg/m
*ppb in air = (.il/nr
5 Witt/I atus
0&4
-------
Measurements and Unit Conversions
Example Conversion
5 mg/m3 S02 equals how many ppm (ml/m3)?
Formula:
(mg/m3)(24.45) _
(mol. weight) ppm
(5 mg/m3)(24.45) _ ^
64TS - 2 ppm S02
Note The molecular weight of SO: is 64.1 g
Problem
5 ppm S02 equals how many mg/m3?
Formula:
(ppm) x (mol. weight) ,
2445 = mg/m
(5 ppm S02) x
^ ) ,J~ = _ mg/m3 S02
Note: The molecular weight of S02 is 64.1 g
The ppm "Very Dry" Martini
Fill one 5,000 gal tanker truck with gin
Add V2 oz of vermouth
Add olives as
needed
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 7
-------
Measurements and Unit Conversions
The ppb "Extremely Dry" Martini
Fill one 5,000 gal tanker truck with gin
Add 1/10 drop of vermouth
Add olives as
Unit Conversion Procedure
Initial x Conversion _ Desired
quantity factor units
Convert units one at a time
If necessary, invert the conversion factor for
algebraic cancellation of units
Unit Conversion Example
How many liters are in five cubic meters?
Initial quantity = 5 m3
Conversion factor: 1000 I = 1 m3
5 fa3* 10001 = 50001
>n3
How many m3 in 2000 1?
2000V m3 = 2 m3
1000\
PAGE 8 CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Measurements and Unit Conversions
Unit Conversion Example (cont.)
How many inches are in 3 miles?
Initial quantity = 3 miles
Conversion factors: 12 in = 1ft; 5280 ft = 1 mi
3 itu x 5280Tt x 12 in = 190,080 in
"mi X
Problem
How many miles are in 126,720 inches?
Conversion factors: 12 inches = 1 foot
5,280 feet = 1 mile
126,720 inches = miles
Problem - Solution
How many miles are in 126,720 inches?
Conversion factors: 12 inches = 1 foot
5,280 feet = 1 mile
.-,on . 1 T&ot 1 mile 0 ..
126,720 ifctaQs ซ = 2 miles
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS-FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 9
-------
Measurements and Unit Conversions
/l\ 3 J $00 I
Unit Conversion
Now, Try an Environmental Conversion
A liquid sample result received from a
lab is expressed as 0.24 mg/m3.
Maximum contaminant level (MCL) is
expressed in f.ig/1. Convert the results
to compare to MCL.
Conversion factors: 1000 jug = 1 mg
1000 I = 1 m3
Significant Digits
Significant digits: All digits known with
certainty, plus the first digit that is uncertain
h 1111111 ih 1111111 i|i 11111111 h 11111111111111 i 11 ii 1111111111
0 10 30 ^ 30 40 50 60
Significant Digits (cont.)
Important to correctly carry significant
digits through unit conversions
Validity of data limited by measurement
with the fewest significant digits
PAGE 10
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS-FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Measurements and Unit Conversions
Significant Digits (cont.)
Zeros Between Non-Zero Digits
Example:
20,485 has five significant digits
Significant Digits (cont.)
All Non-Zero Digits
Example:
245.23 has five significant digits
Rules for Counting Significant
Digits of Measured Values
Significant
- All non-zero digits
- Zeros between non-zero digits
- Zeros at the end to the right of the
decimal point
Insignificant
- Zero preceding the first non-zero digit
Measured value with the lowest number of
significant digits
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 11
-------
Measurements and Unit Conversions
Significant Digits (cont.)
Zeros at the End to the Right of the
Decimal Point
Example:
2.80300 has six significant digits
Insignificant Digits
Zero Preceding the First Non-Zero Digit
Example:
0.0024 has two significant digits
Significant Digits (cont.)
Chemistry Application
What is the resulting concentration of
salt if you dissolve 5.740 milligrams of
salt in 1.2 liters of water?
PAGE 12
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Measurements and Unit Conversions
4,7S33 33
wt qJLv&4A&&-'''
($ 0^*
Case Study I
Lead was assayed at 68 oz/ton of soil. A
CERCLA/ RCRA action level for lead is
400 mg/kg. Based upon the sample, is
lead at the site above the action level?
Conversion factors: 1 mg = 0.0000353 02
1 ton = 908 kg
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS PAGE 13
Significant Digits (cont.)
Chemistry Application Solution
5.740 has four significant digits
1.2 has two significant digits
The answer can have only two significant
digits
5.740 mg . _ .
= 4.7 mg/l
The Rea/ World
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Case Study
V2.fr * ''%ฆ
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-------
Measurements and Unit Conversions
Case Study II
Air samples at the site show 410 mg/m3
trichioroethyiene (TCE). Is this concentration
above the OSHA PEL for TCE?
Formula:
(4
-------
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure I
ATOMIC THEORY
AND
MOLECULAR
STRUCTURE I
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure
Objectives
Define atoms, elements, molecules and
compounds
Explain quantum theory, valence
electrons, valence state, and the octet rule
Identify components of the periodic table
Describe how elements are bonded
together
Atomic Theory
The Atom
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 1
-------
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure I
Atomic Theory
Element
Cannot be split chemically
Similar chemical behavior
Periodic Table of the Elements
Atomic Theory
Subatomic Particles
] Proton
Flprtmn .
ซt
x' Neutron
Atomic Theory
Subatomic Particles - Proton
Located in nucleus
Mass = 1 atomic mass unit (AMU)
Positive charge
PAGE 2
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure I
Atomic Theory
Isotopes
Equal number of protons
Differing number of neutrons
Atomic Theory
Subatomic Particles - Electron
Orbit around nucleus
Mass = negligible or none
Negative charge
Atomic Theory
Subatomic Particles - Neutron
Located in nucleus
Mass = 1 AMU
No charge
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 3
-------
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure I
Atomic Theory
Isotopes
Mass Number 12
Atomic Number 6
Mass Number = # of Protons + # of Neutrons
Atomic Number = # of Protons
Quantum Theory
Theory that describes energy of
electrons in atoms
Quantum Theory (cont.)
Electrons have a definite amount of
energy
Electron energy states can be described
by a set of numbers called quantum
numbers
PAGE 4
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure I
Quantum Theory
Quantum Numbers (cont.)
Principal energy level = electron energy
0
Energy sub-levels =
Electron cloud shape
Electron shell capacity
Orbitals = electron cloud orientation
Electron spin = clockwise or
counterclockwise
Quantum Theory
Quantum Numbers
1st Quantum Number =
2nd Quantum Number =
3rd Quantum Number =
4th Quantum Number =
Principal energy level
Energy sub-levels
Orbitals
Electron spin
Quantum Theory
Energy Sub-level Capacity
Sub-Level s = 2 electrons
Sub-Level p = 6 electrons
Sub-Level d = 10 electrons
Sub-Level f = 14 electrons
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 5
-------
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure I
Quantum Theory
Electron Configuration
ABCABC
A = Primary Energy Level
B = Energy Sub-Level
C = Number of Electrons
\rJLeOn
nmJbuuA
Quantum Theory
Electron Configuration (cont.)
i 2^ 7 ?
Is 2s p
hjUAj How many electrons are in this atom?
CLOjIoc
: Uid i/iMH
e
Atomic Theory
Valence Electrons
CI
Number of electrons in the outer
primary energy levels
YaluA ce efrch^1
PAGE 6
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure I
Periodic Table of the Elements
Periods
H
I.i Be
\a Me
i b ; *
Al Si P
^Ij
,22 I
7 tf, M C Z
ซ*
*
Ar
St
*
.. ! . i . ; ,
Ha La HI" Ta W Re 1* |r Pt An l(i> Tl Pb Bi
He
O , F Nc
S i (1 Ar
Rt
IH> Ss
Hli
IN
Ml I un; L?uti
Pr Nil
Pin
Sni
i:ปi tkl Ttป
[)> ; Mo ^ l-r Tm
Yb l.u
Hi
Pa I
Nj.
Pii
Ani Ctti ;Bk
CT l > Fm Md
No Lr
Elements
Periodic Table of the Elements
H He
Li Be B ! C N ! O F Nc
Na Me Al Si P S . Cl Ar
K ("a Sc Ti V CY Mil Fe
Co N'i ! Cli j Zn CVa Ge As Sc Br Kr
Rb Sr Y 7x Nib Mo Tc Rii
Rli , Pd Ae : Cd , In Sn Sb Te 1 1 Xe
tV Ba La HI Ta \V Re : O
Fr Ra Ac Rl 15b Sc fill lb.
Ir Pt .Aii Me Tl : Pb Bi ?o Al Rii
Ml I'un I'litii
Cc Pr Nil Pm Sni
1 i ;
I'll ; CVi : Tli DyjHolB Tm : Hi l.u
Tli Pa I Np Pu
i
Ani Oil Bk O . Es ! Fm Md No 1 Lr
Atomic Theory
Octet Rule
: Ar*
& &
Atoms are most stabie when there are
eight valence electrons
0 UL/ir ffriU -
f\e (jf -2- e
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 7
-------
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure I
Periodic Table of the Elements
Groups
L.i : Be
EOT
B ,(' j N WM F
Ne 1
\a Me
A1 ' Si P
# : ci
*
K ("a Sc Ti
V Or Mn
Fe Co Ni CV Zn
Ga tie As I
& : Br
"1
"i
Rt> Si Y 7i
\h Mn Tc
Rii Rh I'd Ac C\i
In Sti Sh |
I
Xe
Cn Oil !.a |ป
Ta \V Rt
IK li Pt .-Ml He
i
TI Pli Bi !
fit ' A!
Rji
Fr Rป Ac Rf
I*> Sc Hh
H- Ml I llll; I IIU
("c
Pr Nil Pni
Sm F.u CnJ Tb Ch
Ho ; Fr Tni
"t
Es ' Fm Md
Yb Lu
! Til
Pa I" iNp
Pii Aril, (Yii : Bk Of
No Lr
Periodic Table of the Elements
Notable Groups
ฎ Group IA
Group VI!B
Group VIII
Periodic Table of the Elements
Notable Groups
Group IA
PAGE 8
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure I
Periodic Table of the Elements
Notable Groups
\A$mc( ft)
e~~
Periodic Table of the Elements
Notable Groups
14 du -
Periodic Table of the Elements
Metals
SI He
T
ฆ u
11 C N
o
F
Nc
m.
8s' p
s
01
Ar
'lK
:
C9 Sr
Tr , r
n.
m
to :<>
JW |Ch::
Sc
ปf
kr
Zt
\(0
rr
*4
M:
:}
At-jj Si*. Sb
Te
1
1
Xc
:Cf-
jfc* tit*
W
T*
w
Of tr
w .U*i
W
K>
Al
Rii
' i t
Ba \
*r
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VH \ B* W
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7,1
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vi viJv. .vi.-..i-.v.v&viv;-;?
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 9
-------
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure I
Periodic Table of the Elements
Metalloids
ii
He
; Li Be
Na Mb
tiฎ
C N 0 F Ne
1 Al
:& | p j s ot m
K Ca Sc
Ti V Or ฆ' Mn
; ,.i
Fe Co Si Oi Zn Ga
j^f Sc B. K:
Klป ' Sr Y
7j S3> Mo Tc
Rii Rli . Pd Ae Cd in
Sn ; sn Tป\i Xc
(\ Ba La
Hf Ta W Re
C* Ir Pi .An He TI
Ph Bi Po .Al Rn
Ft Ra Ac
Rf Sc Bll
H> Mi Lim I nn
Cซ Pr , Nd Pm
1
Sni En 1 Od Tb | Dy ! Ho
Er Tm Yb Lu
: i !
Tb : Pa ; [ ; Np
Pii .Am ' CVii Bk ! CT Es
Fm ; VJ Si \ /i M> Mo Tt Ru Rh Pd A* CM In Sn .Sb
t\ Ba La Hf Ta IV Re i> . Ir Pi An j He
l Ft Ra Ac Rf [* Se Fih H< ^ Ml Uinllaiul
Bi Po | ttป ;
. < : ! ! : :
C!"c Pr Nil Pin Sm Kii ' Ckl Tb ' Dy i Ho Mr . Tni Yb Lit
Tli Pa 1' Nfi Pii Ani Cm Bk. CT Es Km: Md So Lr
Periodic Table of the Elements
Element Block Information
Elemental symbol
Atomic number
Atomic weight
PAGE 10
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure I
yjuifat#
Periodic Table of the Elements
Elemental Symbol
1
1.00794
20.-X
13.81
0.0X99
t(H
Is1
Hydrogen
Periodic Table of the Elements
Atomic Number
1.00794
20.28
13.81
0.0899 t
H
Is1
Hydrogen
Periodic Table of the Elements
Atomic Weight
j Q.00794> 1
!
20.28 -J- -y
13.81 1-1
0.08991 X A
,,
Hydrogen
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 11
-------
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure I
Compounds
Bond Types
Covalent
Polar covalent
Ionic
Molecular Structure
Compound (cont.)
The smallest unit of a compound is a
molecule
A molecule cannot be broken down
and retain its chemical and physical
properties
Molecular Structure
Compound
The combination of two or more elements
Formed by bonding of elements
PAGE 12
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure I
Compounds (cont.)
Covalent Bond
H*
c
H' *0 H*
6
FT
Compounds (cont.)
Covalent Bond
H
HsCsH
H
Methane
Compounds
Polar Covalent Bond
Classification of a covalent bond
Unequal sharing of electrons
Results in positive and negative "poles"
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 13
-------
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure I
Compounds
Polar Covalent Bond (cont.)
Moon Earth
Compounds
Polar Bond (cont.)
JpS
CfriWJUitJ
Compounds
Ionic Bond
Na* m# *Ch
& &
PAGE 14
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure I
Compounds
Ionic Bond (cont.)
+
& &
Na
Cation
"Clf
^ 1 ฃ
a &
Anion
Compounds
Covalent, Polar Covalent, or Ionic?
How do we know whether two atoms will
form a covalent, polar covalent, or ionic
bond?
Compounds (cont.)
Covalent, Polar Covalent, or Ionic?
Percent ionic character
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 15
-------
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure I
Compounds (cont.)
Covalent, Polar Covalent, or Ionic?
1. Identify the electronegativities for the
atoms to be bonded
2. Calculate the difference between them
3. Find the electronegativity difference on
the Table of Periodic Properties of the
Elements
4. Find the corresponding % ionic character
Compounds (cont.)
Covalent, Polar Covalent, or Ionic?
K Covalent,
Polar Covalent {I
or
Ionic?
Compounds (cont.)
Covalent, Polar Covalent, or Ionic?
Electronegativities
K =
0=
Difference
% Ionic Character =
PAGE 16
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure I
The Real World
Case Study
The Real World
Case Study
1. Which of the following elements meet
the octet rule?
XS Ag Bi He Ca
2. What type of bond will Li and F form?
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure
Summary
Atomic structure, elements, molecules,
and compounds
Octet Rule
Periodic Table
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 17
-------
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure II
Chemical Formulas
Elemental Symbol
As.
Number of Q O
molecules : *
v/
Number of atoms
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure
Objectives
Describe chemical formulas
Describe chemical equations
Describe relative masses of atoms and
molecules
ATOMIC THEORY
AND
MOLECULAR
STRUCTURE II
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 1
-------
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure II
Chemical Equations (cont.)
Preservation of Mass
CH4 + _02 _C02 + _H20
Chemical Equations
Preservation of Mass (cont.)
CH4 + 202 -> C02 + 2H20
PAGE 2
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure II
Relative Mass
Atomic Mass Determination (cont.)
The electrical signal from the atom of
interest is compared to the signal from
carbon
A ratio is developed
Atom of interest = Ratio
carbon
The ratio is multiplied by 12.0110
(carbon) to obtain the atomic mass
Relative Mass
Atomic Mass Determination
Carbon has several isotopes
Taking into account the relative
abundance of each isotope, carbon has
an atomic mass of 12.0110
A mass spectrometer is used to
compare each atom to that of carbon
Relative Mass
Atomic Mass
Atomic mass is expressed in atomic
mass units
Atomic mass is the mass of an atom
compared to that of Carbon-12
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 3
-------
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure II
Relative Mass
Atomic Mass Determination Example
Using a mass spectrometer, the ratio of
signal strength between neon and carbon
is 1.68010
Multiply the atomic mass of carbon by this
ratio
12.0110 x 1.68010 = 20.1797
The atomic mass of neon is approximately
20.1797
Relative Mass (cont.)
Molecular Mass
Molecular mass is the sum of all of the atomic
masses
Example:
In every molecule of water (H20), there are:
2 atoms of hydrogen
1 atom of oxygen
2 x (1.00794 AMU) + 1 * (15.9994 AMU) =
18.0153
There are 18.0153 AMUs in a molecule of
water
Relative Mass (cont.)
How do we get from atomic/molecular
mass to an actual measurement of a
substance?
PAGE 4
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure II
Relative Mass (cont.)
The Mole (mol)
6.022 x 1023 items
Relative Mass (cont.)
The Mole
1 mole H has 6.022 x 1023 atoms
1 mole 0 has 6.022 * 1023 atoms
1 mole H20 has 6.022 x 1023 molecules
Relative Mass (cont.)
Molar Mass
To obtain molar mass, simply change the
AMUs from atomic or molecular mass to
grams
Example
H20's molecular mass is 18.0153 AMUs
Therefore the molar mass is 18.0153
grams per mole
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 5
-------
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure II
Relative Mass (cont.)
Application
It is important to have a balanced
equation to calculate how much
substance is required for a particular
reaction
Relative Mass (cont.)
Application
N2H4 + N202 - 2N2 +2H20
In this equation there is
- 1 mol N2H4 reacting with 1 mol N202 to
create 2 mol N2 and 2 mol H20
Molar ratio of products (N2 + H20) to
reactants (N2H4 and N202) is 2:1
olaIq. -hzftj-o
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a
Relative Mass (cont.)
Application
Molar Masses
- Reactants:
N2H4 = 32.0452 AMU =
32.0452 g
N202 = 60.0122 AMU =
60.0122 q
92.0574 g
- Products:
2N2 = 56.0268 AMU =
56.0268 g
2H20 = 36.0306 AMU =
36.0306 q
92.0574 g
PAGE 6
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
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-------
The Chemistry Section: Dissolved Oxygen
Page 1 of 4
a
The Hach dissolved oxygen kit
Equipment List
Chemicals
1) One bottle, Sodium Thiosulfate (0.0108N)
2) Dissolved oxygen reagent packet 1 (Manganous Sulfate> '
3) Dissolved oxygen reagent packet 2 (LiOH, KI, Na-Azide)
4) Dissolved oxygen reagent packet 3 (Sulfamic Acid) ,
Glassware
1) One Hach Sampling bottle "" L ^
2) One Hach mixing bottle ^ Y " 0 j ^
3) One Hach plastic measuring tube
To see exact amounts of chemicals necessary to make a kit of your own, click here lฅ ud
The Chemistry
Step 1.
Fill the Dissolved Oxygen bottle with the water to be tested by allowing the water to overflow the
bottle for two or three minutes. This is to clear out the bottle and to make the sampling as
uncontaminated as possible. To avoid trapping air bubbles in the bottle, incline the bottle slightly and
insert the stopper with a quick thrust. Note the cone-shaped top which aides in forcing air bubbles out.
If the bubbles become trapped in the bottle in Steps 2 or 4, the sample should be discarded before
repeating the test.
This means... When you take a sample from your water source and cap it up, you begin the process
of measuring the oxygen in your water by closing your sample off from the atmosphere. Inserting the
stopper rapidly into your bottle forces air bubbles (containing oxygen) out. If these bubbles remain in
the bottle, they may cause the test kit to indicate more oxygen is present than may actually be there.
Step 2.
Use the clippers to open one Dissolved Oxygen 1 Reagent Powder Pillow and one Dissolved Oxygen
2 Reagent Powder Pillow. Add the contents of each of the pillows to the bottle. Stopper the bottle
carefully to exclude air bubbles. Grip the bottle and stopper firmly; shake to mix. A side to side
shaking motion wcrks best. A flocculant (floe) precipitate will be formed. If oxygen is present in the
sample, the precipitate will be brownish orange in color. A small amount of powdered reagent may
http://www.hwr.arizona.edu/rlobe/Hydro/kit_chem/hachdo.html
6/5/01
-------
The Chemistry Section: Dissolved Oxygen
Page 2 of 4
remain stuck to the bottom of the bottle. This will not affect test results.
What is goipg on in this step:
Reagent Powder Pillow #1 (Manganous Sulfate) MnS04
This powder, packet contains a powdered chemical called Manganous Sulfate which reacts with
the oxygen present in the water. During the reaction, the oxygen is bound to the manganese
(chemical element Mn), forming a brownish solid which settles to the bottom of the bottle
(Mn02). This process is called fixing the oxygen. In order for this fixation process to work
however, the solution must be at high pH, so we need another reagent to make this occur...
Reagent Powder Pillow #2 (LiOH, KI, Na-azide)
If the Manganous Sulfate fixes the oxygen dissolved in the water, why do we need more
chemicals? There are three specific chemicals present in packet #2 which are important to the
fixation of the oxygen.
o LiOH (Lithium Hydroxide) is a base, which means that in water it breaks up to form
the OH" ion, and the Li+ ion. In this reaction, LiOH basically just functions as a catalyst
to activate the binding process. The binding process involved with Manganous Sulfate
requires a, high pH to proceed. The addition of LiOH does just that,
o KI (Potassium Iodide) is added to function as a dye, and will react with the sulfamic
acid added, as explained below,
o NaN3 (Sodium Azide) is an agent added which will not come into play until later in the
reaction sequence. Because we will not come back to it, a quick explanation is
appropriate. (For a more in-depth explanation, see the Winkler method titration page.)
Basically during the final titration, Sodium Thiosulfate produces some nitrite (N02")
which conflicts with the intended reaction. The addition of Sodium Azide prevents this
conflictual reaction from occuring.
Step 3.
Allow the1 sample to stand until the floe has settled halfway in the bottle, leaving the upper half of the
sample clear. Shake the bottle again. Again let it stand until the upper half of the sample is clear.
What is the story?
Allowing the floe time to settle in the bottle basically ensures that the chemical reaction occuring in the
bottle has time to reach completion. If we preceded to step 4 before settling was complete, we might
not get an accurate measurement of how much oxygen is actually dissolved in the water.
Step 4.
iv
Use the clippers to open one Dissolvejd Oxygen 3 Reagent Powder Pillow. Remove the stopper from
the bottle and add the contents of the pillow. Carefully restopper the bottle and shake to mix. The floe
will dissolve and a yellow color will appear if oxygen is present.
Wh$t is^this mysterious reagent number 3?
http ://^yw.hwr. arizona. edu/globe/Hydro/kitjphem/h^chdo.html
6/5/01
-------
The Chemistry Section: Dissolved Oxygen
Page 3 of 4
Reagent Powder Pillow #3 (Sulfamic Acid C6H1303NS) Upon addition of the Sulfamic Acidj "
the Mn02 from above is reduced to Mn2+, and the Iodine from the Potassium Iodide above is
oxidized by the Mn02 from I" to I2. This reaction step effectively causes the solution to take on
a yellow-ish brown color proportional to the number of I2 molecules present which in turn is
proportional to the original amount of 02 molecules in the water.
Mn02 + 4H+ + 2F = Mn2+ +12 + 21^0
We say at this point, that the oxygen is fixed. This means that allof the'bxygeft from the original
sample which was in solution has now been chemically modified to a form which won't change
when exposed to the air. It is now in a stable form, and can be transported back to a classroom
for analysis if necessary.
Step 5.
Fill the plastic measuring tube level full of the sample prepared in Steps 1 through 4. Poiir the sample
into the square mixing bottle.
Step 6.
Add Sodium Thiosulfate Standard Solution drop by drop to the mixing bottle, swirling.to mix after
each drop. Hold the dropper vertically above the bottle and count each drop as it is ad^ed? Continue
to add drops until the sample changes from yellow to colorless. " '
What does this do?
Sodium Thiosulfate Standard Solution
As drops of this chemical enter the solution, the Sodium separates from the thiosulfate ion. The
thiosulfate then reacts with any Iodine (I2) molecules available in the water. Whep the Jqdjn^.
molecules react, they break up into I" ions which are colorless. r
2S2032- + I2-2S4062- + 2r :
. J ' ' ฆ>
' -v t' ฆ) .
What does this all tell us about the amount of oxygen in the water?
Stoichiometry (a fancy word meaning the chemical book keeping of the amount and concentration of t
chemicals in a reaction) tells us that 4 molecules of the Sodium Thiosulfate are required to change the?J 1
color resulting from one molecule of 02 in the original water. This clear definition allows us to get a
f h/* > *r - "'V J fj''
very accurate estimate of the number of 02 molecules in the original solution.
I hope that this brief report has helped to answer questions you may have had^bout how otir fl$s
-------
The Chemistry Section: Dissolved bxygen
Page 4 of4
oxygen kit works. Feel free to send email to us (roger@.hwr. arizona.edu) or
fmartha@hwr.arizona.edu') or to our assistant, Chris Gutmann (cgutmann@hwr.arizona.edu).
Sincerely,
Roger Bales & Martha Conklin
University of Arizona
http://www.hwr.arizona.edu/globe/Hydro/kit_chem/hachdo.html
6/5/01
-------
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure II
The Real World
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Case Study
The Real World
Case Study
Drum contains 200kg of water
contaminated with 0.1% TCE
Combination of KOH and
polyethylene glycol is used to
form KPEG (MW = 456 g/mol)
One KPEG is required to treat
each chlorine in TCE
The Real World
Case Study
CHCIC Ci2 + 3KPEG + 3H20 CH2 CH2 + 3KCI + 3PEG + 30H"
How much TCE is in the drum?
What is the molar ratio of the
reactants?
How much KPEG is required to
treat each gram of TCE?
How much KPEG is required to
treat the water in this drum?
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 7
-------
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure II
Atomic Theory and Molecular Structure
Summary
Chemical formulas
Chemical equations
Atomic mass
Relative mass
Mole and molar mass
PAGE 8
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Chemical and Physical Properties
CHEMICAL
AND PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES
Chemical and Physical Properties
Objectives
Identify the types of solubility and the
factors that affect solubility
Explain how the properties of density,
specific gravity and vapor density
influence distribution of chemicals in the
environment
Chemical and Physical Properties
Objectives (cont.)
Describe the effect of temperature
on vapor pressure
Describe the pH scale and effects
of pH on solubility ^
Define ionization potential,
boiling point, melting/freezing point,
and flammability
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 1
-------
Chemical and Physical Properties
Chemical and Physical Properties
Environmental Influence
Solubility
Density
Vapor pressure
pH
Solubility
Ability of a material (solute) to dissolve
in a solvent at a specified temperature
Aqueous Solubility
Amount of a solute that will dissolve in
pure water at a specified temperature
PAGE 2
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Chemical and Physical Properties
Solubility (cont.)
A saturated solution contains the
maximum amount of solute dissolved
in a solvent
Solubility (cont.)
Saturation point varies from chemical to
chemical
- Ammonia
340 g/l
- Chlorine
7 g/l
- Chlorodiphenyl (PCB)
insoluble
- Chromic acid
630 g/l
- Ethyl alcohol
miscible
- Pentachlorophenol
.01 g/l
5TP
? r
Solubility (cont.)
Saturation is dependent upon temperature,
and sometimes upon pressure
- As temperature increases, the solubility of
most solids and liquid solutes increases
- As temperature increases, the solubility of
most gaseous solutes decreases
- As pressure increases, solubility of most
gaseous solutes increases
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 3
-------
Chemical and Physical Properties
Solubility
Environmental Significance
Aqueous solubility is an important factor
in fate and transport of materials in the
environment
A
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Density
Common densities:
- Wood:
- Water:
- Lead:
- Air:
- Chlorine:
3 _
0.8 g/cm3
1.0 g/cm3
11.3 g/cm3
.0013 g/cm3
.0032 g/cm3
ajer: 1 g/cm3 = 1 g/ml
t?
Density ^^
Matrix Units ^ ^ l
Water - specific gravity (sp. gr.)
wood 0.8 g/cm3 _ Q Q
water 1.0 g/cm3
Air - relative gas density (RGasD)
chlorine 0.0032 g/cm3
air 0.0013 g/cm3
d
PAGE 4
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Chemical and Physical Properties
Density
Specific Gravity (cont.)
Floater
sp#1
sp. gr. = 1
w
Sinker
sp. gr. >1
Density
Relative Gas Density
Air density = 1
Riser
(RGasD <1)
i r
ti
SiVfker
(RGasD >1)
Density
Environmental Significance
Density in any environmental
matrix will assist in determining
contaminant location
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 5
-------
Chemical and Physical Properties
Vapor Pressure
Pressure exerted
by a vapor when in
equilibrium
with a liquid
Vapor Pressure
Volatility
f
i
Vapor Pressure at 20 C
Ammonia
6500 mmHQ (8 5 atmospheres)
Gasoline
40-300 mmHg
Water
17.5 mmHg
Sulfuric acid
.001 mmHg
Arsenic
~0 mmHg
PAGE 6
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Chemical and Physical Properties
Vapor Pressure
Environmental Significance
Vapor pressure significantly contributes
to contaminant migration
The higher the vapor pressure, the
higher airborne concentrations will be
pH
Value that describes the concentration
of hydrogen ions in aqueous solutions
pH (cont.)
pH=-log10[H+]
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 7
-------
Chemical and Physical Properties
pH Problem
If [H+] = 1 x 10"14 mol/l,
pH = 14
If [H+] = 1 x 10"2 mol/l,
pH = _X_
pH of Common Substances
Lemon juice
2.3
Coffee
5.0
Milk
6.8
Baking soda
8.5
Household ammonia
11.9
PAGE 8
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Chemical and Physical Properties
t hi
74
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c
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at hikp
pH
Environmental Significance
pH determines the solubility of metals
in the environment
Excess hydrogen or hydroxide ions
can cause many chemical reactions in
the environment
./f-e t ch c ~
Chemical and Physical Properties
Other Properties
Ionization potential
Boiling/melting/freezing points
Flammability
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 9
-------
PAGE 10
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Chemical and Physical Properties
The Real World
Case Study
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 11
-------
Chemical and Physical Properties
Case Study Problem
Surface samples were taken at several
locations around a waste site pond. Every
sample showed 1100 mg/l of TCE.
Should further pond liquid samples be
taken? If so, what area of the pond should
be sampled?
Hint: Use the NIOSH pocket guide
't#
Chemical and Physical Properties
Summary
Chemical and physical properties
- Solubility
- Density
- Vapor pressure
- pH
Other properties
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-------
Organic Chemistry I
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY I
Organic Chemistry
Objectives
Identify the elements that classify a
chemical as "organic"
Describe the hybrid structure of the
carbon atom
Differentiate between organic and
inorganic compounds
Draw different structural formulas for
organic molecules
What is Organic Chemistry?
A. Not inorganic chemistry
B. Attraction between carbon-based
life forms
C. Don't care
D. Study of the compounds of carbon
-------
Organic Chemistry I
What is Organic Chemistry?
A.
B.
C.
D. Study of the compounds of carbon
Elements of Organic Compounds
Carbon
Hydrogen
Note: Definitions vary
Organic Chemistry Trivia
Why is organic chemistry
important to environmental
chemistry?
PAGE 2
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Organic Chemistry I
Organic Chemistry Trivia
90% of all known
compounds are
organic
How does carbon
meet the octet rule?
How Does Carbon Meet the Octet Rule?
Carbon-Carbon Bonds or Carbon-Hydrogen Bonds
Covalent
or
Ionic
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSI
: : i Li
-------
Organic Chemistry I
How Does Carbon Meet the Octet Rule?
Carbon Electronegativity =
Hydrogen Electronegativity =
Carbon-Carbon Bond
Electronegativity Difference =
% Ionic Character =
How Does Carbon Meet the Octet Rule?
Carbon-Hydrogen Bond
Electronegativity Difference
% Ionic Character =
Most organic
materials form
covalent bonds
PAGE 4
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Organic Chemistry I
Implications of Bond Type
Carbon-to-carbon covalent bonds
allow organic materials to form long,
branched molecules
Carbon Structure
1 s^2s^p
sp3 Hybridization
Hydrogen Atom
Importance
i -i T^Jk* 4ฃ*6
Hydrogen fills bonding sites not being used
Hydrogen control
Nature and chemists
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS-FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 5
-------
Organic Chemistry I
Diagramming Organic Molecules
Uses commonalities of organic chemistry
Allows organic drawings to be simplified
These diagrams will be used throughout
the rest of the course
Organic Diagrams
Rules Used in Diagramming
Carbon forms four bonds
If a carbon bond is not occupied, it is
assumed to be hydrogen
Organic Diagrams (cont.)
Dot Structural Formula
Shows all valence electrons
Bonding electron pairs are shown as dots
Advantage
- Illustrates both bonding and non-bonding
electron pairs
Disadvantage
- Time-consuming
PAGE 6
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Organic Chemistry I
Organic Diagrams Cjui^a ^
Dot Structural Formula (cont.) efah/
H
<~
H
i
A
t
H
*0*
~
A
t
. Q. -
Acetone
H
H
w
H
Organic Diagrams
Dot Structural Formula (cont.)
H t H
H: C C: C* H
~
H H
Acetone
Organic Diagrams
Dash Structural Formula
Similar to dot formula, but lines
are used instead of dots
- Single bond = single line
- Double bond = double line
- Triple bond = triple line
ฎ Advantages and disadvantages
the same as dot structural formula
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS-FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 7
-------
Organic Chemistry I
Organic Diagrams
Dash Structural Formula (cont.)
V ? f
H-C-C-C-H
I I
H H
Acetone
Organic Diagrams (cont.)
Condensed Structural Formula
Atoms are represented in the following
order:
- Carbon
- Hydrogen
- Non-hydrogen atoms
- Other carbon chains
Hydrogens are shown immediately following
the carbon to which they are attached
Organic Diagrams
Condensed Structural Formula (cont.)
All non-hydrogen atoms are shown
immediately following the hydrogens
Other carbon chains are structured the
same way, but placed in parentheses
following the carbon to which they are
attached
Single, double, and triple bonds can be
assumed or graphically represented
PAGE 8
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Organic Chemistry I
Organic Diagrams
Condensed Structural Formula (cont.)
Advantages
- Easy to draw/represent
- Saves time
Disadvantages
- Anyone reading the formula has to know
how it is derived to understand the
chemical structure
Organic Diagrams
Condensed Structural Formula (cont.)
i II i
H-C-C-C-H
H H
CH3COCH3
Acetone
Organic Diagrams
Condensed Structural Formula (cont.)
Draw the condensed structural formula
for methyl ethyl ketone
ฅ
O
H-C-C-C-C-H
J. 1 1
H H H
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 9
-------
Organic Chemistry I
Organic Diagrams (cont.)
Bond Line Formula
Only carbon skeleton is shown
Hydrogens are not shown
Bonds between carbons are shown as
single, double, or triple lines
Only symbols of elements other than
carbon and hydrogen are written
Organic Diagrams
Bond Line Formula (cont.)
Advantages
- Easy to draw
- Represents planar bond angles
Organic Diagrams
Bond Line Formula (cont.)
o
Acetone
<^2, Mq,
PAGE 10
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Organic Chemistry I
Organic Diagrams
Bond Line Formula (cont.)
Draw the bond line formula
for methyl ethyl ketone:
&
Organic Diagrams (cont.)
Valence Accounting
Ensures that diagram is accurate
All atoms must meet octet rule
Organic Diagrams
Valence Accounting (cont.)
H-
H
I
O
V
H
I
(/i/ฐ
H
J G 5 H
Identify the errors in this diagram
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS- FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 11
-------
Organic Chemistry I
Organic Diagrams
Valence Accounting (cont.)
Oxygen has six
valence electrons
2nd carbon has six
valence electrons
3rd carbon has 10
valence electrons
Hydrogen attached to
third carbon has four
valence electrons
The Real World
> \ \
\ %
n\ , i
fed
V'v\ .
v% -
Ow
M
rv~ , -
\3&C
FttaiHE
lj -3:i
ociiton Map 4 s'
Case Study
The Real World
Case Study
Identify the following as organic or
inorganic compounds:
- NaCI
- C2H60
- HCN
PAGE 12
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Organic Chemistry I
The Real World
Case Study
Write the condensed structural
formula for the following material
H H H H H
i I I I I
H-C-C-C-C-C-H
H U H
H-C
H
z
v
vJ
cf\
iULC
The Real World
Case Study
Draw the bond line diagram of methylene
chloride (see NIOSH Pocket Guide)
n I . C[
C jJa. 2 S
C(
t1^
JLlm
Organic Chemistry I
Summary
Organic materials contain carbon and
hydrogen
Carbon has four valence electrons
Carbon has a hybrid structure which
allows for equal bond angles
There are many ways to represent
organic materials
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 13
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Section 2
-------
Organic Chemistry II
ORGANIC
CHEMISTRY II
CHr
-cfฐ
c'ฐ
" xOH
Organic Chemistry II
Objectives
Describe the structure and types of
hydrocarbons
Identify the major functional groups in
organic chemistry
Name basic organic compounds using the
International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) nomenclature system
Hydrocarbons
Simple Hydrocarbons
Materials only containing carbon and
hydrogen = "hydrocarbon"
Three classifications:
- Saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons
- Unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons
- Aromatic hydrocarbons
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
r
-------
Organic Chemistry II
Hydrocarbons
Aliphatic Compounds
Aliphatic = "Fatlike"
Hydrocarbons
Saturated Aliphatic Compounds
Also known as alkanes
Only single bonds between carbons and
functional groups
All other bonding sites "saturated" with
hydrogens
Hydrocarbons
Saturated Aliphatic Compounds
Tetrahedral structure
109.5 degree bond angles
4
Sg
PAGE 2
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Organic Chemistry II
Hydrocarbons
Unsaturated Aliphatic Compounds -
Alkenes
Forms double bonds to fill valence
120 degree bond angle
Trigonal planar structure
Hydrocarbons
Unsaturated Aliphatic Compounds
Hydrogen does not fill all bonding sites
- To fill bonding shell electron orbitals, has
to form multiple carbon-carbon bonds
- Changes bond angles
Two types:
- Alkenes
- Alkynes
Hydrocarbons
Unsaturated Aliphatic Compounds -
Alkynes
Forms triple bonds to fill valence
180 degree bond angle
Linear structure
t. fH ,
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 3
-------
Organic Chemistry II
Hydrocarbons
Cyclic
Closed carbon ring
Hydrocarbons
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Aromatic = "Fragrant"
Hydrocarbons
Aromatic Hydrocarbons (cont.)
Cyclic compounds (ring shaped)
Rotating ("resonating") double bonds
PAGE 4
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Organic Chemistry II
Hydrocarbons
Aromatic Hydrocarbons - Benzene
"Resonating" bond structure
Annuiene Annulene
Hydrocarbons
Phenyl Group Representation
Functional Groups
Classification of organic compounds
Site for many organic chemistry reactions
Determines, in part, many of the physical
and chemical properties
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 5
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Organic Chemistry II
Functional Groups
Alcohols
Contain hydroxide group(s)
Generic formula: ROH
Example compound - ethyl alcohol
(ethanol)
C2H5OH
Functional Groups
Halogenated Hydrocarbons (cont.)
Higher boiling points (than hydrocarbons)
Relatively insoluble in water
Higher specific gravities
Higher relative gas densities
Safety solvents
Functional Groups
Halogenated Hydrocarbons
Contain halogen(s)
Generic formula: RX
Example compound - ethyl chloride:
C2H5CI
PAGE 6
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Organic Chemistry II
Functional Groups
Alcohols (cont.)
Higher boiling points (than hydrocarbons)
Water soiuble
- Decreases with increasing carbon
number
Functional Groups
Ethers
Oxygen included in carbon chain
Generic formula: ROR'
Example compound - dimethyl ether
CH3OCH3
Functional Groups
Ethers
About same boiling point as hydrocarbon
Water soluble
- Decreases with increasing number of
carbons
Can form unstable peroxides
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 7
-------
Organic Chemistry II
Functional Groups
Amines
Contain NHX attached to one or more carbon
chains
Generic formula: RNHX
Example compound - ethylamine
c2h5nh2
ฐr
c 2N or
nh2
Functional Groups
Amines (cont.)
Polar compounds
- Higher boiling points
Water soluble
- Decreases with increasing number
of carbons
Weak bases
Functional Groups
Aldehydes
Contain carbonyl group attached to the end
of carbon chain o
II
Generic formula: RCH
Example compound - acetaldehyde
CH3CHO
or
or
,0
PAGE 8
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Organic Chemistry II
Functional Groups
Aldehydes
Higher boiling points (than hydrocarbons)
Water soluble
- Decreases with increasing number of
carbons
Easily oxidized
Functional Groups
Ketones
Contain carbonyl group attached to the middle
of a carbon chain o
Generic formula: RCR'
Example compound - dimethyl ketone
CH3COCH3
Functional Groups
Ketones
Higher boiling points (than hydrocarbons)
Water soluble
- Decreases with increasing number of
carbons
Not easily oxidized
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 9
-------
Organic Chemistry II
Functional Groups
Carboxylic Acids
Contain carboxyl group attached to the end
of the carbon chain
o
RCOH
Genenc formula:
Example compound - acetic acid
CH3COOH
or i 0
or
Functional Groups
Carboxylic Acids (cont.)
OH
~k s$(uh!e-
C
Very high boling points
Water soluble
- Decreases with increasing number of
carbons
Are weak acids
Tend to form soluble salts in presence
of hydroxides
Contain carboxyl group attached to the middle
o
n
Catbov|
of the carbon chain
Generic formula: RCOR'
Example compound - methyl acetate
CHoCOOCH,
or
O
or
O
PAGE 10
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Organic Chemistry II
Functional Groups
Esters (cont.)
Higher boiling points
Water soluble
Decreases with increasing number
of carbons
Used in manufacture
Solvents
Plastics (polymers)
Fragrances and soaps
Functional Groups
Amides
Contain an ONHx attached to the carbon
chain o
m
Generic formula: RCNHX
Example compound - acetamide
CH3CONH2
O
or
NH,
Functional Groups
Amides (cont.)
Very high boiling points
Water soluble
- Decreases with increased number of
carbons
Used in manufacture
- Solvents
- Plastics (polymers)
- Adhesives
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 11
-------
Organic Chemistry II
IUPAC Nomenclature
International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC)
Internationally recognized chemical
naming system
IUPAC Nomenclature
Step 1
1. Locate the longest chain of carbon atoms.
This is called the "parent chain"
Note: If there are two chains of equal
length, then the chain with the greater
number of constituents is the parent chain
IUPAC Nomenclature
Step 1 (cont.)
The number of carbon atoms in the
parent chain assigns the root name
PAGE 12
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Organic Chemistry II
IUPAC Nomenclature
Parent (root) Name
Single
Double
Triple
Bond
Bond
Bond
1 Carbon = Methane
2 Carbon = Ethane
Ethene
Ethyne
3 Carbon = Propane
Propene
Propyne
4 Carbon = Butane
Butene
Butyne
5 Carbon = Pentane
Pentene
Pentyne
Name
this
compound
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 13
-------
Organic Chemistry II
1UPAC Nomenclature (cont.)
2. Number the carbons, beginning at the
end which has a branch or functional
group nearest the end
Note: If branches are equidistant, then
begin at the end that would result in the
lowest numbers for the constituents
PAGE 14
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Organic Chemistry II
IUPAC Nomenclature
Example
Number the Parent Chain
IUPAC Nomenclature
Example
Number the Parent Chain
IUPAC Nomenclature
3. Name the branch or functional group
attached to each carbon
a. The functional group alters the parent
name
b. The longest carbon chains are
identified first
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 15
-------
Organic Chemistry II
IUPAC Nomenclature
Parent Names
Alcohols - , e.g., pentanol
Halogenated hydrocarbons - halogen +
parent name,e.g., chloropropane
Adehydes - e.g., hexana!
Ketones - e.g., propanone
IUPAC Nomenclature
Example
Name the Constituent Chains
IUPAC Nomenclature
Example
Name the Constituent Chains
e-.
S
U<
9 1 Carbon Chain = methyl
C?)
UL1
c
i3
sij ^
) fjg
o c?
" Carbon Chain - methyl
** Tl)
71
, ..ilfjfie-
PAGE 16
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Organic Chemistry II
IUPAC Nomenclature
Example (cont.)
IUPAC Nomenclature
4. If two groups are attached to the same
carbon, they both receive the same
number
IUPAC Nomenclature
Example
Name that compound
i - /- / rcJ Ui
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 17
-------
Organic Chemistry II
IUPAC Nomenclature
Challenge Problem -
Name That Compound
v >
<2 -c'h n Wi
IUPAC Nomenclature
Challenge Problem -
Name That Compound
H,C
ป
J-r/ (j\ e'^bj f bpyi
4 r4 ytAte^
CL-i+) 9H
IUPAC Nomenclature
Example (cont.)
Name That Compound
CH3CH2OH
(M-
^
i \f)
0,
PAGE 18
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Organic Chemistry II
IUPAC Nomenclature
Challenge Problem -
Name That Compound
OH
J-3
The Real World
;.'K ^
1%
1%, ; 10
\
I 1
Ar' J . Jt
FIGURE 1-jSซซUadSB'on Map
Case Study
Cl-C
c
\
c I
CI
The Real World
Case Study
ฃ,\Ci4
-------
Organic Chemistry II
Organic Chemistry II
Summary
Types and structure of hydrocarbons
Organic functional groups
IUPAC nomenclature system
p eO-j
-------
Environmental Chemical Reactions
ENVIRONMENTAL
CHEMICAL
REACTIONS
Environmental Chemical Reactions
Objectives
Identify and explain general chemical
reactions
Describe acid/base reactions
Describe oxidation/reduction (redox)
reactions
Chemical Reactions
Factors
Temperature
Concentration
"Suitable environment," e.g., pH, Eh,
catalyst, microorganisms, etc.
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAJ
-------
Environmental Chemical Reactions
Chemical Reactions
General Chemical Reactions
Addition
Elimination
Condensation
Substitution
General Reactions
Addition Reaction
A reaction in which chemicals are
combined to form a new compound
so3 + h2o h2so4
(sulfur trioxide plus water yields sulfuric acid)
General Reactions
Elimination Reaction
A reaction in which a small molecule,
such as water, is eliminated from a
chemical, forming a multiple bond
Heat
CH3CH20H^4C2H4+H20
(ethanol yields ethene and water)
PAGE 2
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Environmental Chemical Reactions
General Reactions
Condensation Reaction
A reaction in which two or more chemicals
combine, with the elimination of a simple
molecule, such as water
ch3oh + CH3C00H -4
CH3COOCH3 + h2o
(methanol plus acetic acid yields
methyl acetate and water)
General Reactions
Substitution Reaction
A reaction in which chemicals switch
(or substitute) components
AgN03 + NaCI -*
NaN03 + AgCI
(silver nitrate plus sodium chlorde yields
sodium nitrate and silver chloride)
Environmental Reactions
Common Environmental Reactions
Acid/base
Oxidation/reduction (redox)
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 3
-------
Environmental Chemical Reactions
Acid/Base Reactions
Acid/Base Characteristics
Acids produce excess hydrogen
ions (H+)*
Bases produce excess hydroxide
ions (OH )*
in aqueous solution
Acid/Base Reactions
Acid/Base Characteristics
Acids = Proton donors (H+ has only one
proton)
Bases = Proton acceptors
Acid/base reactions involve the transfer
of hydronium ions
Acid/Base Reactions
Strong Acids and Bases
HCI NaOH
PAGE 4
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Environmental Chemical Reactions
Acid/Base Reactions
Weak Acids and Bases
HCN
(tcgkd>Ci&h
yj(\z
am/C7f
Acid/Base Reactions' Importance
to Environmental Chemistry
Water and wastewater treatment
Hazardous waste treatment
Chemical incompatibilities
Chemical fate and transport
Atmospheric reactions
Acid Rain Formation
4 4 4* ^
Sulfur and Nitrogen Oxides
siii
..i'
N03
HjS04; | H
2*<4r
I rli i
W S
%
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS-FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 5
-------
Environmental Chemical Reactions
Acid Rain
2S02 + 02 -4 2S03 then
S03 + H20 -* H2S04
also
4N02 + 02 + 2H20 -*> 4HN03
Redox Reactions
Characteristics
Electron transfer
Oxidation = loss of electrons
Reduction = gain of electrons
Redox Reactions (cont.)
Oxidizer
e~! e~
if
Reducer
PAGE 6
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Environmental Chemical Reactions
E>x,h^a Mfrj
Redox Reactions (cont.)
e e~
Cuฐ
m
Reduced
Oxidized
Redox Reactions (cont.)
"LEO the lion goes GER"
Loss of Electrons is Oxidation ^
Gain of Electrons is Reduction
Acid Rain and Redox
4N+402"2 + 02ฐ + 2H2+10"2 4H+1N+503"2
4N -* 4Nฐ +4e (oxidation)
02ฐ + 4e" -* 20~2 (reduction)
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 7
-------
Environmental Chemical Reactions
Photochemical Smog Formation
Photochemical Smog
2N+20"2 + 02ฐ -ป 2N+402~2
2N+2 -* 2N+4 + 4e~ (oxidation)
02ฐ + 4e~ -4 20~2 (reduction)
Photochemical Smog (cont.)
sunlight
NO, + O, NO + 0,
N02 = ONO
sunlight
/T NO
O + 02 03
PAGE 8
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Environmental Chemical Reactions
Dechlorination Redox Reaction
3CCI4 + 4C6H6 + 2402 ฆ
3CH4 + 24C02 + 12HCI
(carbon tetrachloride plus benzene plus oxygen yields
methane plus carbon dioxide plus hydrogen chloride)
Dechlorination
4C6H6 + 240, -* 24CO, + 24e~ + 24H+
Oxidation
-------
Environmental Chemical Reactions
$ฃl>hinh
Dechlorination
C6H6 + o2
O
O
ฆfc.
1
1
Oxidizing
~ e
Reducing
(Oxic, Aerobic)
~ H+
(Anoxic, Anaerobic)
1
co2
CH4 + 4CI
Redox Conditions in a Stratified Lake
o2
Atmosphere
02
~
C-ปC02, HCOj, COf
N -ป NO3
Oxic water
(aerobic)
zone
t
High pE
Oxidizing conditions
Low e activity
High DO
C -* ch4
n-ปnh;
Anoxic water
(anaerobic)
zone
Low pE
Reducing conditions
High e' activity
Low DO
Sediment
Electron Activity (PE)
pH = -log (H+)
Acid / base
Proton donor / proton acceptor
pE = -log (e")*
Reductant / oxidant
Electron donor / electron acceptor
pE is often measured as Eh (in volts)
Ch < M>
PAGE 10
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Environmental Chemical Reactions
Electron Activity
Value
Activity*
Conditions
PH
low
high
high H+
low H+
acidic
basic
pE (Eh)
low
high
high e~
low e~
reducing
oxidizing
Activity is similar to concentration
Is
Eh - pH Diagram
Eh
(volts)
+1.0
+0.8
+0.6
+0 4-
+0.2 -
0.0-
-0.2
-0 4-
-06-
%
V
VA, ** .
oxidizing
Aj0r-V,
\\?
\,J
w
ป ->
y-
j V
FXJURE
ocimon Map / /,
Case Study
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 11
-------
Environmental Chemical Reactions
Case Study
Place the following reactions in the appropriate
section of a stratified lake
S -4 SO4 and S -* H2S
I P2 Atmosphere P?
J
\/ Oxic water
' (aerobic)
zone
r
Anoxic water
(anaerobic) V;
zone W
/
Sediment
Case Study II
Vinyl chloride (C2H3CI) has been
discovered at the Garland Road site.
No one dumped it at the site.
What was its probable source,
and how did it occur?
Environmental Chemical Reactions
Summary
General chemical reactions
Acid/base reactions
REDOX reactions
~hec\
0
Vft
ProtUurf
t Cc-
C0 Hcla+1ซtJW
1^1
PAGE 12
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Introduction to Analytical Chemistry
INTRODUCTION TO
ANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY
Introduction to Analytical Chemistry
Objectives
Describe the theory of spectroscopic
analysis
Describe the theory of chromatographic
analysis
Describe the theory of electrochemical
analysis
Describe the theory of titrimetric analysis
Describe the theory of gravimetric analysis
Analytical Chemistry Defined
The "art" of recognizing different
substances and determining their
constituents
Source Skoog. West Holler Analytical Chemistry 19S4
STRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Introduction to Analytical Chemistry
Analytical Chemistry's Purpose
Identify
Quantify
Analytical Chemistry
Field vs. Laboratory
Field Laboratory
Less -ซ Time ~ More
Less ซ Accuracy ~ More
Less ซ Cost ~ More
Less I-< Sensitivity ~ I More
Analytical Chemistry
Field vs. Laboratory (cont.)
f\e
t-db,
ฐrat{
Ory
Technology
PAGE 2
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Introduction to Analytical Chemistry
Analytical Chemistry
Considerations
Instrument/apparatus calibration
Sensitivity
Response
Measurement range
Analytical Chemistry
Calibration Curve
*
a
Linear range^
/ /
/-
Post-calibration
Pre-calibration
Calibration point
I i I i . :
I 2 3 4 J e 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Actual Concentration
Analytical Chemistry
Classifications
Spectroscopic
Chromatographic
Electrochemical
Titrimetric
Gravimetric
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 3
-------
SPECTROSCOPY
Definition of Spectroscopy
Emission or absorption of electromagnetic
(EM) radiation to identify and quantify
materials
Electromagnetic Spectrum
10 HZ
10 Hz
10 Hz
10 HZ
ฆin w7
y rays 10 nm
10 nm
x-rays 10 nm
10 nm
Ultraviolet 10 nm
10 Hz
100MHZ
10 MHz
1 MHz
100 kHz
Radio
10 cm
1 m
10 m
10 m
10 m
104 m
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 1
-------
Properties of Electromagnetic
Radiation
X
Categories of Spectroscopy
Emission spectroscopy - emits EM
radiation
Absorption - absorbs EM radiation
\ijiM ljUi ' ^ ^ A
- Offal]
tolls "
" hlfoVSi Mm*
Types of Spectroscopy
Absorption spectroscopy
Fluorescence spectroscopy
Mass spectroscopy
PAGE 2
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Spectroscopy
Absorption Spectroscopy
EM radiation is temporarily absorbed into
the atom or molecule
The radiation is said to be "attenuated"
Absorption Spectroscopy (cont.)
Ultraviolet absorption
Visible absorption
Infrared absorption
Absorption Spectroscopy (cont.)
Flame Atomic Absorption
Light source
*&>:
V
!:::- ป: > '
Mono-
chrom-
Y
Detector
. Flame ;
ator
Fuel /Air
ฆSample
ylMl'Ljlii - Ci/i Ifillst]
1 ''
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
fypvt di
(
Cb{
^ 4 iWiฃ
"&r
icuu a f"*
14 (41 Sz/flfile,
PAGE 3
-------
Spectroscopy
^) Fluorescence Spectroscopy
1. Molecules absorb EM radiation bfy.
2. Molecules are excited (electron orbitals
altered)
3. Molecules relax and release energy as
photons
cJ\
X-ray Fluorescence
Fluorescent
X-rays
(measured)
Primary m
X-ray
(source)
gfemeufc ^
tVUnm ^kchwui
OyiU I IjlLCOiMACt
CMM M&T*0
X-ray Spectrum
PAGE 4
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Spectroscopy
Mass Spectroscopy Mechanism
Acceierat.ng p.ates
Gas inlet r
Electron gun
Detector
Mass Spectroscopy Process
1. Molecules are bombarded with ions
2. Molecules split into charged fragments
3. Excess energy is imparted to atoms and
molecules
4. Fragments are accelerated and sent
through a magnetic field. Fragments are
separated by mass and charge
5. Mass-to-charge ratio is plotted
ri-fvi /wsfacfc
I J! st\ 0 /ฆ (. '"f~
Mass Spectra
Ol Benzene
; 100
c
QC
50
LM
(^) Toluene
, 100-.
5
-------
Chromatography
Chromatography Defined
Separation technique in which chemicals
are separated via intermolecular attraction
with a stationary phase
III I
QiPMj sletuk
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS-FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 1
-------
Chromatography
Chromatography
Evaluation
I
A
V
Time
Chromatography
Time 4
y/ilptuj
1 (lit
OiuuA iM
C^iL4^\yA
Chromatography
Classifications
Planar
Elution
PAGE 2
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
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Chromatography
Planar Chromatography Defined
Stationary phase = paper or flat plate
Mobile phase = liquid solvent
Separation = intermolecular attraction
with stationary phase
Elution Chromatography Defined
Stationary phase = packing or lining
- Mobile phase = liquid or gas
Separation = intermolecular attraction
with stationary phase
Elution Chromatography Types
Liquid (LC)
Gas (GC)
L ~
ht^C^r
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 3
-------
Chromatography
Elution Chromatography
LC
Stationary phase = liquid absorbed on a
solid
Mobile phase = liquid
Separation =
Partition between immiscible liquids
Partition between liquid and bonded
surface
Adsorption
Ion exchange
Elution Chromatography
GC
Stationary phase = liquid absorbed on a
solid
Mobile phase = gas
Separation =
- Partition between gas and liquid (liquids)
- Partition between gas/vapor and bonded
surface
- Adsorption
Gas Chromatograph
Injection
port
Components
Column (stationary phase)
Detector
1
t
Oven
.Carrier gas
(mobile phase)
w
/) cS% C@ti
'
Mx&ซ-
Qti %
<-\e&
ChJiMth
C&MiuAAs <
PAGE 4
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Electrochemical Analysis
ELECTROCHEMICAL
ANALYSIS
Theory of Electrochemical Analysis
Electrical changes that occur as a
result of Redox reactions
Redox Review
Redox is the transfer of electrons
Example:
- Ce4+ + Fe2+ ^ Ce3+ + Fe3+
- Half Reactions
Reduction of Ce4+ Ce4+ + e~ ^
Ce3+
Oxidation of Fe2+ Fe2+ ^ Fe3+
+ e~
-------
Electrochemical Analysis
Redox Equilibrium
Reduction - Oxidation
Electrochemical Analysis Process
1. Redox reaction in equilibrium (electrolyte)
2. Electrical current is run through electrolyte
3. Analyte interacts with electrolyte
4. Equivalence point changes
5. Electrical current changes
CbA r/iMA ckt .
$ cOAA
dui S&i-utcvw<
CilkJuibh
Qj(ie& As dl A,
Components
Cathode = reduction
Anode = oxidation
PAGE 2
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Electrochemical Analysis
Electrochemical Analysis
Oxygen Sensor
J2
Cover /
SiSSSsSSSv membrane
V V V
Etecti^ocfe (go^ or platinum)
O. + 2H.O + 4e"-MOH-
b-
am
2>
olao^c- 9.
- /^4m
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 3
-------
Titrimetry
TITRIMETRY
Titrimetry Defined
Technique which uses the amount
of an analyte consumed by a
reagent to quantify chemicals
Titrimetry
Equivalence Point
No Titrant Equivalence Equivalence
point -1 drop point
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 1
-------
Titrimetry
Titrimetry
Back Titration
Excess titrant Equivalence
point -1 drop
Titrimetry Types
Volumetric
Gravimetric
Coulometric
Volumetric Titrimetry
Measuring the volume of a solution
needed to react with an analyte
PAGE 2
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
1
Titrimetry
Gravimetric Titrimetry
Measuring the mass of a reagent
needed to react with an analyte
Coulometric Titrimetry
Electrical current is measured to
represent when the analyte is consumed
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 3
-------
Gravimetric Analysis
GRAVIMETRIC
ANALYSIS
Definition of Gravimetric Analysis
Analysis based upon measurements
of mass
Types of Gravimetric Analysis
Precipitation
Volatilization
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 1
-------
Gravimetric Analysis
Precipitation Process
1. Reagent is added, which combines with
analyte to form a solid or semisolid
material
2. Analyte is filtered
3. Analyte is washed free of impurities
4. Analyte is dried and weighed
Precipitation Process (cont.)
PAGE 2
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Gravimetric Analysis
Desired Precipitate Properties
Easily filtered and washed
Low solubility
Unreactive
Known composition
Volatilization Process
Analyte is heated and volatilized
- The analyte may break down when
heated
- If decomposition occurs, the
degradation products can be evaluated
Analyte is collected and weighed
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
PAGE 3
-------
Gravimetric Analysis
Volatilization Process (cont.)
foqefdm-
ft'fitftfjO t
PAGE 4
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - FUNDAMENTALS
-------
Section 3
-------
PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
Table of Selected Radioactive Isotopes
GROUP
1/IA
20.28
13.81
0.0899 t
H
Hydrcgen
Li
1s22s'
Lithium
11 22.98977
1156 AI
r Na
[Ne]3s'
Sodium
2/11A
Be
1.85
1s22s2
Beryllium
1 2 242305
1380 ฆ II
s. Mg
[Ne]3s2W
Magnesium
on
1
(15.3 min) [T
67
(61.88 h) r
>.Sb
124
(60.20 d)/T
7.W
181
(140 <4 EC
n Pa 231
Y
(106.6 d)^, EC
uCe
144
P84d)0~
sjBi
207
(38 y) EC
243
39
P65yl/r
Jk
a Aq
5.78 W
[Ar]3d104s2p3
Arsenic
34 7.1:2|
35
Se
4.79
[Ar]3d104s2p4
Seenium
Br
3.12
[Ar]3d104s2p5
3romine
36 83|ฐ
120.85 | m
ปt Kr
[Ar]3d,04s2p6
Krypton
37'
Rb
1.532
[Kr)5sr
Rubidium
38 8r62
1655
1042 W JU
2.54 WI
[Kr]5ss
Strontium
39
4.47 I
[Kr]4d' 5s2
Yttrium
40 91i224
4682 ฆฆ
2128 M y
6.51 fa I
[Kr]4d 2 5s 2
Zirconium
41 92 9064
5 Nb
[Kr]4d 4 ฃซs1
Niobium
AO 95.94
6,5,4,3,2
4912 nil
oMo
[Kr]4d55s1
Molybdenum
43
(98)
11.5
[Kr]4d55s2
Technetium
A A 101.07
2,3,4,6,8
4425 M
2610 U | |
12.37 T\\M
[Kr]4d75s1
Ruthenium
A Cl 02.9055
^vl 2,3,4
5, Rh
[Kr]4d ฎ5s1
Rhodium
46 1062442
Pd
[Kr]4d10
Palladium
47 107.868
2436 A M
1235.08 flfl
10.50 J
[Kr]4d 105s1
Silver
48 11f-41
1040 ^ I
594.26 I #1
865 VU
[Kr]4d,05s2
Cadmium
49 1T2
2350 |
429.78 I M
7.31
[Kr]4c105s2p'
Indium
50118ฃฐ
2876 f\
505.12 WM
7.31 Wll
[Kr]4d105s2p2
Tin
51 12736sฐ
S, QU
6.69 W U
(Kr]4d105s2p3
Antimony
KO 127.60
-2,4,6
KQ 126.9045
VJ ฑ1,5.7
Te
6.24
[Kr]4c,05s2p4
Telljrium
4.92 I
[K(]4d105s2p5
Iodine
54
165.1
161.39
5.90 +
131.29
Xe
[Kr]4d105s2p6
Xenon
Jgl32.S054
944
301.54 | ฃ
1.87 VO
[Xe]6s1
Cesiurr
56 13P3
2078 n
1002 u
3.59 D CI
[Xe]6s2
Barium
57 1389055
3737 | *
1191 I Ck
6.15 L(l
[Xe]5d'6s2
Lanthanum
72 17;-49
4875 ilฃ
2504 Hi
13.31 I
[Xe]4f145d26s2
Hafnium
73 180-3479
5730 ฆฆ
3293 I ฃ)
16.65 I CI
[Xe]4f145d 6s2
Tantalum
"7 A 183.84
' ฆ 6,5,4,3,2
w
19.3
[Xe]4f145d46s2
Tungsten
"7E 186.207
ฆ v/ 7,6,4,2
5870 M
3455
2i.o nc
[Xe]4f145d56s2
Rhenium
76
' 2,3,4,b,8
0s
77
22.6
[Xe]4f,45d66s2
Osmium
192.22
2,3,4,6
Ir
78
22.6
[Xe]4f,45d76s2
Iridium
Pt
21.45
[Xe]4f145d96s1
Platinum
79 196.9665
3130 M
Au
[XeHf^'oes1
Gold
80 2002f
629.88 | | --
234 31 HQ
13.55 11^
P
*-' ซ 4,2,6
Po
[Xe]4f'4Sd'ฐ6S2p4
Polc-nium
QC (210)
WW ฑ1,3,5,7
At
[Xe]4 145d106szp5
Astatine
86
ERn
[Xe]4f145d106s2pฃ
Radon
87 <223>
950 H
300 L M
[Rnp's'
Francium
88 i226)
r Pa
5.0 Ru
[Rn]7s2
Radium
89
227)
3470* Mt **
1324
10.07
[Rn]6d17^2
Actiniun
A**
Ac
104(261)
p:
[RnlSf'^d^s2-
Rutherfordium
105(J62)
: II
[Rn]5f,46d3^s2*
Dubniun
106(263)
[Rn]5f'46d47s2"
Seaborgium
107(264)
: I
[Rn]5f146d57s2'
Bohrium
108(265)
109(268)
1 10(269)
1 -| -| (272)
112 (277)
113
114 (285)
ll
[Rn]5f146d67s2'
Hassium
[Rn]5f146d77s2-
Meitnerium
[Rn]5f146d87s2"
(Ununnilium)
[Rn]5f,46dป7s2*
(Unununium)
[Rn]5f146d,07s2'
(Ununbium)
(Ununtrium)
[Rn]5r46d107sz7p2"
(Ununquadium)
115
(Ununpentium)
116
(Ununhexium)
117
(Unuiseptium)
118
(Ununoctium)
* Estimated Values
OXIDATION STATES
(Bold most stable)
*~
DENSITY at 300 K (3)
(g/cm3)
ฉ Copyright 2002 VWR International.
All lights Reserved.
No Dortion of th s work may be
reproduced in any form or uy any
means without express prior writen
permission from VWR/Sargent-
Wekn.
ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION
58 U03;l2
3715 ^
^ Ce
[Xe]4f'5d'6s2
Cerium
50140.9077
3785 M
1204 U Y
6.77
P
[Rn]5f1 7s2
Einsteinium
68 16J26
3140 V
1802 k Y
9.07 Ll I
[Xe]4f126s2
Erbium
100 ซ!57)
r Fi
[Rn]5f 127s2
Fermium
69 168 SM2
2223 ฆ
ซTm
[Xe)4f136s2
Thulium
101 |258ป
[Rn]5f 137s2
Mendelevium
70 "i,"
71 174f7
;! Yb
3668 |
1936 I ||
9.84 IhU
[Xe]4f 46s2
Yttertium
[Xe]4i,45d'6s2
Lu etium
102 <2f!>
10312632)
1|
,nr fl
[Rn]5f 147s2
Nobel um
[Rn]5r46d'7s2
Lawrancium
NOTES:
(1) Black solid. (2)
Red gas.
Blue liquid. (3)
Outline synthetically prepared.
Based upon carbon-12. () indicates most
stable or best known isotope.
Entries marked with daggers refer to the
gaseous state at 273 K and 1 atm and are
given in units of g/l.
The A & B subgroup designations, are those recommended by the Inter-
national Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry.
Catalog Number WLS-18806
Sargent-Welch
VWR
P.O. Box 5229 Buffalo Grove, IL 60089-5229
1-800-727-4368 FAX 1-800-676-2540
-------
TABLE OF PERIODIC PROPERTIES OF THE ELEMENTS
Percent Ionic Character of a Single Chemical Bond
GROUP
l/IA
H
0.32 2.10
0.79 0.4581
14.10 0.0585
13.598
14.304 0.1815
Difference in electronegativity
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.*
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
M
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
3.1
3.2
Percent ionic character %
.5
1
2
4
6
9
12
15
19
22
26
30
34
39
43
47
51
55
59
63
67
70
74
76
79
82
84
86
88
89
91
92
18/VIII
2/llA
Li
M
Be<$\
1.23
2.05
13.10
5.392
3.582
0.98
147.1
I 3.0
! 11.7
84.7
0.90 1.57
1.40 297
5.0 11.71
9.322 25
1.825 200
EE
PI
mm
1.54
2.23
23.70
5.13S
1.23
0.93
98.01
2.601
20.1
141
1.36 1.31
1.72 127.6
14.0 8.95
7.646 22.4
1.02 156
DATA CONCERNING THE MORE STABLE ELEMENTARY (SUBATOMIC) PARTICLES
' The positron (e+) has properties similar to those of the (neg-
ative) electron or beta particle except that its charge has opposite
sign (~). The antineutrino (v) has properties similar to those of the
neutrino except that its spin (or rotation) is opposite in relation to
its direction of propagation.
An antineutrino accompanies release of an electron in radio-
active P (particle) decay, whereas a neutrino accompanies the
release of a positron in p* decay.
t//g=Bohr magneton and /i^sNuclear magneton.
Neutron
Proton
Electron*
Neutrino
Photon
Symbol
n
P
(5 34.9
1.56 1.27
2.25 355*
17.8 18.6*
5.43 1.5
0.15 16.4
ThN
[EH
UON
wn\
ฉI 3
n
@8
1ง
Pi
M
Kl@
Bj?
1.65 1.3
543.92
19.90 15.65
6.08 7.1
0.113 54
1.5
15.3
5.69 5.6
47
1.42 1.38
422.58
12.50 15.48
6.05 3.6
0.12 27.6
1.36
21.1
6.19 0.8
6.3
1.08 1.28
12.32
6.06 0.7
0.13* 6.74
1.3
20.8
6.0 0.7
10*
1.3
18.3
6.02
10*
6.23
1.3
10*
1.3
6.3
10*
- 1.3
642
10*
6.50
1.3
10*
1.3
6.58
10*
1.3
6.6S
10*
1.3
10*
NOTES: (1) For representative oxides (higher valence) of group. Oxide is acidic if color is red, basic if color is blue
end amphoteric if both colors are shown. Intensity of color indicates relative strength.
(2) ฉ Cubic, face centered; cubic, body centered; cubic;
hexagonal; ^ rhombohedral; |^jj tetragonal; |' jj orthorhombic; (^j monoclinic.
The A & B subgroup designations, are those
recommended by the Imernational Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry.
(3) At 300 K (27"C) (6) Generally at 293 K (20"C)
(4) At boiling point for polycrystalline material
(5) At melting point (7) Quantum mechanical value
for free atom
(8) From density at 300 K (27*C) for liquid
and solid elements; values for gaseous elements
refer to liquid state at boiling point
Sargent-Welch
VWR^'^
INTERNATIONAL
P.O. Bo:< 5229 Buffalc Grove, IL 60089-5229
1-800-727-4368 FAX 1-800-676-2540
Catalog Number WLS-1880ฃ
-------
Glossary
A
Absorption: a) The penetration of one substance into
the inner structure of another. b)The reduction of light
intensity in transmission through an absorbing substance
or in reflection from a surface.
ACA: Ammoniacal copper arsenate
Accuracy: A measure of the closeness of an individual
measurement or the average of a number of
measurements to the true value. Accuracy includes a
combination of random error (precision) and systematic
error (bias) components that are due to sampling and
analytical operations; the EPA recommends using the
terms "precision" and "bias," rather than "accuracy,"
to convey the information usually associated with
accuracy.
Acid: In water, ionization or splitting of the molecule
occurs, so that some or most of the hydrogen forms
H30+ ions (hydronium ions), usually written more
simply as H+ (hydrogen ion). The pH range of acids is
from 6.9 to 1.
Acid, strong/weak: Acids are referred to as strong or
weak according to the concentration of H+ ion that
results from ionization. Hydrochloric, nitric, and
sulfuric are strong or highly ionized acids; acetic acid
(CH.,COOH) and carbonic acid (H2C03) are weak acids.
Acid rain: Precipitation which has been rendered
(made) acidic by airborne pollutants.
Action level: In Superfund, the existence of a
contaminant concentration in the environment high
enough to warrant action or trigger a response under
SARA and the National Oil and Hazardous Substances
Contingency Plan.
ACZA: Ammoniacal copper zinc-arsenate
Addition reaction: A reaction in which chemicals are
combined to form a new compound.
Adhesive force: Molecular force that exists in the area
of contact between unlike bodies and that act to unite
them.
Adsorption: The retention of atoms, ions, or molecules
onto the surface of another substance.
Advection: The process of transfer of fluids (vapors
or liquid) through a geologic formation in response to a
pressure gradient that may be caused by changes in
barometric pressure, water table levels, wind
fluctuations, or infiltration.
Aerobic: A condition in which "free" (atmospheric)
or dissolved oxygen is present in water.
Aerosol: A suspension of liquid or solid particles in a
gas.
Aggregate: A collective term denoting any mixture of
such particulates as sand, gravel, crushed stone, or
cinders.
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS
Alcohol: Compound in which a hydroxyl group -OH,
is attached to a saturated carbon atom.
Aldehyde: A broad class of organic compounds having
the generic formula RCHO, and characterized by an
unsaturated carbonyl group (C=0).
Aliphatic: One of the major groups of organic
compounds, characterized by straight- or branched-
chain arrangement of the constituent carbon atoms.
Alkalinity: The capacity of bases to neutralize acids.
Alkanes: A class of aliphatic hydrocarbons
characterized by a straight or branched chain; generic
formula CnH2n+2.
Alkenes: The group of unsaturated hydrocarbons
having the general formula C(n)H(2n) and characterized
by being highly chemically reactive.
Alkynes: The group of unsaturated hydrocarbons with
a triple Carbon-Carbon bond having a general formula
C(n)H(2n-2).
American Society for Testing and Materials
(ASTM): This society, organized in 1898 and chartered
in 1902, is a scientific and technical organization formed
for "the development of standards on characteristics and
performance of materials, products, systems and
services, and the promotion of related knowledge." It
is the worlds largest source of voluntary consensus
standards.
Amide: Derivatives of oxoacids R(C=0)(0H) in which
the hydroxy group has been replaced by an amino or
substituted amino group.
Amine: Compound formally derived from ammonia
by replacing one, two, or three hydrogen atoms by
hydrocarbyl groups, and having the general structures
RNH2 (primary amines), R2NH (secondary amines),
R3N (tertiary amines).
Ammonium: The univalent radical, NH4+, or group
NH4, which plays the part of a metal in the salt formed
when ammonia reacts with an acid.
Ammonoid: Any cephalopod mollusk of the extinct
order Ammonoidea, from the Devonian to the
Cretaceous periods, having a coiled, chambered shell.
AMU: Atomic mass unit
Anaerobic: A condition in which "free" (atmospheric)
or dissolved oxygen is NOT present in water.
Analyte: The chemical for which a sample is analyzed.
Anion: A negatively charged atomic or molecular
particle.
Anisotropic: In hydrology, the conditions under which
one or more hydraulic properties of an aquifer vary from
a reference point.
Anisotropy: The condition of having different
properties in different directions.
-------
Glossary
Annulene: Refers to monocyclic compounds having
alternating single and double bonds.
Anode: The positive pole or electrode of an electrolytic
system, such as a battery. The anode attracts negatively
charged particles or ions (anions).
Anoxic: Total deprivation of oxygen.
Anthropogenic: Caused or produced by humans.
Anthropogenic Background Levels: Concentrations
of chemicals that are present in the environment due to
human-made, non-site sources (e.g., industry,
automobiles).
Aqueous: Something made up of, similar to, or
containing water.
Aqueous solubility: The maximum concentration of a
chemical that will dissolve in pure water at a reference
temperature.
Aquifer: A geologic formation capable of transmitting
significant quantities of groundwater under normal
hydraulic gradients.
Aquitard: Underground geological formation that is
slightly permeable and yields inappreciable amounts
of water when compared to an aquifer.
Aromatic (compound): A major group of unsaturated
cyclic hydrocarbons containing one or more rings,
typified by benzene, which has a 6-carbon ring
containing three double bonds.
Artesian: Water held under pressure in porous rock or
soil confined by impermeable geologic formations. An
artesian well is free flowing.
ASTM: The American Society for Testing and
Materials.
Askarel: Any of the class of synthetic nonflammable,
liquid dielectrics used chiefly for insulation in
transformers.
Atm.: Atmosphere; usually referring to atmospheric
pressure.
Atmospheric pressure: The pressure exerted by the
air at sea level (14.696 psi), which will support a column
of mercury 760 mm HG in height (approximately 30
in.).
Atom: The smallest unit of a chemical element;
composed of protons, neutrons and electrons.
Atomic mass: The mass of a nuclide, normally
expressed in unified atomic mass units (u).
Atomic mass units (AMU): A unit of mass, equal to
1 /12 the mass of the carbon-12 atom and used to express
the mass of atomic and subatomic particles.
Atomic number (Z): The number of protons
(positively charged mass units) in the nucleus of an
atom, upon which its structure and properties depend.
This number represents the location of an element in
the periodic table.
Atomic weight: The average weight or mass of all the
isotopes of an element as determined from the
proportions in which they are present in a given element,
compared with the mass of the 12 isotope of carbon
(taken as precisely 12.000), which is the official
standard.
ATSDR: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
Registry
Avogadro's Number (Avogadro's Constant): The
number of atoms (6.023 xlO^3) present in 12 grams of
carbon-12 isotope (one mole of carbon-12) and can be
applied to any type of chemical entity.
B
Background: See background level.
Background level: The concentration of a substance
in an environmental media (air, water or soil) that occurs
naturally or is not the result of human activities.
Background sample: A sample taken from a location
where chemicals present in the ambient medium are
assumed due to natural source.
B(a)P: Benzo(a)Pyrene
Base: Historically, a substance that yields an OH ion
when it dissociates in solution, resulting in a pH >7.
The more general definition, due to G.N.Lewis,
classifies any chemical species capable of donating an
electron pair as a base.
Base, strong/weak: A base is strong or weak according
to the molecules which break down (ionize) into positive
ion and hydroxyl ion in the solution. Common strong
bases (alkalies) are sodium and potassium hydroxide
and ammonium hydroxide.
Bed: A bed (or beds) is the smallest formal
lithostratigraphic unit of sedimentary rocks.
Bedding plane: A planar or nearly planar bedding
surface that visibly separates each successive layer of
stratified rock (or the same or different lithology) from
the preceding or following layer.
Bedding plane parting: A parting or surface of
separation between adjacent beds or a bedding plane.
Bedrock: A general term for the rock that underlies
unconsolidated material.
Belemnite: A fossil pointed like a dart, being the
internal shell of a cephalopod mollusc.
Benzyl: The univalent group C7H7 , derived from
toluene.
Bias: The systematic or persistent distortion of a
measurement process, which causes errors in one
direction (i.e., the expected sample measurement is
different from the sample's true value).
Bicarbonate: A salt containing a metal and the radical
HC03; also refers to the radical alone.
PAGE 2
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - APPLIED
-------
Glossary
Bioconcentration: The accumulation of a chemical in
tissues of an organism (such as a fish) to levels greater
than in the surrounding medium in which the organism
lives.
Blank: A clean sample that has not been exposed to
the analyzed sample stream in order to monitor
contamination during sampling, transport, storage, or
analysis.
Block: Any large, angular mass of solid rock.
Boiling point: The temperature at which a component's
vapor pressure equals atmospheric pressure.
Bond, chemical: An attractive force between atoms
strong enough to permit the combined aggregate to
function as a unit. Covalent bonding results most
commonly when electrons are shared by two atomic
nuclei. Here the bonding electrons are relatively
localized in the region of the two nuclei, although
frequently a degree of derealization occurs when the
shared electrons have a choice of orbital. The
conventional single covalent bond involves the sharing
of two electrons. There may also be double bonds with
four shared electrons, triple bonds with six shared
electrons, and bonds of intermediate multiplicity.
Covalent bonds may range from nonpolar, involving
electrons evenly shared by the two atoms, to extremely
polar, where the bonding electrons are veiy unevenly
shared. The limit of uneven sharing occurs when the
bonding electron(s) spends full time with one of the
atoms. This makes this atom into a negative ion and
leaves the other atom in the form of a positive ion. Ionic
bonding is the electrostatic attraction between
oppositely charged ions.
BTEX: Abbreviation for benzene, toluene,
ethylbenzene, and xylenes.
Btu: British Thermal Unit; the quantity of heat required
to raise the temperature of one pound of water one
degree Fahrenheit at 39 degrees F.
Buffer: A solution or liquid whose chemical makeup
is such that it minimizes changes in pH when acids or
bases are added to it.
c
C.: Chemical concentration in air.
A
Cs: Chemical concentration in soil.
Cw: Chemical concentration in water.
Capillarity: The action by which a fluid, such as water,
is drawn up (or depressed) in small interstices or tubes
as a result of surface tension.
Capillary action: The force that causes a liquid in
contact with a solid to rise (as in a capillary tube), or to
spread (as through blotting paper), caused by surface
tension.
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS
Capillary force(s): The molecular forces which cause
the movement of water through very small spaces.
Capillary fringe: The zone above the water table
within which the porous medium is saturated by water
under less than atmospheric pressure.
Capillary water: Water held in, or moving through,
small interstices or tubes by capillarity.
Carbonyl: A compound of carbon monoxide with a
metal, as in Co(CO)3.
Carboxyl group: Composed of a carbonyl group and
a hydroxyl group bonded to a carbon atom. Shown as
COOH or C02H.
Carboxylic acid: Any of a broad array of organic acids
comprised chiefly of alkyl (hydrocarbon) groups (CH2,
CH3), usually in a straight chain (aliphatic), terminating
in a carboxyl group (COOH).
Catalyst: A substance that changes the speed or yield
of a chemical reaction without being consumed or
chemically changed by the chemical reaction.
Cathode: The negative pole or electrode of an
electrolytic cell or system. The cathode attracts
positively charged particles or ions (cations).
Cation: A positively charged ion in an electrolyte
solution, attracted to the cathode under the influence of
a difference in electrical potential. Sodium ion (Na+)
is a cation.
Cation exchange capacity: The term cation exchange
refers to the exchange of cations balancing the surface
charge on the soil surface and dissolved cations. The
total amount of cations adsorbed by these negative
charges in a mass of soil is defined as cation exchange
capacity of the soil.
CCA: Chromated copper arsenate
CEC: Cation exchange capacity
Cellulose: A carbohydrate forming the chief
component of cell walls in plants and in wood.
Cephalopod: Any moilusk of the class Cephalopoda,
having tentacles attached to the head, including
cuttlefish, squid and octopus.
CERCLA: Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation and Liability Act (1980)
CFR: Code of Federal Regulations. A periodic
publication of the regulations established by U.S. law.
Chain-of-custody procedures: Procedures for
documenting who has custody of and the condition of
samples from the point of collection to the analysis at
the laboratory. Chain of custody procedures are used
to ensure that the samples are not lost, tampered with,
or improperly stored or handled.
Charge (electric charge): One of the basic properties
of the elementary particles of matter giving rise to all
electric and magnetic forces and interactions.
STR"
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Glossary
Chemical: See chemical compound.
Chemical compound: A distinct and pure substance
formed by the union of two or more elements in definite
proportion by weight.
Chemical equation: A representation of a chemical
reaction using symbols to show the weight relationship
between the reacting substances and the products.
Chemical formula: A written representation using
symbols of a chemical entity or relationship. There are
several kinds of formulas as follows: (1) Empirical:
Expresses in simplest form the relative number and the
kind of atoms in a molecule of one or more compounds;
it indicates composition only, not structure. (2)
Molecular: shows the actual number and kind of atoms
in a chemical entity. (3) Structural: Indicates the
location of the atoms, groups or ions relative to one
another in a molecule as well as the number and location
of chemical bonds. (4) Generic: Expresses a
generalized type of organic compound where the
variables stand for the kind of radical in a homologous
series (e.g. CnH2n). (5) Electronic: A structural formula
in which the bonds are replaced by dots indicating
electron pairs, a single bond being equivalent to one
pair of electrons shared by two atoms.
Chemical oxygen demand (COD): A measure of the
oxygen required to oxidize all compounds, both organic
and inorganic, in water.
Chemical reaction: A chemical change that may occur
in several ways, e.g., by combination, by replacement,
by decomposition, or by some modification of these.
Chemical reactions involve the rupture of bonds which
hold the molecules together, and should not be confused
with nuclear reactions where the atomic nucleus is
involved.
Chemisorption: The formation of bonds between the
surface molecules of a metal (or other material of high
surface energy) and another substance (gas or liquid)
in contact with it.
Chemistry: The science of the composition, structure
and properties of substances and the transformations
they undergo.
Chlorodiphenyl: PCB, polychlorinated biphenyl
Chromatography (chromatographic): A method of
separation of the components of a sample in which the
components are distributed between two phases, one
of which is stationary while the other moves. In gas
chromatography the gas moves over a liquid or solid
stationary phase. In liquid chromatography the liquid
mixture mover through another liquid, a solid, or a gel.
Clay: One type of soil particle with a diameter of
approximately one ten-thousandth of an inch.
Cleanup: Actions take to deal with a release or threat
of release of a hazardous substance that could affect
humans and/or the environment. The term "cleanup"
is sometimes used interchangeably with the terms
remedial action, removal action, response action and
corrective action.
CLP: Contract Laboratory Program
Coagulation: The clumping together of very fine
particles into larger particles caused by the use of
chemicals.
COD: Chemical oxygen demand
Cohesion: The force that holds adjacent molecules of
a single material together.
Cohesive force: Molecular force within a body or
substance acting to unite its parts.
Coke: The carbonaceous residue of the destructive
distillation (carbonization) of bituminous coal,
petroleum, and coal-tar pitch.
Coke Oven: An industrial process which converts coal
into coke, one of the basic materials used in blast
furnaces for the conversion of iron ore into iron.
Colloids: Very small, finely divided solids (that do
not dissolve) that remain dispersed in a liquid for a long
time due to their small size and electrical charge.
Comparability: A measure of the confidence with
which one data set or method can be compared to
another.
Completeness: A measure of the amount of valid data
obtained from a measurement system compared to the
amount that was expected to be obtained under correct,
normal conditions.
Complexation: Electrostatic association of positively
charged metal ions and negatively charged organic
matter, usually with two or more points of attachment.
Also called chelation.
Complexes (complex compound; coordination
compound): A compound formed by the union of a
metal ion (usually a transition metal) with a non-metallic
ion or molecule called a ligand or complexing agent.
Composite sample: A sample prepared by physically
combining two or more samples having some specific
relationship and processed to ensure homogeneity.
Compound: See chemical compound.
Concentration: The relative amount of a substance
mixed with another substance.
Condensation reaction: A type of chemical reaction
in which two or more molecules combine with the
separation of water, alcohol, or other simple substance.
Confined aquifer: An aquifer in which ground water
is confined under pressure which is significantly greater
than atmospheric pressure.
Confining layer: A geologic formation characterized
by low permeability that inhibits the flow of water (.vet?
also aquitard).
PAGE 4
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Glossary
Conservation of mass: Any chemical reaction between
two or more elements or compounds leaves the total
mass unchanged, the reaction products having exactly
the same mass as present in the reactants, regardless of
the extent to which other properties are changed.
Contaminant: Any physical, chemical, biological or
radiological substance or matter that has an adverse
effect on air, water, or soil.
Contract Laboratory Program (CLP): Analytical
program developed for Superfund waste site samples
to fill the need for legally defensible analytical results
supported by a high level of quality assurance and
documentation.
Contract required detection limit (CRDL): For
inorganics, the chemical-specific quantitation levels that
the CLP requires to be routinely and reliably quantitated
in specified sample matrices.
Contract required quantitation limit (CRQL): For
organics, the chemical-specific quantitation levels that
the CLP requires to be routinely and reliably quantitated
in specified sample matrices.
Conversion factor: A factor used to convert one unit
of measurement to an equivalent value.
Coulomb: The SI unit of quantity of electricity equal
to the quantity of charge transferred in one second across
a conductor in which there is a constant current of one
ampere.
Coulometric (coulometry): A method used in
quantitative analysis, whereby the amount of a substance
set free or deposited during electrolysis is determined
by measuring the number of coulumbs that passed
through the electrolyte.
Coulometric titrimetry: Titration method in which
electrical current is measured to represent when the
analyte is consumed.
Covalent bond: Sharing of electrons by a pairof atoms.
(Sec bond, chemical.)
CRDL: Contract required detection limit
Creosote: An oily liquid having a burning taste and a
penetrating odor, obtained by the distillation of coal
and wood tar, used mainly as a preservative for wood
and as an antiseptic.
CRQL: Contract required quantitation limit
Critical pressure: The pressure of a pure element or
compound at a critical point.
Critical point: The transition point between the liquid
and gaseous states of a substance.
Critical temperature: The temperature above which
a gas cannot be liquefied however high the pressure.
Crumb: A small particle or portion of anything;
fragment.
Cyclic (compound): An organic compound whose
structure is characterized by one or more closed rings.
D
Df: Dilution factor
Data quality objectives (DQOs): Qualitative and
quantitative statements derived from the outputs of each
step of the DQO Process which specify the study
objectives, domain, limitations, the most appropriate
type of data to collect and specify the levels of decision
error that will be acceptable for the decision.
Data quality objectives process: A systematic
strategic planning tool based on the scientific method
that identifies and defines the type, quality, and quantity
of data needed to satisfy a specified use. DQOs are the
qualitative and quantitative outputs from the DQO
Process.
Data usability: The process of ensuring or determining
whether the quality of the data produced meets the
intended use of the data.
DCA: Dichloroacetylene; possible decomposition
product or trichloroethene or trichloroethane.
DCE: Dichloroethene; dichloroethylene
DCM: Dichloromethane
DDT: Dicloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane. The first
chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide.
Decomposition: The conversion of chemically unstable
materials to more stable forms by chemical or biological
action.
Denitrification: The biochemical conversion of nitrate
and nitrite in the soil dissolved in water to gaseous.
Density: The amount of mass per unit volume.
Destructive distillation: An operation in which a
highly carbonaceous material, such as coal, oil shale,
or tar sands, is subjected to high temperature in the
absence of air or oxygen, resulting in decomposition to
solids, liquids, and gases.
Detector: A person or thing that detects.
Detection limit (DL): The minimum concentration or
weight of an analyte that can be detected by a single
measurement above instrumental background noise.
Dielectric: A nonconducting substance; insulator
Diffusion: The migration of atoms, molecules, ions,
or other particles as a result of some type of gradient
(concentration, temperature, etc.)
Dioxin: Any of a family of compounds known
chemically as dibenzo-p-dioxins.
Dipole: A pair of electric point charges or magnetic
poles of equal magnitude and opposite signs separated
by an infinitesimal distance.
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS
PAGE 5
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Glossary
Dispersion: The process by which a substance or
chemical spreads and dilutes in flowing groundwater
or soil gas.
Dissolved oxygen: The oxygen freely available in
water, vital to fish and aquatic life and for the prevention
of odors.
DL: Detection limit
DNAPL: Dense non-aqueous phase liquid. Non-
aqueous phase liquids such as chlorinated hydrocarbon
solvents or petroleum fractions with a specific gravity
greater than 1.0 that sink through the water column until
they reach a confining layer.
DO: Dissolved oxygen
DQOs: Data quality objectives.
Dross: See slag.
Duplicate sample: A second aliquot or sample that is
treated the same as the original sample in order to
determine the precision of the analytical method.
DW: Drinking water
E
Eh (EH): Redox potential. A measure of the electron
balance in an environmental sample; the numerical
indication of oxidation-reduction conditions, much as
hydrogen-ion concentration orpH are measures of acid-
base conditions.
Electrochemical reaction: Chemical changes
produced by electricity (electrolysis) or the production
of electricity by chemical changes (galvanic action).
Electrolyte: A substance which dissociates (separates)
into two or more ions when it is dissolved in water.
Electromagnetic radiation: Radiation consisting of
electromagnetic waves, including radio waves, infrared,
visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays and gamma rays.
Electron: An extremely small, negatively charged
particle; the part of an atom that determines its chemical
properties.
Electron acceptor: A chemical entity that accepts
electrons transferred to it from another compound. It
is an oxidizing agent that, by virtue of its accepting
electrons, is itself reduced in the process. 2
Electron donor: A chemical entity that donates
electrons to another compound. It is a reducing agent
that, by virtue of its donating electrons, is itself oxidized
in the process.
Electronegativity: All atoms (except those of helium)
that have fewer than eight electrons in their highest
principal quantum level have low-energy orbital
vacancies capable of accommodating electrons from
outside the atom. The existence of these vacancies is
evidence that within these regions the nuclear charge
can exert a significant attraction for such electrons, even
though as a whole the atom is electrically neutral. This
attraction is called "electronegativity."
Electronegativity difference: The difference in
electronegativity values for two bonding elements. See
electronegativity.
Element: A substance which cannot be separated into
its constituent parts and still retain its chemical identity.
For example, sodium (Na) is an element.
Elimination reaction: A reaction in which a small
molecule, such as water, is eliminated from a chemical,
forming a multiple bond.
EM: Electromagnetic radiation
Enol: An organic compound containing a hydroxyl
group attached to a doubly linked carbon atom, as in
>C=C(OH).
Environmental chemistry: The study of sources,
reactions, transport, effects and fates of chemical species
in water, soil and air environments.
Environmental Protection Agency: A federal agency
established in 1970.
EPA: United States Environmental Protection Agency
Equation: See chemical equation.
Equilibrium: 1) Chemical equilibrium is a condition
in which a reaction and its opposite or reverse reaction
occur at the same rate, resulting in a constant
concentration of reactants. 2) Physical equilibrium is
exhibited when two or more phases of a system are
changing at the same rate so that the net change in the
system is zero.
Ester: A compound formed by the reaction between
an acid and an alcohol with the elimination of a molecule
of water.
Ether: A class of organic compounds in which an
oxygen atom is interposed between two carbon atoms
in the molecular structure, giving the generic formula
ROR.
Evaporation: The process by which a liquid enters
the vapor (gas) phase.
Exfoliation: The action of separating into layers;
coming off in flakes.
F
Fom: Fraction of organic matter.
False negative (type II or beta error): A statement
that a condition does not exist when it actually does.
False positive (type I or alpha error): A statement
that a condition does exist when it actually does not.
Faults: A break in the continuity of a body of rock or
of a vein, with dislocation along the plane of the fracture.
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CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS - APPLIED
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Glossary
Feasibility study: Analysis of the practicability of a
proposal; e.g.. a description and analysis of potential
cleanup alternatives for a site such as one on the National
Priorities List. The feasibility study usually
recommends selection of a cost-effective alternate. It
usually starts as soon as the remedial investigation is
underway, together, they are commonly referred to the
"RI/FS".
Fick's Law: The statement that the flux^/of a diffusing
substance is proportional to the concentration gradient,
i.e., J = -D(dc/dx). where Dis called the diffusion
coefficient.
Fick's First Law: An equation describing the rate at
which a gas transfers into solution. The change in
concentration of gas in solution is proportional to the
product of an overall mass transfer coefficient and the
concentration gradient.
Fick's Second Law: An equation relating the change
in concentration with time due to diffusion to the change
in concentration gradient with distance from the source
of concentration.
Field capacity: The maximum amount of water that a
soil can retain after excess water from saturated
conditions has been drained by the force of gravity.
Flammable (material): Any material that ignites easily
and will burn rapidly.
Flocculation: The gathering together of fine particles
in water by gentle mixing after the addition of coagulant
chemicals to form larger particles.
Fluid: Any material or substance that changes shape
or direction uniformly in response to an external force
imposed on it.
Fluorescence: The emission of radiation (i.e., visible
light) by a substance during exposure to external
radiation (i.e., light or x-ray).
Flux: A substance used to help metals fuse together.
Fracture: A break in a rock formation due to structural
stresses; e.g., faults, shears Joints, and planes of fracture
cleavage.
Free water: Water in the soil in excess of field capacity
that is free to move in response to the pull of gravity.
Freezing point: See melting point.
Fulvic acid: The organic matter of indefinite
composition that remains in solution when an aqueous
alkaline extract of soil is acidified.
Functional group: A group of atoms responsible for
the characteristic behavior of the class of compounds
in which the group occurs, as the hydroxyl group in
alcohols.
Furan: A heterocyclic compound with the basic
structure HC:CHCH:CHO
G
Gas: One of the states of matter, having neither
independent shape nor volume and tending to expand
indefinitely.
Gas chromatography: The process in which the
components of a mix are separated from one another
by volatilizing the sample into a carrier gas stream
which is passing through or over a bed of packing.
Gas chromatography/mass spectrometer: A tandem
instrumental method for separating, identifying, and
quantifying organic compounds. The GC separates the
compounds. Compound identification is based on the
compound retention time in the GC and on the mass
spectral pattern. Compound quantification is normally
done by measuring peak heights in the mass spectra.
GC: Gas chromatography. Gas chromatograph.
GC/MS: Gas chromatography/mass spectrograph
Glaciofluvial gravel: Pertaining to the meltwater
streams flowing from wasting glacier ice and especially
to the deposits and land forms produced by such streams,
as kame terraces and outwash plains.
GLC: Gas liquid chromatography
Glycol: Dihydric alcohol in which two hydroxy groups
are on different carbon atoms, usually but not
necessarily adjacent.
Grab sample: A single sample col lected at a particular
time and place that represents the composition of the
water, air, or soil only at that time and place.
Gravimetric: A means of measuring unknown
concentrations of water quality indicators in a sample
by weighing a precipitate or residue of the sample.
Gravimetric analysis: A type of quantitative analysis
involving precipitation of a compound which can be
weighed and analyzed after drying.
Gravimetric titrimetry: Measuring the mass of a
reagent needed to react with an analyte.
Gray region: An area that is adjacent to or contains
the action level, and where the consequences of making
a decision error are relatively small.
Groundwater: Water found below the surface of the
land, usually in porous formation. Groundwater is the
source of water found in wells and springs and is used
frequently for drinking.
GW: Groundwater
Gypsion: Gypsum
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS
PAGE 7
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Glossary
H
Halogen : One of the chemical elements chlorine,
bromine, or iodine.
Halogenated: Having one of the halogens as part of
the chemical compound.
Hardness (water): Characteristic of water caused by
presence of various salts.
Hardness, water: A characteristic of water caused
mainly by the salts of calcium and magnesium, such as
bicarbonate, carbonate, sulfate, chloride and nitrate.
Head: The elevation to which water rises at a given
point as a result of reservoir pressure.
Henry's Law: The relationship between the partial
pressure of a compound and the equilibrium
concentration in the liquid through a proportionality
constant known as the Henry's law constant.
Henry's Law Constant: The ratio of the concentration
of a compound in air (or vapor) to the concentration of
the compound in water under equilibrium conditions.
Heterogeneous: Varying in structure or composition
at different locations in space.
Homogeneous: Uniform in structure or composition
at all locations in space.
Humic acid: Black acidic organic matter extracted
from soils, low-rank coals and other decayed plant
substances by alkalis. It is insoluble in acids and organic
solvents.
Humin: Vegetable-degradation material occurring in
coal as an amorphous brown to black substance or gel
and that is insoluble in alkaline solution. GEO
Humus: Organic portion of the soil remaining after
prolonged microbial decomposition.
Hydraulic conductivity: The rate at which water can
move through a permeable medium.
Hydraulic gradient: In general, the direction of
groundwater flow due to changes in the depth of the
water table.
Hydrocarbon: Chemical compounds composed only
of carbon and hydrogen.
Hydronium ion: An ion (H30+) formed by the transfer
of a proton (hydrogen nucleus) from molecule of water
to another: a companion ion (OH ) is also formed.
Hydrophilic: Having a strong affinity for water.
Hydrophobic: Having little or no affinity for water.
Hydrostatic pressure: In the case of ground water,
the pressure at a specific elevation due to the weight of
water at higher levels in the same zone of saturation.
Hydroxide: A chemical compound which contains one
or more hydroxyl groups.
Hydroxyl (hydroxy): A compound radical consisting
of one atom of oxygen and one atom of hydrogen.
Hygroscopic water: Moisture held in the soil that is
in equilibrium with that in the atmosphere to which the
soil is exposed.
I
IDL: Instrument detection limit.
Infiltration: The penetration of water through the
ground subsurface into subsurface soil.
Inorganic chemical: Chemical without organic carbon,
including metals and other ions such as chloride, sulfate,
and nitrate.
Insoluble: Incapable of being dissolved.
Instrument detection limit: The lowest amount of a
substance that can be detected by an instrument without
correction for the effects of sample matrix, handling
and preparation.
Instrument reading/response: Signal or display of
signal from detector used in an instrument.
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
(IUPAC): A voluntary nonprofit association of national
organizations representing chemists in 45 member
countries. It was formed in 1919 with the object of
facilitating international agreement and uniform
practice in both academic and industrial aspects of
chemistry.
Ion: An electrically charged atom or group of atoms.
Ionic bond: Refers to the formation of ions by transfer
of one or more electrons from one atom to another. Sec
bond, chemical
Ionization potential: The ionization potential of a
compound is defined as the energy required to remove
a given electron from the molecule's atomic orbit
(outermost shell) and is expressed in electron volts (eV).
IR: Instrument response, instrument reading
Isotope: A variation of an element that has the same
atomic number of protons but a different weight because
of the number of neutrons.
Isotropic: The condition in which hydraulic properties
of an aquifer are equal when measured in any direction.
IUPAC: International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry.
J
Joints: A fracture plane in rocks, generally at right
angles to the bedding of sedimentary rocks and variously
oriented in igneous and metamorphic rocks, commonly
arranged in two or more sets of parallel intersecting
systems.
Joule: A measure of energy, work or quantity of heat.
One joule is the work done when a force of one newton
is displaced a distance of one meter in the direction of
force.
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Glossary
K
K: Hydraulic conductivity
Kd: Absorption or distribution coefficient
K : Provides a measure of the extent of chemical
OC
partitioning between organic carbon and water at
equilibrium. The higher the Koc, the more likely a
chemical is to bind to soil or sediment than to remain in
water.
Kom: Organic-matter sorption partition coefficient
K : Octanol/water partition coefficient
Karst: A geologic formation of irregular limestone
deposits with sinks, underground streams, and caverns.
Ketone: A class of liquid organic compounds in which
the carbonyl group, C=0, is attached to two alkyl
groups.
KOH: Potassium hydroxide
KPEG: Potassium polyethylene glycol
L
Lagoon: A shallow pond where sunlight, bacterial
action, and oxygen work to purify wastewater, also used
for storage of wastewater or spent nuclear fuel rods.
Landfill: A method for final disposal of solid waste
on land. The refuse is spread and compacted and a
cover of soil is applied so that effects on the environment
(including public health and safety) are minimized. An
industrial landfill disposes of non-hazardous industrial
wastes. A municipal landfill disposes of domestic
wastes including garbage, paper, etc.
LC: Liquid chromatography
Leachate: Liquids that have percolated through solid
waste or other mediums and has extracted dissolved or
suspended material from it. Leachate can be compared
to coffee: water that has percolated down through the
ground coffee.
Ligand: A molecule, ion, or atom that is attached to
the central atom of a coordination compound, a chelate,
or other complex.
Light non-aqueous phase liquid: A non-aqueous
phase liquid with a specific gravity less than 1.0.
Lignin: A phenylpropane polymer of amorphous
structure comprising 17-30% of wood.
Lignite: Brown coal. A low rank of coal between peat
and sub-bituminous, it contains 35-40% water.
Limit of detection (LOD): The concentration of a
chemical that has a 99% probability of producing an
analytical result above background "noise" using a
specific method.
Limit of quantitation (LOQ): The concentration of a
chemical that has a 99% probability of producing an
analytical result above the LOD. Results below the
LOQ are not quantitative.
Liquid: In a state between solid and gas, in which the
molecules move freely about one another but do not fly
apart
LNAPL: Light non-aqueous phase liquid
LOD: Limit of detection.
Lower detection limit: The smallest signal above
background noise an instrument can reliably detect.
M
Mass: The quantity of matter contained in a particle or
body regardless of its location in the universe.
Mass number (A): The number of neutrons and protons
in the nucleus of an atom.
Mass spectrometer: An instrument for producing and
measuring, usually by electrical means, a mass
spectrum. Sec mass spectrometry.
Mass spectrometry: A method of chemical analysis
in which the substance to be analyzed is heated and
placed in a vacuum. The resulting vapor is exposed to
a beam of electrons, which causes ionization to occur,
either of the molecules or their fragments. The ions
thus produced are accelerated by an electric impulse
and then passed through a magnetic field, where they
describe curved paths whose directions depend on the
speed and mass-to-charge ratio of the ions. This has
the effect of separating the ions according to their mass
(electromagnetic separation). Because of their greater
kinetic energy, the heavier ions describe a wider arc
than the lighter one and can be identified on this basis.
The ions are collected in appropriate devices as they
emerge from the magnetic field.
Mass spectroscopy: See mass spectrometry.
Mass spectrum: A characteristic pattern of ion
fragments of different masses resulting from analysis
that can be compared with a mass spectral library for
analyte identification.
Matric potential: That component of the water
potential of plants and soils that is due to the interaction
of the water with colloids and to capillary forces.
Matrix/medium: The predominant material
comprising the sample to be analyzed (e.g., drinking
water, sludge, air).
Matrix spike sample: A sample prepared by adding a
known mass of a target analyte to a specified amount
of matrix sample for which an independent estimate of
the target analyte concentration is available. Spiked
samples are used, for example, to determine the effect
of the matrix on a method's recovery efficiency.
Maximum contaminant level: The maximum level
of certain contaminants permitted in drinking water
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PAGE 9
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Glossary
supplied by a public water system as set by EPA under
the federal Safe Drinking Water Act.
MCL: Maximum contaminant level.
MDL: Method detection limit.
Melting point: The melting point or freezing point of
a pure substance is the temperature at which its crystals
are in equilibrium with the liquid phase at atmospheric
pressure. The terms "melting point" and "freezing
point" are often used interchangeably, depending on
whether the substance is being heated or cooled.
meq (mEq): Milliequivalent. A unit of measure,
applied to electrolytes, that expresses the combing
power of a substance.
Metal: Any of numerous opaque elementary
substances, possessing a peculiar lustre, fusibility,
conductivity for heat and electricity, readiness to form
positive ions.
Metalloid (non-metal, semiconductor): Element
having moderate electrical conductivity. Called
metalloids since they more nearly resemble metals.
Method: A body of procedures and techniques for
performing a task (e.g., sampling, characterization,
quantification) systematically presented in the order in
which they are to be executed.
Method blank: A clean sample processed
simultaneously with and under the same conditions as
samples containing an analyte of interest through all
steps of the analytical procedures.
Method detection limit (MDL): The detection limit
that takes into account the reagents, sample matrix, and
preparation steps applied to a sample in specific
analytical methods.
Mineral: A widely used general term referring to the
nonliving constituents of the earth's crust, which include
naturally occurring elements, compounds, and mixtures
that have a definite range of chemical composition and
properties.
Mineralogy: The science or study of minerals.
Miscibility: The ability of a liquid or gas to dissolve
uniformly in another liquid or gas.
Miscible: Capable of being mixed.
Miscible liquid: Two or more liquids that can be mixed
and will remain mixed under normal conditions.
Mole: The amount of pure substance containing the
same number of chemical units as there are atoms in
exactly 12 grams of carbon-12 (i.e., 6.023 * 1023).
Molecular mass: Sum of all the atomic masses.
Molecular weight: The sum of the atomic weights of
the atoms in a molecule.
Molecule: The smallest division of a compound that
still retains or exhibits all the properties of the substance.
MVV: Molecular weight; also monitoring well
N
NAAQS: National Ambient Air Quality Standards
NAICS: North American Industry Classification
System. Replaces the U.S. Standard Industrial
Classification (SIC) system.
NAPL: Non-aqueous phase liquid. Contaminants that
remain undiluted as the original bulk liquid in the
subsurface.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards: Maximum
air pollutant standard that EPA set under the Clean Air
Act for attainment by each state.
National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH): An organization that tests and
approves safety equipment for particular applications.
NIOSH is the primary Federal agency engaged in
research in the national effort to eliminate on-the-job
hazards to the health and safety of working people.
National Oil and Hazardous Substances
Contingency Plan (NCP): The federal regulation that
guides determination of the sites to be corrected under
both the Superfund program and the program to prevent
or control spills into surface waters or elsewhere.
National Priorities List (NPL): EPA's list of the most
serious uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites
identified for possible long-term remedial action under
Superfund.
NCP: National Contingency Plan or National Oil and
Hazardous Substances Contingency Plan.
Neutron: A fundamental particle of matter having a
mass of 1.009 but no electric charge.
NIOSH: National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health.
Nitrate (N03): A salt or ester of nitric acid, or any
compound containing the univalent group - 0N02, or
no3.
Nitrification: The process whereby ammonia in
wastewater is oxidized to nitrite and then to nitrate by
bacterial or chemical reactions.
Nitrite (N02): A salt or ester of nitrous acid.
Noble gas: Inert gas as helium, argon or neon.
Noise: The sum of random errors in the response of a
measuring instrument.
NOM: Natural organic material
Nonmetal: Any of a number of elements whose
electronic structure, bonding characteristics, and
consequent physical and chemical properties differ
markedly from those of metals, particularly in respect
to electronegativity and thermal and electrical
conductivity.
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Glossary
Nonorganic: See inorganic.
Nonpolar: A substance whose molecules possess no
permanent electric moments.
Nonpolar covalent bond: See bond, chemical.
Nonpolar molecule: A molecule with polar bonds that
does not have an overall dipole. The vector sum of its
dipoles is zero.
Nonpolar organic compounds: See organic and
nonpolar.
Nonvolatile organic chemical: An organic compound
with a saturation vapor pressure less than 10-8 kPa
(kiloPascal) at 25ฐC.
NPL: National Priorities List.
Nucleus: The positively charged central mass of an
atom, it contains essentially the total mass in the form
of protons and neutrons.
Nuclide: A species of atoms in which each atom has
identical atomic number Z and identical mass number
A.
o
Occupational Safety and Heath Administration
(OSHA): A Federal agency responsible for establishing
and enforcing standards for exposure to workers to
harmful materials in industrial atmospheres, and other
matters affecting the health and well-being of industrial
personnel.
Octanol/water partition coefficient (P): A coefficient
representing the ratio of the solubility of a compound
in octanol (a non-polar solvent) to its solubility in water
(a polar solvent). The higher the Kow, the more non-
polar the compound.
Octet rule: Atoms are most stable when there are eight
valence electrons.
ORD: Office of Research and Development
Organic compound: Any compound containing
carbon.
OSHA: Occupational Safety and Heath
Administration.
Oxidant: See oxidizing agent.
Oxidation: Originally meant a reaction in which
oxygen combines chemically with another substance,
but its usage has long been broadened to include any
reaction in which electrons are transferred.
Oxidation-reduction potential: The electric potential
required to transfer electrons from one compound (the
oxidant) or element to another compound (the
reductant); used as a qualitative measure of the state of
oxidation in water treatment systems.
Oxidizer: See oxidizing agent.
Oxidizing agent: Any substance, such as oxygen (02)
or chlorine (C12), that will readily add (take on)
electrons.
Oxidized: To have lost electrons.
P
PAH: Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
PARCC: Precision, accuracy, representativeness,
completeness and comparability
Partial pressure: The portion of total vapor pressure
in a system due to one or more constituents in the vapor
mixture.
Particles: Any discrete unit of material structure.
Particulates: 1. Fine liquid or solid particles such as
dust, smoke, mist, fumes, or smog found in air or
emissions. 2. Very small solids suspended in water.
Partition coefficient: Measure of the extent to which
a pesticide is divided between the soil and water phases.
Pathway: The physical course a chemical or pollutant
takes from its source to the exposed organism.
PCB: Polychlorinated biphenyl
PCDD: Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins
PCDF: Polychlorinated dibenzofurans
PCE: Perchloroethylene (Tetrachloroethene)
PCP: Pentachlorophenol
pE: Electron activity
PE sample: Performance evaluation sample. A sample
of known composition provided for laboratory analysis
to monitor laboratory and method performance.
Peat: A highly organic material found in marshy or
damp regions, composed of partially decayed vegetable
matter.
Ped: A naturally-formed unit or mass of soil, such as a
crumb, block or aggregate.
PEG: Polyethylene glycol
PEL: Permissible Exposure Limit
Percolation: The movement of water downward and
radially through subsurface soil layers, usually
continuing downward to ground water. Can also involve
upward movement of water.
Periodic table: A table illustrating the periodic system,
in which the chemical elements, formerly arranged in
their order of atomic weights and now according to their
atomic numbers, are shown in related groups.
Permeability: The rate at which liquids pass through
soil or other materials in a specified direction.
pH: A measure of the acidity of a solution. pH is
equal to the negative logarithm of the concentration of
hydrogen ions in a solution. A pH of 7 is neutral. Values
less than 7 are acidic, and values greater than 7 are basic.
CHEMISTRY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROFESSIONALS
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Glossary
Phase: One of the three states or conditions in which
substances can exist, i.e., solid, liquid, or gas (vapor).
Phenols: A class of aromatic organic compounds in
which one or more hydroxyl groups are attached directly
to the benzene ring.
Phenyl: The univalent C6H5+ group derived from
benzene and characteristic of phenol and other
derivatives.
Photochemical reaction: Any chemical reaction that
is initiated as a result of absorption of light.
Photochemical smog: Air pollution associated with
oxidants rather than with sulfur oxides, particulates, etc.
Photon: The unit (quantum) of electromagnetic
radiation.
Plu me: A visible or measurable discharge of a
contaminant from a given point of origin.
Polar: Descriptive of a molecule in which the positive
and negative electrical charges are permanently
separated, as opposed to nonpolar molecules in which
the charges coincide.
Polar covalent bond: See bond, chemical.
Polar molecule: A molecule with a positive charge on
one end and a negative charge on its other end.
Polar organic compounds: Sec polar and organic
compound.
Polarity: The positive or negative state in which a body
reacts to a magnetic, electric, or other field.
Pollutant: Generally, any substance introduced into
the environment that adversely affects the usefulness
of a resource or the health of humans, animals or
ecosystems.
Polymer: A natural or synthetic chemical structure
where two or more like molecules are joined to form a
more complex molecular structure (e.g., polyethylene
in plastic).
Porosity: Degree to which soil, gravel, sediment, or
rock is permeated with pores or cavities through which
water or air can move.
Potentiometric line: See potentiometric surface.
Potentiometric surface: The level to which water will
rise in cased wells or other cased excavations into
aquifers.
ppb: Parts per billion. One ppb equals one unit
measurement per billion units of the same measurement.
ppm: Parts per million. One ppm equals one unit
measurement per million units of the same
measurement.
PQL: Practical Quantitation Limit
Practical quantitation limit (PQL): The lowest
quantitation level of a given analyte that can be reliably
achieved among laboratories within the specified limits
of precision and accuracy of a given analytical method
during routine operating conditions.
Precipitate: A substance separated from a solution or
suspension by chemical or physical change.
Precipitation: Separation of a new phase from solid,
liquid, or gaseous solutions.
Precision: The measure of the agreement among
individual measurements of the same property, under
prescribed similar conditions.
Pressure: The force or load per unit area.
Preservation of mass: See conservation of mass.
Primary: In reference to monohydric alcohols, amines,
and a few related compounds, this term, together with
secondary and tertiary, describes, the molecular
structure of isomeric or chemically similar individuals.
Monohydric alcohols are based on the methanol group
in which three of the bonds of the methanol carbon may
be attached either to hydrogen atoms or to alkyl groups.
A primary alcohol has one alky group and two
hydrogens, except methanol, in which all three bonds
are to hydrogen atoms. A secondary alcohol has two
alkyl groups and one hydrogen. A tertiary alcohol has
three alkyl groups, e.g. The three types can be readily
identified by the number of hydrogen atoms attached
to the central (methanol) carbon atom; if it is two or
more, the alcohol is primary; if one, it is secondary;
and if zero, it is tertiary.
Proton: A fundamental unit of matter having a positive
charge and a mass number of 1.
psi: Abbreviation for pounds per square inch.
Purging: Removing stagnant air or water from a
sampling zone or equipment prior to sample collection.
Pyrite: Iron pyrite. Fool's gold. FeS2.
Q
QA: Quality assurance
QAM: Quality assurance manager
QAPP or QAPjP: Quality assurance program (or
project) plan
QA/QC: Quality assurance/quality control
QC: Quality xontrol
QMP: Quality management plan
QMS: Quality management system
Qualified data: Any data that have been modified or
adjusted as part of statistical or mathematical evaluation,
data validation, or data verification operations.
Quality: The totality of features and characteristics of
a product or service that bears on its ability to meet the
stated or implied needs and expectations of the user.
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Glossary
Quality assurance: An integrated system of
management activities involving planning,
implementation, assessment, reporting, and quality
improvement to ensure that a process, item, or service
is of the type and quality needed and expected by the
client.
Quality assurance program (or project) plan: A
formal technical document containing the detailed
procedures for assuring the quality of environmental
data prepared for each EPA environmental data
collection activity and approved prior to collecting the
data.
Quality control (QC): The overall system of technical
activities whose purpose is to measure and control the
quality of a product or service so that it meets the needs
of users. The aim is to provide quality that is
satisfactory, adequate, dependable, and economical.
Quality management plan (QMP): A formal
document describing the management policies,
objectives, principles, organizational authority,
responsibilities, accountability, and implementation
protocols of an agency, organization, or laboratory for
ensuring quality in its products and utility to its users.
Quality management system: A management system
for ensuring that quality goals are attained.
Quantitation limit: The lowest level at which a
chemical can be accurately and reproducibly
quantitated. Usually equal to the instrument detection
limit multiplied by a factor of three to five, but varies
for different chemicals and different samples.
Quantum number: The quantum is the basic unit of
electromagnetic energy; it characterizes the wave
properties of electrons, as distinct from their particulate
properties. An electron has four quantum numbers that
define its properties. These are as follows: 1) The
principal quantum number is a constant that can be any
positive integer (n= 1,2,3,...). It determines the principal
energy level, or shell, of the electron, sometimes
designated by letters such as K, L, or M, depending on
the value of the principal quantum number. 2) The
angular momentum constant /, also an integer, is related
tonas:/ = 0, 1 // 1. Here again, letter designations
are often used in s electrons / = 0, in/? electrons /= 1, in
J electrons / = 2, and in / electrons I =3. 3) The magnetic
quantum number m is an integer related to I as m = -1,
. .., - I, 0, +/,..., +1. 4) The spin quantum number is
independent of the other three and has a value of either
+1/2 or -1/2, depending on the direction of rotation of
the electron on its axis in the atomic frame of reference.
Quantum Theory: Any theory predating quantum
mechanics that encompassed Planck's radiation formula
and a scheme for obtaining discrete energy states for
atoms, as Bohr theory.
R
Rd or Rd: Retardation factor
Radiation: Transmission of energy though space or
any medium. Also known as radiant energy.
Radicals: An ionic group having one or more charges,
either positive or negative, e.g., OH~, NH4+, S04".
Random error: The deviation of an observed value
from a true value, which behaves like a variable in that
any particular value occurs as though chosen at random
from a probability distribution of such errors. The
distribution of random error is generally assumed to be
normal.
RCRA: Resource Conservation and Recovery Act.
Reaction: See chemical reaction.
Reagent: A substance or solution used in a chemical
reaction, especially those used in laboratory work to
detect, measure, or produce other substances.
Receptor: In exposure assessment: an organism that
receives, may receive, or has received environmental
exposure to a chemical.
Record of decision: A public document that explains
which cleanup alternative was selected for a Superfiind
site.
Redox: Short for oxidation-reduction.
Redox potential: See oxidation-reduction potential.
Reduced: In a state of reduction.
Reducer: Reducing agent.
Reducing agent: Any substance, such as base metal
(iron) or the sulfide ion (S2-), that will readily donate
(give up) electrons.
Reduction: The addition of hydrogen, removal of
oxygen, or addition of electrons to an element or
compound.
Remedial action: The actual construction or
implementation phase of a Superfiind site cleanup that
follows remedial design.
Remedial design: A phase of remedial action that
follows the remedial investigation/feasibility study and
includes development of engineering drawings and
specifications for a site cleanup.
Remedial investigation (RI): A process of collecting
data to characterize site and waste and for conducting
treatability testing as necessary to evaluate the
performance and cost of the treatment technologies and
support the design of selected remedies.
Remedial response: See remediation.
Remediation: Cleanup or other methods used to
remove or contain a toxic spill or hazardous materials
from a Superfund site.
Removal: See removal action.
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Glossary
Removal action: Short-term immediate actions taken
to address releases of hazardous substances that require
expedited response. See cleanup.
Representative sample: A portion of material or water
that is as nearly identical in content and consistency as
possible to that in the larger body of material or water
being sampled.
Representativeness: The degree to which the data
collected accurately reflect the actual concentration or
distribution.
Retardation: Preferential retention of contaminant
movement in the subsurface resulting from absorptive
processes or solubility differences.
RgasD: Relative density of gases referenced to air = 1
(indicates how many times a gas is heavier than air at
the same temperature).
RI/FS: Remedial Investigation/Feasibility Study
s
Salt: The compound formed when the hydrogen of an
acid is replaced by a metal or its equivalent. Example:
HCl + NaOH NaCl + H20.
Sample quantitation limit (SQL): The detection limit
that accounts for sample characteristics, sample
preparation and analytical adjustments, such as dilution.
Sampling and analysis plan (SAP): A document
consisting of a quality assurance project plan, and the
field sampling plan, which provides guidance for all
field sampling and analytical activities that will be
performed.
Sand: Soil particles between 0.05 and 2.0 mm in
diameter.
SAP: Sampling and analysis plan
SARA: Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization
Act of 1986
Saturated hydrocarbon: A hydrocarbon in which all
available valence bonds of the atoms (especially carbon)
are attached to other atoms.
Saturated solution: The state of a solution when it
holds the maximum equilibrium quantity of dissolved
matter at a given temperature.
Saturated zone: The area below the water table where
all open spaces are filled with water under pressure equal
or greater than that of the atmosphere.
Saturation point: The point at which a substance will
receive no more of another substance or solution,
chemical combination, etc.
SC: Specific conductance
SD: Standard deviation
Secondary: See primary.
Semivolatile organic compound: An organic
compound with a saturation vapor pressure between
10"2 and 10"8 kPa at 25ฐC.
SFC: Supercritical-fluid chromatography
SI: Systeme Internationale
SIC: Standard Industrial Classification
Significant digits: All the nonzero digits of a number
and the zeros that are included between them, or that
are final zeros and signify accuracy.
Silt: Soil particles between 0.05 and 0.002 mm in
diameter.
Site: An area or place within the jurisdiction of EPA
and/or a state.
SITE: Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation
Program.
Slag: Fused agglomerate (usually high in silicates) that
separates in melt smelting and floats on the surface of
molten metal. Formed by combination of flux with
gangue of ore, ash of fuel, and perhaps furnace lining.
Slag is often the medium by means of which impurities
may be separated from metal.
Smelter: A facility that melts or fuses ore, often with
an accompanying chemical change, to separate its metal
content. "Smelting" is the process involved.
Smelting: Heat treatment of an ore to separate the
metallic portion with subsequent reduction.
Smog: Air pollution typically associated with oxidants.
(See: photochemical smog.)
Smoke: Particles suspended in air after incomplete
combustion.
SMOW: Standard mean ocean water. Used as a
chemical and isotopic reference standard, for example
in oxygen-isotope analysis.
Soil gas: Gaseous elements and compounds in the small
spaces between particles of the earth and soil.
Solid: Matter in its most highly concentrated form,
i.e., the atoms or molecules are much more closely
packed than in gases or liquids and thus more resistant
to deformation.
Solubility: Ability of a material (solute) to dissolve in
a solvent at a specified temperature.
Solute: One or more substances dissolved in another
substance, called the solvent; the solute is uniformly
dispersed in the solvent in the form of either molecules
(sugar) or ions (salt), the resulting mixture comprising
a solution.
Solution: A liquid mixture of dissolved substances.
In a solution it is impossible to see all the separate parts.
Solvent: A substance capable of dissolving another
substance (solute) to form a uniformly dispersed mixture
(solution) at the molecular- or ionic-size level.
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Glossary
SOP(s): Standard operating procedure(s)
Sorption: A general term used to encompass the
processes of absorption, adsorption, ion exchange, and
chemisorption.
Source: Any thing or place from which something
comes, arises, or is obtained.
Specific conductance: Rapid method of estimating
the dissolved solid content of a water supply by testing
its capacity to carry an electrical current.
Specific gravity: The ratio of density of a substance to
the density of a reference substance; it is an abstract
number that is unrelated to any units.
Spectroscopic: Using or obtained by spectroscopy.
Spectroscopy: A branch of analytical chemistry
devoted to identification of elements and elucidation
of atomic and molecular structure by measurement of
the radiant energy absorbed or emitted by a substance
in any of the wavelengths of the electromagnetic
spectrum in response to excitation by an external source.
Spectrum: The radiant energy emitted by a substance
as a characteristic band of wavelengths by which it can
be identified.
Sp.gr.: Specific gravity
Spring: Groundwater seeping out of the earth where
the water table intersects the ground surface.
Spiked sample: See matrix spike sample.
SQL: Sample quantitation limit
Standard deviation: The measure of dispersion of a
set of data. Specifically, given a set of measurements,
xl, x2. ..., xn. the standard deviation is defined to be
the sum of l/(n-I)*(xi-xbar)A2 from 1 ton.
Standard operating procedures (SOPs): A written
document which details an operation, analysis, or action
whose mechanisms are thoroughly prescribed.
Standard pressure: 1 atm.
Standard temperature: 0ฐC.
STP: Standard temperature and pressure
Stressors: Physical, chemical, or biological entities
that can induce adverse effects on ecosystems or
humans.
Strong acid/base: See acid, strong/weak; and base,
strong/weak.
Structural formula: See chemical formula.
s.u.: Standard units
Sublimation: The direct passage of a substance from
solid to vapor without appearing in the intermediate
(liquid) state.
Substance: Any chemical element or compound. All
substances arc characterized by a unique and identical
constitution and are thus homogenous.
Substitution reaction: A chemical reaction in which
one element or radical is replaced by another.
Sulfate: The salt of sulfuric acid, as in sodium sulfate.
Sulfide: A compound of an element or radical with
sulfur.
Supercritical fluid: A dense gas that is maintained
above its critical temperature (the temperature above
which it cannot be liquefied by pressure).
Superfund: The program operated under the legislative
authority of CERCLA and SARA that funds and carries
out EPA solid waste emergency and long-term removal
and remedial activities. These activities include
establishing the National Priorities List, investigating
sites for inclusion on the list, determining their priority,
and conducting and/or supervising cleanup and other
remedial actions.
Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation
Program: EPA program to promote development and
use of innovative treatment and site characterization
technologies in Superfund site cleanups.
Surface water: All water naturally open to the
atmosphere (rivers, lakes, reservoirs, ponds, streams,
impoundments, seas, estuaries, etc.)
SW-846: SW-846, also known as Solid Waste Test
Methods, is provided by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) via the Office of Solid Waste.
SW-846 contains the test methods for solid waste
evaluation, physical and chemical.
Systematic error: A consistent deviation in the results
of sampling and/or analytical processes from the
expected or known value. Such error is caused by
humans and methodological bias.
1
TCA: Trichloroethane
TCE: Trichloroethylene (trichloroethene)
TDS: Total dissolved solids.
Titrant: The reagent added in a titration.
Titrate: To titrate a sample, a chemical solution of
known strength is added on a drop-by-drop basis until
a certain color change, precipitate, or pH change in the
sample is observed (end point). Titration is the process
of adding the chemical reagent in increments until
completion of the reaction, as signaled by the end point.
Titration: Any of a number of methods for determining
volumetrically the concentration of a desired substance
in solution by adding a standard solution of known
volume and strength until the reaction is completed,
usually as indicated by a change in color due to an
indicator.
Titrimetric: Using or obtained by titration.
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Glossary
Titrimetry: Technique which uses the amount of an
analyte consumed by a reagent to quantify chemicals.
Total dissolved solids: The quantity of dissolved
material in a given volume of water.
Total head: Sum of elevation head, pressure head, and
velocity head of a liquid.
Total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH): Measure of
the concentration or mass of petroleum hydrocarbon
constituent present in a given amount of soil or water.
TPH: Total petroleum hydrocarbons
T rip blank: A clean sample of matrix that is carried to
the sampling site and transported to the laboratory for
analysis without having been exposed to sampling
procedures.
Troilite: A mineral, iron sulfide, FeS, occurring in
meteorites.
u
Unconfined aquifer: An aquifer containing water that
is not under pressure; the water level in a well is the
same as the water table outside the well.
Unsaturated: The state in which not all the available
valence bonds along the alkyl chain are satisfied; in
such compounds the extra bonds usually form double
or triple bonds (chiefly with carbon).
Unsaturated hydrocarbon: See unsaturated.
Unsaturated zone: The area above the water table
where soil pores are not fully saturated, although some
water may be present.
Upper detection limit: The largest concentration that
an instrument can reliably detect.
USGS: United States Geological Service
UST: Underground storage tank
UV: Ultraviolet
V
Vadose zone: The zone between land surface and the
water table within which moisture content is less than
saturation (except in the capillary fringe) and pressure
is less than atmospheric. Soil pore space also typically
contains air or other gases. The capillary fringe is
included in the vadose zone.
Valence: A whole number that represents or denotes
the combining power of one element with another.
Valence electrons: The electrons in the outermost shell
of an atom determining chemical properties.
Van der Waals forces: Weak attractive forces acting
between molecules.
Vapor: The gas given off by substances that are solids
or liquids at ordinary atmospheric pressure and
temperatures.
Vapor density: Weight of a vapor per unit volume at
any given temperature and pressure.
Vapor pressure (v.p.): The force per unit area exerted
by a vapor in an equilibrium state with its pure solid,
liquid, or solution at a given temperature. Vapor
pressure is a measure of a substance's propensity to
evaporate.
Variance: A measure of dispersion. It is the sum of
the squares of the differences between the individual
values and the arithmetic mean of the set, divided by
one less than the number of values.
VC: Vinyl chloride
VOC: Volatile organic compound.
Volatile: Any substance that evaporates readily.
Volatile liquid: Liquids which easily vaporize or
evaporate at room temperature.
Volatile organic compound (VOC): Any
hydrocarbon, except methane and ethane, with vapor
pressure equal to or greater than 0.1 mm Hg.
Volumetric titrimetry (titration): A means of
measuring unknown concentrations of water quality
indicators in a sample by determining the volume of
titrant or liquid reagent needed to complete particular
reactions.
VP: Vapor pressure
W
Waste piles: Non-containerized, lined or unlined
accumulations of solid, nonflowing waste.
Water table (watertable): The level of groundwater.
Weak acid/base: See acid, strong/weak; base, strong/
weak.
Weight: The force that gravitation exerts upon a body,
equal to the mass of the body times the local acceleration
of gravity.
Well: A bored, drilled, or driven shaft, or a dug hole
whose depth is greater than the largest surface
dimension and whose purpose is to reach underground
water supplies or oil.
Wilting point: The point at which the water content of
the soil becomes to low to prevent the permanent wilting
of plants.
Wood treatment facility: An industrial facility that
treats lumber and other wood products for outdoor use.
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