Collection Of Papers From Third Japan-United States Governmental Conference On Solid Waste Management

COLLECTION OF PAPERS FROM THIRD JAPAN - UNITED STATES GOVERNMENTAL CONFERENCE ON SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT Compiled by H. Lanier Hickman, Jr. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Solid Waste Management Programs June 1976 ------- 09764 INDEX Subject Matter Page No. Introduction i 1. Status Report of.Solid Waste Management 1.1 Japan Paper: Brief Summary and Up-to-Date Status of Solid Waste Management in Japan (by Maomi Yamashita) 1.1.1 1.2 U.S. Paper: Status Report on Solid Waste Management in the United States (by H. Lanier Hickman, Jr.) 1.2.1 2., Environmental Effects of Improper Disposal of Solid Waste on the Land 2.1 Japan Papers: 2.1.1 Environmental Effects of Improper Disposal of Solid Waste on Land (by Sachiho Naito and Prof. Masataka Hanashima) 2.1.1.1 2.1.2 The Drainage Water Control Plant (by Yoshinori Maekawa) . . 2.1.2.1 2.2 U.S. Paper: Environmental Effects of Improper Disposal of Solid Waste on Land (by Truett V. DeGeare) 2.2.1 3. Pyrolysis of Solid Waste 3.1 Japan Paper: Pyrolysis of Solid Waste (by Masakatsu Hiraoka and Mitsutaka Kawamura) 3.1.1 3.2 U.S. Paper: A Review of the Status of Pyrolysis as a Means of Recovering Energy from Municipal Solid Waste (by Steven J. Levy) 3.2.1 4. Hazardous Waste Treatment and Disposal Technology 4.1 Japan Papers: 4.1.1 Countermeasure for Disposal of Industrial Waste Containing Hazardous Substances (by Tokuji Murata) 4.1.1.1 ------- 2 Subject Matter (cont.) Page No. (cont.) 4.1.2 Landfill Disposal ^^ho^ fpr Hazardous Wastes, Especially for Chromium Ore Residye^ (by Nubuo Mutoh) . . p 4.1.2.1 4.2 U.S. Paper: Hazardous Wast^e Management in the U.S. (by ' William San jour) . .4.2.1 5. Improvement of Refuse Collection 5.1 Japan Papers: 5.1.1 Present Situation of Refuse Collection and Transportation in Japar} (by Masaru Tanaka and Akira Shimazaki) 5.1.1.1 5.1.2 Improvement of Refuse Collection System (by Mitsuo Moronaga) . . . 5.1.2.1 5.1.3 Separate Collection of Household Refuse in Tokyp (by Junji Asano and Hiroshi Miyazawa) 5.1.3.1 5.2 U.S. Paper: Solid Wapte Collection Systems in the U.S. (by Kenneth A. Shuster; presented by Truett V. DeGeare) 5.2.1 6. Recovery from Post Consumer Wastes 6.1 Japan Paper: Resource Recovery from Post-Consumer Waste in Japan (by Kunitoshi Sakurai) 6.1.1 6.2 U.S. Paper: Materials Recovery from Post-Consumer Solid Waste (by Steven J. Levy) . . 6.2.1 7. Environmental Effects of PVC and VC 7.1 Japan Papers: 7.1.1 Report of the Committee for Investigation pf £hje Control of Emission Gas from Urban Refus^ Incineration Facilities (by Hirqyt}ki Sakabe). ............ 7.1.1.1 ------- 3 Subject Matter (cont.) Page No. (cont.) 7.1.2 Outline of Melt-Reclaim Process at Funabashi Laboratory (by Toyotsugu Aoyagi) 7.1.2.1 7.1.3 Disposal of Plastics Waste (by Tadayuki Morishita) 7.1.3.1 7.2 U.S. Paper: A Preliminary Examination of Vinyl Chloride Emissions from Polymerization Sludges During Handling and Land Disposal by R. A. Markle, R. B. Iden, F. A. Sliemers, and Alessi D. Otte; presented by William Sanjour) 7.2.1 ------- INTRODUCTION During the weeks of May 10 and 17, 1976/ the U.S. and Japan participated in the Third Joint Japan - U.S. Govern- mental Conference on Solid Waste Management. The conference was a three-day affair in Tokyo followed by 5 days of site visits in the Tokyo, Yokahama, Kyoto, Kobe, and Osaka areas. This conference is an outgrowth of decisions made at the Second U.S. - Japan Ministerial Conference on Pollution Control held in Washington, D.C. in July 1971. The first solid waste management conference was held in 1973 in Japan, and the second was held in Washington, D.C. in 1974. The earlier conferences were directed at discussions of the solid waste management policies and practices in each country. General policy discussions were held in the areas of legislation, regulation, disposal collection, resource recovery, and hazardous wastes management. The third conference was dramatically different in that general policy discussions were held to a minimum and 6 mini-conferences of one day each in length on specific solid waste management technical problems were the major focus of the conference. Technical specialists devoted 6-8 hours of discussion on the following 6 areas: - Pyrolysis of solid waste - Environmental effects of PVC and VC - Improved collection systems - Environmental effects of improper land disposal practices - Hazardous waste treatment and disposal technology - Recovery of post consumer waste The U.S. delegates to the conference were: H. Lanier Hickman, Jr. Director of Operations for Solid Waste Management Programs (Delegation Chairman) Truett V. DeGeare Chief, Technology Applications Branch Systems Management Division i ------- ii Steven J. Levy Sanitary Engineer Resource Recovery Division Williain San jour Chief, Technology Branch Hazardous Wastes Management Division This collection includes all papers given at the conference. They are reproduced as is without any attempt to improve on the translations or to clarify statements given. ------- BRIEF SUMMARY AND UP-TO-DATE STATUS OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN JAPAN The Third Japan-l'.S. Conference on Solid Waste Management Ministry of Health and Welfare ------- CONTENTS Page 1. History of Administration of Solid Waste Management ... 1 2. Present Status of Waste Management . 2 2.1 General Waste 2 2.2 Industrial Waste 12 3. Fourth Five Year National Program for Waste Treatment .. 20 and Disposal 4. Problems" Challenging the Solid Waste Management 29 4.1 Measures for Prevention of Pollutions in Solid 29 Waste Management 4.2 Harmony of Waste Management Facilities with 36 Envi rons 4.3 Conversion to Resources and Reuse of Wastes 39 4.4 Information Management System for Industrial Wastes .. 47 ------- Brief Summary and Up-to-date Status of Solid Waste Management in Japan 1. History of Administration on Solid Waste Management According to the records of the Edo period, a waste pit was provided in front of Eidai in .1662, with officers appointed specifically for control of random discard of wastes. Later, early in the Meiji period when infectious diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever were prevalent, the waste management was taken up from the standpoint of public health as it was related to the prevention of/ such diseases with a hygienic management aimed at. Particularly, with development of the industries in our country after the Sino-Japanese War, the population tended to flow into the cities, and such situation posed a problem of environmental pollution resulting from deposition of wastes in cities. Thus, in 1900, a "Filth Cleansing Law" was promulgated, and under the law, the waste management was placed upon the responsibility of the municipalities. After the Second World War or, more specifically, from about 1949, the chemical fertilizers had come to be used extensively, while the living mode in the rural area changed drastically. This resulted in a sharp decline of the demand for human waste as a fertilizer. On the other hand, with development of our country, the cities had the structure changed greatly. To carry out the cleaning scheme conforming to such new social situation, the Filth Cleansing Law was abolished, and a new Public Cleansing Law was enacted in 1954. 14 r \| ------- Thereafter, with expansion of the industrial activities in our country or, more specifically, remarkable development of the coal and petrochemical industries on one hand and improvement of the standard of living of the people on the other, the wastes thus emitted have increased greatly in the quantity and changed in the quality. Particularly, most of the industrial wastes have come to include hazardous and hardly manageable substances and caused pollutions. In- view of such situation, it was intended to drastically revise the Public Cleansing Law for adequate management of the wastes with the responsibility for management of industrial wastes placed upon the enterprisers and the area of manage- ment of ordinary wastes extended over the whole area of jurisdiction of the respective cities and towns. Thus, a "Waste Disposal and Public Cleansing Law" was enacted on 18 December 1970 and enforced effective 24 September 1971 with promulgation of the related cabinet and ministerial ordinances. 2. Present Status of Waste Management 2.1 General Waste (1) Management of general waste The wastes are classified largely into the "general waste" produced as the result of daily living of the people such as human waste and garbage and the "industrial waste" produced incident to the business activity such as cinder, sludge, waste oil, waste acid, waste alkali and waste plastics. I. i." 2 ~ ------- Tables 2-1 and 2-2 show the status of waste treatment. As seen, the amount of waste increased at a rate of about 10 percent annually from 1968, but the rate of Increase declined for the first time in 1973. The waste treatment has so far been carried out according to the principle or method of reducing the volume by incineration and thus stabilizing the waste then disposing the ash of incineration for reclamation. As of the end of fiscal 1973, the waste to be disposed of by incineration constituted about 47.5 percent of the planned amount of gathering. Hereafter, it will be necessary to consider any other method of management than incineration such as utilization of heat produced at the incinerator, composting or fractional gathering system, and regeneration as a resource of those wastes which are reusable among the sorted wastes. It will also be required for treatment of wastes such as gar- bage and human waste to take all possible measures including removal of soot in the emission gas and treatment of drainage and thus pre- vent air, water and other environmental pollutions. While the management of general waste is carried out as de- scribed in the foregoing, the form of management varies with the - cities and towns due to their historical and social differences. Such management works are divided largely into those carried out directly by the cities and towns and those by the contractors. Table 2-3 shows the collection of wastes by the form of work. ------- (2) Status of general waste treatment facilities The status of the facilities for treatment of general waste is shown in Tables 2-4 and 2-5. At the beginning of fiscal 1974, the waste treatment facilities numbered 1637 with a total capacity of 105,633 tons of waste per day or about 12.1 times that of 1960. By the scale, the facilities with a capacity less than 100 tons/day constitute about 83 percent of which the batch type is as many as about 97 percent. The facilities for treatment of bulky refuse are divided mainly into those crushing the combustible refuse, those compacting the incombustible refuse and those treating both of these refuse. At the beginning of fiscal 1974 or April 1974, these facilities totaled 126. Table 2-6 shows the status of high rate composting facilities during the past five years. In fiscal 1971, 18 facilities were in operation, and they tended to decrease year after year to only 8 in 1974, but in 1975 they ceased to decrease, and this should be noted from the relationship with the reconsideration of high rate composting facilities. Now looking the financial support of the government to the construction of general waste treatment facilities, the appropria- tion in the general accounts of the government for fiscal 1975, the last year of the waste treatment program, had the scale suppressed for restriction of the total demand for public works as in 1974, i.O - ------- but for expediting the improvement of living environment, the subsidies to the local public organizations for construction of the waste treatment facilities showed a growth of 25 percent against the previous year with appropriations of ¥3,900,000,000 for human (o, 0<«7 t>op cO waste treatment facilities, ¥18,2 Ou, 000,00(7 for refuse treatment facilities and ¥1,400,000,000 for the other ministries and agencies. In the plan of financial investments and loans for fiscal 1975, ¥105,000,000,000 was appropriated for the general waste management works of the local public organizations (32.8 percent increase over the previous year). It comprises ¥28,200,000,000 for human waste treatment facilities, ¥74,800,000,000 for refuse treatment facilities and ¥2,000,000,000 for collection and transport vehicles. (3) Investigations on general waste management Investigation and study conducted in 1974: a. Study on technical development of waste disposal In 1974, the investigation on technical development of waste disposal by reclamation was carried out (1972-1976 project). This included investigation of the change with time of conditions of refuse in reclaimed land and pursuit of the technical feasibility of aerobic reclamation promising as a new method of reclamation. b. Study on waste management system for medium and small cities This study was designed for a measure to resolve the waste problem which seemed to be fundamental among other problems in U.5 " ------- the present day urban society with medium and small cities as a model and was carried out continuously from 1972. In 1974, the results of study during the past two years were summarized, and what was thought to be most important, that is, Waste Information Management System, was tested, and the feasibility of application of- the results from the medium and small cities to the cities of the scale as specified by the cabinet ordinance was examined. - ------- Table 2-1 Status of Refuse Management 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 Reference area population 80,592,000 84,694,000 99,127,000 101,037,000 106,645,000 Discharge per man per day 870 g 909 g 841 g 908 g 891 g Total discharge of refuse 70,115 100.0 76,998 100.0 83,328 100.0 91,757 100.0 . 95,052 100.0 t/day % t/day % t/day % t/day % t/day % Volumes Incineration 35,758 51. 7 42,559 55.3 37,717 45.3 42,604 46.5 45,170 47.5 collec ted as Reclamation 24,688 35. 3 25,715 33.5 27,543 33.1 30,587 33.3 32,003 33. 7 planned High rate 677 1.0 548 0. 7 513 0.6 408 0.4 249 0.3 compos ting Composting 106 0.1 36 0.0 224 0.2 54 0.1 20 0.0 Feed 102 0.1 96 0.1 42 0.1 32 0.0 23 0.0 Miscellaneous 988 1.4 945 1.2 1,089 0. 3 1,859 2.0 1,582 1.7 Total 62,319 88.9 69,899 90.8 67,128 80.6 75,544 82.3 79,047 83.2 Self disposal 7,706 11.1 7,099 9. 2 16,200 19.4 16,213 17. 7 16,005 16.8 Delivered direc tly 10 ,586 8, 786 22 ,767 24 ,926 27,186 In and after 1971, the area for which the local public organization is responsible for management was enlarged. ------- f Table 2-2 Flow Chart of Refuse Management (Fiscal 1973, countrywide) (Unit: ton/day) Living system Business system 249 High rate composting 249 ------- Table 2-3 Form of Refuse Collection (10 large cities) Year 1971 1972 1973 Country^ wide By cities and towns Direct t/day % 49,824 74.3 t/day % 54,991 72.8 t/day % 54,932 69.5 Contract 11,309 16.8 13,909 18.4 15,545 19.7 By licensed contractors 5,994 8.9 6,644 8.8 8,570 10.8 Total 67,127 100.0 75,544 100.0 79,047 100.0 ------- Table 2-4 Status of Refuse Treatment Facilities (Based on the construction work started; Countrywide total) Year Refuse incinerators Bulky refuse treatment facilities Number Capacity (t/day) Number (units) Capacity (t/day) 1965 1,409 20,736 - - 1970 1,293 53,998 4* 96* 1972 1,473 96,066 - - 1973 - - 126* 5,406* 1974 1,645 110,745 - - * Figures on operation basis. ** Figures as of the end of December, 1974. hU° - ------- Table 2-5 Refuse Incinerators by Scale and Type (As of the end of December, 1974) Type Scale^-^ (t/day) Type Total Batch type Continuous type 19 or less 833 0 833 20 49 493 3 496 50 ^ 99 183 50 233 100 * 199 36 108 144 200 'b 399 8 71 79 400 ^ 799 1 36 37 800 or more 0 9 9 Total 1,604 277 1,881 Table 2-6 Status of High Rate Composting Facilities Year Number of facilities Capacity 1971 18 t/day 726 1972 12 456 1973 10 356 1974 8 290 1975 8 290 M.ll - ------- 2.2 Industrial Waste (1) Status of industrial waste management Discharge of the industrial waste is estimated, when the results of surveys conducted independently by the local governments are accumulated, at about 320,000,000 tons/year throughout the country as shown in Table 2-7. The largest is the construction waste materials at 78,300,000 tons or about one-fourth of the whole, followed by sludge, waste acid and alkali, slag, livestock excre- tions and livestock carcasses. Management of the industrial wastes is the responsibility of the enterprisers who discharge them, while the municipalities are allowed to manage the industrial wastes along with the general wastes, and the local governments are allowed to manage the indus- trial wastes of which a wide range management is required. Thus, some local governments provide management of the industrial wastes where it is required for conservation of the living environment, and other local governments are really conducting the management works. The governors are required to determine a plan for management of industrial wastes in their respective areas of jurisdiction, and as of 1 March 1976, 33 local governments have such a plan formulated already. In such management plan, establishmemt of a management system conforming to the industrial structure in ,the particular area is intended such as, for example, independent or joint manage- ment and management by area or by type or line of industry. I-!" - ------- The industrial waste management contractors desiring to per- form the collection, carriage or disposal of industrial waste must have a permission granted by the governor or the mayor of the city having a health center installed. The status of such permissions i9 illustrated in Table 2-7. Further, for installation of an industrial waste treatment facility, report must be made to the governor before start of its construction, and the status of such reports is illustrated in Table 2-8. For such industrial waste management contractors and installation of industrial waste treat- ment facilities, a system of loan from the governmental financial organizations such as Environmental Pollution Control Service Corporation and Smaller Business Finance Corporation is presented, and tax benefits are also granted. For improvement of the quality of industrial waste management contractors, trainings authorized by minister of Health and Welfare are opened various parts of country. (2) Study of the problems concerning industrial waste management For adequate management of the industrial wastes, it is neces- sary to seek the comments of the circles concerned and take appro- priate and effective measures. Thus, on 5 November 1973, a "Con- ference on Industrial Waste Management Problems" was established as a private council of the Minister of Health and Welfare. The Con- ference had several meetings to discuss what form would be prefer- able for the industrial waste management system in the future. On 13 August 1974, it had an interim report submitted from its special panels (system panel and engineering panel) on the way of measures mainly from the academic point of view. Based on such I.-1.13 - ------- report, it formulated specific plans and presented a final report to the Minister on 8 December 1975. This final report discusses, in essence, the following measures as a basic direction of management of the industrial wastes: (1) Restraining the discharge through control of the processes of generation of industrial wastes; (2) Enclosure of the wastes in the production system through promotion of regeneration; (3) Executing an environmental assessment for installation of a new plant; and (4) Deployment of policies extending over the industrial policies such as directed toward reduction of the generation of wastes with respect to the industrial structure in the future. It discusses further that when the present status of waste management is looked upon such fundamental direction, the following measures will be required: i. Revision of the legal system concerning the waste manage- ment, ii. Policy directed toward reinforcing the encouraging measures, iii. Furtherance of the control function concerning the indus- trial waste management at the center, iv. Improvement of the industrial waste management mechanism with participation of public organizations at the local level, and v. Expansion of the administrative system. The report is of significance for the future of the industrial waste management in our country and will be studied carefully in the field of administration. 1-4.14 -> ------- (3) Investigation and study on industrial wastes management The industrial waste management has now a more or less satis- factory legal system provided, but actually, it is hardly operated appropriately. Under such situation, investigations and researches concerning industrial waste management are carried out for develop- ment and improvement of the treatment technology and collection of necessary information to serve for study of countermeasures in the future (Reference Table 2-10). M.15 " ------- Table 2-7 Discharge of Industrial Wastes throughout the Country (Annual) Kind of Industrial waste Annual discharge (10,000 tons/year) Proportion (%) Cinder and dust 930 2.9 Sludge 5,330 16.6 Waste oil 310 1.1 Waste acid and alkali 5,240 16.4 Waste plastics and rubber 160 0.5 Wastepaper, chips and flocks 1,820 5.7 Animal and vegetable remnants 660 2.1 Livestock waste and carcasses 4,220 13.2 Metal scrap 810 2.5 Glass and ceramic refuses 220 0.7 Slag 4,440 13.9 Construction waste materials 7,830 24.4 Total 32,000 100.0 Note 1. Simple total of the discharge in the surveys conducted by the prefectural governments during the period of 1970 to 1974, the year of survey by the respective governments being not the same. Note 2. The wastes are not always classified according to a uni- form standard. For example, some local governments in- clude sand in the construction waste materials. Note 3. The surveys of the local governments include those actual- ly conducted as well as those estimated from the original units. tkl6 - ------- Table 2-8 Licenses Given to the Industrial Waste Management Agents Collection and carriage only Intermediate treatment only Final disposal only Collection, carriage and intermediate treatment Collection, carriage and final disposal Intermediate treatment and final disposal Collection, carriage, intermediate treatment and final disposal Total 31 Aug. 1973 1,783 35 66 145 283 12 74 2,398 31 Mar. 1974 2,731 53 73 221 358 18 71 3,525 1 May 1975 6,066 (150) 80 (5) 91 (4) 381 (18) 548 (3) 35 (4) 114 (6) 7,315 (190) Note: Parenthesized shows the number of licensed contractors for handling harmful industrial wastes which is included in the total number. For the licenses of 190 cases, the actual number of licensed contractors is 97. ------- 444 146 290 451 270 636 88 436 67 5 264 097 Table 2-9 Industrial Waste Treatment Facilities Installed person Type of facility 31 Mar. 1974 Enterpriser Contractor Autonomous body Total 1 May 1975 Enterpriser Contrac tor Sludge dehydration facility 979 19 26 1,024 1,373 17 Sludge drying facility 84 94 126 11 Sludge burning facility 176 190 276 12 Waste oil oil/ water separation facility 329 52 382 377 73 Waste oil burning facility 163 40 203 202 68 Waste acid or alkali neutralization facility 581 590 630 Waste plastics crushing facility 31 20 51 59 28 Waste plastics burning facility 333 33 370 406 30 Concrete solidifying facility 49 55 52 15 Mercuric sludge roasting facility Cyanide decomposition facility Total 195 2,923 197 40 197 3,160 260 3,764 265 ------- Table 2-10 Investigations Conducted at the Ministry of Health and Welfare Concerning Industrial Wastes Year of investigation Title of the investigation 1972 Investigation on analysis of industrial wastes. 1972 -v- 74 Study for development of the technique of disposal by burning of the sludge in the industrial waste. 1972 75 Development study of techniques concerning disposal of wastes by reclamation. 19 72 -v- 74 Study on waste management system in smaller cities. 1973 Study on standardization of the sampling of industrial wastes containing harmful substances. 1973 Study on discharge, predicted discharge and prospected disposal of industrial wastes. 1973 Study on analysis of the apportionment of social expense related to management of industrial wastes. 1973 Study on information management system in the disposal of industrial wastes. 1973 Study on environment conservation system as related to final disposal of industrial wastes. 1973 Study on regeneration system of industrial wastes. 1973 Study on existing techniques of industrial wastes. 1973 ^ 75 Study on treatment of industrial wastes on sea. 1974 Investigation and study on Information management and monitoring system concerning industrial wastes. 1974 Investigation and study on development of the procedures of classification and survey of the actual condition of the Industrial wastes. 1974 Investigation and study on the system of carrying out the management work of industrial works with participa- tion of the public organizations. 1974 Investigation and study on generation of wastes incident to manufacture of principal Industrial products. 1974 Investigation and study on the process of generation of Industrial wastes containing harmful substances. 1974 Investigation and study on development of technology'for treatment with concrete solidification. 1974 Study on guideline for maintenance and management of the industrial waste treatment facilities. 1975 Investigation on information management system concerning the industrial waste treatment facilities. 1975 Investigation and study on development of the industrial waste integral treatment technology. l.f." " ------- 3. Fourth Five Year National Program for Waste Treatment and Disposal To promote the waste management project positively against change in quantity as well as quality of the waste, the Third National Program with 1975 as the last year was formulated under the Law for Emergency Measure for Waste Treatment and Disposal enacted on 23 June 1972. This program has been carried out in succession to the First Five Year Program with 1963 as the first year (under the Law for Emergency Measure for Improvement of the Facilities for Betterment of the Living Environment) and the Second Five Year Program with 1967 as the first year (under the Public Cleansing Law). As shown in Table 3-1, the actual performance is estimated to achieve the target (work volume as well as work expenditure) of the Third Five Year Program. But, from the following reasons, it is required to promote the construction of waste treatment facilities urgently and systematically. Thus, the Fourth Five Year National program for Waste Treatment and Disposal is going to be formulated with 1976 as the first year. a. General matters i. With enlargement of the planned area of treatment by the municipalities, the planned rate of treatment (proportion of the population in the planned are^i of treatment to the total population) is raised. ii. For conservation of the living environment, it is required to make efforts for qualitative improvement of the facility Us&o - ------- , with consideration given to the control of air and water pollution. Hi. In constructing a facility, it is required for maintain- ing the living environment and obtaining the consensus of the local inhabitants to improve the environment in the vicinity of the facility. Refuse-disposal i. The discharge per man per day will increase in correlation- ship with the growth1"of 'GNP; ii. The design scale of the incinerators_in the former plan .was.determined in consideration of the settled population, discharge per man. per day and the rate of operation of the facility. But, in addition to these factors, it is required to consider the seasonal change of the refuse discharge and precedent adjustment capable of coping with the increased volume of disposal in the future. iii. For positive conservation of the environment, it is required to secure the site of final disposal and expedite the construction of the disposal facility. Human waste disposal i. Construction of the human waste treatment plants has been carried out in conjunction with the construction of the sewerage system. But, it is required to construct the ------- retarded treatment plants with delay of the construction of sewerage system. ii. The design scale of the human waste treatment plant in the former plan was determined by the product of the settled population and the discharge per man per day at the time of design. But, in addition to these factors, it is required to consider the seasonal change of the waste discharge and adjustment of the l,oad to the treat- ment plant incident to the increase of the sludge from individual sewage disposal system. d. Industrial waste disposal To prevent the environmental pollution due to the industrial waste and secure comfortable environment for living, it is required to continuously encourage the construction of the industrial waste treatment facilities by the local governments and securing of the final disposal site. R22.- ------- National Program for Waste Treatment and Disposal (Fiscal 1972-1975), Target and Prospect of Performance as of the End of Fiscal 1975 (1) Refuse Management Classification Target at the end of fiscal 1975 Remarks Planned Prospected Balance: A Shortage National population 110,880,000 111,500,000 620,000 Planned management rate 95% 98; 3* Planned management area population 104,930,000 109,300,000 4,370,000 Mean collection per man per day 1,200 g 1,180 g Total refuse collection 125,920 t/day 128,430 t/day Percent of combustible material 832 - Amount of combustible material 104,513 t/day - Incinerator provision rate 90* - Amount of incineration 94,062 t/day 59,080 t/day (Facility coefficient) (1.18) (2.0) 59,080 t/day * 120,170 t/day = 50Z Facility operation rate 85? 5 OX (1975 Work initiation base) Incinerator capacity 120,098 t/day 120,170 t/day 72 c/day In che program, the facility operation rate had che number of days of operation taken into account and was assumed as 310 days/365 days ¦» 852. But, from the result of survey of the actual condi- tion conducted thereafter, the operation rate is assumed as 50Z with the seasonal change of discharge and the allowance of the facility for the future increase taken Into consideration in addition to the number of days of operation. Facility capacity constructed in 48,378 t/day 48,450 t/day 72 t/day 1972-1975 ------- (2) Human Waste Management Classification Targe t at the end of fiscal 1975 Planned Prospect of execution Balance, A Shortage Remarks National population 110,880,000 111,500,000 620,000 Planned management rate 95% 98 3% Planned management area population 104,930,000 109,300,000 4,370,000 Population in use of flush toilet 43,600,000 33,700,000 A9,900,000 /Public sewerage system 30,600,000 19,200,000 fill,400,000 \| Community sewerage system ^Individual sewage disposal system 3,040,000 9,960,000 \| 14,500,000 1,500,000 Papulation in use of vault type toilet 61,330,000 - 75,600,000 14,270,-000 Human waste treatment facility 52,'520,000 43,870,000 68,650,000 (72,300 k£/day - 10,880 k£/day) * 1.4 » 43,870,000 I Sewage treatment-plant 8,810,000 4,430,000 A4.380,-000 6,200 k£/day f 1.4 = 4,430^000 ^Discard to sea, -forest, etc. 0 27,270,000 27,270,000 -3.,818 kit/day J 1.4 » 27,270,000 (Facility coefficient) Facility operation rate O O • O i-H (1.2) 80* 417* In .the plan, the -operation rate was assumed to be 100Z, but according to the survey of actual -condi- tion, etc., It Is assumed as 80Z in consideration of-the seasonal change of discharge and decrease of the treatment efficiency due to increase of the rate of admixture of sludge, from individual sewage disposal system. Facility capacity constructed in 19 72-1975 11,300 k£/day 18,839 kH/day 7., 5 39 k£/day ------- Fourth Five Year National Program for Waste Treatment and Disposal (Draft) (1) Long Range View to 1985 In order to prevent the environmental pollution by the wastes, conserve the comfortable and rich environment for living and thus contribute to improvement of the public health, ,it is intended, in the stages of generation and management of the general and industrial wastes, to regenerate them as a resource as far as practicable and, at the same time, reduce the generation to smaller amount, make them harmless and stabilize them, and thus establish an appropriate system of management. (2) Direction of Management a. For the management of general waste, the following mesasures will be taken. (a) For establishment of the sanitary treatment of refuse and human waste, expedite construction of the treat- ment facilities. (b) For conservation of the air and water environment, promote the improvement for higher performance of the facilities. (c) As an environmental measure -in the vicinity of the facility, promote the environmental improvement works such as planting and sodding. L-l. 25 - ------- (d) In view of the importance of the final disposal, promote the securing of land for final disposal as well as construction of the disposal facilities. (e.) Promote the technical deye^opment concerning the reuse and management of the wastes, ^nd expedite the construction of the hi^h rate cpmppst^ng (and other facilities so far as it is prq£tj.<;^].{e, b. For management of the indust;rj.al wastes, it is intended, with care given to conservation of the environment, to con- vert them to resources as far a^ practicable in the stages of generation and treatment, apd (also expedite reducing the amount of generation, making t^em harml^sp and stabi- lizing them. For such purpose, development of the techniques concerning the reuse and t^e'gtmept wil}. be prpmoted, while efforts will be exerted for improving the disposal facil- ities and securing the land for final disposal. Thus, through such and other measures, an industrial waste management system will be established. Targets of Management a. For the refuse management, construction of £he facilities will be carried out so that 90 percent of the domestic ref- use will be treated by incineratipn by the end of fiscal 1985. Tentatively, however, thp rate of treatment by in- cineration will be set at 68 percent uT\|t^.l tle end of \| 4. 26 - ------- fiscal 1980. On the other hand, the bulky refuse treatment facilities and the final disposal;facilitiesIwill be pro- vided. b. For the managementyq"f ahumarf iwasteji jthe human -waste treat- ment facilities will be constructed so that 95 percent of the waste from vault3typ.e . toilej- i.andi^sludge-.Tfirom individ- ual sewege disposal! system will be treated at the human waste treatment facilities., sewage _tr.eatment_plants,_ while community s„e#erage 'system will be provided., c. For the' management of indjisjtrial wastes, those of the industrial waste treatment) facilities which are lo be constructed by the local public organizations and have specific programs will be realized one aftexj.another. d. To achieve this National Program, the financial measures of the government will, be advanced energetically. Level of MariageipeTrt a. Refuse management Treatment by incineration at the end of fiscal 1975: 55 percent Treatment by incineration at the end of fiscal 1980: 68 percent Treatment by incineration at the end of fiscal 1985: 90 percent 1,-1.27 ------- b. Human waste management Treatment at the facilities by the etd of fiscal 1975: 67 percent Treatment at the facilities by the ^nd of fiscal 1980: 9£ percent Treatment at the facilities ^>y t;he end of fiscal 1985: (^5 percent) (5) Work Volume and Required Investment Classification Work volume R^qujred ifivf¥8tmei}t Remarks General waste treat- ment facilities (Ira^mon) 9,880 Refuse treatment facilities 42,000 t/day 7,450 Human waste treatment facilities 16,000 kfc/day 2,110 Collection and transport vehicles ' 320 Industrial waste treatment facilities 960 Reserve fund 460 Total 11,300 U.28 - ------- 4. Problems Challenging the Solid Waste Management 4.1 Measures for Prevention of,Pollutions in Solid Waste Management (1) Disposal by Reclamation For management and Disposal of solid wastes, various methods are available. Particularly, as a treatment system, such unit oper- ation as incineration, crushing or compacting is actually used to- ward reducing the amount, stabilization or conversion to harmless form of the waste. Such a treatment is more or less effective, but there is still produced a residue which has to be disposed finally, and the final disposal of such residue must be made into the nature such as earth or ocean. For the general waste which the city, town or village is respon- sible for management, it is subjected, except the liquid waste such as night soil, to incineration or other treatment and is then, or directly without such treatment, disposed by reclamation in the in- land or along the coast. Thus, for carrying out the waste management work, provision of the treatment facilities is of course important, but it is more important to secure the site of reclamation and manage such site properly. Further, as the reclamation site has the decreasing space available for disposal with accumulation of the waste year after year, its securing is an eternal problem for us. 14.29 ~ ------- The reclamation sites now managed by the citie^, towns and villages are briefly represented in Table 4-1f The waste comes into contact with the environment in the stage of treatment such as incineration, but the final point of contact with the environment is this disposal by reclamatipi^. Therefore, appropriate disposal by reclamation constitutes a portion of very high weight among the measures for reducing the load to the environment by the waste. Here, it involves the gas produc- tion and other problems, and what is most Important among such prob- lems is to control the pollution through vat^. The principle of the prevention of environmental pollution through water is to reduce the contact of tfye dymped waste with water to minimum. Leachate water from the reclaimed land is of such mechanism that it occurs when the reclaimed land has a load of water in excess of the holding water. To suppress the voljime of leachate water reduces the load of subsequent waste water treatment. Specifically, it is important to provide a rainwater djrain ditch around the reclamation site to prevent the $ntry of rain water over the outside land into the reclamation site. In the mountainous site of reclamation, the waste is disposed normally onto the valley, so that without any preventive measure, all of the rainfall or> the catch- ment basin of the valley comes into contact with the waste. Therefore, it is necessary to provide a rain water drain ditch mainly pn the upstream side and thus cut the rain water on the ups£eau) IfefoEe it M.30 - ------- comes into contact with the dumped waste. Where the reclamation is finished in the reclamation site, it is important to cover such por- tion with soil and thus prevent sanitary problems as well as entry of rain water into the waste. Usually, however, more or less leachate occurs. Thus, in many instances, treatment of the leachate water is required in addition to the foregoing measure. But, the treatment of leachate water at the reclamation site has many difficulties involved as compared with the ordinary waste water treatment. Such difficulties may be due partly to the fact that there is no sufficient accumulation of information concerning the leachate at the reclamation site. But, what matters more than this is that the characteristics of the leachate water, that is, quantity and quality changes greatly with time and season. It is obvious that the property of the leachate water tends to change as the reclamation waste decomposes with elapse of time. Further, as the leachate water is caused by the rain water, it is readily thought that the quantity and quality of leachate water is greatly subject to change. Presently, it is difficult to say that there is a system established which is capable of treating waste water the quantity as well as quality of which changes every day and also with year. Such system is no doubt required of a function of stability against change. The quality of the leachate water varies, of course, with the l"b 1 - ------- kind of the dumped waste, and in case the waste is of raw refuse, the leachate water is generally high in BOD and other organic indexes. Normally, the BOD value tends to decrease year after year, but the COD value often shows a different pattern from that of BOD. Thus, in considering a treatment process, it will he an injportant problem what quality index is to be taken as an objective. Fortunately, heavy metals are generally of low concentration. But^ now consider- ing the behavior of a heavy metal in the soil, adsoi^tion and de- sorption will occur constantly between the soil particles and the heavy metal ions, thus the heavy metal moving in the soil along with the movement of ground water (but at a lower speed than that of ground water), and such point must be noted. For the heavy metals, there is also a possibility of outflow of the waste containing heavy metals. It is thus important to prevent the outflow of the waste by preventing the intrusion of rain water, providing a sufficient cover- age and installing a revetment. The heavy metal pollution is caused by a trace of heavy metal. Therefore, in order to see if any pollu-: tion is occurring, it is important to have the bacl^ground value investigated before starting the reclamation. Now, back again to the principle stated at the beginning, it will be the first of all control measures to select a site where the environmental pollution due to water is scarcely caused, that is, no spring water and low level of ground water, provided, of course, such site can be secured. As stated in the foregoing, there are about 2300 reclamation sites managed by the cities, towns and villages in the country, but only a few of them have such measures taken satisfactorily. U-32 - ------- Since the prevention of environmental pollutions from the reclamation sites is very important from the point of view of con- serving the living environment as discussed above, the Ministry of Health and Welfare is going to grant government subsidies for the revetments, rain water drainage facilities and waste water treat- ment facilities to be provided at the reclamation sites from fiscal 1976. (2) Refuse Incineration Incineration is generally performed as a treatment of the solid general waste, but its load upon the environment is by no means negligible. The pollution load incident to incineration includes that by emission gas upon incineration and that by waste water from the Incinerators. What is concerned most in the emission gas is the soot and dust. They are controlled subject to the rules of Emission Standard under the Air Pollution Control Law and Standard for Maintenance and Management of General Waste Treatment Facilities under the Waste Disposal and Public Cleansing Law. In each facility, equipment for removal of soot and dust such as electric precipitator, multicyclone, wet type dust collector, etc. is provided. With respect to the waste water, organic pollutants and other harmful substances such as heavy metals are considered. The former is included mainly in the refuse pit drainage or ash pit drainage. M33 - ------- For the ash pit drainage, however, it is possible to reduce the organic pollutants to a level at which no treatment is required by reducing the ignition loss in the ash through imprqvement of the incinerator. The latter is often included in the ash pit or smoke rinse drainage as the batteries, pigments, resin stabilizers in the waste contain cadmium or lead. For prevention of such pollution, it is, of course, important to improve the waste water treatment facilities. But, the measure to remove the waste containing sucty harmful sub- stances from that intended for incineration will be equally effective. The waste water from the refuse incineration facilities is go- ing to be subject to the application of the Standard of Effluent under the Water Pollution Control Law so that it will be required to pro- vide and improve the waste water treatment facilities. W.34 - ------- Table 4-1 Reclamation Sites Area distribu- tion Less than 3000m2 3,000 % 5999m2 6,000 'Xj 9999m2 10,000 % 29,999m2 30,000 % 59,999m2 60,000 'V, 99,999m2 100,000 299,999m2 300,000m2 or more Not known Total 897 460 282 394 115 56 43 14 15 2,276 Volume distribu- tion Less 3,000 than ^ 3,000m3 5,999m3 6,000 9,999m3 10,000 % 29,999m3 30,000 59,999m3 60,000 99,999m3 100,000 a. 299,999m3 300,000 % 599,999m3 600,000m3 or more Not known Total 345 % 331 225 546 243 220 190 83 58 35 2,276 ------- 4.2 Harmony of Waste Management Facilities with Environs For construction of a refuse incinerating facility, the city, town or village authorities have often been finding a difficulty in determin- ing the site because of the objection of the local inhabitants. The local inhabitants object to the construction of ^ refuse inciner- ating facility as they are afraid of the air pollution and offensive odor due to the gas emitted from the facility and of the automotive pollution by the traffic of garbage trucks. But, now considering the circumstances in our country or, more particularly, the high density of population and disorderly expansion of the cities by rapid inflow of the population in and after 1960, it may be said that the construction of incinerating facility, particularly, in the urban area is in a very difficult situa- tion. Thus, when a refuse incinerating facility is to be constructed, it is, of course, necessary to consider the possible adverse effects of the air pollution as well as the water pollution, offensive odor and noise upon the environs. But, what is equally or more important is to provide as large an area as possible for the site with efforts exerted for planta- tion and landscaping of the vicinity for harmpny with the environs. Further, it is important to get rid of the image of ''nuisance facility" into a facility welcomed by the local inhabitants by, for example, utiliz- ing the heat generated from the refuse incinerating facility for regional heating or heated swimming pool. /-/.36 - ------- As an example of such facility, the Suginami Cleaning Plant of Tokyo has a plan to construct a three-storied inhabitant center and a children's garden and also facilities for recreation of the aged people and welfare of the disabled persons with the heat of the plant utilized in the space of about one-third of the compound. Further, in the periph- eral area of the plant, the public land will be utilized for construc- tion of a gymnasium, playing ground and park thus developing the vicinity into a green area. Examples of reducing the heat of refuse incinerating facility back to the local area in the form of regional heating, heated swimming pool, etc. are illustrated in Table 4-2. 37 ------- Table 4-2 Utilization of Heac of Refuse Incinerating Facilities (Based on the construction started as of March 1973) Incinerating plant name Year of completion Capacity Heat utilization facility Self-consumption of heat Power gener- ator (kW) 19 71 Under construction 1976 150t/24h 2 incinerators 300t/24h 2 incinerators Iron work complex Cleaning plant Regional heating Mr consumption of heat Hot water supply to dwell- ing quarters of the employees Heating of the plant 1,400 19 74 150t/24h 3 incinerators Hot water supply to Industrial complex Heating of the plant 1,200 Edogava K1 ta Shakujil Setagaya Chitose Ohi Tamagawa Koto I tabashi 1966 1969 1969 1969 1971 1973 1973 1974 1974 200t/24h 3 incinerators 300t/24h 2 incinerators 300t/24h 2 incinerators 300t/24h 3 incinerators 300t/24h 2 Incinerators 300t/24h 4 incinerators 300t/24h 2 incinerators 300t/24h 6 incinerators 300t/24h 4 incinerators Aged people center Aged people's home Aged people's home Handicapped persons' home Hall for the aged Aged people center Heating of the plant Hot water supply to dwell- ing quarters of the employees Heating of the plant 1,500 2,500 1,700 2,500 2,000 3,000 3,200 lsogo Asahi Konan Minami Totsuka -1969 ¦ 1973 Under construction 19 76 150t/24h 3 incinerators I80t/24h 3 incinerators 30Qt/24h l incinerators 500t/24h 3 incinerators To adjacent sewage plant Aged people center Heated swinging pool Air conditioning of the plant Air conditioning of the plant Hot water supply to -dwell- ing quarters of the employees 2,800 4,950 'Rinko Shlntachibana 1971 Under construction 1974 200t/24h 3 incinerators 200t/24h 3 incinerators Heating of the plant 1,300 2,000 Hashloft-shl 1973 75t/24h 2 Incinerators Heated swimming-pool Heating of the plant Under construction 1975 225t/24h 3 incinerators 2,000 Nlshiyodo Morinomiya 1965 1969 200t/24h 2 incinerators 300t/24h 3 incinerators Heating of the plant 3,500 To adjacent facilities of Transportation and Sewage Bureaus Karlmojitna Nlshlgamt Higashi 1968 1972 Under construction 1974 I50t/24h 3 incinerators I50t/24h 3 incinerators 230t/24h 3 incinerators Heated swimming pool Heating of the plant Nich lmt-1 150t/24h 3 Incinerators To sewage facility Central Market refrigerator Hearing of the plant 150t/24h J incinerators Aged people's home Tropical botanical garden ------- 4.3 Conversion to Resources and Reuse of Wastes Conversion to resources and reuse of the waste are important not only from the point of view as a resource problem but from the aspect of the environmental and cleansing problems. It is pointed out that such measure has a wide range of effects such as prevention of the environmental pollution by hazardous substances, reduction of the amount of wastes to be treated, upkeeping of the treatment facilities, reduction of the amount of wastes to be disposed of, economy of the pollution control expense, etc. Accelerating the conversion to resources and reuse of the wastes being thus an important problem, an investigation was conducted of the wastes production in the process of manufacture of principal industrial products in 1974. As the result, valuable information was obtained for management or conversion to resources and reuse of the wastes in the future. Upon such finding, necessary measures will be taken hereafter. The results of finding are summarized in the following. (Summary of the Findings) (1) For the wastes which might be utilized as the industrial raw materials, recovery and reuse are particularly important from the point of view of reducing the amount of wastes and protec- tion of resources. The paper making, iron and steel and non-ferrous metal industries have a greater part of the raw materials dependent on the import from the foreign countries and are apt to produce a large amount tu 39 - ------- of wastes during the process of manufacture. Thus, for such industries, the recovery and r^use axe particularly important from the points of view of reduction of the wastes and pro- , tection of the resources. To effect recovery and reuse, it is required to es-tablish a recovery system of used paper, scrap iron or aluminum cans, and for such system, raising of, and support to, the reusable wastes handling contractors, and pro- vision of economic conditions including tax, loan and surcharge systems should be examined. (2) For the products containing hazardous substances, the recovery system must be established from the point of view of environ- mental pollution control. For the products containing hazardous substances such as mercury cell, dry cell, EVC products^ battery, fluorescent lamp and PCB containing products, it is effective to set up a re- covery system flowing back the distribution channel and thus try to control the environmental pollution. It should be noted here that any measure to control the environmental pollution by a hazardous substance is not completed unless the flow of the hazardous industrial raw material is grasped. (3) For the durable and other consumer goods, efforts should be exerted for provision of a recovery system and acceleration of the regeneration as a resource. IJ'^0 - ------- Durable and non-durable mass consumption goods such as electric refrigerator, washing machine and other domestic electric ap- pliances, empty cans, fluorescent lamps, glass bottles and batteries have no recovery nor regeneration as a resource in progress to any appreciable extent. Thus, efforts should be exerted for provision of a recovery system and acceleration of the regeneration as a resource through examination of the re- strictive technical and economical conditions. It may be considered that in the enterprises, regeneration as a resource and effective utilization of the waste materials are carried out so far as they are profitable. To encourage further recovery and reuse, development and introduction of a new social system are required. As seen in the soda or beer industry, effective utilization of waste materials is carried out in each plant to such an extent as it is profitable. Hereafter, it will be difficult to acceler- ate the regeneration and effective use without development and introduction of a social system which permits expansion of the recycle of waste in the respective enterprise to the inter- enterprise level or the entire industry. The enterprisers may check the components of the wastes they are going to regenerate and use but are usually indifferent with the other related wastes, and such wastes which are not intended for regeneration and reuse often contain hazardous substances so that due con- sideration must be given for the management of such wastes. ------- These problems should first be resolved among other problems for recovery and reuse of the Industrial prodycts and effective utilization of limited resources. Sych effective utilization also serves for economy of the energy resource required for treatment and disposal of the wastes, and the total energy resource thus saved will by no means be negligible. Further, it has an effect of extending the life of the landfill site the acquisition of which is becoming difficult presently and is thus valuable from the point of view of conserving the natural environment. I I 42 - ------- Table 4-3 Methods of Recovery for Management, Regeneration as a Resource and Effective Use of Waste, and their Problems. Classification Objects Recovery method Points to be noted 1. Products threatening environ- mental pollution by hazardous substances (Recovery flowing back the distribution channel with the consumer at the starting point). Mercury cell, fluorescent lamp, battery, etc. Products hardly manageable and tending to cause an environmental pollution when ' disposed of with a Hazardous substance used are recovered back through the dis- tribution channel for effective utiliza- tion with appropriate treatment or separate management of the hazardous substance. 12 3 4 Material Product Wholesale Consumer manufac- manufac- and retail turer turer 12 3 4 n -n n n {1) Trade-in by the responsibility of the trade for recovery of the hazardous substance. (2) Sharing the expenses for re- covery, treatment to make harmless, and separation and storage. (3) Study of surcharge system and trade-in' cost. (4) That che distribution system is fixed and established is advantageous. (5) That the brands ate mostly identifiable is also an advan- tageous point. (6) Retailers have generally no space available for storage. L LI' Lp U' U Treatment to make harmless Separa- tion and storage Regeneration for material (Note) Direction of distribution of product. Direction of flow of waste. Same in the following. 2. Products threatening environ- mental pollution by hazardous substances with PCB contained (Gathered collectively, then the parts in use of PCB removed by the engineers oL the trade, and recovered collectively by the reusable wastes handling contractors). Color television, monochrome television, electronic range and air-conditioner Products hardly manageable and, when wasted. Lending to cause an environmental pollution with a hazardous substance or, more par- ticularly, PCB used, are gathered collec- tively or by the cleansing department of the local autonomy and have the PCB parts extracted by the responsibility of the trade, then are recovered collectively by the reusable wastes handling contractors (sometimes crushed and landfilled). (1) Upon an agreement between the local autonomy and the trade for recovery of parts In use of hazardous substances, the parts in use of PCB are re- covered by the responsibility of the trade. (2) Recovery is carried out col- lectively or by the local autonomy at a predetermined time to a predetermined sire. ------- Classification Objects Recovery method Points to be noted 1 Material 2 Product 3 Wholesale ^Consumer manufac- manufac- turer turer and retail 5Site specified by the local autonomy 9 Harmful Parts extracted (33 Sharing of the expenses for recovery and removal of hazardous parts. 6 Regeneration recovery con tractor 7 Trade ® Prefecture, city, town or village 3. Products hardly manageable but, upon standardization, permitting reuse with great usefulness. Whisky bottles, cosmetics containers, seasoning bottles, etc. For the products which are hardly manage- able but, upon standardization of the shape, quality, etc., permits reuse, for any brands with great usefulness, combina- tion of the recovery flowing back the dis- tribution channel with the consumer at the starting point and the collective gather- ing is preferable. 12 3 4 « o—1J=Q^0 Reuse 12 3 4 1 D—0" -Reuse (1) Standardize the capacity, shape, material, color, etc. to permit use for any brands and thus improve the useful- ness (typical is the examples of beer and Johnnie Walker) . (2) Study of guaranty money (as in the case of a beer) and trade-in cost. 1 Bottle manufacturer 2 Product manufacturer 3 Wholesale and retail Consumer 5 Site- specified by PTA, town association, etc. 6 Reusable wastes handling contractors ------- Classification Objects Recovery method Points to be noted 4. Products, hardly manageable but having the additional value increased by improving the efficiency of tfansporCation and recovery (Collective recovery adapted; hence com- bination of the back flow re- covery along the channel of distribution with the re- tailers (including vendors) at the starting point and the collective Recovery from a number of gathering places). Empty steel cans, empty aluminum cans, and empty cans of refreshing drinks. For such produces which are hardly manage- able, rather voluminous against the weight, inconvenient for handling for recovery, transportation, storage and management and of low. usefulness because of the dif- ficulty of reuse, combination of the back flow recovery along the channel of dis- tribution with the retailers at the start- ing point and the collective recovery from a number of gathering places is desirable. 12 3 4 Carrying trucks of autonomous body 3' 4 Number of gathering places Can manufacturer Product manufacturer Uholeaale and retail SJholesale and retail (vendor? Consumer Site specified by PTA, torn asso- ciation, etc. 6 Reusable wastes handling contractors (1) As the reuse is not enabled, collective recovery is re- quired In order to obtain an additional value by mass gathering. (2) To improve the efficiency of recovery, transportation, storage and management, crush- ing. or compressing at the point of gathering is required. (3) Study of the'-surcharge and trade-in cost. (4) To standardize the material quality, etc. in considera- tion of the regenerated material. (5) Any measure which permits reuse as in the case of bottles. (6) Difficult to acquire the site of gathering and storage. ------- Classification Objects Recovery method Points to be noted 5. Cars abandoned on the road as a material difficult to manage. (Recovery upon request of the city, town or village for. cooperation and by coopera- tion of the Abandoned Vehicle Cooperative Association.) Cars and autobicycles aban- doned on the road. Hardly manageable products; For vehicles (automobiles and autobicycles) aban- doned on the road, the abandoned vehicles countermeasure association has them recovered by the approved recovery con- tractor upon request of the city town or village for cooperation and pays that portion of the recovery work expense which exceeds the recovery sale price. -o—"d "0^ , ©-s,.o CD It Is maintained generally that the vehicles abandoned on the road are the problem of moral of the consumers and-that it is not reasonable to place the responsibility upon the industry. (2) Study of the surcharge and trade-in cost. (3) Abandoned Vehicles Counter- measure Association was established in May 1974, and thus the self-recovery system was provided. (4) Any person who abandons a disused car on the road should be punished strictly. 1 Material manufacturer 2 Product manufacturer 3 Wholesale and retail 4 Consumer 5 City, -town or village 6 Abandoned vehicles countermeasure assoclat ion 7 Chosen recovery contractor ------- 4.4 Information Management System for Industrial Wastes For promoting the adequate management of industrial wastes, positive execution of the adequate disposal on the part of the persons who dis- charge them, establishment of a comprehensive policy and monitoring and quidance system on the part of administration, and check and formation of a social consensus on the part of local inhabitants are required. That is, improvement of the functions in the government, local public organizations, enterprisers and local inhabitants and organic combination of these four must be sought. In such situation, the administration for industrial wastes is to properly control and manage a large amount of a variety of industrial waste generated from the productive activeties without causing an environ- mental destruction and thus create a desirable management system for the country as a whole as well as for the local districts. Presently, this area of administration is extending the related areas in the changing and diversifying social situation and has come to have a close relation- ship with the pollution control, resources-energy, industrial and develop- ment administrations, and more and more people have come to realize the importance of the industrial waste administration day after day. Yet, under such situation where promotion of the comprehensive management of industrial wastes is urgently required, there are a number of impeding factors observed. As one of such factors, shortage of the basic infor- mation may be cited. Some of the wastes may be of significance in all respects from the broad point of view of the socity and have sometimes a useful value I.L LI _ ------- recognized. But, for the entity discarding them, they have the valye lost already. Thus, in the mechanism of market economy, the management system for the wastes is eventually neglected. The enterprises having a refined management system laid down with a computer used for the process of manufacture of the products from the storing materials are often ipr- different to the quantity,, quality and adequate pethod of management of the wastes produced during such process. On the other hand, the form of discharge of the; industrial waste is different from that of the general waste and is ppc^liar to the kind of the source of generation so that it is very difficult to grasp the form of discharge in a uniform and general way. At the saiqQ time, the quantitative as well as qijalitative diversity and iflovability of the industrial waste make it difficult to introduce the automatic remote measurement at the source of generation or point of measurement employed extensively in the recent administration of pollutions of air, water; noise, etc. In the today's society of information, the administration is no longer an exception for the improvement in the area of information management as far as practicable to correspond to such society. But, now looking upon the present status of industrial wastes stated above, an attitude of active response must be taken foj: establishment of an information management system or so called nervp^s system for adequate management of the industrial wastes. That is, a system producing, and accelerating the production of, information intentionally, analyzing and controlling it precisely and supplying it appropriately to the respective /-/.48 - ------- functions, should be aimed at. Smooth promotion of the industrial waste administration is dependent on how to precisely grasp the movement o£ the industrial wastes generating, moving and being accumulated disorder- ly- as in a Brownian movement, reduce it to Information and thus respond to the administrative objectives. At many conferences and councils of the government level, it has been pointed out that the information management system of the industrial wastes should be established urgently in order to cope with the diversifi- cation of the industrial waste administration in the future. Under such situation, the Ministry of Health and Welfare has conducted the investi- gations on the direction of the management system of information concern- ing the industrial wastes continuously over three years of 1973, 1974 and 1975. In the following will be introduced such investigations and studies briefly. The management system of information concerning the industrial wastes may be positioned as a total system comprising as subsystems the infor- mation management systems possessed by the government, local public organization, enterpriser and local inhabitants respectively. These subsystems should be of the character to be provided and managed by the foregoing four sectors according to their functions respectively and should be organically related with one another and have their values found in the total system (Fig. 4-1), jX 49 - ------- Fig. 4-1 Mutual Relationship of Local Information ManageDent Systems Work structure JLL Information management sys~ tem for control of Indus- 1 trial wastes at the place of enterprise discharging them. Information management sys- 2 tem for the works of collec- tion and transportation. Information management svs- 3 ten for the work of dispos- al. * Enterprise, third sector, corpora- tion, organized for disposal of Industrial Industrial Waste,-etc. Supervision guidance structure (Prefecturea and cities specially designated by the cabinet ordinance) Information manage- ment system for for- mulation of basic plans for conserva- tion of local environ- ment . T Infonnation manage- 5 ment system for guid- ance to and supervise of the work structure -T Information manage- ment system for check 7 of plans of the work structure and super- vision guidance struc- ture. 1 I {Jeneral policy structure (National Governnent) Information management sys- tem for formulation of basic 6 policies for environment conservation and support to the supervision guidance struc- ture and work structure. j (Note) Arrov indicates the flow of information. - ^ Individual informa- tion * Macro information / Information management sys- / ten tor check of the actual S status o£ the work structure \ and supervision guidance structure. \ 8 Local structure (Inhabitant) ------- Each subsystem is determined approximately by the following procedure; (1) Clear representation of the functions and definition of the relationship with the other structures; (2) Clarification of the decision making process for each function; (3) Retrieval and weighting of necessary information (information required for executing the intrinsic functions, and that re- quired of production and offer in the relationship with the other structures); and (4) Clarification of the procedures for file, analysis and storage of information, and establishment of a data bank. Among such subsystems, those at the levels of the local public organization and the national government are particularly important as they assume a pivotal role so that they will be discussed in details in the following. The information management system at the level of the enterpriser is in the position of producing the most fundamental portion of all information and is thus by no means negligible. But, at the same time, it includes a considerable number of elements that are defined by the system of the government or local public organization and are thus to be built up passively. Although it is required highly in order to. execute and operate the work of great sphere of comprehensive treatment and disposal of the industrial wastes or the work of transformation into resources, it must be provided by the respective enterprisers and is to be determined upon the objective and character of the enterprise. U, 51 - ------- Originally, any plan for execution of a management work of public nature should be provided as an output of the information management system for political decision making of the government or local public organiza- tion, and when the work is to be carried out according to the plan, installation of more refined information management systems will, of course, be required. (1) Local information manag^ient system at the level of local public organization i. System constructing procedure (i) Principal functions of local public organization a. Formulation of an industrial waste management plan (Prefectures). b. Supervision guidance - Licensing the industrial waste management contractors, receiving reports of industrial waste management facilities, grasping the actual status of industrial wastes in the area, field guidance and supervision to the enterprisers, collection of reports, improve- ment orders, etc. c. Execution of treatment and disposal works (as required). (ii) Decision making process in the industrial waste administration of the local public organization The decision making process is to be determined for I I 52 - ------- each of the functions a, b and c in (i) above. Here, as a reference, the decision making process for formulation of an industrial waste management plan is illustrated (Fig. 4-2). (iii) Retrieval of required information Information such as shown in Tables 4-4, 4-5 and 4-6 will be required for the functions a, b and c in (i) respectively. (iv) Weighting of the required information and objectives of application (Table 4-7). Basic concept of the local information management system (i) System functions a. Information gathering function. b. Information storing capacity (Data bank). c. Information supply function. o Retrieval function, o Reporting function. o Investigation and analysis function. (ii) System configuration The configuration of a local information management system is schematically illustrated in Fig. 4-3. At the center of the local information management system is a data bank. /.Z53 - ------- Fig. 4-2 Flow Chart of Management Plan Formulation Work r n Macro-In- formation Present status / Quantity of Trend of generation disposal / Estimation procedure Long range plan for treatment and disposal of specified^ enterprises Estimation of future generation 1 Procedure for formulation of conversion to resource and reuse plan Plan for promotion of conver sion to resource and resue T Estimation of the amount, re- quired for treatment and disposal * General (domestic) waste treatment and disposal capacity information Procedure for formulation of treatment and \|disposal sharing plan Assessment procedure Micro-in- formation Disposal standard guidanc guideline Micro-in- formation I Trade in- formation Technical information Evaluation of the capacities of enterpriser and' disposal contractor L. T Elucidation of problems I Elucidation of bottlenecks Treatment guide- line by type ~l Treatment and disposal sharing plan Disposal by individ- ual enter pTiser Joint dis- posal of enterpris- ers. Disposal by con- tractor Public par- ticipating disposal work r~ n Supervision Backup 1 Work plan plan 1 plan (Note) 1 . This shows a flow chart of the process of formulatiori of a management plan, and the process has the processes of execution, evaluation and review of the plan connected thereto. 2. Shown in the dotted line are the routine works for supervision guidance, and they are incorporated as shown above. 3. In each process, adjustment with the other related plans is required. /./• 54 - ------- Table 4-4 Information Required for Formulation of Disposal Plan Required Information Information Gathering Method 1. Actual conditions of discharge, treatment and disposal of industrial wastes in the area. 1. Various surveys, etc. 1) Actual condition by type, trade, scale of the enterprise and area. 1) Actual status survey (Macro). 2) Status of treatment facilities and final disposal sites. 2) Collection of reports (Micro). 3) Actual status of licensed disposal contractors. 3) Supervision guidance works. 4) Occurrence of unlawful discards. 4) Application for per- mission and reporting systems. 2. Prediction of the amount of discharge. 2. Estimation by the material unit method, or accumulation of the "specified plant disposal plans." 3. Trends in the local industries. 3. Hearing from the industries. 1) Trend of production. ¦ 2) Trend of the provision of disposal systems (joint disposal, etc.). 3) Trend of the conver- sion to resource and reuse, 4. Trends of the production technology, treatment technology and conversion to resource technology. 4. From the individual develop- ments, government and institutions developments, and literatures. U, 55 - ------- Required Information Information Gathering Method 5. Disposal plans of the other 5. Hearing from the other pre- prefectures. fectures. 6. Government policies and 6. Information supplied from guidelines. the government. 7. Plans of the other depart- 7. Adjustment between the ments and divisions (regional departments and divisions development plan, city plan, (commerce and industry, harbor plan, etc.). civil engineering, agricul- ture, livestock, etc.). 8. Fundamental information of 8. Acquisition of data from the the area. other departments and divisions (statistics divi- 1) Population sion, etc.). 2) Industrial structure (type and scale of the industry). 3) Land use. I-I. 56 - •• -• ------- Table 4-5 Required Information in the Supervision Guidance Works Required Information 1. Information for supervision guidance. 1) Registered information, etc. (1) Ledger of the enter- prises (type, number of employees, ship- ment, location, harmful or harmless, etc.). (2) List of plants having the facili- ties in the medium column of the table appended to Ordinance. (3) Ledger of the licensed disposal contractors. (4) Ledger of the re- ported treatment facilities. (5) Ledger of the land- filling sites. (6) Rosters of smaller enterprises and unions. 2) Performance information and plan information. (1) Reports of treat- ment and disposal. (2) Reports of the per- formance of disposal works. Information Gathering Method Reports, surveys, etc. 1) Reports, etc. (1) Data files of the other systems. (2) Applications and reports. 2) Surveys, etc. (1) Questionaire. (2) Collection of reports. /1- 57 -. ------- Required Information Information Gathering Method (3) Original slips for collection of various reports. (3) Supervision guidance works. (4) Slips of field (spot) inspections, and slips of guidance. (5) Long range plans of treatment and disposal. 3) Supervision information. 3) Telephone communications. (1) Communication from city, town and village. (2) Communication from inhabitant. (3) Communication from police. 4) Information on new location of plant. 4) Information from the other departments and divisions. 2. Information on supervision guidance capacity. 2. Own data. 1) Number of environmental sanitation inspectors at the head office and health centers, and the number actually working. 2) Vehicles allocated exclusively. 3) Public and civil analytical institutions and analytical capacity. 4) Scope of the measures of budgetary appropria- tion. 58 ------- Required Information Information Gathering Method — • ¦' 3. Guideline handbook 3. Furnishroent of information from the government. 1) Guideline (BaBis for judgement of yes or no). (1) Disposal standard. (2) Questions and answers of the law (classification of the wastes). (3) Landfilling site and other guide- lines. 2) Handbooks (for improve- ment of the efficiency of supervision guidance works). (1) Industrial waste generation process handbook. (2) Harmful industrial wastes handbook (type of the trade, discharge process, material unit, etc.) 4. Loan system information. 4. Own data. ^-/.59 - ------- Table 4-6 Information Required for Enterprising a Great Sphere Management and Disposition Work. Required Information Information Gathering Method 1. Present and future of the flow of industrial waste in the area. 1. Survey of actual status (macro- information) , collection of reports (micro-information) and supervision. 2. Disposal standard, and criteria for public partici- pation. 2. Supply of information from the national government. 3. Treatment and disposal demand information. 3. Questionaire survey, and hearing from the trades. 4. Information on competitive disposal contractors. 4. Performance reports, and hearing from the contractors. 5. Site information. 5. From the other departments and divisions. 6. Treatment machinery informa- tion (applicable waste, price, quantity and quality of residue (exhaust gas, waste liquid and solid waste)). 6. Machine manufacturers, and field investigation of the installations in the other areas. 7. Road traffic information. 7. From the other departments and divisions. 8. Other plans (regional develop- ment plan, land use plan, city plan, harbor plan, etc.) 8. From the other departments and divisions. 9. Fund information. 9. From the other department and divisions. 10. Experience of the public participation works in the other areas. 10. Exchange of information with the other prefectures and ordinance cities. 60 - ------- Table 4-7 Required Information for Local Public Organization Industrial Vpsta Administration - Objective Matrix Required Information Objective Major classi- fication Medium classification Minor classification Formula- tion and reviav of die- ~ pOMl plan Super- vis ion Guid- ance Formula- tion of work plan Applica- tion to national atatletlcs Local infor- oatlon 1. Macro- information on the actual status of Industrial vastes (1) Amount of discharge in the area (by type, trade, scale of plant,and district). (2) Management In the area (Same as above). o o o o O O o o o o 2. Micro- Information on the actual status of Industrial wastes (1) Registered information (name of plant, location, trade, shipment, main products, management equipment - capacity, conditions of permission of manage sent work, etc.). (2) Actual status information (actual discharge, treatment and disposal, and results of analysis). (3) flan information (treatment and , disposal plan, and amount reduc- tion and reuse plan). (4) Supervision information (field Inspection result). (5) Monitor Information (Comaunication from city, town and village, and information from Inhabitant). o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 3. Local Industry information (1) Production information and new location information. (2) Disposal system information (Joint disposal, etc.). (3) Conversion to resource and reuse information. (4) Treatment and disposal desired amount information. 0 p o - o o o o o o o o 4. Information within the local public organiza- tion. (1) Fundamental information of the area (population, industrial structure, land use, etc.). (2) Information of plans. (3) Administrative information related to industrial waste such as air, water, sewage, etc. (4) Site information. (5) Loan system information. (6) Supervision guidance capacity infor- mation (personnel, appropriation, vehicles, analytical organizations, etc.). o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o ------- Required Information Objective Major classi- fication Medium classification - Minor classification Formula- tion and review of dis- posal plan Super- vision Guid- ance Formula- tion of work plan Applica- tion to national statistics National informa- tion 1. Senior information to local administra- tion (1) Laws and regulations, policies and guidelines. (2) National long range plans. © o o © © o 2. Technical handbooks (1) Various technical handbooks. © © 3. National statistics (1) National statistic information (discharge, disposal, etc:). (2) Trend of circulation of industrial waste over a wide range. o o o 4. National information on industries (1) Information of the trends of industries. o o 5. Information of the other areas (1) Information of the examples in the other areas (disposal plan, super- vision system and disposal works). o o o 6. Technical development information (1) Production technology information. (2). Disposal technology and conversion to resource and reuse -technology development information. (3) Treatment machinery information. 0 o o o o © (Note) Particularly required. Normally required. ------- In order for the necessary information gathered from the sources of information to be controlled, stored, accumulated, analyzed, processed and supplied to the respective functions at an appropriate time and in a precise manner, a data bank must be installed at the level of the local public organization, and for reasonable operation of such data bank, introduction of a computer is desirable. Further, the information management involves a number of problems which are not resolved by mere improve- ment of the information processing or storing capacity. Thus, it is required to strengthen the information gathering system, improve the quality of information to be collected, adjust the interfaces with the other departments and divisions, organizations and systems, have the government guidelines and handbooks furnished appropriately and provide an integram management system of information. The basic concept shown here must be followed by the development of a basic design, EDP program (annual program, directing the system development) and detailed desfgriyafld "such'development must be carried out under close-"coo'perat'ion" of the" administrative personnel, experts and system engineers with a model local public organization chosen. /.V. 63 - ------- (2) National information management system, at the leyel of the government This is a theme of the investigation and study for the fiscal year of 1975, and such national information management system is considered to be built up from the following group of systems and upon their organic combination: (i) National statistics preparation and supply system, (ii) Foreign information management system, (iii) Investigation and research system, (lv) Guideline and manual preparation system, (v) Treatment, disposal and conversion to resource technology development system, (vi) Technical assessment system, (vii) Introductory system for promotion of the conversion to resource, (viii) Consulting system, (ix) Register system, and (x) Related agencies conference system. As shown above, the national information management system comprises a variety of areas. Thus, its management should be estab- lished through reinforcement and effort of the administrative organi- zations. But, to cope with the diversification of the administrative areas more'or less specifically and with some mobility and flexibil- ity, it will be a measure worthy of consideration to provide a /•/» 64 - ------- national organization having an information management function especially (Fig. 4^5). Presently, for acceleration of the adequate disposal of indus- trial wastes and reinforcement of the administration, amendment of the "Waste Disposal and Public Cleansing Law" is being contemplated, and in such amendment, institutionalization of the requisites for improvement of the industrial waste information management such as the responsibility of the enterprisers and licensed disposal con- tractors for keeping the record on the industrial waste, responsi- bility for report on the harmful industrial waste, and prior reporting of the landfilling sites and industrial waste treatment facilities, is included. On the other hand, specific movements for building up an infor- mation management system are noted at the level of the local public organizations. For example, Mie Prefecture is going to put the information on the industrial wastes of the main enterprises in the prefecture into a computer toward comprehensive management from 1976, and Toyohashi City in Aichi Prefecture is going to install an information management system in an effort to carry out the sanitary landfill work appropriately and effectively with the information on the industrial wastes of the enterprisers put in a computer for furtherance of the input management, thus placing emphasis on the execution of the management work. IL 65 - ------- Fig. 4-3 System Functions Source oi informa- tion Information supply system Arrangement of document information Information gathering Arrangement of numerical information Gathering function Information storage and renewal system (data bank) Booking data; work Bookshelf or microfish Storage software Data base Information supply system Retrieval function Report preparing func- tion Investigation and analysis function Supply function Storing function (This part is illustrated in detail in Fig. 4-4.) ------- Fig. 4-4 Conputer System Configuration fat file Input and output data processing la of batch ayatea. not Included at flrat as It conpllcatea the ayaten. Output fomt \| Ootpot freqoextcy ayata evaluation program la ------- 34 of l/ufcwrt«\LU U»»w Hwfwnt Cwnr ¦n4 li«vli(^ia totfwtrUl Umi K»niwnt AkUt^Utf V Statlatlc £nfor«stLfto Actual «tLi0 aurvaT lotfcl Idiu Law teosotatlcrt Otter T4 Cwpetatloii vtth Acrlcvlcui- ftMKfr Otp«rtMa:h Caairc« mi lcutincr; Diparumt u veil if Sdgleui Trjji jd ------- STATUS REPORT ON SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES By H. Lanier Hickman, Jr. Presented at the Third U.S.-Japan Conference on Solid Waste Management Tokyo, Japan May 12-14, 1976 U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY Office of Solid Waste Management Programs ------- STATUS REPORT ON SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES H. Lanier Hickman, Jr.* Overview of Current Conditions Generation The United States generated approximately 122 million metric tons (135 million tons) of municipal solid waste in 1974.^" This amount is increasing at an annual rate of 3-5%. i Sludges from municipal wastewater treatment systems contributed 2 6 million metric tons (7 million tons) in 1974. Process wastes from industry approximated 240 million metric tons (260 million tons) in 1974."* Perhaps as much as 10 percent of these wastes are considered to be potentially hazardous. Because of increasing regulation of industry air and water effluents under the authorities of the Clean Air Act and the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, residuals from industry 3 are expected to increase 100% by 1983. The above wastes are receiving increased government and industry attention. The same is not true for the approximately 620 million Mr. Hickman is Director of Operations for Solid Waste Management Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Presented at the Japan/U.S. Conference on Solid Waste Management, Tokyo, Japan, May 12, 1976. i-a. i ------- 2 metric tons (680 million tons) of agricultural residuals and 1 billion 610 million metric tons (1 billion 780 million 5 tons) of mining residuals generated each year in the United States. (Table 1). Little Federal attention is now directed at these wastes. Table 1 Estimated Residuals Generation in the United States Amount Source (Tons x 106) (Metric Tons x 106) Municipal Solid Wastes 135 1221 Sewage Sludges 7 62 Industrial Residuals 260 2402 Agricultural Residuals 680 6202 Mining Residuals 1780 16102 lwet weight 2dry weight Given the increasing shortages of materials, the increasing dependence of the United States on importation of raw materials, and the now ever present concern over energy, the resources in our waste streams are demanding greater attention. Resource Recovery These large amounts of resources in our nation's solid waste stream make it obvious why the concept of resource recovery is receiving such intense attention in the United States today. 1.2.3 ------- 3 Materials recovery can occur in two principal ways: separate collection for recycling, or central processing of collected wastes to separate various materials for recycling or use as an energy source. The major constraint which prevents increased materials recovery in the United States is the lack of dependable, 6 predictable markets. Various reasons exist for the lack of markets for secondary materials. The principal reason is the fact that there are so many legal and institutional barriers affecting the recovery of materials from a waste stream that it is generally cheaper to prepare a product from virgin materials. Factors which drive up the cost of secondary material and hold down the cost of virgin materials include discriminatory freight rates, tax incentives, procurement and labelling practices. Further, the continuing practices of cheap environmentally unacceptable land disposal of most solid wastes prevent more expensive resource recovery technology from being adopted. Recovery of energy from solid waste is another oppor- tunity now under intense consideration in the United States. About 1% of the U.S. energy needs is theoretically available 7 in the municipal solid waste stream alone. Studies to determine the opportunities for energy recovery from other waste streams such as industrial and agricultural waste are I.A.3 ------- 4 now underway. Major difficulties that need to be overcome to make this option more attractive are the financing of systems, the conservative nature of utility companies, the lack of business acumen of local government, and data on technology to allow "routine" design, construction, and operation. Reducing the amount of wastes generated is another approach to dealing with the problems of soiid waste manage- 8 ment. Waste reduction concepts include such approaches as the reduction of packaging materials and the extension of life products. Waste reduction is probably the most difficult to achieve because almost any initiative tends to affect established production, marketing and distribution practices. Further, data to deal with such concepts as product life do not exist at this time. Hazardous Waste Management Hazardous wastes, generated primarily by industry, exceeds 9 million metric tons (10 million tons) (dry weight) 9 per year. Contaminants such as mercury, arsenic, lead, etc. exist in industrial process wastes. After air/water pollution treatment occur these materials are concentrated into waste sludges, slurries, and semi-solid wastes. Technology to deal with many of these wastes in an environ- mentally acceptable approach is available.^ Again, as in 1.2-4 ------- 5 resource recovery, however, the practice of improper land disposal prevents the adoption of more environmentally sound Land Disposal In the United States, the vast majority of all solid waste is disposed of on the land. Little data exists to really quantify much less qualify these land disposal practices. Indications are, however, that well over 90 percent of municipal and industrial solid wastes are disposed of in an environmentally unacceptable way on the land. These poor disposal practices result in air pollution from open burning, health impacts from disease vectors and water/land pollution from leachates formed in improperly sited, designed and operated sites. Responsibilities for solid waste management in the United States is shared by all three levels of government (Federal, State, and local) and by industry. These respon- sibilities are directed toward the planning, operation and financing of solid waste management systems with the citizen the ultimate recipient of these systems services. The citizen pays for these services either through taxes, fees, or a combination of these two funding mechanisms. hazardous waste management practices. Governmental Responsibilities ------- 6 The Federal Role Present Federal government authority In solid waste management is provided by the Solid Waste Disposal Act 12 (Public Law 91-512), as amended. This law was originally passed by the Congress in October 1965, amended in October 1970 and extended in 1973 and 1974. In the initial sections of the law, the responsibility of each level of government is stated. The Federal solid waste program's activities, as defined by the Act, include: policy formulation, research and development, demonstration and evaluation, technical assistance, planning solid waste management systems, training, state-of-the-art studies, and public information. It should be noted that this is one of the few pieces of Federal environmental law without * regulatory and enforcement authorities The State Role The activities of State government parallel those of the Federal government. In the areas of policy formulation, technical assistance, planning, training, and public information State activities are very similar to Federal activities, excepting that the scope is specifically directed at State/local problems and tend to be more detailed and specific in nature. The most important and demanding role of State govern- ment, and one that does not now rest with the Federal i.a.f, ------- 7 government, is the establishment and subsequent enforcement of solid waste standards.^ This is the essential role of State government and requires a host of functions stich as licensing of sites and facilities, monitoring to determine compliance, and a variety of functions to correct defi- ciencies in sites including training of operators, assist- ance to designers, managers and operators, and ultimately court action to gain compliance. The Local Role Local government is responsible for the actual manage- ment of solid waste from storage—through processing and recovery—to final disposal.^ Collection, treatment, processing and disposal operations are accomplished by both governmental forces and private contractors. Industries frequently manage those solid wastes from process lines, but have their general plant-type wastes collected and disposed of by private or public forces. By far the greater part of industrial and commercial solid wastes are collected by private contractors. The majority of processing and disposal facilities are owned and operated by local government agencies. Ownership and operation of resource recovery systems is shared equally by public and private organizations. I-Ql. 7 ------- 8 Current Federal Program Since 1965 the principal Federal focus on the problems of solid waste management have been the responsibility of EPA's Office of Solid Waste Management Programs and its Education, and Welfare. Efforts begun in 1966 focused on assisting States to develop strong, vigorous solid waste management agencies, and assisting State and local govern- ment and industry in adopting improved practices. When the Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965 was amended in 1970 by the Resource Recovery Act, it dramatically altered the shape and direction of the solid waste manage- ment efforts in EPA. The increased emphasis on resource recovery and hazardous wastes has resulted in a new program greatly different from the one which implemented the original 1965 Act. Current program efforts are aimed at the problems and solutions needed for the achievement of two goals: acceptable and safe waste management, including the protection of the land from improver disposal practices of all residuals; and the conservation of natural resources, including energy through resource recovery and waste reduction. The Agency issued in late 1974 a solid waste management strategy which 13 describes how these two goals will be met. predecessor organizations in the Department of Health, ------- 9 To meet the' first goal EPA is attempting to develop a better understanding of the environmental problems caused by the improper management of a host of wastes from municipal and industrial sources. We are establishing a data base to understand the sources of potentially hazardous wastes (mostly industrial sources)? the potential environmental damages that may be caused by improper management of those wastes; and the technology options that may be applied or be needed to reduce or eliminate potential damages. Major studies are underway in 13 industry groupings in the U.S. to define quantitatively and qualitatively their hazardous waste streams.^ A large study is underway to test the acceptability of various thermal reduction processes to destroy certain hazardous wastes and a major project to demonstrate the land disposal of chemical (hazardous) wastes was recently initiated. We are also developing the necessary tools and capabilities necessary to enable hazardous wastes to be regulated to protect environmental quality and public health and we are working with the States to adopt the use of these tools as States develop their own hazardous waste programs. Several major projects are underway to develop a better understanding of land disposal practices for wastes. These projects will determine the mechanisms of leachate ------- 10 generation and will study actual cases of groundwater contamination from land disposal sites; develop technology for leachate collection and treatment; and will.assist 11 communities to implement improved disposal practices. We also have underway a project to determine the acceptability of utilizing municipal sewage sludge as a soil conditioner and supplement in growing turf. We are also investing efforts directed toward the 14 promotion of collection efficiency and safety in solid 15 waste management. We have available the technical assistance capability and supportive tools which when utilized by cities and industries can significantly reduce their collection costs and dramatically reduce their injury frequency. Other major efforts are underway to support our second goal of resource conservation. We currently manage 5 large resource recovery technology demonstration projects (two in materials recovery and 3 in energy recovery). The five projects are demonstrations, at full scale, of systems or technology which have been proven at bench or pilot scale. They are funded by the Federal government in order to reduce the risk of cities in adopting unproven concepts. Another important effort in support of this goal is our technical assistance efforts with local government to guide them in the selection of the most desireable resource recovery option. Two projects have been initiated related to the 12-/° ------- 11 separation of materials at the residence in an attempt to demonstrate that citizens will participate on a continuing basis in a resource recovery endeavor. The States are the essential element necessary to develop a sound national effort in solid waste management. Twenty percent (20%) of EPA's solid waste management budget goes to support State solid waste management programs. These funds are utilized by the States to increase their efforts in the planning and implementation of State solid waste management plans including the regulation of solid waste processing and disposal facilities, to initiate State- wide hazardous waste surveys and ultimately hazardous waste management programs, and to conduct the planning necessary to encourage materials and energy recovery from solid waste. All of these efforts encompass data base development, assistance to local communities, the approval of sites and facilities, development of regulations, and the enforcement of those regulations. The Federal solid waste management legislation does not include regulatory authority. One section (Sec. 209) of our 12 authority does require the Agency to develop guidelines for Federal agencies to adopt. The term "guidelines" implies a standard or regulation for a solid waste management collection, separation, resource recovery or disposal system. l-2.il ------- 12 Until 1974 only two guidelines were under development—land disposal and thermal processing and the Agency had no plans to develop other guidelines.1® Several environmental organizations filed suit against EPA contending that the Agency was in violation of the Act by not also developing guidelines in collection, separation and resource recovery systems. These environmental organizations included the Natural Resources Defense Council and the Sierra Club, two organizations well known in the international environmental movement. Although the suit has not been settled, the pressure of the suit has prompted the EPA to develop other guidelines. Five guidelines are now in various stages of development and completion (Table 2 ). Table 2 Solid Waste Management Guidelines Guidelines Status Land Disposal Thermal Processing Collection of Municipal, Commercial and Institutional Solid Waste Returnable Beverage Containers Source Separation Resource Recovery Facilities Procurement of Products Promulgated - August 1974 Promulgated - August 1974 Promulgated - February 1976 Proposed - November 1975 Proposed - September 1975 Proposed - January 1976 Promulgated - January 1976 ------- 13 A brief description of each guideline follows: Land Disposal - Requires that the disposal of solid waste on the land be done in a manner to minimize impact on the environment. Thermal Processing - Requires that solid waste thermally processed be done in a manner to mini- mize impact on the environment. Collection - Requires minimum weekly collection of solid waste in covered vehicles. Returnable Beverage Containers - Requires a 5-cent deposit on all carbonated beverage containers. Source Separation - Requires the separation of high grade office paper at the desk. Resource Recovery Facilities - Requires resource recovery facilities where solid waste generation exceeds 100 t/d Procurement - Recommends purchase of products containing secondary materials. This discussion illustrates very clearly how citizen involvement can impact significantly on environmental policy. Involvement in this instance clearly forced EPA to review its attitude and interpretation of the Solid Waste Disposal Act, and as a consequence established a more forceful effort to guide the Federal government toward 1.3./3 ------- 14 improved solid waste management practices. This citizen suit will no doubt bring about significant change in the Federal government's solid waste management practices over the next few years. The basic legislative authorities of the Federal government in solid waste management were mentioned earlier. These authorities have remained essentially the same since 1970 and actually since the passage of the original Solid Waste Disposal Act in 1965. Various changes have been considered over the past few years but no serious attempts have been made to amend the 1970 Act. We are encouraged now, however, by three proposed sets of amendments which appear to be the first serious efforts in several years to change the existing legislation. These three proposals are the House Subcommittee on Transportation and Commerce's Solid Waste Utilization Act, Senate Bill 2150 and EPA's own March 1976 proposed amendments. While it is always ill-advised to predict either the form or outcome of proposed legislation, these three proposals warrant serious consideration because all three proposals include three new areas of responsibility which are the same. Table 3 attempts to summarize and compare the key provisions of each proposal. Federal Solid Waste Management Legislation ------- 15 Table 3 Proposed Amendments to Federal Solid Waste Legislation Proposed Solid Proposed Proposed Proposed Waste Utilization Act S2150 EPA Authority House of Represent. Senate Amendments 1. R&D* X X X 2. Demonstrations* X X X 3. Resource Recovery Demonstration* X X X 4. Technical Assistance* X X X 5. Guidelines* X X X 6. Special RR Studies* X X X 7. Training* X X X 8. State Program Grant Support X X 9. Regional Planning & Implementation Grants* X X X 10. Financial Assistance to Small Communities X X 11. Loan Guarantees for Resource Recovery Systems X X 12. Disposal Charge X 13. Product Standards X 14. HW Regulation Federal X X State X X X 15. Land Disposal Control and/or Regulation X X X ~Similar or related authorities exist in current SWD Act, as amended l-X-15 ------- 16 There are naturally variations in each of the proposals. However, it is significant to note that for the first time there is agreement, in principle, on a wide range of existing and new authorities. Specifically, all three proposals incorporate the major authorities of the existing Act and propose to fix weaknesses in .those provisions. Of particular importance is the broadening of the definition of the term "solid waste" to include sludges. This redefinition will give all solid waste management agencies greater influence in environmental planning and management. Three new authorities, in various forms, are included in all three proposals: land disposal regulation, hazardous waste management, and support to State agencies to implement comprehensive solid waste management programs. The broader issue of land disposal practices is now clearly recognized in the Senate and EPA proposals. Both would require EPA minimum standards and State adoption and implementation of those standards. The House proposal does not directly address this important issue, but through the guidelines provision provides for greater Federal/State involvement. All three proposals include the authority for EPA to establish hazardous waste management regulations and for State to establish hazardous waste management programs to I .£ ¦ Ho ------- 17 implement the regulations set by EPA. This consistency in intent is a clear indication that the problems that continue to reoccur from improper hazardous waste management are recognized and corrections must be provided. The third commonly shared new authority is the provision for support to State agencies to implement solid waste management programs. Such authority exists for the air and water programs and the inclusion of similar authority for solid waste management will "close the circle" for effective State environmental control programs. At the writing of this paper the fate of these three proposals is unknown. Their fate must be considered against a broader background of the November national elections which will elect a President, a complete new House of Representatives, and one-third of the Senate. Hence, new solid waste management legislation will depend on this bigger consideration. The encouraging considerations are however, that for the first time since 1970 there is a main thread of agreement on major legislative needs between EPA and the two Houses of Congress and EPA has publicly supported a broadened role in solid waste management for the Federal government. These factors may bring about new solid waste management legislation within twelve months. 1-2.11 ------- 18 The Federal solid waste management program in EPA is a small program of 185 people with a budget of 16 million dollars. In the last few years it has spent a great deal of effort in assessing what is needed to solve the nation's solid waste management problems. From that assessment a strategy has developed which when fully implemented and supported by new legislative authorities will indeed bring about major resource conservation and protection of the environment. There is optimism that we will be able to accomplish our goals in an orderly way within the economic constraints that all modern industrialized nations face. i. a. ------- 19 REFERENCES Smith, Frank A. and Fred L. Smith. Material flow estimates of residential and commercial post- consumer net solid waste disposal, by kind of material and produce-source category, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December 1974. Unpublished data. Prior, Larry A. Land availability, crop production and fertilizer requirements in the United States. Office of Solid Waste Management Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. October 1975. 99 p. Lehman, John P. Federal surveys of industrial wastes. Presented at the National Solid Wastes Management Association International Waste Equipment and Technology Exposition, Los Angeles, California, June 1975. Anderson, L.L. Energy potential from Organic Wastes, a review of the quantities and sources. U.S. Bureau of Mines Circular 8549, 1972. Hickman, H. Lanier, Jr. Solid waste management— United States statement. Presented at the ECE conference on the Environment, Hamburg, Germany, September 1975. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste Management Programs. Resource recovery and source reduction; first report to Congress. 3d ed. Environmental Protection Publication SW-118. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974 61 p. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste Management Programs. Resource recovery and source reduction; second report to Congress. Environmental Protection Publication SW-122. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974 112 p. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste Management Programs. Resource recovery and source reduction; third report to Congress. Environmental Protection Publication SW-161. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974 96 p. l-S-./f ------- 20 9. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste Management Programs. Disposal of hazardous wastes; report to Congress. Environmental Protection Publication £>W-115. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974. 110 p. 10. Lehman, John P. Federal program for hazardous wastes management. Waste Age. September 1974. Reprinted, Washington, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, October 1974. 4 p. 11. Weddle, Bruce and George A. Garland. Dumps: A potential threat to our groundwater supplies. Nation's Cities, October 1974. Reprinted, Washington. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, November 1974. 5 p. 12. The Solid Waste Disposal Act, Title II of Public Law 89-272, 89th Cong., s.306, Oct. 20, 1965; as amended by the Resource Recovery Act of 1970, Public Law 91-512, 91st Cong., H.R.11833, Oct. 26, 1970; and by Public Law 93-14, 93d Cong., H.R. 5446, Apr. 9, 1973. (To extend the amended Solid Waste Disposal Act for one year.) [Cincinnati], U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1973. 14 p. 13. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Solid Waste Management Strategy. Washington, 1974." 33 p. 14. Shuster, Kenneth A. A five-stage improvement process for solid waste collection systems. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, 1974. 38 p. 15. Wener, Sidney. Making refuse collection safer. Nation1s Cities. Sept. 1975. Reprinted, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Oct. 1975. 4 p. 16. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Thermal processing and land disposal of solid waste; guidelines. Federal Register, 39(158): 29327-29338, Aug. 14, 1974. I X 04 ------- ENVIRONMENTAL _EFFECTS OF IMPROPER DISPOSAL OF ' SOLID WASTE ON LAND March 31,' 1976 Dr. Saehiho Naito Environmental Sanitation Engineering Consultants, Tokyo, Japan Prof. Masataka Hanashima Fuculty of Engineering, Fukuoka Universi Fukuoka, Japan. ------- Index 1. General Condition ( Dr* Naito ) 1. 1 Sanitary land-»fill 1. 2 Incinoration 1. 3 Composting 1. 4, PyrolysiB 2. Leachate Treatment Plants ( Dr. Naito ) 2. 1 Quality and Quantity 2. 2 Theojretical Approaches of Leachate Treatment 2. 3 Actual Application of Leachate Treatment in:Tokyo 2. 4 Changes in Landfill Site Land Value Before and After Pilling 2. 5 Other Leachate Control Methods 3. In-Plac© Composting..process ( firof. Hanashima ) 3. I Aspects.-of Leachate Quantity 3. 2 Aspects of Leachate Quality 3.•3 Volumetric Aspects ------- ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF IMPROPER DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTE ON LAND 1, General Conditions Contained in this section is a discussion of a num- ber Of waste treatment and disposal methods which should be examined in the total evaluation of available options. Some of the following methods represent more widely used and proven methods (sanitary land-fill, incineration and composting) while other possibilities considered are what may be considered as processes in various stages of develop- ment and testing, but which show favorable potential for future use. The sum total of methods considered includes: 1. Sanitary land-fill 2. Incineration 3. Composting 4. Pyrolysis Referring the Government statement, above methods have been practiced by municipalities across the Japan as seen in Tabl« - 1. Table-1: Municipal Application of Solid Waste Treatment (1973) Item Solid Wastes(t/day) 56 Incineration 45,170 47.14 Land-fill 32,003 40.49 Composting (High-rate) 249 0.32 " (Windrow) 20 0.02 Hog Feeding 23 0.03 Others 1,582 200 Total 79,047 100 o?.Ul - ------- 1, 1 Sanitary land-fill Regulatory criteria of land-fill has been enacted by the Government on the base of sanitary land-fill to be sub- ject to the following criteria: (1) Preventing domestic wastes from flying and flow- ing out. (2) Land-filling site should be enclosed with a fence and. notified by setting -up -a notice saying "a wastes'disposal site." (3) Necessary precautions should be taken to prevent leaching out of a land-filling site from pollut- ing public water bodies and ground water. (4) Necessary precautions should be taken not to let' bad smell spread from a land-filling site. (5) Gas vent should be set to elimination generating gas and at the same time prevent the outbreak of fires. (6) Preventing rats froto living in a land-filling site and mosquitoes, flies and other harmful insects from growing there. (7) The thickness of domestic wastes to be reclaimed shall be generally less than 3 meters and 50 centi- meters of cover soil shall be placed between two layers. Following with this general criteria, municipalities are trying to relaim the waste at designated locations, how- ever public acceptance is heavily dependent on the opera- tion history of the local land-fill site and. the publics subjective opinion-.of land-fills or dumps.. It must fur- ther be Realized.that regardless of where the land-fill site is proposed, some opposition will be raised. True public acceptance will not be known until public hearings are held on any proposed site. Among some opposition by XIA. 2 - ------- publics, there is currently considerable controversy an to the magnitude of the leachate problem, however there are recently many arguments of water pollution originating at land-fill by leachate. 1. 2 Incineration Incineration of municipal solid wastes has been widely practiced by not only large cities but also other towns and villages. For those installations currently in existence, a general observation would indicate that in- cinerations may be feasible where land available for land- filling is scarce, expensive or very remote from the actual solid waste generation center. Increased air quality stand- ards have' also added another budget to incinerator costs. Recent developments in incineration practice indi- cate that a rapid transition in methodology is in progress. Efforts to make incinerators more adaptable and efficient for processing of solid wastes have demonstrated continued current interest which still exists. 1. 3 Composting , Although composting has been practiced in the old world for centuries, the modern science and art of compost- ing' have largely taken place in the last two decades. In the minds of some people, composting is controversial, and one immediately wants to know why so many plants have been constructed in Japan and then shut down and why did they fail, if they failed. Prom 1970 to 1974, sixty-seven (67) miinicipalities built composting plants in which only nine (9) plants are under operation at the end of 1974. Limitation of land brought some difficulties to store the end-product at composting plant, particulary out of harvest season, when high-rate process had been selected. From this view, inplace composting appears to be head and c2>, /. K 3 - ------- shoulders above the high-rate composting and at the same time shows the flexibility of storing the end-product after being fermented at same place of the site. Any municipali- ties have less capability of handling and saling the end- product to the consumer, because they had not enough chal- lenged sales promotion through circulating agencies. • Any new market takes time to develop and the sale of compost to conservative farmers is not exception. A win- ning formula for the composting entrepreneurs is to nego- ciate an sufficiently enough fee with the municipality so that he can make a profit regardless of whether any salvage is recycled or compost is returned to the land. The com- posting process must stand on its own two feet economically without total reliance on income from scales. This gener- alized answer is a realistic reply to the vast majority of the plant closings. In a great, many cases .politics and en- emies of composting fought the process from conception to closing. 1, 4 Pyrolysis Recently, considerable sttention has been given to "pyrolysis in providing means of recycling municipal solid wastes, however no full-scale process has been in operation long enough to substantiate•dependability, potentials and ¦economies. Operation of large scale facilities in the near future should provide much valuable information in this res- pect, but present capital investment is large (in the order of $50,000/ton of plant capacity, if municipality wants to have a line of stand-by) and operating costs are relatively high. These facts will likely exclude small communities:; from such an application. Pilot scale work over the past it) years has often been discouraging and the heterogenious nature of refuse has caused sever problems in clogging of pipes and valves, etc., and is still cause for pessimism. J. I.-I A ~ ------- in many¦circles. Apart from such disadvantages, marketability of usable by-products in the near future may make pyrolysis more universally applicable. Oils and gases currently have , and will corttinue to have universal soleability and marketability. Viewing current and predicted energy needsr it is apparent that a strong market should continue with excellent price stability. 2. Leachate Treatment Plants £. 1 Quality and Quantity Leachate from sanitary land-fill after being satuy rated with water can occur from the percolation of precip- itation through a land-fill's surface or due to ground- water moviement through a refuse filled area. There are more than eighty (80) sanitary land-fills which should have the leachate treatment plant to treat and meet with the national water quality standard for any effluent from public or private facilities. The quality of leachate varies in great extent, but it would be comprehensively 0 able to say as following Table - 2. Table -21 Quality of Leachate Quality General Figures COD 20 0 1 ,000 ppm BOD 10 - 40 ,000 cl" 30 - 30 ««• O o o P03 0, 6 - 20 NH3-N 20 - 32 ,000 S3 10 - 8 o o o Cr+6 up to 10 HS up to 0.3 Gd up to 2.0 Pb up to 40.0 ks up to 0.1 J. '"'-5 - ------- .Although optimization of leachate treatment would be concluded In physical and chemical treatment in combination with biological process, these operations would not be em- phasized as a best irv connection with high pH control to catch heavy metala in hydroxide product if the item of COD would he involved in the tolerate level of leachate quality. Furthermore# the characteristic of COD in leachate has a typical tendency which is going" to increase the value fol- lowing with years passed after being dumped. It is well known that the national water quality -standard for any effluent is quite serious such as follow- ing. Table - 3* Table - 3:" National Effluent Standard '' Quality Effluent Standard ' PH 5.8 - 8.6 BOD less than 120 in daily average COD * ' 120 w ss " 150 " Oil 5 , (mineral) u 3Q (organic) phenol. 5 Cu J Za 5 Pa 10 Mn 10 Or 2 (total) P 15 Cd 0.1 Cn 1 PO3 1 (organic) Fb 1 Cr+6 0.5- As 0.5 Hg- 0.005 (inorganic) II hone (organic) ------- Besides of the effiuent standard, we have a drink- ing water standard which would be one of the index how the leachate will effect ground water outside the site. How- ever, it is not,clearly understood what character of water analysis would be apparently proyed as an index of contam- ination by leachate itself. Of course, nitrogen cycle may have some possibility to prove the contamination, but heavy metals are not always existed in ground water which have ever been doubted as being contaminated. About the quantity of leachate, approximately 30 # of total rainfall upon the land-fill plus surface water flowing into the land-fill area would be discharged as leach- ate. It has been examined by Dr. Masataka Hanashima, Puku- oka University that when the moisture content of refuse dumped becomes 60$ more or less, the leachate would appear outside of land-fill area in connection with theoratical moisture retention capacity of refuse dumped. leachate will move either vertically - or horizontally, however the velocity of ion accumulated underground is rather lower than the flow of' leachate in the result of delayed contamination which would be appeared after long period of time. In con- nection with the quantity of leachate, the quality of leach- ate is. not so serious under heavy rainfall in contrast to the worse under light rainfall. The leachate formation must be prevented where pos- sible. This formation can generally be prevented by choos- ing and engineering sites so as to prevent ground water movement through a refuse fill area and by preventing appre- ciable quantities of precipitation from percolating through the land-fill. Neverthless, almost of all sanitary land- fill existed has not enogh lining a fill area with an im- permeable soil, because of a lack of special precaution and criteria in detail. ------- 2. 2 Theoretical Approaches of Leachate Treatment (1) Physical, Chemical and Biological Treatment without Denit rof icat iola : As shown in Pig.-l, 6-Valence-Chrominm is reducted to 3-valence form in coagulation tankr (2) in which sulfuric acid and ferrous-sulfate are-dosed. In pri- mary aeration basin (3) and accelator (4) can remove heavy metal, such as Cr, Cd, Fe, Un,Cu, Zn, Pb and As • * by means of pH control, and simultaneously some of or- ganic and soluble organic substances due to PO4 and suspended solids are absorbed. After another pH con- trol, secondary aeration basin (6) and sedimentation tank (7) will be effectively used for the removal of soluble organic substances and organic mercury might be removed. Remainder of suspended solids will be re- moved through sand filter^(8). In final stage of treat- ment., activated carbon absorber (9) will remove remaind- er part of organic substances, mercury and organic phos- pher. ¦X I- 8" ------- -1 : Chemical, Physical and Biological Treatment without Denitrification (jEqualization (5)Coagulation Tank Tank @\ccelator (2FH Control Tank Air (^Primary Aeration Basin ©Secondary (pediment at ion Aeration Tank Basin ®\ctivated Carbon Absorber A )• Air Return Sludge (S)6and Filter Excess Sludge r Cl2 I Effluent Sludge - Qconc Q)Dewatneri ng Machine Tai>k >i Supernatant "^Sludge Cake ------- Fig-2 : Chemical, Physical and Biological Treatment Attaching enitrification (^Equalization (2)Coagulation (3)Primary @Accelator G)PH Control Tank Tank Aeration Tank Basin iirsS-Lf (Secondary (^Penitri- ^ (§)Final Q> Activated Aeration fication' Sedimentation Carbon i i ib , * Tank v 7 7 y T a b t m I 1 Absorber ¦9 X Air (S^ertiary .Aeration ©Sand Filter Retarn Sludge Supernatant T Q®er at er i: lg ©Cone. Mffhine Tank Effluent^ Sludge Cake ------- (2) Physical, Chemical and Biological Treatment attaching Denitrification: (3) Evaporation and Distillation Process When an environment will need to control strictly COD as lower as possible, aforesaid processes are not enough although they are possibly effective for heavy metal removal. In such case, evaporation and distillation would be owed to go ahead of aforesaid processes which must be followed with the evapora- tion and distillation. 2. 3.^ Actual Application of Leachate Treatment in Tokyo. Mr. Fumihiko Oshima, Cleansing Department, Tokyo Metropolis made his report in the Seminor of Solid Waste Treatment held on November, 1975, in view of cost comparison between several processes for 1000 m^/day leachate as seen in Table - 4. As shown in Fig. - 2, up to pH control (?) has same significance asfPig - 1, however"secondary aeration tank (6) through sedimentation tank (9) shall be added to remove excess nitrogen. The secondary aeration tank (fT) will remove biologically soluble organic substances, and simultaneously ammonium and organic nitrogen will be oxidized to nitrite and-nitrate ni- trogen by means of nitrifying bacteria. Denitri- fication can be reacted through denitrification tank nitrite and nitrate into ni- trogen gas. Sand filterand activated carbon absorberhas also same meaning as Pig. - 1. <3.1.J-. 11 - ------- Table 4 : Cost Comparison of Leachate Processes System Construc- tion Period (month) Construc- tion Cost (1000 US$) Operation Cost mue- (usa/d) Amoriti- zation (US$/d) Tota (us. A 10,703 2,733 5,250 7,9: B 18 3,030 4,133 1,480 5,6: C 18 2,690 1,467 •1,050 2,5: D 18 3,557 3,133 1,747 4,8£ Note: Amoritization be based on 7 years depreciation. System A: System B: System C: System D: Leachate — Evaporation & Distillation - Activated sludge process,— Physical & chemical Treatment — Effluent Leachate — Activated sludge process — Physical & Chemical Treatment — Activated Carbon Absorption Sand Filtration — Effluent Leachate — Activated sludge process — Physical & Chemical treatment — Discharge into sewerage Leachate — Activated sludge process — Physical & Chemical treatment — Dilution by sea water The effluent shall be met with effluent standard which ,is much severe than the national standard mentioned in Table - 3 as follows, apart from heavy metals, pH 5.8 - 86 BOD less than 20^^° in daily average COD "30 » ss n 70 " J}. I. kl2 - . ------- In case of discharging into sewerage, the effluent shali be as follows, pH 5•8 - 8.6 BOD less than 300 COD " 300 sb M 300 2. 4 Changes in Land-fill Site Land Value Before and After Pilling Current application to the municipalities for approval of sanitary land-fill operation require discussion of the final use of the site. Completed sanitary land-fills can be readily used for parks or other recreational uses or restrict- ed agricultural purposes and if well compacted, can be used for parking lots, open air storage and with careful consid- erations for other types of construction. The primary reason for avoiding construction of buildings on a completed land- fill are that settlement of the site continues over a number of years and that methane gas produced from the decomposition of organic material creates a hazard to the building and its occupants. However, with prior-planning, a site may be de- signed for many types of final uses. For instance, Tokyo Metropolis had ever tried to use the site for road construction in which authors were request- cd^to' check the possibility of using land-fill area for road foundation. The investigation was made in 1969 from soil and sanitary engineering aspects. The site had completed to fill the refuse on swampy sea-shore for 15 years since 1951. The sample taken from boring shows as seen in Table - 5. cj, lrU-3 - ------- Table 5r Composition of Sample Depth(m) Moisture ContentX%) Combustible (#) Dry Base Uncombusti- ble ("Jo) Dry Base 2.0 - 2.5 45.1 26.1 73.4 2.5, - 3.1 48.5 51.7 48.3 3.1 - 4.1 54.3 30.1 69.9 4.1 - 5.0 54.4 30.1 69.9 5.0 - 6.0 55.9 28.6 71.4 6o0 - 6.7 - - mm 6.7 - 7.1 I 58.7 27.5 72.5 Judging from these data, almost of all carbonhydrates were decomposed, but celluloses and lignins have not yet completely decomposed even after 18 years being accunilated 6 to 7 meters in depth. On the other hand, another investigation was made in view of temperature gradient which would show a progress of furmentation in comparison with normal soil. The tempera- ture gradients'were recorded as 6.7 °c/m in No.l boring, 7.4°c/m in No.2 boring and 8.50c/m in No.3 boring, although being shown as only 4.0°c/m in normal soil. , To determine the heat conductivity (Jc) in.the equa- tion q=k. ^/dz» some calculation was made as seen in Table - 6. e?. - ------- Table 6: Heat Conductivity Item con- tent (w/w) Sped!'- I ic Grav- i ity , 1 Densi- ty of re- fuse (t/m3) Con- tent (v/v) ko (Kcal/ mh c) k (Kcal/ mh°c) Moisture 0.50 1.00 0.500 0.490 0.500 0.245 Straw, Wood 0.10 0.34 0.294 0.289 0.125 0.036 Textile 0.02 0.30 0„067 0.065 0.080 0.005 Prastics 0^03 . 1.27 0.024 0.023 0.200 0.005 Sand 0.20 2.60 0.077 0.023 0.200 0.005 Glass, Stone 0.10 2.50 0.052 0.051 1.000 0.051 Ferrous Metal 0.05 8.00 0.006 0.006 42.000 0.252 Tz= 0.664 Note: k ® 1^00 in normal soil. Thus, heat flow could be obtained as; Normal soil: q = 1.100 x'4.0 = 4.40 Kcal/m2. hr No.l Boring: q = 0.664 x 6,7 - 4.45 " No. 2 •'* : q « 0o664 x 7.4 = 491 " No. 3 " • : q = 0.664 x 8.5 = 5.63 " Prom these value of heat flow, it was concluded that tlj,e refuse dumped is still going to decompose even after 18 years, and then authors recommended that the site shall be carefully examined to be used for road construction, because the settlement of the site may continue. 2.5 Other Leachate Control^Methods Alternate approaches, other than using impermeable soils for the control or prevention of leachate formation include processing ojf refuse prior to filling and techniques for preventing movement of water through the fill area. Processes can also be applied to solid waste before land- «2- »- ------- filling which will minimize the quantity of leachate form- ed. The most successful process\would be in-place composting which consists of biologically stabilizing the organic frac-• tion of the solid waste so that a minimum quantity of sub- sequent soluble organic material could be leached from the solid waste fill. Another process that could be used to minimize leach- ate control would be baling. Baling results in a compacted 'refuse cube that is so dense that a minimum quantity of water can move through this material except between the blocks. This very tight compaction process would also minimize the overall leachate formation. A technique that can be used to minimize the percolation of precipitation into the fill is tjo use a vegetative cover on the top surface of the fill that has a very high transpiration rate. Vegetation of this type will take large volumes of water that have been deposited in the cover soil, and transpire them back into the atmosphere« This liquid is therefore prohibited from moving through the fill« area and forming leachate. This is ineffective for rain- fall in the non growing season, however. In addition to clay liners, synthetic materials have been proposed and in- some cases used for both lining the bot- tom of fill areas and covering the final compacted refuse. Materials used for these liners and/or covers include PVC, hy^ palon', CPE and various types of asphaltic pavements or emul- sions. Whenever these materials are used, special precau- tions must bo taken to insure that they are not punctured by the refuse material, Precautions include covering of the lin- er with 15 centimeters- to 30-centimeters of fine sand before commencing and landfill operations in the area. Liners of this nature can be sloped such that any leachate generated will flow over them and be collected by an underdrain system. If any leachate is generated, it will flow to the sump and the leachate may then be either recycled onto the fill, treated on' Bite, op pumped-t.o a-waste water treatment plant. 2. ^6.6 - ------- 3. In-Place Composting Process 3. 1 Aspects of Leachate Quantity As described in 2.5, in-place composting process has •great advantage to stabilize solid waste with in rather short period of decomposition than sanitary land-fill in con- sequence of accelerating biological stabilization, minimum quantity of CH4 gas and improving leachate quality. Since three years ago, Fukuoka University made a lab- oratory studies conducted by Prof. Masataka Hanashima using four units of concrete container as seen in Pig.-3 in which No.l unit was filled by pre-shredded refuse using aeration of 5.0 l/m^. min; No.2 unit was filled by raw refuse using aeration of 5.0 l/m3. min;. No.3 unit was also filled with raw refuse using aeration of 10.0 l/m^. min; and No.4 unit was under anaerobic condition. Each unit was covered by earth in 15 centimeters thickness. Pig_3: Concrete Container for Aerobic . Decomposition Gas Collection & ' Air Blowing \t?n O o <5 n u o -H- 11 n 11 o 'I IT 1 I '! 1 o l' I ¦' l 11 1 " I o 11 I 1 1U 1 1 o 8 400 2000 z00 2000 406 o O o- 0 0 01 a 4=4 rif-^ XI. I -nr. - r ——r ~ -J-k /dda'^%6~7'6 3.1.1. 3 $ _3l". Air Blowing Pipe S ------- Raw refuse used for this study is shown in Table-7, and leachate study was concluded in Table-8 in view of quan- tity, Table-7 : Raw Refuse Composition Unit Garbage# Combustible . Rubbish (#) • Uncombustible Rubbish- (#) No.l 45.2 46.1 8.7 No.2 32,S 56.4 10.7 No. 3 32.9- 56.4 10.7 No.4 32.9 56.4 10.7 ¦ Unit Volume of Refuse Used^ ' Density (^/m3) No a 0.76 No. 2 5.0 0.71 No.3 5.0 0.-71 .No ,4 5.0 0.71 V Unit No.l NOo2 No.3 No.4 Table-8 s Leachate Quantity Augl972- ,Julyl973 Leach- ate (1) 2,616 2,423 1,748 3,044 Rate of Leach- ate ($) ¦79.3 73.0 53.0 92.0 Augl973^- .Julyl974 Leach- ate (1) 2,047 1,404 877 1,727 Rate of Leach- ate ($) 87.5 60.0 38.0 74.0 Augl974-. ' July1975 Leach- ate (1) Rate of Leach- ate^) 1,124.9 48.5 5,787.9 1,302.5 56.2 5,129.5 865.8 37.4 1,754.1, 75.7 j6,525.1 1 82.0 Total Leach- Rate ate (1)\| of Leach ate ( 72.7 64.5 3,490.8 j 43.9 iU /-I." - ------- cqncrete container brought relatively large rate of leachate (leachate/water in-flow), because it was made by water-proof lining of cement mortal. This means that actu- al application must show smaller amount of leachate than the result of laboratory study, so that it shall be necessary to install a monitoring well adjacent to the location of land- fill, because it is considered that.the differences of amount .of leachate would be penetrated into underground underneath of land-fill. Moreover, large amount of aeration brought sig- nificant result of leachate's reduction as much as 20% in com- parison with smaller amount of aeration. 3. 2 Aspects of Leachate Quality Leachate quality was studied for Unit No.2 as aerobic condition in comparison with Unit No.4 as anaerobic condition. Reference was made to Table-9 through -four years experiment in term of pH, BOD, COD, NH3-N, albuminoid-N and chloride. It is apparently understood that aerobic decomposition has higher re- duction of such characteristics than anaerobic furmentation. c&, U 19 - ------- Table-9: Leachate 2uali'^y under Aerobic Condition (Unit ppm) ( 1972 ) ( 1973 ) ( 1974 ) ( 1975 ) Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan.. Apr. July Oct. Jan. Apr. July Oct» Jan. Apr. July II 4-45 7.50 8.50 8.55 8.42 8.38 8.75 8.61 7.71 8.55 8.93 8.45 8 . 12 8.79 8.80 9.30 IV 4.68 6.60 5-91 5.8l 5.89 6.16 5.70 5.41 5.55 5-75 5.58 • 5.70 6.80 6.83 6.70 7.34 II 39900 21300 2689 134 367 102 251 72 . 8 11.0 19.7 24-5 11.5 6.4 12.8 2.5 10.5 IV 54940 52674 49625 41560 46790 5.4910 42712 39909 41905 36630 26873 30366 11353 "37J5. 7940 4586 °7 II 23575 22594 1944 3112 2565 2028 1289 \ 1509 1384 1090 1125 931 682 491 364 28 5 IV 50922 35089 47417 59356 60608 46060 41609 34103 39810 35555 43443 28129 17798 13937 7087 3300 N II 1060 1331 209 125 224 47 59 16 1.5 0.8 2.0 3.7 0. 4.1 3.1 5.34 ' IV 1118 1051 1283 1389 1380 1517 1045 738 1090 1165 733 821 616 . 476 344 458 ' N II 439 426 149 125 155 104 45 42 42 39 20 20 13 14 7-6 10.7 • IV 900 865 719- 6 57 633 657 523 42 1 158 373 286 242 112 101 115 114 II 3403 3155 3013 3226 3145 1330 2039 1800 1294 1504 1145 731 727 70a IV 2953 3474 t •3.049 2531 3077 2039 2039 1596 1262 1026 77 0 550 496 640 ------- From these longrun study, it would be able to summa- rize for leachate quality as follows, Leachate Quality © Colour & Odour: Generally brownish, but will be condensed after .year by year; typical 'putrescent smell exists. © PH: Generally a range of 6 to 8, but sometime shows acidic form. (3) Suspended Solid: Almost less than 300ppm, but sometime shows more than 500ppm. ® BOD: Less than l,000ppm in many cases, but shows some- where 10,000ppm or more at most prosperous period of dumping; will be decreased after year by year. (5) Volatile Organic Acidf Inter-relation between BOD and organic acids will exist. © COD: Periodically higher than BOD, but inter-relation between BOD and COD has not been proven. Nitrogen: High nitrogen compounds exist, and not be decreased for certain period. © Phosphorus: Low content of phosphorus may interfere an acti- vated sludge process if be employed. Anaerobic Treatment (l) High BOD and COD is not improved for long'period of time. .aJ.K a - ------- (2) Significant high nitrogenous substances is much worse off than BOD and/on COD. (3) Stabilization is not expected for long time. Aerobic Treatment (T) High BOD and COD can be significantly reduced. . (2) After few months, ammonium nitrogen is reduced, ex- tremely. (3) Comparing 'easy reduction of BOD, COD is rather diffi- cult to reduce. 3. 3 Volumetric Aspects After three years study, volumetric aspect was made by taking out the refuse decomposed from the concrete contain- ers. As the result, it is understood that approximately 90 1 of raw refuse was converted to gas throughout the aerobic de- compostion. On the contrary, only 10% of raw refuse was trans- fered to gas under the anaerobic decomposition i& the result of many leachate yielded throughout' decomposition. Soon after the process begins the temperature rise sharply and residjial odors quickly disappear. Fly larvae are killed and thus .fly breeding is prevented. In a matter of 1 to 3 months the material is stabilized into a finished com- post yvhich must be evaluated as soil conditioner. 3. 4 Conclusion In-place composting process differs from the former process in that the shredded, refuse.,fclowly:.butccompletely.com- post in-place after the material is compacted in the land- fill. Since composting is essentially an aerobic process pro- vision is made for blowing air into the landfill under a pres- sure of 100 to 250 millimeters of water. Before the landfill- ing of the shredded refuse begins, perforated tile is placed in the ground in shallow trenches. The smaller tile would be ------- approximately 100 millimeters in diameter layed about 3 me- ters on centers, these would be connected to large pipes which in turn would be connected to air blowers. Air is blown intermittently through the shredded and compacted re- fuse. The amount of air used is dependent on the speed with which the breakdown occurs. On all of the processes it is well to have the capa- bility of injecting larger amount than theoretical^air needed. The surplus air can be used for cooling. It is also desir- able to have the capability of either blowing or sucking air through the pile. This can be done with a simple blower, by the use of several slide plates or butterfly valves Another approach which accomplishes this reversing capabil- ity along the standby blowers and motors is to place one blower in one direction and one in the other. The further advantage of this latter approach is that, it simplifies re- versal of flow on an automatic electrically controlled basis. Jf. '.1.23 - ------- Sulked \| [ Report on ''The Drainage Water Control Plant'1 for the waste reclamation land in Kobe ] Reported by Yoshinori Maekawa Environment Control bureau of Kobe City I. The outline of the project 1. The outline of the plan The Nagaoyaraa waste reclamation land is located at th>3 western part of the Rokko mountain range which is adjacent to the pro- fectual road from Kobe to Takarazuka. Its geographical position is the inclised forest of 300 m to 450 m hi?.h = The r3in water (985 ft) (1480 ft)1 and the well up water in the reclamation land are poured into the Shijimi River through the Maruyama River. This land was added by 261,000 m^ to the previously obtained (2»810,000 ft2) land of 384,000 m2„ and its reclamation capacity of 1,600,000 n\3 (4,130,000 ft2) (56 v 500, 000 ft-1) for reclamation of the waste materials in Kobe City since October in 1968. Then, the present reclamation capacity is 4,600,000 (162,400,000 ft3) and used for gravels, trash, rubbish and general waster, Kobe City started the plan of the drainage water control plant from 1972, and accordingly proceeded to the detailed investiga- tion. The construction was started from 1974 and will be com- pleted at 1976. ------- II, The outline of the construction Location Kotohpe, Shimotari, Yamada-cho, Kita district, Kobe-city 12,000 m2 (129,000 ft2) Area Treating capacity 1,700 m^/day (60,000 ft^/day) Treating process Water spray hearth process + Condensing Sedimentation process + I5io.lopica! Filtering process + Adsorption Process with activated carbon. Construction period; From April, 1974 to March , 1976 Construction cost Approximately a billion yen (3,^3 million US dollar) III. The outline of the plant 1. Flowsheet 2. Ground plan 3. Process description ------- NAGAOYAMA Drainage Water Control Plant Flowsheet 1. Slaked line first dissolution tank 2. S3.aked line second dissolution tank 3. First high molecule tank 4. Condensator tan!: 5. From reservoir 6. Feed water tank 7. Feeding water into plant 8. Phosphoric acid tank 9. Methanol tank 10. Second hip,h rcolecule tank 11. Third high molecule tank 12. Storing dam 13. First water spray hearth tower 14. Second water spray hearth tower 15. Third water spray hearth tower 16. Uigh speed condensing sedimentation 17. 'litrogenextraction tower 13. Adsorption tower with activated carbon 19. Bactericide 20. Discharge 21. First water receiving tank 22. Water receiving pit 2 3. Second water receiving tank 24. Third water receiving tank 25. Mixing tank 26. First processed water tank 27. Second processed water tank 23. Third processed water tank 29. Sedimentation tank 2r). Dirt storage tank 31. High speed centrifugal hydroextractor n - . -at ------- NACAOYAMA Drainage Water Control Plant A.. Activated Carbon yard B. Clean water tank C. Counter washing .tank D. Hydroextractcad cake yard E. Hydroextractor room F. Control room G. Electricity transformer II. Chemicals tanks I. Pond Ground Plan ------- 10 ^ 1 -)! I Orrt ;'ji I". U \ -)• J » "i:—) ¦ l':.' 11' ',:1 i' J Jii fiii j"~o ------- NAGAOYAMA Drainage Water Control Plant Process Description 1. First water receiving tank and first water spray hearth tower. The original water is received at first water received tank, where phosphoric acid is poured so as to secure nutrition balance of the original water, and then water is transferred through pumpt to first water spray hearth tower. In this tower, BOD in the original water removed by biomenbrane adhered to the surface of billing material in the tower. Then the original water is transferred to water receiving pit. 2. Water receiving pit The drainage transferred from the first water spray hearth tower is stored in this pit. Grandually the drainage is transferred to sedimentation tank by natural down flow. 3. Sedimentation tank In this tank, excess dirt generated at the first water spray hearth tower is separately sedimated. Supernatant fluid is again transferred to the first water receiving tank by natural down flon. 4. Second water receiving tank and second water spray hearth tower. The drainage overflown from the first water receiving tank is transferred through pump to the second water spray hearth tower, where remaining BOD in the drainage is removed by the .same system as in the first water spray hearth tower. £ I. 2l- (o ------- 5. Third water receiving tank and third water spray hearth to>-er.. The drainage overflown from the second water receiving tank is transferred ,through pump to the third, water spray hearth r.ower., where ammoniac nitrogen in the drainage is Oxidised to nitrogen of nitricacid by biomenbrane adhered to the surface of filling material in the tower. 6, Mixing tank 'A ! - Drainate, whose BOD is removed and ammoniac nitrogen is oxidized, is mixingly poured with slaked line and condensator so that they shall react against floating matters in the drainage and that they shall generate flock which i's easily sedinated > Finally these flocks are" transferred to high speed condensing sedimentation tank, 7. 'ligh speed condensing dedimentation tan>.. The drainage flown into this tank from the mixinj; tank is transferred to reaction area, where high molecule condensator is poured go that the flocks shall be enlarged for easy sedimentation. "Pie drainage reacted is transferred to sedinentation area and then separately sedinented Supernatant fluid is transferred to pro- cessed water tank as processed water. 8. First processed water tank In this tank, the processed water after the floating natters is separately sedinented is once stored with methanol poured. And then the processed water is transferred through pump to nitro- genextraction tower. ------- 9. Nitrogenextraction tower. In this tower, nitrogen of nltrlcacld In the processed water is removed by biotnenbrane adhered to the surface of filling material in the tower. And then the processed water Is flown into second processed water tank. 10. Second processed water tank. The processed water is once stored in this tank, and then transferred through pump to adsorption tower with activated carbon. 11. Adsorption tower with activated carbon. In this tower, COD and chromaticity in the processed water is adsorbed with activated carbon in the tower. And finally the processed water is transferred to third processed water tank through bacteriacide pouring. 12. Third processed water tank. The processed water whose COD and chromaticity is removed is once stored in this tank, and finally discharged out from the yard. 13. Hydroextracto): The dirt once stored in dirt storage tank is transferred through pump to centrifugal hydroextractor, where high molecule condensator is poured so that flocks shall become larger for easy extraction. Then the dirt is separated from hearth fluid by centrifugal force, and hydroextracted. ------- IV. Designed figure of the plant. Section I ten Unit Original Water Designed fip.ure of of treating. PH i. - 58 to 86 5.8 to 8.6 BOD 5 ppm 500 10 COD ppm t 500 V i 40 NH 3 r2~Q0 : 20 T. N ppm 250 70 ChrOnaticity debtee 500 100 - SS 400, .* _ «« . i .5 V„ Supcrvission of Construction: Environmental Control Bureau of Kobe City Constructor Mitsubishi Heavy Industriess Ltd, Kobe Shipyard and ^r.frine Works, ------- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Solid Waste Management Programs Environmental Effects of Improper Disposal of Solid Waste on Land by Truett V. DeGeare, Jr. P.E. Presented at the Third U.S.-Japan Conference on Solid Waste Management, Tokyo, Japan May 12-14, 1976 ------- CONTRIBUTING STAFF The information presented in this paper was derived from a number of contractual efforts, demonstration grants, and staff analyses. Contributing staff of the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency included Bernard J. Stoll, Kenneth A Shuster, Allen J. Geswein, R. Kent Anderson, Dirk R. Brunner, Michael Roul-'er, Dale C. Mosher, Chris W. Rhyne-, Aiessi D. Otte, and Frederick P. Goodrich. The manuscript was typed by Mildred Lee. ------- CONTENTS TOPIC PAGE General 1 Leachate Problem Assessment 3 Leachate Control 30 Monitoring and Enforcement 49 Site Selection .. 54 Gas Recovery 62 Landmix 76 Sludge Composting 77 References .84 FI6URE 1 Schematic of Anaerobic Filter System 40 2 Cross-Section of Anaerobic Filter 41 3 Schematic of Physical-Chemical and Biological Treatment Plant •• 47 4 Gravel -Filled Trench for Gas Control.. .68 5 Gravel Vents fbr Gas Control 68 6 Impervious Materials for Gas Control. 70 7 Pumped Wells for Gas Control 71 TA8LE 1 Municipal Solid Waste Composition 4 2 Damage Case Study Summary 8 3 Preventive Costs 13 4 Number of Disposal Sites Categorized by Annual Precipitation 16 5 Site Operation Characteristics 20 6 Descriptive Geologic and Soils Characteristics 21 7 Average Change of Macro-Contaminants Compared to Background Wells 26 8 Absolute Value Ranges (Low Level Indicators) 27 9 Quantitative Values for Site Hydrology 29 10 Costs for Liner Materials 31 11 Field-Scale Leachate Treatment Systems Reviewed 35 12 Characteristics of Leachate and Domestic Waste Waters.... 51 13 Average Range of Composition of Landfill Gas 64 14 Average Gas Composition of Four-Year Old Landfill 64 15 Composition of Average Municipal Solid Waste 72 ------- GENERAL Introduction The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is involved in land disposal of wastes in three general areas. These areas, identified by types of wastes are: Hazardous and Industrial Wastes, Sewage Sludge, and Municipal Solid Wastes. Activities of the Office of Solid Waste Management Programs in these three general areas are complemented by projects being conducted by EPA's Office of Research and Development. The general premise for these activities is that, even with the development of resource recovery and other processing techniques, for i the foreseeable future the land will continue to be used for disposal of wastes.^ Therefore, EPA is engaged in various activities to minimize the environmental impact and costs of land disposal operations. These activities will benefit the public and private operating sectors of the waste handling industry, as well as the general public. The following discussion addresses several EPA projects related to land disposal of municipal solid wastes, especially those concerning leachate and gas produced at land disposal sites (LDS). EPA activities in this area are categorized as follows: ------- ° Problem Assessment—define quantities and characteristics of leachate and leachate damage. ® Leachate Control--assess and demonstrate technology to collect and treat .leachate. ° Monitoring and Enforcement—improve procedures for leachate nonitorlng and for enforcing regulations. ° Site Selection—improve procedures for selecting disposal sites with due consideration to technological (contaminant transport) and political and sociological (land use) aspects. ° 6as recovery—assess and demonstrate technology to extract and market methane generated at disposal sites. Waste Composition ¦'Municipal solid waste" is comprised of a hetergeneous mixture of inorganic and organic constituents in solid or semi-solid form. The constituents may be highly reactive or essentially inert or resistant to chemical, physical, or microbiological change within the LDS. The degree or rate of change will depend upon opportunity for reaction, which is governed by the LDS environment. <3.9 • 2 ------- Although the composition of municipal solid waste varies across our Country, it has been generally characterized through field separation studies. In these studies truckloads of wastes have been manually separated into various categories. Table 1 presents the results of one such study conducted in the midwestern United States. This analysis is typical of our findings which indicate that municipal solid waste is fairly moist (15 to 35 percent of wet weight) and high in organics (60 to 75 percent of wet weight). Thus, opportunity clearly exists for microbiological reaction along with oxidation-reduction, coagulation, precipitation, acid-base and complexation reactions, sorption, ion- exchange, filtration, etc. withinthe solid waste mass or surrounding environment. It is this natural activity which produces the leachate and gas with which we must deal. LEACHATE PROBLEM ASSESSMENT Our activities in this category are varied, but are generally directed to defining (1) leachate damage and (2) the quantities and characteristics of leachate. Conceptually, we are examining existing leachate-producing LDS to try to learn what we can expect from those to be initiated in the future so that we can improve practices to avoid future problems. 3.2.3 ------- Table 1 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE COMPOSITION2 Composi t i on Moisture Content Constituent % by wet weight % by dry weight % by wet weight Food waste 4.2 106.0 51.9 Garden waste 9.7 131.0 55.9 Paper 53.2 57.5 36.3 Rubber, leather, plastics 6.2 25.8 20.6 Textiles 4.3 30.7 18.6 Wood 2.0 21.5 18.2 Metals 7.9 5.8 5.4 Glass and ceramics 6.2 1.3 0.6 Rock, dirt, ash 1.8 15.0 12.9 Fines (< 25.4mm) 3.7 39.7 28.8 Diapers 0.7 162.9 61.1 o?.a, 4 ------- Leachate. Damage There are numerous cases in the United States in which leachate from land disposal sites has contaminated surface waters.^ In confined, slow-moving, or relatively 'low-volume surface waters, it has killed vegetation, wiped .out-.spawning areas, killed fish, and caused ,the discontinued use of recreational or planned recreational areas. In most surface waters, however, the volume of leachate is small compared to the amount of surface water, and the concentration of contaminants is rapidly diluted. On the other hand, any migration of leachate directly into surface wa;er is inexcusable since it can be readily and cheaply prevented, provided, of course, the disposal site is not placed directly in a stream, marsh, or flood plain. In surface waters, up to 9.6.kilometers (6 miles) of streams and 4.8 hectares (12 acres) of lakes have been reported in which leachate has killed all aquatic life. Leachate plumes, or areas of ground water contamination emanating from a disposal site, have been reported to depths of over 30 meters (100 feet) and distances'of over 3,000 meters (10,000 feet). 3The extent of the plume is determined by whether the site is in a ground water recharge or discharge area, ground water pumping patterns, and the proximity of the discharge zone. In many areas surface and ground wafter systems are interconnected, so that leachate may flow from one to the other. 2.3. s ------- There are numerous cases 1n the United States in which leachate has contaminated ground waters. The most common economic damage resulting from ground water pollution is the contamination of domestic, industrial, or public supply wells. Unless the wastes in a polluting land disposal site are removed, the natural cleansing action of aquifers cannot occur, resulting in many decades, if not centuries, of foregone usage of the ground water. This means a devaluation of the land overlying the con- taminated ground water when any use requiring water is considered. In five well contamination cases, studied as a part of this project, the average avoidance cost and direct damage cost was $302,900 (1975 dollars) per disposal site; in two of the cases this figure is continuing to 3 rise. This partial damage cost is probably higher than it would have cost to use a suitable alternative site, but is lower than it would have cost to line, collect, and treat leachate at all five of the poor sites. In these cases, however, only a small percent of the ground water was being utilized (one case involved only three domestic wells), thus minimizing the current economic damages. Leachate contamination frequently causes severe economic hardships, distresses, inconveniences, and inequities to the land or damaged-well owners. In most cases identified to date the persons incurring damages to their property have not been fully compensated for their losses. Due to the number of years land disposal sites may produce leachate, it is difficult to assess the impact of these damages on future generations. Q-% . 6 ------- Five specific well contamination cases were studied in detail to determine the type of operations which caused damages, the damages which resulted, any remedial actions taken, and the costs associated with the damages. These case studies are summarized in Table 2. All of these sites were located in unsuitable areas and were originally open dumps, contamination could have been avoided by proper site location and operation. No engineering designs or leachate control strategies were developed in any of these cases before site utilization. All are located in areas of high precipitation; 94 to 107 centimeters (37 to 42 inches) per year. Residential wells were polluted in all five of these cases; indus- trial and public supply wells were also polluted or threatened at two of these sites. All of the residential wells were eventually abandoned and public water obtained. The cost of conversion to public supply was paid by an insurance company in one case, the owners of the damaged wells in another, and the owner/operators of the public landfills involved in the other three cases. In one of these cases, the affected homes had to obtain a judicial settlement by filing suit; the other cases were either resolved without litigation or are not yet resolved. For the industrial wells affected, the industry paid the total cost in one case, while no action has yet been taken in the other. In one of the public supply well cases the city which contaminated its own well bore the cost, while in the other, a private water company has been cut back in production with no compensation except the cost of supplemental water when needed from another water company. o) ol. 7 ------- Table 2 CASE STUDY SWWARY Site 1. Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Site 5 Type of operation open dump, landfill open dump, landfill Incinerator residue open dump, land rill open dump, landfill open du.Tp, landfill, Incin* erator residue Location swampy area, stream sand pit gravel pit on bedrock sand pit Years of operation 1945 - present 1933 • present 1960 - 1968 1961 - 1972 1947 - 1972' Size of operation Acres Peak annual tonnage Depth (ft.) 8 (3 ha) 2,500 (2,270 tonne) 25 (8 n) 17 (7 ha) 1 50 (15 n) 56 (23 ha) 200,000 (181,400 tonne) 40 (12 n) 22 (9 ha) 68,000 (61.680 tonr.e) 55 (17 m) 40 (16 ha) 94,000 (85.260 tonne) 55 (17 n) Annual precipitation (In.) 42 (107 en) 42 (107 cm) 42 (107 cm) 37 (94 cm) 37 (94 cn) Damages 25 residential Nells 3 residential wells home fixtures 33 residential wells 3 Industry wells 8 public supply wells 7 residential wells home fixtures 4 residential wells 4 industry wells ¦ 1 public supply Remedial actions wells abandoned public water supplied filters on wells well abandoned public water supplied fixtures replaced resld. wells abandoned . public water supplied public wells cut back counterpumplng wells abandoned public water supplied all wells aband. public water supplied new public supply well cover soil on landfill Mitigation No No No Yes No Costs to date (1975 dollars) Well value Damages (fixtures) Corrective Avoidance Administrative Total cost (exel. walls) $ 31.200 0 0 500,000 4.000 $504,600 $3,600 852 0 6,032 7 $£,884 $ 39,000 R only 1,371,762 628.238 Included above $2,000,000 $ 7,000 5,250 ? 33,000 76.750 $115,000 $ 94,000 0 64,750 115,500 25.000 $265!250 Status cost continuing concluded costs continuing concluded concluded ------- The damage costs per disposal site ranged from $10,484 to $2,039,600. These costs are actual expenditures or commitments to date, and for two of the sites the costs are continuing to increase. The crime of leachate' contamination is the impact of environmental and economic damages on the lives and land of the water resource owners. In most cases this damage is imposed upon the victim, and often occurs because of ignorance. In all cases identified to date the victims were not compensated fully for their losses. Assuming no leachate prevention and control programs are utilized, contamination of ground water in areas of high precipitation is inevitable. This means all the wells downgradient of a disposal site may become polluted and rendered unusable. It also means the owners of land downgradient of a disposal site cannot tap the ground water (at least the surficial aquifer) for drinking water. Unless there is already public water in the area, there will also be a devaluation of land since it cannot be used or sold for development without the additional expense of developing an alternative water source. Great inconvenience was incurred in four of the cases by residential well owners who had to use temporaYy water, do their laundry elsewhere, and bathe at the homes of friends. Direct damages included damage to laundry, water fixtures (faucets and sinks), and water heaters. The duration of this inconvenience lasted up to 4 years in one case in which the home owners did not sue and finally had to pay for being connected 2-2.9 ------- to the public supply. In the fifth residential case the city, which owned both the landfill and the public water supply, immediately had the affected homes connected to the public supply. In each case, very little of the total cost of the impacts was recovered by the well owners, although in four of the five residential cases the costs of pipeline and connection to public water were recovered. In addition, in four of the contamination cases, city, county, and state government professional resources were called upon to investigate the problems, take water samples, analyze the samples, determine the extent of con- tamination, and advise as to corrective or avoidance actions necessary. These resources included the geological survey, health departments, water departments, town and county administrative offices, and public works and environmental control departments. Remedial Actions. The major tasks of.the residential well owners were to obtain temporary water first and then a permanent alternative supply. Both tasks proved to be time consuming, costly, and difficult to accomplish. In the five cases studied, accomplishment of the first task included: catching rain in water basins, using a hose to obtain water from a neighbor who was on public supply filling up containers at the homes of friends and at work, showering at the homes of friends and relatives and in public facilities petitioning for a National Guard tanker truck which was denied by the Governor on the grounds that it might be unsafe (despite use by National Guard units), petitioning for the use of Civil Defense Emergency equipment which was denied on the <2.a.io ------- grounds that 1t was needed for short-term emergencies, donation of bottled water by a local Company, using one's garage or basement for water storage, washing laundry at a laundromat or at the homes of friends, and eating out. The second task of obtaining a permanent water supply was accomplished in'four of the five cases by gaining access to nearby public water.supply lines. In one instance a law suit was required to make the polluter pay this expenses; in another instance the damaged-well owner had to bear this cost. In the fifth case, there was no municipal water supply. The town which owned the disposal site has had to drill a well upgradient of the disposal site and is developing a system to store and pipe water to the affected residents. Preventive Costs. The cheapest means of leachate prevention is to use disposal sites with soils of naturally low permeability (e.g., clays) or soils that are good attenuators with sufficient depth to the ground water to be effective. The site may cost more initially and will require an extensive hydrogeologic evaluation before use. To help decrease infiltration, the site should be operated according to sanitary landfill procedures with proper slope, daily compaction, and soil cover, and in general it should be capped with an impermeable cover, top soil, and vegetation, and vented to allow gases to escape. A site without suitable soils, or without sufficient distance to the water table, should be lined with an impermeable lin$r to protect against leachate migration from the site. The use of a liner means a <3-2." ------- leachate collection and treatment system is required. The liner itself ranges in cost from $5,700 to $25,000 (1974 dollars) per acre for material and installation, excluding the costs of subgrade and cover soil. If the liner is to come in contact with ground water, a counter- pumping facility may be needed to keep' the pressure from shearing the liner. This means a larger initial cost, and perhaps a continuous operating cost. There is little cost data available on leachate treatment facilities. Based on data from three non-case study sites, the capital costs for leachate treatment range from $1,060 to $9,250 per liter per minute ($4,000 to $35,000 per gpm). Applying these liner and treatment facility costs to the five case study sites, it is readily apparent that it would have been cheaper to obtain a site with suitable soils in the first place; such land could surely have been obtained for less than the additional cost of pre- ventive technology which is ($44,550 to $178,200 per ha. ($18,000 to $72,000 per acre). These figures assume no leachate collection (pumping) costs since gravity feed is a possibility (Table 3). ~Gallons per minute. Q..S-" ------- Table 3 PREVENTIVE COSTS AT 1975 PRICES TO FIT SITES SIMILAR TO THE FIVE CASE STUDY SITES WITH LINERS AND TREATMENT FACILITIES Treatment facility Initial preventive cost Site Liner cost ($/site x 1,000) capital cost range ($/site x 1,000) ($/ton) ($/tonne) ($/acre x 1,000) ($/ha x .1,000) 1 $150 $ 49-426 $3.32-9.60 3.67-10.58 25-72 62-178 2 221 104-904 — 19-66 47-163 3 728 340-2,978 .59-2.05 .65-2.26 19-66 47-163 4 286 118-1,030 .54-1.66 .60-1.83 18-60 44-148 5 800 214-1,874 - —— 25-67 62-165 * Based on $32,100/ha ($13,000/acre) to grade and install liner, and for sites 1 and 5, ground water controls to prevent damage to liner. + Tonnage unknown for sites 2 and 5. a-a- is ------- The current solid waste disposal situation in the United States, although improved in many States in the past 5 years, is still poor. Since landfills are considered to be nonpoint sources, the lack of environmental standards for the protection of ground water and surface water has failed to encourage adequate water resource protection and has allowed local political and socio-economic pressures, rather than environmental pressures, to dictate disposal site locations and types of operati ons. Current estimates for the number of solid waste disposal sites in 4 the United States range from 14,000 to 19,000. Most of these are open dumps, and only a very small percentage are sanitary landfills. Moreover, both dumps and landfills have frequently been located in unsuitable areas, such as floodplains, stream beds, marshes, and gravel pits. In a large number of sites, wastes have been placed directly into the ground water. It was common practice to fill in streanjs, bay areas, and gravel pits with wastes to "reclaim" the land. An estimated 28.000 disposal sites have operated in the past 10 years, with over 9,000 of these now closed. However, due to a lack of leachate surveillance, monitoring, and control programs throughout the United States (only a small number of states have recently started such programs) very little information is available on ground water conditions around these sites. >Q. 14 ------- A report on the disposal site conditions in one state (102 cm or 40 Inches of rainfall per year), based on a survey conducted 4 years ago, listed the following conclusions: (1) there were at least 2,600 roadside or promiscuous dumps (2) 97 percent of the 457 "authorized" land disposal sites contributed to either air, water, or land pollution (3) objectional runoff or seepage was noted or potentially possible in 90 percent of the disposal area (4) solid wastes were placed directly into the ground water at 20 percent of the disposal site's. In April 1975, five additional states, known to have done recent surveys of disposal sites, were contacted. In four states, with 89 to 99 cm (35 to 39 inches) of rainfall per year reported at least 18 to 31 percent (24 percent average of their disposal sites produce leachate which is contaminating surface or ground waters. The fifth state, with 107 cm (42 inches) per year rainfall, reported at least 58 percent of the disposal sites produce leachate which is contaminating surface or ground waters. Four percent of the sites for the four states and 14 percent for the fifth are reportedly causing economic stresses. Moreover, these statistics are based merely on visual observation of surface 3' 5 ------- leaeliete and placement of solid waste in the water table. Chances are that these percentages would be higher if data on the ground water conditions were available from monitoring programs. Assuming the critical areas of leachate damage are those states with aver 7a cm (30 inches) of precipitation per year the states which have net precipitation infiltration potential have approximately this amount, over 70 percent of the disposal sites in the continental United States are fn critical areas (Table 4). This means that 70.8 percent of the sites, even i-f not placed in the water table or streams etc., have the potential of producing leachate* Sites in states with no net Infiltration potential may stiH produce Isachate if the prec?pit3tion is heavy seasonally and not uniform throughout the year. Table 4 NUMBER OF KNOWN DISPOSAL SITES CATEGORIZED BY ANNUAL PRECIPITATION OF STATE ¦ Annual precipitation Number of Percent cm (in.) sites of sites More than 99 (39) 6,300 34 .76-99 (30-39) 6,600 36 51-74 {20-29) 2,000 11 Less than 51 (.20) 3»4Q0 19 Total 18,300 100 9 .a.16 ------- A resource loss occurs only if there is a need or desire to use the resource. This loss surfaces as: (1) the development of a well which turns out to be contaminated; (2) the development of an alternative water source (surface or ground water) which, though not contaminated, 1s more remote and it therefore costs more to pipe in water from it. Both of these situations have occurred in actual practice. Sites one, two, three, and five involved yjells that were developed after the disposal site had been operating and the ground water had been contaminated. In two of these cases, the wells were initially out of the leachate plume, but their use and/or the closure of other wells changed the ground water flow and the direction of leachate migration. In site four, the disposal site was developed after the wells were in use and after a State agency evaluation of the site had advised against its placement because contamination of the wells was inevitable. As noted earlier the average cost of foregone usage from the five case studies was calculated to be $221,200 per site. As more aquifers become contaminated, and as the residential and industrial uses of water Increase, the supply of suitable water resources will decrease. This limited supply and high demand situation may compound the costs in a multiplier effect because of further transport (piping) distances. It can safely be said, then, that the figure of $221,200 per aquifer is a conservative value to assign to it. Estimates on how long an aquifer is unusable as a result of leachate contamination range from 50 to 150 years, although no one really knows how long the restoration of an a. a. 17 ------- aquifer actually requires. One major unknown is how long a polluting disposal site will continue to produce leachate. Assume that 90 percent of the existing sites in states with 76 cm (30 inches) or more per year of precipitation produce leachate which results in an opportunity cost of $221,200 per aquifer. This would mean that the present worth (opportunity cost) of these contaminated aquifers is about $2.6 billion. If the demand for water is as high as it was in case study site number three, the opportunity cost per site will be at least. $588,600 since the cost in this case is still rising. If this, in fact, reflects true opportunity cost, the national cost of damaged aquifers (opportunity cost) will be $6.9 billion. Add to this figure the avoidance tangible direct damage, intangible direct damage, and administrative costs associated with cases of ground water pollution, and this certainly is justification for a major Federal, State, and local effort to upgrade existing disposal practices and to assure that all new disposal sites utilize the best of existing technology in protecting our water resources. Leachate Quantity and Characteristics The extent of migration and the composition of leachate are important factors determining the effect of leachate on aquatic and soil environments. Also of significance are the operation and general management of the LDS. Surface seeps (springs) of leachate that are allowed to discharge directly into surface waters would be expected to 33.18 ------- drastically change the aquatic environment unless large amounts of dilution water are available. Surface waters generally provide some mixing to minimize the adverse effects of leachate. Due to the wide range 1n leachate composition, characteristics of soils through which the leachate ml grates> and the characteristics of the receiving environ- ment, general statements regarding the environmental effect of leachate are misleading. Well documented cases are not generally available, probably due to the lack of a concerted program to gather the appro- priate information and the traditional poor monitoring at most disposal sites. A few documented cases and some hearsay incidents have been reported. In a recent field study we attempted to assess ground and surface water quality in the immediate vicinity of 10 land disposal sites. The sites investigated were selected to represent a wide range of operational, geohydrologic, and climatic conditions (Tables 5 and 6). Differences from background water quality, or "delta values",-were measured for surface water quality near the LDS and for ground water quality beneath the fill and immediately downgradient. This water quality data, when analyzed in the light of the many site descriptive variables, should reveal some cause-effect relationships. ------- SITE OPERATION OHAMCTEMSTICS Type Age Surface area Site Operation yrs ha. (acre) SoSi-d waste depth n (ft) Estimate total volume solid waste m3xlO° (yd3x106) Status Surface leactiate 6 H I J SLF, trench IF. pit-fill cells dump SLF, area fill 1n hollow SLF, trench LF, sand & gravel pit- fill converted sand pit-fill SLF, area fill SLF, area fill SLF, trench/area 35 12 10 3 (8) 14 (35) 1 (2.5) 47 (115) 9 (22) 8 (19) 48 (119) 9 (22) 28 i (75) 4' (10) 8.2 (27) 6.7 (22) 22.9 (75) 1-15 (3-49) 2.7-6.1 (9-20) unknown 7.6-9.1 (25-30) 12.2 (40) 7-30.5 (23-100) 6.7 (22) .3 (.4) .9 (1.2) unknown 3.3 (4.3) .4 .(;$) unknown 3.8 (5) 1.1 (1.4) 5.7 (7.4) .3 (.4) trench studied closed act1ve active active closed active actlve active actlve active none observed none observed leachate seep at base, dis- charge to s.w. leachate dis- charge at toe leachate at surface during/ after rainstorm leachate pools leachate dis- charge at toe leachate seep, gullies none observed none observed ------- Table 6 DESCRIPTIVE GEOLOGIC AND SOILS CHARACTERISTICS Site Soils Topography Geology' A Clayey till, loess, silt, sllty clay, sand (w/pebbles) Interior Plains - Central lowlands; site 1s on topo- graphic high, moderate to gentle relief Gumbo (clayey) till and loess over coarser glacial till, underlain by dolomite, gently dipping, used as aquifer B Fine sand, sandy clay, tight clay Gulf Coastal Plain; site on edge of terrace bordering floodplaln Eastern edge of Pleistocene terrace sands C Medium to coarse sand (some sllty fine sand and clay) Solid waste dumped over steep scarp onto narrow flood plain Face of Bluff on floodplaln, med-coarse sand glacial outwash over jointed gran- ite, sands tapped by private wells (also weathered upper zone granite) 0 Medium-fine sand, some clay and silt Gulf Coastal Plain, lowermost units; hilly terrain (17-3031 slopes) hollows filled with solid waste Cretaceous, westward-dipping uncon- solidated sands and chalk E Unsorted glacial till, shale bedrock Appalachian Plateau; site on flank near top of high relief ridge Unsorted glacial till over fractured shale bedrock F Coarse-fine sand, gravel and cobbles Central lowlands - till plains section; site on floodplaln Glacial outwash deposits; mined for sand and gravel; multl-terraced Illlnolan and Wisconsin outwash, shallow water table G F1ne-coarse sand, gravel, clay Atlantic Coastal Plain; lo- cated on topographic high with a gentle eastward slope .toward floodplaln Lower unit (Cretaceous) Atlantic Coastal Plain, arkoslc sand and gravel Interbedded with clay. Par- tial cover more recent sand K Sllty, chertyclay, sandy 1n deeper zone Valley and Ridge Province; site on flank of 200 high ridge Sllty clay residuum over gently- dipping dolomite I S1lt, fine sand, micaceous saprollte Gently rolling Piedmont; site on hilltop S1lt and saprollte residuum over weathered, jointed schist with minor quartzlte J Coarse sand, fine gravel, clay stringers Cently rolling High P1a1n$ alluvium, site located on flank of topographic high Ogallala fin., arkoslc htgh plaint alluvium ------- The primary objective of the study was to discern whether or not contamination (degradation beyond background water quality) of local water resources takes place at any of the LDS. Secondarily, the inves- tigation was to explore the nature and level of contamination if it exists. To accomplish this a comprehensive series of chemical analyses were required at each well, stream, pond, and seep sampled. This chemical data, combined with details gathered from each site on geo- hydrology and site operation, provide a clear picture of ongoing leaching processes at each site. Dumps and poorly operated LDS, including conversions (former dumps which now receive daily cover), would be expected to cause more leachate problems than expected to cause more leachate problems than well engineered and operated sanitary landfills. In areas of equally high rainfall, sites located in permeable soils could be expected to contaminate ground water more than sites located in clay soils. An investigation of this sort should indicate some conclusive correlations between site des- criptive characteristics and th extent of the problem caused by leachate generated at the site. It bears repetition at this point that the project's primary objective was to determine if contamination of water resources existed beneath or immediately adjacent to the LDS. Where contamination was found, the level and nature of contamination were characterized by s. a." ------- thorough chemical analyses of water samples extracted from downgradient locations, through-fill wells, and background locations. The monitoring network of wells and sample points was restricted to the immediate vicinity of the land disposal site. Had it been within the scope of these investigations to delineate the migration of the contaminated plume, a more extensive network of monitoring points would have been required. To adequately characterize migration of pollutants from the sites and to assess the threats posed to downgradient users of the water resources are objectives beyond the scope of this project. The location of monitoring wells and sample points called for a thorough review yf existing literature and maps and for a visit to the site by one or more hydrogeologists. The initial literature review included hydrogeological data for the site area and for areas of similar hydrogeology. Topography and surface drainage of the area were studied from maps of the area both before and after disposal operations commenced. At the site, the hydrogeologists estimated ground water flow directions from drainage, topography, and knowledge of the local earth materials. At this point, rather than perform costly boring and piezometric tests, the hydrogeologists pinpointed locations for well installation based on an educated guess at ground water flow directions and on the accessi- bility of the location for a drill rig. In constructing wells con- sideration was also given to minimal interference with LDS operations or post-fill plans for the area. Where possible, wells sampled a lower level of ground water, as well as the upper level. Casings were generally slotted to sample a 3 meter (10 foot) zone. 3-2.23 ------- Nearby existing wells, background, downgradient, and occasionally through the fill, were noted for sampling. Streams, ponds, seeps, and springs were also noted for sampling. Generally, one location was selected for a well through the fill, and two or more downgradient. Drilling a background well was necessary only if an appropriate upgradient background well did not already exist. Well driling was performed by various drilling equipment, dependent largely on the performance of the local drilling contractor. Air and mud rotary, hollow stem auger, and cable tool were used. Ten to 15 cm (4 to 6 inch) diameter casing was installed, slotted with a torch or a hacksaw [the former on steel casing, the latter on polyvinyl chloride (PVC)J. The use of steel or PVC was largely dependent on the depth of the well and the capabilities of the driller. The choice of bentornte or cement for grouting depended on what was available in the area at the time. No attempt was made to develop the wells unless rotary equipment drilled the well, in which case it was possible to blow water out until it appeared clear. Bailing 7 to 11 liters (2 to 3 gallons) of water out of each well before each sample extraction was adequate to insure that representative ground water, was being sampled. Wells were generally not sampled until a month after drilling. a.a.2« ------- Over a 6 to 7 month period, all sample points were sampled monthly. Water collected for metals analysis were filtered (0.45^) and acid- fixed in the field. The data obtained during these investigations have been divided into two groupsthose contaminants generally exhibiting high levels and those exhibiting minimal or undetectable levels. Selected data are presented in Tables 7 and 8, respectively, showing increases over background (delta values) for both thrufill and downgradient wells. Furthermore, the delta values presented are the averages over the entire monitoring period. This was done to remove seasonal variation from the data. Interpetation of the data with seasonal variation included is not possible unless the time-distance relationship between wells is established. It is assumed that the relative.increase over background found in this 7 month study is valid, discounting any year to year variation which can occur. In examining the data in the tables it is noted that there is considerable similarity among the sites studied: ° all sites show contamination and ° the nature of contaminants are similar among sites. 25 ------- Table 7 AVERAGE CHANGE OF MACRO-CONTAMINANTS FOR THRUFILL AND DOWNGRAOIENT WELLS COMPARED.TO BACKGROUND WELLS Site Specific conductance {/1 mhos/cm2) Fe (mg/1) Ca (mg/l) Phenolicsa (mg/1) NO3-N (mg/1) NH4-N (mg/1) TKNb (mg/1) A a Thru 1,318 226.5 198 1.14 -.3 .2 38.3 A Dngrd 392 -1.62 26 * * * B A Thru 12,394 3.02 53 .145 .3 5.37 345.9- A Dngrd 255 -.59 35 .006 -.3 .65 1.4 C a Dngrd 214 10.7 18.4 (.002) (.1) (1) (2) D A Thru 358 -.46 -20 -.003 -.1 -.12 -.74 A Dngrd -27 -.46 -15 * * * * E A Thru 1,083 12.4 8 (.001) (.1) (.31) (1.19) A Dngrd 704 1 61 (.003) (!) (-04) (.39) F A Thru 1,045 11.8 44 -.001 .2 3.25 -2.2 A Dngrd 671 41 98 .16 .1 10.15 11.5 G A Thru 245 26.7 9 .08 0 2.05 2.4 A Dngrd 12 -.04 -12 -.03 0 * -.04 -.67 H A Thru 132 .79 21.6 .003 0 •(.21) -.65 A Dngrd 76 .03 12.6 .002 0 (,09) -.75 I A Thru -1 9.5 -17.4 -.005 -.9 .02 2.6 A'Dngrd 601 181.6 30.9 .037 .7 .08 3 J A Thru 290 .56 43 .015 (.5) 0 -.74 A Dngrd 17 .25 .4 * * * * a Distillation determination of all phenolic compounds, b TKN 3 Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen. This value includes both organic and NH4 nitrogen. * Indicates no analysis. Values in parentheses are absolute values; no background values available for A determination. ------- Table 8 ABSOLUTE VALUE RANGES* (low level Indicators) Veil location Parameters' Cd Crri Pb Cn Hg Se As B Site A thrufUl downgradient background .01 .02 .005 .01 * .0005 .0023 * .001 INT * .03 .06 * .2 .4 * B thruflll downgradlent background .03 .07 .0015 INT .01 .06 3.7 C downgradient background . . * * * * * 0 thruflll downgradlent background * * .01 .03 * * * E thruflll downgradient background * .03 .09 * * * * ¦0 .6 * F thruflll downgradient background .01 .01 .09 1.3 1.4 .33 .52 .20 6 thrufill downgradient background .009 .0005 .0085 .0005 .0007 H thrufill downgradient background .01 ..01 .01 .03 .03 .03 .03 .005 .006 .005 .01 .0005 .0006 .0005 .005 .01 .01 .02 I thrufill downgradient background .005 .02 .0009 .003 J thruflll downgradient background .01 .01 .02 .01 .07 o _ .0005 .004 * .0005 .005 * .01 .03 .03 .04 * * + Note: Detection limits: cd ..01, Pb .03, Hg .0005, As .03 Cr .01, Cn .005, Se .01, B .2 blank spaces Indicate values below detection limit * indicates no analysis performed INT Indicates Interference during analysis <3-31.27 ------- Given the wide range of site characteristics, both of these points are somewhat surprising. That all sites contaminate is of significance in that site H can, by today's standards of sanitary landfill design and operation, be considered a true sanitary landfill. While the contamination noted is very low, the site is only 3 years old and has a depth of 49 meters (161 feet) to ground water. As a further example, site J is located in a midwestern state, estimated ground water recharge is only. 1.25 cm/yr (0.49 in/yr), and the depth to ground water is 38 meters (125 feet). Given the age, depth to ground water, type of subsoil and amount of leachate, contamination was not expected to occur at either of these sites. It was not expected that the types of contaminants would be similar among sites. It was expected that dumps, which are subject to more leaching, would show higher levels of more contaminants. This has simply not been the case. Given the levels of contamination, there is no indicated difference between dumps and sanitary landfills. Because efforts to explain differences in the level of contamination between sites foiled on the basis of operational characteristics other factors were examined. For comparison, it was decided to pair specific conductance, which reflects the level of most other contaminants, with soil permeability, precipitation and estimated ground water recharge. These data are presented in Table 9. It appears that the factor most related to the 5.2-28 ------- Table 9 QUANTITATIVE VALUES FOR SITE HYDROLOGY Ite Annual precipi- tin (cm) Estimated annual ground water recharge (cm) Depth to . ground water From From bottom surface of refuse (m) (m) Ground water flow velocity (cm/day) Porosity (%) Permeability (cm/sec) l 86.0 36.8 8.9-11.7 .6-3.5 .7 20 9.25xl0"5 , -8.ixicr® \ 150 53.6 3.5 -2.65 73-165 12-20 8.4xl0"4 -1.9xl0"3 % » 107.2 -110.7 30.2-34.0 thru soil flows thru solid waste unknown unknown unknown ) 135.1 33.9 3.84 2.84-11.16 195 35 1.5-3.0xl0~3 ¦ 80.8 26.7 14.71 8.6^12 1,200 10 1.04-1.74xl03 - 101.6 14.5-22.6 /v. 5 in fefuse 33 20 3.8xl0~4 % l 118.9 56.9 13.2 41-5.6 23.4 35 1.02-1.7x10"4 136.1 40.9 61.57 49.37 .43 17-50 5x107 [ 113.7 23.7 20.48 ,~13.48 6.4 20 7.4xl0"5 J 41.3 2.1 44,82 38.12 90-370 11-41 1.04-4.3xl0"3 =2 - d2 ------- level of contamination is the estimated ground water recharge. This apparent inverse relationship seems logical because high ground water recharge would indicate potentially high dilution rates, resulting in low levels of contamination. Efforts are currently underway to obtain additional data which will either support or refute this rationale. If this relationship/holds, the way to minimize impact on ground water without the use of liners appears to be maximization of the quantity of ground water recharge. From Tables 7 and 8 it is also obvious that the strength of leachate is greatly reduced in.traveling from the fill to the ground water and further reduced as it travels downgradient. The data does not however indicate the maximum distance of contaminant travel. LEACHATE CONTROL Collection In the area of leachate collection the EPA has concentrated on use of impermeable or low permeability barriers to inhibit movement of leachate into water sources, thereby retaining it for treatment. Although many materials are available and have been proposed for use as liners (Table 10) at the bottom of land disposal sites, the practice is rare in the United States. ¦ 30 ------- Table 105 1973 COSTS FOR VARIOUS LAND DISPOSAL SITE LINER MATERIALS Installed cost Material ($/sq. meter) Polyethylene (10-20+ mils+) 1.08-1.72 Polyvinyl chloride (10-30+ mils) 1.40-2.58 Butyl rubber (31.3-62.5+ mils) 3.88-4.78 Hypalon (20-45+ mils) 3.44-3.66 Ethylene propylene diene monomer (31.3-62.5+ mils) 2.91-4.09 Chlorinated polyethylene (20-30+ mils) 2.91-3.88 Paving asphalt with sealer coat (5 cm) 1.44-2.03 Paving asphalt with sealer coat (10 cm) Hot sprayed asphalt (4.5 liter/m^) 2.81-3.89 1,79-2.39 (includes earth cover) Asphalt sprayed on polypropylene fabric (100 mils) Soil-bentonite (5 kg/mr) Soil-bentonite (10 kg/m2) 1.51-2.24 0.86 1.40 Soil-cement with sealer coat (15 cm) 1.50 * Costs do not include construction of subgrade nor the cost of earth cover. These can range from $0.12 to $0.59/m2 per 0.3 m in depth. + Material costs are the same for this range of thickness. * One mil = 0.001 inch or 0.025 millimeter. <34. si ------- The EPA has sponsored a laboratory study to examine the suscepti- bility of several of these materials to degradation by leachate. Through laboratory testing the physical properties of the materials were determined. Samples of the materials were then placed in continuous exposure to leachate under anaerobic conditions as would be encountered in the bottom of'a LDS. On termination of exposure the physical pro- perties of the samples will again be determined in order to define any deterioration which might have occurred during exposure. Total exposure time will be 24 months or until failure (visible leakage), whichever occurs first. Selected samples have been examined after 12 months exposure. Tests indicate failure of both paving asphalt and soil cements Three synthetic membrane materials swelled significantly but did not fail. These were Hypalon, chlorinated polyethylene, and ethylene propylene diene monomer. Solid wastes placed above liners will continually decompose, producing leachate for many years. It will never be possible to deter- mine whether any given liner material will retain its integrity through the leachate-generating life of a LDS. Therefore, the EPA recommends that (1) any leachate which accumulates on the surface of the liner be removed for treatment and (2) underdrains be installed below the liner to monitor for and capture for removal any leachate which passes through the liner. 5-2-32 ------- Treatment The EPA's activities in Teachate treatment involve two approaches: (1) Evaluation of various facilities presently in use at sites across the nation, and (2) Construction and evaluation of facilities or processes which have shown promise in the laboratory. The objective of these activities is to provide guidance, based on field experience, in the design and use of leachate treatment facilities. To achieve this we intend to establish for each treatment system studied: (1) Removal rates and efficiencies for various leachate constituents, (2) Design parameters and accuracy of design, and (3) Cost of treatment. Through various undocumented information sources it has been reported that about 50 leachate treatment facilities exist in the United States. In attempting to further identify and study these facilities, the EPA estimates that it is more likely that there are only about half this number. 5-9.« ------- The EPA has conducted cursory reviews of nine full-scale leachate treatment systems. These' facilities are identified by location and type In Table 11 which also presents the sparse cost information available. Two points were immediately obvious from the EPA reviews, which included field visits and discussions with the owners and operators of the facilities: (1) Where information existed, leachate characteristics and system design rationale varied considerably. (2) There is a dearth of data on costs, performance, and operations. For example, aerated lagoons at two different facilities were designed on the following bases: detention times, 91 days and 122 days; and BODg loadings, 0.3 Kg/28,317 liter air (0.7 Lb/1,000 ft3 air) and 1.7 Kg/28,317 liter air (3.7 Lb/1,000 ft3 air). Also, in the case of irrigation systems application rates were found to vary from 0.018 cm/hr (0.007 in/hr) to 0.84 cm/hr (0.33 in/hr). Removal rates and efficiencies (performances) have not been evaluated in either case. The appropriate conclusion is that, while LDS are being equipped for leachate treatment, there is insufficient information on which to design or predict performance of the systems used. Thus, over the next year the EPA will be conducting extensive performance evaluations of existing systems in order to provide such information. 5.2.34 ------- Table 11 FIELD-SCALE LEACHATE TREATMENT SYSTEMS REVIEWED* Locatlon System Annual flow (liters) Capital cost ($) Annual operating cost ($) Hershey, Pa. Three holding/seepage ponds Reading, Pa. Recirculation 0.2xl06 2,300 Norristown, Pa. Recirculation 3x106 670,000 Doylestown, Pa. Physical/chemical 38xl06 750,000 100,000 St. Louis, Mo. Aerated lagoon, then land irrigation 14xl06 850,000 Not operating- new Longview, Wa. Aerated lagoon, then anaerobic lagoon, then sewage plant 48x106 150,000 Not operating— new Corvalis, Or. Spray irrigation 49x106 3,000 600 McMinnville, Or. Spray irrigation Nantlcoke, N.Y. Spray irrigation * Blank Indicates Information unknown. ------- In addition to assessing the performance of existing systems, the EPA is in the process of.constructing and evaluating the following systems and unit processes: (1) Spray i rri gati on (2) Anaerobic filter (3) Physical-chemical (precipitation), activated sludge, activated carbon filter. Spray irrigation is expected to be the most cost-effective and generally applicable treatment method available. The system is rela- tively simple to construct and operate and requires relatively low capital investment. In most cases the necessary facilities would consist only of a holding pond, piping and spray system, and land for spray application. Aeration may be required in the holding pond to avoid odor problems in spraying the leachate. Specific objectives of the spray irrigation project are to determine: (1) The efficiency of spray irrigation applied at various rates, 2.O.. * ------- (2) The capacity of soils, especially those treated with lime and phosphates, for complexing toxic heavy metals in leachate and for improving water quality by reducing the level of organic pollutants; (3) The value of aeration as a means of decreasing the level of organic wastes and odors in the leachate pond; (4) The environmental impact of leachate un native ecological societies and the effects of leachate on the growth and chemical composition of native and cultivated plant species. A small, self-contained watershed, located in the spray irrigation area, was selected for study, and soils were treated with lime, super- phosphate and rock phosphate in replicated plots. Soil and vegetation samples were collected and identified. Suction cup lysimeters were installed at various depths in the spray plots and in control (non- sprayed) plots outside the spray area. Soil samples were taken to a 60 cm depth. Fifty cm of leachate were applied by overhead rotary sprinklers during a 6 month period in late 1973 and early 1974. Soil moisture samples were collected from the lysimeters before, midway, and at the end of the irrigation period. Water samples were obtained regularly 9-2. « ------- from several sources of raw and treated leachate contained in the holding pond. Plant and'soil samples were collected in the spring following emergence of foliage and at the conclusion of leachate spray irrigation. The results of the first year of investigation favorably indicate that plant and soil filtration is satisfactory for decontamina- tion of leachate; however, more information is needed before definite cons1us ions can be made. The results of preliminary analyses of 6 months of samples collected through early 1974 show that average leachate COD and conductivity levels decreased and pH increased as irrigated leachate moved from initial to final sampling points in the treatment system. Significant declines in the initially high concentrations of Fe, Zn, Ca, Mg, and Na occurred as leachate passed through successive sampling points. Small amounts of heavy metals were detected in raw leachate, but none of these could be found in1 lysimeter water samples. This suggests that at least initially the soil exchange process for complexing these elements was operating in the desired manner. Heavy metal immobilization in the soil is very important because of possible toxic concentrations of these elements in plants that may be consumed by animals. Heavy metals tended to accumulate in the first 15 cm of the soil after 50 cm of leachate irrigation in 6 months. The levels of Co, Pb, Ni, Cr, and Cu were considered high enough to create possible hazards in certain plants. The efficiency of the soil for reducing the heavy metal risk requires more extensive study over a longer period of time before dependable guidelines can be proposed. £-9.- 38 ------- Background data have been collected prior.to the installation of an aerator in the leachate catchment basin. Leachate samples will be collected at the entrance and exit points in the basin to test the potential benefits of aeration. Parameters measured will include BOD, pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, as well as nutrients and metals. Spray irrigation rates will be evaluated by installing various numbers of sprinklers. Proper application rates will be determined by using double-ring infiUrometers to establish the initial character- istics for downward movement of water. The infi Urometers will be used periodically to measure any changes in rates that would reflect plugging of the soil pore space. Further observation would determine the length of time required to rest the soil before irrigation is resumed. Chemical analyses of soil water and soil extracts will reflect the ability of the soil to retain metals. This information should furnish guidelines for spray irrigation rates use while preventing an increase in the concentration of elements in ground water supplies. The anaerobic filter facility is depicted schematically in Figures 1 and 2. Construction is now underway and should be completed by August. Evaluation should be complete in February 1978. Q .2.39 ------- Influent _ Storage Pumping tank station ¦pk. o (Possible sulfate addition) I ' l I I Effluent Recirculation Effluent discharge Figure 1. As indicated schematically, the anaerobic filter treatment system is relatively simple. Discharge will be to subsurface infiltration beds. ------- Heater Treated Leachate Effluent Weir Effluent Steel Tank Concrete Foundation Sludge Discharge Figure 2. An anaerobic filter will be evaluated for leachate treatment. The unit will be about 4 meters (12 ft) in diameter and 10 meters (35 ft) in height. a. 2-41 ------- The anaerobic filter consists of an enclosed supporting medium to which anaerobic bacteria/are attached. The principle of operation is similar to that of anaerobic digesters commonly used at waste water treatment plants. The first step in the anaerobic breakdown of organics consists of hydrolysis of complex organics to their monomers which are then converted to free volatile fatty acids by acid-forming bacteria. The last step consists of the formation of methane by methane bacteria from the fatty acids. The major advantage of the process is that the stabilization can be accomplished with a relative low production of biological solids, so that problems with ultimate disposal of sludge are minimized. Another advantage is that the need for aeration equipment, costly to install and operate, is eliminated. A major disavantage of the method is the high sensitivity of the methane forming bacteria to acidic pH values. In addition, the methane fermenters are sensitive to heavy metals. In order to predict the operation of the full-scale facility, a bench-scale unit was constructed and tested using leachate from the LDS. The initial bench-scale testing was conducted at low loading in order to acclimate the bacteria to the leachate. The COD loading used was 10.5 Kg/28,317 liter/day (23.3 Lb/1,000 ft^/day), equivalent to a 32 day detention time. The initial COD of the leachate was 11,628 mg/1.1 Over the four month study period the average COD removal was 50 percent, while the average fatty acid removal was 70 percent. During the initial 25 days of the operating period the bacteria were not able to respond to 3.9.42 ------- the specific waste stream and almost no COO removal was observed after nine days. A gradual improvement.was observed during the next 25 days, and COD removals of as large as 88 percent and fatty acid removals of 97 percent were observed at day 45. This corresponded with a gradual increase in gas production. As a result of the anaerobic conditions the sulfates showed a gradual decrease as they were converted to sulfides, thereby precipitating the heavy metals such as iron and nickel. Significant variability in effluent composition was observed between day 50 and day 130 after the initial adaptation of the micro- organisms had occurred; COD removals ranged between at times the removal was as low as 30 and 90 percent. The fatty acid concentration generally paralleled the COD, and removals also ranged from 30 to 90 percent. It was noted that high removals generally corresponded with high pH values and high gas production rates, indicating that some periodic toxicity may have occurred. Some of the apparent toxicity may have been due to variation in heavy metal concentrations. Evaluation of the leachate iron concentrations indicate that high effluent COD values corresponded to high iron values. The average removal of the suspended solids was 70 percent during the first 100 day study period but gradually improved to 88 percent. The average color removal was 54 percent but Increased to 75 percent at the end of the monitoring period. <2 9.- 43 ------- The removals of heavy metals were generally satisfactory, and total iron concentrations decreased by about 65 percent. When the suspended solids are more effectively precipitated in the bottom section of the unit the total iron removal will approach 97 percent. The removal of soluble zinc was about 71 percent while total zince removal was 65 percent. The soluble calcium was decreased by 69 percent, while total calcium decreased by 28 percent indicating that a significant fraction is present in the suspended possibly as carbonates or hydroxides. Since other metals may be present in similar form and because these pre- cipitates are pH dependent, an artificial increase in the influent pH value may be desirable to reduce soluble metals. The gas production was 2.71 1 gas/1 leachate, which corresponded to 0.46 1 gas/gm COO removed or 0.32 1 methane gm COD removed. Based.on the limited laboratory.data that are available it was concluded that under optimum operating conditions the anaerobic filter should remove as much as 90 percent of the COD and fatty acids from the leachate. The removals of iron and other heavy metals should be in a similar range, but pH adjustment (increase) is likely to be required to achieve precipitation. At the field-scale facility, raw leachate will accumulate in a storage tank of 210,067 liter (55,500 gallon) capacity. The purpose of the tank is to equalize leachate flow and chemical characteristics. 3.Q.44 ------- The leachate transfer pump 1s a positive displacement mechanically variable-speed pump, and jit determines the rate of raw feed into the system. The feed rate will be adjustable to any rate up to 19 liters (5 gallons) per minute. The raw leachate will be introduced Into a recycle system which operates at a flow rate of approximately 189 liters (50 gallons) per minute. For best performance the treatment unit must be at a warm temperature, in the range of 24 to 29 degrees C. Thus, a heat exchanger has been incorporated in the recirculation loop. The heat exchanger is a tube and shell type unit with the leachate on the tube side and hot water on the shell side of the exchanger. Through a temperature sensor and a controller a motorized valve will regulate the flow of hot water into the heat exchanger so as to produce a desired exit temperature of the leachate. The wanned leachate will then enter the anaerobic filter .unit through a bottom inlet distributor and proceed in an up-flow mode to the top of the unit through a 7.3 meter (24 foot) high packing of plastic filter media. The filter media is comprised of blocks or modules containing numerous and fairly large parallel flow channels. The media does not filter or strain the leachate as would a sand bed, but rather it acts similar to a waste water treatment plant trickling filter in that its principal purpose is to provide a large amount of surface area. a-a.« ------- At the top of the unit the treated leachate Is withdrawn for discharge into one of three subsurface infiltration beds. The beds are to be used on a weekly rotational basis, providing for one week of use followed by two weeks of rest. The third facility being constructed and evaluated consists of a physical-chemical treatment unit, and activated sludge unit, and an activated carbon column. It will be possible to evaluate the performance of each unit individually and in combinations with the others. The facility is a full-scale treatment plant capable of handling 378 1/min (100 gal/min). Construction cost is estimated at $350,00 (1975). In order to determine the most cost-effective physical-chemical and biological treatment parameters for leachate, the plant will be operated and evaluated in the modes or systems depicted in Figure 3. Included in the evaluation of each mode will be raw and treated leachate analyses, raw leachate influent flow rate, chemical dosage and -type, operation efficiency, sludge quantities and characteristics of each sludge, operational records, and economic evaluation. Leachate is supplied to the treatment plant from three subsurface collection basins through pumps and pressure lines. Because the lechate is collected from solid wastes of varying age, it is initially mixed in a tank. This tank serves serves several purposes: (1) flow equalization, <2.2.46 ------- Physical- Leachate chemical: Reactor- clari fier Activated ^sludge: i-> Leachate Aeration chamber Carbon column Combined: Leachate ^ Reactor - Aeration Settling Carbon clarifier chamber ' tank column Figure 3. Physical-chemical and biological treatment plant will allow field-scale evaluation of unit processes in both independent and combined modes. ------- (2) constant feed into the plant, and (3) mixing of the leachates to obtain homogeneous chemical composition of the raw leachate. Physical-chemical treatment consists of flash mixing followed by clarification and removal of the sludge which has been produced. It is anticipated that lime will be the major chemical utilized in this chemical precipitation step. However, additional feeders and points of injection are provided to use other chemicals if necessary. Other chemicals which might be used include flocculants such as alum, ferric chloride or synthetic polymers, and powdered activated carbon. Sludge will be drawn off the bottom of the reactor-clarifier and placed in a common sludge holding tank with the waste biological sludge. In the physical-chemical treatment unit the major treatment is expected to be for removal of inorganic materials. In particular, metals that may interfere with the biological treatment process will be removed. Specific metals that will be removed include iron, zinc, and copper. As part of the chemical treatment, the biological oxygen demand will also be reduced, but the percentage of reduction is expected to be only 30 to 50 percent. The unit is 3.6 meters (12 feet) in diameter and 3.6 meters (12 feet) deep, with a hydraulic retention time of 2 hours at 378 1/min (100 gal/min) flow rate. The aeration tank (activated sludge unit) has a capacity of approximately 37,500 gallons. It is expected to operate the treatment facility in the true activate sludge mode and encourage production of ------- solids. A sludge holding tank has been provided to store the solids that are produced. The solids will be removed and discharged back on the landfill using a water collection truck. The mixed liquor suspended solids in the aeration tank are expected to be between 3,500 and 5,000 mg/liter. The high solids content is necessary because of the high BOD applied to the system and to assure substrate adsorption and solids production in the plant. The efficiency of treatment is projected to be 85 to 90 percent reduction in BODg. The activated carbon column has not yet been designed. It will be used to polish the effluent from the other units when operated individually and in combination. The unit will be designed :o as to allow.performance evaluations at various hydraulic loading rates. MONITORING AND ENFORCEMENT One of the most significant problems we have encountered is the lack of uniform and meaningful monitoring of leachate. Monitoring results reported in the literature are often clouded and cannot be compared due to lack of uniformity in sample point selection, sampling, and sample analyses. Moreover, there is a general lack of monitoring at disposal sites for research and pollutnat detection (including enforcement) purposes. 3-3.49 ------- In the United States regulatory and enforcement authorities for solid waste management are vested not in the Federal Government, but at the State and local levels. Thus, enforcement procedures and effective- ness vary considerably among the many entities exercizing these authorities. In order to provide for uniformity and to allow comparison of meaningful results, we have coronissioned two significant studies in the area of leachate monitoring procedures. Both are intended to produce guidance manuals for use by researchers and enforcement agencies. The first study is a comparison of analytical methods commonly used for water and waste water analyses to assess their use on leachate.® Leachate is recognized as being a very complex mixture for which many common analytical techniques are unacceptable, due especially to interferences. Ranges of values for leachate constituents are listed in Table 12. The study included an extensive compilation of the different analytical methods used to determine physical, chemical and biological parameters in solid waste leachate. The compilation was made from information available in the literature and through personal communications with researchers, consulting firms and regulatory agencies. Since different analytical methods can be used to determine a specific parameters, a preliminary laboratory evaluation was made of ------- Table 123 CHARACTERISTICS Of LEAtllATE AM6 DOMESTIC WASTE WATERS Range* Range + • Ranged Leaehatc^ e e Conttltuont (mg/l) (ny/1) (mj/l) Freslt old Waste water* Ratio* Chloride (CI) Iron (Fe) M;ngoncsc (Mn) Zinc (Zn) Mj^nesiun (lig) Calcium (Co) Potassium (<) Sodium (Ma) Phosphate (P) Copper (Cu) Lead (Pb) Cadmium (Cd) Sulfate (SO.) Total M Conduct i vIty (Amhos) TOS TSS pH Alk as CaCO, Hardness tot. aOOc COO 34-2,800 100-2,noo 600-800 7 ------- those methods least subject to interferences. All analyses were conducted with a re^ativety concentrated leichAte sample obtained from a lysimeter filled with milled solid waste. It was concluded that samples collected from a recently installed solid waste fill undergo extensive changes of several parameters immediately after collection* unless strict anaerobic sampling and storage conditions are maintained. Preliminary laboratory evaluation of physical, chemical and biological parameters showed that chemical analysis using colorimetric methods is strongly interfered by color, suspended solids and high salt content present in leachate. Interfering effects can be reduced by using a standard addition method in which increasing quantities of the specific parameter are added to the sample after which its recovery is determined. The obtained percentage recovery is then used to readjust the measured A less accurate method is to dilute the leachate sample with increasing amounts of dilution water to determine whether the interfering effect can be suf- ficiently reduced by progressive dilution. One of the above approaches should be used by the analyst prior to the analysis of a series of leachate samples for those parameters most subject to interferences. An extensive compilation of the different analytical methods used by researchers, consulting firms and regulatory, agencies in the United States, showed that numerous methods are used to determine a specific parameter. Based on this study, recommendations were made to use those methods least subject to interference. aa 52 ------- The second study is a compilation of recommended sampling methods. Methods of selecting sampling points, installing and using monitoring wells, and sample collection will be compared and discussed. The result of this study will be a guidance manual on monitoring. Emphasis will be placed on the monitoring of ground water quality, with the monitoring well being the key tool. The manual will also discuss the various leachate constituents which can be analyzed for and recommend key indicators for cost-effective routine monitoring. This manual will be primarily addressed to the directors of state and local solid waste regulatory agencies, although its contents can be readily used by operators, researchers and consulting engineers in the field. When completed it should serve as a guide to be used in implementing and directing effective monitoring and enforcement programs and is intended to provide broad general direction and guidance to persons without prior training or experience. .It will also bring into one volume information valuable as a reference source for those persons actively engaged in landfill monitoring. It should also prove helpful to the operators and managers of land disposal sites who now will find a need for familiarization and understanding of the fundamental principles involved in ground water pollution and monitoring. 23." ------- SITE SELECTION It has been common practice in the United States to select sites for waste disposal primarily on the basis of convenience; a practice which has lead to problems only now being uncovered. Now, site selection is being viewed as a much more complex process involving sociological, political, economic, and technological aspects. Most State regulatory agencies are now employing a permitting process for new disposal sites. In this process applicants for site permits are required to assess for their sites the various aspects of proper site selection. This assessment is then reviewed by the regu- latory agency, and where warranted, a permit is issued. The sociological and political aspects are related and can be frustrating to deal with. The key issue appears to be that no one wants the disposal site located near them. Citizen opposition is often manifested in the form of negative comments regarding traffic hazards from vehicles using the site, lowered property values by virtue of proximity to the site, water pollution potential, fear of rats and flies, noise, and aesthetic blight. Often, such comments are based not on knowledge of the proposed site and operation, but on earlier bad experiences with improperly located and operated dumps. This opposition is reflected to governmental officials who, in attempting ^?.a.s4 ------- to please their constituents, are not inclined to support use of the proposed site. Through proper site operation and quality control, we •i! know that most, if not all, of these anticipated problems can be avoided. The problem then becomes one of assuring the public that proper operation and quality control will, indeed, be practiced. Economics is the area of easiest trade-off. A more remote, isolated site is likely to result in increased haul costs, but land costs should be lower, and the political and sociological problems should be greatly reduced. Such economic trade-offs involve only a very few cents per ton over the site's"life and are, therefore, of little significance/ The proper area of greatest concern in site selection is the technical acceptability of the site, especially as related to potential pollution of water resources. At present, site evaluation for potential subsurface contaminant transport is more an art than a science. The technology for obtaining information on subsurface site con- ditions is well known and often applied.8 In fact, much of the soils and hydrogeology of the United States have been mapped by government agencies. This existing information is useful to an extent. However, most of the information is not specific enough to be used for the typical 25 acre disposal site; that is, the information is too general in nature, <2.3.» ------- representing large basins, rather than small areas. The heterogeniety of subsurface materials at a site poses another problem in obtaining information: determination of the optimum number and location of subsurface sampling points, to our knowledge no one has determined how many borings should be made to adquately describe subsurface conditions without missing significant pockets or lenses of different materials. Once subsurface site conditions have been described, one must interpret the meaning of those conditions relative to the potential for ground water pollution. This is an area of great uncertainty in that the interreaction of leachate and various soils and geologic strata have not been defined. The fate of contaminants carried in solution and suspension will be affected by physical processes such as filtration, dispersion, and mixing, and by soil chemical processes such as ion exchange, adsorption, oxidation, and reduction. Mechanical filtration by soil is an effective process. Most suspended matter and a substantial number of microorganisms will be removed from leachate after short travel through soils; soils with smaller particle size and slower flow rates, are even more efficient. Viruses, because of their small size, will not be removed by mechanical filtration as readily as bacteria in even the finest textured soils but 3«S.56 ------- may be adsorbed on the soil clay minerals. The extent of the adsorption and its relation to inorganic ion exchange phenomena in soils is not know, but there may be competition between viruses and other materials for exchange sites in soils. Dispersion (includes molecular diffusion and hydrodynamic dispersion) into uncontaminated water can, in certain cases, reduce the concentra- tion of pollutants in solution, but this process cannot be relied upon as an important mechanism. The effect of this process is dependent on the uniformity of the material which makes up the aquifer. Dispersion will be negligible in materials of a narrow range of grain size but will increase as the material becomes less uniform. Lateral and vertical dispersion is about 20 percent of longitudinal dispersion and, even over long distances, will not significantly reduce concentrations in the center of a body of pollutants when the original source is wide, as is the case with landfills. The flow of water in aquifers is predominantly laminar, and mixing is not theoretically significant. However, mixing can be highly signi- ficant when water is pumped out of aquifers. Although pumping may not be currently practiced, the future possibility must be considered. Vertical mixing in the aquifer is not appreciable, so the depth of the well, the thickness of the aquifer, and the thickness of the polluted zone are factors which will affect the extent of mixing when water is 57 ------- withdrawn. Although flow is laminar, the presence of a leachate plume at elevations other than the surface of the aquifer is not precluded. The principles governing the chemical and microbiological processes (precipitation, ion exchange, adsorption, oxidation, and reduction) which control the concentration of materials in solution in soils are understood. However, the application of these principles to the design and assessment of soil systems for the attenuation of pollutants has not advanced sufficiently to allow quantitative estimates of the extent and rate of such attenuation. The soil and wastes that are directed to it for disposal are such complex combinations of separate components and processes that it is only possible, at present, to qualitatively describe what happens and to give relative ratings of soils and soil materials as to their ability to attenuate pollutants. In the subsoils and earth materials below landfills the most important fraction active in attenuation is the clay minerals. These minerals carry a net negative charge and as a consequence attract and hold cations which have a positive electrostatic charge. The ability to attract and hold cations is termed "cation exchange capacity" and is different for each clay mineral. The minerals in the Montmorillonite group have cation exchange capacities (CEC) of 80 to 100 milliequivalents (meq) per 100 grams of clay, the minerals in the hydrous mica group, of which Illite is the most important number, have a CEC of 15 to 40 o?.5.58 ------- meq/100 g, and the minerals in the Kaolinite group have a CEC of 3 to 15 meq/100 g. Two other minor clay groups are the Chlorites and Ventriculites. Their properties are not well defined but as regards CEC, Vermiculite is similar to Montmorillonite, and Chlorite is similar to IIlite. Soils, by comparison, have low CEC, ranging from 2 meq/100 g or sands to 40 to 50 meq/100 g for clay soils. As a first approximation the relative ability of different soils and soil materials to attenuate pollutants may be examined by looking at their CEC. Soils with a high CEC (high clay content) will attenuate pollutants more readily than soils with low CEC. It should be emphasized that CEC is only an aid in making relative comparisons and will not give the actual meq of a particular contaminant which can be removed from solution by a given weight of soil/ The exchange sites will likely be already partially filled with some ions and even if the exchange sites were entirely unoccupied, it would still not be possible to confidently predict the removal of a particular pollutant because: (1) Different ions "compete" for the exchange sites according to their concentration in solution, their valence, and whether or not they form weak ionized compounds in the soil. 3-2.59 ------- (2) Exchange reactions proceed at a finite rate so that the residence time in the soil (the reciprocal of the flow rate) influences the extent of pollutant removal. (3) CEC is pH dependent so any changes in soil pH induced by the leachate will alter the removal capacity. In addition to CEC related attenuation of pollutants in leachate, physical adsorption on surfaces is an important mechanism, particularly as regards bacteria, viruses, and organic molecules. The clay minerals are, again, the most important fraction of the soil in this regard. The specific surface area for the mineral groups, expressed as square meters per gram of clay, follows the same trend as their CEC - Montmorillonite 700 to 30U, 111i tes 100 to 120, Kaolinites 5 to 20. Another important attenuation process is related not to the clay minerals, but to the aeration status and the soil microbiological flora. The organic and inorganic materials in landfill leachate are reduced products of anaerobic decomposition. If the soil material below the fill is unsaturated and there is an opportunity for oxygen to diffuse in laterally, then these products can be further degraded or. changed by aerobic, oxidizing processes. Organic compounds could be degraded to simpler compounds or even completely broken down to carbon dioxide and water, and inorganics such as iron could be oxidized to form Q .o^.GO ------- less soluble compounds. The extent to which these processes will take place, if at all, is dependent on the existence of an unsaturated zone beneath the fill and on the rate of oxygen diffusion into the zone relative to the rate of consumption in microbial metabolism. For most soils the rate of oxygen diffusion under the landfill is presumed to be smaller than the rate of oxygen consumption. This is not intended to be, and is not, a thorough discussion of the attenuation processes, but it should serve to demonstrate the com- plexity of the system and indicate the problems involved in proceeding from a basic understanding of the system to a quantitative prediction of attenuation. Rigorous quantitative predictions are possible only when the soil-water-soluble system is well defined (e.g., with a limited number of ion pairs and a uniform soil). The alternative is to make qualitative predictions of the relative ability of various soils to attenuate the materials passing through them in solution. Considering the importance of the clay minerals, it can be safely stated that soils containing significant percentages of any type of clay (fine textured soils) will be more effective attenuators than soils with very little clay and that for soils with similar clay per- centages, there will be differences in attenuation corresponding to differences in the types of clay minerals, Montmorillonite-Vermicullite being the most effective, and Kaolinite the least. Fine textured soils 9 .0- si ------- are preferred because they contain greater amounts of clays with their large surface area and high CEC and because water movement is usually slower in such soils, allowing more time for adsorption, precipitation, and ion exchange to take place. Qualitative predictions based on such considerations would be useful in selecting the best of several alternative disposal sites, but would not give any indication of the amount of attenuation to be expected. Considering the state-of-the-art in Soil Science and Hydrology and, additionally, the highly variable character of solid waste decomposition processes and the resulting leachate, it appears that at present ground water could be most efficiently protected from leachate pollution by relying heavily on hydrologic criteria for site selection. Sites should certainly be selected so that the texture and mineralogy of the underlying soils are as favorable as possible, but the primary emphasis should be placed on a knowledge of the flow path and rate of movement of ground water and on avoiding the all too common situations where ground water pollution results from geohydrofollies which could have been aniticpated by a careful reconnaisssance of the site. GAS RECOVERY Gases are produced in solid waste land disposal sites as a result of the microbiological decomposition of the organic matter deposited. <3-2. 62 ------- In simplified terms, the process is as follows: facultative and anaerobic bacteria metabolize organic matter forming organic acids (principally acetic and propionic). These acids act as a substrate for the anaerobic, acid-splitting, methane-forming bacteria. Major by- products of the methane-formers are methane and carbon dioxide. Gas Composition Table 13 lists gases commonly found in landfills. It should be noted that carbon dioxide is initially very high in concentration but slowly drops in concentration as the landfill matures. Methane, on the other hand, is initially very low in concentration, but increases as the landfills age increases. Nitrogen.tends to decrease rapidly in concentration with age. A more definite range is displayed in Table 14. It can be seen that carbon dioxide and methane are the primary gaseous by-products of a landfill. Carbon dioxide is produced immediately, with peak production occurring normally around 2 weeks to 2 months after placement of the waste. The rate of production then begins to fall off until a stable plateau is achieved, at which time the carbon dioxide produced, is typically 40 to 50 percent, by volume. This percentage is normally maintained, with only slight reduction, for a number of years after the fill is completed (fills which are 50 years old have been found still ------- Table 13 AVERAGE RANGE OF COMPOSITION, BY VOLUME, OF LANDFILL GAS C02 2056-90% CH4 0%-80% N2 0%-70% 02 <156-20% H2S <1% nh4 <1% h2 <1% Table 149 AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF A FOUR YEAR OLD LANDFILL Methane 56% Carbon dioxide 28% Nitrogen 15% Miscellaneous 1% J. ------- generating gas). Methane may take from months to many years to reach peak production in extreme cases. This is primarily because methane production is heavily dependent upon moisture content and temperature. Total production of gas may be determined by using theoretical predictions, which' are based on the amount of gas produced through the total stoichiometric decomposition of a pound of typical municipal solid waste. This figure has been found to be approximately 437 1 gas/Kg O of solid waste (7 ft of gas/lb solid waste), of which approximately 250 1 (4 ft^) are methaneJ® Several factors affect the rate at which gas is produced: (1) Moisture - The greater the moisture, the greater the rate of decomposition (optimum 60 to 80 percent). (2) Temperature - Increased temperatures tend to increase bacterial productivity and resulting gas production (optimum temperature range for methane producers is approximately 32 to 35° C or 90 to 9-5° F). (3) Amount of Organic Matter - Greater amounts of organic material increase the amount of substrate material from which the microorganisms can produce gas. ------- These factors carry with them some geographical implications. For example, an area which has large amounts of precipitation and a warm mean temperature may have a high rate of gas production. Another geographical factor (although not related to rate of production), that of soil type, may carry with it significant importance. Permeable soil poses the inherent problem of gas migration. Methane's specific gravity of 0.55 (air = 1.00) would indicate a tendency to rise in the fill. However, diffusion and convection provide mixing and ease of lateral flow, Depending on site location and characteristics, lateral flow may be significant. I.i fact, methane was found in concentrations of 10 percent by volume 214 meters (700 feet) from a California landfill. This concentration is well within the explosive range. The landfill was located in an old gravel mining area. Methane is both colorless and odorless, making it very difficult to detect. It will also tend to displace oxygen in a closed space. An incident associated with this phenomenon occurred when two men working on a water main in a manhole were asphyxiated by landfill gas seeping into the manhole. Methane is explosive in the range of 5 to 15 percent by volume. Incidents of explosions have occurred due to methane migrating through soil and collecting inbuilding near landfills. In Georgia a recreation center (around which a landfill was constructed) exploded when a plumber ------- lit a cigarette near a pipe leading to a partially sealed basement; two men were killed. In a building in North Carolina, a flash fire killed three men. The fire was ignited when a man lit a cigarette in a room into which methane from the adjacent landfill had entered. The soil on which the landfill and building were constructed was sandy (permeable), and areas of the landfill had been wetted to aid in compaction. These factors contributed both to high gas production and ease of gas migration.^ T? Methane may also be the cause of vegetative destruction.xc Besides methane's inherent ability to displace oxygen, methane consuming bac- teria (normally rare or absent in the soil) increase with increased concentrations of methane and deplete the soil of oxygen. The lack of oxygen kills the vegetation. These effects can be very dramatic; therefore, methods of preventing gas migration should be considered.^The following methods have been used in the United States: (1) Venting (Figures 4 and 5) - Trenches or columns filled with coarse material, e.g., gravel, may be constructed. When the gas comes in contact with the permeable material, it rises quickly and harmlessly into the atmosphere, rather than move further through to soil to an enclosed area, e.g., the basement. £ • 67 ------- Figure 4. Gravel-filled trenches external to the fill area can be used to vent laterally migrating gases. Figure 5. Cover material can be provided with gravel vents to allow gases to escape. 2.3.68 ------- (2) Impervious layer (Figure 6) - By lining the landfill site with an impervious Jayer of compacted clay or plastic, gas will be forced through the top of the fill, thereby preventing sub- surface migration. An impervious layer of clay or sheet pilings may also be installed around the permimeter of the site as a.preventive measure. (3) Well pumping (Figure 7) - Strategically located wells may be installed in a fill, through which pumping causes a negative pressure gradient to be formed. The gas then diffuses toward the wells and out through the pump. This method is well suited to burning or recovering the gas. Because of the need for new energy sources and in order to prevent hazards due to landfill gas migration, consideration is being given to the recovery of landfill gas for use as fuel J4^5 As was previously mentioned the amount of methane that can be generated from one pound of municipal waste is 113 1 (4 ft^). This quantity is based on a refuse composition similar to thatshown in Table 15. Assuming that there are 113 million tonnes (125 million tons) of municipal solid waste generated per year, some gross figures can be calculated relating to potential gas production and worth. The yearly ------- Figure 6. Impervious barriers or liners can be used to intercept and redirect lateral gas flow. ?¦ Q -70 ------- Figure 7. Pumped wells can be.used to evacuate gases from the fill. A gravel-filled annul us and perforated casing will aid gas flow. ------- Table 1516 COMPOSITION OF AVERAGE MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE Moisture 20.73% Cellulose, sugar, starch 46.63% Lipids 4.50% Protein 2.06% Other organics 1.15% Inerts 24.93% 100.00% £>•2. 72 ------- methane production capability is then 28x10^ liters (1.0x10^ ft3). This is approximately 5.5: percent of all the gas consumed by the United States in 1971. The retail market value of this much methane is $1.7 billion. This solid waste will' not decompose in 1 year; however, because of the many previous years of disposal of solid waste on the land, a huge backlog of recoverable gas is already available. With this point in mind, one can safely assume that the potential from the current year will be available through the decomposing waste of years past. Obviously, all of this gas can not be recovered. Several factors prohibit total recovery: (1) Small fills do not general enough gas to be economically recovered. It should be noted that the present trend is toward large regionalized landfills; a point in favor of methane recovery. (2) Twelve percent of the municipal waste is incinerated or recovered. (3) Much gas is lost as it diffuses through the surface of the landfill. Many areas of the country have populations that will not support a large landfill operation. It has been found though that 65 percent of J- .73 ------- our people live in metropolitan areas of 250,000 population or greater. Conservatively assuming that methane can only be recovered from the large fills associated with these areas, this reduces the recovery potential to 18.4x10^ liters (650x10^ ft3). If 12 percent of the refuse is incinerated or recoverd (diverted from land disposal) the potential is further reduced to 16.1x10^ liters (570x10^ ft3). If it is assumed that 50 percent of the remaining gas escapes through the landfill cover into the atmosphere, 8.1xl0^2 liters (285xl09 ft3) still remains for recovery. This is 1.2 percent of the total United States natural gas consumption in 1971 or enough to supply gas to 1.9 million homes per year. The retail worth (at $.17/therm) is $480 mi 11i on. In the United States three signficant efforts are underway to attempt to recover and use landfill gas. In one case gas will directly fuel an internal combustion engine which will drive an electric generator. Eleven wells will be installed to produce 519 1/sec (1,100 cfm) of gas. The methane will supply power to units that will ultimately produce 5,000 kw. The capital cost has been estimated at between $1.25 and $1.50 million. Assuming a 5 year, 6 percent interest payoff and a $15,000/year operating cost, the annual cost will be (at $1.5 million capital cost) $371,000 or $.009/kw-hr. If electricity continues to be sold at its present rate of $.03/kw-hr, the ------- gross revenue will be $1.3 million/year. It can be seen from these figures that generating electricity is very profitable; in fact, more profitable than pumping treated methane directly into a pipeline. In two other cases gas is being extracted for marketing as a fuel. Gas is extracted at a rate of about 1.6 1/sec per meter (1 cfm per foot) of well depth. The gas is then cleansed and injected into an existing natural gas distribution system. One critical aspect of gas extraction is that the pumping rate must be balanced against the biological rate of gas production and the flow of atmospheric air into the landfill through the soil cover. Through trial-and-error testing we have found that the above mentioned pumping rate applies in the case of a deep canyon landfill, as well as the more typical 12 meter (40 foot) deep landfill. The gas mixture obtained at this rate is about 45 percent methane, 35 percent carbon dioxide, 20 percent nitrogen, and 1 percent.oxygen. Based on a negative pressure of 0.25 cm (0.1 inch) of water, the radius of influence of a well pumped at this rate was found to be about 40 meters (130 feet). In both cases the BTU value of the gas will be upgraded from about 500 BTU per scf to 750 BTU per scf. Upgrading will be by molecular sieve. Costs for the process have not yet been determined. Q.Z. 75 ------- LANDMIX Landmlx of wastes is the incorporating of shredded municipal solid waste and digested sewage sludge into the soil. The objective being to utilize the nutrients and organics contained in the waste materials to improve crop yields. Yields may be increased due to improved water-holding capacity of the soil, increased fertility, reduced erosion, and improved soil structure. The physical process consists of applying a uniform depth of shredded municipal solid waste and digested sewage sludge to the soil surface. The wastes are then incorporated into the top layers of the soil by plowing. The optimal dose-rates are defined by two criteria: the lowest combination of loading rates that will produce enhanced crops economically; and the highest combinations of loading rates that the land can accept without evidence of environmental damage. In a project which is just starting in the Houston, Texas, area, the EPA is seeking to obtain more definitive information on the landmix concept. The main factors to be evaluated by the project will be application rate, crop, and supplemental fertilization. The application rates for sludge will vary from 0 to 336 dry tonnes per hectare (150 dry tons per acre) and for solid waste from 0 to 573 tonnes per hectare (256 tons per acre). The crops to be tested will be grass, grass and legume, and legume. Auxiliary chemical fertization levels will be zero fertilizer, normal application and three times normal application. 76 ------- To accomplish the project objectives, field experiments will be carried out on plots measuring 6 meters (20 feet) by 8 meters (26 feet). There will be 117 such plots per replication, with three replications for a total of 351 total plots. This project will use a one time application of sludge and solid waste, followed by crop planting. For two years after the plots have been loaded analyses will be made of crop yields, plant tissue, soils, soil moisture, and ground water. SLUDGE COMPOSTING The EPA has initiated a project in Bangor, Maine, to evaluate the technical anJ economic feasibility of composting raw, dewatered, municipal sewage sludge by suction aeration techniques under the adverse climatic conditions typically experienced by northern com- munities of the United States. In achieving this major objective, the following is also being evaluated: (1) The effects of different bulking agents and the ratio of bulking aqents to sewage sludge. (2) The relative degree of pathogen kill obtained by composting raw, dewatered sewage sludge by suction aeration techniques in a northern climate. Q ------- (3) The efficiency of composting by suction aeration to control odors. (4) The relative degree of public acceptance or opposition to the composting operation. (5) The potential uses of the final product as a soil amendment or as a source of soil nutrients to defray the cost of loam and mulch materials normally used by the City. The composting process being used in Bangor, including site layout, equipment, and overall operations, is essentially the same as the composting process designed and currently under investigation by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Biological Waste Treatment Laboratory at Beltsville, Maryland. There are only minor differences in the procedural elements dictated by local con- ditions and facilities (e.g., climate, monitoring programs, sludge characteristics, availability and type of heavy equipment, site layout, etc.) Sludge is delivered to the compost site on a regular schedule (once-a-week) from the City's only sewage treatment plant. A hydrau- lically operated, rear loading, lift and carry type vehicle is used to haul the City's dewatered sludge to the compost site. Two open top, ten ------- cubic yard containers are used to contain the sludge while in transport to the site. The compost site is located approximately 610 meters (2,000 feet) from the Bangor International Airport terminal, on approxi- mately 6,130 (66,000 ft£) of abandoned concrete taxiway. The maximum haul distance to the site is less than 5 kilometers (3 miles) one way from the treatment plant. Upon arrival at the site the sludge is mixed with tree bark waste at a. ratio of approximately 3 to 1 ti.e.r 3 parts bark to \ part sludge, on a volume basis). The bark serves to absorb excessive moisture and creates the necessary air voids required in achieving optimum temperatures and even distribution of cijyfpen throughout the compost pile. 51udga alone at 20 to 25 percent solids generally does not permit adequate air movement within the compost pile, which is an extremely critical factor in determining overall efficiency of composting as a means of sludge stabilization. After mixing, the sludge/bark mixture is moved to one of four active aerated compost piles. Each pile consists of approximately 153 m3 (ZOO yd^} of sludge and bark combined (pile configuration is approxi- mately 12x4.6x2.7 meters or 40x15x9 feet). The sludge/bark mixture is placed on the top of approximately 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10 inches) of already composted material in tthich a piping network for suction ^ ¦ »t ,79 ------- aeration has been incorporated. The piping network consists of two 20- foot lengths of 6 inch perforated plastic pipe. Each 6 meter (20 foot) section is joined in parallel fashion with a Y and connected to a single blower. The blower is capable of providing both negative and positive air pressures within the pile depending upon the desired direction of air flow through the pile. Each blower is operated by means of a simple timing device and regulated at intervals of approximately 2 minutes every 20 minutes. The timing mechanism is checked and adjusted each day to assure the proper balance of temperature and oxygen throughout the pile. Finally a 15 cm (6 inch) layer of composted material is placed on the surface of the sludge/bark mixture to assist in insulating the raw sludge mixture and insuring that even temperatures are reached through- out the pile. The blowers draw air through the compost pile and exhaust the captured gases into a second pile of previously composted sludge. This serves to minimize any potential problems associated with odors. The previously composted material tends to absorb all odors that develop. Initially, the underlayment and cover material for the compost pile and the deodorizer pile consisted of a combination of hay and bark, in lieu of composted sludge. After the first pile of compost was fully composted and cured for a minimum of 30 days, the City began using approximately 5.4 to 7.6 m (7 to 10 yd) of the composted material to insulate the latter piles. ^-3. 80 ------- Composting systems generally fall Into one of three categories: (1) batch, (2) windrow, and (3) mechanized or enclosed systems. The method selected for evaluation in Bangor 1s a modification of the batch method where air is mechanically drawn through the compost pile to provide the necessary oxygen for microbial degradation and stabilization of the sludge. Basically what occurs is that the thermophi11ic micro- organisms (i.e., high temperature organisms) generate heat as a result of biological oxidation. This heat is sufficient to kill off any and all pathogens if proper temperatures are maintained and evenly dis- tributed throughout the pile. If improper management techniques are practiced or if the sludge mixture is too dense or wet there will be insufficient air movement within the pile and anerobic organisms could take over, thus greatly inhibiting the composting process and resulting in the production of obnoxious odors and adverse public reaction. On the other hand, if the compost pile is too porous and not properly insulated from external temperatures, or the air flow through the pile is too great, the composting pile may lose much of its self generated heat thus resulting in a cooling effect and little assurance that all pathogens within the pile are destroyed. This then is the purpose of the bark, air blowers, the temperature probe, and oxygen monitoring equipment. As it is necessary to monitor daily both temperature and oxygen content to insure that temperatures throughout the pile exceed 55° C for <3.^.81 ------- a period of several days, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service in cooperation with the University of Maine is performing the necessary testing and monitoring of the com- posting operations. The sludge and compost are tested quarterly for heavy metals content (i.e., nickel, cadmium, zinc, and copper), primary nutrients (i.e., N,. P, and K), fecal coliform, salmonella, and pH. An oxygen analyzer and temperature recording device have been purchased by the City for on-site use. Each compost pile is aerated for a period of approximately 2 to 4 weeks at which time the composted mixture of sludge and bark are moved to a curing area for an additional period of at least 30 days. After the 30-day curing period the bark is screened out of the composted mixture and the compost is stored for future use. The City has limited its application of the compost to non-food chain crops because: (1) The application of sewage sludge to agricultural lands requires special sludge and soil analyses and management control of the lands receiving that sludge. (2) There is sufficient demand for the compost within the City's own programs. =?a»2 ------- At this time the City plans to utilize the compost for the following purposes: a. Land reclamation--strip mining, gravel pits, rock quarries, landfills, construction projects b. Beautiflcation programs c. Parkland, planting trees, grass, ornamental shrubs, etc. d. Golf courses, regrading, major construction e. Cemeteries f. Airport areas g. Highway median strips, esplanades, etc. h. Nursery products <=? ¦ Q, 8' ------- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 REFERENCES Humber, N. Waste reduction and resource recovery - there's room for both. Waste Age, 6(11):38,40,41^44, Nov. 1975. Interim report 1, test eel11 1, Boone County Field Site. Cincinnati, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, March 1973. Shuster, K. A. Leachate damage assessment: an approach. Washington, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1976 (In preparation.) Exclusive Waste Age survey of the nation's disposal sites. Waste Age, 6(1):17-24, Jan. 1975. Haxo, H. E., Jr. and R. M. White. Evaluation of liner materials exposed to leachate; first interim report. Oakland, Ca., Matrecon, Inc., Nov. 1974. 58 p. Chain, E. S. K. and F. B. DeWalle. Compilation of methodology for measuring pollution parameters of landfill leachate. Cincinnati, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Oct. 1975. 174 p. Thompson, J. Economics of landfill location. Washington, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1976. (In preparation.) Dilaj, M. and J. F. Lenard. Leachate control at landfills based on hydrogeological studies. Public Works, 106(4):91-93,122, April 1975. Eliassen, R. Why you should avoud housing construction on refuse landfills. Engineering News-Record, May 1947. Anderson, D. R. and J. P. Callinan. Gas generation and movement in landfills. Presented at Loyola of Los Angeles, 1970. City of Winston-Salem, North Carolina, and Enviro Engineers, Inc. An evaluation of landfill gas migration and a prototype gas migration barrier. Environmental Protection Publication SW-79d. Washington, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975/ 154 p. Flower, F. B. Case history of landfill gas movement through soils. In Gas and Leachate from Landfills: Formation, Collection, and Treatment. Cincinnati, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. (In preparation.) J.3> J84 ------- 13. Nosanov, M.E. and R. L. White. Gas control and beneficial use of completed landfills. Public Works, 106(11):62-64, Nov.. 1975. 14. Dair, F. R. and R. E. Schwegler. Energy recovery from landfills. Waste Age, 5(2):6-10, March/April 1974. 15. First landfill methane plant dedicated; shredding approach also gets nod. Solid Waste Systems, 4(4):24,25, July/August 1975. 16. Bell, J. M. Characteristics of municipal refuce. In Proceedings; National Conference on Solid Waste Research, American Public Works Association Special Report No. 29. Chicago, Feb. 1964. ------- The Third Japan — U. S. Conference cn Solid Waste Management Special Subject 2 Pyrolysis of Solid Waste by Masakatsu Hiraoka Kyoto University Mitsutaka Kawamura National Chemical Laboratory for Industry May, 1976 Tokyo Japan ------- Part 1 R & D Effort of Solid Waste conducting by National Project (Agency of Industrial Science and Technolgy, MITI) by Mitsutaka KAWAMURA National Chemical Laboratory for Industry Japan ------- I Introduction Research and development on the pyrolisis process for the most complicated solid wastes like municipal solid wastes has been carried out by three main sectors in Japan. One is the national project promoted by the government, the second is private companies developing their own original pyrolysis technology and the third is the private company in thchnical cooperation with the foreign company. Most of the processes in Japan are shown in Table 1. Among them the fluidized bed system is hardly found to be studied in other countries and becomes one of noticable pyrolysis technologies. This report illustrates outline of research and development on the pyrolysis process for the municipal solid wastes in Japan, classifying with a fluidized bed and other type of reactor process. 1.1 Configuration of pyrolysis process by unit operation Pyrolysis process plays one of the unit process in the total wastes treatment system. The pyrolysis process itself consists of an appropriate combination of the following unit operations, that is; a. Shredding b. Selective classification, c. Drying, d. Grinding e. Pyrolysis, f. Separation, g. Refining and cleaning, h. Utilization, i. Storage, j. Waste gas treatment, k. Waste water treatment, 1. Residue treatment. The unit operation may be classified into four categories, i.e., pretreatment, pyrolysis, post - treatment and pollution protention treatment. Pretreatment involes unit operations, conditioning feed of the 3-M ------- solid waste-into the pyrolysis reactor, like shredding, selective classification, drying and grinding. Post-treatment includes such unit operations as separation, refining and cleaning, utilization and storage. Pollution pretection treatment means regulation technology of hazardous component concentration in the waste has, water and solid discharged from the above mentioned unit operations. Figure 1 shows the con-figuration of the pyrolysis process by the unit operation, listed in Table 1. The simplest formation of the process seems a magma bed heated by electric power, which consists of shredding, pyrolysis, storage and waste water treatment. The material flow similar to the large scale incineration plant is the shaft furnace process. The product gas from the reactor will burn at a boiler to obtain high temperature steam. The slag tapping treatment like Shinnittetsu, Union carbide, and Torrax systems has the same configuration of unit operations. Pyrolysis in the externally heated in the shaft furnace includes dewatering operation at the pretreatment. Kawasaki-Landgard system has refining process of the product before combustion, which is different from Baltimore plant. Pyrolysis process in the fluidized bed has most advanced combination of the unit operations. Gallet system-has one of the most complicate pretreatment process. 1.2 Classification of pyrolysis process Pyrolysis process has to be so designed that the heat required in thermal decomposition reaction may be less than calorific value of raw wastes. Pyrolysis process can be divided into combustion part and pyrolysis part, as being shown schematically in Fig. 2. For type (a) solid waste and gas ------- make counterflow and heat is transferee! mainly by convection of gas. In order to increase calory of product gas either oxigen is injected for combustion "gas or inert gas component must be separated from the product gas. For the latter case as a separation technique there is a method of high temperature steam injection as heat transfer medium or oil recovery at low temperature pyrolysis. Internally heating shaft furnace and rotary kiln may be classified in this type (a). Type (b) is such a process that heat required in the pyrolysis reactor is supplied through conduction and radiation heat transfer with combustion heat released at the combustion part. Externally heated shaft furnace process is an example of this type (b). Type (c) is almost same as type (b) except heat source. Pyrolysis residue is used as heat source instead of product gas like type (b). This type of process has not been found in Japan. Type (d) uses heat transfer medium to supply requir- ed heat for pyrolysis. Sand is used as heat transfer medium. In dual chamber fluidized bed system, product gas is possible not to be mixed with combustion waste gas by sand seal, thus the calory of product gas is high in comparison with those by other processes. In the single chamber fluidized bed microscopic relation of type (d) is thought to hold. Type (e) is a special type of only one way heat flow. Heat is supplied by electric resistance. There is no compensate energy flow to fill required power within the process in this example. However, an appropriate energy conversion process from calorific heat to electric energy may be installed outside the process. Reactor type may determine above mentioned heat supply system, which characterizes pyrolysis process. For the shaft furnace since reactor temperature distribution is 3. ------- impossible to be so controlled as to keep a certain profile, it is difficult to obtain product of constant quality, wherea for the fluidized bed it is difficult to accomplish both energy recovery as well as residue treatment at the same time From next chapter the pyrolysis process developed in Japan will be introduced briefly along (i) a fluidized bed system and (ii) other type of reactor. R&D efforts other than conducted by the government however, will be treated in Part II ------- II FLUIDIZE BED SYSTEMS 1 A fluidized bed pyrolysis system Municipal solid wastes include woods, garbage, plastics, dirts, metals, papers, texiles and other miscellaineous materials. . It is necessary to construct a combined system with element technology such as collection, transport, shredding, separation, pyrolysis and the like in order to make such wastes convert to resources. Agency of Industrial Sience and Technology (AIST) is now supervizing development study on a fluidized bed pyrolysis technology which may be a heart process in the resource recovery system. The process aims to recover oils by pyrolysis under starved oxigen condition from combustible materials, shredded separated from municipal refuse. 1. 1 Development of pyrolysis process For pyrolysis of municipal solid wastes, fixed bed, moving bed and fluidised bed are used as a reactor. Among them the fluidized bed has characteristics of good isothermality and good controllability which is a key factor in pyrolysis operation. Single chamber fluidized bed system is selected because it has simple structure which is thought to make operation easy for difficult handling materials like municipal solid wastes. Municipal solid wastes convert to gas, oil and char when underwent pyrolysis. From viewpoint of yield, easiness of transportation and storage, pyrolysis condition and calorific value of the product, an oil recovery system is considered to be one of the most desirable process. Gas and char produced subsidiarily in this case may be spent as energy source for process sake. Research on pyrolysis treat- ¦ ment of the municipal refuse has been conducted in United States ------- as well as Europe. The results, however, have not been opened In detail since it is now in progress. Hence, the fundamental study on the municipal solid wastes pyrolysis was set about at first on the bench-scale test appratus. I. 1.1 Bench-scale test The experiments aimed 'to grasp pyrolysis condition, yeilds of product components and their properties. They were carried out under such condition as constant feed rate, constant temperature and atmospheric pressure. Temperature ranged from 400 to 700°C and feed rate change covered from 5 to 20 kg/hr (wet base). Continuous feed and continuous discharge of product char and ash were sucessfully carried out. The pyrolysis reactor has size of 160 mm. inner diameter and 2 m. length. I. 1.2 Cold model test The tests purposed to understand fluidization characteristics of municipal wastes and to improve the device taking out incombustible materials and char from the bed. The fluidized bed has 500 mm inner diameter and is made of transparent acrylic resign, which enables movement of fluidizing sand and char to be observed with naked eyes. I. 1.3 Pilot plant test The experiments were intended to confirm the experimental results obtained in bench-scale and cold model tests for actual solid wastes at high temperature as well as to get material and energy balances for process design and to clarify fluidized bed performance by observation of its time variation in the longterm continuous operation. The experiment also aimed to determine most desirable configuration by invpcti oatinn nn tVip fnnrtinn<; and <; t riir t iiTf» nf thp fininnmentf; . ------- The size of a pyrolysis reactor is 500 mm inner diameter in the lower part, 750 mm diameter at the upper part of the chamber and 3,300 mm effective length. The capacity has 100 to 1'50 kg/hr. 1. 2 Experimental results 1. 2. 1 Raw wastes for pyrolysis At the bench-scale test artificial wastes adjusted for th supposed municipal waste composition was used as raw material, whereas in the pilot plant test, to some extent dry real wastes, eliminating garbage and incombustible materials from original wastes, were used. The properties of raw materials of used is shown in Table 2. I. 2.2 Material and energy balance Yeild of each component obtained by the pilot plant test is shwon in Figure 3. Product yield is dependent on the decomposition temperature if raw material composition is constant. Between 450 and 550°C, oil can be obtained with high yield value, but as temperature increases the yield of oil decreases whereas yield of gas becomes high. The product yield is also influenced by the composition of raw wastes,- especially moisture content. Figure 4 shows the influence of moisture content on the pyrolysis yield. 5 to 6% of oil can be recovered in case of 301 moisture content. An example of energy balance is shown in Figure 5. At the low temperature between 450 and 550°C fraction of oil becomes highest of recovered energy and total energy recovery becomes high at the low temperature. I. 2. 3 Properties of products i) Oil: Main products of pyrolysis are oil, gas and char. Two kinds of oil are produced, one is the oil coming from plastics in the wastes and the other cellulose oil converted 3 ------- from cellulose materials like wood and paper. Both ,oil properties are illustrated in Table 3. Net calorific value ot" oils has about 8,000 kcal/kg and 4,000 kcal/kg respectively and both have good combustibility, hence they are suited to.use as fuel. ii) Gas: In this pyrolysis process a part of feed material burns with air to supply decomposition heat, which is called as partial oxidation pyrolysis. Since product gas is diluted with nitrogen gas of combustion air, calorific value becomes lower than that by external heating method. Neverthless product gas has 1,000 kcal/Nm^ calorific value and can be used as low calory fuel gas. Partial oxidation pyrolysis does not require any auxiliary heat source. iii) Char: Char has about 5,000 kcal/kg net calorific value and good ignition property because volatile substance still remains in it, hence it can be used as solid fuel for the process heat of the municipal solid wastes treatment. iv) Other solid materials: Incombustibles and dust other than that char is discharged from the municipal solid wastes treat- ment process. Incombustible materials are metals, glasses , dirts and the like, from which valuable materials like metals may recover. Dust can be collected through dust collector like a cyclone. Collected dust is brought to landfill after subjected to an appropriate treatment and burns to insoluble state. Their material characteristics are illustrated in Table' 5. v) Behavior of hazardous components: Hazardous materials accompanying in pyrolysis treatment of municipal solid wastes are harmful gases and heavy metals. An example of chemical K analysis result on the gaseous hazardous materials is shown in \| Table 6. They can be easily removed through gas cleaning by ------- water. Gas cleaning waste water becomes harmless by chemical treatments like neutrization and is discharged to the outside of the system. The chemical analysis results on the heavy metals are illustrated in Table 7. Heavy metals tend to be rich in ash and char so that they have to be fixed through an appropriate treatment not to dissolve again. After then ash may be used as archtecture materials or is brought to land filling. 1. .3. Operation performance 1. 3. 1 Temperature control in the pyrolysis reactor A fluidized bed has good controllability of bed temperature, which is the principal factor of pyrolysis reaction It was confirmed by the fact that 200 hours continuous operation has been successfully completed in the pilot plant where a fluidized bed temperature could be adjusted with quick response to a certain given temperature by controlling feed rate either raw materials or combustion air. 1. 3. 2 Pressure control The state of a fluidized bed can be described by temperature and pressure. If pressure drop in the fluidized bed is constant, means that height of a fluidized bed becomes constant. Thus pressure drop of fluidizing gas can become an index which shows if a fluidized bed maintains constant height, and it can be controlled by supply and removal rate of sand. 1. 3. 3 Removal of incombustibles and char Incombustible materials existing in the raw materials settle down through the fluidized bed to the bottom and pile on the distributor. Those settled materials may be drawn out to the outside through a nine suited at the center of the distribut ------- Char is tossed on the fluidized bed and flooding out through a pipe attached at the upper part of the fluidized bed chamber. 1. 3. 4 Stable operation range A fluidized bed reactor has a stable operation range bounded by fluidization and thermal decomposition reaction characteristics of raw materials. If the operation was conducted within this range, energy can be recovered efficiently. 1. 4 Outline of pyrolysis experiment pilot plant 1. 4. 1 Main specification of the plant The experiment pilot plant has following specifications. Type; a fluidized bed pyrolysis. Heating method; partial oxidation of raw materials. Capacity; 100 kg/hr (2.4 ton/day). Material recovered; mainly oil.. Reactor type; multi-hole plate distributor fluidized bed inner diameter of chamber; 500 mm. effective length; 3350 mm 1. 4. 2 Flow sheet Solid wastes carried by collecting cars are dumped into an accept pit. Then it is fed to a shredder through conveyers and crushed to paticles of mean size less than 50 mm. Shredded wastes is weighed by weight measurement conveyer and is supplied to the fluidized bed reactor by a screw feeder. Sand particles in the reactor becomes liquidlike by injected air and recirculating gas through the multi-hole plate distri- butor. The solid wastes fed suffer from partial oxidation to convert into gas and char. Produced gas flows out through a duct at the top of the reactor, then after dust component is 10 eliminated by a cyclone, the product goes into either (a) or ------- (b) oil recovery process. (a) Product gas contacts with low temperature oil at the scrubber to condensate oil, a certain fraction of which is recirculating to the scrubber as cooling oil. (b) Product gas is led to a fractional distillation tower where water is obtained as the toj) product and oil is recovered from the bottom of the tower. Uncondensate gas component is led to a afterburner or boiler where it burns. Ash produced in the reactor is collected by a cyclone installed in the high temperature duct system. Incombustible materials mixed with fluidized medium is drawn out through a discharge pipe at the center of the distributor. Char mixed with sand is discharged through a flooding pipe. They are screened to separate incombustible?, char and sand which returns to the reactor. Condensate water is treated through oil water separator absorber filled with active carbon. 1. 5 Characteristics of the process The pyrolysis now being developed has following characteristics. (1) Gas and oil can be obtained as clean energy from organic components of municipal solid wastes. (2) Non formation of N0X can be expected because of low temperature pyrolysis between 450 and 550°C. (3) There is no trouble in treatment operation when plastics content in the solid wastes increased. It is rather desirable due to contribution of the product calory up. (4) Waste gas treatment facility can be made compact because the amount of waste gas is 1/5 less than that in the incinerat- ion treatment. (5) It is easy to remove N, S and CI components since N, S and 3. ------- CI converts into NH3, H2S and HC1 respectively under reducing atmosphere in pyrolysis. (6) The reactor can keep uniform temperature as well as low temperature level between 450 and 550°C, so that it may riot occur to melt incombustible materials like glasses and metals or to vapourize heavy metals in the wastes. 1. 6 Total waste treatment system 1. 6. 1 Energy recovery system AIST proposed a plan of energy recovery system from municipal solid wastes, using this fluidized bed pyrolysis as a key technology. Bedsides pyrolysis operation, pretrea;tment post-treatment process forms total waste treatment system. Raw materials for pyrolysis may be obtained by separat- ing and eliminating garbage "and incombustible materials from crushed municipal solid wastes. Oil.recovered through separat- ion and refinery process is supplied to a boiler. Gas is led to the boiler after washing hazardous materials like HC1 and H2S, and heat is recovered. Ash is calcined for 5 minutes at 1100 to 1150°C because it might have heavy metals as mentioned earlier. Heat can be recovered from shar, ash generated at the time, however, has to be subjected to insolubility treatment (calcination for 5 minutes at 1100 to 1150°C). Garbage is fed to methanation to produce fuel methane gas. Water discharged form the fractionator of oil recovery process is used for raw materials of methanation because it is water of high organic . t material concentration (C. 0. D. equals c. a. 10,000). 1. 6. 2 Material balance Overall material balance on the pyrolysis process ^ j jiaving capacity of 50 ton/day is obtained, assuming that Raw ------- materials recieve pretreatment as mentioned before. From the balance calculation 3 ton/day oil (5,000 kcal/kg, 2xJ.07 kcal/ day) and 70.5 ton/day low calory gas (500 kcal/kg, 3.5xl07 kcal /day) can be recovered as surplus energy for 50 ton/day waste treatment, and 30 % calory of raw materials can be supplied outside the system. 1. 7 Items to be studied The following items have to be studied on the base of the experimental results up to now. (1) Engineering study to enable a long term continuous operat- ion . a. Prevention method of choking in the high temperature duct and automatic removal device of attached materials. b. Prevention of dust dispersion into oil recovery system and perfect dust collection method. c. Efficient recover way of product oil. d. Smooth discharge of incombustibles and sand circulating system. (2) Efficient combustion method .of the product oil. (3) Secondary pollution protection technology. a. Treatment of ash and char contaminated by heavy metals. b. Treatment of high organic material concentration water. (4) Operation planning of a demonstration plant and cost analys is. R§D on these items will be carried out at the national project of "Resource recovery and recycling system - phase II" starting from FY 1976. ------- 2 Dual Chamber Fluidized Bed Pyrolysis System 2.1 Pretreatment system 2.1.1 Selective pulverizing classifier An example of resource recovery system from municipal refuse is schematically shown in Fig. 8 Selective pulverizing classifier which is heart of this system, as shown in Fig.9, consists of a rotating drum having two screen stages and two kinds of scrapers rotating at different speeds in both screens. It utilizes the difference in resistance to destruction of municipal refuse, and both pulverization and classification by screening are incorporated in one machine. Refuse advanced in its axial direction is classified by the screens dependent on the pulverizing time which in turn depends on the material. As municipal refuse is fed continuously into the rotating drum and passes through the first stage, almost all of glass, dirt and other brittle materials, together with about 95/o of garbage (food waste), are pulverized into particles or flakes and discharged through the first screen. -Group I- The remaining refuse is damped if necessary and, with sufficient moisture, undergoes a process similar to the first stage so that 50 to 60/o of paper content are selectively pulverized into flakes and discharged through the second screen. -Group II- Remaining residues of plastics, textiles, etc. and metals, all of which are ductile material, are discharged from open end of the drum. -Group III- About 70 to S0% of plastics and almost all of metals ------- and textiles are classified into Group III without contamination of garbage. 2.1,2 Treatment of Group I Since the organics of Group I consist of mainly garbage, fast fermentable materials, excluding metals, plastics, textiles and paper board, this group will be suitable for composting depending on local conditions. As an alternative, this group mixed with other organics can be. utilized as fuel gas by pyrolytic treatment after eliminating earth, dirt and glass; 2»1.3 Paper recovery from Group II Paper concentration in Group II approaches 85^» and it can reach 90 to 95% by further simple dry processing. As mentioned, about 50 to 60% of\paper content can be classified into this group, with the remainder carried over into Group I (mostly papers without much texture) and Group III (mostly strong water repellent papers such as plastic laminated card- board). Namely, Group II fraction tends to concentrate paper fiber of high quality and strength. Since Group II material contain little garbage, using this group recovered paper in a paper mill will not add an undue load on water treatment facilities. In case that the amount of recovered Group II is.small due.to small capacity of waste treatment facilities, it is possible to mix Group II with Group III and feed to pyrolysis treatment. 2.1.^ Separation of Group III Group III materials consist of mainly plastic film and s/./T ------- moulds, metals, textiles and laminated cardboard excluding almost all of garbage, earth, dirt and glass as well as approxi- mate 80% of paper. In this process, as shown in Fig. 8, after recovering ferrous metal, Group III materials are shredded and separated by zig-zag air classifier into inorganics and organic materials which can be converted into fuel gas by dual chamber fluidized bed pyrolysis gasifier. As Group III materials are free of almost all decomposables and annoying odour and appear to be clean, the air classification and storage can be performed under enviromentally acceptale conditions. 2.2 Outline of dual chamber fluidized bed pyrolysis By pyrolizing municipal refuse, char, tar-oil and gas fractions are produced with various contaminants such as heavy metals and other harmful materials. When utilizing the products as energy source, the problems due to pollution from these contaminants must be eliminated. In view of above mentioned, gas fraction will be more feasible since its cleaning is already established and easier compared with other products. The present work is aimed to produce fuel gas of high heat value by "dual chamber fluidized bed pyrolysis system" which is similar to those widely used in oil cracking industry. In this system, fine solids circulate between a fluidized reactor to pyrolyze preheated refuse and a fluidized incinerator to burn up the produced char. The potential of this system is summarized as follows: ------- (1) Gas of high heat value can be obtained due to little influence of incineration on the generated gas. (2) Smoother fluidization can be expected with clean up effect by the incineration process. (3) Flue gas volume from the system is extremely low. (Its theoretical volume is same as that of air required to burn up char) (4) Similar system has been widely used and proved its reliability in oil cracking industry. When applying this system to the treatment of solid waste, however, several problems such as elimination of inorganics from the reactor and steadily feeding of the solid without gas leakage etc., as well as the control of fine solids circulation and gas contamination between reactor and incinerator must be solved. 2.3 Preliminary study by single bed pyrolysis 2.3.1 Test equipment As a first step to the goalj single bed pyrolysis tests have been performed in order to clarify the parameters influencing on pyrolytic reaction and obtain the informations to design dual chamber fluidized,bed system. Diameter of the reactor for this test, namely plant scale, has been adopted to be 300 mm, so that the information can be imraidiately applied to the proto-plant in the next step. This test equipment consists of fluidized bed reactor, nitrogen feeder with preheater, cyclone, condenser, gas discharger refuse feeder, burner, propane gas feeder, compressor, gas analysers and recorders of temperature, pressure and flow rate. ------- To obtain precise heat balance, construction of the reactor wall is of special double wall without buried metal hackers, and temperature distribution of the wall is measured by thirty one thermo-elements. Uniform bed temperature which is an index of fluidizing condition can be confirmed by three thermo- elements in the bed. Adopted gas distributor which plays important role in fluidizaticn is that developed by using another cold model of z'r.e saxe size. Since oxygen concentration in the fluidizing gas has serious influence on the composition of products, the burner characteristics was carefully checked so that oxygen content in the blue flame can be kept less than 0.5/6. Analyzing of each input and output gas was simultaneously carried out at every one to three minutes intervals by using three gas-chromatographs. 2.3.2 Test results Influence of operational conditions In order to cralify the influence of operational conditions such as temperature, gas velocity, feeding rate, particle size and humidity of input solids, first experiments have been performed by using pulverized paper which is equivalent to Group II fraction. And actual refuse has been tested at optimum conditions in the next phase. Some of the test results can be summarized as follows: (1) Gasification efficiency shows linear increase with temperature. (2) When humidity of input solids exceed gasification efficiency remarkably increases compared with the case of dry solid even if supplied with steam of the equivalent quantity. ------- Excess liquid absorbed into solids seems to accelerate pyrolytic reaction due to heating rate increase by molecular dispersion of the vapour. (?) Particle size, gas velocity and feeding rate scarcely influence on the composition, quantity and heat value of the products in the test rang4. (t) About 450 Ursr^ of fuel gas having "heat value of approx. 4500 Kcal/ffra^ is obtained by gasifying actual dry refuse of 1 Kg. (5) Endothermic calorie and heat balance in pyrolytic reaction was clarified. Tests with actual refuse Valuable organic fraction must be eliminated for reuse before heat decomposition. Since pyrolyzed products vary depending on this elimination, tests were performed using the following pretreatment items, assuming several possible systems. Cl) Group 1(2) Group II (3) Group III (4) Group I plus Group II (j?) Group I plus Sroup III excluding plastic film 3y the tests, mass belanca of heavy metals, contamination with harmful substances and stability of operation as well as composition, quantity and heat value of the products were clarified. Notable results at temperature of ?00 to 800 °C are sumra feci zed as follows: Cl) Grout) I contains lot of N, JIa, K and Ca compared with other groups. Produced gas of 4000 to i+500 Kcal/Nm^ which is the lowest of all groupst contains much ammonia converted from organic nitrigen such as protein. Paring operation, fluidization often became unstable owing to coagulation of fluidizing solid (sand). The cause of this coagulation will be creation of alkali-silicate converted from ------- sand, alkaline metal and ammonia. Namely, pyrolyzing Group I by fluidized sand oed causes problem of unstable operation. Several countermeasures such as agitation of bed or using other solid in stead of sand may be useful for this problem. Practc'al and reliable method, however, will be steady elimination of the coagulated solid during operation or applying this group t ------- Z.k Cold model of dual chamber fluidized bed system 2./+.1 Tests of sand circulation and solid elimination Though dual chamber fluidized bed pyrolysis process has been widely used in oil cracking industry, it cannot be simply applied to the present system, unless inherent problems of input material could be solved. Namely, new type reactor suitable for treating municipal refuse must be developed. Freon gas was added to one of the reactors to measure gas leakage through connecting pipes. Tests on solid eliminating facilities provided at bottom of the bed were also carried out. Studied items are summerized as follows: (1) Effects of various elements of the system on the circulation of fluidizing medium (sand) was systematically clarified. (2) Circulation rate of sand depends on configuration and dimens- ions of the air ejector below incinerator as well as air discharge. The rate was ^00 Kg/h and 12 Ton/h in the miniature and pilot cold model respectively. (4) Gas mixing rate between two beds was 0.5 to l/o that will be far below practically allowable limit. Particle size of sand scarcely affects on gas mixing rate in the test range of 0.2 to 0.7mm. (5) Effects of fluctuation in operative conditions such as sand volume, free board pressure, difference pressure between two boards and gas velocity on the stability of sand circulation was clarified. (6) Elimination of inorganic materials from the sand beds during continuous operation was successfully achieved. 2.2 Feeder test By using feeder test facility , feeding rate of refuse and gas sealing property have been clarified. i /. 2/ ------- ?.. 5 Miniature hot model Effects of gas density and viscosity at elevated temperature on the circulation performance of fluidizing sand have been clarified by the miniature hot model unit. 2.6 Pilot plant of dual chamber fluidized bed system Summarizing the test results of aforementioned single bed pyrolysis, dual chamber fluidized bed cold models, feeding and miniature hot model, pilot plant of about 5 Ton/day in capacity has been manufactured, and tested since the end of 1975• 2.6.1 Outline of pilot plant Fig. 11 shows the flow diagram of the pilot plant. Refering to Fig. 11 input material fed from pretreating plant is pyrolyzed by fluidized hot sand in the reactor. Hot sand circulates between reactor and incinerator through connecting pipes. Inorganic matter and coagulated solids are continuously removed during operation by eliminator, then stored in bunker. Produced gas is cooled by heat exchanger, after removing dust and char, and introduced into cooler via mist separator which separates mist and tar from gas. A part of the gas is compressed and recycled to the reactor, to be used as fluidizing gas. Hemainder is cleaned by scrubber, then fired by flare stuck.. Steam, in stead of recycled gas, can be used for fluidization. This case, however, not only reduces recovered energy due to consumption by steam generation, but adds undue load on water treatment. Preheated air is used for both lifting and fluidizing the sand and char sent from reactor. In the incinerator, sand is heated up by incineration of char. After eliminating ash and Z* harful gas, flue gas from incinerator is released in the air.. ------- All the operative parameters such as pressures of free "boards, connecting pipes and gas pipe lines, plus temperatures, sand levels and rate of fluidizing gas etc. are automatically measured and controlled, so that one man can operate the pilot plant * 2.6.2 Testing of pilot plant At first, no load operation was repeated in order to confirm operative function such as manual and automatic control, starting, stopping and emergency shut down etc.. As next step, tests using pretreated Group III and Group II are at present under way. Fuel gas of 6000 to 7000 Kcal/Nm^ is successfully obtained by pyrolyzing Group III. Following items are planned to study till March in 1977. (1) -a. Items similar to 2.3.2 of single bed. -b. Capacity tests -c. Pollution control tests -d. Long running tests (2) Study for utilization on fuel gas (3) Feasibility study of dual chamber fluidized bed system 2.7 Conclusion 'L'he present system has a possibility of recovering resources such as paper, compost, ferrous metal and fuel gas of high' heat value from municipal refuse, with less pollution compared with conventional diposing methods. 3-/^3 ------- Fig.l Configuration of p.yrolysis processes by unit operation ilo, 5 Proc :cs I'iaMG Dual Chamber j'luidi- zed i;ed System Flnicii- aei' i-'yrox system Waste Tapping System f-iagma Bed Fyroly- sis Incine- rator System xter- nal Hea tin;? Moving Bed System Input re fuse re fuse refuse refuse refuse refuse refuse refuse ¦? ->- ¦> 6 X -Xr- -O- k ¦K> ¦0 Out-out fuel steam v;aste gas Waste water residue R. H. waste gas fuel gas waste water residue -K>— oil gl!te char fuel gas waste water sludge slag Ui 1 waste water slag steam waste gas waste water residue waste gas fuel gas hot water waste water residue R. M. 3. ------- No. Process Name Input a b c d e f S h i j k 1 Output 9 Burrox System refuse fuel gas waste water slag iron Q 10 rorrax System refuse steam filte waste water slag 11 Land- gard Process refuse fuel gas steam waste gas waste water R. M. residue L 12 M.- Gallet System refuse waste water waste gas oil residue R. M. . . i L_. b. Selective separation d. Grinding f. Separation h. Utilization j. Waste gas treatment lt Residue treatment a. Shredding c. Drying or Dewatering e. Pyrolysis g. Refining and Cleaning i. Storage k. Waste water treatment 3. f. 2. C ------- Fig. 2 Classification of pyrolysis reactor by heating method Heat Consumption Part Heat Generation Part a. £¦ combustion gas b. c. refuse gas pyrolysis incineration refuse d. oil, gas > residue-sand sand flue gas If combustion air e. refuse pyrolySis residue gas heat transfer' k electricity 3 • 1 • ------- 100 Cp 80 ON SAMPLE B 60" Q UJ >• 40- 20- 0 LIQUID CHARCOAL^ J J i_ 400 450 500 550 TEMPERATURE (°C) Fig. 3 Yield pattern of pyrolysis 3./-2.7 ------- 6o u 50 +0 30 20 10 0 ¦ — actual i&i1- Char © A Gas o A 4. Oil 0 , A — (D -- -—® \ "7EP" — —, — CHAR '4 / / / / \ - "— A_ i ^ gas V © ^ OIL i t » Moisture content of refuse (wt?&) Fig. if. Effect of moisture content on yield of pyrolysis 3.\|2« ------- TEMPERATURE CC) ig. 5 Heat balance 3. (.29 ------- 800 o © +» oS © p. a V 700 600 500 Parameter U/U mf koo 300 "V2 terminal velocity of fluidizing particle at) range atri. table for oil recovery Feed Rate Fig- 6. Stable operation range of a fluidized bed 3./"b o ------- Fig. 7 SCHEMATIC FLOWSHEET OF REFUSE PYROLYStS ------- Municipal Refused i : Selective Pulverizing Classifier © in 1 Magnet Separator Shredder Air Separator // Paper Mill >^Paper^ Drier j -ajsi Sieve A)ar5i" £ \ Dirt Air Separator ^jplass^ ^Ferrou^V •Mf ^ffetal /J norganrc J Two-Bed Pyrolysis Gassifier Fig. 8 An example of resource recovery system -^^Compostj^ Fig. 9 Conceptual illstration of selective pulverizing classifier 5.' ------- Fig. 10 Flow diagram of single fluidized bed plant ------- c> 1. Pyrolysis reactor 2. InciYierator 3. Connecting pine 4. Connecting pipe 5. Feeder 6. Pretreating plant 7. Cyclone 8. Heat exchanger 9. Cooler 10. Blower 11. Blower 12. Scrubber 13. Flare stack 14. Cyclone 15. Heat erchamrer 16. Cooler 17. Blower 18. Scrubber 19. Blower 20. Conveyor 21. Bunker fig.11 Flow diagram of two-bed pilot plant ------- Table 1 Pyrolysis process developing in Japan No« Process Name Company or Type of Organization Reactor Phase of R 8c D Process 1 Dual AIST(KITI) Dual chamber 5 t/d pilot Pyrolysis/ chamber & Ebara Mfg.. fluidized plant test Gas fluidized Co. bed bed system 2 A fluid- AIST & Single 5 t/d pilot Pyrolysis/ ized bed Hitachi fluidized plant test Gas system Ltd. bed 3 Pyrox- Tsukishima Dual chamber Cold model Pyrolysis/ system Kik&i Co. fluidized test of Gas, Oil Ltd. bed pilot plant k Incine- IHI Co. Ltd. Single Pilot plant Incineration ration fluidized 30 t/d /Steam system bed 5 Waste Nippon Moving bed 30 t/d Pyrolysis/ ( tapping Steel shaft kiln pilot plant Gas ! system Co. Ltd, test I 6 Magma Shinraeiwa Fixed bed Bench-scale Pyrolysis/ bed Industry Co. electric test Gas process furnace 7 Shaft Hitachi Moving bed Bench-scale Pyrolysis/ kiln Ship Build- shaft kiln test Gas pyrolysis ing Co. system 8 Destra- Hitachi Moving bed Pyrolysis/ gas plant Const. shaft kiln Gas process Ltd. 9 Burrox Showa Unox Moving bed Pyrolysis/ system Co. Ltd. shaft kiln Gas 10 Torrax Takuma Moving bed Pyrolysis/ system Co. Ltd. shaft kiln Gas 11 landgard Kawasaki Rotary kiln 30 t/d Pyrolysis/ process heavy Indust pilot plant Gas/Steam ry Co. Ltd. 12 M.- Mitsubishi Lean phase Bench-scale Pyrolysis/ Gallet Heavy Indus- fluidized test Oil system try Co. Ltd. bed 3 . /. 3 S ------- Table 2 Properties of raw material Run No. 1 2 5 7 Bulk density (kg/1) O.O65 0.092 - 0.088 Mean diameter (ram) 30 ~50 30-^50 30-^50 30-^50 /—^ 4-> paper 84.6 74.1 76.8 70.0 £ wood 1.0 4.1 0.7 4.6 a o plastics 2.9 2.7 5.2 5.3 Composite incombus- tible moisture 1.7 7.3 2.1 15.5 0.5 15.5 8.7 11.4 others 2.5 1.5 1.3 trace Technical analysis ( Wt/o) carbon volatile fixed carbon 7.21 78.42 20.87 - 9.88 72.41 27.44 - High calorific value(kcal/kg) 4038 3834 3894 3607 Low calorific value(kcal/kg) 3709 3408 3468 3206 Sl'bb ------- Table 3 Properties of product oil Product oil Oil from Tar-oil plastics High calorific value (kcal/kg) C/H (weight ratio) Ignition loss (vt%) Viscosity (cp) 8600 ¦ 4130 6.23 6.12 97.5 '98.8 20 (65°C) 22 (60°C) Table 1+ Product gas composition Run No. 1 2 3 H2 3.22 3.30 2.94 3.15 4.33 3.56 °2 0.49 2.26 3.08 I.24 0.36 0.71 S2 62.20 61.32 63.51 63.81 59.57 60.3 C\ 1.79 2.40 1.59 1.56 2.32 2.15 CO 14.38 18.27 10.89 11.55 13.71 12.75 CO, 14.89 12.74 12.48 15.70 15.16 15.02 C2H6 0.42 0.46 0.38 0.41 0.48 0.39 CA 1.02 1.27 1.12 1.08 1.13 1.06 c3h8 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.03 0.02 °3H6 0.52 0.56 0.47 0.57 0.51 0.42 total 98.96 102.6 96.51 99.13 97.63 100.11 High calorific value (kcal/Nm3) 1053 1285 916 963 1139 1020 After removal of C0? (kcal/Nm^) 1237 1473 1047 1142 1343 1200 3.;.v ------- Table 5 Properties of residue Material Char A.eh Incombusti- ble Bulk density (kg/1) 0.193 0.3^5 O.988 True density (kg/1) - - 2.612 Ignition loss (wt%) 86.01 14.62 - C/H 23.5 - - •17 mm 18,08 - 37.16 rticle size Lstribution (wt%) 17-6.5 6.5-2.0 2.0-1.0 1.0-0.6 46.15 3^.60 1,15 trace 20.51 8.97 5.90 8.97 60.11 2.19 0.55 trace a 13 0.6-0 - 55.64 ' ------- Table 6 An example of hazardous gas concentration Run Mo. HC1 C12 NH, 3 NO X HCN S02 H2S 1 A - - - - - - - B 0 0 0 trace 25 trace trace ? A - - - - - - - B 0 0 0 0 18 trace 30 . 3 A B 0 0 0 0 20 65 30 4 A 50 17 20 trace 28 15 84o B 0 0 0 0 5 2 10 5 A 4o 18 17 trace 12 270 200 B 0 0 0 0 3 2 0 6 A 4o 2 2 0 4o 180 70 B 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 7 A 40 2 2 0 4o 120 680 B 0 0 0 0 trace 2 0 A. In the reactor B. After cleaning Table 7 An example of heavy metal cocentration Zn (ppm) Cd (ppm) Cr (ppm) Pb (ppm) Raw refuse Fluidized sand Char Product oil Ash 32.81 8.33 31.25 37.50 8.04 1.08 6.66 10.0 93.75 32.50 125.0 312.5 8.64 7.80 5.00 l4.$0 312.5 99.37 187.5 450.0 3J. ------- Table 8 Classification performance of selective classifier Classification performance (dry base) Composition of each group (dry base) Group I, Group II, Group III, Total, Group I, Group II, Group III, % % % % % % % Paper 29.1 47.1 23.8 100 Paper 21.9 85.1 47.3 Garbage 95.2 4.7 0.1 100 Garbage 52.2 6.2 0.1 Glass, ceramics 97.1 2.9 0 100 Glass, ceramics 17.4 1.2 0 Dirt (earth & pebbles) 82.5 17.5 0 100 Dirt (earth & pebbles) 1.7 0.9 0 Metals 11.1 3.4 85.5 100 Metals 0.9 0.6 17.7 Plastics 18.2 11.3 70.5 100 Plasties 2.8 4.1 28.5 Cloth 0 22.2 77.8 100 Cloth .0 1.7 6.4 Wood 97.2 2.8 0 100 Wood 3.1 0.2 0 Total, % 100 100 100 ------- Part 2 R&D Efforts of Pyrolytic Process for Solid Waste Conducting by Private Companies in Japan by Masakatsu Hiraoka Professor, Dr. Kyoto University Japan 1. Preface Pyrolysis is a process in which organic material is heated to a high temperature (500 1000°C) in either an oxygen-free or low-oxygen atmosphere. Application of the pyrolysis to solid waste result in a chemical breakdown of the organic materials into three component streams; (1) a gas consisting primarily of hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide; (2) a "tar" or "oil" that is liquid at room temperature and include organic chemical such as acetic acid, acetone, methanol; (3) a "char" consisting almost pure carbon plus any inerts (glass, metals, rock) that enter the process. Pyrolysis, in its strict sense, is the thermal decomposition in an oxygen lacking environment. However, often known "pyrolytic" process include partial oxidation (or combustion) and, may be not called pyrolysis strictly. Because of this, the term "pyrolysis" is used here in a much broader sense than usual definition of pyrolysis, and distinguished from the incineration or combustion in that the latter is the thermal decomposition with an excess amount of air or oxygen. ^ I ------- It is said that the pyrolysis is one of the most promising technologies for resource recovery, because it can be used for conversion materials recovery as well as energy recovery in a storable and transportable form. More than a dozen processes are being proposed for this purpose both in Japan and United States. Generally speaking, it may be agreed that none has been proved to be completely workable on a commercial scale with the products being recovered in an acceptable manner. General conditions for success of these pyrolisis are considered more stringent in Japan, simply because of the higher moisture content of the Japanese refuse. Compared with the composition I of the American refuse, followings are noteworthy.for the Japanese I refuse on the average sense. 1) Overall moisture content is approximately twice as muchj higher 2) Plastic content is 2 to 3 times more 3) Food waste which is normally very much wet, occupies relatively higher content 4) Metals fraction is about half that of the American refuse 5) Paper fraction is also relatively lower Because of these relative features, the Japanese refuse has, on the average, a heating value of 1,300 kcal/kg; generally ranging from 1,000 to 1,500 kcal/kg. Although the carolific value; tends to increase, this relatively lower heating value is considered a l disadvantage especially for energy recovery from the Japanese municipal waste. In order that the organic matter is decomposed, heat must be supplied to increase first the enthalpy of the material! to ------- a decomposition temperature and then enable the decomposition re- action occur, which in most instances, is endothermic. This heat balance can be maintained by suppling the heat of combustion of char to decompose the organic matter in the refuse. The way of supplying the heat of the first endothermic stage may devide the process into l)enternal heating 2)internal heating 3)partial oxidation process. Equipmental features often become the name of the process; l)fixed bed 2)rotary kiln reactor 3)fluidized bed, 4)flash sus- pention processes. Researches of the pyrolysis are conducting in three sectors in our country. I. The first: the pyrolysis process which are studying in the R&D project of MITI are as follows; 1) Fluidized-bed Pyrolysis for Oil Recovery (Hitachi Ltd.) 2) Dual Chambers Fluidized bed Pyrolysis/Combustion Reactor system for Fuel Gas Recovery (Ebara Manufacturing Co., Ltd.) II. The second; several private companies are currently testing and developing pyrolysis systems as follows; 1) Deal Chambers Fluidized Bed Pyrolysis Tsukishima Kikai Co., Ltd. 2) Fixed Bed Pyrolysis - Nippon Steel Co., Ltd. 3) Fluidized Bed Incineration (partially including pyrolysis reaction) - Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries Co., Ltd. » ------- III. The third; many private companies are currently introducing the foreign country (mainly United States) and testing' i pyrolysis systems as follows; (the major systems) 1) Union Carbide System - Showa Unox Co., Ltd. 2) Monsanto (Landgard System) - Kawasaki Heavy Industries Co., Ltd. 3) Garret Process - Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Co., Ltd. 4) Torrax (Carborundum)- Takuma Co., Ltd. Since the national R&D project on "Resource Recoveryj and Refuse Technological System" by MITI was started in 1973, many private companies was launched out into the development of pyrolytic process and system by introducing the foreign technology or by themselves. The three process developing in out country are described here; 2. Brief Review of Pyrolytic Process 2.1 Dual Chambers Fluidized bed Pyrolysis (Pyrox Process) - Tsukishima Kikas Co., Ltd. The basic idea of this process is as follows: The main'device of which consists of two reaction towers of fluidized bed - 1)ia pyrolysis tower for the pyrolytic production of a fuel gas of high calorific value and 2) a reheating tower for the effective combustion of pyrolytically produced char and for the regeneration of fluidized sand which circulates as a solid. Pyrox Process is basically the same as the process developing in the R&D project of MITI (Ebara Manufacturing Co., Ltd.) This dual reactor systems has been employed in petroleum cracking process and not totally new. It is said that the advantage of this system are that the process is suitable for getting ja gas of high calorific value and the operation can easily be automated. % I ------- Fig. 1 (a), (b) are the equipment and the flow sheet of the dual chambers fluidized bed reactor. The flow-chart of municipal refuse treatment system using this process is shown as Fig. 2 The bench-scale experiments and also the test using the small-scaled pilot plant have been conducted to obtained pyrolytic balance data and the composition of various products of pyrolysis, and to survey the operational characteristics of dual chambers flu- idized bed. The small-scaled pilot plant was capable of continuously treating urban refuse at the rate of 10kg dry measure per hour. a. Experimental Results Raw materials pyrolyzed in the testing bench and in the stnall- scaled pilot plant consisted of actual urban refuse, which was crushed, dried to have its moisture regulated, and pulverized where necessary. The properties of raw materials used in the experiment are listed in Table 1. The pyrolytic balance obtained by bench-scale tests is shown in Fig. 3. Computation from this pyrolytic balance leads to the following conclusion: If the heat of endo-thermic reaction in pyrolyzing the refuse is supplied by the combustion heat of the pyrolytically produced char, the pyrolyzing temperature can automatically be maintained within a certain range (for example, if the moisture of a raw material is 20%, the pyrolyzing temperature ranges from 700 to 730°C). Table 2 shows the chemical composition and changes in the calorific value of the pyrolytically produced gas caused by differ- ences in the properties of their raw materials. Compared with coal gas, the calorific balue of pyrolytically produced gas is somewhat higher than of coal gas, and three tons of dry refuse corresponds to one ton of coal. « ------- Table 3 lists the composition of the" pyrolytically produced char. Although the char contains condensates of N, S, CI,jand of heavy metals, when it is burnt in the reheating tower, most.of the heavy metals except Hg become condensed in the ashes. Most of the component N is gasified into ^ gas, and part of N becomes Nox- About 50% of the component S is gasified and the rest becomes ashes by taking stable forms of CaSO^ etc. CI is gasified and turns into ashes by assuming a stable salt from such as Na\|ci. The pyrolytically produced tar is divided into high-t[emperature tar which condenses at temperatures above 90 to 95°C and l\|ow temperature tar which condenses at temprature below this range. The former has no fluidity at ordinary temperature. The l'atter is highly fluid and aromatic, having a high oil content. Thd example of the composition of high-and low-temperature tar is listjed in Table A. When the pyrolytically produced gas is scrubbed, the irinse water from scrubber solves NH^, HC1 and condenses the water vapor from refuse and the steam which was used as a part of the fluidizing gas. The pH of rinse water, therefore, depends on a volumetric balance of NH^ and HC1 in the pyrolytically produce gas. When the pyrolyzing temperature is lower than 600°C, the pH value of the rinse water indicates acidity, and when the pyrolyzing temperature is higher than 600°C, the pH value of the rinse water indicates alkalinity as shown in Fig. 4 . Fig. 4 also shows the amount of NH^ produced by decomposition of the nitrogen compound contained in the raw materials. Fig. 5 shows the behavior of N, S, and CI contained]in the raw material and Fig. 6 shows an example of the distribution of heavy metals collected. Heavy metals contained in the raw material ------- refuse can be collected almost completely, except for Hg (whose collection rate ranges from 60 to 100%) and Cd (whose collection rate range from 80 to 95%). b. Summary of the Pyrox Process Features of the dual chambers fluidized bed pyrolysis of refuse, developed by Tsukishima Kikai Co., Ltd. are summarized as follows; 1) Since the pyrolysis of refuse and heating of fluidized sand (which supplies the pyrolyzing heat) are performed in separate towers, the heating combustion gas does not mix with the pyrolytically produced gas. This makes it possible to obtain a fuel gas of high calorific value, and concurrently, to readily control and stabilize the pyrolyzing temperature. 2) Compared with existing incineration methods, the amount of exhaust gas of this device is 1/4 to 1/10, permitting the exhaust gas scrubber to be smaller scaled. 3) Since the substances (N, S, and CI) contained in the refuse are gasified in the reducing atmosphere of the pyrolytic tower, rather than producing N0x and SO2, they are turned into NH^, l^S, and HC1, removable without difficulty. 4) The divice can assort inorganic coarse particles, which have entered the pyrolyzing device along with the refuse, and extract them from the tower. Fine particles of fluidized sand are nearly always replenished y inorganic particles contained in the refuse. 3»/. ------- c- Design Concept According to the data of basic experiment as described above, Tsukishima Kikai Co,, Ltd. reported on the economic estimation of large scaled actual plants as shown in Table 5 (a), (b). 2.2 Solid Waste Melting Process adopting Advanced Blast Furnace Technology - Nippon Steal Co., Ltd. Nippon Steel Co., Ltd. has developed a new solid waste disposal system which based on experience of blast furnace technology concerning the steel production. The idea of melting solid waste to form stable slag and metals is not totally new and several types of shaft farnace for processing solid waste have been de- veloping by various companies and institutions. Shaft furnace are very simple and easy to construct but the problems are how to operate them smoothly and economically with given charge materials. Furnace profile has to be appropriate for charge materials to maintain smooth descent of the charge. Outline of this solid waste melting system is shown as Fig. 7 . The system is composed of four main sections; refuse receiving and charging section, shaft furnace, hot blast system, and gas cleaning and water treatment system. The pit and crane system are used for feeding the solid waste in the pilot plant. Charging hoist or conveyor which is widely applied for blast furnace will be applied in the commercial design. The shaft furnace structure is more or less similar to that of a small blast furnace, except for the profile, 3 .Mtf which is one of the key factors for smooth operation. ------- For the hot blast system, hot stoves is recommended due to thier ability to produce high temperature blast. But hot stoves are expensive and also add operating difficulties. Therefore, a conventional blast heater are used. Maximum blast temperature is about 450°C. The hot blast is blown into the furnace through tuyeres. Oxygen enrichment is also practised. Oxygen enrichment of less than 15% is useful when hearth heat is low, but excessive oxygen enrichment will cause poor furnace condition and tuyere burning. The role of nitrogen as a heat carrier has been investigated. In modern blast furnace practise, it is considered better to restrict oxygen enrichment to below 10%. Gas generated inside the shaft is passed through a dust catcher and a venturi scrubber. Wash water is fed to a sludge pit through a line filter. Because of the high water content of the refuse, only a small additional supply of water for the venturi scrubber is needed. Clean recycled water for the venturi will gradually increase its salt concentration, and will have to be treated after several days. Various water treatments are available today, and there are no problems regarding water recycling. Produced gas will be used for the hot blast heater and drier and the amount for this is less than 10% of the entire gas produced. For taking a balance of utilization, gas holders are required. The top charging equipment is somewhat different from that of a blast furnace, and slide valve is used instead of charging bells. For better sealing of furnace gas, the modern blast furnace valve seal type is recommended. Furnace top pressure is controlled at atmospheric pressure in order ro prevent gas leakage. The top - pressure is controlled by an R-damper installed at the exit of the venturi scrubber. This system is quite similer to that of a modern ------- blast furnace. The entire system was constructed based on proven blast furnace technology. Therefore, the system is highly reliable. The re- fractory lining must be chosen in consideration of slag composition and working temperature. a. Performance Results of Pilot Plant I Operation of the pilot plant was started in November 1974, using urban refuse collected in Kitakyushu City. Pilot operation is still continuing using various charging materials and operating conditions. Appropriate operating practices have already been eatablished, and the economics compare favourably with those of conventional incinerators. Operation is similar to that of la blast furnace. Furnace conditions are monitored through top gas analysis, chemical analysis of slag and metal, differential pressure drop through the shaft, etc. Charging sequence is initiated by the charge level. Adjustment of furnace condition is made by the adjustment of additional solid fuel and flux, and the percentage of oxygen enrichment. Typical slag and iron analysis is shown in Table 6. Since the composition of refuse varies widely from time to time, the composition of slag and metal of each tap fluctuates more ttian in tha case of the blast furnace. The role of this meltingj furnace is not the production of iron and slag, therefore, from this viewpoint it is easier to operate than a blast furnace. As shown in Table 6 , the Cu, Cr, Ni, etc., content of the iron is high which shows good proof for stabilizing heavy metals. The relatively low carbon content of the iron is probably due to the high pro- ------- portion of low carbon ste 1 cans in the metal contained in the refuse. Part of the chlorine is fixed in the form of CaC^ as shown in the slag analysis. Table 7 shows typical analytical values of the cleaned gas which has relatively high calorific values. Due to the pyrolysis of organic materials, the gas has a higher hydrogen content than blast furnace gas. The heating value of the top gas is proportional to the heating value of the refuse, and is a good measure of refuse composition. Analysis of refuse is very difficult due to the difficulties of sampling, and huge amounts of sample are required in order to obtain reliable data. In this respect, output variables such as the gas analysis and slag and iron analysis give much better information about the variation of refuse composition. Typical heat balance is shown in Table 8. Much heat is absorbed by the water in the refuse. At present, the furnace can be operated using refuse which has water content of less than 50%. Naturally the higher the water content, the more difficult it is to operate the furnace. On the other hand, the efficiency of refuse drying is higher in a shaft furnace than in a conventional drier. Therefore, the degree of predrying is a very important factor for both stable operation and thermal efficiency of the furnace. Slag is tapped every two or three hours similar to the case of a blast furnace. Time interval depends on various factors. For slag handling, continuous tapping is preferable but this is only possible with bigger furnaces. With smaller ------- furnaces, it is very hard to maintain tap hole for continuous tapping because the amount of slag is too small. The inter- mittent tapping, therefore, is adopted in this pilot plant operation. Slag leaching tests have been performed according to the Environmental Agency code, none of those does exceed the permissible level. Typical redults are shown in Table 9. b. Summary of Solid Melting Process Through a year of pilot operation of the shaft type furnace, the melting process showed promising results. Main results are as follows. Anti-pollution 1) SO and NO in the generated gas are negligible due to the X X reducing atmosphere inside the shaft furnace. 2) Hydrogen chloride from vinyl chloride is fixed in the form of stable salts such as CaCl0 and NH.C1. 2 4 3) Heavy metals such as Cr, Ni, etc., are fixed either in the slag or metals. 4) Volatile metals such as Zn and Pb are trapped in the dust catcher in the form of oxide or chloride. The amount of these metals is less than 1% of the charge, and they can be recycled by pelletizing with thickner sludge. ------- Resource recovery 1) The melting furnace produces clean fuel gas. The amount of 3 gas generated from one ton of refuse is about 450 to 550 Nm , 3 with a calorific value of approximately 2,000 Kcal/Nm . The 3 price of gas, if it is sold will be more than 4 yen per Nm , which means an income of 2,000 yen from the fuel gas produced per ton of refuse. 2) Recoverable iron from a ton of refuse is about 20 to 30 kg. Although this iron has a relatively high alloy content, it can be used as low grade scrap. Other advantages 1) Volume contraction is high, therefore, the space required for land fill is less than conventional incinerator. Also the slag contains fewer pollutants than conventional incinerator ash. 2) Plant is more simple than a modern incinerator plant due to less exhaust gas volume, (about 1/7 to 1/10 of incinerator waste gas) c. Economy of Melting Process Investment cost depends largely on the specification of the plant and is difficult to compare with that of present incinerators. Stoker type incinerators are well proved and many such incinerators are in operation. Of course, thousands of.blast furnaces are in operation too. Since the shaft furnace system is much more simple than the modern stoker type incinerator, it can be built for lower cost. a ------- The cost of the shaft furnace system depends much on the capacity of furnace. The shaft furnace also requires oxygen supply and gas utilization facilities such as gas holderi Investment is proportionally lower for a furnace capacity of over 200 t/d. Operating cost of melting process depends on the price of solid fuel and oxygen. As mentioned previously, economy depends I largely on how the recovered fuel and metals are used. !With the present fuel and oxygen consumption, the operating cost will be about 3,000 yen per ton, 20 to 30% higher than the present I operating cost of an incinerator. If the recovered fuel price and cost of landfill are deducted, the net operating cost might be much lower than that of the present incinerators. 2.3 Fluidized Incineration (partially including pyrolytic reaction - Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries Co'., Ltd. (IHI) A new type of fluidized bed incinerator which partially I include a pyrolytic reaction has recently developed by IHI. Several type of conventional fluidized bed incinerator has been developed for burning up the shreded materials. Gener- I ally speaking, the discharge mechanism of the incombustible materials out of the incinerator was a bottleneck in continuous operation of fluidized bed incinerator. The incombustibles in the refuse successively thrown into the incinerator are increasingly accumulated on the bottoms, which causes some sections within the incinerator to become incapable of JEluidi- ^ ^ zation, making difficult the continuous stable operation of the ------- fluidized bed. The fluidized bed incinerator developed IHI has the newly developed the incombustibles discharging mechanism to cope with the defects metioned above. The basic idea of this process shown in Fig. 8 is as follows. To achieve good distribution of the air for fluidization, the air-distribution plate provided at the fluidized bed are replaced with air-distribution pipes, through which fluidization medium (sand) and the incombustibles are blown downward together among the air-distribution pipes, and taken out of the bed bottom to be separated by the screen into the sand and incombustibles; there after the incombustibles are discharged out of the incineration system and fluidization medium is put back into the fluidized bed, thus ensuring a stabilized continuous operation of the incineration for a long time. Fig. 9 shows the flow sheet of solid waste treatment system by use of fluidized bed incinerator. The demonstration plant was constructed whose refuse treating capacity was 36 tons per day in Matsudo City. Pilot operation is still continuing for 24 hour as one of the incinerator of Matsudo City. a. Outline of Plants Details of main plants are as follows Fluidized Bed : Cross section 1.0 x 2.5 m squae effective heights 6.5 m 3 Combustion chamber 29 m Sand Circulating : sand discharging ability 0.6-3 t/hr Device vibrating screen 7 mesh backet conveyer 3 t/hr ------- Blowing Equipment : Incineration load : first blower 70 1 second blower 45 hot gas generator 600 kg/m^hr 3 Im /tnin x 3,000 inmAq 3 ¦ Nm /rain x 600 mmAq 880,000 kcal/hr ------- 2.4 Conclusion The author described the three pyrolytic processes developed by private companies, which have been conducting several test by use of pilot plants. Recently, the need for better solid waste disposal system has stimulated a great deal of interest in the application of pyrolysis to solid waste instead of the traditional incineration system in our country. The processes described here and the processes developing by R & D project of MITI show a great deal of promise. Transfer from incineration of resource recovery in domestic refuse are searching by the municipalities. The author classified the conceptional alternatives of resource recovery system in the next generation that would be a substitute for the conventional incineration and sanitary land- filling of solid waste disposal system as follows. 1) Combined System with the Existing Incinerator: To prevent the air and water pollution by separating the unsuited materials for burning. Shredding K Separation\|—Existing Incinerator ¦^Heat Recovery—^Energy b recovery of materials 2) System introducing New Incinerator: New incinerators such as fluidized bed, rotary kiln etc. are introduced for shredding refuse. materials 3./.W ------- 3) System Introducing Gassification process: To obtain mainly high calorific fuel gas by introducing the pyrolysis. Shredding Pyrolysis Fuel gas recovery Recovery of materials 4) System introducing Thermal Decomposition Process of Oil Recovery: To obtain oil or liquid fuel products by introducing the pyrolysis. The author believes that the order of these alternatives also show the transfer steps from present solid waste disposal system to future in our country. The pyrolytic process * therefore, should be evaluate in the transfer flow from the present Jstate to the future as a total system including the front-end system. 3/.(p?L ------- Fig. 1 (a) PYROLYSIS PROCESS Exhaust ) ) Gd$ Cool.ng Eq. G'js iV;ish,r"] i Clean Fv_ Gas far l inmnator Manicipal f Refuse \ I 4' <^525. f.j Fluidizing Gas 'Steam) - Fuel Gas Voving Direction of Fluidizing Sanci Fluidizing Gas 11 T / Large Particle > Large Particle Reactor Regenerator ¦3. I. ------- 1 Walt I C va. 2 Waifr Zva. 3 Feeder 4 FVodor 5 otor 6 Cjc'one 7 Cy>:'¦ ,.e 8 Aii Hudier 9 Wflvhtrf foi P G. 10 W.-fw.i for E G 11 Aftur ou!l,er 12 An Cur.-ipreisoi 13 Coo!-jr 14 f-ci Tuel 15 S\?.ck ------- Fig- 2 f-"iUN iCIFAL HE-hL'SE ! Ri..A i !/>LNT SYSTEM u) \ Ro^m. Pit - '-j Ch> Jd :.g J— ¦' \|^~ C. y ir.g J f\. ------- Fig. 3 PYROLYZING EQ'JILIBURIUM CURVE ^ 80 H 45C 500 550 600 650 710 750 800 850 Pyrolysis temperature (°C) a. t. ------- Fig. 4 RELATION BETWEEN PH OF CONDENSATE AND PYROLYSIS TEMPERATURE ct 7. o o •o CC 5 o o o un O ¦sr o sJ Oi oo n (O - ro - Conversion Ratio of N in Refuse to NH3 o o o <,N CN —! ! 1 1 T I 1 r—1— 450 SCO 550 GOO 650 700 750 800 850 Pyrolysis Temperature 3./.t>7 ------- pi8- 5 DISTRIBUTION OF N, S, CI IN FEED * I § J r, 50/ t r'Mii 1 I T_' ¦_> i ' . '£ •1." (:r,t ' j . "t> ' " I C-\ ¦ J , f / iVfo K" s' S X \ • ¦ ' •i Pyrolysis Temp. 600 700 600 700 Element N- S 600 700 ( C) CI Tar ;\|j Ash Efluent Gas from Regenerator Product Gas 3,1.^ ------- Fig. 6 distribution of heavy metals IOC C O "t ; nri K - > b ? r A hj I'M •i i X-'fy f ¦- Cu Cr H M 'Y ¦'I i e r. , em ¦ ¦•' s »A BMj Others V~ Tar k Cycionc Ash "Ccarse tr>0! garni. Waller J J C-chciyed Sar.d Mn Zn ------- Ul sj o Fig. 7 Wsste Melting System To g.iy utilization fa c ilitios ------- ------- Tig. 9 Flow Sheet of floldlul Bed Incinerator (111) ------- TABLE-1 CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF SOLID WASTE IN PYROX-200 PLANT TEST FEED A B ° D E MEAN DIA. (mm) 1.20 ' 1.06 . 1.90 5.90 5.90 VOL. MAT. (%) 73.16 79.3 76.2 72.6 72.6 i ASH (%) 24.53 20.7 — 1 ¦ 23.8 27.4 I 27.4 1 1 MOISTURE (%) 2.31 25.8 5.20 14.6 28.8 ULTIMATE ANALYSIS C 39.15 33.2 37.9 37.74 37.74 H 5.34 4.G5 4.93 5.01 5.01 o 28.00 39.10 30.60 26.90 26.90 N 1.60 1.11 1.61 1.79 1.79 1 S 0.98 0.59 0.700 0.500 0.50 . CI 1 0.40 0.66 0.43 0.700 0.70 i 1 "I 1 i ASH i 24.53 .... ?0.7 23.80 . 27.40 i: 27.40 1 ¦?. I. Ti ------- TABLH-2 COMPSITION AND CALORIFIC VALUE OF DRY GAS PRODUCED (PYROLYStS TFMP. 700°C) (vol%) 1 I FEE- ; i Hj CO i CH„ 1 i I ! c,h4 c2h6 o o 1 c.v ! •Ccal/Nm® 1 1 i 1 i A 1 7.16 17.9 j ,4.3 ' 10.7 ' 7.2 50.00 i 4677 j ¦ I t i 8 ; 21.3 15.9 \| 14.3 i j 8.5 2.4 37.0 3920 \| i c 1 21.7 23.4 \| i 21.4 i 00 CO 21 5 1 4987 D l 17.9 1G.1 T j 15.0 1 8.1 1 3.0 39.9 • 3925 1 1 i E 24.3 in -i i 1 12.1 I 00 ,, 37.5 3G70 1.7^ ------- TABLE-3 AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF CHAR FRACTION wt% Pyrolysis Temp. 450"C 650° C 850° C Carbon C 77.2 79.2 85.7 Hydrogen H 7.02 7.53 4.21 Nitrogen H 2.82 3.15 3.69 Sulfur S 1.05 1.58 1.31 Chlorine CI 1.05 1.29 0.90 Oxygen 0 10.86 7.25 4.10 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 3 '/• 75 ------- TABLED AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF TAR FRACTION (PYROLYSIS TEMP. AT 700°C) B Carbon C Hydrogen H \itrogeh N Sulfur S Chlorine CI Cxyofin and ash 71.1 % 2.77 3.6r> 0.47 0.18 21.83 67.5 % 2.62 . 3.11 0.24 0.22 26.31 A- Tar condensed at high temperature scrubber 9 Tar condensed at low temperature scrubber ------- TABLE 5 (a) Oct. 1975 SuTunary of Estimated Econorro cs for FYROX System (Fyroly-is Frocess for Recycling Municipal Solid V'este) Easis ' 150 "JTD, 330 days/ (as received ye-dr "ba . ------- Table 5 (b) Environmental Regulation for Cost Estimation Air emissions SO? <50 ppm NOx <50 ppm Dust <0.05g/Km3 Effluent COD 1 <100 ppm BOD <100 ppm Ash 0.175 - 0.21 Ton/Ton g.s received basis 2, I 7$ ------- Table 6 Example of Sing Composition C^ercunt) I I l''eO \| S1O2 I CaL» 'Xi2°3 1 \| r.i.c<2 IvinO I I ; i 10. 1.3 ! 42.4 I 10. 1 i ; ; i ' l'j.3 ¦ 0. 75 ! 1. 64 j 0. 78 i 6. 32 ! I I ! 0.24 ! 1 ! 0. 13 , 0. 11 f i ! » i JGxampie of Iron Composition (Percent) c I ' 1 Si j !'n ! 1 \| S 1 Ni 1 1 ' Cr i Cu —.. ... Mo 2. 0^ ! 1 j 3. 05 . 0. 13 i 1 . . 1.55 \| 0.017 ! 0.12 ! i 1 0. 4!i 1 • t.CG 0. 04 r i ' 0. 12 1 0. 03 3.1-71 ------- Table 7 Quantity, chemical composition and calorific value of process £:>s. mount of tfas generated, 3 Nm' /ton of waste percent. Amount of heat generated, V. col/ls'm^. 1 1 1 Co._> CO ,h.2 1 ! N'2 1 I ! I j c2n4 ; I C2»6 \| 1 ! i i i i 1 r i 1 550 \| 23.8 ! 29. G : 2r>. 0 1 \| i i 17.8 1. : i ; • 2.C5 i 1.03 • ! ! 0.10 j \ \ 137 0 I Table 8 Heat Ualance ( Inout • ! I [ v: ' < - I i Output 1 1 1 V-' 1 ,36. 9 , Latent and .sensible hteat , oi moisture ui venerated ! ¦as i'.eaction heat of CO Other a ; 45. o : ~T f 1 -14. 9 : Sensible heat of slag . 42. 4 ! 20. (i i • • Sensible heat of iron \| Ileal losa from furnace ' WHil Others H- 100.0 \| Total ] ? A • w 5. 7 17. 7 Total 100. 0 1. i • T6 ------- Table 9 Heavy Metals Leached from Slag (pprn) Fresh vVrter » Saline v/ater j T r'i f ¦ • -'b Less than 0. 0005 i Less than 0. 0005 i ! Cd Less than 0. 01 1 Less than 0. 01 j ^b Less than 0. 05 Less than 0. 05 j '¦s Less than 0. 003 I Less than 0. 003 ; T. C\\ Less than 0. 01 Less than 0. 001 ' T. Cr Less, than 0. 05 Less than 0. 05 Not'.-. Tested according to the method stipulated officially made by the Environment Agency (Environment ^ency's Notice No. 13, February 17, 19-72) "b- ------- A Review of" the Status of Pyrol.ysis as ,a Means of Recovering Energy from Municipal Solid Waste by Steven J. Levy Senior Staff Engineer Office of Solid Waste Management Programs U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Washington, D.C. 20460 Presented at the third U.S. - Japan Conference on Solid Waste Management, Tokyo, Japan, May 12 - 14, 1976. ------- CONTENTS Occidental Flash Pyrolysis Process Process Description Fuel Product Status Economics Energy Balance Special Issues Monsanto Landgard Process Process Description Status Economics Energy Balance Special Issues Union Carbide Purox Process Process Description Status Economics Energy Balance Andco (Carborundum) Torrax Process Process Description Status Economics Energy Balance Bibliography ?. 1 ------- A Review of the Status of Pyrolysis as a Means of recovering energy from municipal Solid Waste by Steven J. Levy There are four pyrolysis systems being introduced in Japan which are currently under development in the United States. Those systems with the American and Japanese developers are shown in Table 1. This paper will review the present status of these four systems in the United States. Table 1 Pyrolysis Systems Being Jointly Developed in the United States and Japan Process American Company Japanese Company Occidental Flash Pyrolysis Occidental Petroleum Mitsubishi Landgard Monsanto Kawasaki Purox Union Carbide Showa Unox Torrax Andco (Carborundum) Takuma 3. 2. Z ------- 2 Occidental Flash Pyrolysis Process Process description - In the first step of feed preparation (Figure 1), incoming solid waste is fed into a horizontal shaft hammermill driven by a 1 ,000-horsepower electrici motor which shreds the waste to a nominal size of 3 inches (90, percent passing a 3-inch screen). The shredded material is then passed beneath an electromagnet to extract the ferrous metal, and than to an air classifier that separates the heavier, mostly inorganic particles from the lighter, organic material. The light fraction is dried to a moisture content of four percent using heat from burning either combustible gas produced in the pyrolysis reactor or fuel oil. After drying, this fraction is purified further using a series of mechnical processes. A 0.125-inch screen is used to remove larger particles for secondary shredding in an attrition mill. In this mill, waste fed between two counter-rotating disks is ground into extremely fine particles having a nominal size of minus 14 mesh (that is, 80 percent of the particles could pass through a screen having 14 openings to the inch). Meanwhile, the particles that fall through the 0.125-inch screen are fed onto an air table where a combination of vibrating motion and air flow separates light organic particles from dense metal and glass particles. The light particles from the air table are combined with the secondary shredder output to form the organic feed-stock, which is stored until it is fed into the pyrolysis reactor. 1.1. 3 ------- 3 The pyrolysis reactor is a vertical, stainless steel pipe through i which the organic feedstock is pneumatically blown. In thereactor, hot particles of char provide the energy needed to pyrolyze the J organic material. The char, which.is actually the solid residue remaining after the pyrolysis reaction, enters the reactor after having been heated to a temperature of 1400 F and is mixed turbulently with the organic material. The pyrolysis reaction takes place as the char-waste mixture proceeds through the reactor. A mechnical separator or cyclone is used to remove the char from the gas. The process gas that has been separated from the,char is cooled quickly to 175 F in an oil decanter. The remaining"gas stream goes through a series of clenup steps and is compressed fo[r plant use. Part of the gas is used as the oxygen-free transport medium. The rest of the gas is burned to preheat combustion air for the char heater, to preheat the reactor transport gas, and to preheat dirty gas streams that are produced in various parts of the system. The liquid fuel product either goes directly to the oil storage tank or is passed through a centrifuge if the solids content is too high. Liquid fuel that does not meet product specifications is burned in small boiler to produce steam for heating certain pieces of equipment throughout the plant. The remainder of the system consists of the glass and aluminum recovery processes. The heavy fraction from the air classifier is passed through a trommel where it is separated into three fractions: 3.2. i ------- 4 Smaller than 1/2" which becomes the feed to the glass recovery system, 1/2 to 4 inches which goes to aluminum recovery, and greater than 4 inches which is returned to the primary shredder. A second source of feedstock to the glass recovery subsystem is the dense fines recovered from the air table which pass into a flotation cell where the glass is crudely separated by froth flotation. The glass recovery subsystem consists of a series of froth flota- tion cells which, by recirculating both the float and s.ink fractions several times, is expected to recover 99 percent of the glass in the glass feedstock at a purity of better than 99.5 percent. However, the total recovery of glass from the incoming solid waste will be only 75 percent because there is loss in various parts of the process before the feedstock is formed. The aluminum recovery system is based on eddy current separation by linear induction motors. The 1/2 to 4 inch fraction from the trommel screen is passed on an endless belt over a pair of linear motors. Electrical current through the motors generates a traveling wave magnetic field above the belt. The magnetic field causes conductive materials in the refuse fraction to be deflected off the side of the belt to a collection bin. Since ferrous rnetals have been separated previously and non-ferrous metal in municipal waste consists primarily of aluminum, the covered stream is 90 to 95 percent aluminum. It contains about 60 percent of the aluminum in the solid waste. 3. S ------- o o -5 -c ~n o -j. -5 U3 & C ------- .'6 Fuel Product - The fyel product will be an oil-like, chemically complex, organic fluid, the sulfur content will be a good deal lower than that of even the best residual oils. The average heating value of the pyrolytic "oil" will be about 24,400 joules per'gram {10,500 Btu/lb), compared with 42,400 J/g for typical No. 6 fuel oil (Table 2). The lower heating value is due to the fact that pyrolytic oil is lower in both carbon and hydrogen and contains much more oxygen. A barrel of oil derived from the pyrolysis of municipal waste contains about 76 percent of the heat energy available from No. 6 oil. Pyrolytic oil will be more viscous than a typical residual oil. However, its fluidity increases more rapidly with temperature than does that of No. 6 fuel oil. Hence, although it must be pumped at higher temperatures than are needed to handle heavy fuel oil, it can be atomized v and burned quite well at 116 C (240 F). This is only about 11 C (20 F) higher than the atomization temperature for electric utility fuel oils. The San Diego Gas and Electric Company has agreed to purchase the fuel for use in one of its existing oil-fired steam-electric power plants. However, the fuel will first be put through an extensive testing program to determine its suitability and to determine a price for it. Status - Tne first prototype plant is currently under construction in El Cajon, California. It is being financed through a demonstration 3.2.7 ------- 7 Table 2 Typical Properties of Liquid Fuel from Solid Waste and No. 6 Fuel Oil* Physical properties (dry basis): Heating value (joules/gram) Specific gravity \| Volumetric heat value (megajoules/liter) I Viscosity (sSu at 88°C) Liquid fuel product No. 6 fuel oil 24,400 : 1.30 31.75 1,000 42,400 0.98 41.5 90-250 Chemical analysis (dry basis, % by weight): Carbon ] Hydrogen I Sulfur I Chlorine S Ash Hitrogen Oxygen 57.5 7.6 0.1-0.3 0.3 0.2-0.4 0.9 33.4 85.7 . 10.5 0.5-3.5 + 0.5 }2.0 Finney, C. S., and D. E. Garrett- The flash pyrolysis of solid waste. Presented at Annual Meeting, American Institute of Chemical Engineers; Philadelphia, Nov. 11-15, 1973. 25 p. +Not available. 3.2.5 ------- 8 grant from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and a subsidy from Occidental petroleum. This 181 metric ton (200 US ton) per day plant was begun in August, 1975. Most of the major equipment items are being shop fabricated and shipped to the site partially assembled. This procedure, plus the fact that the warm, arid climate requires only a . '/ 'fir, minimal use of bu'ilding enclosures, will allow construction to be completed in about one years time. Thus, it is expected that plant start-up will begin in September, 1976. Several months of start-up operations will proceed a one year testing and evaluation program. Costs - The cost of the £1 Cajon plant has continued to escalate as the engineers had to cope with severe site restrictions and increasingly complex technical problems which arose as the design proceded. The site for the plant is very small, 20,000 square meters (5 acres) and is subject to a ,18.3m (60 foot) building height limitation because it is immediately adjacent to an airport. Concern over the possibility of odors and H0X emissions have further complicated the design. The effect of these problems has caused the estimated cost of this plant to rise from $2.9 million (estimated in 1971 based on a preliminary flow diagram) to $10.2 million (based on actual bids on the completed design as of June, 1975). In addition, $2.3 million has been spent on engineering and design of the facility. Despite the tremendous escalation in cost for this facility it is still felt that the process will be economically viable in some situations. Table 3 presents Occidental Research's most current cost analysis for a 907 metric ton (1000 ton) per day plant. From this it can be seen that 3.2.9 ------- y TABLE 3 Cost Analysis of the Occidental Flash Pyrolysis Process (as of June, 1975) "i 907..Metric tons (1000 U.S. tons) per day Capital Cost: Land and Site Preparation $ 135,000 Construction 20,705,000 Start-up, Working Capital, Financing 2,324,000 Design 2,035,000 Total Capital Cost $25,199,000 Annual Cost: Amortization (20 yrs. 0 8%) $ 2,566,000 Labor (110 men) 1,375,000 Utilities and Fuel 898,000 Maintenance and Repair 1,773,000 Admin, Overhead, Misc. 1,112,000 Total Annual Cost $ 7,724,000 Revenues Ferrous Metal (7% at $41/ton) $ 913,000 Glass (6% at $16/ton) 324,000 Aluminum (0.4% at $300/ton) 393,000 Char (5% at $15/ton) 246,000 Pyrolytic Oil (at $1.66 per 10° Btu) 2,234,000 Total Annual Revenues $ 4,170,000 Net Annual Cost = $3,554,000 Plant Availability at 90% = 328,500 U.S. tons/year = 298,000 Metric tons/year ilet Cost = $10.82/U.S. ton = $11.93/Metric ton / ------- 10 the capital cost of such £ plant would be $25.2 million. Owning and i 'J* operating costs of $7.7 million per year would be offset by $4.2 million in revenue per year producing a net disposal cost of $11.93 per metric ton. . '/ Energy Balance- - An energy balance "for the system is shown in J1 i . Figure 2. Although electricity and some quench oil is purchased for the facility, it is assumed in this analysis that these energy inputs were produced within the system using normal conversion efficiencies that would result if the pyrolytic fuel product was the prime energy source. From the figure it can be seen that one pound of solid waste having a heat value of 5,000 dtu's yields ,'2050 Btu's of liquid fuel, with the rest being lost in the residue and char. However, when the 741 Btu's of energy needed to produce the equivalent amount of purchased energy put into the system is subtracted, only 1309 Btu's (or 26 percent of the energy in the original pound of solid waste) of fuel remains available. A conventional boiler using this type of fuel will operate at an efficiency of 87 percent, so the net amount of energy available from the original pound of solid waste, once converted to steam is 1139 Btu's or 23 percent. 3.1. II ------- DISSIPATED ENERGY 256 BTU CONVERSION LOSSES 436 BTU 11 R/C LOSS 26 BTU GAS L05S 140 BTU BOILER 17e87% STEAM 1139 BTU ls -- 21 ¥» RESIDUE a CHAR 2998 BTU Figure 2. Occidental Researcn System tnergy Balance 'This balance was based upon data obtained from: Flanagan, B. J., Pyrolysis of Domestic Refuse with Mineral Recovery, in Proceeding; Conversion of Refuse to Energy, Montreux. Switzerland. November 3-5, 1975. New York, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, p. 220-225. Levy, S., The Conversion of Municipal Solid Waste to a Liquid Fuel'by Pyrolysis. in Proceedings; Conversion of Refuse to Energy, Montreux. Switzerland, November 3-5, 1975. New York, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, p. 226-231. Special Issues - The Occidental process is especially exciting because it produces a fuel which is readily transportable and storeable, thus offering greater market opportunities. Its major drawback is that compared to most other solid waste energy recovery processes, not very much energy is recovered. Most of the fuel value of the waste is lost in the char. This material represents 20 percent by weight of the orginal waste and contains more than 30 percent of the energy value. Although its heat value of 19,100 kJ/kg (8,200 Btu per pound) is nearly that of coal, it is not presently useable as a fuel because of its 3.2. IZ. ------- 12 extremely high ash content (33 percent). Research work is needed to find a way to convert this material into a useable product or fuel. Monsanto Landgard Process Process Description - The Monsanto Landgard process involves a *' i controlled air primary furnace chamber (pyrolysis) and immediate combustion of the low heat value gases in an afterburner for recovery of heat (Figure 3). Waste is shredded, conveyed to a storage silo, and subsequently fed to a rotary kiln where it is pyroiyzed. Fuel oil is also burned in the kiln to provide some of the heat'for the pyrolysis reaction. The burner is arranged to provide a countercurrent flow of gases and solids; thus exposing the waste to progressively higher temperatures as it passes through the kiln. The f-inished residue is exposed to the highest temperature 1000 C (1800 F) just before it is discharged from the kiln and quenched in a water-filled tank. The residuals are split into three fractions, glassy aggregate, ferrous and char. The glassy aggregate and ferrous materials are recovered for sale and the char is dewatered and landfilled. Gases resulting from the pyrolysis reaction have a high temperature and low heating value (making off-site transportation uneconomical) ;l! therefore, they are immediately mixed with air and burned in an afterburner to liberate the heat of combustion. The gases then pass through waste heat boilers where steam is generated for distribution. ------- T3 o -n << CO to C ------- Status - A 907 metric ton (1000 U.S. ton) per day prototype plant has been built in Baltimore, Maryland. Construction of the plant was completed in February, 1975 under a turnkey contract with Monsanto. However, normal operation of the plant has not been possible because a 'i number of process changes are needed in order to insure proper operation. 7 • ' t t ; ' These changes are-'currently being made and are expected to be completed in August, 1976. This plant was also financed through a demonstration grant from tPA. An original grant for $6 million has recently been supplemented by an additional $1 million to be used to fund some of the process changes. As originally built, exhaust.gases are cleaned by means of a large spray tower. Initial tests of the spray tower showed that it could not r clean the gases sufficiently to meet the required ordinances. Under the best achievable conditions particulate emissions were 0.09 grains per . dry Standard cubic foot, corrected to 1.2 percent C02- Although this is only slightly above the U.S. federal standard of 0.08 gr/dscf, it was considerably over the tougher local standard of 0.03 gr/dscf. All efforts to modify the plant to meet the standard have failed, and as a result it has been decided that additional air pollution control equip- ment must be added. . The spray tower will be retained in order to serve as a gas cooler whenever it is necessary to bypass the waste heat boiler (such as during periods of low steam demand) and as a preconditioner for i the new equipment. Although no final decision has been made on the additional control equipment, the Monsanto engineers favor a wet plate electrostatic precipitator. Engineers representing the City, favor a 3.2JS ------- 15 dry ESP. No final decision on the control equipment will be made until the other equipment modifications have been completed and proved successful. Economics - Tue problems currently confronting the Baltimore plant l preclude the development of a comprehensive cost analysis. The original cost of the pi ant-'including land and site improvements was $16 million (1972 costs). The modifications including installation of wet ESP's has been estimated to be $9.1 million. Monsanto has estimated that based on Mid 1975 costs, a new 907 metric ton (1000 ton) per day plant, incorporating ESP's and the improvements being made in Baltimore, would cost about $29 million and have a net operating cost of about $5.00 per U.S. ton. Energy Balance - The energy balance for the Landgard system is shown in Figure 4. Here also it is assumed that the energy to produce, the purchased electricity and contained in the purchased quench oil was provided by the systems energy product. Losses in the process include the energy remaining in the carbonaceous char and conversion losses experienced in the waste heat boiler. As a result of these losses and provisions for the system's input energy needs, 42 percent of the energy in the incoming waste is ultimately recovered as steam. 1 D HL ------- 16 DISSIPATED ENERGY CONVERSION LOSSES FLUE GAS S R/C LOSSES IJOBTU 352 8TU 1190 8TU CHAR 715 BTU i Figure 4. Monsanto System Energy(Balance 'This balance was based upon data obtained from: Suss man, D. B., Baltimore Demonstrates Gas Pyrolysis, Resource Recovery from Solid Waits. First Interim Report ,SW-75d.i, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975. p. 12-13. Levy. S. J.. San Diego County Demonstrates Pyrolysis of Solid Wastes to Recover Liquid Fuel, Metals, and Glass. Environmental Protection Publication SW-80d.2. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1975. 7 p. 3.2./7 ------- 17 Special Issues - A research project on char utilization would also benefit this project as nearly 10 percent of the incoming material remains as char. This char,has a heating value of 16,500 kJ/kg (7000 Btu/lb). If the Kawasaki pilot plant can be so modified, a test program where the kiln off-gas was used directly in a fossil-fuel, boiler would be worthwhile. This would require the use of an existing, nearby (less than one mile) boiler or possibly the front end of the present pilot plant could be moved to another site. Union Carbide Purox Process Process Description - The key element of the Purox System is a vertical shaft furnace (Figure 5), wherein shredded solid waste is fed into the top of the reactor through a piston air lock system while oxygen is injected into the bottom of the furnace. The refuse descends by gravity through the varying temperature zones on its downward passage through the vertical reactor. The oxygen reacting with char material previously formed from refuse in an upper zone of the reactor creates a temperature zone in the range of 1650 C (3000 F) in the lower portion of the reactor. Rising gases cool to approximately 90 C (200 F) as they move upward thereby providing the energy for pyrolyzing the incoming refuse in the upper portion of the reactor. Metals, glass and other materials are transformed into a molten slag by the high temperatures generated in the lower portion of the reactor. The molten slag mixture continously drains into a water quench tank where a hard granular aggregate material referred to as "frit" is formed. 3. 2. ------- to CD O": < (/) c+ fD CO •Jl • E3 "O —h CD c_ —h . i O £ C- to DJ £3 o -h Cl" rr o> cz zz _J. o Z3 o Cu cr •ii Cw fD "6 c: o X SHREDDER MAGNETIC SEPARATOR REFUSE FEEDER PYRO LYSIS FURNACE OXYGEN OXYGEN PRODUCTION QUENCH TANK WATER SCRUBBER FURNACjE OFF GAS ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR ¦ T SEPARATOR L- GAS COOLER PRODUCT GA: TO USER 00 ~•WASTEWATER ------- 19 Gases leaving the reactor contain 30 to 40 percent moisture. This is removed in a gas cleanup step, along with ash, tars, and other condensable liquids. The remaining gas contains approximately 75 percent CO and H2 in approximately a two to one ratio; the other 25 percent j being comprised of CO2, CH4, N2» and organic compounds. Its heating value is approximately 12,500 kJ/m3 (300 Btu/cu. ft.). Status - In 1970, the basic system was assembled in a 4 metric ton (5 ton) per day pilot plant at Union Carbide's Technology Development Center in Tarrytown, New York. Following evaluation of the pilot plant facility, a 180 metric ton (200 U.S. ton) per day Purox System was completed during 1974 in South Charleston, West Virginia. The West Virginia facility was designed to prove out the corporation's full-scale modular unit, and it was intended that larger plants would obtain greater throughput capacity by incorporating modular additions. Most recently, however, the Union Carbide Corporation has decided to market a 317 metric ton (350 U.S. ton) per day module so that the unit being tested is not the one that will be marketed. Union Carbide is currently concluding the second portion of a three phase testing and performance evaluation program. The first phase concerned the receiving, feeding, and pyrolytic conversion of mixed municipal solid waste without size reduction or sorting. The second phase involved minimal pre-processing of incoming solid waste, consisting of coarse shredding and magnetic removal of the ferrous fraction prior to introduction into the pyrolysis reactor. The third.phase anticipated to 3. J. 10 ------- 20 coiranence early in 1976, constitutes a co-disposal investigation wherein ? V k ¦ sewage treatment plant sludges, containing varying moisture contents, will be mixed in varying proportions with shredded solid waste. Economics - Table 4 is Union Carbide's cost analysis for a 907 metric ton (1000 If.S. ton) per day Purox System assumed to operate a 90 percent of rated capacity. Cost projections are based on Mid 1975 dollars. The equivalent disposal cost projected assumes that the 20 percent residue (frit) material would not provide any credit revenues to a proposed facility and would require removal and disposal. Conveyance of the frit material and eventual disposal was assumed to be $5.00 per ton. Should a market eventually be established for sale of the frit material a lowering of the equivalent disposal charge would occur. Lnerq.y balance - Hnergy is consumed in the Purox process primarily in the shredding of the waste and in producing the 0.2 lbs. of oxygen that is required for each pound of solid waste burned. Lach pound of solid waste processed yields about 11.4 cubic feet of gas having a heating value of about 300 Btu/cu.ft. Because this fuel burns so well, if used directly in a boiler the combustion efficiency would be on the order of 90 percent, with a net system efficiency of about 58 percent (Figure 5). Despite the excellent quality of the Purox fuel, some communities in the U.S. that have been considering this system have added at the back end conventional process technology to produce either ammonia (NH3) 3.2.X/ ------- 21 TABLE 4 Projected Costs,of the Union Carbide Purox Process (as of June, 1975) 907 Metric tons (1000 U.S. tons) per day Capital Cost: $25,400,000 Annual Cost: Ammoritization (20 yrs. ti%) $ 2,587,000 Labor 1,166,000 Utilities 1,721,000 Maintenance and Repair 641,000 Misc., Residue Disposal, etc. 500,000 Total Annual Cost - $ 6,615,000 Revenues Ferrous Metal (4% @ $30/ton) $ 394,000 Fuel Gas (at $1.60 per 106 Btu) 3,940,000 Total Annual Revenues - $ 4,334,000 Net Annual Cost = $2,281 ,000 Plant Availability at 90% = 328,400 U.S. tons/year = 298,000 Metric tons/year Net Cost = $6.94/U.S. ton = $7.65/Metric ton ------- 22 or methonal (CH3OH). Unfortunately, the technical and economic via- } bility of running such a process on this gas stream remains question able. DISSIPATED ENERGY 578 BTU FLUE GAS LOSSES 322 BTU BOILER Va -- 90% WATER 0.30 LB FRIT 0.20 LB STEAM 2901 BTU Vs - 58% Figure 6. Union Carbide System Energy Balance* 'This balance was based upon data obtained from: Snyder, N. W., J. J. Brehany. and R. E. Mitchell. East Bay Solid Waste Energy Conversion System, In Proceedings; Conversion of Hefuse to Energy, Montreux, Switzerland, November 3-5, 1975. New York, Institute Of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, p. 428-433. Bonnet, P. W., Partial Oxvdation of Refuse Using the Purox System, given at Conversion of Refuse to Energy Conference,Montreux, Switzerland, November 3-5, 1975, but not in Proceedings. 3. J. A3 ------- 23 Andco (Carborundum) Torrax Process Process Description - The principal components of the Torrax System are the gasifier, secondary combustion chamber, primary air preheating regenerative towers, energy recovery/conversion system, and the gas cleaning system (Figure 7). The solid waste is charged as received from the solid waste pit, without prior preparation, into the gasifier. The gasifier is a vertical shaft furnace designed so that the descending refuse burden and the ascending high temperature gases become a counter- current heat exchanger. The uppermost portion of the descending solid waste serves as a plug to minimize the infiltration of ambient air. As the solid waste descends, three distinct process changes occur. The first is the drying where the moisture is driven off; the second is the pyrolyzing due to the heat transfer from the"ascending, hot gases to the solid waste; and the third is combustion in the hearth where the carbonaceous \ char is oxidized to carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, and melting of the inert fraction of the solid waste. The heat for pyrolyzing and drying the solid waste and for melting the inert fraction is produced by the combustion of the carbon char with 1000 C preheated air supplied to the hearth zone of the gasifier. The heat thus generated melts the inerts to form a molten slag, which is drained continuously through a sealed slag tap into a water quench tank to produce a black, sterile, granulated residue. The quench tank is periodically purged into the system slag pit. 3. 2.Zi ------- Hcat ECOVERY OILER I.D. TAK1 Cold Blast Primary Air supply Fly Asm ------- 25 Tne volatile products of pyrolysis and products of primary combustion exit from the gasifier into the secondary combustion chamber where gases are mixed with a near-stoich'iometric quantity of ambient air. The secondary combustion chamber is a vertical, refractory-lined vessel in which temperatures to 1400C (2500F) are realized, and where sufficient residence time to assure complete burning is maintained. The majority of the particulate matter entrained in the off gas from the gasifier is burned, or slagged-out into another slag quench tank. The resulting slag residue is sluiced into the system slag pit. The com- busted gaseous mixture exits from the secondary combustion chamber at 1150 - 1250 C. (2100 - 2300 F) A portion of the hot waste gas from the secondary combustion chamber (about 15 percent) is directed through regenerative towers where its sensible heat is recovered and used for preheating the process air supplied to the gasifier hearth. These regenerative towers, successfully used for many years in the steel industry, are two refractory lined vessels containing a high heat capacity refractory checkerwork material. Hot products of combustion from the secondary combustion chamber and ambient process air are passed through the towers on a cyclical basis for preheating the 1000 C combustion air. The remainder of the secondary combustion chamber exiting flow is supplied to a waste heat boiler designed for inlet gas temperatures of 1150 C to 1250.C (2100 to 3000F). ------- 26 The cooled waste gases from the regenerative towers are combined with the exiting flow from the waste heat boiler and are ducted to a hot gas electrostatic precipitator of conventional design. Status.- The principals of the Torrax process were? originally proven on a 68 metric ton (75 U.S. ton) per day pilot plant operated intermittently since 1971. This plant, located in Erie County, New York and financed with a grant from EPA has been used to process municipal solid waste and solid waste/sewage sludge. Test runs with controlled percentages of waste oil, tires, and PVC plastics were also run. The pilot plant differs significantly from the above described system in that the hot blast combustion air is heated using a gas-fired air-to-air heat exchanger instead of the regenerative towers. The Carborundum Corporation, which was involved in the original development of the Torrax process, has recently turned its marketing rights in the U.S. over to Andco. A 180 metric ton (200 U.S. ton) per day prototype .plant is nearing completion in Luxemburg and at least two other plants are also expected to be built in Europe in the near future. Economics - No cost projects for a full-size Torrax plant are available at this time. 3.2.3.7 ------- 27 Energy Balance - An energy balance for the system is shown in Figure b. About 313 percent of trie energy value in the solid waste is utilized to preheat the combustion air or replace the energy needed to supply the purchased electricity used in the plant. The.heat ultimately j delivered to the waste heat boiler is converted to steam at an efficiency of 57 percent leaving a net system output (as steam) of 37 percent of the original energy in the solid waste. OISSIPATEO ENERGY 825 BTU R/C 8 STACK GAS LOSSES 1402 BTU 4IR Figure 8. Andco (Carborundum) System tnergy Balance* •This balance was based upon data obtained from: Stoia. J. Z.. Toirax — A Slagging Pyrolysis System for Converting Solid Waste to Fuel Gas, Carborundum Environmental Systems. Inc., Solid Waste Conversion Division Niagara Falls. New York, p. 11-22. Eerie County — Torrax Solid Waste Demonstration Project, Final Report. May 1974 U. S Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste Management. 46 p. 3. JL.1? ------- 38 BIBLIOGRAPHY Occidental Flash Pyrolysis Process: Levy, S. J. San Uiegd County demonstrates pyrolysis of solid waste to recover .11 quid fuel, metals, and glass. Environmental Protection Publication SW-80d.2. Federal solid waste manage- ment demonstration grant No. S-801588. 1975. 27 p. Preston, G. T. Resource recovery and flash pyrolysis of municipal refuse. Presented to Institute of Gas Technology Symposium on "Clean Fuels from biomass, Sewage, Urban Refuse and Agricultural Waste," January 27, 1976. Orlando, Florida 29 p. Monsanto Langard Process: Sussman, J. B. Baltimore demonstrates gas pyrolysis. Resource recovery from solid waste. Environmental Protection Publica- tion SW-75d.i. Federal solid waste management demonstration grant No. S-801533. 1975. 24 p. Union Carbide Purox Process: Anderson, J. E. The Oxygen Refuse Converter - A system for producing fuel gas, oil, molten metal and slag from refuse, ^resource recovery thru incineration; Proceedings: 1974 National Incinerator Conference, Miami, May 12-15, 1974. Hew York, American Society of Mechnical Engineers, P. 337-346. ------- 29 Andco (Carborundum) Torrax Process: Davidson, P. E. Slagging pyrolysis solid waste conversion. Engineering Digest. August 1975. p. 31-34.. General imformation on the Andco - Torrax process for slagging pyrolysis of solid refuse. Andco brochure. 21 p. General references for all four pyrolysis processes: Eifert, M. C., S. J. Levy, H. G. Rigo. Resource recovery plant implementation, a guide for municipal officials* technologies. Washington, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (SW-145.2), 1976. (In preparation). Parkhurst, J. D. Report on status of technology in recovery of resources from solid wastes. Wiiittier, California, County Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles County, 1976. 198 p. Conference papers, conversion of refuse to energy, First International Conference and Technical Exhibition, Montreux - Switzerland, November 3-5, 1975. Piscataway, N. J. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (Cat. No 75-CH-1003-2 CRE), 1975. 615 ------- COPNTERMEASURE FOR DISPOSAL OF 'INDUSTRIAL WASTE CONTAINING HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES Rapporteur: Tokuji Murata Compilation: Office of Industrial Waste Management, Water Supply and Environmental Sanitation Dept., Ministry of Health and Welfare Translation: Japan Waste Management and Technology.Institute (This research was made by Environmental Assesment Engineering Company Ltd. under assignment of Ministry of Health and Welfare) ------- 1, Probelm of Cr^+ and Merchandise containing Hazardous Substances In the summer of 1974, the problem of Industrial waste containing 6 valence chromium, was unexpectedly highlighted in Japan. We investigated the cause that produced industrial waste containing hazardous substances, and considered how to manage of hazardous substances, for the example of the case of Cr^+. 1-1. Production and consumption of chromium compound Sodium bichromate is the first product from its ore, and this compound is.a starting material for the manufacture of various chromium<~compounds. The result of production quantity of sodium bi- chromate in 1973 was 51,209 tons, and that of 1970 was 66,916 tons. For what purpose, so much sodium bichromate was used? The slag quantity discharged from chromium ore, before the World War II to up to present is estimated to be about 1,150,000 tons by the anouncement of the Agency, of the' Environment. V/. i -1 - ------- The quantity of 6 valence chromium contained in such slags was said to be 2-3$ by the estimation of Tokyo- to and it is said to be 0.3% by the companies involved. If we take the 0.3%, the quantity of Cr^+ in the 1,150,000 tons of the slag will be -3,450-tons. While the quantity of Cr^+ in the 51,209 tons of sodium bichromate that was "manufactured in 1973, is 17,866 tons. That is more than 5 times of Cr^+ that was contained in slags and was disposed for the past several decades, was being produced in one year. No one knows how it was used or disposed and no body knew the actual con- dition of it, but it had been continued for several decades. 1 - 2. The Chromium compounds exist close by our side Here we wish to point out is that the quantity of the hazardous products sold as a merchandise is ., over- whelmingly greater than the quantity of hazardous in- dustrial waste that was thrown away, and the sold hazardous merchandise, may fairly be said, never re- covered at all. The material, element of which is recognized to be hazardous, will be stored at any place of environment if it is not recovered. V. /. / - 2 ------- From the statistics of 1972, 9,100 tons of sodium bichromate was used for the yellow pigment and other chromium pigment and 8,900 ton was used for taned hide. 9,800 tons of chromium trioxide was used for surface treatment of metals by chromium plating and chromate treating, etc. The Cr used for tanning of hide is of trivalence, part of it is attached to the leather and shipped as products, but the remainder enters into the waste water. The chromium trioxide used for metal finishing will become part of the products and- the remainder will enter, waste water. These type of industry are gene- rally made of small enterprises and most of waste water is diluted and discharged without treatment, many of.them do not produce even sludge by the waste treatment, and many of them do not even know where the siudge was dumped. The chrome(main constituent is PbCrO^) is a lead ^ chromic ingrganic pigment, Molybenum red(PbCr04'npbMo^• mPbSO^xAl(OH)3), the actual shipping result for each use of the above material and the shipping trend of Zincchromate is given in table 1-1 as follows. v. 1.1. - 3 - ------- Table 1-1 Actual shipping result of Coloring inorganic Pigments (unit tons) y e a r Items 1971 1972 1973 Chrome(yellow lead) Paint 6,585 7,692 10,097 Printing ink 3,366 3,403 2,488 Synthetic resin 664 662 861 Others 225 188 171 Export 6,131 6,725 3,405 Total 16,972 18,670 17,025 Molybadenum red Paint 1,742 1,816 2,005 Printing ink 725 741 537 Synthetic resin 159 168 278 Others 101 115 97 Export 166 239 370 Total 2,894 3,109 3,287 Z incchromate 2,228 2,313 2,678 y. /. /- 4 - ------- These pigments which contain lead and Cr^+(both are designated as hazardous material) are used nearby us in various products, such as yellow taxi, floor and chairs up-holstered with yellow or red vinyl le- ather, green painted roof the green is called chrome green and it is a blend of chrome and deep blue- (ferrocyanide), yellow caution mark on road and at construction site, yellow crayon, color, chalk used by children, yellow printed paper, and many other innumerable materials. Chrome pigment is used as an anti-rusting paint for steel construction mem- bers. The consumption of chrome (PbCrO/j, lead and ch- romic inorganic pigment) in-Japan is 10,800t/1971, 11,900t/1972, 13,600t/1973 as shown in Table 1-1, and more than 36,000 tons,of chrome pigment (6 va- lence Cr compound + Pb) were used during those 3 years. These materials are almost impossible to recover, while lead and chromium are elements and follow the law of conservation of matter, even though they are changed to any compound, and quantity consumed in Japan shall exists any where in Japan. y. / . i- s - ------- 2. Increasing Environmental Pollution by Products The accumulated quantity of hazardous elements originated from the consumption of imported lead, chromium, cadmium, mercury, arsenic, etc., would be uncountably enormous. Manufactured goods which contain hazardous sub- stances are delivered to general consumers through circulation mechanism, and they will become waste matters at last. The pigments in paints that was used for coating of structures, ships, etc., will be detached from the coated structures by the ageing of coated film, and scattered and accumulated widely for residential space, agricultural fields, rivers and seas. There is an example reported that dogs living in city had chromium accunilation in their lungs, be- cause they walk around road and inhale dust of de- tached paint. Hazardous substance included in the manufactured goods, and when the goods became wastes, they will be collected at municipal trash incinerator plant or landfill site, and these facilities are always charged to become a source of pollution. V./.y- 6 - ------- Table 2. Heavy Metals and PCB in Flyashes tHeavy metals were extracted by-Nitrohydrochloric acid) ..unit ppm, ^ "-Dry sample base^ Incinerator month sampled Cu Pb Cr Cd Hg PCB A city S pl- ant 1972 2 500 400 130 2 " 7 260 710 110 33 0.67 W " 7 17,000 75,000 110 4,000 0.33 + (0.59) N " 7 2,600 330 82 780 0.27 B city plant 9 748 575 23 286 " 11 480 1,100 100 33 267 From : City and waste vol. #4.23, Iwai § others Table 3. Heavy Metals and PCB in Incinerator Ashes (Heavy metals were extracted by Nitrohydrochloric acid) (unit ppm) Incinerator sarmpling month Cu Pb Cr Cd »g PCB A city S plant 1972 2(1) (2) (3) .. 7 500 700 1,300 600 1, 200' 210 400 1,800 70 60 60 24 5 3 3 10 0.47 A city W plant n 7 650 5,100 64 100 " N plant M. 7 1,600 1,200 42 10 0.3 B city plant 1973 9(1) (2) (3) (4) 22^000 3,400 8,800 10,920 2,489 2,492 2,860 11,856 5.5 6.5 3.3 4.3 0. 785 B city plant " 11(D (2) 5,680 1,090 870 1,660 28. 2. 32.0 13.9 16.6 0.678 0.443 7. - ------- The hazardous gas discharged from City incine- rator, and the hazardous substances contained in sludges of sewage treatment plants are becoming a big problem, the latter case may be mostly due to the discharge of industrial waste water without treat- ment, but there are certain example that the sludge generated from community sewage treatment plant, was dectected to have considerable hazardous substances, though there is no industrial waste water flowing into the sewage. This fact tells us that so many hazardous substances are entering our living, and the hazardous leaching water.from landfill material is being taken up in several locations. By the statistics of 1972, 230^ of Hg (except Soda industry use), 1,800 tons of Cd, about 200,000 tons of Pb, etc., were used to make manufactured goods and the products were shipped without any con- sideration for environmental pollution. These products will become wastes at last, and cause to give heavy load to local environmental protection facilities. The local self governing bodies are making strenuous effort to meet such abnormal situa- tion by the technological power, but it is very ques- tionable whether such countermeasure work effectively or not. y i.i - 8 ------- Whatever high grade antipollution, technology was deve- loped, the following problems would remain unsolved: 1. With the scanty budget of local self governing bodies, can they bear financil burden for the facility which is expected to be high cost? 2. Highly automated facilities are generally consi- dered to be weak for troubles and the loss by such trouble would be great, can they take sa- fest measure for such accident? 3. Is it surely right only to treat the waste in such a way to remove public "nuisances? The waste had been thrown away in the preferen- tial age of GNP and industry spending great energy and materials in our country where resources and energy were poor. 4. When the dumping of products that contain hazar- dous substance is promoted by the possibility of non-public nuisance treating technology, wouldn't the production and consumption of goods promoted? 5. Who are the real persons in charge when outbreak of public nuisance due to accident? V /./- 9 - ------- The environmental protection facility of Cities is different from the production,facility that manu- facture valuable products, there is almost no pre- ference for checking waste material and waste water at the stage of raw material and. not use any raw material out of specification. It is also actually impossible to stop or suspend operation (sewage water can not be stopped). It is mistaken in itself to use artificial ha- zardous substance which cause cumulative pollution in the living environment, similar to natural organic material that is recycled naturally. If it is hoped to make discharge without treatment and dumping simi- lar to natural organic material, we must consider the use of low hazardous elements that are riding on natural recycle route. If the rat race is continued in the future be- tween two opposite sides; (1) to develop hazardous and difficult to treat products in succession, and (2) to develop the technology to treat them; small country Japan with poor resources and,energy and from the effect of cumulative environmental pollution, should bring ruin at last. V././.- 10 ------- 3. The use of hazardous substance in Diffusion System At present the discharge of waste water and dump- ing liquid is prohibited by law if they are not suit- ably treated before discharge. However, the manufac- ture and dumping of products containing hazardous substances are not prohibited. By the poisonous and deletereous substance control law, the production and sale of hazardous material are approved when it is reported. There is a certain control for the use of such goods by the Food Sanitation Law, etc., but for general commodities there is no control measures at all. So far, the manufacturing technology of such ha- zardous goods, has been promoted by the engineers and managements who have no consideration at all on the view points of what influence is given to the environ- ment by such commodities at time when they become waste, and such tendency still remains strongly. It is a serious problem that a large quantity of injurious substances are used for such products as pigment which gives its effect when used diffusively, and it is a non-recoverable product. V. Af.ll - ------- When there is substitutive materials it is natural to use them, and when there is no substitutive ma- terial, the measure should be taken urgently to prohibit the use of hazardous material in the diffu- sive system. If such a fundamental rule is not kept that to prohibit the use of injurious materials seve- rely, except the goods which can be completely re- covered, the result of the damage suffered by hazar- dous products would cause a considerably miserable situation after 10-20 years. Most of the industrial waste containing injurious substances comes from the manufacturing industries that produce injurious commodity. The prohibition of manufacture of hazardous goo-ds is the most essential and only one measure to solve the problems for root out of occupational disease, the industrial waste containing hazardous substances as well as to solve the public damage due to pollution. The industry always says and threatens us that our living might return to the state of 100 years before, if such goods are not manufactured at all, There is a statistics prepared by Ministry of Inter- national Trade and Industry(MITI) for the non-ferrous V././- 12 ------- metals which would confute against above industry saying. By the statistics, the domestic demand of mercury in 1964 was 2,474 ton, hawever, the demand in 1973 was only 571 ton., that is, the demand de- creased about 1/4 of 1964, but our living standard was never lowered to 1/4, thus it did not give big influence to pur living, but it means that hazardous and useless products are making full in small country Japan. For the products containing hazardous substances, it is cojnpulsorily necessary to have the goods in- dicated so by law, and to let every body knows that how much injurious substances are contained in commo- dities around them. At the-same time, when our desire for conveniences, comfort and abundance is expanded infinitely, we would have to leave big bills to our decendants in due time, in densely populated small country, Japan. Therefore it will be necessary for us to be self- concious for the coming situation as above. 4. The origin of generating hazardous Industrial Waste It will be roughly divided in 4 patterns as follows: yj./r .13 - ------- I. Manufacture or processing plants, where make only the products of hazardous substances, II. The places where the products containing hazardous substances are used, III. The places where the hazardous industrial waste is produced during the period of refining, when in- jurious matter was contained as impurity in the raw material, IV. Injurious waste generated from envilonmental sani- tation facility of Cities. The hazardous substances made by I, is moved to II through circulation route, and the waste material is collected to III and IV in the'state of scrap. The re- presentative examples of these 4 patterns are as follows; The basic -industry classified inpattern I is metal refining industries and the lead, mercury, cadmium, arse- nic compound (chromium is made by inorganic chemical manufacturers) which were produced by the refinery, will be processed in many way by various industries. From the respective process stage of processin, industrial waste containing hazardous substances are generated. 1 /./" 14 ------- But most of the hazardous materials are sent to II in- dustry as a products, By the industry belong to pattern I, even if tried to decrease the quantity of industrial waste and any non- hazardous complete treatment process was performed, the shipping products themselves are hazardous material, and their weight is much more than that of industrial waste, therefore it is not useful for environmental cleaning of all that district. The representative industry included in pattern I, are manufacture of inorganic chemical, paint, printing ink, stabilizer for PVC, other additives, catalyst maker and battery manufacturer, etc. " j Examples of industry belong to pattern II, include; The industries Vhere hazardous substances mixed in the industrial waste, because the operation is carried out by use of goods that, contain hazardous substance, that is paint coating plant, ship building yard(removing work of old coated layers, coating work), processing plant of PVC, printing factory, antiseptic treatment plant for wood, etc. 9.1.1- is - ------- In the paint coating plants and printing factory, the paint and printing ink contains hazardous substances as coloring pigment and the treatment of waste material generated at time of removing old coated film and recoat- ing operation. If there are suitable substitute for use of low public nuisance and of similar covering effect, the problem of hazardous waste can be solved, but at the antiseptic treatment of wood, hazardous chemical liquid is impregnated so that by the poisonous property of the chemical the damage cuased by white ant and the wood decaying bacteria are prevented, and in this case if it is treated with low poisonous chemical which has no depositing property could never achieve the expected purpose. The example-of pattern III The industries that produce hazardous waste, though the industries do not manufacture or use hazardous sub- stances, but most of such cases hazardous substances-are mixed in the raw materials. For example steel making ; and casting plant they use iron scraps which contain va- rious material, some of them are coated with red lead paint, while others contain solders. When such scraps are melted in open hearth or electric furnaces, the lead compounds will become oxidized and sublimed and collected in dust collectors. V././- 16 ------- These collected dusts are going to be recovered as the raw material for. lead and zinc, and this is a very special case that part of the hazardous substances are widely diffused in open systems. The example of pattern IV The wastes produced from this pattern are different from the patterns I and II in the production situation and it is difficult to prevent the generation of hazar- dous substances, by simply using substitute. The manu- facture of .useful and non-hazardous goods can not be stopped, even though certain hazardous wastes are pro- duced. The treating problem of such hazardous wastes might take a long time to solve. /./" 17 - ------- The merchandise containing hazardous substances arc delivered to the consumer through the circulating route of I, II and III and the merchandise would become wastes and finally sent to environmental sanitation fa- cilities such as incineration plant of city trash, the hazardous substances contained in such wastes will be collected in dust collector after rec.ieving chemical re- actions such as thermal-decomposition, oxidation, reduc- tion, etc., and some of them are mixed in the ash. By the general industries, they can strictly select and purchase raw materials which do not contain hazar- dous substances, but at the city incinerating plant they scarcely have freedom of selecting city trash, and the citizens can not cooperate separate collection, because there is no indication of hazardous scrap on the trash, therefore the complete antipollution treatment of waste articles could not be expected. Present negative treat- ment of such hazardous material is to use it for land fill without incinerating. To reduce the quantity of hazardous trash colle- cted to the city incineration plant, there seems to be no basic solving measure, other than to prohibit the use of hazardous goods which are not capable to recover and used for diffusion system. "9.1.1- 18 ------- The public nuisance generated by city environ- mental facilities such as incinerating plant, land- fill site, with waste, sewage treating plant, etc., are becoming problems of public nuisance. There must be basic problems contained in.such environmental facilities, The substantial difference between city facili- ties and the manufacturing facilities of enterprises which pursue profit, are as follows; 1) City installations do not aim profit, 2) It is not a manufacturing equipment of valuable commodities, 3) The management is mainly performed by the local self governing body, 4) It has no freedom of selecting its raw material (city trash), (severe control is performed in the gener'al enterprises for the selection of raw material to avoid mixing of foreign matters so that operation shall not be interrupted), 5) It is difficult to interrupt or stop the operation, 6) It is clear that the pollution is caused by the raw material (scraP material), but it is difficult to refuse the treatment because of treating diffi- culty. Y/.l- 19 - ------- 5. The Prospect of treatment technology of Industrial waste containing hazardous substances The most looked for technology in the waste ma- terial treating at present is to recover resources and effective use of the waste, because Japan depends almost one half of necessary resources on foreign countries. The recovery and recirculation of natural reso- urces, may become a countermeasure to solve both re- sources .and environmental problems at the same time. The meaning of circulation of resources is to reuse the resources and prevent its waste, and at the same time to prevent environmental pollution due to the dumping and diffusion of the resources. So far -as the immortal elements are used, they remain forever on the earth, though they are dumped any places, and the elements might come back to our living circle under certain natural condition and there might remain a possibility to become hazardous for humanbeings. y. /./- 20 - ------- Most of the waste treating technology up to now was developed by people in a limited field within narrow range and nesrr-sightedly, and it can be said that such treating techniques are not a real techno- logy, but it merely transfers the material in phases such as solid, liquid dnd gaseous. Therefore, in the waste treatment of hazardous substances (especially, heavy metals), only two ways of treatment are considerable that includes; (lj Reuse them as resources by recovering or (2) to per- fectly seal them so that they never return to living environment. It is necessary to lead the technology toward the way of (1), because the resources on the earth are limited. Therefore, for the products which could not be recovered by the use in present open system, they should be substituted or the use should be prohibited. At present the treatment of sludge which contain hazardous substances is becoming a big problem, and various research and development works are being per- formed, but the research of technology up to waste water treatment stage is few where sludge is originated. •X /./ - 21 - ------- For the approach of sludge treatment, there may be two means, (1) consider how to treat the sludge' itself which was generated, and (2) consider the means how to treat the waste water so that no sludge is produced by pursuing the course of sludge formation. 5-1. Re-investigation o.f Waste Water Treatment Technology By the Anti-pollution law for water quality, severe control is becoming effected for the discharge of industrial waste water, and the waste water con- taining hazardous substances was prohibited, to dis- charged without treatment. But by the metal platin'g industry and other small enterprises where hazardous waste water was discharged, not many of them have installed complete waste water treating equipment, and even though they had such equipment most of the result of treatment is ambigu- ous for the following points: 1) The pouring of the treating chemicals is manually operated and can not sufficiently respond to the continuous influent, y././- 22 ------- 2) Though the equipment for oxidation, reduction and neutralization, etc., are installed, the capacity of settling pond is small and good treating effect can not be expected, and in some case no settling pond for sludge was installed because of small area of factory site. 3) In some factory, though a settling pond is insta- lled, but many of them have no dewatering equip- ment of sludge. At present, the treating facility for waste water which, contain hazardous substances, had not been developed due to the problem of re- sources and sludge treatment. At the waste water treating facility for standard plating process, the waste water is separated in 3 kinds, such as chrome group, cyanide group and general group, and their wastes are separately sent to treat- ing facility respectively. The waste water of chromium group is made of al- most pure chromic ion up to the time when Cr^+ is re- duced to Cr^+. The waste water of cyanide group is of mixture of copper and zinc, because cadmium plating is not made at present, and in the general group, waste water contains iron and nickel. % I J- 23 - ------- These waste waters are treated separately, that is reduction for chromium group., and oxidation opera- tion is performed in a separate reacting basin for cyanide group. Such separated waste water will be mixed during neutralization and settling stage and the sludge thus produced, will contain different metals in the sludge and the recovery of each metal will be very difficult. Recovery of such metals will become easy, if the neutralization and precipitation process are per- formed with separated and independent equipment, so that mixed sludge with different metals is not pro- duced. Rut it requires 3 settling tanks to be in- stalled, and it may be difficult for medium and small scale plating companies because of small site area and poor capital to be invested. The direction of development for waste water treating technology to be expected henceforth, is not only to make the present technology higher, but the research and development of uttery new manufacturing process where no water is used or does not pollute the water. y. /./- 24 ------- In connection with these points, dry plating systems such as cluster-ion plating, paper plating, etc., are being under development. For the water washing process of plated article, counter current flow system, that. is at first the product is washed with high acid water and gradually with cleaner water and at last washed with pure water and thus the quan- tity of washing water can'be considerably reduced. By use of counter-flow washing type is used that the quantity of washing water is said to be possible to be reduced 1/40 - 1/200 by use of 4 tanks. Waste Water Treating System by Ion Exchange Process In general, the electro plating bath hates very much the mixing of different metals, therefore the most plating liquor drawn from a well managed plating bath, does scarecely include different kind of'metal. In spite of this facts, by the waste water treating facility at present, the different metals are mixed in the sludge. The realizable process is to use closed ion ex- change system in which separate ion exchange resin is used for each metal. This process can be easily V. /./- 25 - ------- used by the small enterprises having low level tech- nology, while installation area of this process is small and it does not require any complicated ope- ration, and the recirculation of water is possible as well as the recovery of resources are possible. This system can not be used for the treatment of non-ionized materials, but for the waste water con- taining heavy metals, realization of this process may be high since in many cases the heavy metals are ionized. The waste water treatment by use of ion exchanged process had been performed! so far but not much used. I The main causes for not much used are; (1) The treat- ment of heavy liquor was difficult at the time of self regeneration of saturated resin, (2) when the liquor is neutralised, sludge is igenerated and the problem of sludge treatment will bje left, (3) The cost of equip- ment is considerably high,s (4) For small enterprises of low technical level, gopd supervision for' the trouble- some operation of the remo'yal and regeneration is difficult. For the supplement of these weak points, we can use cartridge type ion exchange resin by rental system V./.y - 26 - ------- and set separate cartridge for each metal respective])', and change the cartridge with new one when the resin is saturated. The saturated resin is regenerated by a special factory (co-operative treatment center by the plating chemical makers). By the general plating works, the waste water quality is limited with one metal and only one kind of metal is adsorbed by one cartridge (alloy plating is excep- tional). When the resin which adsorbed same metal ion is collected from each work and regenerated at the same time, the liquor would contain only one kind of metal, and therefore it is easily recovered as inorganic chemical.. Even the small plating enterp- rises can discharge waste water after only flowing it through cartridge and making simple treatment, and then the treating problem of sludge, cost of equip- ment and area of shop site, etc., will not become a big/problem.. At the time of development of this system, there may bo many points to be solved, such as the trend of ion exchange resin industries that is becoming more com- pact, the circulation and recovery routes of cartridge, the operation of regeneration plant of saturated resin, etc. *.'1.1- 27 - ------- Considering the regeneration of resin from the view points of resources and energy, it will not con- sume much energy because it is to make metallic ion again to metallic ion compound. On the other hand energy consumption will be more than the former case because the sludge is to be sent to the metal refin- ing plant and make metal by reduction, and then it is remelted to make chemical products. 5-2. Present Status of Treating Technology of Heavy Metal Sludge Large portion of the sludges (that is produced from waste water treatment plant) which is considered the most important problem within the industrial waste which contain hazardous substances are being disposed of the following treatment technology: 1) Scattering disposal techniques(increase of entropy/ dilution technique). 2) Re-use techniques 3) Re-cycling techniques(reduction entropy) The technical level and excellence will be higher in the order of 1), 2), and 3). Freezing dewatering and drying, etc., are published as the other sludge treating technique, but these are, at the utmost, pretreatment technique and can not be said substantial sludge treatment. v./. /- 28 - ------- Scattering Disposal techniques This technique aims dilution, diffusion, and dis- posal in the environment and it is a pretechnique idea based on low dimentional technical conception. The followings come within this category; 1) Discharge without treatment 2) Illegal dumping 3) Ocean dumping 4) Landfilling 5) Solidification by cement concrete(Landfill, Ocean dumping) 6) Sintering 7) Solidification by use of plastics In tlie above, from (1) to (4) can not be called as a treating technology, however at present, these processes are mostly used in general (5) Solidifying by cement concrete is used for special material such as mercury, etc. For the technique (5), (6) and (7), it may be commonly said that these techniques attach importance only to the .point how to make them non- hazardous and to dispose them. The treating process can not be said to make a good use of excellent pro- perty that metal and its compound themselves have, /. I . I - 29 - ------- and rather they make economically valueless material or material that has only the value as the substitute for low value materials. Thus, in spite of making almost valueless goods, they use big quantity of cement and other materials, and consume much energy that must be saved, by the treating process. At present, the quantity of hazardous substances contained in the waste'are so small for economical recovery and reuse. The effectiveness of these tech- niques are only affirmative as environmental pollu- tion protection, for the treatment of ashes from city trash incineration plant and for the treatment of ashes generated by burning the sludge of public sewer. However, in Japan which depends more than half of the necessary resources on the import from over- seas countries, if we do not make use of substantial property of metals and making various processing on metals for the purpose of disposal, and continue to scattering them thin and widely in our environment, it would inevitably leave a future source of calamity to Japan. Y.I. / - 30 ------- '5-3. Technology of effective utilization Colored western roofing tiles and other tiles that were made by glazing and baking are used as build- ing materials. Metal oxides serve in coloring these potteries. As such coloring agents, relatively high quality metalic materials are currently used. However, even sludges resulting from waste water treat- ments can be sufficiently fit for such use if mixing ratio of various metals is appropriate. Since the chrome-and magnesium-based fire brick is manufactured in a large quantity, there is a possibi- lity that chrome-based sludges may be used as a ma- terial of this brick. If, like this, heavy metal sludges now considered only wastes are used for the industries which so far used high quality metal materials, it will be able to save new .resources the more and so be advantageous from a viewpoint of resource-saving. However, as to substances, such as harmful heavy metal-containing ones, that may possibly cause an accumulative environmental pollution, their use should be originally limited to only the applications where used materials are recoverable. y. /./- 31 - ------- Such methods seem to be much more effective treating methods, as solution measures against current exist- ing problems, than treatment by diffusible dumping. 5-4. Technology of recycle and reuse. For some kinds of scraps, recovery has been per- formed by collectors of waste materials for a long time. Industrial wastes composed of compound of a single heavy metal have also been reused as valuable resources in chemical makers and metal smelters. The biggest cause that hinders .smooth progress in reconverting waste water treatment sludge and harm- ful matter-containing waste into valuable materials and reusing them, consists in the fact that the tech- nology has not yet been established to separate read- ily different metals from their mixture. A remote cause is.also that metal refining industry is not interested in these works because it is not easy to collect a large quantity of wastes from sources lying scattered. Several metal smelters have recently begun to grapple with the reuse as to copper, nickel, zinc, mercury, etc. </./- 32 - ------- However, as to chrome-based wastes, they have scarcely been reproduced as a useful form yet probably because of their limited application. Among different mixed metals that hinder repro- duction, chrome is one that gives the highest hind- rance. Other mixed .materials such as mercury, ars- enic or fluorine have been also kept at a distance. Reproductions from mixtures such as copper-zinc, copper-nickel and mixtures of these systems with iron are relatively easy and can be coped with by present non-iron metal smelting technologies. However, if chrome is mixed in these mixtures, repro- duction will become very difficult. . 5-5. Review of solid waste treatment technology. Currently, most of wastes containing harmful matters are dumped into"ocean or used in land reclamation and few of them are reproduced. While recovery of zinc from dust in steel manufacture has been carried out on a large scale, reproduction from mixture wastes of many different metals including y /./ - 33 - ------- sludge from electro-plating has been- delayed in pro- gress though it has been considered important for these several years. For wastes containing single metal, reproduction has been performed so far. The following table-4 shows the combinations of different metals that can be thrown, as they are, as raw materials into existing manufacturing processes of metal smelters. Table 4 kinds of mixed metals applications operations in Japan Cu and Ni (and Fe) Such mixtures can be treated in facilities of separating Cu and Ni that are possessed by electric copper refinery. 12 plants of 9 firms Cu, Zn and Pb (and Fe) .Such mixtures can be treated in factories having such pro- cesses as wifcltz process and chloride sublimation process. 3 firms Ni and Cr (and Fe) Such mixtures must be able to be used by ferro-alloy refinery. t-t .! - 34 - ------- Reproductions from some mixed sludge are now carried out by existing technologies. For an instance, detailes are shown on the chloride sublimation process that is operated by Kowa Seilco and Dowa Seiko. 6. Conclusion Organic substances produced by the nature cir- culate for a long period and, after they are used up thoroughly, are converted to inorganic substances, which are reconverted to organics synthetically. On the other hand, substances produced artificially by the human are very novel ones in view of the history of the globe and therefore mechanism of the nature has not been designed to enable them to be treated and circulated after being used. Materials which the -.human dug out of underground and used, must be treated by hands of the human it- self, The modern society has almost established the process from production through delivery up to consumption. Y t - / - 35 - ------- Unless the mechanism of reproduction (recovery and reproduction of resources) after consumption is es- tablished, worsening environment in the future may possibly lead the human even to a downfall. j Therefore it is an urgent task to bring up the re- source reproduction industry. Strict enforcement is required on monitoring unrestricted discharge and illegal dumping that are stil] now practiced openly. It can not be expected to attain clarification of environment by such policy- lacking administration as permitting tacitly these illegal acts till the sludge treating problem is settled. The solvent extraction techniques that were used for uranium separation in the Manhattan Program, have not only served to nuclear industry but also enabled separation of zirconium and hafnium and those of rare earth elements which are very difficult by chemical methods. The heavy metal separation by solvent extraction process has been researched in various countries, and y. /./ - 36 - ------- some technologies have already been used practical]y. It is expected that research and practical use of this ' r technology will progress from now forward also in Japan. The future policy in waste water treatment would be to abolish the mixing treatment method and to apply the above-mentioned existing technologies to wastes that may occur still as a mixture. In the future, effective treatments such as solvent extraction process will become possible. We consider that the sludge treatment technology should progress always aiming at recovery and reuse of resources and that modification should be given against those water treatment technologies which hinder recovery of resources. V. /. / - 37 - ------- Mercury metal — 593,30? as Hg ''Imported \ ^8,283 as Hg Produced , ^1^5,020 as Hg/ -Machinery & gauge ¦Caustic soda 3^2,670 as Hg Inorganic chemicals r- 101,197 as Hg 79,689 as Hg ¦Medicine ¦ 5,693 •Export 15,0^0 as Hg ¦Catalyzer 1 ,368 as Hg Pesticide 9 as Hg The others ^7,637 as Hg Mercuric chloride 62t8H - Mercuric oxide 37,678 -Mercuric sulphide 15,962 -Manometer -Thermometer - Vacuum pump - Mercury lamp -Fluoresent lamp -Pressure gauge (Sphygmomanometer) Switch - Sterilizer - Diuretic Manganese dry cell Mercury dry cell Pigment Annex-I CONSUMPTION OF MERCURY METAL(BY USE 1973 (unit: Kg) ------- Cadmium metal 1,488 as Cd Pigment 640 as Cd PVC etabilizer- 332 as Cd Cadmium battery 274 as Cd Alloy 126 as Cd Rectifier 2? as Cd Electro- plating 9 as Cd Braun tube 9 as Cd Catalyzer - 8 as Cd ¦The others 63 as Cd 'Cadmium sulphide 486 -Cadmium selenide 255 ¦The others- 76 Low melting- point alloy -Amalgam for dental use ¦—Switch -Terephthalic acid synthesis Film • Lens -Reagent Ceramics Printing ink Paint :Plastics processing Annex-H CONSUMPTION OF CADMIUM METAL BY USE 1973 (unit:metric ton) ------- pStorage battery 121,191 as Pb -Inorganic chemicals Lead metal 323,679 as Pb 72,571 as Pb -Plate 8c tube 40,418 as Pb Cable 27,761 as Pb -Solder & Kelmet alloy 26,603 as Pb —Metal for printing 3,853 as Pb -Casting 5,584 as Pb -Plating 2,'012 as Pb -The others 21,684 as Pb rRed lead- 14,860 - Litharge 44,782 r -Lead chromate '19,525 -White lead 1,449 • Pigment I— Crystal glass PVC -Pigment Ceramics Annex-IE CONSUMPTION OF LEAD METAL BY USE 1972 ('unit: metric ton) V. I./. Vo ------- Landfill Disposal Method for Hazardous Wastes, especially for.Chromium Ore Residues by Nobuo Mutoh, Professor Department of Environmetal Engineering Faculty of Engineering Kantoh-gakuin University Yokohama City, Japan ------- Landfill Disposal Method for Hazardous Wastes, especially for Chromium Ore Residues This report refers to the old existing industrial land buri- al of chromium ore residues, its disposal and method which are of discussion. Outline of the Problem Several existing chromium ore residues (slag) burial site in Tokyo have been discoverec^ evidenced by the appearance of yellow, cry- stals and seepage of leachate on the surface of the land or "yellow earth" during the earth work in the construction of sub- ways and buildings. This facts have become more serious public problem recently. It is estimated throughout Japan that there are about 248 such sites, totalling more than 760 thousand? tons of untreated chromium slags merely buried or piled and stored. Table-1 shows Site and Existing Status throughout Japan. In the Tokyo area for example, there are three polluted areas( kohtoh, Edogawa and Sumida Wards ), about \|02 sites, area of about 460 thousands square meters accumulated over 40 years of improper landfill practice. Fortunately the people living in the vicinity have not been directly affected as of date.. Table-2 -• Metals in Polluted and Non-polluted Soil, Tokyo Table-3 Cr(Vl) found in the Ground-water, River and Dust in the Air in the Polluted Area Table-5 . Metals in the Ore Residues Treatment and Disposal Technology In March, 1973, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government projected 4-1-2,1. ------- the construction of a subway line in the area as shown in Figure-1 ( O-Area, ca.25,000 square meters, Table-2 and 3 ). Test borings were made and found chromium ore residues as deep as 5 meters widely distributed in the said area. At the same time, public began complaining of pollution in other sites (Table-2). The Tokyo Metropolitan Government organized a committee of technical experts and took approximately 20 months to complete the investigation of the pollution and means of treatment to con- front the problem in order to carry on the subway construction. As the result, the nubway construction was started with chemi- cal treatment of the polluted soil with reducing agent and used as backfill. Figure-? shows Construction Technology Principle, and Figure-3, Actual Construction Method. The following cautions were taken in conducting the construction: 1 Preventing of flying dust scattering by erecting a high confinement fence at the construction site. 2 Excavated ore residue and polluted soil were temporarily piled in an open space at the construction site, chemical reducing agent added and used as backfilling. 5 Underdrain catch pits and pipes were engineered under the open space area knd connected to the water treatment plant. 4 Along the faces of the excavated pits, piles were driven continuously, furthermore a containment concrete was pour- ed to inside face of the pile lines to prevent outgoing seepage. 4^. \|. ------- Table-1 Sites and Existing Status of Cromium Slag throughout Japan in 1937 "to 1975 (by Environment Agency,1975) Sources•and Locations Quantity of Slag Produced (Presumptive) Landfill and Landburial with- out Pre-treatment Treatment and Disposal ND Co. (Hokkaido) 224,020 Ton more than 222,969 Ton 99,528 Ton landfill,ocean dumping and utili- zation after inacti vation(roasting in reducing atomos- phere or chemical reduction) NK Co. (Tokyo) 573,700 more than 484,365 SD Co. (Chichibu City) 400 400 Tk Co. (Yokkaichi City) 100 100 NK Co. (Osaka City) 2,260 2,260 221,«3« landfill and ocean dumping after in- activation ND Co. (Anami City) 221,838 MI Co. (Takehara City) 40,360 40,360 NK Co. (Tokuyama City) 50,114 50,114 utilization,ocean dumping and land- fill after inacti- vation AG Co. 6,900 ( Kitakyushu City) 16,000 9,100 encapsulation more than Total 1,148,729 759,554 378,380 ------- 5 Reducing agent was spread on the surface of the backfill- ed soil, covered with pollution-free soil and payed with concrete. Discussion 1 People living in these polluted areas insisted that the polluted soil should be transported elsewhere and be dis- posed, but the fact that there is no suitable disposal area available this means of disposal could not be arranged. Ocean dumping is restricted by government ordi- nance, and fixation by cement etc. for dumping would be economically nonfeasible considering the volume of poll- uted soil and slag to be handled. 2 Merely covering with soil will not prevent seepage on the surface of soluble hazardous component by capillarity nor -placing a gravel layer to cutoff seepage would solve the problem over a length of many years. ? Conclusion : The actual control of hazardous substances as this case is would be isolate the landfill or. land- burial away from the public, and the land utilization and control of the landfill or land burial area should be placed under the jurisdiction of a public agency, assuring the people that engineered disposal provides safety and confidence in the method of confronting dis- posals of hazardous substances. M.h'Z-S - 3 - ------- Figure-2 Metals in Polluted Soil (51 Station 240 Samples,Tokyo, 1973-1974) 0-Area K-Area S-Area . HR-Area Ho-Area <<«>.' ND 7>900 "D ~700 ND "D 4>9 ND 2i200 ND T-Cr 4.9 ~ 30 ~ 8 21— 11 59 ~ 23,000 , 31,000 520 100 ¦ 44,000 19S T-H 0.09^. 0.1 ~ 0.26 . 0.12^ T Hg 0.92 13 0.3^ 0,62 1.26 1.4 1 .— 2.8^- . 0.4 — 6.8 8 5.8 2.9 pfc ^9 29 260 r—' ciq 27 / 470 310 2,900 ^ 193 N; 24 — 37 ~ 28 — ; 23 260 330 40 5 58 330 . 450 540 — 480 ~ 3,100 690 1,000 D( 1,800 . 6.8-v- 6.4 ~ 9.7 * 1.1'—' 240 110 12 5 6.8 3,400 — Fe 4,000 25 — Cu 130 V 200 ND: less than 0.1 ppm 4./--2.S" 42 -—¦ 186 91 330 ------- Table-3 Cr(VI) found in the Ground-water, River and Duet, in the Air at O-Polluted Area, Tokyp (1973) Station Ground Water 99 River Water 5 Sludge 6 Dust in Air 12 in House 2 eaves Wal85p!SiSsWat.r 6 Water pipes 6 Samples 259 5 6 12 2 6 Cr(VI) ND 1,965 ppm ND 1.3 ppm ND ND 7 10 ppm ND Normal ND in Water : less than 0.05 ppm ND in dust : less than 0,03 ~ ~ m ------- Table-4 Metala in the Soil of Whole Tokyo 19 Areas (22 Samples at 0-30cm and 15-30cm in Depth,1970 Metals Contg. Bange,ppm Average,ppm Cu kZ 286 111 Zn 87 1,140 265 As 1.12 6.83 3.54 Cd O.k 15.^ 2.44 Hg 0.12 1.26 0.36 Pb 27 271 76 Cr 59 471 113 Co 10 40 20 Ni 23 235 47 V 91 330 176 Ms f80 . 1,800 1,000 Sb 0.13 9.8 1.6 Sc 7.3 35 19 Mo 1.6 3.9 2.9 W 0.57 2.7 1.6 Hf 1.4 13 3.5 Ta 0.26 1.8 0.53 pH 4.8 8.4 Less than Detection: Cr(Vl),Alkyl-Hg,In,Rh,Te, Se,Ag,Zr,Oe HI'? ------- Table-5 Metales in the Ore Residues ( nt Number of Samples Analyzed ) Ca 23 27 % ( n=6 Fe 8 11 % ( nn6 Mg 7 11 % ( n=6 SiO 5 6 % ( n=6 A1 k 10 % ( n=6 Na 0 .3,1.3 % ( n«=2 V 0. 13,0.13 % ( n=2 T-Cr 3 5 % ( n=6 Cr(VI) 230 7,800 ppm ( n=6 Hg 0.0k , 0.07 ppm ( n=2 Pb 100 120 ppm ( n=3 Cd 6 , 7 ppm ( n=2 Ni 1,420 1,600 ppm ( n=3 Mn 1,100 ppm ( n=3 As 5 , 10 ppm ( n=2 Cu ^3 77 ppm ( n=3 Zn 300 ppm ( n=1 pH 10.7 12.7 ( n=f M-1.2.1 ------- Figure-1 Construction Work Planning <1) Area: cn . 25 ,OCOso .j? * q..«.2.q ------- Figure-?. Illustration nf Construction Work One-stage Burial slag and 4 polluter) soil / » / clean sa.nd or soil rer'noinp n^ent (e.g.FeSC* • 7HaO) silt Multi-stage burial ------- "figure-3 Construction -/ork J'l'nnin^. (2) Section. S:l/4CG terroor^r.y Dolluted soil stocVnile "bp ck-filling slag and polluted soil + coegulsnt beering nile, if necessary ------- HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES Presented at the Third U.S.-Japan Conference on Solid Waste Management Tokyo, May 12-14, 1976 U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY ------- Hazardous Waste Management in the United States by William Sanjour* Background Industrial waste management is emerging as a major problem for all industrial nations. In the past, industrial wastes have been largely ignored by the public and government officials because traditionally these wastes are managed outside the municipal waste collection and disposal system. This situation is changing rapidly, however. Recent studies show that industry produces twice as much waste per year as is generated by municipal sources, and 35 times more waste than do sewage treatment plants. Industrial waste quantities destined for land disposal are expected to increase by up to 100 percent in some industries in the next decade largely due to the installation of pollution control equipment. As air, water, pesticides, ocean dumping and other laws are implemented, pollution residues, sometimes in greatly concentrated form, are being diverted to the land. These industrial waste quantity and growth estimates are somewhat staggering. But, an aspect causing even greater concern is that many of these wastes are potentially hazardous. * Mr. Sanjour is Chief of Technology Branch of the Hazardous Waste Management Division, Office of Solid Waste Management Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency V. Z. I ------- Hazardous waste Includes toxic and carcinogenic chemicals, pesticides, acids, caustics, flammables, explosives, biological and radiological residuals. Me estimate the total amount of non- radioactive hazardous waste generated in the United States to be over 20 million tons per year. The improper land disposal of hazardous wastes can result 1n damage by: . groundwater contamination; . surface water contamination; . air pollution; . direct poisoning; . food chain poisoning; . fire and explosion As a result of EPA's report to Congress on disposal of hazardous Wastes (1), a new, strona thrust to bring hazardous wastes under control is just beginning in EPA's Office of Solid Waste Management Programs (OSWMP). Whether under our current authorities or under new proposed legislation, we believe that Federal involvement in this field is necessary. This paper is intended to give an overview of the hazardous waste management activities in the United States, both at the Federal and State level. First, the various legislative authorities are reviewed. This is followed by a review of the federal guideline and assistance activities in which EPA is currently involved and lastly a summary of the assessment and research activities being carried out to support the rest. ------- Federal Regulatory Authority The land disposal of hazardous waste 1s essentially unregulated by the Federal government and in most States. Only two Federal authorities deal with parts of the hazardous waste management problem. * -J The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, as amendod (FIFRA), provides for EPA regulation of the storage and disposal of waste pesticides and containers. The Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as amended, provides for regulation of radioactive wastes by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Although most pesticides and radioactive wastes are certainly hazardous, in aggregate they represent only a small fraction of the total hazardous waste problem. Consequently* we have a big gap in the wall of environmental law. The basic thrust of the FIFRA, is to regulate the registration, labeling, and application of pesticides. A primary goal of the Act is the "protection of health and the environment". EPA has determined that some methods of pesticide disposal and storage are likely to cause adverse effects on health or the environment. Therefore, EPA has proposed regulations which would curtail or eliminate some of the worst practices. The prohibited acts would include open dumping, water dumping, ocean dumping, storage in such a manner as to cause contamination of food or feed supplies, and well injection. ------- Proposed Federal Legislation The Senate Committee on Public Works has a bill numbered S.2150 which has been the subject of considerable public dialogue for over a year. On December 15, 1975, the House Subcoiranittee on Transportation and Commerce issued a staff print of a Solid Waste Utilization Act for public conment. Thus, both Houses of Congress appear to be ready to address the issues of waste management, including hazardous wastes, in specific terms. The concepts included in both of these legislative initiatives with regard to hazardous waste are very similar. First, there are special sections of these comprehensive drafts devoted to hazardous wastes. Second, the Administrator must define or identify hazardous wastes within certain time frames in the drafts in both Houses. Third, a program for the permitting of the storage, treatment, and disposal is mandated in both drafts; the House version also recognizes generator reporting obligations and the importance of the transportati link to effective management. Both drafts recognize operational tech- nical, institutional, and economic requirements for permit holders through permit conditions. Additionally, both drafts suggest State implementation of such a permitting effort via approved Federal programs, and outline monetary disincentives in terms of withdrawn Federal grant funds if the States do not assume the program. ------- State Authorities Only six States, California, Illinois, Minnesota, New York, Oregon and Washington, have "comprehensive" hazardous waste management - legislation. By "comprehensive" we mean legislation, which authorizes a State regulatory agency to designate wastes which ar'e to be con- sidered hazardous; to write rules and regulations for the management of such wastes; and, to require such records, reports, and inspections as the State deems necessary. The law in each of these States defines solid or hazardous wastes to include liquids, sludges, slurries, and even contained gases. Illinois, Minnesota, and Oregon are developing regulations under the authority of their hazardous waste management acts. California has developed some regulations under the authority of its hazardous waste and water pollution control legislation. New York has chosen not to do so. The New York Department of Environmental Conservation believes that its act is vague and unwieldy, and has decided to use other existing authorities to develop its hazardous waste management program. During the past year hazardous waste management bills have been introduced in at least four States: Arizona, Colorado, Iowa, and Oklahoma. Other States which were drafting or considering legislation include South Carolina, Louisiana, and New Jersey. • Several States have published regulations for land disposal of hazardous wastes, even though only a few States have hazardous waste legislation. State solid waste management or water pollution control V. 2.5" ------- laws sometimes give the State authority to control certain aspects * of "hazardous," "toxic," "liquid," "industrial," or "special" waste management. Any of these terms can be construed 1n such a way as to give the State authority to regulate most of the wastes usually Included 1n the term "hazardous.". In nearly every case the State has been given (or chosen to exercise) authority over hazardous wastes only at disposal sites. Many of these States choose to issue proscriptive regulations, such as "special wastes may not be placed in landfills without prior approval." At least three States, Florida, Hawaii, and Nevada, require that such wastes be rendered innocuous before landfilling, effectively prohibiting the landfill disposal of hazardous wastes without pretreatment. It is arguable whether proscriptive regulations by themselves hinder or advance adequate hazardous waste management, since the State has no way of knowing the fate of hazardous wastes if they are not taken to landfills. Additionally, onsite disposal must be regulated, an onission four'4 in nearly every State. The most sophisticated system may be the one used in California? All sites are classified by the State Water Resources Control Board as Class I, Class II, or Class III. Class I sites (of which there are 11) may accept hazardous wastes; Class II sites accept municipal refuse; and Class III sites only accept inert materials such as brick and demolition wastes. The California sites reportedly receive wastes from the entire western section of the United States. These movements V.2. (o ------- of hazardous wastes, taken together, demonstrate the need for more States to designate adequate sites for land disposal of hazardous wastes and to funnel such wastes to those sites. t Only California has published regulations which list specific elements/compounds designated as "hazardous." Three States have * published criteria for determining which wastes are hazardous: California, Massachusetts, and South Carolina. The California criteria are considerably more detailed than the criteria of the other two States; and unlike the other two States the California criteria are embodied in the State's "Hazardous Substances Act," Minnesota and Oregon are developing criteria. EPA believes publishing criteria has several advantages over publishing a list of hazardous wastes. Most important, it allows the State to describe what is being regulated without naming it. Wastes can be an almost infinite variety of combinations and mixtures and would be nearly impossible for the State to anticipate every form and combination of waste. By publishing criteria, the waste generator would have a reliable method for determining whether or not he had a hazardous waste regardless of the composition. California, Connecticut, Indiana, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Michigan, New Jersey, New York, South Carolina and Texas have systems to register or permit hazardous waste haulers. Hauler registration is a key element in a State's hazardous waste management program. States cannot insure adequate management of hazardous wastes by ------- controlling only the disposal sites; they must have a method of assuring themselves that all the wastes which should reach certain, sites actually reach them. Under such a system haulers report what they pick up, where it originates, and where they take it. In some systems, generators report the name of the hauler to whom they have consigned their wastes. The State system usually includes a prohibition against consigning hazardous wastes to anyone other than a permitted hauler. The effect of such a system is to make the States aware of all hazardous wastes which leave the site of generation. Interest in hazardous waste management, as evidenced by a willingness to expend resources, is increasing among the States. At the end of FY 74 (June 30, 1974), there were only a handful of hazardous waste management personnel in half a dozen States. By the end of FY 75 the number of fulltime staff had risen to 45 in 25 States. An additional nine States have assigned one or more personnel part time. The increase in the number of States assigning fulltime staff to hazardous waste manage- ment is doubly encouraging, since this Is an important measure of the progress EPA is making in urging the States to implement programs. Federal Guidelines Currently, the EPA Office of Solid Waste Management Programs is operating under the Solid Waste Disposal Act, as amended (SWDA). Section 204(a) of the SWDA carries basic research, demonstration, and training mandates. Much of the health and environmental effects work, disposal operation investigations, materials and energy recovery work, and waste system studies now underway are authorized under this section. P ------- Section 204(b) instructs EPA to collect information and make it available through publications and other means, to cooperate with public and private groups, and to make grants. This part of Section 204 is significant to our guidance promulgation efforts. The mandate fdr guidelines for recovery, collection, separation, and disposal systems is contained in Section 209. Such guidelines under Section 209 (a) are recommended to government agencies at all levels - not just Federal ones. Section 209 (b) calls for model codes, ordinances, and statutes as well as issuance of data on costs of constructing, operating, and maintaining technically feasible methods for collection, separation, disposal, recovery, and recycling. Finally, Section 211 of the SWDA adds some "teeth" to the otherwise advisory guidelines under Section 209(a), in that all Federal agencies shall ensure compliance with such guidelines issued under that section. Therefore, guidelines are advice issued by EPA and published in the Federal Register under the authority of Sec. 209. Although only advisory to everyone else, Section makes 211 such guidelines mandatory for Federal facilities. We have defined the word "guidance" as advice issued by EPA in the Federal Register under the authority of Sec. 204 of the Solid Waste Disposal Act. Such guidance represents the Agency's best technical counsel on an issue related to hazardous waste management systems or pathways; it does not have regulatory status. "System operations" guidances refer generally to the flow of wastes from generator to storage, treatment, and ultimate disposal. Potential subject dreas are many in number, but those in which the States and v i.9 ------- others seem most interested at present are waste transport control (through trip-ticketing), wastes compatibility guides, facilities management suggestions, site selection methodology, etc. "Pathway" guidances would provide typical performance specifications for inciner- ators, chemical waste landfills, chemical treatment processes, etc. As an example, an incinerator guidance would describe for the person who has chosen incineration as his disposal option, the optimum temperature, dwell time, and turbulence characteristics for the waste type he has selected. Obviously, our recommendation of such minimum levels would be based on test burn experiences with wastes of the same or similar kind from which we had extrapolated. Our strategy under current legislation has two phases. First, issue system operation and pathway guidances under Section 204 as soon as practicable. This approach allows us (1) to make Federal policy known to a very broad audience (including industry), (2) to address our technical assistance obligations to the States in a priority way, and (3) to signal industry and the States as to our intentions, if stronger Federal authorities should come about. A second part of our strategy is to simultaneously explore the breadth and extent of the hazardous waste management problem among Federal agencies. To the extent that specific problems are serious enough and have not been addressed through adherence to the guidances, Sec. 209 guidelines could then be issued. Exhibit 1 is an interim plan for the issuances of guidances and f. a. )o ------- Exhibit 1 Guidance (Sec. 204) Prospective Hazardous Waste Management Federal Register Issuances Recommended Procedure (Sec. 204) FY 76 Policy Statement on HW Mgt. Site Selection Criteria Guideline (Sec. 209) Disposal of PCB-containing Wastes Disposal of VC-containing Aerosol Cans FY 77 Waste Transportation Mgt. (Manifest Systems) Model State IIW Statute (Sec. 209 Compatability of HW at Disposal Facilities Policy on Use of Public Lands for HW Facilities Mgt. Aspects of HW Facilities (Insurance/ Bonding) rv "7 79 Std, Sampling (and Analysis) for HW State HW Mgt. Program- Resource and Organization ------- Exhibit 1 (cont'd) FY 78 (cont'd) Definition of HW (including Standard Leaching Test) Reference Method for Evaluating Chemically Fixed Wastes PCBTM* for Organic Chemical and Petroleum Industries Incineration Processes for HW FY 79 Determination of Loading Limit of Waste Sites (Standard Attenuation Procedure) PCBTM* for Inorganic Chemicals and Metals Mining and Refining Industries Chemical Waste Landfill Design * PCBTM =» Physical, Chemical, Biological Treatment Methods ------- guidelines under the Solid Waste Disposal Act. It describes our schedule for guidance/guideline issuance over the next several years. Like all good plans, it is subject to change. It does, however, give a sense as to when we expect the results of several technical studies to be sufficient to issue advice. w Special comment regarding the column marked Recommended Procedures is warranted. Such a procedure will represent our best technical counsel on a very specific problem (such as disposal of wastes contaminated with a certain chemical) or advice on a specific industry stream. The procedures will be notable for their lack of wide-spread applicability to many waste generators and disposers and/or their very specific focus on single waste streams. Such issuances are contemplated, for example, during FY 76 regarding PCB-contaminated waste and during FY 78 regarding the trade-offs of various treatment methods for some streams in the organic chemical and petroleum refining industries. Because several States have adopted hazardous waste legislation and because similar National legislation is now being considered by the U.S. Congress, EPA anticipates that one of the main problems will center around the definition of a hazardous waste. How will a waste generator know whether his waste requires a permit for disposal? This question must be answered first, before a decision can be reached on the method of disposal, the site of disposal, and a host of technical details. ------- Hazardous materials can be safely confined in the soil unless they leach into ground and surface waters, evaporate or sublime into the air, or escape into the environment via such mechanisms as wind erosion and radiation. Therefore, generators of those wastes that do not threaten the environment by any of the above transport routes should not be burdened with extremely strict (and expensive) disposal requirements, even though such wastes may contain hazardous constituents. No standard methodologies have b£en developed to date which would enable regulatory agencies to assess the relative disposal hazards posed by specific wastes. We are currently embarking on the development of a series of six standard methods and procedures which will be used to develop and implement hazardous waste regulations: 1. Standard hazardous waste sampling, collection, and sample preparation procedures 2. Standard acute exposure tests (corrosivity, flammability, explosivity, etc.) 3. Standard hazardous waste leaching test (SLT) 4. Standard method for evaluating leachate potential through the unsaturated zone for specific amounts of specific wastes on specific sites (SAP) 5. Standard method for locating monitoring wells on disposal/ storage sites 6. Standard method for analyzing groundwater samples from monitoring wells y. 3./Y ------- Of particular importance are numbers 3 and 4 (SLT and SAP). The SLT project must be viewed within the proper context: It is intended to complement the other decision-making tools currently under development. The purpose of the proposed effort is to develop a standard screening methodology for hazardous wastes with respect to their relative tendencies to leach harmful constituents into the environment. The standard metholology, which is to be incorporated into an "EPA Manual," must be practical and inexpensive enough to assure wide-scale applicability by comnerical laboratories, for the benefit of day-to- day decision makers at environmental regulatory agencies. The essence of this project is to develop standard laboratory procedures by which it is possible to determine the amounts of leachable hazardous constituents of wastes from various industry categories. For example, if a certain waste generated by an industry is entirely in the liquid phase and it contains toxic components in sufficiently high concentrations, there is no doubt that this is a » "leachable" hazardous waste and, therefore, requires stringent regulations for land disposal. Many wastes destined for land disposal, however, are either (1) solids or (2) consist of solid and liquid phases. In the latter case, if the liquid phase contains a hazardous^ constituent in sufficiently high concentration, the logical decision would be to consider the solid/liquid waste as a leachable hazardous waste. If the liquid phase does not contain a hazardous constituent. ------- It Is'still possible for the solid phase to contain hazardous constituents that are leachable under certain landfill conditions. This research project is designed to develop the required extraction procedures for solid components of industrial wastes, thereby limiting all chemical analyses to the liquid phase. In order to establish a standard methodology for determining the leaching characteristics of industrial wastes, extraction procedures with several aqueous and organic solvents will be developed. The solvents will be selected so as to simulate conditions that prevail at industrial land disposal sites. The prudent selection of solvents is very important, because normally "unleachable" wastes could become soluble when in contact with other wastes at the landfill. This project will not be concerned with any soil attenuation mechanisms. Once it is determined by the SLT that a certain waste exhibits leachable hazardous components in significant concentrations, another type of standard test, the Standard Attenuation Procedure (SAP) will be performed in order to evaluate the suitability of specific disposal sites. The focus of the SAP project is to develop a decision-making tool which will be capable of predicting whether a "quantity" of waste proposed for disposal on a specific land parcel is "harmful" in the sense that groundwater quality standards may be exceeded due to leachate migration. On the basis of this, decisions can be made as to whether or not to grant permits for disposal. The amount of a hazardous waste which is harmful is entirely dependent on the properties of the waste X2./6 ------- and the specific disposal, sites. We initiated this approach because Senate Bill 2150 prohibits disposal of hazardous wastes 1n "harmful quantities" in a leaching facility, however, the technique will be useful in any event to S'?ate authorities. Present decisions relating to the land disposal of * hazardous wastes are open to question and subsequent attack on several fronts. Decision-making in this area lacks uniformity in judgement relating.to the degree of data-gathering undertaken, interpretation of results obtained, cost of the analyses, and in the degree of administrative control'. Thus, there is considerable variability in site assessment and proper administrative control at the State and local level in determining the suitability of given sites for the land disposal of hazardous wastes. At the present time 1t is not clear which of several possible approaches to development of such a procedure is optimum, that is, should it include a mathematical model, a decision tree, criteria ranking process, or other methods? It is also not clear to what extent various techniques have been developed or perhaps, are in use. To be legally'defensible for use by regulatory authorities, the technique(s) which are ultimately developed should be the most precise and accurate predictor of pollution potential which it is possible to develop. The overall purpose of this project is to determine the state of the development and evaluate the potential usefulness of techniques for predicting groundwater pollution potential from disposal of specific wastes on specific land parcels. y.a./7 ------- Objectives of the first phase are: 1. Determine what viable techniques are in use or under development, 2. Assess the potential of possible techniques or approaches (in use or proposed) for development to a standard pro- cedure, 3. Estimate the costs, work and time requirements for development of a working standard procedure for each viable option, and 4. Prepare in detail, a developmental program for the technique or combination of techniques judged to be the best. If this first phase proves successful it will be followed by extensive field and laboratory data gathering efforts coupled with preliminary design of the appropriate model. Federal Assistance Programs There are two kinds of assistance which EPA offers in the area of hazardous wastes. The first is technical assistance to industry, State, and local government on problems of disposing of hazardous wastes and the second is assistance to State governments on establishing and operating a hazardous waste management program. This latter activity includes: . publication of model State hazardous waste law . assistance in conducting State hazardous waste generation surveys . assistance in implementing waste hauler permit systems y. 2. it ------- . v/aste exchange programs, and . educational programs Technical assistance is handled by a small but efficient permanent staff trained in hazardous waste disposal techniques. Their advice is. constantly being sought both for planning and in response to emergencies. For example, in Hopewell, Virginia, a plant manufacturing the pesticide Kepone, was shut down because of multiple violations of worker safety and water pollution laws. The State of Virginia then called on our technical assistance staff to advise them on the disposal of waste Kepone, and Kepone contaminated waters, sludge, earth, and debris. In addition, we sponsor technical assistance workshops in which State hazardous waste authorities participate 1n an interchange of ideas, experience, policy, and technology with the Federal EPA. Damage Assessment The damage assessment program is essential to our understanding of the number and severity of the damages caused .by improper disposal of hazardous wastes. We have been investigating and documenting reported damage Incidents for almost two years. Generally, the available case studies pertain to hazardous chemicals belonging to the following categories: (a) toxic metals (e.g., arsenic, chromium, lead, mercury, cadmium); (b) toxic anions (e.g., cyanide and fluoride); and (c) a variety of toxic organic chemicals (e.g., miscellaneous pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, other chlorinated hydrocarbons, industrial V. 2 /f ------- solvents). There are six major routes of environmental transport through which the improper land disposal of hazardous wastes can result in damage: 1. Groundwater contamination via leachate; 2. Surface water contamination via runoff; 3. Air pollution via open burning, evaporation, sublimation, and wind erosion; 4. Poisoning via direct contact; 5. Poisoning via the food chain; 6. Fire and explosion. Ue have compiled over 400 cases to date which are summarized on Exhibits 2 and 3. Exhibit 2 shows the industry sources and the type of contaminant while Exhibit 3 shows the disposal method and damage mechanism. After our own staff investigates and confirms the facts in a selected number of these incidents, they are published and widely disseminated as Hazardous Waste Disposal Damage Reports. To date nine such reports have been printed. These are: . Arsenic Poisoning in Minnesota . Industrial Waste Disposal on Farmland in Illinois . Fatality at a New Jersey Industrial Landfill . Dioxin Poisoning Caused by Improper Waste Disposal in Missouri . Contamination of Groundwater Beneath the Rocky Mountain Arsenal and Surrounding Area y; 2.10 ------- COUTAJMNtottS INVOLVED IN DAMAGE INCIDENTS BY INDUSTRY EXHIBIT 2 Cases Sinidfed • 413 Incius^ry —> (A -+- 9) «, 9 "5 O 'fe < "3 u "e w _c O (d o • ^ c o u -• a y. Ui C • «" is o « u a .1 ? 0 3 o ;J 5 £ H a t. V S ? _a c> c • •* c £ o 9 ~© 1. -+- e* D_ OO p d a- >- c- «j c c £ D • mm • •>• sip rD tA - «J » * 5 J? O ^ H Conia.n\inQn"V ^ As 14 1 9 1 1 ?, Cd 5 1 ?. TF ? Cr 30 4 1 1 4 1 t1 A 7 Cs .1 X Ca 16 2 • Z 3 ? 1 G Fe 25 7 1 1 1 4 2 1 1 7 Ha 10 2, 3 1 4 Mn 13 a ' 1 1 1 3 1 4 u; 12 l 3 1 3 4 Pb 1G ± 5 4 1 ,S Zn 18 3 5 4 1 1 4 cr 21 5 4 2 1 3 .1. G CN~ 12 4 2 l 3 2 F" 8 3 i 4 HH, 11 5 1 ,s NO," 12 G 2 4 so; 16 1 5 1 2 1 G Inorqamc Acids 24 4 6 G 2 1 1 4 rtiicellaotous Inwjim'c) £3 1 15 •4 8 6 . 1 1 4 PCBs , 1 2 1 - 1 Prf ro c\ t« rn i ca\ s 21 1 5 5 2 S "PVienols 22 C 1 1 2 1?. /•liSC^Hloeous Orijinics ------- Exhibit 3. MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN INCIDENTS OF DAMAGE BY DISPOSAL METHOD a) Disposal Method Surface Impoundments Landfilis, dumps Other land disposal b) Storage of wastes smeltings, slag, mine tailings Unknown Number of cases 86 95 181 14 15 22 Damage mechanism (number of cases) Ground water , (250) 55 60 101 8 10 16 Surface water (159) 38 46 63 - 8 4 Air (14) 1 4 7 - - 2 Fires, explosions (13) 10 3 — — • Direct contact Poisoning (51) Unknown (13) 1 1 6 5 39 4 5 1 1 1 Wells affected c) (139) 31 27 63 4 2 12 a) The tabulation refers to 413 cases studied thus far. The numbers 1n the matrix add up to more than 413, because several damage incidents involved more than one damage mechanism. b) Haphazard disposal on vacant properties, on farmland, spray irrigation, etc. c) Not Included as a damage mechanism. Note; The data presented In this table have been derived solely from case studies associated with land disposal of industrial wastes. ------- . Dumping into Sand Pit Pollutes Domestic Wells in Texas . Petrochemical Contamination of the Cohansey Aquifer, New Jersey . Hexachlorobenzene Contamination of Cattle in Louisiana . Poison Fumes Overcome Workers at Landfill in Maryland. ^ Yet to be resolved is the extent to which existing disposal sites are polluting groundwaters in the vast majority of cases where there is no evidence of damage. To answer this question, we have initiated a contract study to examine the prevalence of migration of hazardous chemical substances into the groundwater at industrial waste land disposal sites, including dumps, pits, basins, lagoons, landfills, etc. This contract will be utilized to investigate as many hazardous waste disposal sites as possible to establish the presence or probable absence of detectable migration of hazardous materials into groundwaters. Industry Assessment This program is fundamental to our understanding the magnitude and extent of the hazardous waste problem. Fifteen industries have been or are being studied these are: . Primary and Storage Batteries . Inorganic Chemicals . Organic Chemicals, Pesticides and Explosives . Electroplating . Metals Mining . Paint and Allied Products . Petroleum Refining y.a.^3 ------- . Pharmaceuticals . Primary Metals Smelting and Refining . Textiles Dyeing and Finishing . Rubber and Plastics . Leather Tanning and Finishing . Special Machinery . Electronic components . Waste Oil Refining The objectives of these studies are to: . Characterize each industry in terms of the number of plants, number of employees, location, production processes and rates, etc. . Characterize the wastes generated by each process in each industry, both the total amount, and the potentially hazardous fraction. . Define hazardous waste treatment and disposal methods in terms of industry average, current best practice, and environmentally acceptable methods, and . Determine costs associated with hazardous waste treatment and disposal. Results to date indicate the total of all industrial waste (excluding metals mining) is 144 million metric tons per year (dry-weight) of which 23 million tons per year, or 16 percent is potentially hazardous (Exhibit 4). This potentially hazardous waste percentage compares to our earlier estimate of about ten percent. About 28 percent of hazardous v/astes are in solid form and 72 percent are in liquid or sludge form. About 58 percent are organibs vs. 42 percent inorganics. To gauge the impact of water pollution regulations on hazardous waste generation, we have projected hazardous waste amounts from 1974 to 1977 and 1983. Although v.2..ay ------- Exhibit 4 INDUSTRIAL HAZARDOUS WASTE STUDIES Waste Generation 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Industry Batteries Inorganic Chemicals Organic Chemicals, Pesticides & Explosives Electroplating Paint & Allied Products Petroleum Refining Pharmaceuticals Primary Metals Smelting and Refining Total (to date) Total Waste Amount (Millions of Metric Tons/Yr. - Dry Weight) Potentially All-Industrial 40.00 2.200 0.909 0.370 0.600 0.244 100.165 144.488 Hazardous Vlastes 0.005 2.000 2.150 0.909 0.075 0.600 0.062 17.398 23.194 Notes 1. - data not yet available 2. six additional studies currently underway 3. Does not include metals mining industry VA.S.S~ ------- the increase in hazardous waste generation varies from industry to industry, depending on the sensitivity of the process waste stream to waste water pollution control requirements, overall we predict a hazardous waste growth of 56 percent over the next decade. Current hazardous waste treatment and disposal practices and costs confirm earlier suspicions (Exhibit 5). Over 92 percent of all hazardous waste is disposed of directly on land as opposed to four percent undergoing some form of treatment, and four percent being recycled in some fashion. The average cost figures illustrate why this is so: $11 per ton for land disposal vs. $49 per ton for treatment. Land disposal is by far the cheaper waste management option. Technology Assessment We are constantly evaluating the technology available to treat and dispose of hazardous wastes in an environmental adequate way. Our largest sin'gle effort in this area is a grant to the State of Minnesota to build and demonstrate a conmercial-scale chemical waste landfill. This project will examine the technological, economic, organizational, social, and institutional issues involved in establishing and managing an environmentally acceptable landfill for hazardous wastes. This project is described in detail in a recent paper by Donald Fafb (2). A second major effort is to demonstrate the environmental adequacy, cost effectiveness, and practicality of destroying high priority hazardous waste by incineration in commercial-scale incinerators. The wastes include: . ethylene manufacturing wastes t a.at ------- EXHIBIT 5 INDUSTRIAL HAZARDOUS WASTE STUDIES 7^. Current Hazardous Waste Disposal Practices Treatment Land Disposal (Chemicals Shcrtnal, Etc.) Recovery Industry % Cost Range AVIJ.CoSfc • % Cost Range Avg.Cost Avg.Cost Waste <$/lbn) ($/lbn) Waste <$/Itan) ($/3ton) Waste ($/Ton) L. lotteries 89 1.1- 44 . 15 2 None Reported 4 9 fr* I. .Tiiorcc-jaic Chemicals 90 1.8- 80 18 5 7- 59 34 5 am m ¦J. Org.n:vic Cherricn.ls, Pesticides onc'l Explosives 93 0,6-240 3 2 18-323 37 5 18 1. I: lecLrcpla ting — — - i. Piiint and Allied Products , 80 3 -130 60 None Reported 12 23 i. l-.:txoleum Fefining ' 99+. 0.9-'20 12 0.13 None Reported 34 ' .01 36 Phrrrraceuticals 1 • 10 7-27 15 85 10-300 90 5 - i, Prirary Metals Smelting and i"te fining * * mm . •* * Overall Weighted Average 92 . 11 4 49 4 19 otea . - data not yet available . six additional studies currently underway ------- . hexachlorocyclopentadiene . organic peroxide manufacturing residues . perchloroethylene manufacturing still bottoms . PCB wastes in capacitors . nitrochlorobenzene tars * . catch basin grease (nitrile pitch from production of surface active agents) . waste blend of chlorinated hydrocarbons . vinyl chloride monomer manufacturing wastes (dichloroethane and heavily chlorinated wastes that contain vinyl chloride) . off specification and waste phenols . methyl methacrylate monomer wastes \ . Amiben manufacturing wastes . API seperator bottoms . tars from production of styrene . rubber manufacturing waste sludge . reactor bottoms from PVC manufacture . coke plant wastes . petroleum refining sour wastes The types of incinerators to be evaluated are: . Wet Oxidation . Pyrolysis . Liquid Injection . Fluidized Bed . Rotary Kiln . Bake Oven /a. a* ------- . Liquid Injection Incinerator Ship A mobile laboratory has been equipped and our contractors are traveling around the country to the various sites. The waste to be incinerated is thoroughly analyzed beforehand. At each facility samples are collected of air emissions, scrubber effluents, ash, raw ' waste, makeup air, auxiliary fuels and other process streams entering or leaving the incinerator system. Samples are also being collected of combustion gases in the hot zone prior to the emission control system Operating parameters are continually monitored to ensure that the predeter. mined test conditions are maintained at steady state throughout the testing period. These operating parameters include temperature, residence time, percent excess air and feed rates. On-site measurements of hydro- carbons and carbon monoxide in air emissions are used as indicators of combustion efficiency during each test sequence. Each demonstration test is conducted such that a thorough evaluation can be made of: . Effectiveness of the facility to destroy or detoxify hazardous components of wastes . Operating conditions required at each facility to achieve optimal destruction of test wastes . Environmental impact caused by incineration, of wastes . Operating and capital costs associated with incineration of each waste . Overall value of facility type for commercial disposal of waste . Adequacy of emission control system used by the facility Some of the tests of special interest include: Y.X11 ------- . Destruction of PCB containing capacitors by grinding in a harnnermill and Incineration in a rotary kiln or bake oven. . Using a proprietary blend of waste chlorinated hydrocarbons as fuel 1n a cement kiln. . Incineration at sea in an incineration ship. * Incineration and controlled landfill disposal hold the. most^ Immediate promise as viable alternatives to current improper disposal practices, however, there are a number of physical, chemical, and biological techniques in use, proposed for use, or in developmental stages which show promise as treatment processes for hazardous wastes. Potential benefits include: (a) hazard reduction-detoxification; reduced flammability, explosivity, or corrosivity; reduced solubility, (b) volume and/or weight reduction, and (c) resource recovery potential Some of these processes are recognizable unit operations widely used in industry for a variety of production purposes, others are used now 1n water pollution treatment complexes, and a few are currently used with hazardous wastes. Others are in developmental of conceptual stages. However, to our knowledge, no comprehensive attempt has yet been made to assess the usefulness of these processes for treating hazardous wastes. We have therefore undertaken a desk study to conduct an in-depth state-of-the-art investigation of approximately 20 physical, chemical, and biological processes having potential application for treating hazardous wastes prior to or in lieu of disposal. Among the processes to be examined are: ------- solvent recovery electrolysis photolysis catalysis chlorinolysis biotreatment oxidation precipitation microwave discharge reverse osmosis evaporation activated carbon ion exchange enzyme treatment activated sludge oxidation ponds hydrolysis ammonia stripping steam stripping Through literature search, facilities visits* consulting with experts, etc., the contractor will establish a data base for the more relevant processes and their technological and economic application to hazardous wastes. This contract will be followed by a series of studies (Alternative Studies) aimed at identifying alternatives to y 2.3/ ------- disposal for a variety of real world hazardous waste streams currently being identified by our industry studies. In as much as the investigators of the various processes in this study will become experts in the field during the course of this work, we feel that their advice and assistance * could be invaluable in carrying out these later contracts. ° • The Alternative Studies will be industry and waste stream oriented. The industries to be covered are: . Organic Chemicals . Petroleum Refining . Inorganic Chemicals . Metal Smelting and Refining The purpose of these studies is to assess the alternatives to Incineration and land disposal for treatment/disposal of those types of industrial wastes generated by the specific industry. Study output will include the following information: Feasibility and cost analysis of treating the industry hazardous wastes by physical, chemical and biological processes. Comparisons of the treatment processes with incineration and landfilling for cost and environmental impact. Assessment of the economic effects of the implementation of treatment processes. Research A significant amount of technological research is conducted by EPA's Solid and Hazardous Waste Research Division and elsewhere. This is described in the paper "Hazardous Waste Research Symposium: Residual Management by Land Disposal," (3). Some of the projects include: ------- . Industrial Hazardous Waste Migration Potential . Field Verfication of Hazardous. Industrial Waste Migration from Land Disposal Sites . Liners for Disposal Sites . Leaching and Durability of Chemically Fixed Sludges . An Evaluation of Storing Hazardous Waste in Mined Openings. Conclusions To summarize our perceptions of the hazardous waste management situation in the United States at this time. First, we now know that we have a problem, a major problem which is common to all industrial nations, and that this problem is growing due to several factors. We have found that the technology for adequate hazardous waste management exists for many hazardous wastes but that this technology is costly, approximately 10 to 20 times as expensive as current unacceptable practices, which consist mainly of landfilling or ocean disposal. Consequently, there are no economic incentives for the use of this technology and, furthermore, there are no strong regulatory incentives at either the Federal or most State levels. Consequently, EPA has developed a regulatory strategy for the management of hazardous wastes. This program will require a joint Federal, State, and private sector response. We see a lengthy period during which legislation and regulations are developed and facilities are made available, but eventually we would foresee a regulatory program with adequate enforcement to prevent the potential public health and environmental damages which can occur from improper management of these wastes. y a.i 3 ------- REFERENCES Disposal of hazardous wastes; report to Congress. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste Management Programs. Environmental Protection Publication SW-115. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974. 110 p. The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency's Chemical Waste Landfill Demonstration. D. Farb. Office of Solid Waste Management Programs, Hazardous Waste Management Division. Washington, 1975. 27 p. Hazardous Waste Research Symposium. Residual Management by Land Disposal. Soils, Water and Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1976. 12 p. ' y.s.3/ ------- JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER YOTSUYA-KAMICHOtfc6. KAWASAKI. JAPAN TELEPHONE 0 4 A -2 8-4 8 S 6 IMPROVEMENT ON REFUSE COLLECTION AND TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM — Present situation of refuse collection and transportation in Japan — Akira Shiraazaki Director Research and Training Department JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER May. 1976 ! ------- JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER YOTSUYA.KAMICHO KAWASAKI, JAPAN TELEPHONE 044-26-4806 INDEX 1 Introduction 2 Background of difficulty in refuse collection and transportation 2—1 History of refuse collection and transportation in Japan (Table 1) 2—2 Increase of refuse amount and complexity of refuse kind (Table 2, 3, 4 Fig.l, 2, 3, 4 ) 2—3 Difficulty in work management (Table 5, 6 Pig. 5 ) 3 Actual situation of refuse collection and transportation 3-1 Present system of refuse collection and transportation (Table 7, 8 Pig, 6 ) 3—2 Method of refuse collection and transportation (Table 9, 10, 11, 12 Fig. 7, 8 ) (1) Refuse collection method (2) Refuse transportation method (3) Transhipment yard in refuse ocean transportation (4) Improvement on refuse collection ancl transportation 5~- /. /. / ------- JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER YOTSUYA-KAMICHO KAWASAKI. JAPAN TELEPHONE 044-26-4896 3~3 Separate collection and recycling in Sapporo city (Pig. -9 ) 3-4 Sample of recovery system for electrical appliances containing PCB (Table 13 Fig. 10 ) 3-5 Costs for refuse collection and disposal (Table 14^1-2/IB Pig. 11, 12 ) 4 Problem and proposal regarding refuse collection and disposal (1) Necessity of environmental measures (2). Necessity of adjustment with local inhabitants (3) Necessity of improvement on working condition (4) Comprehension of working efficiency and work management (5) Establishment of beneficiary charge system of domestic refuse f. I. /_ 2 - ------- JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER. YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198, KAWASAKI. JAPAN TELEPHONE 044-28-4896 1 Introduction It is quite desirable to smoothly and efficiently collect the refuse arised at random in cities, and to get them together for transportation to the dis- posal site or treating plant . But, Japan is a small island, in 30 i= of which, excessive population concentration and excessive automobiles concentration in narrow roads have been occurred, and resulted in country wide chronic traffic mess . This worse situation has been complicated with in- crease of refuse amount, complexity of refuse kind and rigidity in work management of workers . Then, efficiency of refuse collection and transpor- tation has yearly decreased and its cost has emi- nently rised . Precisely, the cost of .collection and transportation has rised up to 55 $ to 82 $ out of total cost for management . And middle and small cars are mainly used . Then, in the department of collection and transportation which require large labor power, labor charge comes up to 80 ^ to 85 ^ out of the cost for collection and transportation . This high ratio villi last with additional increase . In addition to these circumstances, movement of I local inhabitants against refuse disposal has yearly come severer,. Therefore, it becomes more difficult to secure a site for final disposal . This induces deadlock in site security plan, and further prolongation of transportation and idle of working hour . Finally, the efficiency has been remarkably decreasing . 5. 1./. 3 ------- JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER YOTSUYA-KAMICMO 198. KAWASAKI. JAPAN TELEPHONE 044-28-4890 • Even if a system of night work and early morning work is proposed in order to rise the collection and transportation efficiency, it is usual that this system is not realized especially in large cities owing to decrease of flexibility for working organization, that is to say, rigidity of work management which is unfortunately inevitable in direct management. But to cope with these circumstances, some cities proceeded to study of introduction of new system such as air-vacuum system and to study of provision of intermediate station. Besides, in the style of management of whole municipalities, direct management has slightly decreased and consign manage- ment which is flexible in control has found increasing. In summary, for principal' counter measures for refuse col- lection and transportation, the writer concentrates the following two points and proceeds to put them into severe consideration. 1) To reduce amount of refuse, to promote a liability of inhabitants for refuse disposal, and to reestablish a collection fee charging system which will save rising disposal cost and pack fee. In this case, it is worth studying to establish a beneficiary charged system which has such article that inhabitants close to a disposal plant and intermediate station are exempted from charging. / 2) To' establish a system of night working and early mo rain working, and to promote workers morale for work so as to rise working efficiency. For this improvement, personnels in/management who are liable to be indiffer- ent to workers should make endeavor to comprehend an importance of working management to build comfortable working condition by improvement on working environment personnel control,safety control, sanitation control relationship. ------- JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198. KAWASAKI, JAPAN TELEPHONE 044.2S.4a9S V JJuclfground of difficulty in refuse collection and transportation 2—1 History of refuse collection and transportation in Japan (1) Banishment of trash Box and collection with poly container According to " Filth Cleansing lav; " established in April, 1900, occupiers of land and users of land are obligated to clean the inside of land and to provide wooden trash, boxes with cover. And municipalities are obligated to collect and dispose the refuse in fee charging system. In these days, workers raked refuse out from outdoors wooden trash box of each household, just like dogs foraging for baits, and put refuse into bamboo make basket, and loaded refuse on box type cars of man pulling. And then, transported to the disposal site-. This method was most popular all over our country for a long time, "notwithstanding'- indisposition and inefficiency. As " Cleansing law " was established in April,1954, municipalities began to comprehend necessity of mechanization of refuse collection and transportation and improvement on cleansing..service from the view point of situation that refuse had been increasing in amount and the view point of sanitation. First, Kawasaki city developed efficient collecting car in 1955, and realised mechanisation. ' * Later each city started to change man—pull car to special collecting car, t.r ------- JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198. KAWASAKI. JAPAN TELEPHONE 044-28-4B96 Jrv August, 1962 the minister of construction established " Banishment Order of Trash Box " which prohibits trash boxes from set on outdoor road. Therefore, traditional wooden or concrete make trash boxes were disappeared on the road, which v/ere then replaced by polyethelene make container bucket type of 40. .1 to 45 1 with cover that have been trially used in Tokyo. Each household puts this container inside of house or inside of house lot, and stores in this container food refuse and other refuse so that these fefuse may be hr-o-Mg"K"t • to the given place at the given time. The workers to collect put refuse in container on collecting cars, give container back to the given place. By this system traffic condition was improved and street was cleaned up, and flies and rats were banished. Therefore, this system has an effect to let municipalities understand the necessity of conception change even in refuse collection, and is highly appreciated as revolution in refuse collection and transportation. Pack collection and common use metal make container collection It was granted that poly containers collection had limitation. That is to say, poly containers are liable to be dirty, blowen off with wind, and covers are liable to be off. Then dogs scatter the refuse. Working together household and the single can not take back empty container. These demerits were indicated. ------- JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER YOTSUYA.KAMICHO 198. KAWASAKI. JAPAN TELEPHONE O44-28-4O06 Aa the next stage, pack collection appeared. This system has lots of merits. Such as, there is no need to take "back as this is one way system using vinyle or paper pack, and workers are free from dirty refuse as refuse is packed, and no odor scattered. Besides, working efficiency is promoted. Then many medium and small cities adopted this col- lection system. But Tokyo and some large cities are continuing to use container. Some cities put into practice a system to set common use metal make container 90cm ^ X 120cm' v; X 74cm *" at the given place.for general household, a system that containers for dust chute are provided at middle and high apartments and refuse are collected by con- tainer reverting car, a system to lift up container by , crane and dump refuse into truck, and a system to connect containers to the disposal site . In large cities an intermediate station is provided in order to protect decrease of collection and transportation efficiency. The newest system is the vacuum transportation system realized by Osaka city in January 1976. Problems on collection and transportation system I.Tany cities have tendency to adopt separate collection for reasons that increased incombustibles such as plastics and empty cans and bulk refuse are many kind of obstacles to smooth collection, and that refuse must be recycled. But as a matter of fact, they put it into practice to collect separately only bulk refuse once or twice per month due to high cost probably needed for provision of special disposal site, and special collection organization including personnel and facilities and due to lack of disposal area. ------- JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER YOTSUYA.KAMICHO 198. KAWASAKI. JAPAN TELEPHONE 044-28-4896 But, .recently there increasing~such c.ities which collect separately the refuse not suit for incineration once a week. Separate collection gives burden to collection work, but is the pricipal solution in addition to con- tainer and pack collection. Our country has special condition of remarkable, traffic mess as shown in Table 1 due to increase of automobiles in spite of narrow road and up down land. In addition, it is difficult to realize to collect refuse at night or early morning for reasons of increase of refuse, complexity of refuse kind and v/ork management. Under these circumstances, refuse collection and transportation induces falldown of working efficiency and rise of cost. Almost all cities have effected dis- posal fee charge system from 1955 to 1970 taking polical judgment into consideration. And recently they are liable to reconsider for its establishment. Ac mentioned above, each municipality has:, been making endeavor in searching for better method through repeated try and error, Host recently some cities are proceeding to study a fee charge system with an intention to decrease the refuse, let inhabitants have liability " for refuse disposal and to save cost. And other cities are studying to change direct management to consign management for the purpose of realization of night or early rriorning collection for rise up of working efficiency. And some cities are seriously studying to adop an inter- mediate station, vacuum transportation system and recycling Refuse collection in our country is now looking fpv/a?d tc second revolution. ------- Table 1. Decreasing situation of truck transportation efficiency in large cities \ One truck per day One transportation per one truck 1 Needed hour for one truck per one km (min.) Year N. Transportation Frequency Tonnage Transported Needed . Hour Moving km Tonnage Transported 1960 (100$) 4.2 (100$) 12.9 (100$) 2.5 (100$) 23.3 (100$) 3.5 (100$) 6.4 1961 3.5 10.5 3.0 23.3 3.3 7.7 1962 3.0 9.8 3.3 23.4 3.4 8.5 1963 2.8 9.3 3.8 23.7 3.4 9.7 1964 2.6 9.1 3.3 16.9 3.5 11.8 1965 2.7 9.0 3.4 17.1 3.4 12.0 1966 2.6 8.5 3.5 16.3 3.5 12.9 1967 2.5 8.2 3.7 16.5 3.5 13.5 1968 2.4 8.1 3.6 17.7 3.4 12.2 1969 2.2 3.7 19.1 3.6 11.0 ¦ 1970 (52$) 2.2 (62$) 8.0 (156$) 3.9 (83$) 19.3 (103$) 3.6 • (189$) 12.1 1 ------- 2-2 Increase of refuse amount and complexity of refuse kind (l) Increase of refuse amount The following four items are the characteristics of yearly transition in refuse amount. i) In the period of about half century from 1900 to 1955, refuse amount repeated slight up down due to influence of war and world economical situation, but steady because not doubled. ii) In the period of about 10 years from I960, start of high economical growth to October 1973, oil crisis, :the refuse amount showed significant increase and multiplied 2 to 4 in proportion to growth of GNP. iii) After the oil crisis, October 1973 the refuse amount shows temporary decrease of about 5$. This decrease was not recovered within the fiscal year 1974, but recovered in the end of fiscal year 1975. Its increase ratio was one to two iv) As the refuse was devided into two kinds, one is industrial refuse and the other is general refuse according to "Waste Disposal Law" established in 1970, municipalities came to reject in priciple industrial refuse. But as for refuse similar to domestic refuse in characteristics, municipalities established fee charge system, or rose the fee or refulated their carry in from 1971 to 1972. Then these countermeasures contributed to decrease about l/2 to 3/2 of carried in refuse. For a sample of yearly change of domestic refuse planned to be collected, Fig. 1 and Table 2 show those in 28 cities in Kansai district which was influenced with the oil crisis in 1973. And Fig. 1 and Table 3 show the influence arise from change of municipalities policy to city refuse amount (domestic refuse; and carried in refuse from industries) from 1970 to 1973. Each data indicate g per one man per day. Kobe city shows extremely high amount. This means that Kobe city loosen the carry in regulation as it has rich reclamation area. Fig. 2 and 3 show monthly transition of large 9 cities from 1972 to 1975. These indicate that decrease of domestic refuse begins from November 1973 and comes down in December due to the oil crisis. This is steady transition. The amount figure is very unsteady figure curve due to influence of fee from May to July. 3"- '•/. /o ------- Complexity of refuse kind The refuse in our country is of compared with those in USA and Europe. In general, humidity is 50 to 60$, low calorific value is 1,000 to 1,500 kcal/kg, and plastics mixing ratio is 10 to 15$. Then the refuse is not suit for incineration, which become difficult in tf combustion control. Characteristics of refuse are different by living standard, level, industrial structure, urban structure and collection method. And it is difficult to get average figure as relative data is a few. But analysis on characteristics effected by Japan Environmental Sanitation Center for 73 municipalities in 1973, 34 in 1974, and investigation in 19 cities in Kansai district show the following features in yearly transition of refuse characteristics in our country. (Please refer to Table 4 and 5, Fig. 3.) i) Plastics appeared in refuse about 1958. (Osaka city firstly announced as 1.0$.) Afterward, regularly increased and continues increasing in spite of exhaust gas and damage of incinerator arised from plastics combustion. At the oil crisis in 1973 plastics slightly decreased, but recovered up to 10 to 15$ in most prevailing mixing ratio and 4 to 28$ in ¦ range in 1974. ii) Paper yearly increased. At the oil crisis in 1973 decreased, but recovered up to 30 to 40$ in most prevailing mixing ratio and 14 to 68$ in range. iii) Food refuse has tendency to increase. Most prevailing mixing ratio is 7 to 22$. iv) Incombustibles has tendency to decrease. Mixing ratio is 12 to 17$. (Gravels and sand are remarkably decreasing. Cans are increasing.) v) Humidity comes to low in ratio, but 50 to 60$ is popular and 40 to 78$ in range. vi) Low-calorific value comes slightly high, but 1,000 to 1,500 kcal/kg is popular and 660 to 2,200 kcal/kg in range. ------- g/man day Yearly change of amount of city refuse arised from one num Fig. 1. per day in large five cities in Kansai district 2.10 0 2.0 00 1,500 1.0 00 500 Kobe Akashi « Osaka Osaka Kyoto Kobe Sakai —X Kyoto Akashi Sakai Amount of city refuse (Amount planned to be collected plus amount carried in) Amount planned to be collected (Domestic refuse) Note: Each thick line portion shows the changing period 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 ------- Table 2. Amount of domestic refuse planned to be collected per one man day in 28 cities in Kansai district (g/day) 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973. 1974 Average 582 647 680 750 788 748 752 Osaka 750 870 930 1,042 1,086 1,107 1,118 Kyoto 535 582 632 693 756 707 685 Kobe 681 734 807 884 978 822 843 Vakayama 552 561 573 762 815 866 926 Sakai 394 430 493 506 536 485 494 Kishiwada, Kaizuya - - 521 614 660 646 640 Suita 381 412 574 590 656 639 678 Moriguchi 510 580 569 558 554 518 481 Hirakata 353 414 399 479 475 523 537 Yao 419 527 571 615 648 614 593 Neyagawa 675 679 696 828 945 684 644 Higashiosaka, Kaito 459 489 544 619 651 607 613 Amagasaki 460 488 510 538 563 501 619 Akashi 462 510 506 568 620 584 557 Nishinomiya 526 532 565 607 589 495 474 Minoo - 524 598 641 640 653 701 Takarazuka 513 508 551 514 526 496 442 Takaishi 561 734 703 648 711 740 739 Fuziidera - - ' 394 496 544 543 538 Ibaragi 429 463 457 524 508 421 410 Settsu - - 427 428 486 453 429 Sennan, Harm an - - 269 406 506 • 483 490 Toyonaka, Itami 472 494 510 567 577 571 559 Takatsuki 313 333 401 420 436 406 412 \| ------- Fig. 2 Amount of domestic refuse planned to be collected in large 9 cities Fig. 3. Amount carried in plant and self carry in ------- Table 3. Analysis of refuse composition in Japan and Tokyo Area Kind ^ 1974 \ 1973 All Area All Area Tokyo Excluding Tokyo Paper and cloth in dry refuse 'fo 38.1 (23.9-61.8) 41.4 (14.3-68.1) 46.8 (31.1-68.1) 37.8 (14.7-63.2) Wood and bamboo in dry refuse ------- h Fig. ------- 2-3 Difficulty in work management The total number of workers in charge of collection and transportation in Japan in 1973 is 59,995, which is equivalent to approximate 60/5 against 101,756 (including both municipals and unofficials). By workers of 59,995 automobiles of 25,707 and vessels of 381 are employed for collection and transportation (Please refer to Table 5). And this enterprise is labor concentrated enterprise and has direct mission for cleansing the environment. Then for its adequate and reasonable execution large amount of cost is needed, which resulted in unfavorable local environmental problems in adjustment of fee charging by inhabitants and local administration. Further, the principle of municipal policy in finance which expect the largest effect from the smallest cost requires expanding liability for rise up of efficiency in proportion with increase of investment in enterprise, that is increase of inhabitants burden. This is the very liability that the officials in municipalities must bear. Table 5. Workers and materials incharge of refuse collection and transportation Direct Consign Approved Total Vorkes 42,794 9,394 7,810 59,995 Automobiles 18,225 4,021 3,461 25,707 Vessels 102 279 381 As a matter of fact, this principle is liable to be neglected. ; In many municipalities shortening of working hours, decreasing of working amount, improvement on allowance system are proposed through labor unions. It is not denied that these movements are prevailing in each municipalities since workers in charge of refuse disposal are not in good position of working condition and on the other hand numbers of workers are large in ratio. Then there comes a problem that worker of large number have tendency to fall down the working efficiency as a pressurizing mass, although work of refust collection and transportation expects rise up of efficiency. Table 6 is the actual report on refuse collection and transportation work in S city. The remarkable point is result of direct and consign regarding collecting amount per capita. In 1968 these figures are 1.2t for direct, 2.2t for consign, which means that consign collect the amount of 1.8 multiplied. The collecting amount by consign slightly decreased in 1969 down to 1.6 times multiplied, but came up 2.1 times in 1970, 2.3 times in ------- 1971, 3.4 times in 1972 and 3.7 times in 1973. This shows the large difference of collecting amount between direct and consign. As for transportation frequency per one car per day, consign shows the figure of 1.7 to 2.5 times multiplied. For these six years, no increase is shown in collecting amount by direct, but doubled amount is shown by consign. Fig. 5 shows cost per ton for collection and transportation in both case of direct and consign in Y city. Cost in direct is higher than that in consign, 1.8 times multipled in 1969, and 2.2 times in 1973. This indicates unefficiency of direct management. These samples are shown in other cities. The reason of this big difference is that in case of direct there is a conception which allow workers consume only fixed hour and fixed amount. On the other hand, recent allowance level is liable to become high in each municipality, which lead to rigidity of local finance. These data show that both cities have not make any endeavor in improvement on efficiency by changing working procedure, method and work. The writer visited in 1972 the refuse disposal facilities in Vienna and at that time the manager told me "We are the officials but have much morale, not less than the unofficials have. I'm sure that this morale is the strongest in each cities. Ve are trying to increase finance by study and consideration on source recovery and recycle. The financial ministry give sufficient investment to facilities. Then our allowances are favorable". The writer truly thought that the officials in our country must listen to this word. As one of' members in charge of training for technical personnels in refuse disposal facilities. The writer sometimes felt that managing staffs in municipalities are liable not to give their workers opportunities for training, and in worst case to prevent workers from training. Moreover, it is not denied that they have different feeling to workers, which results in arise of opposition relation. Therefore, the officials must bear a part of liability of regidity in collection and transportation. In a word, in order to let workers have morale, and to rise up the efficiency, the managing staffs in each municipalities must reconsider the importance of labor management, and must make effort in improvement even gradually, unless otherwise breakage of present situation can not be expected. Actually some cities have been trying to improve. In general, important items of labor management which are now considered in progressive cities are followings. 1) Management in personnels affair (Man factor, personnel control in administration and so on, ) ------- Management in employment (Adequate arrangement, personnel judgement and so on.) Management in allowances (Allowance system, allowance payment system and so on.) Labor standard (Every principles in labor, condition labor standard according to the Labor Standards Law and so on.) Safety and sanitation and welfare (Safety control, sanitation control, and welfare control and so on.) Training by administration (Method of training, training for administrator, manager and supervisor and so on. ) Relation between labor and management (Claims, dispute and its settlement and so on.) Human relationship (Enterprise management and human relationship, adjustment in human relationship and cooperation between labor and management.) ------- Fig. 5. Cost comparison between direct management and mandatory management in refuse collection and disposal in Y city thousand/t S~.i-i.zo ------- Table 6. Report on refuse collection vork In S city (Population! approximate 300,000) Cloanslng annual report 1974 In 3 city Year 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 Management Direct Consign Total Direc t Consign Total Direct Consign Total Direct Consign Total Direct Consign Total Direct Consign Total I No. of household Cor collection 21,038 37,898 58,936 22,204 40,031 62,235 24,125 39,642 63,767 25,679 43,110 68,789 25,993 46,662 72,655 \|26,038 50,102 76,140 Average Xo. of household per day 3,829 7,014 10,843 4,144 7,788 11,932 4,925 9,348 14,237 5,158 10,760 15,918 8,082 16,434 24,516 !l0,829 23,089 33,918 ,Xo. of (household collected • One collec- tion car Nr>. of household collected per nonth 12,852 16,867 15,174 13,832 16,205 15,266 16,459 15,874 17,921 14,771 20,276 18,082 9,873 24,022 16,717 15,120 24,000 20,256 No. of household collected rtr day 504 668 597 532 638 594 639 745 697 598 786 709 449 959 721 630 1,000 844 One vorker ¦\o. of household collected .pc-r nonth 3,605 4,965 4,323 3,391 5,101 4,320 5,438 7,388 6,560 4,799 8,331 6,741 3,500 ll<313 6,991 3,496 >3,656 9,240 •\'o. of household collected por day 140 196 169 133 172 208 291 255 193 323 0 266 159 434 301 229 369 385 Arsouct collected Total crjuunt (t) 10,184 23,474 • 33,658 11,536 26,378 37,914 13,727 40,424 54,151 14,161 43,763 37,924 16,562 39,942 56,504 15,913 48,331 64,264 Average !i.~ount per day (t) ' 33 78 111 37 86 123 44 131 174 48 141 189 64 133 197 59 179 238 One collec- tion car Average iit.,Gunt per tonsil (t) 112 187 , 155 125 ' 178 157 149 261 219 138 264 219 90 197 147 82 187 142 Avt rage amount per day (tj^ • Avorai>e ai..ount per r.cntii (t) 4.4 7.4 6.1 4.8 7.0 6.1 5.6 12.2 8.5 5.4 10.2 8.4 3.8 9.6 6.9 3.4 7.8 5-9 One vorker 30 56 44 34 53 45 49 102 80 44 106 71 30 113 —-~i 67 r—-— , 29 106 63 Average L.::;aunl per er nonth (ktf) 40 52 48 53 54 49 65 86 68 46 85 70 53 73 66 51 80 70 Average transportation freauenev per dav s 21 50 71 22 60 82 21 61 ¦7^' 82 26 75 101 35 89 124 33 92 123 " per one car per dftj 3. Ttf 4 3 '^6 4 3 4 3. TfO J 2 -SPO 4 2 i^-5 3 Average ! ------- Actual situation of refuse collection and transportation 3-1 Fresent system of refuse collection and transportation system It is desirable to smoothly, quickly, clearly and efficiently as possible collect and transport the refuse arised from cities so that the refuse might be transported to an intermediate station or a final disposal area without any pollution. Originally, collection and transportation are common in such meaning that both are to physically transport refuse to terminals. But it would be quite inefficient to let collecting cars transport all the way to a disposal facilities or a final disposal area in traffic mess. In this case, it would be efficient to transship refuse on bulk cars at an intermediate station. Therefore, it is recommendablo to consider both separately since it is necessary to make up transportation plan taking their function into conside- ration, such as special cars for collection, and special cars for transportation. Whichever the case may be, in Japan, narrow road condition, traffic condition as chronic mess, expanding refuse amount, diversed and complexed composition of refuse and rigid work management work together and results in inefficiency. The system must flexibly adapt to change of the refuse amount, composition and disposal method. Fig. 6 shows present system now prevailing in Japan. Generally, packs and poly containers (bucket), and common use metal make container (box) are used for household. Special bulk poly containers are used for stores and shops. Collecting cars collect refuse at each household or at a station. For high and middle apartment, packs or poly container are used as same as for household, and collected at a station. But recently metal make container specially used for dust chute are provided. In this case refuse are loaded by crane, or containers themselves are collected and directly transported to a disposal facilities. The new method of vacuum transportation system which combines two functions of collection and transportation was realized in Morinomiya in Osaka in January 1976. This system is considered to be introduced in A city and B housing area and C subcapital center in Tokyo with governmental subsidy this year. Table 7 and 8 show present situation of refuse collection in large cities in Japan medium and small cities in Niigata prefecture. Management style is such that 6 cities are in all direct out of 20 cities, 2 cities are consigning 0 collection and transportation of incombustibles and one city is consigning to the approved enterprise. The other cities are maintaining a balance of direct and consign, or are consign a portion which is not covered by direct to the unofficials. r./.i.zt ------- As for separate collection, all of 20 cities are adopting. 19 cities out of 20 collect incombustibles once per week, or once or twice per month. Refuse not suit for incineration (plastics) are collected once per week in one city. Hulk refuse are collected once or twice per month in one city. When comparing the data on Niigata prefecture vith the data on large cities, separate collect: of bulk refuse is more frequent in large cities, and separate collection of incombustibles is more frequent in Niigata prefecture. i For collecting cars which have two function, road packer car, screw drum car and pack master car are widely used. But their capacity is 2.0 ton to 2.5 ton due to narrowness of road. Even 1.5 ton car or extremely small truck are employed. As for transportation, almost all cities use collecting car. But in Tokyo and Osaka refuse are transshiped on bulk car at an intermediate station for terminals. In case of offshore reclamation, refuse are transported in vessels as realized in Tokyo, Osaka and Kitakyushu. ------- Fig* 6. System of collection and disposal of domestic refuse in Japan Container and pack for discharge Intermediate Intermediate or storage Collection style Transportation transportation treatment Final disposal Paper pack & vinyle pack Plastic container Plasticized dust box Others Special container (plastic.rcetal) Others Collection at station Paper pack 4 vinyle pack Plastic container Dust box vith vehicles Collection &t each house Air pipe Load packer car Screw drum car Back drum car Pack master car Back loader car Container car Dump car .Clane car (for bulk refuse) Con t.u i hit l or ilust. >hool Collection by container / Bulk container car Bulk dump car Vessel Incineration Shredding and compressing reclamation ------- Table "3. Collection and transportation method of domestic refuse in large cities' City Sapporo Tokyo (23 districts) Kavasaki Yokohama Xagoya Kyoto Osaka Kobe Kitakyushu 'Fukuoka Sendai Sakai Hiroshima Acapasakl Fukita - Takarazuka Nat3udo Yao Alcashl N'ishinoraiya Hatsuyasa Population (1974) thousand 1,146 8,475 • 997 2,513 2,070 1,446 2,758 1,310 1,050 980 564 698 774 536 280 150 335 . 256 226 400 369 Management Direct, mandatory Direct, mandatory Direct Direct Direct Direct Direct Direct Direct, mandatory Direct, mandatory Direct Direct, mandatory Direct Direct, nondatory Direct, mondatory Direct, mondatory Direct Direct Direct Diroct, mondatory Direct, mondatory Collection frequency per vcek Pack, container 2-6 Poly container 6 Not suit for incombustible* 1 6 2 2 2 Pack 2 * Poly eontainor 2 Pack 2 Poly container 3 Pack . 1~2 Inconbustibles 1 3 2 each Poly eontainor 3 Inconbustibles 1 Pack 3 Inconbustibles 1 Poly container 2 Dust box Collection at sight 2. Pack, poly eontainor 3 station Inconbustibles 1 Combustibles 2 Incombustibles 3 Bulk refuse 2 Combus- tibles Content of separate Incon- bustibles Not suit for incin- eration soUectian household eollection Possible for recycle Bulk refuse once per month tvice per year i : onco por month o t p ,three por year e P tvice per year o tvice per ye ax o e once per month o o Free charge range Leas than 404/day Leas than lOkg/day Less than lOkg/day lOkg/day, less than lOOkg/one time LefS than lOkg/day * . * Less than lOkg/day lOkg/day, less than lOOfcg/en* tin* Less than 5004/oonth Less than 3004/moath Less than 45J/day & less than lOkg/day Ho 1imitation but transported In plastic container 4kg/day No limitation but transported. In plastic container Less than lOkg/day Less than 100kg/one time Less than 20kg/day Less than 45 i/day No limitation No limitation ------- Table 8. The actual Situation of Refuse Collactlon and Tranaport&tion In cities in Wiigata Vrafeetare (1974) Popula- Ko. of house- Managenont form of col- lection & transportation Froque acy of col ectloa (tiraea) Crev also of collection (person) Mane tion oT holds of Area of .(« Bulky Consign of Ci'tiea dousing cloasing cleasir.g Direct Consign Approved Itav Ineombus- refuse, not suit for in- cineration Direct Approved service district (person) service district servico district (to2) refuse tlbles Driver Collec- tor Total Driver Collec- tor Total Driver Collec- tor Total Niigftta-C 405,770 123,593 208.4 47 53 3/V ""J* 1/M refuse 34 68 102 33 66 99 - Kagaoka-C 169,089 47,061 259.9 39 39 22 3/V.2/W 2/M,3/2M 16 32 48 10 13 23 11 23 34 Joetsu-C 120,410 29,858 251.6 100 2/H 21 42 63 4 . Kashivazoki-C SO,180 21,621 313.0 - 3/' 1/H 8 18 26 " '1 , 6 9 2 4 6 Shibata-C 74,431 19,369 434.1 100 3/W,l/(f 1/V.2/M 12 25 37 Niitsu-C 59,005 14,427* 78.0 ¦ w* 3A.2/W 2/H 16 25 0j iya-C 44,660 10,600 154.5 • 100 combus- tible 100 lneombu tible a- 3/V.2/V 2/M 6 0 12 18 2 2 4 Kaao-C 37,389 8,947 133.1 41 ~ 59 • uy/v 2/M 2 4 6 3 6 9 Tokanaehi-C (i X 00,783 Delude anaishi T 14,043 (same oi ) left) 285.6 (s&mo at left) 43 J7 * t 2/V.l/M l/V.l/M 4 8 12 4 7 11 Hitauke-C 41,479 9,510 78.1 100 2/V 1/f.l/M l/v net auit to incineratio r it 3 6 9 Murakami-C 32,929 8,838 92.1 85 15 1^'3/V 3/V 1/.M.2/3M 7 6 1> 3 9 12 Taubaoo-C 43,914 10,439 39.9 100. 1/V 6 18 24 Tochio-C 53,172 7,671 205.4 100 l/v.l/M 4 6 10 Itoigava-C 37,121 9,578 467.1 83 17 $\3/V 1/V, 2/>t J 11 16 1 2 3- Arai-C Goixurai-C 29,418 39,533 7,121 9,366 173.2 98.4 combus- tible 100 incorabv tible 48 70 lnconbu tiblo 52 3- 30 8- 3/V.2/V 3/V.2/V l/V,l/M t . 1/M 6 5 12 12 18 17 1 3 1 6 2 9 Itydtsu-C 23,098 6,329 235.5 100 3/V.2/V i/X 3 7 10 Shirane-C 53,203 12,298 14Q.1 100 3/V 2/H 12 22 34 Toyoscka-C 37,495 8,703 76.4 25 75 3 N 1/M 2 4 6 4 7 11 Sanjo-C til,233 20,969 76.5 100 3/tf 2/H 14 26 40 ------- JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER YOTSUYA- KAMICHO 198, KAWASAKI, JAPAN TELEPHONE 04 4-2 6 >4 B 9 G 3-2 Method of refuse collection and transportation (1) Refuse collection method Refuse collection is the closest point of the dis- chargers and the disposers. For quick, smooth, clean and efficient refuse collection, both must understand and cooperate each other. For such purpose, the follow- ing requirements must he met. A) Sufficient collecting capacity, and flexible adap- tation to change of condition. B) Method which does not induce any pollution. C) Favorable and comfortable working condition. Lo'v cost and high efficiency D) Impartial fee charge system But, at present there are various styles of container, collection frequency, content of separate collection sna kind of collecting car in each city, as described in Table 9 to 11. A) As for container, Table 9, 10 show the data on 338 cities investigated by Tokyo Metropolitan Government. According to Table 9, pack collection including paper pack and poly pack points up to 65 ^ . Next is poly container with 25 $ of occupation. B) According to the using condition of container by each city scale in Table 10, more than 53 f- out of all cities whose population is more than 500 thousand are using poly containers. In cities whose population is less than 500 thousand, using ratio of poly container including paper pack and poly pack is more than 56 ------- YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198. KAWASAKI. JAPAN TELEPHONE O44-28-4096 Separate collection is executed for the purpose of dismantling burden of disposal, protection against secondary pollution and spurce recycling. The actual situation of collection frequency is shown in Table 7 and 8. The collecting cars usually used are shown in Fig. 6 . (2) Refuse transportation method Refuse transportation is executed as described in Fig. 7 . Refuse transportation is to transport spatially and directionally collected refuse from intermediate gtation or collection place to the terminals such as treatment plant or disposal site. Naturally, it is desirable to transport them quiclcly, smoothly, cleanly by vehicles or vessels. In recent traffic mess, long transportation, of many small size cars put spurs to traffic congestion. And as wellf it takes long hours, which inakes it im- possible to quickly move to and fro. Further, during transportation time workers in charge of collection must wait for cars for long time. In order to remove such demerit, collection and trans- portation must be separated. In this point, intern- mediate station is the separate point and also the closest point in work. Here, refuse are transshiped from many cars to bulk cars. And there provided storing function which make adjust- ment in time and amount possible. In a word, inter- mediate station has function of A) harmonization of refuse flow B) switchover of transportation mediums. As shown in Fig. 6, trucks and container cars are usually used in inland area. Vessels and lighters are used in ocean . The new method is air pipe method. In a new town in Chiba prefecture disposer with liquid pipe is planned to be provided. Beside:;, railwr-.y, bolt convoyor and monorail are in the rrmfto of c. o n : i (1 n rn h i o ri _ ------- JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198. KAWASAKI. JAPAN TELEPHONE 0 4 4 - 2 e - 4 a 9 6 Transhipment yard in refuse ocean transportation Tokyo and Osaka city are adopting vessel and floating dock system for the purpose of increase of efficiencjr by ocean transportation, protection against refuse scattering and change of image. This is consisted of a tranship ment facilities ( floating dock ) and lighter, and pusher. Collected refuse are dumped from cars into lighter at the transhipment facilities and transported to offshore land reclamation area. The floating dock is fixed by supporting post and spud at the sea bottom. In its both trunks a lighter is pushed by a pusher and locked. When a lighter is locked in both trunks protection seat against refuse scattering is rolled down so that refuse might not be scattered on sea surface. Chuting hole is voluntarily set with moving layer of floating dock. After transhipment of the fixed amount of refuse is completed, refuse in a lighter are leveled by leveling machine provided at lower part of moving layer. When transhipment is wholy completed, protection seat is rolled up, and rolling seat provided at the stern covers combing top so that refuse might not be scattered during ocean transportation. And lock of floating dock and lighter are off. Then lighter moves to the fixed disposal site. The details of this system are shown in "Fig. 8, and Table 12 . ------- JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198. KAWASAKI. JAPAN TELEPHONE 044-2 6-4 B 8 8 Improvement on refuse collection and transportation So far, the writer indicates that there are many items to be improved. For the countermeasure the following points are pointed out in principle. Iil accordance with area, land shape and traffic condition, collection and transportation must "be separated at intermediate station. The collection method is not uniform. Adequate combined method meeting with characteristic of cities must be taken. For instance, combination of bucket, pack, container and air pipe must be con- sidered. As for transportation, enlargement of cars and containerization if trafic condition allows, must be considered. And efficient small size car must be developed for the congested district. Transportation medium must be diversified. Transportation route must be dispersed. For new collection and transportation system the following items must be considered. a) Sufficient capacity b) Flexibility c) Standardization d) Consistency e) No pollution f) Abbreviation of labor s) Low cost ------- Table 9. Container Note: Investigatior on present condition regard ing collection. (Toltyp public cleansing bui October 1972 Table 10. Container using situation per population (Unit: fo) Container Pop\ilation"^-^_^ Paper pack Poly pack Poly container Special container Trush Dust box Others Municipality investigated Less than 50 thousand 30.6 32.0 23.2 8.4 2.3 1.6 1.9 134 cities 50-100 thousand 32.1 35.8 20.9 2.4 1.0 5.4 2.4 98 100—200 thousand 29.9 28.4 26.2 1.4 4.6 3.1 6.4 50 200-300 thousand 39.8 29-6 22.0 0 2.6 1.6 4.4, . 31 300-400 thousand 23.8 32.2 28.2 3.5 0.3 11.6 0.4 9 400-500 thousand 20.2 79.2 0 0 0.6 0 0 5 500-1000 thousand 3.8 0 93.8 0 0 0 2.4 4 More than one million 8.3 29.0 53.3 0 0 7.9 1.5 7 Total 338 cities Note: Investigation on present condition regarding collection. (Tokyo public cleansing bureau October 1972) Kind Using rate Paper pack 31.8 Poly pack 33.2 Poly container 25.0 Special 1.7 Trash 1.5 Dust box 4.6 Others 3.4 Municipality investigated 338 cities 1.1. 3 / ------- Tab]e 11. Collection method of domestic refuse in Japan 1 Separate collection • (U :(2) Incombus- incombus- (4) Other rcfu; Characteristics of refuse Kind of refuse Mixed collec- tion tibles separated tibles not suit for incin- eration separated incombus- tibles not wuit for incineratic separated I. Combustibles Food refuse (animality, vegetability) A A A A Others (paper, collulose, A A A B wood bamboo, leaves) II. Not suit for Plastics (container, pack) A A B C incineration Rubber, leather A A B C III. Incombus- Metal (used can) A B C D tibles Gravel, brick A B c D Glass (used bottle), wares A B c D Total One line two lines Three lines Four line: IV. Bulk refuse TV set, refrigerator, furniture A» B' C' D' Note: (1) is eminent in municipality whose main method is reclamation. ,a (2) is most popular in municipality whose main method is incineration. (3) is the method in Tokyo and the other cities, but increase. (4.) is very rare. IV is collected once per week or once per month. JT/. /. 3 2. ------- Fig. 7. Transportation system of refuse in Tokyo Collecting car Direct transportation Incinerator plant ^ Container intermediate station Container car Load change for bulk car :> Bulk car Load change for vessel Remains Fig. 8. Section of floating dock cailing /./. 33 Protection seat against refuse sea level sea-bottom ------- •Table 12. Vessel for .foating dock Kind Refuse transit yard Lighter Pusher for lighter • No. 1 4 2 Total length 76.00m (excluding fender beam) 71.00m (inclding pushing) 28.00m (excluding fender beam) Length 68.00m (perpendicu- lar line) 70.00m 25.00m (perpendicu- lar line Total width 24.00m (excluding fender beam Width 22.00m' 13.70m 86.0m Depth 11.50m 3.50m 3.70m Draft 3.15m 2.60m Shed total length 68.00m Shed total width 20.00m Shed height 7.63m : Hatch capacity 2,500m3 Loading weight 750t 1 Total weight 195t Main engine HP 950PSx2 /JV ------- JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER YOTSUVA-KAMtCHO 198. KAWASAKI, JAPAN TELEPHONE 044-26-4890 Separate collection and recycling in Sapporo city Tokyo, Sapporo, Sendai and Hamamatsu have "been favored with good result in source recycling by adopting different method from the ordinary method, in order to minimize the amount of refuse. Especially, actual result in Sapporo city is described below. Their conception is following two points. It is meaningless to transport collected refuse directly to disposal site, as done in separate col- lection of incombustbles. It is impossible to maintain clean enviroment which is necessary for human life, without letting local inhabitants bear social liability in order to put source recycle into practice. Under these conceptions, Sapporo city executed in- spections of following items. Collection of incombustibles at the same time as other refuse Collection of incombustibles at one or two times per month, but together with other refuse Collection of only incombustibles at different day from that for other refuse. According to these three inspections, the method of C) was found most satisfactory to the inhabitants. Then Sapporo city established such plan to recover refuse which can be recovered as source after col- lection of three kind of refuse, that are incombustible recoverable refuse and bulky refuse, as described in Fig. 9'. And as for collection and transportation they borrow snecial car from agents of refuse disposal. ------- JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198, KAWASAKI. JAPAN TELEPHONE O4«.2B-4B0e As'a result, they hava been accumulating good result with following tendency. Papers such as newspaper and magazine are large in amount Bottles ( oil bottles and so.on) are impossible to recover Food refuse are large in amount by district Plastics are small in amount Refuse amount extremely change The tendency of A) and B) shows that self combustion at each household comes rare and that empty bottle are disposed in special recovery route. And the tendency of C) and D) shows that there exist such misunderstanding among inhabitants that food refuse are incombustible and plastics are combustible. The tendency of 3) indicates that extreme change of collection amount induces problem of loss and profit to special recovery agents, which requires some counter measures. In order to promote source recycling, Sapporo city is continuing this method which adopts total collection system talcing advantage of local organization. In this system Sapporo city is in charge of transportation in the place of special recovery agent. Nov/, many cities began to study same system. ------- JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198. KAWASAKI. JAPAN TELEPHONE 0 4 4 -2 B-A 8 9 6 Table 13 Assignments Section Remarks « Cities oadjustment and' storage by each collection agent oreport on collection condition to health center creport on acquirement of disposal site ®report on disposal condition to health center ointermediate report,reclamation .Health center ocollection of reports from cities «report on collection condition to prefectural government oinformation to mayor on schedule of disposal c report on disposal work to prefect-iral government prefecture o collection of reports from health center cinformation to P conference on collection condition odiscussion on disposal plan ith (£) conference oinformation to health center.on schedule of disposal prefecture ®. conference o adjustment with prefectural government odiscussion on schedule of disposal o dispatch of tec.inical personnels ostorage of parts including PCB oreport to mayor and prefectural government on schedule • of .disposal Fig. 10 Flov/ of recovery work for electrical appliances including PCB removal and storage of parts including PCB by P conference collected electrical appliances electrical applia ices including PCB - marts,. including PCJ valuables inv&luacles discharge from household 37 collection by municipalities transportation and selection by municipalities information to P conference separation, intermediate selection treatment and recovery and by special disposal by agents ..municipalit.ie: ------- JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198. KAWASAKI. JAPAN TELEPHONE O 4 4 • 2 B • 4 S 0 6 3-4 Sample of recovery system for electrical appliances containing PuB Each prefectural government began to study the disposal method for electrical appliances since pollution problem arised from POB became social interest. The sanitation department of Okayama prefecture established in .. 1973 a conference with makers of electrical appliances after conclusion of memorandum with them regarding of electrical appliances including POB and removal of PCB. And they remove PCB from electrical appliances collected by every cleansing bureau under liability of the conference. Because it is almost impossible to remove POB after reruse including PCB are incinerated or reclamated. Then, it is nece- ssary to separate refuse including PCB from others before they are mixed. Now, technical personnels dispacftlied from makers ex- tract any parts including PCB from other composition. All officials in charge have \ pointed out necessity of countermeasure for PCB as some electrical appliances are directly disposed from general household or sales shops to special recovery agents, and recovered as scrap. Therefore, same prefecture concluded a memorandum in Dec. 1973 y/ith Okayama (B conference consisted of makers and sales agents, and prepared the disposal manual of electrical appliances. As for management, same prefecture, municipalities and makers are iacharge as described in Table 13. , According to this system, Okayama city extracted electrical ------- JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198. KAWASAKI, JAPAN , TELEPHONE 044-26-4000 appliances; including PCB from refuse collected at each district. And technicajL personnels dis patched fon makers removed any parts including PCB as described in Fig. 10. Afterward each city in Okayama prefecture has performed this system, Which resulted in no PCB indicated according to investigation at refuse treatment plant and disposal site, Therefore it ca.i be said that the ex- pected improvement has been fulfilled. This method is one of the intermediate treatment method of bulky refuse, but called a special method because after collection and transportation, prefectural government directly has relation with treatment and makers are in charge of removal of PCB parts. ------- JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198. KAWASAKI. JAPAN TELEPHONE 044-20-4006 Costs for refuse collection and transportation Cost for refuse disposal in each municipality are now rising due to increase of labor charge and cost of construction materials. The total cost of refuse disposal in 1972 was multi- plied by 4 times against that in 1964 . The cost per ton was multiplied by 2.5 times, that is from ¥ 3,550 to 8,716 . It is often told that cost for refuse disposal per ton in Tokyo is higher by 10 to 20 # than that in other cities . For a sample, Table 14 shows comparison of Tokyo and Kawasaki. The cost in Kawasaki is lower by '16. to 26 than that in Tokyo. . This difference is supposed to be derived from city structure. Especially in Kawasaki city, it is highly appreciated that collection efficiency is satisfactory due to advantageous configuration of the ground and location of disposal facilities. Table 14-1 (unit;1000 yen) Name of . city :i967 1968 1969 \| 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 Tokyo 5208 5374 6002 \| 6677 7661 8716 11264 Kawasaki 3864 4612 4822 j 5189 5972 j 7327 9255 13538 ratio of Kawasaki against jTokyo 74.2 85.8 80.3 \| 77.7 i I 1 " 78.0 84.1 82.2 <57/./. Va ------- JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER YOTSUYA-KAMICHQ 198. KAWASAKI. JAPAN TELEPHONE 044-26-4896 As a matter of fact, costs for refuse collection and transportation occupies 60 $ to 80 % in total ^ cost for disposal. As described:'.in "2rg. "_11 82 in Tokyo and 74 # in Kyoto. Out of cost of collection and transportation 70 to 80 fo is labor charge ( please refer to Table 15 ) . In summary, work of refuse disposal is labor concen- tration enterprise. Therefore, although it is desirable to organize direct management from the view point of planning, control and liability, there are some cities which consign work of collection and transportation to agents or mandataries because this work costs high and brings uncomfortable condition. & /,/. V/ ------- Tableiv-J Disposal cost In Tokyo and Kawasaki. City Fiscal year Total refuse anount (t) Planed population of collection Total cost (disposal cost) Di S003&1 COSt per ton clean&lQg fee General account <4) Labor charge Collection and transportation cost It) Disposal cost per capita tYf-) Citizen tax per capita c/o«) Cost (total) f yen) Cost for collection and trans- portation^) Cost for nan element Cost for final iis\|tosal Tokyo 1974 1973 1972 4,724.693 4.65,543 4.521,005 3 673 642 8.738.997 3.796.293 66.141,971 47.155.583 34,770.012 13 710.99 11.263.95 8.715-65 JO. 5 82.9 81.1 . 2.2 1.7 3.8 17.4 15-4 15.1 5.5 5.5 5.1 68.5 66.3 65.7 7.621 • 5,396 3,979 11,236 8.745 7,407 ka-sa- saK: 197+ 1973 1972 354,709 364,040 373.559 996.579 991.317 980.280 4.537.412> '3,1,46.229 2.596.091 13<537.52 9.254.81 7.327.19 53-7 54.4 53.1 2.9 2.7 2.3 43.3 42.8 44.6 5.8 5.8 6.6 88.4 86.5 \ 84.7 4.553 3.174 2,648 16.247 12,163 10.594 Note i 1) In disposal cost per ton in Tokyo .and Kawasaki, cost for final disposal is consisted of that for incineration and Veclamation. ' 2) Cleansing fee includes refuse night .soil, facilities and clewing nanagetaent. 3) Pigures aoet, eleansine fee and general aooount in 1974 in Tokyo are anticipated figures. ------- ------- Table 15'. Change of disposal cost per ton rjohyo ) Kind Fiscal Year Disposal cost per ton Index Increase ratio against past year Distribution ratio Wage Material Depreciatio: 1965 ¥4,177.42 100 - % - % - - * 1966 4,803.30 115 15.6 51.6 25.9 22.5 1967 5,207.91 125 8.4 36.4 66.1 2.5 1968 5,378.81 129 3.2 140.8 20.7 20.1 Refuse 1969 6,002.30 144 11.7 81.7 17.9 0.4 1970 6,676.64 160 11.2 48.1 44.5 7.4 1971 7,660.54 183 14.7 60.2 39.5 0.3 1972 8,715.65 209 13.8 65.7 32.7 1.6 1973 11,263.95 270 29.2 73.8 26.3 0.1 1965 2,176.51 100 - - - - 1966 2,398.07 110 10.2 65.5 34.2 0.3 1967 2,664.43 122 11.1 77.8 17.9 4.3 1968 2,931.29 135 10.0 73.2 25.4 1.4 Night-soil 1969 3,299.21 152 12.6 70.2 30.9 1.1 1970 3,756.99 173 13.9 62.8 40.0 2.8 1971 4,529.97 208 20.6 76.5 20.4 3.1 1972 5,729.01 263 12.0 101.7 1.6 0.1 1973 7,364.69 338 28.6 69.5 30.0 0.5 j-.ui.-yf ------- JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER YOTSUYA-KAMtCHO 198, KAWASAKI, JAPAN TELEPHONE 044-28-4896 Pr6blem and proposal regarding refuse collection and disposal:. It is the main purpose of refuse collection and transportation to collect and transport refuse - discharged at random from many district quickly, smoothly and efficiently. For this purpose, the following 5 items must be taken into serious consideration. Necessity of environmental measures There needed measures against odor, exudation of waste water, scatter of dust, noise generated from collecting car "and beating sound of metal make con- tainer, traffic congestion, and lack of fine view. Necessity of adjustment with local inhabitant's The following items must be taken into serious consideration Selection of separate collection and mixing collection ( realization of source recycle, efficiency in treatment and possibility in inhabitants cooperation Selection of discharging and storing method ( pack, poly7container, common use metal make container, container for dust chute and disposer ) Selection of collection and transportation method ( vehicles of every size, vehicles with special device air transportation system, railway and vessels ) Selection of collection efficiency ( one to seven tii/ies per week and local speciality ) Better arrangement of work, vehicles station, ------- JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198, KAWASAKI. JAPAN TELEPHONB 044-28-4806 Necessity of improvement on working condition The following items must be taken into serious considerration Clean Mechanization Protection against danger Night and early morning collection Comprehension of working efficiency and work management In order to increase work efficiency management staffs must comprehend importance of labor management respect of the principle of municipal policy in finance which expect the largest effect from the smallest cost Increase of labor charge ( labor abbreviation, consignment to unofficials and increase of working efficiency ) Realization of night collection and early morning collection Reduction of manual work ( Adoption of mechanization and new technique ) Establishment of beneficiary charge system of domestic refuse Beneficiary charge system regarding domestic refuse must be reestablished. The sufferer must be exempted from the fee. S". /./. V6 ------- JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198. KAWASAKI. JAPAN TELEPHONE 044-28-4896 Promotion of liability Financial coverage of cost for refuse disposal Leveling of unbalance of each district ( exemption of the sufferers from fee charge ) Adaptation of the principle of ppp to discharges:, of domestic refuse ( passenger's burden of aircraft noise beneficiary charge system in public sewerage based on he-v/ho-'oenef its-ought-to-pay-p.. inciple) Jr. it, V7 ------- IMPROVEMENT OF REFUSE COLLECTION SYSTEM By Mitsuo Moronaga Director, Public Cleansing Bureau Kita Kyushu City ------- Foreword First of all, it will be necessary to see how the refuse collection system is positioned as a subsystem in the refuse management system, what relationship it has with the other subsystems and of what characteristic it is. Next, it will be considered what the refuse collection system ought of be generally and in the refuse management system as a part of the municipal administration. As the conclusion of the foregoing consideration, it will be duscussed what improvement is made of the refuse collection system immediately and what problem it has to be resolved in the future. 1. Position of Refuse Collection System (As a Subsystem in Refuse Treatment System. The refuse management system may be taken generally as a system comprising four steps (subsystems) of collection, transportation, treatment (incineration, etc.) and final disposal. Accordingly, the refuse collection system may be taken as one of the four subsystems of the refuse management system. (Actually, however, with trucks or other vehicles used for collecting the refuse, the collection and transportation are carried out continuously as if they constitutes one system. 4-l^.i - ------- But, they are different in the objective and should be taken as two separate systems theoretically.) Further, the fefuse collection system is positioned at the first step of the refuse management. It is at the point of contact with the inhabitants who discharge the refuse and thus holds a position to input the refuse into the refuse management system through arrangements with the inhabitants with respect to the refuse container, collection frequency and time, and the place of temporary accumulation of the refuse from the respective families. 2. Refuse Collection System as Related to the Other Subsystems The systems of refuse collection, transportation, treatment and final disposal are related with one another, and a change in one system affects the other systems. For example, depending on the form of collection, mixed or sorted, the quantity as well as quality of the refuse is subject to change, and when the treatment (such as incineration) has a problem generated, the collection method will have to be changed (from mixed to sorted collection). However, so long as the clean up service is intended for the benefit of the inhabitants, the refuse collection system connected directly with the inhabitants should first be determined, as a rule, in a manner for which the approval of I. 2 - ------- the inhabitants is obtainable, then the transportation, treatment and final disposal systems should be determined accordingly. 3. Characteristics of Refuse Collection System (1) Direct connection with all inhabitants The refuse collection system is designed for collection of refuse with all inhabitants as an object. Thus, the determination of, or a change in, the refuse collection system is more or less concerned with the interests of the inhabitants. Therefore, understanding and support of the inhabitants are prerequisite for determination of such system. (2) External restrictions The refuse collection system is to be adapted for the established city conditions and is, therefore, subject to the restrictions of external factors varying with the area such as excessive concentration of the industries and popula- tion, degradation of the road traffic condition, limited urban space, and complaints or opposition of the inhabitants. (3) High dependency on labor In addition to the foregoing difficulty of external restrictions, the refuse collection is a planar system spreading over the whole area of a city so that it is lagging in the rationalization and modernization or mechanization of S". I.. 3 - ------- the works. Thus, it requires a large amount of expense particularly for labor. According to the cost calculation of Kita-Kyushu City for fiscal 1974, the expense required for collection and transportation constitutes more than 80 percent of all the expense for refuse management. 4. Preferable Refuse Collection System (1) No difficulty caused to conservation of the environment The system should involve little generation of offensive odor, scattering of refuse and leak of foul water and scarcely cause traffic congestion and must, at least, be acceptable by the inhabitants. With respect to the last mentioned, however, the level of requirement may very with development of the collection technique, PR by the administration or understanding of the inhabitants. Further, the working conditions and environment must be desirable for the personnel engaged in the collection. (2) Being acceptable by the greater inhabitants The refuse collection system is concerned with all inhabitants. Thus, in order for such system to be supported by as many inhabitants as possible, it must be simple and not troublesome for the inhabitants 5.I.2-. - ------- ( 3) Flexibility and stability The refuse has its quantity and quality changed with change in the economic situation or living mode and also with change of the cycle of refuse collection or the season i I or weather. Thus, the refuse collection system should have a flexibility for adaptation to such change. Next, the refuse management system or, more particularly, its first step, that is, refuse collection is closely related with the daily life of the people so that its execution is not allowed to stop for only one day. It should adapt itself with flexibility to an accident or unexpected situa- tion or change in the external restrictive conditions and allow stable collection of the refuse. (4) Low cost The refuse management is carried out with its expense borne by the inhabitants in the form of tax or fee so that its economy should not be neglected. Particularly, the collection of refuse is highly dependent on labor and lagging in modernization and rationalization as stated in the fore- going. Thus, it is the division requiring the largest expense among other divisions of the refuse management system so that the cost down must always be kept in mind. However, this cost down must be well balanced with the i"J.. - ------- service to the inhabitants and be understandable for or persuasive of the inhabitants. (5) Smooth connection with the other subsystems The refuse collection system is closely related with the other subsystems of ^transportation, intermediate treatment and terminal disposition in the refuse management system, and its improvement is not practicalble in disregard of the relationship with the other subsystems. * Improvements of Refuse Collection System in Kita-Kyushu City: 1963-1967 Concrete refuse box (for general dwellings), and Dust chute (for high storied dwellings) were abolished and improved into the polyethylene container collection. 1968-1971 Polyethylene bag collection (for general dwellings), and Container collection (for high storied dwellings) were carried out first at a model area then extensively. 1971 Polyethylene bag collection (for general dwellings), \ 1.^.6 - ------- and Container collection (for high storied dwellings) were carried out over the whole city area. Supply of polyethylene bags without cost 100 bags annually for each of general dwellings, and 365 bags annually for each container. Bulky refuse sorted collection was carried out at a frequency of 3 times a year. 5. Future Problems For improvement of the refuse collection system, there are various difficult external restrictive conditions sucn as the existing city structure and consensus of the inhabitants and other requirements and conditions such as the flexibility and stability of the system and prevention of the environ- mental pollution, and these conditions must be satisfied in the planar extension of the system. Thus, the improvement is a very difficult problem. The difficulty of improvement is well proved by the lagging modernization and rationalization of the refuse collection system in the city. Here, the corrective measures immediately conceivable and those to be taken as the future problems will be discussed. 7 - ------- (1) Immediate improvement Upon the conventional system of refuse collection by vehicles, the following improvements should be aimed at. a. Reduction of the amount of refuse: Promote the reduction of refuse amount through cooperation of the inhabitants as well as the manufacturers and distributors of the daily consumption materials along with improvement of the collection work for furtherance of efficient refuse management. b. Establishment of the cooperative system of inhabitants: Give a correct understanding of the refuse manage- ment to the inhabitants by thorough PR, thus establishing a cooperative system of the inhabitants to the collection work and improving the collection system. For example, standardization of the refuse container or bag and dissemination of the matters to be observed, observance of the specific method of sorting in sorted collection, prevention of environmental pollution due to disorderly refuse output at the refuse station, etc. will be promoted. c. Adequate distribution of refuse management facilities: ------- With a refuse relay or treatment facility provided for each area of collection of an appropriate scale, promote the efficient operation of the transportation system and enhance the efficiency of the refuse collection system. In such case, the intermediate treatment facility (such as incinerator) should have a relaying facility provided* d. Isolation of refuse collection system and trans- portation system: By isolating the transportation system from the refuse collection system as required depending on the distance of transport and introducing large relay transport vehicles, rationalize the trans- portation system and improve the efficiency of the refuse collection system. (2) Improvements as future problems The largest and most difficult restrictive condition for improvement of the refuse collection system is the existing city structure itself. The cities in our country were formed before the refuse management was positioned as one of the important measures of administration as is today and expanded rapidly with the high economic growth'. Thus, the sewage and waste f.tZ.9 - ------- management measures have always been of the following administration and are still greatly retarded presently. With such background, the city planning from now on must incorporate a city structure in which the refuse manage- ment is fully taken into consideration, while the existing urban area must be improved or remodelled equally. In such a case, efforts must be exercised toward drastic improvement of the refuse collection system with positive introduction of new refuse management techiniques (such as, for example, air transport of refuse). (Reference) Refuse Management Work of Kita-Kyushu City Objective (as of the end of fiscal 1975): About 1,060,000 population. Collection (experience in fiscal 1974): About 242,000 tons/year. Treatment facilities: Hiaki Incinerator Plant Completed 1972; Continuous incinerator, 450 t/24 H; Heat utilization, steam supply to Treatment Plant and Central Wholesale Market. Xogozaki Incinerator Plant Completed 1975; Continuous incinerator, 600 t/24 H; Heat utilization, power generation 3000 KW. 1.^.10 - ------- Nishiminato Crushing Plant Completed 1973; 200 t/5 H. Shin Moji Incinerator Plant To be completed 1977; Continuous incinerator, 600 t/24 H; Heat utilization, power generation 1500 KW and steam supply to heated swimming pool at Aged Welfare Center. Reclamation sites: 8 11 ------- Separate Collection of Household Refuse in Tokyo bureau of Public Cleansing Tokyo Metropolitan Government 3-8-1, Marunouchi, Chiyoda~ku; Tokyo, Japan A3 of today, in the territory of 23 special wards of Tokyo, we are adopt- ing the separate collection system of household refuse, in which the refuse is classified into three groups^ ordinary refuse (combustibles), separated refuse (noncombustibles and inadequate refuse for incineration) and bulky refuse. Tokyo is the overpopulated city with a population of 3,6c0,000 and an area of 577 Km^ in the wards, and discharges 4,700,000 tons of refuse a year. In the 1970'f:s the refuse has been increasing rapidly in quantity and has become various in quality, and furthermore, the delay of the construc- tion of incineration plants, the lack of the landfill area and the protest from the inhabitants of Koto Ward where the landfill has been under w^y have made the refuse management problem serious. Then, in September 1971, Governor Minobe declared a "war against garbage'1 at the session of the Tokyo Metropolitan Assembly, asking cooperation of the inhabitants of all wards, and began to concentrate all powers of T.M.G. on the problem. ------- The refuse management is one of the mo'st important services to keep the healthy life and environment of the inhabitants. Sor we had inspected main items of the flue gas and waste water discharged from the all incinera- tion plants, and we made the thorough investigation of all plants on the secondary pollution in the latter half of 1972. As the' result of it, it was found that the content of heavy metals in the discharged water was over the legal standard at some plants. Heavy metals, for example cadmium and lead derive from the noncombustibles and the inadequate refuse for incineration which are composed r.ainly of plastics. Heavy metals, as well as hydrochlorides and nitrogen oxides in the flue gas, are the pollutantss and then it was recognized that the separata management of the refuse was effective for the pollution control. Therefore, we accelerated th-3 3 year plan of separate collection which had been in the course of preparation for the practice. We began to practice it since April 1973 as the urgent countermeasure against the secondary pollution from the incineration plants, and it was carried out in the whole wards in September 1°74. It is estimated that 2/3 of the noncombustibles and 1/2 of the inadequate refuse for incineration are collected separately and reach to 2,00° metric tons and ov°r a day by the oractice of it. ------- It: was with the cooperation of the inhabitants and the intense effort of T.M.C. that this system was carried out successfuJ 1 y on i larp.o ncnlr* In a short tf.'nn. And the following results have been realized actually;. 1) The plastics in the household refuse were over 10% in content in 1970, and caused many troubles for incineration process, for example the increase of hydrochlorides, the lowering efficiency of the incineration by the increase of the calorific value, the corrosion hydrochloride gases and so or. But after the practice of the separata collection, the content has become about !>% in the ordinary refuse and the troub?.es have been decreased. 2) Heavy metal content in the flyash and residue has been rediced in half. 3) The discharged waste water;: has been controlled enough under the legal standard. 4) The incineration of all ordinary refuse is the foundamental policy of refuse management in Tokyo, and it has been accelerated by the sanitary landfill of separated and bulky refuse. Separated refuse is now disposed to landfill without pre-treatment, however it will be crushed with the bulky refuse and the valuable substances will be recovered progressively as recycled resource in near future. / ------- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Solid Waste Management Programs Solid Waste Collection Systems 1n the United States . by Kenneth A. Shuster Presented at the Third U.S.-Japan Conference on Solid Waste Management, Tokyo, Japan May 12-14, 1976 1 ------- INTRODUCTION This report discusses storage, collection, and transportation phases of municipal solid waste management. In the United States, the annual cost of storage, collection, and transportation (excluding * ' t transfer stations) 1s an estimated $5.5 billion, about 75 to 80 percent £ of the total municipal solid waste management cost. The primary objective of storage and collection systems 1s environmental: to remove the discards or wastes of society In order to protect the health, safety, and sanitation of the public, and to provide for an aesthetically clean living environment. Other objectives are: continuity of service: to ensure the stability of this vital service by reducing the chances of equipment failures, labor strikes, company financial bankruptcies, and labor turnover and absenteeism; level of service: to provide the desired convenience or level of service (for " / example backyard service); safety: to reduce Injuries and their asso- ciated costs; resource conservation and recovery (a rapidly developing objective): . to reduce the amount of waste materials In the first place and to recover the remaining materials or energy value of them; efficiency: to achieve the above objectives with the highest possible productivity (stops and tons per man per day) and lowest cost. €¦ a, I ------- These objectives are the measures of. effectiveness used in % . evaluating various systems. The aspects discussed in this report are categorized as: (1) institutional and organizational, (2) storage, (3) collection, (4) transportation, and (5) source separation. MAJOR PROBLEM AREAS 1. Safety. Yearly surveys by the National Safety Council consistently show solid waste collection 1s the most hazardous governmental occupation in the United States in terms of injuries per man hour worked. The costs of each injury average 4 to 5 times the direct medical cost. .... 2. Productivity and Cost. Most systems are inefficient, partly because of their emphasis on getting the waste picked up on collection day rather than productivity. A savings of 15 to 25 percent is possible for most systems in the United States. Some have achieved 50 to 60 percent savings. • , i 1 3. Lack of Continuity of Service. Labor strikes, turnover, and absenteeism, equipment breakdowns, and company bankruptcies cause discontinuities of service. 5 2.. 2 ------- 4. Inner-City Areas. Due to citizen and collector attitudes, storage conditions, and collection systems, many inner-city areas (generally t east of the Mississippi River) are unsightly, unsafe, and a health menace because of solid waste accumulations. Rats, fires, and Injuries to children are the most coiranon problems. 5. Resource Recovery. About 140 communities in the United States are recycling newspapers on a regular basis. Less than 10 are known to be also recycling glass bottles and metal cans on a regular basis. More recycling Is needed. INSTITUTIONAL AND ORGANIZATION FACTORS One of the first decisions to be made 1n developing or redesigning a collection system is what organization Is responsible for collecting the wastes, raising the revenues, and/or controlling the system. » Public or Private Operation and Multi"Jurisdictional Approaches, i, Residential collection by public systems 1s usually performed by a department within a municipal bureaucracy. Some public systems, however, are either separate non-profit organizations, or a multi-jurisdictional agency. Collection by private haulers may mean areas with free and open competition, areas with limited entry, areas with exclusive franchises, and municipal contracts. These public and private organizational r3 ------- arrangements are summarized In Tables 1 and 2. The open competition residential systems tend to be Inefficient because of the duplication of resources (men and trucks) 1n the same areas, and the Increased chances of bankruptcies. Exclusive franchises without performance and cost controls tend to become excessively costly for the service received. Otherwise, the keys to a successful system are good management and crew Incentives (such as competition among crews), and not whether the system 1s public or private. The multl-jurisdictional approach to management, Including information sharing, tends to improve management, enable economies of scale, and provide the necessary motivating competitive situation. In the United States, 65.5 percent of the cities have private haulers for residential collection, 34.5 have public systems, and 5 percent have both. On a population basis, however, 39 percent of the United States population receive collection by private haulers and 61 percent of the population receive public collection. That is, most of the major cities are public systems. Nationally, about 95 percent of the commercial collection is done by private haulers. Financing. A second major decision is the source of revenues to finance the collection system. In the United States, there are two s general sources of operating revenues: tax levies from the city's general fund, or direct user charge (Table 3). The user charge may be a 6~- 2. 4 ------- Table 1 POTENTIAL ADVANTAGES AND. DISADVANTAGES OP TYPES OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE OWNERSHIP AND OPERATION OP COLLECTION SERVICES, AND THE CONDITIONS THAT FAVOR EACH Alternative Potential advantages Potential disadvantages Conditions which favor alternative Public Municipal department Tax-free Nonprofit Economies of scale City has administrative control Can institute separate collection for recycling Can institute mandatory collection Management and policies are continuous over time, resulting in experienced personnel and permitting long-range planning Records can be kept over a long time Private Private Competitive bidding for firms with contracts) helps keep prices contract down SStSIS" City retains administrative control Can institute separate collection for recycling Can institute mandatory collection . Monopolistic Lack of incentive to maximize efficiency Financing and operations often influenced by political constraints Frequently financed from general tax fund and subject to 1-year budgeting process Solid waste management often low-priority Hon in budget Labor pressures may result in inefficient labor practices and strikes Restrictive budget policies may affect equipment replacement and maintenance Policies of job-support inflate labor costs Private firms in open compe- tition Past history of unsatisfactory contractual operations f;r public services " Public predisposition to,r!ards government operation ol. public services £ Quality of service provided more important criterion than economics contractors Competition may reduce costs Self-financing Danger of collusion in bidding Flexibility is needed to make Public agency must regulate ^I^K^s^ings and other cost reductions Existence of qualified private contractors Public predisposition towards private sector involvement in public services Newly incorporated communities, or where population growth is outpacing ability of community to provide public services Unacceptable alternative City has no administrative control Danger of collusion among haulers to reduce competition and keep prices high Cutthroat competition can result in business failures and service interruptions Overlapping routes, waste of fuel Cannot institute citywide separate collection for recycling Difficult to enforce mandatory collection ordinances fContinutdf ------- Table 1 POTENTIAL ADVANTAOM AND DI8ABVANTA0ES OT TYPE OP PUDUC AN* FK1VATK OWNSMHIP AND OPERATION OP COLLSCTMN IMVICIS, AND TUX CONDITIONS THAT PAVOB EACH— Conctudlt Alternative Potential advantages Potential 'disadvantages Conditions which favor alternative Private firms with exclusive franchises Self-financing Combination of public and private: Municipal system and. private firms under contract Competition between municipal system and private firms Ci% has no administrative Unacceptable alternative Monopolistic, can lead to high prices Cannot Institute separate collection fa recycling Difficult to enforce mandatary collection ordinances Competition helps keep price down Alternative available if either sector cannot deliver service City, has administrative control Can institute separate collection for recycling Can institute mandatary collection Competition helps keep prices down Municipality is expanding through annexation or merger with ether Jurisdictions Changing fromaeparate garbage and traoheollection to • combined colicfen Overlapping routes, waste of Aid Can't institute dtgvide separate collection for recycling Lock of mandatory collection Unacceptable alternative 6 ------- Table 2 POTENTIAL ADVANTAOES AND DISADVANTAGES OP TYPES OF MULTtlURlSDICTtONAL APPROACHES Alternative Potential advantages Potential disadvantages Conditions which favor alternative Authority Can finance without voter approval or regard to local debt limit Political influence minimized because board members are private citizens Autonomous from municipal budgetary and administrative constraints Can generate income to make service self-supporting Capital financing is tax exempt Nonprofit Tax-exempt status public Can finance without voter corporations appr0val or regard to local debt limit Assets revert to community after bonds are paid Multicommunity cooperative Special districts Governmental agreements Financing is complex Can become remote from public control Can compete with private industry in some areas, reducing efficiency of both Debt ceiling prohibits finanting by the municipality Voter approval of fina. .ring will delay urgent proje t Political activity hashjpdered activity in past Autonomy from municipal budgetary and administrative control would mean more efficient delivery of service Tax-exempt status is available Does not require State approval Constituency is a distinct group of residents, not scattered bond-holders Local autonomy can be protected by having county officials serve on board Flexible and enforceable method of cooperation Basic governmental structures are not changed Can be implemented quickly and easily Political influence may be exerted because board members are government officials Difficult to dismantle even if better service can be provided by other sources Financing is not backed by full faith and credit of community Member communities lose some autonomy AbOity to raise capital depends on lead community's debt capacity and financing strength , Lead community can be hurt financially unless contracts with other communities are written properly Powers limited by State statute Must rely on special tax levies requiring voter approval Creates an additional unit of government not directly elected by citizens May be difficult to raise capital since each community must borrow No single corporate body, so all communities must agree on any decision If contracts are not carefully written, misunderstandings may arise City wishes to shift financing requirements to an organization outside municipal bureaucracy City wishes to avoid administrative details of providing solid waste management services One city is willing to take lead in securing financing No other governmental unit can provide service Service or function to be< provided is not costly or complex €"2.7 ------- Table 3 POTENTIAL ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TAXES AND USER CHARGES AS SOURCES OP OPERATING REVENUES. AND THE CONDITIONS THAT FAVOR EACH Alternative Potential advantages Potential disadvantages Condition* which favor alternative Property tax Sales tax Municipal utility tax Special tax levies User charges Simple to administer—no separate billing and collection system necessary If part of local property tax, it is deductible from Federal and State income taxes Simple to administer Simple to administer More equitable than ad valorem taxes Can be instituted without voter approval Voter approval usually not required Enables localities to balance the cost of providing solid waste services with revenues Citizens are aware of costs of service and can provide impetus for more efficient „ operations Solid waste management is often a low-priority item in the budget and receives inadequate funds Costs are hidden—less incentive for efficient operation Commercial establishments pay taxes for service they may , not receive Variable monthly income Requires voter approval Income may not be adequate Commercial establishments pay taxes for service they may not receive Variable monthly income Income may be inadequate Amount limited by statute Tradition of tax financing for most public services Recreation areas with high tourist trade Ceiling on property tax rates Tradition of tax financing for most public services Ceiling on property tax rates Tradition of tax financing for osost public services t. More complex to administer Ceiling on property tax rates Can cause problems for users on fixed incomes C. 2.8 ------- fixed charge per home per month or may vary according to the level of service received, e.g. based on point of collection, frequency of collection, or number of containers. STORAGE Residential. The predominant residential storage devices used in the United States are plastic and metal cans, generally 76 to 121 liters (20 to 32 gallons) 1n capacity, and plastic sacks (Table 4). Plastic sacks are particularly common for grass clippings and leaves whiere these are not composted by the homeowner, and the leaves are not collected from the street by the city. Also used, but less frequently, aire paper sacks (2-ply Kraft paper), 208 liter (55 gallon) drums (not recommended by EPA for safety, health, and efficiency reasons), metal 'bins 0.76 to 7.6 cu meters (1 to 10 cu yds) used at apartment complexes and other high density housing units, and plastic 303 to 1,136 liters (80 to 300 gallon) containers. The metal bins'and plastic containers • are mechanically lifted and emptied. Due to air pollution control standards, residential incinerators and backyard burning have been essentially eliminated in urbanized areas. The selection of storage containers should be based on environmental effects, type of collection systems, and costs. Environmentally, some . 9 ------- Table 4 POTENTIAL ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OP TYPES OP RESIDENTIAL'WASTE STORAGE CONTAINERS, AND CONDITIONS THAT PAVOR THE USE OF EACH Alternative Potential advantages Potential disadvantages Condition* which favor alternative Paper or plastic bags Metal or plastic •cans (20- to 30- gal) Bulk contain- ers for mechanized collection Stationary storage bins Easier to handle-«no lids to be removed or replaced Less weight to lift Reduces spillage and blowing litter when loaded in truck One-way container—no cans left at curb Eliminates odors and necessity to clean dirty cans ' Prevents fly entrance Increases speed and efficiency of collection Reduces contact of collector with waste i Reasonable size for collector to lift Economical More efficient than manual collection Drums (55-gal) None None Cost per bag Bags can fail if overfilled . or if too thin Susceptible to animal attacks Not suitable for bulky, heavy, or sharp objects May be difficult to obtain due to energy crisis Curbside collection Must be cleaned regularly when not used with liners Residents oppose storage of other people's waste on their property Lower collection efficiency Excessive weight can result in back injury and muscle strain Difficult to handle * Lack of lids allows insects to breed in waste and odors to escape Rust holes at bottom of drum allow rodents to feed on waste Inefficient—must be emptied manually Lack of proper cover leads to insect and rodent infestation Necessity for hand shoveling of wastes poses health hazard to collectors Backyard collection Alley space available for storage Unacceptable alternative Unacceptable alternative ------- storage containers present health and safety problems to the collectors as well as to the general public. These Include 208 liter (55 gallon) drums and concrete bins. Some environmentally acceptable storage containers are more economical than others. For example, paper and plastic bags are superior to many other containers from a health ands * '• aesthetic standpoint, and can Increase productivity when used 1n con-1 * junction with curbs1de collection. However, with backyard collection systems, bags have little effect on productivity and actually increase costs because of the costs of the bags themselves. Bulk bins are more \ cost effective than conventional cans where enough waste is generated. Commercial. The most common commercial storage containers are metal bulk bins 0.76 to 7.6 cu meters (1 to 10 cu yds) and roll-off containers 15.3 to 30.6 cu meters (20 to 40 cu yds). Both the bulk bins and roll-off containers may be used with a stationary compactor. With air pollution control laws, the stationary compactor has replaced the on-site incinerator as a means of waste reduction in the urbanized areas of the United States. The type and size of container and the use of stationary compactors 1s determined by the amount and type of waste, the size and accessibility of the storage space, and the frequency of collection. £¦ Z ¦ 11 ------- RESIDENTIAL COLLECTION Point of Collection. On a population basis, about 65 percent of the collection systems 1n the United States are curbside or alley, and 35 percent have backyard pickup. The current trend is toward curbslde or alley collection, primarily because of budgetary (cost) constraints, and the higher labor turnover, absenteeism, and injury rates associated with backyard collection (Table 5). Curbside/alley collection generally costs about 45 to 50 percent of the cost of backyard service. There are four methods used for backyard collection: (1) tote barrel, (2) satellite vehicle, (3) set-out, and (4) set-out, set-back. The first two methods are more cost effective than the last two. Satellite vehicles are more effective than total barrels in areas with long street to storage distances or long distances between houses. Frequency of Collection. On a population basis, frequency of collection is almost equally once-a-week and twice-a-week at about 45 percent each, with more frequent collection (as much as 6 days a week i C collection) 1n the major cities (inner-city areas) depending mostly on storage space available. Most of the once-a-week systems are on the West Coast, Midwest, and Northern States. The twice-a-week systems are concentrated in the South, particularly the Southeastern States. The major reasons for twice-a-week are convenience, odor, sanitation, and fly control (Table 6). Once-a-week is 13 to 39 percent cheaper and conserves fuel. 2 . 12 ------- Table 5 POTENTIAL ADVANTAOBS AND DISADVANTAGES OP CUBB8IDE/ALLEY AND BACKYABD COLLECTION, AND CONDmONS THAT PAYOR EACH Alternative Potential advantages Potential disadvantages Conditions which favor altemaLve Curb side/alley More efficient Cans at curb look metey High collection costs * Less expensive Requires less labor Facilitates use of paper or plastic bags Reduces collector injuries Special arrangements must be made for handicapped and elderly Residents must remember day of collection Unwillingness on part of residents to pay higher taxes or user charge - Requires less fuel Backyard • l No effort required by residents No mess at curbs Mora expensive High labor turnover Increases number of collector injuries Requires more fuel Quality of service provided more important criterion than economics C' 2. 13 ------- Table 6 POTENTIAL ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT FREQUENCIES OF COLLECTION, AND CONDITIONS THAT FAVOR EACH Alternative Once per week Twice per week Potential advantages Potential disadvantages Conditions which favor alternative Less expensive Requires less fuel Reduces litter in urban areas Reduces storage volume requirements More than twice Reduces litter in urban areas per week Reduces storage volume requirements Improperly stored waste can create odor and fly problems' More expensive Requires more fuel More expensive Requires more fuel Adequate storage provisions Cold to moderate climate Quality of service provided more important criterion than economics Warm climate Seriously restricted storage space • Dense population . 6" ? . ------- Collection of Bulky Wastes. There are five methods employed 1n the United States for bulky wastes, such as refrigerators: (1) collection by the regular collection crews 1f the equipment can handle 1t and there are three or more men 1n the crew, (2) on a request basis whereby the homeowner calls In and the collection agency schedules a pickup, (3) the ' "* collection agency periodically announces and collects bulky wastes, s^ich as semi-annually on specified Saturdays, (4) the regular collection or a supervisor reports the location of bulky items and a separate crew collects them, and (5) the homeowners are responsible for transporting and disposing bulky items, or hiring a private hauler to do so. The equipment commonly used for bulky Items are stake trucks or vans with hydraulic 11ft gates. Collection Costs and Productivity. The average cost of residential systems increased 52 percent from 1972 to 1975. Packer trucks typically cost $25,000 to $50,000 1n 1975 instead of $15,000 to $35,000 as 1n 1972. According to a nationwide study conducted 1n 1975,* the average cost of residential collection was about $29 per ton. A typical break- down of costs shows about 70 percent of this cost was for labor (58 percent for direct wages, 12 percent for fringe benefits), 20 percent was for equipment (15 percent for operation and maintenance and 5 percent depredation), and the remaining 10 percent was for administration and overhead. 5 • ? .15 ------- Collection crews 1n an 11-system study conducted in 1974 averaged between 102 to 410 homes per crewman per day for curbside pickup and 121 to 182 for backyard, and 2.9 to 8.5 tonnes (3.2 to 9.4 tons) per crewman per day for curbside and 2.8 tonnes (3.1 tons) for backyard. The most common crew sizes are three man for curbside and four man for backyard collection. Collection in Rural Areas. There are four rural collection methods (Table 7). The formal systems are typically either bulk bins 2.3 to 6.1 cu meters (3 to 8 cu yds) serviced by front loaders, or transfer containers 15.3 to 22.9 cu meters (20 to 30 cu yds) hauled-by roll-off trucks (Table 8). Operating costs for the average bulk container system are $7 to $15 per ton. COMMERCIAL COLLECTION Bulk bins are usually collected by front 1 (fading packer trucks (Figure 1), but are also collected by rear and side loaders (Figure 2). The packer trucks empty and haul the wastes from many bulk bins per load. Bulk bins are also collected by hoist-and-carry vehicles which haul the container to the disposal site. This vehicle is typically used only for liquid or hazardous wastes. The larger.roll-off containers are hauled by tilt-frame trucks (Figure 3). Where the volume of waste is large enough, the roll-off system is substantially cheaper than the bulk bin system (Tables 9, 10, and 11). r. 2. i6 ------- Table 7 POTENTIAL ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OP METHODS FOR COLLECTION IN RURAL AREAS. AND THE CONDITIONS THAT FAVOR EACH Alternative Potential advantages Potential disadvantages Conditions which flavor alternative Disposal by residents on their property Hauling by residents to landfills Centrally located bulk containers No cost to local government No cost to local government Operating costs are relatively low Promiscuous damping is reduced Public acceptability is high Sites can be located near users Mailbox system Collects from largest number of people User fees can be established Difficult to monitor and control Can lead to roadside damping and open dumping Requires extensive educational campaign to ensure proper disposal Distance to landfill may discourage regular trips Can lead to roadside dumping and open burning Generates excessive traffic at landfill Poses hardship for persons without means of transportation Initial capital cost may be U«h Vandalism may occur at unattended sites Difficult to assess user fee Poses hardship for persons without transportation If implemented near municipalities containers may be used by town residents to avoid paying for collection service Residents must remember collection day Waste may be spilled at roadside prior to pickup Time consuming and costly in isolated areas Isolated areas ¦) Landfills are easily accessible Roads allow passage of collection vehicles Population is fairly concentrated 5". "2.17 ------- Table 8 EXAMPLES OF RURAL SOLID HASTE COLLECTION EQUIPMENT SYSTEMS Location . Estimated population Number of con- tainers Size of container cu m Collec- tions per week Number of persons per cu m (cu yd) storage Number of trucks Size of trucks cu m Initial capltal cost* Baldwin, Co., Ala. 47,000 + . 1 14 12-18 $240,000* Chilton Co., Ala. 17,000 91 3 3 21 (16) 2 23 68,000 Choctaw Co., Ala. 14,000 + 1 15 48,000 Coffee Co., Ala. 14,000 170 3 1-2 18 P4) 1 23 62,700 Hacon Co., Ala. 13,800 137 3 1-2 22 (17) 1 23 55,900 Madison Co., Ala. 40,000 + 1 18 106,000 Tuscaloosa Co., Ala. 3Q.000 335 4.5 2 9 J7I 5 23 310,000 Clark Co., Ark. 11,702 142 2.3,5 3 8 (6) 1 23 76,058 Humboldt Co., Calif. 10,000 20 6 2 16 (12) 1 32 221,849 2 15 roll-off 5 31 Evans Co., Ga. 7,200 10 2 2-3 12 (9) 18 60,695 70 3 Grady Co., Ga. 10,000 126.. „ . 3 2 .. 13 (10) _ . 1 15 49.787 Screven Co., Ga. 9,500 146 3. 2 9 (7) 1 19 66.900 Benewah Co., Idaho 3,680 14 9s 2 14 (11) 1 15 + X Bonner Co.; Idaho 3,000 39 8 2 5 (4 1 15 33,400+ Boundary Co., Idaho 2,300 17 8 2 9 7 1 , 15 17,540+ Kootenai Co., Idaho 2,250 10 85 2 4 (3) 1 8 50,900+ 20 98 1 1 12 u Shoshone Co., Idaho 1,016 11 3$ 1-2 5 (4) 1 1 13 12 * 12 95 15 DeSoto Co., Miss. 50,000 72 5 2 34 (26) 1 23 t 78 3 1 roll-off 7 23 » « roll-off Lee Co., Miss. 17,218 97 5. 2-3 22 (17) 23 141,200 70 4* ** Humphreys Co., Tenn. 8,796 134 5 2 5 (4) 2 24 105,465 23 6 Jefferson Co., Tenn. 17,014 128 3 2 18 (14) 23 68,310 17 5 Polk Co., Texas 9,500 110 3 3 7 (5) 2 23 93,086 * Data were gathered 1n 1974 but capital costs vary from 1968 to 1973. + Mailbox system. * Contracted; cost unknown. S Hand unload. ------- Figure I, The front-loading compactor truck collects waste by picking up bulk containers, lifting them over the cab, and emptying them into the hopper. .... FlCUBE 2, Bulk containers can be emptied mechanically into a rear-loading compactor truck (as shown) or a side loader. FntorbS. Tilt-frame vehicles are used to transport roll-off containers. £"•^.19 ------- Table 9 TYPICAL YEARLY COSTS FOR COMMERCIAL COLLECTION WITH REAR LOADERS AND 2-MAN CREW* Cost per year Item (1975 dollars) Truck cost ($30,000 at 6 percent Interest amortized over 5 years) $ 6,900 Labor, including 20 percent'fringes: Driver ($5.00/hr) .12,480 Helper ($4.50/hr) 11,232 t Consumables: Fuel (7,200 gallons x $0.36) 2,592 Oil 480 Tires 1,680 Truck maintenance 4,000 Management and administrative overhead (30 percent of direct labor) 7,114 ~ Miscellaneous (insurance and fees) . 3,000 Total $49,478 $49,478 t 2,600 tons/year+ = $19.03/ton * Costs are for a 0.76 cu meter (20 cu yd) packer that is mannually loaded. Average compacted waste density is 297 kg/cu m (500 Ib/cu yd) and two loads are collected each day. + 20 cu yd body x 500 lb = 10,000 lb, or 5 tons; 5 tons x 2 trips/day = 10 tons per day; 10 tons/day x 260 days = 2,600 tons per year (2,359 tonnes per year). S" • 2. 20 ------- Table 10 TYPICAL YEARLY COSTS OR COMMERCIAL COLLECTION WITH FRONT LOADER AND DRIVER-OPERATOR* Cost per year Item (1975 dollars) Truck cost ($50,000 at 6 percent interest amortized oVer 5 years) $11,500 Driver's wages and 20 percent fringes ($6/hr) 14,976 Management and administrative overhead (30 percent of direct labor) 4,493 Truck maintenance 10,200 Fuel (8,400 gallons x $0.36) 3,024 Insurance and licenses . 4,800 Total $48,993 $48,993 * 4,940 tons/year+ = $9.92/ton * The truck Is a 22.9 cu meter (30 cu yd) packer; the average waste density is 297 kg/cu m (500 Ib/cu yd); and 2.5 loads are collected each day. + 30 cu yd body x 500 lb = 15,000 lb or 7.5 tons; 7.5 tons x 2.5 trips per day = 19 tons per day; 19 tons per day x 260 = 4,940 tons per year (4,482 tonnes per year). € 1 . 21 ------- Table 11 TYPICAL YEARLY COSTS FOR COMMERCIAL COLLECTION WITH TILT-FRAME (ROLL-OFF) TRUCK AND DRIVER-OPERATOR* Cost per year Item (1975 dollars) Truck cost ($40,000 at 6 percent Interest amortized over 5 years) $ 9,200 Driver's wages and 20 percent fringes ($6/hr) 14,976 Management and administrative overhead 4,493 Truck maintenance 7,800 Fuel (8,400 gallons x $0.36) 3,024 Insurance and licenses 4,800 Total $44,293 $44,293 * 9,750 tons/year+ = $4.54/ton * The truck takes on a 22.9 cu meter (30 cu yd) container; the average density of the compacted waste is 297 kg/cu m 1 (500 lb/cu yd), and five loads are handled per day. + 30 cu yd body x 500 lb = 15,000 lb or 7.5 tons; 7.5 tons x 5 trips per day =37.5 tons per day; 37.5 tons per day x 260 = 9,750 tons per year (8,845 tonnes per year). 22 ------- COLLECTION EQUIPMENT There are about 110»000 solid waste collection vehicles being used 1n the United States today: 11,000 front load packers* 14,000 side load packers, 56,000 rear load packers, 13,000 open and stake trucks, 7,0Cp tilt-frame (roll-off) trucks, and 9,000 hoist-type, satellite vehicles, and container trains. ABout 45,000 of these are owned by public agencies, 62,000 are owned by private haulers, and 3,000 are owned by various Institutions which haul their own wastes. These figures do not Include the construction, demolition, or mining Industries. About 75,000 of the vehicles are used for residential collection, and 38,000 for com- mercial collection. Packer chassis are typically used 2 to 6 years, and packer bodies for 4 to 8 years. Packer trucks achieve densities from 297 to 593 kg per cu meter (500 to 1,000 pounds per cu yard). Loose waste 1s typically 89 to 119 kg per .cu meter (150 to 200 pounds per cu yard). Side loaders range between 9.9 to 24.5 cu meters (13 to 32 cu yards), rear loaders range from 12.2 to 23.7 cu meters (T6 to 31 cu yards), and front loaders range from 18.4 to 31.3 cu meters (24 to 41 cu i yards). Several types of one man mechanized collection systems are being demonstrated for residential collection (slides and description of these will be given at the conference). 23 ------- TRANSPORTATION Transfer Stations Versus Direct Haul. About one-third of the collection day Is typically spent 1n transporting and disposal operations. Haul time savings mean more time for the collectors to be on their routes collecting. With remote disposal sites or excessive haul times due to traffic congestion from the collection routes to the disposal site, transfer stations are an alternative (Table 12). The direct haul time savings must be compared to the capital and operating costs of the transfer station. TRENDS As a result of increasing collection costs with constrained budgets, and the emphasis on fuel savings, the trends where conditions permit are toward curbside, once-a-week service with smaller crew sizes, larger equipment, transfer stations, plastic sacks, and bulk bins which are mechanically emptied. 5~-2. 24 ------- Tablr 12 POTENTIAL ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES) OF DIRECT HAUL TO DISPOSAL SJTE3 AND USE OP TRANSFER STATION, AND THE CONDITIONS THAT FAVOR EACH METHOD Alternative Potential advantages Potential disadvantages Conditions wMch favor alternate Direct haul by collection trucks to disposal site Transfer station Requires no capital expenditure Cuts down on nonproductive collection time In-town location where residents can bring their waste Makes collection operation independent of the actual disposal site Facilitates the addition of resource recovery or volume reduction equipment at the transfer site Permits land reclamation (e.g.. filling in strip mines) at location distant from generation point Capital and operating costs of collection vehicles are reduced. Changes in disposal site location require rerouting of all collection trucks Nonproductive time spent in transport increases costs Requires extra materials handling step Requires capital expenditures for land, structures, and equipment To achieve savings in wn'«Hnj system, a reduction in the number of crews is needed Difficult to find recipient of waste outside of immediate political jurisdiction There is usually citizen opposition to poposed transfer sites if located near residential areas Close-in disposal sit^p available Low labor rates * Nonurban area High labor costs Distant disposal site Large collection crews Shortage of land for sanitary landfills at reasonable price Urban areas f ?.25 ------- SOURCE SEPARATION OF POST-CONSUMER SOLID WASTE Source separation requires that the waste generator separate the solid waste into recyclable components (i.e., paper, cans, and glass) and non-recyclable components. The recyclables are then collected and sold for re-use. For residential wastes, the generator is the homeowner. In residential wastes, the recyclable portion consisting of paper, cans, and glass represents over 30 percent of the weight and 40 percent of the volume of municipal solid waste. Somervilie and Marblehead, Massachusetts, are conducting programs to demonstrate the extent to which materials can be economically recovered from the residential waste stream through source separation. Somerville, which began collecting materials on December 1, 1975, is an urban, working class community of 90,000 with a population density of 23,000 persons per square mile. Marblehead, which commenced its program on January 12, 1976, is an affluent suburb of Boston with 23,000 residents and a population density of 5,200 persons per square mile. Marblehead has as its goal, a 25 percent reduction (by weight) in municipal solid waste through the recycling program. Somerville's goal is 15 percent reduction. After 3 months, Marblehead has exceeded its goal by 5 percent and is regularly recycling 30 percent by weight of its residential wastes. Somerville is recycling 9 percent. Somerville is recovering so much less than Marblehead at this time for several 5^2.26 ------- reasons: (1) Somerville never had a recycling program whereas the Marblehead program 1s an extension and Improvement of a previous program (modification Is easier than a whole new program), (2) Somerville 1s collecting fewer Items* no green and amber glass* but 1s soon to Include these, and (3> Somerville had some Initial Implementation problems ! (e.g. weather) which reduced participation, but a new public Information & program 1s soon to be used. The percent recycled In Somerville Is anticipated to Increase substantially by mld-sumtier. The two source separation programs aire designed to maximize the recovery of materials from the waste stream, within economic constraints, by: ° Maximizing the participation rate of their citizens. ° Establishing a favorable long-term ifiarket for recovered materials. # Minimizing collection costs. The participation rate will be maximized through the enactment of ordinances which mandate citizen participation and through the Implementation of an aggressive public education.program designed to heighten public awareness of resource and environmental problems and to make recycling a habit for all citizens. S'2. 27 ------- Both communities have found favorable long-term markets for recovered materials by seeking competitive bids on a guaranteed-minlmum contract and by assuring that a stable supply of recycled materials will be delivered to the buyer 1n a form that can be readily produced Into valuable, marketable recovered resources. Both programs involve weekly, curbside collection of paper, glass (clear glass only in Somerville), and cans. Additional collection costs are being minimized by using, to the maximum practicable extent, the existing municipal solid waste collection resources in the community and by demonstrating the feasibility of a compartmentalized collection vehicle designed to collect all recyclables at the same time. The success of both communities' recycling programs depends on four key elements; public education, materials and markets, collection, and economics. ~ Public Education. Public education is achieved by: " ¦ 11 » / ° Effective use of the media. Including newspaper articles,' radio and television program announcements, and publically s displayed posters. S".2.28 ------- • Interaction with Community Groups. Through speaking engage- ments with Chambers of Commerce, garden clubs, fraternal organizations, etc. to inform members about the program and receive their consents. 0 School Program. Including curriculum packages developed for several grade school levels, high school science courses, and the encouragement of student participation in recylcing programs held at their schools. 0 Direct Conrounication With Individual Residents. Including letters mailed to each citizen from senior community officials requesting public support for the program and providing detailed Information on the operational aspects of the program. In Somerville, a 1976 calendar with explanations of the various aspects of recycling was distributed to each resident. Materials and Markets. Both communities recycle all metal cans, and flat paper—such as newspaper, flattened cardboard, writing paper. Sommervllle recovers flint (clear) glass only; Marblehead ------- recycles amber and green glass as well as clear. For the convenience of residents, both municipalities allow glass and cans to be placed in the same container at the curbside. Recognizing the importance of a favorable and stable market for recovered materials, Somerville and Marblehead have each sought competitive bids for a contract that provides a guaranteed minimum price for all materials and requires that prices for materials be tied to some accepted industry indicator, such as the Official Board Market for paper. To ensure bidders a large, stable supply of materials in return, both communities have guaranteed that all recyclables collected will go to the successful bidder for the duration of the contract. Collection. Collection costs have a significant impact on the economics of source separation; thus, a major objective of a recycling program is to keep collection costs low. It was determined that it would be cheaper to utilize a compartmentalized vehicle to collect all recyclables simultaneously with the same crew rather than make several collections with single-chamber vehicles or packer trucks. To do so, both communities have purchased, bucket-loading, collection vehicles. The truck bodies for both programs were manufactured, under a competitively bid contract, by Rendispos, Inc., LaRose, Illinois. Somerville purchased two 15 cubic meter (20 cu yd) vehicles, each operated by a three man crew consisting of a driver and two collectors. Marblehead will use two 12 cubic meter (16 cu yd) trucks with 2 man crews. ------- Economics. The economics of source separation depend on several factors specific to each consnunity: the revenues and disposal cost savings associated with materials recovery, and the costs of collecting, publicizing, and administering a recycling program. Revenues and disposal cost savings depend upon and the volume of materials recovered, which, 1n turn, depends upon the extent of resident participation. While neither program has been underway long enough to offer conclusive economic results, 1t is anticipated that each will result 1n a net savings to the community. £" 2. 31 ------- BIBLIOGRAPHY ACT SYSTEMS, INC. Residential collection systems, v. 1. Report summary. Environmental Protection Publication SW-97c.l. [Washington], U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1974. 106 p. ANON, New study finds private haulers more efficient than municipal collection agencies. Solid Wastes Management, 19(1):36-38, January 1976. APPLIED MANAGEMENT SCIENCES, INC. The private sector 1n solid waste management; a profile of its resources and contribution to collection and disposal, v. 1-2. Environmental Protection Publication SW-51d.l. Washington, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1973. 239 p. BOGUE, M. D. Clean and green solid waste system in Alabama is widely copied. Waste Age, l(5):4-6, 10-11, 36, Sept.-Oct. 1970. Reprinted. [Washington], U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1971. 8 p. CITY OF SCOTTSDALE, ARIZONA. A handbook for initiating or improving commercial refuse collection. Washington, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975. (In preparation.) GOLDBERG, T. L. Improving rural solid waste management practices. Environmental Protection Publication SW-107. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973. 83 p. GRUPENHOFF, B. L., and K. A. Shuster. Paper and plastic solid waste sacks; a summary of available information. [Cincinnati], U.S. „ Environmental Protection Agency, 1971. 17 p. NATIONAL COMMISSION ON PRODUCTIVITY. Opportunities for improving productivity in solid waste collection; report of the Solid Waste Management Advisory Group. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1973. 46 p. PERKINS, R. A. Satellite vehicle systems for solid waste collection; evaluation and application. Environmental Protection Publication SW-82ts. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1971. 243 p. (Distributed by National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Via., as PB-197 931.) RALPH STONE AND COMPANY, INC. The use of bags for solid waste storage and collection. Environmental Protection Publication SW-42d. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1972. 264 p. (Distributed by National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va., as PB-212 590.) f. 2.32 ------- SCS ENGINEERS. Analysis of source separate collection of recyclable solid waste; separate collection studies. Environmental Protection Publication SW-95c.1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1974. 157 p. (Distributed by National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va., as PB-239 775.) SHUSTER, K. A. Eleven residential pickup systems compared for cost and productivity. Solid Wastes Management, 18(3):6, 42-44, Mar. 1975. SHUSTER, K. A. A five-stage Improvement process for solid waste collection systems. Environmental Protection Publication SW-131. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974. 38 p. SHUSTER, K. A. Fuel conservation 1n solid waste management. Virginia Town & City, 9(12): 7-9, Dec. 1974. SHUSTER, K. A., and D. A. SOHUR. Heuristic routing for solid waste collection vehicles. Environmental Protection Publication SW-113. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974. 45 p. U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY. Decision-makers guide 1n solid waste management. 2d ed. Environmental Protection Publication SW-500. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976. 158 p. U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY. Residential, commercial and Institutional solid wastes; proposed guidelines for storage and collection. Federal Register 40(134): 29404-29408, July 11, 1975. WOLCOTT, R. M., and B. W. VINCENT. The relationship of solid waste storage practices 1n the Inner city to the Incidence of rat Infestation and fires. Environmental Protection Publication SW-150. [Washington], U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, May 1975 14 p. . YOUNG, D. How shall we collect the garbage? A study In economic x organization. Washington, The Urban Institute, 1972. 83 p. 5V2.33 ------- The paper to be presented to: : "The Third Japan-U.S, Conference on Solid Waste Management" May 1976. Tokyo, Japan. RESOURCE RECOVERY PROM POST-CONSUMER WASTE IN JAPAN by Kunitoshi Sakurai* March, 1976 Dr. of Engineering, Researcher of The Research Institute of National Economy. ------- C 0 N T E NTS FOREWORD 1 STUDIES OP RESOURCE RECOVERY PROM POST-CONSUMER ffASTE IN JAPAN IT. 2 Chapter 1 Materials Recovery 3 1-1 Paper . 5 1-2 Plastic 14 1-3 Glass 22 1-4 Metal .... 28 Chapter 2 Energy Recovery 39 Chapter 3 Materials Conversion 41 AFTERWORD 44 APPENDIX 1. White Paper on the Environment 1974 (Abstract) 2. White Paper on Japanese Economy 1975 (Abstract) 3. The Fiction of Consumer's Sovereignty 4. Case Study Report of Re-use and Recycling of Beverage Containers 5. Study on Waste Management System in Smaller Cities (Abstract) 6. Offshore Waste Treatment Technology and Systems (Abstract) ------- CO R (SWORD An outlook of waste problems in Japan is indicated at "White Paner on the Environment 1974" (cf. APPENDIX l). The importance of resource recovery from post-consumer waste is yearly increasing by the following three reasons, 1) uti- lization efficiency promotion of natural resources, 2) volume reduction of generated waste and 3) latent potential reduction of environmental nollution. For example, with respect to the resource problem, Japan is now seriously deadlocked as indicated at "White Paper on Japanese Economy 1975" (cf. APPENDIX 2). In case of investigating resource recovery from post- v consumerwaste, primarily, its quality becomes a major premise of the investigation. As the duality of post-consumer waste considerably differs between Japan and U.S.A., this ooint must be well recognized to compare and inquire the situations about resource recovery from post-consumer waste in both countries ( cf. APPENDIX 3 and p.10-12 of "Resource Recovery from Municipal Solid Waste in Japan"* ). This present report treats the situation about resource recovery from oost-consumer waste in Japan with emnhasison the following two points, l) to report what was not informed at the past Japan-U.3. Conference on Solid Waste Management and 2 ) to introduce materials recovery by source separation rooting in Japanese society. * A oaper submitted for the Second Ja^an-U.S. Conference on Solid Waste Management by S.Gotoh and w.Nakajiku. This paper is called as "1974 AISTR5P0RT" hereafter. * AIST means Agency of Industrial Science and Technology, Ministry of International Trade and Industry. i /• I ------- STUDIES 0? RESOURCE RECOVERY PROM POST-CONSUMER '.VASTS IN JA''AN 1. There are three types in resource recovery systems, that is, 1) materials recovery, 2) energy recovery and 3) materials conversion, and there are also three in resource recovery options, 1) source reduction, 2) source separation and 3) waste recovery. 2. Materials recovery by source separation has been a dominant method in Japan for resource recovery from post-consumer waste. Though this method is being threatened bv a throwaway mood as seen in increasing one way packages, still it widely roots in Japanese society comparing with U.S.A.. The following four reasons reveal why this method has rooted in Japan. 1) Rareness of resource in the country. 2) Easiness of collection caused by high population density. 3) Cheep labour cost for collecting. 4) Unnecessity for special technology. 3. The present report outlines the circumstances of resource recovery from post-consumer waste in Japan centering materials recovery by source separation system. Except source separation system, there are 1) source reduction (e.g. elimination of overpackaging, extension of product life etc.) and 2) waste recovery (e.g. resource recovery from municipal waste at inci- neration plant). Source reduction had not produced much effect by mere enlightenment until the oil crisis in the autumn 1973, although its importance had been recognized little by little. After this crisis, waste volume generated from household apparently decreased. 7/aste recovery is still unsatisfactory as indicated in TABLE I. This stems from the fact that inci- neration has been the prime system to reduce the waste volume for reclamation because of the difficulty to get reclamation sites in Japan. kJ-i ------- TABLli 1 RATIO OP INCINERATION PLANTS PRACTICING RESOURCE RECOVSRY PROM MUNICIPAL WASTES (FY1973) ^lant Size (t/da.y) Recovered Resource -— 0 1 20 j ui ro \| O O 50 100 100 200 200 s . 500 17 J 500 S Averag ferrous metal 24.9 31.4 23.8 20.9 27.4 21.4 26.0 non-ferrous metal 4.6 5.4 4.6 1.1 2.0 0 4.3 Materials glass 2.4 5.8 3.3 2.2 2.0 o 3.2 Recovery paper plastic 3.3 0 /2.2 0 3.3 0 1.1 0 3.9 0 3.6 0 2.9 0 fiber 0.5 0.7 0.7 0 0 0 i 0.5 wood 0.4 0 0.7 0 0 0 j 0.3 Energy vapor 0 0.7 0 2.2 15.7 25.0 2.3 hot water 8.2 28.5 47.7 42.9 66.7 64.3 25.0 Recovery i electri city¦ 0 0 0 0 3.9 39.3 \| 1.7 Chapter 1 Materials Recovery 1. This chanter reports about materials recovery (mainly by source separation) from post-consumer waste in Japan. Paper, plastic, glass and metal are picked up as materials. 2. Municipal waste and post-consumer waste are not always the same because the former contains some commercial waste and the latter contains' what is eliminated from waste stream by source separation. However, referine to the municipal waste, the component outline of post-consumer waste is appro- ximately indicated. TABLE 2 indicates the changes in muni- cipal wasce composition in Tokyo. 1972 data (before intro- duction of separate collection) shows 56.7 percent of muni- cipal waste was occupied by above-stated four materials. Therefore, it is extremely useful for saving valuable resource and reducing the disposal cost of municipal waste to promote u. \|.3 ------- TABL-S 2 C'IAN'^3 IN THS COMPOSITION O? MUNICIPAL .7A';T;5 IN TOKYO (Wet base, %) fiscal year '74 Material 1968 '69 ¦70 ¦71 •72 '73 ordinary collection special collection o Papers 32.0 33.3 31.3 33.8 38.2 38.2 39.4 10.4 t Kitchen waste 24.8 31.8 31.5 26.6 22.7 36.7 38.7 5.2 c OB ft Fibers 4.0 3.6 4.6 3.4 3.6 3.0 2.8 3.4 O* H ® Wood, bamboo Miscellaneous 4.8 15.9 1.6 6.7 2.4 6.8 4.2 5.7 4.2 5.7 3.8 7.1 4.4 5.5 } 7.8 Total 81.5 77.0 76.6 73.7 74.4 88.8 90.8 26.8 rrSS HO PI ft h» a. Plastics 7.3 9.7 10.3 8.0 7.3 5.2 4.5 18.4 it .0 ss Rubber, leather — 0.8 1.5 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.4 3.5 (D Total 7.3 10.5 11.8 8.6 7.8 5.6 4.9 21.9 H P O O g Metals 2.3 2.9 2.7 3.5 4.1 2.3 1.8 16.6 w c Glass, ceramics 3.1 5.0 5.7 7.6 7.1 2.7 ft H- er Others 5.8 4.6 3.2 6.6 6.6 0.6 } 2.5 } 34.7 « a Total 11.2 12.5 11.6 17.7 17.8 5.6 4.3 51.3 Grand total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Note: Miscellaneous: — Leaves, husks, and other unclassifiable items Others: Shells, earth, sand, stone and unclassifiable items Quantities of '73 consist of ordinary collection's composition ------- resource recovery of these four materials from post-consumer waste. 1-1 Paper 1. Paper is the biggest component together with kitchen waste in the municipal waste in Japan, but the paper content in Japan is less than that in U.S.A. as indicated in Table 1 of APPENDIX 3. The paper recycle ratio (recycled amount / consumption) is 35-40 percent in Japan. It is higher than those in the European countries as indicated in TABLE 5. However, with the recent increase of paper packages, the paper content in the municipal waste has been yearly increasing (cf. TABLE 2). As the demand of paper in Japan has been increasing at the high pitch with the rapid economic growth as illustrated in FIGURE 1, it becomes extremely necessary to save paper and recycle waste paper from the both viewpoints of environmental protection and resource conservation. FIGURE 1 TRENDS o? PER CAPITA GNP AND PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION OF PAPER AND CARDBOARD kg/capita 250 - S$ 200 j. a so Germany 1000 2000 3U00 Per Capita GNP ( znfoo s/cap«a ------- TABLE 3 RAW MATERIALS CONSUMPTION BY PAPER INDUSTRY PY Total Pulp Waste Paper Others 1955 2,649(100.0) 1,753(66.2) 543(20.5) 353(13.3) •60 5,651(100.0) 3,568(63.2) ;,528(27.0) 555( 9.8) •65 8,513(100.0) 5,265(61.8) 2,885(33.9) 363( 4.3) '66 9,343(100.0) 5,842(61.4) 3,266(35.0) 335( 2.6) '67 10,201(100.0) 6,385(62.6) 3,521(34.5) 295( 2.9) •68 10,991(100.0) 7,042(64.1) 3,713(33.8) 236( 2.1) •69 12,153(100.0) 7,702(63.5) 4,215(34.7) 236( 1.9) '70 13,800(100.0) 8,876(64.3) 4,695(34.0) 228( 1.7) •71 13,751(100.0) 8,973(65.3) 4,601(33.5) 176( 1.2) .72 14,671(100.0) \| 9,361(63.8) 5,153(35.2) 148( 1.0) Note: Percentage in parentheses. 2. Raw materials of paper are pulp, waste paper and other fibers. The raw materials composition in Japan is 60-65 percent pulp and 30-35 percent waste paper as indicated in TABLE 3. In light of paper and cardboard, the former is 85- 87 percent pulp and 12-14 percent waste paper and the latter is 38-40 percent pulp and 57-60 percent waste paper. This V fact exemplifies how waste paper occupiesthe important position as the raw material of paper, especially of cardboard. TABLE 3 indicates the weight of waste paper had grown around 35 percent until 1965 from about 20 percent in 1955. This stems from increase of cardboard production, in particular, the corrugated one used for packaging. 3. vVaste paper consumption grew from 1,528 thousand tons in PY I960 to 3.4 times, 5,153 thousand tons in FY 1972 (cf. TABLE 3). On the other hand, pulp consumption also grew to 2.6 times for these years, and timber consumption for nulp production reached 31.4 million cub. meters in 1970, which occupied 28.7 percent of whole timber demand in Japan. To add U- ------- to this, the other timber demand (e.g. lumber and plywood etc. ) increased rapidly within these years. Accordingly the whole timber demand in Japan in 1970, 110 million cub. meters, had far outstripped domestic timber supply. Consequently, dependance percentage on the importation became 53.4 percent in 1970 from 12.3 percent in I960. Against this restriction of timber supply, paper and pulp industries have been making a great effort to get raw material by utilizing hard wood resource or developping chip ships for importation etc.. Two obstacles are existing against this effort. One is the cost-up of imported timber and chip caused by overheated competition among Japanese enterprises abroad. The other is the strict policy for resource conservation in each exporting country. It is forecasted that if GNP yearly continues to grow up on 7-8 percent net growth rate, 23,517 thousand tons of paper and cardboard will be demanded in 1980. 58.6 million cub. meters of timber is necessitated to supply this, and even if timber importation for paper and cardboard production extends to 17.5 million cub. meters in 1980 from 5.3 million cub. meters in 1970, 15.2: million cub. meters of timber will be insufficient. To sup-ply this insufficiency with waste paper ignoring the quality, it is necessary to elevate the recycle ratio to around 45 percent in 1980 from estimated 32.4 percent. Not only by the restriction of timber supply, but also by the seriousness of pollution generated from pulp producing process, the necessity of waste paper recycle has been swelling. The Round-Table Conference on Industrial Planning put the paper and pulp industry on the negative list as industry desirable to be reformed (cf. TABLE 4). Above all, paper and pulp industry using imported timber and chip was pointed out as the industry desirable to be cut down and finally to be abolished. Among paper and pulp industries, the approved ones for some proper expansion are paper and cardboard industry >. ------- TABLl-: 4 NEGATIVE LIST (INDUSTRY DESIRABLE TO BE REFORMED) Ranking Industry Section Allowed to expand slowly on the condition that new plants are dispersedly located. * Paper and cardboard industry using waste paper. * Paper industry using imported pulp. Desirable to maintain the existing state. * Paper and pulp industry using domestic timber and chip. Desirable to be cut down and finally to be abo- lished. * Paper and pulp industry using imported timber and chip. * Paper industry r>roducing plastic processed paper. Source: The Round-Table Conference on Industrial Planning. Note: Dhis Table extracts "paper and.pulr» industry" part from the original "Negative List". using waste paper and paper industry using imported pulp, although in both cases plant location must be checked. The reason why these industries are approved is that they have not pulp production process which pollutes air and water seriously. 6. Recycle ratios of waste paper in Japan and other countries are changing as indicated in TABLE 5. The ratio in Jatian was changing in the range of 25-30 percent until 1959. With the later increase of waste paper demand due to the expansion of cardboard production, recycle ratio has been changing in the range of 35-40 percent for these 10 years. The following five will be pointed as the reasons of comparatively high recycle ratio in Japan. 1) With the rapid growth of economy since I960, cardboard demand (especially corrugated boxes demand ) has remark- ably increased. Then, waste paper demand has also remark- ably increased under restricted timber supply. 2) Waste paper recycle has depended on low cost labour. U.I.* ------- TABLE 5 RECYCLE RATIOS OF PAPER () year 1955 •60 •65 •70 '71 Japan 24. 9 34. 8 39.4 39. 5 36. 5 U.S.A. 26. 3 23. 1 20.7 18. 9 19. 2 U.K. 20. 7 24. 4 25.2 27. 1 27. 2 '//.Germany 31. 3 30. 0 30.4 31. 8 32. 4 France 28. 6 29. 2 28.6 29. 7 30. 5 Finland 14. 8 20. 4 23.6 18. 0 16. 7 Sweden 18. 7 17. 7 15.9 15. 6 18. 2 Holland 31. 9 18. 2 17.5 31. 5 34. 0 Austria 44. 8 43. 9 Note: Recycle ratio is defined as recycled amount: tier consumption. 3) Because of the high -copulation density, collection from household is relatively advantageous than that in U.S. ------- TABLE 6 POTENTIAL vYASTE PAPER (ESTIMATION KOR 1071). (10^ tons) Potential Recycling Recycling Kind Waste Possibles Impossibles ¦ Paper A B A+B C D C+D newspaper 1944 946 548 1494 450 450 Daper kraft 904 144 127 271 633 633 others 4068 1118 413 1531 1306 1231 2537 ;ardboard corrugated 3624 1903 996 2899 725 725 others 1918 363 503 866 866 186 1052 Total 12458 4474 2587 7061 3980 1417 5397 Ratio (f) 100.0 35.V 20.8 56.7 31.9 11.4 43.3 Notes: A recycled. B not recycled but possible to be recycled. C taboo items (ex. paper mixed with kitchen waste, paper coated with plastic). D used for ^reservation (ex. books). cardboard) and actually recycled is 35.9 percent (i.e. 31.9 percent of paper and 40.9 percent of cardboard). That means, actually recycled is 60.4 percent of recycling possibles (i.e. 67.0 percent in case of paper and 60.2 percent in case of cardboard). What show the high ratios both on recycling possi- bles and on actual recycled are waste newspaper and waste corrugated cardboard. 8. Among recycled paper, the most unstable is what is collecte from household. Because whereas recycle from big sources like newspaper offices and publishing companies is low at the cost, recycle from household is high. Then, the collection from household easily becomes unprofitable with price down of waste paper. Consequently, the large scale of changes in waste paper price as illustrated at FIGURE 2 is the biggest cause to impede recycle of waste paper from household. In addition, PIGORE 2 also illustrates that waste paper price is easily influenced (p.l.lO ------- FIGURE 2 CHANGES IN WASTE PAPER PRICES IN JAPAN I960 65 70 year by business conditions and the price generally becomes low in recession (i.e. 1962, '65 and '71). If waste paper price downs 10 points, the recycle ratio downs 0.8 percent as illustrated in FIGURE 3. The following measures seem effective to elevate the recycle ratio of waste paper and to stabilize it on a high position. 1) To subsidize for waste paper recycled when its price falls down, 2) to tax on the paper fabricated only from pulp, 3) to establish waste paper deposits and 4) to decrease the use of recycling impossibles. Measures 1),2) and 3) will be discussed in'the next clause. About measure 4), it is extremely undesirable to increase the production of paper (b. If ------- FIGURE 3 RELATION BETWEEN WASTE ^APER PRIGS AND RE3Y0LU RATTO f 40- w CD O \ o J—1 0) w 0> <+ H- O I 35 Y « 30.44 + 0.079X (H = 0.817, DW = 100) 60 80 100 120 140 > X Waste Paper Price Index x Wholesale Price Index . containers coated with polyethylene on the interior (i.e. milk container) from both viewpoints of forestry resource conservation and wast disposal cost reduction. Ministry of Health and Welfare, aiming at development of national food life, approved the diffusion of this kind of one way packages for a consumer to get milk cheep. However, the profit of one way system is not so much enjoyed by a consumer as is done by a dairy industry. It is necessary to rediscuss about the proprietry of this kind of one way packages. There are three policies for recycling promotion and ------- TABLE 7 COMPARISONS 0? THR^ POLICIES FOR PAPSR RECYCLING- AND CONSUMPTION REDUCTION policy recycling promotion consumption reduction easiness of putting into operation some e ffect on consumer's price slightly plus due to the dropping of re- cycled paper price. 1 subsidy or tax exempts to recy- cled paper much none 2 taxation on pulp user some much some temporarily minus due to the uprising of paper price. establishment of generally plus due 3 waste paper much none much** to the stabilization deposits of waste paper price. Notes: * due to the stabilization of waste naper -nrice. ** partly operated already. ------- consumption reduction in an attempt to utilize price mecha- nism as indicated in TABLE 7. Policy 1 may be useful for recycling promotion, but it dose not immediately connect to consumption reduction and it needs financial burden. Policy 2 connects both to consumption reduction and to environmental betterment, but has an anxiety to bring a rise of wholesale and consumer price accompanied with the elevation of the paper price. Policy 3 connects to recycling promotion through stabi- lization of waste paper price but does not connect to consump- tion reduction. After all, each policy has both merits and demerits. It is necessary to use these policies jointly to promote resource conservation and environmental protection. 1-2 Plastic 1. As indicated in Table 1 of APPENDIX 3, plastic content in municipal waste in Japan is around 10 percent, which is mark- edly high comparing with cities in U.S.A., and 10-20 percent of plastics is PVC. The pollution by plastics is one of the extremely serious social problems in Japan. Eternally nonde- gradable, scattered around hills and fields, interrupting fair views, making troubles at incinerators, ejecting toxic subs- tances to air and water by being incinerated, but these are just one of those problems that plastics bring about. Therefore, the plastic has not been put so much emphasis on resource recovery as on eliminating pollution. 2. Plastic production, demand structure and product life determine the amount of waste plastics. TABLE 8,9 and 10 indicate waste plastics from each source, production and waste of plastics and life estimation of plastics respectively. TABLE 8'indicates waste plastics have rapidly increased from 1971 to 1976 on gross rate of 12 percent per year. Waste plastics from household is around 50 percent of all and waste plastics included.in municipal waste is about 70 percent (7+8+ 9). TABLE 9 shows that short life LDPE is wasted in particular. t.. i-'H ------- TABLE 8 WASTE PLASTICS PROM EACH SOURCE (ESTIMATED) (10^ tons) Source——_____ Year 1971 '72 •73 •74 •75 •76 1 resin manufacturer 100 105 113 122 131 141 2 primary processor 128 141 154 168 184 200 3 agriculture 65 74 81 88 95 103 4 fishery 21 25 31 30 31 33 5 manufacturer 107 123 138 155 174 193 6 distribution a 21 34 58 79 103 113 7 distribution b 130 149 168 189 212 234 8 household 730 840 942 1059 1190 1314 9 others 156 175 177 207 231 i CD 10 sub total (2+3+—+9) 1358 1561 1751 1975 2220 2448 Total (1+10) 1458 1666 1864 2097 2351 2589 Notes: 5 is manufacturer excluding 1 and 2. 6 is big containers etc.. 7 is department store, supermarket, market and wholesaler. 9 are retailer, service industry etc.. TABLE 9 PRODUCTION AND WASTE OP PLASTICS (ESTIMATED) (10^ tons) KincT^^fear 1971 '72 •73 •74 •75 •76 Production 5198 5657 5851 6287 6776 7718 Waste 1358 1561 1751 1944 2220 2448 PVC 293 277 287 321 357 385 PP 156 202 239 289 324 359 LDPJ3 430 519 553 596 636 681 HDPE 143 159 197 223 266 299 , PS 130 172 203 235 277 305 AS 11 13 15 20 21 26 ABS 19 26 36 46 62 83 MMA 13 17 22 27 34 42 urethane 17 26 31 34 39 45 melamine 4 4 5 5 6 6 phenol 37 36 43 52 58 68 polyester 27 30 33 38 42 47 urea 55 54 55 55 56 57 others 22 25 31 34 41 45 (p. A tS ------- TABLE 10 LIPS ESTIMATION OP PLASTICS Production Li A :e (A) (B) (0) (D) Kind in 1970 0 — 2 2—5 5—10 10 — years years years years (10^ tons) () () () () LDPE 381 87 5 2 6 HDPE 404 32 40 25 3 PP 580 41 17 32 10 PVC 1,160 18 17 25 40 PS 492 52 10 35 3 phenol 217 10 15 47 28 urea 532 2 22 47 26 Total 4,266* 39 16 27* * 18** Notes: (A) wrappings, one way containers etc.. (B) sundry goods, toys etc.. (C) containers, automobiles, electric appliances etc.. (D) pipes, electric wires, furnitures etc.. * All plastic production in 1970 was 5,063x10^ tons. Therefore this table covers 84i' ^ ** weighted average. (,. I.fk ------- TABLE 10 indicates LDPB has quite a short life and that nearly 60 percent of all plastics are wasted in five years. 3. It is adequate for waste plastics to be categorized to four parts as indicated in TABLE 11. 1 and 2 of this is comparatively recoverable because same kinds of unstained plastics are discharged in a huge volume. On the contrary, the trouble is category 4, plastic recovery from post-consumer waste. In this case, separation and classification are very difficult and moreover, collected plastics are so much dirty. As already mentioned, waste plastic has become a big social problem because of expanding troubles due to the increasing plastic content in municipal waste. The development of treat- ment technology and attempts to recycle plastics have been underway against this problem. Still to date, there is no prospect about waste plastic recycle from post-consumer waste neither technologically nor economically. 4. Attempt by Tokyo In Tokyo, mainly because of PVC, HOI concentration in emission and cadmium* concentration in effluent from incinera- tion plants were extremely high (cf. TABLE 12). Therefore, for fear of secondary pollution, plastic separate colliection has been put into operation from PY 1973. Since then, HC1 * At Setagaya Incineration Plant on TABLE 12, although the effluent containing four times cadmium concentration of regu- lation standard was discharged, it did not produce cadmium contaminated rice because there is no rice field downstream. On the other hand, at Ozenji Incineration Plant in Kawasaki City, cadmium contaminated rice (i.e. rice containing cadmium over 1 ppm) was harvested at downstream rice field in 1974 by discharge of 0.06-0.08 Cfl mg/l effuent which is under the regulation standard. As the main cause of this cadmium pollu- tion, PVC stabilizer and coloring agent contained in PVC have been suspected. ------- TABLE 11 CATEGORY OP WASTE PLASTICS Category Source Example Characteristics collection separation contamination «-¦» H- H- 3 3 a £ £0 CO e+ S H- H- 1* industrial waste in a narrow sense resin manu- facturers, primary and secondary processors resins, various shaped products etc. easy easy light fl [» ffl h-1 CO £ (9 (S 3 m (0 c+ 2, quasi- industrial waste distributors, agriculture etc. containers, packings, plastic films for agricul- tural use etc. easy easy comparatively< light 3. product waste discarded automobiles and household appliances etc. various shaped products etc. - easy slightly hard comparatively light 4. household waste household wrappings, sundry goods, toys etc. hard hard • heavy ------- TABLE 12 HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES IN THE EMISSION AND EFFLUENT FROM SETAGAYA INCINERATION PLANT (TOKYO) Concentration Regulation before separate after separate Substance collection* collection* Standard (Oct.,1972) (Sept.,1974) soot 0.18 (g/Nnr3) 0.12 0.032 NOjc ND* (ppm) 114 170 Emission S0X 1,210*(ppm) 10 25 HC1 ND (ppm) 36** 520** Cd 0.095 (mg/1) 0.38 0.008 Effluent Pb 0.95 (mg/1) 0.57 0.18 Zn 4.75 (mg/1) 0.61 0.18 Notes: * Not Determined. is regulation standard of Air Pollution Control Law and others are regulation standards of The Pollution Prevention Ordinance by Tokyo Metro- politan Government. * In FY1973, the separate collection of nlastics etc. from household was put into operation in Tokyo. **** Examination method of HC1 in 1974 is different from that in 1972, so they are uncomparable each other. 1 A ------- concentration in emission and cadmium concentration in effluent from incineration plants have been reduced as indicated in TABLE 12. Notwithstanding the huge generation of municipal waste, reclamation site is very scarce in Tokyo. So, incineration has become the foremost subject for volume reduction, but the construction has been completely retarded. Because it meets a strong oppositional movement. In these circumstances, the former mentioned fact, HC1 and Gd pollution by existing plants, became clear, and it meant the more retardation for construct- ing new plants. These were well enough reasons why Tokyo hastily introduced separate collection. Incombustibles and inadequate incinerables like plastics, metals and glass are separately collected from household in Tokyo. The reason why plastics are not separately collected from metals and glass is because more separation than into two types* (i.e. combustibles and incombustibles & inadequate inci- nerables ) is impossible in light of collection frequency, cost and traffic situations. In case of Toyohashi City, a medium size city of 300 thousand populations, an experimental separate collection into five types is underway (cf. APPENDIX 5). Again in case of Tokyo, neither treatment technology nor resource recovery technology have been prepared. Accordingly, collected plastics for the time being are heaped up on the New Reclaimed Site Along the Coastal Side of the Central Breakwater in Tokyo Bay. The aim of plastic collection in Tokyo is primarily to prevent the secondary pollution from incineration plants, but if the problem of heavy metals like cadmium and lead is really serious, control or ban for the use of PVC stabilizer containing Cd or Pb should be legislated. Then, a great amount of cost and bother for separate collection will become unnecessary. Separate collection of bulky refuse had already been put into operation until then, so each household is totally practicing three types of source separation in Tokyo. U- \ ------- 5. Attempt by the Plastic Waste Management Institute The Plastic Waste Management Institute was established in 1972 by 34 polymer manufacturing companies. It continued to run test plants for plastic reutilization at Funabashi and Koshigaya cities (cf. p25 of 1974 AIST REPORT) and finished the test run in 1975. Funabashi Plant aimed to collect plastics from household separately (practiced by the municipal authority) and to make plastic products through melting and reshaping. The test run brought the conclusion that the feasibility was small for this type of plant to become a fundamental system for plastic recovery from post-consumer waste. The conclusion is based on the following two reasons. 1) Even if the separate collection cost is covered by the municipal authority, there remains a serious economic problem. 2) Various plastics are mixed up because of the dispossession of classification process. This means that re-shaped products have inferior physical property and cannot find large market. Koshigaya ^lant aimed to collect waste plastics separately (also practiced by the municipal authority), pre-heat PVC, ext- ract hydrochloric acid and incinerate the residues at last. This plant neither ran well. It was both economically and technically difficult to meet the intensified municipal pollu- tion control standard. In adition, this attempt was a go-back from the fundamental direction of resource recovery, for it aimed to incinerate separately collected waste plastics after all. Both test plants of Plastic Waste Management Institute did not succeed in presenting definite systems for disposal and recovery of plastics from post-consumer waste, though they brought many valuable findings. (o * I' 2.) oi ------- 1-3 Glass Glass occupies 5-7 percent (in weight) of Japanese municipal waste and it is almost a half compared with U.S. cities* 11-16 percent (cf. Table 1 of APPENDIX 3), but glass content in municipal waste is yearly increasing as indicated in TABLE 2. Though there has not "been a quantitative survey about glass kinds in municipal waste yet, they are mostly estimated as glass bottles. Glass bottle production by ten big glass bottle manu- facturers in Japan is growing as indicated in TABLE 13. 92 percent of whole glass bottle production are occupied by these ten. Against this, plate glass production in 1971 is about 1,150 thousand tons. Therefore the ratio of glass bottle production to plate glass production is 6 to 4. Notwithstanding this comparatively weighty plate glass production, its content in municipal waste is; small. The reasons of this are as follows. 1) Bfeing different from glass bottle, plate glass is intermediate material used as the raw material by automobile industry etc.. Consumer's direct purchase for repairing houses is only 1-2 percent of whole shipment. 2) Plate glass manufacturing industry in Japan is typically oligopolized by three big enterprises and plate glass distribution channel is vertically integrated by these three. The cullet generated by cutting and polishing in process of distribution and the TABLE 13 GLASS BOTTLE PRODUCTION AND GLASS CULLET CONSUMPTION BY 10 BIG MANUFACTURERS (10^ tons) FY Glass Bottle Glass Cullet Production Consumption A/B X 100% (A) (B) 1970 1,346 495 36.8 •71 1,596 550 34.5 •72 1,800 598 33.2 •73 1,858 592 31.9 (o ¦ !• ------- cullet undertaken from household in case of renewing flow back on this channel to be used again as the raw material for plate glass production. For example, a manufacturer uses 0.36 unit of cullet to produce 1 unit of plate glass. There are two ways for recovering glass bottles. One is re-use as a bottle and the other is recycle as glass cullet. Glass bottles excluded from these two streams are whether reclaimed together with other municipal waste or sattered to roadside, hills and fields as litter. About the first way, as indicated in TABLE 14, 60 percent of whole glass bottle is re-used, though each kind of bottle comparatively differs in its re-use ratio. About the second way, cullet equivalent to 30 percent of glass production is recycled as indicated in TABLE 13. One half of this cullet is generated from glass bottle manufacturers and bottlers and the other half is coll- ected from household as miscellaneous bottles. TABLE 13 also indicates that the ratio of cullet consumption to glass bottle production has been yearly decreasing to about 30 percent at present. As a representative case for bottle re-use, FIGURE 4 illustrates the distribution channel of beer bottles. In the case of Kirin Brewery Company* 92-95 percent of bottles are collected and re-used. One bottle is used 15-20 times on average. Beer containers are mostly glass bottles in Japan. Metalic cans are also increasing recently, but it was only 4.6 percent in 1973 (cf. Item 1.1 of APPENDIX 4). The following five are pointed as the reasons for the high re-use ratio of beer bottles. 1) Once collected, they are re-usable many times by simple tretment (i.e. washing, pasteurizing and checking) and , the cost of the treatment is small. f Beer brewing industry in Japan is typically oligopolized. Kirin Brewery Company is a Gulliver having about 60 percent of the market. (p t "2*5 / ^ ------- TABLE 14 SHIPMENT AND RE-USE OP GLASS BOTTLES (1974) Kind of Bottles Shipment (tons) Re-use Ratio w (Estimated) Average Number of Fillings per Bottle drugs & cosmetics 141,736 0 1 2 liter (soy-sauce) 25,272 90 10 condiments 235,575 0 1 milk {200ml,180ml) 77,609 98 50 milk (others) 4,411 98 50 Japanese sake (1 - 8j2) 310,528 85 6.7 Japanese sake (0.9i!) 71,591 50 2 beer (633ml) 239,142 95 20 whisky 186,498 10 1.1 soft drinks 340,869 95 20 Total 1,633,231 60* 2.5*** Notes: * by 10 big glass bottle manufacturers. average number of fillings per bottle = im 100—re-use ratio ($) * weighted average. FIGURE 4 DISTRIBUTION CHANNEL OP BEER BOTTLES nraw material ~i ~ new —c: r- i i bottle glass bottle manufacturer ,'50 ic . 1 beer brewer — - " ll'A 1 1 Notes: stream of filled bottles wholesaler 30 —> stream of empty bottles — -> stream of money (yen/bottle) means refund. re-use ratio = B+C 100 (£) (92—95# in case of Kirin Brewery Company) voluntary group public cleansing service L_ _ . I 5—15 5-15 -r I zlzJ salvage company^ (p.l v\ ------- 2) Volume and design of them are unified. Then each brewer can use them in common only by renewing labels. 3) Their re-use is quick, because beer is drunken in a short time in addition to its large consumption. 4) Because of their price, relatively high as 50 yen per one 633ml new bottle, the re-use can pay for brewery company even after spending treatment cost, 7 yen per one. Therefore, 5 yen per one is always refunded to consumer whether there is a little fluctuation or not on the bottle price. This 5 yen is an adequate price as refund to become incentive for collection. 5) Their collection habit has rooted in Japanese society because beer has a long history among beverages. 5. Japanese sake has a longer history, but in this case bottle collection is nt so much successful as in beer. Sake also had refund system until about 1969. In 1969, the use of salicylic acid as antiseptic was forbidden. Then bottlers began to be afraid of used bottles as dangerous and finished the refund system at last. There are about three thousand sake bottlers in Japan. Thirty of them are big and centered around Nada area, Hyogo prefecture. The new bottles are only used by them. The rest of the sake bottlers re-use the bottles used by these big thirty. The reason why thirty bottlers use the new ones is that sake production by them is far more over the volume of collected bottles within Nada area. The new bottles filled by them one after another are distributed all over Japan and re-used by the minor rest, because they have already recognized the fact that the used bottles are not dangerous even after the ban of antiseptic. A part of this mutual convenience between thirty and the rest appears in TABLE 14. Though infe- rior to beer bottles' 95 percent, re-use ratio of sake bottles, 85 percent is not so bad as whisky bottles 10 percent. 6. Glass bottles re—use contributes to resource conservation, environmental protection and municipal waste reduction, but is (p. i .-25- ------- not always favorably enforced in these years. The following reasons are pointed for the stagnation. 1) On the process of rapid economic growth, Japanese consumer's consciousness that "saving is a virtue" was replaced with new conception that "consumption is a virtue". This mood pushed bottles easily into municipal waste stream. 2) While retailers have been accepting their bottles, one way containers from super-market have too widely spread recently. 3) Labour cost for bottle collection has been rising. Therefore, bottlers are switching over to the one way containers like paper container, plastic container and metalic can, which bring the throwaway mood forth even among glass bottle consumers. 4) Aiming at product differentiation, each bottler releases arbitrarily designed bottle one after another, then it has ¦ become hard for a salvage industry to collect a large amount of one kind bottle. 7. As indicated in TABLE 15, energy consumption per filling is much lower than other containers, when they are used more than ten. TABLE 16 indicates disposal costs (i.e. collection, transportation, incineration, reclamation and management) of ¦> various containers. If they are used more than ten, again glass containers are exemolified as cheeper than other containers on disposal cost. Therefore re-use of glass bottles is necessi- tating protection and control not to be replaced with one way containers. 8. Above mentioned are re-use of glass bottles. There is one more way for glass recovery, that is, recycle of glass cullet. Collection of glass cullet from household has been mostly practiced by salvage industry, but in addition to this, some of ten big glass bottle manufacturers have recently begun to collect glass cullet from household near their plants. The collection system is as follows, i) Manufacturer puts two drums (one for "colored" and the other for "non-colored") beside (p . I —26- ------- TABLE 15 ENERGY CONSUMPTION FOR PRODUCING A 500ml CONTAINER weight energy average energy consumption kind . consumption number of per filling («) (kcal) fillings (kcal) case a.n.f.** consumption case 1 1 1,490 glass bottle 450 1,447 1— 50* case 2 2.5 622 case 3 5 332 crown 2.7 43 1 case 4 10 188 case 5 20 • . 115 case 6 50 72 steel can 80 1,668 1 1,668 paper container 22 260 1 260 PVC' bottle -- ¦ -H 751 1 751 Notes: * cf. TABLE 14. ** indicates average number of fillings of glass bottle. ------- TABLE 16 DISPOSAL COST 0? A 500ml CONT-ilNSR kind weight (g) disposal cost (yen/container) mixed collection and incineration separate collection and landfill glass bottle 450 9.31 5.79 steel can 80 3.05 3.01 paper container 22 2.76 1.72 PVC bottle 37 0.64 1.81 each sake shop. 2) Consumer throws used bottles in these drums separating colored bottle from non-colored one or vice versa. 3) Manufacturer collects them and use as cullet. Manufacturers anticipate that the ratio of cullet recycle will increase to 50 percent from 30 percent at present (cf. TABLE 13), if good quality cullet is available. 9. Finally, glass recovery from municipal waste at incine- ration plant is carried into effect by 3.2 percent plants as indicated in TABLE' 1. This recovery depends on manual sepa- ration. There has neither been any example yet in Japan that cullet by mechanical separation has found market, nor there is any feasibility at present to develop enough techniques for finding market. 1-4 Metal 1. Metal content in municipal waste has been transiting in Tokyo as indicated in TABLE 17. This table is the same as TABLE 17 METAL C0NT3NT IN THE MUNICIPAL vVASTE OF TOKYO (?') Year 1966 '67 '68 '69 '70 '71 '72 '73 Metal Content 2.6 2.1 2.3 2.9 2.7 3.5 4.1 4.5 G-^28- ------- TABLE 2 except for 1973 data. In TABLE 17, 1973 data was taken in the same way as the former ones. TABLE 17 indicates that metal content is increasing year by year reflecting rapid diffusion of metalic cans in beverage containers. Nevertheless metal content in municipal waste in Japan is only 5 percent which is a half comparing with 9-12 percent in U.S. cities (cf. Table 1 of APPENDIX 3). 2. Metals are discharged from household in style of obsolete vehicle, obsolete household appliances, food cans and beverage cans. Among them, the former two are collected, disposed and recycled in a different disposal system from ordinary one for municipal waste disposal, because they are bulky. The main concern of the present report is on the subjects how the metal is effectively recycled from municipal waste stream and how it is efficiently source-separated before it enters into muni- cipal waste stream. Therefore the report is focused on food can and beverage can. Steel Cans 1. Iron scrap in municipal waste are mostly steel cans. Tran- sition of steel can production is indicated in Item 1.2 of APPENDIX 4. Transition of beverage steel can production is in TABLE 18. TABLE 18 and Item 1.1.1.3 of APPENDIX 4 show the rapidly predominating metalic containers among beverage contai- ners. At the same time, rapid decrease of recycled steel cans is told in Item 1.2 of APPENDIX 4. 2. The following six causes are pointed for the decrease of steel cans recycle. 1) Processed scraps from steel cans (i.e. G-Press on JIS Iron Scrap Standard) are difficult to use because of hazardous gas emission.from cans' paint when they are melt- ed in furnace. C-Press content is controlled to 3 percent as upper limit for this trouble. &-/-29- ------- TABLE 18 PRODUCTION OF STEEL CANS ___ ( USED AS BEVERAGE CONTAINERS ) Year 1972 '73 '74 >75 '76 Production ( 10^ tons ) 83 176 289 390 450 2) By the change of crude steel production structure (i.e. the change from open-hearth furnace to converter), nece- ssity for iron scraps decreases while demand for good qua- lity scraps increases. Consumed nig iron and scran to produce 1 ton steel were 528gr and 582gr respectively in I960, which became 749gr and 341gr respectively in 1972. 3) Iron scraps from steel cans belong to the lowest class, C-Press scrap. Their price are as low as 8-12 thousand ——— - ~ f yens/ton when they are bought by steel manufacturers. Subtracting margin, the share of a salvage industry is only about 3 thousand yens/ton. Moreover, cans are as light as 50gr per one notwithstanding their bulky appea- rances. It means that 20 thousand cans become necessi- tated to turn out the smallest lot, 1 ton scrap. As the above figures show, direct collection from household does not pay at all. 4) These characteristics of steel cans, light, unbreakable and convenient for carrying, make themselves scattered around tourist resorts and make themselves difficult for collection. An experiment reports that the collection cost of thrown steel cans on roadsides is 48 yens per one. 5) As they must be once melted into ground metal to be used again, different from glass bottles, the value of used cans is small. Because of this small value, it is impossi- ble to pay the refund to a consumer. As a result, steel cans do not give incentive to consumer for source sepa- ration . 6) Resource recovery from post-consumer waste in Japan has been mainly materials recovery by source separation borne L30- ------- TABLE 19 CHANGES IN THE NUMBER OF SALVAGE COMPANIES, COLLECTORS AND RAGMEN IN TOKYO year salvage companies collectors & ragmen 1962 1,855 8,158 •63 1,742 7,341 '64 1,779 7,041 ••65 1,756 6,629 •66 1,717 5,867 •67 1,713 5,493 •68 1,761 3,981 •69 1,726 3,609 •70 1,546 3,269 •71 1,477 2,206 Note: Collectors collect waste paper, waste cloth, metal scrap, glass bottles etc. from household paying some money in return, while ragmen collect abandoned waste costfree. Materials collected by them are purchased by salvage companies. by salvage industries. Resource recovery by these indust ries was quite labour-intensive and successfully growing until I960 where cheep labour could easily be obtained. Rapid growth of Japanese economy brought the increase of waste and the uprise of labour cost. These industries, unable to have attained progress of -oroductivity to cover this labour cost problem, was much damaged and rapidly declined after I960 (cf. TABLE 19). 3. Because of the difficulties above stated, steel cans directly collected from household are only 30 percent at most of all steel cans collected. Among the rest, 43 percent are 6/3/ ------- collected from railroad stations and inside of trains (both are large generation sources) and 57 percent are from inci- neration plants of municipal waste. The most opperative resource recovery at incineration plants is iron scrap recovery, for separation by magnet is possible for it. In fact, 26.0 percent of incineration plants are carrying iron scrap recovery into effect as shown in TABLE 1. 4. There are two ways to go for steel cans excluded from these collection routes. One of which is reclamation by public cleansing service, wasting iron resource and recla- mation site which are rapidly becoming unobtainable in recent years. The other way is litter scatterd around vending machines, roadsides and tourist resorts. As a counterplan for the former, an agreement on the recovery of metalic cans has already been exchanged between bottlers and several cities like Kobe, Mitaka and Machida as introduced in Item 3.2 of APPENDIX 4. Waste can collection from household was experi- mented in Mitaka City (1974) and Yokohama City (1975) by the Association for Promoting Waste Can Treatment. The result in Mitaka City is introduced in Item 2.1 of APPENDIX 4. A counterplan for the latter is nearly none, except for these two investigations by Nomura Research Institute. One is about scattered metallic cans around the tourist resorts. The other is about the possibility whether steel cans from tourist resorts can be utilized or not as iron scraps for bacteria leaching at copper mines. The latter investigation stems from the attention that copper mines and tourist resorts are often near each other. 5. Finally, the meaning of iron scrap recovery in Japan is stated here. Iron and steel industry in Japan depends most of iron ore and coal on importation. The self-sufficiency rates of iron ore and coal (including the coal used outside iron and steel industry) in Japan are only 0.6 percent (cf. TABLE 20) and i.v- ------- ¦TA3L3 20 PRODUCTION AND RAW MATERIALS CONSUMPTION IN IRON AND STEAL INDUSTRY (lO^tons) Product ion Raw Materials Cbnsumption FY pig iron crude iron ore imported iron scrap imported A : B steel (A) portion of A (B) portion of B 1969 58,147 82,166 69,993 68,968 33,318 4,694 2.1 : 1 •70 68,048 93,322 83,881 83,088 36,861 5,853 2.3 : 1 • 71 72,745 88,557 93,268 92,441 29,390 2,512 3.2 : 1 •72 74,055 96,900 94,690 93,840 35,402 2,515 2.7 : 1 •73 90,007 119,322 115,361 114,654 41,301 5,189 2.8 : 1 ------- 28.3 percent respectively in 1973. This all-out dependance on imported materials consequently developed international competitive power of Japanese iron and steel industry. Because an advantage of low cost sea transport was given by const- ructing new gigantic iron foundries one after another along the Pacific coast. However, Japanese iron and steel industry has now been deadlocked by world-wide resource constraints. Table 73 of APPENDIX 2 directly indicates this. Japan's posi- tion in OECD as importer of iron ore was 20.7 percent in 1965, but 40.4 percent in 1972. It seems as if Japan were making no scruple to monopolize world imports, but it is not allowed internationally. Accordingly, promotion of iron scrap recovery is particularly important for Japan. Recovery of iron scrap brings other advantages. It saves both valuable reclamation space by reduction of slag, and energy consumption by being directly thrown to steel production process. In Japan, 17.2 percent of whole energy are consumed by iron and steel industry, and about 50 percent of the 17.2 percent are consumed on pig iron production process. Nevertheless, as TABLE 20 indicates, the ratio of iron scrap in raw materials consumption is yearly decreasing. One of the causes is the former mentioned change from open-hearth furnace to converter. Imported iron scrap was about 5 million tons (i.e. 12.6 percent of iron scrap consumption) in 1973. Among the rest, 60 percent were by in-plant recycling and 40 percent were collections by salvage industry. Cbntrasting Item 1.2 of APPENDIX 4 with TABLE 20, the weight of collected steel can scrap in all iron scraps is 0.2 percent. Reclaimed iron scraps both mixed with municipal waste and collected as bulky refuse are estimated as about 5 million tons/year (1973), which are the same quantity as imported iron scrap indicated in TABLE 20. Aluminum Cans 1. Changes in aluminum cans production and attempts for aluminum cans collection by associated industries have already ------- been reported in the paper submitted to the Second Meeting on the Waste Management Policy Group of OEGD (cf. APPENDIX 4)» Only one additional data to this is that 10 percent of aluminum cans were collected in 1974 by rough estimation, which are about 0.3 percent of whole recovered aluminum scraps in Japan. Below, the present report will state about general circum- stances of aluminum recovery in japan. 2. Aluminum has fine properties as material. The recent growth rate of aluminum demand is higher than those of any other metals. New ground metal production and recovered ground metal production in both Japan and U.S.A. have been changing as indicated in TABLE 21. 3. As illustrated in FIGURE 5, production of 1 ton new ground metal necessitates such a huge electric power a§ about 16,000kwh. Electric power necessitated for aluminum production is 4-5 percent of whole electric power demand in Japan. Thus, aluminum production has been criticized as energy consumming industry after energy crisis. Red mud generated from the process of alumina production is four times new ground metal production in weight as illustrated in FIGURE 5» The red mud is either reclaimed or dumped into the sea, but from the viewpoint of adequate disposal it has many problems. 4. Prom a different angle, aluminum products much contribute to energy saving. It is mainly because aluminum is light and recoverable. Energy saving coefficient (ESC) of aluminum product is defined as follows. __ Saved Energy by Aluminum Use Consumed Energy by Aluminum Refinement When ESC is higher than 1, aluminum use is effective on energy saving and the more, the better. ESCs of automobile, subway and sash are in TABLE 22. Every aluminum product shows the high energy saving effect. Depreciation months of energy consumed in aluminum refinement are 22 for automobile A and c».f.3r ------- rABLE 21 PRODUCTION OF ALU'.'INUK GROUND M3TAL IN JAPAN AND U.'a.A. (1Q-^ tons ) Year 1961 •65 •70 •71 '72 '73 New Ground Metal (A) 154 294 733 887 1009 1097 JAPAN Recovered Ground Metal (B) 70 124 322 360 412 536 B/A+B () 31.3 29.7 30.5 28.9 29.0 32.8 New Ground Metal (c) 1727 2499 3607 3561 3740 4110 U.S.A. Recovered Ground Metal (D) 377 525 544 535 658 817 D/C+D () 17.9 17.4 13.1 13.1 15.0 16.6 2.3 for sash. Calculations in TABLE 22 are based on 16,000 kwh/ton as aluminum refinement energy consumption except for automobile B. The practical use of new ground metal for automobile engines is about a quarter (27 percent) and reco- vered ground metal is used for the rest. As energy consum- ption for recovered ground metal production is about l/30 of that for new ground metal production, energy saving effect becomes further more as automobile B in TABLE 22. This leans that aluminum refinement uses more energy than other metals, but saved energy by the use of aluminum is further more above, so aluminum is not energy consuming material, but useful energy saving material on the contrary. 5. Aluminum does not stain different from iron and it only consumes 500kwh/ton electric power for recovered ground metal production from collected aluminum scrap. Therefore to acce- lerate aluminum recycle connects to 1) saving bauxite which does not exist in Japan, 2) saving energy, 3) reducing red mud and at the same time saving reclamation space and 4 ) preventing marine pollution by dumped red mud. 6. It is not generally easy to determine recycle ratio of aluminum, because many of aluminum products have long durable years and estimation of total amount of waste aluminum is difficult. As the primary approximation of recycle ratio, the fc. t. 3b ------- UIGURS 5 PLO.V SHEET 0? ALUMINUM PRODUCTION L>x bauxite 4.2t caustic soda 0.2t sulfuric acid 0.04t electricity 440kwh heavy oil 2 30kl 1 yapour 3.8t 5K electricity 16,000kwh alumina nroduction alumina l.Qt untreated red mud 2.5t neutralization treated red mud 4. 0t V dumping into the sea i v aluminum caroon electrode 0.6t fluorite 0.06t cryolite 0.03t iDroduction electricity 270kwh I I aluminum l.Ot aluminum 1.8t scran 1.3t ^ orocessor >> recovered / aluminum 0.07t r > /\ ------- TABLE 22 ¦iNLirtfxY oiwim-r oo3 ?t? ICI^T (.330) 0 * ALUMINUM PRODUCT aluminum durable aluminum energy saved A \ (L \ depreciation product"'" ^ years Jttsed^(kg) in a year~^ -]SC ' ' ' months^ ^^ ^ gasoline small size truck 5 29.5 67 2.7 13 bus 5 21.0 1,209 6.6 9 automobile A 6 29.5 108 5.4- 22' 2 ) automobile B 6 29.5 * 108 18.5 .4 ' electricity subway 13 4, 000 35,650kwh 7.2 22 kerosine sash A 10 7.5 37.7 12.8 2.3 sash B 20 7.5 37.7 25.7 ?-3 Notes: 1) in case of u^inpj new ground aluminum except automobile D. 2) In this case, 1/4 is new --round and 3/4 is recovered ground aluminum, which is nearly reflecting the nresent condition. 3) per vehicle or per window. 4) defined as follows. saved energy by aluminum use consumed energy bv aluminum refinement: 5) depreciation of energy consumed in aluminum refinement by saving energy. 6) Calculation of these colums is ba^ed on the next assumption. New ground and recovered ^round aluminum consume 16,OOOkwh/ton and 500kwh/ton electricity respectively. ------- weight of recovered ground metal production against total ground metal production is calculated as follows. The weight in Japan (1973) is 32.8 percent as indicated in TABLE 21, and is double of that (16.6 percent) in U.S.A.. In a strict meaning, both are uncomparable, because Japan imports much new ground aluminum. For reference, the weight of domestic demand for recovered ground aluminum against that for total ground aluminum is 24.5 percent. This figure is the secon-- dary approximation of aluminum recycle ratio in Japan. 7. Data indicating the condition of aluminum recovery from post-consumer waste is nearly nonentity. Aluminum in bulky refuse like electric appliances is comparatively well recovered by salvage industries because aluminum scrat) is more worth than iron scrap. On the other hand, recycling system for aluminum foil and 'aluminum cans have not been established yet. Although relevant industries are trying to establish aluminum recycling systems as seen in Item 3»2 of APPENDIX 4, it will necessitate considerable effort to make them come true because of such a light weight of an aluminum can as 20gr. In case that collection is not effectively operated, the assumption that an aluminum can is an energy saving container than the others like a glass bottle and a paper container becomes considerably questionable. Chapter 2 Energy Recovery 1. The fundamental ideas for waste disposal in Japan have been hitherto volume reduction, chemical stabilization and hazard exclusion and been lacking in energy recovery. As stated in p.17-20 of 1974 AIST REP0RT,.heat recovery and electric power generation at incineration slants were retarded in comparison with European countries, and the situation has not been much improved until after two years today. ------- The following three are pointed as the reasons why energy recovery from municipal waste at incineration plants is not fully put into operation in Japan. 1) The characteristics of Japanese municipal waste quality, in comparison with U.S.A. and European countries, are high moisture content (40-60 percent) and high plastic content. The former causes calorific value reduction and the latter causes corrosive and hazardous gas emission like HC1, NH3 and HCN. For efficient electricity generation, high- pressure and high-temperature vapor is indispensable, but in Japan, electricity generation by low-pressure and low- temperature vapor is required to avoid high temperature corrosion of a boiler by the above stated corrosive gas. For example, Issy-les-Moulineaux Plant in Prance uses 65 2 kg/cm pressure and 410°C temperature vapor, but most Japa- nese plants use 16kg/cm pressure and 200°G temperature vapor. 2) Quality and quantity of municipal waste do not only change by seasons, but also hourly change within a day and it is difficult to level them because of waste nature. Then, most electric utility companies are reluctant for purch- asing electricity generated by incineration plants because of its low quality with wide fluctuation. 3) Electric supply is oligopolized by nine electric utility companies under the Electric Power Industry Law. The surplus electricity from incineration plants should riot be directly supplied even to the municipal trains and conse- quently should be cheeply sold and expensively bought back. It will determine the success or failure of energy recovery from municipal waste how to solve these problems both socially and technically in Japan. (p. l.AO ------- Chapter 3 Materials Conversion There are two ways for material conversion from municipal waste; pyrolysis and composting. The former is the theme on Special Subject 2 at the present Japan-U.S. Conference on Solid Waste Management. Prof. M.Hiraoka is reporting about it. This report is focused on the latter, the present situ- ation of composting in Japan. Japanese agriculture is the most fertilizer-intensive one in the world. The evil effect' has begun to be conspicuous by overuse of chemical fertilizer. The use of compost is much desirable in Japan to remove this evil effect, however, the opperating com-oost -plants are only 8 among 30 plants const- ructed until 1967. The following five are the reasons for the decline of compost in Japan. 1) Because of the convenience of chemical fertilizer, compost use begun to be ignored. 2) Because of the increase of aliens like plastics and glasses in the municipal waste, the farmers begun to be anxious of injury or the evil effect on crops by trace pollutants like Hg, Cd and PCB. 3) Disposal capacity of the compost plant constructed in I960 was 50 tons/day and could not meet the yearly incre- asing wastes 4) For producing good quality compost, manual separation and elimination of non-comoostables like elastic, glass and cans from collected waste are necessitated. This requires labour under extraordinally inferior working conditions. 5) The months suitable for distributing compost are very limited in Japan. A1ST of MITI is -olanning to design, construct and run a pilot t)lant for resource recovery from municipal waste in phase II of R & D (FY 1976-'79). This nlan aims to construct ------- a system to combine semi-wet pulverizing and classification process with high-rate composting process (cf. FIGURE 6). In case of resource recovery from Japanese municipal waste, a key point is in separation of kitchen waste. In this system, kitchen waste is mechanically separated by the semi- wet pulverizing and classification process. Therefore nori- compostables problem above mentioned will become smaller. The tentative findings are much expected. A r\ ------- .?riURE 6 MATERIALS RECOVERY SYSTEM "PLANNED BY A 1ST AS ^HASE II R&D PROJECT municipal waste lOOt/day 20t/day lOt/day fuel gas 6, 200Nm"Vday (6,900kcal/Nm^) 3t/day Notes: 1) Phase II is FY1976 '79, and phase I was PY1973 '75. 2) AIST is planning two resource recovery systems, one is materials recovery and the other is energy recovery. This figure illustrates the former. ------- AFTERWORD 1. Research and development of technology for waste recovery in Japan have being promoted by AIST. The outlook of R & D was already reported in 1974 AIST RSPORT. The later research and development are worth watching. Phase I (FY 1973-'75) is fini- shed in this March and the summary is reported at the end of the month. Therefore, the present report cannot inform about the summary of Phase I and the plan of Phase II (FY 1976-'79) at present. About these, the neraon in charge of the project will report at the discussion on the present subject in May 14th. 1976. 2. The Economic Planning Agency has organized a project team consisted of the representatives from associated government offices, which are Ministry of International Trade and Industry, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Ministry of Home Affairs, Environmental Agency and Technology Agency. This project team is performing a study of socio-economical feasibility of the recycling, in FY 1975-'77. The interim report is also summa- rized at the end of this March. The person in charge of the project will report about this (cf. Item 3.5. of APPENDIX 4). 3. The research for recycle promotion from municipal waste at medium-sized cities, "Study on Waste Management System in Smaller Cities", is omitted here. APPENDIX 5 is for your reference. 4. Offshore plant is being planned, for recycling promotion from municipal waste in big cities. This is a gigantic plant with 10,OOOtons/dav capacity. The present report also omits the information about it. APPENDIX 6 is for your reference. i 5. Other attempts for resource recovery from post-consumer waste are being promoted by relavent industries and some orga- nizations for it have been also established. These are omitted from the present report. (o-MM ------- X w Q 2; M P-, Ph < +> O s +3 GQ rO <=< r~- o> iH +3 s -p •H a. Environmental Conservation and the Increasing Volume of Solid Waste The Growing Volume of Waste Materials According to Ministry of Health and Welfare statistics on the total nationwide volume of-solid wastes "industrial waste" for 1971 totaled 700 million tons* while "municipal waste" totaled 3 million tons and "general wastes" totaled 90 million tons, bringing the volume of refuse to a grand total of nearly 800 million tons (Fig. 1S). Fig. 15. Estimated Amount of Wutes U0Q million) Other industry-. _ Industrial wastes •^iiv "" Human waste General wastes General line wastes FY 1971 Hfluman wastes^ Municipal FY197Twastes A comparison between wastes per person and per capita income shows that there is a close relationship between rises in income and increases in volumes of waste generated (Fig. 16). This volume of waste generated is expected to continue increasing in the future, a 1.6-fold increase over 1971 figures being predicted by 1975. In recent years, a number of factors have come into evidence which have added to the difficulty of solving the problems of waste disposal (which are in turn related to increases in the consumption of raw materials). Fig. 16. Relation between Amount of Wastes and National Income First, industrialization and urbanization in the Pacific Belt Region have proceeded very rapidly in recent years. The proportion of the country's industry and population in this region has increased correspondingly. The rate of growth in the volume of industrial waste generated has been most accelerated in the Tokai, Sanyo, coastal Kanto and coastal Kinki regions, as a concomitant of the expansion in manufacturing experienced by these areas. The concentrated disposal of wastes within a small land area has acted, so to speak, to heighten and intensify the burdens which a limited environment must bear. The efficiency of trash collection and transport is worsening due to the phenomenon of "urban sprawl" and a deterioration in road traffic conditions and also as a result of the lack of sufficient areas suitable for reclamation through landfill and the difficulties in obtaining use of them. Urban capacities for disposing of wastes have, in relative terms, decreased making the problems of waste treatment ever more serious. Between 1974 and 1971, the cost of trash collection and transport in the Tokyo metropolitan area grew from 76.2 percent to 83 percent of the total spent on waste disposal. This ------- large percentage assigned to collection and transport reflects the trend toward locating waste disposal facilities at greater distances apart from one another. According to calculations by the Economic Planning Agency, the volume of refuse discarded by households in the greater Tokyo area could reach as high as three times the current volume by 1985 if present trends irf the concentration of population and material resources into the urban areas should continue, thus necessistating the construction of sixty additional waste treatment plans. Such estimates suggest that, from the standpoint of the problem of refuse alone, the# current tempo of urban concentration cannot be maintained. Also as a result of the movement of population into the cities, difficulties are arising from the fact that there is a rapid increase in the volume of "secondary wastes" discharged from municipal waste treatment facilities which require further processing at the terminal treatment plants. A second problem area is that, along with the trend toward higher living standards insofar as levels of personal consumption are concerned, many items which are still useful or which could be recycled are instead being discarded as trash. Fig. 17. Composition of General Wastes (Tokyo) 54 (3.8%)-, (22.3%) 1965 1970 1972 r(2.5%)<2.8%)^(3.9%)42 243 million ton 10 (2.7%) go (5.7%) 50(13.9%) 360 million ton 19 :(4.1%) 32 "(7.1%) 172 1 103 79 (38.2%) j (22.7%) (17%) 452 million ton E o Ot £ II 9 JO 3 6 <* ® Ja s o Figure 17, which charts trends regarding "general wastes" in the Tokyo metropolitan area, indicates that the percentage of refuse accounted for by such recyclable items as metals and paper is increasing. The discarding of materials which could still be further used is one factor giving impetus to the rise in disposal costs and also to the shortage of areas suitable for landfill by municipal wastes. The trend in the volume of carbonated beverages being distributed in metal containers, is shown in Table 5. A steady changeover from re-usable glass bottle to the use of metal cans is taking place. Table 5 Ratio of Canned Volume of Carbonic Acid Drink (in per cent) 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 Ratio 0.8 1.6 4.0 6.3 10.9 16.8 Together with improvement in material living standards, various long-life non-destructible substances have come to be widely distributed in consumer products. Vast quantities of such products are" being discarded as ordinary garbage after use, but many of these items could be used again. A third consideration is that many new chemical-based products have been developed and manufactured in response to technological change without due consideration being given to disposal processes. For example, reflecting the wide use of plastic products due to strong and low-cost characteristics, the propor- tion of plastic wastes in the general household garbage has reached a level of approximately 10 percent. Plastic wastes give rise to technical problems because they emit hydrogen chloride gas during incineration and also because of the high intensity of heat produced by them, which may damage the incinerators. In connection with the fact that a high proportion of solid wastes are destined for use in land reclamation projects, it is recognized that many plastics have a high resistance to natural decomposition, with the result that, when used in landfill operations, they are not easily estabilized and thus lower the success ratio for land reclamation. So, plastics also aggravate the problem of locating sufficient areas in which household wastes can be used effectively for land reclamation projects. It is estimated that approximately 800 tons of PCBs have been used to manufacture air conditioners, color television sets and ------- other electrical household appliances. In the effort to see that every precaution is taken in the disposal of these products containing PCBs from an environmental standpoint, systems have already been put into practice whereby the makers involved remove those parts containing PCBs beforehand. Indeed, wastes containing synthetic substances and substances detrimental to human health are in great danger of becoming sources of environmental pollution, and the development of products employing these substnaces only renders more difficult the proper disposal of waite products. b. Environmental Problems with Respect to Waste Products The increase in the volume of waste products discarded gives rise to various environmental problems in the processes of ultimately returning these wastes to nature. The most frequent types of environmental disruption by waste products are roughly classified in Figure 18, which indicates those types of pollution which can arise from both the improper disposal of wastes into the natural environ- ment and the improper treatment of such wastes. In 1973 there were 1,056 cases where the Waste Disposal and Public Cleaning Law was violated. This was more than twice of the 420 cases registered during the previous year. A total of 2,460 cases of pollution outbreaks in the seas surrounding Japan were registered in 1973 representing a steady trend of yearly increases in these occurrences. Final disposal of waste substances may be divided into two general categories; land reclamation and ocean dumping. Looking first at waste used for land reclamation, it may be noted that approximately 53 percent of all sludge and 34 percent of all general household garbage may be disposed of in this way. In cases where land reclamation is carried out by improper methods or without sufficient pretreatment of the wastes in question, such undesirable results may occur as the contamination of ground water from land-fill seepage or the emanation of noxious odors from gases produced by anaerobic decomposition. With a lack of proper supervision, such landfills may even become breeding grounds for mice and insect pests. As for ocean dumping of wastes, it may be noted that between June of 1972, when controls on waste disposal under the Marine Pollution Prevention Law first went into effect, and the end of the same year, the volume of industrial wastes (acids, alkalialis, etc.) disposed of in accordance with the standards set in this Law totaled 2,750,000 tons, general wastes including night soil totaled 3,050,000 tons, and bottom sand from dredging operations totaled 23,470,000 o c &s o is 2 * Q> «i E ^ 3 3 a-3 (35 ------- tons, bunging the grand total of the three to 29,270,000 tons. To conserve the natural environment, it will be necessary prevent as much as possible increases in the pollution, burden by such waste disposal methods. The rapid expansion of land management systems (reclama- tion, etc.) is seen to be both desirable and necessary insofar as proper methods to do so can be found and maintained, c. Directions in Waste Control In order to solve the problem of waste materials, it will be necessary to regard the situation from a basically environmental point of view and also to see it as a problem of waste control with respect to which method is best for regulating the "flow" of waste products from the stage of their production until' their final return to nature. Based upon such awareness, the following points may be listed with respect to those urgent problems whose solutions will depend on how matters of waste production are to be regulated. First, most manufactured products are difficult to control at the stages of consumption and discard. Consideration to the problems of ultimate disposal must be given beforehand at the production stage. The "product cycle" does not end with sale and consumption, but rather with the product being eventually thrown away and then, ideaJly, after passing through an end-disposal process, being ap- propriately returned to natural systems. Henceforth, the urgant need to waste no time in making changeovers to new production mechanisms will still remain, whereby proper evaluation at the development stage will be given not only to matters of convenience of production or use, but also to the technical possibilities of disposal, the costs of regulating wastes generated, and the social costs of environmental contamination. This means considering in advance appropriate methods and costs for disposal. Secondly, there is the matter of setting up new disposal systems. One'reason for the illegal dumping and improper disposal of wastes by industrialists and other entre preneurs is that they simply lack proper systems for waste disposal and thus also the capacity to carry out high-level waste treatment. Six prefectures (including Osaka and Aichi) have recently established public corporations for the treatment of industrial wastes. It is also significant that among private enterprises as well there is a movement toward the cooperative establishment of waste treatment facilities for shared use. Also desirable are the development and execution of land reclamation projects which do not adversely affect the environment, as well as the development and application of automatic waste collection systems which utilize pipelines, etc., in order to prevent pollution which would result from the waste transport process. Third, there is the matter of providing for the recycling and reuse of waste products. By recycling and reusing wastes, the utilization efficiency of,natural resources increases, the ultimate volume of waste generated decreases, and the latent potential for environmental pollution can thus be lessened. For example, it is estimated that out of the 12,460,000 tons of waste paper produced in Japan in 1971, some 7,060,000 tons were capable pf being recycled. Of the latter amount, however, only 63 percent was actually recycled. When it is taken into account that by recycling savings arc made by reducing the costs necessary for pollution-prevention measures, it can be seen that the differential between production costs using raw materials and those using recycled materials is diminished in terms of real cost. Thus, a reexamination is in order with regard to whether it is better to provide directly obtained raw materials or recycled materials at equalized cost for production use. ------- APPENDIX 2 White Paper on Japanese Economy 1975 (Abstract) 2. Resource Constraints The oil crisis in the autumn of 1973 caused a radical change in the world conditions on re- source supply. The developments have since shown that industrialized nations are under pres- sure to accept more equitable terms of utiliza- tion of natural resources with their producer nations. Associated with the North-South prob- lem, they are indicative of the resistance of the developing nations to the squandering of their natural resources by advanced nations while economic development remains stalled in the Third World. The developments also made re- source suppliers among the industrialized na- tions to be aware of the importance of manage- ment and conservation of their own resources. Thus, the postwar idea of economic development in Japan, predicated on the availability of ample and low-priced resources, is no longer valid. a. Feasibility of Artificial Supply Restrictions It is, of course, not that resources of all kinds are subject to supply constraints. Nor do the present supply constraints necessarily mean physical exhaustion of resources. Actualities about the recent supply constraints of resources comprise are: (1) the cognizance of resource- producing developing nations of the economic value of resources in their possession prompted them to conserve resources and raise their ex- port prices; and (2) the elasticity of resource supply decreased as a result of intensified arti- ficial restraints on supply imposed by posses- sors of resources of great importance linked their supply with political problems to secure a favorable political settlement. In these conditions, the consumption trend in Japan, a major importer of resources, has sig- nificant influences on the world supply-demand of resources and their prices. To be sure, Japan's share in the total imports of resources of the OECD member nations tops those of other nations regarding copper and iron ores, coal and petroleum. This tendency is likely to become more pronounced in the future (Table 73). This is because the rate of increase in consumption in Japan is higher than those in other countries, and also because Japan has held fast to its conventional principle of eco- nomic management, i.e., processing of raw materials at the point of consumption, while Western nations dealt with increased demand by expanding finished-goods imports. Supposing every nation will continue to consuming re- sources at the same rate as in the past with- out changing the present structure of industry, Japan by 1985 will be accounting for as much Japan U. S. A. U. K. W. Germany France Italy Table 73. Japan's Position as Importer of Resources (In percentage to total OECD imports) Crude oil 16.5 14. 9 12. 3 13.2 11. 6 11.5 13.2 10.4 10. 3 12.1 9. 1 (Unit: %) Coal Iron ore Bauxite 1965 1972 1965 1972 1965 1972 Copper ore 1965 1972 19. 6 18.7 39.6 20.7 40. 4 8.3 19. 2 67. 3 0.0 0.0 7.8 13. 0 11. 3 0.0 24.3 13.2 64.7 51.5 0.0 5.6 9.5 8.6 10.2 19.8 2 1 4.3 6.4 15.2 4.2 4.8 2.3 8.1 0.6 2.4 1.2 9.0 2 0 2.6 3.6 0.1 15.9 0.0 0.0 Total of 6 conutries 80.9 73.8 50.8 63.3 81.4 84.2 86.4 85.5 74.6 1.7 0.0 14.3 0.3 0.0 86. 9 90. 9 Source: OECD: Trade by Commodities 9 ------- as 20 per cent to 30 per cent of the total con- sumption of the principal resources of the world (Chart 74). The finite availability and the low elasticity of resources supply imply that the high growth of the Japanese economy, with its heavy consumption of resources, will pose a threat to economic growth in advanced and developing nations. The world supply and de- mand resources will probably be strained by Japan's high economic growth, thereby acce- lerating the rise in the prices of resources of the world. Second, when artificial restrictions are applied on the supply of resources under such condi- tions, Japan would suffer more serious disrup- tions than otherwise. As for the major eco- nomic conditions supporting the producers' pos- sible recourse to artificial restrictions on re- sources supply, the following may be cited: (1) the exploitable period of resources (the quan- tity of exploitable reserves/annual production) has diminished. This is liable to strain the worldwide situation of supply and demand; (2) the high degree of concentration of resources production implies that there exists considerable room for discretion of the suppliers in disposing of resources; (3) the low price elasticity of de- mand suggests the downward rigidity of demand against higher prices; (4) the supply elasticity of resources is low as it depends on outsiders' supply elasticity and the existence of substitutes and their possible development; and (5) a much closer unity is shown by the supplier countries of resources than the countervailing power of consumer countries. The tightness of unity on the side of suppliers depends on the "mono- cultural" characteristic of their economies, the level of industrialization, and the degree of eco- nomic homogeneity. It also depends on whether there are common political interests among producing countries. The resisting power of consumers depends on the degree of reliance upon particular supplier countries for resource supply and how significant the exports of con- sumer countries are to the specific supplier countries. Among all kinds of resources, the conditions for supply restraints seem to be best satisfied by petroleum (Table 75). An analysis of the composition of resources supply for Japan reveals, first, that the rate of self-sufficiency is extremely low, and that Japan's share in the advanced nations' total consumption of resources is large; second, the degree of concentration of imports from partic- ular countries is extremely high; and, third, Japan's share in the imports by these countries, a possible source of countervailing power, is small except for §ome countries (Table 76). A high economic growth, if resumed by Japan under such a supply structure and in the chang- ing situation on world resources, would make the Japanese economy unstable. The outbreak of the oil crisis demonstrated the Japanese economy's vulnerability most visibly. Many of the advanced nations at present are moving in the direction of decreased dependency upon imports through energy-saving and devel- opment of indigenous energy sources. In its world energy prospects announced in January 1975 (being revised now), the OECD estimated the consumption of primary energy resources in 1972-1985 would increase at a 3.8 per cent annual rate or lower than the 5.0 per cent of the 1960s. It expects a decline in the relative importance of petroleum imports and a rise in the domestic supply of atomic power, coal and other energy sources (Table 77). Among the advanced countries, the United States is expected not only to attain complete self-sufficiency in energy supply, but also to become an oil-exporting country; European countries' oil imports are anticipated to decline below the present levels; by contrast, Japan's imports are expected to expand by as much as 80 per cent. The prospects are, it must be noted, more in the nature of goals. Their ful- fillment rests on the exploitation of oil reserves in the U.S. continental shelves and the North Sea (530 million barrels per day in the North Sea and 690 million barrels per day in Alaska and on the U.S. continental shelves), produc- tion of oil from oil shales and tar sands, and an increase in the relative importance of atomic power generation (energy plans of major coun- tries indicate that 30 per cent of the total elec- tricity supply in 1985 will be accounted for by (p. o ------- Chart 74. Trends in Resources and Energy Consumption Notes: 1. Sources: U.N.: World Energy Supplies; MITI: Annual Report on Supply and Demand Statistics on Nonferrous Metals, Others; Iron and Steel Federation: Es- sentials of Iron and Steel Statistics. 2. The radius represents the annual volume of consumption, with the world consump- tion volume for 1972 being used as base. 3. 1985: Case A refers to extension of the past trend; Case B assumes that growth rate slows down; Case C assumes both an economic slowdown as well as a 20 per cent decline in the elasticity of consumption as against GNP. atomic power generation in the United States, 40 per cent in West Germany, and 60 per cent in France). These estimates are all based on the present prices of crude oil, and furthermore involves various other problems, such as the trade-off relation between environmental con- (p./. S\| ------- Table 7J» Feasibility of Supply Restrtetlooi oa Essential Resources World market situation Degree of production ooncefltrmtion Degree of export concentration (1972 export# to OECD) Degree of 1« 2nd 3rd	« ln<1 3"1 4lh countries W Degree of conceoir- lion of 5 countries Pric« elasticity o( COAIUfflptM Feasibility of substitute resource /or short end roeduim periodi Hcooooile homogeneity and degrev of unity of auppfyfcg coufUne* Petroleum 27 0 7.9{f») (73J ('65--73) Bauxite 23 6 3.1(«) (71) ('65—72> USA. USSR. Saudi' Iran Vcne- {72) Arabia xuela 2 5 15 3 13. J 10.« 6.1 618 (bold face «= OPEC menber countries) Saudi Iran Kuwait Libya Arabia 19.9 10.7 10.0 7.9 (bold face«OF£C member countries) Auit- rati* 18.7 ('73) Jgm&* Scrl- Guyana France Compared Jama- Aoit- Surl* lea nam with Free lea ralla nam World Guyana Phosphate rock 477 4 3 5(96) (74) {'65-71) 21.7 10.S 3.6 5-0 (bold /aca=IBA member countries) Morocco U SA U.S S R Tunisia 44.0 29 3 15 9 4.2 Eyypt 1 5 Iron ore 323 2 4 6(?p) U.S.SR. USA. Aust- France Canada ralia (73) ('63-73) 26 8 11 0 8.9 6 3 5 9 71 (74) 94.9 (73) 59.4 30.7 19.7 11.5 11.4 (bold facenJBA member countries) Morocco 41 8 Aost- ralla 20.1 USA. 33.2 Canada 12.7 Tunisia 7 6 Brazil 12.1 Togo 5 0 Swedes 10.4 Nigeria 63 7 7.® USA. 5.9 79.2 Senegal 4.4 910 Liberia 7.9 Copper ore 40 4 7(«) (73) ('65—73) Lead ore ' 27 5 3 2(96) (72) ('62 —72) Zinc ore 21 4 4 5{«) (74) {'62-72) Nickel ore 105.2 5 4(«i) (71) ('62-72) Coal 231 5 1.61#: (73) C63-72) Natural gas 41 3 11.7{«> (74) C65--72; (bold face = Members of the Organisation of (bold face^Members of the Orgsniatioft of Iron Ore Exporting Countries) Iron Ore Exporting Countries) U.SA. USS.R. Canada Chill Zambia (73) Canada Philip. Aust- ChUi Ptra 20 9 14. 4 10 9 9.7 9.4 65.3 29 5 26 6 18 5 8.4 3.6 (bo'd face =CIPEC Member Countries) (bold face3 CI PEC Member Count res) ('72) USA. Awst* C&nada Peru Mexico Compared Canada Peru Morocco Ireland Auat- ralia with Free ralia World 22.0 15 7 13 9 7 4 6 2 65.2 26 8 19.7 12 9 & 4 5.7 Canada Aust- US.A. Peru Japan ('72) Canada Peru Aust- Sweden Mexico ralia Compared ralia ¦with Free World 26 9 11.9 10.3 &4 6.6 64. 1 36 9 2C 7 8 0 7. 2 6.2 Canada New Aust- USA lndo< (72) New AbSl- Indo- Canada USA Cale* roJia nesie Compared CaJe. ralia nesia don la wsth Free doaia World 46.8 21.5 7 2 2.9 2.S 81 2 44. 4 31.1 12.0 6.9 19 USA. USSR. ChirtA Poland UK (72) USA Aust- W. Poland USSR ralia Germany 6.0 25 0 ' 31 0 IB. 6 7 0 5 6 77 2 39 1 16 2 13 7 11 4 U.SA. USSR. Canada Nether- UK (¦72) Canada Nether- Kuwait USA Lib>a lands lands 3 0 52 6 IS 2 6.8 4 8 2 2 84 6 38 9 32 3 3. 3 3 2 74.6 78.9 -0 025 (- 0 36) -0 072 (- 0 51) -0.330 (- 2.16) -0.U9 <- 1.56) -0 3N <- 1.68) Not available Not available Not available Except for certain coal aub- stitutes, possibility is amall for other substitutes Possibility of collecting seabed manganese nodules; also io the process of developing production technique froa day, shale and other), Buy be substituted for in part by iroa-steel and plcatica Price elawtaty held liltely to be small -a 214 (- Z3J) 80 7 No substitute resources Estimating the increase in con- sumption to be 4 per' cent at annual rare, domestic self-suffei* cocy la estimated to last 59 years for N. America, 35 years (1972) for W, Europe Substitute re* sources next io none Substitute relations srilh a'umi* num exists, uiabiluy of reclaimed ingot is growing Reclamation is relatively tuy Actual reserves are said lo be much larger than published figures Feasibility of collecting manga- nese nodule* m 1930s Substituted by oil up to now Know-how developed for ton- verjmg coal inro ga. very small proportion turned to exports Economic dependence on oil li uniformly high, all S top ranking countries belong to the "South". Unity is strong Australia included in top coun- tries to both production and exports, therefore, economic homogeneity of IDA member countries is not high. Hence, unity is not strong The 2 top cojntries both in out- put and exports, namely. Morocco rnd USA. are quite low in economic homogeneity Bit as their comb.ned tupply ex ceeds70p«r cent of to:al output and expons, a strong duopoliattc tendency is io evidence The top 5 countries* economics show a high degree oi homo* genehy In export share, Canada, and Australia together account nearly for 50 per cent; developing nations for the rest In exports, Canada's weighs is high "North's" share is Urge both in output and exporta "North's" share is large both in output and exports "North's" share is overwhelming is exports "North's" shxre is overwhelming in exports Notes: I Sources; UN. World Energy Supphet. OECD* Trade by Commodihet 2. Price elasticity log P. i (C World consumption, O. World industrial production, P Prices) But (or aluminum, j- value is Aluminum and iron steel Were substituted respectively for bauxite and iron ore For the long t«rm period, (A) (Rese-vea of resources/Production volume per )eor) Ratio of consumption is j value estimated on the basis of the annua] data during "6J —73 of Jog C"a log O + /¦ estimated on the basis of log log 0-t-p- lo£ P»t + ^ '"~! C.t ( ) below the e&umated value is t value, it is expected (lot consumption would eqiul output, hence. Consumption volume« Productino.vol«une, Rate of increase in output (.Annual average) ------- Table 78. Degree of Uncertainty in Japaafr Resources Supply Structure (Unit: %) Japan's Japan's »elf-suffi- weight ciency in OECD rate import* (1973) (1972) Degree of import concentration Japan's weight as Weight of imports ,.074) importer in the from Japan in im- ¦ ' export of resources ports of resources Ratio ^ producer nations producing countries Rank Country Petroleum a 3 19.6 (D Iran 35.9 36. 7(72) 14.0(72) (f) Saudi Arabia 19.3 16l 0( «) 11.4(71) ® Indonesia 15; ,1 66.2( ») 32.9(72) $ United Arab Emirates 9.9 21.6( ») — ® Kuwait 8.8 19.7( #) 16.0(72) Total 89.0 Coal 28.3 39.6 1 Australia 43.5 85.8 {'72) 17.8(73) 2 U.S.A. 28.9 31.0( ») 14.0( ») 3 Canada 18.2 92.0( ') 4.4( 0) 4 U.S.S.R. 4.8 8.8( ») 2.4( » ) 5 Poland Z1 3. 0( ») 1.6C72) Total 97.5 Iron ore 0.5 40. 4 ® Australia 47.7 86.7 f 73) 17.8(73) ® India 14.2 86.6(71) 9.3(72) (§) Brazil 9.5 30. 6(72) 7.7 ('72) ® Chili 6.3 80. 6(70) 4.^(71) (§) Peru 46 95. 4 ('69) 7.7(72) Total 82.3 Copper Ore 9,8 74. 6 1 Canada 39.7 74.4(71) 4.4(73) 2 Philippines 25.7 82.4( ») 32.5 ( ) 3 Bismark Islands 12.8 57.1(73) — © Chile 6.2 26. 0(70) 4. 5(71) ' 5 Australia 5.3 98.6(73) 17.8(73) Total 89.7 Bauxite 0. 0 19. 2 ------- Japan's self-suffi ciency rate (1973) Japan's weight in OECD imports (1972) Degree of import concentration (1973) Bank Country Japan's weight as Weight of imports importer in the from Japan in im- exports of resources ports of resources p j by expoting nations exporting countries Zinc ore 31.2 32.5 1 Canada 2 Peru 3 Australia 4 Mexico 5 ROK Total. 34.5 19.6(72) 4.4(73) 26.9 74. 6 (69) 7.7(72) 17.4 31.4(71) 17.8(73) 5.2 30.3(72) 3.9(72) 5.1 100. 0( ) 40. 9( ) 89.1 Lead ore 1 Canada 65.0 87.4(72) 4. 4 \"73) 2 Peru 15.2 33. 5 ('69) 7.7(72) 3 Australia 10.3 24.5(71) 17. 8(73) 4 ROK 6.4 100.0(72) ¦ 40.9(72) j'71\ 5 U.S.A. 2.5 °-° M 14.0(73) \'72l Total 99.4 Phosphate rock 0.0 11.5 1 U.S. A 60.5 16.2(72) . 14.0(73) 2 Morocco 19.4 3.8(73) 2.2(») 3 Jordan 6.0 17. 7( ») 4. 9( ») 4 Nauru 4.8 6.6( n) — 5 Senegal 3.7 8.6(71) 0.4(72) Total 94.4 Notes: 1. Sources: MOF: Japan Exports and Imports; UN: Yearbook of International Trade Statistics; OECD: Trade by Commodities 2. f—] not available 3. O Member countries of each resources producer union servation and industrial development. On the other hand, there is an optimistic view that the reinforcement of the countervailing power on the side of consumer countries may create an excess capacity in oil-producing countries in the Middle East and Africa, forcing the prices of crude oil to fall in the long run. Any definitive conclusion cannot be formed as yet about the future of the energy constraints. However, it is at least clear that the world conditions for the supply of resources have undergone a radi- cal change, that developing nations' claim for an equality in the resources utilization has in- tensified and that advanced nations are in need of managing their resource consumption ade- quately. In these circumstances, it is neces- sary to step up international cooperation on energy conservation and the development of substitute energy sources. There is increasing need for Japan to improve the security of its economy by placing the economy on an orbit of stable growth in keeping with the new re- source supply conditions in the world, while en- deavoring to achieve a more energy-saving in- dustrial structure and a higher self-sufficiency in energy supply from a long-range point of view. Cr-ISH ------- The fiction of consumers' sovereignty # Yuzuru Hanayama There is a hypothesis that the amount of some consumers' goods consumed in a community Increase as the Income of the consumers goes up. This type of hypothesis is frequently applied for pre- diction of consumption level in future and for planning of public utilities; power stations, water filtration plants, solid waste incinerators and so forth. As we will see later, this type of hypothesis is true in some cases, as far as we see the facts ex post. But we can not help feeling uneasy, when it is said that the. increase of income requires inevitably huge power stations, filtration plants, incinerators and other kind of public utilities, or that any environmental disruption is just a consequence of consumers' option, who constantly pursue higher Income. Although it is said that consumers have the right to choose or not to choose any kind of goods in the market, the structure of the market is ruled by the industry or manufacturers but not by the consumers: the. con- sumers could not choose goods which the manufacturer does not supply and consumers are often forced to purchase something which they do not want, together with what they really want (unnecessary containers and wrapping, for example). In this paper 1 want to describe some of the influence of manufacture upon the consumers' activities and environmental problems caused by * A paper submitted for HESC ( Congress of Scientists on the Human Environment ) held in Kyoto during 17 to 25 November, 1975. ** Associate professor of The Tokyo Institute of Technology. < ------- them, by using mainly data o£ solid waste in Tokyo and New York. (1) The swelling of consumption and Increase of income. Figure 1 shows a correlation between the amount of solid waste generated by households and collected by the municipalities for some cities and income level of the nations which the cities belong to. We can easily see a good correlation between them (the correlation coeffecient is 0.869). The elasticity of the amount of solid waste per capita to the income (GDP) per capita is 0.35. But we must pay some attention to the surrounding factors before we accept what Figure 1 means. In the case of Tokyo the amount of solid waste collected by the municipality is 1.0 kg a day a capita, but Tokyo Metropolitan Government collects garbage from / some small restaurants and coffee shops together with the waste generated by ordinary households, while New York City Government does not collect any garbege generated by commercial activities. So the amount of waste of Tokyo may be less, when income of Tokyo Citizens reaches New York level. But on the other hand, in Tokyo we still have some recycling industry which collects old newspaper in return for some rolls of toilet tissue from each households and carries it to paper mills and every liquer shop accepts empty for bottles in return^some penies, while in the United States they don't have old paper collecting system and only a few states ------- log W Figure 1 Correlation between Waste and Income Hamburg New. Yori X" London x Los Angeles Tokyo x x Berkeley Osaka Paris Hong Kong log W - 0.35 log Y + 1.39 Y - o, 869 2.0 3.0 log \ 4.0 W: kg/capita/year Y: US$/capita/year ------- (Oregon and Vermont) have bottle collecting system. There are some technological problems as well. In New York many households have disposers at their sinks to discharge kitchen garbage into the sewer, while in Tokyo this type of disposal is not popular yet. As a result of the high content of kitchen garbage, the solid waste of Tokyo has a higher water content and larger density than that of New York. The amount of solid waste showed in Figure 1 is a result of some complicated situations differing from city to city. So we should examine the composition qf waste rather than the amount of it. (2) The composition of solid waste. See Table 1. It shows the composition of solid waste in some cities^in the US and that of Tokyo. The composition is almost the same among the cities of the US but the composition in Tokyo is apparently different. The waste levels in US cities exceeds Tokyo's in paper, glass and metal, while Tokyo exceeds US cities waste levels in garbage and plastics. How shall we interprete the fact that Japanese households whose incomes are less than that of US households generate more waste in garbage and plastics than US households? Is garbage an inferior good to glass and metal, or plastics to paper? ------- Table 1 Cc snsunption of Households Waste for Selected Cities Eerkelev0^ Xew-York^ M cs Orleans Cincinatti d) Tokyo' Itor.s (1967) (1967) (1968) (1971) (1970] Paper 44.6 7. 38.6 K 39.4 40.5 31.3 Garbage 25.1 20.0 18.9 24.0 33.9 Glass 11.3 11.1 16.2 12.8 5.7 Metal 8.7 10.0 12.2 9.0 3:5 Plastics 1.9- 2.2 1.3 1.7 10.3 Rags 1.1 2.2 2.6 2.0 3.4 Leather & Rubber 0.3 0.8 0.2 0.4 1.5 Miscellaneous 7.1 14.7 9.2 9.6 10.0 Weight (ib/day/capita) 2.2 3.3 Unknown 2.0 2.1 Sources: a) Comprehensive Study of Solid Waste Management, (Research grant ED-00260 University of California, published by the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1970. b) Data of Department of Sanitation, City of New York. c) Data of Department of Sanitation,- City of New Orleans. d) Residential Solid Waste Generated in Low-income Areas, George R. Davidson, Jr., 1972. c) Annual Report. Department of Sanitation, City of Tokyo, 1971. ------- Expenditure for some items, such as food, are not very different between US and Japanese households. Expenditure for food per capita a year was $273 in the US in 1963 and $254 in Japan in 1970, both in producers' prices -(in purchasers' prices the same comparison would be $426 in the US and $357 in Japan). But the share of direct-'' purchase by households from agriculture in the total expenditure for food is 0.5% in the US and 30.7% in Japan. The shares of vegitable, fruits, poultry and eggs are respectively 46.7%, 49.2% and 39.6% in the US and 80.8%, 83.8% and 52.5% in Japan. In the other wards, Japanese households purchase more raw materials and consequently generate more garbage than those of the US. Japanese households generate garbage that the US food industry generated. The structure of US industry has influence upon the composition of waste from US households. This point would become clearer when we see the role of packages in solid waste. Using an input-output table, we can calculate the ratio of packaging to some consumer goods. In the US in 1963, one dollars worth of food and kindred products was accompanied by 3.3 cents of paperboard containers and boxes, 2.1 cents of metal containers, 1.0 cent of glass products and 0.1 cents of plastics and synthetic materials. The total value of packaging included in one dollars 1/ "Direct" means only the direct purchase as defined in an input- output table. In fact households purchase agricultural products through the wholesale and retail stores. ------- worth of food is 6.5 cents. In Japan in 1970, one dollars worth of food and kindred prpducts is accompanied by 0.7 cents of paper, 1.1 cents of metal, 1.3 cents of glass and 0.6 cents of plastics, for a total of 3.7 cents in wrappings. According to an Interim Report, 1968 National Survery of Community Solid Waste Practices (US Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1968), an average American person generate three pounds of waste per day. This means that two hundred billion pounds of waste were generated in the US by comsumption activities of households in 1968. On the other hand, as reported in The Role of Packaging in Solid Waste Management 1966 to 1976 (US Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1969), the consumption of paper packages, glass containers, metal containers and plastic packages is respectively 50 billion pounds, 16 billion pounds, 14 billion pounds and 2 billion pounds in the US in 1967, and the share of final consumption excluding Industrial and commercial use to total consumption is respectively 75%, 95%, 90% and 75%. Given this information the waste of paper packages, glass containers, metal containers and plastic packages, generated by households weighs respectively 38 billion pounds, 16 billion pounds, 13 billion pounds and 2 billion pounds. In short half of the. paper waste, three quarters of the glass waste, two thirds of metal waste and half of the plastic waste originates in packaging. Now we can see clearly the reason why paper, metal and glass are more in US waste than in Japanese waste. I ------- For Japan there is no reliable information available to us, in the field of production, circulation and consumption of containers, but through our daily experiences we can easily see that the very high share of plastic waste originates in packaging. Figure 2 shows a time-series of changes in the composition of household Waste in Tokyo. Garbage does not show any growth in spite of the income growth during the same period, but plastics grow more rapidly by far than income. The growth of paper and glass could be attributed to decline of the recycling industry rather than to the growth of consumption. The change of its composition just reflects the change of the industrial structure. What consumers want is not the containers but the contents, then we could not assert that the waste originating in containers is a result of consumers' option. We could not get milk in glass bottles nor find liquer shops which accepts empty bottle in New- York, even though we wanted to. Likewise in Tokyo, we could not get eggs wrapped in old newspaper any more, which was very common twenty years ago, for every egg is contained in a plastic carton today. There might be some reasons why plastics became common as wrapping materials in Japan; it might be lighter, more convenient and less expensive than conventional materials. To employ ------- Growth of waste ana mcome 100 150 200 Income ' (1965) L 4.L71 ------- plastics might save storing and transportation costs. But once plastics have pushed other materials from the market, consumers have no choice in the matter. Today many people do not want to use plastics as wrapping matrials, because they know that it is too tough to putrefying in the soil when it is land-filled and that the smoke and ash of it is very harmful for human beings when It is incinerated. (3) Cost of solid waste treatment If we discharge waste and leave it on the street, it soon makes a huge heap blocking traffic, giving off bad odour and induces the rapid propagation of pests and rats. Solid waste is potentially a very harmful substances to human life. But fortunately, solid waste is collected and treated pretty well in modern cities by the municipalities at the consumers' cost. In Table 3 we can see how much it costs to treat solid waste in Tokyo and New York. The total cost is $34.6/ton or $15.6 per capita a year for New York and $32.4/ton or $9.9 per capita a year for Tokyo, and in both cases more than three quarters of total cost is personnel expenditure. As it is technologically difficult to improve labor productivity in solid waste collection, the higher level wage reach the greater the cost we shall have to bear. For the recycling industry, there are two main factors that can (p JoM ------- Table 2 The Cost of Municipal Waste Treatment Item New York-/ Tokyo-/ T3 i-H I O 1 •£ 1 o Tons collected (thousands/year) Direct labor (thousands/day/person) Productivity (tona/day/person) Average wage ($/day/person) 3,936 1,228 3.20 44.4 2,825 2,411 1.17 19.8 , i a o c s o •H U-( 4-1 o u O Q) ¦u 4J e-( 0) W r—1 0 « 0 O 3 O Cost ($/ton) Direct labor Indirect labor Subtotal Operating Depreciation of vehicles 25.41 13.84 5.46 19.30 4.13 1.98 25.70 16.92 3.02 19.94 3.98 1.78 "O o x: ------- affect the activity level; the price of raw materials with which the salvage industry must compete and the income level which indicates the labor cost of it, a very labor-intensive process. In addition, ease of collecting and classifying the waste, in other words, the entropy of waste, should be taken into account. The entropy of waste decreases as the variety of waste increases and the structure of the city, becomes more complex. As entropy can be said to decrease as income rises, then the ratio of recycled old scrap to total current supply or consumption i must decrease when income goes up. We can not expect too much from new technology at present. Almost all test plants for recycling resourses from municipal waste, for example, Black-Clawson factory at Franklin, Ohio^does not pay, in spite of considerable subsidies from Federal and rural governments. Consumers are forced to pay all of these costs and they don't have a chance to choose a less expensive source. (4) Conclusion It has been said that consumers are responsible for increasing solid waste in urban area. But examining the property of solid waste, we can see that the amount and property of municipal waste are strongly influenced by the structure of industry. Consumers' sovereignty does work only in the existing market, which is mainly ruled by manufacturers'. Then if we want to reduce the solid waste and improve the composition of it, we had (p . 1.(4.(0 ------- better regulate industrial products by law rather than expect the market mechanism to work well. Consumers could cast their vote which they have not been able to use in the market, in the parliamentary system to force brewers and food canners to recycle the containers, or to prohibit the chemical manufactures from mixing cadmium and other heavy metals in plastics. 6./.fc7 ------- —Case Study Report of Rc-use and Recycling of Beverage Containers 1. Statistical informations 1.1 Production of berverages —— 1965 1970 1972 1973 3,128,000 Soft dr inks: Soda Production,kl(A) 474,500 2,008,000 2,670.000 To be filled in metallic containers,kl (B) 3,000 124,000 440,000 776,000 (B/A) % 0.6 6.2 16.4 24.8 Fruit (A) 248,700 385.000 445.000 i 5ZCL05Q (B) 35.000 80.000 ' 120.000 180.000 (B/A) % 14.1 20.8 30.0 31 .6 Beer (A) 1,993,000 2,972,600 3,415,800' 3,786,000 174,000 (B) 29,900 60,700 124,600 (B/A) % 1.5 2.0 ~ 3.6 4.6 Total _2j716j2O0 5,565.600 6.530.800 7.484.000 M 67,900 264,700 684,600 1 ,130.000 (B/A) % 2.5 4.8 10.5 15.1 1.2 Production and re-use of Steel Cans _____ 1971 1972 1973 1974 Production (10,000 tons) 35 44 54 45 Re-use (10,000 tons) 15 14 8 -- Note: Around 70 % of Steel Cans being produced in 1973 was used as beverage containers. 1.3 Production of Aluminium Cans Production (1,000 tons) 1971 1972 1973 1974 0.6 3.2 11.0 11 .2 975_ 16.0 1£76_ 24.0* * to be estimated, * A. ria-ner submitted by Jar.an Government for The Second Ivleetinp on the vVaste Management Policy Groun (02GD) held during 13 to 15 Oct.,1975. ------- 1.4 Production of Glass Rottlos and generation of those wastes -— L97.3__ 19.7/1 19/'j. . ..1976.. Product ion 1 ,844 1,900 2,000 ?,10() (1,000 tons) '4 Waste generation: households 332 342 360 378 396 (1,000 tons) bottlers 221 228 240 252 ¦ 264 total 553 570 600 630 660 1.5 Reuse ratio of beverage glass bottles in 1974 Used Re-used Reuse ratio ______ (million bottles) (mill ion bottles) (%) Japanese Sake bottles (1.8 1) 1,400 1,200 85 (0.9 1) 400 200 50 Beer bottles 6,000 5,700 95 Whisky bottles 400 40 10 Soft drink bottles 11,100 10,520 95 I. Case study of metallic cans 2.1 Municipal solid wastes and used metallic cans The Mitaka City is a major component of the Tokyo Metropolis and its population is aroud 150,000 persons. In order to look for a reasonable measure against an increase of incombusible wastes, Mitaka City carried out a survey of composition of the wastes generated in a pilot area in 1973. As a result, it was made clear that metallic cans were shared in 30 to 40 % of the incombusible wastes in volume. Furthermore, the average quantity of all solid wastes generated per day in the city was 140 tons and the incombusible wastes of 150 cub. meters per day in volume or 16.5 tons per day in weight were generated. Therefore, it was estimated that 50 cub. meters or 5 tons of metallic cans were wasted a day. According to the estimation to be made by the Mitaka City, the required manpower for manual separation of wasted metallic cans from the municipal wastes was 60 persons pier day. The result of survey to be conducted by Toyohashi City shows that an average number of metallic cans which were wasted from a household per month was twenty five, and about 70 % of those were beverage containers. According to the survey to be carried out in Machida City, an average number Df metallic cans to be wasted f/om a household per week was 1.4 to 5.1 and 66.4 % Df the wasted cans were beverage containers. Both results obtained in different cities sbch as Toyohashi and Machida City show a similar figure. The Machida City also reported that 7 % of total volume of the municipal wastes generated in the city were metallic cans. On a basis of results of a pilot scale experiment on melting of wasted metallic :ans by means of an electric furnace, the Shin Nippon Iron Steel Manufacture reported that any trouble regarding re-use of wasted metallic cans could not be observed even if a mixing ratio of those was 30 per cent. Le - ------- There are some impediments in the process of re-use of wasted steel cans, because those are contained a little tine, and ink to be used for printing. However, re-use of the-wasted cans is considered to be possible on a technical po of view. The most difficult problem regarding recycling of steel cans is how t< economically collect the used cans of which weight is less than 50 gr, and which are scattered widely in a community. Some data show that collection rust, of (.lie cans irregularly thrown away on a road was 48 yen per can. An economically applicable unit for re-use is considered one ton as scrap. Thus, in order to satisfy this requirement, more than 20,000 cans should be collected, and even if collection cost is one yen per can, the expenditure of 20,000 yen shall be requirt This expenditure greatly exceeds the market price of scraps. I 2.2 Collection expenses In the Machida City (population:230,341), a case study of collection of wasted metallic cans to be generated from households was carried out in 1974. The following analysis v/as based on the report of this case sudy. (A) Components of collection expenses x In this study, only the direct expenses were analized since available data for analysis of the indirect expenses were limitted. The direct expenses were divided into personel expenses of the collectors and transportation expenses. Furthermore, the transportation expenses were broken down depreciation expenses, maintenance expenses and fuel expenses of collection vehicles. (i) Personnel expenses An average salary of the collectors who were employed in the city was 7,800 yen per day in 1973. (ii) Transportation expenses a) Depreciation expenses Purchase price (two tons truck) 930,000 yen Durability 5 years Working days 25 days per month Estimated depreciation expenses ! 620 yen per day b) Maintenance expenses The Machida City had fourty collection vehicles of municipal wastes and expended about eight millions yen in 1973 as manintenance expenses. Estimated maintenance expenses 670 yen per day per vehi c) Fuel expenses Fuel consumption 6.1 km per liter Fuel price 110 yen per liter Estimated fuel expenses 18 yen per km per vehicle (B) Running distance of a collection vehicle, and required time for transportati and collection of washed metallic cans in a run of collection works Model areas Running distance* Required time (minutes) Transportation* Collection Total Area-A 19 km 50 45 95 -B 14 35 45 80 -C 5 20 120 140 * for going to a place and back ------- (C) Estimation of collection expenses (i) Collection expenses per a run of collection works Given conditions: Three persons including a driver of the vehicle were engaged, working hour-was seven hrs per day and indirect expenses were neglected. * Result of the estimation: Model areas Transportation expenses Personnel expenses Total Depreciation Maintenance Fuel Total Area-A 141 152 342 635 5,293 5,928 -B 119 128 252 499 4,457 4,956 -C 208 224 90 522 . 7,800 8,322 Unit: yen per run of collection works (ii) Collection expenses of a unit weight of wasted metallic cans a) Case-I: Difference of the market price as scraps between steel and aluminium cans was neglected. The number of steel and aluminium cans to be wasted in the model areas was observed during seven months, and the results were shown in the following table. Number of cans Weic ht of cans (ka) Runs of _llie_M)xks 31 30 30 Steel Aluminium Total Steel Aluminium Total Area-A -B -C 27,850 27,950 85,612 3,717 2,299 8,029 31,567 30,249 93,641 ¦ 1,838 1,844 5,650 74 46 160 1,912 1,890 ¦ 5,810 Note: An average weight of a steel can was 66 gr and one of an aluminium can was 20 gr. Result of the estimation: Total collection expenses* (ven) Total weight.of cans collected (kq) Collection expenses per weight of cans (ven/kq) Area-A 183,768 1,912 96.10 -B 148,680 1,890 78.70 -C 249,660 5,810 43.00 * =(Collection expenses per run of collection works) x(Number of runs of the works) b) Case-II: Weight of an aluminium can was assumed ten times of a steel can on the basis of the difference of those market prices. Result of the estimation: Total collection expenses (yen) Modified total weight of cans collected (kg) Modified collection expenses per weight of cans (yen/kq) Area-A 183,768 2,578 71.30 -B 148,680 2,304 64.50 -C 249,660 7,250 34.40 The result of estimation on Case-II was around 20 % less than one on Case-I. (,.1.11 ------- 6,3 mm aiuiiiiii iuni ecuib (i) Collection expenses The market price of aluminium scraps is stable. The purchase price of the dealers of used materials is 75,000 yen per ton, one of the recovery manufacturers is 100,000 to 130,000 yen per ton and the market price of the ground metal is 210,000 yen per ton. Given condition: A collector worked seven hrs per day and a running distance of a collection vehicle was 80 to 100 km per day. Result of the estimation: Collection vehicle 2 tons truck 3 tons truck Aluminium cans collected (kq) 600 900 Collection expenses (yen) Purchase expenses of the cans Personnel and transportation expenses 45,000 14,000 67,500 17,000 Total (yen) 59,000 84,500 Total expenses per ton (yen) 98,000 94,000 (ii) Saving of the energy As shown in the following table, the recovered ground metal to be used for production of aluminium goods was nearly equal to half of the new ground metal in Japan. Production 1971 1973 1974 1975 New ground metal (1,000 tons) 1,040 1,081 1,115 1,030 Recovered ground metal (1.000 tonsl 521 536 517 493 Total (1,000 tons) 1,561 1,617 1,632 1,523 The required energy for recovery of the ground metal from used aluminium cans was estimated only one twenthy seventh of the energy to be consumed in production of the new ground metal. Therefore, recovery of used aluminium goods could save about 30 % of energy demand for production of the ground metal in Japan. Futhremore, the recovery cost was estimated to be 3.7 % of production cost of the new ground metal. The following table shows estimated energy consumptions in the processes of producing containers, filling and distribution in both cases of steel and aluminium cans to be used as beverage containers. Moreover, this estimation was made with reference to Atokins' analysis. (Atokins, P.R.,"Recycling can cut energy demand dramatically", Engineering and Mining Jr., May 1973) Required energy for Required energy for ~. refinement and pro- formation,and fill - total duction of plates inq and distribution Steel cans* 4,283.0 934.0 5,217.0 Aluminium cans: (no recovery) 5,021.4 923.1 5,944.5 (10 % recovery) 4,700.8 923.1 5,623.9 (20 % „ „ ) 4,381.9 923.1 5,305.0 (25 % „ „ ) 4,222.3 923.1 5,145.4 (50 % „ „ ) 3,424.2 923.1 4,347.3 72 ------- * 30% of the scrap to be used for production Unit of the data: Btu per container . The result of estimation shows that the required energy in a case of using aluminium cans as a container of beverage was larger than one in a case of using steel cans unless used aluminium cans were not recovered. However, when a recovery ratio of aluminium cans became more than 25 %, aluminium cans could cut more energy demand than steel cans could. 3. Analysis of main policy 3.1 Glass bottles Since the price of a glass bottle is considerably high as compared with the price of beverage filled in it, it should be more economical for bottlers to recover used glass bottles. In Japan, the most bottlers used to receive' the empty bottles and to pay some money from the begining of their businesses. Therefore, high recovery ratio of glass bottles used as containers of Japanese Sake, beer and soft drinks have been preserved. The subject remained in future is to organize a recycling system of the glass bottles which are not recovered regularly, and with regards to this subject it would be required to define reasonable share of can producers and bottlers in the recovery expenses and to bring up specialized bottle'collectors. 3.2 Metallic cans Steel cans being of less advantage to re-use had been only metallic container of beverage before aluminium cans being in use 1971 in Japan. Thus, many used cans were thrown away easily in a wide area, and then the cleansing management of local authorities became disturbed extremely. This is a background why use of aluminium cans as beverage containers attracted people's attentions in Japan. As shown in the figure regarding production statistics of all aluminium cans (-Item 1.3), its demand is being enlarged rapidly. However, the collection system has not been fully equiped yet, and then the recovery ratio in 1974 was only ten per cent. Re-use of all aluminium cans is not only effective for lightening sever impact to the cleansing management of local authorities, but is contributive for saving of energy resources. Therefore, the associated industries have taken a positive attitude for improvement of the recycling, and have organized the Association of All Aluminium Cans' Recycling on February 1973. An intended collection system of the association is shown in the following figure. The association established already 57 deposit stations, and has a plan to set up more than 200 stations additionaly. At the deposit station, a sheaf of used aluminium cans to be more than one hundred or to be more than two kg is purchased, and the price is 75 yen per kg of used cans. ------- to remove metallic.cans excepting aluminium cans, and shreders are provided. The specialized vehicles for collection of used aluminium cans run round in Tokyo Metropolis and Osaka-Kobe District, and are bound for the contres. Finally, inorder to defende themselves from impact of wasted metallic cans to theircleasing managements* Kobe, Mitaka and Machida City made an agreement regarding recovery of those materials with the bottlers in 1973. 3.3 Milk containers The milk industries are intending to turn the glass bottles as a container of milk, which are distributed to households, to processed paper containers in order to save a required expense for distribution of the products. The following table shows a rapid increase of a share of the milk to be filled ,in the paper containers in the total of milk to be produced, and in 1975 it was estimated that 38 % of the milk produced,was filled in the paper containers. "—-—_______ 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 Production of milk, kl (A) 2,564,114 2,767,163 2,833,886 2,948,364 3,077,941 To be filled in paper containers, kl (B) 35,898 202,003 269,219 395,081 625,745 (B/A) % 1.4 7.3 9.5 13.4 20.3 The paper containers of 1,000, 500 and 250 ml are available in the markets, and the trade prices of the containers are 12.5, 9 and 5.8 yen per container reciprocally. The paper containers are coated with polyethylene on the interior, but any trouble to disturb combustion of the municipal refuse containing the paper containers wasted has not observed since harmful gases are not produced in a combustion process of polyethylene, and increase of calorie due to polyethylene coating is negligible small. 3.4 Plastic containers The Y Manufacture producing La lactic acid drink intended to change the container: made of glass to plastic bottles, and to organize a one-way distribution system in 1968. The volume of the bottle was 65 ml. However, because of difficulty of plastic waste combustion, Ministry of Health and Welfare requested the manufacture to recover all plastic bottles to be distributed through his system on the basis of the ministrial ordiance regarding standarizations of milk products. Then the manufacture began to collect the used plastic bottles, and at present around 60,000 deliverers are engaged to distribution of the products and collection of the used bottles at the same time. The collected plastic bottles are saled to reproduction manufactures. -k/.7 ------- 3.5 A socio-economic study to be undertaken Development of an applicable system for recycling of the materials in a society is ruled not only by technological factors, but by socio-econimical factors, particularly regarding production, transportation and consumption of the goods. The Economic Planning Agency, the Prime Minister's Office, has organized a project team consisted of the representatives of associated government offices, which are Ministry of International Trades and Industry, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Ministry of Home Affairs, Environment Agency and Science and Technology Agency, and 1s performing a study of socio-economical feasibility of the recycling. The major items of this study are as follow as; i) Systematic analysis of the material flows associated with production, transportation and consumption of goods, and waste generation, ii) Analysis of socio-economical requirements for improvement of the recycling in an individual process of production and transportation of goods, and recovery and reproduction of disused things, iij) Examinations of various feasible systems on a recovery point of view and iv) Examinations of reproducts' qualities and reproduction costs. Although this study project was set up in this year and would be carried on until 1977, the Economic Planning Agency intends to establish a national guide- line for improvement of the recycling on the basis of conclusions to be conducted by the study. 3.6 Public acceptance Separate collection of municipal wastes should be a key to improve recycling of used beverage containers. The result of an inquiry survey against the inhabitants in the Mitaka City shows that 85 % of the inhabitants answered to cooperate in separate collection. Furthermore, in Tokyo Metropolis 711 voluntary groups for improvement of waste re-use were organized, and about four millions households participate in those activities. According to their report, varuable materials correponding to ten millions yen, which were papers^metals and glass bottles, were recovered every month by their own hands. L. t.7$ ------- APPKNDn 5 Study on Waste Management System in Smaller Cities (FY 1972-1974) PRAND (Planning Resarch and Development Corporatioh Ltd.) M. Azegami et al From 1972 to 1974 we have analyzed actual state of refuse problem, which are now in very serious conditions, in more than 60 medium cities with population of more or less 300,000. Our study indicates clearly that current refuse management system which have been put in enforcement, can not deal with the waste problem which we have now experienced. The property of recent refuse containing lots of chemicals which vary in qualities and quantities caused difficulty to avoid secondary polltion problem with incineration. On the other hand, land-fill is becomming serious social problem due to the effect towards environment both in sea-shore and in mountain-side. As countermeasure for foregoing trouble, advancement of sanitary engineering technology on incinera- tion and land-fill and arrangement of municipal disposal facilites are hastened. The report, however, intends to establish new system which combines wastes and its energy in social recycling mechanism rather than take foregoing countermeasure. We have picked up Toyohashi, City Aichi prefecture, as the model city and have set up a plan of integrated regional design from technical, economical, administrative and urban aspect. The plan is called as "Urban-Rural Environmental Combined System". In this system, municipal and some of industrial wastes are separated into five categories, "High-calorie -waste" for heat recovery, "Low-carolie-waste" for composting, "Reclaimable-waste" for custody and "Land-fill-waste" for land-reclamation. Manure and urine treatment process is also included, where sludge treatment is combined with composting. Along with the concept, a test operation of new registration system for separation, collection and recyc- ling of wastes have been executed from 1974. Based on the test rasult, we have developed a computer aided management system which checks waste material flow in city at points of discharging origin. In 1976, the phycical construction of the "URECS" system shall be prepared for implementation. ------- APPENDIX 6 Offshore Waste Treatment Technology and Systems (FY 1974 ~ 1976) Planning and Coordination Bureau, 4 Environment Agency and Japan Ocean Industries Association Marine Parks Center of Japan Concentration of population and industrial facilities into seaside cities has resulted in traffic congestion and environmental pollution as far as waste treatment concerned. This trend is particularly so in metropolitan areas surrounded by satellite cities, where wastes are considerably increasing in quantity and variety, accelerated by vigorous economical activities and rise of living standard. Thus it becomes impossible to rely on the present means in treating wastes, due to difficulty for obtaining necessary sites and funds. To cope with the circumstances, the conception to solve this problem by newly establishing disposal facilities off in Tokyo Bay is now understudy. As the main support of this conception, studies on collection and transportation of wastes, disposing technics, and plan for disposing plant are to be enforced. At the same time, taking an overall view as well as forming a link on the environmental administration, it has been decided to carry out an assessment regarding the effect of disposal facilities at sea in question. In this situation, this study constitutes of two parts, i.e., (Part I) Technology and System for Offshore Waste Treatment and (Part II) Environmental Assessment on Waste Disposal System Offshore: Part I The subject of this part is an improved technology and system for waste treatment for Tokyo metropolitan area as a model. The study includes; 1. Total System Analysis and establishment of the bacKground and concept for offshore waste treatment, necessity for recovering resources from wastes, and problems to be expected in realizing this system from the point of management. 2. Waste-Gathering and Transportation System Investigation and prospect for the present and future map for treatment of wastes from generation to disposal. Furthermore, compound transportation systems, by means of the pneumatic, railway, trucking and barge. 3. Treatment Plant Information-gathenng on treatment technology and research for the present situation for use of resources recovery. Concept designing for a treatment plant capable of handling 8,000 ~ 10,000 tons/day wastes. ------- 4. Offshore Structure Concept designing for four types of the offshore structure (piled, bottom-support, pontoon and self-propelled types) which are to be installed on Tokyo Bay. Selection of suitable site for offshore treatment plant and its economy will be finalized through study and evaluation for efficient use of onshore sites, reduction of costs for preventing the site from pollution, and resources recovery, in addition to consideration to forms of sub systems. Part II This part includes: 1. Environmental Assessment for Tokyo Bay The aim of this study is to assess beforehand an effect on environment of the disposal facilities off in Tokyo Bay, however on the other hand the conceived plan for disposal facilities at sea has in fact some uncertain factors at this stage. So, at this initial stage, we investigated the actual situation of Tokyo Bay only collecting data and adjusting anticipated natural conditions in connection with establishment of waste disposal facilities. 2. Environmental Assessment for Osaka Bay Being the second largest city scope following the Metropolitan one, cities on Osaka Bay are confronting with the problem regarding disposal of wastes in common with that of the Metropolis. To solve the problem, a conception has become forward to establish waste disposal facilities off on Osaka Bay similarly as in the case of the Metropolis, and to dispose centralized wastes in a wide scale. At the same time, for such a large project of this kind, it is required to forecast the effect on environment beforehand as an environmental administration. As an initial stdge thereof, in this chapter the data mainly concerning the natural environment have been collected to catch the actual situation on the Bay of Osaka. 3. Social Condition associated with the Offshore Waste Tieatment First of all, for Ihc current year study on technique for assessment of environmental effect itself and institution of fundamental problem in connection with specified plan of disposal-at-sea system, have been carried out. The principal subjects of this chapter are: 1) Institution of fundamental problem on environmental assessment technique 2) Analysis on environmental assessment technique 3) Condition of location and natural environment as to disposal-at-sea of waste 4) Investigation on possible primary factors as to disposing facilities of waste 5) Analysis of administrative system as to social system of disposal-at-sea 6) Fundamental conception on the totalled method of environmental effect assessment ------- MATERIALS RECOVERY FROM POST-CONSUMER SOLID WASTE by Steven J. Levy Senior. Staff Engineer Office of Solid Waste Management Programs U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Washington, D.C. 20460 Presented at the third U.S. - Japan Conference on Solid Waste Management, Tokyo, Japan, May 12-14, 1976 * . ------- CONTENTS Introduction 1 i Materials Recovery Equipment 1 Aluminum Recovery Equipment 1 Glass Recovery Equipment 8 Glass and Aluminum Recovery Systems 14 The Black Clawson System 15 The Occidental Research Corporation System 18 Markets for Glass Gullet 21 Present Scrap Consumption 21 Cullet in Glass Products 21 Cullet Specifications 22 Prices 24 Secondary Products for Waste Glass 25 Summary Comments on Glass Markets 25 Aluminum Markets" 26 Present Scrap Consumption 26 Scrap Specifications 27 Prices 27 Source Separation of Post-Consumer Solid Waste 28 Public Education 29 Materials and Markets 30 Collection 31 Economics 31 Bibliography 32 ------- MATERIALS RECOVERY FROM POST-CONSUMER SOLID WASTE by Steven «^. Levy Introduction Materials recovery systems for processing post-consumer solid waste have concentrated on the reclamation of paper (the most abundant component in solid waste); magnetic metals (the most easily extractable); aluminum (the most highly valued); and glass (to date the most difficult to extract). This paper will review the promising approaches to glass and aluminum recovery. Mechnical recovery of paper fiber will not be discussed because the Black Clawson process which represents the sole effort toward this end in the U.S. has been well documented in the literature and also because it is not presently viewed as being economically feasible in this country. Ferrous recovery will not be discussed because it is already well understood and readily available for use. This paper will also review the recovery of glass, metals and paper by source separation and separate collection at the residence. Materials Recovery Equipment Aluminum Recovery The technical problem of extracting aluminum from mixed wastes is compounded by the fact that aluminum is a minor constitutent (generally less than one percent of municipal solid waste) and, inherently, has no characteristic that makes it readily extractable from other organic and inorganic materials. ------- 2 Counterbalancing this, however, is the fact that aluminum's high scrap value makes it economically wortnwnile to recover, particularly when aluminum recovery involves adding a subsystem to an existing solid waste processing plant. Also, aluminum's relative indestructibility permits a wide variety of wet and dry processing techniques to be employed in its concentration and ultimate extraction. There are, as yet, no full-scale systems in operation extracting aluminum from municipal solid waste. However, the results of laboratory- and pilot-scale operations and the inclusion of aluminum recovery subsystems in a number of full-scale resource recovery systems planned or under construction permit fairly specific discussion on how aluminum recovery will be accomplished. The pieces of equipment for extracting aluminum from municipal wastes that are described in this section presuppose that the solid waste has been processed to remove ferrous metals, the bulk of the organic or combustible wastes and, perhaps, glass. The process steps preceding aluminum salvage usually include one or more stages of shred- ding, air classification, magnetic separation and screening. The aluminum recovery equipment thus receives a non-organic concentrate containing glass, stones, aluminum, and nonferrous metals with a metallic content of 10-50 percent, depending upon the effeiciency of the previous processing steps. Complete aluminum and glass recovery.systems are described later. Heavy Media - One approach employs a three-stage wet flotation operation, which may be preceded by additional grinding and screening to ensure uniform particle size and maximum removal of contaminating materials. In the first step of the flotation operation, the material-will be cleansed 6.2.3 ------- 3 of the remaining light organics by a rising current classifier (see below) which utilizes a countercurrent upward flow of water to remove materials with density somewhat .greater than one. The next two steps employ dense media. ¦i i " ¦ ¦ Here, a water suspension of finely divided, particles of heavy minerals (e.g^ magnetitie or ferrosilicon) can be used to obtain fluid densities greater than that of one of the materials to be separated. •In the second stage, a fluid density of 2.0 grams per cc can be employed which will remove most of the bones, heavy plastics, rubber, etc. The final stage will employ a dense media system which is greater than 2.8 grams per cc where a purified aluminum fraction is removed. Solid waste processing systems employing wet pulping or recovery of metals from incinerator or pyrolysis ash appear to be compatible with the dense media system. However, recovery of aluminum from incinerator ash by dense media requires that,ash temperatures remain at or below.the melting point of aluminum 660 C (1217 F.) or that a physical arrangement is employed in the incinerator that effectively provides for selective melting of the various metal and glass components. Other dense media approaches under development include the use of "ferrofluids" where the specific gravity of liquids can be controlled from 1 of 20 grams per cc using a magnetic field. One primary advantage of this approach is that, not only aluminum but also copper, zinc and other heavy metals can be separated in the same way, by multiple passes through the system. Eddy Current - Dry processes have also been developed for separating aluminum from the nonferrous concentrates using eddy currents. In these /L 2 . V ------- 4 devices an electrical current is imposed on a fixed linear motor located beneath a moving belt. Metal conductors (aluminum) passing through the field created by the linear motors are subject to an induced (Eddy) current which opposes the field created by the linear motor. The opposing force is strong enough to knock the conductor off the belt, i'lon con- ductors pass over the linear motors unaffected. Combustion Power Company of Menlo Park, California, (figure 1) and Occidental Research (formally Garrett Research) of La Verne, California, (figure 2) have developed prototype aluminum separation systems using eddy currents. The aluminum is repulsed and in some equipment configurations is separated from the copper and zinc. Systems of this type are reportedly under development that will include the separation of other nonferrous metals as well. tddy current separation is, reportedly, size-dependent and the resulting recovered aluminum is heavily skewed toward the aluminum can fraction of the refuse. This approach should, therefore, result in a very useable, and perhaps even higher grade scrap, than dense media separation. Jigging is used to separate materials of different densities. Water is pulsed through a screen causing material fed into the screen to separate (figure 3). The lighter, or apparently lighter, material is floated off leaving the heavier material at the base of the jig. Jigs have been used in labors-ory and pilot' scale trials for separation of aluminum from mixed nonferrous metals. Rising Current Classifiers - This is essentially separation by washing in a rising water column and is used at a number of automobile V shredder scrap installations for producing high-grade metal concentrates. C.xs ------- '5 ^ HGAW mACffOA) 7.Z 7W Figure 1. Tue Combustion Power Company's Eddy current separator for recovering aluminum. (d-3.G> ------- o -n -s o to n c: O -5 < CD CD ro 3 o CD O —' o c; -i. 2 o. ro Z3 3 c: r;- 3 CD zo o> CD CD n o o -5 T3 O -5 QJ c+ O 3 CL c. o c -s (X) 3 rt- tn (D "O CD -5 CD rt- O ^5 MAGNETIC . SEPARATOR LINEAR MOTORS $ FEED MAGNETIC 'METALS POY/ER SUPPLY CTl ELECTRONIC CONTROLS ------- 7 Figure 3. Water, pulsing through the jig, is used to float light materials off of heavier materials. £ ------- 8 A commercial unit developed and marketed for municipal solid waste separation is the rising current separator manufactured by the WEMCO Division of Envirotech Corp. In this operation, a rising current of water creates an effective specific gravity in excess of that of still water and can be controlled over a range of from 1.1 to 2.0. Light materials float to the surface and over a weir while heavy materials sink and are picked up by a drum elevator and carried to a drain screen. For processing municipal solid waste, rising current classification would probably be used to separate organic materials remaining after air classification and magnetic separation. It would produce a concentrate of metals and glass which may then be processed further for separation of the two individual materials. Electrostatic Separation - Another method for dry nonferrous metal separation is shown in Figure 4. Separation is based on differences in the conductivity of particles in the feed stream. As feed material enters the electrostatic field, particles become charged and fall on the rotating drum. Conductors immediately lose their charge and fall from the drum while non-conductors retain a surface charge and adhere to the grounded drum. They are swept off once they have passed the splitter point. Glass Recovery Equipment There are two major approaches to glass recovery under development at this time. Optical sorting is used to recover color sorted fractions of rather large particles. The other process, froth flotation, is used to recover a high purity, non-color sorted producb consisting of very small particles. Both of these processes involve a number of pre- processing steps such as screening (vibrating and trommels) gravity £ 1 9 ------- 9 FEEDER HIGH VOLTAGE ELECTRODES ELECTRICALLY GROUNDED— ROTATING DRUM NONCONDUCTORS (INSULATORS) CONDUCTORS (METALS) SPLITTER Figure 4. The electrostatic separator is used to pull conductors (metals) away from non-conductors (glass, stones, organics, etc.) £ D /r> ------- 10 separation (dense or heavy mecha, vibrating tables, mineral jigs) inertial or ballistic separation, magnetic separtion, drying, etc. Optical Sorting - The electronic color sorting machine manufactured by Sortex Company of North America is being used for sorting glass particles in the 0.6 to 2 cm (1/4 inch to 3/4 inch) diameter range at i' the EPA supported1'demonstration project in Franklin, Ohio. Cullet is fed from a hopper onto a vibrating feeder (figure 5). A uniform feed of particles is led to a grooved belt conveyor which transports pieces in i single file to an illuminated area. Here two photo cells (one on each side) view the glass. A color plate is situated opposite the photocell to provide a standard against which deviations in reflectivity of the glass are measured. Those particles not falling within the established range cause a voltage change in the photocells which inturn triggers a short blast of compressed air which deflects the particle from the main stream. This equipment can be set up to separate transparent particles (glass) from opague particles (stones and ceramics), to separate clear glass from colored glass (amber and green), or to separate green glass from amber glass. The Sortex Company's six channel machine is designed to handle up to 400 pounds per hour per channel. The National Center for Resource Recovery estimates that 2,400 pounds per hour would be handled for a one-pass treatment, but only 1,800 pounds per hour would be handled if amber and green fractions were collected as well as flint. A new unit designed to handle particles as small as 0.3 cm (1/8 inch) will soon be tested. Froth flotation is accomplished when an air bubble is attached to a selected particle having hydrophobic surface characteristics. This 6.2.// ------- 11 FEEDER TRAY FEED BELT BACKGROUND SLIDE PHOTOCELL ASSEMBLY LAMP I PROOUCT SPLITTER ELECTRONIC UNITS (Amplifier; Power Supply; Ejector Control Unit) COMPRESSED AIR SUPPLY AIR EJECTOR VALVE SEPARATED PRODUCT^ , Figure 5". The Sortex optical sorter is used to color sort glass particles. (4."3./^. ------- 12 desirable surface property is usually achieved by "conditioning" the particle using a reagent prior to entering the flotation circuit. Following air bubble attachment, the floatable species is buoyed to the surface to form a froth which can then be removed by skimmers. Rotors are used to circulate the glass rich slurry and to provide good air-solids mixing. Rotor speed, draft tube rotor engagement, rotor submergence and air flow are important operational machine variables. These operational variables must be considered along with pulp conditioning variables (chemical collector and frother, pH, etc.) and residence time, before maximum flotation circuit performance (i.e. concentrate grade and recovery) can be achieved. To achieve the required residence time, flotation cells are usually arranged in series, as shown in Figure 6, where adjacent cells are separated by baffles to reduce "pulp short circuiting." A typical glass flotation system is shown in the simplified schematic of Figure 7. It consists of three series of flotation units: roughers, cleaners, and scavenger circuits. The conditioned feed first passes through the rougher. The tailings from the rougher pass to the scavenger while the rougher concentrate goes to the cleaner. Scavenger concentrate and cleaner tails are returned to the head of the rougher, while scavenger tailings are discharged and the cleaner concentrate becomes the final glass concentrate. Sol ids'removal, or dewatering, for both the final concentrate and tails streams can be accomplished by densifiers, cyclone, or filtration. The water can be returned to the head end for reuse. Glass flotation is best accomplished at a neutral to slightly £ D ------- 1.3 Figure 6. Froth Flotation cells are arranged in series in order to improve their separation efficiency. C,. 2.// ------- 14 (Class) Figure 7. A typical glass flotation system contains a rougher, a cleaner, and a scavenger circuit. d. 3../S- ------- 15 alkaline pH range. It can be adjusted as.necessary by sodium hydroxide or equivalent. Depending on the collector employed, a frother may be used to achieve the desired physical properties for proper froth skimming and handling. Glass particle size distribution should be in the range -20 to +150 mesh. The flotation feed should be pulped to a solids 'i content between 25 and 35 percent by weight. Experience indicates glass recovery exceeding 90 percent can be i achieved, producing a 99+ percent pure non-color-sorted product. Glass and Aluminum Recovery Systems Glass and aluminum recovery systems are generally integrated into one flow scheme, as these two materials are generally combined and concentrated by equipment used to separate the organic and inorganic fractions. Flow schemes for two systems will be described. Black Clawson System The first flow scheme is in operation in Franklin, Ohio, at the Black Clawson fiber recovery plant. The .feed to this system is the heavy inorganic fraction (glass, nonferrous metals, stones and small amounts of ferrous metals and organics) which drops out of the wet cyclone. The system as it is currently laid out is shown in Figure 8. Heavy material from the cyclone is mechanically dewatered prior to entering the surge storage bin. From the bin the material is placed on a vibrating screen and the fines and some dirt with organic residue is washed off; the fines being arbitrarily defined as anything less than' 0.6 cm (1/4 inch). This undersize material will not be color sorted or recovered in any way, and it is sent to the landfill. After the screening, the material is magnetically scalped to remove C.ZJb ------- 1 - Conveyor, from Hydrasposal 2 - Bin 3 - Conveyor 4 - Rotary Screen 5 - Fines Dewaterer 6 - Elevator 7 - Magnet 8 - Heavy Media Separator 9 - Washing Conveyor 10 - Media Recovery 11 - Aluminum Dewatering Screen 12-Jig 13 - Conveyor 14 - Dryer 15 - Conveyor with Magnetic Pulley 16 - Elevator 17.- High Tension Electrostatic Separ 18 - Conveyor 19 - Conveyor 20 - Transparency Sorter 21 - Conveyor 22 - Elevator 23 - Color Sorter Figure 8. The Black Clawson Company's glass and aluminum recovery subsystem, as it is currently arranged in Franklin, Ohio. 3 /7 ------- 17 ferrous metals, and is then conveyed to the heavy media separation unit. The heavy media separation unit is held at a specific gravity of 2.0 •n order to remove any heavy organic materials, specifically plastics, that have slipped through the liquid cyclone in the main system. All. the floated material is returned to the main plant to be burned (it would be used as a fuel in a large fuel recovery system). The sink material, that is, the material that has a specific gravity greater than 2.0, is sent on to the jigging operation for separation of glass from nonferrous metals - mainly aluminum. The jigging operation, as set up at the Franklin site, has three output streams - the lightweight, mostly aluminum canTtype stock; the medium fraction which is mostly glass; and a very heavy fraction, composed generally of cast metals, such as brass keys, coins, cast aluminum, cast zinc, or lead-form material. With the feed material held for the proper residence time within the jigging operation, good concentrates of aluminum, glass and heavy metal fractions can be obtained. The glass fraction is conveyed from the jigging operation to the rotary kiln dryer to get rid of the excess surface water. The glass fraction is then carried by a conveyor to the high tension electrostatic separation unit for removal of any remaining metals. Material which can be made to carry a charge is pulled out of the glass rich stream. Some natural stone, residual cast metal materials and any residual aluminum can stock is thus removed. The use of this particular device has proved to be very effective for handling materials ranging in size from 0.6 cm to 2.5 cm (1/4 inch to 1 inch). ------- 13 The glass fraction coming from the high tension electrostatic device is then transported by bucket elevators into hoppers which feed v-shaped belts for the separation of stones and ceramics from the glass fraction by use of a transparency device. The transparency device is a relatively new addition to the processing line at Franklin and is based on the need to remove an extremely high incidence of ceramic or refractory materials found in the glass fraction. Tnese refrafctory materials are unacceptable in the manufacture of glass containers since their presence causes imperfections in the glass container which destroy the integrity of the jar or bottle. The transparency device operates quite similarly to the color sorting device. The glass concentrate is dropped from the v-shaped belt through an optical box which has a photo cell assembly in it. The passage of an opaque particle causes a null signal within the electronic logic and that particular particle is blown away by a high pressure air ejection device. The material, once it has been trans- parency sorted, is then passed on to a color sorter. In a previous study at Franklin, the glass composition was segregated into flint, amber and green glass. However, experimentation within the industry determined that a triple color sorting was not necessary, and that a flint, non-flint, (amber and green) separation would be sufficient. The Occidental Research Corporation System The Occidental Researcn Corporation (ORC) has constructed a pilot glass and aluminum recovery plant which incorporates froth flotation for glass recovery and eddy current separation of aluminum. The material fed to this plant consists of average municipal solid waste that has been shredded to a particle size of 2.5 cm (1 inch). The 6. a./? ------- 19 material, after shredding, has had most of the magnetic metals removed and much of the organic matter has been removed by air classification. As a result of this pre-processing, the feed material largely consists of glass, aluminum, rocks, bones, dirt, some magnetic metals, some heavy r I organics, and other inorganic matter. The material- entering the system flows into a trommel which is a large rotating cylindrical screen (figure 9). The large material, containing much of the aluminum, passes through the trommel, is conveyed to a magnetic separator for "tramp" ferrous metal recovery, then to the "Recyc-Al" Separator. Here, a linear induction motor, powered by an alternator generates a force field which acts upon the pieces of aluminum. The aluminum is very rapidly deflected to the side of the conveyor belt and is collected. The small material stream which falls through the trommel screen openings and is composed of small dense particles, largely glass, is conveyed to a wet type spiral, classifier. Here the material receives its first cleaning and the few light organics are removed. The partially cleansed material then flows by gravity into a rod mill for size reduction. This sized fraction is then pumped through a cyclone and screen where the large-sized non-glass material (rubber, plastic, etc) is removed.. The contaminated glass is sized to greater than 200 mesh in a classifier then flows to a conditioning tank where a proprietary ORC reagent called "SiLECT" is added. The "conditioned" glass is then sent to a series of flotation cells called "roughers", "cleaners" and "recleaners". In the froth flotation cells, the pure glass selectively attaches to bubbles and floats to the top of the cells where it is skimmed off, collected, 6.2.10 ------- 20 u.vv\te:>:.,jo Figure 9. The Occidental Research Corporation has set up a glass and aluminum recovery pilot plant in La Verne, California utilizing this flow scheme. 6.a.a; ------- 21 and sent to a final dewatering classifier. The product glass is then dried and shipped to market. Rejects from the "roughers" are passed through "scavengers", dewatered, and then discharged as tailings. Undersize material from the classifier is further processed in a cyclone and screen, thickener tank and vacuum filter. Water used in the process is filtered and treated for reuse. Markets for Glass Cullet Present Scrap Consumption In the United States glass comprises about 10 percent of the municipal post-consumer solid waste stream and in 1973 totaled 12.3 million metric tons (13.6 million U.S. tons). This closely approximates the" total production of glass containers for the same period. Glass containers represent the .Major portion of glass found "in solid waste. Approximately two-thirds of these glass products are made of flint or clear glass. The remaining third is split between amber glass used for beer bottles and green glass used for wine and soft drinks. In 1973 only 320,000 Metric tons (350,000 U.S. tons) or 3 percent of the glass in post- consumer solid waste was recovered. There are two major potential markets for recovered waste glass: (a) as cullet for making new bottles, and (b) as a raw material for making secondary products (foamed insulation, construction materials, highway paving material). Cullet in Glass Products There are 119 glass plants in the United States with most located in the east and west coast regions. Glass manufacturers have long practiced adding waste glass to their 6. 3..<23. ------- glass furnaces to improve the operating efficiency through reduced fuel consumption and improved melting time. Normal cullet use is 10 to 20 percent of the glass batch, but a few plants use higher percentages of waste glass. Normally the cullet used is in-plant scrap, which is already color-sorted, of known quality, and is free of dirt, organics and metal contaminants. A second source of generally acceptable cullet is from volunteer recycling centers. The glass manufacturers require this glass to be color-sorted, reasonably clean, and free of caps and neck rings. Cullet Specifications The most pressing issue with markets for municipal glass is the quality of the cullet. If the glass is properly sorted by color and if contaminants are kept to a minimum, it is likely that a buyer can be found. However, these are major barriers. To be acceptable to the container manufacturer for use in making flint glass, the cullet must be at least 95 percent clear. Similarly color-sorted cullet labelled "green11 or "amber" can contain only limited amounts of other colors. Specifications of the Glass Container Manufacturers Institute on cullet labelled "color-sorted" are listed in Table 1. Waste glass meeting these color specifications provides the industrial user with reasonable assurance that his final product will not be off- color, and therefore not off-spec. Unfortunately, hand separation is the only color-sorting melhod currently being practiced that provides good color separation. Mechanical color-sorting as described earlier is still in the developmental stages and has not been proven technically or economically feasible on a large scale. &.2.13 ------- 23 TABLE 1 V Glass Container Manufacturer's Institutes's Specifications for "Color-Sorted" Glass Cullet • Cullet must be noncaking and free flowing • Cullet must show no drainage from the sample • Maximum organic content (dry weight sample) - 0.2% • Size - 100% less than 2" No more than 15% less than 140 mesh • Non-magnetics: No more than 1 particle per 40 lb. sample No particle greater than 1/4" • Refractories - +20 mesh fraction - 1 particle per 40 lb. sample No particle shall exceed 1/4" -20 mesh to.+40 mesh - 2 particles per 1 lb. sample i -40 mesh to +40 mesh - 20 particles per 1 lb. sample • Color specifications - Color of Cullet % Amber % Flint % Green Amber 90-100 0-10 0-10 Flint 0-5 90-100 0-10 Green 0-35 0-15 50-100 • No more than 0.05 percent magnetic metal. No particle greater than 1/4" ------- Use of.color-mixed cullet in glass products has a much more limited potential than use of color-sorted glass. One limitation is that color- mixed cullet is practically never used in making clear glass. Since roughly two-thirds of the industry's production is in clear glass, the potential buyers for mixed color cullet are limited. Thus, in several areas of the country, potential buyers do not exist. Though mixed color cullet is generally thought to be acceptable for use in green or amber containers, many companies are uncertain of the amount of this material their furnaces will tolerate without causing their product to be off-spec. Experimentally, one glass company has successfully used as much as 50 percent color-mixed cullet in their amber furnaces and up to 80 percent mixed cullet in green furnaces. Whether sorted by color or not, glass cullet will not be accepted by container manufacturers unless rigid contaminant limitations are met. Contaminants include metals, organic materials, ceramics (refractories), and excessive liquids. Refractories are by far the most serious concern at this time1. Metals and organices can be removed in a resource recovery plant to an acceptable extent through froth flotation. Refractories are also removed by this process, but it is questionable whether the very stringent specification given in Table l can be met consistently. It is possible that the glass industry will relax this specification as they gain more experience with the use or cullet from municipal waste. Prices Waste glass that can meet the color and contamination specifications discussed above will have a market value ranging from $15 to $25 per ton C.3.15- ------- 25 (1974 prices) depending on geographical locations. Color-sorted and clean color-mixed glass share an almost equal market value based on the substitution for raw materials. Secondary Products for Waste Glass There are several secondary products in which waste glass may be • / ' useable. The quality of the waste glass to be used in these products generally may be lower than that used in the glass furances; thus, color-sorting would not be needed and more contaminants could be tolerated. Secondary products fall into three broad categories: 1. Road building materials - glasphalt paving, slurry seal, glass beads for reflection paints. 2. Building materials - bricks, foatned glass insulation, ceramic tiles, terrazo tiles, building blocks, sewer pipe, aggregate. 3. Miscellaneous - costume jewelry, ground cover, trickling filters, glass polymer composites. Though some experimentation has been done with use of waste glass in these products, none of them are now manufactured on a large scale using waste glass. However, utilization of waste glass has been shown to be technologically feasible for many of these products. Sumnary Comments on Glass Markets Glass manufacturers have established stringent color and contaminant specifications for waste glass. Although pilot plant work has been performed, there are currently no full scale glass recovery systems operating. Thus, it is uncertain whether these specifications can be met. The uncertainty regarding the ability to meet glass industry specifications suggests a very cautious approach to glass recovery at this time. "3l.^(d ------- Aluminum Markets Present Scrap Consumption Aluminum comprises about 0.7 percent of the municipal solid waste stream. About half of the aluminum discards 1n solid waste are cans, one-third are foils, and the remainder largely major appliances. Aluminum composition varies significantly locally due to differences in aluminum beverage can distribution. Consumption of aluminum scrap constituted 27 percent of the 4 million metric tons (4.5 million U.S. tons) of aluminum produced in 1973. Sixty percent of the scrap utilized was consumed by secondary smelters, 17 percent by primary producers, and the remainder by aluminum fabricators and foundaries. There are 31 primary aluminum producers and 111 secondary * aluminum smelters in the United States. The only form of aluminum recovery from municipal solid waste currently being practiced is source separation of aluminum cans through volunteer collection centers. In 1973 about 31,000 metric tons (34,000 U.S. tons) of aluminum cans were recovered, which represents 3.5 percent of all the aluminum discarded. Source separated aluminum cans generally can be remelted by the primary producers and made directly into can stock. It is anticipated that aluminum scrap extracted by mechanical means will be lower in quality than that recovered through source separation. Most of the scrap is likely to be.used by secondary smelters; who will pretreat and upgrade the aluminum by removing contaminants and deluting the alloy contents to acceptable levels. The value of this recovered scrap is likely to be negotiated based on the quality of the recovered product and the specifications required by the purchaser. &:a. 27 ------- 27 Scrap Specifications The quality requirements of purchasers many vary from plant to plant depending on the alloy content in their products being produced. However, in general, scrap aluminum should meet the following specifications: • free of sand, grit, and particularly glass (at melt temperatures, aluminum reduces the silica in glass to silicon which will, alloy and cause the melt to be off-rspec). • free of iron contamination (1 percent or less) for reasons similar for glass content restriction. contain a minimum of organic contamination. These materials will burn off in the furnace causing an additional load on the air pollution equipment. • have a low surface to volume ratio to avoid melt-loss during resmelting--hence it should be baled or briquetted. For the same reasons, fines are also limited. " . Presently a corraiittee of the American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) is attempting to develop more refined specifications. However, a great deal of individual company experimentation and specification setting is inevitable until significant quantities of this scrap is recovered and used. Prices A price of $.15 per pound ($300 per ton) was paid in 1974 by certain aluminum companies and brewers for aluminum cans brought to their collection centers. Aluminum recovered mechanically will be less consistent in quality and priced accordingly. Prices in the range of $200 to $300 per ton are probable for this scrap. 4.3.2* ------- 28 Source Separation of Post-consumer Solid Waste Source separation involves the homeowner in a process of separating his solid waste into recyclable components (i.e., paper, cans, and glass) and non-recyclable components. The recyclables are then collected and sold for re-use. The potential attractiveness of this approach is apparent since recyclable paper, cans, and glass represent over 30 percent of the weight and 40 percent of the volume of municipal solid waste. Somerville and Marblehead, Massachusetts, are conducting programs to test the extent to which materials can be economically recovered from the waste stream through source separation. Somerville, which began collecting materials on December 1, 1975, is an urban, working class community of 90,000 with a population density of 23,000 persons per square mile. Marblehead, which commenced its program on January 12, 1976, is an affluent suburb of Boston with 23,000 residents and a population density of 5,200 persons per square mile. Both communities are receiving financial support from the Environmental Protection Agency. Marblehead has as its goal, a 25 percent reduction (by weight) in municipal'solid waste through the recycling program. Somervilie's goal is 15 percent reduction. The two source separation programs are designed to maximize the recovery of materials from the waste stream, subject to economic constraints, by: . Maximizing the participation rate of their citizens. • Establishing a favorable long-term market for recovered materials. Minimizing collection costs. Q.Z.Zt ------- 29 The participation rate will be maximized through the enactment of ordinances which mandate citizen participation and through the implementation of an aggressive public education program designed to heighten public awareness of resource and environmental problems and to make recycling a habit for all citizens. Both communities have found favorable long-term markets for recovered materials by seeking competitive bids on a guaranteed floor-price contract and by assuring that a stable supply of recycled materials will be delivered to the buyer in a form that can be readily produced into valuable, marketable recovered resources. Both programs involve weekly, curbside collection of paper, glass, and cans. Additional collection costs are being minimized by using, to the maximum practicable extent, the existing municipal solid waste collection resources in the community and by demonstrating the feasibility of compartmentalized collection vehicle designed to collect all recyclables at the same time. The success of both cormnuni ties' recycling programs depends on four key elements; public education, materials and markets, collection, and economics. Public Education Public education is achieved by: • Effective use of the media. Including newspaper articles, radio and television programs and announcements, and publically displayed posters. (£>. 2.3c, ------- 30 r Interaction with community groups. Through speaking-engagements with Chambers of Commerce, garden -clubs, fraternal organizations, etc. to inform members about the program and receive their comments. • School programs. Including curriculum packages developed for several grade school levels, high school science courses, and the encourage- ment of student participation in recycling programs held at their schools. • Direct coiranunication with individual residents. Including letters mailed to each citizen from senior community officials requesting public support for the program and pro- viding detailed information on the operational aspects of the program.' In Somerville a calendar incorporating explanations of the various aspects of recycling was districuted to each resident. 'Materials and Markets Both communities recycle glass containers, all metal cans, and flat paper - such as newspaper, flattened cardboard, writing paper. Sonmerville recovers flint (clear) glass only; Marblehead recycles amber and green glass as well as clear. For the convenience of residents, both municipalities allow glass and cans to be placed in the same container at the curbside. Recognizing the importance of a favorable and stable market for recovered materials, Somerville and Marblehead have each sought competi- tive bids for a contract that provides a guaranteed floor price for all materials and requires that prices for materials be tied to some accepted g>. a. 31 ------- 31 industry indicator, such as the Official Board Market for paper. To ensure bidders a large, stable supply of materials in return, both communities have guaranteed that all recyclables collected will go to the successful bidder for the duration of the contract. t i ' Collection i Collection costs have a significant impact on the economics of source separation; thus, a major objective of a recycling program is -to keep collection costs low. To do so, both communities have purchased, bucket-loading, collection vehicles that are compartmentalized to facilitate the simultaneous collection of all recyclables. The truck bodies for both programs were manufactured, under a competitively bid contract, by Rendispos, Inc., LaRose, Illinois. Somerville purchased two 15 cubic meter (20-cubic yard) vehicles, each operated by a 3-man crew consisting of a driver and 2 collectors. Marblehead will use two 12 cubic meter (16-cubic yard) trucks with 2-man crews. Economics The economics of source separation depend on several factors * specific to each community: the revenues and disposal cost savings associated with materials recovery, and the costs of collecting, publicizing, and administering a recycling program. Revenue and disposal costs, and the volume of materials recovered. This last factor, in turn, depends upon the extent of resident participation. While neither program has been underway long enough to offer conclusive economic results, it is anticipated that each will result in a net savings to the community, primarily because additional costs of separated materials collection are negligible in both communities. ------- 32 dIBLIOGRAPHY Materials Recovery Equipment: Morey, B., and J. P. Cummings. Recovery of small metal particles from nonmetals using an eddy current separator - experience at Franklin, Onio. Presented at 104th annual meeting of the American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers, New York City. February 16-20, 1975. 11 p. Campbell, J. S. Electromagnetic separation of aluminum and non- ferrous metals. Presented at 103rd American Institute of Mechanical Engineers Annual Meeting, Dallas, Texas, February 24-28, 1974. 18 p. Non-ferrous metals recovery...conserving a valuable resource. NCRR Bulletin, V(3) : 67-72, Summer, 1975. McChesney, R. and V. R. Uegner. Hydraulic, neavy media and froth flotation processes applied to recovery of metals and glass from municipal solid waste streams. Presented at 78th National Meeting of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, Salt Lake City, August 18-21, 1974. 2b p. Samtur, H. Glass recycling and reuse, report 17. .Madison, Wise. The Institute for Environmental studies, University of Wisconsin, March, 1974. 100 p. Glass and Aluminum Recovery Systems: Cummings, J. P. Final report on tne glass and non-ferrous metal recovery subsystem, Franklin, Ohio. Iji Proceedings, the fifth mineral waste utilization symposium, Chicago, April 13-14, 1976. Chicago, Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute. Occidental Research Corporation. Resource Recovery by 0RC. Unpublished fact sheet. 1 p. Aluminum and Glass Markets: Garbe, Y. and S. J. Levy. Resource' recovery plant implementation, a guide for municipal officials, markets. Washington, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (SW-157. 3), 1976. (In preparation). 6. 2.33 ------- t 33 Source Separation: Hansen, P. and J. Ramsey. Demonstrating multimaterial source separation in Somerville and Marblehead, Massachusetts. Waste Age, 7(2) : 26-27, 48, February, 1976. 6.2.3'/ ------- Report of the Committee for Investigation of the Control of Emission Gas from Urban Refuse Incineration Facilities March 1975 Committee for Investigation of the Control of Emission Gas from Urban Refuse Incineration Facilities ------- Report of the Committee for Investigation of the Control of Emission Gas from Urban Refuse Incineration Facilities Contents 1. Preface 1 2. Physicochemical Properties of Hydrogen Chloride 2 and Hydrochloric Acid 3. Biological Effects of Hydrogen Chloride and 4 Hydrochloric Acid 4. Determination of Hydrogen Chloride, Etc. in Refuse 14 Incinerator Emission Gas 5. Countermeasures to Hydrogen Chloride at Refuse 17 Incinerator 6. Discussion on Control of Hydrogen Chloride Emission 40 from Refuse Incinerator 7. Summary 61 Appendixes 63 ------- 1. Preface Social concern over the air pollution incident to incineration of the urban refuse is ever increasing in these years. The urban refuse includes many kinds of wastes so that its combustion involves emission of a number of hazardous substances. Particularly, with extensive use of plastics, the urban refuse comes to contain an increasing amount of plastics discarded as ex- pendables. In such plastic waste is included the polyvinyl chloride resin (hereinafter referred to as PVC) which is used in a great amount as containers or packing material and which upon combustion emits hydrogen chloride (hereinafter at times referred to as HC1). Such emission has an adverse effect upon the health of the inhabit- ants in the vicinity of an incinerator and is thus considered to be an important problem requiring thorough study. Thus, the Committee conducted a survey of the actual conditions of incinerators throughout the country, incinerating operations, production and consumption of PVC and other basic matters and, at the same time, examined the data of measurements conducted by the government and some municipalities in order to see the actual condi- tion of emission of hydrogen chloride and pollution of the environ- ment and air in the vicinity of such an incineration facility. However, as we were unable to find, in our country, any speci- fic data on damage arising out of biological and other effects of ?. \|j.i - ------- hydrogen chloride in a low concentration, we took the data of foreign countries as a reference and developed a concept for a tentative target environmental concentration. Upon such concept, we examined the way of control of hydrogen chloride emission from the inciner- i ators and the standard value of emission in an effort to show a tentative plan or an administrative target value of endeavor that is attainable at the refuse incinerators. The Committee also examined the countermeasures to, and method of determination of, the hydrogen chloride from the refuse inciner- ators, and they will be described in this report. •> 2. Physicochemical Properties of Hydrogen Chloride and Hydrochloric Acid Hydrogen chloride and hydrochloric acid are of the physico- chemical properties set forth in Table 1. / IU2- ------- Table 1 Physicochemical Properties of Hydrogen Chloride and Hydrochloric Acid Property Hydrogen chloride Hydrochloric acid Color and smell Colorless gas, pungent smell Colorless liquid. When containing impuri- ties (iron, arsenic, chlorine and organic matters), yellow, pungent liquid. Boiling point -85°C 110°C. (20.24% HC1 aqueous solution). Melting point -111°C 27.29% HC1: -42°C 37.14% HC1: -74°C Moisture absorption Highly moisture absorptive. Moisture absorptive. Density 1.6397 g/£ (0°C., 760 mmHg). 20.04% HCl: 1.1006 g/l. 37.14% HCl: 1.885 g/l. Reaction When dry, not corro- sive. Reacts quickly with a number of organic substances. Corrodes metals highly with generation of hydrogen gas. Reacts with alkali salts. ^3 - ------- 3. Biological Effects of Hydrogen Chloride and Hydrochloric Acid Hydrogen chloride (HCl) is a moisture absorptive, colorless, pungent gas. As it dissolves well in water, it forms a mist in wet air. An aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride is hydrochloric acid. When a man inhales the gas into the lungs, it is likely to trans- form into a mist on account of a high content of moisture in the respiratory organ. At least, it acts in the form of hydrochloric acid when it comes into contact with the mucous membrane of the respiratory duct. At a high concentration, it causes burns to the skin or mucous membrane because of its strong dehydration, suffocat- ing difficulty in breathing with cough, or inflammation or ulcer of the upper air duct. It also causes acidic corrosion of teeth. It is harmful to the plants and damages the leaves. a. Effects (1) Effects upon men Reports on the effects of hydrogen chloride or hydro- chloric acid upon the human body when a man inhales it are meager, and most of them are concerned with occupational exposures to a relatively high concentration in a consider- ably old age. (a) Toxicity Hydrochloric acid is irritating, and its effects vary from irritation of the mucous membrane of eyes 7 IJa - ------- or upper air duct through pulmonary edema to fatal injury in an extreme case depending on the concent- ration and exposure time. Reportedly, it is irritat- ing at a concentration of 5 ppm (1 ppm = 1.493 mg/m3, 25°C.) or higher but causes no hazard at lower con- centration. Some of the workers usually exposed to such a concentration may feel nothing. At a concent- ration of 10 to 50 ppm, it is difficult to work but not impossible. Irritation of the throat becomes noticeable at about 35 ppm. When the concentration exceeds 50 ppm, working is no longer practicable. Men cannot withstand a concentration of 50 to 100 ppm for more than 60 minutes and are killed in several minutes at a concentration of 1,300 to 2,000 ppm. Hydrochloric acid neutralizes the alkalis in the tissue, attacks the upper duct and further causes pulmonary edema and sometimes convulsion of the throat to death. The hydrochloric acid mist is not so dangerous to men as the hydrogen chloride gas because it has not a strong dehydrating effect upon the tissue. But, it affects the skin of the face and causes ulcer of the membrane in the nose or mouth. It is reported that in the acid pickling process in an electric plant, cue workers not accustomed to the hydrochloric mist had the maximum tidal air decreased by 9 percent 7- /. / 5 _ ------- (exposure to hydrochloric mist of 6y diameter for 1 hour) while the accustomed workers had no hange. Allegedly, hydrogen chloride and hydrochloric acid " cause only topical hazards, acute as well as chronic, but little to the general organs. Adverse effects upon men depending on the concentration are illust- rated in Table 2. Table 2 Adverse Effects of Hydrogen Chloride Gas on Men upon Inhalation (Work Shop) Concentration (ppm) Exposure (mins) Adverse effect Remarks Less than 5 10 No physical hazard observed. Olfactory threshold value. No hindrance to work. Experience at the working shops and laboratories. 35 Throat irritation upon exposure for a short time. 10 ^ 50 Difficult but possible to work. 50 ^ 100 60 Not bearable. 50 ~ 100 Unable to work. 1,000 ^ 1,300 30 ^ 60 Dangerous. 1,300 ^ 2,000 Few mins. Fatal. * 1 ppm = 1.493 mg/m^ (at 25°C). 7-l.lf - ------- (b) Olfactory threshold value Bibliographically, the following olfactory thres- hold values are reported for HC1: 0.067-0.134 ppm (U.S.S.R. study), 1-5 ppm and 10 ppm. The Soviet study is concerned with the physiological threshold values for the sensory, respiratory and circulatory organs in use of animals against the hydrochloric" mist, different from those by evaluation of the industrial hygenic symptoms of actual human bodies by the Western countries. Effects upon animals (a) Effects upon domestic animals Throughout the urban and local areas and indus- tries, no report of investigation is found. (b) Animal tests It is reported that test monkeys, rabbits and guinea pigs were subjected to exposure to 33 ppm HC1 for 4 weeks (6 hours a day, 5 days a week), with no adverse effect. Rabbits and guinea pigs were sub- jected to exposure to 67 ppm for 5 days (6 hours a day), but none of them were killed. In general, the guinea pig is more sensitive than the rabbit, but the rabbit is sensitive to the stimulation to the //./ 7 - ------- respiratory system. When exposed for a long period, the animals have the weight decreased. At 670 ppm, 2 to 6 hours a day, the rabbits and guinea pigs are killed. At 4,300 ppm, 30 minutes, all animals are killed. Under such condition, they had ulcers developed in the throat and windpipe and also the symptoms of pulmonary edema, bronchiectasis, pulmonary emphysema and pulmonary bleeding. At 100 - 140 ppm, 6 hours, corrosive changes are observed in the eyes and air duct. At 1,350 ppm, 90 minutes, the cornea had a turbidity produced. At 3,400 ppm, 90 minutes, death is observed. At lower concentration, the number of respirations may increase at higher temperature, resulting in higher absorption of HC1 and higher level of danger. Effects upon plants (a) Toxicity It is reported that plants sustained damage due to hydrogen chloride and hydrochloric acid from an alkali manufacturing plant in Germany. This is a direct action of the gas upon the leaves and is not via the soil. It is also reported ttiat in spraying tests, a group of trees belonging to the dockmackie and Japanese larch genuses had damage /J.8 - ------- caused to the young sprouts within 2 days at 5-20 ppm and diseases caused one day after to the leaves of the grown up trees, such change being also caused by CI2 but more acute with HCl and the diseases of leaves being mainly such that the tip end or edge had white spots produced, and that the coniferous trees had the diseases developed at the tip end por- tions of the leaves but that the Japanese spruce had no change developed after elapse of 80 days at 2,000 ppm, 1 hour a day. According to a recent research work, the young sprouts withered to death in 20 minutes at 50 ppm. In the case of a tree with broad leaves, it had the leaves withered from the periphery. Grasses turned into brownish color. The allowable concentration of HCl for plants is generally 50 to 100 ppm. It is reported (as the result of experiments in still standing air) that the allowable concentration for leaves of beat sugar is 10 ppm, several hours. Tests with tomato are also available. HCl is not so toxic to the plants as SO2 but, at high concentration, produces damage similar to acute SO2 injuiy. ------- Historically noted is the damage to the plants by HC1 occurring in the vicinity of a soda plant in England, in 1836 to 1863. Thereafter, with scrubbers installed, the emission was reduced to a concentration less than 30 ppm. Bohne reported damage to plants by HC1 exhausted from the incinerator of a hospital in 1967 (Staub 27:28, 1967). According to the report, mainly paper and packing materials were burnt 2-3 hours a day and 5 days a week, resulting in total destroy of plants in the compound of a gardener 450, . meters apart from the hospital. (4) Allowable standard values in air The values of allowable concentrations from the in- dustrial hygiene at the work shops and those of environ- mental standards in the air of local communities in general in the principal countries of the world are given below. (a) Allowable concentrations from industrial hygiene Allowable concentration recommended by the Society of Industrial Hygiene, Japan: 5 ppm, 7 mg/m3 ACGIH, America: 5 ppm, 7 mg/m3 (c) Note: (c) represents a ceiling value or maximum allowance. 7./4ao - ------- West Germany: Soviet Union: Bulgaria: Czechoslovakia: Finland: Hungary: Poland: Rumania: Arab League: Yugoslavia: 5 ppm, 7 mg/m3 One time maximum exposure, 5 mg/m3; Daily average, 2 mg/m3 10 mg/m3 8 mg/m3 (5 ppm) average; 16 mg/m3 (11 ppm) one time maximum exposure 5 ppm, 7 mg/m3 10 mg/m3 7 mg/m3 10 mg/m3 10 mg/m3 7 mg/m3 (5 ppm) (b) Standard values in air Soviet Union: West Germany: Czechoslovakia: 2 One time maximum, 0..2 mg/m ; Daily average, 0.2 mg/m3 0.5 ppm (30 minutes average); 1.0 ppm (30 minutes maximum value) 0.02 ppm (24 hours average) 0.07 ppm (One time maximum - exposure) b. Target environmental concentration As a prerequisite to starting the study of the emission control, etc. of hydrogen chloride, there is a problem of deter- mining to what extent the concentration of hydrogen chloride in air should be contained generally. Here, the problem of such 7- ' /ii - ------- concentration (which will be referred to as "target environ- mental concentration" in the following) will be discussed. In our country as well as in the foreign countries, the study of the effects of low concentration hydrogen chloride in air upon the health of inhabitants is largely shortcoming. In such study, the target environmental concentration for establishment of the emission standards for harmful substances under the air pollution control law has been determined by multiplying the allowable concentration in the working environ- ment by a safety factory of 1/100. Following this method for hydrogen chloride, a value of 0.05 ppm maximum will be estab- lished for the target environmental concentration as the allow- able concentration in the working environment is determined at 5 ppm maximum in America and Japan. Here, the concentration of hydrogen chloride emitted from the refuse incinerator is not constant as in the case of gener- ation of hydrogen chloride from the manufacturing process in general but varies greatly with change in the proportion of PVC admixed in the refuse. In this respect, the target environ- mental concentration should be taken as a maximum value. On the other hand, if a level of concentration less than 0.05 ppm is taken as a target environmental concentration, an accurate quantification will hardly be expectable from a short y. I. /. 12 - ------- time of sampling so that at least 1 hour values must be con- sidered for sampling and evaluation of the target environmental concentration. Thus, as a conclusion, it is preferable to take 0.05 ppm as a maximum value for the target environmental concentration of hydrogen chloride and, in order for this maximum value not to be exceeded, to suppress the landing concentration, which is to be taken as a yardstick for the engineering preventive measures to be carried out, to about 0.01 - 0.03 ppm (1 hour value) References U.S.P.H.S.: Preliminary Air Pollution Survey of Hydrochloric Acid, APTD, 69-36, 1969. ILO: Permissible levels of toxic substances in the working environment, Occupational Safety and Health Series, 20, 1970. WHO: Control of Air Pollution in the USSR, WHO Public Health Paper, 54, 1973. ILO: Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety, Vol. 1, 1971. 7/7.13 - ------- 4. Determination of Hydrogen Chloride, etc. in Refuse Incinerator Emission Gas a. Determination of hydrogen chloride For the method of sampling of hydrogen chloride and handling of the values of measurement, provisions of paragraph 4, Notification No. 5, Kan-Tai-Ki, of the Director of Air Conservation Bureau, Environment Agency, "Re Enforcement of the Law for Partial Revision of the Air Pollution Control Law", 25 August 1971, and Japanese Industrial Standard "Emission Gas Sampling Method" (JIS Designation K-0095) will be applicable. For the method of analysis of hydrogen chloride in the emission gas from the urban refuse incinerator, the mercury thiocyanate (II) or silver nitrate method among other methods specified in the Japanese Industrial Standard "Analysis of Hydrogen Chloride in Emission Gas" (JIS Designation K-0107) will be employed. The last mentioned standard is being revised, and the methods of analysis in the draft of revision are illustrated in Table 3. The draft will be tested at a special committee to be established in the Japanese Industrial Standards Investi- gation Council shortly. 7./.V.14 - ------- time of sampling so that at least 1 hour values must be con- sidered for sampling and evaluation of the target environmental concentration. Thus, as a conclusion, it is preferable to take 0.05 ppm as a maximum value for the target environmental concentration of hydrogen chloride and, in order for this maximum value not to be exceeded, to suppress the landing concentration, which is to be taken as a yardstick for the engineering preventive measures to be carried out, to about 0.01 - 0.03 ppm (1 hour value) References U.S.P.H.S.: Preliminary Air Pollution Survey of Hydrochloric Acid, APTD, 69-36, 1969. ILO: Permissible levels of toxic substances in the working environment, Occupational Safety and Health Series, 20, 1970. WHO: Control of Air Pollution in the USSR, WHO Public Health Paper, 54, 1973. ILO: Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety, Vol. 1, 1971. 1- 1-4.13 - ------- 4. Determination of Hydrogen Chloride, etc. in Refuse Incinerator Emission Gas a. Determination of hydrogen chloride ! i For the method of sampling of hydrogen chloride and handling of the values of measurement, provisions of paragraph 4, Notification No. 5, Kan-Tai-Ki, of the Director of Air Conservation Bureau, Environment Agency, "Re Enforcement of the Law for Partial Revision of the Air Pollution Control Law", 25 August 1971, and Japanese Industrial Standard "Emission Gas Sampling Method" (JIS Designation K-0095) will be applicable. For the method of analysis of hydrogen chloride in the emission gas from the urban refuse incinerator, the mercury thiocyanate (II) or silver nitrate method among other methods specified in the Japanese Industrial Standard "Analysis of Hydrogen Chloride in Emission Gas" (JIS Designation K-0107) will be employed. The last mentioned standard is being revised, and the methods of analysis in the draft of revision are illustrated in Table 3. The draft will be tested at a special committee to be established in the Japanese Industrial Standards Investi- gation Council shortly. 7.It - ------- Table 3 Draft JIS K-0107 Item Analytical method Gas sampling Measurement range Hazardous substance Remarks Chemical analysis Mercury thiocyanate (II) (II) method 40 I 2^40 ppm Cl2, i", Br", CN~,S2- Approved method for emission standards for specified facilities Silver nitrate method o* O 00 60^2,500 Same as above Neutralization method o 00 60^2,500 Acidic and basic gases Ion electrode method 40 I 5^50,000 C12, I", Br", CN~, S2 Newly added Continuous analysis Solution conductivity method Gas/liquid contact ratio, constant From 0^5 ppm to CK1.5 C/P Any substances dissolving in the absorptive solution and showing a conductivity. ------- In these methods, it is required to consider presence of any interfering substances in the emission gas exhausted from the facility. However, either of the methods referred to above is designed to quantify chlorine ions and represent them as hydro- gen chloride and is thus susceptible to the effects of thermal decomposition and scattering of sodium chloride present in the refuse, and presently it will be difficult to take such effects into account. It is also required to provide correlationship between the methods of analysis and determination. Therefore, where r t the silver nitrate method is used for the sample gas from any specific facility, the handling conditions should be so deter- mined that the proportion of the values of measurement to those under the law provided mercury thiocyanate method comes within the range of 0.90 - 1.05. The moisture content (V/V%) in the emission gas of the facility is approximately in the range of 20 - 50 percent. The volume of the emission gas containing such moisture is to be calculated, according to said Notification (Kan-Tai-Ki No. 5, paragraph 2-3), upon the wet gas. Therefore, it will be ap- propriate to calculate upon the wet gas volume in the value of measurement. "7-1 J-16 - ------- b. Determination of oxygen and carbon dioxide gas in the erois- emission gas For determination of the concentration.of residual oxygen in the emission gas, an absorption method in use of the Orsat gas analysis apparatus or an oxygen or carbon dioxide gas analyzing apparatus giving equivalent values of measurement will be used. Sampling for concentration of residual oxygen should be made at the same place of sampling for hydrogen chloride. c. Determination of moisture in emission gas The moisture in the emission gas will be provided in ac- cordance with the wet tube method, paragraph 4.2.1, Japanese Industrial Standard "Method of Determination of Dust in the Flue Exhaust Gas" (JIS Designation Z-8808). Sampling for moisture determination should be made at the same place of sampling for hydrogen chloride. 5. Countermeasures to Hydrogen Chloride at Refuse Incinerator a. Countermeasures at the incinerating equipment (1) Corrosion prevention The boilers attached to the incinerator are generally of low pressure with the wall temperature maintained at about 200° to 300°C. so that the corrosion is not a matter ------- of concern usually. However, where the temperature is less than 200°C, there Is a problem of low temperature corrosion, and where it is hgiher than 350°C., there is also a problem of high temperature corrosion. Particularly, the gas type air preheater is normally installed at the high temperature unit and involves a relatively high tube wall temperature so that it is by no means free from cor- rosion. Such problems of corrosion are not yet resolved fully. (2) Measures against elevation of the furnace temperature When the refuse includes not only PVC but other plastics, its heat generation is increased. Thus, upon burning, the furnace temperature is elevated, resulting in various troubles. The furnace temperature is controlled with a greater amount of air introduced to check the temperature elevation. If the capacity of blowers and exhaust fans is constant, the amount of incineration will have to be reduced with increasing heat generation of the refuse. (3) Measures against exhaust gas pollution In an effort to prevent pollutions due to hydrogen chloride, etc. in the emission gas, many of the incinerat- ing facilities have higher chimneys erected to reduce the „ concentration on the ground. However, with increasing "7- I. 18 - ------- content of plastics in the refuse and higher concentration of hazardous substances in the emission gas, the air diffusion method will come to a limit if any appropriate measures are not taken. b. Direction of the emission gas processing technology and effects of removal As a method to remove harmful substances such as hydrogen chloride in the emission gas, there is available a wet gas processing system in which the gas is washed with water or an alkaline solution or a dry gas processing system by injecting lime or ammonia gas. (1) Outline of the dry and wet gas processing systems and their advantages and disadvantages (a) Dry gas processing with lime According to the result obtained at a test plant of Ligueropack Co. in MalmH City, Sweden, it was found that the chlorine content in the flyash would increase to more than 50 percent with the temperature of emis- sion gas declining below 300°C. but be reduced to 10 percent at 400°C. and to minimum at higher temperature. From such fact, it is thought that the chlorine content in the emission gas may be checked considerably if lime is injected into the gas with the temperature of emission I' / 19 - ------- gas kept below. 300°C. With the lime injected at a temperature of 200° to 250°C., there was obtained a removal rate of hydrogen chloride in the emission gas at about 85 percent. (b) Dry gas processing by ammonia injection This is a system usually employed for removal of SO3 in the heavy oil boilers. The combustion gas is first cooled and has then ammonia introduced therein to change hydrogen chloride into ammonium chloride which is then removed by an electric pre- cipitator. As ammonium chloride is formed partly in fine particles and fuse, its trapping is very difficult. (c) Wet gas processing by smoke rinsing This a relatively simple system. The combustion exhaust gas is cooled and is then rinsed with water shower to remove hydrogen chloride (this system be- ing referred to as "smoke rinse system" in the fol- v lowing). Removal rate of hydrogen chloride is about 50 percent. The waste water after smoke rinsing requires a treatment such as neutralization or pre- cipitation. 7 • W20 - ------- (d) Wet gas processing by scrubber I'or scrubbing, two systems by means of Venturi scrubber and packed column are generally conceivable. Figure 1 illustrates a cleansing system actually employed in an urban refuse incineration facility in Osaka. These two methods are capable of removing hydrogen chloride at a high efficiency with the emission gas first cooled and then brought into con- tact with water effectively. ------- Figure 1 Wet Type Cleansing System in Osaka Emission ga9 cleansing equipment (Gas processing capacity. 60,000 Km'/U) Smoke rinse drain processing equipment rge Sludge pit Precoac filter irnii —ii ii ¦jBWijiiLtf— t li m f,nn n mi wiiu ------- The method by means of scrubber allows removal of hydrogen chloride gas at a rate as high as 90 percent or more. It is also effective for removal of dust. In Table 4 are listed the advantages and dis- advantages of both dry and wet systems. Table 4 System Advantage Disadvantage Wet system Dust precipita- tion + Smoke rinsing Simple equipment. Relatively low removal rate. Drainage treatment required. Scrubber Distinguished in gas cleansing and dust precipita- tion effects. Large volume of water involved, resulting in treatment of voluminous waste water/ Dry system Lime injection + Dust precipi- tation No treatment of drain required. Still in the stage* of test. Large amount of lime to be added. Ammonia injec- tion + Dust precipitation No treatment of drain required. Expensive with ammonia consumption. Practically and economically, the wet system is preferable. In the case of the wet system, the removal rate will be improved by additional stages of Venturi scrubber or packed column. 7- /•/. 23 - ------- (2) Removal effect of wet gas processing equipment (a) HC1 removal effect by smoke rinse system Figure 2 shows the system of emission gas pro- cessing equipment by smoke rinsing at the trash burn- ing plant in Kyoto. The combustion gas has the temperature reduced by water spouting and dust removed by a multicyclone and is then treated by water spraying at a smoke rinse chamber and emitted from the chimney Figure 2 Smoke Rinse System Temper- Inciner- ature Multi- Exhaust ator reduction cyclone fan Smoke rinse chamber < / / \ Water Pump Discharge Treatment water tank Precipita- tion tank Coagulation and precipita tion tank 777777" Chimney Chemicals (Neutralization, coagulation, precipitation) (1), (2), (3) and (4) represent the points of measure- ment of hydrogen chloride. "Report of Study on Countermeasures to Hydrogen Chloride Gas Generated Incident to Incineration of Refuse", Japan Public Health Association, 1971. 7.11?" - ------- Table 5 Hydrogen Chloride Concentration Point of ^^measurement Date 1 2 3 4 Incinerator outlet temperature 10 206.0 128.0 146.0 29.0 800 ^ 840°C 11 - 71.7 25.7 20.5 800 ^ 940 12 81.7 51.5 48.0 13.2 680 ^ 840 13 118.0 3.4 7.4 6.3 760 ^ 860 14 309.0 117.0 109.0 70.8 840 ^ 910 15 388.0 100.0 115.0 67.8 740 ^ 920 16 484.0 212.0 180.0 92.3 840 ^ 960 17 353.0 188.0 122.0 - 700 'v 830 18 306.0 101.0 114.0 54.0 830 ^ 890 19 246.0 116.0 136.0 57.4 600 900 "Report of Study on Countermeasures to Hydrogen Chloride Gas Generated Incident to Incineration of Refuse", Japan Public Health Association, 1971. The values of measurement at points 2 , 3 and 4 given in Table 5 are the data of the combus- tion gas which is diluted considerably. Thus, the HCji concentration in the smoke rinse chamber 3 is represented by a considerably lower value than actually is. In the case of the smoke rinse system, the water requirement is smaller than in the other 7I' ^ 25 - ------- wet system at about 0.4 £/m3 normally. As a removal effect, a value of 50 percent should be taken as illustrated in Table 5, but the pressure loss by smoke rinsing is as low as 10 mmaq, while the temper- ature after rinsing is kept at a relatively high level so that a diffusion effect from the chimney is expectable. For further improvement of the removal of HCl, a three stages smoke rinsing system is considered. With three stages of rinsing, the pressure loss totals about 80 mmaq, yet a HCl removal rate as high as about 70 percent is expectable. (b) HCl removal effect by Venturi scrubber system The Venturi scrubber' gas cleansing system has originally been used as an effective means for removal of dust. It exhibits a removal rate equivalent to that of an electric precipitator and, as a gas cleans- ing apparatus, a high capacity for removal of HCl, SO and NO . The construction is very simple. The combustion gas is first cooled to some extent and is then allowed to pass through the Venturi at a high speed while it is contacted effectively with water spouted from nozzles for treatment. "?• !• I 26 - ------- The Venturi outlet is reversed arid has the moisture separated and removed from the gas by a cyclone and is then discharged out of the chimney. The gas temperature at the Venturi outlet is usually about 75° to 80°C. The amount of water required for Venturi scrubber is usually about 1 £/m3, and the pressure loss is about 200 to 300 mmaq, greater for higher removal. The jet scrubber system is similar to the Venturi type but requires a greater amount of water, while the pressure loss is smaller than in the Venturi system. Survey reports on the effect of the Venturi scrubber for removal of HC1 in the urban refuse in- cinerator are meager. Therefore, here, the results of tests with an incinerator designed exclusively for PVC in use mainly of a Venturi scrubber for incinerating disposition of PVC as an industrial waste are give below. ("Survey Report on Technology of Disposition by Complete Burning of High Polymeric Wastes [Proof Tests with an Incinerator Designed Exclusively for Polyvinyl Chloride Waste], July 19 71, Science and Technology Agency 1970 Survey for Measures of Comprehensive Utilization of Resources on Commission Basis) 7- /•/ 27 ------- Figure 3 Plastics incinerator (Cross-sectional view) Inlet Feed hopper Screw feeder Air nozzle Air control nozzle Forced in fan 7 — Heavy oil burner 8 — Ash outlet 9 -- Wind channel 10 — Venturi scrubber 11 — Air/water separator 12 — Inductive fan A — Temp. CO* ratio; Static pressure; Detecting location T\|~T%--—Temperature in lst-3rd combustion chambers T5 Temperature of the wall of heat cofiductlve tube on the air side T* Temperature of the wall of heat conductive tube on the water §ide T7 Temperature-of the lower part of chimney G CO2 ratio in emission gas Dj-Di,- ——Static pressure in gasduct 13 — Chimney 14 -- Drain neutralization tank 15 — Observation window 16 — Smoke rinse water 17 — Drain "Survey Report on Technology of Disposition by Complete Burning of High Polymeric Wastes", July 1971, Science and Technology Agency 1970 Survey for Measures of Comprehensive Utilization of Resources on Conrnlsslon Basis. ------- Figure 3 shows the construction of the exclu- sive incinerator used in this study, and Table 6 shows the test results. The gas containing a great amount of hydrogen chloride (about 30,000 ppm) upon combustion of PVC has the temperature reduced and then hydrogen chloride absorbed and removed at the Venturi scrubber and is discharged out of the chimney. As seen from the figures given in Table 6, the hydrogen chloride is removed by the Venturi scrubber at a rate as high as about 98 percent. For cleansing, a caustic soda solu- tion is used. By controlling so that the solution is approximately neutral at the outlet of cleansing, treatment of the drain of cleansing is simplified. Table 7 shows the results of gas cleansing treat- ment by a two stage Venturi for removal of HCl, S0V and NOx in the emission gas. As test samples, a waste discharged out of a chemical plant and heavy oils A and B are used, and they are tested for removal of harmful substances in the combustion exhaust gas. 7« 29 - ------- Table 6 PVC Exclusive Incinerator Test Results 25 February 1971 (Osaka Municipal Health Institute Survey) Example 1 Example 2 Example 3 Bum disposition, kg/H 60 60 60 Heavy oil used, &/H 0 0 0 Force fan outlet pressure, mmH20 312^315 313^315 313^314. Primary air, m3/H 140 140 140 Secondary air, m3/H 1340 1340 1340 1st combustion chamber temp., T]°C 108CK1100 1100^1140 1120 2nd combustion chamber temp., T2°C 900^940 950^980 980 3rd combustion chamber temp., T3°C 840^870 880^900 900 4th combustion chamber temp. , Ti+°C 670^730 730-W40 740^750 Temp, in chute after Venturi, °C 73^80 77^80 74^77 CO2 meter, % 3.7^4 0 4.0^4.0 4.1^4.2 Sampling location 4th Ven- 4th Ven- 4 th Ven- combus- turi combus- turi combus- turi tion out- tion out- tion out- chamber let chamber let chamber let Moisture content, g/Nm3 15.63 11.62 9.18 Dust, g/Nm3 6.18 "2.85 3.63 Hydrogen chloride, ppm 27400 609 30100 558 29700 584 Nitrogen oxides, ppm 13 1 9 tr 10 tr "Survey Report on Technology of Disposition by Complete Burning of High Polymeric Wastes", July 1971, Science and Technology Agency 1970 Survey for Measures of Comprehensive Utilization of Resources on Commission Basis. 7- U.30 - ------- Table 7 Emission Gas Cleansing Test Results Objective 1st 2nd 2nd 1st 2nd 1st + 2nd gas of Venturi Venturi Venturi Stage Stage Stage Sample measure- inlet inlet outlet Venturi Venturi Venturi ment concentra- concentra- concentra- effici- effici- total tion tion tion ency ency efficiency Unit PPm ppm ppm % % % HQ 3050 28.7 17.2 99.2 40.1 99.4 Waste liquid 1 HQ. 3710 84.2 • tr 97.7 - 99.9 HCL 8190 215.0 20.0 97.5 90.6 99.8 NO + N02 1845 - 569 - - 69.1 Waste liquid 2 NO 2 190.5 4.4 37.7 97.8 - 85.2 SO2 + SO3 409.8 30.4 4.3 92.6 84.5 98.8 Heavy oil A so2 + so3 100.0 4.4 3.3 95.6 27.3 96.8 Heavy oil B so2 + so3 499.8 7.1 7.1 98.6 - 98.6 "Report of Study on Countermeasures to Hydrogen Chloride Gas Generated Incident to Incineration of Refuse", Japan Public Health Association, 1971. ------- Figure 4 shows systematic diagram of the test equipment. For cleansing, an aqueous solution of alkali is used, while the drain of the second stage is used for the first stage Venturi, and the drain after use has the pH adjusted and is circulated again for use. The Venturi pressure loss is about 250 mmaq per stage. It will be seen from the results shown in Table 7 that use of two stage Venturi gives a removal rate close to 100 percent for hydrogen chloride. Figure 4 2 Stage Venturi gas cleansing system / „ Reuse Pump "Report of Study on Countermeasures to Hydrogen Chloride Gas Generated Incident to Incineration of Refuse", Japan Public Health Association, 1971. 7- '-I32 - ------- (c) Removal effect of wet type gas cleansing equip- ment Removal effects of wet type gas cleansing systems are summarized in Table 8. Table 8 1 Stage smoke rinsing 3 Stages smoke rinsing Venturi (1 stage) Packed column HCl removal rate 50% 70% 95 ^ 98% 98% SO removal rate - 60% 85 ^ 95% 85% NO removal X rate - 50% 60% 50% Pressure loss 10 mmt^O 80 mmH20 250 ^ 350 mniF^O 100 ^ 150 mmH20 i "Report of Study on Countermeasures to Hydrogen Chloride Gas Generated Incident to Incineration of Refuse", Japan Public Health Association, 1971. The packed column system gives a high rate of removal and a relatively small pressure loss. It is simple in construction and easy for maintenance. However, it is shortcoming in that with increasing area of gas passage in the packed column, a several times greater amount of water than that in the Venturi system will be required. Further, unless the dust is 7JJ,n. ------- removed previously, the packed column is apt to clog, resulting in higher pressure loss and lower removal effect. i i I (3) Drain disposition in wet type gas cleansing equipment In the case of the smoke rinse system, the drain is relatively small and is often discharged with neutraliza- tion. But, in the case of the Venturi scrubber or packed column, a great amount of water is used, and the drain contains a relatively large amount of harmful components so that recirculation upon treatment is considered generally. The cleansing drain of the Venturi or packed column is usually introduced into the water tank beneath the equipment. In the tank, the drain is replenished with water and has an alkali such as caustic soda added for use through the nozzles again. During the circulation, concentration takes place to increase the content of SS component in the water, resulting in clogging of the nozzles and other difficulties. To pre- vent such difficulties, a predetermined amount of drain is blown successively so that the concentration of the solution of circulation is maintained at a constant level. The blown drain is purified through water treatment. To prevent the purifying effect from being obstructed by the influence of water temperature, the solution is cooled through ¦7.U34 - ------- a cooling Lower or heat uxrh.-inger before Lt Is neutralized and turned into clear water with a coagulant added at a forced coagulation and precipitation apparatus. The treated water may be used for ash pit and many other pur- poses. It is also used as regenerated water or for gas cleansing partly, and for such use, it is required to blow several percent of the circulation treatment water in order to maintain the concentration of NaCl produced through re- action of HCl with caustic soda at a level of several per- cent. Such drain of blow has absorbed, in addition to HCl, SO and NO and shows an appreciable COD value amounting X X several hundred ppm so that it has to be subjected to some treatment before it is discharged. It is oxidized through a forced oxidation tower to convert sodium sulfite into sodium sulfate and thus reduce the COD value before dis- charge. Figure 5 shows a schematic diagram of the drain treatment system. ------- . I Figure 5 HC1 containing gas Water replenish Pue Circulation for use cali tank Blower Cooling Pump tower Forced coagulation arid precipitation tank M Coagulant and neutralizer 'Processing 3 watler tank 7\ •k \-o Pump Forced oxidation tower (Aeration) Discharge L_„ Reuse Sludge (To ash pit) "Report of Study on Countermeasures to Hydrogen Chloride Gas Generated Incident to Incineration of Refuse", Japan Public Health Association, 1971. 7.U'36 - ------- c. Problems involved in the measures for removal of hydrogen chloride With the current level of engineering, it is possible to achieve a high rate of removal of hydrogen chloride contained in the gas emitted out of the refuse incinerator. However, the removal entails various problems including treatment of the drain and sludge produced as the result of removal and, at the same time, calls for consideration of the expense for in- stallation and maintenance and the technique of operation of the removal equipment. (1) Drain treatment For the whole volume of water required for smoke rinsing and cleansing to be discharged upon use of only one time, it is too large in quantity and requires a large capacity of drain treatment with a rising running cost. Thus, in most instances, it is circulated for reuse with check of the concentration to a certain level and occasional blow of a certain amount of drain to such a extent that the cleansing capacity may not be reduced. The drain to be blown is only in a small quantity but is concentrated and makes it difficult to perform the drain treatment. As SO2 is removed from the gas, it contains a large amount of sodium sulfite and gives a high COD value so that it is not dischargeable. It must have sodium sulfite transformed into ------- sodium sulfate in a forced oxidation tank before it is discharged so that the equipment is expensive. So long as the pH, SS and COD are concerned, the treatment is relatively easy. But, should the refuse con- tain heavy metals, the treatment is much more difficult. To reduce the contents of lead, cadmium, mercury, etc. in water below the values of control respectively, further treatment will be required. (2) Prevention of corrosion After cleansing, the gas is generally of low tempera- ture so that corrosion of the materials by hydrochloric acid is noticeable. Acid resisting materials must be used for all of the gas cleansing apparatus, duct, chimney and, sometimes, inductive fans and drain treatment equipment. The acid resisting materials used presently are not of sufficient durability, and in this respect, further re- search and development will be required. i (3) Prevention of white smoke The white smoke disappears upon reheating of the waste gas. (4) Economy As stated above, water or an alkali is used generally for removal of HC . With the former, an alkali is required ?• A-/.38 - ------- to neutralize the drain. The amount of use of the alkali (caustic soda) increases inevitably, accompanying increased requirement for power, to achieve a higher rate of removal of hydrogen chloride under the current technology. Further, in the combustion gas of refuse are present, in addition to HC1, NO and SO and is also included C02 so that about 20 percent of the amount of caustic soda equivalent to HCl is consumed additionally. The alkali and power thus used often constitute a greater part of the expense for maintenance of the facility. Still more, the salt (NaCl) produced as the result of alkali treatment contains much impurities and is hardly usable for industrial application technically and economically. Thus, it has but to be discarded, and the expense of transporta- tion and disposition is not negligible. (Note) References Takeshi Oda: "Technical Development of Urban Refuse In- cinerator from the Point of View of Controlling the Hydrogen Chloride Gas", Welfare Science Report, 1971. Japan Public Health Association: "Report of Study on Countermeasures to Hydrogen Chloride Gas Generated Incident to Incinercj ion of Refuse", 1971. ------- Science and Technology Agency Survey for Measures of Comprehensive Utilization of Resources on Commision Basis: Survey Report on Technology of Disposition by Com- plete Burning of High Polymeric Wastes (Proof Tests by Incinerator Designed Exclusively for Polyvinyl Chloride Waste)", Resources Technology Association, July 1971. 6. Discussion on Control of Hydrogen Chloride Emission from Refuse Incinerator a. Existing status of generation and emissin of HCI at refuse incinerators and emission control Greater part of HCl produced in the burning process of the refuse incinerator is considered to be due to the burning of plastics or, more particularly, PVC admixed in the refuse. It is also considered generally that the generation of HCl from the incinerator is increasing in proportion to the increasing amount of plastics used and discarded in the daily consumptive living of people. However, reports of investigation on the generation and emission of HCl from refuse incinerators are relatively small, and the values of measurement of HCS. concentration varies great- ly from A ppm to 900 ppm. Such variation is considered to be due to difference in the type and quality of refuse, type of incinerator, method of operation and maintenance of the inciner- ator, sampling place, analytical method or year of measurement. ------- Refuse incineration is seldom carried out in such a manner as to dispose a certain quality of refuse under a certain con- dition of operation at all times. The operating condition as well as the quality of refuse is subject to change greatly so that the generation and emission of HCl in the process of in- cineration are not stationary. As relatively recent values of measurement of the HCl con- centration in the exhaust gas of continuous type refuse inciner- ators with no HCl cleansing and removal apparatus in large cities, there are obtained 330-820 ppm, Tokyo; 220-770 ppm, Yokohama; and 510-740 ppm, Kawasaki. Assuming from the example of investigation in Yokohama that the refuse comprises 10 per- cent (dry base) of plastics, 25 percent of which is of PVC and that the whole chlorine in PVC is converted to HCl gas, the concentration of generation at the incinerating process is calculated, according to Appendix 2, as about 610 ppm or, if PVC constitutes 30 percent of the plastics, 760 ppm. The incinerators recently built in urban areas have gener- ally higher chimneys designed for diffusion of gas. But, from the foregoing consideration, they are by no means free from problems if the change in the rate of admixture of PVC or weather condition is taken into account so that some control will be require^ . I ------- b. Discussion on control method The Air Pollution Control Law provides (1) Control of the concentration at the outlet, or (2) Control of the emission per unit time at the outlet. The control system (1) controls by type and scale of the facility and type of the emission, and the control system (2) controls the amount of emission depending on the height of outlet for each of the emitted substances. For the emission substances, under the title of soot and smoke are included. (1) Sulfur oxides, (2) Dust, (3) Harmful substances (such as cadmium and hydrogen chloride determined by the cabinet ordinance), and (A) Special harmful substances (as determined by the Director General of Environment Agency; presently no substance specified). These emission substances are subject to either of the fore- going control systems. For example, the dust and harmful sub- stances are subject to the concentration control, while the sulfur oxides and special harmful substances are subject to the emission control depending on the height of the outlet (sulfur oxides having control values specified by area). ------- For control of HCl from the incinerator, HCl is already specified as a harmful substance and is, therefore, subject to the concentration control. But, the control of HCl has the types of objective facilities specified, and the incinerator is not included in such facilities. Thus, it must be added as an objective facility of control, and separate concentration control standards from the emission control standards for the facilities already under control will have to be provided. On the other hand, although there is no substance specified as a special harmful substance presently, such a special harmful substance is a "harmful substance generated incident to combu- tion of a fuel or other material." Thus, by specifying HCl as a special harmful substance produced by incineration of the refuse, the emission control system specifying the allowable limit of emission depending on the height of outlet may be ap- plicable . Now, upon the premise that either of the concentration and emission control systems is applicable as a direction of control of HCl from the refuse incinerator, the problems of each system will be discussed. Shortcomings of concentration control: o The standard complied upon dilution with no decrease in the total amount. ------- o The volume of emission gas Increasing with increasing use of the fuel (or volume of incineration), result- ing in increase of the total amount of emission. Shortcomings of emission control depending on the height of outlet: o Greater emission enabled with higher outlet (higher chimney). Further, when both control systems are applied to HCL of the incinerator, the following defects are noted. In the case of concentration control: (1) Low concentration represented with excess of air. (2) Air leak into the incinerating facility is greater than in the other heat generating facilities, result- ing in dilution with such air. (3) Total amount of emission increases with increasing amount of incineration. (It is required to specify the control concentration by the scale of facility.) (4) Lower chimney will do with lower concentration, thus discouraging the sense of importance of enhancing the diffusion effect and resulting in the possibility of local and concentrative pollution due to downwash or downdraft. i (5) Introduction of cooling air required upon increase of the heat generation of refuse, resulting in a 7. I- I, 44 - ------- dilution effect (dilution preventive measure being of little effect). In the case of emission control depending on the height of outlet: (1) The drawback that greater emission is possible with higher chimney may result in spreading of pollutants over an extensive area. (2) Where the environmental standard or target environ- mental concentration is not specified, it is diffi- cult to determine the control value of voluem. (3) The formula for calculation of the diffusion into air is not always simulating the actula diffusion correctly, although, of course, depending on the weather condition. However, with respect to the defects of the emission con- trol depending on the height of outlet, (a) There is a structural limit in the height of chimney from the current technical level of building in our country, and it will be impossible to erect an endlessly higher chimney. (b) From the consideration that the source of pollution is a spot and that both the rate of contribution to the pollution of air as a whole and the proprtion of the emission gas of refuse incineration in the total 7-/A 5 - ------- emission gas are of small value, it will be possible to maintain the ground concentration at a low level by the effect of diffusion. (c) Prevention of downwash or downdraft will be enabled through appropriate choice of the chimney and emis- sion condition. From the foregoing consideration, HCl of the refuse in- cinerator may be specified as a special harmful substance and be subjected to the emission control depending on the height of outlet. For control under the concentration system, the con- trol standard value should be determined in consideration of the scale of burning facility and the height of chimney. c. Control system Thus, here, upon the foregoing consideration and without being bound by the current provisions of Air Pollution Control Law, a plan is proposed from a realistic standpoint or prevent- ing HCl from the refuse incinerator. In principle, the proposal is based on the K value method of sulfur oxides but has a upper limit of height provided depending on the amount of refuse to be burnt in an effort to place emphasis on the prevention of spreading the environmental pollution over a wide range due to increasing height of chimney and also the importance of emission control. ------- For example, according to the K value control by the air diffusion formula provided in the Air Pollution Control Law, the Sutton's diffusion formula is used so that some calculation will be made in the following upon the formula. Sutton's formula is Cmax = 0.234Cz/Cy'Q/(UHe2) (1) where Cmax: Maximum landing concentration (3 minute value) Here, the concentration is not expressed by ppm but as, for example, 10 ® for 1 ppm. Q: Pollutant emission about, m3/sec (15°C) U: Wind speed (m/sec) Here, 6 m/sec is taken. He: Effective height of chimney (m) (He given in paragraph 2, Article 3, Air Pollution Control Law Enforcement Ordinance) Cz: Parameter of diffusion in a plumb direction. \ Cy: Parameter of diffusion in a horizontal direction. Here, Cz = Cy. Generally, the maximum landing concentration is expressed in an 1 hour value so that the 3 minute value is converted to an 1 hour value. By applying the Rolley's hourly dilution coefficient 0.15 (Cmax) 1 hour value = 0.15 (Cmax) 3 minute value 7-/7.47 - ------- Q is converted to the value under standard conditions (1°C, 1 atomospheric pressure) which is represented by q. Then, q (Nm3/hr) = Q (m3/sec) x 273^ 15 * Thus, formula (1) is expressed as Cmax =1.71 x 10 6 x q/He2 or q = 0.584Cmax x L0®He2 When Cmax is to be expressed in ppm, Cmax x 106 Cmax. Then, q = 0.584Cmax He2 (2) where q: Pollutant emission (Nm3/hr) Cmax: Maximum landing concentration (ppm) He: Effective height of chimney (m) Representing the volume of gas discharged out of the incinerator by V (Nm3/hr) and the HC1 concentration at the outlet by (ppm), C . (ppm) = 0.584 x 106 x CmaxHe2/V (3) HL1 With the amount of refuse burnt represented by S (t/hr) and the volume of emission gas per ton of refuse by Go (Nm3/t), C , (ppm) = 0.584 x 10® x Cmax He2/G0S (4) HC1 Go varies with the type and operating condition of the incinerator or air excess coefficient, but here a most generally 7.11.48- ------- employed value or G0 = 5000 Nm3/t will be taken as a standard value. Then, CHCl (ppm) = 0.1168 x 103 x Cmax xHe2/S (5) While various chimney heights are used, those investigated of the existing continuous and batch type incinerators are shown in Tables 9 and 10 and Figures 6 and 7, with higher chimney used in the incinerator of greater scale. The continuous incinerators recently built are mostly of the scale of 600 to 1000 t/D and the chimney height of 80 to 100 m. Accordingly, S = 1000/24 (t/hr) and effective chimney height (Note 1) He = 100 m are taken here as standards. Then, in formula (5), He2/S = 240. The scale of incineration may change (Note 2), but if He2/S = 240 (constant), C i (ppm) = 280.3 x 102 Cmax (6) HC 1 Thus, the HC1 emission concentration C (ppm) is constant for HC 1 a certain Cmax. The results of calculation according to such consideration are shown in Table 11. (Note 1) With He = 100 m taken as a standard, the actual chimney height (H0) may vary with the volume, temperature and speed of emission gas, but cor- responds to a refuse incinerator having a chimney of about 70 to 80 m height. H.l. k « - ------- (Note 2) The assumption of He2/S = 240 (constant) may seem to be severe for the chimneys of He > 100 m and not so for those of He < 100 m, bur with lower He, the amount of incineration S is gener- ally smaller so that the assumption is equally severe for the chimneys of He < 100 m. ' ^'J'50 - ------- Table 9 Facility Scale Versus Chemney Height (Continuous System) Chimney height Facility^\^(m) scale 20^29 30^34 35^39 40^44 45^49 50^54 55^59 6(H64 65^69 70-W9 80^99 10CH Average height 3CK^ t/day 1 32 m 40^ 50^ 60^ 2 1 3 41.2 80^ 1 3 4 8 6 45.4 100^ 120^ 2 1 2 1 53.7 14CK\< 2 5 6 1 2 1 42.8 160^ 1 5 1 13 3 49.6 200^ 3 2 3 1 48.1 300^ 2 3 8 8 1 1 52.6 40(H 2 1 2 1 3 2 76.4 600^ 3 2 2 3 1 74.1 800^ 1 1 95.0 1000^ - ------- Figure 6 Facility Scale Versus Cbei.uney Height (Continuous Syscem) Incineration (t/day) ------- Table 10 Facility Scale Versus Chimney Height (Batch System) Chimney height Facility^^^ (m) scale ^19 20^24 25^29 30^34 35^39 40^44 45^49 50^54 55^59 60^64 Average height 1.0^ t/day 174 27 6 2 12. 2 m 5.0^ 62 231 31 16 3 1 20.9 10.0' 1 54 61 130 58 3 1 1 30.4 20.0^ 1 4 3 18 98 17 10 2 37.1 30.0^< 1 1 1 10 46 34 14 11 4 40. 7 40.0^ 3 7 21 9 1 46.8 50. 0^ I 2 10 16 3 1 50.2 60. 0^ 2 11 19 10 3 52.1 80.0^ 1 3 1 7 7 2 1 47.9 100.0^ 3 1 3 3 2 52.0 120^ 2 1 2 1 49.5 140^ 1 1 4 1 1 52.1 160~ 1 1 49.5 200^ 2 1 2 2 3 53.5 300^ 400^ 2 62.0 600^ 800^ 1000^ ------- Figure 7 Facility Scale Versus Chimney Height (Batch System) 70 60 S 50 u X 00 <11 JZ o 40 30 20 10 20 AO 60 80 100 110 120 140 160 180 200 Incineration (t/day) ------- Table 11 Results of calculation by formula (6) Classification of disposition (t/day) Average disposition (t/day) C max (ppm) HC1 concentration (wet standard) Sci (pp,tt) HC1 emission (<1q) -Go ------- Remarks: The dry standard value of HCl concentration may be represented differently depending of the moisture content in the emission gas, but it may be calculated as given below with the moisture content assumed to be 20 ¦ percent average (by volume). In formula (4), Go (wet emission gas) =5000 Nm3/t is expressed as Go (dry emission gas)=5000x80/100=4000 Nm3/t. Thus, formula (5) is C (ppm) =0. 1460xl03x CmaxxHe 2/S, and formula (6) is (ppm)=350.4xl02x Cmax. Then, with the moisture content assumed to be 20 percent average, Cmax HCl concentration HCl concentration (Wet standard) (Dry standard) 0.01 280 ppm 350 ppm 0.02 560 700 0.03 840 1050 d. Future direction of the emission gas control and refuse disposition administration The concept stated above of the control of HCl in the emis- sion gas is intended to achieve the. target environmental con- centration of HCl stated in the foregoing for the refuse 7- /,/, 56 - ------- Incinerators which are themselves environmenr Improvement facilities and must have the disposition of refuse by burning carried out completely with the standard of the volume of emission gas per ton of refuse placed at 5000 Nm3 which is considered to provide good burning conditions. In the case of a large volume of emission gas per ton of( refuse, the HCl concentration is diluted, but the absolute volume of HCl (concentration x volume of emission) is defined so that the emission is always converted to that under the standard condition. In fact, the incinerators have the chimneys of the heights illustrated in Tables 1 and 2 so that they may be considered as a spot source of pollution. Thus, it was considered that it would be reasonable to perform the emission control upon recognition of the diffusion and dilution by the standard height of chimney. For increasing amount of chlorides in the refuse, two methods are conceivable: emission gas cleansing and addition of processes. The latter is directed toward elimination of the charge in the quality of refuse due to change of the living mode by successive addition of treatment processes and may be regarded as an unavoidable expediency. But, from the other point of view, it is to admit the increase of refuse treatment cost due to change in the quality of refuse incident to change of the living mode or increase of social cost. /J. /.J. 57 _ ------- According to the cleansing system, an alkali is used for neutralization. But^ as illustrated in Figure 8, some percent I of the caustic soda produced by electrolysis in the soda industry is thus used only for neutralization of hydrogen chloride without being used as an industrial material and reduced back to salt or sodium chloride. Assuming, for the sake of illustration, that the urban refuse of 82,000 t/day throughout the country in 1971 contained 3 percent of PVC and that the caustic soda require^ for neutralization was about 12 kg/ton of refuse, the consumption of caustic soda would be 82,000x12x365=359,000 t/year. The output of PVC in 1970 was 1.16 million tons/year, while that of caustic soda was 3 million tons/year. Then, about 12 percent of the whole production of caustic soda would have to be consumed for the treatment of emission gas from the incinerators alone. f' J.58 - ------- Figure 8 Flow of PVC in waste and soda industry materials Soda industry NaCl Processing -«=— NaOH Cl2 - Productive materials PVC -Productive materials Dust precipitation Gas cleansing -NaCl Family—^Gathering and —^-Incineration —^-Waste water treatment transport -s- Land filling In view of the foregoing consideration, the waste treat- ment system should be directed toward self control in the respective stage from production to disposition such as "closed" in the production stage, recovery in the distribution stage and control of emission in the consumption stage. Efforts should, therefore, be exerted to add a process of fractional gathering or mechanical sorting before the stage of burning disposition. For example, let's us see what effect the increase of the rate of admixture of PVC (Xp^J in the refuse will have upon the HC1 concentration (C„„.) in the emission gas. HCJ6 CHCl=2 .510®x(1-W) xXpVC/G 0 (6) Where W represents the moisture content (kg-water/kg-refuse). If W=0.5 and-Go <-5000 Nm3/t, formula (6) is expressed as // 59 - ------- Chci^soxio^vc In Table 12 are shown the values of Xp^ obtained from this formula to suppress the HCl concentration to 280, 560 and 840 ppm. Table 12 PVC content and Hd concentration in emission gas r100XPVC Proportion of plastics in dry refuse (PVC assumed to be 30% of the plasties) lOOXp CHC1 ------- flexible operation is desired of the application of emission gas control including administrative guidance toward such direction. 7. Summary As stated in the foregoing, the Committee has exerted continued efforts for investigation of the basic matters for emission control and, during the process of investigation, encountered various dif- ficult problems. That is, as the measures immediately practicable for removal of hydrogen chloride, there are (1) removal by sorting of PVC and other plastics and (2) smoke rinsing-neutralizing treatment, but either of them has big problems left unresolved yet. For example, the former involves a problem of limitation in the effect of sorting including that at the respective families as the plastics are not only present by themselves but in combination with other materials and other problems such as research and development of the mechanical sorting techniques and disposition of sorted plastics. For the latter, it is required for prevention of secondary pollution to consider the problem of disposition of heavy metals and other harmful substances included in the smoke rinse drain and that of byproducts emitted as the result of neutralization. In addition to these problems, the control of hydrogen chloride discharged out of incin- erators requires multifarious and long ranging investigation and 7.//61 - ------- research with various economical effects taken into account such as the problems of apportionment of the pollution control expense among the producer, user and disposer of PVC, research and development-' of substitute plastics, etcl I The Committee has conducted the study and investigation care- fully in full recognition of these problems and considers that for the incinerators emitting hydrogen chloride in a great quantity, combination of the measures (1) and (2) will have to be considered tentatively but that it is desirable, as a future direction, to proceed toward expediting the measure (1). 7 I -l62., ------- Appendix .1 Simple Method of Calculation of the Volume of HC1 Emission Gas from Refuse (1) Analysis of refuse Content of plastics, Xp (kg/kg-raw refuse) Combustible component except plastics, Xc (kg/kg-raw refuse) Moisture content, W (kg-water/kg-raw reguse) (2) Calculation of low level heat He = 4600 Xc + 8000 Xp - 620 W (3) Calculation of theoretical air volume A0 = 1.01 He/1000 +0.5 (Nm3/kg) (4) Determination of air ratio Through analysis of the flue waste gas, the oxygen concentra- tion (O2) and carbonic acid concentration (CO2) are determined. m 21(N2) - 79 (02)' 0.21 m a where a = 1.5Xp + 1.08Xc Xp + Xc (5) Calculation of the volume of wet combustion gas G = mA0 + 5.6h + 0.70 + 0.'8m + 1.24(W + W') (Nm3/kg) ------- where h, o and n represent respectively the weight in kg of hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen in 1 kg of the fuel. Generally in the refuse incinerators, the air excess coefficient m is large at 2 to 3 so that the terms 5.6h + 0.70 + 0.8n are negligible for G. Then, G = m.Ao+ 1.24(W + W1) (Nm3/kg) where W' represents the moisture added to the combustion gas by water jet cooling (kg/kg), or fW1 = 0 (with boiler), or lw' = (mAo + 1.24w) 0.35 * 500/715 (kg/Kg) = 0.245 (mAo + 1.24w) (6) Determination of HC1 concentration (ppm) (wet gas basis) in emission gas See Section 4 "Determination of Hydrogen Chloride, Etc. in Refuse Incinerator Emission Gas." (7) Calculation of HCl emission / q = G x S * 103 x Cup1/106 < q (Nm3/hr) HCl = "o (Reference Table 11) 1A b 64 - ------- Appendix 2 Relationship between the Proportion of PVC in Refuse and the Concentration of HC 1 in Emission Gas With Xp: Content of plastics in dry refuse, y: Content of PVC resin in plastics, z: Percentage by weight of chlorine in PVC, C: Amount of hydrogen chloride per kg of raw refuse (kg-Cl/kg-refuse), Xpy^,: Content of PVC in dry refuse = Xp.y w: Moisture content in raw refuse (kg-water/kg-refuse), „ , 1 - w „ 35.5 + 1 C = 1 x —^— x Xp x y x z x —35~5— Assuming that the plasticizer and stabilizer are included in an amount of about 30 percent, then z = 0. 7 x CI 0.7 x 35.5 C2H3Cl 62.5 C = (1 - w) x Xp x y x 0.7 x 35.5 36.5 62.5 X 35.5 0.7 x 36.5 62.5 x (1 -W) x Xp x y (kg-CL/kg-refuse) The volume of hydrogen chloride at 0°C, 1 atm is 22.4C 0.7 x 22.A 36.5 62.5 x (1 - w) x Xp x y 7.//. 65 - ------- If, S: Amount of incineration of refuse (t/hr), V: Emission gas (Nms/hr) = Gq.S, Go: Emission gas per ton of refuse (Nm3/hr), and Crci: Concentration of hydrogen chloride in emission gas (ppm), S x 1000 X22.4C/36.5 .. end _ __ 10 = 1000 x 0.7 x 22.4 x 6 x S-Xp x y _ 62.5 XU V U w; s^vc = 2.5 X 10® X (1 - w) X ^ = 2.5 x 108 x (1 - w) x V ,xpvc G0 Moisture content in refuse incinerator emission gas, average 15-20% (Vol), or greater where the emission gas cooling by water is made (may be taken at about 20%). o 5000 Nm3 per ton of raw refuse ( " 1 kg ; 5 Nm3) If the moisture content in refuse is assumed at 50%, H2O 0.5 kg 12.5% theoretical (volume of moisture in emission gas) n. u. 66 - ------- Gq (dry basis) = 5000 Nm3 (wet basis) x 0.8 (moisture 20%) « 4000 Nm3 CHCH ' 0,584 10° " 240/A000 " Cmax = 0.584 x 60 * 103:* Cmax = 330.4 x 102 x Cmax Cmax Outlet (wet) Outlet (dry) ' 0.01 ppm a»- 280 ppm 350 ppm < 0.02 11 560 " 700 " -0.03 " 2— 840 " 1050 " HCl emission (qo) = Gq S C , 10 6 HG J- tJibi - ------- Outline of Melt-Reclaim Process at Funabashi Laboratory (from "Technical Report on Melt-Reclaim Process of Plastics Waste") March, 1975 Plastic Waste Management Institute, Japan Technical Committee (Summarized by Toyotsugu Aoyagi) ------- INDEX Page 1. Main purposes of Funabashi Project 1 2. General description of melt-reclaim techniques • 1 2-1 General description of complex melt-reclaim techniques 1 2-2 Selection of systems for Funabashi Project 3. 3. General description of study 5 3-1 Purposes of study . 5 3-2 Funabashi Laboratory 5 3-3 Waste separation practice in Funabashi City 5 4. General description of processes adopted 13 4-1 System No. 1 13 4-2 System No. 2 15 4-3 System No. 3 18 5. Development of applications 26 6. General comments on demonstrations 28 ------- 1. Main purposes of Funabashi Project In our modern society,plastics have been playing an important role in making our daily life more comfortable and convenient. As plastics products prevail, however, percentage of plastics waste in municipal refuse has been increasing year by year, which is now alledged as ojie of the main causes for making waste disposal difficult. Currently, there are three major recycling techniques of plastics waste, i.e. melt- reclaim, pyrolysis and heat recovery through incineration. Funabashi Project dealt with melt-reclaim of municipal plastics waste. Its main purposes'are: (1) to grasp status of plastics waste in household refuse and to determine possibility of separating plastics waste at household level. (2) to demonstrate melt-reclaim technique for separated household plastics waste. (3) to develop applications of the reclaimed plastics. 2. General description of melt-reclaim techniques Melt-reclaim techniques can be classified into two categories. One is to product relatively homogeneous pellets from single kind of industrial plastics waste, such as off-cut scraps and ill-moulded products. This has been in practice in Japan since plastics fabrication started, and accordingly, its techniques and applications,have been established already. Another'is to convert hetrogeneous plastics waste, such as plas- tics waste from households or as mixture of several resins which are generated as industrial plastics waste, into thick plates, blocks, etc. by me It-and-mould process. This is a new field, and is pioneering for solving plastics waste disposal problems. Today, the latter has gained a great attention from concerned fields not only as a solu- tion of disposal problems but also as a practical means to facilitate resource recovery. We called this "complex melt-reclaim" and Funabashi Project concentrated on this new process. 2-1 General description ot complex-melt reclaim techniques There are two moulding systems in melt-reclaim techniques; extrusion moulding and compression moulding. In order to produce plastics products of higher quality, we must have raw material (plastics waste) of constant and uniform composition in terms of its component resins. In order to obtain such raw material of constant and uniform composition, resin separation methods such as gravity separation, electro- static separation and floating separation have been studied simultaneously. (1) Extrusion moulding As shown in Table 1, extrusion moulding are classified into three types. "A" system makes plastics melt by a screw. This "A" system is further classified into two types; one has small L/D ratio and a specially designed screw which has 7. l - ------- large CR, therby self-generating heat of plastics can be utilized; another has a two- stage screw and larger L/D. The former type with shorter cylinder melts larger quantity of plastics at once, however, special consideration should be taken for de- composition of PVC when it is contained. I In "B" system, plastics waste is fed into hopper, then pushed by a plunger or plungers into the melting chamber, where it is heated until all are melted. The melted plastics waste is extruded out by a screw. Since this system requires plastics waste to stay in the melting chamber relatively long time, it is suitable for treating PE, PP, ABS, and etc., which have good thermal stability and of which melting temperature is similar to each other. "C" system consists of about ten cylinders in order to level up capacity of the system. Only one demonstration has been practised so far. Due to relatively poor compatibility between different kinds of plastics, applica- tions of recycled plastics from hetrogenous plastics waste are limited. Products which are provided with feasible physical properties are; thick plates, blocks, bars and stakes. Moulding of these products requires longer cooling time. In order to facilitate cooling efficiency, shower water belt system etc. have been developed. Table 1. Cast Moulding Systems System Pre- treatment Melting Feeding to mould Moulding Products tt * »i A system Crusher Screw type Screw Casting into moulds Die-extrusion Stakes, piles, thick plates, etc. f f 11 B system None * W- Plunger type Screw Casting into moulds 11 IIaII C system Crusher Multi-Plunger type Screw Casting into moulds i r * Usually plastics waste is directly fed into hopper without using crusher. The most popular mouMing system is casting into moulds which are made of 5-10 mm thick steel plates. The extruding pressure for this is relatively low (less than lOkg/cm^), Usually, 10 to 15 moulds are prepared for one extruder. Average capacity of these moulding systems ranges from 200 to 400 kg/hr, although it varies depending on the kinds of plastics waste and shapes of finished products. 7.1.1. - 2 - ------- (2) Compression moulding "D" and "E" systems shown in Table 2 can use the same units used in "A" or "B" system except moulding part. "F" system features higher charge ot inorganic filler up to 70 %, and is able fo produce products of which specific gravity is about 1.5. It is expected, therefore, this system will produce substitutes for concrete products. Table 2. Compression Moulding Systems System Pre-treatment Melting Moulding Reproducts llpv ft D system Crusher Screw type Press Blocks, pallets My-, 1 1 E system No.ne W-Plunger type Press Tool boxes, seed-beds F system Crusher Mixing type with inorganic thermal medium Press Bulk products such as fish-reeves 2-2 Selection of systems for Funabashi Project Because it was the first attempt to recycle municipal plastics waste separated at household level, and we had to demonstrate feasibility of this idea, we had been very careful in selecting the systems to employ. Our principles in selecting appro- priate recycling systems were: (a) one which is considered to be as rational system as possible. (b) one which is free from secondary pollution. Based on these principles, we made hearings on plastics waste recycling machines commercially available at the time. Selected systems were installed at Funabashi Laboratory for demonostration one by one. Systems we made hearings were: Systems 1. (a) system crushing - melting* extrusion - cutting 2. (b) system crushing - washing - gravity separation - drying - mixing - melting • die extrusion 7.1.X-3- ------- 3. (c) system crushing - washing - gravity separation - drying - (pulverlizing) - melting • extrusion 4. (d) system compression - melting-extrusion 5. system crushing - mixing with sludge - melting-extrusion 6. (f) system crushing - melting-extrusion - moulding 7. (g) system heating melting - binding - compression 8. (h) system for producing pavement materials Prior to final selection, we sent some amount of plastics waste collected in Funabashi City to each machine maker of the systems. Test operations with the samples were conducted by each machine maker in the attendance of our staff during October to December 1971. During the tests, we found the followings: i (a) Removal of foreign matters is essential: Even separated, plastics waste collected from households contains about 10 - 20 % of foreign matters such as metals and glass, which can not be fed into usual crusher. Therefore, these foreign matters should be removed prior to crushing. (b) Odor control: Odor control is needed because collected plastics waste is contaminated with residue of beverage and foods. Melt-reclaim of these waste without washing causes odor pollution. Therefore, installment of deordorization or washing unit is required. (c) Uniformity of composition of plastics waste to be melt-reclaimed: Collected plastics waste containes various kinds of resins as well as non- ferrous metals, therefore, any system which has some device to regulate the composition of the waste can stabilize the quality of reproducts. After test being carried with Funabashi plastics waste, we selected three types of machines, namely Systems No. 1, No. 2 and No. 3, which were determined to be appropriate in view of their capacity, operation cost, pollution free features, etc. For example, the features of System No. 3 are as follows: (1) Removal of foreign matters and pulverlization: Foreign matters including glass and metals are removed by air classifier and magnetic separator. Foreign matters which remain even after these treatments are pulverized so as not to cause any trouble in melting nor moulding processe.. (2) Pollution control: Because of that municipal plastics waste is often contaminated with foods residue, etc., odor pollution can be caused in melting process, destroying 7.1. 2. - 4 - ------- 3. (c) system crushing - washing - gravity separation - drying - (pulverlizing) - melting • extrusion 4. (d) system compression - melting * extrusion 5. (e) system crushing - mixing with sludge - melting-extrusion 6. (f) system crushing - melting• extrusion - moulding 7. (g) system heating melting - binding - compression 8. (h) system for producing pavement materials Prior to final selection, we sent some amount of plastics waste collected in Funabashi City to each machine maker of the systems. Test operations with the samples were conducted by each machine maker in the attendance of our staff during October to December 1971. During the tests, we found the followings: (a) Removal of foreign matters is essential: Even separated, plastics waste collected from households contains about 10 - 20 % of foreign matters such as metals and glass, which can not be fed into usual crusher. Therefore, these foreign matters should be removed prior to crushing. (b) Odor control: Odor control is needed because collected plastics waste is contaminated with residue of beverage and foods. Melt-reclaim of these waste without washing causes odor pollution. Therefore, installment of deordorization or washing unit is required. (c) Uniformity of composition of plastics waste to be melt-reclaimed: Collected plastics waste containes various kinds of resins as well as non- ferrous metals, therefore, any system which has some device to regulate the composition of the waste can stabilize the quality of reproducts. After test being carried with Funabashi plastics waste, we selected three types of machines, namely Systems No. 1, No. 2 and No. 3, which were determined to be appropriate in view of their capacity, operation cost, pollution free features, etc. For example, the features of System No. 3 are as follows: (1) Removal of foreign matters and pulverlization: Foreign matters including glass and metals are removed by air classifier and magnetic separator. Foreign matters which remain even after these treatments are pulverized so as not to cause any trouble in melting nor moulding processe.. (2) Pollution control: Because of that municipal plastics waste is often contaminated with foods residue, etc., odor pollution can be caused in melting process, destroying 7.1. 2. - 4 - ------- working conditions and lowering quality of the products. With System No. 3, therefore, washing of plastics waste is conducted before melting process. Waste water treatment is also carried out with activated sludge, and the water is reused thereafter. 3. General description of study 3-1 Purposes of study (1) To determine possibility of plastics waste separation at household level, and to collect data on plastics waste separated. (2) To determine possibility of melt-reclaim techniques for separated house- hold plastics waste, and to identify and solve technical problems. (3) To develop applications of recycled plastics* (4) To confirm effectiveness of pollution control units. (5) To estimate operation cost. 3-2 Funabashi Laboratory Address: 129-1 Tsuboi-cho, Funabashi City, Chiba Pref. Areas of site: 2f085 Buildings: Office (light weight steel structure) 72 Laboratory (light weight steel & slate) 360 m^ Storage (wooden structure / concrete floor) 108 Storage (wooden structure) 288 3-3 Waste separation practice in Funabashi City Funabashi City had been practising waste separation of the non-combustibles (including plastics) and the combustibles: the former was landfilled and the latter incinerated. However, due to shortage of landfill site, it was decided to separate plastics waste from either the non-combustibles or the combustibles in certain area. The Sanitation Department of the City, designated a model district of plastics waste separation practice where 30,000 households, approximately one third of the City, are located. All of the separated plastics waste in the model district was transported into Funabashi Laboratory for recycling, which amounted approx. 30 tons/month. -7.1.1.-5- ------- (l) Plastics waste volume in household refuse During the study on plastics waste, we surveyed composition of household refuse which was disposed of at Funabashi Laboratory, landfill sites and incineration plants. Tables 3, 4, 5 and 6 show the results of three surveys conducted through December 1972 to September 1973. According to these results, percentage of plastics waste in household refuse is estimated about 7 % in wet state (W/W), about 9 % in dry state (D/D) and about 4 % for dry-state plastics waste against wet-state household refuse (D/W). It is estimated that 1/2 to 1/3 of these plastics waste had been carried into Funabashi Laboratory. Table 3. Household refuse generated for 4 weeks (wet state) Site for disposal Weight (kg) Weight Percentage (%) Weight per capita per day (g) Incinerator 819,876 80.1 354 Landfill 172,906 16.8 75 Laboratory 30,455 3.1 13 Total 1,023,237 100.0 432 Notes: 1. Percentage of water contained in the household refuse are estimated to be 60 % (incinerators), 30 % (landfills) and 15 % (Laboratory). (Average of measurements made by the Laboratory and Funabashi City Administration for the district concerned.) 2. A family (household) is assumed to consist of 3.6 persons. 3. These surveys are conducted over household refuse generated from 23,000 households in an apartment-residential area. 4. Figures show average values of three surveys, each survey is made for 4 weeks. Three surveys have been done in December 1972 and May & September, 1973. ------- Figure 1. Breakdowns of waste generated for 4 weeks from 23,000 households (wet state, W/W) (Figures are average values deducted from three purveys conducted in December 1972 and May and September, 1973.) Laboratory 3.67 % Laboratory 2.37 % "7. /. Z - 7 - ------- Table 4. Percentage and volume of plastics waste (wet state, W/W) Site lor disposal (A) Weight percentage of plastics wa.ste contained in collected refuse (%) Incinerator 4.58 37,516 53.5 3.67 16.2 Landfill 4.73 8,174 11.7 0.80 3.5 Laboratory 80.00 24,364 34.8 2.37 10.7 Total 70,054 100.0 6.84 30.4 Notes: 1. Weight of plastics waste (a) is calculated by multiplying weight values shown in Table 3 by weight percentage of plastics waste (A). 2. Weight percentage in the total refuse (c) is calculated by dividing weight of plastics waste (a) by total weight of refuse shown in Table 3. Table 5. Refuse volume and plastics waste volume in dry base (D/D) (A) Site for disposal (B) Volume of refuse (C) Volume of plastics waste (a) Weight (kg) (b) Weight per capita per day (g) (c) Weight (kg) (d) Weight percentage (%) (e) Weight percentage in the total refuse (%) (f) Weight per capita per day (g) Incinerator 327,951 142 15,001 36.2 3.16 6.5 Landfill 121,034 52 5,724 13.8 1.22 2.5 Laboratory 25,887 11 20,710 50.0 4.36 8.9 Total 474,872 205 41,435 100.0 8.74 17.9 Notes: 1. Weight of refuse (a) is calculated by multiplying weight value shoWn in Table 3 by percentages 40 % (incinerators), 70 % (landfills) and 85 % (Laboratory) respectively — these being supplemental percentages to the content percentages thereof. 7. I. 8 - ------- 2. Weight of plastics waste (c) is calculated by multiplying weight of refuse (a) by percentage of plastics waste shown in Tatjle 4, (A). 3. Weight percentage in the total refuse (e) is calculated by dividing weight of plastics waste (c) by total of weight of refuse (total of (a)). Table 6. Percentage 6f dry state plastics waste in wet state waste (D/W) Site for disposal Weight of wet state refuse (kg) (A) Weight of dry state plastics waste (kg) (B) Dry state plastics waste in wet state refuse (%) (C), — — — -p- Incinerator 819,543 15,001 1.47 Landfill 172,906 5,724 0.56 Laboratory 28,788 20,710 2.03 Total 1,021,237 41,435 4.06 Note: Weight of wet state refuse (A) is transfered from Table 3 and weight of dry state plastics waste (B) from Table 5. (2) Study on composition of separated plastics waste (i) Composition and shapes PE bags were designated as containers for separation and collection of plastics waste. Bags which contain so much of foreign matters like metals, etc. are regarded as abnormal bags, and ones which contain plastics waste only as normal bags. Results of several surveys are shown in Tables 7 and 8. Polyorefins are contained at approx. 60 %. It varies, however, by seasons. Films and bags are contained approx. 50 %. A bag contains 200-1,000 g and average is approx. 500g (The capacity of a bag is 15 litres). (ii) Percentage of abnormal bags and breakdowns of foreign matters Through July to September 1972, we examined percentage of abnormal bags in a collection car for four times. The results are shown in Table 9 and 10. 7. (. 2. ? — o — ------- Table 7. Weight and composition of a normal hag Date of Survey 1972 1973 Average July Aug. Oct. Nov. Nov. Dec. Dec. Feb. Weight of a bag (g) Average Maximum Minimum 459 557 512 501 473 527 443 473 493 900 1,410 1,340 1,390 1,150 1,060 870 920 - 1701- 310 150 170 250 240 110 290 - Plastics (%) LDPE HDPE PP 29.1 27.9 27.8 45.7 33.6 31.3 34.5 35.0 33.1 11.8 11.0 15.3 11.6 10.6 13.2 14.8 17.4 13.2 8.7 6.9 11.5 9.6 5.6 11.4 14.3 11.8 10.0 Sub total (49.6) (45.8) (54.7) (66.9) (49.8) (55.9) (63.6) (64.2) (56.3) PS PVC Thermosettings 18.4 14.2 15.7 11.0 22.4 16.1 12.4 15.7 15.7 13.1 17.8 23.0 14.6 16.8 15.5 17.6 15.3 16.7 6.5 0.0 1.7 0.0 0.3 3.4 1.1 0.0 1.6 Sub total 87.6 77.8 95.0 92.5 89.3 90.9 94.7 95.2 90.3 Foreign matters (%) Rubber, urethane Paper, cloth, wood Shoes Miscellaneous Glass Metals Aluminum 0.0 1.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 4.2 9.5 3.2 4.3 3.4 1.9 1.0 3.0 3.8 0.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 3.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.1 1.3 2.8 v ~ 1.8 2.3 2.8 2.4 0.5 0.0 ~ 6.9 0.0 0.2 0.0 ~ 4.8 0.2 0.0 I" 3.2 0.7 \| 0.6 \| 3.6 0.6 1.1 Sub total 12.4 22.2 5.0 7.5 10.7 9.1 5.3 4.8 9.6 Table 8. Composition of plastics in normal bag by forms rT _ Unit • % Date of Survey 1972 1973 Average Jul. 12 Aug.4 Oct. 6 Nov. 17 Nov. 2 7 Dec.12 Dec.18 Kb.26 Films & Bags 50.7 45.9 53.1 59.8 43.8 47.0 51.4 49.2 50.] Flow mouldings 20.8 5.8 19.9 14.1 21.9 21.2 21.1 20.8 18.2 Vaccum mouldings 9.7 23.9 8.9 10.3 17.3 9.8 10.9 10.3 12.6 Injection mouldings 10.8 6.4 8.9 8.7 10.0 12.6 6.9 11.7 9.5 Others 8.0 18.0 9.2 7.0 6.9 9.4 9.7 8.0 9.5 7. t. a. / o — m — ------- Table 7. Weight and composition of a normal bag Date of Survey 1972 1973 Average July Aug. Oct. Nov. Nov. Dec. Dec. Feb. Weight of a bag (g) Average Maximum Minimum 459 557 512 501 473 527 443 473 493 900 1,410 1,340 1,390 1,150 1,060 870 920 - 170X 310 150 170 250 240 110 290 - Plastics (%) LDPE HDPE PP 29.1 27.9 27.8 45.7 33.6 31.3 34.5 35.0 33.1 11.8 11.0 15.3 11.6 10.6 13.2 14.8 17.4 13.2 8.7 6.9 11.5 9.6 5.6 11.4 14.3 11.8 10.0 Sub total (49.6) (45.8) (54.7) (66.9) (49.8) (55.9) (63.6) (64.2) (56.3) PS PVC Thermosettings 18.4 14.2 15.7 11.0 22.4 16.1 12.4 15.7 15.7 13.1 17.8 23.0 14.6 16.8 15.5 17.6 15.3 16.7 6.5 0.0 1.7 0.0 0.3 3.4 1.1 0.0 1.6 Sub total 87.6 77.8 95.0 92.5 89.3 90.9 94.7 95.2 90.3 Foreign matters (%) Rubber, urethane Paper, cloth, wood Shoes Miscellaneous Glass Metals Aluminum 0.0 1.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.2 4.2 9.5 3.2 4.3 3.4 1.9 1.0 3.0 3.8 0.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 3.9 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.1 1.3 2.8 ~ 1.8 2.3 2.8 2.4 0.5 0.0 „ 6.9 0.0 0.2 0.0 ~ 4.8 0.2 0.0 3.2 0.7 \| 0.6 \| 3.6 0.6 1.1 Sub total 12.4 22.2 5.0 7.5 10.7 9.1 5.3 4.8 9.6 Table 8. Composition of plastics in normal bag by forms ... _ Unit • /q Date of Survey 1972 1973 Average Jul. 12 Aug.4 Oct. 6 Nov. 17 Nov. 2 7 Dec.12 Dec.18 ffeb.26 Films & Bags 50.7 45.9 53.1 59.8 43.8 47.0 51.4 49.2 50.] Flow mouldings 20.8 5.8 19.9 14.1 21.9 21.2 21.1 20.8 18.2 Vaccum mouldings 9.7 23.9 8.9 10.3 17.3 9.8 10.9 10.3 12.6 Injection mouldings 10.8 6.4 8.9 8.7 10.0 12.6 6.9 11.7 9.5 Others 8.0 18.0 9.2 7.0 6.9 9.4 9.7 8.0 9.5 7.1.Z./0 _ in — ------- Table 9. Weight of an abnormal bag removed Unit ' Kg Date of Suryey 19 7 2 Jul.22 (Sat) Aug. 30 (Tue) Sept.4 (Mon) Sept.5 (Tue) (1) Volume of plastics waste 660 800 420 420 per collection car (2) Weight of abnprmal bags J51.7 93.2 45.2 140.9 (3) Bags per collection car 23.0 11.7 10.8 33.5 Average 1.31 1.55 1.00 1.44 (4) Weight per bag Maximum 25.8 3.4 - Minimum - 0.4 - Table 10. Contents of abnormal bags Unit : % Date of Survey 19 7 2 July 22 (Sat) Aug. 30 (Wed) Sept. 5 (Tue) Glass 1.8 26.2 4.7 Metals 6.8 18.5 13.8 Clothes 8.9 8.8 3.8 Paper 3.0 4.5 13.2 Miscellaneous ¦ 47.3 15.8 25.1 Plastics 32.1 26.2 39.3 (3) Summary of surveys (i) Plastics waste generated frpm households Volume of plastics waste approx. 18 g/person/day Volume of plastics waste separated and carried into Laboratory approx. 9 g/pers'on/day (Table 5 ) 7. t.z. n — ii — ------- (ii) Foreign matters contained in the bags for separated waste (metals, glass, paper, food residue and others) J 5 - ,.H) % (Tables 9 and 10) (iii) Composition of separately collected plastics waste in terms ul kind ot resins Polyolefine approx. 50 % PVC 15-20 % Polystylene 15 - 20 % Thermosetting resins less than 10 % (iv) Composition of separately collected plastics waste by forms Films, bags approx. 50 % Moulded products blow moulding approx. 18 % vaccum moulding " 12 % injection moulding " 10 % others " 10 % (v) Bulk specific gravity of the collected bags 0.03/bag Loading capacity of collection cars Collection cars (Funabashi City's trucks) used for collecting separated plastics waste: 2 tons/open trucks Date of surveys: December 1972 May 1973 July 1973 Numbers of cars serveyed: 215 Actual loading for one car: average 360 kg/car range 200 - 600 kg/car 7 ------- 4. General description of processes adopted 4-1 System No. 1 This system was selected as the first system to be installed at Funabashi Laboratory for demonstration for the under mentioned reasons. Conditions of selection (i) Time of delivery should before October 1971 when the Laboratory should start its operation. (ii) The system should melt-reclaim all the municipal plastics waste separately collected without causing secondary pollution. (iii) The system should have following capacity: Outline of demonstration of this system is as follows'. (1) Purposes of demonstration: To demonstrate melt-reclaim of separated household plastics waste with extru- sion moulding system, manufacturing plastics pebbles. We also investigated on making bars and stakes as well as on physical properties thereof. (2) Duration of demonstration: From January 1972 to March 1972. (3) Outline of processes: System No. 1 consists of crushing, melting and moulding, of which flow sheet is shown in Figure 2. (4) Progress of demonstration Because of that foreign matters contained in the collected bags reached 15 % or more, such foreign matters gave considerable damage to cutter of crusher. We had, therefore, to removed abnormal bags and visible foreign matters manually. Magnetic separator was installed later for removing metals. Whein crushed plastics waste contains considerable amount of water, it lowers capacity of extrusion and makes quality of products poor. So, we installed air-drying equipment for blowing off water content. (a) capacity for crushing collected plastics waste (b) capacity for melting crushed plastics waste 700 kg/hr 200 kg/hr — i n ------- Figure 2. Flow sheet of System No. 1 Pneumatic Conveyer 7./.2./Y* ------- (5) Results of demonostration During demonstration, about 80 tons of plastics waste was treated with System No. 1. Results obtained during the demonstration are as follows: (i) With some improvement, System No. 1 can be a practical system for melting plastics waste. (ii) Due to absence 6f washing process, odor occurs in melting process, because plastics waste, as a whole, is usually contaminated with food residue, etc. when it comes from households. It also causes foaming in moulding and leaves foams in the products. (iii) Pebbles produced with this system is porous, of which specific gravity is ¦ about 0.85, so pebbles thus produced float in water. (iv) Due to small CR of screw of the extruder, kneading effect is insufficient which makes physical properties of products poor. (v) Production of bars: Due to insufficient gelation and low extrusion pressure, finished products are subjects to have hollows of 10 - 20 %. Therefore, bars produced with this system can not have enough strength as feasible products. 4-2 System No. 2 This system was selected as the second system to be installed at Funabashi Laboratory for demonstration for the following reason. This system includes specific gravity separation process which enables us to make rationing among various kinds of resins contained in the waste at desired rate, which, in turn, improve physical properties of products. (1) Purposes of demonstration To demonstrate specific gravity separation of crushed plastics waste into three kinds of plastics, which then composed in products at desired ratio. To determine physical properties of pellets and pipes made by extrusion moulding. (2) Duration of demonstration From January 1972 to May 1972. 7. /.1-15- ------- (3) Outline of processes System No. 2 consists of seven processes, namely, crushing, washing, specific gravity separation, drying, mixing, melting and moulding. Designed capacity of this system is 75 kg/hr. In this system, plastics waste is firstly crushed, then washed and forwarded into water-filled vessel where polyolefin come to float. Remaining parts of plastics waste is forwarded into another vessel which is filled with special fluid adjusted to have specific gravity or 1.05 - 1.10, where remaining plastics are seperated into the second group (one which floats) and the third group (one which sinks). Crushed plastics waste thus separated into three groups are then dewatered and mixed at a certain ratio and fed to melting and moulding process. Flow sheet of System No. 2 is shown by Figure 3. (4) Progress of demonstration (i) Every collected bag was opened manually for removing foreign matters prior to crushing plastics waste. (ii) Pellets, pipes, plates, etc. were produced by extrusion moulding. v. (iii) Flower pots and filing cases were produced with injection moulding from the pellets made as (ii) above. (iv) Tests were carried on mixing EVA with the reclaimed pellets for leveling up physical properties of the products thereof. (5) Results of demonstration According to three-months demonstration, System No. 2 was found to be a practical technique for treating plastics waste separated from household refuse. (i) Composition of plastics waste: first group -- 85 %, second group -- about 7.5 % and third group -- 7.5 %. Products made from only the first group materials acquire better external appearance and physical properties than ones made from the other groups. As mixing percentage of the second and the third groups increases, either external appearance or physical.properties become degraded. (ii) Examples of applications: Pipes were used for covers of steel pipes of fish reeves, and plates for roadside guards. "7. /. 2.-16- *------- Figure 3. Flow sheet of System No. 2 Washng Water Treatment Ihjectnn mould rig Pellet Compress on < moutdng ( > Extruson i • mouldng V ^ o o o o o o _ <>o Oo°o WoOoOO ------- 4-3 System No. 3 This system was co-developed by the Institute and a company in Japan aiming at establishment of recycling techniques for municipal plastics waste. Capacity of this system is 200 kg/hci, Manufacturing of this system cost approx. ¥115 million, half of it was financed by the said company and remaining half by subsidy from'a semi-govern- mental organization through the Institute. (1) Purposes of demonstration: (i) Removal of abnormal bags. (ii) Determination of possible range of plastics waste which can be crushed without causing troubles. (iii) Removal of foreign mattery. (iv) Melt-reclaiming (a) Range of plastics waste which can be treated with-this system. (b) Required operation for melting and extrusion. (v) To determine physical properties of the .prpducts. (vi) To develop application fields. (vii) To determine economic feasibility of the system. (viii) To establish pollution control. (ix) To establish melt-reclaim technique for treating municipal plastics waste. (2) Duration of demonstration: From May, 1972 to March, 1973 (some part of demonstration.was contained until March, 1974) (3) Outline of the system: I System No. 3 consists of pre-treatment processes including shredding, magnetic separation, washing, dewatering and pulverizing, as well as of melt-reclaim process including feeding, melt-extrusion, pelletilizing and dewatering. Capacity: Shredding 700 kg/hr Melt-reclaiming of. shredded plastics waste 200 kg/hr Flow sheet of System No. 3 is shown by Figure 4. 7.1.2.- is- ------- Figure 4 Flow sheet of System No. 3 Drymg is/ i h* NO I Plastc Water Crushrg Pacing Oranage ) Waste Water Treatment** ------- (i) Pre-treatment processes (a) As mentioned before, substantial amount of foreign matters are found in the collected PE bags, therefore, abnormal bags which seemed to con- tain foreign matters are removed by hands prior to feeding them into the shredder. (b) As shredder is shear-shredding system with shear-blades of low rotat- ing speed, noise can be controled satisfactory low level. This shredder can shred cans and bottles if not much amount of these be fed at a time. (c) Prior to secondary crushing, shredded plastics waste is forwarded into air classifier where heavy foreign matters such as shredded metals and glass can be removed. This air-classification aimed to highten plastics content as well as to protect secondary crusher from the hard materials. (d) Ferrous metals mixed with shredded plastics waste are removed by magnetic separator. (e) Washing: plastics waste is washed to clean up adhering foods, oil, etc. This is effective for preventing odor and foaming in finished products. (f) Waste water treatment: waste water is treated with activated sludge and chemical precipitator. Treated water is recycled into the system. (g) Dewatering: secondarily crushed plastics waste is forwarded into centrifigural dewatering machine. (h) Pulverizing: Turbo mill having high rotating speed is set, which con- ducts impact-shear pulverization. Thermosetting resins, cellophane, aluminum foil, etc. in the plastics waste are powderlized and used as filler in products. Heat produced by the mechanical energy at the pulverizor is functioning for drying. (ii) Melt-reclaiming process Extrusion moulding system is used for producing pellets and drain pipes from pulverized plastics waste. Hot cutter and direct casting method are used for such products. (a) As pulverized plastics waste usually contains 1-3 % of water, vent system is used for eliminating vaporized water. (b) Due to small specific gravity of pulverized plastics waste, its feeding into extruder can not be conducted smoothly, therefore, CR of the first melting chamber is increased. (c) In order to prevent temperature in cylinder from rising higher, blower is equipped on a part of cylinder. 7./. -20- I ------- Pre-treatment processes (a) As mentioned before, substantial amount of foreign matters are found in the collected PE bags, therefore, abnormal bags which seemed to con- tain foreign matters are removed by hands prior to feeding them into the shredder. i 1 (b) As shredder is shear-shredding system with shear-blades of low rotat- ing speed, noise can be controled satisfactory low level. This shredder can shred cans and bottles if not much amount of these be fed at a time. (c) Prior to secondary crushing, shredded plastics waste is forwarded into air classifier where heavy foreign matters such as shredded metals and glass can be removed. This air-classification aimed to highten plastics content as well as to protect secondary crusher from the hard materials. (d) Ferrous metals mixed with shredded plastics waste are removed by magnetic separator. (e) Washing: plastics waste is washed to clean up adhering foods, oil, etc. This is effective for preventing odor and foaming in finished products. (f) Waste water treatment: waste water is treated with activated sludge and chemical precipitator. Treated water is recycled into the system. (g) Dewatering: secondarily crushed plastics waste is forwarded into centrifigural dewatering machine. (h) Pulverizing: Turbo mill having high rotating speed is set, which con- ducts impact-shear pulverization. Thermosetting resins, cellophane, aluminum foil, etc. in the plastics waste are powderlized and used as filler in products. Heat produced by the mechanical energy at the pulverizor is functioning for drying. Melt-reclaiming process Extrusion moulding system is used for producing pellets and drain pipes from pulverized plastics waste. Hot cutter and direct casting method are used for such products. (a) As pulverized plastics waste usually contains 1-3 % of water, vent system is used for eliminating vaporized water. (b) Due to small specific gravity of pulverized plastics waste, its feeding into extruder can not be conducted smoothly, therefore, CR of the first melting chamber is increased. (c) In order to prevent temperature in cylinder from rising higher, blower is equipped on a part of cylinder. 7./. -20- ------- (d) Considering composition of plastics waste, hot-cut system (water cooling) was adopted for producing pellets. (4) Progress of demonstration Demonstration was concentrated on the following subjects: (i) To examine composition of plastics waste. (ii) To investigate possibility of establishing automatic feeding system of collected bags. (iii) To mould pellets and drain pipes by extruder. (iv) To mould flower pots by injection moulding system. (v) To demonstrate continuous operation. In addition to the above subjects, the following points were checked as such checking are required for operation maintenance. (vi) To determine effectiveness of washing of plastics waste. (vii) To examine effectiveness of improved facilities. (viii) To examine degree of water of machines. (ix) To establish noise control. (x) To establish techniques for waste water treatment. (xi) To develop applications (a) determination of basic physical properties (b) determination of moulding systems (including extrusion, casting, injection and press). (c) examination of appropriate additives for improving physical properties (d) development of appropriate applications (5) Results of demonostration (i) As automatic feeding of collected bags is most desirable in this kind of system, several trials to make automatic feeding.were done. But, because of the undermentioned reasons, we gave up making automatic feeding system, therefore, feeding of plastics waste was conducted manually during demonst- rations. ^ 2.- 21 - ------- (a) Even normal bags varies in their weight, therefore, weight measuring of bags can not be an effective approach to identify which bags contain foreign matters. (b) At collection stage from residential area, several bags were bound together in order to prevent them from being blown away. (ii) Kinds of plastics waste which make crushing difficult: (a) Abnormal bags: bags which contain foreign matters such as metals and glass which give considerable damage to shredder and secondary crusher. (b) Long films (films of moie than 2 m in length, nylon stockings, etc.): these films and others twine round the blades of shredder which cause motor to stop. (c) Foamed polystylene products: these materials are caught in cutter of shredder and cause motor to stop. (d) Rubber and foamed polyurethane: these wastes can be crushed or pulverized, but they can not be melt. After removing these waste, 75 - 80 % of plastics waste originally carried into Laboratory remained and they went through all the processes. (iii) Shredding Designed capacity of shredder is 700 kg/hr. During demonstration, however, shredder was operated at less than 200 kg/hr for making it match with those of other processes in the system. Through demonstration, it was found that efficiency of cutter lowered after using it for 650 - 1,000 hours. After sharpening blades, the cutter was used again. Cutter of the shredder is designed to have suitable structure for catching up and shearing. When large amount of long films and foamed polystylene were fed, the cutter became overloaded. This could be avoid by careful feeding to mixing other kinds of plastics waste with appropriate rate. (iv) Removal of foreign matters In order to remove foreign matters mixed with plastics waste, air classifi- cation for shredder plastics waste and magnetic separation of crushed plastics waste v. ere conducted. (a) Air classification: Air was adjusted to remove a large part of metals and glass. This resulted in loss of 2-5 % of plastics waste originally charged. Small amount of lighter foreign matters remained in plastics side and went to the secondary crusher, which we assumed inevitable. ¦7.1.2. Z.Z. ftn ------- (b) Magnetic separation: After secondary crusher, metals mixed'with plastics waste were removed by magnetic separator. It was found that 1 - 2 % of waste originally charged removed in this stage. Metals shared one fifth of removed waste. (c) Washing: There are two washing stages. One is washer, and another is shower system sprayed on screen conveyor belt which transports crushed plastics waste. As earlier stage of demonstration, detergent was used. However, it was abondoned because no difference from the ones washed without detergent was noted, in physical properties and appearances of the finished products. When large amount of foamed polystylene was charged, water stream lingered and much water was required. (d) Dewatering: Designed capacity of centrifigural dewatering machine is 200 kg/hr. As wire net of the machine is stuffed, dewatering capacity is lowered, then water content of crushed plastics waste increased. Therefore, cleaning up of wire net is required in every 18-20 hours of operation. High rotating speed facilitates dewatering efficiency, therefore, power for dewatering was leveled up from 950 rpm to 1,420 rpm during demonstration. Also, we changed the material of the chute from steel pipe to wire net pipe in order to facilitate effectiveness of dewatering; such chute connecting centrifigural to pulverizer. With these improvements, water content after dewatering was reduced from 30 - 40 % to about 15%. (v) Secondary crushing Secondary crusher is provided with screen of 10 mm Designed capacity of the crusher is about 250 kg/hr. It varies, however, depending on the kinds of plastics waste charged. For example: Household plastics waste 200 - 250 kg/hr Household plastics waste of which films content is removed 350 kg/hr LDPE films only 150 kg/hr or less Due to small bulk specific gravity, as amount of foamed polystylene increases, capacity of crusher is reduced. (vi) Pulverization Designed capacity of pulverizer is 200 kg/hr. Average operation of pulverizer through demonstration was 150 - 200 kg/hr. Results of pulveri- zation (i.e. degrees of finess and water content) affected directly on effici- ency of remaining processes as well as on quality of pellets. The most desirable results of pulverization consists of less than 30 % of 10 mesh-on "7. /^ — ------- and less lhan 2 % of water content. Higher rotating speed enables pulveriz- er to produce finer plastics waste. Power of pulverizer, therefore, wuh leveled up from 2,500 rpm to 2,800 rpm during demonstration. Cutter of pulverizer was considerably defaced by foreign matters and thermosetting resins which made capacity of pulverizer lower. Life span of cutter was lengthened by using blades of which point end was made of super-hard special steel. In order to maintain good conditions of pulverization, temperature of exits part should be kept around 70 - 90°C. If temperature became lower than this, blocking hopper of extruder would occur, while if it became higher than this temperature, adhesion with exit pipes of pulverizer would occur. (vii) Melt-reclaiming (a) Acceptable plastics waste: Plastics waste which is not pulverized well causes bridge at exit part of hopper. Plastics waste which contains higher water content makes this blockage worse, which leads,to internal foaming in the products. (Refer to description of pulverization above.) (b) Feeding: Originally it was planned to store pulverized plastics waste in a tank of 0.5 m^ with an agitator, then to supply certain amount of them to extruder steadily. However it had to be abondoned because bridge was caused at exit part of hopper. Then pulverized plastics waste was directly fed into the hopper of extruder from pre-treatment processes withough intermediate stock. Feeding amount of plastics waste varied to some extent according to the amount pulverized, which in turn affected the extruding amount. (c) Capacity of extruder: Capacity of extruder varied depending1 upon size of pulverized plastics waste and degree of its water content. 1 Making exit part of hopper of extruder bigger, average capacity of 200 kg/hr was maintained at normal operation. (d) Operating conditions for extrusion moulding: When the conditions below listed are gained, reliable products can be produced: 1) Feeding amount: up to 160 kg/hr, screw rotation 50 - 70 rpm 160 - 200 kg/hr, screw rotation 70 - 90 rpm 2) Temperature of extruder: (for both cylinder and dice) 150°C (viii) Pelletizing With hot cut system (with cooling system), troubles such as adhesion between produced pellets or to nozils did not occur. Separation of water from 7. t.Z. 2-Y rt ------- produced pellets could be achieved with centrifigural dewatering machine. For keeping constant operation, sharpening of cutter, replacement of cutter (every 6 months) and every day cleaning up of die should be conducted. Operation hours of pelletizing equipment was 6 hrs/day. Total evaluation (a) Technical points 1) With some improvement, System No. 3 maintained capacity of 200 kg/hr. 2) Produced pellets can be used as raw material for moulded pro- ducts, however, because of that produced pellets consist of hetro- geneous plastics waste as well as foreign matters which remain even after separation practises, its physical properties turn relatively inferior and limit its applications. (b) Economical points 1) Except the part of separating abnormal bags by hands, rationaliza- tion of the system can be achieved. 2) Due to residue of food, oil, etc. adhering to plastics, considerable cost for washing and waste water treatment is required. 3) Due to metals contained, repair cost for equipment, especially for cutter, reaches to considerable level. 4) Due to low physical properties, production of high quality products can not be expected. To sum up these points, System No. 3 can not produce products of which commercial value are high. . (c) Environmental points 1) Waste water: BOD, SS and others can be reduced within standards regulated by the Government, Prefecture and Cities. 2) Waste gas emmited from.vent of extruder: HCL and others can be reduced within standards. 3) Noise: 60 - 70 horns of noise was recprded at the border of the site. Although this level of noise requires appropriate control, such techniques have already been available. "7» /.2-25 - ------- 5. Development of applications We conducted a study of fundamental physical properties, processing tests usin^ various moulding machines, and application development on pellets made l'rom plastics waste separated from household refuse (such pellets hereinafter called "Funabashi pellets"). (1) Fundamental physical properties of Funabashi pellets Funabashi pellets, a mixture of several resins, have a number of problems such as different melting temperature of component resins, the difference in their compati- bilities and gas generated by decomposition during the moulding operation. As to their processing properties, Funabashi pellets have a higher viscosity in processing, requiring higher moulding temperature, which, in turn, to cause coloring and gas generation due to decomposition. Decomposition takes place at over 170°C depending of the construction of moulding machines. (2) External appearance and physical properties of moulded products Extruded products using Funabashi pellets are subject to have rough surface and foamed state. Therefore, they can not be processed with usual method and sophis- cated techniques are required to prevent these phenomena. Consequently, injection, casting, press and other moulding processes using higher moulding pressure are pre- ferable to avoid these phenomena and enhance the product value. Physical properties of moulded products processed by even the above mentioned techniques are inferior to those of virgin resins as shown in Table 11. These relatively poor properties and grey color of the products limit the use of the products . Table 11. Physical properties of products made of Funabashi pellets Sample Tensile strength (kg/mm2) Compression strength (kg/mm2) Bending strength (kg/mm2) Young's modulus (10^ kg/cm2) Funabashi pellets 0.7 - 1.1 1.0 - 1.4 1.0 - 1.5 0.5 LDPE 2.2 - 3.9 2.3 0.7 0.4 - 1.1 Polypropyrene 3.0 - 3.9 3.9 - 5.6 4.2 - 5.6 1.1 - 1.6 High impact polystylene 2.1 - 4.8 2.8 - 6.3 3.5 - 7.0 1.4 - :i.3 Remarks: Test pieces are take from container (396 x 230 x 160 mm) made by compression moulding. 7. i— 26 — ------- (3) Ejctrusion moulding Pipes and plates were produced with die-extrusion moulding at the Funabashi Laboratory. However, as viscosity is very low, highly sophiscated techniques are required for extracting these from die. Extruded products, also, are subject to have rough surface. This can be solved with sizing treatment to some extent, but physical properties are still inferior to those of virgin resins products. When these points are considered, extrusion moulding is not suitable for producing products of which thick- ness is thin. Pipes produced with this moulding were applied for covering steel pipes of fish reeves for preventing corrosion. (4) Injection moulding Because of that produced pellets contain small amount of foreign matters (such as aluminum foils and other metalic pieces, etc.), which make gate of mould blocked when thin products are being produced, it is desirable to make thicker products fo'ir smooth operation. It was also found that higher pressure of injection made fludity higher, which was effective to improve external appearance and physical properties of pro- ducts. Temperature of moulds should be kept higher so as to maintain desirable fludity. Flower pots and filing vessels were produced through demonstrations. Few troubles occured when technical conditions above mentioned were maintained. (5) Cast moulding Drain pipes were produced with £ast moulding where a heat-insulated pipe was connecting the extruder to mould. A big trouble associated with this moulding technique was insufficient adhesion at the welding line which caused cracking along the line, but this trouble was eliminated by adjusting technical conditions of moulding. Physical properties of reproduced pipes proved to be better than that of earthen pipes. Special adhesive was developed to put together two plastics waste-made drain pipes for making long line. (6) Composite moulding with inorganics Composite moulding, in which plastics waste was mixed with heated sand, was developed by a machine maker in Japan. With this moulding, Funabashi pellets were converted into frame-work of fish reef. Since this plastics-waste fish reef is frame- work style, larger fish reef can be constructed than conventional concrete-made ones. Also, bending strength of this fish reef is superior to that of concrete-made one. To sum up these points, it can be said that fish reef is favourable potential application for plastics waste. (7) Examples of Funabashi pellets applications As shown in Tables 1 and 2, several moulding machines are used for moulding 7./.i.Z7 ------- hetrogeneous plastics waste. When Funabashi pellets were moulded with those machines, a few trouble such as gas generation due to decomposition or coloring occured. Some improvement of machines, therefore, should be done so as to make them match with Funabashi pellets. The most preferable systems for processing Funabashi pellets, at present stage, are screw type extruder coupled with cast mould- ing and compression moulding. 6. General comments on demonstrations The followings are general comments deducted from more than two-year's practice of municipal plastics waste separation and melt-reclaiming demonstrations. (1) Plastics waste separation 1) According to the results of separation practice conducted among 23,000 households in Funabashi City, about half of total plastics waste generation in the area had been separately collected. 2) Mixture of foreign matters of up to 10 - 20 % is unavoidable. Therefore, melt-reclaim system to be adopted should be designed so as to meet this conditions. 3) Due to small bulk specific gravity of plastics waste, usual truck can collect only a limited amount at one time. Special collection car should be developed in order to improve efficiency of collection and transportation. 4) For collection bags, used plastics bags available at each household should be used for this purpose. (2) Melt-reclaim techniques 1) It is preferable to feed plastics waste as it is collected, namely, as it is in bags. However, cutter of shredder gets damaged in such feeding method due to foreign matters including metals. Therefore, manual removal of abnormal bags was conducted through demonstration. 2) Installment of air classifier and magnetic separator resulted in reducing percentage of foreign matters in plastics waste, preventing considerable damage at shredder and crusher. Introduction of washing system was also effective for preventing odor and foaming in melting process. 3) Pulverizer was effecu/e to mix fine foreign matters which could not be removed by all means with plastics waste evenly. It also functioned as dryer for pulverized plastics waste. 4) Waste water treatment was effective to reduce BOD and SS of water drained from washing process. Treated water could be reused in the system again. Discharged water could also meet required standards. "7. ------- 5) Vent-type extruder in melting process removed water content still remained in plastics waste and gas generated by decomposition. 6) Technical feasibility was proved through demonstration. Also, recycling of hetrogeneous plastics waste, which was theme of Funabashi project, was achieved by conducting consecutive operation. It was found that drain pipe could be produced by changing only the devices at the end of extruder. 7) Noise control and waste gas treatment, which were conducted as parts of pollution control, met required standard respectively. (3) Applications of products 1) Funabashi pellets can be used for producing various finished products using extrusion, casting, injection, compression and other moulding. Through demonstration, drain pipes, pipes and other moulded products such as bars, stakes, plates and pallets were produced from Funabashi pellets only. Fish reeves was also produced from mixture of Funabashi pellets and heated sand. 2) Due to hetrogenous nature, basic physical properties of Funabashi pellets are much inferior to those of pellets recycled from industrial plastic waste applications of Funabashi pellets are limited and can not be used for produc- ing products of high commercial value. 3) Among finished products produced from Funabashi pellets, fish reeves (mixed with inorganics), drain pipes and flower pots seem to have feasibili- ties. For future possibilities, production of construction materials from mixture of Funabashi pellets and homogeneous pellets recycled from industrial plastics waste should be considered. (4) Production cost 1) As seen from demonstration of System No. 3, process of recycling is forced to be complicated in order to eliminate foreign matters contained. Under present conditions, therefore, production cost is higher than those of in- cineration or landfill, even if scale-up of recycling plant can be achieved. 2) Production cost of plastics waste should be evaluated as a part of long-range national resource recovery policy. 7. /. 2. z? ------- Disposal of Plastics Waste Repporteur: Tadayuki Morishita; Ministry of Health & Welfare Paper presented by Plastic Waste Management Institute, Japan. ------- Disposal of Plastics Waste Rapporteur: Tadayuki Morishita; Ministry of Health & Welfare Paper presented by Plastic Waste Management Institute, Japan* L CURRENT SITUATIONS OF PLASTIC WASTE 1.1 From production to merchandising In 1973, the production quantity of plastics in JAPAN finally upturned and recorded 6,530,000 tons, but this was only a half that of THE UNITED STATES and comparable with that of W. GERMANY. After fall of 1973, the industry had suffered from short supplies because of the oil crisis. But in 1974, the situation had changed suddenly and as of June, the total production has been marked as 3,530,000 tons, which is a slight overproduction. Plastics materials P V C fblyethylene Polypropylene Polystyrene Thermosetting plastics (phenolics, urea, melamine, \| unsalufated polyester) Primary processing Calendering £ Extrusion Tubular film manufacturing Blow molding Injection molding Foam molding Compression molding Products Films, laminated films Sheet Leather cloth Plates Pipes and extruded profiles Bottles and hollow articles Molded products Foamed products Fig. 1 Flow Sheet of Plastics Processing to Merchandising > Lactic acid beverages Sour and tee cream 2 "5 Milk CO c Milk products 9 * Noodle & a s o u. Mayonnaise, ketchup, edible oils, vinegar Soy bean sauce, sauce Alcoholic drinks Other items Detergents Cosmetic items Wearing apparatus pue footwears Stationery items and suddenly goods Agricultural and fishery Other applications * Established in 1971, all producers of polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene and PVC resins have joined and currently continuing their efforts for the development of plastics waste disposal techniques. In the future, activities of a still wider coverage may be necessary in cooperation with all the related industries, city authorities and the National Government. 1.1. 3,i- ------- In Table 1 are shown the source-wise quantities and conditions of waste discharge, while the material-wise quantities are shown in Table 2. The quantities are based 011 the figures lor 1973, however, due lo the difference between 1 he actual results and predictions of production and import, slight adjustments may be necessaiy. Table 1 Waste Discharging Sources Sources Quantity* Discharged conditions Resin producer 11.3 Mostly discharged after classifying by resins, but partially mixed with plant wastes. Industrial Primary processors 15.4 Nearly half is discharged after classifying by resin types as the scrap of processing. The remainder is the mixture of alll resins or mixed with the plant wastes. Agricultural use 8.1 As the agricultural purpose films, mostly discharged after classifying by resins. However, soil and water are contained. Fishery use 3.1 Fishing nets and ropes that are discharged after classify- ing by resin types. Merchandising rout b 22.6 Large containers are partially classified by resin types, but mostly discharged as mixed wastes (plastics content is 3 to 5%), for instance, packaging materials discharged by supermarkets. Manufacturing industry 13.8 Partially discharged after classifying by resin types, but mostly, discharged as mixed wastes of plants by the manufacturing industries. Subtotal 63.0 City Households 94.2 Generally discharged as mixed wastes (a few plastics contained) Other 17.7 Public wastes and discharged as mixed wastes. Subtotal 111.9 Grand total 186.3 7.1. 5,-2- ------- Table 2 Resin-wise Predicted Quantities of Wastes Unit : 10,000 ton Resin 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 Polyvinyl chloride 29.3 27.7 28.7 32.1 35.7 38.5 Polypropylene 15.6 20.2 23.9 28.9 32.4 35.9 LD polyethylene 43.0 51.9 55.3 59.6 63.6 68.1 HD polyethylene 14.3 15.9 19.7 22.3 26.6 29.9 Polystyrene 13.0 17.2 20.3 23.5 27.7 30.5 AS resin 1.1 1.3 1.5 2.0 2.1 2.6 ABS resin 1.9 2.6 3.6 4.6 6.2 8.3 MMA resin 1.3 1.7 2.2 2.7 3.4 4.2 Urethane 1.7 ¦ 2.6 3.1 3.4 3.9 4.5 Melamine resin 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 Phenol resin 3.7 3.6 4.3 5.2 5.8 6.8 Unsaturated polyester 2.7 3.0 3.3 3.8 4.2 4.7 Urea resin 5.5 5.4 5.5 5.5 5.6 5.7 Other 2.2 2.5 3.0 3.4 4.1 4.5 Total 135.8 (100) 156.1 (115) 175.0 (129) 197.4 (145) 222.0 (163) 244.8 (180) Note: Figures in ( ) are indexes with the figure for 1971 as 100. 2. CURRENT DISPOSAL OF PLASTIC WASTE 2.1 Actual conditions of disposal Table 3 shows actual conditions of plastics waste disposal of industrial sources. These are based on the assumption from 1973 to 1974 and they are flexible because of the influences of market trends of the resins. Table 3 Current Situations of Industrial Plastics Waste Disposal City Quantity 10,000 ton Treated by: Share, % Disposition 74.3 Source of discharge 20 Incineration, land filling, regeneration Regenerating contractors 20 Simple regeneration Regenerating and disposition contractors 5 Combined regneration Appointed contractors of industrial wastes disposition 15 Incineration, landfilling Local authorities and others 40 Incineration, landfilling Total 100 7^.3. -3- ------- JAPAN (based on the results of 1972). Plastics wastes of cities have been handled nearly the same manner. But in case of TOKYO and other cities who later adopted the classified collection systems, the percentage of land reclamation has been increased for the classified volume. Table 4 Disposal in 12 Cities City By incineration, % By landfilling, % Population* x 1000 Kawasaki 99.5 0.5 973 Amagasaki 92 8 534 Osaka 63 37 2,980 Sendai 63 37 545 Kyoto 57 43 1,419 Fukuoka 45 55 853 Nagoya 43 57 2,036 Kitakyushu 42 58 1,042 Yokohama 39 61 2,238 Tokyo 29 71 8,841* Kobe 24 76 1,289 Sapporo 16 84 1,010 Average of 12 cities 51 49 * 23 Special Words ** 1970 In JAPAN, it is said that the content of plastics waste is much higher than what is seen in EUROPE and THE U.S. At a symposium of plastics waste management held in TOKYO in 1972, the data were presented by the European delegates and those are shown in Table 5. In JAPAN, the plastics waste amounted to about 1,300,000 tons or 35 grams per head per day in 1970. The mixture rate of plastics is said to be form 8 to 10% in large cities, but if all foreign objects and water are removed, it will be decreased to 5—6%. In this comparison, the city wastes are wet. In JAPAN, the wastes have high water contents and if the comparison is made on dry base, the difference from those of the European countries and THE U.S. will become greater. The quantity of plastics wastes in THE U.S. according to SPI, was 2,700,000 tons (excluding those from the manufacturers and processors) or 37 grams per head per day in 1970. ~M. 3-4 - ------- Table 5 Current Conditions of Plastics Wastes in Foreign Countries (summary of questionnaires) Country Population, 10,000 Plastics production, 10,000 ton Plastics waste, 10,000 ton Plastics waste per head per day, g Solid waste, 10,000 ton Plastics content, % U.K. 5,571 145.8 32.5 12 2,170 15 . France 5,077 151.5 36 24 1,100 3.3* Switzerland 630 7 6.3 30 210 3 W. Germany 6,000 470 65 30 1,750 3-4 Sweden 800 27.7 9.6 30 320 3 * Figure 4.48 is also available. Note: These figures above are for 1970 and are only for reference purpose as the calculating methods for the quantity of wastes are not standardized. 2.1.1 Industrial waste As the "Law of Waste Disposal and Public Cleansing" was enforced, waste disposal by the source enterprises and dealers is making progress. What is particularly noteworthy is the nation-wide development of the business dealing with the regeneration of wastes. Simple recovery of wastes produced by the raw material producers and processors of plastics has been practiced for sometime, but during the last few years the business has developed to manufacture piles and logs for orchards and pastures from wastes delivered by the agricultural, manufacturing and marchandising industries. Though they are not firmly established yet, they indicate future directions to follow. Low grade plastics wastes not suitable for recycling are used for landfill or in- cinerated. Establishment of effective system will be a theme of future studies for those wastes currently disposed of by the sources, dealers and local authorities through dealers. 2.1.2 Domestic wastes Such are the recent movements involving disposal of plastics wastes contained in the city wastes. In JAPAN, due to the lack of suitable sites for landfill, the ratio between incineration and landfill on the nation-wide average basis is 50 to 50. Waste plastics are considered as main causes of the rising furnace temperature, damages to the furnace, emission of toxic gases, and flowing of toxic heavy metals into the drain water and exhausted air. Furthermore, a drop of load bearing capacity of reclaimed land and increased quantity of transportation have also been pointed out. Since these have much to do with the disposal systems of the cities concerned, the quality and quantity of wastes, it is very difficult to draw out conclusions for the degree of responsibility of waste plastics disposal. Nevertheless, only a faint possibility is seen for successful solution. "7- /1 - 5 - ------- being practiced by households since April 1973. In some other cities, the similar practice is being enforced. 2.2 Problems of Disposal Until a few years ago, the simple regeneration of industrial wastes of plastics was considered to be about 10%. Therefore, the total percentage of 25% for the simple and combined regeneration marked recently must be considered as a remarkable progress. But the industries concerned with the combined regeneration have many problems relating to the procurement of raw materials, operation and marketing of regenerated materials. With regard to the disposal by the method other than the regeneration, there seem to be many cases where the solution depends on the local authorities due to difficulties of obtaining the necessary sites or unlawful disposal is done. Plastics wastes mixed in the city wastes are considered by many local authorities as the source of problems for normal disposal, however, nowadays not so many troubles are being pointed out by the actual sites of scavengery as were so one time before. The percentage in the wastes as a whole has not increased recently and there are such opinions in some quarters that the antipollution measures, countermeasures for inhabitants and the mixing of industrial wastes have the problems. 3. DISPOSAL AND REGENERATION TECHNIQUES OF PLASTICS WASTES 3.1 Disposal system Shown in Fig. 2 is a disposal system of plastics wastes. There arc different opinions raised as to whether the plastics wastes contained in the city wastes are sorted or not, but the system is based on the concent that whatever feasible for sorting should be incorporated. Separate treatment Disposal of wastes mixed with city wastes Fig. 2 Disposal System of Plastics "7, /. 3. 6 - ------- 3.2 Technical development and commercial application 3.2.1 Separate treatment of plastics waste Regeneration As shown in Table 6, many regenerating techniques have been developed by many companies and they are about to be applied on commercial scale. Incineration Current situations of commercial scale application of plastics waste incinerators are shown in Table 7. Pyrolysis Shown in Table 8 are examples of development of plastics" waste pyrolysis techniques. But they are not applicable on commercial scale yet. Sorting Mechanical sorting of plastics from the mixture of wastes is being experimented by MITSUBISHI HEAVY INDUSTRIES, EBARA SEISAKUSHO, ISHIKAWAJ1MA HARIMA HEAVY INDUSTRIES and others, but no system that includes disposition of sorted plastics has been developed yet. Notable sorting techniques applicable for the mixture of plastics wastes are, for instance, static electricity technique (SANDEN), floating technique (MITSUI MINING & SMELT- ING and IRIE TECHNICAL RESEARCH), gravity technique (MITSUBISHI HEAVY INDUSTRIES and ISHIK AW A JIM A-HA RIM A HEAVY INDUSTRIES) and other techniques. Except for those wastes of simple components, it seems that the commercial application may take a little more time. ------- Table 6 Plastics Waste Reusing by Melting, Dissolution and Crushing Ssytem Waste for treatment Maker (name of equipment) Treatment techniques Capacity, kg/hr Remarks for commercial application and other notes Melt regene- ration General industrial plastics wastes Nisshin Rika (NEOPLAMER) Nihon Poly Sogyo (PLASTLONPOSER) Melting-extrusion Melting-extrusion - Operated by Tomei Sangyo, Yamaguchi Iron Works, Maruei Jushi and other companies Operated by Fukuoka Poly Kaui and other companies. Fish nests experimental- ly molded by Plastics Waste Management Institute Kikosha (RECLAMAX) Unwashed-mixing and melting with aggregate (sand) 500 Industrial wastes can also be treated. Mitsubishi Petro- chemical (REVERZER) Mel ting-extrusion 500 Operated by Matsumi Haipla, Iwata Yuka, Shin Nihon Sangyo and more than 10 other companies. Nihon Poly Gilien (DISPOSER) Melting-extrusion 500 Operated by Hiroki Sangyo, Sanpo Kogyo. Shinto Sangyo and more than 10 other companies. Toyo Kikai (POAPOSER)* Melting-extrusion 200 Operated by Taiyo Kogyo and Shinko Jushi. Nippon Zeon (SPU Process) Disposal system Todai Seiki (SUTENAIZO) Melting-extrusion 300 Scheduled to be installed by Plastic Wastes Disposition Cooperative Association. Niigata Engineering Melting-extrusion (with sludge) 500 Completed a 10 ton/day (including sludge) plant within its plant site. Kobe Steel (PLASTIC MELTOR) Melting-extrusion 400 Operated by Akashi Kasei and other companies. Okuma Chuzo (PAO Process) Mixed with hot sand to make plastics gravels 1,200 As artificial gravels, tests are currently continued for pavements. ' Agricultural purposes PVC and poly- ethylene films Kanegafuchi Chemical Industry Sekisui Kakoki (PLATILIZER) Hitachi Zosen Melting-press Melting-extrusion Cleaning-melting-pelletiz- ing melting 10 ton/day 200 Operated by Murayama Shoten and other companies. Manufacturing of regenerated pellets. Operated at Kochi Haiplastic Kosha and other companies, (improved version of technique developed by Nihon Jushi Kagaku) Japan Steel Works Clean ing-melting-pellets 200 Pellets or molded products. Operated at San Kasei and other companies. Mitsubishi Petro- chemical (REVERZER) (see above) Chiba Kumiai Haiplastic Kogyo and other companies operate. Niigata Engineering (see above) Tajima Oyo Kako Cleaning-crushing-pelletiz- ing Operated by Saitama-ken Keizai-ren Hensei Center. Dissolu- tion re- genera- tion PS family plastics and industrial wastes Nichireki Chemical Nihon Fukugen Kagaku Nihon Kogai Taisaku Kenkyukai Emulsifying Partially dissolved in waste oil Waste oil + filter + waste plastics. Road paving emulsion (currently used). Simultaneous treatment with sludge. Has a plant at Ushiku, Ibaragi Pref. Crushing and othe Foamed poly styrene, PVC leather and other Sekisui Plastics 1) Cement + gravel FS -»¦ blocks 2) Crushing-Soil con- ditioner Plant ahs been constructed at Tenri, Nara Pref. and operated Kawata Mfg. (Super Crush Mixer) Granulation by shear and self-generated heat. Varied Many application examples. "7. 1.3.8 _ ------- Table 7 Current Uses of Plastics Waste Incinerators Maker Capacity System Application examples Katayose Kogyo Varied Dry distillated gasification system and furnace bed burning system Mitsubishi Petrochemical,Seibu Gum Kagaku, Mitsubishi Electric, Toyo Gum Kogyo, Nishikawa Gum, Sony Chemical, Sumitomo Bakelite and other companies. Tokyo Kiryoku Varied Down draft double burning system Shizuoka-Shi Yoshizu Shokyaku-Jo, Kanto Jidosha Kogyo, Iwate-Ken Shiba-Gun Kankyo Shisetsu Kumiai, Asahi Chemical Industry and other companies. Kubota Varied Gasified burning system Mitsui Toatsu Chemicals, Matsushita Communi- cation Industrial, Fuji Photo Film and other companies. Kurimoto Iron Works Varied Revolving agitation system Nittetsu Kakoki Varied Circulating air stream system Iwatani Sangyo Varied Nissan Motor, Tokyo Shibaura Electric, Sanraku- Ocean, Mutsumi Gosei Jushi, Hitachi arid other companies. Sskihara Netsu Kogyo Varied Furnace bed burning Japan Monopoly Corporation, Showa Denko, Mitsui Toatsu Chemical and other companies. Okumura Kikai Seisaku- sho Varied Furnace bed burqing Nihon Styrene Paper, Tonen Sekiyu Kagaku, Toray Industries, Sekisui Plastics and other companies. Note: For small incinerators, there are many.makers and many application examples. Table 8 Development and Commercial Application Examples of Pyrolysis Techniques for Plastics Maker Treatment system Plastics wastes to be decomposed Products Developing conditions Kawasaki Heavy Industries Poly melting and dry distillation City wastes and industrial wastes Light oil Completed tests of 5 ton/day pilot plant. Sanyo Electric Microwave decomposi- tion-screw decomposition City wastes and industrial wastes Light oil Completed tests of 5 ton/day plant A 3 ton/day plant for PS in operation. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Dry distillation City wastes and industrial wastes Light oil Completed tests of 3 ton/day plant. Mitsui Petrochemical Industries/Mitsui Shipbuilding & Engineer- ing Sumitomo Shipbuilding & Machinery 2-stage decomposition Industrial wastes Light oil In operation Fluidized decomposition City wastes and industrial wastes Light oil Completed tests of 3 ton/day pilot plant. Mixed pyrolysis techniques under development. Japan Gasoline Fluidized decomposition Polyolefin Light oil Under development Hitachi Zosen Fluidized decomposition City wastes and industrial wastes Gas Under development Nichimen Contact decomposition Polyolefin Heavy oil Completedexperi mental model of 1 (one) ton/day plant Toyo Engineering Contract decomposition Polyolefin Heavy oil Under development King Investo Contact decomposition City wastes and industrial wastes Light oil i 1 ' Completed experimental model of capacity. 7./, 5~9- ------- Incineration For those relating to the antipollution problems, that is to say the removal of hydrogen chloride and soot contained in the waste mis and ol heavy metals contained in the waste water, there has been a promising outlook for the technical development achieved by SLilTETSU KAGAKU and other principal makers of incinerators. As a matter of fact, OSAKA PREFECTURAL GOVERNMENT OFFICE has recently remodelled its facilities. With regard to the utilization of waste heat, interesting progresses are seen in many cities though the scales are small yet. But progresses as a whole are much behind those of foreign countries. Recycling as raw materials With the projects of AGENCY OF INDUSTRIAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY as the driving force, developments are seen in the fields of collection, transportation, crushing, sorting, thermal decomposition and utilization of solid wastes contained in the city wastes. 3.3 Future direction It is quite natural that, based on the current situations of plastics wastes currently discharged by many sources, plans must be worked out for the most suitable disposition and recycling to raw materials. In view of the fact that nearly all necessary techniques and systems have been developed already as mentioned above, it is now intended to review the future directions concerned. 1) It is quite agreeable that the regneration must be encouraged from the standpoint of turning the wastes into raw materials, however, if the aim is limited to the plastics wastes of good quality, the progress will also be limited. Therefore, based on the affirmative information on the sources of discharge, it is necessary to make much efforts for confirmation of demands for composite regnerated materials by the governmental organizations and systematized supplying. In this connection, the working group of procurement of demands for regenerated 2) products established within the Plastic Waste Effective Utilization Study Council of MITI is now engaged with the works to compile the current situations and countermeasures. Plastics wastes discharged from single outlet are currently used in most cases and at present it is not possible to expect much from the sorted-out plastics wastes contained in the city wastes luainly for reasons as described below. 2) With regard to the pyrolysis of waste plastics, techniques have been nearly completed to dispose of up to 5 tons daily. But it may take a little more time before commerical application due to the conditions of raw material collection and competition with regenerated products. /• 3^ 10- ------- 3) A great key point lies in the handling of the mixture which contains the whole of city wastes and more than half of the industrial wastes. With regard to mechanical or manual sorting of all or particular plastics, it is necessary to make clear the advantages and disadvantages in connection with the requests of collection raised by the local authorities. To find out the most suitable system based on the comparison of mixed handling and sorted handling would be the work performed by the organizations concerned of the governmental Basis. 4) When the plastics waste is emphasized, the mixed treatment with other wastes and sorted treatment are applicable for the city wastes as shown in Fig. 3. If the quality of sorted plastics is increased, the sorting cost will rise. Furthermore, the remainder of the sorted wastes still contains some plastics and other ingredients may have harmful staffs. From this standpoint, it is generally thought that the below- mentioned relationship may be established. Mixed treatment Mixed incineration — Mixed pyrolysis (Heat utilization) Sorted out plastics treatment Plastics sorting Treatment of sorted- out plastics — Regeneration — Pyrolysis — Incineration Incineration of remainder of sorting (including of remainder plastics) Note: Land reclamation is excluded. Fig. 3 Mixed Treatment and Sorted-out Plastics Treatment Plastics sorting cost + sorted plastics disposition cost > amortization of mixed incinerator — incinerating cost of the remainder from sorting. In connection with the disposal systems of cities and the general project for turning the wastes into raw materials, there will be many developments in the future. Still, it is necessary to accumulate the information that are helpful for deciding the most suitable system considering the city patterns. ------- There have been many progresses and developments during the past year or so, but one tiling to be said here is the National Ciovernment, local authorities and industries concerned must recognize their respective responsibilities for the problems of plastics wastes and without standing against each other but standing on the common platform, utmost efforts must be continued to establish the most suitable system. 7 • /. A12 - ------- Environmental Protection Agency Office of Solid Waste Management Programs A PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF VINYL CHLORIDE EMISSIONS FROM POLYMERIZATION SLUDGES, DURING HANDLING AND LAND DISPOSAL R. A. Markle, R. B. I den, and F. A. Sliemers Battelle, Columbus Laboratories and Alessi D. Otte Environmental Protection Agency Presented at the Third U.S.-Japan Conference on Solid Waste Management, Tokyo, Japan. May 12-14, 1976 ------- Vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) is retained in sludge wastes pro- duced during polyvinyl chloride (PVC) processing at production plant:. Industry is actively investigating processing improvements that may reduce the amount of VCM'in these sludges in the future and is looking at alternate disposal and recycle schemes. However, the PVC sludges currently being disposed of at landfills may still contain sufficient VCM to constitute a potential health hazard when the gaseous VCM escapes. In a preliminary, low-level study done to determine whether a potential threat to the health of landfill workers or nearby resi- dents exists, 17 grab air samples were collected for laboratory analysis of VCM content at three landfills where these sludges were disposed. Samples of the PVC sludges which were disposed at the three landfills also were collected. VCM concentrations in the grab air and sludge samples were measured using the gas chromatographic-flame ionization detection analytical technique. The release rate of VCM from sludge also was measured under controlled laboratory conditions, using a specially designed apparatus. The VCM emissions potential of the total Sludge quantities disposed at these landfills was calculated. INTRODUCTION Early in 1974, it became apparent that there was a real need to establish the level of exposure to VCM of workers in the vinyl chloride/ polyvinyl chloride (VCM/PVC) industry. This need was triggered by reports in January 1974, of the deaths of four workers in the industry believed attributable to VCM exposure. Since that time angiosarcoma of the liver, a rare and fatal tumor, has been identified in at least 7.. I ------- 2 15 workers in U.S. PVC facilities In addition, other forms of cancer, certain nonmalignant liver diseases, and acroosteoiysis, a unique occupational disease, also have been found in workers within the industry (1). Preliminary monitoring of VCM levels in ambient air at a number of VCM/PVC facilities was then carried out by the EPA. Levels ranging from < 0.05 to 33 ppm were found, with about TO percent ^1 ppm (1 to 8 ppm). Integrated 24-hour samples generally contained 1 ppm or less (1). In this same study, measurements of VCM contained in sludge from the polymerization process reactor kettles ranged from ^ 1 to as high as 3520 ppm. It is likely that this VCM is released into the atmosphere at the landfills at varying rates which depend on a number of factors such as the nature of the earth and debris cover under which the sludge is buried, the temperature of the sludge deposit, the thickness of the sludge layer, etc. Both municipal and industrial waste disposal sites of the dump or landfill type are involved in the disposal of these industrial wastes. Thus it was decided by the EPA that a need existed to investigate VCM emissions from PVC sludges and typical disposal sites representing a cross section of climate conditions, disposal methods, and contiguous population densities. Consequently, the present study was initiated as a preliminary, low-level effort, to determine approximate VCM concentrations in landfill air and to perform initial measurements, in the laboratory and under controlled conditions, on the rates at which VCM is released from PVC sludges. 7.2.2- ------- 3 POLYVINYL CHLORIDE PRODUCTION PVC, commonly known as vinyl plastic, is produced from VCM, a colorless, faintly sweet smelling gas. VCM is converted to solid PVC by one of four different'batch polymerization processes. U.S. PVC production for 1974 was about 4.75 billion pounds (2). The processes used and the percentages of total production they represent are listed in Table 1. TABLE 1. PVC PROCESSES — per(:ent Process Polymerization Total PVC Type Medium Production Suspension Water 78 Emulsion Water 12 Buik Monomer 6 Solution Organic Solvent 4 Regardless of the process used, a typical PVC plant includes the following operations: (1) Receiving and storage of VCM and catalysts (2) Polymerization of VCM: measuring, charging, and reaction (3) Stripping and recovery: reactor blowdown and recovery, and slurry handling and storage (4) Centrifugation or filtration (5) Drying (6) Pneumatic conveying and storage (7) Packaging and shipping (8) Blending (9) Waste treatment. 7.Z.3 ------- 4 We are interested here only in those step? (4 and 9) of the PVC production process which result tn by-product wastes fcontaining sus- pended solid matter and VCM. Since most PVC is produced in aqueous media (Table 1) these by-product streams consist basically of water suspensions of fine, particulate PVC containing small amounts of various polymerization processing aids, and dissolved and/or absorbed VCM. It is this entrapped VCM which is of concern in the present study. The aqueous waste streams are treated in various ways at different PVC plants. Basically the processing consists of steps to concentrate the solids content of the waste as much as possible while discharging waste water of acceptable quality to the local water treatment system, or natural outlets such as rivers. The processing includes chemical treatments to coagulate and sediment the solids and physical separation procedures such as large, specially designed settling and concentrating tanks and specialized centrifuging and filtration procedures. The final waste material is a water-based sludge ranging from about 15 to 40 percent solids. Physically, these sludges range from waterlike, thin slurries to thick pastes approximating the consistency of a concrete premix. These PVC sludges are industrial Waste matter which could be used or disposed of in various ways. At the present time most,if not all, of these sludges, are discarded at municipal or privately owned landfills. Typcially, the sludges are transported to the landfill in pressure- s 4 controlled tank trucks or open-bed trucks and dumped into bulldozer- prepared pits or trenches that are 0.6 to 3 or more meters deep. They 7.2. y ------- 5 are then covered with compacted layers of trash and soil to a depth of 0.3 to 1 meter or more. SAMPLE COLLECTION Arrangements At the beginning of this study three PVC plant site/landfill com- binations were selected for sampling purposes. These combinations were chosen to provide good cross-sections of geographical location and climate, PVC plant technology, sludge type, and landfill practice. The protocol established for sample collection included the following steps: (1) Visit to PVC plant by EPA and Battel le personnel (2) Tour of PVC sludge processing, isolation, and storage facilities (3) Observations of PVC sludge collection by waste hauling company (4). Collection of PVC sludge samples for VCM analysis (5) Follow sludge hauling truck to landfill with PVC company and/or hauling company personnel (6) Meet landfill operating personnel and gain access to landfill (7) Collect background air grab sample before PVC sludge disposal (8) Observe PVC sludge disposal practice (9) Collect air and sludge samples during disposal (10) Collect air samples after PVC sludge disposal and coverage (11) Collect air samples at same landfill site approximately 1 day later. 7. 2.4T ------- 6 Air Samples Grab air samples were collected at landfills before, during, and after sludge disposal and coverage, downwind of the known VCM — ft emissions sites. The samples were collected in preevacuated (10 torr at 150 C) 3.5-liter stainless steel cylinders by opening the entrance port at normal breathing levels. The date, time, weather, and wind conditions were recorded for each sample taken. Sludge Samples During this study, samples of the PVC sludges were collected both at the plants and at the landfills. Sludge collections at the landfill were done during the actual disposal operation except at Landfill 1 where sludge was collected both after disposal and after bulldozing and partial coverage. Sludge samples were collected in tightly sealed glass containers to prevent VCM evaporation, returned to the laboratory and stored at 5 C until analysis could be performed. ANALYTICAL METHODS The standard equipment used for VCM analysis irr this study was a gas chromatograph-flame ionization detector (GC-FID) apparatus. Seven crosschecks were performed using a mass spectrometer (MS), with excellent agreement found. Grab air samples were analyzed directly, by injection of air aliquots into the GC-FID or, in one case, the MS. Headspace and liquid phase portions of PVC sludge samples were also analyzed by direct injection into the GC-FID or MS. PVC sludges were routinely analyzed for VCM content by extraction with tetrahydrofuran (THF) and injection of an aliquot of the THF extract into the GC-FID (1). "7. 2. 6 ------- 7 One direct analysis of a PVC sludge sample was also performed using the MS. VCM Concentrations VCM concentrations are expressed in parts of per million (ppm). VCM concentrations in air are based on a volume ratio, or microliters of VCM per liter of air. Thus 1 ppm equals 1 Jjg VCM/LITER OF AIR. However, VCM concentrations in pvc sludges are based on a weight ratio, or micro- grams of VCM per gram of sludge. Thus 1 ppm VCM in sludge equals 1 jug VCM/gram of sludge- Consequently, ppm VCM in air cannot be compared directly with ppm VCM in sludge. However a one-gram sludge sample analyzing 1 ppm VCM will yield 0.391 jul (STP) of VCM gas. Release of the VCM in 2.56 grams of this sludge into 1 liter of air would produce 1 ppm in air. VCM Analysis by GC-FID The ar.clyses were done on a Packard Series 800 gas chromatography instrument using the following conditions: Column - Porapak Q in an 8' x 3/16" stainless steel tubing Temperatures - Column 120 C, Detector 120 C, and Injector 120 C Flows - Nitrogen Carrier 30 ml/minute; A1r 300 ml/minute; Hydrogen 30 ml/minute Electrometer - 500 volts; 1 x 10~^° amps Sar.ple - Hypodermic syringe septa and six way gas sampling valve Injection Detector - Flame ionization The GC was calibrated using commercial (Matheson Gas Co.) standards of VCM in nitrogen, supplied with a certified analysis. These were • reanalyzed in our laboratory by MS. One standard contained 20.5 ppm VCM in nitrogen and the other 0.45 ppm. The 20.5 ppm standard was used routinely for this work. 7. 2. 7 ------- 8 ' In addition, a mixture of saturated and unsaturated hydro- carbons including methane, ethene, acetylene, ethane, propane, propene, isobutane, 1-butene and n-butane was chromatographed. Also individual samples of dichlorodifluoromethane (Freon 12), isobutylene and 1,3-buta- diene were chromatographed separately. The total set of compounds chromatographed and their retention times, in comparison to VCM are ^ listed in Table 2. i TABLE 2. ' RESOLUTION OF VCM FROM '¦ POTENTIAL CONTAMINANTS I Retention I Tine, Compound Formula minutes Me thane ch4 0.6 Ethene C2H4 1.0 Acetylene C2H2 1.0 Ethane c2h6 1.1 Propene C3H6 2.8 Propane C3H8 3.1 Freon 12 CC12F2 3.7 VCM CH2eCHCl 5.7 Isobutane CH(cn3)3. 7.9 1-butene CH2°aiCH2CH2 8.7 Isobutene CH2=C(CTI3)2 8.8 n-butane CH3CH2CH2CH3 9.9 1, '3-butadiene CH2aCHCH»CH2 18.3 Freon 12 and isobutane have the nearest retention times to VCM of the thirteen compounds listed. However, even these two compounds show differences in retention time of 2 minutes or longer, which is a substantial difference resulting in total separation of the elution peaks. VCM Analysis by MS The MS used for the crosscheck of the VCM analyses was a Con- solidated Electrodynamics Corporation Model 21-620, equipped with a ?. 2. % ------- 9 calibrated inlet system specially designed for gas analysis. Inlet sample pressure is measured using a micromanometer. Ionization con- ditions used were 50 volts at 40 mill lamps. Pure VCM was used for calibration so that standardization of the GC and MS were completely independent. Seven MS verification analyses were performed during this study to confirm GC analysis of VCM. These are summarized in Table 3. I TABLE 3. CROSSCHECK VCM ANALYSES BY MS VCM. PPm Sample MS CC-FID " 1, Sludge, Vapor Phase 2,200. 2,700. ... 2, Sludge, Vapor Phase 2,300. 1,900. 3, Landfill Air ¦ 0.05 0,07 ... 4, Sludge, Dry Solids 210. 200. .. 8, Plant Stream Liquid 23,000. 28,000, 9, Plant Stream Vapor 8,600. 8,600. ; 10, Plant Stream Vapor 30.900. 37,400. DISCUSSION In the following sections data obtained on VCM concentrations in air samples and PVC sludge vapor, liquid and solid phases are discussed. Also the results of a very preliminary study of VCM release rates from PVC sludges are discussed. Finally a brief analysis of the VCM emis- sions potential of the sludges is presented. Grab Air Samples The results of laboratory analysis of grab air samples collected at three landfills are listed on the following page in Table 4. 7 Z? ------- 10 VCM concentrations ranging from 0.07 to 1.10 ppm were found at normal breathing levels at three landfills. At Landfill 1, the levels found were relatively low and the spread in concentrations was quite small (0.07 to 0.11 ppm). At Landfill 2 concentrations ranging from 0.13 to 0.49 ppm were found while concentrations found at Landfill 3 ranged from 0.16 to 1.10 ppm. Three important features of these data are noted. First, there appears to be a VCM background level of about 0.1-0.3 ppm in the air at all three landfills. Secondly, instanteous VCM concentrations as high as about 1 ppm are on occasion observed, even as long as 24 hours after the PVC sludge is burled under compacted soil. The third observation concerns an air sample which was collected about 5 cm from a stream of liquid sludge discharging from a truck during landfill disposal. This air sample-was, in effect, "spiked" with extra VCM. The fact that this particular air sample showed an appreciably higher VCM analysis (1.90 ppm) than the other air samples collected at the same landfill provides good indirect proof that the VCM peaks in the chromatographs of landfill air are correctly identified. Sludge Samples The PVC sludges were analyzed to determine VCM contents. The vapor phase (head space) and liquid filtrate portions of the sludge samples were analyzed first. It was determined that the amount of VCM in both these phases was <^10 percent of the total VCM in all seven sludges. In fact the VCM content of these phases was ^ 1 per- cent of the total sludge VCM content with even moderately high total VCM contents (> 200 ppm, dry solids). Thus the amount of VCM in 1. 2.19' ------- 11 \| Al v. j • : Air Sample Number TABLE 4. VCM CONCENTRATIONS IN CRAB AIR SAMPLES TAKEN AT LANDFILLS Collection Information Temp, C Weather Wind Velocity, kph* Sampling Location Controls ! 1 4 5 6 7 8 9 i o 11 12 13 14 15 16 "17 .... Analyst* 14 Vary cloudy 14 Very cloudy 14 Very cloudy 17 Very cloudy, raining 17 Very cloudy, raining 16 Cloudy 16 Cloudy 23 Partly cloudy 23 Partly cloudy 29 Very cloudy 22 Partly cloudy 23 Partly cloudy 23 Partly cloudy 23 Partly cloudy 21 Partly cloudy 26 Partly cloudy 27 Partly cloudy of'laboratory air grab samples Landfill 1 . 0-8 30 meters front disposal site just before sludge dump (date 4/24/75) 08 At leading edge of freshly dumped sludge (4/24/75) 0-8 30 meters from disposal site after dumping and dozing (4/24/75) Landfill 2 5-11 At disposal site before sludge discharge started (6/12/75) 5-11 Edge of sludge pit as soon as discharge is completed (6/12/75) 3-11 At previous days disposal site before fresh discharge (6/13/75) 3-11 About 5 centimeters from sludge discharge stream (6/13/75) 0-8 Edge of sludge pit during second dump (6/13/75) 0-8 Edge of sludge pit during third dump (6/13/75) 8-16 180 meters inside landfill, near sludge disposal area (8/18/75) Landfill ? , 5-11 30 meters from disposal site be- fore sludge discharge (6/24/75) 5-11 Edge of sludge pit between two trucks, while both are dis- charging (6/24/75) 5-11 Same as (12) near the end of bie discharge period (6/24/75) 5-11 30 meters from disposal site after sludge pit is covered (6/24/75) 0-8 Standing over previous days covered disposal site (6/25/75) 0-8 Same as (15) (6/25/75) 0-8 Same as (15) (6/25/75) Wind velocity in kilometers per hour measured with an anemometer. ; t Gas chromatography with flame ionization detector (GC-FID). tt This sample was also analyzed by MS as a crosscheck and 0.05 ppm were found. 7."2- »l ------- 12 these two phases is negligible 1n terms of potential landfill VCM emissions. VCM Contents of Sludge Solids The PVC sludges were filtered and the sludge solids subjected to VCM analysis as described earlier. The results obtained are shown in Table 5. VCM concentrations found in the sludge samples ranged from 7 to 520 ppm in the wet filtered sludge, and from 20 to 1260 ppm on a dry solids basis. These concentrations can be compared with the values found in EPA studies (1) in the spring of 1974 at six PVC plants. In that work, VCM concentrations found ranged from <1 ppm to 3520 ppm in wet sludge and from ------- I 13 TABLE 5. VCH CONCENTRATIONS FOUND IN PVC SLUDGES Weight Percent Solids VCM Coricen tr a t Ion, PVC Sludge As After Vet Dry No. Identification Collected Filtration Sludge Solids Plant I 1 Freshly centrlfuged sludge''' 34 42 150 360 2 Fresh combination sludge++ — 55 210 380 3 Sludge from full truck* 35 41 520 1260 4 Sludge freshly discharcd 34 42 90 200 froa truck? .5 Sludge after disposal and 36 41 90 200 doze . ¦, Plant 2 6 Sludge collected during 17 40 7 20 discharge from truck? Plant 3 7 Sludge collected during 30 60 90 130 discharge from truck/ * VOl analysis of wet (filtrated) sludge by GC-FID analysis of THF extract. Also calculated on a dry solids basis. 360 ppm =• 360 ^g/g = 0.36 mg/g = 0.036 weight percent. + Sludge collected at PVC plant directly from centrifuge discharge tube. +t Sludge collected at PVC plant from partly filled truck loader, x Sludge collected at PVC plant from full truck loader, y Sludge collected during landfill disposal. 7.2.. 13 ------- 14 layer of loam soil was placed over the sludge. A 30 cc/minute air flow was passed over the sludge. This gas flow rate is equivalent to a no wind (calm) day at a landfill (^0.002 kph wind velocity). It is under these conditions that maximum VCM concentrations might be expected to accumulate at landfills. The VCM concentrations are instantaneous values obtained by injecting a 5.28—cc portion of the constantly outflowing air into the GC apparatus. The release rate data collected are plotted in Figure 2. The VCM release curves are similar in form to those recently reported by Berens (3) for dry PVC powders which consisted of a mixture of particle sizes and types including relatively large particles, e.g., 40 yU fused, glassy agglomerates., even though Berens' work was done using very small samples (100 to 500 mg) at very low pressures (0-100 torr). Berens' VCM release rates, initially rapid, slowed dramatically in a few minutes to rates indicating that times on the order of an hour or more would be required for all VCM to be released. This was in contrast to small (4 jj) uniform particle size PVC powder which yielded all absorbed VCM in 1 or 2 minutes. This indicates that the PVC sludges may consist mostly of relatively large PVC particles or fused particle agglomerates. However the slower absolute VCM release rates observed in the present work are probably more due to the relatively thick samples and the very low air flow rate over the sludge surface. The absolute amounts of VCM represented by the curves of Figure 2 were determined by mechanical integration of the areas under the -7.ZJH ------- 15 © Stondby Position O Analysis Position Capped To detector ( -FIGURE 1. VOl RELEASE RATE APPARATUS VCM, ppm FIGURE 2. VCM RELEASE RATE FROM PVC SLUDGE 7. 2. fS ------- 16 curves. This was done by tracing the curves on uniform weight tracing paper. The curve areas were cut out and weighed analytically (+0.1 nig). A reference area was also weighed. The VCM equivalent of a unit weight was calculated by multiplying ordinate VCM concentration in cc vcm/cc air by abcissa values expressed as air volumes (30 cc/min x 60 min/hr x number of hours). Then mg VCM = (cc VCM) (2.556 mg VCM/cc). The^ amounts of VCm found are given in Table 6 expressed as percentages of the total VCM content of the given sludge sample. t TABLE '6. FRACTION OF VCM AVAILABLE IN SLUDGE SAMPLES RELEASED IN SPECIFIED TIME INTERVALS Sludce Percent VCM Released VCM, Time Interval, hr Run Grams Dg 2 8 .24 110 I 13.6 2.86 5 16 25 32 2 13.3* 2.79 2 5 8 11 * 1.3 ca loam soil cover. The results obtained indicate that a minor portion of the VCM in PVC sludge may be quickly released at the landfill but that a major portion of the VCM is released very slowly over a long time period. This means that as PVC sludge is disposed, absolute amounts of VCM will probably continue to rise for a long, indeterminate period until a "quasi-steady-state condition" is reached. At this point continuous, slow evolution of VCM will proably occur for a long time after sludge is no longer disposed of at the landfill. This conclusion is con- sistent with the finding that a VCM air concentration in the range of 0.1 to 0-.3 ppm was found at each landfill. ~f. z. IL ------- 17 VCM Emissions Potential: The VCM emissions potential of the PVC sludges was calculated based on the VCM concentrations in Table 5 and data supplied by the PVC companies on the amounts of PVC,sludge being disposed of at the landfills. Theresults of these calculations are shown in Table 7. TABLE 7. POTENTIAL VCM EMISSIONS FROM LANDFILLS BASED ON COMPANY SUPPLIED PVC SLUDGE DISPOSAL RATES AND ANALYTICAL VCM CONTENTS PVC wninrjtg Dry Sludge Dry Solids Sludge VCJt, PVC Disposal VCM Daily Sludge Rate, Content, Disposal Rate Number kg/day mg/kg kg liter- Plant 1 3 4,626 0.00126 5.83 2,285 4 4,490 0.00020 0.90 353 Plant 2 6 2,948* 0.00002 0.059 23 172+' Plant 3 7 0.00013 0.022 9 * (kg VCM)(103)(24.5 l/mole)/(62.5 g/mole). + Company supplied figure - 35,000 gal/wk. Dry Bolids based on 159,110 L/wk and 1.1 kg/liter. ++ Company supplied figure - 4,000 gal/mo.' Dry solids based on 18,184 L/wk and 1.1 kg/liter. 7.1.17 ------- 18 The amounts of VCM being disposed of at the landfills thus varies between 0.022 and 5.83 kg or 9 and 2,285 liters on a per day basis. However, it is pertinent to note that industry is actively investigating processing improvements that may reduce the amount of VCM in these sludges in the future and is looking at alternate disposal and recycle schenies. This should help reduce the VCM concentration in sludge in the future. Unless eventual increases in PVC production offset these future decreases in VCM concentrations, it can be anticipated that the total amounts of VCM being disposed of will eventually decline. CONCLUSIONS The following conclusions are indicated by the findings of this study: (1) A background air concentation of about 0.1 to 0.3-ppm appears to be present in air at landfills where PVC sludge has been disposed of for several years. i (2) Instaneous VCM air concentrations on the order of 1.0 ppm can occur at normal breathing heights ( 1.5 meter) above ground level at these landfills as long as 24 hours after PVC sludge deposits are covered. (3) Prevailing landfill air temperatures, and presumably ground temperatures as well, appear to influence VCM release rates. (4) Time-weighted average sampling (15-minute, G-hour, 24-hour) is required to determine whether concentrations of VCM in air that pose a health hazard occur either at the landfills or in adjacent residential or public access areas. 7. 2 /8 ------- 19 REFERENCES (1) "Preliminary Assessment of the Environmental Problems Associated with Vinyl Chloride and Polyvlnychloride", Report on the Activities and Findings of the Vinyl Chloride Task Force, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., September 1974. (2) Carpenter, B. H., "Vinyl Chloride-An Assessment of Emissions Con- trol Techniques and Costs", EPA-650/2-74-097, September 1974. (3) Berens, A. R., "The Diffusion of Vinyl Chloride in Polyvinyl- chloride", Polymer Preprints, 15. (2), 203-208, 1974. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This work was funded by a grant from the Solid and Hazardous Waste Research Division, Environmental Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, Ohio, Mr. Donald A. Oberacker, Project Monitor. 7.i.i9 -------


COLLECTION OF PAPERS
FROM
THIRD JAPAN - UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENTAL CONFERENCE
ON
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Compiled by
H. Lanier Hickman, Jr.
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
June 1976

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09764
INDEX
Subject Matter Page No.
Introduction	i
1. Status Report of.Solid Waste Management
1.1	Japan Paper: Brief Summary and
Up-to-Date Status of Solid Waste
Management in Japan (by Maomi
Yamashita)	1.1.1
1.2	U.S. Paper: Status Report on
Solid Waste Management in the
United States (by H. Lanier
Hickman, Jr.)	1.2.1
2., Environmental Effects of Improper Disposal
of Solid Waste on the Land
2.1	Japan Papers:
2.1.1	Environmental Effects of
Improper Disposal of Solid
Waste on Land (by Sachiho
Naito and Prof. Masataka
Hanashima) 	 2.1.1.1
2.1.2	The Drainage Water Control
Plant (by Yoshinori Maekawa) . . 2.1.2.1
2.2	U.S. Paper: Environmental Effects
of Improper Disposal of Solid Waste
on Land (by Truett V. DeGeare)	2.2.1
3.	Pyrolysis of Solid Waste
3.1	Japan Paper: Pyrolysis of Solid
Waste (by Masakatsu Hiraoka and
Mitsutaka Kawamura) 	 3.1.1
3.2	U.S. Paper: A Review of the Status
of Pyrolysis as a Means of Recovering
Energy from Municipal Solid Waste
(by Steven J. Levy)	3.2.1
4.	Hazardous Waste Treatment and Disposal
Technology
4.1 Japan Papers:
4.1.1 Countermeasure for Disposal
of Industrial Waste Containing
Hazardous Substances (by Tokuji
Murata)	4.1.1.1

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2
Subject Matter (cont.)	Page No. (cont.)
4.1.2 Landfill Disposal ^^ho^ fpr
Hazardous Wastes, Especially
for Chromium Ore Residye^
(by Nubuo Mutoh) . . p	4.1.2.1
4.2 U.S. Paper: Hazardous Wast^e
Management in the U.S. (by '
William San jour)			 . .4.2.1
5.	Improvement of Refuse Collection
5.1	Japan Papers:
5.1.1	Present Situation of
Refuse Collection and
Transportation in Japar}
(by Masaru Tanaka and
Akira Shimazaki) 	 5.1.1.1
5.1.2	Improvement of Refuse
Collection System (by
Mitsuo Moronaga) . . . 	 5.1.2.1
5.1.3	Separate Collection of
Household Refuse in Tokyp
(by Junji Asano and
Hiroshi Miyazawa)	5.1.3.1
5.2	U.S. Paper: Solid Wapte Collection
Systems in the U.S. (by Kenneth A.
Shuster; presented by Truett V.
DeGeare)	5.2.1
6.	Recovery from Post Consumer Wastes
6.1	Japan Paper: Resource Recovery
from Post-Consumer Waste in
Japan (by Kunitoshi Sakurai)	6.1.1
6.2	U.S. Paper: Materials Recovery
from Post-Consumer Solid Waste
(by Steven J. Levy) . . 		6.2.1
7.	Environmental Effects of PVC and VC
7.1 Japan Papers:
7.1.1 Report of the Committee
for Investigation pf £hje
Control of Emission Gas
from Urban Refus^ Incineration
Facilities (by Hirqyt}ki
Sakabe). ............ 7.1.1.1

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3
Subject Matter (cont.)
Page No. (cont.)
7.1.2 Outline of Melt-Reclaim
Process at Funabashi
Laboratory (by Toyotsugu
Aoyagi)	
7.1.2.1
7.1.3 Disposal of Plastics
Waste (by Tadayuki
Morishita) 	
7.1.3.1
7.2 U.S. Paper: A Preliminary
Examination of Vinyl Chloride
Emissions from Polymerization
Sludges During Handling and
Land Disposal by R. A. Markle,
R. B. Iden, F. A. Sliemers,
and Alessi D. Otte; presented
by William Sanjour) 	 7.2.1

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INTRODUCTION
During the weeks of May 10 and 17, 1976/ the U.S. and
Japan participated in the Third Joint Japan - U.S. Govern-
mental Conference on Solid Waste Management. The conference
was a three-day affair in Tokyo followed by 5 days of site
visits in the Tokyo, Yokahama, Kyoto, Kobe, and Osaka areas.
This conference is an outgrowth of decisions made at
the Second U.S. - Japan Ministerial Conference on Pollution
Control held in Washington, D.C. in July 1971. The first
solid waste management conference was held in 1973 in Japan,
and the second was held in Washington, D.C. in 1974.
The earlier conferences were directed at discussions of
the solid waste management policies and practices in each
country. General policy discussions were held in the areas
of legislation, regulation, disposal collection, resource
recovery, and hazardous wastes management. The third
conference was dramatically different in that general policy
discussions were held to a minimum and 6 mini-conferences
of one day each in length on specific solid waste management
technical problems were the major focus of the conference.
Technical specialists devoted 6-8 hours of discussion
on the following 6 areas:
-	Pyrolysis of solid waste
-	Environmental effects of PVC and VC
-	Improved collection systems
-	Environmental effects of improper land disposal
practices
-	Hazardous waste treatment and disposal technology
-	Recovery of post consumer waste
The U.S. delegates to the conference were:
H. Lanier Hickman, Jr.
Director of Operations for
Solid Waste Management Programs
(Delegation Chairman)
Truett V. DeGeare
Chief, Technology Applications Branch
Systems Management Division
i

-------
ii
Steven J. Levy
Sanitary Engineer
Resource Recovery Division
Williain San jour
Chief, Technology Branch
Hazardous Wastes Management Division
This collection includes all papers given at the
conference. They are reproduced as is without any attempt
to improve on the translations or to clarify statements
given.

-------
BRIEF SUMMARY AND UP-TO-DATE STATUS OF SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT IN JAPAN
The Third Japan-l'.S. Conference
on Solid Waste Management
Ministry of Health and Welfare

-------
CONTENTS
Page
1.	History of Administration of Solid Waste Management ...	1
2.	Present Status of Waste Management 	.		2
2.1	General Waste 		2
2.2	Industrial Waste 		12
3.	Fourth Five Year National Program for Waste Treatment ..	20
and Disposal
4.	Problems" Challenging the Solid Waste Management 		29
4.1	Measures for Prevention of Pollutions in Solid 		29
Waste Management
4.2	Harmony of Waste Management Facilities with 		36
Envi rons
4.3	Conversion to Resources and Reuse of Wastes 		39
4.4	Information Management System for Industrial Wastes ..	47

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Brief Summary and Up-to-date Status of Solid Waste
Management in Japan
1. History of Administration on Solid Waste Management
According to the records of the Edo period, a waste pit was provided
in front of Eidai in .1662, with officers appointed specifically for
control of random discard of wastes. Later, early in the Meiji period
when infectious diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever were prevalent,
the waste management was taken up from the standpoint of public health
as it was related to the prevention of/ such diseases with a hygienic
management aimed at. Particularly, with development of the industries
in our country after the Sino-Japanese War, the population tended to
flow into the cities, and such situation posed a problem of environmental
pollution resulting from deposition of wastes in cities. Thus, in 1900,
a "Filth Cleansing Law" was promulgated, and under the law, the waste
management was placed upon the responsibility of the municipalities.
After the Second World War or, more specifically, from about 1949,
the chemical fertilizers had come to be used extensively, while the
living mode in the rural area changed drastically. This resulted in a
sharp decline of the demand for human waste as a fertilizer. On the
other hand, with development of our country, the cities had the structure
changed greatly. To carry out the cleaning scheme conforming to such
new social situation, the Filth Cleansing Law was abolished, and a new
Public Cleansing Law was enacted in 1954.
14 r |

-------
Thereafter, with expansion of the industrial activities in our
country or, more specifically, remarkable development of the coal and
petrochemical industries on one hand and improvement of the standard of
living of the people on the other, the wastes thus emitted have increased
greatly in the quantity and changed in the quality. Particularly, most
of the industrial wastes have come to include hazardous and hardly
manageable substances and caused pollutions. In- view of such situation,
it was intended to drastically revise the Public Cleansing Law for
adequate management of the wastes with the responsibility for management
of industrial wastes placed upon the enterprisers and the area of manage-
ment of ordinary wastes extended over the whole area of jurisdiction of
the respective cities and towns. Thus, a "Waste Disposal and Public
Cleansing Law" was enacted on 18 December 1970 and enforced effective
24 September 1971 with promulgation of the related cabinet and ministerial
ordinances.
2. Present Status of Waste Management
2.1 General Waste
(1) Management of general waste
The wastes are classified largely into the "general waste"
produced as the result of daily living of the people such as human
waste and garbage and the "industrial waste" produced incident to
the business activity such as cinder, sludge, waste oil, waste acid,
waste alkali and waste plastics.
I. i." 2 ~

-------
Tables 2-1 and 2-2 show the status of waste treatment. As
seen, the amount of waste increased at a rate of about 10 percent
annually from 1968, but the rate of Increase declined for the first
time in 1973.
The waste treatment has so far been carried out according to
the principle or method of reducing the volume by incineration and
thus stabilizing the waste then disposing the ash of incineration
for reclamation. As of the end of fiscal 1973, the waste to be
disposed of by incineration constituted about 47.5 percent of the
planned amount of gathering. Hereafter, it will be necessary to
consider any other method of management than incineration such as
utilization of heat produced at the incinerator, composting or
fractional gathering system, and regeneration as a resource of
those wastes which are reusable among the sorted wastes.
It will also be required for treatment of wastes such as gar-
bage and human waste to take all possible measures including removal
of soot in the emission gas and treatment of drainage and thus pre-
vent air, water and other environmental pollutions.
While the management of general waste is carried out as de-
scribed in the foregoing, the form of management varies with the
- cities and towns due to their historical and social differences.
Such management works are divided largely into those carried out
directly by the cities and towns and those by the contractors.
Table 2-3 shows the collection of wastes by the form of work.

-------
(2) Status of general waste treatment facilities
The status of the facilities for treatment of general waste
is shown in Tables 2-4 and 2-5.
At the beginning of fiscal 1974, the waste treatment facilities
numbered 1637 with a total capacity of 105,633 tons of waste per
day or about 12.1 times that of 1960. By the scale, the facilities
with a capacity less than 100 tons/day constitute about 83 percent
of which the batch type is as many as about 97 percent.
The facilities for treatment of bulky refuse are divided mainly
into those crushing the combustible refuse, those compacting the
incombustible refuse and those treating both of these refuse. At
the beginning of fiscal 1974 or April 1974, these facilities totaled
126.
Table 2-6 shows the status of high rate composting facilities
during the past five years. In fiscal 1971, 18 facilities were in
operation, and they tended to decrease year after year to only 8
in 1974, but in 1975 they ceased to decrease, and this should be
noted from the relationship with the reconsideration of high rate
composting facilities.
Now looking the financial support of the government to the
construction of general waste treatment facilities, the appropria-
tion in the general accounts of the government for fiscal 1975, the
last year of the waste treatment program, had the scale suppressed
for restriction of the total demand for public works as in 1974,
i.O -

-------
but for expediting the improvement of living environment, the
subsidies to the local public organizations for construction of the
waste treatment facilities showed a growth of 25 percent against
the previous year with appropriations of ¥3,900,000,000 for human
(o, 0<«7 t>op cO
waste treatment facilities, ¥18,2 Ou, 000,00(7 for refuse treatment
facilities and ¥1,400,000,000 for the other ministries and agencies.
In the plan of financial investments and loans for fiscal 1975,
¥105,000,000,000 was appropriated for the general waste management
works of the local public organizations (32.8 percent increase over
the previous year). It comprises ¥28,200,000,000 for human waste
treatment facilities, ¥74,800,000,000 for refuse treatment facilities
and ¥2,000,000,000 for collection and transport vehicles.
(3) Investigations on general waste management
Investigation and study conducted in 1974:
a.	Study on technical development of waste disposal
In 1974, the investigation on technical development of
waste disposal by reclamation was carried out (1972-1976
project). This included investigation of the change with time
of conditions of refuse in reclaimed land and pursuit of the
technical feasibility of aerobic reclamation promising as a
new method of reclamation.
b.	Study on waste management system for medium and small cities
This study was designed for a measure to resolve the waste
problem which seemed to be fundamental among other problems in
U.5 "

-------
the present day urban society with medium and small cities as
a model and was carried out continuously from 1972. In 1974,
the results of study during the past two years were summarized,
and what was thought to be most important, that is, Waste
Information Management System, was tested, and the feasibility
of application of- the results from the medium and small cities
to the cities of the scale as specified by the cabinet ordinance
was examined.
-

-------
Table 2-1 Status of Refuse Management

1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
Reference
area population
80,592,000
84,694,000
99,127,000
101,037,000
106,645,000
Discharge
per man per day
870 g
909 g
841 g
908 g
891 g
Total discharge of refuse
70,115
100.0
76,998
100.0
83,328
100.0
91,757
100.0
. 95,052
100.0


t/day
%
t/day
%
t/day
%
t/day
%
t/day
%
Volumes
Incineration
35,758
51. 7
42,559
55.3
37,717
45.3
42,604
46.5
45,170
47.5
collec ted











as
Reclamation
24,688
35. 3
25,715
33.5
27,543
33.1
30,587
33.3
32,003
33. 7
planned












High rate
677










1.0
548
0. 7
513
0.6
408
0.4
249
0.3

compos ting






Composting
106
0.1
36
0.0
224
0.2
54
0.1
20
0.0

Feed
102
0.1
96
0.1
42
0.1
32
0.0
23
0.0

Miscellaneous
988
1.4
945
1.2
1,089
0. 3
1,859
2.0
1,582
1.7

Total
62,319
88.9
69,899
90.8
67,128
80.6
75,544
82.3
79,047
83.2
Self disposal
7,706
11.1
7,099
9. 2
16,200
19.4
16,213
17. 7
16,005
16.8
Delivered
direc tly
10
,586
8, 786
22
,767
24
,926
27,186
In and after 1971, the area for which the local public organization is responsible for management
was enlarged.

-------
f
Table 2-2 Flow Chart of Refuse Management (Fiscal 1973, countrywide)
(Unit: ton/day)
Living
system
		
Business system
249
High rate composting

249

-------
Table 2-3 Form of Refuse Collection (10 large cities)
Year
1971
1972
1973
Country^
wide
By cities
and towns
Direct
t/day %
49,824 74.3
t/day %
54,991 72.8
t/day %
54,932 69.5
Contract
11,309 16.8
13,909 18.4
15,545 19.7
By licensed
contractors
5,994 8.9
6,644 8.8
8,570 10.8
Total
67,127 100.0
75,544 100.0
79,047 100.0

-------
Table 2-4 Status of Refuse Treatment Facilities
(Based on the construction work started;
Countrywide total)
Year
Refuse incinerators
Bulky refuse treatment
facilities
Number
Capacity
(t/day)
Number
(units)
Capacity
(t/day)
1965
1,409
20,736
-
-
1970
1,293
53,998
4*
96*
1972
1,473
96,066
-
-
1973
-
-
126*
5,406*
1974
1,645**
110,745**
-
-
* Figures on operation basis.
** Figures as of the end of December, 1974.
hU° -

-------
Table 2-5 Refuse Incinerators by Scale and Type
(As of the end of December, 1974)
Type
Scale^-^
(t/day)
Type
Total
Batch type
Continuous type
19 or less
833
0
833
20 49
493
3
496
50 ^ 99
183
50
233
100 * 199
36
108
144
200 'b 399
8
71
79
400 ^ 799
1
36
37
800 or more
0
9
9
Total
1,604
277
1,881
Table 2-6 Status of High Rate Composting
Facilities
Year
Number of
facilities
Capacity
1971
18
t/day
726
1972
12
456
1973
10
356
1974
8
290
1975
8
290
M.ll -

-------
2.2 Industrial Waste
(1) Status of industrial waste management
Discharge of the industrial waste is estimated, when the
results of surveys conducted independently by the local governments
are accumulated, at about 320,000,000 tons/year throughout the
country as shown in Table 2-7. The largest is the construction
waste materials at 78,300,000 tons or about one-fourth of the whole,
followed by sludge, waste acid and alkali, slag, livestock excre-
tions and livestock carcasses.
Management of the industrial wastes is the responsibility of
the enterprisers who discharge them, while the municipalities are
allowed to manage the industrial wastes along with the general
wastes, and the local governments are allowed to manage the indus-
trial wastes of which a wide range management is required. Thus,
some local governments provide management of the industrial wastes
where it is required for conservation of the living environment,
and other local governments are really conducting the management
works.
The governors are required to determine a plan for management
of industrial wastes in their respective areas of jurisdiction, and
as of 1 March 1976, 33 local governments have such a plan formulated
already. In such management plan, establishmemt of a management
system conforming to the industrial structure in ,the particular
area is intended such as, for example, independent or joint manage-
ment and management by area or by type or line of industry.
I-!" -

-------
The industrial waste management contractors desiring to per-
form the collection, carriage or disposal of industrial waste must
have a permission granted by the governor or the mayor of the city
having a health center installed. The status of such permissions
i9 illustrated in Table 2-7. Further, for installation of an
industrial waste treatment facility, report must be made to the
governor before start of its construction, and the status of such
reports is illustrated in Table 2-8. For such industrial waste
management contractors and installation of industrial waste treat-
ment facilities, a system of loan from the governmental financial
organizations such as Environmental Pollution Control Service
Corporation and Smaller Business Finance Corporation is presented,
and tax benefits are also granted. For improvement of the quality
of industrial waste management contractors, trainings authorized by
minister of Health and Welfare are opened various parts of country.
(2) Study of the problems concerning industrial waste management
For adequate management of the industrial wastes, it is neces-
sary to seek the comments of the circles concerned and take appro-
priate and effective measures. Thus, on 5 November 1973, a "Con-
ference on Industrial Waste Management Problems" was established as
a private council of the Minister of Health and Welfare. The Con-
ference had several meetings to discuss what form would be prefer-
able for the industrial waste management system in the future.
On 13 August 1974, it had an interim report submitted from its
special panels (system panel and engineering panel) on the way of
measures mainly from the academic point of view. Based on such
I.-1.13 -

-------
report, it formulated specific plans and presented a final report
to the Minister on 8 December 1975.
This final report discusses, in essence, the following measures
as a basic direction of management of the industrial wastes:
(1) Restraining the discharge through control of the processes of
generation of industrial wastes; (2) Enclosure of the wastes in the
production system through promotion of regeneration; (3) Executing
an environmental assessment for installation of a new plant; and
(4) Deployment of policies extending over the industrial policies
such as directed toward reduction of the generation of wastes with
respect to the industrial structure in the future.
It discusses further that when the present status of waste
management is looked upon such fundamental direction, the following
measures will be required:
i.	Revision of the legal system concerning the waste manage-
ment,
ii.	Policy directed toward reinforcing the encouraging measures,
iii.	Furtherance of the control function concerning the indus-
trial waste management at the center,
iv.	Improvement of the industrial waste management mechanism
with participation of public organizations at the local
level, and
v.	Expansion of the administrative system.
The report is of significance for the future of the industrial
waste management in our country and will be studied carefully in the
field of administration.
1-4.14 ->

-------
(3) Investigation and study on industrial wastes management
The industrial waste management has now a more or less satis-
factory legal system provided, but actually, it is hardly operated
appropriately. Under such situation, investigations and researches
concerning industrial waste management are carried out for develop-
ment and improvement of the treatment technology and collection of
necessary information to serve for study of countermeasures in the
future (Reference Table 2-10).
M.15 "

-------
Table 2-7 Discharge of Industrial Wastes throughout
the Country (Annual)
Kind of Industrial waste
Annual discharge
(10,000 tons/year)
Proportion
(%)
Cinder and dust
930
2.9
Sludge
5,330
16.6
Waste oil
310
1.1
Waste acid and alkali
5,240
16.4
Waste plastics and
rubber
160
0.5
Wastepaper, chips and
flocks
1,820
5.7
Animal and vegetable
remnants
660
2.1
Livestock waste and
carcasses
4,220
13.2
Metal scrap
810
2.5
Glass and ceramic refuses
220
0.7
Slag
4,440
13.9
Construction waste
materials
7,830
24.4
Total
32,000
100.0
Note 1. Simple total of the discharge in the surveys conducted
by the prefectural governments during the period of 1970
to 1974, the year of survey by the respective governments
being not the same.
Note 2. The wastes are not always classified according to a uni-
form standard. For example, some local governments in-
clude sand in the construction waste materials.
Note 3. The surveys of the local governments include those actual-
ly conducted as well as those estimated from the original
units.
tkl6 -

-------
Table 2-8 Licenses Given to the Industrial Waste Management Agents

Collection
and
carriage
only
Intermediate
treatment
only
Final
disposal
only
Collection,
carriage
and
intermediate
treatment
Collection,
carriage
and final
disposal
Intermediate
treatment
and final
disposal
Collection,
carriage,
intermediate
treatment and
final disposal
Total
31 Aug. 1973
1,783
35
66
145
283
12
74
2,398
31 Mar. 1974
2,731
53
73
221
358
18
71
3,525
1 May 1975
6,066
(150)
80
(5)
91
(4)
381
(18)
548
(3)
35
(4)
114
(6)
7,315
(190)
Note: Parenthesized shows the number of licensed contractors for handling harmful
industrial wastes which is included in the total number. For the licenses
of 190 cases, the actual number of licensed contractors is 97.

-------
444
146
290
451
270
636
88
436
67
5
264
097
Table 2-9 Industrial Waste Treatment Facilities
Installed person
Type of facility
31 Mar. 1974
Enterpriser
Contractor
Autonomous
body
Total
1 May 1975
Enterpriser
Contrac tor
Sludge dehydration facility
979
19
26
1,024
1,373
17
Sludge drying facility
84
94
126
11
Sludge burning facility
176
190
276
12
Waste oil
oil/
water separation facility
329
52
382
377
73
Waste oil burning facility
163
40
203
202
68
Waste acid or alkali neutralization
facility
581
590
630
Waste plastics crushing facility
31
20
51
59
28
Waste plastics burning facility
333
33
370
406
30
Concrete solidifying facility
49
55
52
15
Mercuric sludge roasting facility
Cyanide decomposition facility
Total
195
2,923
197
40
197
3,160
260
3,764
265

-------
Table 2-10 Investigations Conducted at the Ministry
of Health and Welfare Concerning
Industrial Wastes
Year of investigation
Title of the investigation
1972
Investigation on analysis of industrial wastes.
1972 -v- 74
Study for development of the technique of disposal by
burning of the sludge in the industrial waste.
1972 75
Development study of techniques concerning disposal of
wastes by reclamation.
19 72 -v- 74
Study on waste management system in smaller cities.
1973
Study on standardization of the sampling of industrial
wastes containing harmful substances.
1973
Study on discharge, predicted discharge and prospected
disposal of industrial wastes.
1973
Study on analysis of the apportionment of social expense
related to management of industrial wastes.
1973
Study on information management system in the disposal
of industrial wastes.
1973
Study on environment conservation system as related to
final disposal of industrial wastes.
1973
Study on regeneration system of industrial wastes.
1973
Study on existing techniques of industrial wastes.
1973 ^ 75
Study on treatment of industrial wastes on sea.
1974
Investigation and study on Information management and
monitoring system concerning industrial wastes.
1974
Investigation and study on development of the procedures
of classification and survey of the actual condition of
the Industrial wastes.
1974
Investigation and study on the system of carrying out
the management work of industrial works with participa-
tion of the public organizations.
1974
Investigation and study on generation of wastes incident
to manufacture of principal Industrial products.
1974
Investigation and study on the process of generation of
Industrial wastes containing harmful substances.
1974
Investigation and study on development of technology'for
treatment with concrete solidification.
1974
Study on guideline for maintenance and management of
the industrial waste treatment facilities.
1975
Investigation on information management system concerning
the industrial waste treatment facilities.
1975
Investigation and study on development of the industrial
waste integral treatment technology.
l.f." "

-------
3. Fourth Five Year National Program for Waste Treatment and Disposal
To promote the waste management project positively against change
in quantity as well as quality of the waste, the Third National Program
with 1975 as the last year was formulated under the Law for Emergency
Measure for Waste Treatment and Disposal enacted on 23 June 1972.
This program has been carried out in succession to the First Five
Year Program with 1963 as the first year (under the Law for Emergency
Measure for Improvement of the Facilities for Betterment of the Living
Environment) and the Second Five Year Program with 1967 as the first
year (under the Public Cleansing Law).
As shown in Table 3-1, the actual performance is estimated to
achieve the target (work volume as well as work expenditure) of the
Third Five Year Program. But, from the following reasons, it is required
to promote the construction of waste treatment facilities urgently and
systematically. Thus, the Fourth Five Year National program for Waste
Treatment and Disposal is going to be formulated with 1976 as the first
year.
a. General matters
i.	With enlargement of the planned area of treatment by the
municipalities, the planned rate of treatment (proportion
of the population in the planned are^i of treatment to the
total population) is raised.
ii.	For conservation of the living environment, it is required
to make efforts for qualitative improvement of the facility
Us&o -

-------
, with consideration given to the control of air and water
pollution.
Hi. In constructing a facility, it is required for maintain-
ing the living environment and obtaining the consensus
of the local inhabitants to improve the environment in
the vicinity of the facility.
Refuse-disposal
i.	The discharge per man per day will increase in correlation-
ship with the growth1"of 'GNP;
ii.	The design scale of the incinerators_in the former plan
.was.determined in consideration of the settled population,
discharge per man. per day and the rate of operation of the
facility. But, in addition to these factors, it is
required to consider the seasonal change of the refuse
discharge and precedent adjustment capable of coping
with the increased volume of disposal in the future.
iii.	For positive conservation of the environment, it is
required to secure the site of final disposal and expedite
the construction of the disposal facility.
Human waste disposal
i. Construction of the human waste treatment plants has been
carried out in conjunction with the construction of the
sewerage system. But, it is required to construct the

-------
retarded treatment plants with delay of the construction
of sewerage system.
ii. The design scale of the human waste treatment plant in
the former plan was determined by the product of the
settled population and the discharge per man per day at
the time of design. But, in addition to these factors,
it is required to consider the seasonal change of the
waste discharge and adjustment of the l,oad to the treat-
ment plant incident to the increase of the sludge from
individual sewage disposal system.
d. Industrial waste disposal
To prevent the environmental pollution due to the industrial
waste and secure comfortable environment for living, it is required
to continuously encourage the construction of the industrial waste
treatment facilities by the local governments and securing of the
final disposal site.
R22.-

-------
National Program for Waste Treatment and Disposal (Fiscal 1972-1975), Target and Prospect of Performance as of the End of Fiscal 1975
(1) Refuse Management
Classification
Target at the end of fiscal 1975
Remarks
Planned
Prospected
Balance: A Shortage
National population
110,880,000
111,500,000
620,000

Planned management rate
95%
98;
3*

Planned management area population
104,930,000
109,300,000
4,370,000

Mean collection per man per day
1,200 g
1,180 g


Total refuse collection
125,920 t/day
128,430 t/day


Percent of combustible material
832
-


Amount of combustible material
104,513 t/day
-


Incinerator provision rate
90*
-


Amount of incineration
94,062 t/day
59,080 t/day


(Facility coefficient)
(1.18)
(2.0)

59,080 t/day * 120,170 t/day = 50Z
Facility operation rate
85?
5 OX

(1975 Work initiation base)
Incinerator capacity
120,098 t/day
120,170 t/day
72 c/day
In che program, the facility operation rate




had che number of days of operation taken into




account and was assumed as 310 days/365 days ¦» 852.




But, from the result of survey of the actual condi-




tion conducted thereafter, the operation rate is




assumed as 50Z with the seasonal change of discharge




and the allowance of the facility for the future




increase taken Into consideration in addition to the




number of days of operation.
Facility capacity constructed in
48,378 t/day
48,450 t/day
72 t/day

1972-1975

-------
(2) Human Waste Management
Classification
Targe t
at the end of fiscal 1975

Planned
Prospect of
execution
Balance, A Shortage
Remarks
National population
110,880,000
111,50*0,000
620,000

Planned management rate
95%
98*
3%

Planned management area population
104,930,000
109,300,000
4,370,000

Population in use of flush toilet
43,600,000
33,700,000
A9,900,000

/Public sewerage system
30,600,000
19,200,000
fill,400,000

| Community sewerage system
^Individual sewage disposal system
3,040,000
9,960,000
| 14,500,000
1,500,000

Papulation in use of vault type
toilet
61,330,000
- 75,600,000
14,270,-000

Human waste treatment facility
52,'520,000
43,870,000
68,650,000
(72,300 k£/day - 10,880 k£/day) * 1.4 » 43,870,000
I Sewage treatment-plant
8,810,000
4,430,000
A4.380,-000
6,200 k£/day f 1.4 = 4,430^000
^Discard to sea, -forest, etc.
0
27,270,000
27,270,000
-3.,818 kit/day J 1.4 » 27,270,000
(Facility coefficient)
Facility operation rate
O O
• O
i-H
(1.2)
80*
417*
In .the plan, the -operation rate was assumed to be
100Z, but according to the survey of actual -condi-
tion, etc., It Is assumed as 80Z in consideration
of-the seasonal change of discharge and decrease
of the treatment efficiency due to increase of the
rate of admixture of sludge, from individual sewage
disposal system.
Facility capacity constructed in
19 72-1975
11,300 k£/day
18,839 kH/day
7., 5 39 k£/day

-------
Fourth Five Year National Program for Waste Treatment and Disposal
(Draft)
(1)	Long Range View to 1985
In order to prevent the environmental pollution by the wastes,
conserve the comfortable and rich environment for living and thus
contribute to improvement of the public health, ,it is intended, in
the stages of generation and management of the general and industrial
wastes, to regenerate them as a resource as far as practicable and,
at the same time, reduce the generation to smaller amount, make
them harmless and stabilize them, and thus establish an appropriate
system of management.
(2)	Direction of Management
a. For the management of general waste, the following mesasures
will be taken.
(a)	For establishment of the sanitary treatment of refuse
and human waste, expedite construction of the treat-
ment facilities.
(b)	For conservation of the air and water environment,
promote the improvement for higher performance of the
facilities.
(c)	As an environmental measure -in the vicinity of the
facility, promote the environmental improvement works
such as planting and sodding.
L-l. 25 -

-------
(d) In view of the importance of the final disposal,
promote the securing of land for final disposal as
well as construction of the disposal facilities.
(e.) Promote the technical deye^opment concerning the
reuse and management of the wastes, ^nd expedite the
construction of the hi^h rate cpmppst^ng (and other
facilities so far as it is prq£tj.<;^].{e,
b. For management of the indust;rj.al wastes, it is intended,
with care given to conservation of the environment, to con-
vert them to resources as far a^ practicable in the stages
of generation and treatment, apd (also expedite reducing
the amount of generation, making t^em harml^sp and stabi-
lizing them. For such purpose, development of the techniques
concerning the reuse and t^e'gtmept wil}. be prpmoted, while
efforts will be exerted for improving the disposal facil-
ities and securing the land for final disposal. Thus,
through such and other measures, an industrial waste
management system will be established.
Targets of Management
a. For the refuse management, construction of £he facilities
will be carried out so that 90 percent of the domestic ref-
use will be treated by incineratipn by the end of fiscal
1985. Tentatively, however, thp rate of treatment by in-
cineration will be set at 68 percent uT|t^.l tl*e end of
| 4. 26 -

-------
fiscal 1980. On the other hand, the bulky refuse treatment
facilities and the final disposal;facilitiesIwill be pro-
vided.
b.	For the managementyq"f ahumarf iwasteji jthe human -waste treat-
ment facilities will be constructed so that 95 percent of
the waste from vault3typ.e . toilej- i.andi^sludge-.Tfirom individ-
ual sewege disposal! system will be treated at the human
waste treatment facilities., sewage _tr.eatment_plants,_ while
community s„e#erage 'system will be provided.,
c.	For the' management of indjisjtrial wastes, those of the
industrial waste treatment) facilities which are lo be
constructed by the local public organizations and have
specific programs will be realized one aftexj.another.
d.	To achieve this National Program, the financial measures of
the government will, be advanced energetically.
Level of MariageipeTrt
a. Refuse management
Treatment by incineration at the end
of fiscal 1975:	55 percent
Treatment by incineration at the end
of fiscal 1980:	68 percent
Treatment by incineration at the end
of fiscal 1985:	90 percent
1,-1.27

-------
b. Human waste management
Treatment at the facilities by the et*d
of fiscal 1975:	67 percent
Treatment at the facilities by the ^nd
of fiscal 1980:	9£ percent
Treatment at the facilities ^>y t;he end
of fiscal 1985:	(^5 percent)
(5) Work Volume and Required Investment
Classification
Work volume
R^qujred
ifivf¥8tmei}t
Remarks
General waste treat-
ment facilities

(Ira^mon)
9,880

Refuse treatment
facilities
42,000
t/day
7,450

Human waste
treatment
facilities
16,000
kfc/day
2,110

Collection and
transport
vehicles '

320

Industrial waste
treatment facilities

960

Reserve fund

460

Total

11,300

U.28 -

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4. Problems Challenging the Solid Waste Management
4.1 Measures for Prevention of,Pollutions in Solid Waste Management
(1) Disposal by Reclamation
For management and Disposal of solid wastes, various methods
are available. Particularly, as a treatment system, such unit oper-
ation as incineration, crushing or compacting is actually used to-
ward reducing the amount, stabilization or conversion to harmless
form of the waste.
Such a treatment is more or less effective, but there is still
produced a residue which has to be disposed finally, and the final
disposal of such residue must be made into the nature such as earth
or ocean.
For the general waste which the city, town or village is respon-
sible for management, it is subjected, except the liquid waste such
as night soil, to incineration or other treatment and is then, or
directly without such treatment, disposed by reclamation in the in-
land or along the coast.
Thus, for carrying out the waste management work, provision of
the treatment facilities is of course important, but it is more
important to secure the site of reclamation and manage such site
properly. Further, as the reclamation site has the decreasing space
available for disposal with accumulation of the waste year after
year, its securing is an eternal problem for us.
14.29 ~

-------
The reclamation sites now managed by the citie^, towns and
villages are briefly represented in Table 4-1f
The waste comes into contact with the environment in the stage
of treatment such as incineration, but the final point of contact
with the environment is this disposal by reclamatipi^.
Therefore, appropriate disposal by reclamation constitutes a
portion of very high weight among the measures for reducing the load
to the environment by the waste. Here, it involves the gas produc-
tion and other problems, and what is most Important among such prob-
lems is to control the pollution through vat^.
The principle of the prevention of environmental pollution
through water is to reduce the contact of tfye dymped waste with
water to minimum. Leachate water from the reclaimed land is of such
mechanism that it occurs when the reclaimed land has a load of water
in excess of the holding water. To suppress the voljime of leachate
water reduces the load of subsequent waste water treatment.
Specifically, it is important to provide a rainwater djrain ditch
around the reclamation site to prevent the $ntry of rain water over
the outside land into the reclamation site. In the mountainous site
of reclamation, the waste is disposed normally onto the valley, so
that without any preventive measure, all of the rainfall or> the catch-
ment basin of the valley comes into contact with the waste. Therefore,
it is necessary to provide a rain water drain ditch mainly pn the
upstream side and thus cut the rain water on the ups£*eau) IfefoEe it
M.30 -

-------
comes into contact with the dumped waste. Where the reclamation is
finished in the reclamation site, it is important to cover such por-
tion with soil and thus prevent sanitary problems as well as entry
of rain water into the waste.
Usually, however, more or less leachate occurs. Thus, in many
instances, treatment of the leachate water is required in addition
to the foregoing measure.
But, the treatment of leachate water at the reclamation site
has many difficulties involved as compared with the ordinary waste
water treatment.
Such difficulties may be due partly to the fact that there is
no sufficient accumulation of information concerning the leachate
at the reclamation site. But, what matters more than this is that
the characteristics of the leachate water, that is, quantity and
quality changes greatly with time and season. It is obvious that the
property of the leachate water tends to change as the reclamation
waste decomposes with elapse of time. Further, as the leachate
water is caused by the rain water, it is readily thought that the
quantity and quality of leachate water is greatly subject to change.
Presently, it is difficult to say that there is a system
established which is capable of treating waste water the quantity as
well as quality of which changes every day and also with year.
Such system is no doubt required of a function of stability against
change. The quality of the leachate water varies, of course, with the
l"b 1 -

-------
kind of the dumped waste, and in case the waste is of raw refuse,
the leachate water is generally high in BOD and other organic indexes.
Normally, the BOD value tends to decrease year after year, but the
COD value often shows a different pattern from that of BOD. Thus,
in considering a treatment process, it will he an injportant problem
what quality index is to be taken as an objective. Fortunately,
heavy metals are generally of low concentration. But^ now consider-
ing the behavior of a heavy metal in the soil, adsoi^tion and de-
sorption will occur constantly between the soil particles and the
heavy metal ions, thus the heavy metal moving in the soil along with
the movement of ground water (but at a lower speed than that of ground
water), and such point must be noted. For the heavy metals, there
is also a possibility of outflow of the waste containing heavy
metals. It is thus important to prevent the outflow of the waste by
preventing the intrusion of rain water, providing a sufficient cover-
age and installing a revetment. The heavy metal pollution is caused
by a trace of heavy metal. Therefore, in order to see if any pollu-:
tion is occurring, it is important to have the bacl^ground value
investigated before starting the reclamation. Now, back again to
the principle stated at the beginning, it will be the first of all
control measures to select a site where the environmental pollution
due to water is scarcely caused, that is, no spring water and low
level of ground water, provided, of course, such site can be secured.
As stated in the foregoing, there are about 2300 reclamation sites
managed by the cities, towns and villages in the country, but only
a few of them have such measures taken satisfactorily.
U-32 -

-------
Since the prevention of environmental pollutions from the
reclamation sites is very important from the point of view of con-
serving the living environment as discussed above, the Ministry of
Health and Welfare is going to grant government subsidies for the
revetments, rain water drainage facilities and waste water treat-
ment facilities to be provided at the reclamation sites from fiscal
1976.
(2) Refuse Incineration
Incineration is generally performed as a treatment of the solid
general waste, but its load upon the environment is by no means
negligible.
The pollution load incident to incineration includes that by
emission gas upon incineration and that by waste water from the
Incinerators.
What is concerned most in the emission gas is the soot and dust.
They are controlled subject to the rules of Emission Standard under
the Air Pollution Control Law and Standard for Maintenance and
Management of General Waste Treatment Facilities under the Waste
Disposal and Public Cleansing Law. In each facility, equipment for
removal of soot and dust such as electric precipitator, multicyclone,
wet type dust collector, etc. is provided.
With respect to the waste water, organic pollutants and other
harmful substances such as heavy metals are considered. The former
is included mainly in the refuse pit drainage or ash pit drainage.
M33 -

-------
For the ash pit drainage, however, it is possible to reduce the
organic pollutants to a level at which no treatment is required by
reducing the ignition loss in the ash through imprqvement of the
incinerator.
The latter is often included in the ash pit or smoke rinse
drainage as the batteries, pigments, resin stabilizers in the waste
contain cadmium or lead. For prevention of such pollution, it is,
of course, important to improve the waste water treatment facilities.
But, the measure to remove the waste containing sucty harmful sub-
stances from that intended for incineration will be equally effective.
The waste water from the refuse incineration facilities is go-
ing to be subject to the application of the Standard of Effluent under
the Water Pollution Control Law so that it will be required to pro-
vide and improve the waste water treatment facilities.
W.34 -

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Table 4-1 Reclamation Sites
Area
distribu-
tion
Less
than
3000m2
3,000
%
5999m2
6,000
'Xj
9999m2
10,000
%
29,999m2
30,000
%
59,999m2
60,000
'V,
99,999m2
100,000
299,999m2
300,000m2
or more
Not known
Total


897
460
282
394
115
56
43
14
15
2,276

Volume
distribu-
tion
Less 3,000
than ^
3,000m3 5,999m3
6,000
9,999m3
10,000
%
29,999m3
30,000
59,999m3
60,000
99,999m3
100,000
a.
299,999m3
300,000
%
599,999m3
600,000m3
or more
Not
known
Total

345
	%	
331
225
546
243
220
190
83
58
35
2,276

-------
4.2 Harmony of Waste Management Facilities with Environs
For construction of a refuse incinerating facility, the city, town
or village authorities have often been finding a difficulty in determin-
ing the site because of the objection of the local inhabitants.
The local inhabitants object to the construction of ^ refuse inciner-
ating facility as they are afraid of the air pollution and offensive odor
due to the gas emitted from the facility and of the automotive pollution
by the traffic of garbage trucks. But, now considering the circumstances
in our country or, more particularly, the high density of population and
disorderly expansion of the cities by rapid inflow of the population in
and after 1960, it may be said that the construction of incinerating
facility, particularly, in the urban area is in a very difficult situa-
tion.
Thus, when a refuse incinerating facility is to be constructed, it
is, of course, necessary to consider the possible adverse effects of the
air pollution as well as the water pollution, offensive odor and noise
upon the environs. But, what is equally or more important is to provide
as large an area as possible for the site with efforts exerted for planta-
tion and landscaping of the vicinity for harmpny with the environs.
Further, it is important to get rid of the image of ''nuisance facility"
into a facility welcomed by the local inhabitants by, for example, utiliz-
ing the heat generated from the refuse incinerating facility for regional
heating or heated swimming pool.
/-/.36 -

-------
As an example of such facility, the Suginami Cleaning Plant of
Tokyo has a plan to construct a three-storied inhabitant center and a
children's garden and also facilities for recreation of the aged people
and welfare of the disabled persons with the heat of the plant utilized
in the space of about one-third of the compound. Further, in the periph-
eral area of the plant, the public land will be utilized for construc-
tion of a gymnasium, playing ground and park thus developing the vicinity
into a green area.
Examples of reducing the heat of refuse incinerating facility back
to the local area in the form of regional heating, heated swimming pool,
etc. are illustrated in Table 4-2.
37

-------
Table 4-2 Utilization of Heac of Refuse Incinerating Facilities (Based on the construction started as of March 1973)
Incinerating
plant name
Year of completion
Capacity
Heat utilization facility
Self-consumption of heat
Power gener-
ator (kW)
19 71
Under construction
	1976	
150t/24h 2 incinerators
300t/24h 2 incinerators
Iron work complex
Cleaning plant
Regional heating
Mr consumption of heat
Hot water supply to dwell-
ing quarters of the
employees
Heating of the plant
1,400
19 74
150t/24h 3 incinerators
Hot water supply to
Industrial complex
Heating of the plant
1,200
Edogava
K1 ta
Shakujil
Setagaya
Chitose
Ohi
Tamagawa
Koto
I tabashi
1966
1969
1969
1969
1971
1973
1973
1974
1974
200t/24h 3 incinerators
300t/24h 2	incinerators
300t/24h 2	incinerators
300t/24h 3 incinerators
300t/24h 2	Incinerators
300t/24h 4	incinerators
300t/24h 2	incinerators
300t/24h 6	incinerators
300t/24h 4	incinerators
Aged people center
Aged people's home
Aged people's home
Handicapped persons' home
Hall for the aged
Aged people center
Heating of the plant
Hot water supply to dwell-
ing quarters of the
employees
Heating of the plant
1,500
2,500
1,700
2,500
2,000
3,000
3,200
lsogo
Asahi
Konan
Minami Totsuka
-1969
¦ 1973
Under construction
19 76
150t/24h 3 incinerators
I80t/24h 3 incinerators
30Qt/24h l incinerators
500t/24h 3 incinerators
To adjacent sewage plant
Aged people center
Heated swinging pool
Air conditioning of the
plant
Air conditioning of the
plant
Hot water supply to -dwell-
ing quarters of the
employees
2,800
4,950
'Rinko
Shlntachibana
1971
Under construction
1974
200t/24h 3 incinerators
200t/24h 3 incinerators
Heating of the plant
1,300
2,000
Hashloft-shl
1973
75t/24h 2 Incinerators
Heated swimming-pool
Heating of the plant
Under construction
1975
225t/24h 3 incinerators
2,000
Nlshiyodo
Morinomiya
1965
1969
200t/24h 2 incinerators
300t/24h 3 incinerators
Heating of the plant
3,500
To adjacent facilities of
Transportation and Sewage
Bureaus
Karlmojitna
Nlshlgamt
Higashi
1968
1972
Under construction
1974
I50t/24h 3 incinerators
I50t/24h 3 incinerators
230t/24h 3 incinerators
Heated swimming pool
Heating of the plant
Nich lmt-1
150t/24h 3 Incinerators
To sewage facility
Central Market refrigerator
Hearing of the plant
150t/24h J incinerators
Aged people's home
Tropical botanical garden

-------
4.3 Conversion to Resources and Reuse of Wastes
Conversion to resources and reuse of the waste are important not
only from the point of view as a resource problem but from the aspect
of the environmental and cleansing problems. It is pointed out that
such measure has a wide range of effects such as prevention of the
environmental pollution by hazardous substances, reduction of the amount
of wastes to be treated, upkeeping of the treatment facilities, reduction
of the amount of wastes to be disposed of, economy of the pollution
control expense, etc.
Accelerating the conversion to resources and reuse of the wastes
being thus an important problem, an investigation was conducted of the
wastes production in the process of manufacture of principal industrial
products in 1974. As the result, valuable information was obtained for
management or conversion to resources and reuse of the wastes in the
future. Upon such finding, necessary measures will be taken hereafter.
The results of finding are summarized in the following.
(Summary of the Findings)
(1) For the wastes which might be utilized as the industrial raw
materials, recovery and reuse are particularly important from
the point of view of reducing the amount of wastes and protec-
tion of resources.
The paper making, iron and steel and non-ferrous metal industries
have a greater part of the raw materials dependent on the import
from the foreign countries and are apt to produce a large amount
tu 39 -

-------
of wastes during the process of manufacture. Thus, for such
industries, the recovery and r^use axe particularly important
from the points of view of reduction of the wastes and pro- ,
tection of the resources. To effect recovery and reuse, it is
required to es-tablish a recovery system of used paper, scrap
iron or aluminum cans, and for such system, raising of, and
support to, the reusable wastes handling contractors, and pro-
vision of economic conditions including tax, loan and surcharge
systems should be examined.
(2)	For the products containing hazardous substances, the recovery
system must be established from the point of view of environ-
mental pollution control.
For the products containing hazardous substances such as
mercury cell, dry cell, EVC products^ battery, fluorescent lamp
and PCB containing products, it is effective to set up a re-
covery system flowing back the distribution channel and thus
try to control the environmental pollution. It should be noted
here that any measure to control the environmental pollution
by a hazardous substance is not completed unless the flow of
the hazardous industrial raw material is grasped.
(3)	For the durable and other consumer goods, efforts should be
exerted for provision of a recovery system and acceleration of
the regeneration as a resource.
IJ'^0 -

-------
Durable and non-durable mass consumption goods such as electric
refrigerator, washing machine and other domestic electric ap-
pliances, empty cans, fluorescent lamps, glass bottles and
batteries have no recovery nor regeneration as a resource in
progress to any appreciable extent. Thus, efforts should be
exerted for provision of a recovery system and acceleration of
the regeneration as a resource through examination of the re-
strictive technical and economical conditions.
It may be considered that in the enterprises, regeneration as
a resource and effective utilization of the waste materials are
carried out so far as they are profitable. To encourage further
recovery and reuse, development and introduction of a new social
system are required.
As seen in the soda or beer industry, effective utilization of
waste materials is carried out in each plant to such an extent
as it is profitable. Hereafter, it will be difficult to acceler-
ate the regeneration and effective use without development and
introduction of a social system which permits expansion of the
recycle of waste in the respective enterprise to the inter-
enterprise level or the entire industry. The enterprisers may
check the components of the wastes they are going to regenerate
and use but are usually indifferent with the other related
wastes, and such wastes which are not intended for regeneration
and reuse often contain hazardous substances so that due con-
sideration must be given for the management of such wastes.

-------
These problems should first be resolved among other problems
for recovery and reuse of the Industrial prodycts and effective
utilization of limited resources. Sych effective utilization
also serves for economy of the energy resource required for
treatment and disposal of the wastes, and the total energy
resource thus saved will by no means be negligible. Further,
it has an effect of extending the life of the landfill site
the acquisition of which is becoming difficult presently and
is thus valuable from the point of view of conserving the natural
environment.
I I 42 -

-------
Table 4-3 Methods of Recovery for Management, Regeneration as a Resource and Effective Use of Waste, and their Problems.
Classification
Objects
Recovery method
Points to be noted
1. Products threatening environ-
mental pollution by hazardous
substances (Recovery flowing
back the distribution
channel with the consumer
at the starting point).
Mercury cell, fluorescent
lamp, battery, etc.
Products hardly manageable and tending to
cause an environmental pollution when '
disposed of with a Hazardous substance
used are recovered back through the dis-
tribution channel for effective utiliza-
tion with appropriate treatment or separate
management of the hazardous substance.
12 3 4
Material Product Wholesale Consumer
manufac- manufac- and retail
turer turer
12 3 4
n -n n n
{1) Trade-in by the responsibility
of the trade for recovery of
the hazardous substance.
(2) Sharing the expenses for re-
covery, treatment to make
harmless, and separation and
storage.
(3) Study of surcharge system and
trade-in' cost.
(4) That che distribution system
is fixed and established is
advantageous.
(5) That the brands ate mostly
identifiable is also an advan-
tageous point.
(6) Retailers have generally no
space available for storage.
L
LI' Lp U' U
Treatment to make
harmless Separa-
tion and storage
Regeneration for
material
(Note)
Direction of distribution of product.
Direction of flow of waste.
Same in the following.
2. Products threatening environ-
mental pollution by hazardous
substances with PCB contained
(Gathered collectively, then
the parts in use of PCB
removed by the engineers oL
the trade, and recovered
collectively by the reusable
wastes handling contractors).
Color television, monochrome
television, electronic range
and air-conditioner
Products hardly manageable and, when wasted.
Lending to cause an environmental pollution
with a hazardous substance or, more par-
ticularly, PCB used, are gathered collec-
tively or by the cleansing department of
the local autonomy and have the PCB
parts extracted by the responsibility of
the trade, then are recovered collectively
by the reusable wastes handling contractors
(sometimes crushed and landfilled).
(1) Upon an agreement between the
local autonomy and the trade
for recovery of parts In use
of hazardous substances, the
parts in use of PCB are re-
covered by the responsibility
of the trade.
(2) Recovery is carried out col-
lectively or by the local
autonomy at a predetermined
time to a predetermined sire.

-------
Classification
Objects
Recovery method
Points to be noted
1 Material 2 Product 3 Wholesale ^Consumer
manufac- manufac-
turer turer
and retail
5Site specified
by the local
autonomy
9 Harmful
Parts
extracted
(33 Sharing of the expenses for
recovery and removal of
hazardous parts.
6 Regeneration
recovery
con tractor
7 Trade
® Prefecture, city,
town or village
3. Products hardly manageable
but, upon standardization,
permitting reuse with great
usefulness.
Whisky bottles, cosmetics
containers, seasoning
bottles, etc.
For the products which are hardly manage-
able but, upon standardization of the
shape, quality, etc., permits reuse, for
any brands with great usefulness, combina-
tion of the recovery flowing back the dis-
tribution channel with the consumer at the
starting point and the collective gather-
ing is preferable.
12 3 4
« o—1J=Q^0
Reuse
12 3 4
1 D—0"
-Reuse
(1)	Standardize the capacity,
shape, material, color, etc.
to permit use for any brands
and thus improve the useful-
ness (typical is the examples
of beer and Johnnie Walker) .
(2)	Study of guaranty money (as
in the case of a beer) and
trade-in cost.
1	Bottle manufacturer
2	Product manufacturer
3	Wholesale and retail
Consumer
5	Site- specified by PTA, town
association, etc.
6	Reusable wastes handling contractors

-------
Classification
Objects
Recovery method
Points to be noted
4. Products, hardly manageable but
having the additional value
increased by improving the
efficiency of tfansporCation
and recovery (Collective
recovery adapted; hence com-
bination of the back flow re-
covery along the channel of
distribution with the re-
tailers (including vendors)
at the starting point and
the collective Recovery
from a number of gathering
places).
Empty steel cans, empty
aluminum cans, and empty
cans of refreshing drinks.
For such produces which are hardly manage-
able, rather voluminous against the weight,
inconvenient for handling for recovery,
transportation, storage and management and
of low. usefulness because of the dif-
ficulty of reuse, combination of the back
flow recovery along the channel of dis-
tribution with the retailers at the start-
ing point and the collective recovery from
a number of gathering places is desirable.
12 3 4
Carrying trucks of
autonomous body
3' 4
Number of
gathering
places
Can manufacturer
Product manufacturer
Uholeaale and retail
SJholesale and retail (vendor?
Consumer
Site specified by PTA, torn asso-
ciation, etc.
6 Reusable wastes handling contractors
(1)	As the reuse is not enabled,
collective recovery is re-
quired In order to obtain an
additional value by mass
gathering.
(2)	To improve the efficiency of
recovery, transportation,
storage and management, crush-
ing. or compressing at the
point of gathering is required.
(3)	Study of the'-surcharge and
trade-in cost.
(4)	To standardize the material
quality, etc. in considera-
tion of the regenerated
material.
(5)	Any measure which permits
reuse as in the case of
bottles.
(6)	Difficult to acquire the site
of gathering and storage.

-------
Classification
Objects
Recovery method
Points to be noted
5. Cars abandoned on the road as
a material difficult to manage.
(Recovery upon request of the
city, town or village for.
cooperation and by coopera-
tion of the Abandoned Vehicle
Cooperative Association.)
Cars and autobicycles aban-
doned on the road.
Hardly manageable products; For vehicles
(automobiles and autobicycles) aban-
doned on the road, the abandoned vehicles
countermeasure association has them
recovered by the approved recovery con-
tractor upon request of the city* town or
village for cooperation and pays that
portion of the recovery work expense
which exceeds the recovery sale price.
-o—"d "0^ ,
©-s,.o
CD It Is maintained generally
that the vehicles abandoned
on the road are the problem
of moral of the consumers
and-that it is not reasonable
to place the responsibility
upon the industry.
(2)	Study of the surcharge and
trade-in cost.
(3)	Abandoned Vehicles Counter-
measure Association was
established in May 1974, and
thus the self-recovery system
was provided.
(4)	Any person who abandons a
disused car on the road
should be punished strictly.
1	Material manufacturer
2	Product manufacturer
3	Wholesale and retail
4	Consumer
5	City, -town or village
6	Abandoned vehicles countermeasure
assoclat ion
7	Chosen recovery contractor

-------
4.4 Information Management System for Industrial Wastes
For promoting the adequate management of industrial wastes, positive
execution of the adequate disposal on the part of the persons who dis-
charge them, establishment of a comprehensive policy and monitoring and
quidance system on the part of administration, and check and formation
of a social consensus on the part of local inhabitants are required.
That is, improvement of the functions in the government, local public
organizations, enterprisers and local inhabitants and organic combination
of these four must be sought.
In such situation, the administration for industrial wastes is to
properly control and manage a large amount of a variety of industrial
waste generated from the productive activeties without causing an environ-
mental destruction and thus create a desirable management system for the
country as a whole as well as for the local districts. Presently, this
area of administration is extending the related areas in the changing
and diversifying social situation and has come to have a close relation-
ship with the pollution control, resources-energy, industrial and develop-
ment administrations, and more and more people have come to realize the
importance of the industrial waste administration day after day. Yet,
under such situation where promotion of the comprehensive management of
industrial wastes is urgently required, there are a number of impeding
factors observed. As one of such factors, shortage of the basic infor-
mation may be cited.
Some of the wastes may be of significance in all respects from the
broad point of view of the socity and have sometimes a useful value
I.L LI _

-------
recognized. But, for the entity discarding them, they have the valye
lost already. Thus, in the mechanism of market economy, the management
system for the wastes is eventually neglected. The enterprises having
a refined management system laid down with a computer used for the process
of manufacture of the products from the storing materials are often ipr-
different to the quantity,, quality and adequate pethod of management of
the wastes produced during such process.
On the other hand, the form of discharge of the; industrial waste
is different from that of the general waste and is ppc^liar to the kind
of the source of generation so that it is very difficult to grasp the
form of discharge in a uniform and general way. At the saiqQ time, the
quantitative as well as qijalitative diversity and iflovability of the
industrial waste make it difficult to introduce the automatic remote
measurement at the source of generation or point of measurement employed
extensively in the recent administration of pollutions of air, water;
noise, etc.
In the today's society of information, the administration is no
longer an exception for the improvement in the area of information
management as far as practicable to correspond to such society. But,
now looking upon the present status of industrial wastes stated above,
an attitude of active response must be taken foj: establishment of an
information management system or so called nervp^s system for adequate
management of the industrial wastes. That is, a system producing, and
accelerating the production of, information intentionally, analyzing and
controlling it precisely and supplying it appropriately to the respective
/-/.48 -

-------
functions, should be aimed at. Smooth promotion of the industrial waste
administration is dependent on how to precisely grasp the movement o£
the industrial wastes generating, moving and being accumulated disorder-
ly- as in a Brownian movement, reduce it to Information and thus respond
to the administrative objectives.
At many conferences and councils of the government level, it has
been pointed out that the information management system of the industrial
wastes should be established urgently in order to cope with the diversifi-
cation of the industrial waste administration in the future. Under such
situation, the Ministry of Health and Welfare has conducted the investi-
gations on the direction of the management system of information concern-
ing the industrial wastes continuously over three years of 1973, 1974
and 1975. In the following will be introduced such investigations and
studies briefly.
The management system of information concerning the industrial wastes
may be positioned as a total system comprising as subsystems the infor-
mation management systems possessed by the government, local public
organization, enterpriser and local inhabitants respectively. These
subsystems should be of the character to be provided and managed by the
foregoing four sectors according to their functions respectively and
should be organically related with one another and have their values
found in the total system (Fig. 4-1),
jX 49 -

-------
Fig. 4-1 Mutual Relationship of Local Information ManageDent Systems
Work structure
JLL
Information management sys~
tem for control of Indus-
1 trial wastes at the place
of enterprise discharging
them.
Information management sys-
2 tem for the works of collec-
tion and transportation.
Information management svs-
3 ten for the work of dispos-
al.
* Enterprise, third
sector, corpora-
tion, organized for
disposal of Industrial
Industrial Waste,-etc.
Supervision guidance structure
(Prefecturea and cities specially
designated by the cabinet ordinance)
Information manage-
ment system for for-
mulation of basic
plans for conserva-
tion of local environ-
ment .
*T
Infonnation manage-
5 ment system for guid-
ance to and supervise
of the work structure
-T
Information manage-
ment system for check
7 of plans of the work
structure and super-
vision guidance struc-
ture.
1
I
{Jeneral policy structure
(National Governnent)
Information management sys-
tem for formulation of basic
6 policies for environment
conservation and support to
the supervision guidance struc-
ture and work structure.
	j
(Note)
Arrov indicates the flow of
information.
-	^ Individual informa-
tion
** Macro information
/ Information management sys-
/ ten tor check of the actual
S status o£ the work structure
\ and supervision guidance
structure.
\ 8
Local structure (Inhabitant)

-------
Each subsystem is determined approximately by the following
procedure;
(1)	Clear representation of the functions and definition of the
relationship with the other structures;
(2)	Clarification of the decision making process for each function;
(3)	Retrieval and weighting of necessary information (information
required for executing the intrinsic functions, and that re-
quired of production and offer in the relationship with the
other structures); and
(4)	Clarification of the procedures for file, analysis and storage
of information, and establishment of a data bank.
Among such subsystems, those at the levels of the local public
organization and the national government are particularly important as
they assume a pivotal role so that they will be discussed in details in
the following. The information management system at the level of the
enterpriser is in the position of producing the most fundamental portion
of all information and is thus by no means negligible. But, at the same
time, it includes a considerable number of elements that are defined by
the system of the government or local public organization and are thus
to be built up passively. Although it is required highly in order to.
execute and operate the work of great sphere of comprehensive treatment
and disposal of the industrial wastes or the work of transformation into
resources, it must be provided by the respective enterprisers and is to
be determined upon the objective and character of the enterprise.
U, 51 -

-------
Originally, any plan for execution of a management work of public nature
should be provided as an output of the information management system
for political decision making of the government or local public organiza-
tion, and when the work is to be carried out according to the plan,
installation of more refined information management systems will, of
course, be required.
(1) Local information manag^ient system at the level of local
public organization
i. System constructing procedure
(i)	Principal functions of local public organization
a.	Formulation of an industrial waste management
plan (Prefectures).
b.	Supervision guidance - Licensing the industrial
waste management contractors, receiving reports
of industrial waste management facilities,
grasping the actual status of industrial wastes
in the area, field guidance and supervision to
the enterprisers, collection of reports, improve-
ment orders, etc.
c.	Execution of treatment and disposal works (as
required).
(ii)	Decision making process in the industrial waste
administration of the local public organization
The decision making process is to be determined for
I I 52 -

-------
each of the functions a, b and c in (i) above.
Here, as a reference, the decision making process
for formulation of an industrial waste management
plan is illustrated (Fig. 4-2).
(iii)	Retrieval of required information
Information such as shown in Tables 4-4, 4-5 and
4-6 will be required for the functions a, b and c
in (i) respectively.
(iv)	Weighting of the required information and objectives
of application (Table 4-7).
Basic concept of the local information management system
(i)	System functions
a.	Information gathering function.
b.	Information storing capacity (Data bank).
c.	Information supply function.
o Retrieval function,
o Reporting function.
o Investigation and analysis function.
(ii)	System configuration
The configuration of a local information management
system is schematically illustrated in Fig. 4-3.
At the center of the local information management
system is a data bank.
/.Z53 -

-------
Fig. 4-2 Flow Chart of Management Plan Formulation Work
r
n
Macro-In-
formation
Present status
/

Quantity of

Trend of


generation

disposal


/
Estimation
procedure
Long range plan for
treatment and
disposal of specified^
enterprises
Estimation of
future generation
1
Procedure for
formulation of
conversion to
resource and
reuse plan
Plan for promotion of conver
sion to resource and resue
T
Estimation of the amount, re-
quired for treatment and
disposal
*
General (domestic) waste
treatment and disposal
capacity information
Procedure for
formulation of
treatment and
|disposal sharing
plan
Assessment
procedure
Micro-in-
formation
Disposal
standard
guidanc
guideline
Micro-in-
formation
I Trade in-
formation
Technical
information
Evaluation of the capacities of
enterpriser and' disposal contractor
L.
T
Elucidation of
problems
I
Elucidation of
bottlenecks
Treatment guide-
line by type
~l
Treatment and disposal sharing plan
Disposal
by individ-
ual enter
pTiser

Joint dis-
posal of
enterpris-
ers.
Disposal
by con-
tractor
Public par-
ticipating
disposal
work
r~
n
Supervision

Backup
1
Work
plan

plan
1
plan
(Note) 1 . This shows a flow chart of the process of formulatiori of a management plan, and the process
has the processes of execution, evaluation and review of the plan connected thereto.
2.	Shown in the dotted line are the routine works for supervision guidance, and they are
incorporated as shown above.
3.	In each process, adjustment with the other related plans is required.
/./• 54 -

-------
Table 4-4 Information Required for Formulation of
Disposal Plan
Required Information
Information Gathering
Method
1.
Actual conditions of
discharge, treatment and
disposal of industrial
wastes in the area.
1.
Various surveys, etc.

1)
Actual condition by
type, trade, scale of
the enterprise and
area.

1)
Actual status survey
(Macro).

2)
Status of treatment
facilities and final
disposal sites.

2)
Collection of reports
(Micro).

3)
Actual status of
licensed disposal
contractors.

3)
Supervision guidance
works.

4)
Occurrence of unlawful
discards.

4)
Application for per-
mission and reporting
systems.
2.
Prediction of the amount of
discharge.
2.
Estimation by the material
unit method, or accumulation
of the "specified plant
disposal plans."
3.
Trends in the local
industries.
3.
Hearing from the industries.

1)
Trend of production.


¦

2)
Trend of the provision
of disposal systems
(joint disposal, etc.).




3)
Trend of the conver-
sion to resource and
reuse,



4.
Trends of the production
technology, treatment
technology and conversion
to resource technology.
4.
From the individual develop-
ments, government and
institutions developments,
and literatures.
U, 55 -

-------
Required Information
Information Gathering
Method
5. Disposal plans of the other
5. Hearing from the other pre-
prefectures.
fectures.
6. Government policies and
6. Information supplied from
guidelines.
the government.
7. Plans of the other depart-
7. Adjustment between the
ments and divisions (regional
departments and divisions
development plan, city plan,
(commerce and industry,
harbor plan, etc.).
civil engineering, agricul-

ture, livestock, etc.).
8. Fundamental information of
8. Acquisition of data from the
the area.
other departments and

divisions (statistics divi-
1) Population
sion, etc.).
2) Industrial structure

(type and scale of the

industry).

3) Land use.

I-I. 56 - •• -•

-------
Table 4-5 Required Information in the Supervision
Guidance Works
Required Information
1. Information for supervision
guidance.
1)	Registered information,
etc.
(1)	Ledger of the enter-
prises (type, number
of employees, ship-
ment, location,
harmful or harmless,
etc.).
(2)	List of plants
having the facili-
ties in the medium
column of the table
appended to
Ordinance.
(3)	Ledger of the
licensed disposal
contractors.
(4)	Ledger of the re-
ported treatment
facilities.
(5)	Ledger of the land-
filling sites.
(6)	Rosters of smaller
enterprises and
unions.
2)	Performance information
and plan information.
(1)	Reports of treat-
ment and disposal.
(2)	Reports of the per-
formance of disposal
works.
Information Gathering
Method
Reports, surveys, etc.
1) Reports, etc.
(1) Data files of the
other systems.
(2) Applications and
reports.
2) Surveys, etc.
(1)	Questionaire.
(2)	Collection of
reports.
/1- 57 -.

-------
Required Information
Information Gathering
Method
(3) Original slips for
collection of
various reports.

(3) Supervision guidance
works.
(4) Slips of field
(spot) inspections,
and slips of
guidance.


(5) Long range plans of
treatment and
disposal.


3) Supervision information.

3) Telephone communications.
(1) Communication from
city, town and
village.


(2) Communication from
inhabitant.


(3) Communication from
police.


4) Information on new
location of plant.

4) Information from the
other departments and
divisions.
2. Information on supervision
guidance capacity.
2.
Own data.
1) Number of environmental
sanitation inspectors at
the head office and
health centers, and the
number actually working.


2) Vehicles allocated
exclusively.


3) Public and civil
analytical institutions
and analytical capacity.


4) Scope of the measures
of budgetary appropria-
tion.


58

-------
Required Information
Information Gathering
Method
—			•			¦'
3. Guideline handbook
			
3. Furnishroent of information
from the government.
1) Guideline (BaBis for
judgement of yes or no).

(1)
Disposal standard.

(2)
Questions and
answers of the law
(classification of
the wastes).

(3)
Landfilling site
and other guide-
lines.

2) Handbooks (for improve-
ment of the efficiency
of supervision guidance
works).
(1)	Industrial waste
generation process
handbook.
(2)	Harmful industrial
wastes handbook
(type of the trade,
discharge process,
material unit, etc.)
4. Loan system information.
4. Own data.
^-/.59 -

-------
Table 4-6 Information Required for Enterprising a Great Sphere
Management and Disposition Work.
Required Information
Information Gathering Method
1.
Present and future of the
flow of industrial waste in
the area.
1.
Survey of actual status (macro-
information) , collection of
reports (micro-information) and
supervision.
2.
Disposal standard, and
criteria for public partici-
pation.
2.
Supply of information from the
national government.
3.
Treatment and disposal demand
information.
3.
Questionaire survey, and hearing
from the trades.
4.
Information on competitive
disposal contractors.
4.
Performance reports, and
hearing from the contractors.
5.
Site information.
5.
From the other departments
and divisions.
6.
Treatment machinery informa-
tion (applicable waste,
price, quantity and quality
of residue (exhaust gas,
waste liquid and solid
waste)).
6.
Machine manufacturers, and field
investigation of the installations
in the other areas.
7.
Road traffic information.
7.
From the other departments and
divisions.
8.
Other plans (regional develop-
ment plan, land use plan,
city plan, harbor plan, etc.)
8.
From the other departments and
divisions.
9.
Fund information.
9.
From the other department and
divisions.
10.
Experience of the public
participation works in the
other areas.
10.
Exchange of information with the
other prefectures and ordinance
cities.
60 -

-------
Table 4-7 Required Information for Local Public Organization Industrial Vpsta
Administration - Objective Matrix
Required Information
Objective
Major
classi-
fication
Medium
classification
Minor classification
Formula-
tion and
reviav
of die- ~
pOMl
plan
Super-
vis ion
Guid-
ance
Formula-
tion of
work
plan
Applica-
tion to
national
atatletlcs
Local
infor-
oatlon
1. Macro-
information
on the
actual
status of
Industrial
vastes
(1)	Amount of discharge in the area (by
type, trade, scale of plant,and
district).
(2)	Management In the area (Same as
above).
o
o
o
o
O
O
o
o
o
o
2. Micro-
Information
on the
actual
status of
Industrial
wastes
(1)	Registered information (name of
plant, location, trade, shipment,
main products, management equipment
- capacity, conditions of permission
of manage sent work, etc.).
(2)	Actual status information (actual
discharge, treatment and disposal,
and results of analysis).
(3)	flan information (treatment and ,
disposal plan, and amount reduc-
tion and reuse plan).
(4)	Supervision information (field
Inspection result).
(5)	Monitor Information (Comaunication
from city, town and village, and
information from Inhabitant).
o o o o
o
o
o
o
o o o o o
o
o
o
o
o
3. Local
Industry
information
(1)	Production information and new
location information.
(2)	Disposal system information (Joint
disposal, etc.).
(3)	Conversion to resource and reuse
information.
(4)	Treatment and disposal desired
amount information.
0 p o
-
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
4. Information
within the
local public
organiza-
tion.
(1)	Fundamental information of the area
(population, industrial structure,
land use, etc.).
(2)	Information of plans.
(3)	Administrative information related
to industrial waste such as air,
water, sewage, etc.
(4)	Site information.
(5)	Loan system information.
(6)	Supervision guidance capacity infor-
mation (personnel, appropriation,
vehicles, analytical organizations,
etc.).
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

-------

Required Information
Objective
Major
classi-
fication
Medium
classification -
Minor classification
Formula-
tion and
review
of dis-
posal
plan
Super-
vision
Guid-
ance
Formula-
tion of
work
plan
Applica-
tion to
national
statistics
National
informa-
tion
1. Senior
information
to local
administra-
tion
(1)	Laws and regulations, policies and
guidelines.
(2)	National long range plans.
©
o
o
©
©
o

2. Technical
handbooks
(1) Various technical handbooks.

©
©


3. National
statistics
(1)	National statistic information
(discharge, disposal, etc:).
(2)	Trend of circulation of industrial
waste over a wide range.
o
o
o



4. National
information
on
industries
(1) Information of the trends of
industries.
o

o


5. Information
of the
other areas
(1) Information of the examples in the
other areas (disposal plan, super-
vision system and disposal works).
o
o

o

6. Technical
development
information
(1)	Production technology information.
(2).	Disposal technology and conversion
to resource and reuse -technology
development information.
(3)	Treatment machinery information.
0 o

o
o
o
©

(Note) Particularly required.
Normally required.

-------
In order for the necessary information gathered from
the sources of information to be controlled, stored,
accumulated, analyzed, processed and supplied to the
respective functions at an appropriate time and in
a precise manner, a data bank must be installed at
the level of the local public organization, and for
reasonable operation of such data bank, introduction
of a computer is desirable.
Further, the information management involves a number
of problems which are not resolved by mere improve-
ment of the information processing or storing capacity.
Thus, it is required to strengthen the information
gathering system, improve the quality of information
to be collected, adjust the interfaces with the other
departments and divisions, organizations and systems,
have the government guidelines and handbooks furnished
appropriately and provide an integram management
system of information.
The basic concept shown here must be followed by the
development of a basic design, EDP program (annual
program, directing the system development) and detailed
desfgriyafld "such*'development must be carried out under
close-"coo'perat'ion" of the" administrative personnel,
experts and system engineers with a model local public
organization chosen.
/.V. 63 -

-------
(2) National information management system, at the leyel of the
government
This is a theme of the investigation and study for the fiscal
year of 1975, and such national information management system is
considered to be built up from the following group of systems and
upon their organic combination:
(i) National statistics preparation and supply system,
(ii) Foreign information management system,
(iii) Investigation and research system,
(lv) Guideline and manual preparation system,
(v) Treatment, disposal and conversion to resource technology
development system,
(vi) Technical assessment system,
(vii) Introductory system for promotion of the conversion to
resource,
(viii) Consulting system,
(ix) Register system, and
(x) Related agencies conference system.
As shown above, the national information management system
comprises a variety of areas. Thus, its management should be estab-
lished through reinforcement and effort of the administrative organi-
zations. But, to cope with the diversification of the administrative
areas more'or less specifically and with some mobility and flexibil-
ity, it will be a measure worthy of consideration to provide a
/•/» 64 -

-------
national organization having an information management function
especially (Fig. 4^5).
Presently, for acceleration of the adequate disposal of indus-
trial wastes and reinforcement of the administration, amendment of
the "Waste Disposal and Public Cleansing Law" is being contemplated,
and in such amendment, institutionalization of the requisites for
improvement of the industrial waste information management such as
the responsibility of the enterprisers and licensed disposal con-
tractors for keeping the record on the industrial waste, responsi-
bility for report on the harmful industrial waste, and prior
reporting of the landfilling sites and industrial waste treatment
facilities, is included.
On the other hand, specific movements for building up an infor-
mation management system are noted at the level of the local public
organizations. For example, Mie Prefecture is going to put the
information on the industrial wastes of the main enterprises in
the prefecture into a computer toward comprehensive management from
1976, and Toyohashi City in Aichi Prefecture is going to install an
information management system in an effort to carry out the sanitary
landfill work appropriately and effectively with the information on
the industrial wastes of the enterprisers put in a computer for
furtherance of the input management, thus placing emphasis on the
execution of the management work.
IL 65 -

-------
Fig. 4-3 System Functions
Source oi
informa-
tion
Information supply system
Arrangement of document
information
Information gathering
Arrangement of
numerical information
Gathering function
Information storage and renewal
system (data bank)
Booking data;
work
Bookshelf or
microfish
Storage software

Data base

Information supply system
Retrieval function
Report preparing func-
tion
Investigation and
analysis function
Supply function
Storing function
(This part is illustrated in detail in Fig. 4-4.)

-------
Fig. 4-4 Conputer System Configuration
fat* file
Input and output data processing la of batch ayatea.
not Included at flrat as It conpllcatea the ayaten.
Output fomt
| Ootpot
freqoextcy
ayata evaluation program la

-------
3*4* of l/ufcwrt«\LU U»»w Hw*fwnt Cwnr
¦n4 li«vli(^ia totfwtrUl Umi* K»niwnt
AkUt^Utf V
Statlatlc £nfor«stLfto
Actual «t*Li*0 aurvaT
*lotfcl Idiu
Law teosotatlcrt
Otter T4
Cwpetatloii vtth Acrlcvlcui-*
ftMKfr Otp«rtMa:h
Caairc« mi lcutincr;
Diparumt u veil if Sdgleui Trjji jd
-------
STATUS REPORT ON SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
IN THE UNITED STATES
By
H. Lanier Hickman, Jr.
Presented at the Third U.S.-Japan Conference
on Solid Waste Management
Tokyo, Japan
May 12-14, 1976
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
-------
STATUS REPORT ON SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
IN THE UNITED STATES
H. Lanier Hickman, Jr.*
Overview of Current Conditions
Generation
The United States generated approximately 122 million
metric tons (135 million tons) of municipal solid waste in
1974.^" This amount is increasing at an annual rate of 3-5%.
i
Sludges from municipal wastewater treatment systems contributed
2
6 million metric tons (7 million tons) in 1974. Process
wastes from industry approximated 240 million metric tons
(260 million tons) in 1974."* Perhaps as much as 10 percent
of these wastes are considered to be potentially hazardous.
Because of increasing regulation of industry air and water
effluents under the authorities of the Clean Air Act and the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act, residuals from industry
3
are expected to increase 100% by 1983. The above wastes
are receiving increased government and industry attention.
The same is not true for the approximately 620 million
*Mr. Hickman is Director of Operations for Solid Waste
Management Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Presented at the Japan/U.S. Conference on Solid Waste
Management, Tokyo, Japan, May 12, 1976.
i-a. i
-------
2
metric tons (680 million tons) of agricultural residuals and
1 billion 610 million metric tons (1 billion 780 million
5
tons) of mining residuals generated each year in the United
States. (Table 1). Little Federal attention is now directed
at these wastes.
Table 1
Estimated Residuals Generation in the United States
Amount
Source (Tons x 106) (Metric Tons x 106)
Municipal Solid Wastes 135 1221
Sewage Sludges 7 62
Industrial Residuals 260 2402
Agricultural Residuals 680 6202
Mining Residuals 1780 16102
lwet weight
2dry weight
Given the increasing shortages of materials, the
increasing dependence of the United States on importation
of raw materials, and the now ever present concern over
energy, the resources in our waste streams are demanding
greater attention.
Resource Recovery
These large amounts of resources in our nation's
solid waste stream make it obvious why the concept of
resource recovery is receiving such intense attention
in the United States today.
1.2.3
-------
3
Materials recovery can occur in two principal ways:
separate collection for recycling, or central processing of
collected wastes to separate various materials for recycling
or use as an energy source.
The major constraint which prevents increased materials
recovery in the United States is the lack of dependable,
6
predictable markets. Various reasons exist for the lack of
markets for secondary materials. The principal reason is
the fact that there are so many legal and institutional
barriers affecting the recovery of materials from a waste
stream that it is generally cheaper to prepare a product
from virgin materials. Factors which drive up the cost of
secondary material and hold down the cost of virgin materials
include discriminatory freight rates, tax incentives,
procurement and labelling practices. Further, the continuing
practices of cheap environmentally unacceptable land disposal
of most solid wastes prevent more expensive resource recovery
technology from being adopted.
Recovery of energy from solid waste is another oppor-
tunity now under intense consideration in the United States.
About 1% of the U.S. energy needs is theoretically available
7
in the municipal solid waste stream alone. Studies to
determine the opportunities for energy recovery from other
waste streams such as industrial and agricultural waste are
I.A.3
-------
4
now underway. Major difficulties that need to be overcome
to make this option more attractive are the financing of
systems, the conservative nature of utility companies, the
lack of business acumen of local government, and data on
technology to allow "routine" design, construction, and
operation.
Reducing the amount of wastes generated is another
approach to dealing with the problems of soiid waste manage-
8
ment. Waste reduction concepts include such approaches as
the reduction of packaging materials and the extension of
life products. Waste reduction is probably the most difficult
to achieve because almost any initiative tends to affect
established production, marketing and distribution practices.
Further, data to deal with such concepts as product life do
not exist at this time.
Hazardous Waste Management
Hazardous wastes, generated primarily by industry,
exceeds 9 million metric tons (10 million tons) (dry weight)
9
per year. Contaminants such as mercury, arsenic, lead,
etc. exist in industrial process wastes. After air/water
pollution treatment occur these materials are concentrated
into waste sludges, slurries, and semi-solid wastes.
Technology to deal with many of these wastes in an environ-
mentally acceptable approach is available.^ Again, as in
1.2-4
-------
5
resource recovery, however, the practice of improper land
disposal prevents the adoption of more environmentally sound
Land Disposal
In the United States, the vast majority of all solid
waste is disposed of on the land. Little data exists to
really quantify much less qualify these land disposal
practices. Indications are, however, that well over 90
percent of municipal and industrial solid wastes are disposed
of in an environmentally unacceptable way on the land.
These poor disposal practices result in air pollution from
open burning, health impacts from disease vectors and
water/land pollution from leachates formed in improperly
sited, designed and operated sites.
Responsibilities for solid waste management in the
United States is shared by all three levels of government
(Federal, State, and local) and by industry. These respon-
sibilities are directed toward the planning, operation and
financing of solid waste management systems with the citizen
the ultimate recipient of these systems* services. The
citizen pays for these services either through taxes, fees,
or a combination of these two funding mechanisms.
hazardous waste management practices.
Governmental Responsibilities
-------
6
The Federal Role
Present Federal government authority In solid waste
management is provided by the Solid Waste Disposal Act
12
(Public Law 91-512), as amended. This law was originally
passed by the Congress in October 1965, amended in October
1970 and extended in 1973 and 1974. In the initial sections
of the law, the responsibility of each level of government
is stated. The Federal solid waste program's activities, as
defined by the Act, include: policy formulation, research
and development, demonstration and evaluation, technical
assistance, planning solid waste management systems, training,
state-of-the-art studies, and public information. It should
be noted that this is one of the few pieces of Federal
environmental law without * regulatory and enforcement authorities
The State Role
The activities of State government parallel those of
the Federal government. In the areas of policy formulation,
technical assistance, planning, training, and public information
State activities are very similar to Federal activities,
excepting that the scope is specifically directed at State/local
problems and tend to be more detailed and specific in nature.
The most important and demanding role of State govern-
ment, and one that does not now rest with the Federal
i.a.f,
-------
7
government, is the establishment and subsequent enforcement
of solid waste standards.^ This is the essential role of
State government and requires a host of functions stich as
licensing of sites and facilities, monitoring to determine
compliance, and a variety of functions to correct defi-
ciencies in sites including training of operators, assist-
ance to designers, managers and operators, and ultimately
court action to gain compliance.
The Local Role
Local government is responsible for the actual manage-
ment of solid waste from storage—through processing and
recovery—to final disposal.^ Collection, treatment,
processing and disposal operations are accomplished by both
governmental forces and private contractors. Industries
frequently manage those solid wastes from process lines, but
have their general plant-type wastes collected and disposed
of by private or public forces. By far the greater part of
industrial and commercial solid wastes are collected by
private contractors. The majority of processing and disposal
facilities are owned and operated by local government agencies.
Ownership and operation of resource recovery systems is
shared equally by public and private organizations.
I-Ql. 7
-------
8
Current Federal Program
Since 1965 the principal Federal focus on the problems
of solid waste management have been the responsibility of
EPA's Office of Solid Waste Management Programs and its
Education, and Welfare. Efforts begun in 1966 focused on
assisting States to develop strong, vigorous solid waste
management agencies, and assisting State and local govern-
ment and industry in adopting improved practices.
When the Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965 was amended
in 1970 by the Resource Recovery Act, it dramatically
altered the shape and direction of the solid waste manage-
ment efforts in EPA. The increased emphasis on resource
recovery and hazardous wastes has resulted in a new program
greatly different from the one which implemented the original
1965 Act. Current program efforts are aimed at the problems
and solutions needed for the achievement of two goals:
acceptable and safe waste management, including the protection
of the land from improver disposal practices of all residuals;
and the conservation of natural resources, including energy
through resource recovery and waste reduction. The Agency
issued in late 1974 a solid waste management strategy which
13
describes how these two goals will be met.
predecessor organizations in the Department of Health,
-------
9
To meet the' first goal EPA is attempting to develop a
better understanding of the environmental problems caused by
the improper management of a host of wastes from municipal
and industrial sources.
We are establishing a data base to understand the
sources of potentially hazardous wastes (mostly industrial
sources)? the potential environmental damages that may be
caused by improper management of those wastes; and the
technology options that may be applied or be needed to
reduce or eliminate potential damages. Major studies are
underway in 13 industry groupings in the U.S. to define
quantitatively and qualitatively their hazardous waste
streams.^ A large study is underway to test the acceptability
of various thermal reduction processes to destroy certain
hazardous wastes and a major project to demonstrate the land
disposal of chemical (hazardous) wastes was recently initiated.
We are also developing the necessary tools and capabilities
necessary to enable hazardous wastes to be regulated to
protect environmental quality and public health and we are
working with the States to adopt the use of these tools as
States develop their own hazardous waste programs.
Several major projects are underway to develop a
better understanding of land disposal practices for wastes.
These projects will determine the mechanisms of leachate
-------
10
generation and will study actual cases of groundwater
contamination from land disposal sites; develop technology
for leachate collection and treatment; and will.assist
11
communities to implement improved disposal practices. We
also have underway a project to determine the acceptability
of utilizing municipal sewage sludge as a soil conditioner
and supplement in growing turf.
We are also investing efforts directed toward the
14
promotion of collection efficiency and safety in solid
15
waste management. We have available the technical assistance
capability and supportive tools which when utilized by
cities and industries can significantly reduce their collection
costs and dramatically reduce their injury frequency.
Other major efforts are underway to support our second
goal of resource conservation. We currently manage 5 large
resource recovery technology demonstration projects (two in
materials recovery and 3 in energy recovery). The five
projects are demonstrations, at full scale, of systems or
technology which have been proven at bench or pilot scale.
They are funded by the Federal government in order to reduce
the risk of cities in adopting unproven concepts. Another
important effort in support of this goal is our technical
assistance efforts with local government to guide them in
the selection of the most desireable resource recovery
option. Two projects have been initiated related to the
12-/°
-------
11
separation of materials at the residence in an attempt to
demonstrate that citizens will participate on a continuing
basis in a resource recovery endeavor.
The States are the essential element necessary to
develop a sound national effort in solid waste management.
Twenty percent (20%) of EPA's solid waste management budget
goes to support State solid waste management programs.
These funds are utilized by the States to increase their
efforts in the planning and implementation of State solid
waste management plans including the regulation of solid
waste processing and disposal facilities, to initiate State-
wide hazardous waste surveys and ultimately hazardous waste
management programs, and to conduct the planning necessary
to encourage materials and energy recovery from solid waste.
All of these efforts encompass data base development,
assistance to local communities, the approval of sites and
facilities, development of regulations, and the enforcement
of those regulations.
The Federal solid waste management legislation does not
include regulatory authority. One section (Sec. 209) of our
12
authority does require the Agency to develop guidelines
for Federal agencies to adopt. The term "guidelines"
implies a standard or regulation for a solid waste management
collection, separation, resource recovery or disposal system.
l-2.il
-------
12
Until 1974 only two guidelines were under development—land
disposal and thermal processing and the Agency had no plans
to develop other guidelines.1® Several environmental
organizations filed suit against EPA contending that the
Agency was in violation of the Act by not also developing
guidelines in collection, separation and resource recovery
systems. These environmental organizations included the
Natural Resources Defense Council and the Sierra Club, two
organizations well known in the international environmental
movement. Although the suit has not been settled, the
pressure of the suit has prompted the EPA to develop other
guidelines. Five guidelines are now in various stages of
development and completion (Table 2 ).
Table 2
Solid Waste Management Guidelines
Guidelines Status
Land Disposal
Thermal Processing
Collection of Municipal, Commercial
and Institutional Solid Waste
Returnable Beverage Containers
Source Separation
Resource Recovery Facilities
Procurement of Products
Promulgated - August 1974
Promulgated - August 1974
Promulgated - February 1976
Proposed - November 1975
Proposed - September 1975
Proposed - January 1976
Promulgated - January 1976

-------
13
A brief description of each guideline follows:
Land Disposal - Requires that the disposal of
solid waste on the land be done in a manner to
minimize impact on the environment.
Thermal Processing - Requires that solid waste
thermally processed be done in a manner to mini-
mize impact on the environment.
Collection - Requires minimum weekly collection of
solid waste in covered vehicles.
Returnable Beverage Containers - Requires a 5-cent
deposit on all carbonated beverage containers.
Source Separation - Requires the separation of
high grade office paper at the desk.
Resource Recovery Facilities - Requires resource
recovery facilities where solid waste generation
exceeds 100 t/d
Procurement - Recommends purchase of products
containing secondary materials.
This discussion illustrates very clearly how citizen
involvement can impact significantly on environmental
policy. Involvement in this instance clearly forced EPA to
review its attitude and interpretation of the Solid Waste
Disposal Act, and as a consequence established a more
forceful effort to guide the Federal government toward
1.3./3
-------
14
improved solid waste management practices. This citizen
suit will no doubt bring about significant change in the
Federal government's solid waste management practices over
the next few years.
The basic legislative authorities of the Federal
government in solid waste management were mentioned earlier.
These authorities have remained essentially the same since
1970 and actually since the passage of the original Solid
Waste Disposal Act in 1965. Various changes have been
considered over the past few years but no serious attempts
have been made to amend the 1970 Act.
We are encouraged now, however, by three proposed sets
of amendments which appear to be the first serious efforts
in several years to change the existing legislation. These
three proposals are the House Subcommittee on Transportation
and Commerce's Solid Waste Utilization Act, Senate Bill 2150
and EPA's own March 1976 proposed amendments. While it is
always ill-advised to predict either the form or outcome of
proposed legislation, these three proposals warrant serious
consideration because all three proposals include three new
areas of responsibility which are the same. Table 3
attempts to summarize and compare the key provisions of each
proposal.
Federal Solid Waste Management Legislation
-------
15
Table 3
Proposed Amendments to Federal
Solid Waste Legislation
Proposed Solid Proposed Proposed
Proposed Waste Utilization Act S2150 EPA
Authority House of Represent. Senate Amendments
1.
R&D*
X
X
X
2.
Demonstrations*
X
X
X
3.
Resource Recovery

Demonstration*
X
X
X
4.
Technical Assistance*
X
X
X
5.
Guidelines*
X
X
X
6.
Special RR Studies*
X
X
X
7.
Training*
X
X
X
8.
State Program Grant

Support
X
X

9.
Regional Planning &

Implementation Grants*
X
X
X
10.
Financial Assistance to

Small Communities
X
X

11.
Loan Guarantees for

Resource Recovery Systems
X
X

12.
Disposal Charge
X

13.
Product Standards
X

14.
HW Regulation

Federal
X
X

State
X
X
X
15.
Land Disposal Control

and/or Regulation
X
X
X
~Similar or related authorities exist in current SWD Act, as amended
l-X-15
-------
16
There are naturally variations in each of the proposals.
However, it is significant to note that for the first time
there is agreement, in principle, on a wide range of existing
and new authorities. Specifically, all three proposals
incorporate the major authorities of the existing Act and
propose to fix weaknesses in .those provisions. Of particular
importance is the broadening of the definition of the term
"solid waste" to include sludges. This redefinition will
give all solid waste management agencies greater influence
in environmental planning and management.
Three new authorities, in various forms, are included
in all three proposals: land disposal regulation, hazardous
waste management, and support to State agencies to implement
comprehensive solid waste management programs.
The broader issue of land disposal practices is now
clearly recognized in the Senate and EPA proposals. Both
would require EPA minimum standards and State adoption and
implementation of those standards. The House proposal does
not directly address this important issue, but through the
guidelines provision provides for greater Federal/State
involvement.
All three proposals include the authority for EPA to
establish hazardous waste management regulations and for
State to establish hazardous waste management programs to
I .£ ¦ Ho
-------
17
implement the regulations set by EPA. This consistency in
intent is a clear indication that the problems that continue
to reoccur from improper hazardous waste management are
recognized and corrections must be provided.
The third commonly shared new authority is the provision
for support to State agencies to implement solid waste
management programs. Such authority exists for the air and
water programs and the inclusion of similar authority for
solid waste management will "close the circle" for effective
State environmental control programs.
At the writing of this paper the fate of these three
proposals is unknown. Their fate must be considered against
a broader background of the November national elections
which will elect a President, a complete new House of
Representatives, and one-third of the Senate. Hence, new
solid waste management legislation will depend on this
bigger consideration. The encouraging considerations are
however, that for the first time since 1970 there is a main
thread of agreement on major legislative needs between EPA
and the two Houses of Congress and EPA has publicly supported
a broadened role in solid waste management for the Federal
government. These factors may bring about new solid waste
management legislation within twelve months.
1-2.11
-------
18
The Federal solid waste management program in EPA is a
small program of 185 people with a budget of 16 million
dollars. In the last few years it has spent a great deal of
effort in assessing what is needed to solve the nation's
solid waste management problems. From that assessment a
strategy has developed which when fully implemented and
supported by new legislative authorities will indeed bring
about major resource conservation and protection of the
environment. There is optimism that we will be able to
accomplish our goals in an orderly way within the economic
constraints that all modern industrialized nations face.
i. a.
-------
19
REFERENCES
Smith, Frank A. and Fred L. Smith. Material flow
estimates of residential and commercial post-
consumer net solid waste disposal, by kind of
material and produce-source category, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, December 1974.
Unpublished data.
Prior, Larry A. Land availability, crop production
and fertilizer requirements in the United States.
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. October 1975.
99 p.
Lehman, John P. Federal surveys of industrial wastes.
Presented at the National Solid Wastes Management
Association International Waste Equipment and
Technology Exposition, Los Angeles, California,
June 1975.
Anderson, L.L. Energy potential from Organic Wastes,
a review of the quantities and sources. U.S.
Bureau of Mines Circular 8549, 1972.
Hickman, H. Lanier, Jr. Solid waste management—
United States statement. Presented at the ECE
conference on the Environment, Hamburg, Germany,
September 1975.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid
Waste Management Programs. Resource recovery and
source reduction; first report to Congress. 3d
ed. Environmental Protection Publication SW-118.
Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974
61 p.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid
Waste Management Programs. Resource recovery and
source reduction; second report to Congress.
Environmental Protection Publication SW-122.
Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974
112 p.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid
Waste Management Programs. Resource recovery and
source reduction; third report to Congress.
Environmental Protection Publication SW-161.
Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974
96 p.
l-S-./f
-------
20
9. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid
Waste Management Programs. Disposal of hazardous
wastes; report to Congress. Environmental
Protection Publication £>W-115. Washington,
U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974. 110 p.
10. Lehman, John P. Federal program for hazardous wastes
management. Waste Age. September 1974. Reprinted,
Washington, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
October 1974. 4 p.
11. Weddle, Bruce and George A. Garland. Dumps: A potential
threat to our groundwater supplies. Nation's
Cities, October 1974. Reprinted, Washington.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, November
1974. 5 p.
12. The Solid Waste Disposal Act, Title II of Public Law
89-272, 89th Cong., s.306, Oct. 20, 1965; as
amended by the Resource Recovery Act of 1970,
Public Law 91-512, 91st Cong., H.R.11833, Oct. 26,
1970; and by Public Law 93-14, 93d Cong., H.R.
5446, Apr. 9, 1973. (To extend the amended
Solid Waste Disposal Act for one year.) [Cincinnati],
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1973. 14 p.
13. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Solid Waste
Management Strategy. Washington, 1974." 33 p.
14. Shuster, Kenneth A. A five-stage improvement process
for solid waste collection systems. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Washington,
1974. 38 p.
15. Wener, Sidney. Making refuse collection safer.
Nation1s Cities. Sept. 1975. Reprinted, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Oct. 1975.
4 p.
16. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Thermal processing
and land disposal of solid waste; guidelines.
Federal Register, 39(158): 29327-29338, Aug.
14, 1974.
I X 04
-------

ENVIRONMENTAL _EFFECTS OF IMPROPER
DISPOSAL OF ' SOLID WASTE ON LAND
March 31,' 1976
Dr. Saehiho Naito
Environmental Sanitation Engineering
Consultants, Tokyo, Japan
Prof. Masataka Hanashima
Fuculty of Engineering, Fukuoka Universi
Fukuoka, Japan.
-------
Index
1. General Condition ( Dr* Naito )
1. 1 Sanitary land-»fill
1. 2 Incinoration
1. 3 Composting
1. 4, PyrolysiB
2. Leachate Treatment Plants ( Dr. Naito )
2. 1 Quality and Quantity
2. 2 Theojretical Approaches of Leachate Treatment
2. 3 Actual Application of Leachate Treatment in:Tokyo
2. 4 Changes in Landfill Site Land Value Before and
After Pilling
2. 5 Other Leachate Control Methods
3. In-Plac© Composting..process ( firof. Hanashima )
3. I Aspects.-of Leachate Quantity
3. 2 Aspects of Leachate Quality
3.•3 Volumetric Aspects

-------
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF IMPROPER
DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTE ON LAND
1, General Conditions
Contained in this section is a discussion of a num-
ber Of waste treatment and disposal methods which should
be examined in the total evaluation of available options.
Some of the following methods represent more widely used
and proven methods (sanitary land-fill, incineration and
composting) while other possibilities considered are what
may be considered as processes in various stages of develop-
ment and testing, but which show favorable potential for
future use. The sum total of methods considered includes:
1. Sanitary land-fill
2. Incineration
3. Composting
4. Pyrolysis
Referring the Government statement, above methods
have been practiced by municipalities across the Japan as
seen in Tabl« - 1.
Table-1: Municipal Application of Solid Waste Treatment
(1973)
Item
Solid Wastes(t/day)
56
Incineration
45,170
47.14
Land-fill
32,003
40.49
Composting

(High-rate)
249
0.32
" (Windrow)
20
0.02
Hog Feeding
23
0.03
Others
1,582
2*00
Total
79,047
100
o?.Ul -
-------
1, 1 Sanitary land-fill
Regulatory criteria of land-fill has been enacted by
the Government on the base of sanitary land-fill to be sub-
ject to the following criteria:
(1) Preventing domestic wastes from flying and flow-
ing out.
(2) Land-filling site should be enclosed with a fence
and. notified by setting -up -a notice saying "a
wastes'disposal site."
(3) Necessary precautions should be taken to prevent
leaching out of a land-filling site from pollut-
ing public water bodies and ground water.
(4) Necessary precautions should be taken not to let'
bad smell spread from a land-filling site.
(5) Gas vent should be set to elimination generating
gas and at the same time prevent the outbreak of
fires.
(6) Preventing rats froto living in a land-filling site
and mosquitoes, flies and other harmful insects
from growing there.
(7) The thickness of domestic wastes to be reclaimed
shall be generally less than 3 meters and 50 centi-
meters of cover soil shall be placed between two
layers.
Following with this general criteria, municipalities
are trying to relaim the waste at designated locations, how-
ever public acceptance is heavily dependent on the opera-
tion history of the local land-fill site and. the public*s
subjective opinion-.of land-fills or dumps.. It must fur-
ther be Realized.that regardless of where the land-fill
site is proposed, some opposition will be raised. True
public acceptance will not be known until public hearings
are held on any proposed site. Among some opposition by
XIA. 2 -
-------
publics, there is currently considerable controversy an to
the magnitude of the leachate problem, however there are
recently many arguments of water pollution originating at
land-fill by leachate.
1. 2 Incineration
Incineration of municipal solid wastes has been
widely practiced by not only large cities but also other
towns and villages. For those installations currently in
existence, a general observation would indicate that in-
cinerations may be feasible where land available for land-
filling is scarce, expensive or very remote from the actual
solid waste generation center. Increased air quality stand-
ards have' also added another budget to incinerator costs.
Recent developments in incineration practice indi-
cate that a rapid transition in methodology is in progress.
Efforts to make incinerators more adaptable and efficient
for processing of solid wastes have demonstrated continued
current interest which still exists.
1. 3 Composting
, Although composting has been practiced in the old
world for centuries, the modern science and art of compost-
ing' have largely taken place in the last two decades.
In the minds of some people, composting is controversial,
and one immediately wants to know why so many plants have
been constructed in Japan and then shut down and why did
they fail, if they failed. Prom 1970 to 1974, sixty-seven
(67) miinicipalities built composting plants in which only
nine (9) plants are under operation at the end of 1974.
Limitation of land brought some difficulties to
store the end-product at composting plant, particulary out
of harvest season, when high-rate process had been selected.
From this view, inplace composting appears to be head and
c2>, /. K 3 -
-------
shoulders above the high-rate composting and at the same
time shows the flexibility of storing the end-product after
being fermented at same place of the site. Any municipali-
ties have less capability of handling and saling the end-
product to the consumer, because they had not enough chal-
lenged sales promotion through circulating agencies.
• Any new market takes time to develop and the sale
of compost to conservative farmers is not exception. A win-
ning formula for the composting entrepreneurs is to nego-
ciate an sufficiently enough fee with the municipality so
that he can make a profit regardless of whether any salvage
is recycled or compost is returned to the land. The com-
posting process must stand on its own two feet economically
without total reliance on income from scales. This gener-
alized answer is a realistic reply to the vast majority of
the plant closings. In a great, many cases .politics and en-
emies of composting fought the process from conception to
closing.
1, 4 Pyrolysis
Recently, considerable sttention has been given to
"pyrolysis in providing means of recycling municipal solid
wastes, however no full-scale process has been in operation
long enough to substantiate•dependability, potentials and
¦economies. Operation of large scale facilities in the near
future should provide much valuable information in this res-
pect, but present capital investment is large (in the order
of $50,000/ton of plant capacity, if municipality wants to
have a line of stand-by) and operating costs are relatively
high. These facts will likely exclude small communities:;
from such an application. Pilot scale work over the past
it) years has often been discouraging and the heterogenious
nature of refuse has caused sever problems in clogging of
pipes and valves, etc., and is still cause for pessimism.
J. I.-I A ~
-------
in many¦circles.
Apart from such disadvantages, marketability of
usable by-products in the near future may make pyrolysis
more universally applicable. Oils and gases currently
have , and will corttinue to have universal soleability and
marketability. Viewing current and predicted energy needsr
it is apparent that a strong market should continue with
excellent price stability.
2. Leachate Treatment Plants
£. 1 Quality and Quantity
Leachate from sanitary land-fill after being satuy
rated with water can occur from the percolation of precip-
itation through a land-fill's surface or due to ground-
water moviement through a refuse filled area. There are
more than eighty (80) sanitary land-fills which should
have the leachate treatment plant to treat and meet with
the national water quality standard for any effluent from
public or private facilities. The quality of leachate
varies in great extent, but it would be comprehensively
0
able to say as following Table - 2.
Table -21 Quality of Leachate
Quality
General Figures
COD
20
0
1
,000 ppm
BOD
10
- 40
,000
cl"
30
- 30
««•
O
o
o
P03
0,
6 -
20
NH3-N
20
- 32
,000
S3
10
- 8
o
o
o
Cr+6
up
to
10
HS
up
to
0.3
Gd
up
to
2.0
Pb
up
to
40.0
ks
up
to
0.1
J. '"'-5 -
-------
.Although optimization of leachate treatment would be
concluded In physical and chemical treatment in combination
with biological process, these operations would not be em-
phasized as a best irv connection with high pH control to
catch heavy metala in hydroxide product if the item of COD
would he involved in the tolerate level of leachate quality.
Furthermore# the characteristic of COD in leachate has a
typical tendency which is going" to increase the value fol-
lowing with years passed after being dumped.
It is well known that the national water quality
-standard for any effluent is quite serious such as follow-
ing. Table - 3*
Table - 3:" National Effluent Standard
'' Quality
Effluent Standard
' PH
5.8 - 8.6
BOD
less than 120 in daily average
COD
* ' 120 w
ss
" 150 "
Oil
5 , (mineral)
u
3Q (organic)
phenol.
5
Cu
J
Za
5
Pa
10
Mn
10
Or
2 (total)
P
15
Cd
0.1
Cn
1
PO3
1 (organic)
Fb
1
Cr+6
0.5-
As
0.5
Hg-
0.005 (inorganic)
II
hone (organic)

-------
Besides of the effiuent standard, we have a drink-
ing water standard which would be one of the index how the
leachate will effect ground water outside the site. How-
ever, it is not,clearly understood what character of water
analysis would be apparently proyed as an index of contam-
ination by leachate itself. Of course, nitrogen cycle may
have some possibility to prove the contamination, but heavy
metals are not always existed in ground water which have
ever been doubted as being contaminated.
About the quantity of leachate, approximately 30 #
of total rainfall upon the land-fill plus surface water
flowing into the land-fill area would be discharged as leach-
ate. It has been examined by Dr. Masataka Hanashima, Puku-
oka University that when the moisture content of refuse
dumped becomes 60$ more or less, the leachate would appear
outside of land-fill area in connection with theoratical
moisture retention capacity of refuse dumped. leachate
will move either vertically - or horizontally, however the
velocity of ion accumulated underground is rather lower than
the flow of' leachate in the result of delayed contamination
which would be appeared after long period of time. In con-
nection with the quantity of leachate, the quality of leach-
ate is. not so serious under heavy rainfall in contrast to
the worse under light rainfall.
The leachate formation must be prevented where pos-
sible. This formation can generally be prevented by choos-
ing and engineering sites so as to prevent ground water
movement through a refuse fill area and by preventing appre-
ciable quantities of precipitation from percolating through
the land-fill. Neverthless, almost of all sanitary land-
fill existed has not enogh lining a fill area with an im-
permeable soil, because of a lack of special precaution and
criteria in detail.
-------
2. 2 Theoretical Approaches of Leachate Treatment
(1) Physical, Chemical and Biological Treatment without
Denit rof icat iola :
As shown in Pig.-l, 6-Valence-Chrominm is reducted
to 3-valence form in coagulation tankr (2) in which
sulfuric acid and ferrous-sulfate are-dosed. In pri-
mary aeration basin (3) and accelator (4) can remove
heavy metal, such as Cr, Cd, Fe, Un,Cu, Zn, Pb and As
• *
by means of pH control, and simultaneously some of or-
ganic and soluble organic substances due to PO4 and
suspended solids are absorbed. After another pH con-
trol, secondary aeration basin (6) and sedimentation
tank (7) will be effectively used for the removal of
soluble organic substances and organic mercury might
be removed. Remainder of suspended solids will be re-
moved through sand filter^(8). In final stage of treat-
ment., activated carbon absorber (9) will remove remaind-
er part of organic substances, mercury and organic phos-
pher.
¦X I- 8"
-------
-1 : Chemical, Physical and Biological Treatment without Denitrification
(jEqualization (5)Coagulation
Tank Tank
@\ccelator
(2FH Control
Tank
Air
(^Primary
Aeration
Basin
©Secondary (pediment at ion
Aeration Tank
Basin
®\ctivated
Carbon
Absorber
A )•
Air
Return Sludge

(S)6and Filter
Excess Sludge
r
Cl2
I
Effluent
Sludge
- Qconc Q)Dewatneri ng Machine
Tai>k >i
Supernatant
"^Sludge Cake
-------
Fig-2 : Chemical, Physical and Biological Treatment Attaching enitrification

(^Equalization (2)Coagulation (3)Primary @Accelator G)PH Control
Tank Tank Aeration Tank
Basin
iirsS-Lf
(Secondary (^Penitri- ^ (§)Final Q> Activated
Aeration fication' Sedimentation Carbon
i i ib , *
Tank
v
7

T
a
b
t
m I
1

Absorber

¦9
X
Air
(S^ertiary
.Aeration
©Sand Filter
Retarn Sludge
Supernatant

T
Q®er at er i: lg
©Cone. Mffhine
Tank
Effluent^
Sludge Cake
-------
(2) Physical, Chemical and Biological Treatment attaching
Denitrification:
(3) Evaporation and Distillation Process
When an environment will need to control strictly
COD as lower as possible, aforesaid processes are
not enough although they are possibly effective for
heavy metal removal. In such case, evaporation and
distillation would be owed to go ahead of aforesaid
processes which must be followed with the evapora-
tion and distillation.
2. 3.^ Actual Application of Leachate Treatment in Tokyo.
Mr. Fumihiko Oshima, Cleansing Department, Tokyo
Metropolis made his report in the Seminor of Solid Waste
Treatment held on November, 1975, in view of cost comparison
between several processes for 1000 m^/day leachate as seen
in Table - 4.
As shown in Fig. - 2, up to pH control (?) has same
significance asfPig - 1, however"secondary aeration
tank (6) through sedimentation tank (9) shall be added
to remove excess nitrogen. The secondary aeration
tank (fT) will remove biologically soluble organic
substances, and simultaneously ammonium and organic
nitrogen will be oxidized to nitrite and-nitrate ni-
trogen by means of nitrifying bacteria. Denitri-
fication can be reacted through denitrification tank
nitrite and nitrate into ni-
trogen gas. Sand filterand activated carbon
absorberhas also same meaning as Pig. - 1.
<3.1.J-. 11 -
-------
Table 4 : Cost Comparison of Leachate Processes
System
Construc-
tion Period
(month)
Construc-
tion Cost
(1000 US$)
Operation Cost
mue-
(usa/d)
Amoriti-
zation
(US$/d)
Tota
(us.
A

10,703
2,733
5,250
7,9:
B
18
3,030
4,133
1,480
5,6:
C
18
2,690
1,467
•1,050
2,5:
D
18
3,557
3,133
1,747
4,8£
Note: Amoritization be based on 7 years depreciation.
System A:
System B:
System C:
System D:
Leachate — Evaporation & Distillation -
Activated sludge process,— Physical & chemical
Treatment — Effluent
Leachate — Activated sludge process — Physical &
Chemical Treatment — Activated Carbon Absorption
Sand Filtration — Effluent
Leachate — Activated sludge process — Physical &
Chemical treatment — Discharge into sewerage
Leachate — Activated sludge process — Physical &
Chemical treatment — Dilution by sea water
The effluent shall be met with effluent standard which
,is much severe than the national standard mentioned in Table -
3 as follows, apart from heavy metals,
pH 5.8 - 8*6
BOD less than 20^^° in daily average
COD "30 »
ss n 70 "
J}. I. kl2 -
.
-------
In case of discharging into sewerage, the effluent
shali be as follows,
pH 5•8 - 8.6
BOD less than 300
COD " 300
sb M 300
2. 4 Changes in Land-fill Site Land Value Before and
After Pilling
Current application to the municipalities for approval
of sanitary land-fill operation require discussion of the
final use of the site. Completed sanitary land-fills can be
readily used for parks or other recreational uses or restrict-
ed agricultural purposes and if well compacted, can be used
for parking lots, open air storage and with careful consid-
erations for other types of construction. The primary reason
for avoiding construction of buildings on a completed land-
fill are that settlement of the site continues over a number
of years and that methane gas produced from the decomposition
of organic material creates a hazard to the building and its
occupants. However, with prior-planning, a site may be de-
signed for many types of final uses.
For instance, Tokyo Metropolis had ever tried to use
the site for road construction in which authors were request-
cd^to*' check the possibility of using land-fill area for road
foundation. The investigation was made in 1969 from soil
and sanitary engineering aspects. The site had completed to
fill the refuse on swampy sea-shore for 15 years since 1951.
The sample taken from boring shows as seen in Table - 5.
cj, lrU-3 -
-------
Table 5r Composition of Sample
Depth(m)
Moisture
ContentX%)
Combustible (#)
Dry Base
Uncombusti-
ble ("Jo) Dry
Base
2.0 - 2.5
45.1
26.1
73.4
2.5, - 3.1
48.5
51.7
48.3
3.1 - 4.1
54.3
30.1
69.9
4.1 - 5.0
54.4
30.1
69.9
5.0 - 6.0
55.9
28.6
71.4
6o0 - 6.7
-
-
mm
6.7 - 7.1
I
58.7
27.5
72.5
Judging from these data, almost of all carbonhydrates
were decomposed, but celluloses and lignins have not yet
completely decomposed even after 18 years being accunilated
6 to 7 meters in depth.
On the other hand, another investigation was made in
view of temperature gradient which would show a progress of
furmentation in comparison with normal soil. The tempera-
ture gradients'were recorded as 6.7 °c/m in No.l boring,
7.4°c/m in No.2 boring and 8.50c/m in No.3 boring, although
being shown as only 4.0°c/m in normal soil.
, To determine the heat conductivity (Jc) in.the equa-
tion q=k. ^/dz» some calculation was made as seen in Table
- 6.
e?. -
-------
Table 6: Heat Conductivity
Item
con-
tent
(w/w)
Sped!'- I
ic Grav- i
ity , 1
Densi-
ty of re-
fuse
(t/m3)
Con-
tent
(v/v)
ko
(Kcal/
mh c)
k
(Kcal/
mh°c)
Moisture
0.50
1.00
0.500
0.490
0.500
0.245
Straw,
Wood
0.10
0.34
0.294
0.289
0.125
0.036
Textile
0.02
0.30
0„067
0.065
0.080
0.005
Prastics
0^03
. 1.27
0.024
0.023
0.200
0.005
Sand
0.20
2.60
0.077
0.023
0.200
0.005
Glass,
Stone
0.10
2.50
0.052
0.051
1.000
0.051
Ferrous
Metal
0.05
8.00
0.006
0.006
42.000
0.252
Tz= 0.664
Note: k ® 1^00 in normal soil.
Thus, heat flow could be obtained as;
Normal soil: q = 1.100 x'4.0 = 4.40 Kcal/m2. hr
No.l Boring: q = 0.664 x 6,7 - 4.45 "
No. 2 •'* : q « 0o664 x 7.4 = 4*91 "
No. 3 " • : q = 0.664 x 8.5 = 5.63 "
Prom these value of heat flow, it was concluded that
tlj,e refuse dumped is still going to decompose even after
18 years, and then authors recommended that the site shall
be carefully examined to be used for road construction,
because the settlement of the site may continue.
2.5 Other Leachate Control^Methods
Alternate approaches, other than using impermeable
soils for the control or prevention of leachate formation
include processing ojf refuse prior to filling and techniques
for preventing movement of water through the fill area.
Processes can also be applied to solid waste before land-
«2- »-
-------
filling which will minimize the quantity of leachate form-
ed. The most successful process\would be in-place composting
which consists of biologically stabilizing the organic frac-•
tion of the solid waste so that a minimum quantity of sub-
sequent soluble organic material could be leached from the
solid waste fill.
Another process that could be used to minimize leach-
ate control would be baling. Baling results in a compacted
'refuse cube that is so dense that a minimum quantity of water
can move through this material except between the blocks.
This very tight compaction process would also minimize the
overall leachate formation. A technique that can be used to
minimize the percolation of precipitation into the fill is
tjo use a vegetative cover on the top surface of the fill that
has a very high transpiration rate. Vegetation of this type
will take large volumes of water that have been deposited in
the cover soil, and transpire them back into the atmosphere«
This liquid is therefore prohibited from moving through the
fill« area and forming leachate. This is ineffective for rain-
fall in the non growing season, however.
In addition to clay liners, synthetic materials have
been proposed and in- some cases used for both lining the bot-
tom of fill areas and covering the final compacted refuse.
Materials used for these liners and/or covers include PVC, hy^
palon', CPE and various types of asphaltic pavements or emul-
sions. Whenever these materials are used, special precau-
tions must bo taken to insure that they are not punctured by
the refuse material, Precautions include covering of the lin-
er with 15 centimeters- to 30-centimeters of fine sand before
commencing and landfill operations in the area. Liners of
this nature can be sloped such that any leachate generated
will flow over them and be collected by an underdrain system.
If any leachate is generated, it will flow to the sump and the
leachate may then be either recycled onto the fill, treated on'
Bite, op pumped-t.o a-waste water treatment plant.
*2. ^6.6 -
-------
3. In-Place Composting Process
3. 1 Aspects of Leachate Quantity
As described in 2.5, in-place composting process has
•great advantage to stabilize solid waste with in rather
short period of decomposition than sanitary land-fill in con-
sequence of accelerating biological stabilization, minimum
quantity of CH4 gas and improving leachate quality.
Since three years ago, Fukuoka University made a lab-
oratory studies conducted by Prof. Masataka Hanashima using
four units of concrete container as seen in Pig.-3 in which
No.l unit was filled by pre-shredded refuse using aeration
of 5.0 l/m^. min; No.2 unit was filled by raw refuse using
aeration of 5.0 l/m3. min;. No.3 unit was also filled with
raw refuse using aeration of 10.0 l/m^. min; and No.4 unit
was under anaerobic condition. Each unit was covered by
earth in 15 centimeters thickness.
Pig_3: Concrete Container for Aerobic
. Decomposition
Gas Collection &
' Air Blowing
\t?n
O
o
<5
n
u o
-H-
11
n
11
o 'I
IT
1
I

'! 1
o l' I
¦' l
11 1
" I
o 11 I
1
1U
1 1
o
8
400 2000
z00 2000
406
o
O
o-
0
0
01
a
4=4
rif-^
XI.
I
-nr.
- r ——r ~

-J-k

/dda'^%6~7'6
3.1.1.
3 $
_3l".
Air Blowing Pipe
S
-------
Raw refuse used for this study is shown in Table-7,
and leachate study was concluded in Table-8 in view of quan-
tity,
Table-7 : Raw Refuse Composition
Unit
Garbage#
Combustible
. Rubbish (#) •
Uncombustible
Rubbish- (#)
No.l
45.2
46.1
8.7
No.2
32,S
56.4
10.7
No. 3
32.9-
56.4
10.7
No.4
32.9
56.4
10.7
¦ Unit
Volume of
Refuse Used^ '
Density (^/m3)
No a

0.76
No. 2
5.0
0.71
No.3
5.0
0.-71
.No ,4
5.0
0.71
V
Unit
No.l
NOo2
No.3
No.4
Table-8 s Leachate Quantity
Augl972-
,*Julyl973
Leach-
ate (1)
2,616
2,423
1,748
3,044
Rate
of
Leach-
ate ($)
¦79.3
73.0
53.0
92.0
Augl973^-
.Julyl974
Leach-
ate (1)
2,047
1,404
877
1,727
Rate
of
Leach-
ate ($)
87.5
60.0
38.0
74.0
Augl974-.
' July1975
Leach-
ate (1)
Rate
of
Leach-
ate^)
1,124.9 48.5 5,787.9
1,302.5 56.2 5,129.5
865.8 37.4
1,754.1, 75.7 j6,525.1 1 82.0
Total
Leach- Rate
ate (1)| of
Leach
ate (

72.7
64.5
3,490.8 j 43.9
iU /-I." -
-------
cqncrete container brought relatively large rate of
leachate (leachate/water in-flow), because it was made by
water-proof lining of cement mortal. This means that actu-
al application must show smaller amount of leachate than the
result of laboratory study, so that it shall be necessary to
install a monitoring well adjacent to the location of land-
fill, because it is considered that.the differences of amount
.of leachate would be penetrated into underground underneath
of land-fill. Moreover, large amount of aeration brought sig-
nificant result of leachate's reduction as much as 20% in com-
parison with smaller amount of aeration.
3. 2 Aspects of Leachate Quality
Leachate quality was studied for Unit No.2 as aerobic
condition in comparison with Unit No.4 as anaerobic condition.
Reference was made to Table-9 through -four years experiment in
term of pH, BOD, COD, NH3-N, albuminoid-N and chloride. It is
apparently understood that aerobic decomposition has higher re-
duction of such characteristics than anaerobic furmentation.
c&, U* 19 -
-------
Table-9: Leachate 2uali'^y under Aerobic Condition
(Unit ppm)

( 1972 )
( 1973 )
( 1974 )
( 1975 )
Aug.
Sep.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Jan..
Apr.
July
Oct.
Jan.
Apr.
July
Oct»
Jan.
Apr.
July

II
4-45
7.50
8.50
8.55
8.42
8.38
8.75
8.61
7.71
8.55
8.93
8.45
8 . 12
8.79
8.80
9.30
IV
4.68
6.60
5-91
5.8l
5.89
6.16
5.70
5.41
5.55
5-75
5.58
•
5.70
6.80
6.83
6.70
7.34

II
39900
21300
2689
134
367
102
251
72 . 8
11.0
19.7
24-5
11.5
6.4
12.8
2.5
10.5
IV
54940
52674
49625
41560
46790
5.4910
42712
39909
41*905
36630
26873
30366
11353
"37J5.
7940
4586
°7
II
23575
22594
1944
3112
2565
2028
1289
\
1509
1384
1090
1125
931
682
491
364
28 5
IV
50922
35089
47417
59356
60608
46060
41609
34103
39810
35555
43443
28129
17798
13937
7087
3300
N
II
1060
1331
209
125
224
47
59
16
1.5
0.8
2.0
3.7
0.
4.1
3.1
5.34 '
IV
1118
1051
1283
1389
1380
1517
1045
738
1090
1165
733
821
616
. 476
344
458 '
N
II
439
426
149
125
155
104
45
42
42
39
20
20
13
14
7-6
10.7
•
IV
900
865
719-
6 57
633
657
523
42 1
158
373
286
242
112
101
115
114

3403
3155
3013
3226
3145
1330
2039
1800

1294
1504
1145
731
727
70a
IV

2953
3474
t
•3.049
2531
3077
2039
2039
1596

1262
1026
77 0
550
496
640

-------
From these longrun study, it would be able to summa-
rize for leachate quality as follows,
Leachate Quality
© Colour & Odour:
Generally brownish, but will be condensed after
.year by year; typical 'putrescent smell exists.
© PH:
Generally a range of 6 to 8, but sometime shows
acidic form.
(3) Suspended Solid:
Almost less than 300ppm, but sometime shows more
than 500ppm.
® BOD:
Less than l,000ppm in many cases, but shows some-
where 10,000ppm or more at most prosperous period
of dumping; will be decreased after year by year.
(5) Volatile Organic Acidf
Inter-relation between BOD and organic acids will
exist.
© COD:
Periodically higher than BOD, but inter-relation
between BOD and COD has not been proven.
Nitrogen:
High nitrogen compounds exist, and not be decreased
for certain period.
© Phosphorus:
Low content of phosphorus may interfere an acti-
vated sludge process if be employed.
Anaerobic Treatment
(l) High BOD and COD is not improved for long'period of
time.
.aJ.K a -
-------
(2) Significant high nitrogenous substances is much worse
off than BOD and/on COD.
(3) Stabilization is not expected for long time.
Aerobic Treatment
(T) High BOD and COD can be significantly reduced. .
(2) After few months, ammonium nitrogen is reduced, ex-
tremely.
(3) Comparing 'easy reduction of BOD, COD is rather diffi-
cult to reduce.
3. 3 Volumetric Aspects
After three years study, volumetric aspect was made
by taking out the refuse decomposed from the concrete contain-
ers. As the result, it is understood that approximately 90
1
of raw refuse was converted to gas throughout the aerobic de-
compostion. On the contrary, only 10% of raw refuse was trans-
fered to gas under the anaerobic decomposition i& the result
of many leachate yielded throughout' decomposition.
Soon after the process begins the temperature rise
sharply and residjial odors quickly disappear. Fly larvae are
killed and thus .fly breeding is prevented. In a matter of
1 to 3 months the material is stabilized into a finished com-
post yvhich must be evaluated as soil conditioner.
3. 4 Conclusion
In-place composting process differs from the former
process in that the shredded, refuse.,fclowly:.butccompletely.com-
post in-place after the material is compacted in the land-
fill. Since composting is essentially an aerobic process pro-
vision is made for blowing air into the landfill under a pres-
sure of 100 to 250 millimeters of water. Before the landfill-
ing of the shredded refuse begins, perforated tile is placed
in the ground in shallow trenches. The smaller tile would be

-------
approximately 100 millimeters in diameter layed about 3 me-
ters on centers, these would be connected to large pipes
which in turn would be connected to air blowers. Air is
blown intermittently through the shredded and compacted re-
fuse. The amount of air used is dependent on the speed with
which the breakdown occurs.
On all of the processes it is well to have the capa-
bility of injecting larger amount than theoretical^air needed.
The surplus air can be used for cooling. It is also desir-
able to have the capability of either blowing or sucking air
through the pile. This can be done with a simple blower,
by the use of several slide plates or butterfly valves*
Another approach which accomplishes this reversing capabil-
ity along the standby blowers and motors is to place one
blower in one direction and one in the other. The further
advantage of this latter approach is that, it simplifies re-
versal of flow on an automatic electrically controlled basis.
Jf. '.1.23 -
-------
Sulked |
[ Report on ''The Drainage Water Control Plant'1
for the waste reclamation land in Kobe ]
Reported by Yoshinori Maekawa
Environment Control bureau
of Kobe City
I. The outline of the project
1. The outline of the plan
The Nagaoyaraa waste reclamation land is located at th>3 western
part of the Rokko mountain range which is adjacent to the pro-
fectual road from Kobe to Takarazuka. Its geographical position
is the inclised forest of 300 m to 450 m hi?.h = The r3in water
(985 ft) (1480 ft)1
and the well up water in the reclamation land are poured into
the Shijimi River through the Maruyama River.
This land was added by 261,000 m^ to the previously obtained
(2»810,000 ft2)
land of 384,000 m2„ and its reclamation capacity of 1,600,000 n\3
(4,130,000 ft2) (56 v 500, 000 ft-1)
for reclamation of the waste materials in Kobe City since October
in 1968. Then, the present reclamation capacity is 4,600,000
(162,400,000 ft3)
and used for gravels, trash, rubbish and general waster,
Kobe City started the plan of the drainage water control plant
from 1972, and accordingly proceeded to the detailed investiga-
tion. The construction was started from 1974 and will be com-
pleted at 1976.
-------
II, The outline of the construction
Location
Kotohpe, Shimotari, Yamada-cho,
Kita district, Kobe-city
12,000 m2 (129,000 ft2)
Area
Treating capacity 1,700 m^/day (60,000 ft^/day)
Treating process
Water spray hearth process + Condensing
Sedimentation process + I5io.lopica!
Filtering process + Adsorption
Process with activated carbon.
Construction period; From April, 1974 to March , 1976
Construction cost Approximately a billion yen
(3,^3 million US dollar)
III. The outline of the plant
1. Flowsheet
2. Ground plan
3. Process description
-------
NAGAOYAMA Drainage Water Control Plant
Flowsheet
1. Slaked line first dissolution tank
2. S3.aked line second dissolution tank
3. First high molecule tank
4. Condensator tan!:
5. From reservoir
6. Feed water tank
7. Feeding water into plant
8. Phosphoric acid tank
9. Methanol tank
10. Second hip,h rcolecule tank
11. Third high molecule tank
12. Storing dam
13. First water spray hearth tower
14. Second water spray hearth tower
15. Third water spray hearth tower
16. Uigh speed condensing sedimentation
17. 'litrogenextraction tower
13. Adsorption tower with activated carbon
19. Bactericide
20. Discharge
21. First water receiving tank
22. Water receiving pit
2 3. Second water receiving tank
24. Third water receiving tank
25. Mixing tank
26. First processed water tank
27. Second processed water tank
23. Third processed water tank
29. Sedimentation tank
2r). Dirt storage tank
31. High speed centrifugal hydroextractor
n - . -at
-------
NACAOYAMA Drainage Water Control Plant
A.. Activated Carbon yard
B. Clean water tank
C. Counter washing .tank
D. Hydroextractcad cake yard
E. Hydroextractor room
F. Control room
G. Electricity transformer
II. Chemicals tanks
I. Pond
Ground Plan
-------
10 ^
1 -)! I Orrt ;'ji I". U \ -)• J »
"i:—) ¦ l':.' 11' ',:1 i' J Jii fiii *j"~o
-------
NAGAOYAMA Drainage Water Control Plant
Process Description
1. First water receiving tank and first water spray hearth tower.
The original water is received at first water received tank, where
phosphoric acid is poured so as to secure nutrition balance of the
original water, and then water is transferred through pumpt to
first water spray hearth tower.
In this tower, BOD in the original water removed by biomenbrane
adhered to the surface of billing material in the tower. Then
the original water is transferred to water receiving pit.
2. Water receiving pit
The drainage transferred from the first water spray hearth tower
is stored in this pit. Grandually the drainage is transferred
to sedimentation tank by natural down flow.
3. Sedimentation tank
In this tank, excess dirt generated at the first water spray
hearth tower is separately sedimated. Supernatant fluid is again
transferred to the first water receiving tank by natural down flon.
4. Second water receiving tank and second water spray hearth tower.
The drainage overflown from the first water receiving tank is
transferred through pump to the second water spray hearth tower,
where remaining BOD in the drainage is removed by the .same system
as in the first water spray hearth tower.
£* I. 2l- (o
-------
5. Third water receiving tank and third water spray hearth to>-*er..
The drainage overflown from the second water receiving tank is
transferred ,through pump to the third, water spray hearth r.ower.,
where ammoniac nitrogen in the drainage is Oxidised to nitrogen
of nitricacid by biomenbrane adhered to the surface of filling
material in the tower.
6, Mixing tank
'A ! -
Drainate, whose BOD is removed and ammoniac nitrogen is oxidized,
is mixingly poured with slaked line and condensator so that they
shall react against floating matters in the drainage and that
they shall generate flock which i's easily sedinated >* Finally these
flocks are" transferred to high speed condensing sedimentation tank,
7. 'ligh speed condensing dedimentation tan>..
The drainage flown into this tank from the mixinj; tank is transferred
to reaction area, where high molecule condensator is poured go
that the flocks shall be enlarged for easy sedimentation. "Pie
drainage reacted is transferred to sedinentation area and then
separately sedinented Supernatant fluid is transferred to pro-
cessed water tank as processed water.
8. First processed water tank
In this tank, the processed water after the floating natters is
separately sedinented is once stored with methanol poured.
And then the processed water is transferred through pump to nitro-
genextraction tower.
-------
9. Nitrogenextraction tower.
In this tower, nitrogen of nltrlcacld In the processed water is
removed by biotnenbrane adhered to the surface of filling material
in the tower. And then the processed water Is flown into second
processed water tank.
10. Second processed water tank.
The processed water is once stored in this tank, and then transferred
through pump to adsorption tower with activated carbon.
11. Adsorption tower with activated carbon.
In this tower, COD and chromaticity in the processed water is
adsorbed with activated carbon in the tower. And finally the
processed water is transferred to third processed water tank
through bacteriacide pouring.
12. Third processed water tank.
The processed water whose COD and chromaticity is removed is once
stored in this tank, and finally discharged out from the yard.
13. Hydroextracto):
The dirt once stored in dirt storage tank is transferred through
pump to centrifugal hydroextractor, where high molecule condensator
is poured so that flocks shall become larger for easy extraction.
Then the dirt is separated from hearth fluid by centrifugal force,
and hydroextracted.
-------
IV. Designed figure of the plant.
Section
I ten
Unit
Original
Water
Designed fip.ure of
of treating.
PH
i.
-
58 to 86
5.8 to 8.6
BOD 5
ppm
500
10
COD
ppm
t
500
V i
40
NH 3

r2~Q0 :
20
T. N
ppm
250
70
ChrOnaticity
debtee
500
100
- SS

400,
.* _ «« . i
.5
V„ Supcrvission of Construction: Environmental Control Bureau of
Kobe City
Constructor Mitsubishi Heavy Industriess Ltd,
Kobe Shipyard and ^r.frine Works,

-------
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
Environmental Effects of Improper Disposal
of Solid Waste on Land
by Truett V. DeGeare, Jr. P.E.
Presented at the Third U.S.-Japan Conference
on Solid Waste Management, Tokyo, Japan
May 12-14, 1976
-------
CONTRIBUTING STAFF
The information presented in this paper was derived from a
number of contractual efforts, demonstration grants, and staff
analyses. Contributing staff of the U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency included Bernard J. Stoll, Kenneth A Shuster, Allen J. Geswein,
R. Kent Anderson, Dirk R. Brunner, Michael Roul-'er, Dale C. Mosher,
Chris W. Rhyne-, Aiessi D. Otte, and Frederick P. Goodrich. The
manuscript was typed by Mildred Lee.
-------
CONTENTS
TOPIC PAGE
General 1
Leachate Problem Assessment 3
Leachate Control 30
Monitoring and Enforcement 49
Site Selection .. 54
Gas Recovery 62
Landmix 76
Sludge Composting 77
References .84
FI6URE
1 Schematic of Anaerobic Filter System 40
2 Cross-Section of Anaerobic Filter 41
3 Schematic of Physical-Chemical and Biological
Treatment Plant •• 47
4 Gravel -Filled Trench for Gas Control.. .68
5 Gravel Vents fbr Gas Control 68
6 Impervious Materials for Gas Control. 70
7 Pumped Wells for Gas Control 71
TA8LE
1 Municipal Solid Waste Composition 4
2 Damage Case Study Summary 8
3 Preventive Costs 13
4 Number of Disposal Sites Categorized by Annual
Precipitation 16
5 Site Operation Characteristics 20
6 Descriptive Geologic and Soils Characteristics 21
7 Average Change of Macro-Contaminants Compared to
Background Wells 26
8 Absolute Value Ranges (Low Level Indicators) 27
9 Quantitative Values for Site Hydrology 29
10 Costs for Liner Materials 31
11 Field-Scale Leachate Treatment Systems Reviewed 35
12 Characteristics of Leachate and Domestic Waste Waters.... 51
13 Average Range of Composition of Landfill Gas 64
14 Average Gas Composition of Four-Year Old Landfill 64
15 Composition of Average Municipal Solid Waste 72
-------
GENERAL
Introduction
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is involved in land
disposal of wastes in three general areas. These areas, identified by
types of wastes are: Hazardous and Industrial Wastes, Sewage Sludge,
and Municipal Solid Wastes. Activities of the Office of Solid Waste
Management Programs in these three general areas are complemented by
projects being conducted by EPA's Office of Research and Development.
The general premise for these activities is that, even with the
development of resource recovery and other processing techniques, for
i
the foreseeable future the land will continue to be used for disposal of
wastes.^ Therefore, EPA is engaged in various activities to minimize the
environmental impact and costs of land disposal operations. These
activities will benefit the public and private operating sectors of the
waste handling industry, as well as the general public.
The following discussion addresses several EPA projects related to
land disposal of municipal solid wastes, especially those concerning
leachate and gas produced at land disposal sites (LDS). EPA activities
in this area are categorized as follows:
-------
° Problem Assessment—define quantities and characteristics of
leachate and leachate damage.
® Leachate Control--assess and demonstrate technology to collect
and treat .leachate.
° Monitoring and Enforcement—improve procedures for leachate
nonitorlng and for enforcing regulations.
° Site Selection—improve procedures for selecting disposal
sites with due consideration to technological (contaminant
transport) and political and sociological (land use) aspects.
° 6as recovery—assess and demonstrate technology to extract and
market methane generated at disposal sites.
Waste Composition
¦'Municipal solid waste" is comprised of a hetergeneous mixture of
inorganic and organic constituents in solid or semi-solid form. The
constituents may be highly reactive or essentially inert or resistant to
chemical, physical, or microbiological change within the LDS. The
degree or rate of change will depend upon opportunity for reaction, which
is governed by the LDS environment.
<3.9 • 2
-------
Although the composition of municipal solid waste varies across our
Country, it has been generally characterized through field separation
studies. In these studies truckloads of wastes have been manually
separated into various categories. Table 1 presents the results of one
such study conducted in the midwestern United States. This analysis is
typical of our findings which indicate that municipal solid waste is
fairly moist (15 to 35 percent of wet weight) and high in organics (60
to 75 percent of wet weight). Thus, opportunity clearly exists for
microbiological reaction along with oxidation-reduction, coagulation,
precipitation, acid-base and complexation reactions, sorption, ion-
exchange, filtration, etc. withinthe solid waste mass or surrounding
environment. It is this natural activity which produces the leachate
and gas with which we must deal.
LEACHATE PROBLEM ASSESSMENT
Our activities in this category are varied, but are generally
directed to defining (1) leachate damage and (2) the quantities and
characteristics of leachate. Conceptually, we are examining existing
leachate-producing LDS to try to learn what we can expect from those
to be initiated in the future so that we can improve practices to avoid
future problems.
3.2.3
-------
Table 1
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE COMPOSITION2
Composi t i on Moisture Content
Constituent % by wet weight % by dry weight % by wet weight
Food waste 4.2 106.0 51.9
Garden waste 9.7 131.0 55.9
Paper 53.2 57.5 36.3
Rubber, leather, plastics 6.2 25.8 20.6
Textiles 4.3 30.7 18.6
Wood 2.0 21.5 18.2
Metals 7.9 5.8 5.4
Glass and ceramics 6.2 1.3 0.6
Rock, dirt, ash 1.8 15.0 12.9
Fines (< 25.4mm) 3.7 39.7 28.8
Diapers 0.7 162.9 61.1
o?.a, 4
-------
Leachate. Damage
There are numerous cases in the United States in which leachate
from land disposal sites has contaminated surface waters.^ In confined,
slow-moving, or relatively 'low-volume surface waters, it has killed
vegetation, wiped .out-.spawning areas, killed fish, and caused ,the
discontinued use of recreational or planned recreational areas. In most
surface waters, however, the volume of leachate is small compared to the
amount of surface water, and the concentration of contaminants is
rapidly diluted. On the other hand, any migration of leachate directly
into surface wa;er is inexcusable since it can be readily and cheaply
prevented, provided, of course, the disposal site is not placed directly
in a stream, marsh, or flood plain.
In surface waters, up to 9.6.kilometers (6 miles) of streams and
4.8 hectares (12 acres) of lakes have been reported in which leachate
has killed all aquatic life. Leachate plumes, or areas of ground water
contamination emanating from a disposal site, have been reported to
depths of over 30 meters (100 feet) and distances'of over 3,000 meters
(10,000 feet). 3The extent of the plume is determined by whether the
site is in a ground water recharge or discharge area, ground water
pumping patterns, and the proximity of the discharge zone. In many
areas surface and ground wafter systems are interconnected, so that
leachate may flow from one to the other.
2.3. s
-------
There are numerous cases 1n the United States in which leachate has
contaminated ground waters. The most common economic damage resulting
from ground water pollution is the contamination of domestic, industrial,
or public supply wells. Unless the wastes in a polluting land disposal
site are removed, the natural cleansing action of aquifers cannot occur,
resulting in many decades, if not centuries, of foregone usage of the
ground water. This means a devaluation of the land overlying the con-
taminated ground water when any use requiring water is considered. In
five well contamination cases, studied as a part of this project, the
average avoidance cost and direct damage cost was $302,900 (1975 dollars)
per disposal site; in two of the cases this figure is continuing to
3
rise. This partial damage cost is probably higher than it would have
cost to use a suitable alternative site, but is lower than it would have
cost to line, collect, and treat leachate at all five of the poor sites.
In these cases, however, only a small percent of the ground water was
being utilized (one case involved only three domestic wells), thus
minimizing the current economic damages.
Leachate contamination frequently causes severe economic hardships,
distresses, inconveniences, and inequities to the land or damaged-well
owners. In most cases identified to date the persons incurring damages
to their property have not been fully compensated for their losses. Due
to the number of years land disposal sites may produce leachate, it is
difficult to assess the impact of these damages on future generations.
Q-% . 6
-------
Five specific well contamination cases were studied in detail to
determine the type of operations which caused damages, the damages which
resulted, any remedial actions taken, and the costs associated with the
damages. These case studies are summarized in Table 2. All of these
sites were located in unsuitable areas and were originally open dumps,
contamination could have been avoided by proper site location and
operation. No engineering designs or leachate control strategies were
developed in any of these cases before site utilization. All are
located in areas of high precipitation; 94 to 107 centimeters (37 to 42
inches) per year.
Residential wells were polluted in all five of these cases; indus-
trial and public supply wells were also polluted or threatened at two
of these sites. All of the residential wells were eventually abandoned
and public water obtained. The cost of conversion to public supply was
paid by an insurance company in one case, the owners of the damaged
wells in another, and the owner/operators of the public landfills
involved in the other three cases. In one of these cases, the affected
homes had to obtain a judicial settlement by filing suit; the other
cases were either resolved without litigation or are not yet resolved.
For the industrial wells affected, the industry paid the total cost in
one case, while no action has yet been taken in the other. In one of
the public supply well cases the city which contaminated its own well
bore the cost, while in the other, a private water company has been cut
back in production with no compensation except the cost of supplemental
water when needed from another water company.
o) ol. 7
-------
Table 2
CASE STUDY SWWARY

Site 1.
Site 2
Site 3
Site 4
Site 5
Type of operation
open dump, landfill
open dump, landfill
Incinerator residue
open dump,
land rill
open dump,
landfill
open du.Tp,
landfill, Incin*
erator residue
Location
swampy area, stream
sand pit
gravel pit
on bedrock
sand pit
Years of operation
1945 - present
1933 • present
1960 - 1968
1961 - 1972
1947 - 1972'
Size of operation
Acres
Peak annual tonnage
Depth (ft.)
8 (3 ha)
2,500 (2,270 tonne)
25 (8 n)
17 (7 ha)
1
50 (15 n)
56 (23 ha)
200,000 (181,400 tonne)
40 (12 n)
22 (9 ha)
68,000 (61.680
tonr.e)
55 (17 m)
40 (16 ha)
94,000 (85.260
tonne)
55 (17 n)
Annual precipitation (In.)
42 (107 en)
42 (107 cm)
42 (107 cm)
37 (94 cm)
37 (94 cn)
Damages
25 residential Nells
3 residential wells
home fixtures
33 residential wells
3 Industry wells
8 public supply wells
7 residential wells
home fixtures
4 residential wells
4 industry wells ¦
1 public supply
Remedial actions
wells abandoned
public water supplied
filters on wells
well abandoned
public water supplied
fixtures replaced
resld. wells abandoned .
public water supplied
public wells cut back
counterpumplng
wells abandoned
public water
supplied
all wells aband.
public water
supplied
new public supply
well
cover soil on
landfill
Mitigation
No
No
No
Yes
No
Costs to date (1975 dollars)
Well value
Damages (fixtures)
Corrective
Avoidance
Administrative
Total cost (exel. walls)
$ 31.200
0
0
500,000
4.000
$504,600
$3,600
852
0
6,032
7
$£,884
$ 39,000 R only
1,371,762
628.238
Included above
$2,000,000
$ 7,000
5,250
?
33,000
76.750
$115,000
$ 94,000
0
64,750
115,500
25.000
$265!250
Status
cost continuing
concluded
costs continuing
concluded
concluded
-------
The damage costs per disposal site ranged from $10,484 to $2,039,600.
These costs are actual expenditures or commitments to date, and for two
of the sites the costs are continuing to increase.
The crime of leachate' contamination is the impact of environmental
and economic damages on the lives and land of the water resource owners.
In most cases this damage is imposed upon the victim, and often occurs
because of ignorance. In all cases identified to date the victims were
not compensated fully for their losses. Assuming no leachate prevention
and control programs are utilized, contamination of ground water in
areas of high precipitation is inevitable. This means all the wells
downgradient of a disposal site may become polluted and rendered unusable.
It also means the owners of land downgradient of a disposal site cannot
tap the ground water (at least the surficial aquifer) for drinking
water. Unless there is already public water in the area, there will
also be a devaluation of land since it cannot be used or sold for
development without the additional expense of developing an alternative
water source.
Great inconvenience was incurred in four of the cases by residential
well owners who had to use temporaYy water, do their laundry elsewhere,
and bathe at the homes of friends. Direct damages included damage to
laundry, water fixtures (faucets and sinks), and water heaters. The
duration of this inconvenience lasted up to 4 years in one case in which
the home owners did not sue and finally had to pay for being connected
2-2.9
-------
to the public supply. In the fifth residential case the city, which
owned both the landfill and the public water supply, immediately had the
affected homes connected to the public supply. In each case, very
little of the total cost of the impacts was recovered by the well
owners, although in four of the five residential cases the costs of
pipeline and connection to public water were recovered. In addition, in
four of the contamination cases, city, county, and state government
professional resources were called upon to investigate the problems,
take water samples, analyze the samples, determine the extent of con-
tamination, and advise as to corrective or avoidance actions necessary.
These resources included the geological survey, health departments,
water departments, town and county administrative offices, and public
works and environmental control departments.
Remedial Actions. The major tasks of.the residential well owners
were to obtain temporary water first and then a permanent alternative
supply. Both tasks proved to be time consuming, costly, and difficult to
accomplish. In the five cases studied, accomplishment of the first task
included: catching rain in water basins, using a hose to obtain water
from a neighbor who was on public supply filling up containers at the
homes of friends and at work, showering at the homes of friends and
relatives and in public facilities petitioning for a National Guard
tanker truck which was denied by the Governor on the grounds that it
might be unsafe (despite use by National Guard units), petitioning for
the use of Civil Defense Emergency equipment which was denied on the
<2.a.io
-------
grounds that 1t was needed for short-term emergencies, donation of
bottled water by a local Company, using one's garage or basement for
water storage, washing laundry at a laundromat or at the homes of
friends, and eating out. The second task of obtaining a permanent water
supply was accomplished in'four of the five cases by gaining access to
nearby public water.supply lines. In one instance a law suit was
required to make the polluter pay this expenses; in another instance the
damaged-well owner had to bear this cost. In the fifth case, there was
no municipal water supply. The town which owned the disposal site has
had to drill a well upgradient of the disposal site and is developing a
system to store and pipe water to the affected residents.
Preventive Costs. The cheapest means of leachate prevention is to
use disposal sites with soils of naturally low permeability (e.g.,
clays) or soils that are good attenuators with sufficient depth to the
ground water to be effective. The site may cost more initially and will
require an extensive hydrogeologic evaluation before use. To help
decrease infiltration, the site should be operated according to sanitary
landfill procedures with proper slope, daily compaction, and soil
cover, and in general it should be capped with an impermeable cover, top
soil, and vegetation, and vented to allow gases to escape.
A site without suitable soils, or without sufficient distance to
the water table, should be lined with an impermeable lin$r to protect
against leachate migration from the site. The use of a liner means a
<3-2."
-------
leachate collection and treatment system is required. The liner itself
ranges in cost from $5,700 to $25,000 (1974 dollars) per acre for
material and installation, excluding the costs of subgrade and cover
soil. If the liner is to come in contact with ground water, a counter-
pumping facility may be needed to keep' the pressure from shearing the
liner. This means a larger initial cost, and perhaps a continuous
operating cost.
There is little cost data available on leachate treatment facilities.
Based on data from three non-case study sites, the capital costs for
leachate treatment range from $1,060 to $9,250 per liter per minute
($4,000 to $35,000 per gpm*).
Applying these liner and treatment facility costs to the five case
study sites, it is readily apparent that it would have been cheaper to
obtain a site with suitable soils in the first place; such land could
surely have been obtained for less than the additional cost of pre-
ventive technology which is ($44,550 to $178,200 per ha. ($18,000 to
$72,000 per acre). These figures assume no leachate collection (pumping)
costs since gravity feed is a possibility (Table 3).
~Gallons per minute.
Q..S-"
-------
Table 3
PREVENTIVE COSTS AT 1975 PRICES TO FIT SITES SIMILAR TO THE
FIVE CASE STUDY SITES WITH LINERS AND TREATMENT FACILITIES
Treatment facility Initial preventive cost
Site
Liner cost
($/site x 1,000)
capital cost range*
($/site x 1,000)
($/ton)
($/tonne)
($/acre x 1,000)
($/ha x .1,000)
1
$150
$ 49-426
$3.32-9.60
3.67-10.58
25-72
62-178
2
221
104-904
—
19-66
47-163
3
728
340-2,978
.59-2.05
.65-2.26
19-66
47-163
4
286
118-1,030
.54-1.66
.60-1.83
18-60
44-148
5
800
214-1,874
- ——
25-67
62-165
* Based on $32,100/ha ($13,000/acre) to grade and install liner, and
for sites 1 and 5, ground water controls to prevent damage to liner.
+ Tonnage unknown for sites 2 and 5.
a-a- is
-------
The current solid waste disposal situation in the United States,
although improved in many States in the past 5 years, is still poor.
Since landfills are considered to be nonpoint sources, the lack of
environmental standards for the protection of ground water and surface
water has failed to encourage adequate water resource protection and has
allowed local political and socio-economic pressures, rather than
environmental pressures, to dictate disposal site locations and types of
operati ons.
Current estimates for the number of solid waste disposal sites in
4
the United States range from 14,000 to 19,000. Most of these are
open dumps, and only a very small percentage are sanitary landfills.
Moreover, both dumps and landfills have frequently been located in
unsuitable areas, such as floodplains, stream beds, marshes, and gravel
pits. In a large number of sites, wastes have been placed directly into
the ground water. It was common practice to fill in streanjs, bay
areas, and gravel pits with wastes to "reclaim" the land. An estimated
28.000 disposal sites have operated in the past 10 years, with over
9,000 of these now closed. However, due to a lack of leachate
surveillance, monitoring, and control programs throughout the United
States (only a small number of states have recently started such programs)
very little information is available on ground water conditions around
these sites.
>Q*. 14
-------
A report on the disposal site conditions in one state (102 cm or 40
Inches of rainfall per year), based on a survey conducted 4 years ago,
listed the following conclusions:
(1) there were at least 2,600 roadside or promiscuous dumps
(2) 97 percent of the 457 "authorized" land disposal
sites contributed to either air, water, or land pollution
(3) objectional runoff or seepage was noted or potentially
possible in 90 percent of the disposal area
(4) solid wastes were placed directly into the ground water
at 20 percent of the disposal site's.
In April 1975, five additional states, known to have done recent
surveys of disposal sites, were contacted. In four states, with 89 to
99 cm (35 to 39 inches) of rainfall per year reported at least 18 to 31
percent (24 percent average of their disposal sites produce leachate
which is contaminating surface or ground waters. The fifth state, with
107 cm (42 inches) per year rainfall, reported at least 58 percent of
the disposal sites produce leachate which is contaminating surface or
ground waters. Four percent of the sites for the four states and 14
percent for the fifth are reportedly causing economic stresses. Moreover,
these statistics are based merely on visual observation of surface
3' *5
-------
leaeliete and placement of solid waste in the water table. Chances are
that these percentages would be higher if data on the ground water
conditions were available from monitoring programs.
Assuming the critical areas of leachate damage are those states
with aver 7a cm (30 inches) of precipitation per year the states which
have net precipitation infiltration potential have approximately this
amount, over 70 percent of the disposal sites in the continental United
States are fn critical areas (Table 4). This means that 70.8 percent of
the sites, even i-f not placed in the water table or streams etc., have
the potential of producing leachate* Sites in states with no net
Infiltration potential may stiH produce Isachate if the prec?pit3tion
is heavy seasonally and not uniform throughout the year.
Table 4
NUMBER OF KNOWN DISPOSAL SITES CATEGORIZED
BY ANNUAL PRECIPITATION OF STATE
¦ Annual
precipitation Number of Percent
cm (in.) sites of sites
More than 99 (39) 6,300 34
.76-99 (30-39) 6,600 36
51-74 {20-29) 2,000 11
Less than 51 (.20) 3»4Q0 19
Total 18,300 100
9 .a.16
-------
A resource loss occurs only if there is a need or desire to use the
resource. This loss surfaces as: (1) the development of a well which
turns out to be contaminated; (2) the development of an alternative
water source (surface or ground water) which, though not contaminated,
1s more remote and it therefore costs more to pipe in water from it.
Both of these situations have occurred in actual practice. Sites one,
two, three, and five involved yjells that were developed after the
disposal site had been operating and the ground water had been contaminated.
In two of these cases, the wells were initially out of the leachate
plume, but their use and/or the closure of other wells changed the
ground water flow and the direction of leachate migration. In site
four, the disposal site was developed after the wells were in use and
after a State agency evaluation of the site had advised against its
placement because contamination of the wells was inevitable.
As noted earlier the average cost of foregone usage from the
five case studies was calculated to be $221,200 per site. As more
aquifers become contaminated, and as the residential and industrial uses
of water Increase, the supply of suitable water resources will decrease.
This limited supply and high demand situation may compound the costs in
a multiplier effect because of further transport (piping) distances. It
can safely be said, then, that the figure of $221,200 per aquifer is a
conservative value to assign to it. Estimates on how long an aquifer is
unusable as a result of leachate contamination range from 50 to 150
years, although no one really knows how long the restoration of an
a. a. 17
-------
aquifer actually requires. One major unknown is how long a polluting
disposal site will continue to produce leachate.
Assume that 90 percent of the existing sites in states with 76 cm
(30 inches) or more per year of precipitation produce leachate which
results in an opportunity cost of $221,200 per aquifer. This would mean
that the present worth (opportunity cost) of these contaminated aquifers
is about $2.6 billion. If the demand for water is as high as it was in
case study site number three, the opportunity cost per site will be at
least. $588,600 since the cost in this case is still rising. If this, in
fact, reflects true opportunity cost, the national cost of damaged
aquifers (opportunity cost) will be $6.9 billion. Add to this figure
the avoidance tangible direct damage, intangible direct damage, and
administrative costs associated with cases of ground water pollution,
and this certainly is justification for a major Federal, State, and
local effort to upgrade existing disposal practices and to assure that
all new disposal sites utilize the best of existing technology in
protecting our water resources.
Leachate Quantity and Characteristics
The extent of migration and the composition of leachate are
important factors determining the effect of leachate on aquatic and soil
environments. Also of significance are the operation and general
management of the LDS. Surface seeps (springs) of leachate that are
allowed to discharge directly into surface waters would be expected to
3*3.18
-------
drastically change the aquatic environment unless large amounts of
dilution water are available. Surface waters generally provide some
mixing to minimize the adverse effects of leachate. Due to the wide
range 1n leachate composition, characteristics of soils through which
the leachate ml grates> and the characteristics of the receiving environ-
ment, general statements regarding the environmental effect of leachate
are misleading. Well documented cases are not generally available,
probably due to the lack of a concerted program to gather the appro-
priate information and the traditional poor monitoring at most disposal
sites. A few documented cases and some hearsay incidents have been
reported.
In a recent field study we attempted to assess ground and surface
water quality in the immediate vicinity of 10 land disposal sites.
The sites investigated were selected to represent a wide range of
operational, geohydrologic, and climatic conditions (Tables 5 and 6).
Differences from background water quality, or "delta values",-were
measured for surface water quality near the LDS and for ground water
quality beneath the fill and immediately downgradient. This water
quality data, when analyzed in the light of the many site descriptive
variables, should reveal some cause-effect relationships.

-------
SITE OPERATION OHAMCTEMSTICS
Type Age Surface area
Site Operation yrs ha. (acre)
SoSi-d waste
depth
n (ft)
Estimate total
volume solid waste
m3xlO° (yd3x106)
Status
Surface
leactiate
6
H
I
J
SLF,
trench
IF.
pit-fill
cells
dump
SLF,
area fill
1n hollow
SLF,
trench
LF, sand &
gravel pit-
fill
converted
sand pit-fill
SLF,
area fill
SLF,
area fill
SLF,
trench/area
35
12
10
3 (8)
14 (35)
1 (2.5)
47 (115)
9 (22)
8 (19)
48 (119)
9 (22)
28 i (75)
4' (10)
8.2 (27)
6.7 (22)
22.9 (75)
1-15 (3-49)
2.7-6.1
(9-20)
unknown
7.6-9.1
(25-30)
12.2 (40)
7-30.5
(23-100)
6.7 (22)
.3 (.4)
.9 (1.2)
unknown
3.3 (4.3)
.4 .(;$)
unknown
3.8 (5)
1.1 (1.4)
5.7 (7.4)
.3 (.4)
trench
studied
closed
act1ve
active
active
closed
active
actlve
active
actlve
active
none observed
none observed
leachate seep
at base, dis-
charge to s.w.
leachate dis-
charge at toe
leachate at
surface during/
after rainstorm
leachate pools
leachate dis-
charge at toe
leachate seep,
gullies
none observed
none observed
-------
Table 6
DESCRIPTIVE GEOLOGIC AND SOILS CHARACTERISTICS
Site
Soils
Topography
Geology'
A
Clayey till, loess, silt,
sllty clay, sand (w/pebbles)
Interior Plains - Central
lowlands; site 1s on topo-
graphic high, moderate to
gentle relief
Gumbo (clayey) till and loess over
coarser glacial till, underlain by
dolomite, gently dipping, used as
aquifer
B
Fine sand, sandy clay, tight
clay
Gulf Coastal Plain; site on
edge of terrace bordering
floodplaln
Eastern edge of Pleistocene terrace
sands
C
Medium to coarse sand (some
sllty fine sand and clay)
Solid waste dumped over steep
scarp onto narrow flood plain
Face of Bluff on floodplaln, med-coarse
sand glacial outwash over jointed gran-
ite, sands tapped by private wells
(also weathered upper zone granite)
0
Medium-fine sand, some clay
and silt
Gulf Coastal Plain, lowermost
units; hilly terrain (17-3031
slopes) hollows filled with
solid waste
Cretaceous, westward-dipping uncon-
solidated sands and chalk
E
Unsorted glacial till, shale
bedrock
Appalachian Plateau; site on
flank near top of high relief
ridge
Unsorted glacial till over fractured
shale bedrock
F
Coarse-fine sand, gravel and
cobbles
Central lowlands - till plains
section; site on floodplaln
Glacial outwash deposits; mined for
sand and gravel; multl-terraced
Illlnolan and Wisconsin outwash,
shallow water table
G
F1ne-coarse sand, gravel,
clay
Atlantic Coastal Plain; lo-
cated on topographic high
with a gentle eastward slope
.toward floodplaln
Lower unit (Cretaceous) Atlantic
Coastal Plain, arkoslc sand and
gravel Interbedded with clay. Par-
tial cover more recent sand
K
Sllty, chertyclay, sandy 1n
deeper zone
Valley and Ridge Province;
site on flank of 200* high
ridge
Sllty clay residuum over gently-
dipping dolomite
I
S1lt, fine sand, micaceous
saprollte
Gently rolling Piedmont; site
on hilltop
S1lt and saprollte residuum over
weathered, jointed schist with minor
quartzlte
J
Coarse sand, fine gravel,
clay stringers
Cently rolling High P1a1n$
alluvium, site located on
flank of topographic high
Ogallala fin., arkoslc htgh plaint
alluvium
-------
The primary objective of the study was to discern whether or not
contamination (degradation beyond background water quality) of local
water resources takes place at any of the LDS. Secondarily, the inves-
tigation was to explore the nature and level of contamination if it
exists. To accomplish this a comprehensive series of chemical analyses
were required at each well, stream, pond, and seep sampled. This
chemical data, combined with details gathered from each site on geo-
hydrology and site operation, provide a clear picture of ongoing
leaching processes at each site.
Dumps and poorly operated LDS, including conversions (former dumps
which now receive daily cover), would be expected to cause more leachate
problems than expected to cause more leachate problems than well engineered
and operated sanitary landfills. In areas of equally high rainfall,
sites located in permeable soils could be expected to contaminate ground
water more than sites located in clay soils. An investigation of this
sort should indicate some conclusive correlations between site des-
criptive characteristics and th extent of the problem caused by leachate
generated at the site.
It bears repetition at this point that the project's primary
objective was to determine if contamination of water resources existed
beneath or immediately adjacent to the LDS. Where contamination was
found, the level and nature of contamination were characterized by
s. a."
-------
thorough chemical analyses of water samples extracted from downgradient
locations, through-fill wells, and background locations. The monitoring
network of wells and sample points was restricted to the immediate
vicinity of the land disposal site. Had it been within the scope of
these investigations to delineate the migration of the contaminated
plume, a more extensive network of monitoring points would have been
required. To adequately characterize migration of pollutants from the
sites and to assess the threats posed to downgradient users of the water
resources are objectives beyond the scope of this project.
The location of monitoring wells and sample points called for a
thorough review yf existing literature and maps and for a visit to the
site by one or more hydrogeologists. The initial literature review
included hydrogeological data for the site area and for areas of similar
hydrogeology. Topography and surface drainage of the area were studied
from maps of the area both before and after disposal operations commenced.
At the site, the hydrogeologists estimated ground water flow directions
from drainage, topography, and knowledge of the local earth materials.
At this point, rather than perform costly boring and piezometric tests,
the hydrogeologists pinpointed locations for well installation based on
an educated guess at ground water flow directions and on the accessi-
bility of the location for a drill rig. In constructing wells con-
sideration was also given to minimal interference with LDS operations or
post-fill plans for the area. Where possible, wells sampled a lower
level of ground water, as well as the upper level. Casings were generally
slotted to sample a 3 meter (10 foot) zone.
3-2.23
-------
Nearby existing wells, background, downgradient, and occasionally
through the fill, were noted for sampling. Streams, ponds, seeps, and
springs were also noted for sampling. Generally, one location was
selected for a well through the fill, and two or more downgradient.
Drilling a background well was necessary only if an appropriate
upgradient background well did not already exist.
Well driling was performed by various drilling equipment, dependent
largely on the performance of the local drilling contractor. Air and
mud rotary, hollow stem auger, and cable tool were used. Ten to 15 cm
(4 to 6 inch) diameter casing was installed, slotted with a torch or a
hacksaw [the former on steel casing, the latter on polyvinyl chloride
(PVC)J. The use of steel or PVC was largely dependent on the depth of
the well and the capabilities of the driller. The choice of bentorn*te
or cement for grouting depended on what was available in the area at
the time.
No attempt was made to develop the wells unless rotary equipment
drilled the well, in which case it was possible to blow water out until
it appeared clear. Bailing 7 to 11 liters (2 to 3 gallons) of water out
of each well before each sample extraction was adequate to insure that
representative ground water, was being sampled. Wells were generally not
sampled until a month after drilling.
a.a.2«
-------
Over a 6 to 7 month period, all sample points were sampled monthly.
Water collected for metals analysis were filtered (0.45^) and acid-
fixed in the field.
The data obtained during these investigations have been divided
into two groupsthose contaminants generally exhibiting high levels and
those exhibiting minimal or undetectable levels. Selected data are
presented in Tables 7 and 8, respectively, showing increases over
background (delta values) for both thrufill and downgradient wells.
Furthermore, the delta values presented are the averages over the entire
monitoring period. This was done to remove seasonal variation from the
data. Interpetation of the data with seasonal variation included is
not possible unless the time-distance relationship between wells is
established.
It is assumed that the relative.increase over background found in
this 7 month study is valid, discounting any year to year variation
which can occur. In examining the data in the tables it is noted that
there is considerable similarity among the sites studied:
° all sites show contamination and
° the nature of contaminants are similar among sites.
25
-------
Table 7
AVERAGE CHANGE OF MACRO-CONTAMINANTS FOR
THRUFILL AND DOWNGRAOIENT WELLS COMPARED.TO BACKGROUND WELLS

Site
Specific
conductance
{/1 mhos/cm2)
Fe
(mg/1)
Ca
(mg/l)
Phenolicsa
(mg/1)
NO3-N
(mg/1)
NH4-N
(mg/1)
TKNb
(mg/1)
A
a Thru
1,318
226.5
198
1.14
-.3
.2
38.3

A Dngrd
392
-1.62
26
*
*
*
*
B
A Thru
12,394
3.02
53
.145
.3
5.37
345.9-

A Dngrd
255
-.59
35
.006
-.3
.65
1.4
C
a Dngrd
214
10.7
18.4
(.002)
(.1)
(1)
(2)
D
A Thru
358
-.46
-20
-.003
-.1
-.12
-.74

A Dngrd
-27
-.46
-15
*
*
*
*
E
A Thru
1,083
12.4
8
(.001)
(.1)
(.31)
(1.19)

A Dngrd
704
1
61
(.003)
(!)
(-04)
(.39)
F
A Thru
1,045
11.8
44
-.001
.2
3.25
-2.2

A Dngrd
671
41
98
.16
.1
10.15
11.5
G
A Thru
245
26.7
9
.08
0
2.05
2.4

A Dngrd
12
-.04
-12
-.03
0
*
-.04
-.67
H
A Thru
132
.79
21.6
.003
0
•(.21)
-.65

A Dngrd
76
.03
12.6
.002
0
(,09)
-.75
I
A Thru
-1
9.5
-17.4
-.005
-.9
.02
2.6

A'Dngrd
601
181.6
30.9
.037
.7
.08
3
J
A Thru
290
.56
43
.015
(.5)
0
-.74

A Dngrd
17
.25
.4
*
*
*
*
a Distillation determination of all phenolic compounds,
b TKN 3 Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen. This value includes both organic
and NH4 nitrogen.
* Indicates no analysis.
Values in parentheses are absolute values; no background values
available for A determination.

-------
Table 8
ABSOLUTE VALUE RANGES*
(low level Indicators)
Veil location

Parameters'

Cd Crri
Pb
Cn
Hg
Se
As
B
Site

A thrufUl
downgradient
background
.01
.02

.005
.01
*
.0005
.0023
*
.001
INT
*
.03
.06
*
.2
.4
*
B thruflll
downgradlent
background

.03
.07

.0015
INT
.01
.06

3.7
C downgradient
background .

*.
*
*
*
*
*
*
0 thruflll
downgradlent
background

*
*
.01
.03
*
*
*
E thruflll
downgradient
background
*
.03
.09
*
*
*
*
¦0
.6
*
F thruflll
downgradient
background

.01

.01
.09

1.3
1.4
.33
.52
.20
6 thrufill
downgradient
background

.009
.0005
.0085
.0005
.0007

H thrufill
downgradient
background
.01
..01
.01
.03
.03
.03
.03
.005
.006
.005
.01
.0005
.0006
.0005
.005
.01
.01
.02

I thrufill
downgradient
background

.005
.02
.0009
.003

J thruflll
downgradient
background
.01
.01
.02

.01
.07
o _
.0005
.004
*
.0005
.005
*
.01
.03
.03
.04
*
*
+ Note: Detection limits: cd ..01, Pb .03, Hg .0005, As .03
Cr .01, Cn .005, Se .01, B .2
blank spaces Indicate values below detection limit
* indicates no analysis performed
INT Indicates Interference during analysis
<3-31.27
-------
Given the wide range of site characteristics, both of these points are
somewhat surprising. That all sites contaminate is of significance in
that site H can, by today's standards of sanitary landfill design and
operation, be considered a true sanitary landfill. While the contamination
noted is very low, the site is only 3 years old and has a depth of 49
meters (161 feet) to ground water. As a further example, site J is
located in a midwestern state, estimated ground water recharge is only.
1.25 cm/yr (0.49 in/yr), and the depth to ground water is 38 meters (125
feet). Given the age, depth to ground water, type of subsoil and amount
of leachate, contamination was not expected to occur at either of these
sites.
It was not expected that the types of contaminants would be similar
among sites. It was expected that dumps, which are subject to more
leaching, would show higher levels of more contaminants. This has
simply not been the case. Given the levels of contamination, there is
no indicated difference between dumps and sanitary landfills. Because
efforts to explain differences in the level of contamination between
sites foiled on the basis of operational characteristics other factors
were examined.
For comparison, it was decided to pair specific conductance, which
reflects the level of most other contaminants, with soil permeability,
precipitation and estimated ground water recharge. These data are
presented in Table 9. It appears that the factor most related to the
5.2-28
-------
Table 9
QUANTITATIVE VALUES FOR SITE HYDROLOGY
Ite
Annual
precipi-
tin
(cm)
Estimated
annual
ground water
recharge
(cm)
Depth to
. ground water
From From bottom
surface of refuse
(m) (m)
Ground water
flow
velocity
(cm/day)
Porosity
(%)
Permeability
(cm/sec)
l
86.0
36.8
8.9-11.7
.6-3.5
.7
20
9.25xl0"5 ,
-8.ixicr®
\
150
53.6
3.5
-2.65
73-165
12-20
8.4xl0"4
-1.9xl0"3
%
»
107.2
-110.7
30.2-34.0
thru soil
flows thru
solid waste
unknown
unknown
unknown
)
135.1
33.9
3.84
2.84-11.16
195
35
1.5-3.0xl0~3
¦
80.8
26.7
14.71
8.6^12
1,200
10
1.04-1.74xl03
-
101.6
14.5-22.6
/v. 5
in fefuse
33
20
3.8xl0~4
%
l
118.9
56.9
13.2
41-5.6
23.4
35
1.02-1.7x10"4

136.1
40.9
61.57
49.37
.43
17-50
5x10*7
[
113.7
23.7
20.48 ,~13.48
6.4
20
7.4xl0"5
J
41.3
2.1
44,82
38.12
90-370
11-41
1.04-4.3xl0"3
=2

- d2
-------
level of contamination is the estimated ground water recharge. This
apparent inverse relationship seems logical because high ground water
recharge would indicate potentially high dilution rates, resulting in
low levels of contamination. Efforts are currently underway to obtain
additional data which will either support or refute this rationale. If
this relationship/holds, the way to minimize impact on ground water
without the use of liners appears to be maximization of the quantity of
ground water recharge. From Tables 7 and 8 it is also obvious that the
strength of leachate is greatly reduced in.traveling from the fill to
the ground water and further reduced as it travels downgradient. The
data does not however indicate the maximum distance of contaminant
travel.
LEACHATE CONTROL
Collection
In the area of leachate collection the EPA has concentrated on use
of impermeable or low permeability barriers to inhibit movement of
leachate into water sources, thereby retaining it for treatment. Although
many materials are available and have been proposed for use as liners
(Table 10) at the bottom of land disposal sites, the practice is rare in
the United States.
¦ 30
-------
Table 105
1973 COSTS FOR VARIOUS LAND DISPOSAL
SITE LINER MATERIALS

Installed cost*
Material
($/sq. meter)
Polyethylene (10-20+ mils+)
1.08-1.72
Polyvinyl chloride (10-30+ mils)
1.40-2.58
Butyl rubber (31.3-62.5+ mils)
3.88-4.78
Hypalon (20-45+ mils)
3.44-3.66
Ethylene propylene diene monomer (31.3-62.5+ mils)
2.91-4.09
Chlorinated polyethylene (20-30+ mils)
2.91-3.88
Paving asphalt with sealer coat (5 cm)
1.44-2.03
Paving asphalt with sealer coat (10 cm)
Hot sprayed asphalt (4.5 liter/m^)
2.81-3.89
1,79-2.39
(includes earth cover)
Asphalt sprayed on polypropylene fabric (100 mils)
Soil-bentonite (5 kg/mr)
Soil-bentonite (10 kg/m2)
1.51-2.24
0.86
1.40
Soil-cement with sealer coat (15 cm)
1.50
* Costs do not include construction of subgrade nor the cost of
earth cover. These can range from $0.12 to $0.59/m2 per 0.3 m in depth.
+ Material costs are the same for this range of thickness.
* One mil = 0.001 inch or 0.025 millimeter.
<34. si
-------
The EPA has sponsored a laboratory study to examine the suscepti-
bility of several of these materials to degradation by leachate.
Through laboratory testing the physical properties of the materials were
determined. Samples of the materials were then placed in continuous
exposure to leachate under anaerobic conditions as would be encountered
in the bottom of'a LDS. On termination of exposure the physical pro-
perties of the samples will again be determined in order to define any
deterioration which might have occurred during exposure. Total exposure
time will be 24 months or until failure (visible leakage), whichever
occurs first.
Selected samples have been examined after 12 months exposure.
Tests indicate failure of both paving asphalt and soil cements Three
synthetic membrane materials swelled significantly but did not fail.
These were Hypalon, chlorinated polyethylene, and ethylene propylene
diene monomer.
Solid wastes placed above liners will continually decompose,
producing leachate for many years. It will never be possible to deter-
mine whether any given liner material will retain its integrity through
the leachate-generating life of a LDS. Therefore, the EPA recommends
that (1) any leachate which accumulates on the surface of the liner be
removed for treatment and (2) underdrains be installed below the liner
to monitor for and capture for removal any leachate which passes through
the liner.
5-2-32
-------
Treatment
The EPA's activities in Teachate treatment involve two approaches:
(1) Evaluation of various facilities presently in use at sites
across the nation, and
(2) Construction and evaluation of facilities or processes which
have shown promise in the laboratory.
The objective of these activities is to provide guidance, based on field
experience, in the design and use of leachate treatment facilities. To
achieve this we intend to establish for each treatment system studied:
(1) Removal rates and efficiencies for various leachate constituents,
(2) Design parameters and accuracy of design, and
(3) Cost of treatment.
Through various undocumented information sources it has been
reported that about 50 leachate treatment facilities exist in the
United States. In attempting to further identify and study these
facilities, the EPA estimates that it is more likely that there are only
about half this number.
5-9.«
-------
The EPA has conducted cursory reviews of nine full-scale leachate
treatment systems. These' facilities are identified by location and type
In Table 11 which also presents the sparse cost information available.
Two points were immediately obvious from the EPA reviews, which included
field visits and discussions with the owners and operators of the
facilities:
(1) Where information existed, leachate characteristics and
system design rationale varied considerably.
(2) There is a dearth of data on costs, performance, and operations.
For example, aerated lagoons at two different facilities were designed
on the following bases: detention times, 91 days and 122 days; and BODg
loadings, 0.3 Kg/28,317 liter air (0.7 Lb/1,000 ft3 air) and 1.7 Kg/28,317
liter air (3.7 Lb/1,000 ft3 air). Also, in the case of irrigation
systems application rates were found to vary from 0.018 cm/hr (0.007
in/hr) to 0.84 cm/hr (0.33 in/hr). Removal rates and efficiencies
(performances) have not been evaluated in either case.
The appropriate conclusion is that, while LDS are being equipped
for leachate treatment, there is insufficient information on which to
design or predict performance of the systems used. Thus, over the next
year the EPA will be conducting extensive performance evaluations of
existing systems in order to provide such information.
5.2.34
-------
Table 11
FIELD-SCALE LEACHATE TREATMENT SYSTEMS REVIEWED*
Locatlon
System
Annual
flow
(liters)
Capital
cost
($)
Annual
operating
cost ($)
Hershey, Pa.
Three holding/seepage ponds

Reading, Pa.
Recirculation
0.2xl06

2,300
Norristown, Pa.
Recirculation
3x106
670,000

Doylestown, Pa.
Physical/chemical
38xl06
750,000
100,000
St. Louis, Mo.
Aerated lagoon, then
land irrigation
14xl06
850,000
Not operating-
new
Longview, Wa.
Aerated lagoon, then
anaerobic lagoon, then
sewage plant
48x106
150,000
Not operating—
new
Corvalis, Or.
Spray irrigation
49x106
3,000
600
McMinnville, Or.
Spray irrigation

Nantlcoke, N.Y.
Spray irrigation

* Blank Indicates Information unknown.
-------
In addition to assessing the performance of existing systems, the
EPA is in the process of.constructing and evaluating the following
systems and unit processes:
(1) Spray i rri gati on
(2) Anaerobic filter
(3) Physical-chemical (precipitation), activated sludge, activated
carbon filter.
Spray irrigation is expected to be the most cost-effective and
generally applicable treatment method available. The system is rela-
tively simple to construct and operate and requires relatively low
capital investment. In most cases the necessary facilities would
consist only of a holding pond, piping and spray system, and land for
spray application. Aeration may be required in the holding pond to
avoid odor problems in spraying the leachate.
Specific objectives of the spray irrigation project are to
determine:
(1) The efficiency of spray irrigation applied at various rates,
2.O.. *
-------
(2) The capacity of soils, especially those treated with lime and
phosphates, for complexing toxic heavy metals in leachate and
for improving water quality by reducing the level of organic
pollutants;
(3) The value of aeration as a means of decreasing the level of
organic wastes and odors in the leachate pond;
(4) The environmental impact of leachate un native ecological
societies and the effects of leachate on the growth and chemical
composition of native and cultivated plant species.
A small, self-contained watershed, located in the spray irrigation
area, was selected for study, and soils were treated with lime, super-
phosphate and rock phosphate in replicated plots. Soil and vegetation
samples were collected and identified. Suction cup lysimeters were
installed at various depths in the spray plots and in control (non-
sprayed) plots outside the spray area. Soil samples were taken to a 60
cm depth.
Fifty cm of leachate were applied by overhead rotary sprinklers
during a 6 month period in late 1973 and early 1974. Soil moisture
samples were collected from the lysimeters before, midway, and at the
end of the irrigation period. Water samples were obtained regularly
9-2. «
-------
from several sources of raw and treated leachate contained in the
holding pond. Plant and'soil samples were collected in the spring
following emergence of foliage and at the conclusion of leachate spray
irrigation. The results of the first year of investigation favorably
indicate that plant and soil filtration is satisfactory for decontamina-
tion of leachate; however, more information is needed before definite
cons1us ions can be made.
The results of preliminary analyses of 6 months of samples collected
through early 1974 show that average leachate COD and conductivity
levels decreased and pH increased as irrigated leachate moved from
initial to final sampling points in the treatment system. Significant
declines in the initially high concentrations of Fe, Zn, Ca, Mg, and Na
occurred as leachate passed through successive sampling points. Small
amounts of heavy metals were detected in raw leachate, but none of these
could be found in1 lysimeter water samples. This suggests that at least
initially the soil exchange process for complexing these elements was
operating in the desired manner. Heavy metal immobilization in the soil
is very important because of possible toxic concentrations of these
elements in plants that may be consumed by animals. Heavy metals tended
to accumulate in the first 15 cm of the soil after 50 cm of leachate
irrigation in 6 months. The levels of Co, Pb, Ni, Cr, and Cu were
considered high enough to create possible hazards in certain plants.
The efficiency of the soil for reducing the heavy metal risk requires
more extensive study over a longer period of time before dependable
guidelines can be proposed.
£-9.- 38
-------
Background data have been collected prior.to the installation of an
aerator in the leachate catchment basin. Leachate samples will be
collected at the entrance and exit points in the basin to test the
potential benefits of aeration. Parameters measured will include BOD,
pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, as well as nutrients
and metals.
Spray irrigation rates will be evaluated by installing various
numbers of sprinklers. Proper application rates will be determined by
using double-ring infiUrometers to establish the initial character-
istics for downward movement of water. The infi Urometers will be used
periodically to measure any changes in rates that would reflect plugging
of the soil pore space. Further observation would determine the length
of time required to rest the soil before irrigation is resumed. Chemical
analyses of soil water and soil extracts will reflect the ability of the
soil to retain metals.
This information should furnish guidelines for spray irrigation
rates use while preventing an increase in the concentration of elements
in ground water supplies.
The anaerobic filter facility is depicted schematically in Figures
1 and 2. Construction is now underway and should be completed by August.
Evaluation should be complete in February 1978.
Q .2.39
-------
Influent _
Storage

Pumping

tank

station

¦pk.
o
(Possible
sulfate
addition)
I '
l
I
I
Effluent Recirculation
Effluent
discharge
Figure 1. As indicated schematically, the anaerobic filter treatment
system is relatively simple. Discharge will be to subsurface infiltration
beds.
-------
Heater
Treated Leachate
Effluent Weir
Effluent
Steel Tank
Concrete
Foundation
Sludge Discharge
Figure 2. An anaerobic filter will be evaluated for leachate treatment.
The unit will be about 4 meters (12 ft) in diameter and 10 meters (35 ft) in
height.
a. 2-41
-------
The anaerobic filter consists of an enclosed supporting medium to
which anaerobic bacteria/are attached. The principle of operation is
similar to that of anaerobic digesters commonly used at waste water
treatment plants. The first step in the anaerobic breakdown of organics
consists of hydrolysis of complex organics to their monomers which are
then converted to free volatile fatty acids by acid-forming bacteria.
The last step consists of the formation of methane by methane bacteria
from the fatty acids. The major advantage of the process is that the
stabilization can be accomplished with a relative low production of
biological solids, so that problems with ultimate disposal of sludge are
minimized. Another advantage is that the need for aeration equipment,
costly to install and operate, is eliminated. A major disavantage of
the method is the high sensitivity of the methane forming bacteria to
acidic pH values. In addition, the methane fermenters are sensitive to
heavy metals.
In order to predict the operation of the full-scale facility, a
bench-scale unit was constructed and tested using leachate from the LDS.
The initial bench-scale testing was conducted at low loading in order to
acclimate the bacteria to the leachate. The COD loading used was 10.5
Kg/28,317 liter/day (23.3 Lb/1,000 ft^/day), equivalent to a 32 day
detention time. The initial COD of the leachate was 11,628 mg/1.1 Over
the four month study period the average COD removal was 50 percent,
while the average fatty acid removal was 70 percent. During the initial
25 days of the operating period the bacteria were not able to respond to
3.9.42
-------
the specific waste stream and almost no COO removal was observed after
nine days. A gradual improvement.was observed during the next 25 days,
and COD removals of as large as 88 percent and fatty acid removals of 97
percent were observed at day 45. This corresponded with a gradual
increase in gas production. As a result of the anaerobic conditions the
sulfates showed a gradual decrease as they were converted to sulfides,
thereby precipitating the heavy metals such as iron and nickel.
Significant variability in effluent composition was observed
between day 50 and day 130 after the initial adaptation of the micro-
organisms had occurred; COD removals ranged between at times the removal
was as low as 30 and 90 percent. The fatty acid concentration generally
paralleled the COD, and removals also ranged from 30 to 90 percent. It
was noted that high removals generally corresponded with high pH values
and high gas production rates, indicating that some periodic toxicity
may have occurred. Some of the apparent toxicity may have been due to
variation in heavy metal concentrations. Evaluation of the leachate
iron concentrations indicate that high effluent COD values corresponded
to high iron values.
The average removal of the suspended solids was 70 percent during
the first 100 day study period but gradually improved to 88 percent.
The average color removal was 54 percent but Increased to 75 percent at
the end of the monitoring period.
<2 9.- 43
-------
The removals of heavy metals were generally satisfactory, and total
iron concentrations decreased by about 65 percent. When the suspended
solids are more effectively precipitated in the bottom section of the
unit the total iron removal will approach 97 percent. The removal of
soluble zinc was about 71 percent while total zince removal was 65
percent. The soluble calcium was decreased by 69 percent, while total
calcium decreased by 28 percent indicating that a significant fraction
is present in the suspended possibly as carbonates or hydroxides. Since
other metals may be present in similar form and because these pre-
cipitates are pH dependent, an artificial increase in the influent pH
value may be desirable to reduce soluble metals.
The gas production was 2.71 1 gas/1 leachate, which corresponded to
0.46 1 gas/gm COO removed or 0.32 1 methane gm COD removed.
Based.on the limited laboratory.data that are available it was
concluded that under optimum operating conditions the anaerobic filter
should remove as much as 90 percent of the COD and fatty acids from the
leachate. The removals of iron and other heavy metals should be in a
similar range, but pH adjustment (increase) is likely to be required to
achieve precipitation.
At the field-scale facility, raw leachate will accumulate in a
storage tank of 210,067 liter (55,500 gallon) capacity. The purpose of
the tank is to equalize leachate flow and chemical characteristics.
3.Q.44
-------
The leachate transfer pump 1s a positive displacement mechanically
variable-speed pump, and jit determines the rate of raw feed into the
system. The feed rate will be adjustable to any rate up to 19 liters (5
gallons) per minute.
The raw leachate will be introduced Into a recycle system which
operates at a flow rate of approximately 189 liters (50 gallons) per
minute. For best performance the treatment unit must be at a warm
temperature, in the range of 24 to 29 degrees C. Thus, a heat exchanger
has been incorporated in the recirculation loop.
The heat exchanger is a tube and shell type unit with the leachate
on the tube side and hot water on the shell side of the exchanger.
Through a temperature sensor and a controller a motorized valve will
regulate the flow of hot water into the heat exchanger so as to produce
a desired exit temperature of the leachate. The wanned leachate will
then enter the anaerobic filter .unit through a bottom inlet distributor
and proceed in an up-flow mode to the top of the unit through a 7.3
meter (24 foot) high packing of plastic filter media.
The filter media is comprised of blocks or modules containing
numerous and fairly large parallel flow channels. The media does not
filter or strain the leachate as would a sand bed, but rather it acts
similar to a waste water treatment plant trickling filter in that its
principal purpose is to provide a large amount of surface area.
a-a.«
-------
At the top of the unit the treated leachate Is withdrawn for
discharge into one of three subsurface infiltration beds. The beds are
to be used on a weekly rotational basis, providing for one week of use
followed by two weeks of rest.
The third facility being constructed and evaluated consists of a
physical-chemical treatment unit, and activated sludge unit, and an
activated carbon column. It will be possible to evaluate the performance
of each unit individually and in combinations with the others. The
facility is a full-scale treatment plant capable of handling 378 1/min
(100 gal/min). Construction cost is estimated at $350,00 (1975).
In order to determine the most cost-effective physical-chemical and
biological treatment parameters for leachate, the plant will be operated
and evaluated in the modes or systems depicted in Figure 3. Included in
the evaluation of each mode will be raw and treated leachate analyses,
raw leachate influent flow rate, chemical dosage and -type, operation
efficiency, sludge quantities and characteristics of each sludge,
operational records, and economic evaluation.
Leachate is supplied to the treatment plant from three subsurface
collection basins through pumps and pressure lines. Because the lechate
is collected from solid wastes of varying age, it is initially mixed in
a tank. This tank serves serves several purposes: (1) flow equalization,
<2.2.46
-------
Physical- Leachate
chemical:
Reactor-
clari fier
Activated
^sludge:
i->

Leachate
Aeration
chamber
Carbon
column
Combined:
Leachate ^
Reactor -

Aeration

Settling

Carbon

clarifier

chamber

' tank

column
Figure 3. Physical-chemical and biological treatment plant will allow
field-scale evaluation of unit processes in both independent and combined
modes.
-------
(2) constant feed into the plant, and (3) mixing of the leachates to
obtain homogeneous chemical composition of the raw leachate.
Physical-chemical treatment consists of flash mixing followed by
clarification and removal of the sludge which has been produced. It is
anticipated that lime will be the major chemical utilized in this
chemical precipitation step. However, additional feeders and points of
injection are provided to use other chemicals if necessary. Other
chemicals which might be used include flocculants such as alum, ferric
chloride or synthetic polymers, and powdered activated carbon. Sludge
will be drawn off the bottom of the reactor-clarifier and placed in a
common sludge holding tank with the waste biological sludge. In the
physical-chemical treatment unit the major treatment is expected to be
for removal of inorganic materials. In particular, metals that may
interfere with the biological treatment process will be removed.
Specific metals that will be removed include iron, zinc, and copper. As
part of the chemical treatment, the biological oxygen demand will also
be reduced, but the percentage of reduction is expected to be only 30 to
50 percent. The unit is 3.6 meters (12 feet) in diameter and 3.6 meters
(12 feet) deep, with a hydraulic retention time of 2 hours at 378 1/min
(100 gal/min) flow rate.
The aeration tank (activated sludge unit) has a capacity of
approximately 37,500 gallons. It is expected to operate the treatment
facility in the true activate sludge mode and encourage production of
-------
solids. A sludge holding tank has been provided to store the solids
that are produced. The solids will be removed and discharged back on
the landfill using a water collection truck.
The mixed liquor suspended solids in the aeration tank are expected
to be between 3,500 and 5,000 mg/liter. The high solids content is
necessary because of the high BOD applied to the system and to assure
substrate adsorption and solids production in the plant. The efficiency
of treatment is projected to be 85 to 90 percent reduction in BODg.
The activated carbon column has not yet been designed. It will be
used to polish the effluent from the other units when operated individually
and in combination. The unit will be designed :o as to allow.performance
evaluations at various hydraulic loading rates.
MONITORING AND ENFORCEMENT
One of the most significant problems we have encountered is the
lack of uniform and meaningful monitoring of leachate. Monitoring
results reported in the literature are often clouded and cannot be
compared due to lack of uniformity in sample point selection, sampling,
and sample analyses. Moreover, there is a general lack of monitoring at
disposal sites for research and pollutnat detection (including enforcement)
purposes.
3-3.49
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In the United States regulatory and enforcement authorities for
solid waste management are vested not in the Federal Government, but at
the State and local levels. Thus, enforcement procedures and effective-
ness vary considerably among the many entities exercizing these authorities.
In order to provide for uniformity and to allow comparison of
meaningful results, we have coronissioned two significant studies in the
area of leachate monitoring procedures. Both are intended to produce
guidance manuals for use by researchers and enforcement agencies.
The first study is a comparison of analytical methods commonly used
for water and waste water analyses to assess their use on leachate.®
Leachate is recognized as being a very complex mixture for which many
common analytical techniques are unacceptable, due especially to interferences.
Ranges of values for leachate constituents are listed in Table 12. The
study included an extensive compilation of the different analytical
methods used to determine physical, chemical and biological parameters
in solid waste leachate. The compilation was made from information
available in the literature and through personal communications with
researchers, consulting firms and regulatory agencies.
Since different analytical methods can be used to determine a
specific parameters, a preliminary laboratory evaluation was made of
-------
Table 123
CHARACTERISTICS Of LEAtllATE AM6 DOMESTIC WASTE WATERS
Range* Range + • Ranged Leaehatc^ e e
Conttltuont (mg/l) (ny/1) (mj/l) Freslt old Waste water* Ratio*
Chloride (CI)
Iron (Fe)
M;ngoncsc (Mn)
Zinc (Zn)
Mj^nesiun (lig)
Calcium (Co)
Potassium (<)
Sodium (Ma)
Phosphate (P)
Copper (Cu)
Lead (Pb)
Cadmium (Cd)
Sulfate (SO.)
Total M
Conduct i vIty (Amhos)
TOS
TSS
pH
Alk as CaCO,
Hardness tot.
aOOc
COO
34-2,800
100-2,noo
600-800
7
-------
those methods least subject to interferences. All analyses were conducted
with a re^ativety concentrated leichAte sample obtained from a lysimeter
filled with milled solid waste. It was concluded that samples collected
from a recently installed solid waste fill undergo extensive changes of
several parameters immediately after collection* unless strict anaerobic
sampling and storage conditions are maintained. Preliminary laboratory
evaluation of physical, chemical and biological parameters showed that
chemical analysis using colorimetric methods is strongly interfered by
color, suspended solids and high salt content present in leachate.
Interfering effects can be reduced by using a standard addition method
in which increasing quantities of the specific parameter are added to
the sample after which its recovery is determined. The obtained percentage
recovery is then used to readjust the measured A less accurate
method is to dilute the leachate sample with increasing amounts of
dilution water to determine whether the interfering effect can be suf-
ficiently reduced by progressive dilution. One of the above approaches
should be used by the analyst prior to the analysis of a series of
leachate samples for those parameters most subject to interferences.
An extensive compilation of the different analytical methods used
by researchers, consulting firms and regulatory, agencies in the United
States, showed that numerous methods are used to determine a specific
parameter. Based on this study, recommendations were made to use those
methods least subject to interference.
aa 52
-------
The second study is a compilation of recommended sampling methods.
Methods of selecting sampling points, installing and using monitoring
wells, and sample collection will be compared and discussed. The result
of this study will be a guidance manual on monitoring. Emphasis will be
placed on the monitoring of ground water quality, with the monitoring
well being the key tool. The manual will also discuss the various
leachate constituents which can be analyzed for and recommend key
indicators for cost-effective routine monitoring. This manual will be
primarily addressed to the directors of state and local solid waste
regulatory agencies, although its contents can be readily used by
operators, researchers and consulting engineers in the field. When
completed it should serve as a guide to be used in implementing and
directing effective monitoring and enforcement programs and is intended
to provide broad general direction and guidance to persons without prior
training or experience. .It will also bring into one volume information
valuable as a reference source for those persons actively engaged in
landfill monitoring. It should also prove helpful to the operators and
managers of land disposal sites who now will find a need for familiarization
and understanding of the fundamental principles involved in ground water
pollution and monitoring.
23."
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SITE SELECTION
It has been common practice in the United States to select sites
for waste disposal primarily on the basis of convenience; a practice
which has lead to problems only now being uncovered. Now, site
selection is being viewed as a much more complex process involving
sociological, political, economic, and technological aspects.
Most State regulatory agencies are now employing a permitting
process for new disposal sites. In this process applicants for site
permits are required to assess for their sites the various aspects of
proper site selection. This assessment is then reviewed by the regu-
latory agency, and where warranted, a permit is issued.
The sociological and political aspects are related and can be
frustrating to deal with. The key issue appears to be that no one wants
the disposal site located near them. Citizen opposition is often
manifested in the form of negative comments regarding traffic hazards
from vehicles using the site, lowered property values by virtue of
proximity to the site, water pollution potential, fear of rats and
flies, noise, and aesthetic blight. Often, such comments are based
not on knowledge of the proposed site and operation, but on earlier
bad experiences with improperly located and operated dumps. This
opposition is reflected to governmental officials who, in attempting
^?.a.s4
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to please their constituents, are not inclined to support use of the
proposed site. Through proper site operation and quality control, we
•i!
know that most, if not all, of these anticipated problems can be
avoided. The problem then becomes one of assuring the public that
proper operation and quality control will, indeed, be practiced.
Economics is the area of easiest trade-off. A more remote,
isolated site is likely to result in increased haul costs, but land
costs should be lower, and the political and sociological problems
should be greatly reduced. Such economic trade-offs involve only a very
few cents per ton over the site's"life and are, therefore, of little
significance/
The proper area of greatest concern in site selection is the
technical acceptability of the site, especially as related to potential
pollution of water resources. At present, site evaluation for potential
subsurface contaminant transport is more an art than a science.
The technology for obtaining information on subsurface site con-
ditions is well known and often applied.8 In fact, much of the soils and
hydrogeology of the United States have been mapped by government agencies.
This existing information is useful to an extent. However, most of the
information is not specific enough to be used for the typical 25 acre
disposal site; that is, the information is too general in nature,
<2.3.»
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representing large basins, rather than small areas. The heterogeniety
of subsurface materials at a site poses another problem in obtaining
information: determination of the optimum number and location of
subsurface sampling points, to our knowledge no one has determined how
many borings should be made to adquately describe subsurface conditions
without missing significant pockets or lenses of different materials.
Once subsurface site conditions have been described, one must
interpret the meaning of those conditions relative to the potential for
ground water pollution. This is an area of great uncertainty in that
the interreaction of leachate and various soils and geologic strata have
not been defined.
The fate of contaminants carried in solution and suspension will be
affected by physical processes such as filtration, dispersion, and
mixing, and by soil chemical processes such as ion exchange, adsorption,
oxidation, and reduction.
Mechanical filtration by soil is an effective process. Most
suspended matter and a substantial number of microorganisms will be
removed from leachate after short travel through soils; soils with
smaller particle size and slower flow rates, are even more efficient.
Viruses, because of their small size, will not be removed by mechanical
filtration as readily as bacteria in even the finest textured soils but
3«S.56
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may be adsorbed on the soil clay minerals. The extent of the adsorption
and its relation to inorganic ion exchange phenomena in soils is not
know, but there may be competition between viruses and other materials
for exchange sites in soils.
Dispersion (includes molecular diffusion and hydrodynamic dispersion)
into uncontaminated water can, in certain cases, reduce the concentra-
tion of pollutants in solution, but this process cannot be relied upon
as an important mechanism. The effect of this process is dependent on
the uniformity of the material which makes up the aquifer. Dispersion
will be negligible in materials of a narrow range of grain size but will
increase as the material becomes less uniform. Lateral and vertical
dispersion is about 20 percent of longitudinal dispersion and, even over
long distances, will not significantly reduce concentrations in the
center of a body of pollutants when the original source is wide, as is
the case with landfills.
The flow of water in aquifers is predominantly laminar, and mixing
is not theoretically significant. However, mixing can be highly signi-
ficant when water is pumped out of aquifers. Although pumping may not
be currently practiced, the future possibility must be considered.
Vertical mixing in the aquifer is not appreciable, so the depth of the
well, the thickness of the aquifer, and the thickness of the polluted
zone are factors which will affect the extent of mixing when water is
57
-------
withdrawn. Although flow is laminar, the presence of a leachate plume
at elevations other than the surface of the aquifer is not precluded.
The principles governing the chemical and microbiological processes
(precipitation, ion exchange, adsorption, oxidation, and reduction)
which control the concentration of materials in solution in soils are
understood. However, the application of these principles to the design
and assessment of soil systems for the attenuation of pollutants has not
advanced sufficiently to allow quantitative estimates of the extent and
rate of such attenuation. The soil and wastes that are directed to it
for disposal are such complex combinations of separate components and
processes that it is only possible, at present, to qualitatively
describe what happens and to give relative ratings of soils and soil
materials as to their ability to attenuate pollutants.
In the subsoils and earth materials below landfills the most
important fraction active in attenuation is the clay minerals. These
minerals carry a net negative charge and as a consequence attract and
hold cations which have a positive electrostatic charge. The ability to
attract and hold cations is termed "cation exchange capacity" and is
different for each clay mineral. The minerals in the Montmorillonite
group have cation exchange capacities (CEC) of 80 to 100 milliequivalents
(meq) per 100 grams of clay, the minerals in the hydrous mica group, of
which Illite is the most important number, have a CEC of 15 to 40
o?.5.58
-------
meq/100 g, and the minerals in the Kaolinite group have a CEC of 3 to 15
meq/100 g. Two other minor clay groups are the Chlorites and Ventriculites.
Their properties are not well defined but as regards CEC, Vermiculite is
similar to Montmorillonite, and Chlorite is similar to IIlite. Soils,
by comparison, have low CEC, ranging from 2 meq/100 g or sands to 40 to
50 meq/100 g for clay soils.
As a first approximation the relative ability of different soils
and soil materials to attenuate pollutants may be examined by looking at
their CEC. Soils with a high CEC (high clay content) will attenuate
pollutants more readily than soils with low CEC.
It should be emphasized that CEC is only an aid in making relative
comparisons and will not give the actual meq of a particular contaminant
which can be removed from solution by a given weight of soil/ The
exchange sites will likely be already partially filled with some ions
and even if the exchange sites were entirely unoccupied, it would still
not be possible to confidently predict the removal of a particular
pollutant because:
(1) Different ions "compete" for the exchange sites according to
their concentration in solution, their valence, and whether or
not they form weak ionized compounds in the soil.
3-2.59
-------
(2) Exchange reactions proceed at a finite rate so that the
residence time in the soil (the reciprocal of the flow rate)
influences the extent of pollutant removal.
(3) CEC is pH dependent so any changes in soil pH induced by the
leachate will alter the removal capacity.
In addition to CEC related attenuation of pollutants in leachate,
physical adsorption on surfaces is an important mechanism, particularly
as regards bacteria, viruses, and organic molecules. The clay minerals
are, again, the most important fraction of the soil in this regard. The
specific surface area for the mineral groups, expressed as square
meters per gram of clay, follows the same trend as their CEC -
Montmorillonite 700 to 30U, 111i tes 100 to 120, Kaolinites 5 to 20.
Another important attenuation process is related not to the clay
minerals, but to the aeration status and the soil microbiological
flora. The organic and inorganic materials in landfill leachate are
reduced products of anaerobic decomposition. If the soil material below
the fill is unsaturated and there is an opportunity for oxygen to
diffuse in laterally, then these products can be further degraded or.
changed by aerobic, oxidizing processes. Organic compounds could be
degraded to simpler compounds or even completely broken down to carbon
dioxide and water, and inorganics such as iron could be oxidized to form
Q .o^.GO
-------
less soluble compounds. The extent to which these processes will take
place, if at all, is dependent on the existence of an unsaturated zone
beneath the fill and on the rate of oxygen diffusion into the zone
relative to the rate of consumption in microbial metabolism. For most
soils the rate of oxygen diffusion under the landfill is presumed to be
smaller than the rate of oxygen consumption.
This is not intended to be, and is not, a thorough discussion of
the attenuation processes, but it should serve to demonstrate the com-
plexity of the system and indicate the problems involved in proceeding
from a basic understanding of the system to a quantitative prediction of
attenuation. Rigorous quantitative predictions are possible only when
the soil-water-soluble system is well defined (e.g., with a limited
number of ion pairs and a uniform soil).
The alternative is to make qualitative predictions of the relative
ability of various soils to attenuate the materials passing through them
in solution. Considering the importance of the clay minerals, it can be
safely stated that soils containing significant percentages of any type
of clay (fine textured soils) will be more effective attenuators than
soils with very little clay and that for soils with similar clay per-
centages, there will be differences in attenuation corresponding to
differences in the types of clay minerals, Montmorillonite-Vermicullite
being the most effective, and Kaolinite the least. Fine textured soils
9 .0- si
-------
are preferred because they contain greater amounts of clays with their
large surface area and high CEC and because water movement is usually
slower in such soils, allowing more time for adsorption, precipitation,
and ion exchange to take place. Qualitative predictions based on such
considerations would be useful in selecting the best of several alternative
disposal sites, but would not give any indication of the amount of
attenuation to be expected.
Considering the state-of-the-art in Soil Science and Hydrology and,
additionally, the highly variable character of solid waste decomposition
processes and the resulting leachate, it appears that at present
ground water could be most efficiently protected from leachate pollution
by relying heavily on hydrologic criteria for site selection. Sites
should certainly be selected so that the texture and mineralogy of the
underlying soils are as favorable as possible, but the primary emphasis
should be placed on a knowledge of the flow path and rate of movement of
ground water and on avoiding the all too common situations where ground
water pollution results from geohydrofollies which could have been
aniticpated by a careful reconnaisssance of the site.
GAS RECOVERY
Gases are produced in solid waste land disposal sites as a result
of the microbiological decomposition of the organic matter deposited.
<3-2. 62
-------
In simplified terms, the process is as follows: facultative and
anaerobic bacteria metabolize organic matter forming organic acids
(principally acetic and propionic). These acids act as a substrate for
the anaerobic, acid-splitting, methane-forming bacteria. Major by-
products of the methane-formers are methane and carbon dioxide.
Gas Composition
Table 13 lists gases commonly found in landfills. It should be
noted that carbon dioxide is initially very high in concentration but
slowly drops in concentration as the landfill matures. Methane, on the
other hand, is initially very low in concentration, but increases as
the landfills age increases. Nitrogen.tends to decrease rapidly in
concentration with age. A more definite range is displayed in Table 14.
It can be seen that carbon dioxide and methane are the primary gaseous
by-products of a landfill.
Carbon dioxide is produced immediately, with peak production
occurring normally around 2 weeks to 2 months after placement of the
waste. The rate of production then begins to fall off until a stable
plateau is achieved, at which time the carbon dioxide produced, is
typically 40 to 50 percent, by volume. This percentage is normally
maintained, with only slight reduction, for a number of years after the
fill is completed (fills which are 50 years old have been found still

-------
Table 13
AVERAGE RANGE OF COMPOSITION, BY VOLUME, OF LANDFILL GAS
C02 2056-90%
CH4 0%-80%
N2 0%-70%
02 <156-20%
H2S <1%
nh4 <1%
h2 <1%
Table 149
AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF A FOUR YEAR OLD LANDFILL
Methane 56%
Carbon dioxide 28%
Nitrogen 15%
Miscellaneous 1%
J.
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generating gas). Methane may take from months to many years to reach
peak production in extreme cases. This is primarily because methane
production is heavily dependent upon moisture content and temperature.
Total production of gas may be determined by using theoretical
predictions, which' are based on the amount of gas produced through the
total stoichiometric decomposition of a pound of typical municipal solid
waste. This figure has been found to be approximately 437 1 gas/Kg
O
of solid waste (7 ft of gas/lb solid waste), of which approximately
250 1 (4 ft^) are methaneJ®
Several factors affect the rate at which gas is produced:
(1) Moisture - The greater the moisture, the greater the rate of
decomposition (optimum 60 to 80 percent).
(2) Temperature - Increased temperatures tend to increase
bacterial productivity and resulting gas production (optimum
temperature range for methane producers is approximately
32 to 35° C or 90 to 9-5° F).
(3) Amount of Organic Matter - Greater amounts of organic material
increase the amount of substrate material from which the
microorganisms can produce gas.
-------
These factors carry with them some geographical implications. For
example, an area which has large amounts of precipitation and a warm
mean temperature may have a high rate of gas production. Another
geographical factor (although not related to rate of production), that
of soil type, may carry with it significant importance. Permeable soil
poses the inherent problem of gas migration. Methane's specific gravity
of 0.55 (air = 1.00) would indicate a tendency to rise in the fill.
However, diffusion and convection provide mixing and ease of lateral
flow, Depending on site location and characteristics, lateral flow may
be significant. I.i fact, methane was found in concentrations of 10
percent by volume 214 meters (700 feet) from a California landfill.
This concentration is well within the explosive range. The landfill was
located in an old gravel mining area.
Methane is both colorless and odorless, making it very difficult to
detect. It will also tend to displace oxygen in a closed space. An
incident associated with this phenomenon occurred when two men working
on a water main in a manhole were asphyxiated by landfill gas seeping
into the manhole.
Methane is explosive in the range of 5 to 15 percent by volume.
Incidents of explosions have occurred due to methane migrating through
soil and collecting inbuilding near landfills. In Georgia a recreation
center (around which a landfill was constructed) exploded when a plumber
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lit a cigarette near a pipe leading to a partially sealed basement;
two men were killed.
In a building in North Carolina, a flash fire killed three men.
The fire was ignited when a man lit a cigarette in a room into which
methane from the adjacent landfill had entered. The soil on which the
landfill and building were constructed was sandy (permeable), and areas
of the landfill had been wetted to aid in compaction. These factors
contributed both to high gas production and ease of gas migration.^
T?
Methane may also be the cause of vegetative destruction.xc Besides
methane's inherent ability to displace oxygen, methane consuming bac-
teria (normally rare or absent in the soil) increase with increased
concentrations of methane and deplete the soil of oxygen. The lack of
oxygen kills the vegetation.
These effects can be very dramatic; therefore, methods of preventing
gas migration should be considered.^The following methods have been
used in the United States:
(1) Venting (Figures 4 and 5) - Trenches or columns filled with
coarse material, e.g., gravel, may be constructed. When the
gas comes in contact with the permeable material, it rises
quickly and harmlessly into the atmosphere, rather than move
further through to soil to an enclosed area, e.g., the basement.
£ • 67
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Figure 4. Gravel-filled trenches external to the fill area can
be used to vent laterally migrating gases.
Figure 5. Cover material can be provided with gravel vents to
allow gases to escape.
2.3.68
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(2) Impervious layer (Figure 6) - By lining the landfill site with
an impervious Jayer of compacted clay or plastic, gas will be
forced through the top of the fill, thereby preventing sub-
surface migration. An impervious layer of clay or sheet
pilings may also be installed around the permimeter of the
site as a.preventive measure.
(3) Well pumping (Figure 7) - Strategically located wells may be
installed in a fill, through which pumping causes a negative
pressure gradient to be formed. The gas then diffuses toward
the wells and out through the pump. This method is well
suited to burning or recovering the gas.
Because of the need for new energy sources and in order to prevent
hazards due to landfill gas migration, consideration is being given to
the recovery of landfill gas for use as fuel J4^5
As was previously mentioned the amount of methane that can be
generated from one pound of municipal waste is 113 1 (4 ft^). This
quantity is based on a refuse composition similar to thatshown in
Table 15.
Assuming that there are 113 million tonnes (125 million tons)
of municipal solid waste generated per year, some gross figures can be
calculated relating to potential gas production and worth. The yearly
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Figure 6. Impervious barriers or liners can be used to
intercept and redirect lateral gas flow.
*?¦ Q -70
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Figure 7. Pumped wells can be.used to evacuate gases from the
fill. A gravel-filled annul us and perforated casing will aid
gas flow.

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Table 1516
COMPOSITION OF AVERAGE MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
Moisture 20.73%
Cellulose, sugar, starch 46.63%
Lipids 4.50%
Protein 2.06%
Other organics 1.15%
Inerts 24.93%
100.00%
£>•2. 72
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methane production capability is then 28x10^ liters (1.0x10^ ft3).
This is approximately 5.5: percent of all the gas consumed by the United
States in 1971. The retail market value of this much methane is $1.7
billion. This solid waste will' not decompose in 1 year; however,
because of the many previous years of disposal of solid waste on the
land, a huge backlog of recoverable gas is already available. With this
point in mind, one can safely assume that the potential from the current
year will be available through the decomposing waste of years past.
Obviously, all of this gas can not be recovered. Several factors
prohibit total recovery:
(1) Small fills do not general enough gas to be economically
recovered. It should be noted that the present trend is
toward large regionalized landfills; a point in favor of
methane recovery.
(2) Twelve percent of the municipal waste is incinerated or
recovered.
(3) Much gas is lost as it diffuses through the surface of the
landfill.
Many areas of the country have populations that will not support a
large landfill operation. It has been found though that 65 percent of
J- .73
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our people live in metropolitan areas of 250,000 population or greater.
Conservatively assuming that methane can only be recovered from the
large fills associated with these areas, this reduces the recovery
potential to 18.4x10^ liters (650x10^ ft3). If 12 percent of the
refuse is incinerated or recoverd (diverted from land disposal) the
potential is further reduced to 16.1x10^ liters (570x10^ ft3). If it
is assumed that 50 percent of the remaining gas escapes through the
landfill cover into the atmosphere, 8.1xl0^2 liters (285xl09 ft3)
still remains for recovery. This is 1.2 percent of the total United
States natural gas consumption in 1971 or enough to supply gas to 1.9
million homes per year. The retail worth (at $.17/therm) is $480
mi 11i on.
In the United States three signficant efforts are underway to
attempt to recover and use landfill gas.
In one case gas will directly fuel an internal combustion engine
which will drive an electric generator. Eleven wells will be installed
to produce 519 1/sec (1,100 cfm) of gas. The methane will supply power
to units that will ultimately produce 5,000 kw. The capital cost has
been estimated at between $1.25 and $1.50 million. Assuming a 5 year,
6 percent interest payoff and a $15,000/year operating cost, the annual
cost will be (at $1.5 million capital cost) $371,000 or $.009/kw-hr. If
electricity continues to be sold at its present rate of $.03/kw-hr, the

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gross revenue will be $1.3 million/year. It can be seen from these
figures that generating electricity is very profitable; in fact, more
profitable than pumping treated methane directly into a pipeline.
In two other cases gas is being extracted for marketing as a fuel.
Gas is extracted at a rate of about 1.6 1/sec per meter (1 cfm per foot)
of well depth. The gas is then cleansed and injected into an existing
natural gas distribution system.
One critical aspect of gas extraction is that the pumping rate must
be balanced against the biological rate of gas production and the flow
of atmospheric air into the landfill through the soil cover. Through
trial-and-error testing we have found that the above mentioned pumping
rate applies in the case of a deep canyon landfill, as well as the more
typical 12 meter (40 foot) deep landfill. The gas mixture obtained at
this rate is about 45 percent methane, 35 percent carbon dioxide, 20
percent nitrogen, and 1 percent.oxygen. Based on a negative pressure of
0.25 cm (0.1 inch) of water, the radius of influence of a well pumped at
this rate was found to be about 40 meters (130 feet).
In both cases the BTU value of the gas will be upgraded from about
500 BTU per scf to 750 BTU per scf. Upgrading will be by molecular
sieve. Costs for the process have not yet been determined.
Q.Z. 75
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LANDMIX
Landmlx of wastes is the incorporating of shredded municipal
solid waste and digested sewage sludge into the soil. The objective
being to utilize the nutrients and organics contained in the waste
materials to improve crop yields. Yields may be increased due to improved
water-holding capacity of the soil, increased fertility, reduced erosion,
and improved soil structure. The physical process consists of applying
a uniform depth of shredded municipal solid waste and digested sewage
sludge to the soil surface. The wastes are then incorporated into the
top layers of the soil by plowing. The optimal dose-rates are defined
by two criteria: the lowest combination of loading rates that will
produce enhanced crops economically; and the highest combinations of
loading rates that the land can accept without evidence of environmental
damage.
In a project which is just starting in the Houston, Texas, area,
the EPA is seeking to obtain more definitive information on the landmix
concept. The main factors to be evaluated by the project will be
application rate, crop, and supplemental fertilization. The application
rates for sludge will vary from 0 to 336 dry tonnes per hectare (150 dry
tons per acre) and for solid waste from 0 to 573 tonnes per hectare
(256 tons per acre). The crops to be tested will be grass, grass and
legume, and legume. Auxiliary chemical fertization levels will be zero
fertilizer, normal application and three times normal application.
76
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To accomplish the project objectives, field experiments will be
carried out on plots measuring 6 meters (20 feet) by 8 meters (26
feet). There will be 117 such plots per replication, with three
replications for a total of 351 total plots. This project will use a
one time application of sludge and solid waste, followed by crop planting.
For two years after the plots have been loaded analyses will be made of
crop yields, plant tissue, soils, soil moisture, and ground water.
SLUDGE COMPOSTING
The EPA has initiated a project in Bangor, Maine, to evaluate
the technical anJ economic feasibility of composting raw, dewatered,
municipal sewage sludge by suction aeration techniques under the
adverse climatic conditions typically experienced by northern com-
munities of the United States. In achieving this major objective,
the following is also being evaluated:
(1) The effects of different bulking agents and the ratio of
bulking aqents to sewage sludge.
(2) The relative degree of pathogen kill obtained by composting
raw, dewatered sewage sludge by suction aeration techniques
in a northern climate.
Q
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(3) The efficiency of composting by suction aeration to control
odors.
(4) The relative degree of public acceptance or opposition to the
composting operation.
(5) The potential uses of the final product as a soil amendment or
as a source of soil nutrients to defray the cost of loam and
mulch materials normally used by the City.
The composting process being used in Bangor, including site layout,
equipment, and overall operations, is essentially the same as the
composting process designed and currently under investigation by the
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Biological
Waste Treatment Laboratory at Beltsville, Maryland. There are only
minor differences in the procedural elements dictated by local con-
ditions and facilities (e.g., climate, monitoring programs, sludge
characteristics, availability and type of heavy equipment, site layout,
etc.)
Sludge is delivered to the compost site on a regular schedule
(once-a-week) from the City's only sewage treatment plant. A hydrau-
lically operated, rear loading, lift and carry type vehicle is used to
haul the City's dewatered sludge to the compost site. Two open top, ten

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cubic yard containers are used to contain the sludge while in transport
to the site. The compost site is located approximately 610 meters
(2,000 feet) from the Bangor International Airport terminal, on approxi-
mately 6,130 (66,000 ft£) of abandoned concrete taxiway. The maximum
haul distance to the site is less than 5 kilometers (3 miles) one way
from the treatment plant.
Upon arrival at the site the sludge is mixed with tree bark waste
at a. ratio of approximately 3 to 1 ti.e.r 3 parts bark to \ part sludge,
on a volume basis). The bark serves to absorb excessive moisture and
creates the necessary air voids required in achieving optimum temperatures
and even distribution of cijyfpen throughout the compost pile. 51udga
alone at 20 to 25 percent solids generally does not permit adequate air
movement within the compost pile, which is an extremely critical factor
in determining overall efficiency of composting as a means of sludge
stabilization.
After mixing, the sludge/bark mixture is moved to one of four
active aerated compost piles. Each pile consists of approximately 153
m3 (ZOO yd^} of sludge and bark combined (pile configuration is approxi-
mately 12x4.6x2.7 meters or 40x15x9 feet). The sludge/bark mixture is
placed on the top of approximately 15 to 25 cm (6 to 10 inches) of
already composted material in tthich a piping network for suction
^ ¦ »t ,79
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aeration has been incorporated. The piping network consists of two 20-
foot lengths of 6 inch perforated plastic pipe. Each 6 meter (20 foot)
section is joined in parallel fashion with a Y and connected to a single
blower. The blower is capable of providing both negative and positive
air pressures within the pile depending upon the desired direction of
air flow through the pile. Each blower is operated by means of a simple
timing device and regulated at intervals of approximately 2 minutes
every 20 minutes. The timing mechanism is checked and adjusted each day
to assure the proper balance of temperature and oxygen throughout the
pile. Finally a 15 cm (6 inch) layer of composted material is placed on
the surface of the sludge/bark mixture to assist in insulating the raw
sludge mixture and insuring that even temperatures are reached through-
out the pile.
The blowers draw air through the compost pile and exhaust the
captured gases into a second pile of previously composted sludge. This
serves to minimize any potential problems associated with odors. The
previously composted material tends to absorb all odors that develop.
Initially, the underlayment and cover material for the compost pile
and the deodorizer pile consisted of a combination of hay and bark, in
lieu of composted sludge. After the first pile of compost was fully
composted and cured for a minimum of 30 days, the City began using
approximately 5.4 to 7.6 m (7 to 10 yd) of the composted material to
insulate the latter piles.
^-3. 80
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Composting systems generally fall Into one of three categories:
(1) batch, (2) windrow, and (3) mechanized or enclosed systems. The
method selected for evaluation in Bangor 1s a modification of the batch
method where air is mechanically drawn through the compost pile to
provide the necessary oxygen for microbial degradation and stabilization
of the sludge. Basically what occurs is that the thermophi11ic micro-
organisms (i.e., high temperature organisms) generate heat as a result
of biological oxidation. This heat is sufficient to kill off any and
all pathogens if proper temperatures are maintained and evenly dis-
tributed throughout the pile. If improper management techniques are
practiced or if the sludge mixture is too dense or wet there will be
insufficient air movement within the pile and anerobic organisms could
take over, thus greatly inhibiting the composting process and resulting
in the production of obnoxious odors and adverse public reaction. On
the other hand, if the compost pile is too porous and not properly
insulated from external temperatures, or the air flow through the pile
is too great, the composting pile may lose much of its self generated
heat thus resulting in a cooling effect and little assurance that all
pathogens within the pile are destroyed. This then is the purpose of
the bark, air blowers, the temperature probe, and oxygen monitoring
equipment.
As it is necessary to monitor daily both temperature and oxygen
content to insure that temperatures throughout the pile exceed 55° C for
<3.^.81
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a period of several days, the U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Agricultural Research Service in cooperation with the University of
Maine is performing the necessary testing and monitoring of the com-
posting operations. The sludge and compost are tested quarterly for
heavy metals content (i.e., nickel, cadmium, zinc, and copper), primary
nutrients (i.e., N,. P, and K), fecal coliform, salmonella, and pH. An
oxygen analyzer and temperature recording device have been purchased by
the City for on-site use.
Each compost pile is aerated for a period of approximately 2 to
4 weeks at which time the composted mixture of sludge and bark are moved
to a curing area for an additional period of at least 30 days. After
the 30-day curing period the bark is screened out of the composted
mixture and the compost is stored for future use.
The City has limited its application of the compost to non-food
chain crops because:
(1) The application of sewage sludge to agricultural lands
requires special sludge and soil analyses and management
control of the lands receiving that sludge.
(2) There is sufficient demand for the compost within the City's
own programs.
=?a»2
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At this time the City plans to utilize the compost for the following
purposes:
a. Land reclamation--strip mining, gravel pits, rock
quarries, landfills, construction projects
b. Beautiflcation programs
c. Parkland, planting trees, grass, ornamental shrubs, etc.
d. Golf courses, regrading, major construction
e. Cemeteries
f. Airport areas
g. Highway median strips, esplanades, etc.
h. Nursery products
<=? ¦ Q, 8'
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1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
REFERENCES
Humber, N. Waste reduction and resource recovery - there's
room for both. Waste Age, 6(11):38,40,41^44, Nov. 1975.
Interim report 1, test eel11 1, Boone County Field Site.
Cincinnati, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, March 1973.
Shuster, K. A. Leachate damage assessment: an approach.
Washington, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1976
(In preparation.)
Exclusive Waste Age survey of the nation's disposal sites.
Waste Age, 6(1):17-24, Jan. 1975.
Haxo, H. E., Jr. and R. M. White. Evaluation of liner materials
exposed to leachate; first interim report. Oakland, Ca.,
Matrecon, Inc., Nov. 1974. 58 p.
Chain, E. S. K. and F. B. DeWalle. Compilation of methodology
for measuring pollution parameters of landfill leachate.
Cincinnati, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Oct. 1975.
174 p.
Thompson, J. Economics of landfill location. Washington,
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1976. (In preparation.)
Dilaj, M. and J. F. Lenard. Leachate control at landfills based
on hydrogeological studies. Public Works, 106(4):91-93,122,
April 1975.
Eliassen, R. Why you should avoud housing construction on
refuse landfills. Engineering News-Record, May 1947.
Anderson, D. R. and J. P. Callinan. Gas generation and movement
in landfills. Presented at Loyola of Los Angeles, 1970.
City of Winston-Salem, North Carolina, and Enviro Engineers, Inc.
An evaluation of landfill gas migration and a prototype gas
migration barrier. Environmental Protection Publication SW-79d.
Washington, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975/ 154 p.
Flower, F. B. Case history of landfill gas movement through soils.
In Gas and Leachate from Landfills: Formation, Collection, and
Treatment. Cincinnati, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency.
(In preparation.)
J.3> J84
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13. Nosanov, M.E. and R. L. White. Gas control and beneficial use
of completed landfills. Public Works, 106(11):62-64, Nov.. 1975.
14. Dair, F. R. and R. E. Schwegler. Energy recovery from landfills.
Waste Age, 5(2):6-10, March/April 1974.
15. First landfill methane plant dedicated; shredding approach also
gets nod. Solid Waste Systems, 4(4):24,25, July/August 1975.
16. Bell, J. M. Characteristics of municipal refuce. In Proceedings;
National Conference on Solid Waste Research, American Public
Works Association Special Report No. 29. Chicago, Feb. 1964.

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The Third Japan — U. S. Conference cn Solid Waste Management
Special Subject 2
Pyrolysis of Solid Waste
by
Masakatsu Hiraoka
Kyoto University
Mitsutaka Kawamura
National Chemical Laboratory for Industry
May, 1976 Tokyo Japan
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Part 1 R & D Effort of Solid Waste conducting by National Project
(Agency of Industrial Science and Technolgy, MITI)
by
Mitsutaka KAWAMURA
National Chemical Laboratory for Industry
Japan
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I Introduction
Research and development on the pyrolisis process
for the most complicated solid wastes like municipal solid
wastes has been carried out by three main sectors in Japan.
One is the national project promoted by the government, the
second is private companies developing their own original
pyrolysis technology and the third is the private company in
thchnical cooperation with the foreign company. Most of the
processes in Japan are shown in Table 1. Among them the
fluidized bed system is hardly found to be studied in other
countries and becomes one of noticable pyrolysis technologies.
This report illustrates outline of research and
development on the pyrolysis process for the municipal solid
wastes in Japan, classifying with a fluidized bed and other
type of reactor process.
1.1 Configuration of pyrolysis process by unit operation
Pyrolysis process plays one of the unit process in
the total wastes treatment system. The pyrolysis process
itself consists of an appropriate combination of the following
unit operations, that is;
a. Shredding b. Selective classification, c. Drying, d. Grinding
e. Pyrolysis, f. Separation, g. Refining and cleaning,
h. Utilization, i. Storage, j. Waste gas treatment, k. Waste
water treatment, 1. Residue treatment.
The unit operation may be classified into four categories, i.e.,
pretreatment, pyrolysis, post - treatment and pollution protention
treatment.
Pretreatment involes unit operations, conditioning feed of the
3-M
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solid waste-into the pyrolysis reactor, like shredding,
selective classification, drying and grinding. Post-treatment
includes such unit operations as separation, refining and
cleaning, utilization and storage. Pollution pretection*
treatment means regulation technology of hazardous component
concentration in the waste has, water and solid discharged
from the above mentioned unit operations.
Figure 1 shows the con-figuration of the pyrolysis process by
the unit operation, listed in Table 1.
The simplest formation of the process seems a magma
bed heated by electric power, which consists of shredding,
pyrolysis, storage and waste water treatment. The material
flow similar to the large scale incineration plant is the
shaft furnace process. The product gas from the reactor will
burn at a boiler to obtain high temperature steam. The slag
tapping treatment like Shinnittetsu, Union carbide, and Torrax
systems has the same configuration of unit operations.
Pyrolysis in the externally heated in the shaft furnace
includes dewatering operation at the pretreatment.
Kawasaki-Landgard system has refining process of the product
before combustion, which is different from Baltimore plant.
Pyrolysis process in the fluidized bed has most advanced
combination of the unit operations. Gallet system-has one of
the most complicate pretreatment process.
1.2 Classification of pyrolysis process
Pyrolysis process has to be so designed that the
heat required in thermal decomposition reaction may be less
than calorific value of raw wastes. Pyrolysis process can be
divided into combustion part and pyrolysis part, as being
shown schematically in Fig. 2. For type (a) solid waste and gas
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make counterflow and heat is transferee! mainly by convection
of gas. In order to increase calory of product gas either
oxigen is injected for combustion "gas or inert gas component
must be separated from the product gas. For the latter case
as a separation technique there is a method of high temperature
steam injection as heat transfer medium or oil recovery at low
temperature pyrolysis. Internally heating shaft furnace and
rotary kiln may be classified in this type (a). Type (b) is
such a process that heat required in the pyrolysis reactor is
supplied through conduction and radiation heat transfer with
combustion heat released at the combustion part. Externally
heated shaft furnace process is an example of this type (b).
Type (c) is almost same as type (b) except heat source.
Pyrolysis residue is used as heat source instead of product
gas like type (b). This type of process has not been found
in Japan. Type (d) uses heat transfer medium to supply requir-
ed heat for pyrolysis. Sand is used as heat transfer medium.
In dual chamber fluidized bed system, product gas is possible
not to be mixed with combustion waste gas by sand seal, thus
the calory of product gas is high in comparison with those by
other processes. In the single chamber fluidized bed
microscopic relation of type (d) is thought to hold. Type (e)
is a special type of only one way heat flow. Heat is supplied
by electric resistance. There is no compensate energy flow to
fill required power within the process in this example.
However, an appropriate energy conversion process from calorific
heat to electric energy may be installed outside the process.
Reactor type may determine above mentioned heat
supply system, which characterizes pyrolysis process. For the
shaft furnace since reactor temperature distribution is 3.
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impossible to be so controlled as to keep a certain profile,
it is difficult to obtain product of constant quality, wherea
for the fluidized bed it is difficult to accomplish both
energy recovery as well as residue treatment at the same time
From next chapter the pyrolysis process developed
in Japan will be introduced briefly along (i) a fluidized bed
system and (ii) other type of reactor.
R&D efforts other than conducted by the government
however, will be treated in Part II
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II FLUIDIZE BED SYSTEMS
1 A fluidized bed pyrolysis system
Municipal solid wastes include woods, garbage,
plastics, dirts, metals, papers, texiles and other miscellaineous
materials. . It is necessary to construct a combined system with
element technology such as collection, transport, shredding,
separation, pyrolysis and the like in order to make such wastes
convert to resources. Agency of Industrial Sience and Technology
(AIST) is now supervizing development study on a fluidized bed
pyrolysis technology which may be a heart process in the
resource recovery system. The process aims to recover oils by
pyrolysis under starved oxigen condition from combustible
materials, shredded separated from municipal refuse.
1. 1 Development of pyrolysis process
For pyrolysis of municipal solid wastes, fixed bed,
moving bed and fluidised bed are used as a reactor. Among them
the fluidized bed has characteristics of good isothermality
and good controllability which is a key factor in pyrolysis
operation. Single chamber fluidized bed system is selected
because it has simple structure which is thought to make
operation easy for difficult handling materials like municipal
solid wastes. Municipal solid wastes convert to gas, oil and
char when underwent pyrolysis. From viewpoint of yield,
easiness of transportation and storage, pyrolysis condition
and calorific value of the product, an oil recovery system
is considered to be one of the most desirable process.
Gas and char produced subsidiarily in this case may be spent
as energy source for process sake. Research on pyrolysis treat-
¦
ment of the municipal refuse has been conducted in United States
-------
as well as Europe. The results, however, have not been opened
In detail since it is now in progress. Hence, the fundamental
study on the municipal solid wastes pyrolysis was set about at
first on the bench-scale test appratus.
I. 1.1 Bench-scale test
The experiments aimed 'to grasp pyrolysis condition,
yeilds of product components and their properties. They were
carried out under such condition as constant feed rate, constant
temperature and atmospheric pressure. Temperature ranged from
400 to 700°C and feed rate change covered from 5 to 20 kg/hr
(wet base). Continuous feed and continuous discharge of product
char and ash were sucessfully carried out. The pyrolysis
reactor has size of 160 mm. inner diameter and 2 m. length.
I. 1.2 Cold model test
The tests purposed to understand fluidization
characteristics of municipal wastes and to improve the device
taking out incombustible materials and char from the bed.
The fluidized bed has 500 mm inner diameter and is made of
transparent acrylic resign, which enables movement of fluidizing
sand and char to be observed with naked eyes.
I. 1.3 Pilot plant test
The experiments were intended to confirm the
experimental results obtained in bench-scale and cold model
tests for actual solid wastes at high temperature as well as to
get material and energy balances for process design and to
clarify fluidized bed performance by observation of its time
variation in the longterm continuous operation. The experiment
also aimed to determine most desirable configuration by
invpcti oatinn nn tVip fnnrtinn<; and <; t riir t iiTf» nf thp fininnmentf; .
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The size of a pyrolysis reactor is 500 mm inner diameter in the
lower part, 750 mm diameter at the upper part of the chamber
and 3,300 mm effective length. The capacity has 100 to 1'50 kg/hr.
1. 2 Experimental results
1. 2. 1 Raw wastes for pyrolysis
At the bench-scale test artificial wastes adjusted
for th supposed municipal waste composition was used as raw
material, whereas in the pilot plant test, to some extent dry
real wastes, eliminating garbage and incombustible materials
from original wastes, were used. The properties of raw materials
of used is shown in Table 2.
I. 2.2 Material and energy balance
Yeild of each component obtained by the pilot plant
test is shwon in Figure 3. Product yield is dependent on the
decomposition temperature if raw material composition is
constant. Between 450 and 550°C, oil can be obtained with high
yield value, but as temperature increases the yield of oil
decreases whereas yield of gas becomes high. The product yield
is also influenced by the composition of raw wastes,- especially
moisture content. Figure 4 shows the influence of moisture
content on the pyrolysis yield. 5 to 6% of oil can be recovered
in case of 301 moisture content. An example of energy balance
is shown in Figure 5. At the low temperature between 450 and
550°C fraction of oil becomes highest of recovered energy and
total energy recovery becomes high at the low temperature.
I. 2. 3 Properties of products
i) Oil: Main products of pyrolysis are oil, gas and char.
Two kinds of oil are produced, one is the oil coming from
plastics in the wastes and the other cellulose oil converted 3
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from cellulose materials like wood and paper. Both ,oil
properties are illustrated in Table 3. Net calorific value ot"
oils has about 8,000 kcal/kg and 4,000 kcal/kg respectively and
both have good combustibility, hence they are suited to.use as
fuel.
ii) Gas: In this pyrolysis process a part of feed material
burns with air to supply decomposition heat, which is called
as partial oxidation pyrolysis. Since product gas is diluted
with nitrogen gas of combustion air, calorific value becomes
lower than that by external heating method. Neverthless product
gas has 1,000 kcal/Nm^ calorific value and can be used as low
calory fuel gas. Partial oxidation pyrolysis does not require
any auxiliary heat source.
iii) Char: Char has about 5,000 kcal/kg net calorific value
and good ignition property because volatile substance still
remains in it, hence it can be used as solid fuel for the
process heat of the municipal solid wastes treatment.
iv) Other solid materials: Incombustibles and dust other than
that char is discharged from the municipal solid wastes treat-
ment process. Incombustible materials are metals, glasses ,
dirts and the like, from which valuable materials like metals
may recover. Dust can be collected through dust collector like
a cyclone. Collected dust is brought to landfill after subjected
to an appropriate treatment and burns to insoluble state. Their
material characteristics are illustrated in Table' 5.
v) Behavior of hazardous components: Hazardous materials
accompanying in pyrolysis treatment of municipal solid wastes
are harmful gases and heavy metals. An example of chemical
K
analysis result on the gaseous hazardous materials is shown in
| Table 6. They can be easily removed through gas cleaning by
-------
water. Gas cleaning waste water becomes harmless by chemical
treatments like neutrization and is discharged to the outside
of the system. The chemical analysis results on the heavy
metals are illustrated in Table 7. Heavy metals tend to be
rich in ash and char so that they have to be fixed through an
appropriate treatment not to dissolve again. After then ash
may be used as archtecture materials or is brought to land
filling.
1. .3. Operation performance
1. 3. 1 Temperature control in the pyrolysis reactor
A fluidized bed has good controllability of bed
temperature, which is the principal factor of pyrolysis reaction
It was confirmed by the fact that 200 hours continuous operation
has been successfully completed in the pilot plant where a
fluidized bed temperature could be adjusted with quick response
to a certain given temperature by controlling feed rate either
raw materials or combustion air.
1. 3. 2 Pressure control
The state of a fluidized bed can be described by
temperature and pressure. If pressure drop in the fluidized
bed is constant, means that height of a fluidized bed becomes
constant. Thus pressure drop of fluidizing gas can become an
index which shows if a fluidized bed maintains constant height,
and it can be controlled by supply and removal rate of sand.
1. 3. 3 Removal of incombustibles and char
Incombustible materials existing in the raw materials
settle down through the fluidized bed to the bottom and pile on
the distributor. Those settled materials may be drawn out to
the outside through a nine suited at the center of the distribut
-------
Char is tossed on the fluidized bed and flooding out through a
pipe attached at the upper part of the fluidized bed chamber.
1. 3. 4 Stable operation range
A fluidized bed reactor has a stable operation range
bounded by fluidization and thermal decomposition reaction
characteristics of raw materials. If the operation was conducted
within this range, energy can be recovered efficiently.
1. 4 Outline of pyrolysis experiment pilot plant
1. 4. 1 Main specification of the plant
The experiment pilot plant has following specifications.
Type; a fluidized bed pyrolysis.
Heating method; partial oxidation of raw materials.
Capacity; 100 kg/hr (2.4 ton/day).
Material recovered; mainly oil..
Reactor type; multi-hole plate distributor fluidized bed
inner diameter of chamber; 500 mm.
effective length; 3350 mm
1. 4. 2 Flow sheet
Solid wastes carried by collecting cars are dumped
into an accept pit. Then it is fed to a shredder through
conveyers and crushed to paticles of mean size less than 50 mm.
Shredded wastes is weighed by weight measurement conveyer and
is supplied to the fluidized bed reactor by a screw feeder.
Sand particles in the reactor becomes liquidlike by injected
air and recirculating gas through the multi-hole plate distri-
butor. The solid wastes fed suffer from partial oxidation to
convert into gas and char. Produced gas flows out through a
duct at the top of the reactor, then after dust component is
10
eliminated by a cyclone, the product goes into either (a) or
-------
(b) oil recovery process.
(a) Product gas contacts with low temperature oil at the
scrubber to condensate oil, a certain fraction of which is
recirculating to the scrubber as cooling oil.
(b) Product gas is led to a fractional distillation tower where
water is obtained as the toj) product and oil is recovered from
the bottom of the tower.
Uncondensate gas component is led to a afterburner or boiler
where it burns. Ash produced in the reactor is collected by a
cyclone installed in the high temperature duct system.
Incombustible materials mixed with fluidized medium is drawn
out through a discharge pipe at the center of the distributor.
Char mixed with sand is discharged through a flooding pipe.
They are screened to separate incombustible?, char and sand
which returns to the reactor. Condensate water is treated
through oil water separator absorber filled with active carbon.
1. 5 Characteristics of the process
The pyrolysis now being developed has following
characteristics.
(1) Gas and oil can be obtained as clean energy from organic
components of municipal solid wastes.
(2) Non formation of N0X can be expected because of low
temperature pyrolysis between 450 and 550°C.
(3) There is no trouble in treatment operation when plastics
content in the solid wastes increased. It is rather desirable
due to contribution of the product calory up.
(4) Waste gas treatment facility can be made compact because
the amount of waste gas is 1/5 less than that in the incinerat-
ion treatment.
(5) It is easy to remove N, S and CI components since N, S and 3.
-------
CI converts into NH3, H2S and HC1 respectively under reducing
atmosphere in pyrolysis.
(6) The reactor can keep uniform temperature as well as low
temperature level between 450 and 550°C, so that it may riot
occur to melt incombustible materials like glasses and metals
or to vapourize heavy metals in the wastes.
1. 6 Total waste treatment system
1. 6. 1 Energy recovery system
AIST proposed a plan of energy recovery system from
municipal solid wastes, using this fluidized bed pyrolysis as
a key technology. Bedsides pyrolysis operation, pretrea;tment
post-treatment process forms total waste treatment system.
Raw materials for pyrolysis may be obtained by separat-
ing and eliminating garbage "and incombustible materials from
crushed municipal solid wastes. Oil.recovered through separat-
ion and refinery process is supplied to a boiler. Gas is led
to the boiler after washing hazardous materials like HC1 and
H2S, and heat is recovered. Ash is calcined for 5 minutes at
1100 to 1150°C because it might have heavy metals as mentioned
earlier. Heat can be recovered from shar, ash generated at the
time, however, has to be subjected to insolubility treatment
(calcination for 5 minutes at 1100 to 1150°C). Garbage is fed
to methanation to produce fuel methane gas. Water discharged
form the fractionator of oil recovery process is used for raw
materials of methanation because it is water of high organic
. t
material concentration (C. 0. D. equals c. a. 10,000).
1. 6. 2 Material balance
Overall material balance on the pyrolysis process
^ j jiaving capacity of 50 ton/day is obtained, assuming that Raw
-------
materials recieve pretreatment as mentioned before. From the
balance calculation 3 ton/day oil (5,000 kcal/kg, 2xJ.07 kcal/
day) and 70.5 ton/day low calory gas (500 kcal/kg, 3.5xl07 kcal
/day) can be recovered as surplus energy for 50 ton/day waste
treatment, and 30 % calory of raw materials can be supplied
outside the system.
1. 7 Items to be studied
The following items have to be studied on the base of
the experimental results up to now.
(1) Engineering study to enable a long term continuous operat-
ion .
a. Prevention method of choking in the high temperature
duct and automatic removal device of attached materials.
b. Prevention of dust dispersion into oil recovery system
and perfect dust collection method.
c. Efficient recover way of product oil.
d. Smooth discharge of incombustibles and sand circulating
system.
(2) Efficient combustion method .of the product oil.
(3) Secondary pollution protection technology.
a. Treatment of ash and char contaminated by heavy metals.
b. Treatment of high organic material concentration water.
(4) Operation planning of a demonstration plant and cost
analys is.
R§D on these items will be carried out at the national
project of "Resource recovery and recycling system - phase II"
starting from FY 1976.
-------
2 Dual Chamber Fluidized Bed Pyrolysis System
2.1 Pretreatment system
2.1.1 Selective pulverizing classifier
An example of resource recovery system from municipal
refuse is schematically shown in Fig. 8
Selective pulverizing classifier which is heart of this
system, as shown in Fig.9, consists of a rotating drum having
two screen stages and two kinds of scrapers rotating at different
speeds in both screens. It utilizes the difference in resistance
to destruction of municipal refuse, and both pulverization and
classification by screening are incorporated in one machine.
Refuse advanced in its axial direction is classified by the
screens dependent on the pulverizing time which in turn depends
on the material.
As municipal refuse is fed continuously into the rotating
drum and passes through the first stage, almost all of glass,
dirt and other brittle materials, together with about 95/o of
garbage (food waste), are pulverized into particles or flakes
and discharged through the first screen. -Group I-
The remaining refuse is damped if necessary and, with
sufficient moisture, undergoes a process similar to the first
stage so that 50 to 60/o of paper content are selectively
pulverized into flakes and discharged through the second screen.
-Group II-
Remaining residues of plastics, textiles, etc. and metals,
all of which are ductile material, are discharged from open end
of the drum. -Group III-
About 70 to S0% of plastics and almost all of metals
-------
and textiles are classified into Group III without contamination
of garbage.
2.1,2 Treatment of Group I
Since the organics of Group I consist of mainly garbage,
fast fermentable materials, excluding metals, plastics, textiles
and paper board, this group will be suitable for composting
depending on local conditions.
As an alternative, this group mixed with other organics
can be. utilized as fuel gas by pyrolytic treatment after
eliminating earth, dirt and glass;
2»1.3 Paper recovery from Group II
Paper concentration in Group II approaches 85^» and it
can reach 90 to 95% by further simple dry processing. As
mentioned, about 50 to 60% of\paper content can be classified
into this group, with the remainder carried over into Group I
(mostly papers without much texture) and Group III (mostly
strong water repellent papers such as plastic laminated card-
board). Namely, Group II fraction tends to concentrate paper
fiber of high quality and strength.
Since Group II material contain little garbage, using this
group recovered paper in a paper mill will not add an undue
load on water treatment facilities.
In case that the amount of recovered Group II is.small
due.to small capacity of waste treatment facilities, it is
possible to mix Group II with Group III and feed to pyrolysis
treatment.
2.1.^ Separation of Group III
Group III materials consist of mainly plastic film and
s/./T
-------
moulds, metals, textiles and laminated cardboard excluding
almost all of garbage, earth, dirt and glass as well as approxi-
mate 80% of paper. In this process, as shown in Fig. 8, after
recovering ferrous metal, Group III materials are shredded and
separated by zig-zag air classifier into inorganics and organic
materials which can be converted into fuel gas by dual chamber
fluidized bed pyrolysis gasifier.
As Group III materials are free of almost all decomposables
and annoying odour and appear to be clean, the air classification
and storage can be performed under enviromentally acceptale
conditions.
2.2 Outline of dual chamber fluidized bed pyrolysis
By pyrolizing municipal refuse, char, tar-oil and gas
fractions are produced with various contaminants such as heavy
metals and other harmful materials. When utilizing the products
as energy source, the problems due to pollution from these
contaminants must be eliminated.
In view of above mentioned, gas fraction will be more
feasible since its cleaning is already established and easier
compared with other products.
The present work is aimed to produce fuel gas of high
heat value by "dual chamber fluidized bed pyrolysis system"
which is similar to those widely used in oil cracking industry.
In this system, fine solids circulate between a fluidized
reactor to pyrolyze preheated refuse and a fluidized incinerator
to burn up the produced char.
The potential of this system is summarized as follows:
-------
(1) Gas of high heat value can be obtained due to little
influence of incineration on the generated gas.
(2) Smoother fluidization can be expected with clean up effect
by the incineration process.
(3) Flue gas volume from the system is extremely low. (Its
theoretical volume is same as that of air required to burn
up char)
(4) Similar system has been widely used and proved its
reliability in oil cracking industry.
When applying this system to the treatment of solid waste,
however, several problems such as elimination of inorganics
from the reactor and steadily feeding of the solid without gas
leakage etc., as well as the control of fine solids circulation
and gas contamination between reactor and incinerator must be
solved.
2.3 Preliminary study by single bed pyrolysis
2.3.1 Test equipment
As a first step to the goalj single bed pyrolysis tests
have been performed in order to clarify the parameters
influencing on pyrolytic reaction and obtain the informations
to design dual chamber fluidized,bed system.
Diameter of the reactor for this test, namely plant scale,
has been adopted to be 300 mm, so that the information can be
imraidiately applied to the proto-plant in the next step.
This test equipment consists of fluidized bed reactor,
nitrogen feeder with preheater, cyclone, condenser, gas discharger
refuse feeder, burner, propane gas feeder, compressor, gas
analysers and recorders of temperature, pressure and flow rate.
-------
To obtain precise heat balance, construction of the reactor
wall is of special double wall without buried metal hackers,
and temperature distribution of the wall is measured by thirty
one thermo-elements. Uniform bed temperature which is an index
of fluidizing condition can be confirmed by three thermo-
elements in the bed.
Adopted gas distributor which plays important role in
fluidizaticn is that developed by using another cold model of
z'r.e saxe size.
Since oxygen concentration in the fluidizing gas has
serious influence on the composition of products, the burner
characteristics was carefully checked so that oxygen content
in the blue flame can be kept less than 0.5/6.
Analyzing of each input and output gas was simultaneously
carried out at every one to three minutes intervals by using
three gas-chromatographs.
2.3.2 Test results
Influence of operational conditions
In order to cralify the influence of operational conditions
such as temperature, gas velocity, feeding rate, particle size
and humidity of input solids, first experiments have been
performed by using pulverized paper which is equivalent to
Group II fraction. And actual refuse has been tested at optimum
conditions in the next phase. Some of the test results can
be summarized as follows:
(1) Gasification efficiency shows linear increase with temperature.
(2) When humidity of input solids exceed gasification
efficiency remarkably increases compared with the case of dry
solid even if supplied with steam of the equivalent quantity.
-------
Excess liquid absorbed into solids seems to accelerate pyrolytic
reaction due to heating rate increase by molecular dispersion
of the vapour.
(?) Particle size, gas velocity and feeding rate scarcely
influence on the composition, quantity and heat value of the
products in the test rang4.
(t) About 450 Ursr^ of fuel gas having "heat value of approx. 4500
Kcal/ffra^ is obtained by gasifying actual dry refuse of 1 Kg.
(5) Endothermic calorie and heat balance in pyrolytic reaction
was clarified.
Tests with actual refuse
Valuable organic fraction must be eliminated for reuse
before heat decomposition. Since pyrolyzed products vary
depending on this elimination, tests were performed using the
following pretreatment items, assuming several possible systems.
Cl) Group 1(2) Group II (3) Group III (4) Group I plus Group
II (j?) Group I plus Sroup III excluding plastic film
3y the tests, mass belanca of heavy metals, contamination
with harmful substances and stability of operation as well as
composition, quantity and heat value of the products were
clarified. Notable results at temperature of ?00 to 800 °C are
sumra feci zed as follows:
Cl) Grout) I contains lot of N, JIa, K and Ca compared with other
groups. Produced gas of 4000 to i+500 Kcal/Nm^ which is the
lowest of all groupst contains much ammonia converted from organic
nitrigen such as protein.
Paring operation, fluidization often became unstable owing
to coagulation of fluidizing solid (sand). The cause of this
coagulation will be creation of alkali-silicate converted from
-------
sand, alkaline metal and ammonia. Namely, pyrolyzing Group I
by fluidized sand oed causes problem of unstable operation.
Several countermeasures such as agitation of bed or using
other solid in stead of sand may be useful for this problem.
Practc'al and reliable method, however, will be steady
elimination of the coagulated solid during operation or applying
this group t
-------
Z.k Cold model of dual chamber fluidized bed system
2./+.1 Tests of sand circulation and solid elimination
Though dual chamber fluidized bed pyrolysis process has been
widely used in oil cracking industry, it cannot be simply applied
to the present system, unless inherent problems of input material
could be solved. Namely, new type reactor suitable for treating
municipal refuse must be developed.
Freon gas was added to one of the reactors to measure gas
leakage through connecting pipes. Tests on solid eliminating
facilities provided at bottom of the bed were also carried out.
Studied items are summerized as follows:
(1) Effects of various elements of the system on the circulation
of fluidizing medium (sand) was systematically clarified.
(2) Circulation rate of sand depends on configuration and dimens-
ions of the air ejector below incinerator as well as air discharge.
The rate was ^00 Kg/h and 12 Ton/h in the miniature and
pilot cold model respectively.
(4) Gas mixing rate between two beds was 0.5 to l/o that will be
far below practically allowable limit. Particle size of sand
scarcely affects on gas mixing rate in the test range of 0.2 to 0.7mm.
(5) Effects of fluctuation in operative conditions such as sand
volume, free board pressure, difference pressure between two
boards and gas velocity on the stability of sand circulation
was clarified.
(6) Elimination of inorganic materials from the sand beds
during continuous operation was successfully achieved.
2.2 Feeder test
By using feeder test facility , feeding rate of refuse
and gas sealing property have been clarified.
i /. 2/
-------
?.. 5 Miniature hot model
Effects of gas density and viscosity at elevated temperature
on the circulation performance of fluidizing sand have been
clarified by the miniature hot model unit.
2.6 Pilot plant of dual chamber fluidized bed system
Summarizing the test results of aforementioned single bed
pyrolysis, dual chamber fluidized bed cold models, feeding and
miniature hot model, pilot plant of about 5 Ton/day in capacity
has been manufactured, and tested since the end of 1975•
2.6.1 Outline of pilot plant
Fig. 11 shows the flow diagram of the pilot plant.
Refering to Fig. 11 input material fed from pretreating
plant is pyrolyzed by fluidized hot sand in the reactor. Hot
sand circulates between reactor and incinerator through connecting
pipes. Inorganic matter and coagulated solids are continuously
removed during operation by eliminator, then stored in bunker.
Produced gas is cooled by heat exchanger, after removing
dust and char, and introduced into cooler via mist separator
which separates mist and tar from gas. A part of the gas is
compressed and recycled to the reactor, to be used as fluidizing
gas. Hemainder is cleaned by scrubber, then fired by flare stuck..
Steam, in stead of recycled gas, can be used for fluidization.
This case, however, not only reduces recovered energy due to
consumption by steam generation, but adds undue load on water
treatment.
Preheated air is used for both lifting and fluidizing the
sand and char sent from reactor. In the incinerator, sand is
heated up by incineration of char. After eliminating ash and
Z*
harful gas, flue gas from incinerator is released in the air..
-------
All the operative parameters such as pressures of free
"boards, connecting pipes and gas pipe lines, plus temperatures,
sand levels and rate of fluidizing gas etc. are automatically
measured and controlled, so that one man can operate the pilot
plant *
2.6.2 Testing of pilot plant
At first, no load operation was repeated in order to
confirm operative function such as manual and automatic control,
starting, stopping and emergency shut down etc..
As next step, tests using pretreated Group III and Group II
are at present under way. Fuel gas of 6000 to 7000 Kcal/Nm^
is successfully obtained by pyrolyzing Group III.
Following items are planned to study till March in 1977.
(1) -a. Items similar to 2.3.2 of single bed.
-b. Capacity tests
-c. Pollution control tests
-d. Long running tests
(2) Study for utilization on fuel gas
(3) Feasibility study of dual chamber fluidized bed system
2.7 Conclusion
'L'he present system has a possibility of recovering resources
such as paper, compost, ferrous metal and fuel gas of high' heat
value from municipal refuse, with less pollution compared
with conventional diposing methods.
3-/^3
-------
Fig.l Configuration of p.yrolysis processes by unit operation
ilo,
5
Proc :cs
I'iaMG
Dual
Chamber
j'luidi-
zed i;ed
System
Flnicii-
aei'
i-'yrox
system
Waste
Tapping
System
f-iagma
Bed
Fyroly-
sis
Incine-
rator
System
xter-
nal
Hea tin;?
Moving
Bed
System
Input
re fuse
re fuse
refuse
refuse
refuse
refuse
refuse
refuse
¦*?
-*>-

¦*>
6

X
-Xr-
-O-

k
¦K>
¦*0
Out-out

fuel
steam
v;aste
gas
Waste
water
residue
R. H.
waste
gas
fuel
gas
waste
water
residue
-K>—
oil
gl!te
char
fuel
gas
waste
water
sludge
slag
Ui
1
waste
water
slag
steam
waste
gas
waste
water
residue
waste
gas
fuel
gas
hot
water
waste
water
residue
R. M.
3.
-------
No.
Process
Name
Input
a
b
c
d
e
f
S
h
i
j
k
1
Output
9
Burrox
System
refuse

fuel
gas
waste
water
slag
iron

10
rorrax
System
refuse

steam
filte
waste
water
slag

11
Land-
gard
Process
refuse

fuel
gas
steam
waste
gas
waste
water
R. M.
residue

L
12
M.-
Gallet
System
refuse

waste
water
waste
gas
oil
residue
R. M.

. . i
L_.

b. Selective separation
d. Grinding
f. Separation
h. Utilization
j. Waste gas treatment
lt Residue treatment
a. Shredding
c. Drying or Dewatering
e. Pyrolysis
g. Refining and Cleaning
i. Storage
k. Waste water treatment
3. f. 2. C
-------
Fig. 2 Classification of pyrolysis reactor
by heating method
Heat
Consumption
Part
Heat
Generation
Part
a.
£¦
combustion
gas
b.
c.
refuse
gas
pyrolysis
incineration
refuse
d.
oil, gas
>

residue-sand

sand
flue gas

If
combustion
air
e.
refuse
pyrolySis
residue
gas
heat
transfer'
k
electricity
*3 • 1 •
-------
100
Cp* 80
ON
SAMPLE B
60"
Q
UJ
>•
40-
20-
0
LIQUID
CHARCOAL^
J J i_
400 450 500 550
TEMPERATURE (°C)
Fig. 3 Yield pattern of pyrolysis
3./-2.7
-------
6o u
50
*+0
30
20
10
0

—

*
actual
i&i*1-

Char
©
A

Gas
o
A
4.

Oil
0 ,
A

—
(D --
-—®

"7EP" — —,

—

CHAR

'4
/
/ /
/
*
\

-
"— A_ i ^

gas

i
t

»
Moisture content of refuse (wt?&)
Fig. if. Effect of moisture content on yield of
pyrolysis
3.|2«
-------
TEMPERATURE CC)
ig. 5 Heat balance
3. (.29
-------
800
o
©
+»
oS
©
p.
a
V
700
600
500
Parameter U/U
mf
koo
300
"V2
terminal
velocity
of
fluidizing
particle
at)
range atri. table for
oil recovery
Feed Rate
Fig- 6. Stable operation range of a fluidized
bed
3./"b o
-------
Fig. 7 SCHEMATIC FLOWSHEET OF REFUSE PYROLYStS
-------
Municipal Refused
i :
Selective Pulverizing
Classifier
©
in
1
Magnet
Separator

Shredder

Air
Separator

//
Paper Mill >^Paper^
Drier j
-ajsi
Sieve
A)ar5i" £
\ Dirt

Air

Separator
^jplass^
^Ferrou^V
•Mf
^ffetal /J
norganrc
J
Two-Bed
Pyrolysis
Gassifier
Fig. 8 An example of resource recovery system
-^^Compostj^
Fig. 9 Conceptual illstration of selective
pulverizing classifier
5.'
-------
Fig. 10 Flow diagram of single fluidized bed plant
-------
c*>
1. Pyrolysis reactor
2. InciYierator
3. Connecting pine
4. Connecting pipe
5. Feeder
6. Pretreating plant
7. Cyclone
8. Heat exchanger
9. Cooler
10. Blower
11. Blower
12. Scrubber
13. Flare stack
14. Cyclone
15. Heat erchamrer
16. Cooler
17. Blower
18. Scrubber
19. Blower
20. Conveyor
21. Bunker
fig.11 Flow diagram of
two-bed pilot plant
-------
Table 1 Pyrolysis process developing in Japan
No«
Process
Name
Company or Type of
Organization Reactor
Phase of
R 8c D
Process
1
Dual
AIST(KITI)
Dual chamber 5 t/d pilot
Pyrolysis/

chamber
& Ebara Mfg..
fluidized
plant test
Gas

fluidized
Co.
bed

bed

system

2
A fluid-
AIST &
Single
5 t/d pilot
Pyrolysis/

ized bed
Hitachi
fluidized
plant test
Gas

system
Ltd.
bed

3
Pyrox-
Tsukishima
Dual chamber
Cold model
Pyrolysis/

system
Kik&i Co.
fluidized
test of
Gas, Oil

Ltd.
bed
pilot plant

k
Incine-
IHI Co. Ltd.
Single
Pilot plant
Incineration

ration

fluidized
30 t/d
/Steam

system

bed

5
Waste
Nippon
Moving bed
30 t/d
Pyrolysis/ (

tapping
Steel
shaft kiln
pilot plant
Gas !

system
Co. Ltd,

test
I
6
Magma
Shinraeiwa
Fixed bed
Bench-scale
Pyrolysis/

bed
Industry Co.
electric
test
Gas

process

furnace

7
Shaft
Hitachi
Moving bed
Bench-scale
Pyrolysis/

kiln
Ship Build-
shaft kiln
test
Gas

pyrolysis
ing Co.

system

8
Destra-
Hitachi
Moving bed

Pyrolysis/

gas
plant Const.
shaft kiln

Gas

process
Ltd.

9
Burrox
Showa Unox
Moving bed

Pyrolysis/

system
Co. Ltd.
shaft kiln

Gas
10
Torrax
Takuma
Moving bed

Pyrolysis/

system
Co. Ltd.
shaft kiln

Gas
11 landgard
Kawasaki
Rotary kiln
30 t/d
Pyrolysis/

process
heavy Indust

pilot plant
Gas/Steam

ry Co. Ltd.

12
M.-
Mitsubishi
Lean phase
Bench-scale
Pyrolysis/

Gallet
Heavy Indus-
fluidized
test
Oil

system
try Co. Ltd.
bed

3 . /. 3 S
-------
Table 2 Properties of raw material
Run No.
1
2
5
7
Bulk
density
(kg/1)
O.O65
0.092
-
0.088
Mean
diameter
(ram)
30 ~50
30-^50
30-^50
30-^50
/—^
4->
paper
84.6
74.1
76.8
70.0
£
wood
1.0
4.1
0.7
4.6
a
o
plastics
2.9
2.7
5.2
5.3
Composite
incombus-
tible
moisture
1.7
7.3
2.1
15.5
0.5
15.5
8.7
11.4
others
2.5
1.5
1.3
trace
Technical
analysis
( Wt/o)
carbon
volatile
fixed
carbon
7.21
78.42
20.87
-
9.88
72.41
27.44
-
High calorific
value(kcal/kg)
4038
3834
3894
3607
Low calorific
value(kcal/kg)
3709
3408
3468
3206
Sl'bb
-------
Table 3 Properties of product oil
Product oil
Oil from Tar-oil
plastics
High calorific
value (kcal/kg)
C/H (weight ratio)
Ignition loss
(vt%)
Viscosity (cp)
8600 ¦ 4130
6.23 6.12
97.5 '98.8
20 (65°C) 22 (60°C)
Table 1+ Product gas composition
Run No.

1
2
3

H2
3.22
3.30
2.94
3.15
4.33
3.56
°2
0.49
2.26
3.08
I.24
0.36
0.71
S2
62.20
61.32
63.51
63.81
59.57
60.3
C\
1.79
2.40
1.59
1.56
2.32
2.15
CO
14.38
18.27
10.89
11.55
13.71
12.75
CO,
14.89
12.74
12.48
15.70
15.16
15.02
C2H6
0.42
0.46
0.38
0.41
0.48
0.39
CA
1.02
1.27
1.12
1.08
1.13
1.06
c3h8
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.06
0.03
0.02
°3H6
0.52
0.56
0.47
0.57
0.51
0.42
total
98.96
102.6
96.51
99.13
97.63
100.11
High calorific
value (kcal/Nm3)
1053
1285
916
963
1139
1020
After removal
of C0?
(kcal/Nm^)
1237
1473
1047
1142
1343
1200

3.;.v
-------
Table 5 Properties of residue
Material
Char
A.eh
Incombusti-
ble
Bulk density
(kg/1)
0.193
0.3^5
O.988
True density
(kg/1)
-
-
2.612
Ignition loss
(wt%)
86.01
14.62
-
C/H

23.5
-
-

•17 mm
18,08
-
37.16
rticle size
Lstribution
(wt%)
17-6.5
6.5-2.0
2.0-1.0
1.0-0.6
46.15
3^.60
1,15
trace
20.51
8.97
5.90
8.97
60.11
2.19
0.55
trace
a* 13
0.6-0
-
55.64
'
-------
Table 6 An example of hazardous gas
concentration
Run
Mo.
HC1
C12
NH,
3
NO
X
HCN
S02
H2S
1
A
-
-
-
-
-
-
-

B
0
0
0
trace
25
trace
trace
?
A
-
-
-
-
-
-
-

B
0
0
0
0
18
trace
30 .
3
A
B
0
0
0
0
20
65
30
4
A
50
17
20
trace
28
15
84o

B
0
0
0
0
5
2
10
5
A
4o
18
17
trace
12
270
200

B
0
0
0
0
3
2
0
6
A
4o
2
2
0
4o
180
70

B
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
7
A
40
2
2
0
4o
120
680

B
0
0
0
0
trace
2
0
A. In the reactor
B. After cleaning
Table 7 An example of heavy metal cocentration

Zn (ppm) Cd (ppm) Cr (ppm) Pb (ppm)
Raw refuse
Fluidized sand
Char
Product oil
Ash
32.81 8.33 31.25 37.50
8.04 1.08 6.66 10.0
93.75 32.50 125.0 312.5
8.64 7.80 5.00 l4.$0
312.5 99.37 187.5 450.0
3J.
-------
Table 8 Classification performance of
selective classifier
Classification performance (dry base) Composition of each group (dry base)
Group I, Group II, Group III, Total, Group I, Group II, Group III,
% % % % % % %
Paper 29.1 47.1 23.8 100 Paper 21.9 85.1 47.3
Garbage 95.2 4.7 0.1 100 Garbage 52.2 6.2 0.1
Glass, ceramics 97.1 2.9 0 100 Glass, ceramics 17.4 1.2 0
Dirt (earth & pebbles) 82.5 17.5 0 100 Dirt (earth & pebbles) 1.7 0.9 0
Metals 11.1 3.4 85.5 100 Metals 0.9 0.6 17.7
Plastics 18.2 11.3 70.5 100 Plasties 2.8 4.1 28.5
Cloth 0 22.2 77.8 100 Cloth .0 1.7 6.4
Wood 97.2 2.8 0 100 Wood 3.1 0.2 0
Total, % 100 100 100
-------
Part 2 R&D Efforts of Pyrolytic Process for Solid Waste
Conducting by Private Companies in Japan
by
Masakatsu Hiraoka
Professor, Dr.
Kyoto University
Japan
1. Preface
Pyrolysis is a process in which organic material is heated
to a high temperature (500 1000°C) in either an oxygen-free
or low-oxygen atmosphere. Application of the pyrolysis to solid waste
result in a chemical breakdown of the organic materials into three
component streams; (1) a gas consisting primarily of hydrogen,
methane, carbon monoxide; (2) a "tar" or "oil" that is liquid at
room temperature and include organic chemical such as acetic acid,
acetone, methanol; (3) a "char" consisting almost pure carbon plus
any inerts (glass, metals, rock) that enter the process.
Pyrolysis, in its strict sense, is the thermal decomposition
in an oxygen lacking environment. However, often known "pyrolytic"
process include partial oxidation (or combustion) and, may be not
called pyrolysis strictly. Because of this, the term "pyrolysis"
is used here in a much broader sense than usual definition of
pyrolysis, and distinguished from the incineration or combustion
in that the latter is the thermal decomposition with an excess amount
of air or oxygen. ^ I
-------
It is said that the pyrolysis is one of the most promising
technologies for resource recovery, because it can be used for
conversion materials recovery as well as energy recovery in
a storable and transportable form. More than a dozen processes
are being proposed for this purpose both in Japan and United States.
Generally speaking, it may be agreed that none has been proved to
be completely workable on a commercial scale with the products
being recovered in an acceptable manner.
General conditions for success of these pyrolisis are considered
more stringent in Japan, simply because of the higher moisture
content of the Japanese refuse. Compared with the composition
I
of the American refuse, followings are noteworthy.for the Japanese
I
refuse on the average sense.
1) Overall moisture content is approximately twice as muchj higher
2) Plastic content is 2 to 3 times more
3) Food waste which is normally very much wet, occupies relatively
higher content
4) Metals fraction is about half that of the American refuse
5) Paper fraction is also relatively lower
Because of these relative features, the Japanese refuse has,
on the average, a heating value of 1,300 kcal/kg; generally ranging
from 1,000 to 1,500 kcal/kg. Although the carolific value; tends
to increase, this relatively lower heating value is considered a
l
disadvantage especially for energy recovery from the Japanese
municipal waste.
In order that the organic matter is decomposed, heat must
be supplied to increase first the enthalpy of the material! to
-------
a decomposition temperature and then enable the decomposition re-
action occur, which in most instances, is endothermic. This heat
balance can be maintained by suppling the heat of combustion of char
to decompose the organic matter in the refuse.
The way of supplying the heat of the first endothermic stage
may devide the process into l)enternal heating 2)internal heating
3)partial oxidation process.
Equipmental features often become the name of the process;
l)fixed bed 2)rotary kiln reactor 3)fluidized bed, 4)flash sus-
pention processes.
Researches of the pyrolysis are conducting in three sectors
in our country.
I. The first: the pyrolysis process which are studying in the
R&D project of MITI are as follows;
1) Fluidized-bed Pyrolysis for Oil Recovery (Hitachi Ltd.)
2) Dual Chambers Fluidized bed Pyrolysis/Combustion Reactor
system for Fuel Gas Recovery (Ebara Manufacturing Co., Ltd.)
II. The second; several private companies are currently testing
and developing pyrolysis systems as follows;
1) Deal Chambers Fluidized Bed Pyrolysis
Tsukishima Kikai Co., Ltd.
2) Fixed Bed Pyrolysis - Nippon Steel Co., Ltd.
3) Fluidized Bed Incineration (partially including pyrolysis
reaction) - Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries Co., Ltd. »
-------
III. The third; many private companies are currently introducing
the foreign country (mainly United States) and testing'
i
pyrolysis systems as follows; (the major systems)
1) Union Carbide System - Showa Unox Co., Ltd.
2) Monsanto (Landgard System) - Kawasaki Heavy Industries Co., Ltd.
3) Garret Process - Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Co., Ltd.
4) Torrax (Carborundum)- Takuma Co., Ltd.
Since the national R&D project on "Resource Recoveryj and
Refuse Technological System" by MITI was started in 1973, many private
companies was launched out into the development of pyrolytic process
and system by introducing the foreign technology or by themselves.
The three process developing in out country are described here;
2. Brief Review of Pyrolytic Process
2.1 Dual Chambers Fluidized bed Pyrolysis (Pyrox Process)
- Tsukishima Kikas Co., Ltd.
The basic idea of this process is as follows: The main'device of
which consists of two reaction towers of fluidized bed - 1)ia pyrolysis
tower for the pyrolytic production of a fuel gas of high calorific value
and 2) a reheating tower for the effective combustion of pyrolytically
produced char and for the regeneration of fluidized sand which
circulates as a solid. Pyrox Process is basically the same as the
process developing in the R&D project of MITI (Ebara Manufacturing
Co., Ltd.)
This dual reactor systems has been employed in petroleum
cracking process and not totally new. It is said that the advantage
of this system are that the process is suitable for getting ja gas
of high calorific value and the operation can easily be automated.
% I
-------
Fig. 1 (a), (b) are the equipment and the flow sheet of the
dual chambers fluidized bed reactor. The flow-chart of municipal
refuse treatment system using this process is shown as Fig. 2
The bench-scale experiments and also the test using the
small-scaled pilot plant have been conducted to obtained pyrolytic
balance data and the composition of various products of pyrolysis,
and to survey the operational characteristics of dual chambers flu-
idized bed. The small-scaled pilot plant was capable of continuously
treating urban refuse at the rate of 10kg dry measure per hour.
a. Experimental Results
Raw materials pyrolyzed in the testing bench and in the stnall-
scaled pilot plant consisted of actual urban refuse, which was
crushed, dried to have its moisture regulated, and pulverized
where necessary. The properties of raw materials used in the
experiment are listed in Table 1.
The pyrolytic balance obtained by bench-scale tests is shown
in Fig. 3. Computation from this pyrolytic balance leads to the
following conclusion: If the heat of endo-thermic reaction in
pyrolyzing the refuse is supplied by the combustion heat of the
pyrolytically produced char, the pyrolyzing temperature can
automatically be maintained within a certain range (for example,
if the moisture of a raw material is 20%, the pyrolyzing temperature
ranges from 700 to 730°C).
Table 2 shows the chemical composition and changes in the
calorific value of the pyrolytically produced gas caused by differ-
ences in the properties of their raw materials. Compared with
coal gas, the calorific balue of pyrolytically produced gas is
somewhat higher than of coal gas, and three tons of dry refuse
corresponds to one ton of coal. «
-------
Table 3 lists the composition of the" pyrolytically produced
char. Although the char contains condensates of N, S, CI,jand of
heavy metals, when it is burnt in the reheating tower, most.of
the heavy metals except Hg become condensed in the ashes. Most
of the component N is gasified into ^ gas, and part of N becomes
Nox- About 50% of the component S is gasified and the rest becomes
ashes by taking stable forms of CaSO^ etc. CI is gasified and
turns into ashes by assuming a stable salt from such as Na|ci.
The pyrolytically produced tar is divided into high-t[emperature
tar which condenses at temperatures above 90 to 95°C and l|ow
temperature tar which condenses at temprature below this range.
The former has no fluidity at ordinary temperature. The l'atter is
highly fluid and aromatic, having a high oil content. Thd example
of the composition of high-and low-temperature tar is listjed in
Table A.
When the pyrolytically produced gas is scrubbed, the irinse
water from scrubber solves NH^, HC1 and condenses the water vapor
from refuse and the steam which was used as a part of the fluidizing
gas. The pH of rinse water, therefore, depends on a volumetric
balance of NH^ and HC1 in the pyrolytically produce gas. When
the pyrolyzing temperature is lower than 600°C, the pH value of the
rinse water indicates acidity, and when the pyrolyzing temperature
is higher than 600°C, the pH value of the rinse water indicates
alkalinity as shown in Fig. 4 . Fig. 4 also shows the amount of
NH^ produced by decomposition of the nitrogen compound contained
in the raw materials.
Fig. 5 shows the behavior of N, S, and CI contained]in the
raw material and Fig. 6 shows an example of the distribution of
heavy metals collected. Heavy metals contained in the raw material
-------
refuse can be collected almost completely, except for Hg (whose
collection rate ranges from 60 to 100%) and Cd (whose collection
rate range from 80 to 95%).
b. Summary of the Pyrox Process
Features of the dual chambers fluidized bed pyrolysis of refuse,
developed by Tsukishima Kikai Co., Ltd. are summarized as follows;
1) Since the pyrolysis of refuse and heating of fluidized
sand (which supplies the pyrolyzing heat) are performed in
separate towers, the heating combustion gas does not mix with the
pyrolytically produced gas. This makes it possible to obtain a
fuel gas of high calorific value, and concurrently, to readily
control and stabilize the pyrolyzing temperature.
2) Compared with existing incineration methods, the amount of
exhaust gas of this device is 1/4 to 1/10, permitting the exhaust
gas scrubber to be smaller scaled.
3) Since the substances (N, S, and CI) contained in the refuse
are gasified in the reducing atmosphere of the pyrolytic tower,
rather than producing N0x and SO2, they are turned into NH^, l^S,
and HC1, removable without difficulty.
4) The divice can assort inorganic coarse particles, which have
entered the pyrolyzing device along with the refuse, and extract
them from the tower. Fine particles of fluidized sand are nearly
always replenished y inorganic particles contained in the refuse. 3»/.
-------
c- Design Concept
According to the data of basic experiment as described above,
Tsukishima Kikai Co,, Ltd. reported on the economic estimation of
large scaled actual plants as shown in Table 5 (a), (b).
2.2 Solid Waste Melting Process adopting Advanced Blast Furnace
Technology - Nippon Steal Co., Ltd.
Nippon Steel Co., Ltd. has developed a new solid waste disposal
system which based on experience of blast furnace technology
concerning the steel production. The idea of melting solid waste
to form stable slag and metals is not totally new and several
types of shaft farnace for processing solid waste have been de-
veloping by various companies and institutions. Shaft furnace
are very simple and easy to construct but the problems are how to
operate them smoothly and economically with given charge materials.
Furnace profile has to be appropriate for charge materials to
maintain smooth descent of the charge.
Outline of this solid waste melting system is shown as Fig. 7 .
The system is composed of four main sections; refuse receiving and
charging section, shaft furnace, hot blast system, and gas cleaning
and water treatment system. The pit and crane system are used for
feeding the solid waste in the pilot plant. Charging hoist or
conveyor which is widely applied for blast furnace will be applied
in the commercial design. The shaft furnace structure is more or
less similar to that of a small blast furnace, except for the profile,
3 .Mtf which is one of the key factors for smooth operation.
-------
For the hot blast system, hot stoves is recommended due to
thier ability to produce high temperature blast. But hot stoves
are expensive and also add operating difficulties. Therefore, a
conventional blast heater are used. Maximum blast temperature is
about 450°C. The hot blast is blown into the furnace through
tuyeres. Oxygen enrichment is also practised. Oxygen enrichment
of less than 15% is useful when hearth heat is low, but excessive
oxygen enrichment will cause poor furnace condition and tuyere
burning.
The role of nitrogen as a heat carrier has been investigated.
In modern blast furnace practise, it is considered better to restrict
oxygen enrichment to below 10%.
Gas generated inside the shaft is passed through a dust catcher
and a venturi scrubber. Wash water is fed to a sludge pit through
a line filter. Because of the high water content of the refuse,
only a small additional supply of water for the venturi scrubber
is needed. Clean recycled water for the venturi will gradually
increase its salt concentration, and will have to be treated after
several days. Various water treatments are available today, and
there are no problems regarding water recycling. Produced gas
will be used for the hot blast heater and drier and the amount
for this is less than 10% of the entire gas produced. For taking
a balance of utilization, gas holders are required.
The top charging equipment is somewhat different from that
of a blast furnace, and slide valve is used instead of charging
bells. For better sealing of furnace gas, the modern blast furnace
valve seal type is recommended. Furnace top pressure is controlled
at atmospheric pressure in order ro prevent gas leakage. The top -
pressure is controlled by an R-damper installed at the exit of the
venturi scrubber. This system is quite similer to that of a modern
-------
blast furnace.
The entire system was constructed based on proven blast furnace
technology. Therefore, the system is highly reliable. The re-
fractory lining must be chosen in consideration of slag composition
and working temperature.
a. Performance Results of Pilot Plant
I
Operation of the pilot plant was started in November 1974,
using urban refuse collected in Kitakyushu City. Pilot operation
is still continuing using various charging materials and operating
conditions. Appropriate operating practices have already been
eatablished, and the economics compare favourably with those of
conventional incinerators. Operation is similar to that of la
blast furnace. Furnace conditions are monitored through top
gas analysis, chemical analysis of slag and metal, differential
pressure drop through the shaft, etc. Charging sequence is initiated
by the charge level. Adjustment of furnace condition is made by
the adjustment of additional solid fuel and flux, and the percentage
of oxygen enrichment.
Typical slag and iron analysis is shown in Table 6. Since
the composition of refuse varies widely from time to time, the
composition of slag and metal of each tap fluctuates more ttian
in tha case of the blast furnace. The role of this meltingj furnace
is not the production of iron and slag, therefore, from this
viewpoint it is easier to operate than a blast furnace. As shown
in Table 6 , the Cu, Cr, Ni, etc., content of the iron is high
which shows good proof for stabilizing heavy metals. The relatively
low carbon content of the iron is probably due to the high pro-
-------
portion of low carbon ste 1 cans in the metal contained in the
refuse. Part of the chlorine is fixed in the form of CaC^
as shown in the slag analysis.
Table 7 shows typical analytical values of the cleaned
gas which has relatively high calorific values. Due to the
pyrolysis of organic materials, the gas has a higher hydrogen
content than blast furnace gas. The heating value of the top
gas is proportional to the heating value of the refuse, and
is a good measure of refuse composition. Analysis of refuse
is very difficult due to the difficulties of sampling, and
huge amounts of sample are required in order to obtain reliable
data. In this respect, output variables such as the gas analysis
and slag and iron analysis give much better information about
the variation of refuse composition.
Typical heat balance is shown in Table 8. Much heat is
absorbed by the water in the refuse. At present, the furnace
can be operated using refuse which has water content of less
than 50%. Naturally the higher the water content, the more
difficult it is to operate the furnace. On the other hand,
the efficiency of refuse drying is higher in a shaft furnace
than in a conventional drier. Therefore, the degree of
predrying is a very important factor for both stable operation
and thermal efficiency of the furnace.
Slag is tapped every two or three hours similar to the
case of a blast furnace. Time interval depends on various
factors. For slag handling, continuous tapping is preferable
but this is only possible with bigger furnaces. With smaller
-------
furnaces, it is very hard to maintain tap hole for continuous
tapping because the amount of slag is too small. The inter-
mittent tapping, therefore, is adopted in this pilot plant
operation.
Slag leaching tests have been performed according to the
Environmental Agency code, none of those does exceed the
permissible level. Typical redults are shown in Table 9.
b. Summary of Solid Melting Process
Through a year of pilot operation of the shaft type
furnace, the melting process showed promising results. Main
results are as follows.
Anti-pollution
1) SO and NO in the generated gas are negligible due to the
X X
reducing atmosphere inside the shaft furnace.
2) Hydrogen chloride from vinyl chloride is fixed in the form
of stable salts such as CaCl0 and NH.C1.
2 4
3) Heavy metals such as Cr, Ni, etc., are fixed either in the
slag or metals.
4) Volatile metals such as Zn and Pb are trapped in the dust
catcher in the form of oxide or chloride. The amount of
these metals is less than 1% of the charge, and they can
be recycled by pelletizing with thickner sludge.
-------
Resource recovery
1) The melting furnace produces clean fuel gas. The amount of
3
gas generated from one ton of refuse is about 450 to 550 Nm ,
3
with a calorific value of approximately 2,000 Kcal/Nm . The
3
price of gas, if it is sold will be more than 4 yen per Nm ,
which means an income of 2,000 yen from the fuel gas produced
per ton of refuse.
2) Recoverable iron from a ton of refuse is about 20 to 30 kg.
Although this iron has a relatively high alloy content, it can
be used as low grade scrap.
Other advantages
1) Volume contraction is high, therefore, the space required for
land fill is less than conventional incinerator. Also the
slag contains fewer pollutants than conventional incinerator
ash.
2) Plant is more simple than a modern incinerator plant due to
less exhaust gas volume, (about 1/7 to 1/10 of incinerator
waste gas)
c. Economy of Melting Process
Investment cost depends largely on the specification of the
plant and is difficult to compare with that of present incinerators.
Stoker type incinerators are well proved and many such incinerators
are in operation. Of course, thousands of.blast furnaces are in
operation too.
Since the shaft furnace system is much more simple than the
modern stoker type incinerator, it can be built for lower cost. a
-------
The cost of the shaft furnace system depends much on the
capacity of furnace. The shaft furnace also requires oxygen
supply and gas utilization facilities such as gas holderi
Investment is proportionally lower for a furnace capacity of
over 200 t/d.
Operating cost of melting process depends on the price of
solid fuel and oxygen. As mentioned previously, economy depends
I
largely on how the recovered fuel and metals are used. !With
the present fuel and oxygen consumption, the operating cost will
be about 3,000 yen per ton, 20 to 30% higher than the present
I
operating cost of an incinerator. If the recovered fuel price
and cost of landfill are deducted, the net operating cost might
be much lower than that of the present incinerators.
2.3 Fluidized Incineration (partially including pyrolytic
reaction - Ishikawajima-Harima Heavy Industries Co'., Ltd.
(IHI)
A new type of fluidized bed incinerator which partially
I
include a pyrolytic reaction has recently developed by IHI.
Several type of conventional fluidized bed incinerator has
been developed for burning up the shreded materials. Gener-
I
ally speaking, the discharge mechanism of the incombustible
materials out of the incinerator was a bottleneck in continuous
operation of fluidized bed incinerator. The incombustibles
in the refuse successively thrown into the incinerator are
increasingly accumulated on the bottoms, which causes some
sections within the incinerator to become incapable of JEluidi-
^ ^ zation, making difficult the continuous stable operation of the
-------
fluidized bed.
The fluidized bed incinerator developed IHI has the newly
developed the incombustibles discharging mechanism to cope with
the defects metioned above. The basic idea of this process shown
in Fig. 8 is as follows. To achieve good distribution of the air
for fluidization, the air-distribution plate provided at the
fluidized bed are replaced with air-distribution pipes, through
which fluidization medium (sand) and the incombustibles are
blown downward together among the air-distribution pipes, and
taken out of the bed bottom to be separated by the screen into
the sand and incombustibles; there after the incombustibles
are discharged out of the incineration system and fluidization
medium is put back into the fluidized bed, thus ensuring a
stabilized continuous operation of the incineration for a long
time.
Fig. 9 shows the flow sheet of solid waste treatment system
by use of fluidized bed incinerator. The demonstration plant
was constructed whose refuse treating capacity was 36 tons per
day in Matsudo City. Pilot operation is still continuing for
24 hour as one of the incinerator of Matsudo City.
a. Outline of Plants
Details of main plants are as follows
Fluidized Bed : Cross section 1.0 x 2.5 m squae
effective heights 6.5 m
3
Combustion chamber 29 m
Sand Circulating : sand discharging ability 0.6-3 t/hr
Device vibrating screen 7 mesh
backet conveyer 3 t/hr
-------
Blowing Equipment :
Incineration load :
first blower 70 1
second blower 45
hot gas generator
600 kg/m^hr
3
Im /tnin x 3,000 inmAq
3 ¦
Nm /rain x 600 mmAq
880,000 kcal/hr
-------
2.4 Conclusion
The author described the three pyrolytic processes developed
by private companies, which have been conducting several test by
use of pilot plants. Recently, the need for better solid waste
disposal system has stimulated a great deal of interest in the
application of pyrolysis to solid waste instead of the traditional
incineration system in our country.
The processes described here and the processes developing
by R & D project of MITI show a great deal of promise.
Transfer from incineration of resource recovery in domestic
refuse are searching by the municipalities.
The author classified the conceptional alternatives of
resource recovery system in the next generation that would be a
substitute for the conventional incineration and sanitary land-
filling of solid waste disposal system as follows.
1) Combined System with the Existing Incinerator: To prevent the air
and water pollution by separating the unsuited materials for burning.
Shredding
K Separation|—Existing
Incinerator
¦^Heat Recovery—^Energy
b
recovery of
materials
2) System introducing New Incinerator: New incinerators such as fluidized
bed, rotary kiln etc. are introduced for shredding refuse.
materials
3./.W
-------
3) System Introducing Gassification process: To obtain mainly high
calorific fuel gas by introducing the pyrolysis.
Shredding

Pyrolysis

Fuel gas recovery
Recovery of
materials
4) System introducing Thermal Decomposition Process of Oil Recovery:
To obtain oil or liquid fuel products by introducing the pyrolysis.
The author believes that the order of these alternatives
also show the transfer steps from present solid waste disposal
system to future in our country. The pyrolytic process * therefore,
should be evaluate in the transfer flow from the present Jstate
to the future as a total system including the front-end system.
3/.(p?L
-------
Fig. 1 (a) PYROLYSIS PROCESS
Exhaust
)
)
Gd$ Cool.ng Eq.
G'js iV;ish,r"]
i
Clean
Fv_ Gas
far l inmnator
Manicipal f
Refuse
\ I 4'
<^525. f.j
Fluidizing Gas 'Steam)
- Fuel Gas
Voving Direction of
Fluidizing Sanci
Fluidizing Gas
11
T
/
Large Particle
>
Large Particle
Reactor
Regenerator
¦3. I.
-------
1 Walt I C va.
2 Waifr Zva.
3 Feeder
4 FVodor
5 otor
6 Cjc'one
7 Cy>:'¦ ,.e
8 Aii Hudier
9 Wflvhtrf foi P G.
10 W.-fw.i for E G
11 Aftur ou!l,er
12 An Cur.-ipreisoi
13 Coo!-jr
14 f-ci Tuel
15 S\?.ck
-------
Fig- 2 f-"iUN iCIFAL HE-hL'SE ! Ri..A i !/>LNT SYSTEM
u)
*\
Ro^m. Pit
- '-j Ch> Jd :.g J— ¦' |^~
C. y ir.g
J

f\.
-------
Fig. 3 PYROLYZING EQ'JILIBURIUM CURVE
^ 80 H
45C 500 550 600 650 710 750 800 850
Pyrolysis temperature (°C)
a. t.
-------
Fig. 4 RELATION BETWEEN PH OF CONDENSATE AND PYROLYSIS
TEMPERATURE
ct
7.
o
o
•o
CC
5
o
*o
o
un
O
¦sr
o

sJ
Oi
oo n
(O -
ro -
Conversion Ratio of N in Refuse to NH3
o
o
o
<,N
CN
—! ! 1 1 T I 1 r—1—
450 SCO 550 GOO 650 700 750 800 850
Pyrolysis Temperature
3./.t>7
-------
pi8- 5 DISTRIBUTION OF N, S, CI IN FEED
* I
§ J
r, 50/
t
r'Mii
1 I

T_' ¦_> i ' . '£
•1."
(:r,t
' j .
"t> ' " I

C-\ ¦
J
, f /
iVfo
K" s'

S X

\
•
¦ '
•i
Pyrolysis Temp. 600 700 600 700
Element N- S
600 700 ( C)
CI
Tar
;|j Ash
Efluent Gas from Regenerator
Product Gas
3,1.^
-------
Fig. 6 distribution of heavy metals
IOC
C
O
"t *;
nri
K - **>
b ?

r* A
hj

I'M
•i
i

X-'fy
f ¦-

Cu
Cr

H
M
'Y
¦'I
i
e
r. ,
em
*¦ ¦•' s
»A
BMj Others
V~
Tar
k Cycionc Ash
"Ccarse tr>0! garni. Waller
J J C-chciyed Sar.d
Mn
Zn
-------
Ul
sj
o
Fig. 7 Wsste Melting System
To g.iy utilization
fa c ilitios
-------
-------
Tig. 9 Flow Sheet of floldlul
Bed Incinerator (111)
-------
TABLE-1 CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF SOLID WASTE IN
PYROX-200 PLANT TEST
FEED

A
B
°
D
E
MEAN DIA.
(mm)
1.20
'
1.06
.
1.90
5.90
5.90
VOL. MAT.
(%)
73.16
79.3
76.2
72.6
72.6 i
ASH
(%)
24.53
20.7
— 1 ¦
23.8
27.4
I
27.4 1
1
MOISTURE
(%)

2.31
25.8
5.20
14.6
28.8
ULTIMATE
ANALYSIS
C
39.15
33.2

37.9
37.74
37.74
H
5.34
4.G5
4.93
5.01
5.01
o
28.00
39.10
30.60
26.90
26.90
N
1.60
1.11
1.61
1.79
1.79
1
S

0.98
0.59
0.700
0.500
0.50
.
CI
1

0.40
0.66
0.43
0.700
0.70
i
1 "I
1
i ASH
i

24.53
....
?0.7
23.80
.
27.40
i: 27.40
1
¦?. I. Ti
-------
TABLH-2 COMPSITION AND CALORIFIC VALUE
OF DRY GAS PRODUCED
(PYROLYStS TFMP. 700°C)
(vol%)
1
I FEE-
;
i
Hj
CO
i CH„
1
i
I
! c,h4
c2h6
o
o
1
c.v !
•Ccal/Nm® 1
1
i
1
i A
1
7.16
17.9
j ,4.3
' 10.7 '
7.2
50.00
i
4677 j
¦

t
i 8
;
21.3
15.9
| 14.3
i
j 8.5
2.4
37.0
3920 |
i
c
1
21.7
23.4
|
i 21.4
i
00
CO

21 5
1
4987
D
l
17.9
1G.1
T
j 15.0
1 8.1
1
3.0
39.9 •
3925
1
1
i E
24.3
in
-i
i
1 12.1
I
00
,,
37.5
3G70
1.7^
-------
TABLE-3 AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF CHAR FRACTION
wt%
Pyrolysis Temp.
450"C
650° C
850° C
Carbon C
77.2
79.2
85.7
Hydrogen H
7.02
7.53
4.21
Nitrogen H
2.82
3.15
3.69
Sulfur S
1.05
1.58
1.31
Chlorine CI
1.05
1.29
0.90
Oxygen 0
10.86
7.25
4.10
Total
100.00
100.00
100.00
3 '/• 75*
-------
TABLED AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF TAR FRACTION
(PYROLYSIS TEMP. AT 700°C)
B
Carbon C
Hydrogen H
\itrogeh N
Sulfur S
Chlorine CI
Cxyofin and ash
71.1 %
2.77
3.6r>
0.47
0.18
21.83
67.5 %
2.62 .
3.11
0.24
0.22
26.31
A- Tar condensed at high temperature scrubber
9 Tar condensed at low temperature scrubber
-------
TABLE 5 (a)
Oct. 1975
SuTunary of Estimated Econorro cs for FYROX System
(Fyroly-is Frocess for Recycling Municipal Solid V'este)
Easis ' 150 "JTD, 330 days/
(as received ye-dr
"ba .
-------
Table 5 (b) Environmental Regulation for Cost Estimation
Air emissions
SO? <50 ppm
NOx <50 ppm
Dust <0.05g/Km3
Effluent
COD 1 <100 ppm
BOD <100 ppm
Ash
0.175 - 0.21 Ton/Ton g.s received basis
2, I 7$
-------
Table 6 Example of Sing Composition C^ercunt)
I I
l''eO | S1O2 I CaL»
'Xi2°3
1 |
r.i.c<2
IvinO
I I
; i
10. 1.3 ! 42.4 I 10. 1
i ;
; i '
l'j.3 ¦ 0. 75 ! 1. 64 j 0. 78 i 6. 32
! I I !
0.24
! 1
! 0. 13 , 0. 11 f
i ! »
i
JGxampie of Iron Composition (Percent)
c
I '
1 Si j !*'n
! 1
| S 1 Ni
1
1
' Cr
i
Cu
—.. ...
Mo
2. 0^
! 1
j 3. 05 . 0. 13
i
1 . .
1.55 | 0.017 ! 0.12
! i
1 0. 4!i
1
•
t.CG
0. 04
r
i
' 0. 12 1 0. 03
3.1-71
-------
Table 7 Quantity, chemical composition and calorific
value of process £:>s. mount of tfas generated,
3
Nm' /ton of waste percent. Amount of heat generated,
V. col/ls'm^.
1 1
1 Co._> CO ,h.2
1
! N'2
1 I !
I j c2n4 ;
I
C2»6 |
1 !
i i
i i
1
r i 1
550 | 23.8 ! 29. G : 2r>. 0
1 |
i
i 17.8
1.
: i ;
• 2.C5 i 1.03 •
! !
0.10 j
\ \
137 0
I
Table 8
Heat Ualance

(
Inout • !
I
[
v: '
< - I
i
Output

1 1
1 V-' 1
,36. 9 , Latent and .sensible hteat
, oi moisture ui venerated
!
¦as
i'.eaction heat of CO
Other a
; 45. o :
~T f
1 -14. 9 : Sensible heat of slag .
42. 4
! 20. (i
i •
• Sensible heat of iron
| Ileal losa from furnace
' WHil
Others
H-
100.0 | Total
] *?
A • w
5. 7
17. 7
Total
100. 0
1. i • T6
-------
Table 9
Heavy Metals Leached from Slag (pprn)

Fresh vVr*ter
»
Saline v/ater j
T r'i f
*¦ • -'b
Less than 0. 0005
i
Less than 0. 0005 i
!
Cd
Less than 0. 01
1
Less than 0. 01 j
^b
Less than 0. 05
Less than 0. 05 j
'¦s
Less than 0. 003
I
Less than 0. 003 ;
T. C\\
Less than 0. 01
Less than 0. 001 '
T. Cr
Less, than 0. 05
Less than 0. 05
Not'.-. Tested according to the method stipulated officially made
by the Environment Agency (Environment ^ency's Notice
No. 13, February 17, 19-72)
"b-
-------
A Review of" the Status of Pyrol.ysis as
,a Means of Recovering Energy from
Municipal Solid Waste
by
Steven J. Levy
Senior Staff Engineer
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
Presented at the third U.S. - Japan Conference on
Solid Waste Management, Tokyo, Japan,
May 12 - 14, 1976.
-------
CONTENTS
Occidental Flash Pyrolysis Process
Process Description
Fuel Product
Status
Economics
Energy Balance
Special Issues
Monsanto Landgard Process
Process Description
Status
Economics
Energy Balance
Special Issues
Union Carbide Purox Process
Process Description
Status
Economics
Energy Balance
Andco (Carborundum) Torrax Process
Process Description
Status
Economics
Energy Balance
Bibliography
?. 1
-------
A Review of the Status of Pyrolysis as a
Means of recovering energy from municipal
Solid Waste
by Steven J. Levy
There are four pyrolysis systems being introduced in Japan which
are currently under development in the United States. Those systems
with the American and Japanese developers are shown in Table 1. This
paper will review the present status of these four systems in the
United States.
Table 1
Pyrolysis Systems Being Jointly Developed in the
United States and Japan
Process American Company Japanese Company
Occidental Flash Pyrolysis Occidental Petroleum Mitsubishi
Landgard
Monsanto
Kawasaki
Purox
Union Carbide
Showa Unox
Torrax
Andco (Carborundum)
Takuma
3. 2. Z
-------
2
Occidental Flash Pyrolysis Process
Process description - In the first step of feed preparation (Figure 1),
incoming solid waste is fed into a horizontal shaft hammermill driven by
a 1 ,000-horsepower electrici motor which shreds the waste to a nominal
size of 3 inches (90, percent passing a 3-inch screen).
The shredded material is then passed beneath an electromagnet to
extract the ferrous metal, and than to an air classifier that separates
the heavier, mostly inorganic particles from the lighter, organic
material.
The light fraction is dried to a moisture content of four percent
using heat from burning either combustible gas produced in the pyrolysis
reactor or fuel oil.
After drying, this fraction is purified further using a series of
mechnical processes. A 0.125-inch screen is used to remove larger
particles for secondary shredding in an attrition mill. In this mill,
waste fed between two counter-rotating disks is ground into extremely
fine particles having a nominal size of minus 14 mesh (that is, 80
percent of the particles could pass through a screen having 14 openings
to the inch). Meanwhile, the particles that fall through the 0.125-inch
screen are fed onto an air table where a combination of vibrating
motion and air flow separates light organic particles from dense metal
and glass particles. The light particles from the air table are combined
with the secondary shredder output to form the organic feed-stock, which
is stored until it is fed into the pyrolysis reactor.
1.1. 3
-------
3
The pyrolysis reactor is a vertical, stainless steel pipe through
i
which the organic feedstock is pneumatically blown. In thereactor, hot
particles of char provide the energy needed to pyrolyze the J organic
material. The char, which.is actually the solid residue remaining after
the pyrolysis reaction, enters the reactor after having been heated to a
temperature of 1400 F and is mixed turbulently with the organic material.
The pyrolysis reaction takes place as the char-waste mixture proceeds
through the reactor.
A mechnical separator or cyclone is used to remove the char from
the gas. The process gas that has been separated from the,char is
cooled quickly to 175 F in an oil decanter. The remaining"gas stream
goes through a series of clenup steps and is compressed fo[r plant use.
Part of the gas is used as the oxygen-free transport medium. The rest
of the gas is burned to preheat combustion air for the char heater, to
preheat the reactor transport gas, and to preheat dirty gas streams that
are produced in various parts of the system.
The liquid fuel product either goes directly to the oil storage
tank or is passed through a centrifuge if the solids content is too
high. Liquid fuel that does not meet product specifications is burned
in small boiler to produce steam for heating certain pieces of equipment
throughout the plant.
The remainder of the system consists of the glass and aluminum
recovery processes. The heavy fraction from the air classifier is
passed through a trommel where it is separated into three fractions:
3.2. i
-------
4
Smaller than 1/2" which becomes the feed to the glass recovery system,
1/2 to 4 inches which goes to aluminum recovery, and greater than 4
inches which is returned to the primary shredder.
A second source of feedstock to the glass recovery subsystem is the
dense fines recovered from the air table which pass into a flotation
cell where the glass is crudely separated by froth flotation.
The glass recovery subsystem consists of a series of froth flota-
tion cells which, by recirculating both the float and s.ink fractions
several times, is expected to recover 99 percent of the glass in the
glass feedstock at a purity of better than 99.5 percent. However, the
total recovery of glass from the incoming solid waste will be only 75
percent because there is loss in various parts of the process before the
feedstock is formed.
The aluminum recovery system is based on eddy current separation by
linear induction motors. The 1/2 to 4 inch fraction from the trommel
screen is passed on an endless belt over a pair of linear motors.
Electrical current through the motors generates a traveling wave magnetic
field above the belt. The magnetic field causes conductive materials in
the refuse fraction to be deflected off the side of the belt to a
collection bin. Since ferrous rnetals have been separated previously and
non-ferrous metal in municipal waste consists primarily of aluminum, the
covered stream is 90 to 95 percent aluminum. It contains about 60
percent of the aluminum in the solid waste.
3. S
-------
o
o
-5
-c ~n
o -j.
-5 U3
& C
-------
.'6
Fuel Product - The fyel product will be an oil-like, chemically
complex, organic fluid, the sulfur content will be a good deal lower
than that of even the best residual oils.
The average heating value of the pyrolytic "oil" will be about
24,400 joules per'gram {10,500 Btu/lb), compared with 42,400 J/g for
typical No. 6 fuel oil (Table 2). The lower heating value is due to the
fact that pyrolytic oil is lower in both carbon and hydrogen and contains
much more oxygen. A barrel of oil derived from the pyrolysis of municipal
waste contains about 76 percent of the heat energy available from No. 6
oil.
Pyrolytic oil will be more viscous than a typical residual oil.
However, its fluidity increases more rapidly with temperature than does
that of No. 6 fuel oil. Hence, although it must be pumped at higher
temperatures than are needed to handle heavy fuel oil, it can be atomized
v
and burned quite well at 116 C (240 F). This is only about 11 C (20 F)
higher than the atomization temperature for electric utility fuel oils.
The San Diego Gas and Electric Company has agreed to purchase the
fuel for use in one of its existing oil-fired steam-electric power
plants. However, the fuel will first be put through an extensive testing
program to determine its suitability and to determine a price for it.
Status - Tne first prototype plant is currently under construction
in El Cajon, California. It is being financed through a demonstration
3.2.7
-------
7
Table 2

Typical Properties of Liquid Fuel from Solid Waste
and No. 6 Fuel Oil*

Physical properties (dry basis):
Heating value (joules/gram)
Specific gravity
| Volumetric heat value (megajoules/liter)
I Viscosity (sSu at 88°C)
Liquid fuel
product
No. 6
fuel oil
24,400
: 1.30
31.75
1,000
42,400
0.98
41.5
90-250
Chemical analysis (dry basis, % by weight):
Carbon
] Hydrogen
I Sulfur
I Chlorine
S Ash
Hitrogen
Oxygen
57.5
7.6
0.1-0.3
0.3
0.2-0.4
0.9
33.4
85.7 .
10.5
0.5-3.5
+
0.5
}2.0
*Finney, C. S., and D. E. Garrett- The flash pyrolysis of solid waste.
Presented at Annual Meeting, American Institute of Chemical Engineers;
Philadelphia, Nov. 11-15, 1973. 25 p.
+Not available.
3.2.5
-------
8
grant from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and a subsidy from
Occidental petroleum. This 181 metric ton (200 US ton) per day plant
was begun in August, 1975. Most of the major equipment items are being
shop fabricated and shipped to the site partially assembled. This
procedure, plus the fact that the warm, arid climate requires only a
. '/
'fir,
minimal use of bu'ilding enclosures, will allow construction to be
completed in about one years time. Thus, it is expected that plant
start-up will begin in September, 1976. Several months of start-up
operations will proceed a one year testing and evaluation program.
Costs - The cost of the £1 Cajon plant has continued to escalate as
the engineers had to cope with severe site restrictions and increasingly
complex technical problems which arose as the design proceded. The site
for the plant is very small, 20,000 square meters (5 acres) and is
subject to a ,18.3m (60 foot) building height limitation because it is
immediately adjacent to an airport. Concern over the possibility of
odors and H0X emissions have further complicated the design. The effect
of these problems has caused the estimated cost of this plant to rise
from $2.9 million (estimated in 1971 based on a preliminary flow diagram)
to $10.2 million (based on actual bids on the completed design as of
June, 1975). In addition, $2.3 million has been spent on engineering
and design of the facility.
Despite the tremendous escalation in cost for this facility it is
still felt that the process will be economically viable in some situations.
Table 3 presents Occidental Research's most current cost analysis for a
907 metric ton (1000 ton) per day plant. From this it can be seen that
3.2.9
-------
y
TABLE 3
Cost Analysis of the Occidental Flash Pyrolysis Process
(as of June, 1975)
"i
907..Metric tons (1000 U.S. tons) per day
Capital Cost:
Land and Site Preparation $ 135,000
Construction 20,705,000
Start-up, Working Capital, Financing 2,324,000
Design 2,035,000
Total Capital Cost $25,199,000
Annual Cost:
Amortization (20 yrs. 0 8%) $ 2,566,000
Labor (110 men) 1,375,000
Utilities and Fuel 898,000
Maintenance and Repair 1,773,000
Admin, Overhead, Misc. 1,112,000
Total Annual Cost $ 7,724,000
Revenues
Ferrous Metal (7% at $41/ton) $ 913,000
Glass (6% at $16/ton) 324,000
Aluminum (0.4% at $300/ton) 393,000
Char (5% at $15/ton) 246,000
Pyrolytic Oil (at $1.66 per 10° Btu) 2,234,000
Total Annual Revenues $ 4,170,000
Net Annual Cost = $3,554,000
Plant Availability at 90% = 328,500 U.S. tons/year
= 298,000 Metric tons/year
ilet Cost = $10.82/U.S. ton
= $11.93/Metric ton
/*
-------
10
the capital cost of such £ plant would be $25.2 million. Owning and
i
'J*
operating costs of $7.7 million per year would be offset by $4.2 million
in revenue per year producing a net disposal cost of $11.93 per metric
ton.
. '/
Energy Balance- - An energy balance "for the system is shown in
J1 i .
Figure 2. Although electricity and some quench oil is purchased for the
facility, it is assumed in this analysis that these energy inputs were
produced within the system using normal conversion efficiencies that
would result if the pyrolytic fuel product was the prime energy source.
From the figure it can be seen that one pound of solid waste having a heat
value of 5,000 dtu's yields ,'2050 Btu's of liquid fuel, with the rest
being lost in the residue and char. However, when the 741 Btu's of
energy needed to produce the equivalent amount of purchased energy put
into the system is subtracted, only 1309 Btu's (or 26 percent of the
energy in the original pound of solid waste) of fuel remains available.
A conventional boiler using this type of fuel will operate at an
efficiency of 87 percent, so the net amount of energy available from the
original pound of solid waste, once converted to steam is 1139 Btu's or
23 percent.
3.1. II
-------
DISSIPATED ENERGY
256 BTU
CONVERSION LOSSES
436 BTU
11
R/C LOSS
26 BTU
GAS L05S
140 BTU
BOILER
17e*87%
STEAM
1139 BTU
ls -- 21 ¥»
RESIDUE a CHAR
2998 BTU
Figure 2. Occidental Researcn System tnergy Balance*
'This balance was based upon data obtained from:
Flanagan, B. J., Pyrolysis of Domestic Refuse with Mineral Recovery, in Proceeding*; Conversion of
Refuse to Energy, Montreux. Switzerland. November 3-5, 1975. New York, Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers, p. 220-225.
Levy, S., The Conversion of Municipal Solid Waste to a Liquid Fuel'by Pyrolysis. in Proceedings;
Conversion of Refuse to Energy, Montreux. Switzerland, November 3-5, 1975. New York, Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers, p. 226-231.
Special Issues - The Occidental process is especially exciting
because it produces a fuel which is readily transportable and storeable,
thus offering greater market opportunities. Its major drawback is that
compared to most other solid waste energy recovery processes, not very
much energy is recovered. Most of the fuel value of the waste is lost
in the char. This material represents 20 percent by weight of the
orginal waste and contains more than 30 percent of the energy value.
Although its heat value of 19,100 kJ/kg (8,200 Btu per pound) is nearly
that of coal, it is not presently useable as a fuel because of its
3.2. IZ.
-------
12
extremely high ash content (33 percent). Research work is needed to
find a way to convert this material into a useable product or fuel.
Monsanto Landgard Process
Process Description - The Monsanto Landgard process involves a
***' i
controlled air primary furnace chamber (pyrolysis) and immediate combustion
of the low heat value gases in an afterburner for recovery of heat
(Figure 3). Waste is shredded, conveyed to a storage silo, and subsequently
fed to a rotary kiln where it is pyroiyzed. Fuel oil is also burned in
the kiln to provide some of the heat'for the pyrolysis reaction. The
burner is arranged to provide a countercurrent flow of gases and solids;
thus exposing the waste to progressively higher temperatures as it
passes through the kiln. The f-inished residue is exposed to the highest
temperature 1000 C (1800 F) just before it is discharged from the kiln
and quenched in a water-filled tank. The residuals are split into three
fractions, glassy aggregate, ferrous and char. The glassy aggregate and
ferrous materials are recovered for sale and the char is dewatered and
landfilled.
Gases resulting from the pyrolysis reaction have a high temperature
and low heating value (making off-site transportation uneconomical) ;l!
therefore, they are immediately mixed with air and burned in an afterburner
to liberate the heat of combustion. The gases then pass through waste
heat boilers where steam is generated for distribution.

-------
T3
o -n
<< CO
to C
-------
Status - A 907 metric ton (1000 U.S. ton) per day prototype plant
has been built in Baltimore, Maryland. Construction of the plant was
completed in February, 1975 under a turnkey contract with Monsanto.
However, normal operation of the plant has not been possible because a
'i
number of process changes are needed in order to insure proper operation.
7 • '
t t ; '
These changes are-'currently being made and are expected to be completed
in August, 1976. This plant was also financed through a demonstration
grant from tPA. An original grant for $6 million has recently been
supplemented by an additional $1 million to be used to fund some of the
process changes.
As originally built, exhaust.gases are cleaned by means of a large
spray tower. Initial tests of the spray tower showed that it could not
r
clean the gases sufficiently to meet the required ordinances. Under the
best achievable conditions particulate emissions were 0.09 grains per .
dry Standard cubic foot, corrected to 1.2 percent C02- Although this is
only slightly above the U.S. federal standard of 0.08 gr/dscf, it was
considerably over the tougher local standard of 0.03 gr/dscf. All
efforts to modify the plant to meet the standard have failed, and as a
result it has been decided that additional air pollution control equip-
ment must be added. . The spray tower will be retained in order to serve
as a gas cooler whenever it is necessary to bypass the waste heat boiler
(such as during periods of low steam demand) and as a preconditioner for
i
the new equipment. Although no final decision has been made on the
additional control equipment, the Monsanto engineers favor a wet plate
electrostatic precipitator. Engineers representing the City, favor a
3.2JS
-------
15
dry ESP. No final decision on the control equipment will be made until
the other equipment modifications have been completed and proved successful.
Economics - Tue problems currently confronting the Baltimore plant
l
preclude the development of a comprehensive cost analysis. The original
cost of the pi ant-'including land and site improvements was $16 million
(1972 costs). The modifications including installation of wet ESP's has
been estimated to be $9.1 million. Monsanto has estimated that based on
Mid 1975 costs, a new 907 metric ton (1000 ton) per day plant, incorporating
ESP's and the improvements being made in Baltimore, would cost about $29
million and have a net operating cost of about $5.00 per U.S. ton.
Energy Balance - The energy balance for the Landgard system is
shown in Figure 4. Here also it is assumed that the energy to produce,
the purchased electricity and contained in the purchased quench oil was
provided by the systems energy product. Losses in the process include
the energy remaining in the carbonaceous char and conversion losses
experienced in the waste heat boiler. As a result of these losses and
provisions for the system's input energy needs, 42 percent of the energy
in the incoming waste is ultimately recovered as steam.
1 D HL
-------
16
DISSIPATED ENERGY CONVERSION LOSSES FLUE GAS S R/C LOSSES
IJOBTU 352 8TU 1190 8TU
CHAR
715 BTU i
Figure 4. Monsanto System Energy(Balance*
'This balance was based upon data obtained from:
Suss man, D. B., Baltimore Demonstrates Gas Pyrolysis, Resource Recovery from Solid Waits. First
Interim Report ,SW-75d.i, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975. p. 12-13.
Levy. S. J.. San Diego County Demonstrates Pyrolysis of Solid Wastes to Recover Liquid Fuel, Metals,
and Glass. Environmental Protection Publication SW-80d.2. Washington, U. S. Government Printing
Office, 1975. 7 p.
3.2./7
-------
17
Special Issues - A research project on char utilization would also
benefit this project as nearly 10 percent of the incoming material
remains as char. This char,has a heating value of 16,500 kJ/kg
(7000 Btu/lb).
If the Kawasaki pilot plant can be so modified, a test program
where the kiln off-gas was used directly in a fossil-fuel, boiler would
be worthwhile. This would require the use of an existing, nearby (less
than one mile) boiler or possibly the front end of the present pilot
plant could be moved to another site.
Union Carbide Purox Process
Process Description - The key element of the Purox System is a
vertical shaft furnace (Figure 5), wherein shredded solid waste is fed
into the top of the reactor through a piston air lock system while
oxygen is injected into the bottom of the furnace. The refuse descends
by gravity through the varying temperature zones on its downward passage
through the vertical reactor. The oxygen reacting with char material
previously formed from refuse in an upper zone of the reactor creates a
temperature zone in the range of 1650 C (3000 F) in the lower portion of
the reactor. Rising gases cool to approximately 90 C (200 F) as they
move upward thereby providing the energy for pyrolyzing the incoming
refuse in the upper portion of the reactor. Metals, glass and other
materials are transformed into a molten slag by the high temperatures
generated in the lower portion of the reactor. The molten slag mixture
continously drains into a water quench tank where a hard granular aggregate
material referred to as "frit" is formed.
3. 2.
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MAGNETIC
SEPARATOR
REFUSE FEEDER
PYRO LYSIS
FURNACE
OXYGEN
OXYGEN
PRODUCTION
QUENCH
TANK
WATER
SCRUBBER
FURNACjE
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-------
19
Gases leaving the reactor contain 30 to 40 percent moisture. This
is removed in a gas cleanup step, along with ash, tars, and other
condensable liquids. The remaining gas contains approximately 75 percent
CO and H2 in approximately a two to one ratio; the other 25 percent
j
being comprised of CO2, CH4, N2» and organic compounds. Its heating
value is approximately 12,500 kJ/m3 (300 Btu/cu. ft.).
Status - In 1970, the basic system was assembled in a 4 metric ton
(5 ton) per day pilot plant at Union Carbide's Technology Development
Center in Tarrytown, New York. Following evaluation of the pilot plant
facility, a 180 metric ton (200 U.S. ton) per day Purox System was
completed during 1974 in South Charleston, West Virginia. The West
Virginia facility was designed to prove out the corporation's full-scale
modular unit, and it was intended that larger plants would obtain
greater throughput capacity by incorporating modular additions. Most
recently, however, the Union Carbide Corporation has decided to market a
317 metric ton (350 U.S. ton) per day module so that the unit being
tested is not the one that will be marketed.
Union Carbide is currently concluding the second portion of a three
phase testing and performance evaluation program. The first phase
concerned the receiving, feeding, and pyrolytic conversion of mixed
municipal solid waste without size reduction or sorting. The second
phase involved minimal pre-processing of incoming solid waste, consisting
of coarse shredding and magnetic removal of the ferrous fraction prior
to introduction into the pyrolysis reactor. The third.phase anticipated to
3. J. 10
-------
20
coiranence early in 1976, constitutes a co-disposal investigation wherein
? V
k ¦
sewage treatment plant sludges, containing varying moisture contents,
will be mixed in varying proportions with shredded solid waste.
Economics - Table 4 is Union Carbide's cost analysis for a 907
metric ton (1000 If.S. ton) per day Purox System assumed to operate a
90 percent of rated capacity. Cost projections are based on Mid 1975
dollars. The equivalent disposal cost projected assumes that the 20
percent residue (frit) material would not provide any credit revenues
to a proposed facility and would require removal and disposal. Conveyance
of the frit material and eventual disposal was assumed to be $5.00 per
ton. Should a market eventually be established for sale of the frit
material a lowering of the equivalent disposal charge would occur.
Lnerq.y balance - Hnergy is consumed in the Purox process primarily
in the shredding of the waste and in producing the 0.2 lbs. of oxygen
that is required for each pound of solid waste burned. Lach pound of
solid waste processed yields about 11.4 cubic feet of gas having a
heating value of about 300 Btu/cu.ft. Because this fuel burns so well,
if used directly in a boiler the combustion efficiency would be on the
order of 90 percent, with a net system efficiency of about 58 percent
(Figure 5).
Despite the excellent quality of the Purox fuel, some communities
in the U.S. that have been considering this system have added at the
back end conventional process technology to produce either ammonia (NH3)
3.2.X/
-------
21
TABLE 4
Projected Costs,of the Union Carbide Purox Process
(as of June, 1975)
907 Metric tons (1000 U.S. tons) per day
Capital Cost: $25,400,000
Annual Cost:
Ammoritization (20 yrs. ti%) $ 2,587,000
Labor 1,166,000
Utilities 1,721,000
Maintenance and Repair 641,000
Misc., Residue Disposal, etc. 500,000
Total Annual Cost - $ 6,615,000
Revenues
Ferrous Metal (4% @ $30/ton) $ 394,000
Fuel Gas (at $1.60 per 106 Btu) 3,940,000
Total Annual Revenues - $ 4,334,000
Net Annual Cost = $2,281 ,000
Plant Availability at 90% = 328,400 U.S. tons/year
= 298,000 Metric tons/year
Net Cost = $6.94/U.S. ton
= $7.65/Metric ton
-------
22
or methonal (CH3OH). Unfortunately, the technical and economic via-
} bility of running such a process on this gas stream remains question
able.
DISSIPATED ENERGY
578 BTU
FLUE GAS LOSSES
322 BTU
BOILER
Va -- 90%
WATER
0.30 LB
FRIT
0.20 LB
STEAM
2901 BTU
Vs - 58%
Figure 6. Union Carbide System Energy Balance*
'This balance was based upon data obtained from:
Snyder, N. W., J. J. Brehany. and R. E. Mitchell. East Bay Solid Waste Energy Conversion System, In
Proceedings; Conversion of Hefuse to Energy, Montreux, Switzerland, November 3-5, 1975. New
York, Institute Of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, p. 428-433.
Bonnet, P. W., Partial Oxvdation of Refuse Using the Purox System, given at Conversion of Refuse to
Energy Conference,Montreux, Switzerland, November 3-5, 1975, but not in Proceedings.
3. J. A3
-------
23
Andco (Carborundum) Torrax Process
Process Description - The principal components of the Torrax System
are the gasifier, secondary combustion chamber, primary air preheating
regenerative towers, energy recovery/conversion system, and the gas
cleaning system (Figure 7). The solid waste is charged as received from
the solid waste pit, without prior preparation, into the gasifier. The
gasifier is a vertical shaft furnace designed so that the descending
refuse burden and the ascending high temperature gases become a counter-
current heat exchanger. The uppermost portion of the descending solid
waste serves as a plug to minimize the infiltration of ambient air. As
the solid waste descends, three distinct process changes occur. The
first is the drying where the moisture is driven off; the second is the
pyrolyzing due to the heat transfer from the"ascending, hot gases to the
solid waste; and the third is combustion in the hearth where the carbonaceous
\
char is oxidized to carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide, and melting of
the inert fraction of the solid waste.
The heat for pyrolyzing and drying the solid waste and for melting
the inert fraction is produced by the combustion of the carbon char with
1000 C preheated air supplied to the hearth zone of the gasifier. The
heat thus generated melts the inerts to form a molten slag, which is
drained continuously through a sealed slag tap into a water quench tank
to produce a black, sterile, granulated residue. The quench tank is
periodically purged into the system slag pit.
3. 2.Zi
-------
Hcat
ECOVERY
OILER
I.D. TAK1
Cold Blast
Primary
Air supply
Fly Asm
-------
25
Tne volatile products of pyrolysis and products of primary combustion
exit from the gasifier into the secondary combustion chamber where gases
are mixed with a near-stoich'iometric quantity of ambient air.
The secondary combustion chamber is a vertical, refractory-lined
vessel in which temperatures to 1400C (2500F) are realized, and where
sufficient residence time to assure complete burning is maintained. The
majority of the particulate matter entrained in the off gas from the
gasifier is burned, or slagged-out into another slag quench tank. The
resulting slag residue is sluiced into the system slag pit. The com-
busted gaseous mixture exits from the secondary combustion chamber at
1150 - 1250 C. (2100 - 2300 F)
A portion of the hot waste gas from the secondary combustion
chamber (about 15 percent) is directed through regenerative towers where
its sensible heat is recovered and used for preheating the process air
supplied to the gasifier hearth. These regenerative towers, successfully
used for many years in the steel industry, are two refractory lined
vessels containing a high heat capacity refractory checkerwork material.
Hot products of combustion from the secondary combustion chamber and
ambient process air are passed through the towers on a cyclical basis
for preheating the 1000 C combustion air. The remainder of the secondary
combustion chamber exiting flow is supplied to a waste heat boiler
designed for inlet gas temperatures of 1150 C to 1250.C (2100 to 3000F).

-------
26
The cooled waste gases from the regenerative towers are combined
with the exiting flow from the waste heat boiler and are ducted to a hot
gas electrostatic precipitator of conventional design.
Status.- The principals of the Torrax process were? originally
proven on a 68 metric ton (75 U.S. ton) per day pilot plant operated
intermittently since 1971. This plant, located in Erie County, New York
and financed with a grant from EPA has been used to process municipal
solid waste and solid waste/sewage sludge. Test runs with controlled
percentages of waste oil, tires, and PVC plastics were also run. The
pilot plant differs significantly from the above described system in
that the hot blast combustion air is heated using a gas-fired air-to-air
heat exchanger instead of the regenerative towers.
The Carborundum Corporation, which was involved in the original
development of the Torrax process, has recently turned its marketing
rights in the U.S. over to Andco.
A 180 metric ton (200 U.S. ton) per day prototype .plant is nearing
completion in Luxemburg and at least two other plants are also expected
to be built in Europe in the near future.
Economics - No cost projects for a full-size Torrax plant are
available at this time.
3.2.3.7
-------
27
Energy Balance - An energy balance for the system is shown in
Figure b. About 313 percent of trie energy value in the solid waste is
utilized to preheat the combustion air or replace the energy needed to
supply the purchased electricity used in the plant. The.heat ultimately
j
delivered to the waste heat boiler is converted to steam at an efficiency
of 57 percent leaving a net system output (as steam) of 37 percent of
the original energy in the solid waste.
OISSIPATEO ENERGY
825 BTU
R/C 8 STACK GAS LOSSES
1402 BTU
4IR
Figure 8. Andco (Carborundum) System tnergy Balance*
•This balance was based upon data obtained from:
Stoia. J. Z.. Toirax — A Slagging Pyrolysis System for Converting Solid Waste to Fuel Gas,
Carborundum Environmental Systems. Inc., Solid Waste Conversion Division Niagara Falls. New
York, p. 11-22.
Eerie County — Torrax Solid Waste Demonstration Project, Final Report. May 1974 U. S
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste Management. 46 p.
3. JL.1?
-------
38
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Occidental Flash Pyrolysis Process:
Levy, S. J. San Uiegd County demonstrates pyrolysis of solid waste
to recover .11 quid fuel, metals, and glass. Environmental
Protection Publication SW-80d.2. Federal solid waste manage-
ment demonstration grant No. S-801588. 1975. 27 p.
Preston, G. T. Resource recovery and flash pyrolysis of municipal
refuse. Presented to Institute of Gas Technology Symposium
on "Clean Fuels from biomass, Sewage, Urban Refuse and
Agricultural Waste," January 27, 1976. Orlando, Florida 29 p.
Monsanto Langard Process:
Sussman, J. B. Baltimore demonstrates gas pyrolysis. Resource
recovery from solid waste. Environmental Protection Publica-
tion SW-75d.i. Federal solid waste management demonstration
grant No. S-801533. 1975. 24 p.
Union Carbide Purox Process:
Anderson, J. E. The Oxygen Refuse Converter - A system for
producing fuel gas, oil, molten metal and slag from refuse,
^resource recovery thru incineration; Proceedings: 1974
National Incinerator Conference, Miami, May 12-15, 1974.
Hew York, American Society of Mechnical Engineers, P. 337-346.
-------
29
Andco (Carborundum) Torrax Process:
Davidson, P. E. Slagging pyrolysis solid waste conversion.
Engineering Digest. August 1975. p. 31-34..
General imformation on the Andco - Torrax process for slagging
pyrolysis of solid refuse. Andco brochure. 21 p.
General references for all four pyrolysis processes:
Eifert, M. C., S. J. Levy, H. G. Rigo. Resource recovery plant
implementation, a guide for municipal officials* technologies.
Washington, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (SW-145.2),
1976. (In preparation).
Parkhurst, J. D. Report on status of technology in recovery of
resources from solid wastes. Wiiittier, California, County
Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles County, 1976. 198 p.
Conference papers, conversion of refuse to energy, First International
Conference and Technical Exhibition, Montreux - Switzerland,
November 3-5, 1975. Piscataway, N. J. Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers (Cat. No 75-CH-1003-2 CRE), 1975. 615
-------

COPNTERMEASURE FOR DISPOSAL OF 'INDUSTRIAL WASTE
CONTAINING HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES
Rapporteur: Tokuji Murata
Compilation: Office of Industrial Waste
Management, Water Supply and
Environmental Sanitation Dept.,
Ministry of Health and Welfare
Translation: Japan Waste Management and
Technology.Institute
(This research was made by Environmental
Assesment Engineering Company Ltd. under
assignment of Ministry of Health and Welfare)
-------
1, Probelm of Cr^+ and Merchandise containing Hazardous
Substances
In the summer of 1974, the problem of Industrial
waste containing 6 valence chromium, was unexpectedly
highlighted in Japan.
We investigated the cause that produced industrial
waste containing hazardous substances, and considered
how to manage of hazardous substances, for the example
of the case of Cr^+.
1-1. Production and consumption of chromium compound
Sodium bichromate is the first product from its
ore, and this compound is.a starting material for the
manufacture of various chromium<~compounds.
The result of production quantity of sodium bi-
chromate in 1973 was 51,209 tons, and that of 1970 was
66,916 tons.
For what purpose, so much sodium bichromate was
used? The slag quantity discharged from chromium ore,
before the World War II to up to present is estimated
to be about 1,150,000 tons by the anouncement of the
Agency, of the' Environment.
V/. i -1 -
-------
The quantity of 6 valence chromium contained in such
slags was said to be 2-3$ by the estimation of Tokyo-
to and it is said to be 0.3% by the companies involved.
If we take the 0.3%, the quantity of Cr^+ in the 1,150,000
tons of the slag will be -3,450-tons.
While the quantity of Cr^+ in the 51,209 tons of sodium
bichromate that was "manufactured in 1973, is 17,866 tons.
That is more than 5 times of Cr^+ that was contained
in slags and was disposed for the past several decades,
was being produced in one year. No one knows how it
was used or disposed and no body knew the actual con-
dition of it, but it had been continued for several
decades.
1 - 2. The Chromium compounds exist close by our side
Here we wish to point out is that the quantity of
the hazardous products sold as a merchandise is ., over-
whelmingly greater than the quantity of hazardous in-
dustrial waste that was thrown away, and the sold
hazardous merchandise, may fairly be said, never re-
covered at all.
The material, element of which is recognized to be
hazardous, will be stored at any place of environment
if it is not recovered.
V. /. / - 2
-------
From the statistics of 1972, 9,100 tons of sodium
bichromate was used for the yellow pigment and other
chromium pigment and 8,900 ton was used for taned hide.
9,800 tons of chromium trioxide was used for surface
treatment of metals by chromium plating and chromate
treating, etc. The Cr used for tanning of hide is of
trivalence, part of it is attached to the leather and
shipped as products, but the remainder enters into
the waste water.
The chromium trioxide used for metal finishing will
become part of the products and- the remainder will
enter, waste water. These type of industry are gene-
rally made of small enterprises and most of waste
water is diluted and discharged without treatment,
many of.them do not produce even sludge by the waste
treatment, and many of them do not even know where
the siudge was dumped.
The chrome(main constituent is PbCrO^) is a lead ^
chromic ingrganic pigment, Molybenum red(PbCr04'npbMo^•
mPbSO^xAl(OH)3), the actual shipping result for each
use of the above material and the shipping trend of
Zincchromate is given in table 1-1 as follows.
v. 1.1. - 3 -
-------
Table 1-1
Actual shipping result of Coloring inorganic Pigments
(unit tons)
y e a r
Items
1971
1972
1973
Chrome(yellow lead)

Paint
6,585
7,692
10,097
Printing ink
3,366
3,403
2,488
Synthetic resin
664
662
861
Others
225
188
171
Export
6,131
6,725
3,405
Total
16,972
18,670
17,025
Molybadenum red

Paint
1,742
1,816
2,005
Printing ink
725
741
537
Synthetic resin
159
168
278
Others
101
115
97
Export
166
239
370
Total
2,894
3,109
3,287
Z incchromate
2,228
2,313
2,678
y. /. /- 4 -
-------
These pigments which contain lead and Cr^+(both
are designated as hazardous material) are used nearby
us in various products, such as yellow taxi, floor
and chairs up-holstered with yellow or red vinyl le-
ather, green painted roof the green is called
chrome green and it is a blend of chrome and deep
blue- (ferrocyanide), yellow caution mark on road
and at construction site, yellow crayon, color, chalk
used by children, yellow printed paper, and many
other innumerable materials. Chrome pigment is used
as an anti-rusting paint for steel construction mem-
bers.
The consumption of chrome (PbCrO/j, lead and ch-
romic inorganic pigment) in-Japan is 10,800t/1971,
11,900t/1972, 13,600t/1973 as shown in Table 1-1,
and more than 36,000 tons,of chrome pigment (6 va-
lence Cr compound + Pb) were used during those 3 years.
These materials are almost impossible to recover,
while lead and chromium are elements and follow the
law of conservation of matter, even though they are
changed to any compound, and quantity consumed in
Japan shall exists any where in Japan.
y. / . i- s -
-------
2. Increasing Environmental Pollution by Products
The accumulated quantity of hazardous elements
originated from the consumption of imported lead,
chromium, cadmium, mercury, arsenic, etc., would be
uncountably enormous.
Manufactured goods which contain hazardous sub-
stances are delivered to general consumers through
circulation mechanism, and they will become waste
matters at last. The pigments in paints that was
used for coating of structures, ships, etc., will be
detached from the coated structures by the ageing of
coated film, and scattered and accumulated widely for
residential space, agricultural fields, rivers and
seas. There is an example reported that dogs living
in city had chromium accunilation in their lungs, be-
cause they walk around road and inhale dust of de-
tached paint.
Hazardous substance included in the manufactured
goods, and when the goods became wastes, they will be
collected at municipal trash incinerator plant or
landfill site, and these facilities are always charged
to become a source of pollution.
V./.y- 6 -
-------
Table 2. Heavy Metals and PCB in Flyashes
tHeavy metals were extracted by-Nitrohydrochloric acid)
..unit ppm, ^
"-Dry sample base^
Incinerator
month
sampled
Cu
Pb
Cr
Cd
Hg
PCB
A
city
S pl-
ant
1972 2
500
400
130
2

" 7
260
710
110
33

0.67
W "
7
17,000
75,000
110
4,000

0.33 +
(0.59)
N "
7
2,600
330
82
780

0.27
B city
plant
9
748
575

23
286

" 11
480
1,100
100
33
267

From : City and waste vol. #4.23, Iwai § others
Table 3. Heavy Metals and PCB in Incinerator Ashes
(Heavy metals were extracted by Nitrohydrochloric acid)
(unit ppm)
Incinerator
sarmpling
month
Cu
Pb
Cr
Cd
»g
PCB
A city
S plant
1972 2(1)
(2)
(3)
.. 7
500
700
1,300
600
1, 200'
210
400
1,800
70
60
60
24
5
3
3
10

0.47
A city
W plant
n 7
650
5,100
64
100

" N plant
M. 7
1,600
1,200
42
10

0.3
B city
plant
1973 9(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
22^000
3,400
8,800
10,920
2,489
2,492
2,860
11,856

5.5
6.5
3.3
4.3
0. 785

B city
plant
" 11(D
(2)
5,680
1,090
870
1,660
28. 2.
32.0
13.9
16.6
0.678
0.443

7. -
-------
The hazardous gas discharged from City incine-
rator, and the hazardous substances contained in
sludges of sewage treatment plants are becoming a
big problem, the latter case may be mostly due to
the discharge of industrial waste water without treat-
ment, but there are certain example that the sludge
generated from community sewage treatment plant, was
dectected to have considerable hazardous substances,
though there is no industrial waste water flowing
into the sewage. This fact tells us that so many
hazardous substances are entering our living, and
the hazardous leaching water.from landfill material
is being taken up in several locations.
By the statistics of 1972, 230^ of Hg (except
Soda industry use), 1,800 tons of Cd, about 200,000
tons of Pb, etc., were used to make manufactured
goods and the products were shipped without any con-
sideration for environmental pollution.
These products will become wastes at last, and cause
to give heavy load to local environmental protection
facilities. The local self governing bodies are
making strenuous effort to meet such abnormal situa-
tion by the technological power, but it is very ques-
tionable whether such countermeasure work effectively
or not.
y i.i - 8
-------
Whatever high grade antipollution, technology was deve-
loped, the following problems would remain unsolved:
1. With the scanty budget of local self governing
bodies, can they bear financil burden for the
facility which is expected to be high cost?
2. Highly automated facilities are generally consi-
dered to be weak for troubles and the loss by
such trouble would be great, can they take sa-
fest measure for such accident?
3. Is it surely right only to treat the waste in
such a way to remove public "nuisances?
The waste had been thrown away in the preferen-
tial age of GNP and industry spending great energy
and materials in our country where resources and
energy were poor.
4. When the dumping of products that contain hazar-
dous substance is promoted by the possibility of
non-public nuisance treating technology, wouldn't
the production and consumption of goods promoted?
5. Who are the real persons in charge when outbreak
of public nuisance due to accident?
V /./- 9 -
-------
The environmental protection facility of Cities
is different from the production,facility that manu-
facture valuable products, there is almost no pre-
ference for checking waste material and waste water
at the stage of raw material and. not use any raw
material out of specification. It is also actually
impossible to stop or suspend operation (sewage water
can not be stopped).
It is mistaken in itself to use artificial ha-
zardous substance which cause cumulative pollution in
the living environment, similar to natural organic
material that is recycled naturally. If it is hoped
to make discharge without treatment and dumping simi-
lar to natural organic material, we must consider
the use of low hazardous elements that are riding
on natural recycle route.
If the rat race is continued in the future be-
tween two opposite sides; (1) to develop hazardous
and difficult to treat products in succession, and
(2) to develop the technology to treat them; small
country Japan with poor resources and,energy and from
the effect of cumulative environmental pollution,
should bring ruin at last.
V././.- 10
-------
3. The use of hazardous substance in Diffusion System
At present the discharge of waste water and dump-
ing liquid is prohibited by law if they are not suit-
ably treated before discharge. However, the manufac-
ture and dumping of products containing hazardous
substances are not prohibited. By the poisonous and
deletereous substance control law, the production
and sale of hazardous material are approved when it
is reported. There is a certain control for the use
of such goods by the Food Sanitation Law, etc., but
for general commodities there is no control measures
at all.
So far, the manufacturing technology of such ha-
zardous goods, has been promoted by the engineers and
managements who have no consideration at all on the
view points of what influence is given to the environ-
ment by such commodities at time when they become
waste, and such tendency still remains strongly.
It is a serious problem that a large quantity of
injurious substances are used for such products as
pigment which gives its effect when used diffusively,
and it is a non-recoverable product.
V. Af.ll -
-------
When there is substitutive materials it is natural
to use them, and when there is no substitutive ma-
terial, the measure should be taken urgently to
prohibit the use of hazardous material in the diffu-
sive system. If such a fundamental rule is not kept
that to prohibit the use of injurious materials seve-
rely, except the goods which can be completely re-
covered, the result of the damage suffered by hazar-
dous products would cause a considerably miserable
situation after 10-20 years.
Most of the industrial waste containing injurious
substances comes from the manufacturing industries
that produce injurious commodity. The prohibition of
manufacture of hazardous goo-ds is the most essential
and only one measure to solve the problems for root
out of occupational disease, the industrial waste
containing hazardous substances as well as to solve
the public damage due to pollution.
The industry always says and threatens us that
our living might return to the state of 100 years
before, if such goods are not manufactured at all,
There is a statistics prepared by Ministry of Inter-
national Trade and Industry(MITI) for the non-ferrous
V././- 12
-------
metals which would confute against above industry
saying. By the statistics, the domestic demand of
mercury in 1964 was 2,474 ton, hawever, the demand
in 1973 was only 571 ton., that is, the demand de-
creased about 1/4 of 1964, but our living standard
was never lowered to 1/4, thus it did not give big
influence to pur living, but it means that hazardous
and useless products are making full in small country
Japan.
For the products containing hazardous substances,
it is cojnpulsorily necessary to have the goods in-
dicated so by law, and to let every body knows that
how much injurious substances are contained in commo-
dities around them. At the-same time, when our desire
for conveniences, comfort and abundance is expanded
infinitely, we would have to leave big bills to our
decendants in due time, in densely populated small
country, Japan.
Therefore it will be necessary for us to be self-
concious for the coming situation as above.
4. The origin of generating hazardous Industrial Waste
It will be roughly divided in 4 patterns as follows:
yj./r .13 -
-------
I. Manufacture or processing plants, where make only
the products of hazardous substances,
II. The places where the products containing hazardous
substances are used,
III. The places where the hazardous industrial waste is
produced during the period of refining, when in-
jurious matter was contained as impurity in the
raw material,
IV. Injurious waste generated from envilonmental sani-
tation facility of Cities.
The hazardous substances made by I, is moved to II
through circulation route, and the waste material is
collected to III and IV in the'state of scrap. The re-
presentative examples of these 4 patterns are as follows;
The basic -industry classified inpattern I is metal
refining industries and the lead, mercury, cadmium, arse-
nic compound (chromium is made by inorganic chemical
manufacturers) which were produced by the refinery, will
be processed in many way by various industries.
From the respective process stage of processin, industrial
waste containing hazardous substances are generated. 1
*/./" 14
-------
But most of the hazardous materials are sent to II in-
dustry as a products,
By the industry belong to pattern I, even if tried
to decrease the quantity of industrial waste and any non-
hazardous complete treatment process was performed, the
shipping products themselves are hazardous material, and
their weight is much more than that of industrial waste,
therefore it is not useful for environmental cleaning of
all that district.
The representative industry included in pattern I,
are manufacture of inorganic chemical, paint, printing
ink, stabilizer for PVC, other additives, catalyst maker
and battery manufacturer, etc. " j
Examples of industry belong to pattern II, include;
The industries Vhere hazardous substances mixed in the
industrial waste, because the operation is carried out
by use of goods that, contain hazardous substance, that
is paint coating plant, ship building yard(removing work
of old coated layers, coating work), processing plant
of PVC, printing factory, antiseptic treatment plant for
wood, etc.
9.1.1- is -
-------
In the paint coating plants and printing factory, the
paint and printing ink contains hazardous substances as
coloring pigment and the treatment of waste material
generated at time of removing old coated film and recoat-
ing operation. If there are suitable substitute for use
of low public nuisance and of similar covering effect,
the problem of hazardous waste can be solved, but at
the antiseptic treatment of wood, hazardous chemical
liquid is impregnated so that by the poisonous property
of the chemical the damage cuased by white ant and the
wood decaying bacteria are prevented, and in this case
if it is treated with low poisonous chemical which has
no depositing property could never achieve the expected
purpose.
The example-of pattern III
The industries that produce hazardous waste, though
the industries do not manufacture or use hazardous sub-
stances, but most of such cases hazardous substances-are
mixed in the raw materials. For example steel making ;
and casting plant they use iron scraps which contain va-
rious material, some of them are coated with red lead
paint, while others contain solders. When such scraps
are melted in open hearth or electric furnaces, the lead
compounds will become oxidized and sublimed and collected
in dust collectors.
V././- 16
-------
These collected dusts are going to be recovered as
the raw material for. lead and zinc, and this is a very
special case that part of the hazardous substances are
widely diffused in open systems.
The example of pattern IV
The wastes produced from this pattern are different
from the patterns I and II in the production situation
and it is difficult to prevent the generation of hazar-
dous substances, by simply using substitute. The manu-
facture of .useful and non-hazardous goods can not be
stopped, even though certain hazardous wastes are pro-
duced. The treating problem of such hazardous wastes
might take a long time to solve.
*/./" 17 -
-------
The merchandise containing hazardous substances
arc delivered to the consumer through the circulating
route of I, II and III and the merchandise would become
wastes and finally sent to environmental sanitation fa-
cilities such as incineration plant of city trash, the
hazardous substances contained in such wastes will be
collected in dust collector after rec.ieving chemical re-
actions such as thermal-decomposition, oxidation, reduc-
tion, etc., and some of them are mixed in the ash.
By the general industries, they can strictly select
and purchase raw materials which do not contain hazar-
dous substances, but at the city incinerating plant they
scarcely have freedom of selecting city trash, and the
citizens can not cooperate separate collection, because
there is no indication of hazardous scrap on the trash,
therefore the complete antipollution treatment of waste
articles could not be expected. Present negative treat-
ment of such hazardous material is to use it for land
fill without incinerating.
To reduce the quantity of hazardous trash colle-
cted to the city incineration plant, there seems to be
no basic solving measure, other than to prohibit the
use of hazardous goods which are not capable to recover
and used for diffusion system.
"9.1.1- 18
-------
The public nuisance generated by city environ-
mental facilities such as incinerating plant, land-
fill site, with waste, sewage treating plant, etc.,
are becoming problems of public nuisance. There must
be basic problems contained in.such environmental
facilities,
The substantial difference between city facili-
ties and the manufacturing facilities of enterprises
which pursue profit, are as follows;
1) City installations do not aim profit,
2) It is not a manufacturing equipment of valuable
commodities,
3) The management is mainly performed by the local
self governing body,
4) It has no freedom of selecting its raw material
(city trash), (severe control is performed in
the gener'al enterprises for the selection of raw
material to avoid mixing of foreign matters so
that operation shall not be interrupted),
5) It is difficult to interrupt or stop the operation,
6) It is clear that the pollution is caused by the
raw material (scraP material), but it is difficult
to refuse the treatment because of treating diffi-
culty.
Y/.l- 19 -
-------
5. The Prospect of treatment technology of Industrial
waste containing hazardous substances
The most looked for technology in the waste ma-
terial treating at present is to recover resources
and effective use of the waste, because Japan depends
almost one half of necessary resources on foreign
countries.
The recovery and recirculation of natural reso-
urces, may become a countermeasure to solve both re-
sources .and environmental problems at the same time.
The meaning of circulation of resources is to reuse
the resources and prevent its waste, and at the same
time to prevent environmental pollution due to the
dumping and diffusion of the resources.
So far -as the immortal elements are used, they
remain forever on the earth, though they are dumped
any places, and the elements might come back to our
living circle under certain natural condition and
there might remain a possibility to become hazardous
for humanbeings.
y. /./- 20 -
-------
Most of the waste treating technology up to now
was developed by people in a limited field within
narrow range and nesrr-sightedly, and it can be said
that such treating techniques are not a real techno-
logy, but it merely transfers the material in phases
such as solid, liquid dnd gaseous.
Therefore, in the waste treatment of hazardous
substances (especially, heavy metals), only two ways
of treatment are considerable that includes; (lj
Reuse them as resources by recovering or (2) to per-
fectly seal them so that they never return to living
environment. It is necessary to lead the technology
toward the way of (1), because the resources on the
earth are limited. Therefore, for the products which
could not be recovered by the use in present open
system, they should be substituted or the use should
be prohibited.
At present the treatment of sludge which contain
hazardous substances is becoming a big problem, and
various research and development works are being per-
formed, but the research of technology up to waste
water treatment stage is few where sludge is originated.
•X /./ - 21 -
-------
For the approach of sludge treatment, there may
be two means, (1) consider how to treat the sludge'
itself which was generated, and (2) consider the means
how to treat the waste water so that no sludge is
produced by pursuing the course of sludge formation.
5-1. Re-investigation o.f Waste Water Treatment Technology
By the Anti-pollution law for water quality,
severe control is becoming effected for the discharge
of industrial waste water, and the waste water con-
taining hazardous substances was prohibited, to dis-
charged without treatment.
But by the metal platin'g industry and other small
enterprises where hazardous waste water was discharged,
not many of them have installed complete waste water
treating equipment, and even though they had such
equipment most of the result of treatment is ambigu-
ous for the following points:
1) The pouring of the treating chemicals is manually
operated and can not sufficiently respond to the
continuous influent,
y././- 22
-------
2) Though the equipment for oxidation, reduction and
neutralization, etc., are installed, the capacity
of settling pond is small and good treating effect
can not be expected, and in some case no settling
pond for sludge was installed because of small
area of factory site.
3) In some factory, though a settling pond is insta-
lled, but many of them have no dewatering equip-
ment of sludge. At present, the treating facility
for waste water which, contain hazardous substances,
had not been developed due to the problem of re-
sources and sludge treatment.
At the waste water treating facility for standard
plating process, the waste water is separated in 3
kinds, such as chrome group, cyanide group and general
group, and their wastes are separately sent to treat-
ing facility respectively.
The waste water of chromium group is made of al-
most pure chromic ion up to the time when Cr^+ is re-
duced to Cr^+. The waste water of cyanide group is
of mixture of copper and zinc, because cadmium plating
is not made at present, and in the general group,
waste water contains iron and nickel.
% I J- 23 -
-------
These waste waters are treated separately, that
is reduction for chromium group., and oxidation opera-
tion is performed in a separate reacting basin for
cyanide group. Such separated waste water will be
mixed during neutralization and settling stage and
the sludge thus produced, will contain different metals
in the sludge and the recovery of each metal will be
very difficult.
Recovery of such metals will become easy, if
the neutralization and precipitation process are per-
formed with separated and independent equipment, so
that mixed sludge with different metals is not pro-
duced. Rut it requires 3 settling tanks to be in-
stalled, and it may be difficult for medium and small
scale plating companies because of small site area
and poor capital to be invested.
The direction of development for waste water
treating technology to be expected henceforth, is not
only to make the present technology higher, but the
research and development of uttery new manufacturing
process where no water is used or does not pollute
the water.
y. /./- 24
-------
In connection with these points, dry plating
systems such as cluster-ion plating, paper plating,
etc., are being under development. For the water
washing process of plated article, counter current
flow system, that. is at first the product is washed
with high acid water and gradually with cleaner water
and at last washed with pure water and thus the quan-
tity of washing water can'be considerably reduced.
By use of counter-flow washing type is used that the
quantity of washing water is said to be possible to
be reduced 1/40 - 1/200 by use of 4 tanks.
Waste Water Treating System by Ion Exchange Process
In general, the electro plating bath hates very
much the mixing of different metals, therefore the
most plating liquor drawn from a well managed plating
bath, does scarecely include different kind of'metal.
In spite of this facts, by the waste water treating
facility at present, the different metals are mixed
in the sludge.
The realizable process is to use closed ion ex-
change system in which separate ion exchange resin
is used for each metal. This process can be easily
V. /./- 25 -
-------
used by the small enterprises having low level tech-
nology, while installation area of this process is
small and it does not require any complicated ope-
ration, and the recirculation of water is possible
as well as the recovery of resources are possible.
This system can not be used for the treatment of
non-ionized materials, but for the waste water con-
taining heavy metals, realization of this process may
be high since in many cases the heavy metals are
ionized.
The waste water treatment by use of ion exchanged
process had been performed! so far but not much used.
I
The main causes for not much used are; (1) The treat-
ment of heavy liquor was difficult at the time of self
regeneration of saturated resin, (2) when the liquor
is neutralised, sludge is igenerated and the problem
of sludge treatment will bje left, (3) The cost of equip-
ment is considerably high,s (4) For small enterprises
of low technical level, gopd supervision for' the trouble-
some operation of the remo'yal and regeneration is difficult.
For the supplement of these weak points, we can
use cartridge type ion exchange resin by rental system
V./.y - 26 -
-------
and set separate cartridge for each metal respective])',
and change the cartridge with new one when the resin
is saturated. The saturated resin is regenerated by
a special factory (co-operative treatment center by the
plating chemical makers).
By the general plating works, the waste water quality
is limited with one metal and only one kind of metal
is adsorbed by one cartridge (alloy plating is excep-
tional). When the resin which adsorbed same metal
ion is collected from each work and regenerated at
the same time, the liquor would contain only one kind
of metal, and therefore it is easily recovered as
inorganic chemical.. Even the small plating enterp-
rises can discharge waste water after only flowing
it through cartridge and making simple treatment,
and then the treating problem of sludge, cost of equip-
ment and area of shop site, etc., will not become a
big/problem..
At the time of development of this system, there
may bo many points to be solved, such as the trend of
ion exchange resin industries that is becoming more com-
pact, the circulation and recovery routes of cartridge,
the operation of regeneration plant of saturated resin,
etc.
**.'1.1- 27 -
-------
Considering the regeneration of resin from the
view points of resources and energy, it will not con-
sume much energy because it is to make metallic ion
again to metallic ion compound. On the other hand
energy consumption will be more than the former case
because the sludge is to be sent to the metal refin-
ing plant and make metal by reduction, and then it is
remelted to make chemical products.
5-2. Present Status of Treating Technology of Heavy Metal
Sludge
Large portion of the sludges (that is produced
from waste water treatment plant) which is considered
the most important problem within the industrial waste
which contain hazardous substances are being disposed
of the following treatment technology:
1) Scattering disposal techniques(increase of entropy/
dilution technique).
2) Re-use techniques
3) Re-cycling techniques(reduction entropy)
The technical level and excellence will be higher
in the order of 1), 2), and 3).
Freezing dewatering and drying, etc., are published
as the other sludge treating technique, but these are,
at the utmost, pretreatment technique and can not be
said substantial sludge treatment.
v./. /- 28 -
-------
Scattering Disposal techniques
This technique aims dilution, diffusion, and dis-
posal in the environment and it is a pretechnique idea
based on low dimentional technical conception. The
followings come within this category;
1) Discharge without treatment
2) Illegal dumping
3) Ocean dumping
4) Landfilling
5) Solidification by cement concrete(Landfill, Ocean
dumping)
6) Sintering
7) Solidification by use of plastics
In tlie above, from (1) to (4) can not be called
as a treating technology, however at present, these
processes are mostly used in general (5) Solidifying
by cement concrete is used for special material such
as mercury, etc. For the technique (5), (6) and (7),
it may be commonly said that these techniques attach
importance only to the .point how to make them non-
hazardous and to dispose them. The treating process
can not be said to make a good use of excellent pro-
perty that metal and its compound themselves have,
*/. I . I - 29 -
-------
and rather they make economically valueless material
or material that has only the value as the substitute
for low value materials. Thus, in spite of making
almost valueless goods, they use big quantity of cement
and other materials, and consume much energy that
must be saved, by the treating process.
At present, the quantity of hazardous substances
contained in the waste'are so small for economical
recovery and reuse. The effectiveness of these tech-
niques are only affirmative as environmental pollu-
tion protection, for the treatment of ashes from city
trash incineration plant and for the treatment of
ashes generated by burning the sludge of public sewer.
However, in Japan which depends more than half
of the necessary resources on the import from over-
seas countries, if we do not make use of substantial
property of metals and making various processing on
metals for the purpose of disposal, and continue to
scattering them thin and widely in our environment,
it would inevitably leave a future source of calamity
to Japan.
Y.I. / - 30
-------
'5-3. Technology of effective utilization
Colored western roofing tiles and other tiles
that were made by glazing and baking are used as build-
ing materials. Metal oxides serve in coloring these
potteries. As such coloring agents, relatively high
quality metalic materials are currently used.
However, even sludges resulting from waste water treat-
ments can be sufficiently fit for such use if mixing
ratio of various metals is appropriate.
Since the chrome-and magnesium-based fire brick is
manufactured in a large quantity, there is a possibi-
lity that chrome-based sludges may be used as a ma-
terial of this brick.
If, like this, heavy metal sludges now considered
only wastes are used for the industries which so far
used high quality metal materials, it will be able
to save new .resources the more and so be advantageous
from a viewpoint of resource-saving.
However, as to substances, such as harmful heavy
metal-containing ones, that may possibly cause an
accumulative environmental pollution, their use should
be originally limited to only the applications where
used materials are recoverable.
y. /./- 31 -
-------
Such methods seem to be much more effective treating
methods, as solution measures against current exist-
ing problems, than treatment by diffusible dumping.
5-4. Technology of recycle and reuse.
For some kinds of scraps, recovery has been per-
formed by collectors of waste materials for a long
time. Industrial wastes composed of compound of a
single heavy metal have also been reused as valuable
resources in chemical makers and metal smelters.
The biggest cause that hinders .smooth progress in
reconverting waste water treatment sludge and harm-
ful matter-containing waste into valuable materials
and reusing them, consists in the fact that the tech-
nology has not yet been established to separate read-
ily different metals from their mixture.
A remote cause is.also that metal refining industry
is not interested in these works because it is not
easy to collect a large quantity of wastes from sources
lying scattered.
Several metal smelters have recently begun to
grapple with the reuse as to copper, nickel, zinc,
mercury, etc.
<*/./- 32 -
-------
However, as to chrome-based wastes, they have scarcely
been reproduced as a useful form yet probably because
of their limited application.
Among different mixed metals that hinder repro-
duction, chrome is one that gives the highest hind-
rance. Other mixed .materials such as mercury, ars-
enic or fluorine have been also kept at a distance.
Reproductions from mixtures such as copper-zinc,
copper-nickel and mixtures of these systems with iron
are relatively easy and can be coped with by present
non-iron metal smelting technologies.
However, if chrome is mixed in these mixtures, repro-
duction will become very difficult. .
5-5. Review of solid waste treatment technology.
Currently, most of wastes containing harmful matters
are dumped into"ocean or used in land reclamation and
few of them are reproduced.
While recovery of zinc from dust in steel manufacture
has been carried out on a large scale, reproduction
from mixture wastes of many different metals including
y /./ - 33 -
-------
sludge from electro-plating has been- delayed in pro-
gress though it has been considered important for
these several years. For wastes containing single
metal, reproduction has been performed so far.
The following table-4 shows the combinations
of different metals that can be thrown, as they are,
as raw materials into existing manufacturing processes
of metal smelters.
Table 4
kinds of
mixed metals
applications
operations
in Japan
Cu and Ni
(and Fe)
Such mixtures can be treated
in facilities of separating
Cu and Ni that are possessed
by electric copper refinery.
12 plants
of 9 firms
Cu, Zn and
Pb
(and Fe)
.Such mixtures can be treated
in factories having such pro-
cesses as wifcltz process and
chloride sublimation process.
3 firms
Ni and Cr
(and Fe)
Such mixtures must be able
to be used by ferro-alloy
refinery.

t-t .! - 34 -
-------
Reproductions from some mixed sludge are now
carried out by existing technologies.
For an instance, detailes are shown on the chloride
sublimation process that is operated by Kowa Seilco
and Dowa Seiko.
6. Conclusion
Organic substances produced by the nature cir-
culate for a long period and, after they are used up
thoroughly, are converted to inorganic substances,
which are reconverted to organics synthetically.
On the other hand, substances produced artificially
by the human are very novel ones in view of the
history of the globe and therefore mechanism of the
nature has not been designed to enable them to be
treated and circulated after being used.
Materials which the -.human dug out of underground
and used, must be treated by hands of the human it-
self,
The modern society has almost established the process
from production through delivery up to consumption.
Y t - / - 35 -
-------
Unless the mechanism of reproduction (recovery and
reproduction of resources) after consumption is es-
tablished, worsening environment in the future may
possibly lead the human even to a downfall.
j
Therefore it is an urgent task to bring up the re-
source reproduction industry.
Strict enforcement is required on monitoring
unrestricted discharge and illegal dumping that are
stil] now practiced openly. It can not be expected
to attain clarification of environment by such policy-
lacking administration as permitting tacitly these
illegal acts till the sludge treating problem is
settled.
The solvent extraction techniques that were used
for uranium separation in the Manhattan Program, have
not only served to nuclear industry but also enabled
separation of zirconium and hafnium and those of rare
earth elements which are very difficult by chemical
methods.
The heavy metal separation by solvent extraction
process has been researched in various countries, and
y. /./ - 36 -
-------
some technologies have already been used practical]y.
It is expected that research and practical use of this
' r
technology will progress from now forward also in
Japan.
The future policy in waste water treatment would
be to abolish the mixing treatment method and to
apply the above-mentioned existing technologies to
wastes that may occur still as a mixture.
In the future, effective treatments such as solvent
extraction process will become possible.
We consider that the sludge treatment technology
should progress always aiming at recovery and reuse
of resources and that modification should be given
against those water treatment technologies which
hinder recovery of resources.
V. /. / - 37 -
-------
Mercury
metal —
593,30? as Hg
''Imported \
^8,283 as Hg
Produced ,
^1^5,020 as Hg/
-Machinery &
gauge
¦Caustic soda
3^2,670 as Hg
Inorganic
chemicals r-
101,197 as Hg
79,689 as Hg
¦Medicine ¦
5,693
•Export
15,0^0 as Hg
¦Catalyzer
1 ,368 as Hg
Pesticide
9 as Hg
The others
^7,637 as Hg
Mercuric chloride
62t8H
- Mercuric oxide
37,678
-Mercuric sulphide
15,962
-Manometer
-Thermometer
- Vacuum pump
- Mercury lamp
-Fluoresent lamp
-Pressure gauge
(Sphygmomanometer)
Switch
- Sterilizer
- Diuretic
Manganese
dry cell
Mercury
dry cell
Pigment
Annex-I CONSUMPTION OF MERCURY METAL(BY USE 1973
(unit: Kg)
-------
Cadmium
metal
1,488 as Cd
Pigment
640 as Cd
PVC etabilizer-
332 as Cd
Cadmium
battery
274 as Cd
Alloy
126 as Cd
Rectifier
2? as Cd
Electro-
plating
9 as Cd
Braun tube
9 as Cd
Catalyzer -
8 as Cd
¦The others
63 as Cd
'Cadmium
sulphide
486
-Cadmium
selenide
255
¦The others-
76
Low melting-
point alloy
-Amalgam for
dental use
¦—Switch
-Terephthalic
acid synthesis
Film
• Lens
-Reagent
Ceramics
Printing ink
Paint
:Plastics
processing
Annex-H CONSUMPTION OF CADMIUM METAL BY USE 1973
(unit:metric ton)

-------
pStorage
battery
121,191 as Pb
-Inorganic
chemicals
Lead
metal
323,679 as Pb
72,571 as Pb
-Plate 8c tube
40,418 as Pb
Cable
27,761 as Pb
-Solder &
Kelmet alloy
26,603 as Pb
—Metal for
printing
3,853 as Pb
-Casting
5,584 as Pb
-Plating
2,'012 as Pb
-The others
21,684 as Pb
rRed lead-
14,860
- Litharge
44,782
r
-Lead chromate
'19,525
-White lead
1,449
• Pigment
I— Crystal
glass
PVC
-Pigment
Ceramics
Annex-IE CONSUMPTION OF LEAD METAL BY USE 1972
('unit: metric ton)
V. I./. Vo
-------

Landfill Disposal Method for Hazardous Wastes,
especially for.Chromium Ore Residues
by Nobuo Mutoh, Professor
Department of Environmetal Engineering
Faculty of Engineering
Kantoh-gakuin University
Yokohama City, Japan
-------
Landfill Disposal Method for Hazardous Wastes,
especially for Chromium Ore Residues
This report refers to the old existing industrial land buri-
al of chromium ore residues, its disposal and method which are
of discussion.
Outline of the Problem
Several existing chromium ore residues (slag) burial site
in Tokyo
have been discoverec^ evidenced by the appearance of yellow, cry-
stals and seepage of leachate on the surface of the land or
"yellow earth" during the earth work in the construction of sub-
ways and buildings. This facts have become more serious public
problem recently.
It is estimated throughout Japan that there are about 248
such sites, totalling more than 760 thousand? tons of untreated
chromium slags merely buried or piled and stored. Table-1 shows
Site and Existing Status throughout Japan. In the Tokyo area
for example, there are three polluted areas( kohtoh, Edogawa
and Sumida Wards ), about |02 sites, area of about 460 thousands
square meters accumulated over 40 years of improper landfill
practice. Fortunately the people living in the vicinity have not
been directly affected as of date..
Table-2 -• Metals in Polluted and Non-polluted Soil, Tokyo
Table-3 Cr(Vl) found in the Ground-water, River and Dust
in the Air in the Polluted Area
Table-5 . Metals in the Ore Residues
Treatment and Disposal Technology
In March, 1973, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government projected
4-1-2,1.
-------
the construction of a subway line in the area as shown in Figure-1
( O-Area, ca.25,000 square meters, Table-2 and 3 ). Test borings
were made and found chromium ore residues as deep as 5 meters
widely distributed in the said area. At the same time, public
began complaining of pollution in other sites (Table-2).
The Tokyo Metropolitan Government organized a committee of
technical experts and took approximately 20 months to complete
the investigation of the pollution and means of treatment to con-
front the problem in order to carry on the subway construction.
As the result, the nubway construction was started with chemi-
cal treatment of the polluted soil with reducing agent and used as
backfill. Figure-? shows Construction Technology Principle, and
Figure-3, Actual Construction Method. The following cautions were
taken in conducting the construction:
1 Preventing of flying dust scattering by erecting a high
confinement fence at the construction site.
2 Excavated ore residue and polluted soil were temporarily
piled in an open space at the construction site, chemical
reducing agent added and used as backfilling.
5 Underdrain catch pits and pipes were engineered under
the open space area knd connected to the water treatment
plant.
4 Along the faces of the excavated pits, piles were driven
continuously, furthermore a containment concrete was pour-
ed to inside face of the pile lines to prevent outgoing
seepage.
4^. |.
-------
Table-1 Sites and Existing Status of Cromium Slag
throughout Japan in 1937 "to 1975
(by Environment Agency,1975)
Sources•and
Locations
Quantity of
Slag Produced
(Presumptive)
Landfill and
Landburial with-
out Pre-treatment
Treatment and
Disposal
ND Co.
(Hokkaido)
224,020 Ton
more than
222,969 Ton
99,528 Ton
landfill,ocean
dumping and utili-
zation after inacti
vation(roasting in
reducing atomos-
phere or chemical
reduction)
NK Co.
(Tokyo)
573,700
more than
484,365
SD Co.
(Chichibu City)
400
400
Tk Co.
(Yokkaichi City)
100
100
NK Co.
(Osaka City)
2,260
2,260
221,«3«
landfill and ocean
dumping after in-
activation
ND Co.
(Anami City)
221,838
MI Co.
(Takehara City)
40,360
40,360
NK Co.
(Tokuyama City)
50,114
50,114
utilization,ocean
dumping and land-
fill after inacti-
vation
AG Co.

6,900
( Kitakyushu City) 16,000
9,100
encapsulation

more than

Total 1,148,729
759,554
378,380

-------
5 Reducing agent was spread on the surface of the backfill-
ed soil, covered with pollution-free soil and payed
with concrete.
Discussion
1 People living in these polluted areas insisted that the
polluted soil should be transported elsewhere and be dis-
posed, but the fact that there is no suitable disposal
area available this means of disposal could not be
arranged. Ocean dumping is restricted by government ordi-
nance, and fixation by cement etc. for dumping would be
economically nonfeasible considering the volume of poll-
uted soil and slag to be handled.
2 Merely covering with soil will not prevent seepage on the
surface of soluble hazardous component by capillarity nor
-placing a gravel layer to cutoff seepage would solve the
problem over a length of many years.
? Conclusion : The actual control of hazardous substances
as this case is would be isolate the landfill or. land-
burial away from the public, and the land utilization
and control of the landfill or land burial area should
be placed under the jurisdiction of a public agency,
assuring the people that engineered disposal provides
safety and confidence in the method of confronting dis-
posals of hazardous substances.
M.h'Z-S
- 3 -
-------
Figure-2 Metals in Polluted Soil
(51 Station* 240 Samples,Tokyo, 1973-1974)
0-Area K-Area S-Area . HR-Area Ho-Area
<*<«>.' ND 7>900 "D ~700 ND "D 4>9 ND 2i200 ND
T-Cr
4.9 ~ 30 ~ 8 21— 11 59 ~
23,000 , 31,000 520 100 ¦ 44,000 19S
T-H* 0.09^. 0.1 ~ 0.26 . 0.12^
T Hg 0.92 13 0.3^ 0,62 1.26
1.4 1 .— 2.8^- . 0.4 —
6.8 8 5.8 2.9
pfc ^9 29 260 r—' ciq 27 /
470 310 2,900 ^ 193
N; 24 — 37 ~ 28 — ; 23
260 330 40 5 58
330 . 450 540 — 480 ~
3,100 690 1,000 D( 1,800
. 6.8-v- 6.4 ~ 9.7 * 1.1'—'
240 110 12 5 6.8
3,400 —
Fe 4,000
25 —
Cu 130
V 200
ND: less than 0.1 ppm
4./--2.S"
42 -—¦
186
91
330
-------
Table-3 Cr(VI) found in the Ground-water, River and Duet, in
the Air at O-Polluted Area, Tokyp (1973)
Station
Ground Water 99
River Water 5
Sludge 6
Dust in Air 12
in House 2
eaves
Wal85p!SiSsWat.r 6
Water pipes 6
Samples
259
5
6
12
2
6
Cr(VI)
ND 1,965 ppm
ND 1.3 ppm
ND
ND
7 10 ppm
ND
Normal
ND in Water : less than 0.05 ppm
ND in dust : less than 0,03 ~ ~ m
-------
Table-4 Metala in the Soil of Whole Tokyo 19 Areas
(22 Samples at 0-30cm and 15-30cm in Depth,197*0
Metals
Contg.
Bange,ppm
Average,ppm
Cu
kZ
286
111
Zn
87
1,140
265
As
1.12
6.83
3.54
Cd
O.k
15.^
2.44
Hg
0.12
1.26
0.36
Pb
27
271
76
Cr
59
471
113
Co
10
40
20
Ni
23
235
47
V
91
330
176
Ms
*f80 .
1,800
1,000
Sb
0.13
9.8
1.6
Sc
7.3
35
19
Mo
1.6
3.9
2.9
W
0.57
2.7
1.6
Hf
1.4
13
3.5
Ta
0.26
1.8
0.53
pH
4.8
8.4

Less than Detection: Cr(Vl),Alkyl-Hg,In,Rh,Te,
Se,Ag,Zr,Oe
HI*'?
-------
Table-5 Metales in the Ore Residues
( nt Number of Samples Analyzed )
Ca
23
27
%
( n=6
Fe
8
11
%
( nn6
Mg
7
11
%
( n=6
SiO
5
6
%
( n=6
A1
k
10
%
( n=6
Na
0
.3,1.3
%
( n«=2
V
0.
13,0.13
%
( n=2
T-Cr
3
5
%
( n=6
Cr(VI)
230
7,800
ppm
( n=6
Hg
0.0k
, 0.07
ppm
( n=2
Pb
100
120
ppm
( n=3
Cd
6
, 7
ppm
( n=2
Ni
1,420
1,600
ppm
( n=3
Mn
1,100

ppm
( n=3
As
5
, 10
ppm
( n=2
Cu
^3
77
ppm
( n=3
Zn
300

ppm
( n=1
pH
10.7
12.7

( n=*f
M-1.2.1
-------
Figure-1 Construction Work Planning <1)
Area: cn . 25 ,OCOso .j?
*
q..«.2.q
-------
Figure-?. Illustration nf Construction Work
One-stage Burial
slag and 4
polluter) soil
/
»
/
clean sa.nd
or soil
rer'noinp n^ent
(e.g.FeSC* • 7HaO)
silt
Multi-stage burial
-------
"figure-3 Construction -/ork J'l'nnin^. (2)
Section. S:l/4CG
terroor^r.y
Dolluted soil
stocVnile
"bp ck-filling
slag and
polluted soil
+
coegulsnt
beering nile,
if necessary
-------
HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT IN THE
UNITED STATES
Presented at the Third U.S.-Japan Conference
on Solid Waste Management
Tokyo, May 12-14, 1976
U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
-------
Hazardous Waste Management in the
United States
by William Sanjour*
Background
Industrial waste management is emerging as a major problem
for all industrial nations. In the past, industrial wastes have
been largely ignored by the public and government officials because
traditionally these wastes are managed outside the municipal waste
collection and disposal system. This situation is changing rapidly,
however. Recent studies show that industry produces twice as much
waste per year as is generated by municipal sources, and 35 times more
waste than do sewage treatment plants. Industrial waste quantities
destined for land disposal are expected to increase by up to 100 percent
in some industries in the next decade largely due to the installation
of pollution control equipment.
As air, water, pesticides, ocean dumping and other laws are
implemented, pollution residues, sometimes in greatly concentrated form,
are being diverted to the land. These industrial waste quantity and
growth estimates are somewhat staggering. But, an aspect causing even
greater concern is that many of these wastes are potentially hazardous.
* Mr. Sanjour is Chief of Technology Branch of the Hazardous Waste
Management Division, Office of Solid Waste Management Programs,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
V. Z. I
-------
Hazardous waste Includes toxic and carcinogenic chemicals,
pesticides, acids, caustics, flammables, explosives, biological
and radiological residuals. Me estimate the total amount of non-
radioactive hazardous waste generated in the United States to be
over 20 million tons per year.
The improper land disposal of hazardous wastes can result 1n damage by:
. groundwater contamination;
. surface water contamination;
. air pollution;
. direct poisoning;
. food chain poisoning;
. fire and explosion
As a result of EPA's report to Congress on disposal of hazardous
Wastes (1), a new, strona thrust to bring hazardous wastes under control
is just beginning in EPA's Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
(OSWMP). Whether under our current authorities or under new proposed
legislation, we believe that Federal involvement in this field is
necessary.
This paper is intended to give an overview of the hazardous waste
management activities in the United States, both at the Federal and
State level. First, the various legislative authorities are reviewed.
This is followed by a review of the federal guideline and assistance
activities in which EPA is currently involved and lastly a summary
of the assessment and research activities being carried out to support
the rest.
-------
Federal Regulatory Authority
The land disposal of hazardous waste 1s essentially unregulated
by the Federal government and in most States. Only two Federal
authorities deal with parts of the hazardous waste management problem.
* -J
The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act, as amendod
(FIFRA), provides for EPA regulation of the storage and disposal of
waste pesticides and containers. The Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as
amended, provides for regulation of radioactive wastes by the Nuclear
Regulatory Commission. Although most pesticides and radioactive wastes
are certainly hazardous, in aggregate they represent only a small
fraction of the total hazardous waste problem. Consequently* we have
a big gap in the wall of environmental law.
The basic thrust of the FIFRA, is to regulate the registration,
labeling, and application of pesticides. A primary goal of the Act
is the "protection of health and the environment". EPA has determined
that some methods of pesticide disposal and storage are likely to cause
adverse effects on health or the environment. Therefore, EPA has proposed
regulations which would curtail or eliminate some of the worst practices.
The prohibited acts would include open dumping, water dumping, ocean
dumping, storage in such a manner as to cause contamination of food or
feed supplies, and well injection.
-------
Proposed Federal Legislation
The Senate Committee on Public Works has a bill numbered
S.2150 which has been the subject of considerable public dialogue
for over a year. On December 15, 1975, the House Subcoiranittee on
Transportation and Commerce issued a staff print of a Solid Waste
Utilization Act for public conment. Thus, both Houses of Congress
appear to be ready to address the issues of waste management,
including hazardous wastes, in specific terms.
The concepts included in both of these legislative initiatives
with regard to hazardous waste are very similar. First, there are
special sections of these comprehensive drafts devoted to hazardous
wastes. Second, the Administrator must define or identify hazardous
wastes within certain time frames in the drafts in both Houses.
Third, a program for the permitting of the storage, treatment, and
disposal is mandated in both drafts; the House version also recognizes
generator reporting obligations and the importance of the transportati
link to effective management. Both drafts recognize operational tech-
nical, institutional, and economic requirements for permit holders
through permit conditions.
Additionally, both drafts suggest State implementation of such a
permitting effort via approved Federal programs, and outline monetary
disincentives in terms of withdrawn Federal grant funds if the States
do not assume the program.
-------
State Authorities
Only six States, California, Illinois, Minnesota, New York, Oregon
and Washington, have "comprehensive" hazardous waste management -
legislation. By "comprehensive" we mean legislation, which authorizes
a State regulatory agency to designate wastes which ar'e to be con-
sidered hazardous; to write rules and regulations for the management
of such wastes; and, to require such records, reports, and inspections
as the State deems necessary. The law in each of these States defines
solid or hazardous wastes to include liquids, sludges, slurries, and
even contained gases. Illinois, Minnesota, and Oregon are developing
regulations under the authority of their hazardous waste management
acts. California has developed some regulations under the authority
of its hazardous waste and water pollution control legislation. New
York has chosen not to do so. The New York Department of Environmental
Conservation believes that its act is vague and unwieldy, and has
decided to use other existing authorities to develop its hazardous
waste management program.
During the past year hazardous waste management bills have been
introduced in at least four States: Arizona, Colorado, Iowa, and
Oklahoma. Other States which were drafting or considering legislation
include South Carolina, Louisiana, and New Jersey.
• Several States have published regulations for land disposal of
hazardous wastes, even though only a few States have hazardous waste
legislation. State solid waste management or water pollution control
V. 2.5"
-------
laws sometimes give the State authority to control certain aspects
*
of "hazardous," "toxic," "liquid," "industrial," or "special" waste
management. Any of these terms can be construed 1n such a way as to
give the State authority to regulate most of the wastes usually
Included 1n the term "hazardous.". In nearly every case the State has
been given (or chosen to exercise) authority over hazardous wastes
only at disposal sites. Many of these States choose to issue
proscriptive regulations, such as "special wastes may not be placed
in landfills without prior approval." At least three States, Florida,
Hawaii, and Nevada, require that such wastes be rendered innocuous
before landfilling, effectively prohibiting the landfill disposal of
hazardous wastes without pretreatment.
It is arguable whether proscriptive regulations by themselves
hinder or advance adequate hazardous waste management, since the
State has no way of knowing the fate of hazardous wastes if they are
not taken to landfills. Additionally, onsite disposal must be regulated,
an onission four'4 in nearly every State.
The most sophisticated system may be the one used in California?
All sites are classified by the State Water Resources Control Board
as Class I, Class II, or Class III. Class I sites (of which there
are 11) may accept hazardous wastes; Class II sites accept municipal
refuse; and Class III sites only accept inert materials such as brick
and demolition wastes. The California sites reportedly receive wastes
from the entire western section of the United States. These movements
V.2. (o
-------
of hazardous wastes, taken together, demonstrate the need for more
States to designate adequate sites for land disposal of hazardous
wastes and to funnel such wastes to those sites.
t
Only California has published regulations which list specific
elements/compounds designated as "hazardous." Three States have *
published criteria for determining which wastes are hazardous:
California, Massachusetts, and South Carolina. The California
criteria are considerably more detailed than the criteria of the
other two States; and unlike the other two States the California
criteria are embodied in the State's "Hazardous Substances Act,"
Minnesota and Oregon are developing criteria.
EPA believes publishing criteria has several advantages over
publishing a list of hazardous wastes. Most important, it allows
the State to describe what is being regulated without naming it.
Wastes can be an almost infinite variety of combinations and
mixtures and would be nearly impossible for the State to anticipate
every form and combination of waste. By publishing criteria, the
waste generator would have a reliable method for determining whether
or not he had a hazardous waste regardless of the composition.
California, Connecticut, Indiana, Kentucky, Massachusetts,
Michigan, New Jersey, New York, South Carolina and Texas have systems
to register or permit hazardous waste haulers. Hauler registration
is a key element in a State's hazardous waste management program.
States cannot insure adequate management of hazardous wastes by
-------
controlling only the disposal sites; they must have a method of
assuring themselves that all the wastes which should reach certain,
sites actually reach them. Under such a system haulers report what
they pick up, where it originates, and where they take it. In some
systems, generators report the name of the hauler to whom they have
consigned their wastes. The State system usually includes a prohibition
against consigning hazardous wastes to anyone other than a permitted
hauler. The effect of such a system is to make the States aware of all
hazardous wastes which leave the site of generation.
Interest in hazardous waste management, as evidenced by a
willingness to expend resources, is increasing among the States. At
the end of FY 74 (June 30, 1974), there were only a handful of hazardous
waste management personnel in half a dozen States. By the end of FY 75
the number of fulltime staff had risen to 45 in 25 States. An additional
nine States have assigned one or more personnel part time. The increase in
the number of States assigning fulltime staff to hazardous waste manage-
ment is doubly encouraging, since this Is an important measure of the
progress EPA is making in urging the States to implement programs.
Federal Guidelines
Currently, the EPA Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
is operating under the Solid Waste Disposal Act, as amended (SWDA).
Section 204(a) of the SWDA carries basic research, demonstration, and
training mandates. Much of the health and environmental effects work,
disposal operation investigations, materials and energy recovery work,
and waste system studies now underway are authorized under this section.
P
-------
Section 204(b) instructs EPA to collect information and make it
available through publications and other means, to cooperate with
public and private groups, and to make grants. This part of Section
204 is significant to our guidance promulgation efforts. The mandate
fdr guidelines for recovery, collection, separation, and disposal
systems is contained in Section 209. Such guidelines under Section 209
(a) are recommended to government agencies at all levels - not just
Federal ones. Section 209 (b) calls for model codes, ordinances, and
statutes as well as issuance of data on costs of constructing, operating,
and maintaining technically feasible methods for collection, separation,
disposal, recovery, and recycling.
Finally, Section 211 of the SWDA adds some "teeth" to the otherwise
advisory guidelines under Section 209(a), in that all Federal agencies
shall ensure compliance with such guidelines issued under that section.
Therefore, guidelines are advice issued by EPA and published in
the Federal Register under the authority of Sec. 209. Although only
advisory to everyone else, Section makes 211 such guidelines mandatory for
Federal facilities.
We have defined the word "guidance" as advice issued by EPA in the
Federal Register under the authority of Sec. 204 of the Solid Waste Disposal
Act. Such guidance represents the Agency's best technical counsel on an
issue related to hazardous waste management systems or pathways; it does
not have regulatory status.
"System operations" guidances refer generally to the flow of wastes
from generator to storage, treatment, and ultimate disposal. Potential
subject dreas are many in number, but those in which the States and
v i.9
-------
others seem most interested at present are waste transport control
(through trip-ticketing), wastes compatibility guides, facilities
management suggestions, site selection methodology, etc. "Pathway"
guidances would provide typical performance specifications for inciner-
ators, chemical waste landfills, chemical treatment processes, etc.
As an example, an incinerator guidance would describe for the person
who has chosen incineration as his disposal option, the optimum
temperature, dwell time, and turbulence characteristics for the waste
type he has selected. Obviously, our recommendation of such minimum
levels would be based on test burn experiences with wastes of the same
or similar kind from which we had extrapolated.
Our strategy under current legislation has two phases. First,
issue system operation and pathway guidances under Section 204 as
soon as practicable. This approach allows us (1) to make Federal
policy known to a very broad audience (including industry), (2) to
address our technical assistance obligations to the States in a
priority way, and (3) to signal industry and the States as to our
intentions, if stronger Federal authorities should come about.
A second part of our strategy is to simultaneously explore the
breadth and extent of the hazardous waste management problem among
Federal agencies. To the extent that specific problems are serious
enough and have not been addressed through adherence to the guidances,
Sec. 209 guidelines could then be issued.
Exhibit 1 is an interim plan for the issuances of guidances and
f. a. )o
-------
Exhibit 1
Guidance
(Sec. 204)
Prospective
Hazardous Waste Management Federal Register Issuances
Recommended
Procedure
(Sec. 204)
FY 76 Policy Statement
on HW Mgt.
Site Selection
Criteria
Guideline
(Sec. 209)
Disposal of PCB-containing
Wastes
Disposal of VC-containing
Aerosol Cans
FY 77 Waste Transportation
Mgt. (Manifest Systems)
Model State IIW
Statute (Sec. 209
Compatability of HW at
Disposal Facilities
Policy on Use of Public
Lands for HW Facilities
Mgt. Aspects of HW Facilities
(Insurance/ Bonding)
rv "7
79
Std, Sampling (and
Analysis) for HW
State HW Mgt. Program-
Resource and Organization
-------
Exhibit 1 (cont'd)
FY 78 (cont'd)
Definition of HW (including
Standard Leaching Test)
Reference Method for
Evaluating Chemically
Fixed Wastes
PCBTM* for Organic
Chemical and Petroleum
Industries
Incineration Processes
for HW
FY 79 Determination of Loading
Limit of Waste Sites
(Standard Attenuation
Procedure)
PCBTM* for Inorganic
Chemicals and Metals
Mining and Refining
Industries
Chemical Waste Landfill
Design
* PCBTM =» Physical, Chemical, Biological Treatment Methods
-------
guidelines under the Solid Waste Disposal Act. It describes our
schedule for guidance/guideline issuance over the next several years.
Like all good plans, it is subject to change. It does, however,
give a sense as to when we expect the results of several technical
studies to be sufficient to issue advice.
w
Special comment regarding the column marked Recommended Procedures
is warranted. Such a procedure will represent our best technical counsel
on a very specific problem (such as disposal of wastes contaminated
with a certain chemical) or advice on a specific industry stream. The
procedures will be notable for their lack of wide-spread applicability
to many waste generators and disposers and/or their very specific focus
on single waste streams. Such issuances are contemplated, for example,
during FY 76 regarding PCB-contaminated waste and during FY 78 regarding
the trade-offs of various treatment methods for some streams in
the organic chemical and petroleum refining industries.
Because several States have adopted hazardous waste legislation
and because similar National legislation is now being considered by
the U.S. Congress, EPA anticipates that one of the main problems will
center around the definition of a hazardous waste. How will a waste
generator know whether his waste requires a permit for disposal? This
question must be answered first, before a decision can be reached on
the method of disposal, the site of disposal, and a host of technical
details.
-------
Hazardous materials can be safely confined in the soil unless
they leach into ground and surface waters, evaporate or sublime into
the air, or escape into the environment via such mechanisms as wind
erosion and radiation. Therefore, generators of those wastes that
do not threaten the environment by any of the above transport routes
should not be burdened with extremely strict (and expensive) disposal
requirements, even though such wastes may contain hazardous constituents.
No standard methodologies have b£en developed to date which would
enable regulatory agencies to assess the relative disposal hazards
posed by specific wastes. We are currently embarking on the development
of a series of six standard methods and procedures which will be
used to develop and implement hazardous waste regulations:
1. Standard hazardous waste sampling, collection, and sample
preparation procedures
2. Standard acute exposure tests (corrosivity, flammability,
explosivity, etc.)
3. Standard hazardous waste leaching test (SLT)
4. Standard method for evaluating leachate potential through
the unsaturated zone for specific amounts of specific wastes
on specific sites (SAP)
5. Standard method for locating monitoring wells on disposal/
storage sites
6. Standard method for analyzing groundwater samples from
monitoring wells
y. 3./Y
-------
Of particular importance are numbers 3 and 4 (SLT and SAP).
The SLT project must be viewed within the proper context: It
is intended to complement the other decision-making tools currently
under development.
The purpose of the proposed effort is to develop a standard
screening methodology for hazardous wastes with respect to their
relative tendencies to leach harmful constituents into the environment.
The standard metholology, which is to be incorporated into an "EPA
Manual," must be practical and inexpensive enough to assure wide-scale
applicability by comnerical laboratories, for the benefit of day-to-
day decision makers at environmental regulatory agencies.
The essence of this project is to develop standard laboratory
procedures by which it is possible to determine the amounts of
leachable hazardous constituents of wastes from various industry
categories. For example, if a certain waste generated by an industry
is entirely in the liquid phase and it contains toxic components in
sufficiently high concentrations, there is no doubt that this is a
»
"leachable" hazardous waste and, therefore, requires stringent
regulations for land disposal. Many wastes destined for land disposal,
however, are either (1) solids or (2) consist of solid and liquid
phases. In the latter case, if the liquid phase contains a hazardous^
constituent in sufficiently high concentration, the logical decision
would be to consider the solid/liquid waste as a leachable hazardous
waste. If the liquid phase does not contain a hazardous constituent.
-------
It Is'still possible for the solid phase to contain hazardous constituents
that are leachable under certain landfill conditions. This research
project is designed to develop the required extraction procedures for
solid components of industrial wastes, thereby limiting all chemical
analyses to the liquid phase.
In order to establish a standard methodology for determining the
leaching characteristics of industrial wastes, extraction procedures
with several aqueous and organic solvents will be developed. The
solvents will be selected so as to simulate conditions that prevail at
industrial land disposal sites. The prudent selection of solvents is
very important, because normally "unleachable" wastes could become
soluble when in contact with other wastes at the landfill.
This project will not be concerned with any soil attenuation
mechanisms. Once it is determined by the SLT that a certain waste
exhibits leachable hazardous components in significant concentrations,
another type of standard test, the Standard Attenuation Procedure (SAP)
will be performed in order to evaluate the suitability of specific
disposal sites.
The focus of the SAP project is to develop a decision-making
tool which will be capable of predicting whether a "quantity" of waste
proposed for disposal on a specific land parcel is "harmful" in the
sense that groundwater quality standards may be exceeded due to leachate
migration. On the basis of this, decisions can be made as to whether
or not to grant permits for disposal. The amount of a hazardous waste
which is harmful is entirely dependent on the properties of the waste
X2./6
-------
and the specific disposal, sites.
We initiated this approach because Senate Bill 2150 prohibits
disposal of hazardous wastes 1n "harmful quantities" in a leaching
facility, however, the technique will be useful in any event to S'?ate
authorities. Present decisions relating to the land disposal of *
hazardous wastes are open to question and subsequent attack on several
fronts. Decision-making in this area lacks uniformity in judgement
relating.to the degree of data-gathering undertaken, interpretation of
results obtained, cost of the analyses, and in the degree of administrative
control'. Thus, there is considerable variability in site assessment
and proper administrative control at the State and local level in determining
the suitability of given sites for the land disposal of hazardous wastes.
At the present time 1t is not clear which of several possible approaches to
development of such a procedure is optimum, that is, should it include a
mathematical model, a decision tree, criteria ranking process, or other
methods? It is also not clear to what extent various techniques have been
developed or perhaps, are in use. To be legally'defensible for use by
regulatory authorities, the technique(s) which are ultimately developed
should be the most precise and accurate predictor of pollution potential
which it is possible to develop.
The overall purpose of this project is to determine the state
of the development and evaluate the potential usefulness of techniques
for predicting groundwater pollution potential from disposal of specific
wastes on specific land parcels.
y.a./7
-------
Objectives of the first phase are:
1. Determine what viable techniques are in use or
under development,
2. Assess the potential of possible techniques or approaches
(in use or proposed) for development to a standard pro-
cedure,
3. Estimate the costs, work and time requirements for
development of a working standard procedure for each
viable option, and
4. Prepare in detail, a developmental program for the
technique or combination of techniques judged to be
the best.
If this first phase proves successful it will be followed by
extensive field and laboratory data gathering efforts coupled with
preliminary design of the appropriate model.
Federal Assistance Programs
There are two kinds of assistance which EPA offers in the area
of hazardous wastes. The first is technical assistance to industry,
State, and local government on problems of disposing of hazardous wastes
and the second is assistance to State governments on establishing and
operating a hazardous waste management program. This latter activity
includes:
. publication of model State hazardous waste law
. assistance in conducting State hazardous waste generation
surveys
. assistance in implementing waste hauler permit systems
y. 2. it
-------
. v/aste exchange programs, and
. educational programs
Technical assistance is handled by a small but efficient permanent
staff trained in hazardous waste disposal techniques. Their advice is.
constantly being sought both for planning and in response to emergencies.
For example, in Hopewell, Virginia, a plant manufacturing the pesticide
Kepone, was shut down because of multiple violations of worker safety
and water pollution laws. The State of Virginia then called on our
technical assistance staff to advise them on the disposal of waste
Kepone, and Kepone contaminated waters, sludge, earth, and debris.
In addition, we sponsor technical assistance workshops in which
State hazardous waste authorities participate 1n an interchange of
ideas, experience, policy, and technology with the Federal EPA.
Damage Assessment
The damage assessment program is essential to our understanding
of the number and severity of the damages caused .by improper disposal
of hazardous wastes. We have been investigating and documenting reported
damage Incidents for almost two years. Generally, the available case
studies pertain to hazardous chemicals belonging to the following
categories: (a) toxic metals (e.g., arsenic, chromium, lead, mercury,
cadmium); (b) toxic anions (e.g., cyanide and fluoride); and (c) a
variety of toxic organic chemicals (e.g., miscellaneous pesticides,
polychlorinated biphenyls, other chlorinated hydrocarbons, industrial
V. 2 /f
-------
solvents).
There are six major routes of environmental transport through which
the improper land disposal of hazardous wastes can result in damage:
1. Groundwater contamination via leachate;
2. Surface water contamination via runoff;
3. Air pollution via open burning, evaporation, sublimation,
and wind erosion;
4. Poisoning via direct contact;
5. Poisoning via the food chain;
6. Fire and explosion.
Ue have compiled over 400 cases to date which are summarized on
Exhibits 2 and 3. Exhibit 2 shows the industry sources and the type of
contaminant while Exhibit 3 shows the disposal method and damage
mechanism.
After our own staff investigates and confirms the facts in
a selected number of these incidents, they are published and widely
disseminated as Hazardous Waste Disposal Damage Reports. To date
nine such reports have been printed. These are:
. Arsenic Poisoning in Minnesota
. Industrial Waste Disposal on Farmland in Illinois
. Fatality at a New Jersey Industrial Landfill
. Dioxin Poisoning Caused by Improper Waste Disposal in
Missouri
. Contamination of Groundwater Beneath the Rocky Mountain
Arsenal and Surrounding Area
y; 2.10
-------
COUTAJMNtottS INVOLVED IN DAMAGE INCIDENTS BY INDUSTRY
EXHIBIT 2 Cases Sinidfed • 413
Incius^ry —>
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/•liSC^Hloeous Orijinics
-------
Exhibit 3. MECHANISMS INVOLVED IN
INCIDENTS OF DAMAGE BY DISPOSAL METHOD a)

Disposal Method
Surface
Impoundments
Landfilis,
dumps
Other land
disposal b)
Storage
of wastes
smeltings,
slag, mine
tailings
Unknown
Number of cases
86
95
181
14
15
22
Damage mechanism
(number of cases)

Ground water
, (250)
55
60
101
8
10
16
Surface water
(159)
38
46
63
-
8
4
Air
(14)
1
4
7
-
-
2
Fires, explosions
(13)

10
3
—
—
•
Direct contact Poisoning
(51)
Unknown
(13)
1
1
6
5
39
4
5
1
1
1
Wells affected c)
(139)
31
27
63
4
2
12
a) The tabulation refers to 413 cases studied thus far. The numbers 1n the matrix add up to more than 413,
because several damage incidents involved more than one damage mechanism.
b) Haphazard disposal on vacant properties, on farmland, spray irrigation, etc.
c) Not Included as a damage mechanism.
Note; The data presented In this table have been derived solely from case studies associated with land
disposal of industrial wastes.
-------
. Dumping into Sand Pit Pollutes Domestic Wells in Texas
. Petrochemical Contamination of the Cohansey Aquifer,
New Jersey
. Hexachlorobenzene Contamination of Cattle in Louisiana
. Poison Fumes Overcome Workers at Landfill in Maryland. ^
Yet to be resolved is the extent to which existing disposal *
sites are polluting groundwaters in the vast majority of cases where
there is no evidence of damage. To answer this question, we have
initiated a contract study to examine the prevalence of migration
of hazardous chemical substances into the groundwater at industrial
waste land disposal sites, including dumps, pits, basins, lagoons,
landfills, etc. This contract will be utilized to investigate as many
hazardous waste disposal sites as possible to establish the presence or
probable absence of detectable migration of hazardous materials into
groundwaters.
Industry Assessment
This program is fundamental to our understanding the magnitude
and extent of the hazardous waste problem. Fifteen industries have
been or are being studied these are:
. Primary and Storage Batteries
. Inorganic Chemicals
. Organic Chemicals, Pesticides and Explosives
. Electroplating
. Metals Mining
. Paint and Allied Products
. Petroleum Refining
y.a.^3
-------
. Pharmaceuticals
. Primary Metals Smelting and Refining
. Textiles Dyeing and Finishing
. Rubber and Plastics
. Leather Tanning and Finishing
. Special Machinery
. Electronic components
. Waste Oil Refining
The objectives of these studies are to:
. Characterize each industry in terms of the number of plants,
number of employees, location, production processes and rates,
etc.
. Characterize the wastes generated by each process in each
industry, both the total amount, and the potentially hazardous
fraction.
. Define hazardous waste treatment and disposal methods in terms
of industry average, current best practice, and environmentally
acceptable methods, and
. Determine costs associated with hazardous waste treatment and
disposal.
Results to date indicate the total of all industrial waste
(excluding metals mining) is 144 million metric tons per year (dry-weight)
of which 23 million tons per year, or 16 percent is potentially hazardous
(Exhibit 4). This potentially hazardous waste percentage compares to our
earlier estimate of about ten percent. About 28 percent of hazardous v/astes
are in solid form and 72 percent are in liquid or sludge form. About
58 percent are organibs vs. 42 percent inorganics. To gauge the impact
of water pollution regulations on hazardous waste generation, we have
projected hazardous waste amounts from 1974 to 1977 and 1983. Although
v.2..ay
-------
Exhibit 4
INDUSTRIAL HAZARDOUS WASTE STUDIES
Waste Generation
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Industry
Batteries
Inorganic Chemicals
Organic Chemicals,
Pesticides &
Explosives
Electroplating
Paint & Allied
Products
Petroleum Refining
Pharmaceuticals
Primary Metals Smelting
and Refining
Total (to date)
Total Waste Amount
(Millions of Metric Tons/Yr. - Dry Weight)
Potentially
All-Industrial
40.00
2.200
0.909
0.370
0.600
0.244
100.165
144.488
Hazardous Vlastes
0.005
2.000
2.150
0.909
0.075
0.600
0.062
17.398
23.194
Notes
1. - data not yet available
2. six additional studies currently underway
3. Does not include metals mining industry
VA.S.S~
-------
the increase in hazardous waste generation varies from industry to
industry, depending on the sensitivity of the process waste stream
to waste water pollution control requirements, overall we predict a
hazardous waste growth of 56 percent over the next decade.
Current hazardous waste treatment and disposal practices and costs
confirm earlier suspicions (Exhibit 5). Over 92 percent of all hazardous
waste is disposed of directly on land as opposed to four percent undergoing
some form of treatment, and four percent being recycled in some fashion.
The average cost figures illustrate why this is so: $11 per ton for land
disposal vs. $49 per ton for treatment. Land disposal is by far the
cheaper waste management option.
Technology Assessment
We are constantly evaluating the technology available to treat
and dispose of hazardous wastes in an environmental adequate way.
Our largest sin'gle effort in this area is a grant to the State of
Minnesota to build and demonstrate a conmercial-scale chemical waste
landfill. This project will examine the technological, economic,
organizational, social, and institutional issues involved in establishing
and managing an environmentally acceptable landfill for hazardous wastes.
This project is described in detail in a recent paper by Donald Fafb
(2).
A second major effort is to demonstrate the environmental adequacy,
cost effectiveness, and practicality of destroying high priority hazardous
waste by incineration in commercial-scale incinerators.
The wastes include:
. ethylene manufacturing wastes
t a.at
-------
EXHIBIT 5
INDUSTRIAL HAZARDOUS WASTE STUDIES
7^. Current Hazardous Waste Disposal Practices
Treatment
Land Disposal (Chemicals Shcrtnal, Etc.) Recovery
Industry
%
Cost Range
AVIJ.CoSfc •
%
Cost Range
Avg.Cost

Avg.Cost
Waste
<$/lbn)
($/lbn)
Waste
<$/Itan)
($/3ton)
Waste
($/Ton)
L. lotteries
89
1.1- 44 .
15
2
None Reported
4
9
fr*
I. .Tiiorcc-jaic Chemicals
90
1.8- 80
18
5
7- 59
34
5
am m
¦J. Org.n:vic Cherricn.ls, Pesticides

onc'l Explosives
93
0,6-240
3
2
18-323
37
5
18
1. I: lecLrcpla ting
—
—
-

i. Piiint and Allied Products
, 80
3 -130
60

None Reported

12
23
i. l-.:txoleum Fefining
' 99+.
0.9-'20
12
0.13
None Reported
34
' .01
36
Phrrrraceuticals 1
• 10
7-27
15
85
10-300
90
5
-
i, Prirary Metals Smelting and

i"te fining
*
*
mm

.
•*
*

Overall Weighted Average
92 .

11
4

49
4
19
otea
. - data not yet available
. six additional studies currently underway
-------
. hexachlorocyclopentadiene
. organic peroxide manufacturing residues
. perchloroethylene manufacturing still bottoms
. PCB wastes in capacitors
. nitrochlorobenzene tars
*
. catch basin grease (nitrile pitch from production of
surface active agents)
. waste blend of chlorinated hydrocarbons
. vinyl chloride monomer manufacturing wastes (dichloroethane
and heavily chlorinated wastes that contain vinyl chloride)
. off specification and waste phenols
. methyl methacrylate monomer wastes
\
. Amiben manufacturing wastes
. API seperator bottoms
. tars from production of styrene
. rubber manufacturing waste sludge
. reactor bottoms from PVC manufacture
. coke plant wastes
. petroleum refining sour wastes
The types of incinerators to be evaluated are:
. Wet Oxidation
. Pyrolysis
. Liquid Injection
. Fluidized Bed
. Rotary Kiln
. Bake Oven
/a. a*
-------
. Liquid Injection Incinerator Ship
A mobile laboratory has been equipped and our contractors are
traveling around the country to the various sites. The waste to
be incinerated is thoroughly analyzed beforehand. At each facility
samples are collected of air emissions, scrubber effluents, ash, raw '
waste, makeup air, auxiliary fuels and other process streams entering
or leaving the incinerator system. Samples are also being collected
of combustion gases in the hot zone prior to the emission control system
Operating parameters are continually monitored to ensure that the predeter.
mined test conditions are maintained at steady state throughout the
testing period. These operating parameters include temperature, residence
time, percent excess air and feed rates. On-site measurements of hydro-
carbons and carbon monoxide in air emissions are used as indicators of
combustion efficiency during each test sequence.
Each demonstration test is conducted such that a thorough evaluation
can be made of:
. Effectiveness of the facility to destroy or detoxify hazardous
components of wastes
. Operating conditions required at each facility to achieve
optimal destruction of test wastes
. Environmental impact caused by incineration, of wastes
. Operating and capital costs associated with incineration
of each waste
. Overall value of facility type for commercial disposal of
waste
. Adequacy of emission control system used by the facility
Some of the tests of special interest include:
Y.X11
-------
. Destruction of PCB containing capacitors by grinding in a
harnnermill and Incineration in a rotary kiln or bake oven.
. Using a proprietary blend of waste chlorinated hydrocarbons
as fuel 1n a cement kiln.
. Incineration at sea in an incineration ship. *
Incineration and controlled landfill disposal hold the. most^
Immediate promise as viable alternatives to current improper disposal
practices, however, there are a number of physical, chemical, and
biological techniques in use, proposed for use, or in developmental
stages which show promise as treatment processes for hazardous wastes.
Potential benefits include:
(a) hazard reduction-detoxification; reduced flammability,
explosivity, or corrosivity; reduced solubility,
(b) volume and/or weight reduction, and
(c) resource recovery potential
Some of these processes are recognizable unit operations widely used
in industry for a variety of production purposes, others are used now
1n water pollution treatment complexes, and a few are currently used with
hazardous wastes. Others are in developmental of conceptual stages.
However, to our knowledge, no comprehensive attempt has yet been made to
assess the usefulness of these processes for treating hazardous wastes.
We have therefore undertaken a desk study to conduct an in-depth
state-of-the-art investigation of approximately 20 physical, chemical,
and biological processes having potential application for treating hazardous
wastes prior to or in lieu of disposal. Among the processes to be examined
are:

-------
solvent recovery
electrolysis
photolysis
catalysis
chlorinolysis
biotreatment
oxidation
precipitation
microwave discharge
reverse osmosis
evaporation
activated carbon
ion exchange
enzyme treatment
activated sludge
oxidation ponds
hydrolysis
ammonia stripping
steam stripping
Through literature search, facilities visits* consulting with
experts, etc., the contractor will establish a data base for the more
relevant processes and their technological and economic application to
hazardous wastes. This contract will be followed by a series of
studies (Alternative Studies) aimed at identifying alternatives to
y 2.3/
-------
disposal for a variety of real world hazardous waste streams currently
being identified by our industry studies. In as much as the investigators
of the various processes in this study will become experts in the field
during the course of this work, we feel that their advice and assistance
*
could be invaluable in carrying out these later contracts. °
*•
The Alternative Studies will be industry and waste stream oriented.
The industries to be covered are:
. Organic Chemicals
. Petroleum Refining
. Inorganic Chemicals
. Metal Smelting and Refining
The purpose of these studies is to assess the alternatives to
Incineration and land disposal for treatment/disposal of those types
of industrial wastes generated by the specific industry. Study output
will include the following information:
Feasibility and cost analysis of treating the industry
hazardous wastes by physical, chemical and biological
processes.
Comparisons of the treatment processes with incineration
and landfilling for cost and environmental impact.
Assessment of the economic effects of the implementation of
treatment processes.
Research
A significant amount of technological research is conducted by
EPA's Solid and Hazardous Waste Research Division and elsewhere. This
is described in the paper "Hazardous Waste Research Symposium: Residual
Management by Land Disposal," (3). Some of the projects include:
-------
. Industrial Hazardous Waste Migration Potential
. Field Verfication of Hazardous. Industrial Waste Migration
from Land Disposal Sites
. Liners for Disposal Sites
. Leaching and Durability of Chemically Fixed Sludges
. An Evaluation of Storing Hazardous Waste in Mined Openings.
Conclusions
To summarize our perceptions of the hazardous waste management
situation in the United States at this time. First, we now know that
we have a problem, a major problem which is common to all industrial
nations, and that this problem is growing due to several factors.
We have found that the technology for adequate hazardous waste
management exists for many hazardous wastes but that this technology
is costly, approximately 10 to 20 times as expensive as current
unacceptable practices, which consist mainly of landfilling or ocean
disposal. Consequently, there are no economic incentives for the use
of this technology and, furthermore, there are no strong regulatory
incentives at either the Federal or most State levels.
Consequently, EPA has developed a regulatory strategy for the
management of hazardous wastes. This program will require a joint
Federal, State, and private sector response. We see a lengthy period
during which legislation and regulations are developed and facilities
are made available, but eventually we would foresee a regulatory program
with adequate enforcement to prevent the potential public health and
environmental damages which can occur from improper management of these
wastes.
y a.i 3
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REFERENCES
Disposal of hazardous wastes; report to Congress. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste
Management Programs. Environmental Protection Publication
SW-115. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974.
110 p.
The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency's Chemical Waste
Landfill Demonstration. D. Farb. Office of Solid Waste
Management Programs, Hazardous Waste Management Division.
Washington, 1975. 27 p.
Hazardous Waste Research Symposium. Residual Management by
Land Disposal. Soils, Water and Engineering, University of
Arizona, Tucson and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Cincinnati, Ohio, 1976. 12 p. '
y.s.3/
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JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER
YOTSUYA-KAMICHOtfc6. KAWASAKI. JAPAN
TELEPHONE 0 4 A -2 8-4 8 S 6
IMPROVEMENT ON REFUSE COLLECTION
AND TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM
— Present situation of refuse
collection and transportation
in Japan —
Akira Shiraazaki
Director
Research and Training Department
JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER
May. 1976
!
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JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER
YOTSUYA.KAMICHO KAWASAKI, JAPAN
TELEPHONE 044-26-4806
INDEX
1 Introduction
2 Background of difficulty in refuse collection
and transportation
2—1 History of refuse collection and transportation
in Japan (Table 1)
2—2 Increase of refuse amount and complexity of refuse
kind (Table 2, 3, 4 Fig.l, 2, 3, 4 )
2—3 Difficulty in work management (Table 5, 6 Pig. 5 )
3 Actual situation of refuse collection and
transportation
3-1 Present system of refuse collection and transportation
(Table 7, 8 Pig, 6 )
3—2 Method of refuse collection and transportation
(Table 9, 10, 11, 12 Fig. 7, 8 )
(1) Refuse collection method
(2) Refuse transportation method
(3) Transhipment yard in refuse ocean transportation
(4) Improvement on refuse collection ancl transportation
5~- /. /. /
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JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER
YOTSUYA-KAMICHO KAWASAKI. JAPAN
TELEPHONE 044-26-4896
3~3 Separate collection and recycling in Sapporo city
(Pig. -9 )
3-4 Sample of recovery system for electrical appliances
containing PCB (Table 13 Fig. 10 )
3-5 Costs for refuse collection and disposal
(Table 14^1-2/IB Pig. 11, 12 )
4 Problem and proposal regarding refuse collection
and disposal
(1) Necessity of environmental measures
(2). Necessity of adjustment with local inhabitants
(3) Necessity of improvement on working condition
(4) Comprehension of working efficiency and work management
(5) Establishment of beneficiary charge system of
domestic refuse
f. I. /_ 2 -
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JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER.
YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198, KAWASAKI. JAPAN
TELEPHONE 044-28-4896
1 Introduction
It is quite desirable to smoothly and efficiently
collect the refuse arised at random in cities, and
to get them together for transportation to the dis-
posal site or treating plant .
But, Japan is a small island, in 30 i= of which,
excessive population concentration and excessive
automobiles concentration in narrow roads have been
occurred, and resulted in country wide chronic
traffic mess .
This worse situation has been complicated with in-
crease of refuse amount, complexity of refuse kind
and rigidity in work management of workers .
Then, efficiency of refuse collection and transpor-
tation has yearly decreased and its cost has emi-
nently rised .
Precisely, the cost of .collection and transportation
has rised up to 55 $ to 82 $ out of total cost for
management . And middle and small cars are mainly
used . Then, in the department of collection and
transportation which require large labor power,
labor charge comes up to 80 ^ to 85 ^ out of the
cost for collection and transportation .
This high ratio villi last with additional increase .
In addition to these circumstances, movement of
I
local inhabitants against refuse disposal has yearly
come severer,. Therefore, it becomes more difficult
to secure a site for final disposal .
This induces deadlock in site security plan, and
further prolongation of transportation and idle of
working hour .
Finally, the efficiency has been remarkably decreasing .
5*. 1./. 3
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JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER
YOTSUYA-KAMICMO 198. KAWASAKI. JAPAN
TELEPHONE 044-28-4890
• Even if a system of night work and early morning work is
proposed in order to rise the collection and transportation
efficiency, it is usual that this system is not realized
especially in large cities owing to decrease of flexibility
for working organization, that is to say, rigidity of work
management which is unfortunately inevitable in direct
management.
But to cope with these circumstances, some cities proceeded
to study of introduction of new system such as air-vacuum
system and to study of provision of intermediate station.
Besides, in the style of management of whole municipalities,
direct management has slightly decreased and consign manage-
ment which is flexible in control has found increasing.
In summary, for principal' counter measures for refuse col-
lection and transportation, the writer concentrates the
following two points and proceeds to put them into severe
consideration.
1) To reduce amount of refuse, to promote a liability of
inhabitants for refuse disposal, and to reestablish a
collection fee charging system which will save rising
disposal cost and pack fee.
In this case, it is worth studying to establish a
beneficiary charged system which has such article that
inhabitants close to a disposal plant and intermediate
station are exempted from charging.
/
2) To' establish a system of night working and early mo rain
working, and to promote workers morale for work so as
to rise working efficiency. For this improvement,
personnels in/management who are liable to be indiffer-
ent to workers should make endeavor to comprehend an
importance of working management to build comfortable
working condition by improvement on working environment
personnel control,safety control, sanitation control
relationship.
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JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER
YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198. KAWASAKI, JAPAN
TELEPHONE 044.2S.4a9S
V JJuclfground of difficulty in refuse collection
and transportation
2—1 History of refuse collection and transportation
in Japan
(1) Banishment of trash Box and collection with
poly container
According to " Filth Cleansing lav; " established in
April, 1900, occupiers of land and users of land are
obligated to clean the inside of land and to provide
wooden trash, boxes with cover.
And municipalities are obligated to collect and dispose
the refuse in fee charging system.
In these days, workers raked refuse out from outdoors
wooden trash box of each household, just like dogs
foraging for baits, and put refuse into bamboo make
basket, and loaded refuse on box type cars of man
pulling. And then, transported to the disposal site-.
This method was most popular all over our country for
a long time, "notwithstanding'- indisposition and
inefficiency.
As " Cleansing law " was established in April,1954,
municipalities began to comprehend necessity of
mechanization of refuse collection and transportation
and improvement on cleansing..service from the view
point of situation that refuse had been increasing in
amount and the view point of sanitation.
First, Kawasaki city developed efficient collecting
car in 1955, and realised mechanisation. ' *
Later each city started to change man—pull car to
special collecting car,
t.r
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JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER
YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198. KAWASAKI. JAPAN
TELEPHONE 044-28-4B96
Jrv August, 1962 the minister of construction
established " Banishment Order of Trash Box "
which prohibits trash boxes from set on outdoor
road. Therefore, traditional wooden or concrete
make trash boxes were disappeared on the road, which
v/ere then replaced by polyethelene make container
bucket type of 40. .1 to 45 1 with cover that have
been trially used in Tokyo.
Each household puts this container inside of house
or inside of house lot, and stores in this container
food refuse and other refuse so that these fefuse
may be hr-o-Mg"K"t • to the given place at the given
time. The workers to collect put refuse in container
on collecting cars, give container back to the given
place. By this system traffic condition was improved
and street was cleaned up, and flies and rats were
banished. Therefore, this system has an effect to
let municipalities understand the necessity of
conception change even in refuse collection, and is
highly appreciated as revolution in refuse collection
and transportation.
Pack collection and common use metal make
container collection
It was granted that poly containers collection had
limitation. That is to say, poly containers are liable
to be dirty, blowen off with wind, and covers are
liable to be off. Then dogs scatter the refuse.
Working together household and the single can not take
back empty container. These demerits were indicated.
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JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER
YOTSUYA.KAMICHO 198. KAWASAKI. JAPAN
TELEPHONE O44-28-4O06
Aa the next stage, pack collection appeared.
This system has lots of merits. Such as, there is no
need to take "back as this is one way system using
vinyle or paper pack, and workers are free from dirty
refuse as refuse is packed, and no odor scattered.
Besides, working efficiency is promoted.
Then many medium and small cities adopted this col-
lection system. But Tokyo and some large cities are
continuing to use container.
Some cities put into practice a system to set common
use metal make container 90cm ^ X 120cm' v; X 74cm **"
at the given place.for general household, a system
that containers for dust chute are provided at middle
and high apartments and refuse are collected by con-
tainer reverting car, a system to lift up container by ,
crane and dump refuse into truck, and a system to connect
containers to the disposal site . In large cities an
intermediate station is provided in order to protect
decrease of collection and transportation efficiency.
The newest system is the vacuum transportation system
realized by Osaka city in January 1976.
Problems on collection and transportation system
I.Tany cities have tendency to adopt separate collection
for reasons that increased incombustibles such as
plastics and empty cans and bulk refuse are many kind of
obstacles to smooth collection, and that refuse must
be recycled. But as a matter of fact, they put it
into practice to collect separately only bulk refuse
once or twice per month due to high cost probably
needed for provision of special disposal site, and special
collection organization including personnel and
facilities and due to lack of disposal area.
-------
JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER
YOTSUYA.KAMICHO 198. KAWASAKI. JAPAN
TELEPHONE 044-28-4896
But, .recently there increasing~such c.ities which collect
separately the refuse not suit for incineration once a
week. Separate collection gives burden to collection
work, but is the pricipal solution in addition to con-
tainer and pack collection. Our country has special
condition of remarkable, traffic mess as shown in Table 1
due to increase of automobiles in spite of narrow road
and up down land. In addition, it is difficult to realize
to collect refuse at night or early morning for reasons
of increase of refuse, complexity of refuse kind and v/ork
management. Under these circumstances, refuse collection
and transportation induces falldown of working efficiency
and rise of cost. Almost all cities have effected dis-
posal fee charge system from 1955 to 1970 taking polical
judgment into consideration.
And recently they are liable to reconsider for its
establishment.
Ac mentioned above, each municipality has:, been
making endeavor in searching for better method through
repeated try and error, Host recently some cities are
proceeding to study a fee charge system with an intention
to decrease the refuse, let inhabitants have liability "
for refuse disposal and to save cost. And other cities
are studying to change direct management to consign
management for the purpose of realization of night or
early rriorning collection for rise up of working efficiency.
And some cities are seriously studying to adop an inter-
mediate station, vacuum transportation system and recycling
Refuse collection in our country is now looking fpv/a?*d
tc second revolution.
-------
Table 1. Decreasing situation of truck transportation efficiency in large cities
\
One truck per day
One transportation per one truck
1
Needed hour
for one truck
per one km
(min.)
Year N.
Transportation
Frequency
Tonnage
Transported
Needed .
Hour
Moving
km
Tonnage
Transported
1960
(100$)
4.2
(100$)
12.9
(100$)
2.5
(100$)
23.3
(100$)
3.5
(100$)
6.4
1961
3.5
10.5
3.0
23.3
3.3
7.7
1962
3.0
9.8
3.3
23.4
3.4
8.5
1963
2.8
9.3
3.8
23.7
3.4
9.7
1964
2.6
9.1
3.3
16.9
3.5
11.8
1965
2.7
9.0
3.4
17.1
3.4
12.0
1966
2.6
8.5
3.5
16.3
3.5
12.9
1967
2.5
8.2
3.7
16.5
3.5
13.5
1968
2.4
8.1
3.6
17.7
3.4
12.2
1969
2.2

3.7
19.1
3.6
11.0
¦ 1970
(52$)
2.2
(62$)
8.0
(156$)
3.9
(83$)
19.3
(103$)
3.6 •
(189$)
12.1 1
-------
2-2 Increase of refuse amount and complexity of refuse kind
(l) Increase of refuse amount
The following four items are the characteristics of yearly transition
in refuse amount.
i) In the period of about half century from 1900 to 1955, refuse
amount repeated slight up down due to influence of war and world
economical situation, but steady because not doubled.
ii) In the period of about 10 years from I960, start of high
economical growth to October 1973, oil crisis, :the refuse
amount showed significant increase and multiplied 2 to 4 in
proportion to growth of GNP.
iii) After the oil crisis, October 1973 the refuse amount shows
temporary decrease of about 5$. This decrease was not recovered
within the fiscal year 1974, but recovered in the end of fiscal
year 1975. Its increase ratio was one to two
iv) As the refuse was devided into two kinds, one is industrial
refuse and the other is general refuse according to "Waste
Disposal Law" established in 1970, municipalities came to
reject in priciple industrial refuse. But as for refuse
similar to domestic refuse in characteristics, municipalities
established fee charge system, or rose the fee or refulated
their carry in from 1971 to 1972. Then these countermeasures
contributed to decrease about l/2 to 3/2 of carried in refuse.
For a sample of yearly change of domestic refuse planned to be
collected, Fig. 1 and Table 2 show those in 28 cities in Kansai
district which was influenced with the oil crisis in 1973.
And Fig. 1 and Table 3 show the influence arise from change of
municipalities policy to city refuse amount (domestic refuse; and
carried in refuse from industries) from 1970 to 1973. Each
data indicate g per one man per day. Kobe city shows extremely
high amount. This means that Kobe city loosen the carry in
regulation as it has rich reclamation area. Fig. 2 and 3 show
monthly transition of large 9 cities from 1972 to 1975.
These indicate that decrease of domestic refuse begins from
November 1973 and comes down in December due to the oil crisis.
This is steady transition. The amount figure is very unsteady
figure curve due to influence of fee from May to July.
3"- '•/. /o
-------
Complexity of refuse kind
The refuse in our country is of compared with those in USA and Europe.
In general, humidity is 50 to 60$, low calorific value is 1,000 to
1,500 kcal/kg, and plastics mixing ratio is 10 to 15$. Then the
refuse is not suit for incineration, which become difficult in
tf
combustion control. Characteristics of refuse are different by
living standard, level, industrial structure, urban structure and
collection method. And it is difficult to get average figure as
relative data is a few.
But analysis on characteristics effected by Japan Environmental
Sanitation Center for 73 municipalities in 1973, 34 in 1974, and
investigation in 19 cities in Kansai district show the following
features in yearly transition of refuse characteristics in our
country. (Please refer to Table 4 and 5, Fig. 3.)
i) Plastics appeared in refuse about 1958. (Osaka city firstly
announced as 1.0$.) Afterward, regularly increased and
continues increasing in spite of exhaust gas and damage of
incinerator arised from plastics combustion. At the oil
crisis in 1973 plastics slightly decreased, but recovered up
to 10 to 15$ in most prevailing mixing ratio and 4 to 28$ in ¦
range in 1974.
ii) Paper yearly increased. At the oil crisis in 1973 decreased,
but recovered up to 30 to 40$ in most prevailing mixing ratio
and 14 to 68$ in range.
iii) Food refuse has tendency to increase. Most prevailing mixing
ratio is 7 to 22$.
iv) Incombustibles has tendency to decrease. Mixing ratio is 12
to 17$. (Gravels and sand are remarkably decreasing. Cans
are increasing.)
v) Humidity comes to low in ratio, but 50 to 60$ is popular and
40 to 78$ in range.
vi) Low-calorific value comes slightly high, but 1,000 to 1,500
kcal/kg is popular and 660 to 2,200 kcal/kg in range.
-------
g/man day Yearly change of amount of city refuse arised from one num
Fig. 1. per day in large five cities in Kansai district
2.10 0
2.0 00
1,500
1.0 00
500
Kobe
Akashi
« Osaka
Osaka
Kyoto
Kobe
Sakai
—X Kyoto
Akashi
Sakai
Amount of city refuse
(Amount planned to be collected
plus amount carried in)
Amount planned to be collected
(Domestic refuse)
Note: Each thick line portion shows the changing period
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
-------
Table 2. Amount of domestic refuse planned to be collected
per one man day in 28 cities in Kansai district
(g/day)

1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973.
1974
Average
582
647
680
750
788
748
752
Osaka
750
870
930
1,042
1,086
1,107
1,118
Kyoto
535
582
632
693
756
707
685
Kobe
681
734
807
884
978
822
843
Vakayama
552
561
573
762
815
866
926
Sakai
394
430
493
506
536
485
494
Kishiwada, Kaizuya
-
-
521
614
660
646
640
Suita
381
412
574
590
656
639
678
Moriguchi
510
580
569
558
554
518
481
Hirakata
353
414
399
479
475
523
537
Yao
419
527
571
615
648
614
593
Neyagawa
675
679
696
828
945
684
644
Higashiosaka, Kaito
459
489
544
619
651
607
613
Amagasaki
460
488
510
538
563
501
619
Akashi
462
510
506
568
620
584
557
Nishinomiya
526
532
565
607
589
495
474
Minoo
-
524
598
641
640
653
701
Takarazuka
513
508
551
514
526
496
442
Takaishi
561
734
703
648
711
740
739
Fuziidera
-
-
' 394
496
544
543
538
Ibaragi
429
463
457
524
508
421
410
Settsu
-
-
427
428
486
453
429
Sennan, Harm an
-
-
269
406
506
•
483
490
Toyonaka, Itami
472
494
510
567
577
571
559
Takatsuki
313
333
401
420
436
406
412 |
-------
Fig. 2
Amount of domestic refuse planned to be collected in large 9 cities
Fig. 3. Amount carried in plant and self carry in
-------
Table 3. Analysis of refuse composition in Japan and Tokyo
Area
Kind ^
1974
\
1973
All Area
All Area
Tokyo
Excluding
Tokyo
Paper and cloth
in dry refuse 'fo
38.1
(23.9-61.8)
41.4
(14.3-68.1)
46.8
(31.1-68.1)
37.8
(14.7-63.2)
Wood and bamboo
in dry refuse
-------
h
Fig.
-------
2-3 Difficulty in work management
The total number of workers in charge of collection and transportation
in Japan in 1973 is 59,995, which is equivalent to approximate 60/5 against
101,756 (including both municipals and unofficials). By workers of 59,995
automobiles of 25,707 and vessels of 381 are employed for collection and
transportation (Please refer to Table 5). And this enterprise is labor
concentrated enterprise and has direct mission for cleansing the environment.
Then for its adequate and reasonable execution large amount of cost is needed,
which resulted in unfavorable local environmental problems in adjustment of
fee charging by inhabitants and local administration. Further, the principle
of municipal policy in finance which expect the largest effect from the
smallest cost requires expanding liability for rise up of efficiency in
proportion with increase of investment in enterprise, that is increase of
inhabitants burden. This is the very liability that the officials in
municipalities must bear.
Table 5. Workers and materials incharge of refuse
collection and transportation
Direct Consign Approved Total
Vorkes 42,794 9,394 7,810 59,995
Automobiles 18,225 4,021 3,461 25,707
Vessels 102 279 381
As a matter of fact, this principle is liable to be neglected. ; In many
municipalities shortening of working hours, decreasing of working amount,
improvement on allowance system are proposed through labor unions. It is
not denied that these movements are prevailing in each municipalities since
workers in charge of refuse disposal are not in good position of working
condition and on the other hand numbers of workers are large in ratio.
Then there comes a problem that worker of large number have tendency to
fall down the working efficiency as a pressurizing mass, although work of
refust collection and transportation expects rise up of efficiency.
Table 6 is the actual report on refuse collection and transportation work
in S city. The remarkable point is result of direct and consign regarding
collecting amount per capita. In 1968 these figures are 1.2t for direct,
2.2t for consign, which means that consign collect the amount of 1.8
multiplied. The collecting amount by consign slightly decreased in 1969
down to 1.6 times multiplied, but came up 2.1 times in 1970, 2.3 times in
-------
1971, 3.4 times in 1972 and 3.7 times in 1973. This shows the large difference
of collecting amount between direct and consign. As for transportation
frequency per one car per day, consign shows the figure of 1.7 to 2.5 times
multiplied. For these six years, no increase is shown in collecting amount
by direct, but doubled amount is shown by consign. Fig. 5 shows cost per
ton for collection and transportation in both case of direct and consign in
Y city. Cost in direct is higher than that in consign, 1.8 times multipled
in 1969, and 2.2 times in 1973. This indicates unefficiency of direct
management. These samples are shown in other cities. The reason of this big
difference is that in case of direct there is a conception which allow workers
consume only fixed hour and fixed amount. On the other hand, recent allowance
level is liable to become high in each municipality, which lead to rigidity
of local finance. These data show that both cities have not make any endeavor
in improvement on efficiency by changing working procedure, method and work.
The writer visited in 1972 the refuse disposal facilities in Vienna and at
that time the manager told me "We are the officials but have much morale,
not less than the unofficials have. I'm sure that this morale is the
strongest in each cities. Ve are trying to increase finance by study and
consideration on source recovery and recycle. The financial ministry give
sufficient investment to facilities. Then our allowances are favorable".
The writer truly thought that the officials in our country must listen to
this word. As one of' members in charge of training for technical personnels
in refuse disposal facilities. The writer sometimes felt that managing
staffs in municipalities are liable not to give their workers opportunities
for training, and in worst case to prevent workers from training. Moreover,
it is not denied that they have different feeling to workers, which results
in arise of opposition relation. Therefore, the officials must bear a part
of liability of regidity in collection and transportation. In a word,
in order to let workers have morale, and to rise up the efficiency, the
managing staffs in each municipalities must reconsider the importance of
labor management, and must make effort in improvement even gradually,
unless otherwise breakage of present situation can not be expected.
Actually some cities have been trying to improve. In general, important
items of labor management which are now considered in progressive cities
are followings.
1) Management in personnels affair
(Man factor, personnel control in administration and so on, )
-------
Management in employment
(Adequate arrangement, personnel judgement and so on.)
Management in allowances
(Allowance system, allowance payment system and so on.)
Labor standard
(Every principles in labor, condition labor standard according to the
Labor Standards Law and so on.)
Safety and sanitation and welfare
(Safety control, sanitation control, and welfare control and so on.)
Training by administration
(Method of training, training for administrator, manager and supervisor
and so on. )
Relation between labor and management
(Claims, dispute and its settlement and so on.)
Human relationship
(Enterprise management and human relationship, adjustment in human
relationship and cooperation between labor and management.)
-------
Fig. 5. Cost comparison between direct management and mandatory
management in refuse collection and disposal in Y city
thousand/t
S~.i-i.zo
-------
Table 6. Report on refuse collection vork In S city (Population! approximate 300,000)
Cloanslng annual report 1974 In 3 city
Year
1968

1969

1970
1971
1972
1973
Management
Direct
Consign
Total
Direc t
Consign
Total
Direct
Consign
Total
Direct
Consign
Total
Direct
Consign
Total
Direct
Consign
Total
I
No. of household
Cor collection
21,038
37,898
58,936
22,204
40,031
62,235
24,125
39,642
63,767
25,679
43,110
68,789
25,993
46,662
72,655 |26,038
50,102
76,140
Average Xo. of
household per day
3,829
7,014
10,843
4,144
7,788
11,932
4,925
9,348
14,237
5,158
10,760
15,918
8,082
16,434
24,516 !l0,829
23,089
33,918
,Xo. of
(household
collected
•
One
collec-
tion
car
Nr>. of
household
collected
per nonth
12,852
16,867
15,174
13,832
16,205
15,266
16,459
15,874
17,921
14,771
20,276
18,082
9,873
24,022
16,717
15,120
24,000
20,256
No. of
household
collected
rtr day
504
668
597
532
638
594
639
745
697
598
786
709
449
959
721
630
1,000
844
One
vorker
¦\o. of
household
collected
.pc-r nonth
3,605
4,965
4,323
3,391
5,101
4,320
5,438
7,388
6,560
4,799
8,331
6,741
3,500
ll<313
6,991
3,496
>3,656
9,240
•\'o. of
household
collected
por day
140
196
169
133

172
208
291
255
193
323
0
266
159
434
301
229
369
385
Arsouct
collected
Total crjuunt (t)
10,184
23,474 •
33,658
11,536
26,378
37,914
13,727
40,424
54,151
14,161
43,763
37,924
16,562
39,942
56,504
15,913
48,331
64,264
Average !i.~ount
per day (t)
' 33
78
111
37
86
123
44
131
174
48
141
189
64
133
197
59
179
238
One
collec-
tion
car
Average
iit.,Gunt per
tonsil (t)
112
187 ,
155
125
' 178
157
149
261
219
138
264
219
90
197
147
82
187
142
Avt rage
amount per
day (tj^ •
Avorai>e
ai..ount per
r.cntii (t)
4.4
7.4
6.1
4.8
7.0
6.1
5.6
12.2
8.5
5.4
10.2
8.4
3.8
9.6
6.9
3.4
7.8
5-9
One
vorker
30
56
44
34
53
45
49
102
80
44
106
71
30
113
—-~i
67
r—-—
, 29
106
63
Average
L.::;aunl per
er
nonth (ktf)
40
52
48
53
54
49
65
86
68
46
85
70
53
73
66
51
80
70
Average transportation
freauenev per dav
s 21
50
71
22
60
82
21
61
¦7^'
82
26
75
101
35
89
124
33
92
123
" per one car per dftj
3.
Ttf
4
3
'^6
4
3
4
3.
TfO
J
2
-SPO
4
2
i^-5
3
Average !
-------
Actual situation of refuse collection and transportation
3-1 Fresent system of refuse collection and transportation system
It is desirable to smoothly, quickly, clearly and efficiently as possible
collect and transport the refuse arised from cities so that the refuse might
be transported to an intermediate station or a final disposal area without
any pollution. Originally, collection and transportation are common in such
meaning that both are to physically transport refuse to terminals. But it
would be quite inefficient to let collecting cars transport all the way to
a disposal facilities or a final disposal area in traffic mess. In this case,
it would be efficient to transship refuse on bulk cars at an intermediate
station. Therefore, it is recommendablo to consider both separately since it
is necessary to make up transportation plan taking their function into conside-
ration, such as special cars for collection, and special cars for transportation.
Whichever the case may be, in Japan, narrow road condition, traffic condition
as chronic mess, expanding refuse amount, diversed and complexed composition
of refuse and rigid work management work together and results in inefficiency.
The system must flexibly adapt to change of the refuse amount, composition
and disposal method. Fig. 6 shows present system now prevailing in Japan.
Generally, packs and poly containers (bucket), and common use metal make
container (box) are used for household. Special bulk poly containers are
used for stores and shops. Collecting cars collect refuse at each household
or at a station. For high and middle apartment, packs or poly container are
used as same as for household, and collected at a station. But recently metal
make container specially used for dust chute are provided. In this case refuse
are loaded by crane, or containers themselves are collected and directly
transported to a disposal facilities.
The new method of vacuum transportation system which combines two functions
of collection and transportation was realized in Morinomiya in Osaka in
January 1976. This system is considered to be introduced in A city and B
housing area and C subcapital center in Tokyo with governmental subsidy this
year.
Table 7 and 8 show present situation of refuse collection in large cities
in Japan medium and small cities in Niigata prefecture. Management style is
such that 6 cities are in all direct out of 20 cities, 2 cities are consigning
0
collection and transportation of incombustibles and one city is consigning to
the approved enterprise. The other cities are maintaining a balance of direct
and consign, or are consign a portion which is not covered by direct to the
unofficials.
r./.i.zt
-------
As for separate collection, all of 20 cities are adopting. 19 cities out of
20 collect incombustibles once per week, or once or twice per month. Refuse
not suit for incineration (plastics) are collected once per week in one city.
Hulk refuse are collected once or twice per month in one city. When comparing
the data on Niigata prefecture vith the data on large cities, separate collect:
of bulk refuse is more frequent in large cities, and separate collection of
incombustibles is more frequent in Niigata prefecture.
i
For collecting cars which have two function, road packer car, screw drum car
and pack master car are widely used. But their capacity is 2.0 ton to 2.5 ton
due to narrowness of road. Even 1.5 ton car or extremely small truck are
employed.
As for transportation, almost all cities use collecting car. But in Tokyo
and Osaka refuse are transshiped on bulk car at an intermediate station for
terminals. In case of offshore reclamation, refuse are transported in vessels
as realized in Tokyo, Osaka and Kitakyushu.
-------
Fig* 6. System of collection and disposal of domestic refuse in Japan
Container and
pack for discharge Intermediate Intermediate
or storage Collection style Transportation transportation treatment
Final disposal
Paper pack
& vinyle
pack
Plastic
container
Plasticized
dust box
Others
Special
container
(plastic.rcetal)
Others
Collection
at station
Paper pack
4 vinyle
pack
Plastic
container
Dust box
vith vehicles
Collection &t
each house
Air pipe
Load packer
car
Screw drum
car
Back drum
car
Pack master
car
Back loader
car
Container car
Dump car
.Clane car
(for bulk
refuse)
Con t.u i hit l or
ilust. >hool

Collection by
container
/

Bulk container
car
Bulk dump
car
Vessel
Incineration
Shredding
and
compressing
reclamation
-------
Table "3. Collection and transportation method of domestic refuse in large cities'
City
Sapporo
Tokyo
(23 districts)
Kavasaki
Yokohama
Xagoya
Kyoto
Osaka
Kobe
Kitakyushu
'Fukuoka
Sendai
Sakai
Hiroshima
Acapasakl
Fukita -
Takarazuka
Nat3udo
Yao
Alcashl
N'ishinoraiya
Hatsuyasa
Population
(1974)
thousand
1,146
8,475
• 997
2,513
2,070
1,446
2,758
1,310
1,050
980
564
698
774
536
280
150
335
. 256
226
400
369
Management
Direct,
mandatory
Direct,
mandatory
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct
Direct,
mandatory
Direct,
mandatory
Direct
Direct,
mandatory
Direct
Direct,
nondatory
Direct,
mondatory
Direct,
mondatory
Direct
Direct
Direct
Diroct,
mondatory
Direct,
mondatory
Collection
frequency
per vcek
Pack, container
2-6
Poly container 6
Not suit for
incombustible* 1
6
2
2
2
Pack 2
*
Poly eontainor 2
Pack 2
Poly container 3
Pack . 1~2
Inconbustibles 1
3
2
each
Poly eontainor 3
Inconbustibles 1
Pack 3
Inconbustibles 1
Poly container 2
Dust box
Collection at sight
2.
Pack,
poly eontainor 3 station
Inconbustibles 1
Combustibles 2
Incombustibles 3
Bulk refuse 2
Combus-
tibles
Content of separate
Incon-
bustibles
Not suit
for incin-
eration
soUectian
household eollection
Possible
for
recycle
Bulk
refuse
once per month
tvice per year
i :
onco por month
o t p
,three por year
e P
tvice per year
o
tvice per ye ax
o
e
once per month
o
o
Free charge range
Leas than 404/day
Leas than lOkg/day
Less than lOkg/day
lOkg/day, less than lOOkg/one time
LefS than lOkg/day
* .
*
Less than lOkg/day
lOkg/day, less than lOOfcg/en* tin*
Less than 5004/oonth
Less than 3004/moath
Less than 45J/day & less than lOkg/day
Ho 1imitation but transported In
plastic container
4kg/day
No limitation but transported. In
plastic container
Less than lOkg/day
Less than 100kg/one time
Less than 20kg/day
Less than 45 i/day
No limitation
No limitation
-------
Table 8. The actual Situation of Refuse Collactlon and Tranaport&tion In cities in Wiigata Vrafeetare (1974)

Popula-
Ko. of
house-

Managenont form of col-
lection & transportation
Froque
acy of col
ectloa
(tiraea)
Crev also of collection (person)
Mane
tion oT
holds of
Area of

.(«

Bulky

Consign

of Ci'tiea
dousing
cloasing
cleasir.g
Direct
Consign
Approved
Itav
Ineombus-
refuse,
not suit
for in-
cineration

Direct

Approved

service
district
(person)
service
district
servico
district
(to2)
refuse
tlbles
Driver
Collec-
tor
Total
Driver
Collec-
tor
Total
Driver
Collec-
tor
Total
Niigftta-C
405,770
123,593
208.4
47
53

3/V

""J* 1/M
refuse

34
68
102
33
66
99
-

Kagaoka-C
169,089
47,061
259.9
39
39
22
3/V.2/W
2/M,3/2M

16
32
48
10
13
23
11
23
34
Joetsu-C
120,410
29,858
251.6
100

2/H

21
42
63
4
.

Kashivazoki-C
SO,180
21,621
313.0

3/'
1/H

8
18
26
" '1 ,
6
9
2
4
6
Shibata-C
74,431
19,369
434.1
100

3/W,l/(f
1/V.2/M

12
25
37

Niitsu-C
59,005
14,427*
78.0

¦ w*

3A.2/W
2/H

16
25

0j iya-C
44,660
10,600
154.5 •
100
combus-
tible
100
lneombu
tible
a-
3/V.2/V
2/M

6
0
12
18
2
2
4

Kaao-C
37,389
8,947
133.1
41
~ 59
•
uy/v
2/M

2
4
6
3
6
9

Tokanaehi-C
(i
X
00,783
Delude
anaishi T
14,043
(same oi
) left)
285.6
(s&mo at
left)
43
J7
*
t
2/V.l/M
l/V.l/M

4
8
12
4
7
11

Hitauke-C
41,479
9,510
78.1

100

2/V
1/f.l/M
l/v
net auit to
incineratio
r
it

3
6
9

Murakami-C
32,929
8,838
92.1
85
15

1^'3/V
3/V
1/.M.2/3M

7
6
1>
3
9
12

Taubaoo-C
43,914
10,439
39.9
100.

1/V

6
18
24

Tochio-C
53,172
7,671
205.4

100

l/v.l/M

4
6
10

Itoigava-C
37,121
9,578
467.1
83
17

$\3/V
1/V, 2/>t

J
11
16
1
2
3-

Arai-C
Goixurai-C
29,418
39,533
7,121
9,366
173.2
98.4
combus-
tible
100
incorabv
tible
48
70
lnconbu
tiblo
52
3-
30
8-
3/V.2/V
3/V.2/V
l/V,l/M
t .
1/M

6
5
12
12
18
17
1
3
1
6
2
9

Itydtsu-C
23,098
6,329
235.5

100

3/V.2/V
i/X

3
7
10

Shirane-C
53,203
12,298
14Q.1

100

3/V
2/H

12
22
34

Toyoscka-C
37,495
8,703
76.4
25
75

3 N
1/M

2
4
6
4
7
11

Sanjo-C
til,233
20,969
76.5
100

3/tf
2/H

14
26
40

-------
JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER
YOTSUYA- KAMICHO 198, KAWASAKI, JAPAN
TELEPHONE 04 4-2 6 >4 B 9 G
3-2 Method of refuse collection and transportation
(1) Refuse collection method
Refuse collection is the closest point of the dis-
chargers and the disposers. For quick, smooth, clean
and efficient refuse collection, both must understand
and cooperate each other. For such purpose, the follow-
ing requirements must he met.
A) Sufficient collecting capacity, and flexible adap-
tation to change of condition.
B) Method which does not induce any pollution.
C) Favorable and comfortable working condition.
Lo'v cost and high efficiency
D) Impartial fee charge system
But, at present there are various styles of container,
collection frequency, content of separate collection sna
kind of collecting car in each city, as described in
Table 9 to 11.
A) As for container, Table 9, 10 show the data on 338
cities investigated by Tokyo Metropolitan Government.
According to Table 9, pack collection including paper
pack and poly pack points up to 65 ^ .
Next is poly container with 25 $ of occupation.
B) According to the using condition of container by each
city scale in Table 10, more than 53 f- out of all cities
whose population is more than 500 thousand are using
poly containers. In cities whose population is less
than 500 thousand, using ratio of poly container including
paper pack and poly pack is more than 56
-------
YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198. KAWASAKI. JAPAN
TELEPHONE O44-28-4096
Separate collection is executed for the purpose of
dismantling burden of disposal, protection against
secondary pollution and spurce recycling.
The actual situation of collection frequency is shown
in Table 7 and 8. The collecting cars usually used
are shown in Fig. 6 .
(2) Refuse transportation method
Refuse transportation is executed as described in
Fig. 7 . Refuse transportation is to transport spatially
and directionally collected refuse from intermediate
gtation or collection place to the terminals such as
treatment plant or disposal site.
Naturally, it is desirable to transport them quiclcly,
smoothly, cleanly by vehicles or vessels.
In recent traffic mess, long transportation, of many
small size cars put spurs to traffic congestion.
And as wellf it takes long hours, which inakes it im-
possible to quickly move to and fro.
Further, during transportation time workers in charge
of collection must wait for cars for long time.
In order to remove such demerit, collection and trans-
portation must be separated. In this point, intern-
mediate station is the separate point and also the
closest point in work. Here, refuse are transshiped
from many cars to bulk cars.
And there provided storing function which make adjust-
ment in time and amount possible. In a word, inter-
mediate station has function of A) harmonization of
refuse flow B) switchover of transportation mediums.
As shown in Fig. 6, trucks and container cars are
usually used in inland area. Vessels and lighters
are used in ocean . The new method is air pipe method.
In a new town in Chiba prefecture disposer with liquid
pipe is planned to be provided. Beside:;, railwr-.y,
bolt convoyor and monorail are in the rrmfto of
c. o n : i (1 n rn h i o ri _
-------
JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER
YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198. KAWASAKI. JAPAN
TELEPHONE 0 4 4 - 2 e - 4 a 9 6
Transhipment yard in refuse ocean transportation
Tokyo and Osaka city are adopting vessel and floating
dock system for the purpose of increase of efficiencjr
by ocean transportation, protection against refuse
scattering and change of image.
This is consisted of a tranship ment facilities
( floating dock ) and lighter, and pusher.
Collected refuse are dumped from cars into lighter at
the transhipment facilities and transported to offshore
land reclamation area.
The floating dock is fixed by supporting post and spud
at the sea bottom. In its both trunks a lighter is
pushed by a pusher and locked. When a lighter is locked
in both trunks protection seat against refuse scattering
is rolled down so that refuse might not be scattered
on sea surface. Chuting hole is voluntarily set with
moving layer of floating dock.
After transhipment of the fixed amount of refuse is
completed, refuse in a lighter are leveled by leveling
machine provided at lower part of moving layer.
When transhipment is wholy completed, protection seat
is rolled up, and rolling seat provided at the stern
covers combing top so that refuse might not be scattered
during ocean transportation.
And lock of floating dock and lighter are off.
Then lighter moves to the fixed disposal site.
The details of this system are shown in "Fig. 8, and
Table 12 .
-------
JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER
YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198. KAWASAKI. JAPAN
TELEPHONE 044-2 6-4 B 8 8
Improvement on refuse collection and transportation
So far, the writer indicates that there are many
items to be improved. For the countermeasure the
following points are pointed out in principle.
Iil accordance with area, land shape and traffic
condition, collection and transportation must "be
separated at intermediate station.
The collection method is not uniform.
Adequate combined method meeting with characteristic
of cities must be taken. For instance, combination
of bucket, pack, container and air pipe must be con-
sidered.
As for transportation, enlargement of cars and
containerization if trafic condition allows, must
be considered. And efficient small size car must
be developed for the congested district.
Transportation medium must be diversified.
Transportation route must be dispersed.
For new collection and transportation system the
following items must be considered.
a)
Sufficient capacity
b)
Flexibility
c)
Standardization
d)
Consistency
e)
No pollution
f)
Abbreviation of labor
s)
Low cost
-------
Table 9. Container
Note: Investigatior
on present
condition
regard ing
collection.
(Toltyp public
cleansing bui
October 1972
Table 10. Container using situation per population
(Unit: fo)
Container
Pop\ilation"^-^_^
Paper
pack
Poly
pack
Poly
container
Special
container
Trush
Dust
box
Others
Municipality
investigated
Less than
50 thousand
30.6
32.0
23.2
8.4
2.3
1.6
1.9
134 cities
50-100 thousand
32.1
35.8
20.9
2.4
1.0
5.4
2.4
98
100—200 thousand
29.9
28.4
26.2
1.4
4.6
3.1
6.4
50
200-300 thousand
39.8
29-6
22.0
0
2.6
1.6
4.4,
. 31
300-400 thousand
23.8
32.2
28.2
3.5
0.3
11.6
0.4
9
400-500 thousand
20.2
79.2
0
0
0.6
0
0
5
500-1000 thousand
3.8
0
93.8
0
0
0
2.4
4
More than
one million
8.3
29.0
53.3
0
0
7.9
1.5
7
Total

338 cities
Note: Investigation on present condition regarding collection.
(Tokyo public cleansing bureau October 1972)
Kind
Using rate
Paper pack
31.8
Poly pack
33.2
Poly container
25.0
Special
1.7
Trash
1.5
Dust box
4.6
Others
3.4
Municipality
investigated
338 cities
1.1. 3 /
-------
Tab]e 11. Collection method of domestic refuse in Japan

1 Separate collection
•

(U
:(2)
Incombus-
incombus-
(4)
Other rcfu;
Characteristics
of refuse
Kind of refuse
Mixed
collec-
tion
tibles
separated
tibles
not suit
for incin-
eration
separated
incombus-
tibles not
wuit for
incineratic
separated
I. Combustibles
Food refuse (animality,
vegetability)
A
A
A
A

Others (paper, collulose,
A
A
A
B

wood bamboo, leaves)

II. Not suit for
Plastics (container, pack)
A
A
B
C
incineration
Rubber, leather
A
A
B
C
III. Incombus-
Metal (used can)
A
B
C
D
tibles
Gravel, brick
A
B
c
D

Glass (used bottle), wares
A
B
c
D
Total

One
line
two lines
Three
lines
Four line:
IV. Bulk refuse
TV set, refrigerator,
furniture
A»
B'
C'
D'
Note: (1) is eminent in municipality whose main method is reclamation.
,a
(2) is most popular in municipality whose main method is incineration.
(3) is the method in Tokyo and the other cities, but increase.
(4.) is very rare.
IV is collected once per week or once per month.
JT/. /. 3 2.
-------
Fig. 7. Transportation system of refuse in Tokyo

Collecting
car

Direct transportation

Incinerator
plant ^
Container intermediate
station

Container car
Load change
for bulk car
:>
Bulk car
Load change
for vessel

Remains
Fig. 8. Section of floating dock
cailing
/./. 33
Protection
seat against
refuse
sea level
sea-bottom
-------
•Table 12. Vessel for .foating dock
Kind
Refuse transit
yard
Lighter
Pusher for
lighter
•
No.
1
4
2
Total length
76.00m (excluding
fender beam)
71.00m (inclding
pushing)
28.00m (excluding
fender beam)
Length
68.00m (perpendicu-
lar line)
70.00m
25.00m (perpendicu-
lar line
Total width
24.00m (excluding
fender beam

Width
22.00m*'
13.70m
86.0m
Depth
11.50m
3.50m
3.70m
Draft
3.15m

2.60m
Shed total length
68.00m

Shed total width
20.00m

Shed height
7.63m

:
Hatch capacity

2,500m3

Loading weight

750t
1
Total weight

195t
Main engine HP

950PSx2
/JV
-------
JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER
YOTSUVA-KAMtCHO 198. KAWASAKI, JAPAN
TELEPHONE 044-26-4890
Separate collection and recycling in Sapporo city
Tokyo, Sapporo, Sendai and Hamamatsu have "been
favored with good result in source recycling by
adopting different method from the ordinary method,
in order to minimize the amount of refuse.
Especially, actual result in Sapporo city is described
below. Their conception is following two points.
It is meaningless to transport collected refuse
directly to disposal site, as done in separate col-
lection of incombustbles.
It is impossible to maintain clean enviroment which
is necessary for human life, without letting local
inhabitants bear social liability in order to put
source recycle into practice.
Under these conceptions, Sapporo city executed in-
spections of following items.
Collection of incombustibles at the same time as
other refuse
Collection of incombustibles at one or two times
per month, but together with other refuse
Collection of only incombustibles at different day
from that for other refuse.
According to these three inspections, the method
of C) was found most satisfactory to the inhabitants.
Then Sapporo city established such plan to recover
refuse which can be recovered as source after col-
lection of three kind of refuse, that are incombustible
recoverable refuse and bulky refuse, as described in
Fig. 9'. And as for collection and transportation they
borrow snecial car from agents of refuse disposal.
-------
JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER
YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198, KAWASAKI. JAPAN
TELEPHONE O4«.2B-4B0e
As'a result, they hava been accumulating good result
with following tendency.
Papers such as newspaper and magazine are large in
amount
Bottles ( oil bottles and so.on) are impossible to
recover
Food refuse are large in amount by district
Plastics are small in amount
Refuse amount extremely change
The tendency of A) and B) shows that self combustion
at each household comes rare and that empty bottle are
disposed in special recovery route.
And the tendency of C) and D) shows that there exist
such misunderstanding among inhabitants that food refuse
are incombustible and plastics are combustible.
The tendency of 3) indicates that extreme change of
collection amount induces problem of loss and profit
to special recovery agents, which requires some counter
measures.
In order to promote source recycling, Sapporo city
is continuing this method which adopts total collection
system talcing advantage of local organization.
In this system Sapporo city is in charge of transportation
in the place of special recovery agent.
Nov/, many cities began to study same system.

-------
JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER
YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198. KAWASAKI. JAPAN
TELEPHONE 0 4 4 -2 B-A 8 9 6
Table 13 Assignments
Section
Remarks
«
Cities
oadjustment and' storage by each collection agent
oreport on collection condition to health center
creport on acquirement of disposal site
®report on disposal condition to health center
ointermediate report,reclamation
.Health
center
ocollection of reports from cities
«report on collection condition to prefectural government
oinformation to mayor on schedule of disposal
c report on disposal work to prefect-iral government
prefecture
o collection of reports from health center
cinformation to P conference on collection condition
odiscussion on disposal plan ith (£) conference
oinformation to health center.on schedule of disposal
prefecture
®.
conference
o adjustment with prefectural government
odiscussion on schedule of disposal
o dispatch of tec.inical personnels
ostorage of parts including PCB
oreport to mayor and prefectural government on schedule •
of .disposal
Fig. 10 Flov/ of recovery work for
electrical appliances
including PCB
removal and
storage of
parts including
PCB by P conference

collected
electrical
appliances

electrical
applia ices
including
PCB
- marts,.
including PCJ

valuables

inv&luacles

discharge
from
household
37
collection
by
municipalities
transportation
and selection
by municipalities
information to
P conference
separation, intermediate
selection treatment
and recovery and
by special disposal by
agents ..municipalit.ie:
-------
JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER
YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198. KAWASAKI. JAPAN
TELEPHONE O 4 4 • 2 B • 4 S 0 6
3-4 Sample of recovery system for electrical appliances
containing PuB
Each prefectural government began to study the disposal method
for electrical appliances since pollution problem arised from POB
became social interest.
The sanitation department of Okayama prefecture established in ..
1973 a conference with makers of electrical appliances after
conclusion of memorandum with them regarding of electrical
appliances including POB and removal of PCB.
And they remove PCB from electrical appliances collected by
every cleansing bureau under liability of the conference.
Because it is almost impossible to remove POB after reruse
including PCB are incinerated or reclamated. Then, it is nece-
ssary to separate refuse including PCB from others before they
are mixed. Now, technical personnels dispacftlied from makers ex-
tract any parts including PCB from other composition.
All officials in charge have \ pointed out necessity of
countermeasure for PCB as some electrical appliances are directly
disposed from general household or sales shops to special recovery
agents, and recovered as scrap.
Therefore, same prefecture concluded a memorandum in Dec. 1973
y/ith Okayama (B conference consisted of makers and sales agents,
and prepared the disposal manual of electrical appliances.
As for management, same prefecture, municipalities and makers
are iacharge as described in Table 13.
, According to this system, Okayama city extracted electrical
-------
JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER
YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198. KAWASAKI, JAPAN ,
TELEPHONE 044-26-4000
appliances; including PCB from refuse collected at each district.
And technicajL personnels dis patched fon makers removed any parts
including PCB as described in Fig. 10. Afterward each city in
Okayama prefecture has performed this system, Which resulted in
no PCB indicated according to investigation at refuse treatment
plant and disposal site, Therefore it ca.i be said that the ex-
pected improvement has been fulfilled. This method is one of the
intermediate treatment method of bulky refuse, but called a special
method because after collection and transportation, prefectural
government directly has relation with treatment and makers are
in charge of removal of PCB parts.

-------
JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER
YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198. KAWASAKI. JAPAN
TELEPHONE 044-20-4006
Costs for refuse collection and transportation
Cost for refuse disposal in each municipality
are now rising due to increase of labor charge and
cost of construction materials.
The total cost of refuse disposal in 1972 was multi-
plied by 4 times against that in 1964 .
The cost per ton was multiplied by 2.5 times, that is
from ¥ 3,550 to 8,716 .
It is often told that cost for refuse disposal per ton
in Tokyo is higher by 10 to 20 # than that in other
cities . For a sample, Table 14 shows comparison of
Tokyo and Kawasaki. The cost in Kawasaki is lower by
'16. to 26 than that in Tokyo. .
This difference is supposed to be derived from city
structure. Especially in Kawasaki city, it is highly
appreciated that collection efficiency is satisfactory
due to advantageous configuration of the ground and
location of disposal facilities.
Table 14-1 (unit;1000 yen)
Name of .
city
:i967
1968
1969 | 1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
Tokyo
5208
5374
6002 | 6677
7661
8716
11264

Kawasaki
3864
4612
4822 j 5189
5972 j 7327
9255
13538
ratio of
Kawasaki
against
jTokyo
74.2
85.8
80.3 | 77.7
i
I
1
"
78.0
84.1
82.2

<57/./. Va
-------
JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER
YOTSUYA-KAMICHQ 198. KAWASAKI. JAPAN
TELEPHONE 044-26-4896
A*s a matter of fact, costs for refuse collection
and transportation occupies 60 $ to 80 % in total ^
cost for disposal. As described:'.in "2rg. "_11 82
in Tokyo and 74 # in Kyoto.
Out of cost of collection and transportation 70
to 80 fo is labor charge ( please refer to Table 15 ) .
In summary, work of refuse disposal is labor concen-
tration enterprise.
Therefore, although it is desirable to organize
direct management from the view point of planning,
control and liability, there are some cities which
consign work of collection and transportation to
agents or mandataries because this work costs high
and brings uncomfortable condition.
& /,/. V/
-------
Tableiv-J Disposal cost In Tokyo and Kawasaki.
City
Fiscal
year
Total
refuse
anount
(t)
Planed
population
of
collection
Total cost
(disposal
cost)
Di
S003&1 COSt
per ton
clean&lQg
fee
General
account
<4)
Labor charge
Collection and
transportation
cost It)
Disposal
cost per
capita
tYf-)
Citizen
tax per
capita
c/o«)
Cost
(total)
f yen)
Cost for
collection
and trans-
portation^)
Cost for
nan element
Cost for
final
iis|tosal
Tokyo
1974
1973
1972
4,724.693
4.65*,543
4.521,005
3 673 642
8.738.997
3.796.293
66.141,971
47.155.583
34,770.012
13 710.99
11.263.95
8.715-65
JO. 5
82.9
81.1 .
2.2
1.7
3.8
17.4
15-4
15.1
5.5
5.5
5.1
68.5
66.3
65.7
7.621
• 5,396
3,979
11,236
8.745
7,407
ka-sa-
saK:
197+
1973
1972
354,709
364,040
373.559
996.579
991.317
980.280
4.537.412>
'3,1,46.229
2.596.091
13<537.52
9.254.81
7.327.19
53-7
54.4
53.1
2.9
2.7
2.3
43.3
42.8
44.6
5.8
5.8
6.6
88.4
86.5
\ 84.7
4.553
3.174
2,648
16.247
12,163
10.594
Note i
1) In disposal cost per ton in Tokyo .and Kawasaki, cost for
final disposal is consisted of that for incineration and
Veclamation.
' 2) Cleansing fee includes refuse night .soil, facilities and
clewing nanagetaent.
3) Pigures aoet, eleansine fee and general aooount in 1974
in Tokyo are anticipated figures.
-------
-------
Table 15'. Change of disposal cost per ton
rjohyo )
Kind
Fiscal
Year
Disposal
cost per ton
Index
Increase
ratio against
past year
Distribution ratio
Wage
Material
Depreciatio:

1965
¥4,177.42
100
- %
- %
- *
- *

1966
4,803.30
115
15.6
51.6
25.9
22.5

1967
5,207.91
125
8.4
36.4
66.1
2.5

1968
5,378.81
129
3.2
140.8
20.7
20.1
Refuse
1969
6,002.30
144
11.7
81.7
17.9
0.4

1970
6,676.64
160
11.2
48.1
44.5
7.4

1971
7,660.54
183
14.7
60.2
39.5
0.3

1972
8,715.65
209
13.8
65.7
32.7
1.6

1973
11,263.95
270
29.2
73.8
26.3
0.1

1965
2,176.51
100
-
-
-
-

1966
2,398.07
110
10.2
65.5
34.2
0.3

1967
2,664.43
122
11.1
77.8
17.9
4.3

1968
2,931.29
135
10.0
73.2
25.4
1.4
Night-soil
1969
3,299.21
152
12.6
70.2
30.9
1.1

1970
3,756.99
173
13.9
62.8
40.0
2.8

1971
4,529.97
208
20.6
76.5
20.4
3.1

1972
5,729.01
263
12.0
101.7
1.6
0.1

1973
7,364.69
338
28.6
69.5
30.0
0.5
j-.ui.-yf
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JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER
YOTSUYA-KAMtCHO 198, KAWASAKI, JAPAN
TELEPHONE 044-28-4896
Pr6blem and proposal regarding refuse collection
and disposal:.
It is the main purpose of refuse collection and
transportation to collect and transport refuse -
discharged at random from many district quickly,
smoothly and efficiently.
For this purpose, the following 5 items must be taken
into serious consideration.
Necessity of environmental measures
There needed measures against odor, exudation of
waste water, scatter of dust, noise generated from
collecting car "and beating sound of metal make con-
tainer, traffic congestion, and lack of fine view.
Necessity of adjustment with local inhabitant's
The following items must be taken into serious
consideration
Selection of separate collection and mixing collection
( realization of source recycle, efficiency in
treatment and possibility in inhabitants cooperation
Selection of discharging and storing method
( pack, poly7container, common use metal make
container, container for dust chute and disposer )
Selection of collection and transportation method
( vehicles of every size, vehicles with special device
air transportation system, railway and vessels )
Selection of collection efficiency
( one to seven tii/ies per week and local speciality )
Better arrangement of work, vehicles station,
-------
JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER
YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198, KAWASAKI. JAPAN
TELEPHONB 044-28-4806
Necessity of improvement on working condition
The following items must be taken into serious
considerration
Clean
Mechanization
Protection against danger
Night and early morning collection
Comprehension of working efficiency and work management
In order to increase work efficiency management staffs
must comprehend importance of labor management
respect of the principle of municipal policy
in finance which expect the largest effect from
the smallest cost
Increase of labor charge
( labor abbreviation, consignment to unofficials
and increase of working efficiency )
Realization of night collection and early morning
collection
Reduction of manual work
( Adoption of mechanization and new technique )
Establishment of beneficiary charge system of
domestic refuse
Beneficiary charge system regarding domestic refuse
must be reestablished. The sufferer must be
exempted from the fee.
S". /./. V6
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JAPAN ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION CENTER
YOTSUYA-KAMICHO 198. KAWASAKI. JAPAN
TELEPHONE 044-28-4896
Promotion of liability
Financial coverage of cost for refuse disposal
Leveling of unbalance of each district
( exemption of the sufferers from fee charge )
Adaptation of the principle of ppp to discharges:,
of domestic refuse
( passenger's burden of aircraft noise
beneficiary charge system in public sewerage based
on he-v/ho-'oenef its-ought-to-pay-p.. inciple)
Jr. it, V7
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IMPROVEMENT OF REFUSE COLLECTION SYSTEM
By
Mitsuo Moronaga
Director, Public Cleansing Bureau
Kita Kyushu City
-------
Foreword
First of all, it will be necessary to see how the refuse
collection system is positioned as a subsystem in the refuse
management system, what relationship it has with the other
subsystems and of what characteristic it is.
Next, it will be considered what the refuse collection
system ought of be generally and in the refuse management
system as a part of the municipal administration.
As the conclusion of the foregoing consideration, it
will be duscussed what improvement is made of the refuse
collection system immediately and what problem it has to be
resolved in the future.
1. Position of Refuse Collection System (As a Subsystem
in Refuse Treatment System.
The refuse management system may be taken generally as
a system comprising four steps (subsystems) of collection,
transportation, treatment (incineration, etc.) and final
disposal.
Accordingly, the refuse collection system may be taken
as one of the four subsystems of the refuse management system.
(Actually, however, with trucks or other vehicles used for
collecting the refuse, the collection and transportation are
carried out continuously as if they constitutes one system.
4-l^.i -
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But, they are different in the objective and should be taken
as two separate systems theoretically.)
Further, the fefuse collection system is positioned at
the first step of the refuse management. It is at the point
of contact with the inhabitants who discharge the refuse and
thus holds a position to input the refuse into the refuse
management system through arrangements with the inhabitants
with respect to the refuse container, collection frequency and
time, and the place of temporary accumulation of the refuse
from the respective families.
2. Refuse Collection System as Related to the Other Subsystems
The systems of refuse collection, transportation, treatment
and final disposal are related with one another, and a change
in one system affects the other systems. For example,
depending on the form of collection, mixed or sorted, the
quantity as well as quality of the refuse is subject to
change, and when the treatment (such as incineration) has
a problem generated, the collection method will have to be
changed (from mixed to sorted collection). However, so
long as the clean up service is intended for the benefit
of the inhabitants, the refuse collection system connected
directly with the inhabitants should first be determined,
as a rule, in a manner for which the approval of
I. 2 -
-------
the inhabitants is obtainable, then the transportation,
treatment and final disposal systems should be determined
accordingly.
3. Characteristics of Refuse Collection System
(1) Direct connection with all inhabitants
The refuse collection system is designed for collection
of refuse with all inhabitants as an object. Thus, the
determination of, or a change in, the refuse collection system
is more or less concerned with the interests of the inhabitants.
Therefore, understanding and support of the inhabitants are
prerequisite for determination of such system.
(2) External restrictions
The refuse collection system is to be adapted for
the established city conditions and is, therefore, subject
to the restrictions of external factors varying with the area
such as excessive concentration of the industries and popula-
tion, degradation of the road traffic condition, limited
urban space, and complaints or opposition of the inhabitants.
(3) High dependency on labor
In addition to the foregoing difficulty of external
restrictions, the refuse collection is a planar system
spreading over the whole area of a city so that it is lagging
in the rationalization and modernization or mechanization of
S". I.*. 3 -
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the works. Thus, it requires a large amount of expense
particularly for labor. According to the cost calculation
of Kita-Kyushu City for fiscal 1974, the expense required
for collection and transportation constitutes more than 80
percent of all the expense for refuse management.
4. Preferable Refuse Collection System
(1) No difficulty caused to conservation of the environment
The system should involve little generation of offensive
odor, scattering of refuse and leak of foul water and scarcely
cause traffic congestion and must, at least, be acceptable by
the inhabitants.
With respect to the last mentioned, however, the level
of requirement may very with development of the collection
technique, PR by the administration or understanding of the
inhabitants.
Further, the working conditions and environment must
be desirable for the personnel engaged in the collection.
(2) Being acceptable by the greater inhabitants
The refuse collection system is concerned with all
inhabitants. Thus, in order for such system to be supported
by as many inhabitants as possible, it must be simple and not
troublesome for the inhabitants
5.I.2-. * -
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( 3) Flexibility and stability
The refuse has its quantity and quality changed with
change in the economic situation or living mode and also
with change of the cycle of refuse collection or the season
i I
or weather.
Thus, the refuse collection system should have a
flexibility for adaptation to such change.
Next, the refuse management system or, more particularly,
its first step, that is, refuse collection is closely related
with the daily life of the people so that its execution is
not allowed to stop for only one day. It should adapt
itself with flexibility to an accident or unexpected situa-
tion or change in the external restrictive conditions and
allow stable collection of the refuse.
(4) Low cost
The refuse management is carried out with its expense
borne by the inhabitants in the form of tax or fee so that
its economy should not be neglected. Particularly, the
collection of refuse is highly dependent on labor and lagging
in modernization and rationalization as stated in the fore-
going. Thus, it is the division requiring the largest
expense among other divisions of the refuse management system
so that the cost down must always be kept in mind.
However, this cost down must be well balanced with the
i"J.*.* -
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service to the inhabitants and be understandable for or
persuasive of the inhabitants.
(5) Smooth connection with the other subsystems
The refuse collection system is closely related
with the other subsystems of ^transportation, intermediate
treatment and terminal disposition in the refuse management
system, and its improvement is not practicalble in disregard
of the relationship with the other subsystems.
* Improvements of Refuse Collection System in Kita-Kyushu
City:
1963-1967
Concrete refuse box (for general dwellings), and
Dust chute (for high storied dwellings)
were abolished and improved into the polyethylene
container collection.
1968-1971
Polyethylene bag collection (for general
dwellings), and
Container collection (for high storied dwellings)
were carried out first at a model area then
extensively.
1971
Polyethylene bag collection (for general dwellings),
\
1.^.6 -
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and
Container collection (for high storied dwellings)
were carried out over the whole city area.
Supply of polyethylene bags without cost
100 bags annually for each of general
dwellings, and
365 bags annually for each container.
Bulky refuse sorted collection was carried out
at a frequency of 3 times a year.
5. Future Problems
For improvement of the refuse collection system, there
are various difficult external restrictive conditions sucn
as the existing city structure and consensus of the inhabitants
and other requirements and conditions such as the flexibility
and stability of the system and prevention of the environ-
mental pollution, and these conditions must be satisfied in
the planar extension of the system. Thus, the improvement
is a very difficult problem.
The difficulty of improvement is well proved by the
lagging modernization and rationalization of the refuse
collection system in the city.
Here, the corrective measures immediately conceivable
and those to be taken as the future problems will be discussed.
7 -
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(1) Immediate improvement
Upon the conventional system of refuse collection by
vehicles, the following improvements should be aimed at.
a. Reduction of the amount of refuse:
Promote the reduction of refuse amount through
cooperation of the inhabitants as well as the
manufacturers and distributors of the daily
consumption materials along with improvement of
the collection work for furtherance of efficient
refuse management.
b. Establishment of the cooperative system of
inhabitants:
Give a correct understanding of the refuse manage-
ment to the inhabitants by thorough PR, thus
establishing a cooperative system of the inhabitants
to the collection work and improving the collection
system. For example, standardization of the
refuse container or bag and dissemination of the
matters to be observed, observance of the specific
method of sorting in sorted collection, prevention
of environmental pollution due to disorderly
refuse output at the refuse station, etc. will be
promoted.
c. Adequate distribution of refuse management
facilities:

-------
With a refuse relay or treatment facility
provided for each area of collection of an
appropriate scale, promote the efficient
operation of the transportation system and enhance
the efficiency of the refuse collection system.
In such case, the intermediate treatment facility
(such as incinerator) should have a relaying
facility provided*
d. Isolation of refuse collection system and trans-
portation system:
By isolating the transportation system from the
refuse collection system as required depending on
the distance of transport and introducing large
relay transport vehicles, rationalize the trans-
portation system and improve the efficiency of
the refuse collection system.
(2) Improvements as future problems
The largest and most difficult restrictive condition
for improvement of the refuse collection system is the
existing city structure itself.
The cities in our country were formed before the
refuse management was positioned as one of the important
measures of administration as is today and expanded rapidly
with the high economic growth'. Thus, the sewage and waste
f.tZ.9 -
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management measures have always been of the following
administration and are still greatly retarded presently.
With such background, the city planning from now on
must incorporate a city structure in which the refuse manage-
ment is fully taken into consideration, while the existing
urban area must be improved or remodelled equally.
In such a case, efforts must be exercised toward drastic
improvement of the refuse collection system with positive
introduction of new refuse management techiniques (such as,
for example, air transport of refuse).
(Reference)
Refuse Management Work of Kita-Kyushu City
Objective (as of the end of fiscal 1975): About
1,060,000 population.
Collection (experience in fiscal 1974): About 242,000
tons/year.
Treatment facilities:
Hiaki Incinerator Plant
Completed 1972; Continuous incinerator,
450 t/24 H; Heat utilization, steam supply to
Treatment Plant and Central Wholesale Market.
Xogozaki Incinerator Plant
Completed 1975; Continuous incinerator,
600 t/24 H; Heat utilization, power generation
3000 KW.
1.^.10 -
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Nishiminato Crushing Plant
Completed 1973; 200 t/5 H.
Shin Moji Incinerator Plant
To be completed 1977; Continuous incinerator,
600 t/24 H; Heat utilization, power generation
1500 KW and steam supply to heated swimming
pool at Aged Welfare Center.
Reclamation sites: 8
11
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Separate Collection of Household Refuse in Tokyo
bureau of Public Cleansing
Tokyo Metropolitan Government
3-8-1, Marunouchi, Chiyoda~ku;
Tokyo, Japan
A3 of today, in the territory of 23 special wards of Tokyo, we are adopt-
ing the separate collection system of household refuse, in which the
refuse is classified into three groups^ ordinary refuse (combustibles),
separated refuse (noncombustibles and inadequate refuse for incineration)
and bulky refuse.
Tokyo is the overpopulated city with a population of 3,6c0,000 and an
area of 577 Km^ in the wards, and discharges 4,700,000 tons of refuse
a year.
In the 1970'f:s the refuse has been increasing rapidly in quantity and
has become various in quality, and furthermore, the delay of the construc-
tion of incineration plants, the lack of the landfill area and the protest
from the inhabitants of Koto Ward where the landfill has been under w^y
have made the refuse management problem serious.
Then, in September 1971, Governor Minobe declared a "war against garbage'1
at the session of the Tokyo Metropolitan Assembly, asking cooperation of
the inhabitants of all wards, and began to concentrate all powers of
T.M.G. on the problem.
-------
The refuse management is one of the mo'st important services to keep the
healthy life and environment of the inhabitants. Sor we had inspected
main items of the flue gas and waste water discharged from the all incinera-
tion plants, and we made the thorough investigation of all plants on the
secondary pollution in the latter half of 1972.
As the' result of it, it was found that the content of heavy metals in the
discharged water was over the legal standard at some plants.
Heavy metals, for example cadmium and lead derive from the noncombustibles
and the inadequate refuse for incineration which are composed r.ainly of
plastics.
Heavy metals, as well as hydrochlorides and nitrogen oxides in the flue
gas, are the pollutantss and then it was recognized that the separata
management of the refuse was effective for the pollution control.
Therefore, we accelerated th-3 3 year plan of separate collection which
had been in the course of preparation for the practice. We began to
practice it since April 1973 as the urgent countermeasure against the
secondary pollution from the incineration plants, and it was carried out in
the whole wards in September 1°74.
It is estimated that 2/3 of the noncombustibles and 1/2 of the inadequate
refuse for incineration are collected separately and reach to 2,00°
metric tons and ov°r a day by the oractice of it.
-------
It: was with the cooperation of the inhabitants and the intense effort of
T.M.C. that this system was carried out successfuJ 1 y on i larp.o ncnlr* In
a short tf.'nn.
And the following results have been realized actually;.
1) The plastics in the household refuse were over 10% in content in 1970,
and caused many troubles for incineration process, for example the
increase of hydrochlorides, the lowering efficiency of the incineration
by the increase of the calorific value, the corrosion hydrochloride
gases and so or. But after the practice of the separata collection, the
content has become about !>% in the ordinary refuse and the troub?.es have
been decreased.
2) Heavy metal content in the flyash and residue has been rediced in half.
3) The discharged waste water;: has been controlled enough under the legal
standard.
4) The incineration of all ordinary refuse is the foundamental policy of
refuse management in Tokyo, and it has been accelerated by the sanitary
landfill of separated and bulky refuse.
Separated refuse is now disposed to landfill without pre-treatment, however
it will be crushed with the bulky refuse and the valuable substances
will be recovered progressively as recycled resource in near future.
/
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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
Solid Waste Collection Systems 1n the United States
. by Kenneth A. Shuster
Presented at the Third U.S.-Japan Conference
on Solid Waste Management, Tokyo, Japan
May 12-14, 1976
1
-------
INTRODUCTION
This report discusses storage, collection, and transportation
phases of municipal solid waste management. In the United States, the
annual cost of storage, collection, and transportation (excluding *
' t
transfer stations) 1s an estimated $5.5 billion, about 75 to 80 percent
£
of the total municipal solid waste management cost.
The primary objective of storage and collection systems 1s
environmental: to remove the discards or wastes of society In order to
protect the health, safety, and sanitation of the public, and to provide
for an aesthetically clean living environment. Other objectives are:
continuity of service: to ensure the stability of this vital service by
reducing the chances of equipment failures, labor strikes, company
financial bankruptcies, and labor turnover and absenteeism; level
of service: to provide the desired convenience or level of service (for
" /
example backyard service); safety: to reduce Injuries and their asso-
ciated costs; resource conservation and recovery (a rapidly developing
objective): . to reduce the amount of waste materials In the first place
and to recover the remaining materials or energy value of them; efficiency:
to achieve the above objectives with the highest possible productivity
(stops and tons per man per day) and lowest cost.
€¦ a, I
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These objectives are the measures of. effectiveness used in
% .
evaluating various systems. The aspects discussed in this report are
categorized as: (1) institutional and organizational, (2) storage, (3)
collection, (4) transportation, and (5) source separation.
MAJOR PROBLEM AREAS
1. Safety. Yearly surveys by the National Safety Council consistently
show solid waste collection 1s the most hazardous governmental
occupation in the United States in terms of injuries per man hour
worked. The costs of each injury average 4 to 5 times the direct
medical cost. ....
2. Productivity and Cost. Most systems are inefficient, partly
because of their emphasis on getting the waste picked up on
collection day rather than productivity. A savings of 15 to 25
percent is possible for most systems in the United States. Some
have achieved 50 to 60 percent savings.
• , i
1 3. Lack of Continuity of Service. Labor strikes, turnover, and
absenteeism, equipment breakdowns, and company bankruptcies cause
discontinuities of service.
5 2.. 2
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4. Inner-City Areas. Due to citizen and collector attitudes, storage
conditions, and collection systems, many inner-city areas (generally
t
east of the Mississippi River) are unsightly, unsafe, and a health
menace because of solid waste accumulations. Rats, fires, and
Injuries to children are the most coiranon problems.
5. Resource Recovery. About 140 communities in the United States are
recycling newspapers on a regular basis. Less than 10 are known to
be also recycling glass bottles and metal cans on a regular basis.
More recycling Is needed.
INSTITUTIONAL AND ORGANIZATION FACTORS
One of the first decisions to be made 1n developing or redesigning
a collection system is what organization Is responsible for collecting
the wastes, raising the revenues, and/or controlling the system.
»
Public or Private Operation and Multi"Jurisdictional Approaches,
i, Residential collection by public systems 1s usually performed by a
department within a municipal bureaucracy. Some public systems, however,
are either separate non-profit organizations, or a multi-jurisdictional
agency. Collection by private haulers may mean areas with free and open
competition, areas with limited entry, areas with exclusive franchises,
and municipal contracts. These public and private organizational
r3
-------
arrangements are summarized In Tables 1 and 2. The open competition
residential systems tend to be Inefficient because of the duplication of
resources (men and trucks) 1n the same areas, and the Increased chances
of bankruptcies. Exclusive franchises without performance and cost
controls tend to become excessively costly for the service received.
Otherwise, the keys to a successful system are good management and crew
Incentives (such as competition among crews), and not whether the system
1s public or private. The multl-jurisdictional approach to management,
Including information sharing, tends to improve management, enable
economies of scale, and provide the necessary motivating competitive
situation.
In the United States, 65.5 percent of the cities have private
haulers for residential collection, 34.5 have public systems, and 5
percent have both. On a population basis, however, 39 percent of the
United States population receive collection by private haulers and 61
percent of the population receive public collection. That is, most of
the major cities are public systems. Nationally, about 95 percent of
the commercial collection is done by private haulers.
Financing. A second major decision is the source of revenues to
finance the collection system. In the United States, there are two
s
general sources of operating revenues: tax levies from the city's
general fund, or direct user charge (Table 3). The user charge may be a
6~- 2. 4
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Table 1
POTENTIAL ADVANTAGES AND. DISADVANTAGES OP TYPES OF PUBLIC AND PRIVATE OWNERSHIP
AND OPERATION OP COLLECTION SERVICES, AND THE CONDITIONS THAT FAVOR EACH
Alternative
Potential
advantages
Potential
disadvantages
Conditions which
favor alternative
Public
Municipal
department
Tax-free
Nonprofit
Economies of scale
City has administrative
control
Can institute separate
collection for recycling
Can institute mandatory
collection
Management and policies are
continuous over time,
resulting in experienced
personnel and permitting
long-range planning
Records can be kept over a long
time
Private
Private Competitive bidding for
firms with contracts) helps keep prices
contract down
SStSIS" City retains administrative
control
Can institute separate
collection for recycling
Can institute mandatory
collection
. Monopolistic
Lack of incentive to maximize
efficiency
Financing and operations
often influenced by political
constraints
Frequently financed from
general tax fund and subject to
1-year budgeting process
Solid waste management often
low-priority Hon in budget
Labor pressures may result in
inefficient labor practices and
strikes
Restrictive budget policies
may affect equipment
replacement and maintenance
Policies of job-support inflate
labor costs
Private
firms in
open compe-
tition
Past history of unsatisfactory
contractual operations f;r
public services "
Public predisposition to,r*!ards
government operation ol.
public services £
Quality of service provided
more important criterion than
economics
contractors
Competition may reduce costs
Self-financing
Danger of collusion in bidding Flexibility is needed to make
Public agency must regulate ^I^K^s^ings
and other cost reductions
Existence of qualified private
contractors
Public predisposition towards
private sector involvement in
public services
Newly incorporated
communities, or where
population growth is
outpacing ability of
community to provide public
services
Unacceptable alternative
City has no administrative
control
Danger of collusion among
haulers to reduce competition
and keep prices high
Cutthroat competition can
result in business failures and
service interruptions
Overlapping routes, waste of
fuel
Cannot institute citywide
separate collection for
recycling
Difficult to enforce mandatory
collection ordinances
fContinutdf
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Table 1
POTENTIAL ADVANTAOM AND DI8ABVANTA0ES OT TYPE* OP PUDUC AN* FK1VATK OWNSMHIP AND
OPERATION OP COLLSCTMN IMVICIS, AND TUX CONDITIONS THAT PAVOB EACH— Conctudlt
Alternative
Potential
advantages
Potential
'disadvantages
Conditions which
favor alternative
Private
firms with
exclusive
franchises
Self-financing
Combination of
public and
private:
Municipal
system and.
private
firms under
contract
Competition
between
municipal
system and
private
firms
Ci% has no administrative Unacceptable alternative
Monopolistic, can lead to high
prices
Cannot Institute separate
collection fa recycling
Difficult to enforce mandatary
collection ordinances
Competition helps keep price
down
Alternative available if either
sector cannot deliver service
City, has administrative
control
Can institute separate
collection for recycling
Can institute mandatary
collection
Competition helps keep prices
down
Municipality is expanding
through annexation or
merger with ether
Jurisdictions
Changing fromaeparate
garbage and traoheollection to •
combined colicfen
Overlapping routes, waste of
Aid
Can't institute dtgvide
separate collection for
recycling
Lock of mandatory collection
Unacceptable alternative
6
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Table 2
POTENTIAL ADVANTAOES AND DISADVANTAGES OP TYPES OF MULTtlURlSDICTtONAL APPROACHES
Alternative
Potential
advantages
Potential
disadvantages
Conditions which
favor alternative
Authority Can finance without voter
approval or regard to local
debt limit
Political influence minimized
because board members are
private citizens
Autonomous from municipal
budgetary and administrative
constraints
Can generate income to make
service self-supporting
Capital financing is tax
exempt
Nonprofit Tax-exempt status
public Can finance without voter
corporations appr0val or regard to local
debt limit
Assets revert to community
after bonds are paid
Multicommunity
cooperative
Special districts
Governmental
agreements
Financing is complex
Can become remote from
public control
Can compete with private
industry in some areas,
reducing efficiency of both
Debt ceiling prohibits
finanting by the municipality
Voter approval of fina. .ring
will delay urgent proje t
Political activity hashjpdered
activity in past
Autonomy from municipal
budgetary and administrative
control would mean more
efficient delivery of service
Tax-exempt status is available
Does not require State
approval
Constituency is a distinct
group of residents, not
scattered bond-holders
Local autonomy can be
protected by having county
officials serve on board
Flexible and enforceable
method of cooperation
Basic governmental structures
are not changed
Can be implemented quickly
and easily
Political influence may be
exerted because board
members are government
officials
Difficult to dismantle even if
better service can be provided
by other sources
Financing is not backed by full
faith and credit of
community
Member communities lose
some autonomy
AbOity to raise capital
depends on lead community's
debt capacity and financing
strength ,
Lead community can be hurt
financially unless contracts
with other communities are
written properly
Powers limited by State
statute
Must rely on special tax levies
requiring voter approval
Creates an additional unit of
government not directly
elected by citizens
May be difficult to raise
capital since each community
must borrow
No single corporate body, so
all communities must agree on
any decision
If contracts are not carefully
written, misunderstandings
may arise
City wishes to shift financing
requirements to an
organization outside
municipal bureaucracy
City wishes to avoid
administrative details of
providing solid waste
management services
One city is willing to take lead
in securing financing
No other governmental unit
can provide service
Service or function to be<
provided is not costly or
complex
€"2.7
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Table 3
POTENTIAL ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TAXES AND USER CHARGES AS SOURCES
OP OPERATING REVENUES. AND THE CONDITIONS THAT FAVOR EACH
Alternative
Potential
advantages
Potential
disadvantages
Condition* which
favor alternative
Property tax
Sales tax
Municipal
utility tax
Special tax
levies
User charges
Simple to administer—no
separate billing and collection
system necessary
If part of local property tax, it
is deductible from Federal and
State income taxes
Simple to administer
Simple to administer
More equitable than ad
valorem taxes
Can be instituted without
voter approval
Voter approval usually not
required
Enables localities to balance
the cost of providing solid
waste services with revenues
Citizens are aware of costs of
service and can provide
impetus for more efficient „
operations
Solid waste management is
often a low-priority item in the
budget and receives
inadequate funds
Costs are hidden—less
incentive for efficient
operation
Commercial establishments
pay taxes for service they may
, not receive
Variable monthly income
Requires voter approval
Income may not be adequate
Commercial establishments
pay taxes for service they may
not receive
Variable monthly income
Income may be inadequate
Amount limited by statute
Tradition of tax financing for
most public services
Recreation areas with high
tourist trade
Ceiling on property tax rates
Tradition of tax financing for
most public services
Ceiling on property tax rates
Tradition of tax financing for
osost public services
t.
More complex to administer Ceiling on property tax rates
Can cause problems for users
on fixed incomes
C. 2.8
-------
fixed charge per home per month or may vary according to the level of
service received, e.g. based on point of collection, frequency of
collection, or number of containers.
STORAGE
Residential. The predominant residential storage devices used in
the United States are plastic and metal cans, generally 76 to 121
liters (20 to 32 gallons) 1n capacity, and plastic sacks (Table 4).
Plastic sacks are particularly common for grass clippings and leaves
whiere these are not composted by the homeowner, and the leaves are not
collected from the street by the city. Also used, but less frequently,
aire paper sacks (2-ply Kraft paper), 208 liter (55 gallon) drums (not
recommended by EPA for safety, health, and efficiency reasons), metal
'bins 0.76 to 7.6 cu meters (1 to 10 cu yds) used at apartment complexes
and other high density housing units, and plastic 303 to 1,136 liters
(80 to 300 gallon) containers. The metal bins'and plastic containers
• are mechanically lifted and emptied. Due to air pollution control
standards, residential incinerators and backyard burning have been
essentially eliminated in urbanized areas.
The selection of storage containers should be based on environmental
effects, type of collection systems, and costs. Environmentally, some
. 9
-------
Table 4
POTENTIAL ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OP TYPES OP RESIDENTIAL'WASTE STORAGE
CONTAINERS, AND CONDITIONS THAT PAVOR THE USE OF EACH
Alternative
Potential
advantages
Potential
disadvantages
Condition* which
favor alternative
Paper or plastic
bags
Metal or plastic
•cans (20- to 30-
gal)
Bulk contain-
ers for
mechanized
collection
Stationary
storage bins
Easier to handle-«no lids to
be removed or replaced
Less weight to lift
Reduces spillage and blowing
litter when loaded in truck
One-way container—no cans
left at curb
Eliminates odors and
necessity to clean dirty cans
' Prevents fly entrance
Increases speed and efficiency
of collection
Reduces contact of collector
with waste
i
Reasonable size for collector to
lift
Economical
More efficient than manual
collection
Drums (55-gal) None
None
Cost per bag
Bags can fail if overfilled .
or if too thin
Susceptible to animal attacks
Not suitable for bulky, heavy,
or sharp objects
May be difficult to obtain due
to energy crisis
Curbside collection
Must be cleaned regularly
when not used with liners
Residents oppose storage of
other people's waste on their
property
Lower collection efficiency
Excessive weight can result in
back injury and muscle strain
Difficult to handle *
Lack of lids allows insects to
breed in waste and odors to
escape
Rust holes at bottom of drum
allow rodents to feed on waste
Inefficient—must be emptied
manually
Lack of proper cover leads to
insect and rodent infestation
Necessity for hand shoveling
of wastes poses health hazard
to collectors
Backyard collection
Alley space available for
storage
Unacceptable alternative
Unacceptable alternative

-------
storage containers present health and safety problems to the collectors
as well as to the general public. These Include 208 liter (55 gallon)
drums and concrete bins. Some environmentally acceptable storage
containers are more economical than others. For example, paper and
plastic bags are superior to many other containers from a health ands
* '•
aesthetic standpoint, and can Increase productivity when used 1n con-1
*
junction with curbs1de collection. However, with backyard collection
systems, bags have little effect on productivity and actually increase
costs because of the costs of the bags themselves. Bulk bins are more
\
cost effective than conventional cans where enough waste is generated.
Commercial. The most common commercial storage containers are
metal bulk bins 0.76 to 7.6 cu meters (1 to 10 cu yds) and roll-off
containers 15.3 to 30.6 cu meters (20 to 40 cu yds). Both the bulk bins
and roll-off containers may be used with a stationary compactor. With
air pollution control laws, the stationary compactor has replaced the
on-site incinerator as a means of waste reduction in the urbanized areas
of the United States. The type and size of container and the use of
stationary compactors 1s determined by the amount and type of waste, the
size and accessibility of the storage space, and the frequency of
collection.
£¦ Z ¦ 11
-------
RESIDENTIAL COLLECTION
Point of Collection. On a population basis, about 65 percent of
the collection systems 1n the United States are curbside or alley, and
35 percent have backyard pickup. The current trend is toward curbslde
or alley collection, primarily because of budgetary (cost) constraints,
and the higher labor turnover, absenteeism, and injury rates associated
with backyard collection (Table 5). Curbside/alley collection generally
costs about 45 to 50 percent of the cost of backyard service. There are
four methods used for backyard collection: (1) tote barrel, (2) satellite
vehicle, (3) set-out, and (4) set-out, set-back.
The first two methods are more cost effective than the last two.
Satellite vehicles are more effective than total barrels in areas with
long street to storage distances or long distances between houses.
Frequency of Collection. On a population basis, frequency of
collection is almost equally once-a-week and twice-a-week at about 45
percent each, with more frequent collection (as much as 6 days a week
i C
collection) 1n the major cities (inner-city areas) depending mostly on
storage space available. Most of the once-a-week systems are on the
West Coast, Midwest, and Northern States. The twice-a-week systems are
concentrated in the South, particularly the Southeastern States. The
major reasons for twice-a-week are convenience, odor, sanitation, and
fly control (Table 6). Once-a-week is 13 to 39 percent cheaper and
conserves fuel.
2 . 12
-------
Table 5
POTENTIAL ADVANTAOBS AND DISADVANTAGES OP CUBB8IDE/ALLEY AND
BACKYABD COLLECTION, AND CONDmONS THAT PAYOR EACH
Alternative
Potential
advantages
Potential
disadvantages
Conditions which
favor altemaLve
Curb side/alley
More efficient
Cans at curb look metey
High collection costs *

Less expensive
Requires less labor
Facilitates use of paper or
plastic bags
Reduces collector injuries
Special arrangements must
be made for handicapped and
elderly
Residents must remember day
of collection
Unwillingness on part of
residents to pay higher taxes
or user charge
-
Requires less fuel

Backyard
• l
No effort required by
residents
No mess at curbs
Mora expensive
High labor turnover
Increases number of collector
injuries
Requires more fuel
Quality of service provided
more important criterion
than economics
C' 2. 13
-------
Table 6
POTENTIAL ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT FREQUENCIES
OF COLLECTION, AND CONDITIONS THAT FAVOR EACH
Alternative
Once per week
Twice per week
Potential
advantages
Potential
disadvantages
Conditions which
favor alternative
Less expensive
Requires less fuel
Reduces litter in urban areas
Reduces storage volume
requirements
More than twice Reduces litter in urban areas
per week Reduces storage volume
requirements
Improperly stored waste can
create odor and fly problems'
More expensive
Requires more fuel
More expensive
Requires more fuel
Adequate storage provisions
Cold to moderate climate
Quality of service provided
more important criterion than
economics
Warm climate
Seriously restricted storage
space
• Dense population .
6" ? .
-------
Collection of Bulky Wastes. There are five methods employed 1n the
United States for bulky wastes, such as refrigerators: (1) collection
by the regular collection crews 1f the equipment can handle 1t and there
are three or more men 1n the crew, (2) on a request basis whereby the
homeowner calls In and the collection agency schedules a pickup, (3) the
' "*
collection agency periodically announces and collects bulky wastes, s^ich
as semi-annually on specified Saturdays, (4) the regular collection or a
supervisor reports the location of bulky items and a separate crew
collects them, and (5) the homeowners are responsible for transporting
and disposing bulky items, or hiring a private hauler to do so. The
equipment commonly used for bulky Items are stake trucks or vans with
hydraulic 11ft gates.
Collection Costs and Productivity. The average cost of residential
systems increased 52 percent from 1972 to 1975. Packer trucks typically
cost $25,000 to $50,000 1n 1975 instead of $15,000 to $35,000 as 1n
1972. According to a nationwide study conducted 1n 1975,* the average
cost of residential collection was about $29 per ton. A typical break-
down of costs shows about 70 percent of this cost was for labor (58
percent for direct wages, 12 percent for fringe benefits), 20 percent
was for equipment (15 percent for operation and maintenance and 5 percent
depredation), and the remaining 10 percent was for administration and
overhead.
5 • ? .15
-------
Collection crews 1n an 11-system study conducted in 1974 averaged
between 102 to 410 homes per crewman per day for curbside pickup and 121
to 182 for backyard, and 2.9 to 8.5 tonnes (3.2 to 9.4 tons) per crewman
per day for curbside and 2.8 tonnes (3.1 tons) for backyard. The most
common crew sizes are three man for curbside and four man for backyard
collection.
Collection in Rural Areas. There are four rural collection methods
(Table 7). The formal systems are typically either bulk bins 2.3 to
6.1 cu meters (3 to 8 cu yds) serviced by front loaders, or transfer
containers 15.3 to 22.9 cu meters (20 to 30 cu yds) hauled-by roll-off
trucks (Table 8). Operating costs for the average bulk container system
are $7 to $15 per ton.
COMMERCIAL COLLECTION
Bulk bins are usually collected by front 1 (fading packer trucks
(Figure 1), but are also collected by rear and side loaders (Figure 2).
The packer trucks empty and haul the wastes from many bulk bins per
load. Bulk bins are also collected by hoist-and-carry vehicles which
haul the container to the disposal site. This vehicle is typically used
only for liquid or hazardous wastes. The larger.roll-off containers are
hauled by tilt-frame trucks (Figure 3). Where the volume of waste is
large enough, the roll-off system is substantially cheaper than the bulk
bin system (Tables 9, 10, and 11).
r. 2. i6
-------
Table 7
POTENTIAL ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OP METHODS FOR COLLECTION IN
RURAL AREAS. AND THE CONDITIONS THAT FAVOR EACH
Alternative
Potential
advantages
Potential
disadvantages
Conditions which
flavor alternative
Disposal by
residents on
their property
Hauling by
residents to
landfills
Centrally
located bulk
containers
No cost to local government
No cost to local government
Operating costs are
relatively low
Promiscuous damping is
reduced
Public acceptability is high
Sites can be located near users
Mailbox system
Collects from largest number
of people
User fees can be established
Difficult to monitor and
control
Can lead to roadside damping
and open dumping
Requires extensive
educational campaign to
ensure proper disposal
Distance to landfill may
discourage regular trips
Can lead to roadside dumping
and open burning
Generates excessive traffic at
landfill
Poses hardship for persons
without means of
transportation
Initial capital cost may be
U«h
Vandalism may occur at
unattended sites
Difficult to assess user fee
Poses hardship for persons
without transportation
If implemented near
municipalities containers
may be used by town residents
to avoid paying for collection
service
Residents must remember
collection day
Waste may be spilled at
roadside prior to pickup
Time consuming and costly
in isolated areas
Isolated areas
¦)
Landfills are easily
accessible
Roads allow passage of
collection vehicles
Population is fairly
concentrated
5". "2.17
-------
Table 8
EXAMPLES OF RURAL SOLID HASTE COLLECTION EQUIPMENT SYSTEMS
Location .
Estimated
population
Number
of con-
tainers
Size of
container
cu m
Collec-
tions
per week
Number of
persons per
cu m (cu yd)
storage
Number
of
trucks
Size of
trucks
cu m
Initial
capltal
cost*
Baldwin, Co., Ala.
47,000
+

. 1

14
12-18
$240,000*
Chilton Co., Ala.
17,000
91
3
3
21 (16)
2
23
68,000
Choctaw Co., Ala.
14,000
+

15
48,000
Coffee Co., Ala.
14,000
170
3
1-2
18 P4)
1
23
62,700
Hacon Co., Ala.
13,800
137
3
1-2
22 (17)
1
23
55,900
Madison Co., Ala.
40,000
+

18
106,000
Tuscaloosa Co., Ala.
3Q.000
335
4.5
2
9 J7I
5
23
310,000
Clark Co., Ark.
11,702
142
2.3,5
3
8 (6)
1
23
76,058
Humboldt Co., Calif.
10,000
20
6
2
16 (12)
1
32
221,849

2
15

roll-off

5
31

Evans Co., Ga.
7,200
10
2
2-3
12 (9)

18
60,695

70
3

Grady Co., Ga.
10,000
126..
„ . 3
2
.. 13 (10) _ .
1
15
49.787
Screven Co., Ga.
9,500
146
3.
2
9 (7)
1
19
66.900
Benewah Co., Idaho
3,680
14
9s
2
14 (11)
1
15
+
X
Bonner Co.; Idaho
3,000
39
8
2
5 (4
1
15
33,400+
Boundary Co., Idaho
2,300
17
8
2
9 7
1
, 15
17,540+
Kootenai Co., Idaho
2,250
10
85
2
4 (3)
1
8
50,900+

20
98

1
1
12
u

Shoshone Co., Idaho
1,016
11
3$
1-2
5 (4)
1
1
13
12
*

12
95

DeSoto Co., Miss.
50,000
72
5
2
34 (26)
1
23
t

78
3

1
roll-off

7
23

» «
roll-off

Lee Co., Miss.
17,218
97
5.
2-3
22 (17)

23
141,200

70
4*

Humphreys Co., Tenn.
8,796
134
5
2
5 (4)
2
24
105,465

23
6

Jefferson Co., Tenn.
17,014
128
3
2
18 (14)

23
68,310

17
5

Polk Co., Texas
9,500
110
3
3
7 (5)
2
23
93,086
* Data were gathered 1n 1974 but capital costs vary from 1968 to 1973.
+ Mailbox system.
* Contracted; cost unknown.
S Hand unload.
-------
Figure I, The front-loading compactor truck
collects waste by picking up bulk containers, lifting
them over the cab, and emptying them into the
hopper. ....
FlCUBE 2, Bulk containers can be emptied mechanically into a rear-loading
compactor truck (as shown) or a side loader.
FntorbS. Tilt-frame vehicles are used to transport roll-off containers.
£"•^.19
-------
Table 9
TYPICAL YEARLY COSTS FOR COMMERCIAL COLLECTION
WITH REAR LOADERS AND 2-MAN CREW*
Cost per year
Item (1975 dollars)
Truck cost ($30,000 at 6 percent
Interest amortized over 5 years) $ 6,900
Labor, including 20 percent'fringes:
Driver ($5.00/hr) .12,480
Helper ($4.50/hr) 11,232
t
Consumables:
Fuel (7,200 gallons x $0.36) 2,592
Oil 480
Tires 1,680
Truck maintenance 4,000
Management and administrative overhead
(30 percent of direct labor) 7,114
~
Miscellaneous (insurance and fees) . 3,000
Total $49,478
$49,478 t 2,600 tons/year+ = $19.03/ton
* Costs are for a 0.76 cu meter (20 cu yd) packer that is
mannually loaded. Average compacted waste density is 297 kg/cu m
(500 Ib/cu yd) and two loads are collected each day.
+ 20 cu yd body x 500 lb = 10,000 lb, or 5 tons;
5 tons x 2 trips/day = 10 tons per day; 10 tons/day x 260 days =
2,600 tons per year (2,359 tonnes per year).
S" • 2. 20
-------
Table 10
TYPICAL YEARLY COSTS OR COMMERCIAL COLLECTION
WITH FRONT LOADER AND DRIVER-OPERATOR*
Cost per year
Item (1975 dollars)
Truck cost ($50,000 at 6 percent interest
amortized oVer 5 years) $11,500
Driver's wages and 20 percent fringes
($6/hr) 14,976
Management and administrative overhead
(30 percent of direct labor) 4,493
Truck maintenance 10,200
Fuel (8,400 gallons x $0.36) 3,024
Insurance and licenses . 4,800
Total $48,993
$48,993 * 4,940 tons/year+ = $9.92/ton
* The truck Is a 22.9 cu meter (30 cu yd) packer; the average
waste density is 297 kg/cu m (500 Ib/cu yd); and 2.5 loads are
collected each day.
+ 30 cu yd body x 500 lb = 15,000 lb or 7.5 tons;
7.5 tons x 2.5 trips per day = 19 tons per day; 19 tons per day x
260 = 4,940 tons per year (4,482 tonnes per year).
€ 1 . 21
-------
Table 11
TYPICAL YEARLY COSTS FOR COMMERCIAL COLLECTION
WITH TILT-FRAME (ROLL-OFF) TRUCK AND DRIVER-OPERATOR*
Cost per year
Item (1975 dollars)
Truck cost ($40,000 at 6 percent Interest
amortized over 5 years) $ 9,200
Driver's wages and 20 percent fringes
($6/hr) 14,976
Management and administrative overhead 4,493
Truck maintenance 7,800
Fuel (8,400 gallons x $0.36) 3,024
Insurance and licenses 4,800
Total $44,293
$44,293 * 9,750 tons/year+ = $4.54/ton
* The truck takes on a 22.9 cu meter (30 cu yd) container;
the average density of the compacted waste is 297 kg/cu m
1 (500 lb/cu yd), and five loads are handled per day.
+ 30 cu yd body x 500 lb = 15,000 lb or 7.5 tons;
7.5 tons x 5 trips per day =37.5 tons per day; 37.5 tons per
day x 260 = 9,750 tons per year (8,845 tonnes per year).
22
-------
COLLECTION EQUIPMENT
There are about 110»000 solid waste collection vehicles being used
1n the United States today: 11,000 front load packers* 14,000 side load
packers, 56,000 rear load packers, 13,000 open and stake trucks, 7,0Cp
tilt-frame (roll-off) trucks, and 9,000 hoist-type, satellite vehicles,
and container trains. ABout 45,000 of these are owned by public agencies,
62,000 are owned by private haulers, and 3,000 are owned by various
Institutions which haul their own wastes. These figures do not Include
the construction, demolition, or mining Industries. About 75,000 of
the vehicles are used for residential collection, and 38,000 for com-
mercial collection. Packer chassis are typically used 2 to 6 years, and
packer bodies for 4 to 8 years. Packer trucks achieve densities from
297 to 593 kg per cu meter (500 to 1,000 pounds per cu yard). Loose
waste 1s typically 89 to 119 kg per .cu meter (150 to 200 pounds per cu
yard). Side loaders range between 9.9 to 24.5 cu meters (13 to 32 cu
yards), rear loaders range from 12.2 to 23.7 cu meters (T6 to 31 cu
yards), and front loaders range from 18.4 to 31.3 cu meters (24 to 41 cu
i yards).
Several types of one man mechanized collection systems are being
demonstrated for residential collection (slides and description of these
will be given at the conference).
23
-------
TRANSPORTATION
Transfer Stations Versus Direct Haul. About one-third of the
collection day Is typically spent 1n transporting and disposal operations.
Haul time savings mean more time for the collectors to be on their
routes collecting. With remote disposal sites or excessive haul times
due to traffic congestion from the collection routes to the disposal
site, transfer stations are an alternative (Table 12). The direct haul
time savings must be compared to the capital and operating costs of the
transfer station.
TRENDS
As a result of increasing collection costs with constrained budgets,
and the emphasis on fuel savings, the trends where conditions permit are
toward curbside, once-a-week service with smaller crew sizes, larger
equipment, transfer stations, plastic sacks, and bulk bins which are
mechanically emptied.
5~-2. 24
-------
Tablr 12
POTENTIAL ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES) OF DIRECT HAUL TO DISPOSAL SJTE3 AND
USE OP TRANSFER STATION, AND THE CONDITIONS THAT FAVOR EACH METHOD
Alternative
Potential
advantages
Potential
disadvantages
Conditions wMch
favor alternate
Direct haul by
collection trucks
to disposal site
Transfer station
Requires no capital
expenditure
Cuts down on nonproductive
collection time
In-town location where
residents can bring their waste
Makes collection operation
independent of the actual
disposal site
Facilitates the addition of
resource recovery or volume
reduction equipment at the
transfer site
Permits land reclamation
(e.g.. filling in strip mines) at
location distant from
generation point
Capital and operating costs of
collection vehicles are reduced.
Changes in disposal site
location require rerouting of
all collection trucks
Nonproductive time spent in
transport increases costs
Requires extra materials
handling step
Requires capital expenditures
for land, structures, and
equipment
To achieve savings in wn'«Hnj
system, a reduction in the
number of crews is needed
Difficult to find recipient of
waste outside of immediate
political jurisdiction
There is usually citizen
opposition to poposed
transfer sites if located near
residential areas
Close-in disposal sit^p
available
Low labor rates
* Nonurban area
High labor costs
Distant disposal site
Large collection crews
Shortage of land for sanitary
landfills at reasonable price
Urban areas
f ?.25
-------
SOURCE SEPARATION OF POST-CONSUMER SOLID WASTE
Source separation requires that the waste generator separate the
solid waste into recyclable components (i.e., paper, cans, and glass)
and non-recyclable components. The recyclables are then collected and
sold for re-use. For residential wastes, the generator is the homeowner.
In residential wastes, the recyclable portion consisting of paper, cans,
and glass represents over 30 percent of the weight and 40 percent of the
volume of municipal solid waste.
Somervilie and Marblehead, Massachusetts, are conducting programs
to demonstrate the extent to which materials can be economically recovered
from the residential waste stream through source separation. Somerville,
which began collecting materials on December 1, 1975, is an urban,
working class community of 90,000 with a population density of 23,000
persons per square mile. Marblehead, which commenced its program on
January 12, 1976, is an affluent suburb of Boston with 23,000 residents
and a population density of 5,200 persons per square mile.
Marblehead has as its goal, a 25 percent reduction (by weight) in
municipal solid waste through the recycling program. Somerville's goal
is 15 percent reduction. After 3 months, Marblehead has exceeded its
goal by 5 percent and is regularly recycling 30 percent by weight of its
residential wastes. Somerville is recycling 9 percent. Somerville is
recovering so much less than Marblehead at this time for several
5^2.26
-------
reasons: (1) Somerville never had a recycling program whereas the
Marblehead program 1s an extension and Improvement of a previous program
(modification Is easier than a whole new program), (2) Somerville 1s
collecting fewer Items* no green and amber glass* but 1s soon to Include
these, and (3> Somerville had some Initial Implementation problems !
(e.g. weather) which reduced participation, but a new public Information
&
program 1s soon to be used. The percent recycled In Somerville Is
anticipated to Increase substantially by mld-sumtier.
The two source separation programs aire designed to maximize the
recovery of materials from the waste stream, within economic constraints,
by:
° Maximizing the participation rate of their citizens.
° Establishing a favorable long-term ifiarket for recovered materials.
# Minimizing collection costs.
The participation rate will be maximized through the enactment
of ordinances which mandate citizen participation and through the
Implementation of an aggressive public education.program designed to
heighten public awareness of resource and environmental problems and
to make recycling a habit for all citizens.
S'2. 27
-------
Both communities have found favorable long-term markets for
recovered materials by seeking competitive bids on a guaranteed-minlmum
contract and by assuring that a stable supply of recycled materials will
be delivered to the buyer 1n a form that can be readily produced Into
valuable, marketable recovered resources.
Both programs involve weekly, curbside collection of paper, glass
(clear glass only in Somerville), and cans. Additional collection costs
are being minimized by using, to the maximum practicable extent, the
existing municipal solid waste collection resources in the community and
by demonstrating the feasibility of a compartmentalized collection
vehicle designed to collect all recyclables at the same time.
The success of both communities' recycling programs depends on four
key elements; public education, materials and markets, collection, and
economics.
~
Public Education. Public education is achieved by:
" ¦ 11 »
/
° Effective use of the media. Including newspaper articles,'
radio and television program announcements, and publically
s
displayed posters.
S".2.28
-------
• Interaction with Community Groups. Through speaking engage-
ments with Chambers of Commerce, garden clubs, fraternal
organizations, etc. to inform members about the program
and receive their consents.
0 School Program. Including curriculum packages developed
for several grade school levels, high school science courses,
and the encouragement of student participation in recylcing
programs held at their schools.
0 Direct Conrounication With Individual Residents. Including
letters mailed to each citizen from senior community officials
requesting public support for the program and providing
detailed Information on the operational aspects of the
program. In Somerville, a 1976 calendar with explanations
of the various aspects of recycling was distributed to each
resident.
Materials and Markets. Both communities recycle all metal
cans, and flat paper—such as newspaper, flattened cardboard, writing
paper. Sommervllle recovers flint (clear) glass only; Marblehead

-------
recycles amber and green glass as well as clear. For the convenience of
residents, both municipalities allow glass and cans to be placed in the
same container at the curbside.
Recognizing the importance of a favorable and stable market for
recovered materials, Somerville and Marblehead have each sought competitive
bids for a contract that provides a guaranteed minimum price for all
materials and requires that prices for materials be tied to some accepted
industry indicator, such as the Official Board Market for paper. To
ensure bidders a large, stable supply of materials in return, both
communities have guaranteed that all recyclables collected will go to
the successful bidder for the duration of the contract.
Collection. Collection costs have a significant impact on the
economics of source separation; thus, a major objective of a recycling
program is to keep collection costs low. It was determined that it
would be cheaper to utilize a compartmentalized vehicle to collect
all recyclables simultaneously with the same crew rather than make
several collections with single-chamber vehicles or packer trucks.
To do so, both communities have purchased, bucket-loading, collection
vehicles. The truck bodies for both programs were manufactured, under
a competitively bid contract, by Rendispos, Inc., LaRose, Illinois.
Somerville purchased two 15 cubic meter (20 cu yd) vehicles, each
operated by a three man crew consisting of a driver and two collectors.
Marblehead will use two 12 cubic meter (16 cu yd) trucks with 2 man crews.
-------
Economics. The economics of source separation depend on several
factors specific to each consnunity: the revenues and disposal cost
savings associated with materials recovery, and the costs of collecting,
publicizing, and administering a recycling program. Revenues and
disposal cost savings depend upon and the volume of materials recovered,
which, 1n turn, depends upon the extent of resident participation.
While neither program has been underway long enough to offer
conclusive economic results, 1t is anticipated that each will result 1n
a net savings to the community.
£" 2. 31
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ACT SYSTEMS, INC. Residential collection systems, v. 1. Report
summary. Environmental Protection Publication SW-97c.l. [Washington],
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1974. 106 p.
ANON, New study finds private haulers more efficient than municipal
collection agencies. Solid Wastes Management, 19(1):36-38,
January 1976.
APPLIED MANAGEMENT SCIENCES, INC. The private sector 1n solid waste
management; a profile of its resources and contribution to collection
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SW-51d.l. Washington, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1973.
239 p.
BOGUE, M. D. Clean and green solid waste system in Alabama is widely
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1971. 8 p.
CITY OF SCOTTSDALE, ARIZONA. A handbook for initiating or improving
commercial refuse collection. Washington, U.S. Environmental
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GOLDBERG, T. L. Improving rural solid waste management practices.
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Government Printing Office, 1973. 83 p.
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Environmental Protection Agency, 1971. 17 p.
NATIONAL COMMISSION ON PRODUCTIVITY. Opportunities for improving
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Waste Management Advisory Group. Washington, U.S. Government
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SW-82ts. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1971. 243 p.
(Distributed by National Technical Information Service, Springfield,
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and collection. Environmental Protection Publication SW-42d. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, 1972. 264 p. (Distributed by
National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Va., as
PB-212 590.)
f. 2.32
-------
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solid waste; separate collection studies. Environmental Protection
Publication SW-95c.1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1974.
157 p. (Distributed by National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, Va., as PB-239 775.)
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and productivity. Solid Wastes Management, 18(3):6, 42-44,
Mar. 1975.
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systems. Environmental Protection Publication SW-131. Washington,
U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974. 38 p.
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Town & City, 9(12): 7-9, Dec. 1974.
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collection vehicles. Environmental Protection Publication
SW-113. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1974. 45 p.
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY. Decision-makers guide 1n solid
waste management. 2d ed. Environmental Protection Publication
SW-500. Washington, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976.
158 p.
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY. Residential, commercial and
Institutional solid wastes; proposed guidelines for storage and
collection. Federal Register 40(134): 29404-29408, July 11, 1975.
WOLCOTT, R. M., and B. W. VINCENT. The relationship of solid waste
storage practices 1n the Inner city to the Incidence of rat
Infestation and fires. Environmental Protection Publication
SW-150. [Washington], U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
May 1975 14 p.
. YOUNG, D. How shall we collect the garbage? A study In economic
x organization. Washington, The Urban Institute, 1972. 83 p.
5V2.33
-------
The paper to be presented to: :
"The Third Japan-U.S, Conference on Solid Waste Management"
May 1976. Tokyo, Japan.
RESOURCE RECOVERY PROM POST-CONSUMER WASTE IN JAPAN
by
Kunitoshi Sakurai*
March, 1976
Dr. of Engineering, Researcher of The Research Institute
of National Economy.
-------
C 0 N T E NTS
FOREWORD 1
STUDIES OP RESOURCE RECOVERY PROM POST-CONSUMER
ffASTE IN JAPAN IT. 2
Chapter 1 Materials Recovery 3
1-1 Paper . 5
1-2 Plastic 14
1-3 Glass 22
1-4 Metal .... 28
Chapter 2 Energy Recovery 39
Chapter 3 Materials Conversion 41
AFTERWORD 44
APPENDIX
1. White Paper on the Environment 1974 (Abstract)
2. White Paper on Japanese Economy 1975 (Abstract)
3. The Fiction of Consumer's Sovereignty
4. Case Study Report of Re-use and Recycling of Beverage
Containers
5. Study on Waste Management System in Smaller Cities
(Abstract)
6. Offshore Waste Treatment Technology and Systems
(Abstract)
-------
CO R (SWORD
An outlook of waste problems in Japan is indicated at
"White Paner on the Environment 1974" (cf. APPENDIX l).
The importance of resource recovery from post-consumer waste
is yearly increasing by the following three reasons, 1) uti-
lization efficiency promotion of natural resources, 2) volume
reduction of generated waste and 3) latent potential reduction
of environmental nollution. For example, with respect to the
resource problem, Japan is now seriously deadlocked as indicated
at "White Paper on Japanese Economy 1975" (cf. APPENDIX 2).
In case of investigating resource recovery from post-
v
consumerwaste, primarily, its quality becomes a major premise
of the investigation. As the duality of post-consumer waste
considerably differs between Japan and U.S.A., this ooint must
be well recognized to compare and inquire the situations about
resource recovery from post-consumer waste in both countries (
cf. APPENDIX 3 and p.10-12 of "Resource Recovery from Municipal
Solid Waste in Japan"* ).
This present report treats the situation about resource
recovery from oost-consumer waste in Japan with emnhasison
the following two points, l) to report what was not informed
at the past Japan-U.3. Conference on Solid Waste Management
and 2 ) to introduce materials recovery by source separation
rooting in Japanese society.
* A oaper submitted for the Second Ja^an-U.S. Conference
on Solid Waste Management by S.Gotoh and w.Nakajiku. This
paper is called as "1974 AIST*R5P0RT" hereafter.
** AIST means Agency of Industrial Science and Technology,
Ministry of International Trade and Industry.
i /• I
-------
STUDIES 0? RESOURCE RECOVERY PROM POST-CONSUMER '.VASTS IN JA''AN
1. There are three types in resource recovery systems, that
is, 1) materials recovery, 2) energy recovery and 3) materials
conversion, and there are also three in resource recovery
options, 1) source reduction, 2) source separation and 3) waste
recovery.
2. Materials recovery by source separation has been a dominant
method in Japan for resource recovery from post-consumer waste.
Though this method is being threatened bv a throwaway mood as
seen in increasing one way packages, still it widely roots in
Japanese society comparing with U.S.A.. The following four
reasons reveal why this method has rooted in Japan.
1) Rareness of resource in the country.
2) Easiness of collection caused by high population density.
3) Cheep labour cost for collecting.
4) Unnecessity for special technology.
3. The present report outlines the circumstances of resource
recovery from post-consumer waste in Japan centering materials
recovery by source separation system. Except source separation
system, there are 1) source reduction (e.g. elimination of
overpackaging, extension of product life etc.) and 2) waste
recovery (e.g. resource recovery from municipal waste at inci-
neration plant). Source reduction had not produced much effect
by mere enlightenment until the oil crisis in the autumn 1973,
although its importance had been recognized little by little.
After this crisis, waste volume generated from household
apparently decreased. 7/aste recovery is still unsatisfactory
as indicated in TABLE I. This stems from the fact that inci-
neration has been the prime system to reduce the waste volume
for reclamation because of the difficulty to get reclamation
sites in Japan.
kJ-i
-------
TABLli 1 RATIO OP INCINERATION PLANTS PRACTICING RESOURCE RECOVSRY
PROM MUNICIPAL WASTES (FY1973)
^lant Size (t/da.y)
Recovered Resource -—
0
1
20
j
ui ro
| O O
50
100
100
200
200
s
. 500
17 J
500
S
Averag

ferrous metal
24.9
31.4
23.8
20.9
27.4
21.4
26.0

non-ferrous metal
4.6
5.4
4.6
1.1
2.0
0
4.3
Materials
glass
2.4
5.8
3.3
2.2
2.0
o
3.2
Recovery
paper
plastic
3.3
0
/2.2
0
3.3
0
1.1
0
3.9
0
3.6
0
2.9
0

fiber
0.5
0.7
0.7
0
0
0
i
0.5

wood
0.4
0
0.7
0
0
0 j 0.3
Energy
vapor
0
0.7
0
2.2
15.7
25.0
2.3
hot water
8.2
28.5
47.7
42.9
66.7
64.3
25.0
Recovery
i
electri city¦
0
0
0
0
3.9
39.3 |
1.7
Chapter 1 Materials Recovery
1. This chanter reports about materials recovery (mainly by
source separation) from post-consumer waste in Japan. Paper,
plastic, glass and metal are picked up as materials.
2. Municipal waste and post-consumer waste are not always
the same because the former contains some commercial waste
and the latter contains' what is eliminated from waste stream
by source separation. However, referine to the municipal
waste, the component outline of post-consumer waste is appro-
ximately indicated. TABLE 2 indicates the changes in muni-
cipal wasce composition in Tokyo. 1972 data (before intro-
duction of separate collection) shows 56.7 percent of muni-
cipal waste was occupied by above-stated four materials.
Therefore, it is extremely useful for saving valuable resource
and reducing the disposal cost of municipal waste to promote
u. |.3
-------
TABL-S 2 C'IAN'^3 IN THS COMPOSITION O? MUNICIPAL .7A';T;5 IN TOKYO
(Wet base, %)

fiscal year

'74
Material
1968
'69
¦70
¦71
•72
'73
ordinary
collection
special
collection
o
Papers
32.0
33.3
31.3
33.8
38.2
38.2
39.4
10.4
t
Kitchen waste
24.8
31.8
31.5
26.6
22.7
36.7
38.7
5.2
c
OB
ft
Fibers
4.0
3.6
4.6
3.4
3.6
3.0
2.8
3.4
O*
H
®
Wood, bamboo
Miscellaneous
4.8
15.9
1.6
6.7
2.4
6.8
4.2
5.7
4.2
5.7
3.8
7.1
4.4
5.5
} 7.8

Total
81.5
77.0
76.6
73.7
74.4
88.8
90.8
26.8
rrSS
HO PI
ft h» a*.
Plastics
7.3
9.7
10.3
8.0
7.3
5.2
4.5
18.4
it .0
ss
Rubber, leather
—
0.8
1.5
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.4
3.5

(D
Total
7.3
10.5
11.8
8.6
7.8
5.6
4.9
21.9
H
P
O
O
g
Metals
2.3
2.9
2.7
3.5
4.1
2.3
1.8
16.6
w
c
Glass, ceramics
3.1
5.0
5.7
7.6
7.1
2.7

ft
H-
er
Others
5.8
4.6
3.2
6.6
6.6
0.6
} 2.5
} 34.7
«
a
Total
11.2
12.5
11.6
17.7
17.8
5.6
4.3
51.3
Grand total
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Note: Miscellaneous: — Leaves, husks, and other unclassifiable items
Others: Shells, earth, sand, stone and unclassifiable items
Quantities of '73 consist of ordinary collection's composition
-------
resource recovery of these four materials from post-consumer
waste.
1-1 Paper
1.
Paper is the biggest component together with kitchen
waste in the municipal waste in Japan, but the paper content
in Japan is less than that in U.S.A. as indicated in Table 1
of APPENDIX 3. The paper recycle ratio (recycled amount /
consumption) is 35-40 percent in Japan. It is higher than
those in the European countries as indicated in TABLE 5.
However, with the recent increase of paper packages, the paper
content in the municipal waste has been yearly increasing (cf.
TABLE 2). As the demand of paper in Japan has been increasing
at the high pitch with the rapid economic growth as illustrated
in FIGURE 1, it becomes extremely necessary to save paper and
recycle waste paper from the both viewpoints of environmental
protection and resource conservation.
FIGURE 1 TRENDS o? PER CAPITA GNP AND PER CAPITA CONSUMPTION
OF PAPER AND CARDBOARD
kg/capita
250 -
S$ 200 j.
a
so
Germany
1000
2000 3U00
Per Capita GNP (
znfoo s/cap«a
-------
TABLE 3 RAW MATERIALS CONSUMPTION BY PAPER INDUSTRY
PY
Total
Pulp
Waste Paper
Others
1955
2,649(100.0)
1,753(66.2)
543(20.5)
353(13.3)
•60
5,651(100.0)
3,568(63.2)
;,528(27.0)
555( 9.8)
•65
8,513(100.0)
5,265(61.8)
2,885(33.9)
363( 4.3)
'66
9,343(100.0)
5,842(61.4)
3,266(35.0)
335( 2.6)
'67
10,201(100.0)
6,385(62.6)
3,521(34.5)
295( 2.9)
•68
10,991(100.0)
7,042(64.1)
3,713(33.8)
236( 2.1)
•69
12,153(100.0)
7,702(63.5)
4,215(34.7)
236( 1.9)
'70
13,800(100.0)
8,876(64.3)
4,695(34.0)
228( 1.7)
•71
13,751(100.0)
8,973(65.3)
4,601(33.5)
176( 1.2)
.72
14,671(100.0)
| 9,361(63.8)
5,153(35.2)
148( 1.0)
Note: Percentage in parentheses.
2. Raw materials of paper are pulp, waste paper and other
fibers. The raw materials composition in Japan is 60-65
percent pulp and 30-35 percent waste paper as indicated in
TABLE 3. In light of paper and cardboard, the former is 85-
87 percent pulp and 12-14 percent waste paper and the latter
is 38-40 percent pulp and 57-60 percent waste paper. This
V
fact exemplifies how waste paper occupiesthe important position
as the raw material of paper, especially of cardboard. TABLE 3
indicates the weight of waste paper had grown around 35 percent
until 1965 from about 20 percent in 1955. This stems from
increase of cardboard production, in particular, the corrugated
one used for packaging.
3. vVaste paper consumption grew from 1,528 thousand tons in
PY I960 to 3.4 times, 5,153 thousand tons in FY 1972 (cf.
TABLE 3). On the other hand, pulp consumption also grew to
2.6 times for these years, and timber consumption for nulp
production reached 31.4 million cub. meters in 1970, which
occupied 28.7 percent of whole timber demand in Japan. To add
U-
-------
to this, the other timber demand (e.g. lumber and plywood etc. )
increased rapidly within these years. Accordingly the whole
timber demand in Japan in 1970, 110 million cub. meters, had
far outstripped domestic timber supply. Consequently,
dependance percentage on the importation became 53.4 percent
in 1970 from 12.3 percent in I960.
Against this restriction of timber supply, paper and pulp
industries have been making a great effort to get raw material
by utilizing hard wood resource or developping chip ships for
importation etc.. Two obstacles are existing against this
effort. One is the cost-up of imported timber and chip caused
by overheated competition among Japanese enterprises abroad.
The other is the strict policy for resource conservation in
each exporting country. It is forecasted that if GNP yearly
continues to grow up on 7-8 percent net growth rate, 23,517
thousand tons of paper and cardboard will be demanded in 1980.
58.6 million cub. meters of timber is necessitated to supply
this, and even if timber importation for paper and cardboard
production extends to 17.5 million cub. meters in 1980 from
5.3 million cub. meters in 1970, 15.2: million cub. meters of
timber will be insufficient. To sup-ply this insufficiency
with waste paper ignoring the quality, it is necessary to
elevate the recycle ratio to around 45 percent in 1980 from
estimated 32.4 percent.
Not only by the restriction of timber supply, but also
by the seriousness of pollution generated from pulp producing
process, the necessity of waste paper recycle has been swelling.
The Round-Table Conference on Industrial Planning put the
paper and pulp industry on the negative list as industry
desirable to be reformed (cf. TABLE 4). Above all, paper and
pulp industry using imported timber and chip was pointed out
as the industry desirable to be cut down and finally to be
abolished. Among paper and pulp industries, the approved ones
for some proper expansion are paper and cardboard industry
*>.
-------
TABLl-: 4 NEGATIVE LIST
(INDUSTRY DESIRABLE TO BE REFORMED)
Ranking
Industry Section
Allowed to expand slowly
on the condition that new
plants are dispersedly
located.
* Paper and cardboard industry
using waste paper.
* Paper industry using imported
pulp.
Desirable to maintain the
existing state.
* Paper and pulp industry using
domestic timber and chip.
Desirable to be cut down
and finally to be abo-
lished.
* Paper and pulp industry using
imported timber and chip.
* Paper industry r>roducing
plastic processed paper.
Source: The Round-Table Conference on Industrial Planning.
Note: Dhis Table extracts "paper and.pulr» industry" part
from the original "Negative List".
using waste paper and paper industry using imported pulp,
although in both cases plant location must be checked. The
reason why these industries are approved is that they have not
pulp production process which pollutes air and water seriously.
6. Recycle ratios of waste paper in Japan and other countries
are changing as indicated in TABLE 5. The ratio in Jatian was
changing in the range of 25-30 percent until 1959. With the
later increase of waste paper demand due to the expansion of
cardboard production, recycle ratio has been changing in the
range of 35-40 percent for these 10 years. The following five
will be pointed as the reasons of comparatively high recycle
ratio in Japan.
1) With the rapid growth of economy since I960, cardboard
demand (especially corrugated boxes demand ) has remark-
ably increased. Then, waste paper demand has also remark-
ably increased under restricted timber supply.
2) Waste paper recycle has depended on low cost labour.
U.I.*
-------
TABLE 5 RECYCLE RATIOS OF PAPER
(*)
year
1955
•60
•65
•70
'71
Japan
24.
9
34.
8
39.4
39.
5
36.
5
U.S.A.
26.
3
23.
1
20.7
18.
9
19.
2
U.K.
20.
7
24.
4
25.2
27.
1
27.
2
'//.Germany
31.
3
30.
0
30.4
31.
8
32.
4
France
28.
6
29.
2
28.6
29.
7
30.
5
Finland
14.
8
20.
4
23.6
18.
0
16.
7
Sweden
18.
7
17.
7
15.9
15.
6
18.
2
Holland
31.
9
18.
2
17.5
31.
5
34.
0
Austria

44.
8
43.
9
Note: Recycle ratio is defined as recycled
amount: tier consumption.
3) Because of the high -copulation density, collection from
household is relatively advantageous than that in U.S.
-------
TABLE 6 POTENTIAL vYASTE PAPER (ESTIMATION KOR 1071).
(10^ tons)

Potential
Recycling
Recycling
Kind
Waste
Possibles
Impossibles

¦
Paper
A
B
A+B
C
D
C+D

newspaper
1944
946
548
1494
450

450
Daper
kraft
904
144
127
271
633

633

others
4068
1118
413
1531
1306
1231
2537
;ardboard
corrugated
3624
1903
996
2899
725

725

others
1918
363
503
866
866
186
1052
Total
12458
4474
2587
7061
3980
1417
5397
Ratio (f)
100.0
35.V
20.8
56.7
31.9
11.4
43.3
Notes: A recycled.
B not recycled but possible to be recycled.
C taboo items (ex. paper mixed with kitchen waste,
paper coated with plastic).
D used for ^reservation (ex. books).
cardboard) and actually recycled is 35.9 percent (i.e. 31.9
percent of paper and 40.9 percent of cardboard). That means,
actually recycled is 60.4 percent of recycling possibles (i.e.
67.0 percent in case of paper and 60.2 percent in case of
cardboard). What show the high ratios both on recycling possi-
bles and on actual recycled are waste newspaper and waste
corrugated cardboard.
8. Among recycled paper, the most unstable is what is collecte
from household. Because whereas recycle from big sources like
newspaper offices and publishing companies is low at the cost,
recycle from household is high. Then, the collection from
household easily becomes unprofitable with price down of waste
paper. Consequently, the large scale of changes in waste paper
price as illustrated at FIGURE 2 is the biggest cause to impede
recycle of waste paper from household. In addition, PIGORE 2
also illustrates that waste paper price is easily influenced
(p.l.lO
-------
FIGURE 2 CHANGES IN WASTE PAPER PRICES
IN JAPAN
I960 65 70
year
by business conditions and the price generally becomes low
in recession (i.e. 1962, '65 and '71). If waste paper price
downs 10 points, the recycle ratio downs 0.8 percent as
illustrated in FIGURE 3.
The following measures seem effective to elevate the
recycle ratio of waste paper and to stabilize it on a high
position. 1) To subsidize for waste paper recycled when its
price falls down, 2) to tax on the paper fabricated only from
pulp, 3) to establish waste paper deposits and 4) to decrease
the use of recycling impossibles. Measures 1),2) and 3) will
be discussed in'the next clause. About measure 4), it is
extremely undesirable to increase the production of paper
(b. If
-------
FIGURE 3 RELATION BETWEEN WASTE ^APER PRIGS
AND RE3Y0LU RATTO
f
40-
w
CD
O
\
o
J—1
0)
w
0>
<+
H-
O
I
35
Y « 30.44 + 0.079X
(H = 0.817, DW = 100)
60
80
100
120
140
> X
Waste Paper Price Index x
Wholesale Price Index .
containers coated with polyethylene on the interior (i.e.
milk container) from both viewpoints of forestry resource
conservation and wast disposal cost reduction. Ministry of
Health and Welfare, aiming at development of national food
life, approved the diffusion of this kind of one way packages
for a consumer to get milk cheep. However, the profit of one
way system is not so much enjoyed by a consumer as is done by
a dairy industry. It is necessary to rediscuss about the
proprietry of this kind of one way packages.
There are three policies for recycling promotion and
-------
TABLE 7 COMPARISONS 0? THR^ POLICIES FOR PAPSR RECYCLING-
AND CONSUMPTION REDUCTION
policy
recycling
promotion
consumption
reduction
easiness of
putting into
operation
some
e ffect
on
consumer's price
slightly plus due to
the dropping of re-
cycled paper price.
1
subsidy or tax
exempts to recy-
cled paper
much
none
2
taxation on pulp
user
some
much
some
temporarily minus
due to the uprising
of paper price.

establishment of

generally plus due
3
waste paper
much*
none
much**
to the stabilization

deposits

of waste paper price.
Notes: * due to the stabilization of waste naper -nrice.
** partly operated already.
-------
consumption reduction in an attempt to utilize price mecha-
nism as indicated in TABLE 7. Policy 1 may be useful for
recycling promotion, but it dose not immediately connect to
consumption reduction and it needs financial burden. Policy 2
connects both to consumption reduction and to environmental
betterment, but has an anxiety to bring a rise of wholesale
and consumer price accompanied with the elevation of the paper
price. Policy 3 connects to recycling promotion through stabi-
lization of waste paper price but does not connect to consump-
tion reduction. After all, each policy has both merits and
demerits. It is necessary to use these policies jointly to
promote resource conservation and environmental protection.
1-2 Plastic
1. As indicated in Table 1 of APPENDIX 3, plastic content in
municipal waste in Japan is around 10 percent, which is mark-
edly high comparing with cities in U.S.A., and 10-20 percent
of plastics is PVC. The pollution by plastics is one of the
extremely serious social problems in Japan. Eternally nonde-
gradable, scattered around hills and fields, interrupting fair
views, making troubles at incinerators, ejecting toxic subs-
tances to air and water by being incinerated, but these are
just one of those problems that plastics bring about.
Therefore, the plastic has not been put so much emphasis on
resource recovery as on eliminating pollution.
2. Plastic production, demand structure and product life
determine the amount of waste plastics. TABLE 8,9 and 10
indicate waste plastics from each source, production and waste
of plastics and life estimation of plastics respectively.
TABLE 8'indicates waste plastics have rapidly increased from
1971 to 1976 on gross rate of 12 percent per year. Waste
plastics from household is around 50 percent of all and waste
plastics included.in municipal waste is about 70 percent (7+8+
9). TABLE 9 shows that short life LDPE is wasted in particular.
t.. i-'H
-------
TABLE 8 WASTE PLASTICS PROM EACH SOURCE (ESTIMATED)
(10^ tons)
Source——_____ Year
1971
'72
•73
•74
•75
•76
1
resin manufacturer
100
105
113
122
131
141
2
primary processor
128
141
154
168
184
200
3
agriculture
65
74
81
88
95
103
4
fishery
21
25
31
30
31
33
5
manufacturer
107
123
138
155
174
193
6
distribution a
21
34
58
79
103
113
7
distribution b
130
149
168
189
212
234
8
household
730
840
942
1059
1190
1314
9
others
156
175
177
207
231
i
CD
10
sub total (2+3+—+9)
1358
1561
1751
1975
2220
2448
Total (1+10)
1458
1666
1864
2097
2351
2589
Notes: 5 is manufacturer excluding 1 and 2.
6 is big containers etc..
7 is department store, supermarket, market and
wholesaler.
9 are retailer, service industry etc..
TABLE 9 PRODUCTION AND WASTE OP PLASTICS (ESTIMATED)
(10^ tons)
KincT^^fear
1971
'72
•73
•74
•75
•76
Production
5198
5657
5851
6287
6776
7718
Waste
1358
1561
1751
1944
2220
2448
PVC
293
277
287
321
357
385
PP
156
202
239
289
324
359
LDPJ3
430
519
553
596
636
681
HDPE
143
159
197
223
266
299 ,
PS
130
172
203
235
277
305
AS
11
13
15
20
21
26
ABS
19
26
36
46
62
83
MMA
13
17
22
27
34
42
urethane
17
26
31
34
39
45
melamine
4
4
5
5
6
6
phenol
37
36
43
52
58
68
polyester
27
30
33
38
42
47
urea
55
54
55
55
56
57
others
22
25
31
34
41
45
(p. A tS
-------
TABLE 10 LIPS ESTIMATION OP PLASTICS

Production
Li
A
:e

(A)
(B)
(0)
(D)
Kind
in 1970
0 — 2
2—5
5—10
10 —

years
years
years
years

(10^ tons)
(*)
(*)
(*)
(*)
LDPE
381
87
5
2
6
HDPE
404
32
40
25
3
PP
580
41
17
32
10
PVC
1,160
18
17
25
40
PS
492
52
10
35
3
phenol
217
10
15
47
28
urea
532
2
22
47
26
Total
4,266*
39**
16**
27* *
18**
Notes: (A) wrappings, one way containers etc..
(B) sundry goods, toys etc..
(C) containers, automobiles, electric
appliances etc..
(D) pipes, electric wires, furnitures
etc..
* All plastic production in 1970 was
5,063x10^ tons. Therefore this table
covers 84i' ^
** weighted average.
(,. I.fk
-------
TABLE 10 indicates LDPB has quite a short life and that nearly
60 percent of all plastics are wasted in five years.
3. It is adequate for waste plastics to be categorized to
four parts as indicated in TABLE 11. 1 and 2 of this is
comparatively recoverable because same kinds of unstained
plastics are discharged in a huge volume. On the contrary,
the trouble is category 4, plastic recovery from post-consumer
waste. In this case, separation and classification are very
difficult and moreover, collected plastics are so much dirty.
As already mentioned, waste plastic has become a big social
problem because of expanding troubles due to the increasing
plastic content in municipal waste. The development of treat-
ment technology and attempts to recycle plastics have been
underway against this problem. Still to date, there is no
prospect about waste plastic recycle from post-consumer waste
neither technologically nor economically.
4. Attempt by Tokyo
In Tokyo, mainly because of PVC, HOI concentration in
emission and cadmium* concentration in effluent from incinera-
tion plants were extremely high (cf. TABLE 12). Therefore,
for fear of secondary pollution, plastic separate colliection
has been put into operation from PY 1973. Since then, HC1
* At Setagaya Incineration Plant on TABLE 12, although the
effluent containing four times cadmium concentration of regu-
lation standard was discharged, it did not produce cadmium
contaminated rice because there is no rice field downstream.
On the other hand, at Ozenji Incineration Plant in Kawasaki
City, cadmium contaminated rice (i.e. rice containing cadmium
over 1 ppm) was harvested at downstream rice field in 1974
by discharge of 0.06-0.08 Cfl mg/l effuent which is under the
regulation standard. As the main cause of this cadmium pollu-
tion, PVC stabilizer and coloring agent contained in PVC have
been suspected.
-------
TABLE 11 CATEGORY OP WASTE PLASTICS
Category
Source
Example
Characteristics
collection
separation
contamination
«-¦» H-
H- 3
3 a
£
£0 CO
e+
S
H- H-
1* industrial
waste
in a narrow
sense
resin manu-
facturers,
primary and
secondary
processors
resins,
various shaped
products etc.
easy
easy
light
fl [»
ffl h-1
CO £
(9 (S
3 m
(0 c+

2, quasi-
industrial
waste
distributors,
agriculture
etc.
containers,
packings,
plastic films
for agricul-
tural use etc.
easy
easy
comparatively<
light

3. product
waste
discarded
automobiles
and household
appliances etc.
various shaped
products etc.
- easy
slightly
hard
comparatively
light
4.
household
waste
household
wrappings,
sundry goods,
toys etc.
hard
hard •
heavy
-------
TABLE 12 HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES IN THE EMISSION AND EFFLUENT
FROM SETAGAYA INCINERATION PLANT (TOKYO)

Concentration

Regulation
before separate
after separate
Substance

collection***
collection***

Standard
(Oct.,1972)
(Sept.,1974)

soot
0.18 (g/Nnr3)
0.12
0.032

NOjc
ND* (ppm)
114
170
Emission
S0X
1,210**(ppm)
10
25

HC1
ND* (ppm)
36****
520****

Cd
0.095 (mg/1)
0.38
0.008
Effluent
Pb
0.95 (mg/1)
0.57
0.18

Zn
4.75 (mg/1)
0.61
0.18
Notes: * Not Determined.
** is regulation standard of Air Pollution Control
Law and others are regulation standards of The
Pollution Prevention Ordinance by Tokyo Metro-
politan Government.
*** In FY1973, the separate collection of nlastics
etc. from household was put into operation in
Tokyo.
**** Examination method of HC1 in 1974 is different
from that in 1972, so they are uncomparable
each other.
1 A
-------
concentration in emission and cadmium concentration in effluent
from incineration plants have been reduced as indicated in
TABLE 12.
Notwithstanding the huge generation of municipal waste,
reclamation site is very scarce in Tokyo. So, incineration has
become the foremost subject for volume reduction, but the
construction has been completely retarded. Because it meets a
strong oppositional movement. In these circumstances, the
former mentioned fact, HC1 and Gd pollution by existing plants,
became clear, and it meant the more retardation for construct-
ing new plants. These were well enough reasons why Tokyo
hastily introduced separate collection.
Incombustibles and inadequate incinerables like plastics,
metals and glass are separately collected from household in
Tokyo. The reason why plastics are not separately collected
from metals and glass is because more separation than into two
types* (i.e. combustibles and incombustibles & inadequate inci-
nerables ) is impossible in light of collection frequency, cost
and traffic situations. In case of Toyohashi City, a medium
size city of 300 thousand populations, an experimental separate
collection into five types is underway (cf. APPENDIX 5).
Again in case of Tokyo, neither treatment technology nor
resource recovery technology have been prepared. Accordingly,
collected plastics for the time being are heaped up on the New
Reclaimed Site Along the Coastal Side of the Central Breakwater
in Tokyo Bay. The aim of plastic collection in Tokyo is
primarily to prevent the secondary pollution from incineration
plants, but if the problem of heavy metals like cadmium and
lead is really serious, control or ban for the use of PVC
stabilizer containing Cd or Pb should be legislated. Then, a
great amount of cost and bother for separate collection will
become unnecessary.
Separate collection of bulky refuse had already been put
into operation until then, so each household is totally
practicing three types of source separation in Tokyo.
U- \
-------
5. Attempt by the Plastic Waste Management Institute
The Plastic Waste Management Institute was established in
1972 by 34 polymer manufacturing companies. It continued to
run test plants for plastic reutilization at Funabashi and
Koshigaya cities (cf. p25 of 1974 AIST REPORT) and finished
the test run in 1975.
Funabashi Plant aimed to collect plastics from household
separately (practiced by the municipal authority) and to make
plastic products through melting and reshaping. The test run
brought the conclusion that the feasibility was small for this
type of plant to become a fundamental system for plastic
recovery from post-consumer waste. The conclusion is based on
the following two reasons.
1) Even if the separate collection cost is covered by the
municipal authority, there remains a serious economic
problem.
2) Various plastics are mixed up because of the dispossession
of classification process. This means that re-shaped
products have inferior physical property and cannot find
large market.
Koshigaya ^lant aimed to collect waste plastics separately
(also practiced by the municipal authority), pre-heat PVC, ext-
ract hydrochloric acid and incinerate the residues at last.
This plant neither ran well. It was both economically and
technically difficult to meet the intensified municipal pollu-
tion control standard. In adition, this attempt was a go-back
from the fundamental direction of resource recovery, for it
aimed to incinerate separately collected waste plastics after
all.
Both test plants of Plastic Waste Management Institute did
not succeed in presenting definite systems for disposal and
recovery of plastics from post-consumer waste, though they
brought many valuable findings.
(o * I' 2.)
oi
-------
1-3 Glass
Glass occupies 5-7 percent (in weight) of Japanese
municipal waste and it is almost a half compared with U.S.
cities* 11-16 percent (cf. Table 1 of APPENDIX 3), but glass
content in municipal waste is yearly increasing as indicated
in TABLE 2. Though there has not "been a quantitative survey
about glass kinds in municipal waste yet, they are mostly
estimated as glass bottles.
Glass bottle production by ten big glass bottle manu-
facturers in Japan is growing as indicated in TABLE 13.
92 percent of whole glass bottle production are occupied by
these ten. Against this, plate glass production in 1971 is
about 1,150 thousand tons. Therefore the ratio of glass bottle
production to plate glass production is 6 to 4. Notwithstanding
this comparatively weighty plate glass production, its content
in municipal waste is; small. The reasons of this are as
follows. 1) Bfeing different from glass bottle, plate glass is
intermediate material used as the raw material by automobile
industry etc.. Consumer's direct purchase for repairing
houses is only 1-2 percent of whole shipment. 2) Plate glass
manufacturing industry in Japan is typically oligopolized by
three big enterprises and plate glass distribution channel is
vertically integrated by these three. The cullet generated
by cutting and polishing in process of distribution and the
TABLE 13 GLASS BOTTLE PRODUCTION AND GLASS
CULLET CONSUMPTION BY 10 BIG MANUFACTURERS
(10^ tons)
FY
Glass Bottle
Glass Cullet

Production
Consumption
A/B X 100%

(A)
(B)

1970
1,346
495
36.8
•71
1,596
550
34.5
•72
1,800
598
33.2
•73
1,858
592
31.9
(o ¦ !•
-------
cullet undertaken from household in case of renewing flow
back on this channel to be used again as the raw material for
plate glass production. For example, a manufacturer uses
0.36 unit of cullet to produce 1 unit of plate glass.
There are two ways for recovering glass bottles. One is
re-use as a bottle and the other is recycle as glass cullet.
Glass bottles excluded from these two streams are whether
reclaimed together with other municipal waste or sattered to
roadside, hills and fields as litter. About the first way,
as indicated in TABLE 14, 60 percent of whole glass bottle is
re-used, though each kind of bottle comparatively differs in
its re-use ratio. About the second way, cullet equivalent to
30 percent of glass production is recycled as indicated in
TABLE 13. One half of this cullet is generated from glass
bottle manufacturers and bottlers and the other half is coll-
ected from household as miscellaneous bottles. TABLE 13 also
indicates that the ratio of cullet consumption to glass bottle
production has been yearly decreasing to about 30 percent at
present.
As a representative case for bottle re-use, FIGURE 4
illustrates the distribution channel of beer bottles. In the
case of Kirin Brewery Company* 92-95 percent of bottles are
collected and re-used. One bottle is used 15-20 times on
average. Beer containers are mostly glass bottles in Japan.
Metalic cans are also increasing recently, but it was only 4.6
percent in 1973 (cf. Item 1.1 of APPENDIX 4). The following
five are pointed as the reasons for the high re-use ratio of
beer bottles.
1) Once collected, they are re-usable many times by simple
tretment (i.e. washing, pasteurizing and checking) and ,
the cost of the treatment is small.
f Beer brewing industry in Japan is typically oligopolized.
Kirin Brewery Company is a Gulliver having about 60 percent of
the market. (p t "2**5 / ^
-------
TABLE 14 SHIPMENT AND RE-USE OP GLASS BOTTLES (1974)
Kind of Bottles
Shipment*
(tons)
Re-use Ratio
w
(Estimated)
Average
Number of
Fillings per
Bottle**
drugs & cosmetics
141,736
0
1
2 liter (soy-sauce)
25,272
90
10
condiments
235,575
0
1
milk {200ml,180ml)
77,609
98
50
milk (others)
4,411
98
50
Japanese sake (1 - 8j2)
310,528
85
6.7
Japanese sake (0.9i!)
71,591
50
2
beer (633ml)
239,142
95
20
whisky
186,498
10
1.1
soft drinks
340,869
95
20
Total
1,633,231
60***
2.5***
Notes: * by 10 big glass bottle manufacturers.
**average number of fillings per bottle
= im
100—re-use ratio ($)
*** weighted average.
FIGURE 4 DISTRIBUTION CHANNEL OP BEER BOTTLES
nraw material
~i ~
new
—c:
r-
i
i
bottle
glass bottle manufacturer
,'50
ic . 1
beer brewer
— - " ll'A 1 1
Notes:
stream of filled bottles
wholesaler
30
—> stream of empty bottles
— -> stream of money (yen/bottle)
means refund.
re-use ratio =
B+C
100 (£)
(92—95# in case of Kirin Brewery
Company)
voluntary
group
public cleansing
service
L_ _ .
I
5—15 5-15
-*r
I
zlzJ salvage company^

(p.l v\
-------
2) Volume and design of them are unified. Then each
brewer can use them in common only by renewing labels.
3) Their re-use is quick, because beer is drunken in a
short time in addition to its large consumption.
4) Because of their price, relatively high as 50 yen per
one 633ml new bottle, the re-use can pay for brewery
company even after spending treatment cost, 7 yen per one.
Therefore, 5 yen per one is always refunded to consumer
whether there is a little fluctuation or not on the bottle
price. This 5 yen is an adequate price as refund to
become incentive for collection.
5) Their collection habit has rooted in Japanese society
because beer has a long history among beverages.
5. Japanese sake has a longer history, but in this case
bottle collection is nt so much successful as in beer. Sake
also had refund system until about 1969. In 1969, the use of
salicylic acid as antiseptic was forbidden. Then bottlers
began to be afraid of used bottles as dangerous and finished
the refund system at last.
There are about three thousand sake bottlers in Japan.
Thirty of them are big and centered around Nada area, Hyogo
prefecture. The new bottles are only used by them. The rest
of the sake bottlers re-use the bottles used by these big
thirty. The reason why thirty bottlers use the new ones is
that sake production by them is far more over the volume of
collected bottles within Nada area. The new bottles filled by
them one after another are distributed all over Japan and
re-used by the minor rest, because they have already recognized
the fact that the used bottles are not dangerous even after
the ban of antiseptic. A part of this mutual convenience
between thirty and the rest appears in TABLE 14. Though infe-
rior to beer bottles' 95 percent, re-use ratio of sake bottles,
85 percent is not so bad as whisky bottles* 10 percent.
6. Glass bottles re—use contributes to resource conservation,
environmental protection and municipal waste reduction, but is
(p. i .-25-
-------
not always favorably enforced in these years. The following
reasons are pointed for the stagnation.
1) On the process of rapid economic growth, Japanese
consumer's consciousness that "saving is a virtue" was
replaced with new conception that "consumption is a
virtue". This mood pushed bottles easily into municipal
waste stream.
2) While retailers have been accepting their bottles, one
way containers from super-market have too widely spread
recently.
3) Labour cost for bottle collection has been rising.
Therefore, bottlers are switching over to the one way
containers like paper container, plastic container and
metalic can, which bring the throwaway mood forth even
among glass bottle consumers.
4) Aiming at product differentiation, each bottler releases
arbitrarily designed bottle one after another, then it has
¦ become hard for a salvage industry to collect a large
amount of one kind bottle.
7. As indicated in TABLE 15, energy consumption per filling
is much lower than other containers, when they are used more
than ten. TABLE 16 indicates disposal costs (i.e. collection,
transportation, incineration, reclamation and management) of
¦>
various containers. If they are used more than ten, again glass
containers are exemolified as cheeper than other containers on
disposal cost. Therefore re-use of glass bottles is necessi-
tating protection and control not to be replaced with one way
containers.
8. Above mentioned are re-use of glass bottles. There is one
more way for glass recovery, that is, recycle of glass cullet.
Collection of glass cullet from household has been mostly
practiced by salvage industry, but in addition to this, some
of ten big glass bottle manufacturers have recently begun to
collect glass cullet from household near their plants. The
collection system is as follows, i) Manufacturer puts two
drums (one for "colored" and the other for "non-colored") beside
(p . I —26-
-------
TABLE 15 ENERGY CONSUMPTION FOR PRODUCING A 500ml CONTAINER

weight
energy
average
energy consumption
kind

.
consumption
number of

per filling

(«)
(kcal)
fillings

(kcal)

case
a.n.f.**
consumption

case 1
1
1,490
glass bottle
450
1,447
1— 50*
case 2
2.5
622

case 3
5
332
crown
2.7
43
1
case 4
10
188

case 5
20 • .
115

case 6
50
72
steel can
80
1,668
1

1,668
paper container
22
260
1

260
PVC' bottle
-- ¦ -H
751
1

751
Notes: * cf. TABLE 14.
** indicates average number of fillings of glass bottle.
-------
TABLE 16 DISPOSAL COST 0? A 500ml CONT-ilNSR
kind
weight
(g)
disposal cost
(yen/container)
mixed collection
and incineration
separate collection
and landfill
glass bottle
450
9.31
5.79
steel can
80
3.05
3.01
paper container
22
2.76
1.72
PVC bottle
37
0.64
1.81
each sake shop. 2) Consumer throws used bottles in these
drums separating colored bottle from non-colored one or vice
versa. 3) Manufacturer collects them and use as cullet.
Manufacturers anticipate that the ratio of cullet recycle will
increase to 50 percent from 30 percent at present (cf. TABLE
13), if good quality cullet is available.
9. Finally, glass recovery from municipal waste at incine-
ration plant is carried into effect by 3.2 percent plants as
indicated in TABLE' 1. This recovery depends on manual sepa-
ration. There has neither been any example yet in Japan that
cullet by mechanical separation has found market, nor there is
any feasibility at present to develop enough techniques for
finding market.
1-4 Metal
1. Metal content in municipal waste has been transiting in
Tokyo as indicated in TABLE 17. This table is the same as
TABLE 17 METAL C0NT3NT IN THE MUNICIPAL vVASTE OF TOKYO
(?')
Year 1966 '67 '68 '69 '70 '71 '72 '73
Metal Content 2.6 2.1 2.3 2.9 2.7 3.5 4.1 4.5
G-^28-
-------
TABLE 2 except for 1973 data. In TABLE 17, 1973 data was
taken in the same way as the former ones. TABLE 17 indicates
that metal content is increasing year by year reflecting
rapid diffusion of metalic cans in beverage containers.
Nevertheless metal content in municipal waste in Japan is
only 5 percent which is a half comparing with 9-12 percent in
U.S. cities (cf. Table 1 of APPENDIX 3).
2. Metals are discharged from household in style of obsolete
vehicle, obsolete household appliances, food cans and beverage
cans. Among them, the former two are collected, disposed and
recycled in a different disposal system from ordinary one for
municipal waste disposal, because they are bulky. The main
concern of the present report is on the subjects how the metal
is effectively recycled from municipal waste stream and how
it is efficiently source-separated before it enters into muni-
cipal waste stream. Therefore the report is focused on food
can and beverage can.
Steel Cans
1. Iron scrap in municipal waste are mostly steel cans. Tran-
sition of steel can production is indicated in Item 1.2 of
APPENDIX 4. Transition of beverage steel can production is in
TABLE 18. TABLE 18 and Item 1.1.1.3 of APPENDIX 4 show the
rapidly predominating metalic containers among beverage contai-
ners. At the same time, rapid decrease of recycled steel cans
is told in Item 1.2 of APPENDIX 4.
2. The following six causes are pointed for the decrease of
steel cans recycle.
1) Processed scraps from steel cans (i.e. G-Press on JIS
Iron Scrap Standard) are difficult to use because of
hazardous gas emission.from cans' paint when they are melt-
ed in furnace. C-Press content is controlled to 3 percent
as upper limit for this trouble.
&-/-29-
-------
TABLE 18 PRODUCTION OF STEEL CANS
___ ( USED AS BEVERAGE CONTAINERS )
Year 1972 '73 '74 >75 '76
Production ( 10^ tons ) 83 176 289 390 450
2) By the change of crude steel production structure (i.e.
the change from open-hearth furnace to converter), nece-
ssity for iron scraps decreases while demand for good qua-
lity scraps increases. Consumed nig iron and scran to
produce 1 ton steel were 528gr and 582gr respectively in
I960, which became 749gr and 341gr respectively in 1972.
3) Iron scraps from steel cans belong to the lowest class,
C-Press scrap. Their price are as low as 8-12 thousand
——— - ~ f
yens/ton when they are bought by steel manufacturers.
Subtracting margin, the share of a salvage industry is
only about 3 thousand yens/ton. Moreover, cans are as
light as 50gr per one notwithstanding their bulky appea-
rances. It means that 20 thousand cans become necessi-
tated to turn out the smallest lot, 1 ton scrap. As the
above figures show, direct collection from household does
not pay at all.
4) These characteristics of steel cans, light, unbreakable
and convenient for carrying, make themselves scattered
around tourist resorts and make themselves difficult for
collection. An experiment reports that the collection
cost of thrown steel cans on roadsides is 48 yens per one.
5) As they must be once melted into ground metal to be used
again, different from glass bottles, the value of used
cans is small. Because of this small value, it is impossi-
ble to pay the refund to a consumer. As a result, steel
cans do not give incentive to consumer for source sepa-
ration .
6) Resource recovery from post-consumer waste in Japan has
been mainly materials recovery by source separation borne
L30-
-------
TABLE 19 CHANGES IN THE NUMBER OF SALVAGE
COMPANIES, COLLECTORS AND RAGMEN IN TOKYO
year
salvage companies
collectors & ragmen
1962
1,855
8,158
•63
1,742
7,341
'64
1,779
7,041
••65
1,756
6,629
•66
1,717
5,867
•67
1,713
5,493
•68
1,761
3,981
•69
1,726
3,609
•70
1,546
3,269
•71
1,477
2,206
Note: Collectors collect waste paper, waste
cloth, metal scrap, glass bottles etc.
from household paying some money in
return, while ragmen collect abandoned
waste costfree. Materials collected by
them are purchased by salvage companies.
by salvage industries. Resource recovery by these indust
ries was quite labour-intensive and successfully growing
until I960 where cheep labour could easily be obtained.
Rapid growth of Japanese economy brought the increase of
waste and the uprise of labour cost. These industries,
unable to have attained progress of -oroductivity to cover
this labour cost problem, was much damaged and rapidly
declined after I960 (cf. TABLE 19).
3. Because of the difficulties above stated, steel cans
directly collected from household are only 30 percent at most
of all steel cans collected. Among the rest, 43 percent are
6/3/
-------
collected from railroad stations and inside of trains (both
are large generation sources) and 57 percent are from inci-
neration plants of municipal waste. The most opperative
resource recovery at incineration plants is iron scrap
recovery, for separation by magnet is possible for it. In
fact, 26.0 percent of incineration plants are carrying iron
scrap recovery into effect as shown in TABLE 1.
4. There are two ways to go for steel cans excluded from
these collection routes. One of which is reclamation by
public cleansing service, wasting iron resource and recla-
mation site which are rapidly becoming unobtainable in recent
years. The other way is litter scatterd around vending
machines, roadsides and tourist resorts. As a counterplan
for the former, an agreement on the recovery of metalic cans
has already been exchanged between bottlers and several cities
like Kobe, Mitaka and Machida as introduced in Item 3.2 of
APPENDIX 4. Waste can collection from household was experi-
mented in Mitaka City (1974) and Yokohama City (1975) by the
Association for Promoting Waste Can Treatment. The result in
Mitaka City is introduced in Item 2.1 of APPENDIX 4. A
counterplan for the latter is nearly none, except for these
two investigations by Nomura Research Institute. One is about
scattered metallic cans around the tourist resorts. The other
is about the possibility whether steel cans from tourist
resorts can be utilized or not as iron scraps for bacteria
leaching at copper mines. The latter investigation stems from
the attention that copper mines and tourist resorts are often
near each other.
5. Finally, the meaning of iron scrap recovery in Japan is
stated here.
Iron and steel industry in Japan depends most of iron ore
and coal on importation. The self-sufficiency rates of iron
ore and coal (including the coal used outside iron and steel
industry) in Japan are only 0.6 percent (cf. TABLE 20) and
i.v-
-------
¦TA3L3 20 PRODUCTION AND RAW MATERIALS CONSUMPTION IN IRON AND STEAL INDUSTRY
(lO^tons)

Product ion
Raw Materials Cbnsumption

FY
pig iron
crude
iron ore
imported
iron scrap
imported
A : B

steel
(A)
portion of A
(B)
portion of B

1969
58,147
82,166
69,993
68,968
33,318
4,694
2.1 : 1
•70
68,048
93,322
83,881
83,088
36,861
5,853
2.3 : 1
• 71
72,745
88,557
93,268
92,441
29,390
2,512
3.2 : 1
•72
74,055
96,900
94,690
93,840
35,402
2,515
2.7 : 1
•73
90,007
119,322
115,361
114,654
41,301
5,189
2.8 : 1
-------
28.3 percent respectively in 1973. This all-out dependance on
imported materials consequently developed international
competitive power of Japanese iron and steel industry. Because
an advantage of low cost sea transport was given by const-
ructing new gigantic iron foundries one after another along
the Pacific coast. However, Japanese iron and steel industry
has now been deadlocked by world-wide resource constraints.
Table 73 of APPENDIX 2 directly indicates this. Japan's posi-
tion in OECD as importer of iron ore was 20.7 percent in 1965,
but 40.4 percent in 1972. It seems as if Japan were making no
scruple to monopolize world imports, but it is not allowed
internationally. Accordingly, promotion of iron scrap recovery
is particularly important for Japan.
Recovery of iron scrap brings other advantages. It saves
both valuable reclamation space by reduction of slag, and
energy consumption by being directly thrown to steel production
process. In Japan, 17.2 percent of whole energy are consumed
by iron and steel industry, and about 50 percent of the 17.2
percent are consumed on pig iron production process.
Nevertheless, as TABLE 20 indicates, the ratio of iron
scrap in raw materials consumption is yearly decreasing. One
of the causes is the former mentioned change from open-hearth
furnace to converter. Imported iron scrap was about 5 million
tons (i.e. 12.6 percent of iron scrap consumption) in 1973.
Among the rest, 60 percent were by in-plant recycling and 40
percent were collections by salvage industry. Cbntrasting
Item 1.2 of APPENDIX 4 with TABLE 20, the weight of collected
steel can scrap in all iron scraps is 0.2 percent. Reclaimed
iron scraps both mixed with municipal waste and collected as
bulky refuse are estimated as about 5 million tons/year (1973),
which are the same quantity as imported iron scrap indicated
in TABLE 20.
Aluminum Cans
1. Changes in aluminum cans production and attempts for
aluminum cans collection by associated industries have already
-------
been reported in the paper submitted to the Second Meeting on
the Waste Management Policy Group of OEGD (cf. APPENDIX 4)»
Only one additional data to this is that 10 percent of aluminum
cans were collected in 1974 by rough estimation, which are
about 0.3 percent of whole recovered aluminum scraps in Japan.
Below, the present report will state about general circum-
stances of aluminum recovery in japan.
2. Aluminum has fine properties as material. The recent
growth rate of aluminum demand is higher than those of any
other metals. New ground metal production and recovered ground
metal production in both Japan and U.S.A. have been changing as
indicated in TABLE 21.
3. As illustrated in FIGURE 5, production of 1 ton new
ground metal necessitates such a huge electric power a§ about
16,000kwh. Electric power necessitated for aluminum production
is 4-5 percent of whole electric power demand in Japan. Thus,
aluminum production has been criticized as energy consumming
industry after energy crisis. Red mud generated from the
process of alumina production is four times new ground metal
production in weight as illustrated in FIGURE 5» The red mud
is either reclaimed or dumped into the sea, but from the
viewpoint of adequate disposal it has many problems.
4. Prom a different angle, aluminum products much contribute
to energy saving. It is mainly because aluminum is light and
recoverable. Energy saving coefficient (ESC) of aluminum
product is defined as follows.
__ Saved Energy by Aluminum Use
Consumed Energy by Aluminum Refinement
When ESC is higher than 1, aluminum use is effective on
energy saving and the more, the better. ESCs of automobile,
subway and sash are in TABLE 22. Every aluminum product shows
the high energy saving effect. Depreciation months of energy
consumed in aluminum refinement are 22 for automobile A and
c».f.3r
-------
rABLE 21 PRODUCTION OF ALU'.'INUK GROUND M3TAL IN JAPAN AND U.'a.A.
(1Q-^ tons )

Year
1961
•65
•70
•71
'72
'73

New Ground Metal

(A)
154
294
733
887
1009
1097
JAPAN
Recovered Ground
Metal
(B)
70
124
322
360
412
536

B/A+B

(*)
31.3
29.7
30.5
28.9
29.0
32.8

New Ground Metal

D/C+D

(*)
17.9
17.4
13.1
13.1
15.0
16.6
2.3 for sash. Calculations in TABLE 22 are based on 16,000
kwh/ton as aluminum refinement energy consumption except for
automobile B. The practical use of new ground metal for
automobile engines is about a quarter (27 percent) and reco-
vered ground metal is used for the rest. As energy consum-
ption for recovered ground metal production is about l/30 of
that for new ground metal production, energy saving effect
becomes further more as automobile B in TABLE 22. This leans
that aluminum refinement uses more energy than other metals,
but saved energy by the use of aluminum is further more above,
so aluminum is not energy consuming material, but useful
energy saving material on the contrary.
5. Aluminum does not stain different from iron and it only
consumes 500kwh/ton electric power for recovered ground metal
production from collected aluminum scrap. Therefore to acce-
lerate aluminum recycle connects to 1) saving bauxite which
does not exist in Japan, 2) saving energy, 3) reducing red
mud and at the same time saving reclamation space and 4 )
preventing marine pollution by dumped red mud.
6. It is not generally easy to determine recycle ratio of
aluminum, because many of aluminum products have long durable
years and estimation of total amount of waste aluminum is
difficult. As the primary approximation of recycle ratio, the
fc. t. 3b
-------
UIGURS 5 PLO.V SHEET 0? ALUMINUM PRODUCTION
L>x
bauxite 4.2t
caustic
soda 0.2t
sulfuric
acid 0.04t
electricity 440kwh
heavy oil 2 30kl
1 yapour 3.8t
5K
electricity 16,000kwh
alumina
nroduction
alumina l.Qt
untreated
red mud
2.5t
neutralization
treated
red mud
4. 0t
V
dumping into
the sea
i
v
aluminum
caroon
electrode 0.6t
fluorite 0.06t
cryolite 0.03t
iDroduction
electricity
270kwh
I
I
aluminum l.Ot
aluminum

1.8t
scran 1.3t ^
orocessor
>>
recovered
/
aluminum 0.07t

r >

/\
-------
TABLE 22
¦iNLirtfxY oiwim-r oo3 ?t?
ICI^T (.330) 0
* ALUMINUM
PRODUCT
aluminum
durable
aluminum
energy saved
A \ (L \
depreciation
product"'" ^
years
Jttsed^(kg)
in a year~^
-]SC ' ' '
months^ ^^ ^

gasoline

small size truck
5
29.5
67
2.7
13
bus
5
21.0
1,209
6.6
9
automobile A
6
29.5
108
5.4-
22'
2 )
automobile B
6
29.5
*
108
18.5
.4

'
electricity

subway
13
4, 000
35,650kwh
7.2
22

kerosine

sash A
10
7.5
37.7
12.8
2.3
sash B
20
7.5
37.7
25.7
?-3
Notes: 1) in case of u^inpj new ground aluminum except automobile D.
2) In this case, 1/4 is new --round and 3/4 is recovered ground
aluminum, which is nearly reflecting the nresent condition.
3) per vehicle or per window.
4) defined as follows.
saved energy by aluminum use
consumed energy bv aluminum refinement:
5) depreciation of energy consumed in aluminum refinement by
saving energy.
6) Calculation of these colums is ba^ed on the next assumption.
New ground and recovered ^round aluminum consume 16,OOOkwh/ton
and 500kwh/ton electricity respectively.

-------
weight of recovered ground metal production against total
ground metal production is calculated as follows. The weight
in Japan (1973) is 32.8 percent as indicated in TABLE 21, and
is double of that (16.6 percent) in U.S.A.. In a strict
meaning, both are uncomparable, because Japan imports much
new ground aluminum. For reference, the weight of domestic
demand for recovered ground aluminum against that for total
ground aluminum is 24.5 percent. This figure is the secon--
dary approximation of aluminum recycle ratio in Japan.
7. Data indicating the condition of aluminum recovery from
post-consumer waste is nearly nonentity. Aluminum in bulky
refuse like electric appliances is comparatively well
recovered by salvage industries because aluminum scrat) is
more worth than iron scrap. On the other hand, recycling
system for aluminum foil and 'aluminum cans have not been
established yet. Although relevant industries are trying to
establish aluminum recycling systems as seen in Item 3»2 of
APPENDIX 4, it will necessitate considerable effort to make
them come true because of such a light weight of an aluminum
can as 20gr. In case that collection is not effectively
operated, the assumption that an aluminum can is an energy
saving container than the others like a glass bottle and a
paper container becomes considerably questionable.
Chapter 2 Energy Recovery
1. The fundamental ideas for waste disposal in Japan have
been hitherto volume reduction, chemical stabilization and
hazard exclusion and been lacking in energy recovery. As
stated in p.17-20 of 1974 AIST REP0RT,.heat recovery and
electric power generation at incineration slants were retarded
in comparison with European countries, and the situation has
not been much improved until after two years today.

-------
The following three are pointed as the reasons why energy
recovery from municipal waste at incineration plants is not
fully put into operation in Japan.
1) The characteristics of Japanese municipal waste quality,
in comparison with U.S.A. and European countries, are high
moisture content (40-60 percent) and high plastic content.
The former causes calorific value reduction and the latter
causes corrosive and hazardous gas emission like HC1, NH3
and HCN. For efficient electricity generation, high-
pressure and high-temperature vapor is indispensable, but
in Japan, electricity generation by low-pressure and low-
temperature vapor is required to avoid high temperature
corrosion of a boiler by the above stated corrosive gas.
For example, Issy-les-Moulineaux Plant in Prance uses 65
2
kg/cm pressure and 410°C temperature vapor, but most Japa-
nese plants use 16kg/cm pressure and 200°G temperature
vapor.
2) Quality and quantity of municipal waste do not only change
by seasons, but also hourly change within a day and it is
difficult to level them because of waste nature. Then,
most electric utility companies are reluctant for purch-
asing electricity generated by incineration plants because
of its low quality with wide fluctuation.
3) Electric supply is oligopolized by nine electric utility
companies under the Electric Power Industry Law. The
surplus electricity from incineration plants should riot be
directly supplied even to the municipal trains and conse-
quently should be cheeply sold and expensively bought back.
It will determine the success or failure of energy recovery
from municipal waste how to solve these problems both socially
and technically in Japan.
(p. l.AO
-------
Chapter 3 Materials Conversion
There are two ways for material conversion from municipal
waste; pyrolysis and composting. The former is the theme on
Special Subject 2 at the present Japan-U.S. Conference on
Solid Waste Management. Prof. M.Hiraoka is reporting about
it. This report is focused on the latter, the present situ-
ation of composting in Japan.
Japanese agriculture is the most fertilizer-intensive one
in the world. The evil effect' has begun to be conspicuous by
overuse of chemical fertilizer. The use of compost is much
desirable in Japan to remove this evil effect, however, the
opperating com-oost -plants are only 8 among 30 plants const-
ructed until 1967. The following five are the reasons for the
decline of compost in Japan.
1) Because of the convenience of chemical fertilizer,
compost use begun to be ignored.
2) Because of the increase of aliens like plastics and
glasses in the municipal waste, the farmers begun to be
anxious of injury or the evil effect on crops by trace
pollutants like Hg, Cd and PCB.
3) Disposal capacity of the compost plant constructed in
I960 was 50 tons/day and could not meet the yearly incre-
asing wastes
4) For producing good quality compost, manual separation
and elimination of non-comoostables like elastic, glass
and cans from collected waste are necessitated. This
requires labour under extraordinally inferior working
conditions.
5) The months suitable for distributing compost are very
limited in Japan.
A1ST of MITI is -olanning to design, construct and run a
pilot t)lant for resource recovery from municipal waste in
phase II of R & D (FY 1976-'79). This nlan aims to construct
-------
a system to combine semi-wet pulverizing and classification
process with high-rate composting process (cf. FIGURE 6).
In case of resource recovery from Japanese municipal waste,
a key point is in separation of kitchen waste. In this
system, kitchen waste is mechanically separated by the semi-
wet pulverizing and classification process. Therefore nori-
compostables problem above mentioned will become smaller.
The tentative findings are much expected.
A r\
-------
.?riURE 6
MATERIALS RECOVERY SYSTEM "PLANNED BY A 1ST AS ^HASE II
R&D PROJECT
municipal
waste
lOOt/day
20t/day
lOt/day
fuel gas
6, 200Nm"Vday
(6,900kcal/Nm^)
3t/day
Notes: 1) Phase II is FY1976 '79, and phase I was PY1973 '75.
2) AIST is planning two resource recovery systems, one is
materials recovery and the other is energy recovery.
This figure illustrates the former.
-------
AFTERWORD
1. Research and development of technology for waste recovery
in Japan have being promoted by AIST. The outlook of R & D was
already reported in 1974 AIST RSPORT. The later research and
development are worth watching. Phase I (FY 1973-'75) is fini-
shed in this March and the summary is reported at the end of
the month. Therefore, the present report cannot inform about
the summary of Phase I and the plan of Phase II (FY 1976-'79)
at present. About these, the neraon in charge of the project
will report at the discussion on the present subject in May
14th. 1976.
2. The Economic Planning Agency has organized a project team
consisted of the representatives from associated government
offices, which are Ministry of International Trade and Industry,
Ministry of Health and Welfare, Ministry of Home Affairs,
Environmental Agency and Technology Agency. This project team
is performing a study of socio-economical feasibility of the
recycling, in FY 1975-'77. The interim report is also summa-
rized at the end of this March. The person in charge of the
project will report about this (cf. Item 3.5. of APPENDIX 4).
3. The research for recycle promotion from municipal waste
at medium-sized cities, "Study on Waste Management System in
Smaller Cities", is omitted here. APPENDIX 5 is for your
reference.
4. Offshore plant is being planned, for recycling promotion
from municipal waste in big cities. This is a gigantic plant
with 10,OOOtons/dav capacity. The present report also omits
the information about it. APPENDIX 6 is for your reference.
i
5. Other attempts for resource recovery from post-consumer
waste are being promoted by relavent industries and some orga-
nizations for it have been also established. These are omitted
from the present report. (o-MM
-------
X
w
Q
2;
M
P-,
Ph
<
+>
O
s
+3
GQ
rO
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r~-
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iH
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s

-p
•H
a.
Environmental Conservation and the Increasing Volume
of Solid Waste
The Growing Volume of Waste Materials
According to Ministry of Health and Welfare statistics on the
total nationwide volume of-solid wastes "industrial waste" for 1971
totaled 700 million tons* while "municipal waste" totaled 3 million
tons and "general wastes" totaled 90 million tons, bringing the volume
of refuse to a grand total of nearly 800 million tons (Fig. 1S).
Fig. 15. Estimated Amount of Wutes
U0Q million)
Other industry-.
_ Industrial
wastes
•^iiv
"" Human waste
General wastes
General line wastes
FY 1971
Hfluman wastes^ Municipal
FY197Twastes
A comparison between wastes per person and per capita
income shows that there is a close relationship between rises in
income and increases in volumes of waste generated (Fig. 16). This
volume of waste generated is expected to continue increasing in the
future, a 1.6-fold increase over 1971 figures being predicted by 1975.
In recent years, a number of factors have come into evidence
which have added to the difficulty of solving the problems of waste
disposal (which are in turn related to increases in the consumption of
raw materials).
Fig. 16. Relation between Amount of Wastes and National Income
First, industrialization and urbanization in the Pacific Belt
Region have proceeded very rapidly in recent years. The proportion of
the country's industry and population in this region has increased
correspondingly. The rate of growth in the volume of industrial waste
generated has been most accelerated in the Tokai, Sanyo, coastal
Kanto and coastal Kinki regions, as a concomitant of the expansion in
manufacturing experienced by these areas. The concentrated disposal
of wastes within a small land area has acted, so to speak, to heighten
and intensify the burdens which a limited environment must bear.
The efficiency of trash collection and transport is worsening
due to the phenomenon of "urban sprawl" and a deterioration in road
traffic conditions and also as a result of the lack of sufficient areas
suitable for reclamation through landfill and the difficulties in
obtaining use of them. Urban capacities for disposing of wastes have,
in relative terms, decreased making the problems of waste treatment
ever more serious. Between 1974 and 1971, the cost of trash
collection and transport in the Tokyo metropolitan area grew from
76.2 percent to 83 percent of the total spent on waste disposal. This
-------
large percentage assigned to collection and transport reflects the trend
toward locating waste disposal facilities at greater distances apart
from one another. According to calculations by the Economic
Planning Agency, the volume of refuse discarded by households in the
greater Tokyo area could reach as high as three times the current
volume by 1985 if present trends irf the concentration of population
and material resources into the urban areas should continue, thus
necessistating the construction of sixty additional waste treatment
plans. Such estimates suggest that, from the standpoint of the
problem of refuse alone, the# current tempo of urban concentration
cannot be maintained.
Also as a result of the movement of population into the
cities, difficulties are arising from the fact that there is a rapid increase
in the volume of "secondary wastes" discharged from municipal waste
treatment facilities which require further processing at the terminal
treatment plants.
A second problem area is that, along with the trend toward
higher living standards insofar as levels of personal consumption are
concerned, many items which are still useful or which could be
recycled are instead being discarded as trash.
Fig. 17. Composition of General Wastes (Tokyo)
54 (3.8%)-,
(22.3%)
1965
1970
1972
r(2.5%)<2.8%)^(3.9%)42
243 million ton
10
(2.7%) go
(5.7%)
50(13.9%)
360 million ton
19
:(4.1%)
32
"(7.1%)
172

1 103

79
(38.2%)

j (22.7%)

(17%)
452 million ton
E
o
Ot
£
II
9
JO
3
6
<*
® Ja
s o
Figure 17, which charts trends regarding "general wastes" in
the Tokyo metropolitan area, indicates that the percentage of refuse
accounted for by such recyclable items as metals and paper is
increasing. The discarding of materials which could still be further
used is one factor giving impetus to the rise in disposal costs and also
to the shortage of areas suitable for landfill by municipal wastes. The
trend in the volume of carbonated beverages being distributed in
metal containers, is shown in Table 5. A steady changeover from
re-usable glass bottle to the use of metal cans is taking place.
Table 5 Ratio of Canned Volume of Carbonic Acid Drink
(in per cent)

1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
Ratio
0.8
1.6
4.0
6.3
10.9
16.8
Together with improvement in material living standards,
various long-life non-destructible substances have come to be widely
distributed in consumer products. Vast quantities of such products are"
being discarded as ordinary garbage after use, but many of these items
could be used again.
A third consideration is that many new chemical-based
products have been developed and manufactured in response to
technological change without due consideration being given to
disposal processes. For example, reflecting the wide use of plastic
products due to strong and low-cost characteristics, the propor-
tion of plastic wastes in the general household garbage has reached
a level of approximately 10 percent. Plastic wastes give rise to
technical problems because they emit hydrogen chloride gas
during incineration and also because of the high intensity of
heat produced by them, which may damage the incinerators. In
connection with the fact that a high proportion of solid wastes are
destined for use in land reclamation projects, it is recognized that
many plastics have a high resistance to natural decomposition, with
the result that, when used in landfill operations, they are not easily
estabilized and thus lower the success ratio for land reclamation. So,
plastics also aggravate the problem of locating sufficient areas in
which household wastes can be used effectively for land reclamation
projects.
It is estimated that approximately 800 tons of PCBs have
been used to manufacture air conditioners, color television sets and
-------
other electrical household appliances. In the effort to see that every
precaution is taken in the disposal of these products containing PCBs
from an environmental standpoint, systems have already been put into
practice whereby the makers involved remove those parts containing
PCBs beforehand. Indeed, wastes containing synthetic substances and
substances detrimental to human health are in great danger of
becoming sources of environmental pollution, and the development of
products employing these substnaces only renders more difficult the
proper disposal of waite products.
b. Environmental Problems with Respect to Waste Products
The increase in the volume of waste products discarded gives
rise to various environmental problems in the processes of ultimately
returning these wastes to nature. The most frequent types of
environmental disruption by waste products are roughly classified in
Figure 18, which indicates those types of pollution which can arise
from both the improper disposal of wastes into the natural environ-
ment and the improper treatment of such wastes. In 1973 there were
1,056 cases where the Waste Disposal and Public Cleaning Law was
violated. This was more than twice of the 420 cases registered during
the previous year. A total of 2,460 cases of pollution outbreaks in the
seas surrounding Japan were registered in 1973 representing a steady
trend of yearly increases in these occurrences.
Final disposal of waste substances may be divided into two
general categories; land reclamation and ocean dumping.
Looking first at waste used for land reclamation, it may be
noted that approximately 53 percent of all sludge and 34 percent of
all general household garbage may be disposed of in this way. In cases
where land reclamation is carried out by improper methods or
without sufficient pretreatment of the wastes in question, such
undesirable results may occur as the contamination of ground water
from land-fill seepage or the emanation of noxious odors from gases
produced by anaerobic decomposition. With a lack of proper
supervision, such landfills may even become breeding grounds for
mice and insect pests.
As for ocean dumping of wastes, it may be noted that
between June of 1972, when controls on waste disposal under the
Marine Pollution Prevention Law first went into effect, and the end of
the same year, the volume of industrial wastes (acids, alkalialis, etc.)
disposed of in accordance with the standards set in this Law totaled
2,750,000 tons, general wastes including night soil totaled 3,050,000
tons, and bottom sand from dredging operations totaled 23,470,000

c
&s

o
is
2 *

Q> «i
E ^
3 3
a-3

(35
-------
tons, bunging the grand total of the three to 29,270,000 tons. To
conserve the natural environment, it will be necessary prevent as much
as possible increases in the pollution, burden by such waste disposal
methods. The rapid expansion of land management systems (reclama-
tion, etc.) is seen to be both desirable and necessary insofar as proper
methods to do so can be found and maintained,
c. Directions in Waste Control
In order to solve the problem of waste materials, it will be
necessary to regard the situation from a basically environmental point
of view and also to see it as a problem of waste control with respect to
which method is best for regulating the "flow" of waste products
from the stage of their production until' their final return to nature.
Based upon such awareness, the following points may be listed with
respect to those urgent problems whose solutions will depend on
how matters of waste production are to be regulated.
First, most manufactured products are difficult to control at
the stages of consumption and discard. Consideration to the problems
of ultimate disposal must be given beforehand at the production stage.
The "product cycle" does not end with sale and consumption, but
rather with the product being eventually thrown away and then,
ideaJly, after passing through an end-disposal process, being ap-
propriately returned to natural systems. Henceforth, the urgant need
to waste no time in making changeovers to new production
mechanisms will still remain, whereby proper evaluation at the
development stage will be given not only to matters of convenience of
production or use, but also to the technical possibilities of disposal,
the costs of regulating wastes generated, and the social costs of
environmental contamination. This means considering in advance
appropriate methods and costs for disposal.
Secondly, there is the matter of setting up new disposal
systems. One'reason for the illegal dumping and improper disposal of
wastes by industrialists and other entre preneurs is that they simply
lack proper systems for waste disposal and thus also the capacity to
carry out high-level waste treatment.
Six prefectures (including Osaka and Aichi) have recently
established public corporations for the treatment of industrial
wastes. It is also significant that among private enterprises as
well there is a movement toward the cooperative establishment of
waste treatment facilities for shared use. Also desirable are the
development and execution of land reclamation projects which do not
adversely affect the environment, as well as the development and
application of automatic waste collection systems which utilize
pipelines, etc., in order to prevent pollution which would result from
the waste transport process.
Third, there is the matter of providing for the recycling and
reuse of waste products. By recycling and reusing wastes, the
utilization efficiency of,natural resources increases, the ultimate
volume of waste generated decreases, and the latent potential for
environmental pollution can thus be lessened. For example, it is
estimated that out of the 12,460,000 tons of waste paper produced in
Japan in 1971, some 7,060,000 tons were capable pf being recycled.
Of the latter amount, however, only 63 percent was actually recycled.
When it is taken into account that by recycling savings arc
made by reducing the costs necessary for pollution-prevention
measures, it can be seen that the differential between production costs
using raw materials and those using recycled materials is diminished in
terms of real cost. Thus, a reexamination is in order with regard to
whether it is better to provide directly obtained raw materials or
recycled materials at equalized cost for production use.
-------
APPENDIX 2
White Paper on Japanese Economy 1975 (Abstract)
2. Resource Constraints
The oil crisis in the autumn of 1973 caused
a radical change in the world conditions on re-
source supply. The developments have since
shown that industrialized nations are under pres-
sure to accept more equitable terms of utiliza-
tion of natural resources with their producer
nations. Associated with the North-South prob-
lem, they are indicative of the resistance of the
developing nations to the squandering of their
natural resources by advanced nations while
economic development remains stalled in the
Third World. The developments also made re-
source suppliers among the industrialized na-
tions to be aware of the importance of manage-
ment and conservation of their own resources.
Thus, the postwar idea of economic development
in Japan, predicated on the availability of ample
and low-priced resources, is no longer valid.
a. Feasibility of Artificial Supply Restrictions
It is, of course, not that resources of all kinds
are subject to supply constraints. Nor do the
present supply constraints necessarily mean
physical exhaustion of resources. Actualities
about the recent supply constraints of resources
comprise are: (1) the cognizance of resource-
producing developing nations of the economic
value of resources in their possession prompted
them to conserve resources and raise their ex-
port prices; and (2) the elasticity of resource
supply decreased as a result of intensified arti-
ficial restraints on supply imposed by posses-
sors of resources of great importance linked
their supply with political problems to secure
a favorable political settlement.
In these conditions, the consumption trend in
Japan, a major importer of resources, has sig-
nificant influences on the world supply-demand
of resources and their prices. To be sure,
Japan's share in the total imports of resources
of the OECD member nations tops those of
other nations regarding copper and iron ores,
coal and petroleum. This tendency is likely to
become more pronounced in the future (Table
73). This is because the rate of increase in
consumption in Japan is higher than those in
other countries, and also because Japan has
held fast to its conventional principle of eco-
nomic management, i.e., processing of raw
materials at the point of consumption, while
Western nations dealt with increased demand by
expanding finished-goods imports. Supposing
every nation will continue to consuming re-
sources at the same rate as in the past with-
out changing the present structure of industry,
Japan by 1985 will be accounting for as much
Japan
U. S. A.
U. K.
W. Germany
France
Italy
Table 73. Japan's Position as Importer of Resources
(In percentage to total OECD imports)
Crude oil
16.5
14. 9 12. 3
13.2
11. 6
11.5
13.2
10.4
10. 3
12.1
9. 1
(Unit: %)
Coal
Iron ore
Bauxite
1965 1972
1965
1972 1965
1972
Copper ore
1965 1972
19. 6 18.7 39.6 20.7
40. 4
8.3
19. 2 67. 3
0.0
0.0
7.8
13. 0
11. 3
0.0 24.3 13.2 64.7 51.5
0.0
5.6
9.5
8.6
10.2
19.8
2 1
4.3
6.4
15.2
4.2
4.8
2.3
8.1
0.6
2.4
1.2
9.0
2 0
2.6
3.6
0.1
15.9
0.0
0.0
Total of 6 conutries 80.9 73.8 50.8
63.3
81.4 84.2
86.4
85.5
74.6
1.7
0.0
14.3
0.3
0.0
86. 9 90. 9
Source: OECD: Trade by Commodities
9
-------
as 20 per cent to 30 per cent of the total con-
sumption of the principal resources of the world
(Chart 74). The finite availability and the low
elasticity of resources supply imply that the
high growth of the Japanese economy, with its
heavy consumption of resources, will pose a
threat to economic growth in advanced and
developing nations. The world supply and de-
mand resources will probably be strained by
Japan's high economic growth, thereby acce-
lerating the rise in the prices of resources of
the world.
Second, when artificial restrictions are applied
on the supply of resources under such condi-
tions, Japan would suffer more serious disrup-
tions than otherwise. As for the major eco-
nomic conditions supporting the producers' pos-
sible recourse to artificial restrictions on re-
sources supply, the following may be cited: (1)
the exploitable period of resources (the quan-
tity of exploitable reserves/annual production)
has diminished. This is liable to strain the
worldwide situation of supply and demand; (2)
the high degree of concentration of resources
production implies that there exists considerable
room for discretion of the suppliers in disposing
of resources; (3) the low price elasticity of de-
mand suggests the downward rigidity of demand
against higher prices; (4) the supply elasticity
of resources is low as it depends on outsiders'
supply elasticity and the existence of substitutes
and their possible development; and (5) a much
closer unity is shown by the supplier countries
of resources than the countervailing power of
consumer countries. The tightness of unity on
the side of suppliers depends on the "mono-
cultural" characteristic of their economies, the
level of industrialization, and the degree of eco-
nomic homogeneity. It also depends on whether
there are common political interests among
producing countries. The resisting power of
consumers depends on the degree of reliance
upon particular supplier countries for resource
supply and how significant the exports of con-
sumer countries are to the specific supplier
countries. Among all kinds of resources, the
conditions for supply restraints seem to be best
satisfied by petroleum (Table 75).
An analysis of the composition of resources
supply for Japan reveals, first, that the rate of
self-sufficiency is extremely low, and that
Japan's share in the advanced nations' total
consumption of resources is large; second, the
degree of concentration of imports from partic-
ular countries is extremely high; and, third,
Japan's share in the imports by these countries,
a possible source of countervailing power, is
small except for §ome countries (Table 76). A
high economic growth, if resumed by Japan
under such a supply structure and in the chang-
ing situation on world resources, would make
the Japanese economy unstable. The outbreak
of the oil crisis demonstrated the Japanese
economy's vulnerability most visibly.
Many of the advanced nations at present are
moving in the direction of decreased dependency
upon imports through energy-saving and devel-
opment of indigenous energy sources. In its
world energy prospects announced in January
1975 (being revised now), the OECD estimated
the consumption of primary energy resources
in 1972-1985 would increase at a 3.8 per cent
annual rate or lower than the 5.0 per cent of
the 1960s. It expects a decline in the relative
importance of petroleum imports and a rise in
the domestic supply of atomic power, coal and
other energy sources (Table 77).
Among the advanced countries, the United
States is expected not only to attain complete
self-sufficiency in energy supply, but also to
become an oil-exporting country; European
countries' oil imports are anticipated to decline
below the present levels; by contrast, Japan's
imports are expected to expand by as much as
80 per cent. The prospects are, it must be
noted, more in the nature of goals. Their ful-
fillment rests on the exploitation of oil reserves
in the U.S. continental shelves and the North
Sea (530 million barrels per day in the North
Sea and 690 million barrels per day in Alaska
and on the U.S. continental shelves), produc-
tion of oil from oil shales and tar sands, and
an increase in the relative importance of atomic
power generation (energy plans of major coun-
tries indicate that 30 per cent of the total elec-
tricity supply in 1985 will be accounted for by
(p.
o
-------
Chart 74. Trends in Resources and Energy Consumption
Notes:
1. Sources: U.N.: World Energy Supplies; MITI: Annual Report on Supply and
Demand Statistics on Nonferrous Metals, Others; Iron and Steel Federation: Es-
sentials of Iron and Steel Statistics.
2. The radius represents the annual volume of consumption, with the world consump-
tion volume for 1972 being used as base.
3. 1985: Case A refers to extension of the past trend; Case B assumes that growth
rate slows down; Case C assumes both an economic slowdown as well as a 20
per cent decline in the elasticity of consumption as against GNP.
atomic power generation in the United States,
40 per cent in West Germany, and 60 per cent
in France). These estimates are all based on
the present prices of crude oil, and furthermore
involves various other problems, such as the
trade-off relation between environmental con-
(p./. S|
-------
Table 7J» Feasibility of Supply Restrtetlooi oa Essential Resources
World market
situation
Degree of production ooncefltrmtion
Degree of export concentration (1972 export# to OECD)
Degree of
1« 2nd 3rd

« ln<1 3"1 4lh countries W Degree of conceoir*- lion of 5 countries Pric« elasticity o( COAIUfflptM Feasibility of substitute resource* /or short end roeduim periodi Hcooooile homogeneity and degrev of unity of auppfyfcg coufUne* Petroleum 27 0 7.9{f») (73J ('65--73) Bauxite 23 6 3.1(«) (71) ('65—72> USA. USSR. Saudi' Iran Vcne- {*72) Arabia xuela 2 5 15 3 13. J 10.« 6.1 618 (bold face «= OPEC me*nber countries) Saudi Iran Kuwait Libya Arabia 19.9 10.7 10.0 7.9 (bold face«OF£C member countries) Auit- rati* 18.7 ('73) Jgm&* Scrl- Guyana France Compared Jama- Aoit- Surl* lea nam with Free lea ralla nam World Guyana Phosphate rock 477 4 3 5(96) (74) {'65-71) 21.7 10.S 3.6 5-0 (bold /aca=IBA member countries) Morocco U SA U.S S R Tunisia 44.0 29 3 15 9 4.2 Eyypt 1 5 Iron ore 323 2 4 6(?p) U.S.SR. USA. Aust- France Canada ralia (73) ('63-73) 26 8 11 0 8.9 6 3 5 9 71 (74) 94.9 (73) 59.4 30.7 19.7 11.5 11.4 (bold facenJBA member countries) Morocco 41 8 Aost- ralla 20.1 USA. 33.2 Canada 12.7 Tunisia 7 6 Brazil 12.1 Togo 5 0 Swedes 10.4 Nigeria 63 7 7.® USA. 5.9 79.2 Senegal 4.4 910 Liberia 7.9 Copper ore 40 4 7(«) (73) ('65—73) Lead ore ' 27 5 3 2(96) (72) ('62 —72) Zinc ore 21 4 4 5{«) (74) {'62-72) Nickel ore 105.2 5 4(«i) (71) ('62-72) Coal 231 5 1.61#: (73) C63-72) Natural gas 41 3 11.7{«> (74) C65--72; (bold face = Members of the Organisation of (bold face^Members of the Orgsni*atioft of Iron Ore Exporting Countries) Iron Ore Exporting Countries) U.SA. USS.R. Canada Chill Zambia (73) Canada Philip. Aust- ChUi Ptra 20 9 14. 4 10 9 9.7 9.4 65.3 29 5 26 6 18 5 8.4 3.6 (bo'd face =CIPEC Member Countries) (bold face*3 CI PEC Member Count res) ('72) USA. Awst* C&nada Peru Mexico Compared Canada Peru Morocco Ireland Auat- ralia with Free ralia World 22.0 15 7 13 9 7 4 6 2 65.2 26 8 19.7 12 9 & 4 5.7 Canada Aust- US.A. Peru Japan ('72) Canada Peru Aust- Sweden Mexico ralia Compared ralia ¦with Free World 26 9 11.9 10.3 &4 6.6 64. 1 36 9 2C 7 8 0 7. 2 6.2 Canada New Aust- USA lndo< (72) New AbSl- Indo- Canada USA Cale* roJia nesie Compared CaJe. ralia nesia don la wsth Free doaia World 46.8 21.5 7 2 2.9 2.S 81 2 44. 4 31.1 12.0 6.9 19 USA. USSR. ChirtA Poland UK (72) USA Aust- W. Poland USSR ralia Germany 6.0 25 0 ' 31 0 IB. 6 7 0 5 6 77 2 39 1 16 2 13 7 11 4 U.SA. USSR. Canada Nether- UK (¦72) Canada Nether- Kuwait USA Lib>a lands lands 3 0 52 6 IS 2 6.8 4 8 2 2 84 6 38 9 32 3 3. 3 3 2 74.6 78.9 -0 025 (- 0 36) -0 072 (- 0 51) -0.330 (- 2.16) -0.U9 <- 1.56) -0 3N <- 1.68) Not available Not available Not available Except for certain coal aub- stitutes, possibility is amall for other substitutes Possibility of collecting seabed manganese nodules; also io the process of developing production technique froa day, shale and other), Buy be substituted for in part by iroa-steel and plcatica Price elawtaty held liltely to be small -a 214 (- Z3J) 80 7 No substitute resources Estimating the increase in con- sumption to be 4 per' cent at annual rare, domestic self-suffei* cocy la estimated to last 59 years for N. America, 35 years (1972) for W, Europe Substitute re* sources next io none Substitute relations srilh a'umi* num exists, uiabiluy of reclaimed ingot is growing Reclamation is relatively tuy Actual reserves are said lo be much larger than published figures Feasibility of collecting manga- nese nodule* m 1930s Substituted by oil up to now Know-how developed for ton- verjmg coal inro ga*. very small proportion turned to exports Economic dependence on oil li uniformly high, all S top ranking countries belong to the "South". Unity is strong Australia included in top coun- tries to both production and exports, therefore, economic homogeneity of IDA member countries is not high. Hence, unity is not strong The 2 top cojntries both in out- put and exports, namely. Morocco rnd USA. are quite low in economic homogeneity Bit as their comb.ned tupply ex* ceeds70p«r cent of to:al output and expons, a strong duopoliattc tendency is io evidence The top 5 countries* economics show a high degree oi homo* genehy In export share, Canada, and Australia together account nearly for 50 per cent; developing nations for the rest In exports, Canada's weighs is high "North's" share is Urge both in output and exporta "North's" share is large both in output and exports "North's" share is overwhelming is exports "North's" shxre is overwhelming in exports Notes: I Sources; UN. World Energy Supphet. OECD* Trade by Commodihet 2. Price elasticity log P. i (C World consumption, O. World industrial production, P Prices) But (or aluminum, j- value is Aluminum and iron steel Were substituted respectively for bauxite and iron ore For the long t«rm period, (A) (Rese-vea of resources/Production volume per )eor) Ratio of consumption is j value estimated on the basis of the annua] data during "6J —73 of Jog C"a log O + /¦ estimated on the basis of log log 0-t-p- lo£ P»t + ^ '"~! C.t ( ) below the e&umated value is t value, it is expected (lot consumption would eqiul output, hence. Consumption volume« Productino.vol«une, Rate of increase in output (.Annual average)

-------
Table 78. Degree of Uncertainty in Japaafr Resources Supply Structure
(Unit:
%)
Japan's Japan's
»elf-suffi- weight
ciency in OECD
rate import*
(1973) (1972)
Degree of import concentration Japan's weight as Weight of imports
,.074) importer in the from Japan in im-
*¦ ' export of resources ports of resources
Ratio ^ producer nations producing countries
Rank Country
Petroleum

a 3 19.6
(D Iran
35.9
36. 7(72)
14.0(72)

(f) Saudi Arabia
19.3
16l 0( «)
11.4(71)

® Indonesia
15; ,1
66.2( »)
32.9(72)

$ United Arab Emirates
9.9
21.6( »)
—

® Kuwait
8.8
19.7( #)
16.0(72)

Total
89.0

Coal

28.3 39.6
1 Australia
43.5
85.8 {'72)
17.8(73)

2 U.S.A.
28.9
31.0( »)
14.0( »)

3 Canada
18.2
92.0( ')
4.4( 0)

4 U.S.S.R.
4.8
8.8( »)
2.4( » )

5 Poland
Z1
3. 0( »)
1.6C72)

Total
97.5

Iron ore

0.5 40. 4
® Australia
47.7
86.7 f 73)
17.8(73)

® India
14.2
86.6(71)
9.3(72)

(§) Brazil
9.5
30. 6(72)
7.7 ('72)

® Chili
6.3
80. 6(70)
4.^(71)

(§) Peru
46
95. 4 ('69)
7.7(72)

Total
82.3

Copper Ore

9,8 74. 6
1 Canada
39.7
74.4(71)
4.4(73)

2 Philippines
25.7
82.4( »)
32.5 ( * )

3 Bismark Islands
12.8
57.1(73)
—

5 Australia
5.3
98.6(73)
17.8(73)

Total
89.7

Bauxite

0. 0 19. 2
-------
Japan's
self-suffi
ciency
rate
(1973)
Japan's
weight
in OECD
imports
(1972)
Degree of import concentration
(1973)
Bank Country
Japan's weight as Weight of imports
importer in the from Japan in im-
exports of resources ports of resources
p j by expoting nations exporting countries
Zinc ore
31.2 32.5
1 Canada
2 Peru
3 Australia
4 Mexico
5 ROK
Total.
34.5
19.6(72)
4.4(73)
26.9
74. 6 (*69)
7.7(72)
17.4
31.4(71)
17.8(73)
5.2
30.3(72)
3.9(72)
5.1
100. 0( *)
40. 9( *)
89.1

Lead ore
1 Canada
65.0
87.4(72)
4. 4 \"73)
2 Peru
15.2
33. 5 ('69)
7.7(72)
3 Australia
10.3
24.5(71)
17. 8(73)
4 ROK
6.4
100.0(72)
¦ 40.9(72)

j'71\

5 U.S.A.
2.5
°-° M
14.0(73)

\'72l

Total
99.4

Phosphate rock
0.0 11.5 1 U.S. A 60.5 16.2(72) . 14.0(73)
2 Morocco 19.4 3.8(73) 2.2(»)
3 Jordan 6.0 17. 7( ») 4. 9( »)
4 Nauru 4.8 6.6( n) —
5 Senegal 3.7 8.6(71) 0.4(72)
Total 94.4
Notes:
1. Sources: MOF: Japan Exports and Imports; UN: Yearbook of International
Trade Statistics; OECD: Trade by Commodities
2. f—] not available
3. O Member countries of each resources producer union
servation and industrial development. On the
other hand, there is an optimistic view that the
reinforcement of the countervailing power on
the side of consumer countries may create an
excess capacity in oil-producing countries in the
Middle East and Africa, forcing the prices of
crude oil to fall in the long run. Any definitive
conclusion cannot be formed as yet about the
future of the energy constraints. However, it
is at least clear that the world conditions for
the supply of resources have undergone a radi-
cal change, that developing nations' claim for
an equality in the resources utilization has in-
tensified and that advanced nations are in need
of managing their resource consumption ade-
quately. In these circumstances, it is neces-
sary to step up international cooperation on
energy conservation and the development of
substitute energy sources. There is increasing
need for Japan to improve the security of its
economy by placing the economy on an orbit
of stable growth in keeping with the new re-
source supply conditions in the world, while en-
deavoring to achieve a more energy-saving in-
dustrial structure and a higher self-sufficiency
in energy supply from a long-range point of
view.
Cr-ISH
-------
The fiction of consumers' sovereignty
* #
Yuzuru Hanayama
There is a hypothesis that the amount of some consumers' goods
consumed in a community Increase as the Income of the consumers
goes up. This type of hypothesis is frequently applied for pre-
diction of consumption level in future and for planning of
public utilities; power stations, water filtration plants, solid
waste incinerators and so forth.
As we will see later, this type of hypothesis is true in some
cases, as far as we see the facts ex post. But we can not help
feeling uneasy, when it is said that the. increase of income
requires inevitably huge power stations, filtration plants,
incinerators and other kind of public utilities, or that any
environmental disruption is just a consequence of consumers'
option, who constantly pursue higher Income. Although it is said
that consumers have the right to choose or not to choose any kind
of goods in the market, the structure of the market is ruled by
the industry or manufacturers but not by the consumers: the. con-
sumers could not choose goods which the manufacturer does not
supply and consumers are often forced to purchase something which
they do not want, together with what they really want (unnecessary
containers and wrapping, for example).
In this paper 1 want to describe some of the influence of manufacture
upon the consumers' activities and environmental problems caused by
* A paper submitted for HESC ( Congress of Scientists on the
Human Environment ) held in Kyoto during 17 to 25 November,
1975.
** Associate professor of The Tokyo Institute of Technology.
<
-------
them, by using mainly data o£ solid waste in Tokyo and New York.
(1) The swelling of consumption and Increase of income.
Figure 1 shows a correlation between the amount of solid waste
generated by households and collected by the municipalities for
some cities and income level of the nations which the cities
belong to. We can easily see a good correlation between them
(the correlation coeffecient is 0.869). The elasticity of the
amount of solid waste per capita to the income (GDP) per capita
is 0.35.
But we must pay some attention to the surrounding factors before
we accept what Figure 1 means. In the case of Tokyo the amount
of solid waste collected by the municipality is 1.0 kg a day
a capita, but Tokyo Metropolitan Government collects garbage from
/
some small restaurants and coffee shops together with the waste
generated by ordinary households, while New York City Government
does not collect any garbege generated by commercial activities.
So the amount of waste of Tokyo may be less, when income of Tokyo
Citizens reaches New York level. But on the other hand, in Tokyo
we still have some recycling industry which collects old newspaper
in return for some rolls of toilet tissue from each households
and carries it to paper mills and every liquer shop accepts empty
for
bottles in return^some penies, while in the United States
they don't have old paper collecting system and only a few states

-------
log W
Figure 1
Correlation between Waste and Income
Hamburg New. Yori
X"
London
x Los Angeles
Tokyo x x Berkeley
Osaka Paris
*Hong Kong
log W - 0.35 log Y + 1.39
Y - o, 869
2.0
3.0
log \
4.0
W: kg/capita/year
Y: US$/capita/year
-------
(Oregon and Vermont) have bottle collecting system. There are
some technological problems as well. In New York many households
have disposers at their sinks to discharge kitchen garbage into
the sewer, while in Tokyo this type of disposal is not popular
yet. As a result of the high content of kitchen garbage, the
solid waste of Tokyo has a higher water content and larger
density than that of New York.
The amount of solid waste showed in Figure 1 is a result of
some complicated situations differing from city to city. So we
should examine the composition qf waste rather than the amount of
it.
(2) The composition of solid waste.
See Table 1. It shows the composition of solid waste in some
cities^in the US and that of Tokyo.
The composition is almost the same among the cities of the US
but the composition in Tokyo is apparently different.
The waste levels in US cities exceeds Tokyo's in paper, glass
and metal, while Tokyo exceeds US cities waste levels in garbage
and plastics.
How shall we interprete the fact that Japanese households whose
incomes are less than that of US households generate more waste
in garbage and plastics than US households? Is garbage an
inferior good to glass and metal, or plastics to paper?
-------
Table 1
Cc
snsunption
of Households
Waste for
Selected
Cities

Eerkelev0^
Xew-York^
M cs
Orleans
Cincinatti
d) Tokyo'
Itor.s
(1967)
(1967)
(1968)
(1971)
(1970]
Paper
44.6 7.
38.6 K
39.4
40.5
31.3
Garbage
25.1
20.0
18.9
24.0
33.9
Glass
11.3
11.1
16.2
12.8
5.7
Metal
8.7
10.0
12.2
9.0
3:5
Plastics
1.9-
2.2
1.3
1.7
10.3
Rags
1.1
2.2
*2.6
2.0
3.4
Leather & Rubber
0.3
0.8
0.2
0.4
1.5
Miscellaneous
7.1
14.7
9.2
9.6
10.0
Weight
(ib/day/capita)
2.2
3.3
Unknown
2.0
2.1
Sources:
a) Comprehensive Study of Solid Waste Management, (Research grant ED-00260
University of California, published by the U.S. Department of Health,
Education and Welfare, 1970.
b) Data of Department of Sanitation, City of New York.
c) Data of Department of Sanitation,- City of New Orleans.
d) Residential Solid Waste Generated in Low-income Areas, George R.
Davidson, Jr., 1972.
c) Annual Report. Department of Sanitation, City of Tokyo, 1971.

-------
Expenditure for some items, such as food, are not very different
between US and Japanese households. Expenditure for food per
capita a year was $273 in the US in 1963 and $254 in Japan in
1970, both in producers' prices -(in purchasers' prices the same
comparison would be $426 in the US and $357 in Japan). But the
share of direct-'' purchase by households from agriculture in the
total expenditure for food is 0.5% in the US and 30.7% in Japan.
The shares of vegitable, fruits, poultry and eggs are respectively
46.7%, 49.2% and 39.6% in the US and 80.8%, 83.8% and 52.5% in
Japan. In the other wards, Japanese households purchase more raw
materials and consequently generate more garbage than those of
the US. Japanese households generate garbage that the US food
industry generated.
The structure of US industry has influence upon the composition of
waste from US households. This point would become clearer when
we see the role of packages in solid waste.
Using an input-output table, we can calculate the ratio of
packaging to some consumer goods. In the US in 1963, one dollars
worth of food and kindred products was accompanied by 3.3 cents of
paperboard containers and boxes, 2.1 cents of metal containers,
1.0 cent of glass products and 0.1 cents of plastics and synthetic
materials. The total value of packaging included in one dollars
1/ "Direct" means only the direct purchase as defined in an input-
output table. In fact households purchase agricultural products
through the wholesale and retail stores.
-------
worth of food is 6.5 cents. In Japan in 1970, one dollars
worth of food and kindred prpducts is accompanied by 0.7 cents
of paper, 1.1 cents of metal, 1.3 cents of glass and 0.6 cents
of plastics, for a total of 3.7 cents in wrappings.
According to an Interim Report, 1968 National Survery of Community
Solid Waste Practices (US Department of Health, Education and
Welfare, 1968), an average American person generate three pounds
of waste per day. This means that two hundred billion pounds of
waste were generated in the US by comsumption activities of
households in 1968. On the other hand, as reported in The Role
of Packaging in Solid Waste Management 1966 to 1976 (US Department
of Health, Education and Welfare, 1969), the consumption of paper
packages, glass containers, metal containers and plastic packages
is respectively 50 billion pounds, 16 billion pounds, 14 billion
pounds and 2 billion pounds in the US in 1967, and the share of
final consumption excluding Industrial and commercial use to total
consumption is respectively 75%, 95%, 90% and 75%. Given this
information the waste of paper packages, glass containers, metal
containers and plastic packages, generated by households weighs
respectively 38 billion pounds, 16 billion pounds, 13 billion
pounds and 2 billion pounds. In short half of the. paper waste,
three quarters of the glass waste, two thirds of metal waste and
half of the plastic waste originates in packaging.
Now we can see clearly the reason why paper, metal and glass are
more in US waste than in Japanese waste.
I
-------
For Japan there is no reliable information available to us, in the
field of production, circulation and consumption of containers,
but through our daily experiences we can easily see that the very
high share of plastic waste originates in packaging.
Figure 2 shows a time-series of changes in the composition of
household Waste in Tokyo. Garbage does not show any growth
in spite of the income growth during the same period, but plastics
grow more rapidly by far than income. The growth of paper and
glass could be attributed to decline of the recycling industry
rather than to the growth of consumption.
The change of its composition just reflects the change of the
industrial structure.
What consumers want is not the containers but the contents, then
we could not assert that the waste originating in containers is
a result of consumers' option. We could not get milk in glass
bottles nor find liquer shops which accepts empty bottle in New-
York, even though we wanted to. Likewise in Tokyo, we could
not get eggs wrapped in old newspaper any more, which was very
common twenty years ago, for every egg is contained in a plastic
carton today.
There might be some reasons why plastics became common as
wrapping materials in Japan; it might be lighter, more convenient
and less expensive than conventional materials. To employ

-------
Growth of waste ana mcome
100 150 200 Income '
(1965)
L 4.L71
-------
plastics might save storing and transportation costs.
But once plastics have pushed other materials from the market,
consumers have no choice in the matter.
Today many people do not want to use plastics as wrapping matrials,
because they know that it is too tough to putrefying in the soil
when it is land-filled and that the smoke and ash of it is very
harmful for human beings when It is incinerated.
(3) Cost of solid waste treatment
If we discharge waste and leave it on the street, it soon makes
a huge heap blocking traffic, giving off bad odour and induces
the rapid propagation of pests and rats. Solid waste is
potentially a very harmful substances to human life. But
fortunately, solid waste is collected and treated pretty well
in modern cities by the municipalities at the consumers' cost.
In Table 3 we can see how much it costs to treat solid waste
in Tokyo and New York. The total cost is $34.6/ton or $15.6 per
capita a year for New York and $32.4/ton or $9.9 per capita
a year for Tokyo, and in both cases more than three quarters of
total cost is personnel expenditure.
As it is technologically difficult to improve labor productivity
in solid waste collection, the higher level wage reach the greater
the cost we shall have to bear.
For the recycling industry, there are two main factors that can
(p JoM
-------
Table 2
The Cost of Municipal Waste Treatment

Item
New York-/
Tokyo-/

T3
i-H
I O
1 •£
1 o
Tons collected (thousands/year)
Direct labor (thousands/day/person)
Productivity (tona/day/person)
Average wage ($/day/person)
3,936
1,228
3.20
44.4
2,825
2,411
1.17
19.8 ,
i

a
o c
s o
•H
U-( 4-1
o u
O Q)
¦u 4J e-(
0) W r—1
0 « 0
O 3 O
Cost ($/ton)
Direct labor
Indirect labor
Subtotal
Operating
Depreciation of vehicles
25.41
13.84
5.46
19.30
4.13
1.98
25.70
16.92
3.02
19.94
3.98
1.78

"O
o
x:
-------
affect the activity level; the price of raw materials with which
the salvage industry must compete and the income level which
indicates the labor cost of it, a very labor-intensive process.
In addition, ease of collecting and classifying the waste, in
other words, the entropy of waste, should be taken into account.
The entropy of waste decreases as the variety of waste increases
and the structure of the city, becomes more complex.
As entropy can be said to decrease as income rises, then the
ratio of recycled old scrap to total current supply or consumption
i must decrease when income goes up.
We can not expect too much from new technology at present. Almost
all test plants for recycling resourses from municipal waste, for
example, Black-Clawson factory at Franklin, Ohio^does not pay,
in spite of considerable subsidies from Federal and rural
governments.
Consumers are forced to pay all of these costs and they don't have
a chance to choose a less expensive source.
(4) Conclusion
It has been said that consumers are responsible for increasing
solid waste in urban area. But examining the property of solid
waste, we can see that the amount and property of municipal
waste are strongly influenced by the structure of industry.
Consumers' sovereignty does work only in the existing market,
which is mainly ruled by manufacturers'. Then if we want to
reduce the solid waste and improve the composition of it, we had
(p . 1.(4.(0
-------
better regulate industrial products by law rather than expect
the market mechanism to work well. Consumers could cast their
vote which they have not been able to use in the market, in the
parliamentary system to force brewers and food canners to
recycle the containers, or to prohibit the chemical manufactures
from mixing cadmium and other heavy metals in plastics.
6./.fc7
-------
—Case Study Report
of
Rc-use and Recycling of Beverage Containers
1. Statistical informations
1.1 Production of berverages

——
1965
1970
1972
1973
3,128,000
Soft dr
inks:
Soda
Production,kl(A)
474,500
2,008,000
2,670.000
To be filled in
metallic
containers,kl (B)
3,000
124,000
440,000
776,000
(B/A) %
0.6
6.2
16.4
24.8
Fruit
(A)
248,700
385.000
445.000
i 5ZCL05Q
(B)
35.000
80.000
' 120.000
180.000
(B/A) %
14.1
20.8
30.0
31 .6
Beer
(A)
1,993,000
2,972,600
3,415,800'
3,786,000
174,000
(B)
29,900
60,700
124,600
(B/A) %
1.5
2.0
~ 3.6
4.6
Total

_2j716j2O0
5,565.600
6.530.800
7.484.000
M
67,900
264,700
684,600
1 ,130.000
(B/A) %
2.5
4.8
10.5
15.1
1.2 Production and re-use of Steel Cans
_____
1971
1972
1973
1974
Production
(10,000 tons)
35
44
54
45
Re-use
(10,000 tons)
15
14
8
--
Note: Around 70 % of Steel Cans being produced in 1973 was used as
beverage containers.
1.3 Production of Aluminium Cans
Production
(1,000 tons)
1971
1972
1973
1974
0.6
3.2
11.0
11 .2
975_
16.0
1£76_
24.0*
* to be estimated,
* A. ria-ner submitted by Jar.an Government for The Second Ivleetinp
on the vVaste Management Policy Groun (02GD) held during 13
to 15 Oct.,1975.

-------
1.4 Production of Glass Rottlos and generation of those wastes
-—

L97.3__
19.7/1
19/'j. .
..1976..
Product ion
1 ,844
1,900
2,000
?,10()

(1,000 tons)

Waste generation: households
332
342
360
378
396
(1,000 tons) bottlers
221
228
240
252 ¦
264
total
553
570
600
630
660
1.5 Reuse ratio of beverage glass bottles in 1974

Used
Re-used
Reuse ratio
______
(million bottles)
(mill ion bottles)
(%)
Japanese Sake bottles (1.8 1)
1,400
1,200
85
(0.9 1)
400
200
50
Beer bottles
6,000
5,700
95
Whisky bottles
400
40
10
Soft drink bottles
11,100
10,520
95
I. Case study of metallic cans
2.1 Municipal solid wastes and used metallic cans
The Mitaka City is a major component of the Tokyo Metropolis and its population
is aroud 150,000 persons.
In order to look for a reasonable measure against an increase of incombusible
wastes, Mitaka City carried out a survey of composition of the wastes generated in
a pilot area in 1973. As a result, it was made clear that metallic cans were shared
in 30 to 40 % of the incombusible wastes in volume. Furthermore, the average
quantity of all solid wastes generated per day in the city was 140 tons and the
incombusible wastes of 150 cub. meters per day in volume or 16.5 tons per day in
weight were generated. Therefore, it was estimated that 50 cub. meters or 5 tons
of metallic cans were wasted a day.
According to the estimation to be made by the Mitaka City, the required
manpower for manual separation of wasted metallic cans from the municipal wastes
was 60 persons pier day.
The result of survey to be conducted by Toyohashi City shows that an average
number of metallic cans which were wasted from a household per month was twenty five,
and about 70 % of those were beverage containers.
According to the survey to be carried out in Machida City, an average number
Df metallic cans to be wasted f/om a household per week was 1.4 to 5.1 and 66.4 %
Df the wasted cans were beverage containers. Both results obtained in different
cities sbch as Toyohashi and Machida City show a similar figure.
The Machida City also reported that 7 % of total volume of the municipal wastes
generated in the city were metallic cans.
On a basis of results of a pilot scale experiment on melting of wasted metallic
:ans by means of an electric furnace, the Shin Nippon Iron Steel Manufacture reported
that any trouble regarding re-use of wasted metallic cans could not be observed even
if a mixing ratio of those was 30 per cent.
Le -
-------
There are some impediments in the process of re-use of wasted steel cans,
because those are contained a little tine, and ink to be used for printing.
However, re-use of the-wasted cans is considered to be possible on a technical po
of view. The most difficult problem regarding recycling of steel cans is how t<
economically collect the used cans of which weight is less than 50 gr, and which
are scattered widely in a community. Some data show that collection rust, of (.lie
cans irregularly thrown away on a road was 48 yen per can. An economically
applicable unit for re-use is considered one ton as scrap. Thus, in order to
satisfy this requirement, more than 20,000 cans should be collected, and even if
collection cost is one yen per can, the expenditure of 20,000 yen shall be requirt
This expenditure greatly exceeds the market price of scraps.
I
2.2 Collection expenses
In the Machida City (population:230,341), a case study of collection of
wasted metallic cans to be generated from households was carried out in 1974.
The following analysis v/as based on the report of this case sudy.
(A) Components of collection expenses x
In this study, only the direct expenses were analized since available data
for analysis of the indirect expenses were limitted. The direct expenses were
divided into personel expenses of the collectors and transportation expenses.
Furthermore, the transportation expenses were broken down depreciation expenses,
maintenance expenses and fuel expenses of collection vehicles.
(i) Personnel expenses
An average salary of the collectors who were employed in the city was
7,800 yen per day in 1973.
(ii) Transportation expenses
a) Depreciation expenses
Purchase price (two tons truck) 930,000 yen
Durability 5 years
Working days 25 days per month
Estimated depreciation expenses ! 620 yen per day
b) Maintenance expenses
The Machida City had fourty collection vehicles of municipal wastes and
expended about eight millions yen in 1973 as manintenance expenses.
Estimated maintenance expenses 670 yen per day per vehi
c) Fuel expenses
Fuel consumption 6.1 km per liter
Fuel price 110 yen per liter
Estimated fuel expenses 18 yen per km per vehicle
(B) Running distance of a collection vehicle, and required time for transportati
and collection of washed metallic cans in a run of collection works
Model areas
Running distance*
Required time (minutes)
Transportation*
Collection
Total
Area-A
19 km
50
45
95
-B
14
35
45
80
-C
5
20
120
140
* for going to a place and back
-------
(C) Estimation of collection expenses
(i) Collection expenses per a run of collection works
Given conditions:
Three persons including a driver of the vehicle were engaged,
working hour-was seven hrs per day and
indirect expenses were neglected.
*
Result of the estimation:
Model areas
Transportation expenses
Personnel
expenses
Total
Depreciation
Maintenance
Fuel
Total
Area-A
141
152
342
635
5,293
5,928
-B
119
128
252
499
4,457
4,956
-C
208
224
90
522
. 7,800
8,322
Unit: yen per run of collection works
(ii) Collection expenses of a unit weight of wasted metallic cans
a) Case-I: Difference of the market price as scraps between steel and
aluminium cans was neglected.
The number of steel and aluminium cans to be wasted in the model
areas was observed during seven months, and the results were
shown in the following table.

Number of cans
Weic
ht of cans (ka)
Runs of
_llie_M)xks
31
30
30
Steel
Aluminium
Total
Steel
Aluminium
Total
Area-A
-B
-C
27,850
27,950
85,612
3,717
2,299
8,029
31,567
30,249
93,641
¦ 1,838
1,844
5,650
74
46
160
1,912
1,890
¦ 5,810
Note: An average weight of a steel can was 66 gr and one of an aluminium
can was 20 gr.
Result of the estimation:

Total collection
expenses*
(ven)
Total weight.of
cans collected
(kq)
Collection expenses
per weight of cans
(ven/kq)
Area-A
183,768
1,912
96.10
-B
148,680
1,890
78.70
-C
249,660
5,810
43.00
* =(Collection expenses per run of collection works)
x(Number of runs of the works)
b) Case-II: Weight of an aluminium can was assumed ten times of a steel can
on the basis of the difference of those market prices.
Result of the estimation:

Total collection
expenses
(yen)
Modified total weight
of cans collected
(kg)
Modified collection
expenses per weight
of cans (yen/kq)
Area-A
183,768
2,578
71.30
-B
148,680
2,304
64.50
-C
249,660
7,250
34.40
The result of estimation on Case-II was around 20 % less than one on Case-I.
(,.1.11
-------
6,3 mm aiuiiiiii iuni ecuib
(i) Collection expenses
The market price of aluminium scraps is stable. The purchase price of the
dealers of used materials is 75,000 yen per ton, one of the recovery manufacturers
is 100,000 to 130,000 yen per ton and the market price of the ground metal is
210,000 yen per ton.
Given condition:
A collector worked seven hrs per day and a running distance of
a collection vehicle was 80 to 100 km per day.
Result of the estimation:
Collection vehicle
2 tons truck
3 tons truck
Aluminium cans
collected (kq)
600
900
Collection expenses (yen)
Purchase expenses of the cans
Personnel and transportation
expenses
45,000
14,000
67,500
17,000
Total (yen)
59,000
84,500
Total expenses per ton (yen)
98,000
94,000
(ii) Saving of the energy
As shown in the following table, the recovered ground metal to be used for
production of aluminium goods was nearly equal to half of the new ground metal
in Japan.
Production
1971
1973
1974
1975
New ground metal
(1,000 tons)
1,040
1,081
1,115
1,030
Recovered ground
metal (1.000 tonsl
521
536
517
493
Total (1,000 tons)
1,561
1,617
1,632
1,523
The required energy for recovery of the ground metal from used aluminium
cans was estimated only one twenthy seventh of the energy to be consumed in
production of the new ground metal. Therefore, recovery of used aluminium
goods could save about 30 % of energy demand for production of the ground
metal in Japan. Futhremore, the recovery cost was estimated to be 3.7 % of
production cost of the new ground metal.
The following table shows estimated energy consumptions in the processes of
producing containers, filling and distribution in both cases of steel and
aluminium cans to be used as beverage containers. Moreover, this estimation
was made with reference to Atokins' analysis. (Atokins, P.R.,"Recycling can cut
energy demand dramatically", Engineering and Mining Jr., May 1973)

Required energy for
Required energy for

~.
refinement and pro-
formation,and fill -
total

duction of plates
inq and distribution

Steel cans*
4,283.0
934.0
5,217.0
Aluminium cans:

(no recovery)
5,021.4
923.1
5,944.5
(10 % recovery)
4,700.8
923.1
5,623.9
(20 % „ „ )
4,381.9
923.1
5,305.0
(25 % „ „ )
4,222.3
923.1
5,145.4
(50 % „ „ )
3,424.2
923.1
4,347.3
72
-------
* 30% of the scrap to be used for production
Unit of the data: Btu per container .
The result of estimation shows that the required energy in a case of using
aluminium cans as a container of beverage was larger than one in a case of using
steel cans unless used aluminium cans were not recovered. However, when a
recovery ratio of aluminium cans became more than 25 %, aluminium cans could
cut more energy demand than steel cans could.
3. Analysis of main policy
3.1 Glass bottles
Since the price of a glass bottle is considerably high as compared with
the price of beverage filled in it, it should be more economical for bottlers
to recover used glass bottles. In Japan, the most bottlers used to receive'
the empty bottles and to pay some money from the begining of their businesses.
Therefore, high recovery ratio of glass bottles used as containers of Japanese
Sake, beer and soft drinks have been preserved.
The subject remained in future is to organize a recycling system of the
glass bottles which are not recovered regularly, and with regards to this
subject it would be required to define reasonable share of can producers and
bottlers in the recovery expenses and to bring up specialized bottle'collectors.
3.2 Metallic cans
Steel cans being of less advantage to re-use had been only metallic
container of beverage before aluminium cans being in use 1971 in Japan.
Thus, many used cans were thrown away easily in a wide area, and then the
cleansing management of local authorities became disturbed extremely.
This is a background why use of aluminium cans as beverage containers
attracted people's attentions in Japan. As shown in the figure regarding
production statistics of all aluminium cans (-Item 1.3), its demand is being
enlarged rapidly. However, the collection system has not been fully equiped
yet, and then the recovery ratio in 1974 was only ten per cent.
Re-use of all aluminium cans is not only effective for lightening sever
impact to the cleansing management of local authorities, but is contributive
for saving of energy resources. Therefore, the associated industries have
taken a positive attitude for improvement of the recycling, and have organized
the Association of All Aluminium Cans' Recycling on February 1973.
An intended collection system of the association is shown in the following
figure.
The association established already 57 deposit stations, and has a plan
to set up more than 200 stations additionaly. At the deposit station, a sheaf
of used aluminium cans to be more than one hundred or to be more than two kg is
purchased, and the price is 75 yen per kg of used cans.
-------
to remove metallic.cans excepting aluminium cans, and shreders are provided.
The specialized vehicles for collection of used aluminium cans run round in
Tokyo Metropolis and Osaka-Kobe District, and are bound for the contres.
Finally, inorder to defende themselves from impact of wasted metallic cans
to theircleasing managements* Kobe, Mitaka and Machida City made an agreement
regarding recovery of those materials with the bottlers in 1973.
3.3 Milk containers
The milk industries are intending to turn the glass bottles as a container
of milk, which are distributed to households, to processed paper containers in
order to save a required expense for distribution of the products.
The following table shows a rapid increase of a share of the milk to be
filled ,in the paper containers in the total of milk to be produced, and in 1975
it was estimated that 38 % of the milk produced,was filled in the paper containers.
"—-—_______
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
Production of
milk, kl (A)
2,564,114
2,767,163
2,833,886
2,948,364
3,077,941
To be filled in
paper containers,
kl (B)
35,898
202,003
269,219
395,081
625,745
(B/A) %
1.4
7.3
9.5
13.4
20.3
The paper containers of 1,000, 500 and 250 ml are available in the markets,
and the trade prices of the containers are 12.5, 9 and 5.8 yen per container
reciprocally. The paper containers are coated with polyethylene on the interior,
but any trouble to disturb combustion of the municipal refuse containing the paper
containers wasted has not observed since harmful gases are not produced in a
combustion process of polyethylene, and increase of calorie due to polyethylene
coating is negligible small.
3.4 Plastic containers
The Y Manufacture producing La lactic acid drink intended to change the container:
made of glass to plastic bottles, and to organize a one-way distribution system
in 1968. The volume of the bottle was 65 ml. However, because of difficulty
of plastic waste combustion, Ministry of Health and Welfare requested the manufacture
to recover all plastic bottles to be distributed through his system on the basis of
the ministrial ordiance regarding standarizations of milk products.
Then the manufacture began to collect the used plastic bottles, and at present
around 60,000 deliverers are engaged to distribution of the products and collection
of the used bottles at the same time. The collected plastic bottles are saled
to reproduction manufactures.
-k/.7
-------
3.5 A socio-economic study to be undertaken
Development of an applicable system for recycling of the materials in a
society is ruled not only by technological factors, but by socio-econimical
factors, particularly regarding production, transportation and consumption of
the goods.
The Economic Planning Agency, the Prime Minister's Office, has organized
a project team consisted of the representatives of associated government offices,
which are Ministry of International Trades and Industry, Ministry of Health and
Welfare, Ministry of Home Affairs, Environment Agency and Science and Technology
Agency, and 1s performing a study of socio-economical feasibility of the recycling.
The major items of this study are as follow as;
i) Systematic analysis of the material flows associated with production,
transportation and consumption of goods, and waste generation,
ii) Analysis of socio-economical requirements for improvement of the recycling
in an individual process of production and transportation of goods, and
recovery and reproduction of disused things,
iij) Examinations of various feasible systems on a recovery point of view and
iv) Examinations of reproducts' qualities and reproduction costs.
Although this study project was set up in this year and would be carried on
until 1977, the Economic Planning Agency intends to establish a national guide-
line for improvement of the recycling on the basis of conclusions to be conducted
by the study.
3.6 Public acceptance
Separate collection of municipal wastes should be a key to improve recycling
of used beverage containers. The result of an inquiry survey against the
inhabitants in the Mitaka City shows that 85 % of the inhabitants answered to
cooperate in separate collection.
Furthermore, in Tokyo Metropolis 711 voluntary groups for improvement of
waste re-use were organized, and about four millions households participate in
those activities. According to their report, varuable materials correponding
to ten millions yen, which were papers^metals and glass bottles, were recovered
every month by their own hands.
L. t.7$
-------
APPKNDn 5
Study on Waste Management System in Smaller Cities
(FY 1972-1974)
PRAND (Planning Resarch and Development
Corporatioh Ltd.)
M. Azegami et al
From 1972 to 1974 we have analyzed actual state of refuse problem, which are now in very serious
conditions, in more than 60 medium cities with population of more or less 300,000.
Our study indicates clearly that current refuse management system which have been put in enforcement,
can not deal with the waste problem which we have now experienced.
The property of recent refuse containing lots of chemicals which vary in qualities and quantities caused
difficulty to avoid secondary polltion problem with incineration.
On the other hand, land-fill is becomming serious social problem due to the effect towards environment
both in sea-shore and in mountain-side.
As countermeasure for foregoing trouble, advancement of sanitary engineering technology on incinera-
tion and land-fill and arrangement of municipal disposal facilites are hastened.
The report, however, intends to establish new system which combines wastes and its energy in social
recycling mechanism rather than take foregoing countermeasure.
We have picked up Toyohashi, City Aichi prefecture, as the model city and have set up a plan of
integrated regional design from technical, economical, administrative and urban aspect.
The plan is called as "Urban-Rural Environmental Combined System".
In this system, municipal and some of industrial wastes are separated into five categories, "High-calorie
-waste" for heat recovery, "Low-carolie-waste" for composting, "Reclaimable-waste" for custody and
"Land-fill-waste" for land-reclamation. Manure and urine treatment process is also included, where sludge
treatment is combined with composting.
Along with the concept, a test operation of new registration system for separation, collection and recyc-
ling of wastes have been executed from 1974. Based on the test rasult, we have developed a computer aided
management system which checks waste material flow in city at points of discharging origin.
In 1976, the phycical construction of the "URECS" system shall be prepared for implementation.
-------
APPENDIX 6
Offshore Waste Treatment Technology and Systems
(FY 1974 ~ 1976)
Planning and Coordination Bureau,
4
Environment Agency
and
Japan Ocean Industries Association
Marine Parks Center of Japan
Concentration of population and industrial facilities into seaside cities has resulted in traffic congestion and
environmental pollution as far as waste treatment concerned. This trend is particularly so in metropolitan areas
surrounded by satellite cities, where wastes are considerably increasing in quantity and variety, accelerated by vigorous
economical activities and rise of living standard. Thus it becomes impossible to rely on the present means in treating
wastes, due to difficulty for obtaining necessary sites and funds.
To cope with the circumstances, the conception to solve this problem by newly establishing disposal facilities off
in Tokyo Bay is now understudy. As the main support of this conception, studies on collection and transportation of
wastes, disposing technics, and plan for disposing plant are to be enforced. At the same time, taking an overall view as
well as forming a link on the environmental administration, it has been decided to carry out an assessment regarding
the effect of disposal facilities at sea in question.
In this situation, this study constitutes of two parts, i.e., (Part I) Technology and System for Offshore Waste
Treatment and (Part II) Environmental Assessment on Waste Disposal System Offshore:
Part I The subject of this part is an improved technology and system for waste treatment for Tokyo metropolitan
area as a model. The study includes;
1. Total System
Analysis and establishment of the bacKground and concept for offshore waste treatment, necessity for recovering
resources from wastes, and problems to be expected in realizing this system from the point of management.
2. Waste-Gathering and Transportation System
Investigation and prospect for the present and future map for treatment of wastes from generation to disposal.
Furthermore, compound transportation systems, by means of the pneumatic, railway, trucking and barge.
3. Treatment Plant
Information-gathenng on treatment technology and research for the present situation for use of resources
recovery. Concept designing for a treatment plant capable of handling 8,000 ~ 10,000 tons/day wastes.
-------
4. Offshore Structure
Concept designing for four types of the offshore structure (piled, bottom-support, pontoon and self-propelled
types) which are to be installed on Tokyo Bay.
Selection of suitable site for offshore treatment plant and its economy will be finalized through study and
evaluation for efficient use of onshore sites, reduction of costs for preventing the site from pollution, and resources
recovery, in addition to consideration to forms of sub systems.
Part II This part includes:
1. Environmental Assessment for Tokyo Bay
The aim of this study is to assess beforehand an effect on environment of the disposal facilities off in Tokyo
Bay, however on the other hand the conceived plan for disposal facilities at sea has in fact some uncertain factors at
this stage.
So, at this initial stage, we investigated the actual situation of Tokyo Bay only collecting data and adjusting
anticipated natural conditions in connection with establishment of waste disposal facilities.
2. Environmental Assessment for Osaka Bay
Being the second largest city scope following the Metropolitan one, cities on Osaka Bay are confronting with the
problem regarding disposal of wastes in common with that of the Metropolis.
To solve the problem, a conception has become forward to establish waste disposal facilities off on Osaka Bay
similarly as in the case of the Metropolis, and to dispose centralized wastes in a wide scale. At the same time, for such
a large project of this kind, it is required to forecast the effect on environment beforehand as an environmental
administration.
As an initial stdge thereof, in this chapter the data mainly concerning the natural environment have been
collected to catch the actual situation on the Bay of Osaka.
3. Social Condition associated with the Offshore Waste Tieatment
First of all, for Ihc current year study on technique for assessment of environmental effect itself and institution
of fundamental problem in connection with specified plan of disposal-at-sea system, have been carried out.
The principal subjects of this chapter are:
1) Institution of fundamental problem on environmental assessment technique
2) Analysis on environmental assessment technique
3) Condition of location and natural environment as to disposal-at-sea of waste
4) Investigation on possible primary factors as to disposing facilities of waste
5) Analysis of administrative system as to social system of disposal-at-sea
6) Fundamental conception on the totalled method of environmental effect assessment
-------
MATERIALS RECOVERY FROM POST-CONSUMER SOLID WASTE
by
Steven J. Levy
Senior. Staff Engineer
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
Presented at the third U.S. - Japan Conference on Solid Waste Management,
Tokyo, Japan, May 12-14, 1976 * .
-------
CONTENTS
Introduction 1
i
Materials Recovery Equipment 1
Aluminum Recovery Equipment 1
Glass Recovery Equipment 8
Glass and Aluminum Recovery Systems 14
The Black Clawson System 15
The Occidental Research Corporation System 18
Markets for Glass Gullet 21
Present Scrap Consumption 21
Cullet in Glass Products 21
Cullet Specifications 22
Prices 24
Secondary Products for Waste Glass 25
Summary Comments on Glass Markets 25
Aluminum Markets" 26
Present Scrap Consumption 26
Scrap Specifications 27
Prices 27
Source Separation of Post-Consumer Solid Waste 28
Public Education 29
Materials and Markets 30
Collection 31
Economics 31
Bibliography 32

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MATERIALS RECOVERY FROM POST-CONSUMER SOLID WASTE
by Steven «^. Levy
Introduction
Materials recovery systems for processing post-consumer solid waste
have concentrated on the reclamation of paper (the most abundant component
in solid waste); magnetic metals (the most easily extractable); aluminum
(the most highly valued); and glass (to date the most difficult to
extract). This paper will review the promising approaches to glass and
aluminum recovery. Mechnical recovery of paper fiber will not be discussed
because the Black Clawson process which represents the sole effort
toward this end in the U.S. has been well documented in the literature
and also because it is not presently viewed as being economically feasible
in this country. Ferrous recovery will not be discussed because it is
already well understood and readily available for use.
This paper will also review the recovery of glass, metals and paper
by source separation and separate collection at the residence.
Materials Recovery Equipment
Aluminum Recovery
The technical problem of extracting aluminum from mixed wastes is
compounded by the fact that aluminum is a minor constitutent (generally
less than one percent of municipal solid waste) and, inherently, has no
characteristic that makes it readily extractable from other organic and
inorganic materials.
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2
Counterbalancing this, however, is the fact that aluminum's high
scrap value makes it economically wortnwnile to recover, particularly
when aluminum recovery involves adding a subsystem to an existing solid
waste processing plant. Also, aluminum's relative indestructibility
permits a wide variety of wet and dry processing techniques to be
employed in its concentration and ultimate extraction.
There are, as yet, no full-scale systems in operation extracting
aluminum from municipal solid waste. However, the results of laboratory-
and pilot-scale operations and the inclusion of aluminum recovery subsystems
in a number of full-scale resource recovery systems planned or under
construction permit fairly specific discussion on how aluminum recovery
will be accomplished.
The pieces of equipment for extracting aluminum from municipal
wastes that are described in this section presuppose that the solid
waste has been processed to remove ferrous metals, the bulk of the
organic or combustible wastes and, perhaps, glass. The process steps
preceding aluminum salvage usually include one or more stages of shred-
ding, air classification, magnetic separation and screening. The
aluminum recovery equipment thus receives a non-organic concentrate
containing glass, stones, aluminum, and nonferrous metals with a metallic
content of 10-50 percent, depending upon the effeiciency of the previous
processing steps. Complete aluminum and glass recovery.systems are
described later.
Heavy Media - One approach employs a three-stage wet flotation
operation, which may be preceded by additional grinding and screening to
ensure uniform particle size and maximum removal of contaminating materials.
In the first step of the flotation operation, the material-will be cleansed
6.2.3
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3
of the remaining light organics by a rising current classifier (see
below) which utilizes a countercurrent upward flow of water to remove
materials with density somewhat .greater than one. The next two steps
employ dense media.
¦i i " ¦ ¦
Here, a water suspension of finely divided, particles of heavy
minerals (e.g^ magnetitie or ferrosilicon) can be used to obtain fluid
densities greater than that of one of the materials to be separated.
•In the second stage, a fluid density of 2.0 grams per cc can be
employed which will remove most of the bones, heavy plastics, rubber,
etc.
The final stage will employ a dense media system which is greater
than 2.8 grams per cc where a purified aluminum fraction is removed.
Solid waste processing systems employing wet pulping or recovery of
metals from incinerator or pyrolysis ash appear to be compatible with
the dense media system. However, recovery of aluminum from incinerator
ash by dense media requires that,ash temperatures remain at or below.the
melting point of aluminum 660 C (1217 F.) or that a physical arrangement
is employed in the incinerator that effectively provides for selective
melting of the various metal and glass components.
Other dense media approaches under development include the use of
"ferrofluids" where the specific gravity of liquids can be controlled
from 1 of 20 grams per cc using a magnetic field. One primary advantage
of this approach is that, not only aluminum but also copper, zinc and
other heavy metals can be separated in the same way, by multiple passes
through the system.
Eddy Current - Dry processes have also been developed for separating
aluminum from the nonferrous concentrates using eddy currents. In these
/L 2 . V
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4
devices an electrical current is imposed on a fixed linear motor located
beneath a moving belt. Metal conductors (aluminum) passing through the
field created by the linear motors are subject to an induced (Eddy)
current which opposes the field created by the linear motor. The opposing
force is strong enough to knock the conductor off the belt, i'lon con-
ductors pass over the linear motors unaffected. Combustion Power
Company of Menlo Park, California, (figure 1) and Occidental Research
(formally Garrett Research) of La Verne, California, (figure 2) have
developed prototype aluminum separation systems using eddy currents.
The aluminum is repulsed and in some equipment configurations is separated
from the copper and zinc. Systems of this type are reportedly under
development that will include the separation of other nonferrous metals
as well.
tddy current separation is, reportedly, size-dependent and the
resulting recovered aluminum is heavily skewed toward the aluminum can
fraction of the refuse. This approach should, therefore, result in a
very useable, and perhaps even higher grade scrap, than dense media
separation.
Jigging is used to separate materials of different densities.
Water is pulsed through a screen causing material fed into the screen to
separate (figure 3). The lighter, or apparently lighter, material is
floated off leaving the heavier material at the base of the jig. Jigs
have been used in labors-ory and pilot' scale trials for separation of
aluminum from mixed nonferrous metals.
Rising Current Classifiers - This is essentially separation by
washing in a rising water column and is used at a number of automobile
V
shredder scrap installations for producing high-grade metal concentrates.
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for recovering aluminum.
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Figure 3. Water, pulsing through the jig, is used to float light
materials off of heavier materials.
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A commercial unit developed and marketed for municipal solid waste
separation is the rising current separator manufactured by the WEMCO
Division of Envirotech Corp. In this operation, a rising current of
water creates an effective specific gravity in excess of that of still
water and can be controlled over a range of from 1.1 to 2.0. Light
materials float to the surface and over a weir while heavy materials
sink and are picked up by a drum elevator and carried to a drain screen.
For processing municipal solid waste, rising current classification
would probably be used to separate organic materials remaining after air
classification and magnetic separation. It would produce a concentrate
of metals and glass which may then be processed further for separation
of the two individual materials.
Electrostatic Separation - Another method for dry nonferrous metal
separation is shown in Figure 4. Separation is based on differences in
the conductivity of particles in the feed stream. As feed material
enters the electrostatic field, particles become charged and fall on the
rotating drum. Conductors immediately lose their charge and fall from
the drum while non-conductors retain a surface charge and adhere to the
grounded drum. They are swept off once they have passed the splitter
point.
Glass Recovery Equipment
There are two major approaches to glass recovery under development
at this time. Optical sorting is used to recover color sorted fractions
of rather large particles. The other process, froth flotation, is used
to recover a high purity, non-color sorted producb consisting of very
small particles. Both of these processes involve a number of pre-
processing steps such as screening (vibrating and trommels) gravity
£ 1 9
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9
FEEDER
HIGH VOLTAGE
ELECTRODES
ELECTRICALLY
GROUNDED—
ROTATING DRUM
NONCONDUCTORS
(INSULATORS)
CONDUCTORS
(METALS)
SPLITTER
Figure 4. The electrostatic separator is used to pull conductors
(metals) away from non-conductors (glass, stones, organics, etc.)
£ D /r>
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10
separation (dense or heavy mecha, vibrating tables, mineral jigs)
inertial or ballistic separation, magnetic separtion, drying, etc.
Optical Sorting - The electronic color sorting machine manufactured
by Sortex Company of North America is being used for sorting glass
particles in the 0.6 to 2 cm (1/4 inch to 3/4 inch) diameter range at
i'
the EPA supported1'demonstration project in Franklin, Ohio. Cullet is
fed from a hopper onto a vibrating feeder (figure 5). A uniform feed of
particles is led to a grooved belt conveyor which transports pieces in
i
single file to an illuminated area. Here two photo cells (one on each
side) view the glass. A color plate is situated opposite the photocell
to provide a standard against which deviations in reflectivity of the
glass are measured. Those particles not falling within the established
range cause a voltage change in the photocells which inturn triggers a
short blast of compressed air which deflects the particle from the main
stream. This equipment can be set up to separate transparent particles
(glass) from opague particles (stones and ceramics), to separate clear
glass from colored glass (amber and green), or to separate green glass
from amber glass.
The Sortex Company's six channel machine is designed to handle up
to 400 pounds per hour per channel. The National Center for Resource
Recovery estimates that 2,400 pounds per hour would be handled for a
one-pass treatment, but only 1,800 pounds per hour would be handled if
amber and green fractions were collected as well as flint. A new unit
designed to handle particles as small as 0.3 cm (1/8 inch) will soon
be tested.
Froth flotation is accomplished when an air bubble is attached to
a selected particle having hydrophobic surface characteristics. This
6.2.//
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11
FEEDER TRAY
FEED BELT
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(Amplifier; Power Supply;
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AIR SUPPLY AIR EJECTOR VALVE SEPARATED PRODUCT^ ,
Figure 5". The Sortex optical sorter is used to color sort glass
particles.
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12
desirable surface property is usually achieved by "conditioning" the
particle using a reagent prior to entering the flotation circuit.
Following air bubble attachment, the floatable species is buoyed to
the surface to form a froth which can then be removed by skimmers.
Rotors are used to circulate the glass rich slurry and to provide good
air-solids mixing.
Rotor speed, draft tube rotor engagement, rotor submergence and air
flow are important operational machine variables. These operational
variables must be considered along with pulp conditioning variables
(chemical collector and frother, pH, etc.) and residence time, before
maximum flotation circuit performance (i.e. concentrate grade and
recovery) can be achieved.
To achieve the required residence time, flotation cells are usually
arranged in series, as shown in Figure 6, where adjacent cells are
separated by baffles to reduce "pulp short circuiting."
A typical glass flotation system is shown in the simplified schematic
of Figure 7. It consists of three series of flotation units: roughers,
cleaners, and scavenger circuits. The conditioned feed first passes
through the rougher. The tailings from the rougher pass to the scavenger
while the rougher concentrate goes to the cleaner. Scavenger concentrate
and cleaner tails are returned to the head of the rougher, while scavenger
tailings are discharged and the cleaner concentrate becomes the final
glass concentrate.
Sol ids'removal, or dewatering, for both the final concentrate and
tails streams can be accomplished by densifiers, cyclone, or filtration.
The water can be returned to the head end for reuse.
Glass flotation is best accomplished at a neutral to slightly
£ D
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1.3
Figure 6. Froth Flotation cells are arranged in series in order
to improve their separation efficiency.
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14
(Class)
Figure 7. A typical glass flotation system contains a rougher,
a cleaner, and a scavenger circuit.
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15
alkaline pH range. It can be adjusted as.necessary by sodium hydroxide
or equivalent. Depending on the collector employed, a frother may be
used to achieve the desired physical properties for proper froth skimming
and handling. Glass particle size distribution should be in the range
-20 to +150 mesh. The flotation feed should be pulped to a solids
'i
content between 25 and 35 percent by weight.
Experience indicates glass recovery exceeding 90 percent can be
i
achieved, producing a 99+ percent pure non-color-sorted product.
Glass and Aluminum Recovery Systems
Glass and aluminum recovery systems are generally integrated into
one flow scheme, as these two materials are generally combined and
concentrated by equipment used to separate the organic and inorganic
fractions. Flow schemes for two systems will be described.
Black Clawson System
The first flow scheme is in operation in Franklin, Ohio, at the
Black Clawson fiber recovery plant. The .feed to this system is the
heavy inorganic fraction (glass, nonferrous metals, stones and small
amounts of ferrous metals and organics) which drops out of the wet
cyclone. The system as it is currently laid out is shown in Figure 8.
Heavy material from the cyclone is mechanically dewatered prior to
entering the surge storage bin. From the bin the material is placed on
a vibrating screen and the fines and some dirt with organic residue is
washed off; the fines being arbitrarily defined as anything less than'
0.6 cm (1/4 inch). This undersize material will not be color sorted or
recovered in any way, and it is sent to the landfill.
After the screening, the material is magnetically scalped to remove
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1 - Conveyor, from Hydrasposal
2 - Bin
3 - Conveyor
4 - Rotary Screen
5 - Fines Dewaterer
6 - Elevator
7 - Magnet
8 - Heavy Media Separator
9 - Washing Conveyor
10 - Media Recovery
11 - Aluminum Dewatering Screen
12-Jig
13 - Conveyor
14 - Dryer
15 - Conveyor with Magnetic Pulley
16 - Elevator
17.- High Tension Electrostatic Separ
18 - Conveyor
19 - Conveyor
20 - Transparency Sorter
21 - Conveyor
22 - Elevator
23 - Color Sorter
Figure 8. The Black Clawson Company's glass and aluminum recovery
subsystem, as it is currently arranged in Franklin, Ohio.
3 /7
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17
ferrous metals, and is then conveyed to the heavy media separation unit.
The heavy media separation unit is held at a specific gravity of 2.0
•n order to remove any heavy organic materials, specifically plastics,
that have slipped through the liquid cyclone in the main system. All.
the floated material is returned to the main plant to be burned (it
would be used as a fuel in a large fuel recovery system). The sink
material, that is, the material that has a specific gravity greater than
2.0, is sent on to the jigging operation for separation of glass from
nonferrous metals - mainly aluminum.
The jigging operation, as set up at the Franklin site, has three
output streams - the lightweight, mostly aluminum canTtype stock; the
medium fraction which is mostly glass; and a very heavy fraction, composed
generally of cast metals, such as brass keys, coins, cast aluminum, cast
zinc, or lead-form material. With the feed material held for the proper
residence time within the jigging operation, good concentrates of aluminum,
glass and heavy metal fractions can be obtained. The glass fraction is
conveyed from the jigging operation to the rotary kiln dryer to get rid
of the excess surface water.
The glass fraction is then carried by a conveyor to the high tension
electrostatic separation unit for removal of any remaining metals.
Material which can be made to carry a charge is pulled out of the
glass rich stream. Some natural stone, residual cast metal materials
and any residual aluminum can stock is thus removed. The use of this
particular device has proved to be very effective for handling materials
ranging in size from 0.6 cm to 2.5 cm (1/4 inch to 1 inch).
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13
The glass fraction coming from the high tension electrostatic
device is then transported by bucket elevators into hoppers which feed
v-shaped belts for the separation of stones and ceramics from the glass
fraction by use of a transparency device. The transparency device is a
relatively new addition to the processing line at Franklin and is based
on the need to remove an extremely high incidence of ceramic or refractory
materials found in the glass fraction. Tnese refrafctory materials are
unacceptable in the manufacture of glass containers since their presence
causes imperfections in the glass container which destroy the integrity
of the jar or bottle. The transparency device operates quite similarly
to the color sorting device. The glass concentrate is dropped from the
v-shaped belt through an optical box which has a photo cell assembly in
it. The passage of an opaque particle causes a null signal within the
electronic logic and that particular particle is blown away by a high
pressure air ejection device. The material, once it has been trans-
parency sorted, is then passed on to a color sorter.
In a previous study at Franklin, the glass composition was segregated
into flint, amber and green glass. However, experimentation within the
industry determined that a triple color sorting was not necessary, and
that a flint, non-flint, (amber and green) separation would be sufficient.
The Occidental Research Corporation System
The Occidental Researcn Corporation (ORC) has constructed a pilot
glass and aluminum recovery plant which incorporates froth flotation for
glass recovery and eddy current separation of aluminum.
The material fed to this plant consists of average municipal solid
waste that has been shredded to a particle size of 2.5 cm (1 inch). The
6. a./?
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19
material, after shredding, has had most of the magnetic metals removed
and much of the organic matter has been removed by air classification.
As a result of this pre-processing, the feed material largely consists
of glass, aluminum, rocks, bones, dirt, some magnetic metals, some heavy
r I
organics, and other inorganic matter.
The material- entering the system flows into a trommel which
is a large rotating cylindrical screen (figure 9). The large material,
containing much of the aluminum, passes through the trommel, is conveyed
to a magnetic separator for "tramp" ferrous metal recovery, then to the
"Recyc-Al" Separator. Here, a linear induction motor, powered by an
alternator generates a force field which acts upon the pieces of aluminum.
The aluminum is very rapidly deflected to the side of the conveyor belt
and is collected.
The small material stream which falls through the trommel screen
openings and is composed of small dense particles, largely glass, is
conveyed to a wet type spiral, classifier. Here the material receives
its first cleaning and the few light organics are removed. The partially
cleansed material then flows by gravity into a rod mill for size reduction.
This sized fraction is then pumped through a cyclone and screen where
the large-sized non-glass material (rubber, plastic, etc) is removed..
The contaminated glass is sized to greater than 200 mesh in a classifier
then flows to a conditioning tank where a proprietary ORC reagent called
"SiLECT" is added. The "conditioned" glass is then sent to a series of
flotation cells called "roughers", "cleaners" and "recleaners". In the
froth flotation cells, the pure glass selectively attaches to bubbles
and floats to the top of the cells where it is skimmed off, collected,
6.2.10
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20
u.vv\te:>:.,jo
Figure 9. The Occidental Research Corporation has set up a glass
and aluminum recovery pilot plant in La Verne, California utilizing
this flow scheme.
6.a.a;
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21
and sent to a final dewatering classifier. The product glass is then
dried and shipped to market. Rejects from the "roughers" are passed
through "scavengers", dewatered, and then discharged as tailings.
Undersize material from the classifier is further processed in a
cyclone and screen, thickener tank and vacuum filter. Water used in the
process is filtered and treated for reuse.
Markets for Glass Cullet
Present Scrap Consumption
In the United States glass comprises about 10 percent of the municipal
post-consumer solid waste stream and in 1973 totaled 12.3 million
metric tons (13.6 million U.S. tons). This closely approximates the"
total production of glass containers for the same period. Glass containers
represent the .Major portion of glass found "in solid waste. Approximately
two-thirds of these glass products are made of flint or clear glass.
The remaining third is split between amber glass used for beer bottles
and green glass used for wine and soft drinks. In 1973 only 320,000
Metric tons (350,000 U.S. tons) or 3 percent of the glass in post-
consumer solid waste was recovered.
There are two major potential markets for recovered waste glass:
(a) as cullet for making new bottles, and (b) as a raw material for
making secondary products (foamed insulation, construction materials,
highway paving material).
Cullet in Glass Products
There are 119 glass plants in the United States with most located
in the east and west coast regions.
Glass manufacturers have long practiced adding waste glass to their
6. 3..<23.
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glass furnaces to improve the operating efficiency through reduced fuel
consumption and improved melting time. Normal cullet use is 10 to
20 percent of the glass batch, but a few plants use higher percentages
of waste glass. Normally the cullet used is in-plant scrap, which is
already color-sorted, of known quality, and is free of dirt, organics
and metal contaminants. A second source of generally acceptable cullet
is from volunteer recycling centers. The glass manufacturers require
this glass to be color-sorted, reasonably clean, and free of caps and
neck rings.
Cullet Specifications
The most pressing issue with markets for municipal glass is the
quality of the cullet. If the glass is properly sorted by color and if
contaminants are kept to a minimum, it is likely that a buyer can be
found. However, these are major barriers.
To be acceptable to the container manufacturer for use in making
flint glass, the cullet must be at least 95 percent clear. Similarly
color-sorted cullet labelled "green11 or "amber" can contain only limited
amounts of other colors. Specifications of the Glass Container Manufacturers
Institute on cullet labelled "color-sorted" are listed in Table 1.
Waste glass meeting these color specifications provides the industrial
user with reasonable assurance that his final product will not be off-
color, and therefore not off-spec. Unfortunately, hand separation is
the only color-sorting melhod currently being practiced that provides
good color separation. Mechanical color-sorting as described earlier is
still in the developmental stages and has not been proven technically or
economically feasible on a large scale.
&.2.13
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23
TABLE 1
V
Glass Container Manufacturer's Institutes's
Specifications for "Color-Sorted" Glass Cullet
• Cullet must be noncaking and free flowing
• Cullet must show no drainage from the sample
• Maximum organic content (dry weight sample) - 0.2%
• Size - 100% less than 2"
No more than 15% less than 140 mesh
• Non-magnetics: No more than 1 particle per 40 lb. sample
No particle greater than 1/4"
• Refractories -
+20 mesh fraction - 1 particle per 40 lb. sample
No particle shall exceed 1/4"
-20 mesh to.+40 mesh - 2 particles per 1 lb. sample i
-40 mesh to +40 mesh - 20 particles per 1 lb. sample
• Color specifications -
Color of Cullet % Amber % Flint % Green
Amber 90-100 0-10 0-10
Flint 0-5 90-100 0-10
Green 0-35 0-15 50-100
• No more than 0.05 percent magnetic metal. No particle greater
than 1/4"

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Use of.color-mixed cullet in glass products has a much more limited
potential than use of color-sorted glass. One limitation is that color-
mixed cullet is practically never used in making clear glass. Since
roughly two-thirds of the industry's production is in clear glass, the
potential buyers for mixed color cullet are limited. Thus, in several
areas of the country, potential buyers do not exist.
Though mixed color cullet is generally thought to be acceptable for
use in green or amber containers, many companies are uncertain of the
amount of this material their furnaces will tolerate without causing
their product to be off-spec. Experimentally, one glass company has
successfully used as much as 50 percent color-mixed cullet in their
amber furnaces and up to 80 percent mixed cullet in green furnaces.
Whether sorted by color or not, glass cullet will not be accepted
by container manufacturers unless rigid contaminant limitations are met.
Contaminants include metals, organic materials, ceramics (refractories),
and excessive liquids.
Refractories are by far the most serious concern at this time1.
Metals and organices can be removed in a resource recovery plant to an
acceptable extent through froth flotation. Refractories are also
removed by this process, but it is questionable whether the very stringent
specification given in Table l can be met consistently. It is possible
that the glass industry will relax this specification as they gain more
experience with the use or cullet from municipal waste.
Prices
Waste glass that can meet the color and contamination specifications
discussed above will have a market value ranging from $15 to $25 per ton
C.3.15-
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25
(1974 prices) depending on geographical locations. Color-sorted and
clean color-mixed glass share an almost equal market value based on the
substitution for raw materials.
Secondary Products for Waste Glass
There are several secondary products in which waste glass may be
• / '
useable. The quality of the waste glass to be used in these products
generally may be lower than that used in the glass furances; thus,
color-sorting would not be needed and more contaminants could be tolerated.
Secondary products fall into three broad categories:
1. Road building materials - glasphalt paving, slurry seal,
glass beads for reflection paints.
2. Building materials - bricks, foatned glass insulation, ceramic
tiles, terrazo tiles, building blocks, sewer pipe, aggregate.
3. Miscellaneous - costume jewelry, ground cover, trickling
filters, glass polymer composites.
Though some experimentation has been done with use of waste glass
in these products, none of them are now manufactured on a large scale
using waste glass. However, utilization of waste glass has been shown
to be technologically feasible for many of these products.
Sumnary Comments on Glass Markets
Glass manufacturers have established stringent color and contaminant
specifications for waste glass. Although pilot plant work has been
performed, there are currently no full scale glass recovery systems
operating. Thus, it is uncertain whether these specifications can be
met. The uncertainty regarding the ability to meet glass industry
specifications suggests a very cautious approach to glass recovery at
this time.
"3l.^(d
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Aluminum Markets
Present Scrap Consumption
Aluminum comprises about 0.7 percent of the municipal solid waste
stream. About half of the aluminum discards 1n solid waste are cans,
one-third are foils, and the remainder largely major appliances. Aluminum
composition varies significantly locally due to differences in aluminum
beverage can distribution.
Consumption of aluminum scrap constituted 27 percent of the 4 million
metric tons (4.5 million U.S. tons) of aluminum produced in 1973. Sixty
percent of the scrap utilized was consumed by secondary smelters, 17
percent by primary producers, and the remainder by aluminum fabricators
and foundaries. There are 31 primary aluminum producers and 111 secondary
*
aluminum smelters in the United States.
The only form of aluminum recovery from municipal solid waste
currently being practiced is source separation of aluminum cans through
volunteer collection centers. In 1973 about 31,000 metric tons
(34,000 U.S. tons) of aluminum cans were recovered, which represents 3.5
percent of all the aluminum discarded. Source separated aluminum cans
generally can be remelted by the primary producers and made directly
into can stock.
It is anticipated that aluminum scrap extracted by mechanical means
will be lower in quality than that recovered through source separation.
Most of the scrap is likely to be.used by secondary smelters; who
will pretreat and upgrade the aluminum by removing contaminants and
deluting the alloy contents to acceptable levels. The value of this
recovered scrap is likely to be negotiated based on the quality of the
recovered product and the specifications required by the purchaser.
&:a. 27
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27
Scrap Specifications
The quality requirements of purchasers many vary from plant to
plant depending on the alloy content in their products being produced.
However, in general, scrap aluminum should meet the following specifications:
• free of sand, grit, and particularly glass (at melt temperatures,
aluminum reduces the silica in glass to silicon which will,
alloy and cause the melt to be off-rspec).
• free of iron contamination (1 percent or less) for reasons
similar for glass content restriction.
contain a minimum of organic contamination. These materials
will burn off in the furnace causing an additional load on the
air pollution equipment.
• have a low surface to volume ratio to avoid melt-loss during
resmelting--hence it should be baled or briquetted. For the
same reasons, fines are also limited. " .
Presently a corraiittee of the American Society for Testing Materials
(ASTM) is attempting to develop more refined specifications. However,
a great deal of individual company experimentation and specification
setting is inevitable until significant quantities of this scrap is
recovered and used.
Prices
A price of $.15 per pound ($300 per ton) was paid in 1974 by certain
aluminum companies and brewers for aluminum cans brought to their
collection centers. Aluminum recovered mechanically will be less
consistent in quality and priced accordingly. Prices in the range of
$200 to $300 per ton are probable for this scrap.
4.3.2*
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28
Source Separation of Post-consumer Solid Waste
Source separation involves the homeowner in a process of separating
his solid waste into recyclable components (i.e., paper, cans, and
glass) and non-recyclable components. The recyclables are then collected
and sold for re-use. The potential attractiveness of this approach is
apparent since recyclable paper, cans, and glass represent over 30
percent of the weight and 40 percent of the volume of municipal solid
waste.
Somerville and Marblehead, Massachusetts, are conducting programs
to test the extent to which materials can be economically recovered from
the waste stream through source separation. Somerville, which began
collecting materials on December 1, 1975, is an urban, working class
community of 90,000 with a population density of 23,000 persons per
square mile. Marblehead, which commenced its program on January 12,
1976, is an affluent suburb of Boston with 23,000 residents and a
population density of 5,200 persons per square mile. Both communities
are receiving financial support from the Environmental Protection Agency.
Marblehead has as its goal, a 25 percent reduction (by weight) in
municipal'solid waste through the recycling program. Somervilie's goal
is 15 percent reduction.
The two source separation programs are designed to maximize the
recovery of materials from the waste stream, subject to economic constraints,
by:
. Maximizing the participation rate of their citizens.
• Establishing a favorable long-term market for recovered
materials.
Minimizing collection costs.
Q.Z.Zt
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29
The participation rate will be maximized through the enactment
of ordinances which mandate citizen participation and through the
implementation of an aggressive public education program designed to
heighten public awareness of resource and environmental problems and
to make recycling a habit for all citizens.
Both communities have found favorable long-term markets for
recovered materials by seeking competitive bids on a guaranteed
floor-price contract and by assuring that a stable supply of recycled
materials will be delivered to the buyer in a form that can be readily
produced into valuable, marketable recovered resources.
Both programs involve weekly, curbside collection of paper, glass,
and cans. Additional collection costs are being minimized by using,
to the maximum practicable extent, the existing municipal solid waste
collection resources in the community and by demonstrating the feasibility
of compartmentalized collection vehicle designed to collect all
recyclables at the same time.
The success of both cormnuni ties' recycling programs depends on
four key elements; public education, materials and markets, collection,
and economics.
Public Education
Public education is achieved by:
• Effective use of the media.
Including newspaper articles, radio and television programs
and announcements, and publically displayed posters.
(£>. 2.3c,
-------
30
r Interaction with community groups.
Through speaking-engagements with Chambers of Commerce,
garden -clubs, fraternal organizations, etc. to inform members
about the program and receive their comments.
• School programs.
Including curriculum packages developed for several grade
school levels, high school science courses, and the encourage-
ment of student participation in recycling programs held at
their schools.
• Direct coiranunication with individual residents.
Including letters mailed to each citizen from senior community
officials requesting public support for the program and pro-
viding detailed information on the operational aspects of the
program.' In Somerville a calendar incorporating explanations
of the various aspects of recycling was districuted to each
resident.
'Materials and Markets
Both communities recycle glass containers, all metal cans, and flat
paper - such as newspaper, flattened cardboard, writing paper. Sonmerville
recovers flint (clear) glass only; Marblehead recycles amber and green
glass as well as clear. For the convenience of residents, both municipalities
allow glass and cans to be placed in the same container at the curbside.
Recognizing the importance of a favorable and stable market for
recovered materials, Somerville and Marblehead have each sought competi-
tive bids for a contract that provides a guaranteed floor price for all
materials and requires that prices for materials be tied to some accepted
g>. a. 31
-------
31
industry indicator, such as the Official Board Market for paper. To
ensure bidders a large, stable supply of materials in return, both
communities have guaranteed that all recyclables collected will go to
the successful bidder for the duration of the contract.
t i '
Collection
i
Collection costs have a significant impact on the economics of
source separation; thus, a major objective of a recycling program is -to
keep collection costs low. To do so, both communities have purchased,
bucket-loading, collection vehicles that are compartmentalized to
facilitate the simultaneous collection of all recyclables. The truck
bodies for both programs were manufactured, under a competitively bid
contract, by Rendispos, Inc., LaRose, Illinois.
Somerville purchased two 15 cubic meter (20-cubic yard) vehicles,
each operated by a 3-man crew consisting of a driver and 2 collectors.
Marblehead will use two 12 cubic meter (16-cubic yard) trucks with 2-man
crews.
Economics
The economics of source separation depend on several factors
*
specific to each community: the revenues and disposal cost savings
associated with materials recovery, and the costs of collecting, publicizing,
and administering a recycling program. Revenue and disposal costs, and
the volume of materials recovered. This last factor, in turn, depends
upon the extent of resident participation.
While neither program has been underway long enough to offer
conclusive economic results, it is anticipated that each will result in
a net savings to the community, primarily because additional costs of
separated materials collection are negligible in both communities.
-------
32
dIBLIOGRAPHY
Materials Recovery Equipment:
Morey, B., and J. P. Cummings. Recovery of small metal particles
from nonmetals using an eddy current separator - experience
at Franklin, Onio. Presented at 104th annual meeting of the
American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum
Engineers, New York City. February 16-20, 1975. 11 p.
Campbell, J. S. Electromagnetic separation of aluminum and non-
ferrous metals. Presented at 103rd American Institute of
Mechanical Engineers Annual Meeting, Dallas, Texas, February
24-28, 1974. 18 p.
Non-ferrous metals recovery...conserving a valuable resource.
NCRR Bulletin, V(3) : 67-72, Summer, 1975.
McChesney, R. and V. R. Uegner. Hydraulic, neavy media and
froth flotation processes applied to recovery of metals and
glass from municipal solid waste streams. Presented at
78th National Meeting of the American Institute of Chemical
Engineers, Salt Lake City, August 18-21, 1974. 2b p.
Samtur, H. Glass recycling and reuse, report 17. .Madison, Wise.
The Institute for Environmental studies, University of
Wisconsin, March, 1974. 100 p.
Glass and Aluminum Recovery Systems:
Cummings, J. P. Final report on tne glass and non-ferrous metal
recovery subsystem, Franklin, Ohio. Iji Proceedings, the fifth
mineral waste utilization symposium, Chicago, April 13-14, 1976.
Chicago, Illinois Institute of Technology Research Institute.
Occidental Research Corporation. Resource Recovery by 0RC.
Unpublished fact sheet. 1 p.
Aluminum and Glass Markets:
Garbe, Y. and S. J. Levy. Resource' recovery plant implementation,
a guide for municipal officials, markets. Washington, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (SW-157. 3), 1976. (In
preparation).
6. 2.33
-------
t
33
Source Separation:
Hansen, P. and J. Ramsey. Demonstrating multimaterial source
separation in Somerville and Marblehead, Massachusetts.
Waste Age, 7(2) : 26-27, 48, February, 1976.
6.2.3'/
-------
Report of the Committee for Investigation of the Control
of Emission Gas from Urban Refuse Incineration Facilities
March 1975
Committee for Investigation of the Control of Emission Gas
from Urban Refuse Incineration Facilities
-------
Report of the Committee for Investigation of the Control of Emission
Gas from Urban Refuse Incineration Facilities
Contents
1. Preface 1
2. Physicochemical Properties of Hydrogen Chloride 2
and Hydrochloric Acid
3. Biological Effects of Hydrogen Chloride and 4
Hydrochloric Acid
4. Determination of Hydrogen Chloride, Etc. in Refuse 14
Incinerator Emission Gas
5. Countermeasures to Hydrogen Chloride at Refuse 17
Incinerator
6. Discussion on Control of Hydrogen Chloride Emission 40
from Refuse Incinerator
7. Summary 61
Appendixes 63
-------
1. Preface
Social concern over the air pollution incident to incineration
of the urban refuse is ever increasing in these years.
The urban refuse includes many kinds of wastes so that its
combustion involves emission of a number of hazardous substances.
Particularly, with extensive use of plastics, the urban refuse
comes to contain an increasing amount of plastics discarded as ex-
pendables. In such plastic waste is included the polyvinyl chloride
resin (hereinafter referred to as PVC) which is used in a great
amount as containers or packing material and which upon combustion
emits hydrogen chloride (hereinafter at times referred to as HC1).
Such emission has an adverse effect upon the health of the inhabit-
ants in the vicinity of an incinerator and is thus considered to
be an important problem requiring thorough study.
Thus, the Committee conducted a survey of the actual conditions
of incinerators throughout the country, incinerating operations,
production and consumption of PVC and other basic matters and, at
the same time, examined the data of measurements conducted by the
government and some municipalities in order to see the actual condi-
tion of emission of hydrogen chloride and pollution of the environ-
ment and air in the vicinity of such an incineration facility.
However, as we were unable to find, in our country, any speci-
fic data on damage arising out of biological and other effects of
?. |j.i -
-------
hydrogen chloride in a low concentration, we took the data of foreign
countries as a reference and developed a concept for a tentative
target environmental concentration. Upon such concept, we examined
the way of control of hydrogen chloride emission from the inciner-
i
ators and the standard value of emission in an effort to show a
tentative plan or an administrative target value of endeavor that
is attainable at the refuse incinerators.
The Committee also examined the countermeasures to, and method
of determination of, the hydrogen chloride from the refuse inciner-
ators, and they will be described in this report.
•*>
2. Physicochemical Properties of Hydrogen Chloride and Hydrochloric
Acid
Hydrogen chloride and hydrochloric acid are of the physico-
chemical properties set forth in Table 1.
/
IU2-
-------
Table 1 Physicochemical Properties of Hydrogen
Chloride and Hydrochloric Acid
Property
Hydrogen chloride
Hydrochloric acid
Color and smell
Colorless gas,
pungent smell
Colorless liquid.
When containing impuri-
ties (iron, arsenic,
chlorine and organic
matters), yellow,
pungent liquid.
Boiling point
-85°C
110°C. (20.24% HC1
aqueous solution).
Melting point
-111°C
27.29% HC1: -42°C
37.14% HC1: -74°C
Moisture
absorption
Highly moisture
absorptive.
Moisture absorptive.
Density
1.6397 g/£ (0°C.,
760 mmHg).
20.04% HCl: 1.1006 g/l.
37.14% HCl: 1.885 g/l.
Reaction
When dry, not corro-
sive.
Reacts quickly with
a number of organic
substances.
Corrodes metals highly
with generation of
hydrogen gas.
Reacts with alkali salts.
^3 -
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3. Biological Effects of Hydrogen Chloride and Hydrochloric Acid
Hydrogen chloride (HCl) is a moisture absorptive, colorless,
pungent gas. As it dissolves well in water, it forms a mist in wet
air. An aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride is hydrochloric acid.
When a man inhales the gas into the lungs, it is likely to trans-
form into a mist on account of a high content of moisture in the
respiratory organ. At least, it acts in the form of hydrochloric
acid when it comes into contact with the mucous membrane of the
respiratory duct. At a high concentration, it causes burns to the
skin or mucous membrane because of its strong dehydration, suffocat-
ing difficulty in breathing with cough, or inflammation or ulcer
of the upper air duct. It also causes acidic corrosion of teeth.
It is harmful to the plants and damages the leaves.
a. Effects
(1) Effects upon men
Reports on the effects of hydrogen chloride or hydro-
chloric acid upon the human body when a man inhales it are
meager, and most of them are concerned with occupational
exposures to a relatively high concentration in a consider-
ably old age.
(a) Toxicity
Hydrochloric acid is irritating, and its effects
vary from irritation of the mucous membrane of eyes
7 IJa -
-------
or upper air duct through pulmonary edema to fatal
injury in an extreme case depending on the concent-
ration and exposure time. Reportedly, it is irritat-
ing at a concentration of 5 ppm (1 ppm = 1.493 mg/m3,
25°C.) or higher but causes no hazard at lower con-
centration. Some of the workers usually exposed to
such a concentration may feel nothing. At a concent-
ration of 10 to 50 ppm, it is difficult to work but
not impossible. Irritation of the throat becomes
noticeable at about 35 ppm. When the concentration
exceeds 50 ppm, working is no longer practicable.
Men cannot withstand a concentration of 50 to 100 ppm
for more than 60 minutes and are killed in several
minutes at a concentration of 1,300 to 2,000 ppm.
Hydrochloric acid neutralizes the alkalis in the
tissue, attacks the upper duct and further causes
pulmonary edema and sometimes convulsion of the throat
to death. The hydrochloric acid mist is not so
dangerous to men as the hydrogen chloride gas because
it has not a strong dehydrating effect upon the tissue.
But, it affects the skin of the face and causes ulcer
of the membrane in the nose or mouth. It is reported
that in the acid pickling process in an electric
plant, cue workers not accustomed to the hydrochloric
mist had the maximum tidal air decreased by 9 percent
7- /. / 5 _
-------
(exposure to hydrochloric mist of 6y diameter for
1 hour) while the accustomed workers had no hange.
Allegedly, hydrogen chloride and hydrochloric acid "
cause only topical hazards, acute as well as chronic,
but little to the general organs. Adverse effects
upon men depending on the concentration are illust-
rated in Table 2.
Table 2 Adverse Effects of Hydrogen Chloride Gas
on Men upon Inhalation (Work Shop)
Concentration
(ppm*)
Exposure
(mins)
Adverse effect
Remarks
Less than 5
10

No physical hazard
observed.
Olfactory threshold
value. No hindrance
to work.
Experience
at the
working
shops and
laboratories.
35

Throat irritation
upon exposure for a
short time.

10 ^ 50

Difficult but
possible to work.

50 ^ 100
60
Not bearable.

50 ~ 100

Unable to work.

1,000 ^ 1,300
30 ^ 60
Dangerous.

1,300 ^ 2,000
Few mins.
Fatal.

* 1 ppm = 1.493 mg/m^ (at 25°C).
7-l.lf -
-------
(b) Olfactory threshold value
Bibliographically, the following olfactory thres-
hold values are reported for HC1: 0.067-0.134 ppm
(U.S.S.R. study), 1-5 ppm and 10 ppm. The Soviet
study is concerned with the physiological threshold
values for the sensory, respiratory and circulatory
organs in use of animals against the hydrochloric"
mist, different from those by evaluation of the
industrial hygenic symptoms of actual human bodies
by the Western countries.
Effects upon animals
(a) Effects upon domestic animals
Throughout the urban and local areas and indus-
tries, no report of investigation is found.
(b) Animal tests
It is reported that test monkeys, rabbits and
guinea pigs were subjected to exposure to 33 ppm HC1
for 4 weeks (6 hours a day, 5 days a week), with no
adverse effect. Rabbits and guinea pigs were sub-
jected to exposure to 67 ppm for 5 days (6 hours a
day), but none of them were killed. In general, the
guinea pig is more sensitive than the rabbit, but
the rabbit is sensitive to the stimulation to the
//./ 7 -
-------
respiratory system. When exposed for a long period,
the animals have the weight decreased. At 670 ppm,
2 to 6 hours a day, the rabbits and guinea pigs are
killed. At 4,300 ppm, 30 minutes, all animals are
killed. Under such condition, they had ulcers
developed in the throat and windpipe and also the
symptoms of pulmonary edema, bronchiectasis, pulmonary
emphysema and pulmonary bleeding. At 100 - 140 ppm,
6 hours, corrosive changes are observed in the eyes
and air duct. At 1,350 ppm, 90 minutes, the cornea
had a turbidity produced. At 3,400 ppm, 90 minutes,
death is observed. At lower concentration, the number
of respirations may increase at higher temperature,
resulting in higher absorption of HC1 and higher level
of danger.
Effects upon plants
(a) Toxicity
It is reported that plants sustained damage due
to hydrogen chloride and hydrochloric acid from an
alkali manufacturing plant in Germany.
This is a direct action of the gas upon the
leaves and is not via the soil. It is also reported
ttiat in spraying tests, a group of trees belonging to
the dockmackie and Japanese larch genuses had damage
/J.8 -
-------
caused to the young sprouts within 2 days at 5-20 ppm
and diseases caused one day after to the leaves of
the grown up trees, such change being also caused by
CI2 but more acute with HCl and the diseases of
leaves being mainly such that the tip end or edge
had white spots produced, and that the coniferous
trees had the diseases developed at the tip end por-
tions of the leaves but that the Japanese spruce had
no change developed after elapse of 80 days at 2,000
ppm, 1 hour a day.
According to a recent research work, the young
sprouts withered to death in 20 minutes at 50 ppm.
In the case of a tree with broad leaves, it had the
leaves withered from the periphery. Grasses turned
into brownish color. The allowable concentration of
HCl for plants is generally 50 to 100 ppm. It is
reported (as the result of experiments in still
standing air) that the allowable concentration for
leaves of beat sugar is 10 ppm, several hours. Tests
with tomato are also available.
HCl is not so toxic to the plants as SO2 but, at
high concentration, produces damage similar to acute
SO2 injuiy.

-------
Historically noted is the damage to the plants
by HC1 occurring in the vicinity of a soda plant in
England, in 1836 to 1863. Thereafter, with scrubbers
installed, the emission was reduced to a concentration
less than 30 ppm. Bohne reported damage to plants
by HC1 exhausted from the incinerator of a hospital
in 1967 (Staub 27:28, 1967). According to the report,
mainly paper and packing materials were burnt 2-3
hours a day and 5 days a week, resulting in total
destroy of plants in the compound of a gardener 450, .
meters apart from the hospital.
(4) Allowable standard values in air
The values of allowable concentrations from the in-
dustrial hygiene at the work shops and those of environ-
mental standards in the air of local communities in general
in the principal countries of the world are given below.
(a) Allowable concentrations from industrial
hygiene
Allowable concentration recommended by the
Society of Industrial Hygiene, Japan:
5 ppm, 7 mg/m3
ACGIH, America: 5 ppm, 7 mg/m3 (c)
Note: (c) represents a ceiling value or maximum
allowance.
*7./4ao -
-------
West Germany:
Soviet Union:
Bulgaria:
Czechoslovakia:
Finland:
Hungary:
Poland:
Rumania:
Arab League:
Yugoslavia:
5 ppm, 7 mg/m3
One time maximum exposure,
5 mg/m3; Daily average,
2 mg/m3
10 mg/m3
8 mg/m3 (5 ppm) average;
16 mg/m3 (11 ppm) one time
maximum exposure
5 ppm, 7 mg/m3
10 mg/m3
7 mg/m3
10 mg/m3
10 mg/m3
7 mg/m3 (5 ppm)
(b) Standard values in air
Soviet Union:
West Germany:
Czechoslovakia:
2
One time maximum, 0..2 mg/m ;
Daily average, 0.2 mg/m3
0.5 ppm (30 minutes average);
1.0 ppm (30 minutes maximum
value)
0.02 ppm (24 hours average)
0.07 ppm (One time maximum
- exposure)
b. Target environmental concentration
As a prerequisite to starting the study of the emission
control, etc. of hydrogen chloride, there is a problem of deter-
mining to what extent the concentration of hydrogen chloride in
air should be contained generally. Here, the problem of such
7- ' /ii -
-------
concentration (which will be referred to as "target environ-
mental concentration" in the following) will be discussed.
In our country as well as in the foreign countries, the
study of the effects of low concentration hydrogen chloride in
air upon the health of inhabitants is largely shortcoming.
In such study, the target environmental concentration for
establishment of the emission standards for harmful substances
under the air pollution control law has been determined by
multiplying the allowable concentration in the working environ-
ment by a safety factory of 1/100. Following this method for
hydrogen chloride, a value of 0.05 ppm maximum will be estab-
lished for the target environmental concentration as the allow-
able concentration in the working environment is determined at
5 ppm maximum in America and Japan.
Here, the concentration of hydrogen chloride emitted from
the refuse incinerator is not constant as in the case of gener-
ation of hydrogen chloride from the manufacturing process in
general but varies greatly with change in the proportion of
PVC admixed in the refuse. In this respect, the target environ-
mental concentration should be taken as a maximum value.
On the other hand, if a level of concentration less than
0.05 ppm is taken as a target environmental concentration, an
accurate quantification will hardly be expectable from a short
y. I. /. 12 -
-------
time of sampling so that at least 1 hour values must be con-
sidered for sampling and evaluation of the target environmental
concentration.
Thus, as a conclusion, it is preferable to take 0.05 ppm
as a maximum value for the target environmental concentration
of hydrogen chloride and, in order for this maximum value not
to be exceeded, to suppress the landing concentration, which
is to be taken as a yardstick for the engineering preventive
measures to be carried out, to about 0.01 - 0.03 ppm (1 hour
value)
References
U.S.P.H.S.: Preliminary Air Pollution Survey of Hydrochloric
Acid, APTD, 69-36, 1969.
ILO: Permissible levels of toxic substances in the
working environment, Occupational Safety and
Health Series, 20, 1970.
WHO: Control of Air Pollution in the USSR, WHO Public
Health Paper, 54, 1973.
ILO: Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety,
Vol. 1, 1971.
7/7.13 -
-------
4. Determination of Hydrogen Chloride, etc. in Refuse Incinerator
Emission Gas
a. Determination of hydrogen chloride
For the method of sampling of hydrogen chloride and
handling of the values of measurement, provisions of paragraph
4, Notification No. 5, Kan-Tai-Ki, of the Director of Air
Conservation Bureau, Environment Agency, "Re Enforcement of
the Law for Partial Revision of the Air Pollution Control Law",
25 August 1971, and Japanese Industrial Standard "Emission Gas
Sampling Method" (JIS Designation K-0095) will be applicable.
For the method of analysis of hydrogen chloride in the
emission gas from the urban refuse incinerator, the mercury
thiocyanate (II) or silver nitrate method among other methods
specified in the Japanese Industrial Standard "Analysis of
Hydrogen Chloride in Emission Gas" (JIS Designation K-0107)
will be employed.
The last mentioned standard is being revised, and the
methods of analysis in the draft of revision are illustrated
in Table 3. The draft will be tested at a special committee
to be established in the Japanese Industrial Standards Investi-
gation Council shortly.
7./.V.14 -
-------
time of sampling so that at least 1 hour values must be con-
sidered for sampling and evaluation of the target environmental
concentration.
Thus, as a conclusion, it is preferable to take 0.05 ppm
as a maximum value for the target environmental concentration
of hydrogen chloride and, in order for this maximum value not
to be exceeded, to suppress the landing concentration, which
is to be taken as a yardstick for the engineering preventive
measures to be carried out, to about 0.01 - 0.03 ppm (1 hour
value)
References
U.S.P.H.S.: Preliminary Air Pollution Survey of Hydrochloric
Acid, APTD, 69-36, 1969.
ILO: Permissible levels of toxic substances in the
working environment, Occupational Safety and
Health Series, 20, 1970.
WHO: Control of Air Pollution in the USSR, WHO Public
Health Paper, 54, 1973.
ILO: Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety,
Vol. 1, 1971.
1- 1-4.13 -
-------
4. Determination of Hydrogen Chloride, etc. in Refuse Incinerator
Emission Gas
a. Determination of hydrogen chloride
! i
For the method of sampling of hydrogen chloride and
handling of the values of measurement, provisions of paragraph
4, Notification No. 5, Kan-Tai-Ki, of the Director of Air
Conservation Bureau, Environment Agency, "Re Enforcement of
the Law for Partial Revision of the Air Pollution Control Law",
25 August 1971, and Japanese Industrial Standard "Emission Gas
Sampling Method" (JIS Designation K-0095) will be applicable.
For the method of analysis of hydrogen chloride in the
emission gas from the urban refuse incinerator, the mercury
thiocyanate (II) or silver nitrate method among other methods
specified in the Japanese Industrial Standard "Analysis of
Hydrogen Chloride in Emission Gas" (JIS Designation K-0107)
will be employed.
The last mentioned standard is being revised, and the
methods of analysis in the draft of revision are illustrated
in Table 3. The draft will be tested at a special committee
to be established in the Japanese Industrial Standards Investi-
gation Council shortly.
7.It* -
-------
Table 3 Draft JIS K-0107
Item
Analytical
method
Gas sampling
Measurement
range
Hazardous
substance
Remarks
Chemical
analysis
Mercury
thiocyanate (II)
(II) method
40 I
2^40 ppm
Cl2, i", Br",
CN~,S2-
Approved method
for emission
standards for
specified
facilities

Silver nitrate
method
o*
O
00
60^2,500
Same as above

Neutralization
method
o
00
60^2,500
Acidic and
basic gases

Ion electrode
method
40 I
5^50,000
C12, I", Br",
CN~, S2
Newly added
Continuous
analysis
Solution
conductivity
method
Gas/liquid
contact ratio,
constant
From 0^5 ppm
to CK1.5 C/P
Any substances
dissolving in
the absorptive
solution and
showing a
conductivity.

-------
In these methods, it is required to consider presence of
any interfering substances in the emission gas exhausted from
the facility.
However, either of the methods referred to above is
designed to quantify chlorine ions and represent them as hydro-
gen chloride and is thus susceptible to the effects of thermal
decomposition and scattering of sodium chloride present in the
refuse, and presently it will be difficult to take such effects
into account.
It is also required to provide correlationship between
the methods of analysis and determination. Therefore, where
r
t
the silver nitrate method is used for the sample gas from any
specific facility, the handling conditions should be so deter-
mined that the proportion of the values of measurement to those
under the law provided mercury thiocyanate method comes within
the range of 0.90 - 1.05.
The moisture content (V/V%) in the emission gas of the
facility is approximately in the range of 20 - 50 percent.
The volume of the emission gas containing such moisture is to
be calculated, according to said Notification (Kan-Tai-Ki No. 5,
paragraph 2-3), upon the wet gas. Therefore, it will be ap-
propriate to calculate upon the wet gas volume in the value
of measurement.
"7-1 J-16 -
-------
b. Determination of oxygen and carbon dioxide gas in the erois-
emission gas
For determination of the concentration.of residual oxygen
in the emission gas, an absorption method in use of the Orsat
gas analysis apparatus or an oxygen or carbon dioxide gas
analyzing apparatus giving equivalent values of measurement
will be used.
Sampling for concentration of residual oxygen should be
made at the same place of sampling for hydrogen chloride.
c. Determination of moisture in emission gas
The moisture in the emission gas will be provided in ac-
cordance with the wet tube method, paragraph 4.2.1, Japanese
Industrial Standard "Method of Determination of Dust in the
Flue Exhaust Gas" (JIS Designation Z-8808).
Sampling for moisture determination should be made at the
same place of sampling for hydrogen chloride.
5. Countermeasures to Hydrogen Chloride at Refuse Incinerator
a. Countermeasures at the incinerating equipment
(1) Corrosion prevention
The boilers attached to the incinerator are generally
of low pressure with the wall temperature maintained at
about 200° to 300°C. so that the corrosion is not a matter
-------
of concern usually. However, where the temperature is
less than 200°C, there Is a problem of low temperature
corrosion, and where it is hgiher than 350°C., there is
also a problem of high temperature corrosion. Particularly,
the gas type air preheater is normally installed at the
high temperature unit and involves a relatively high tube
wall temperature so that it is by no means free from cor-
rosion. Such problems of corrosion are not yet resolved
fully.
(2) Measures against elevation of the furnace temperature
When the refuse includes not only PVC but other plastics,
its heat generation is increased. Thus, upon burning, the
furnace temperature is elevated, resulting in various
troubles. The furnace temperature is controlled with a
greater amount of air introduced to check the temperature
elevation. If the capacity of blowers and exhaust fans is
constant, the amount of incineration will have to be reduced
with increasing heat generation of the refuse.
(3) Measures against exhaust gas pollution
In an effort to prevent pollutions due to hydrogen
chloride, etc. in the emission gas, many of the incinerat-
ing facilities have higher chimneys erected to reduce the „
concentration on the ground. However, with increasing
"7- I. 18 -
-------
content of plastics in the refuse and higher concentration
of hazardous substances in the emission gas, the air
diffusion method will come to a limit if any appropriate
measures are not taken.
b. Direction of the emission gas processing technology and
effects of removal
As a method to remove harmful substances such as hydrogen
chloride in the emission gas, there is available a wet gas
processing system in which the gas is washed with water or an
alkaline solution or a dry gas processing system by injecting
lime or ammonia gas.
(1) Outline of the dry and wet gas processing systems
and their advantages and disadvantages
(a) Dry gas processing with lime
According to the result obtained at a test plant
of Ligueropack Co. in MalmH City, Sweden, it was found
that the chlorine content in the flyash would increase
to more than 50 percent with the temperature of emis-
sion gas declining below 300°C. but be reduced to 10
percent at 400°C. and to minimum at higher temperature.
From such fact, it is thought that the chlorine content
in the emission gas may be checked considerably if lime
is injected into the gas with the temperature of emission
I' / 19 -
-------
gas kept below. 300°C. With the lime injected at a
temperature of 200° to 250°C., there was obtained a
removal rate of hydrogen chloride in the emission gas
at about 85 percent.
(b) Dry gas processing by ammonia injection
This is a system usually employed for removal
of SO3 in the heavy oil boilers. The combustion gas
is first cooled and has then ammonia introduced
therein to change hydrogen chloride into ammonium
chloride which is then removed by an electric pre-
cipitator.
As ammonium chloride is formed partly in fine
particles and fuse, its trapping is very difficult.
(c) Wet gas processing by smoke rinsing
This a relatively simple system. The combustion
exhaust gas is cooled and is then rinsed with water
shower to remove hydrogen chloride (this system be-
ing referred to as "smoke rinse system" in the fol-
v
lowing). Removal rate of hydrogen chloride is about
50 percent. The waste water after smoke rinsing
requires a treatment such as neutralization or pre-
cipitation.
7 • W20 -
-------
(d) Wet gas processing by scrubber
I'or scrubbing, two systems by means of Venturi
scrubber and packed column are generally conceivable.
Figure 1 illustrates a cleansing system actually
employed in an urban refuse incineration facility in
Osaka. These two methods are capable of removing
hydrogen chloride at a high efficiency with the
emission gas first cooled and then brought into con-
tact with water effectively.
-------
Figure 1 Wet Type Cleansing System in Osaka

Emission ga9 cleansing equipment
(Gas processing capacity.
60,000 Km'/U)
Smoke rinse drain processing equipment
rge
Sludge pit
Precoac filter
irnii —ii ii ¦jBWijiiLtf—
t li m f,nn n mi wiiu
-------
The method by means of scrubber allows removal
of hydrogen chloride gas at a rate as high as 90
percent or more. It is also effective for removal of
dust. In Table 4 are listed the advantages and dis-
advantages of both dry and wet systems.
Table 4
System
Advantage
Disadvantage
Wet
system
Dust precipita-
tion + Smoke
rinsing
Simple equipment.
Relatively low
removal rate.
Drainage treatment
required.

Scrubber
Distinguished in
gas cleansing and
dust precipita-
tion effects.
Large volume of water
involved, resulting
in treatment of
voluminous waste
water/
Dry
system
Lime injection
+ Dust precipi-
tation
No treatment of
drain required.
Still in the stage*
of test.
Large amount of lime
to be added.

Ammonia injec-
tion + Dust
precipitation
No treatment of
drain required.
Expensive with
ammonia consumption.
Practically and economically, the wet system is
preferable. In the case of the wet system, the
removal rate will be improved by additional stages
of Venturi scrubber or packed column.
7- /•/. 23 -
-------
(2) Removal effect of wet gas processing equipment
(a) HC1 removal effect by smoke rinse system
Figure 2 shows the system of emission gas pro-
cessing equipment by smoke rinsing at the trash burn-
ing plant in Kyoto. The combustion gas has the
temperature reduced by water spouting and dust
removed by a multicyclone and is then treated by water
spraying at a smoke rinse chamber and emitted from the
chimney
Figure 2 Smoke Rinse System
Temper-
Inciner- ature Multi- Exhaust
ator reduction cyclone fan
Smoke
rinse
chamber
< /
/

Water
Pump
Discharge
Treatment
water tank
Precipita-
tion tank
Coagulation
and precipita
tion tank
777777"
Chimney
Chemicals
(Neutralization,
coagulation,
precipitation)
(1), (2), (3) and (4) represent the points of measure-
ment of hydrogen chloride.
"Report of Study on Countermeasures to Hydrogen Chloride
Gas Generated Incident to Incineration of Refuse", Japan
Public Health Association, 1971.
7.11?" -
-------
Table 5 Hydrogen Chloride Concentration
Point of
^^measurement
Date
1
2
3
4
Incinerator
outlet
temperature
10
206.0
128.0
146.0
29.0
800 ^ 840°C
11
-
71.7
25.7
20.5
800 ^ 940
12
81.7
51.5
48.0
13.2
680 ^ 840
13
118.0
3.4
7.4
6.3
760 ^ 860
14
309.0
117.0
109.0
70.8
840 ^ 910
15
388.0
100.0
115.0
67.8
740 ^ 920
16
484.0
212.0
180.0
92.3
840 ^ 960
17
353.0
188.0
122.0
-
700 'v 830
18
306.0
101.0
114.0
54.0
830 ^ 890
19
246.0
116.0
136.0
57.4
600 900
"Report of Study on Countermeasures to Hydrogen
Chloride Gas Generated Incident to Incineration of
Refuse", Japan Public Health Association, 1971.
The values of measurement at points 2 , 3
and 4 given in Table 5 are the data of the combus-
tion gas which is diluted considerably. Thus, the
HCji concentration in the smoke rinse chamber 3 is
represented by a considerably lower value than
actually is. In the case of the smoke rinse system,
the water requirement is smaller than in the other
7I' ^ 25 -
-------
wet system at about 0.4 £/m3 normally. As a removal
effect, a value of 50 percent should be taken as
illustrated in Table 5, but the pressure loss by
smoke rinsing is as low as 10 mmaq, while the temper-
ature after rinsing is kept at a relatively high
level so that a diffusion effect from the chimney is
expectable.
For further improvement of the removal of HCl,
a three stages smoke rinsing system is considered.
With three stages of rinsing, the pressure loss totals
about 80 mmaq, yet a HCl removal rate as high as about
70 percent is expectable.
(b) HCl removal effect by Venturi scrubber system
The Venturi scrubber' gas cleansing system has
originally been used as an effective means for removal
of dust. It exhibits a removal rate equivalent to
that of an electric precipitator and, as a gas cleans-
ing apparatus, a high capacity for removal of HCl,
SO and NO . The construction is very simple. The
combustion gas is first cooled to some extent and is
then allowed to pass through the Venturi at a high
speed while it is contacted effectively with water
spouted from nozzles for treatment.
"?• !• I 26 -
-------
The Venturi outlet is reversed arid has the
moisture separated and removed from the gas by a
cyclone and is then discharged out of the chimney.
The gas temperature at the Venturi outlet is usually
about 75° to 80°C.
The amount of water required for Venturi scrubber
is usually about 1 £/m3, and the pressure loss is
about 200 to 300 mmaq, greater for higher removal.
The jet scrubber system is similar to the Venturi
type but requires a greater amount of water, while
the pressure loss is smaller than in the Venturi
system.
Survey reports on the effect of the Venturi
scrubber for removal of HC1 in the urban refuse in-
cinerator are meager. Therefore, here, the results
of tests with an incinerator designed exclusively for
PVC in use mainly of a Venturi scrubber for incinerating
disposition of PVC as an industrial waste are give below.
("Survey Report on Technology of Disposition by Complete
Burning of High Polymeric Wastes [Proof Tests with an
Incinerator Designed Exclusively for Polyvinyl Chloride
Waste], July 19 71, Science and Technology Agency 1970
Survey for Measures of Comprehensive Utilization of
Resources on Commission Basis)
7- /•/ 27
-------
Figure 3 Plastics incinerator (Cross-sectional view)
Inlet
Feed hopper
Screw feeder
Air nozzle
Air control nozzle
Forced in fan
7 — Heavy oil burner
8 — Ash outlet
9 -- Wind channel
10 — Venturi scrubber
11 — Air/water separator
12 — Inductive fan
A — Temp. CO* ratio; Static pressure; Detecting location
T|~T%--—Temperature in lst-3rd combustion chambers
T5 Temperature of the wall of heat cofiductlve
tube on the air side
T* Temperature of the wall of heat conductive
tube on the water §ide
T7 Temperature-of the lower part of chimney
G CO2 ratio in emission gas
Dj-Di,- ——Static pressure in gas*duct
13 — Chimney
14 -- Drain neutralization tank
15 — Observation window
16 — Smoke rinse water
17 — Drain
"Survey Report on Technology of Disposition by Complete Burning of High Polymeric Wastes",
July 1971, Science and Technology Agency 1970 Survey for Measures of Comprehensive
Utilization of Resources on Conrnlsslon Basis.
-------
Figure 3 shows the construction of the exclu-
sive incinerator used in this study, and Table 6
shows the test results.
The gas containing a great amount of hydrogen
chloride (about 30,000 ppm) upon combustion of PVC
has the temperature reduced and then hydrogen chloride
absorbed and removed at the Venturi scrubber and is
discharged out of the chimney. As seen from the
figures given in Table 6, the hydrogen chloride is
removed by the Venturi scrubber at a rate as high as
about 98 percent. For cleansing, a caustic soda solu-
tion is used. By controlling so that the solution is
approximately neutral at the outlet of cleansing,
treatment of the drain of cleansing is simplified.
Table 7 shows the results of gas cleansing treat-
ment by a two stage Venturi for removal of HCl, S0V
and NOx in the emission gas. As test samples, a
waste discharged out of a chemical plant and heavy
oils A and B are used, and they are tested for removal
of harmful substances in the combustion exhaust gas.
7« 29 -
-------
Table 6 PVC Exclusive Incinerator Test
Results
25 February 1971 (Osaka Municipal Health
Institute Survey)

Example 1
Example 2
Example 3
Bum disposition, kg/H
60
60
60
Heavy oil used, &/H
0
0
0
Force fan outlet pressure,
mmH20
312^315
313^315
313^314.
Primary air, m3/H
140
140
140
Secondary air, m3/H
1340
1340
1340
1st combustion chamber
temp., T]°C
108CK1100
1100^1140
1120
2nd combustion chamber
temp., T2°C
900^940
950^980
980
3rd combustion chamber
temp., T3°C
840^870
880^900
900
4th combustion chamber
temp. , Ti+°C
670^730
730-W40
740^750
Temp, in chute after
Venturi, °C
73^80
77^80
74^77
CO2 meter, %
3.7^4
0
4.0^4.0
4.1^4.2
Sampling location
4th
Ven-
4th
Ven-
4 th
Ven-

combus-
turi
combus-
turi
combus-
turi

tion
out-
tion
out-
tion
out-

chamber
let
chamber
let
chamber
let
Moisture content, g/Nm3
15.63

11.62

9.18

Dust, g/Nm3
6.18

"2.85

3.63

Hydrogen chloride, ppm
27400
609
30100
558
29700
584
Nitrogen oxides, ppm
13
1
9
tr
10
tr
"Survey Report on Technology of Disposition by Complete Burning
of High Polymeric Wastes", July 1971, Science and Technology
Agency 1970 Survey for Measures of Comprehensive Utilization of
Resources on Commission Basis.
7- U.30 -
-------
Table 7 Emission Gas Cleansing Test Results

Objective
1st
2nd
2nd
1st
2nd
1st + 2nd

gas of
Venturi
Venturi
Venturi
Stage
Stage
Stage
Sample
measure-
inlet
inlet
outlet
Venturi
Venturi
Venturi

ment
concentra-
concentra-
concentra-
effici-
effici-
total

tion
tion
tion *
ency
ency
efficiency
Unit

PPm
ppm
ppm
%
%
%

HQ
3050
28.7
17.2
99.2
40.1
99.4
Waste
liquid 1
HQ.
3710
84.2
• tr
97.7
-
99.9

HCL
8190
215.0
20.0
97.5
90.6
99.8

NO + N02
1845
-
569
-
-
69.1
Waste
liquid 2
NO 2
190.5
4.4
37.7
97.8
-
85.2

SO2 + SO3
409.8
30.4
4.3
92.6
84.5
98.8
Heavy
oil A
so2 + so3
100.0
4.4
3.3
95.6
27.3
96.8
Heavy
oil B
so2 + so3
499.8
7.1
7.1
98.6
-
98.6
"Report of Study on Countermeasures to Hydrogen Chloride Gas Generated Incident to
Incineration of Refuse", Japan Public Health Association, 1971.
-------
Figure 4 shows systematic diagram of the test
equipment. For cleansing, an aqueous solution of
alkali is used, while the drain of the second stage
is used for the first stage Venturi, and the drain
after use has the pH adjusted and is circulated
again for use. The Venturi pressure loss is about
250 mmaq per stage. It will be seen from the results
shown in Table 7 that use of two stage Venturi gives
a removal rate close to 100 percent for hydrogen
chloride.
Figure 4 2 Stage Venturi gas cleansing system
/
„ Reuse
Pump
"Report of Study on Countermeasures to Hydrogen Chloride
Gas Generated Incident to Incineration of Refuse", Japan
Public Health Association, 1971.
7- '-I32 -
-------
(c) Removal effect of wet type gas cleansing equip-
ment
Removal effects of wet type gas cleansing systems
are summarized in Table 8.
Table 8

1 Stage
smoke
rinsing
3 Stages
smoke
rinsing
Venturi
(1 stage)
Packed
column
HCl removal
rate
50%
70%
95 ^ 98%
98%
SO removal
rate
-
60%
85 ^ 95%
85%
NO removal
X
rate
-
50%
60%
50%
Pressure
loss
10 mmt^O
80 mmH20
250 ^ 350
mniF^O
100 ^ 150
mmH20
i
"Report of Study on Countermeasures to Hydrogen Chloride
Gas Generated Incident to Incineration of Refuse", Japan
Public Health Association, 1971.
The packed column system gives a high rate of
removal and a relatively small pressure loss. It is
simple in construction and easy for maintenance.
However, it is shortcoming in that with increasing
area of gas passage in the packed column, a several
times greater amount of water than that in the Venturi
system will be required. Further, unless the dust is
7JJ,n.
-------
removed previously, the packed column is apt to clog,
resulting in higher pressure loss and lower removal
effect.
i
i I
(3) Drain disposition in wet type gas cleansing equipment
In the case of the smoke rinse system, the drain is
relatively small and is often discharged with neutraliza-
tion. But, in the case of the Venturi scrubber or packed
column, a great amount of water is used, and the drain
contains a relatively large amount of harmful components
so that recirculation upon treatment is considered generally.
The cleansing drain of the Venturi or packed column is
usually introduced into the water tank beneath the equipment.
In the tank, the drain is replenished with water and has an
alkali such as caustic soda added for use through the nozzles
again. During the circulation, concentration takes place to
increase the content of SS component in the water, resulting
in clogging of the nozzles and other difficulties. To pre-
vent such difficulties, a predetermined amount of drain is
blown successively so that the concentration of the solution
of circulation is maintained at a constant level.
The blown drain is purified through water treatment.
To prevent the purifying effect from being obstructed by the
influence of water temperature, the solution is cooled through
¦7.U34 -
-------
a cooling Lower or heat uxrh.-inger before Lt Is neutralized
and turned into clear water with a coagulant added at a
forced coagulation and precipitation apparatus. The
treated water may be used for ash pit and many other pur-
poses. It is also used as regenerated water or for gas
cleansing partly, and for such use, it is required to blow
several percent of the circulation treatment water in order
to maintain the concentration of NaCl produced through re-
action of HCl with caustic soda at a level of several per-
cent.
Such drain of blow has absorbed, in addition to HCl,
SO and NO and shows an appreciable COD value amounting
X X
several hundred ppm so that it has to be subjected to some
treatment before it is discharged. It is oxidized through
a forced oxidation tower to convert sodium sulfite into
sodium sulfate and thus reduce the COD value before dis-
charge. Figure 5 shows a schematic diagram of the drain
treatment system.
-------
. I
Figure 5
HC1 containing
gas
Water
replenish
Pue
Circulation
for use
cali tank
Blower
Cooling Pump
tower
Forced coagulation
arid precipitation
tank
M
Coagulant
and
neutralizer
'Processing

3
watler tank
7*\
•k
\-o
Pump
Forced oxidation
tower (Aeration)
Discharge
L_„
Reuse
Sludge (To ash pit)
"Report of Study on Countermeasures to Hydrogen Chloride
Gas Generated Incident to Incineration of Refuse", Japan
Public Health Association, 1971.
7.U'36 -
-------
c. Problems involved in the measures for removal of hydrogen
chloride
With the current level of engineering, it is possible to
achieve a high rate of removal of hydrogen chloride contained
in the gas emitted out of the refuse incinerator. However,
the removal entails various problems including treatment of
the drain and sludge produced as the result of removal and, at
the same time, calls for consideration of the expense for in-
stallation and maintenance and the technique of operation of
the removal equipment.
(1) Drain treatment
For the whole volume of water required for smoke
rinsing and cleansing to be discharged upon use of only
one time, it is too large in quantity and requires a large
capacity of drain treatment with a rising running cost.
Thus, in most instances, it is circulated for reuse with
check of the concentration to a certain level and occasional
blow of a certain amount of drain to such a extent that the
cleansing capacity may not be reduced. The drain to be
blown is only in a small quantity but is concentrated and
makes it difficult to perform the drain treatment. As SO2
is removed from the gas, it contains a large amount of
sodium sulfite and gives a high COD value so that it is not
dischargeable. It must have sodium sulfite transformed into
-------
sodium sulfate in a forced oxidation tank before it is
discharged so that the equipment is expensive.
So long as the pH, SS and COD are concerned, the
treatment is relatively easy. But, should the refuse con-
tain heavy metals, the treatment is much more difficult.
To reduce the contents of lead, cadmium, mercury, etc. in
water below the values of control respectively, further
treatment will be required.
(2) Prevention of corrosion
After cleansing, the gas is generally of low tempera-
ture so that corrosion of the materials by hydrochloric
acid is noticeable. Acid resisting materials must be used
for all of the gas cleansing apparatus, duct, chimney and,
sometimes, inductive fans and drain treatment equipment.
The acid resisting materials used presently are not of
sufficient durability, and in this respect, further re-
search and development will be required.
i
(3) Prevention of white smoke
The white smoke disappears upon reheating of the waste
gas.
(4) Economy
As stated above, water or an alkali is used generally
for removal of HC . With the former, an alkali is required
?• A-/.38 -
-------
to neutralize the drain. The amount of use of the alkali
(caustic soda) increases inevitably, accompanying increased
requirement for power, to achieve a higher rate of removal
of hydrogen chloride under the current technology. Further,
in the combustion gas of refuse are present, in addition
to HC1, NO and SO and is also included C02 so that about
20 percent of the amount of caustic soda equivalent to HCl
is consumed additionally.
The alkali and power thus used often constitute a
greater part of the expense for maintenance of the facility.
Still more, the salt (NaCl) produced as the result of alkali
treatment contains much impurities and is hardly usable for
industrial application technically and economically. Thus,
it has but to be discarded, and the expense of transporta-
tion and disposition is not negligible.
(Note) References
Takeshi Oda: "Technical Development of Urban Refuse In-
cinerator from the Point of View of Controlling the Hydrogen
Chloride Gas", Welfare Science Report, 1971.
Japan Public Health Association: "Report of Study on
Countermeasures to Hydrogen Chloride Gas Generated Incident
to Incinercj ion of Refuse", 1971.
-------
Science and Technology Agency Survey for Measures of
Comprehensive Utilization of Resources on Commision
Basis: Survey Report on Technology of Disposition by Com-
plete Burning of High Polymeric Wastes (Proof Tests by
Incinerator Designed Exclusively for Polyvinyl Chloride
Waste)", Resources Technology Association, July 1971.
6. Discussion on Control of Hydrogen Chloride Emission from Refuse
Incinerator
a. Existing status of generation and emissin of HCI at refuse
incinerators and emission control
Greater part of HCl produced in the burning process of the
refuse incinerator is considered to be due to the burning of
plastics or, more particularly, PVC admixed in the refuse. It
is also considered generally that the generation of HCl from
the incinerator is increasing in proportion to the increasing
amount of plastics used and discarded in the daily consumptive
living of people.
However, reports of investigation on the generation and
emission of HCl from refuse incinerators are relatively small,
and the values of measurement of HCS. concentration varies great-
ly from A ppm to 900 ppm. Such variation is considered to be
due to difference in the type and quality of refuse, type of
incinerator, method of operation and maintenance of the inciner-
ator, sampling place, analytical method or year of measurement.

-------
Refuse incineration is seldom carried out in such a manner
as to dispose a certain quality of refuse under a certain con-
dition of operation at all times. The operating condition as
well as the quality of refuse is subject to change greatly so
that the generation and emission of HCl in the process of in-
cineration are not stationary.
As relatively recent values of measurement of the HCl con-
centration in the exhaust gas of continuous type refuse inciner-
ators with no HCl cleansing and removal apparatus in large
cities, there are obtained 330-820 ppm, Tokyo; 220-770 ppm,
Yokohama; and 510-740 ppm, Kawasaki. Assuming from the example
of investigation in Yokohama that the refuse comprises 10 per-
cent (dry base) of plastics, 25 percent of which is of PVC and
that the whole chlorine in PVC is converted to HCl gas, the
concentration of generation at the incinerating process is
calculated, according to Appendix 2, as about 610 ppm or, if
PVC constitutes 30 percent of the plastics, 760 ppm.
The incinerators recently built in urban areas have gener-
ally higher chimneys designed for diffusion of gas. But, from
the foregoing consideration, they are by no means free from
problems if the change in the rate of admixture of PVC or
weather condition is taken into account so that some control
will be require^ .
I
-------
b. Discussion on control method
The Air Pollution Control Law provides
(1) Control of the concentration at the outlet, or
(2) Control of the emission per unit time at the outlet.
The control system (1) controls by type and scale of the
facility and type of the emission, and the control system (2)
controls the amount of emission depending on the height of
outlet for each of the emitted substances.
For the emission substances, under the title of soot and
smoke are included.
(1) Sulfur oxides,
(2) Dust,
(3) Harmful substances (such as cadmium and hydrogen
chloride determined by the cabinet ordinance), and
(A) Special harmful substances (as determined by the
Director General of Environment Agency; presently no
substance specified).
These emission substances are subject to either of the fore-
going control systems. For example, the dust and harmful sub-
stances are subject to the concentration control, while the sulfur
oxides and special harmful substances are subject to the emission
control depending on the height of the outlet (sulfur oxides
having control values specified by area).
-------
For control of HCl from the incinerator, HCl is already
specified as a harmful substance and is, therefore, subject to
the concentration control. But, the control of HCl has the
types of objective facilities specified, and the incinerator
is not included in such facilities. Thus, it must be added as
an objective facility of control, and separate concentration
control standards from the emission control standards for the
facilities already under control will have to be provided.
On the other hand, although there is no substance specified
as a special harmful substance presently, such a special harmful
substance is a "harmful substance generated incident to combu-
tion of a fuel or other material." Thus, by specifying HCl as
a special harmful substance produced by incineration of the
refuse, the emission control system specifying the allowable
limit of emission depending on the height of outlet may be ap-
plicable .
Now, upon the premise that either of the concentration
and emission control systems is applicable as a direction of
control of HCl from the refuse incinerator, the problems of each
system will be discussed.
Shortcomings of concentration control:
o The standard complied upon dilution with no decrease
in the total amount.
-------
o The volume of emission gas Increasing with increasing
use of the fuel (or volume of incineration), result-
ing in increase of the total amount of emission.
Shortcomings of emission control depending on the height
of outlet:
o Greater emission enabled with higher outlet (higher
chimney).
Further, when both control systems are applied to HCL of
the incinerator, the following defects are noted.
In the case of concentration control:
(1) Low concentration represented with excess of air.
(2) Air leak into the incinerating facility is greater
than in the other heat generating facilities, result-
ing in dilution with such air.
(3) Total amount of emission increases with increasing
amount of incineration. (It is required to specify
the control concentration by the scale of facility.)
(4) Lower chimney will do with lower concentration, thus
discouraging the sense of importance of enhancing the
diffusion effect and resulting in the possibility of
local and concentrative pollution due to downwash or
downdraft.
i
(5) Introduction of cooling air required upon increase
of the heat generation of refuse, resulting in a
7. I- I, 44 -
-------
dilution effect (dilution preventive measure being
of little effect).
In the case of emission control depending on the height
of outlet:
(1) The drawback that greater emission is possible with
higher chimney may result in spreading of pollutants
over an extensive area.
(2) Where the environmental standard or target environ-
mental concentration is not specified, it is diffi-
cult to determine the control value of voluem.
(3) The formula for calculation of the diffusion into
air is not always simulating the actula diffusion
correctly, although, of course, depending on the
weather condition.
However, with respect to the defects of the emission con-
trol depending on the height of outlet,
(a) There is a structural limit in the height of chimney
from the current technical level of building in our
country, and it will be impossible to erect an
endlessly higher chimney.
(b) From the consideration that the source of pollution
is a spot and that both the rate of contribution to
the pollution of air as a whole and the proprtion of
the emission gas of refuse incineration in the total
7-/A 5 -
-------
emission gas are of small value, it will be possible
to maintain the ground concentration at a low level
by the effect of diffusion.
(c) Prevention of downwash or downdraft will be enabled
through appropriate choice of the chimney and emis-
sion condition.
From the foregoing consideration, HCl of the refuse in-
cinerator may be specified as a special harmful substance and
be subjected to the emission control depending on the height of
outlet. For control under the concentration system, the con-
trol standard value should be determined in consideration of
the scale of burning facility and the height of chimney.
c. Control system
Thus, here, upon the foregoing consideration and without
being bound by the current provisions of Air Pollution Control
Law, a plan is proposed from a realistic standpoint or prevent-
ing HCl from the refuse incinerator. In principle, the proposal
is based on the K value method of sulfur oxides but has a upper
limit of height provided depending on the amount of refuse to
be burnt in an effort to place emphasis on the prevention of
spreading the environmental pollution over a wide range due to
increasing height of chimney and also the importance of emission
control.
-------
For example, according to the K value control by the air
diffusion formula provided in the Air Pollution Control Law,
the Sutton's diffusion formula is used so that some calculation
will be made in the following upon the formula.
Sutton's formula is
Cmax = 0.234*Cz/Cy'Q/(UHe2) (1)
where Cmax: Maximum landing concentration (3 minute value)
Here, the concentration is not expressed by ppm
but as, for example, 10 ® for 1 ppm.
Q: Pollutant emission about, m3/sec (15°C)
U: Wind speed (m/sec)
Here, 6 m/sec is taken.
He: Effective height of chimney (m)
(He given in paragraph 2, Article 3, Air Pollution
Control Law Enforcement Ordinance)
Cz: Parameter of diffusion in a plumb direction.
\
Cy: Parameter of diffusion in a horizontal direction.
Here, Cz = Cy.
Generally, the maximum landing concentration is expressed
in an 1 hour value so that the 3 minute value is converted to
an 1 hour value. By applying the Rolley's hourly dilution
coefficient 0.15
(Cmax) 1 hour value = 0.15 (Cmax) 3 minute value
7-/7.47 -
-------
Q is converted to the value under standard conditions
(1°C, 1 atomospheric pressure) which is represented by q.
Then,
q (Nm3/hr) = Q (m3/sec) x 273^ 15 *
Thus, formula (1) is expressed as
Cmax =1.71 x 10 6 x q/He2
or q = 0.584*Cmax x L0®*He2
When Cmax is to be expressed in ppm, Cmax x 106 Cmax.
Then,
q = 0.584*Cmax He2 (2)
where q: Pollutant emission (Nm3/hr)
Cmax: Maximum landing concentration (ppm)
He: Effective height of chimney (m)
Representing the volume of gas discharged out of the incinerator
by V (Nm3/hr) and the HC1 concentration at the outlet by
(ppm),
C . (ppm) = 0.584 x 106 x Cmax*He2/V (3)
HL1
With the amount of refuse burnt represented by S (t/hr) and the
volume of emission gas per ton of refuse by Go (Nm3/t),
C , (ppm) = 0.584 x 10® x Cmax He2/G0*S (4)
HC1
Go varies with the type and operating condition of the
incinerator or air excess coefficient, but here a most generally
7.11.48-
-------
employed value or G0 = 5000 Nm3/t will be taken as a standard
value.
Then,
CHCl (ppm) = 0.1168 x 103 x Cmax xHe2/S (5)
While various chimney heights are used, those investigated of
the existing continuous and batch type incinerators are shown
in Tables 9 and 10 and Figures 6 and 7, with higher chimney
used in the incinerator of greater scale.
The continuous incinerators recently built are mostly of
the scale of 600 to 1000 t/D and the chimney height of 80 to
100 m. Accordingly, S = 1000/24 (t/hr) and effective chimney
height (Note 1) He = 100 m are taken here as standards. Then,
in formula (5), He2/S = 240. The scale of incineration may
change (Note 2), but if He2/S = 240 (constant),
C i (ppm) = 280.3 x 102 * Cmax (6)
HC 1
Thus, the HC1 emission concentration C (ppm) is constant for
HC 1
a certain Cmax. The results of calculation according to such
consideration are shown in Table 11.
(Note 1) With He = 100 m taken as a standard, the actual
chimney height (H0) may vary with the volume,
temperature and speed of emission gas, but cor-
responds to a refuse incinerator having a chimney
of about 70 to 80 m height.
H.l. k « -
-------
(Note 2) The assumption of He2/S = 240 (constant) may
seem to be severe for the chimneys of He > 100 m
and not so for those of He < 100 m, bur with
lower He, the amount of incineration S is gener-
ally smaller so that the assumption is equally
severe for the chimneys of He < 100 m.
' ^'J'50 -
-------
Table 9 Facility Scale Versus Chemney Height (Continuous System)
Chimney
height
Facility^\^(m)
scale
20^29
30^34
35^39
40^44
45^49
50^54
55^59
6(H64
65^69
70-W9
80^99
10CH
Average
height
3CK^ t/day

32 m
40^

50^

60^
2

41.2
80^

1
3
4
8
6

45.4
100^

120^

2
1
2
1

53.7
14CK\<

5
6
1
2
1

42.8
160^

1
5
1
13
3

49.6
200^

3
2
3
1

48.1
300^

2
3

8
8
1

52.6
40(H

2
1

2
1
3
2
76.4
600^

3
2

2
3
1
74.1
800^

1
1
95.0
1000^

-------
Figure 6 Facility Scale Versus Cbei.uney Height (Continuous Syscem)
Incineration (t/day)
-------
Table 10 Facility Scale Versus Chimney Height (Batch System)
Chimney
height
Facility^^^ (m)
scale
^19
20^24
25^29
30^34
35^39
40^44
45^49
50^54
55^59
60^64
Average
height
1.0^ t/day
174
27
6
2

12. 2 m
5.0^
62
231
31
16
3
1

20.9
10.0*'
1
54
61
130
58
3
1

30.4
20.0^
1
4
3
18
98
17
10
2

37.1
30.0^<
1
1
1
10
46
34
14
11
4

40. 7
40.0^

3
7
21
9
1

46.8
50. 0^

I
2
10
16
3
1
50.2
60. 0^

2
11
19
10
3
52.1
80.0^

1
3
1
7
7
2
1
47.9
100.0^

3
1
3
3
2
52.0
120^

2
1
2

1
49.5
140^

1
1
4
1
1
52.1
160~

49.5
200^

2
1
2
2
3
53.5
300^

400^

2
62.0
600^

800^

1000^

-------
Figure 7 Facility Scale Versus Chimney Height (Batch System)
70
60

S 50
u
X
00
<11
JZ

o
40
30
20
10
20 AO 60 80 100 110 120 140 160 180 200
Incineration (t/day)
-------
Table 11 Results of calculation by formula (6)
Classification of
disposition (t/day)
Average disposition
(t/day)
C max
(ppm)
HC1 concentration
(wet standard)
Sci (pp,tt)
HC1 emission (<1q)
-Go
-------
Remarks: The dry standard value of HCl concentration
may be represented differently depending of
the moisture content in the emission gas,
but it may be calculated as given below
with the moisture content assumed to be 20 ¦
percent average (by volume).
In formula (4), Go (wet emission gas)
=5000 Nm3/t is expressed as Go (dry emission
gas)=5000x80/100=4000 Nm3/t.
Thus, formula (5) is C (ppm) =0. 1460xl03x
CmaxxHe 2/S, and
formula (6) is (ppm)=350.4xl02x
Cmax.
Then, with the moisture content assumed to
be 20 percent average,
Cmax
HCl concentration
HCl concentration

(Wet standard)
(Dry standard)
0.01
280 ppm
350 ppm
0.02
560
700
0.03
840
1050
d. Future direction of the emission gas control and refuse
disposition administration
The concept stated above of the control of HCl in the emis-
sion gas is intended to achieve the. target environmental con-
centration of HCl stated in the foregoing for the refuse
7- /,/, 56 -
-------
Incinerators which are themselves environmenr Improvement
facilities and must have the disposition of refuse by burning
carried out completely with the standard of the volume of
emission gas per ton of refuse placed at 5000 Nm3 which is
considered to provide good burning conditions.
In the case of a large volume of emission gas per ton of(
refuse, the HCl concentration is diluted, but the absolute
volume of HCl (concentration x volume of emission) is defined
so that the emission is always converted to that under the
standard condition. In fact, the incinerators have the
chimneys of the heights illustrated in Tables 1 and 2 so that
they may be considered as a spot source of pollution. Thus,
it was considered that it would be reasonable to perform the
emission control upon recognition of the diffusion and
dilution by the standard height of chimney.
For increasing amount of chlorides in the refuse, two
methods are conceivable: emission gas cleansing and addition
of processes. The latter is directed toward elimination of
the charge in the quality of refuse due to change of the
living mode by successive addition of treatment processes and
may be regarded as an unavoidable expediency. But, from the
other point of view, it is to admit the increase of refuse
treatment cost due to change in the quality of refuse incident
to change of the living mode or increase of social cost.
/J. /.J. 57 _
-------
According to the cleansing system, an alkali is used for
neutralization. But^ as illustrated in Figure 8, some percent
I
of the caustic soda produced by electrolysis in the soda
industry is thus used only for neutralization of hydrogen
chloride without being used as an industrial material and
reduced back to salt or sodium chloride. Assuming, for the
sake of illustration, that the urban refuse of 82,000 t/day
throughout the country in 1971 contained 3 percent of PVC
and that the caustic soda require^ for neutralization was
about 12 kg/ton of refuse, the consumption of caustic soda
would be 82,000x12x365=359,000 t/year. The output of PVC in
1970 was 1.16 million tons/year, while that of caustic soda
was 3 million tons/year. Then, about 12 percent of the whole
production of caustic soda would have to be consumed for the
treatment of emission gas from the incinerators alone.
f' J.58 -
-------
Figure 8 Flow of PVC in waste and soda industry materials
Soda industry NaCl
Processing -«=—
NaOH
Cl2 -
Productive
materials
PVC
-Productive
materials
Dust
precipitation
Gas
cleansing
-NaCl
Family—^Gathering and —^-Incineration —^-Waste water treatment
transport
-s- Land filling
In view of the foregoing consideration, the waste treat-
ment system should be directed toward self control in the
respective stage from production to disposition such as
"closed" in the production stage, recovery in the distribution
stage and control of emission in the consumption stage.
Efforts should, therefore, be exerted to add a process
of fractional gathering or mechanical sorting before the stage
of burning disposition.
For example, let's us see what effect the increase of the
rate of admixture of PVC (Xp^J in the refuse will have upon
the HC1 concentration (C„„.) in the emission gas.
HCJ6
CHCl=2 .5*10®x(1-W) xXpVC/G 0 (6)
Where W represents the moisture content (kg-water/kg-refuse).
If W=0.5 and-Go <-5000 Nm3/t, formula (6) is expressed as
/*/ 59 -
-------
Chci^soxio^vc
In Table 12 are shown the values of Xp^ obtained from this
formula to suppress the HCl concentration to 280, 560
and 840 ppm.
Table 12 PVC content and Hd concentration in emission gas
r100XPVC
Proportion of plastics
in dry refuse (PVC
assumed to be 30% of
the plasties) lOOXp
CHC1
-------
flexible operation is desired of the application of emission
gas control including administrative guidance toward such
direction.
7. Summary
As stated in the foregoing, the Committee has exerted continued
efforts for investigation of the basic matters for emission control
and, during the process of investigation, encountered various dif-
ficult problems.
That is, as the measures immediately practicable for removal
of hydrogen chloride, there are (1) removal by sorting of PVC and
other plastics and (2) smoke rinsing-neutralizing treatment, but
either of them has big problems left unresolved yet. For example,
the former involves a problem of limitation in the effect of sorting
including that at the respective families as the plastics are not
only present by themselves but in combination with other materials
and other problems such as research and development of the mechanical
sorting techniques and disposition of sorted plastics. For the
latter, it is required for prevention of secondary pollution to
consider the problem of disposition of heavy metals and other harmful
substances included in the smoke rinse drain and that of byproducts
emitted as the result of neutralization. In addition to these
problems, the control of hydrogen chloride discharged out of incin-
erators requires multifarious and long ranging investigation and
7.//61 -
-------
research with various economical effects taken into account such as
the problems of apportionment of the pollution control expense among
the producer, user and disposer of PVC, research and development-'
of substitute plastics, etcl
I
The Committee has conducted the study and investigation care-
fully in full recognition of these problems and considers that for
the incinerators emitting hydrogen chloride in a great quantity,
combination of the measures (1) and (2) will have to be considered
tentatively but that it is desirable, as a future direction, to
proceed toward expediting the measure (1).
7 I -l62.,
-------
Appendix .1 Simple Method of Calculation of the Volume of
HC1 Emission Gas from Refuse
(1) Analysis of refuse
Content of plastics, Xp (kg/kg-raw refuse)
Combustible component except plastics, Xc (kg/kg-raw refuse)
Moisture content, W (kg-water/kg-raw reguse)
(2) Calculation of low level heat
He = 4600 Xc + 8000 Xp - 620 W
(3) Calculation of theoretical air volume
A0 = 1.01 He/1000 +0.5 (Nm3/kg)
(4) Determination of air ratio
Through analysis of the flue waste gas, the oxygen concentra-
tion (O2) and carbonic acid concentration (CO2) are determined.
m
21(N2) - 79 (02)'
0.21
m
a
where a =
1.5Xp + 1.08Xc
Xp + Xc
(5) Calculation of the volume of wet combustion gas
G = mA0 + 5.6h + 0.70 + 0.'8m + 1.24(W + W') (Nm3/kg)
-------
where h, o and n represent respectively the weight in kg of
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen in 1 kg of the fuel. Generally
in the refuse incinerators, the air excess coefficient m is
large at 2 to 3 so that the terms 5.6h + 0.70 + 0.8n are
negligible for G.
Then,
G = m.Ao+ 1.24(W + W1) (Nm3/kg)
where W' represents the moisture added to the combustion gas
by water jet cooling (kg/kg), or
fW1 = 0 (with boiler), or
lw' = (mAo + 1.24w) *0.35 * 500/715 (kg/Kg)
= 0.245 (mAo + 1.24w)
(6) Determination of HC1 concentration (ppm) (wet gas basis)
in emission gas
See Section 4 "Determination of Hydrogen Chloride, Etc. in
Refuse Incinerator Emission Gas."
(7) Calculation of HCl emission
/
q = G x S * 103 x Cup1/106 < q (Nm3/hr)
HCl = "o
(Reference Table 11)
*1A b 64 -
-------
Appendix 2 Relationship between the Proportion of PVC in Refuse and
the Concentration of HC 1 in Emission Gas
With
Xp: Content of plastics in dry refuse,
y: Content of PVC resin in plastics,
z: Percentage by weight of chlorine in PVC,
C: Amount of hydrogen chloride per kg of raw refuse
(kg-Cl/kg-refuse),
Xpy^,: Content of PVC in dry refuse = Xp.y
w: Moisture content in raw refuse (kg-water/kg-refuse),
„ , 1 - w „ 35.5 + 1
C = 1 x —^— x Xp x y x z x —35~5—
Assuming that the plasticizer and stabilizer are included in
an amount of about 30 percent, then
z = 0. 7 x
CI 0.7 x 35.5
C2H3Cl 62.5
C = (1 - w) x Xp x y x
0.7 x 35.5 36.5
62.5 X 35.5
0.7 x 36.5
62.5
x (1 -W) x Xp x y (kg-CL/kg-refuse)
The volume of hydrogen chloride at 0°C, 1 atm is
22.4C 0.7 x 22.A
36.5 62.5
x (1 - w) x Xp x y
7.//. 65 -
-------
If,
S: Amount of incineration of refuse (t/hr),
V: Emission gas (Nms/hr) = Gq.S,
Go: Emission gas per ton of refuse (Nm3/hr), and
Crci: Concentration of hydrogen chloride in emission gas (ppm),
S x 1000 X22.4C/36.5 ..
end _ __ 10
= 1000 x 0.7 x 22.4 x 6 x S-Xp x y _
62.5 XU V U w;
s^vc
= 2.5 X 10® X (1 - w) X ^
= 2.5 x 108 x (1 - w) x
V
,xpvc
G0
Moisture content in refuse incinerator emission gas, average
15-20% (Vol), or greater where the emission gas cooling by
water is made (may be taken at about 20%).
o 5000 Nm3 per ton of raw refuse
( " 1 kg ; 5 Nm3)
If the moisture content in refuse is assumed at 50%,
H2O 0.5 kg 12.5% theoretical (volume of moisture
in emission gas)
n. u. 66 -
-------
Gq (dry basis) = 5000 Nm3 (wet basis) x 0.8 (moisture 20%)
« 4000 Nm3
CHCH ' 0,584 * 10° " 240/A000 " Cmax
= 0.584 x 60 * 103:* Cmax
= 330.4 x 102 x Cmax
Cmax Outlet (wet) Outlet (dry)
' 0.01 ppm a»- 280 ppm 350 ppm
< 0.02 11 560 " 700 "
-0.03 " 2— 840 " 1050 "
HCl emission (qo) = Gq S C , 10 6
HG J-
tJibi -
-------

Outline of Melt-Reclaim Process at Funabashi Laboratory
(from "Technical Report on Melt-Reclaim Process of Plastics Waste")
March, 1975
Plastic Waste Management Institute, Japan
Technical Committee
(Summarized by Toyotsugu Aoyagi)
-------
INDEX
Page
1. Main purposes of Funabashi Project 1
2. General description of melt-reclaim techniques • 1
2-1 General description of complex melt-reclaim techniques 1
2-2 Selection of systems for Funabashi Project 3.
3. General description of study 5
3-1 Purposes of study . 5
3-2 Funabashi Laboratory 5
3-3 Waste separation practice in Funabashi City 5
4. General description of processes adopted 13
4-1 System No. 1 13
4-2 System No. 2 15
4-3 System No. 3 18
5. Development of applications 26
6. General comments on demonstrations 28
-------
1. Main purposes of Funabashi Project
In our modern society,plastics have been playing an important role in making
our daily life more comfortable and convenient. As plastics products prevail, however,
percentage of plastics waste in municipal refuse has been increasing year by year,
which is now alledged as ojie of the main causes for making waste disposal difficult.
Currently, there are three major recycling techniques of plastics waste, i.e. melt-
reclaim, pyrolysis and heat recovery through incineration. Funabashi Project dealt
with melt-reclaim of municipal plastics waste. Its main purposes'are:
(1) to grasp status of plastics waste in household refuse and to determine
possibility of separating plastics waste at household level.
(2) to demonstrate melt-reclaim technique for separated household plastics
waste.
(3) to develop applications of the reclaimed plastics.
2. General description of melt-reclaim techniques
Melt-reclaim techniques can be classified into two categories. One is to product
relatively homogeneous pellets from single kind of industrial plastics waste, such as
off-cut scraps and ill-moulded products. This has been in practice in Japan since
plastics fabrication started, and accordingly, its techniques and applications,have been
established already. Another'is to convert hetrogeneous plastics waste, such as plas-
tics waste from households or as mixture of several resins which are generated as
industrial plastics waste, into thick plates, blocks, etc. by me It-and-mould process.
This is a new field, and is pioneering for solving plastics waste disposal problems.
Today, the latter has gained a great attention from concerned fields not only as a solu-
tion of disposal problems but also as a practical means to facilitate resource recovery.
We called this "complex melt-reclaim" and Funabashi Project concentrated on this new
process.
2-1 General description ot complex-melt reclaim techniques
There are two moulding systems in melt-reclaim techniques; extrusion moulding
and compression moulding. In order to produce plastics products of higher quality,
we must have raw material (plastics waste) of constant and uniform composition in
terms of its component resins. In order to obtain such raw material of constant and
uniform composition, resin separation methods such as gravity separation, electro-
static separation and floating separation have been studied simultaneously.
(1) Extrusion moulding
As shown in Table 1, extrusion moulding are classified into three types.
"A" system makes plastics melt by a screw. This "A" system is further classified
into two types; one has small L/D ratio and a specially designed screw which has
7. l -
-------
large CR, therby self-generating heat of plastics can be utilized; another has a two-
stage screw and larger L/D. The former type with shorter cylinder melts larger
quantity of plastics at once, however, special consideration should be taken for de-
composition of PVC when it is contained.
I
In "B" system, plastics waste is fed into hopper, then pushed by a plunger or
plungers into the melting chamber, where it is heated until all are melted. The
melted plastics waste is extruded out by a screw. Since this system requires
plastics waste to stay in the melting chamber relatively long time, it is suitable for
treating PE, PP, ABS, and etc., which have good thermal stability and of which melting
temperature is similar to each other.
"C" system consists of about ten cylinders in order to level up capacity of the
system. Only one demonstration has been practised so far.
Due to relatively poor compatibility between different kinds of plastics, applica-
tions of recycled plastics from hetrogenous plastics waste are limited. Products
which are provided with feasible physical properties are; thick plates, blocks, bars
and stakes. Moulding of these products requires longer cooling time. In order to
facilitate cooling efficiency, shower water belt system etc. have been developed.
Table 1. Cast Moulding Systems
System
Pre-
treatment
Melting
Feeding
to mould
Moulding
Products
tt * »i
A system
Crusher
Screw type
Screw
Casting into
moulds
Die-extrusion
Stakes, piles,
thick plates,
etc.
f f 11
B system
None *
W- Plunger
type
Screw
Casting into
moulds
11
IIaII
C system
Crusher
Multi-Plunger
type
Screw
Casting into
moulds
i r
* Usually plastics waste is directly fed into hopper without using crusher.
The most popular mouMing system is casting into moulds which are made of
5-10 mm thick steel plates. The extruding pressure for this is relatively low (less
than lOkg/cm^), Usually, 10 to 15 moulds are prepared for one extruder. Average
capacity of these moulding systems ranges from 200 to 400 kg/hr, although it varies
depending on the kinds of plastics waste and shapes of finished products.
7.1.1. - 2 -
-------
(2) Compression moulding
"D" and "E" systems shown in Table 2 can use the same units used in "A" or
"B" system except moulding part. "F" system features higher charge ot inorganic
filler up to 70 %, and is able fo produce products of which specific gravity is about 1.5.
It is expected, therefore, this system will produce substitutes for concrete products.
Table 2. Compression Moulding Systems
System
Pre-treatment
Melting
Moulding
Reproducts
llpv ft
D system
Crusher
Screw type
Press
Blocks, pallets
My-, 1 1
E system
No.ne
W-Plunger type
Press
Tool boxes, seed-beds
F system
Crusher
Mixing type with
inorganic thermal
medium
Press
Bulk products such as
fish-reeves
2-2 Selection of systems for Funabashi Project
Because it was the first attempt to recycle municipal plastics waste separated
at household level, and we had to demonstrate feasibility of this idea, we had been
very careful in selecting the systems to employ. Our principles in selecting appro-
priate recycling systems were:
(a) one which is considered to be as rational system as possible.
(b) one which is free from secondary pollution.
Based on these principles, we made hearings on plastics waste recycling
machines commercially available at the time. Selected systems were installed at
Funabashi Laboratory for demonostration one by one. Systems we made hearings
were:
Systems
1. (a) system crushing - melting* extrusion - cutting
2. (b) system crushing - washing - gravity separation - drying -
mixing - melting • die extrusion
7.1.X-3-
-------
3.
(c)
system
crushing - washing - gravity separation - drying -
(pulverlizing) - melting • extrusion
4.
(d)
system
compression - melting-extrusion
5.

system
crushing - mixing with sludge - melting-extrusion
6.
(f)
system
crushing - melting-extrusion - moulding
7.
(g)
system
heating melting - binding - compression
8.
(h)
system
for producing pavement materials
Prior to final selection, we sent some amount of plastics waste collected in
Funabashi City to each machine maker of the systems. Test operations with the
samples were conducted by each machine maker in the attendance of our staff during
October to December 1971. During the tests, we found the followings:
i
(a) Removal of foreign matters is essential: Even separated, plastics waste
collected from households contains about 10 - 20 % of foreign matters such
as metals and glass, which can not be fed into usual crusher. Therefore,
these foreign matters should be removed prior to crushing.
(b) Odor control: Odor control is needed because collected plastics waste is
contaminated with residue of beverage and foods. Melt-reclaim of these
waste without washing causes odor pollution. Therefore, installment of
deordorization or washing unit is required.
(c) Uniformity of composition of plastics waste to be melt-reclaimed:
Collected plastics waste containes various kinds of resins as well as non-
ferrous metals, therefore, any system which has some device to regulate
the composition of the waste can stabilize the quality of reproducts.
After test being carried with Funabashi plastics waste, we selected three types
of machines, namely Systems No. 1, No. 2 and No. 3, which were determined to be
appropriate in view of their capacity, operation cost, pollution free features, etc.
For example, the features of System No. 3 are as follows:
(1) Removal of foreign matters and pulverlization:
Foreign matters including glass and metals are removed by air classifier
and magnetic separator. Foreign matters which remain even after these
treatments are pulverized so as not to cause any trouble in melting nor
moulding processe..
(2) Pollution control:
Because of that municipal plastics waste is often contaminated with foods
residue, etc., odor pollution can be caused in melting process, destroying
7.1. 2. - 4 -
-------
3.
(c)
system
crushing - washing - gravity separation - drying -
(pulverlizing) - melting • extrusion
4.
(d)
system
compression - melting * extrusion
5.
(e)
system
crushing - mixing with sludge - melting-extrusion
6.
(f)
system
crushing - melting• extrusion - moulding
7.
(g)
system
heating melting - binding - compression
8.
(h)
system
for producing pavement materials
Prior to final selection, we sent some amount of plastics waste collected in
Funabashi City to each machine maker of the systems. Test operations with the
samples were conducted by each machine maker in the attendance of our staff during
October to December 1971. During the tests, we found the followings:
(a) Removal of foreign matters is essential: Even separated, plastics waste
collected from households contains about 10 - 20 % of foreign matters such
as metals and glass, which can not be fed into usual crusher. Therefore,
these foreign matters should be removed prior to crushing.
(b) Odor control: Odor control is needed because collected plastics waste is
contaminated with residue of beverage and foods. Melt-reclaim of these
waste without washing causes odor pollution. Therefore, installment of
deordorization or washing unit is required.
(c) Uniformity of composition of plastics waste to be melt-reclaimed:
Collected plastics waste containes various kinds of resins as well as non-
ferrous metals, therefore, any system which has some device to regulate
the composition of the waste can stabilize the quality of reproducts.
After test being carried with Funabashi plastics waste, we selected three types
of machines, namely Systems No. 1, No. 2 and No. 3, which were determined to be
appropriate in view of their capacity, operation cost, pollution free features, etc.
For example, the features of System No. 3 are as follows:
(1) Removal of foreign matters and pulverlization:
Foreign matters including glass and metals are removed by air classifier
and magnetic separator. Foreign matters which remain even after these
treatments are pulverized so as not to cause any trouble in melting nor
moulding processe..
(2) Pollution control:
Because of that municipal plastics waste is often contaminated with foods
residue, etc., odor pollution can be caused in melting process, destroying
7.1. 2. - 4 -
-------
working conditions and lowering quality of the products. With System No. 3,
therefore, washing of plastics waste is conducted before melting process.
Waste water treatment is also carried out with activated sludge, and the
water is reused thereafter.
3. General description of study
3-1 Purposes of study
(1) To determine possibility of plastics waste separation at household level, and
to collect data on plastics waste separated.
(2) To determine possibility of melt-reclaim techniques for separated house-
hold plastics waste, and to identify and solve technical problems.
(3) To develop applications of recycled plastics*
(4) To confirm effectiveness of pollution control units.
(5) To estimate operation cost.
3-2 Funabashi Laboratory
Address: 129-1 Tsuboi-cho, Funabashi City, Chiba Pref.
Areas of site: 2f085
Buildings: Office (light weight steel structure) 72
Laboratory (light weight steel & slate) 360 m^
Storage (wooden structure / concrete floor) 108
Storage (wooden structure) 288
3-3 Waste separation practice in Funabashi City
Funabashi City had been practising waste separation of the non-combustibles
(including plastics) and the combustibles: the former was landfilled and the latter
incinerated. However, due to shortage of landfill site, it was decided to separate
plastics waste from either the non-combustibles or the combustibles in certain area.
The Sanitation Department of the City, designated a model district of plastics waste
separation practice where 30,000 households, approximately one third of the City, are
located. All of the separated plastics waste in the model district was transported
into Funabashi Laboratory for recycling, which amounted approx. 30 tons/month.
-7.1.1.-5-
-------
(l) Plastics waste volume in household refuse
During the study on plastics waste, we surveyed composition of household refuse
which was disposed of at Funabashi Laboratory, landfill sites and incineration plants.
Tables 3, 4, 5 and 6 show the results of three surveys conducted through December
1972 to September 1973. According to these results, percentage of plastics waste in
household refuse is estimated about 7 % in wet state (W/W), about 9 % in dry state
(D/D) and about 4 % for dry-state plastics waste against wet-state household refuse
(D/W). It is estimated that 1/2 to 1/3 of these plastics waste had been carried into
Funabashi Laboratory.
Table 3. Household refuse generated for 4 weeks (wet state)
Site for disposal
Weight
(kg)
Weight Percentage
(%)
*Weight per capita per day
(g)
Incinerator
819,876
80.1
354
Landfill
172,906
16.8
75
Laboratory
30,455
3.1
13
Total
1,023,237
100.0
432
Notes: 1. Percentage of water contained in the household refuse are estimated to
be 60 % (incinerators), 30 % (landfills) and 15 % (Laboratory).
(Average of measurements made by the Laboratory and Funabashi City
Administration for the district concerned.)
2. A family (household) is assumed to consist of 3.6 persons.
3. These surveys are conducted over household refuse generated from
23,000 households in an apartment-residential area.
4. Figures show average values of three surveys, each survey is made
for 4 weeks. Three surveys have been done in December 1972 and May &
September, 1973.
-------
Figure 1. Breakdowns of waste generated for 4 weeks from 23,000
households (wet state, W/W)
(Figures are average values deducted from three purveys
conducted in December 1972 and May and September, 1973.)
Laboratory
3.67 % Laboratory
2.37 %
"7. /. Z - 7 -
-------
Table 4. Percentage and volume of plastics waste (wet state, W/W)
Site lor
disposal
(A)
Weight percentage of
plastics wa.ste
contained in collected
refuse
(%)

Incinerator
4.58
37,516
53.5
3.67
16.2
Landfill
4.73
8,174
11.7
0.80
3.5
Laboratory
80.00
24,364
34.8
2.37
10.7
Total

70,054
100.0
6.84
30.4
Notes: 1. Weight of plastics waste (a) is calculated by multiplying weight values
shown in Table 3 by weight percentage of plastics waste (A).
2. Weight percentage in the total refuse (c) is calculated by dividing weight
of plastics waste (a) by total weight of refuse shown in Table 3.
Table 5. Refuse volume and plastics waste volume in dry base (D/D)
(A)
Site for disposal
(B)
Volume of refuse
(C)
Volume of plastics waste
(a)
Weight
(kg)
(b)
Weight
per capita
per day
(g)
(c)
Weight
(kg)
(d)
Weight
percentage
(%)
(e)
Weight
percentage
in the total
refuse (%)
(f)
Weight
per capita
per day
(g)
Incinerator
327,951
142
15,001
36.2
3.16
6.5
Landfill
121,034
52
5,724
13.8
1.22
2.5
Laboratory
25,887
11
20,710
50.0
4.36
8.9
Total
474,872
205
41,435
100.0
8.74
17.9
Notes: 1. Weight of refuse (a) is calculated by multiplying weight value shoWn in
Table 3 by percentages 40 % (incinerators), 70 % (landfills) and 85 %
(Laboratory) respectively — these being supplemental percentages to the
content percentages thereof.
7. I. 8 -
-------
2. Weight of plastics waste (c) is calculated by multiplying weight of refuse
(a) by percentage of plastics waste shown in Tatjle 4, (A).
3. Weight percentage in the total refuse (e) is calculated by dividing weight
of plastics waste (c) by total of weight of refuse (total of (a)).
Table 6. Percentage 6f dry state plastics waste in wet state waste (D/W)
Site for disposal
Weight of wet state
refuse
(kg)
(A)
Weight of dry state
plastics waste
(kg)
(B)
Dry state plastics
waste in wet state
refuse (%)
(C),
— — — -p-
Incinerator
819,543
15,001
1.47
Landfill
172,906
5,724
0.56
Laboratory
28,788
20,710
2.03
Total
1,021,237
41,435
4.06
Note: Weight of wet state refuse (A) is transfered from Table 3 and weight of dry
state plastics waste (B) from Table 5.
(2) Study on composition of separated plastics waste
(i) Composition and shapes
PE bags were designated as containers for separation and collection of plastics
waste. Bags which contain so much of foreign matters like metals, etc. are regarded as
abnormal bags, and ones which contain plastics waste only as normal bags. Results of
several surveys are shown in Tables 7 and 8. Polyorefins are contained at approx.
60 %. It varies, however, by seasons. Films and bags are contained approx. 50 %.
A bag contains 200-1,000 g and average is approx. 500g (The capacity of a bag is 15
litres).
(ii) Percentage of abnormal bags and breakdowns of foreign matters
Through July to September 1972, we examined percentage of abnormal bags in a
collection car for four times. The results are shown in Table 9 and 10.
7. (. 2. ?
— o —
-------
Table 7. Weight and composition of a normal hag
Date of Survey
1972 1973
Average
July
Aug.
Oct.
Nov.
Nov.
Dec.
Dec.
Feb.
Weight of
a bag (g)
Average
Maximum
Minimum
459
557
512
501
473
527
443
473
493
900
1,410
1,340
1,390
1,150
1,060
870
920
-
1701-
310
150
170
250
240
110
290
-
Plastics (%)
LDPE
HDPE
PP
29.1
27.9
27.8
45.7
33.6
31.3
34.5
35.0
33.1
11.8
11.0
15.3
11.6
10.6
13.2
14.8
17.4
13.2
8.7
6.9
11.5
9.6
5.6
11.4
14.3
11.8
10.0
Sub total
(49.6)
(45.8)
(54.7)
(66.9)
(49.8)
(55.9)
(63.6)
(64.2)
(56.3)
PS
PVC
Thermosettings
18.4
14.2
15.7
11.0
22.4
16.1
12.4
15.7
15.7
13.1
17.8
23.0
14.6
16.8
15.5
17.6
15.3
16.7
6.5
0.0
1.7
0.0
0.3
3.4
1.1
0.0
1.6
Sub total
87.6
77.8
95.0
92.5
89.3
90.9
94.7
95.2
90.3
Foreign matters (%)
Rubber, urethane
Paper, cloth, wood
Shoes
Miscellaneous
Glass
Metals
Aluminum
0.0
1.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
4.2
9.5
3.2
4.3
3.4
1.9
1.0
3.0
3.8
0.0
5.0
0.0
0.0
3.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.1
1.3
2.8
*v
~ 1.8
2.3
2.8
2.4
0.5
0.0

~ 6.9
0.0
0.2
0.0

~ 4.8
0.2
0.0
I"
3.2
0.7
| 0.6
| 3.6
0.6
1.1
Sub total
12.4
22.2
5.0
7.5
10.7
9.1
5.3
4.8
9.6
Table 8. Composition of plastics in normal bag by forms rT _
Unit • %
Date of Survey

1972

1973
Average

Jul. 12
Aug.4
Oct. 6
Nov. 17
Nov. 2 7
Dec.12
Dec.18
K*b.26
Films & Bags
50.7
45.9
53.1
59.8
43.8
47.0
51.4
49.2
50.]
Flow mouldings
20.8
5.8
19.9
14.1
21.9
21.2
21.1
20.8
18.2
Vaccum mouldings
9.7
23.9
8.9
10.3
17.3
9.8
10.9
10.3
12.6
Injection mouldings
10.8
6.4
8.9
8.7
10.0
12.6
6.9
11.7
9.5
Others
8.0
18.0
9.2
7.0
6.9
9.4
9.7
8.0
9.5
7. t. a. / o
— m —
-------
Table 7. Weight and composition of a normal bag
Date of Survey
1972 1973
Average
July
Aug.
Oct.
Nov.
Nov.
Dec.
Dec.
Feb.
Weight of
a bag (g)
Average
Maximum
Minimum
459
557
512
501
473
527
443
473
493
900
1,410
1,340
1,390
1,150
1,060
870
920
-
170X
310
150
170
250
240
110
290
-
Plastics (%)
LDPE
HDPE
PP
29.1
27.9
27.8
45.7
33.6
31.3
34.5
35.0
33.1
11.8
11.0
15.3
11.6
10.6
13.2
14.8
17.4
13.2
8.7
6.9
11.5
9.6
5.6
11.4
14.3
11.8
10.0
Sub total
(49.6)
(45.8)
(54.7)
(66.9)
(49.8)
(55.9)
(63.6)
(64.2)
(56.3)
PS
PVC
Thermosettings
18.4
14.2
15.7
11.0
22.4
16.1
12.4
15.7
15.7
13.1
17.8
23.0
14.6
16.8
15.5
17.6
15.3
16.7
6.5
0.0
1.7
0.0
0.3
3.4
1.1
0.0
1.6
Sub total
87.6
77.8
95.0
92.5
89.3
90.9
94.7
95.2
90.3
Foreign matters (%)
Rubber, urethane
Paper, cloth, wood
Shoes
Miscellaneous
Glass
Metals
Aluminum
0.0
1.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.2
4.2
9.5
3.2
4.3
3.4
1.9
1.0
3.0
3.8
0.0
5.0
0.0
0.0
3.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
1.1
1.3
2.8

~ 1.8
2.3
2.8
2.4
0.5
0.0

„ 6.9
0.0
0.2
0.0

~ 4.8
0.2
0.0

3.2
0.7
| 0.6
| 3.6
0.6
1.1
Sub total
12.4
22.2
5.0
7.5
10.7
9.1
5.3
4.8
9.6
Table 8. Composition of plastics in normal bag by forms ... _
Unit • /q
Date of Survey
1972 1973
Average
Jul. 12
Aug.4
Oct. 6
Nov. 17
Nov. 2 7
Dec.12
Dec.18
ffeb.26
Films & Bags
50.7
45.9
53.1
59.8
43.8
47.0
51.4
49.2
50.]
Flow mouldings
20.8
5.8
19.9
14.1
21.9
21.2
21.1
20.8
18.2
Vaccum mouldings
9.7
23.9
8.9
10.3
17.3
9.8
10.9
10.3
12.6
Injection mouldings
10.8
6.4
8.9
8.7
10.0
12.6
6.9
11.7
9.5
Others
8.0
18.0
9.2
7.0
6.9
9.4
9.7
8.0
9.5
7.1.Z./0
_ in —
-------
Table 9.
Weight of an abnormal bag removed
Unit ' Kg
Date of Suryey
19 7 2

Jul.22 (Sat)
Aug. 30 (Tue)
Sept.4 (Mon)
Sept.5 (Tue)
(1) Volume of plastics waste
660
800
420
420
per collection car

(2) Weight of abnprmal bags
J51.7
93.2
45.2
140.9
(3) Bags per collection car
23.0
11.7
10.8
33.5
Average
1.31
1.55
1.00
1.44
(4) Weight per bag Maximum
25.8
3.4
-

Minimum
-
0.4
-

Table 10. Contents of abnormal bags
Unit : %
Date of Survey
19 7 2
July 22 (Sat)
Aug. 30 (Wed)
Sept. 5 (Tue)
Glass
1.8
26.2
4.7
Metals
6.8
18.5
13.8
Clothes
8.9
8.8
3.8
Paper
3.0
4.5
13.2
Miscellaneous
¦ 47.3
15.8
25.1
Plastics
32.1
26.2
39.3
(3) Summary of surveys
(i) Plastics waste generated frpm households
Volume of plastics waste approx. 18 g/person/day
Volume of plastics waste separated and
carried into Laboratory approx. 9 g/pers'on/day
(Table 5 )
7. t.z. n
— ii —
-------
(ii) Foreign matters contained in the bags for separated waste
(metals, glass, paper, food residue and others) J 5 - ,.H) %
(Tables 9 and 10)
(iii) Composition of separately collected plastics waste in terms ul kind ot
resins
Polyolefine approx. 50 %
PVC 15-20 %
Polystylene 15 - 20 %
Thermosetting resins less than 10 %
(iv) Composition of separately collected plastics waste by forms
Films, bags approx. 50 %
Moulded products
blow moulding approx. 18 %
vaccum moulding " 12 %
injection moulding " 10 %
others " 10 %
(v) Bulk specific gravity of the collected bags 0.03/bag
Loading capacity of collection cars
Collection cars (Funabashi City's trucks)
used for collecting separated plastics waste: 2 tons/open trucks
Date of surveys: December 1972
May 1973
July 1973
Numbers of cars serveyed: 215
Actual loading for one car: average 360 kg/car
range 200 - 600 kg/car
7
-------
4. General description of processes adopted
4-1 System No. 1
This system was selected as the first system to be installed at Funabashi
Laboratory for demonstration for the under mentioned reasons.
Conditions of selection
(i) Time of delivery should before October 1971 when the Laboratory
should start its operation.
(ii) The system should melt-reclaim all the municipal plastics waste
separately collected without causing secondary pollution.
(iii) The system should have following capacity:
Outline of demonstration of this system is as follows'.
(1) Purposes of demonstration:
To demonstrate melt-reclaim of separated household plastics waste with extru-
sion moulding system, manufacturing plastics pebbles. We also investigated on making
bars and stakes as well as on physical properties thereof.
(2) Duration of demonstration:
From January 1972 to March 1972.
(3) Outline of processes:
System No. 1 consists of crushing, melting and moulding, of which flow sheet is
shown in Figure 2.
(4) Progress of demonstration
Because of that foreign matters contained in the collected bags reached 15 % or
more, such foreign matters gave considerable damage to cutter of crusher. We had,
therefore, to removed abnormal bags and visible foreign matters manually. Magnetic
separator was installed later for removing metals. Whein crushed plastics waste
contains considerable amount of water, it lowers capacity of extrusion and makes
quality of products poor. So, we installed air-drying equipment for blowing off water
content.
(a) capacity for crushing collected plastics waste
(b) capacity for melting crushed plastics waste
700 kg/hr
200 kg/hr

— i n
-------
Figure 2. Flow sheet of System No. 1
Pneumatic Conveyer
7./.2./Y
-------
(5) Results of demonostration
During demonstration, about 80 tons of plastics waste was treated with System
No. 1. Results obtained during the demonstration are as follows:
(i) With some improvement, System No. 1 can be a practical system for
melting plastics waste.
(ii) Due to absence 6f washing process, odor occurs in melting process,
because plastics waste, as a whole, is usually contaminated with food
residue, etc. when it comes from households. It also causes foaming in
moulding and leaves foams in the products.
(iii) Pebbles produced with this system is porous, of which specific gravity is
¦ about 0.85, so pebbles thus produced float in water.
(iv) Due to small CR of screw of the extruder, kneading effect is insufficient
which makes physical properties of products poor.
(v) Production of bars: Due to insufficient gelation and low extrusion pressure,
finished products are subjects to have hollows of 10 - 20 %. Therefore,
bars produced with this system can not have enough strength as feasible
products.
4-2 System No. 2
This system was selected as the second system to be installed at Funabashi
Laboratory for demonstration for the following reason.
This system includes specific gravity separation process which enables us to
make rationing among various kinds of resins contained in the waste at desired rate,
which, in turn, improve physical properties of products.
(1) Purposes of demonstration
To demonstrate specific gravity separation of crushed plastics waste into three
kinds of plastics, which then composed in products at desired ratio.
To determine physical properties of pellets and pipes made by extrusion moulding.
(2) Duration of demonstration
From January 1972 to May 1972.
7. /.1-15-
-------
(3) Outline of processes
System No. 2 consists of seven processes, namely, crushing, washing, specific
gravity separation, drying, mixing, melting and moulding. Designed capacity of this
system is 75 kg/hr.
In this system, plastics waste is firstly crushed, then washed and forwarded into
water-filled vessel where polyolefin come to float. Remaining parts of plastics waste
is forwarded into another vessel which is filled with special fluid adjusted to have
specific gravity or 1.05 - 1.10, where remaining plastics are seperated into the second
group (one which floats) and the third group (one which sinks).
Crushed plastics waste thus separated into three groups are then dewatered and
mixed at a certain ratio and fed to melting and moulding process.
Flow sheet of System No. 2 is shown by Figure 3.
(4) Progress of demonstration
(i) Every collected bag was opened manually for removing foreign matters
prior to crushing plastics waste.
(ii) Pellets, pipes, plates, etc. were produced by extrusion moulding.
v.
(iii) Flower pots and filing cases were produced with injection moulding from the
pellets made as (ii) above.
(iv) Tests were carried on mixing EVA with the reclaimed pellets for leveling
up physical properties of the products thereof.
(5) Results of demonstration
According to three-months demonstration, System No. 2 was found to be a
practical technique for treating plastics waste separated from household refuse.
(i) Composition of plastics waste: first group -- 85 %, second group -- about
7.5 % and third group -- 7.5 %. Products made from only the first group
materials acquire better external appearance and physical properties than
ones made from the other groups. As mixing percentage of the second and
the third groups increases, either external appearance or physical.properties
become degraded.
(ii) Examples of applications: Pipes were used for covers of steel pipes of fish
reeves, and plates for roadside guards.
"7. /. 2.-16-
-------
Figure 3. Flow sheet of System No. 2
Washng

Water Treatment
Ihjectnn
mould rig
Pellet
Compress on
<
moutdng
( *>

Extruson
i •
mouldng
V ^
o o o o o o _
<>o Oo°o
WoOoOO
-------
4-3 System No. 3
This system was co-developed by the Institute and a company in Japan aiming at
establishment of recycling techniques for municipal plastics waste. Capacity of this
system is 200 kg/hci, Manufacturing of this system cost approx. ¥115 million, half of
it was financed by the said company and remaining half by subsidy from'a semi-govern-
mental organization through the Institute.
(1) Purposes of demonstration:
(i) Removal of abnormal bags.
(ii) Determination of possible range of plastics waste which can be crushed
without causing troubles.
(iii) Removal of foreign mattery.
(iv) Melt-reclaiming
(a) Range of plastics waste which can be treated with-this system.
(b) Required operation for melting and extrusion.
(v) To determine physical properties of the .prpducts.
(vi) To develop application fields.
(vii) To determine economic feasibility of the system.
(viii) To establish pollution control.
(ix) To establish melt-reclaim technique for treating municipal plastics waste.
(2) Duration of demonstration:
From May, 1972 to March, 1973 (some part of demonstration.was contained until
March, 1974)
(3) Outline of the system:
I
System No. 3 consists of pre-treatment processes including shredding, magnetic
separation, washing, dewatering and pulverizing, as well as of melt-reclaim process
including feeding, melt-extrusion, pelletilizing and dewatering.
Capacity: Shredding 700 kg/hr
Melt-reclaiming of. shredded plastics waste 200 kg/hr
Flow sheet of System No. 3 is shown by Figure 4.
7.1.2.- is-
-------
Figure 4 Flow sheet of System No. 3
Drymg
is/
i
h*
NO
I
Plastc Water
Crushrg
Pacing
Oranage ) Waste Water Treatment
-------
(i) Pre-treatment processes
(a) As mentioned before, substantial amount of foreign matters are found in
the collected PE bags, therefore, abnormal bags which seemed to con-
tain foreign matters are removed by hands prior to feeding them into
the shredder.
(b) As shredder is shear-shredding system with shear-blades of low rotat-
ing speed, noise can be controled satisfactory low level. This shredder
can shred cans and bottles if not much amount of these be fed at a time.
(c) Prior to secondary crushing, shredded plastics waste is forwarded into
air classifier where heavy foreign matters such as shredded metals and
glass can be removed. This air-classification aimed to highten plastics
content as well as to protect secondary crusher from the hard materials.
(d) Ferrous metals mixed with shredded plastics waste are removed by
magnetic separator.
(e) Washing: plastics waste is washed to clean up adhering foods, oil, etc.
This is effective for preventing odor and foaming in finished products.
(f) Waste water treatment: waste water is treated with activated sludge
and chemical precipitator. Treated water is recycled into the system.
(g) Dewatering: secondarily crushed plastics waste is forwarded into
centrifigural dewatering machine.
(h) Pulverizing: Turbo mill having high rotating speed is set, which con-
ducts impact-shear pulverization. Thermosetting resins, cellophane,
aluminum foil, etc. in the plastics waste are powderlized and used as
filler in products. Heat produced by the mechanical energy at the
pulverizor is functioning for drying.
(ii) Melt-reclaiming process
Extrusion moulding system is used for producing pellets and drain pipes
from pulverized plastics waste. Hot cutter and direct casting method are
used for such products.
(a) As pulverized plastics waste usually contains 1-3 % of water, vent
system is used for eliminating vaporized water.
(b) Due to small specific gravity of pulverized plastics waste, its feeding
into extruder can not be conducted smoothly, therefore, CR of the first
melting chamber is increased.
(c) In order to prevent temperature in cylinder from rising higher, blower
is equipped on a part of cylinder.
7./. *-20-
I
-------
Pre-treatment processes
(a) As mentioned before, substantial amount of foreign matters are found in
the collected PE bags, therefore, abnormal bags which seemed to con-
tain foreign matters are removed by hands prior to feeding them into
the shredder.
i 1
(b) As shredder is shear-shredding system with shear-blades of low rotat-
ing speed, noise can be controled satisfactory low level. This shredder
can shred cans and bottles if not much amount of these be fed at a time.
(c) Prior to secondary crushing, shredded plastics waste is forwarded into
air classifier where heavy foreign matters such as shredded metals and
glass can be removed. This air-classification aimed to highten plastics
content as well as to protect secondary crusher from the hard materials.
(d) Ferrous metals mixed with shredded plastics waste are removed by
magnetic separator.
(e) Washing: plastics waste is washed to clean up adhering foods, oil, etc.
This is effective for preventing odor and foaming in finished products.
(f) Waste water treatment: waste water is treated with activated sludge
and chemical precipitator. Treated water is recycled into the system.
(g) Dewatering: secondarily crushed plastics waste is forwarded into
centrifigural dewatering machine.
(h) Pulverizing: Turbo mill having high rotating speed is set, which con-
ducts impact-shear pulverization. Thermosetting resins, cellophane,
aluminum foil, etc. in the plastics waste are powderlized and used as
filler in products. Heat produced by the mechanical energy at the
pulverizor is functioning for drying.
Melt-reclaiming process
Extrusion moulding system is used for producing pellets and drain pipes
from pulverized plastics waste. Hot cutter and direct casting method are
used for such products.
(a) As pulverized plastics waste usually contains 1-3 % of water, vent
system is used for eliminating vaporized water.
(b) Due to small specific gravity of pulverized plastics waste, its feeding
into extruder can not be conducted smoothly, therefore, CR of the first
melting chamber is increased.
(c) In order to prevent temperature in cylinder from rising higher, blower
is equipped on a part of cylinder.
7./. *-20-
-------
(d) Considering composition of plastics waste, hot-cut system (water
cooling) was adopted for producing pellets.
(4) Progress of demonstration
Demonstration was concentrated on the following subjects:
(i) To examine composition of plastics waste.
(ii) To investigate possibility of establishing automatic feeding system of
collected bags.
(iii) To mould pellets and drain pipes by extruder.
(iv) To mould flower pots by injection moulding system.
(v) To demonstrate continuous operation.
In addition to the above subjects, the following points were checked as such
checking are required for operation maintenance.
(vi) To determine effectiveness of washing of plastics waste.
(vii) To examine effectiveness of improved facilities.
(viii) To examine degree of water of machines.
(ix) To establish noise control.
(x) To establish techniques for waste water treatment.
(xi) To develop applications
(a) determination of basic physical properties
(b) determination of moulding systems (including extrusion, casting,
injection and press).
(c) examination of appropriate additives for improving physical properties
(d) development of appropriate applications
(5) Results of demonostration
(i) As automatic feeding of collected bags is most desirable in this kind of
system, several trials to make automatic feeding.were done. But, because
of the undermentioned reasons, we gave up making automatic feeding system,
therefore, feeding of plastics waste was conducted manually during demonst-
rations.
^ 2.- 21 -
-------
(a) Even normal bags varies in their weight, therefore, weight measuring
of bags can not be an effective approach to identify which bags contain
foreign matters.
(b) At collection stage from residential area, several bags were bound
together in order to prevent them from being blown away.
(ii) Kinds of plastics waste which make crushing difficult:
(a) Abnormal bags: bags which contain foreign matters such as metals and
glass which give considerable damage to shredder and secondary
crusher.
(b) Long films (films of moie than 2 m in length, nylon stockings, etc.):
these films and others twine round the blades of shredder which cause
motor to stop.
(c) Foamed polystylene products: these materials are caught in cutter of
shredder and cause motor to stop.
(d) Rubber and foamed polyurethane: these wastes can be crushed or
pulverized, but they can not be melt.
After removing these waste, 75 - 80 % of plastics waste originally carried
into Laboratory remained and they went through all the processes.
(iii) Shredding
Designed capacity of shredder is 700 kg/hr. During demonstration,
however, shredder was operated at less than 200 kg/hr for making it match
with those of other processes in the system. Through demonstration, it was
found that efficiency of cutter lowered after using it for 650 - 1,000 hours.
After sharpening blades, the cutter was used again. Cutter of the shredder
is designed to have suitable structure for catching up and shearing. When
large amount of long films and foamed polystylene were fed, the cutter
became overloaded. This could be avoid by careful feeding to mixing other
kinds of plastics waste with appropriate rate.
(iv) Removal of foreign matters
In order to remove foreign matters mixed with plastics waste, air classifi-
cation for shredder plastics waste and magnetic separation of crushed
plastics waste v. ere conducted.
(a) Air classification: Air was adjusted to remove a large part of metals
and glass. This resulted in loss of 2-5 % of plastics waste originally
charged. Small amount of lighter foreign matters remained in plastics
side and went to the secondary crusher, which we assumed inevitable.
¦7.1.2. Z.Z.
ftn
-------
(b) Magnetic separation: After secondary crusher, metals mixed'with
plastics waste were removed by magnetic separator. It was found that
1 - 2 % of waste originally charged removed in this stage. Metals
shared one fifth of removed waste.
(c) Washing: There are two washing stages. One is washer, and another
is shower system sprayed on screen conveyor belt which transports
crushed plastics waste. As earlier stage of demonstration, detergent
was used. However, it was abondoned because no difference from the
ones washed without detergent was noted, in physical properties and
appearances of the finished products. When large amount of foamed
polystylene was charged, water stream lingered and much water was
required.
(d) Dewatering: Designed capacity of centrifigural dewatering machine is
200 kg/hr. As wire net of the machine is stuffed, dewatering capacity
is lowered, then water content of crushed plastics waste increased.
Therefore, cleaning up of wi*re net is required in every 18-20 hours of
operation. High rotating speed facilitates dewatering efficiency,
therefore, power for dewatering was leveled up from 950 rpm to 1,420
rpm during demonstration. Also, we changed the material of the chute
from steel pipe to wire net pipe in order to facilitate effectiveness of
dewatering; such chute connecting centrifigural to pulverizer. With
these improvements, water content after dewatering was reduced from
30 - 40 % to about 15%.
(v) Secondary crushing
Secondary crusher is provided with screen of 10 mm Designed capacity
of the crusher is about 250 kg/hr. It varies, however, depending on the
kinds of plastics waste charged. For example:
Household plastics waste 200 - 250 kg/hr
Household plastics waste of which films
content is removed 350 kg/hr
LDPE films only 150 kg/hr or less
Due to small bulk specific gravity, as amount of foamed polystylene
increases, capacity of crusher is reduced.
(vi) Pulverization
Designed capacity of pulverizer is 200 kg/hr. Average operation of
pulverizer through demonstration was 150 - 200 kg/hr. Results of pulveri-
zation (i.e. degrees of finess and water content) affected directly on effici-
ency of remaining processes as well as on quality of pellets. The most
desirable results of pulverization consists of less than 30 % of 10 mesh-on
"7. /^ —
-------
and less lhan 2 % of water content. Higher rotating speed enables pulveriz-
er to produce finer plastics waste. Power of pulverizer, therefore, wuh
leveled up from 2,500 rpm to 2,800 rpm during demonstration. Cutter of
pulverizer was considerably defaced by foreign matters and thermosetting
resins which made capacity of pulverizer lower. Life span of cutter was
lengthened by using blades of which point end was made of super-hard
special steel.
In order to maintain good conditions of pulverization, temperature of exits
part should be kept around 70 - 90°C. If temperature became lower than
this, blocking hopper of extruder would occur, while if it became higher
than this temperature, adhesion with exit pipes of pulverizer would occur.
(vii) Melt-reclaiming
(a) Acceptable plastics waste: Plastics waste which is not pulverized well
causes bridge at exit part of hopper. Plastics waste which contains
higher water content makes this blockage worse, which leads,to internal
foaming in the products. (Refer to description of pulverization above.)
(b) Feeding: Originally it was planned to store pulverized plastics waste
in a tank of 0.5 m^ with an agitator, then to supply certain amount of
them to extruder steadily. However it had to be abondoned because
bridge was caused at exit part of hopper. Then pulverized plastics
waste was directly fed into the hopper of extruder from pre-treatment
processes withough intermediate stock. Feeding amount of plastics
waste varied to some extent according to the amount pulverized, which
in turn affected the extruding amount.
(c) Capacity of extruder: Capacity of extruder varied depending1 upon size
of pulverized plastics waste and degree of its water content. 1 Making
exit part of hopper of extruder bigger, average capacity of 200 kg/hr
was maintained at normal operation.
(d) Operating conditions for extrusion moulding: When the conditions
below listed are gained, reliable products can be produced:
1) Feeding amount: up to 160 kg/hr, screw rotation 50 - 70 rpm
160 - 200 kg/hr, screw rotation 70 - 90 rpm
2) Temperature of extruder:
(for both cylinder and dice) 150°C
(viii) Pelletizing
With hot cut system (with cooling system), troubles such as adhesion between
produced pellets or to nozils did not occur. Separation of water from
7. t.Z. 2-Y
rt *
-------
produced pellets could be achieved with centrifigural dewatering machine.
For keeping constant operation, sharpening of cutter, replacement of cutter
(every 6 months) and every day cleaning up of die should be conducted.
Operation hours of pelletizing equipment was 6 hrs/day.
Total evaluation
(a) Technical points
1) With some improvement, System No. 3 maintained capacity of
200 kg/hr.
2) Produced pellets can be used as raw material for moulded pro-
ducts, however, because of that produced pellets consist of hetro-
geneous plastics waste as well as foreign matters which remain
even after separation practises, its physical properties turn
relatively inferior and limit its applications.
(b) Economical points
1) Except the part of separating abnormal bags by hands, rationaliza-
tion of the system can be achieved.
2) Due to residue of food, oil, etc. adhering to plastics, considerable
cost for washing and waste water treatment is required.
3) Due to metals contained, repair cost for equipment, especially for
cutter, reaches to considerable level.
4) Due to low physical properties, production of high quality products
can not be expected.
To sum up these points, System No. 3 can not produce products of which
commercial value are high. .
(c) Environmental points
1) Waste water: BOD, SS and others can be reduced within standards
regulated by the Government, Prefecture and Cities.
2) Waste gas emmited from.vent of extruder: HCL and others can be
reduced within standards.
3) Noise: 60 - 70 horns of noise was recprded at the border of the
site. Although this level of noise requires appropriate control,
such techniques have already been available.
"7» /.2-25 -
-------
5. Development of applications
We conducted a study of fundamental physical properties, processing tests usin^
various moulding machines, and application development on pellets made l'rom plastics
waste separated from household refuse (such pellets hereinafter called "Funabashi
pellets").
(1) Fundamental physical properties of Funabashi pellets
Funabashi pellets, a mixture of several resins, have a number of problems such
as different melting temperature of component resins, the difference in their compati-
bilities and gas generated by decomposition during the moulding operation.
As to their processing properties, Funabashi pellets have a higher viscosity in
processing, requiring higher moulding temperature, which, in turn, to cause coloring
and gas generation due to decomposition. Decomposition takes place at over 170°C
depending of the construction of moulding machines.
(2) External appearance and physical properties of moulded products
Extruded products using Funabashi pellets are subject to have rough surface and
foamed state. Therefore, they can not be processed with usual method and sophis-
cated techniques are required to prevent these phenomena. Consequently, injection,
casting, press and other moulding processes using higher moulding pressure are pre-
ferable to avoid these phenomena and enhance the product value. Physical properties
of moulded products processed by even the above mentioned techniques are inferior to
those of virgin resins as shown in Table 11. These relatively poor properties and
grey color of the products limit the use of the products .
Table 11. Physical properties of products made of Funabashi pellets
Sample
Tensile
strength
(kg/mm2)
Compression
strength
(kg/mm2)
Bending
strength
(kg/mm2)
Young's
modulus
(10^ kg/cm2)
Funabashi pellets
0.7 - 1.1
1.0 - 1.4
1.0 - 1.5
0.5
LDPE
2.2 - 3.9
2.3
0.7
0.4 - 1.1
Polypropyrene
3.0 - 3.9
3.9 - 5.6
4.2 - 5.6
1.1 - 1.6
High impact polystylene
2.1 - 4.8
2.8 - 6.3
3.5 - 7.0
1.4 - :i.3
Remarks: Test pieces are take from container (396 x 230 x 160 mm) made
by compression moulding.
7. i— 26 —
-------
(3) Ejctrusion moulding
Pipes and plates were produced with die-extrusion moulding at the Funabashi
Laboratory. However, as viscosity is very low, highly sophiscated techniques are
required for extracting these from die. Extruded products, also, are subject to have
rough surface. This can be solved with sizing treatment to some extent, but physical
properties are still inferior to those of virgin resins products. When these points are
considered, extrusion moulding is not suitable for producing products of which thick-
ness is thin. Pipes produced with this moulding were applied for covering steel pipes
of fish reeves for preventing corrosion.
(4) Injection moulding
Because of that produced pellets contain small amount of foreign matters (such as
aluminum foils and other metalic pieces, etc.), which make gate of mould blocked when
thin products are being produced, it is desirable to make thicker products fo'ir smooth
operation. It was also found that higher pressure of injection made fludity higher,
which was effective to improve external appearance and physical properties of pro-
ducts. Temperature of moulds should be kept higher so as to maintain desirable
fludity.
Flower pots and filing vessels were produced through demonstrations. Few
troubles occured when technical conditions above mentioned were maintained.
(5) Cast moulding
Drain pipes were produced with £ast moulding where a heat-insulated pipe was
connecting the extruder to mould. A big trouble associated with this moulding
technique was insufficient adhesion at the welding line which caused cracking along
the line, but this trouble was eliminated by adjusting technical conditions of moulding.
Physical properties of reproduced pipes proved to be better than that of earthen pipes.
Special adhesive was developed to put together two plastics waste-made drain
pipes for making long line.
(6) Composite moulding with inorganics
Composite moulding, in which plastics waste was mixed with heated sand, was
developed by a machine maker in Japan. With this moulding, Funabashi pellets were
converted into frame-work of fish reef. Since this plastics-waste fish reef is frame-
work style, larger fish reef can be constructed than conventional concrete-made ones.
Also, bending strength of this fish reef is superior to that of concrete-made one. To
sum up these points, it can be said that fish reef is favourable potential application for
plastics waste.
(7) Examples of Funabashi pellets applications
As shown in Tables 1 and 2, several moulding machines are used for moulding
7./.i.Z7
-------
hetrogeneous plastics waste. When Funabashi pellets were moulded with those
machines, a few trouble such as gas generation due to decomposition or coloring
occured. Some improvement of machines, therefore, should be done so as to make
them match with Funabashi pellets. The most preferable systems for processing
Funabashi pellets, at present stage, are screw type extruder coupled with cast mould-
ing and compression moulding.
6. General comments on demonstrations
The followings are general comments deducted from more than two-year's
practice of municipal plastics waste separation and melt-reclaiming demonstrations.
(1) Plastics waste separation
1) According to the results of separation practice conducted among 23,000
households in Funabashi City, about half of total plastics waste generation in
the area had been separately collected.
2) Mixture of foreign matters of up to 10 - 20 % is unavoidable. Therefore,
melt-reclaim system to be adopted should be designed so as to meet this
conditions.
3) Due to small bulk specific gravity of plastics waste, usual truck can collect
only a limited amount at one time. Special collection car should be
developed in order to improve efficiency of collection and transportation.
4) For collection bags, used plastics bags available at each household should
be used for this purpose.
(2) Melt-reclaim techniques
1) It is preferable to feed plastics waste as it is collected, namely, as it is in
bags. However, cutter of shredder gets damaged in such feeding method
due to foreign matters including metals. Therefore, manual removal of
abnormal bags was conducted through demonstration.
2) Installment of air classifier and magnetic separator resulted in reducing
percentage of foreign matters in plastics waste, preventing considerable
damage at shredder and crusher. Introduction of washing system was also
effective for preventing odor and foaming in melting process.
3) Pulverizer was effecu/e to mix fine foreign matters which could not be
removed by all means with plastics waste evenly. It also functioned as
dryer for pulverized plastics waste.
4) Waste water treatment was effective to reduce BOD and SS of water drained
from washing process. Treated water could be reused in the system again.
Discharged water could also meet required standards.
"7.
-------
5) Vent-type extruder in melting process removed water content still remained
in plastics waste and gas generated by decomposition.
6) Technical feasibility was proved through demonstration. Also, recycling of
hetrogeneous plastics waste, which was theme of Funabashi project, was
achieved by conducting consecutive operation. It was found that drain pipe
could be produced by changing only the devices at the end of extruder.
7) Noise control and waste gas treatment, which were conducted as parts of
pollution control, met required standard respectively.
(3) Applications of products
1) Funabashi pellets can be used for producing various finished products using
extrusion, casting, injection, compression and other moulding.
Through demonstration, drain pipes, pipes and other moulded products such
as bars, stakes, plates and pallets were produced from Funabashi pellets
only. Fish reeves was also produced from mixture of Funabashi pellets
and heated sand.
2) Due to hetrogenous nature, basic physical properties of Funabashi pellets
are much inferior to those of pellets recycled from industrial plastic waste
applications of Funabashi pellets are limited and can not be used for produc-
ing products of high commercial value.
3) Among finished products produced from Funabashi pellets, fish reeves
(mixed with inorganics), drain pipes and flower pots seem to have feasibili-
ties.
For future possibilities, production of construction materials from mixture
of Funabashi pellets and homogeneous pellets recycled from industrial
plastics waste should be considered.
(4) Production cost
1) As seen from demonstration of System No. 3, process of recycling is forced
to be complicated in order to eliminate foreign matters contained. Under
present conditions, therefore, production cost is higher than those of in-
cineration or landfill, even if scale-up of recycling plant can be achieved.
2) Production cost of plastics waste should be evaluated as a part of long-range
national resource recovery policy.
7. /. 2. z?
-------

Disposal of Plastics Waste
Repporteur: Tadayuki Morishita;
Ministry of Health & Welfare
Paper presented by Plastic Waste Management
Institute, Japan.
-------
Disposal of Plastics Waste
Rapporteur: Tadayuki Morishita; Ministry of Health & Welfare
Paper presented by Plastic Waste Management Institute, Japan*
L CURRENT SITUATIONS OF PLASTIC WASTE
1.1 From production to merchandising
In 1973, the production quantity of plastics in JAPAN finally upturned and
recorded 6,530,000 tons, but this was only a half that of THE UNITED STATES
and comparable with that of W. GERMANY. After fall of 1973, the industry had
suffered from short supplies because of the oil crisis. But in 1974, the situation
had changed suddenly and as of June, the total production has been marked as
3,530,000 tons, which is a slight overproduction.
Plastics materials
P V C
fblyethylene
Polypropylene
Polystyrene
Thermosetting plastics
(phenolics, urea, melamine, |
unsalufated polyester)
Primary processing
Calendering
£
Extrusion
Tubular film
manufacturing
Blow molding
Injection molding
Foam molding
Compression molding
Products
Films, laminated films
Sheet
Leather cloth
Plates
Pipes and extruded profiles
Bottles and hollow articles
Molded products
Foamed products
Fig. 1 Flow Sheet of Plastics Processing to Merchandising
>

Lactic acid beverages

Sour and tee cream
2
"5
Milk
CO
c
Milk products
9
*
Noodle
&
a
s
o
u.
Mayonnaise, ketchup,
edible oils, vinegar
Soy bean sauce, sauce

Alcoholic drinks

Other items
Detergents
Cosmetic items
Wearing apparatus
pue footwears
Stationery items and
suddenly goods
Agricultural and fishery
Other applications
* Established in 1971, all producers of polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene and PVC resins have
joined and currently continuing their efforts for the development of plastics waste disposal techniques.
In the future, activities of a still wider coverage may be necessary in cooperation with all the related
industries, city authorities and the National Government.
1.1. 3,i-
-------
In Table 1 are shown the source-wise quantities and conditions of waste discharge,
while the material-wise quantities are shown in Table 2. The quantities are based 011
the figures lor 1973, however, due lo the difference between 1 he actual results and
predictions of production and import, slight adjustments may be necessaiy.
Table 1 Waste Discharging Sources
Sources
Quantity*
Discharged conditions

Resin producer
11.3
Mostly discharged after classifying by resins, but partially
mixed with plant wastes.
Industrial
Primary processors
15.4
Nearly half is discharged after classifying by resin types
as the scrap of processing. The remainder is the mixture
of alll resins or mixed with the plant wastes.
Agricultural use
8.1
As the agricultural purpose films, mostly discharged
after classifying by resins. However, soil and water are
contained.
Fishery use
3.1
Fishing nets and ropes that are discharged after classify-
ing by resin types.
Merchandising rout
b 22.6
Large containers are partially classified by resin types,
but mostly discharged as mixed wastes (plastics content
is 3 to 5%), for instance, packaging materials discharged
by supermarkets.
Manufacturing
industry
13.8
Partially discharged after classifying by resin types, but
mostly, discharged as mixed wastes of plants by the
manufacturing industries.
Subtotal
63.0

City
Households
94.2
Generally discharged as mixed wastes (a few plastics
contained)
Other
17.7
Public wastes and discharged as mixed wastes.
Subtotal
111.9

Grand total
186.3

*7.1. 5,-2-
-------
Table 2 Resin-wise Predicted Quantities of Wastes
Unit : 10,000 ton
Resin
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
Polyvinyl chloride
29.3
27.7
28.7
32.1
35.7
38.5
Polypropylene
15.6
20.2
23.9
28.9
32.4
35.9
LD polyethylene
43.0
51.9
55.3
59.6
63.6
68.1
HD polyethylene
14.3
15.9
19.7
22.3
26.6
29.9
Polystyrene
13.0
17.2
20.3
23.5
27.7
30.5
AS resin
1.1
1.3
1.5
2.0
2.1
2.6
ABS resin
1.9
2.6
3.6
4.6
6.2
8.3
MMA resin
1.3
1.7
2.2
2.7
3.4
4.2
Urethane
1.7
¦ 2.6
3.1
3.4
3.9
4.5
Melamine resin
0.4
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.6
Phenol resin
3.7
3.6
4.3
5.2
5.8
6.8
Unsaturated polyester
2.7
3.0
3.3
3.8
4.2
4.7
Urea resin
5.5
5.4
5.5
5.5
5.6
5.7
Other
2.2
2.5
3.0
3.4
4.1
4.5
Total
135.8
(100)
156.1
(115)
175.0
(129)
197.4
(145)
222.0
(163)
244.8
(180)
Note: Figures in ( ) are indexes with the figure for 1971 as 100.
2. CURRENT DISPOSAL OF PLASTIC WASTE
2.1 Actual conditions of disposal
Table 3 shows actual conditions of plastics waste disposal of industrial sources. These
are based on the assumption from 1973 to 1974 and they are flexible because of the
influences of market trends of the resins.
Table 3 Current Situations of Industrial Plastics Waste Disposal
City
Quantity
10,000 ton
Treated by:
Share, %
Disposition
74.3
Source of discharge
20
Incineration, land filling, regeneration

Regenerating contractors
20
Simple regeneration

Regenerating and disposition
contractors
5
Combined regneration

Appointed contractors of industrial
wastes disposition
15
Incineration, landfilling

Local authorities and others
40
Incineration, landfilling

Total
100

7^.3. -3-
-------
JAPAN (based on the results of 1972). Plastics wastes of cities have been handled
nearly the same manner. But in case of TOKYO and other cities who later adopted the
classified collection systems, the percentage of land reclamation has been increased for
the classified volume.
Table 4 Disposal in 12 Cities
City
By incineration, %
By landfilling, %
Population** x 1000
Kawasaki
99.5
0.5
973
Amagasaki
92
8
534
Osaka
63
37
2,980
Sendai
63
37
545
Kyoto
57
43
1,419
Fukuoka
45
55
853
Nagoya
43
57
2,036
Kitakyushu
42
58
1,042
Yokohama
39
61
2,238
Tokyo
29
71
8,841*
Kobe
24
76
1,289
Sapporo
16
84
1,010
Average of 12 cities
51
49

* 23 Special Words
** 1970
In JAPAN, it is said that the content of plastics waste is much higher than what
is seen in EUROPE and THE U.S. At a symposium of plastics waste management
held in TOKYO in 1972, the data were presented by the European delegates and
those are shown in Table 5. In JAPAN, the plastics waste amounted to about
1,300,000 tons or 35 grams per head per day in 1970. The mixture rate of plastics
is said to be form 8 to 10% in large cities, but if all foreign objects and water are
removed, it will be decreased to 5—6%. In this comparison, the city wastes are wet.
In JAPAN, the wastes have high water contents and if the comparison is made on
dry base, the difference from those of the European countries and THE U.S. will
become greater. The quantity of plastics wastes in THE U.S. according to SPI, was
2,700,000 tons (excluding those from the manufacturers and processors) or 37
grams per head per day in 1970.
~M. 3-4 -
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Table 5 Current Conditions of Plastics Wastes in Foreign Countries
(summary of questionnaires)
Country
Population,
10,000
Plastics
production,
10,000 ton
Plastics
waste,
10,000 ton
Plastics waste
per head
per day, g
Solid waste,
10,000 ton
Plastics
content, %
U.K.
5,571
145.8
32.5
12
2,170
15 .
France
5,077
151.5
36
24
1,100
3.3*
Switzerland
630
7
6.3
30
210
3
W. Germany
6,000
470
65
30
1,750
3-4
Sweden
800
27.7
9.6
30
320
3
* Figure 4.48 is also available.
Note: These figures above are for 1970 and are only for reference purpose as the calculating methods for
the quantity of wastes are not standardized.
2.1.1 Industrial waste
As the "Law of Waste Disposal and Public Cleansing" was enforced, waste disposal
by the source enterprises and dealers is making progress. What is particularly noteworthy
is the nation-wide development of the business dealing with the regeneration of wastes.
Simple recovery of wastes produced by the raw material producers and processors of
plastics has been practiced for sometime, but during the last few years the business has
developed to manufacture piles and logs for orchards and pastures from wastes delivered
by the agricultural, manufacturing and marchandising industries. Though they are not
firmly established yet, they indicate future directions to follow.
Low grade plastics wastes not suitable for recycling are used for landfill or in-
cinerated. Establishment of effective system will be a theme of future studies for those
wastes currently disposed of by the sources, dealers and local authorities through dealers.
2.1.2 Domestic wastes
Such are the recent movements involving disposal of plastics wastes contained in
the city wastes. In JAPAN, due to the lack of suitable sites for landfill, the ratio
between incineration and landfill on the nation-wide average basis is 50 to 50. Waste
plastics are considered as main causes of the rising furnace temperature, damages to
the furnace, emission of toxic gases, and flowing of toxic heavy metals into the drain
water and exhausted air. Furthermore, a drop of load bearing capacity of reclaimed
land and increased quantity of transportation have also been pointed out. Since these
have much to do with the disposal systems of the cities concerned, the quality and
quantity of wastes, it is very difficult to draw out conclusions for the degree of
responsibility of waste plastics disposal. Nevertheless, only a faint possibility is seen
for successful solution.
"7- /1 - 5 -
-------
being practiced by households since April 1973. In some other cities, the similar
practice is being enforced.
2.2 Problems of Disposal
Until a few years ago, the simple regeneration of industrial wastes of plastics was
considered to be about 10%. Therefore, the total percentage of 25% for the simple
and combined regeneration marked recently must be considered as a remarkable progress.
But the industries concerned with the combined regeneration have many problems
relating to the procurement of raw materials, operation and marketing of regenerated
materials.
With regard to the disposal by the method other than the regeneration, there seem
to be many cases where the solution depends on the local authorities due to difficulties
of obtaining the necessary sites or unlawful disposal is done.
Plastics wastes mixed in the city wastes are considered by many local authorities
as the source of problems for normal disposal, however, nowadays not so many
troubles are being pointed out by the actual sites of scavengery as were so one time
before. The percentage in the wastes as a whole has not increased recently and there
are such opinions in some quarters that the antipollution measures, countermeasures
for inhabitants and the mixing of industrial wastes have the problems.
3. DISPOSAL AND REGENERATION TECHNIQUES OF PLASTICS WASTES
3.1 Disposal system
Shown in Fig. 2 is a disposal system of plastics wastes. There arc different
opinions raised as to whether the plastics wastes contained in the city wastes are
sorted or not, but the system is based on the concent that whatever feasible for
sorting should be incorporated.
Separate
treatment
Disposal of
wastes mixed
with city wastes
Fig. 2 Disposal System of Plastics "7, /. 3. 6 -
-------
3.2 Technical development and commercial application
3.2.1 Separate treatment of plastics waste
Regeneration As shown in Table 6, many regenerating techniques have been
developed by many companies and they are about to be applied on commercial scale.
Incineration Current situations of commercial scale application of plastics
waste incinerators are shown in Table 7.
Pyrolysis Shown in Table 8 are examples of development of plastics" waste
pyrolysis techniques. But they are not applicable on commercial scale yet.
Sorting Mechanical sorting of plastics from the mixture of wastes is being
experimented by MITSUBISHI HEAVY INDUSTRIES, EBARA SEISAKUSHO,
ISHIKAWAJ1MA HARIMA HEAVY INDUSTRIES and others, but no system that
includes disposition of sorted plastics has been developed yet. Notable sorting
techniques applicable for the mixture of plastics wastes are, for instance, static
electricity technique (SANDEN), floating technique (MITSUI MINING & SMELT-
ING and IRIE TECHNICAL RESEARCH), gravity technique (MITSUBISHI HEAVY
INDUSTRIES and ISHIK AW A JIM A-HA RIM A HEAVY INDUSTRIES) and other
techniques. Except for those wastes of simple components, it seems that the
commercial application may take a little more time.
-------
Table 6 Plastics Waste Reusing by Melting, Dissolution and Crushing
Ssytem
Waste for
treatment
Maker (name of
equipment)
Treatment techniques
Capacity,
kg/hr
Remarks for commercial application
and other notes
Melt
regene-
ration
General
industrial
plastics
wastes
Nisshin Rika
(NEOPLAMER)
Nihon Poly Sogyo
(PLASTLONPOSER)
Melting-extrusion
Melting-extrusion
-
Operated by Tomei Sangyo, Yamaguchi
Iron Works, Maruei Jushi and other
companies
Operated by Fukuoka Poly Kaui and
other companies. Fish nests experimental-
ly molded by Plastics Waste Management
Institute

Kikosha
(RECLAMAX)
Unwashed-mixing and
melting with aggregate
(sand)
500
Industrial wastes can also be treated.

Mitsubishi Petro-
chemical
(REVERZER)
Mel ting-extrusion
500
Operated by Matsumi Haipla, Iwata Yuka,
Shin Nihon Sangyo and more than 10
other companies.

Nihon Poly Gilien
(DISPOSER)
Melting-extrusion
500
Operated by Hiroki Sangyo, Sanpo Kogyo.
Shinto Sangyo and more than 10 other
companies.

Toyo Kikai
(POAPOSER)*
Melting-extrusion
200
Operated by Taiyo Kogyo and Shinko
Jushi.

Nippon Zeon
(SPU Process)
Disposal system

Todai Seiki
(SUTENAIZO)
Melting-extrusion
300
Scheduled to be installed by Plastic Wastes
Disposition Cooperative Association.

Niigata Engineering
Melting-extrusion
(with sludge)
500
Completed a 10 ton/day (including sludge)
plant within its plant site.

Kobe Steel
(PLASTIC MELTOR)
Melting-extrusion
400
Operated by Akashi Kasei and other
companies.

Okuma Chuzo
(PAO Process)
Mixed with hot sand to
make plastics gravels
1,200
As artificial gravels, tests are currently
continued for pavements.
'
Agricultural
purposes
PVC and
poly-
ethylene
films
Kanegafuchi Chemical
Industry
Sekisui Kakoki
(PLATILIZER)
Hitachi Zosen
Melting-press
Melting-extrusion
Cleaning-melting-pelletiz-
ing melting
10
ton/day
200
Operated by Murayama Shoten and
other companies.
Manufacturing of regenerated pellets.
Operated at Kochi Haiplastic Kosha and
other companies, (improved version of
technique developed by Nihon Jushi
Kagaku)

Japan Steel Works
Clean ing-melting-pellets
200
Pellets or molded products. Operated at
San Kasei and other companies.

Mitsubishi Petro-
chemical
(REVERZER)
(see above)

Chiba Kumiai Haiplastic Kogyo and
other companies operate.

Niigata Engineering
(see above)

Tajima Oyo Kako
Cleaning-crushing-pelletiz-
ing

Operated by Saitama-ken Keizai-ren
Hensei Center.
Dissolu-
tion re-
genera-
tion
PS family
plastics and
industrial
wastes
Nichireki Chemical
Nihon Fukugen
Kagaku
Nihon Kogai Taisaku
Kenkyukai
Emulsifying
Partially dissolved in waste
oil
Waste oil + filter + waste
plastics.

Road paving emulsion (currently used).
Simultaneous treatment with sludge.
Has a plant at Ushiku, Ibaragi Pref.
Crushing
and othe
Foamed
poly
styrene,
PVC leather
and other
Sekisui Plastics
1) Cement + gravel FS -»¦
blocks
2) Crushing-Soil con-
ditioner

Plant ahs been constructed at Tenri,
Nara Pref. and operated

Kawata Mfg.
(Super Crush Mixer)
Granulation by shear and
self-generated heat.
Varied
Many application examples.
"7. 1.3.8 _
-------
Table 7 Current Uses of Plastics Waste Incinerators
Maker
Capacity
System
Application examples
Katayose Kogyo
Varied
Dry distillated gasification system
and furnace bed burning system
Mitsubishi Petrochemical,Seibu Gum Kagaku,
Mitsubishi Electric, Toyo Gum Kogyo, Nishikawa
Gum, Sony Chemical, Sumitomo Bakelite and
other companies.
Tokyo Kiryoku
Varied
Down draft double burning system
Shizuoka-Shi Yoshizu Shokyaku-Jo, Kanto
Jidosha Kogyo, Iwate-Ken Shiba-Gun Kankyo
Shisetsu Kumiai, Asahi Chemical Industry and
other companies.
Kubota
Varied
Gasified burning system
Mitsui Toatsu Chemicals, Matsushita Communi-
cation Industrial, Fuji Photo Film and other
companies.
Kurimoto Iron Works
Varied
Revolving agitation system

Nittetsu Kakoki
Varied
Circulating air stream system

Iwatani Sangyo
Varied

Nissan Motor, Tokyo Shibaura Electric, Sanraku-
Ocean, Mutsumi Gosei Jushi, Hitachi arid other
companies.
Sskihara Netsu Kogyo
Varied
Furnace bed burning
Japan Monopoly Corporation, Showa Denko,
Mitsui Toatsu Chemical and other companies.
Okumura Kikai Seisaku-
sho
Varied
Furnace bed burqing
Nihon Styrene Paper, Tonen Sekiyu Kagaku,
Toray Industries, Sekisui Plastics and other
companies.
Note: For small incinerators, there are many.makers and many application examples.
Table 8 Development and Commercial Application Examples of Pyrolysis Techniques
for Plastics
Maker
Treatment system
Plastics wastes to
be decomposed
Products
Developing conditions
Kawasaki Heavy
Industries
Poly melting and
dry distillation
City wastes and
industrial wastes
Light oil
Completed tests of 5 ton/day pilot
plant.
Sanyo Electric
Microwave decomposi-
tion-screw decomposition
City wastes and
industrial wastes
Light oil
Completed tests of 5 ton/day plant
A 3 ton/day plant for PS in operation.
Mitsubishi Heavy
Industries
Dry distillation
City wastes and
industrial wastes
Light oil
Completed tests of 3 ton/day plant.
Mitsui Petrochemical
Industries/Mitsui
Shipbuilding & Engineer-
ing
Sumitomo Shipbuilding
& Machinery
2-stage decomposition
Industrial wastes
Light oil
In operation
Fluidized decomposition
City wastes and
industrial wastes
Light oil
Completed tests of 3 ton/day pilot
plant. Mixed pyrolysis techniques
under development.
Japan Gasoline
Fluidized decomposition
Polyolefin
Light oil
Under development
Hitachi Zosen
Fluidized decomposition
City wastes and
industrial wastes
Gas
Under development
Nichimen
Contact decomposition
Polyolefin
Heavy oil
Completedexperi mental model of
1 (one) ton/day plant
Toyo Engineering
Contract decomposition
Polyolefin
Heavy oil
Under development
King Investo
Contact decomposition
City wastes and
industrial wastes
Light oil
i 1
' Completed experimental model of
capacity.
7./, 5~9-
-------
Incineration For those relating to the antipollution problems, that is to
say the removal of hydrogen chloride and soot contained in the waste mis and ol heavy
metals contained in the waste water, there has been a promising outlook for the
technical development achieved by SLilTETSU KAGAKU and other principal makers
of incinerators. As a matter of fact, OSAKA PREFECTURAL GOVERNMENT
OFFICE has recently remodelled its facilities.
With regard to the utilization of waste heat, interesting progresses are seen in
many cities though the scales are small yet. But progresses as a whole are much behind
those of foreign countries.
Recycling as raw materials With the projects of AGENCY OF INDUSTRIAL
SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY as the driving force, developments are seen in the fields
of collection, transportation, crushing, sorting, thermal decomposition and utilization
of solid wastes contained in the city wastes.
3.3 Future direction
It is quite natural that, based on the current situations of plastics wastes currently
discharged by many sources, plans must be worked out for the most suitable disposition
and recycling to raw materials. In view of the fact that nearly all necessary techniques
and systems have been developed already as mentioned above, it is now intended to
review the future directions concerned.
1) It is quite agreeable that the regneration must be encouraged from the standpoint
of turning the wastes into raw materials, however, if the aim is limited to the
plastics wastes of good quality, the progress will also be limited. Therefore, based
on the affirmative information on the sources of discharge, it is necessary to make
much efforts for confirmation of demands for composite regnerated materials by
the governmental organizations and systematized supplying.
In this connection, the working group of procurement of demands for regenerated
2) products established within the Plastic Waste Effective Utilization Study Council of
MITI is now engaged with the works to compile the current situations and
countermeasures.
Plastics wastes discharged from single outlet are currently used in most cases and
at present it is not possible to expect much from the sorted-out plastics wastes
contained in the city wastes luainly for reasons as described below.
2) With regard to the pyrolysis of waste plastics, techniques have been nearly
completed to dispose of up to 5 tons daily. But it may take a little more time
before commerical application due to the conditions of raw material collection
and competition with regenerated products.
/• 3^ 10-
-------
3) A great key point lies in the handling of the mixture which contains the whole
of city wastes and more than half of the industrial wastes. With regard to mechanical
or manual sorting of all or particular plastics, it is necessary to make clear the
advantages and disadvantages in connection with the requests of collection raised
by the local authorities. To find out the most suitable system based on the
comparison of mixed handling and sorted handling would be the work performed
by the organizations concerned of the governmental Basis.
4) When the plastics waste is emphasized, the mixed treatment with other wastes and
sorted treatment are applicable for the city wastes as shown in Fig. 3. If the quality
of sorted plastics is increased, the sorting cost will rise. Furthermore, the remainder
of the sorted wastes still contains some plastics and other ingredients may have
harmful staffs. From this standpoint, it is generally thought that the below-
mentioned relationship may be established.
Mixed treatment
Mixed incineration
— Mixed pyrolysis
(Heat utilization)
Sorted out plastics
treatment
Plastics sorting
Treatment of sorted-
out plastics
— Regeneration
— Pyrolysis
— Incineration
Incineration of
remainder of sorting
(including of remainder plastics)
Note: Land reclamation is excluded.
Fig. 3 Mixed Treatment and Sorted-out Plastics Treatment
Plastics sorting cost + sorted plastics disposition cost > amortization of mixed
incinerator — incinerating cost of the remainder from sorting.
In connection with the disposal systems of cities and the general project for
turning the wastes into raw materials, there will be many developments in the
future. Still, it is necessary to accumulate the information that are helpful for
deciding the most suitable system considering the city patterns.

-------
There have been many progresses and developments during the past year or so, but one
tiling to be said here is the National Ciovernment, local authorities and industries concerned
must recognize their respective responsibilities for the problems of plastics wastes and
without standing against each other but standing on the common platform, utmost efforts
must be continued to establish the most suitable system.
7 • /. A12 -
-------
Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Solid Waste Management Programs
A PRELIMINARY EXAMINATION OF VINYL CHLORIDE EMISSIONS
FROM POLYMERIZATION SLUDGES, DURING HANDLING AND LAND
DISPOSAL
R. A. Markle, R. B. I den, and F. A. Sliemers
Battelle, Columbus Laboratories
and
Alessi D. Otte
Environmental Protection Agency
Presented at the Third U.S.-Japan Conference on Solid
Waste Management, Tokyo, Japan. May 12-14, 1976
-------
Vinyl chloride monomer (VCM) is retained in sludge wastes pro-
duced during polyvinyl chloride (PVC) processing at production plant:.
Industry is actively investigating processing improvements that may
reduce the amount of VCM'in these sludges in the future and is looking
at alternate disposal and recycle schemes. However, the PVC sludges
currently being disposed of at landfills may still contain sufficient
VCM to constitute a potential health hazard when the gaseous VCM
escapes. In a preliminary, low-level study done to determine whether
a potential threat to the health of landfill workers or nearby resi-
dents exists, 17 grab air samples were collected for laboratory analysis
of VCM content at three landfills where these sludges were disposed.
Samples of the PVC sludges which were disposed at the three landfills
also were collected. VCM concentrations in the grab air and sludge
samples were measured using the gas chromatographic-flame ionization
detection analytical technique. The release rate of VCM from sludge
also was measured under controlled laboratory conditions, using a
specially designed apparatus. The VCM emissions potential of the total
Sludge quantities disposed at these landfills was calculated.
INTRODUCTION
Early in 1974, it became apparent that there was a real need to
establish the level of exposure to VCM of workers in the vinyl chloride/
polyvinyl chloride (VCM/PVC) industry. This need was triggered by
reports in January 1974, of the deaths of four workers in the industry
believed attributable to VCM exposure. Since that time angiosarcoma
of the liver, a rare and fatal tumor, has been identified in at least
7.*. I
-------
2
15 workers in U.S. PVC facilities* In addition, other forms of cancer,
certain nonmalignant liver diseases, and acroosteoiysis, a unique
occupational disease, also have been found in workers within the
industry (1).
Preliminary monitoring of VCM levels in ambient air at a number of
VCM/PVC facilities was then carried out by the EPA. Levels ranging
from < 0.05 to 33 ppm were found, with about TO percent ^1 ppm
(1 to 8 ppm). Integrated 24-hour samples generally contained 1 ppm
or less (1). In this same study, measurements of VCM contained in
sludge from the polymerization process reactor kettles ranged from ^ 1
to as high as 3520 ppm. It is likely that this VCM is released into
the atmosphere at the landfills at varying rates which depend on a
number of factors such as the nature of the earth and debris cover
under which the sludge is buried, the temperature of the sludge deposit,
the thickness of the sludge layer, etc. Both municipal and industrial
waste disposal sites of the dump or landfill type are involved in the
disposal of these industrial wastes. Thus it was decided by the EPA
that a need existed to investigate VCM emissions from PVC sludges and
typical disposal sites representing a cross section of climate conditions,
disposal methods, and contiguous population densities. Consequently,
the present study was initiated as a preliminary, low-level effort,
to determine approximate VCM concentrations in landfill air and to
perform initial measurements, in the laboratory and under controlled
conditions, on the rates at which VCM is released from PVC sludges.
7.2.2-
-------
3
POLYVINYL CHLORIDE PRODUCTION
PVC, commonly known as vinyl plastic, is produced from VCM,
a colorless, faintly sweet smelling gas. VCM is converted to solid PVC
by one of four different'batch polymerization processes. U.S. PVC
production for 1974 was about 4.75 billion pounds (2). The processes
used and the percentages of total production they represent are listed
in Table 1.
TABLE 1. PVC PROCESSES
— per(:ent
Process Polymerization Total PVC
Type Medium Production
Suspension Water 78
Emulsion Water 12
Buik Monomer 6
Solution Organic Solvent 4
Regardless of the process used, a typical PVC plant includes the
following operations:
(1) Receiving and storage of VCM and catalysts
(2) Polymerization of VCM: measuring, charging, and reaction
(3) Stripping and recovery: reactor blowdown and recovery, and
slurry handling and storage
(4) Centrifugation or filtration
(5) Drying
(6) Pneumatic conveying and storage
(7) Packaging and shipping
(8) Blending
(9) Waste treatment.
7.Z.3
-------
4
We are interested here only in those step? (4 and 9) of the PVC
production process which result tn by-product wastes fcontaining sus-
pended solid matter and VCM. Since most PVC is produced in aqueous
media (Table 1) these by-product streams consist basically of water
suspensions of fine, particulate PVC containing small amounts of various
polymerization processing aids, and dissolved and/or absorbed VCM. It
is this entrapped VCM which is of concern in the present study.
The aqueous waste streams are treated in various ways at different
PVC plants. Basically the processing consists of steps to concentrate
the solids content of the waste as much as possible while discharging
waste water of acceptable quality to the local water treatment system,
or natural outlets such as rivers. The processing includes chemical
treatments to coagulate and sediment the solids and physical separation
procedures such as large, specially designed settling and concentrating
tanks and specialized centrifuging and filtration procedures. The final
waste material is a water-based sludge ranging from about 15 to 40
percent solids. Physically, these sludges range from waterlike, thin
slurries to thick pastes approximating the consistency of a concrete
premix.
These PVC sludges are industrial Waste matter which could be used
or disposed of in various ways. At the present time most,if not all, of
these sludges, are discarded at municipal or privately owned landfills.
Typcially, the sludges are transported to the landfill in pressure-
s 4
controlled tank trucks or open-bed trucks and dumped into bulldozer-
prepared pits or trenches that are 0.6 to 3 or more meters deep. They
7.2. y
-------
5
are then covered with compacted layers of trash and soil to a depth
of 0.3 to 1 meter or more.
SAMPLE COLLECTION
Arrangements
At the beginning of this study three PVC plant site/landfill com-
binations were selected for sampling purposes. These combinations were
chosen to provide good cross-sections of geographical location and
climate, PVC plant technology, sludge type, and landfill practice.
The protocol established for sample collection included the following
steps:
(1) Visit to PVC plant by EPA and Battel le personnel
(2) Tour of PVC sludge processing, isolation, and storage
facilities
(3) Observations of PVC sludge collection by waste hauling
company
(4). Collection of PVC sludge samples for VCM analysis
(5) Follow sludge hauling truck to landfill with PVC company
and/or hauling company personnel
(6) Meet landfill operating personnel and gain access to landfill
(7) Collect background air grab sample before PVC sludge disposal
(8) Observe PVC sludge disposal practice
(9) Collect air and sludge samples during disposal
(10) Collect air samples after PVC sludge disposal and coverage
(11) Collect air samples at same landfill site approximately
1 day later.
7. 2.4T
-------
6
Air Samples
Grab air samples were collected at landfills before, during,
and after sludge disposal and coverage, downwind of the known VCM
— ft
emissions sites. The samples were collected in preevacuated (10
torr at 150 C) 3.5-liter stainless steel cylinders by opening the
entrance port at normal breathing levels. The date, time, weather,
and wind conditions were recorded for each sample taken.
Sludge Samples
During this study, samples of the PVC sludges were collected
both at the plants and at the landfills. Sludge collections at the
landfill were done during the actual disposal operation except at
Landfill 1 where sludge was collected both after disposal and after
bulldozing and partial coverage. Sludge samples were collected in
tightly sealed glass containers to prevent VCM evaporation, returned
to the laboratory and stored at 5 C until analysis could be performed.
ANALYTICAL METHODS
The standard equipment used for VCM analysis irr this study was a
gas chromatograph-flame ionization detector (GC-FID) apparatus. Seven
crosschecks were performed using a mass spectrometer (MS), with excellent
agreement found. Grab air samples were analyzed directly, by injection
of air aliquots into the GC-FID or, in one case, the MS. Headspace
and liquid phase portions of PVC sludge samples were also analyzed
by direct injection into the GC-FID or MS. PVC sludges were routinely
analyzed for VCM content by extraction with tetrahydrofuran (THF) and
injection of an aliquot of the THF extract into the GC-FID (1).
"7. 2. 6
-------
7
One direct analysis of a PVC sludge sample was also performed using the MS.
VCM Concentrations
VCM concentrations are expressed in parts of per million (ppm).
VCM concentrations in air are based on a volume ratio, or microliters of
VCM per liter of air. Thus 1 ppm equals 1 Jjg VCM/LITER OF AIR. However,
VCM concentrations in pvc sludges are based on a weight ratio, or micro-
grams of VCM per gram of sludge. Thus 1 ppm VCM in sludge equals 1 jug
VCM/gram of sludge- Consequently, ppm VCM in air cannot be compared
directly with ppm VCM in sludge. However a one-gram sludge sample
analyzing 1 ppm VCM will yield 0.391 jul (STP) of VCM gas. Release of
the VCM in 2.56 grams of this sludge into 1 liter of air would produce 1
ppm in air.
VCM Analysis by GC-FID
The ar.clyses were done on a Packard Series 800 gas chromatography
instrument using the following conditions:
Column - Porapak Q in an 8' x 3/16" stainless steel tubing
Temperatures - Column 120 C, Detector 120 C, and Injector 120 C
Flows - Nitrogen Carrier 30 ml/minute; A1r 300 ml/minute;
Hydrogen 30 ml/minute
Electrometer - 500 volts; 1 x 10~^° amps
Sar.ple - Hypodermic syringe septa and six way gas sampling valve
Injection
Detector - Flame ionization
The GC was calibrated using commercial (Matheson Gas Co.) standards
of VCM in nitrogen, supplied with a certified analysis. These were •
reanalyzed in our laboratory by MS. One standard contained 20.5 ppm
VCM in nitrogen and the other 0.45 ppm. The 20.5 ppm standard was
used routinely for this work.
7. 2. 7
-------
8 '
In addition, a mixture of saturated and unsaturated hydro-
carbons including methane, ethene, acetylene, ethane, propane, propene,
isobutane, 1-butene and n-butane was chromatographed. Also individual
samples of dichlorodifluoromethane (Freon 12), isobutylene and 1,3-buta-
diene were chromatographed separately. The total set of compounds
chromatographed and their retention times, in comparison to VCM are ^
listed in Table 2.
i
TABLE 2. ' RESOLUTION OF VCM FROM
'¦ POTENTIAL CONTAMINANTS
I Retention
I Tine,
Compound Formula minutes
Me thane
ch4
0.6
Ethene
C2H4
1.0
Acetylene
C2H2
1.0
Ethane
c2h6
1.1
Propene
C3H6
2.8
Propane
C3H8
3.1
Freon 12
CC12F2
3.7
VCM
CH2eCHCl
5.7
Isobutane
CH(cn3)3.
7.9
1-butene
CH2°aiCH2CH2
8.7
Isobutene
CH2=C(CTI3)2
8.8
n-butane
CH3CH2CH2CH3
9.9
1, '3-butadiene
CH2aCHCH»CH2
18.3
Freon 12 and isobutane have the nearest retention times to VCM
of the thirteen compounds listed. However, even these two compounds
show differences in retention time of 2 minutes or longer, which is
a substantial difference resulting in total separation of the elution
peaks.
VCM Analysis by MS
The MS used for the crosscheck of the VCM analyses was a Con-
solidated Electrodynamics Corporation Model 21-620, equipped with a
?. 2. %
-------
9
calibrated inlet system specially designed for gas analysis. Inlet
sample pressure is measured using a micromanometer. Ionization con-
ditions used were 50 volts at 40 mill lamps. Pure VCM was used for
calibration so that standardization of the GC and MS were completely
independent.
Seven MS verification analyses were performed during this study
to confirm GC analysis of VCM. These are summarized in Table 3.
I
TABLE 3. CROSSCHECK VCM ANALYSES BY MS
VCM. PPm
Sample MS CC-FID
" 1, Sludge, Vapor Phase 2,200. 2,700.
... 2, Sludge, Vapor Phase 2,300. 1,900.
3, Landfill Air ¦ 0.05 0,07
... 4, Sludge, Dry Solids 210. 200.
.. 8, Plant Stream Liquid 23,000. 28,000,
9, Plant Stream Vapor 8,600. 8,600.
; 10, Plant Stream Vapor 30.900. 37,400.
DISCUSSION
In the following sections data obtained on VCM concentrations in
air samples and PVC sludge vapor, liquid and solid phases are discussed.
Also the results of a very preliminary study of VCM release rates from
PVC sludges are discussed. Finally a brief analysis of the VCM emis-
sions potential of the sludges is presented.
Grab Air Samples
The results of laboratory analysis of grab air samples collected
at three landfills are listed on the following page in Table 4.
7 Z?
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10
VCM concentrations ranging from 0.07 to 1.10 ppm were found at
normal breathing levels at three landfills. At Landfill 1, the levels
found were relatively low and the spread in concentrations was quite
small (0.07 to 0.11 ppm). At Landfill 2 concentrations ranging from
0.13 to 0.49 ppm were found while concentrations found at Landfill 3
ranged from 0.16 to 1.10 ppm. Three important features of these data
are noted. First, there appears to be a VCM background level of about
0.1-0.3 ppm in the air at all three landfills. Secondly, instanteous
VCM concentrations as high as about 1 ppm are on occasion observed,
even as long as 24 hours after the PVC sludge is burled under compacted
soil. The third observation concerns an air sample which was collected
about 5 cm from a stream of liquid sludge discharging from a truck
during landfill disposal. This air sample-was, in effect, "spiked"
with extra VCM. The fact that this particular air sample showed an
appreciably higher VCM analysis (1.90 ppm) than the other air samples
collected at the same landfill provides good indirect proof that the
VCM peaks in the chromatographs of landfill air are correctly identified.
Sludge Samples
The PVC sludges were analyzed to determine VCM contents. The
vapor phase (head space) and liquid filtrate portions of the sludge
samples were analyzed first. It was determined that the amount of
VCM in both these phases was <^10 percent of the total VCM in all
seven sludges. In fact the VCM content of these phases was ^ 1 per-
cent of the total sludge VCM content with even moderately high total
VCM contents (> 200 ppm, dry solids). Thus the amount of VCM in
1. 2.19'
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11
| Al v. j •
: Air
Sample
Number
TABLE 4. VCM CONCENTRATIONS IN CRAB AIR SAMPLES TAKEN AT LANDFILLS
Collection Information
Temp,
C
Weather
Wind
Velocity,
kph*
Sampling Location
Controls
! 1
4
5
6
7
8
9
i o
11
12
13
14
15
16
"17
.... Analyst*
14 Vary cloudy
14 Very cloudy
14 Very cloudy
17 Very cloudy,
raining
17 Very cloudy,
raining
16 Cloudy
16 Cloudy
23 Partly cloudy
23 Partly cloudy
29 Very cloudy
22 Partly cloudy
23 Partly cloudy
23 Partly cloudy
23 Partly cloudy
21 Partly cloudy
26 Partly cloudy
27 Partly cloudy
of'laboratory air grab samples
Landfill 1 .
0-8 30 meters front disposal site just
before sludge dump (date 4/24/75)
0*8 At leading edge of freshly dumped
sludge (4/24/75)
0-8 30 meters from disposal site after
dumping and dozing (4/24/75)
Landfill 2
5-11 At disposal site before sludge
discharge started (6/12/75)
5-11 Edge of sludge pit as soon as
discharge is completed (6/12/75)
3-11 At previous days disposal site
before fresh discharge (6/13/75)
3-11 About 5 centimeters from sludge
discharge stream (6/13/75)
0-8 Edge of sludge pit during second
dump (6/13/75)
0-8 Edge of sludge pit during third
dump (6/13/75)
8-16 180 meters inside landfill, near
sludge disposal area (8/18/75)
Landfill ? ,
5-11 30 meters from disposal site be-
fore sludge discharge (6/24/75)
5-11 Edge of sludge pit between two
trucks, while both are dis-
charging (6/24/75)
5-11 Same as (12) near the end of bie
discharge period (6/24/75)
5-11 30 meters from disposal site after
sludge pit is covered (6/24/75)
0-8 Standing over previous days covered
disposal site (6/25/75)
0-8 Same as (15) (6/25/75)
0-8 Same as (15) (6/25/75)
* Wind velocity in kilometers per hour measured with an anemometer. ;
t Gas chromatography with flame ionization detector (GC-FID).
tt This sample was also analyzed by MS as a crosscheck and 0.05 ppm were found.
7."2- »l
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these two phases is negligible 1n terms of potential landfill VCM
emissions.
VCM Contents of Sludge Solids
The PVC sludges were filtered and the sludge solids subjected
to VCM analysis as described earlier. The results obtained are shown
in Table 5.
VCM concentrations found in the sludge samples ranged from 7 to
520 ppm in the wet filtered sludge, and from 20 to 1260 ppm on a dry
solids basis. These concentrations can be compared with the values
found in EPA studies (1) in the spring of 1974 at six PVC plants. In
that work, VCM concentrations found ranged from <1 ppm to 3520 ppm
in wet sludge and from
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13
TABLE 5. VCH CONCENTRATIONS FOUND IN PVC SLUDGES
Weight
Percent Solids
VCM
Coricen tr a t Ion,

PVC Sludge
As
After
Vet
Dry
No.
Identification
Collected
Filtration
Sludge
Solids

Plant I

1
Freshly centrlfuged sludge'''
34
42
150
360
2
Fresh combination sludge++
—
55
210
380
3
Sludge from full truck*
35
41
520
1260
4
Sludge freshly discharcd
34
42
90
200

froa truck?

.5
Sludge after disposal and
36
41
90
200

doze . ¦,

Plant 2

6
Sludge collected during
17
40
7
20

discharge from truck?

Plant 3

7
Sludge collected during
30
60
90
130

discharge from truck/

* VOl analysis of wet (filtrated) sludge by GC-FID analysis of THF extract.
Also calculated on a dry solids basis. 360 ppm =• 360 ^g/g = 0.36 mg/g =
0.036 weight percent.
+ Sludge collected at PVC plant directly from centrifuge discharge tube.
+t Sludge collected at PVC plant from partly filled truck loader,
x Sludge collected at PVC plant from full truck loader,
y Sludge collected during landfill disposal.
7.2.. 13
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14
layer of loam soil was placed over the sludge. A 30 cc/minute air
flow was passed over the sludge. This gas flow rate is equivalent
to a no wind (calm) day at a landfill (^0.002 kph wind velocity).
It is under these conditions that maximum VCM concentrations might
be expected to accumulate at landfills. The VCM concentrations are
instantaneous values obtained by injecting a 5.28—cc portion of the
constantly outflowing air into the GC apparatus. The release rate
data collected are plotted in Figure 2.
The VCM release curves are similar in form to those recently
reported by Berens (3) for dry PVC powders which consisted of a mixture
of particle sizes and types including relatively large particles,
e.g., 40 yU fused, glassy agglomerates., even though Berens' work was
done using very small samples (100 to 500 mg) at very low pressures
(0-100 torr). Berens' VCM release rates, initially rapid, slowed
dramatically in a few minutes to rates indicating that times on the
order of an hour or more would be required for all VCM to be released.
This was in contrast to small (4 jj) uniform particle size PVC powder
which yielded all absorbed VCM in 1 or 2 minutes. This indicates that
the PVC sludges may consist mostly of relatively large PVC particles
or fused particle agglomerates. However the slower absolute VCM
release rates observed in the present work are probably more due to
the relatively thick samples and the very low air flow rate over the
sludge surface.
The absolute amounts of VCM represented by the curves of Figure 2
were determined by mechanical integration of the areas under the
-7.ZJH
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15
© Stondby Position
O Analysis Position
Capped To detector
(
-FIGURE 1. VOl RELEASE RATE APPARATUS
VCM, ppm
FIGURE 2. VCM RELEASE RATE FROM PVC SLUDGE
7. 2. fS
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curves. This was done by tracing the curves on uniform weight tracing
paper. The curve areas were cut out and weighed analytically (+0.1 nig).
A reference area was also weighed. The VCM equivalent of a unit weight
was calculated by multiplying ordinate VCM concentration in cc vcm/cc
air by abcissa values expressed as air volumes (30 cc/min x 60 min/hr
x number of hours). Then mg VCM = (cc VCM) (2.556 mg VCM/cc). The^
amounts of VCm found are given in Table 6 expressed as percentages of
the total VCM content of the given sludge sample.
t
TABLE '6. FRACTION OF VCM AVAILABLE IN
SLUDGE SAMPLES RELEASED IN
SPECIFIED TIME INTERVALS

Sludce
Percent
VCM Released

VCM,
Time Interval, hr
Run
Grams
Dg
2 8
.24 110
I
13.6
2.86
5 16
25 32
2
13.3*
2.79
2 5
8 11
* 1.3 ca loam soil cover.
The results obtained indicate that a minor portion of the VCM
in PVC sludge may be quickly released at the landfill but that a major
portion of the VCM is released very slowly over a long time period.
This means that as PVC sludge is disposed, absolute amounts of VCM
will probably continue to rise for a long, indeterminate period until
a "quasi-steady-state condition" is reached. At this point continuous,
slow evolution of VCM will proably occur for a long time after sludge
is no longer disposed of at the landfill. This conclusion is con-
sistent with the finding that a VCM air concentration in the range
of 0.1 to 0-.3 ppm was found at each landfill.
~f. z. IL
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VCM Emissions Potential:
The VCM emissions potential of the PVC sludges was calculated
based on the VCM concentrations in Table 5 and data supplied by the
PVC companies on the amounts of PVC,sludge being disposed of at the
landfills. Theresults of these calculations are shown in Table 7.
TABLE 7. POTENTIAL VCM EMISSIONS FROM
LANDFILLS BASED ON COMPANY
SUPPLIED PVC SLUDGE DISPOSAL
RATES AND ANALYTICAL VCM
CONTENTS

PVC
wninrjtg

Dry

Sludge
Dry

Solids
Sludge
VCJt,
PVC
Disposal
VCM
Daily
Sludge
Rate,
Content,
Disposal Rate
Number
kg/day
mg/kg
kg liter-

Plant 1

3
4,626
0.00126
5.83 2,285
4
4,490
0.00020
0.90 353

Plant 2

6
2,948*
0.00002
0.059 23

172+'
Plant 3

7
0.00013
0.022 9
* (kg VCM)(103)(24.5 l/mole)/(62.5 g/mole).
+ Company supplied figure - 35,000 gal/wk.
Dry Bolids based on 159,110 L/wk and
1.1 kg/liter.
++ Company supplied figure - 4,000 gal/mo.'
Dry solids based on 18,184 L/wk and
1.1 kg/liter.
7.1.17
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18
The amounts of VCM being disposed of at the landfills thus varies
between 0.022 and 5.83 kg or 9 and 2,285 liters on a per day basis.
However, it is pertinent to note that industry is actively investigating
processing improvements that may reduce the amount of VCM in these
sludges in the future and is looking at alternate disposal and recycle
schenies. This should help reduce the VCM concentration in sludge in the
future. Unless eventual increases in PVC production offset these future
decreases in VCM concentrations, it can be anticipated that the total
amounts of VCM being disposed of will eventually decline.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are indicated by the findings of this study:
(1) A background air concentation of about 0.1 to 0.3-ppm appears
to be present in air at landfills where PVC sludge has been
disposed of for several years.
i
(2) Instaneous VCM air concentrations on the order of 1.0 ppm
can occur at normal breathing heights ( 1.5 meter) above
ground level at these landfills as long as 24 hours after
PVC sludge deposits are covered.
(3) Prevailing landfill air temperatures, and presumably ground
temperatures as well, appear to influence VCM release rates.
(4) Time-weighted average sampling (15-minute, G-hour, 24-hour)
is required to determine whether concentrations of VCM in
air that pose a health hazard occur either at the landfills
or in adjacent residential or public access areas.
7. 2 /8
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19
REFERENCES
(1) "Preliminary Assessment of the Environmental Problems Associated with
Vinyl Chloride and Polyvlnychloride", Report on the Activities
and Findings of the Vinyl Chloride Task Force, Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., September 1974.
(2) Carpenter, B. H., "Vinyl Chloride-An Assessment of Emissions Con-
trol Techniques and Costs", EPA-650/2-74-097, September 1974.
(3) Berens, A. R., "The Diffusion of Vinyl Chloride in Polyvinyl-
chloride", Polymer Preprints, 15. (2), 203-208, 1974.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was funded by a grant from the Solid and Hazardous
Waste Research Division, Environmental Research Laboratory, Cincinnati,
Ohio, Mr. Donald A. Oberacker, Project Monitor.
7.i.i9
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