U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Biological Opinion
March, 1993
.A-.. <+¦'* .
Effects of 16 Vertebrate Control Agents
On
Threatened and Endangered Species
REPRINTED BY EPA
Printed on Recycled Paper
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION 1-1
RESPONSIBILITIES 1-1
PROPOSED ACTION 1-1
CONSULTATION HISTORY 1-1
PROPOSED SPECIES 1-2
EVALUATION METHODOLOGY 1-2
FORMAT OF THE OPINION 1-2
REASONABLE AND PRUDENT ALTERNATIVES 1-3
INCIDENTAL TAKE 1-3
REASONABLE AND PRUDENT MEASURES/TERMS AND CONDITIONS 1-4
POSSIBLY EXTINCT SPECIES 1-4
MONITORING AND ENFORCEMENT PROGRAM 1-4
REPORTING REQUIREMENTS 1-4
FISH & WILDLIFE SERVICE REGIONAL OFFICE ADDRESSES & PHONE NOs. 1-6
LITERATURE CITED 1-7
CHEMICAL PROFILES H
Aluminum and magnesium phosphide H-l
Brodifacoum 11-10
Bramadiolone 11-17
Bramethalin 11-22
CUorophaanone H-27
Diphaanoae 11-38
Methyl bromide 11-52
Pival 11-53
Potassium nitrate 11-65
Sodium nitrate 11-65
Sodium cyanide 11-73
Sodium iluroacetate (1080) 11-79
Vitamin D3 11-83
Warfarin 11-58
Zinc phosphide 11-93
SPECIES PROFILES HI
MASTER SPECIES LIST Dl-1
MAMMALS ni-10
Alabama beach mouse HI-10
Amargosa vole HE-11
Anastasia Island beach mouse IH-12
Black-footed ferret Ill-13
Carolina northern dying squinel 111-14
Choctawhatchee beach mouse 111-16
Dehnarva Peninsula fox squirrel TLI-17
Florida panther HI-18
Florida salt marsh vole ID-20
Fresno kangaroo rat 111-39
Giant kangaroo rat 111-39
Gray wolf 111-21
Grizzly bear ID-22
Hualapai Mexican vole HI-23
Jaguarundi 111-24
"Key Largo cotton mouse :.. 111-25
Key Largo woodrat m-26
Louisiana black bear 111-27
-------
Lower Keys rabbit EI-28
Mono Bay kangaroo rat 111-29
Ocelot m-30
Perdido Key beach mouse M-31
Point Arena Mountain Beaver HI-33
Salt marsh harvest mouse ni-34
San Joaquin kit fox 111-35
Silver rice rat 111-36
Southeastern beach mouse Q-37
Stephen's kangaroo rat m-38
Upton kangaroo rat 111-39
(Jtah prairie dog 1H-40
BIRDS m-41
Attwater's greater prairie-chicken M-41
Audubon's crested caracara m-42
California condor 111-44
Hawaiian coot m-45
Hawaiian crow ni-46
Hawaiian duck m-47
Hawaiian hawk 111-48
Mariana crow UI-49
Mississippi sandhill crane ni-50
Nene (Hawaiian goose) 111-52
Puerto Rican plain pigeon HI-53
San Clemente loggerhead shrike UI-54
San Qemente sage sparrow 111-55
Whooping crane . HI-56
Yellow-shouldered blackbird ID-57
reptiles ni-58
Blunt-nosed leopard lizard 111-58
Coachella Valley fringe-toed lizard W-59
Desert tortoise 111-60
Eastern indigo snake m-61
Gopher tortoise ID-62
Island night lizard Ill-64
Puerto Rican boa ni-65
San Francisco garter snake EQ-66
Virgin Islands tree boa HI-67
INSECTS m-68
El Segundo blue butterfly m-68
-------
VERTEBRATE CONTROL AGENTS
BIOLOGICAL OPINION SUMMARY
(Jeopardy & No Jeopardy Calls)
CLASS
AMPHIBIANS
BIRDS
INSECTS
MAMMALS
REPTILES
TOTAL
CHEMICAL
J
NJ
J
NJ
J
NJ
J
NJ
J
NJ
J
NJ
Alum. & Mag. Phosphide
0
0
0
0
1
0
9
1
4
3
14
4
Brodifacoum
0
6
2
1
0
0
10
6
0
111
12 III
8
Bromadiolone
0
0
0
0
0
0
7
5
0
0
7
5
Bromethalin
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
4
0
0
10
4
Chlorophacinone
0
0
1
0
0
0
20
4
0
3
21
7
Diphacinone
0
0
I
0
0
0
29
1
0
3
30
4
Pival
0
0
1
0
0
0
24
2
0
1
25
3
Pot. it Sodium Nitrate
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
1
4
3
13
4
Sodium cyanide
0
0
1
2
0
0
5
2
0
0
6
4
Sodium fluroacetate
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
2
0
Vitamin D3
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
4
0
0
10
4
Warfarin
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
4
0
0
10
4
Zinc phosphide
0
0
9
2
0
0
20
4
0
0
29
6
TOTAL
0
0
IS
5
1
0
16S
38
8
14
189
57
March 2, 1993
-------
SECTION I
INTRODUCTION
-------
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
RESPONSIBILITIES
Under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA), as amended, all federal agencies have responsibility to
ensure that any action authorized, funded, or carried out by that agency is not likely to jeopardize the
continued existence of any federally listed endangered or threatened species or result in the destruction or
adverse modification of critical habitat. Furthermore, federal agencies are required to utilize their authorities
to carry out programs for the conservation of threatened and endangered species.
The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is the federal agency authorized to regulate pesticide use
through administration of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FLFRA). Under the
ESA, the EPA must ensure that its activities in administering FIFRA are not likely to jeopardize the
continued existence of any federally listed threatened or endangered species. The registration and
reregistration of pesticides under Section 3 of FIFRA is considered an activity that may have possible impacts
on threatened and endangered species, therefore it is subject to review by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service
(Service).
Section 7 of the ESA requires that federal agencies "consult" with the Sendee on their actions. The federal
agency initially determines if their action(s) "may affect" any listed species. If the agency determines that the
proposed action may affect listed species it will formally request Section 7 consultation. The Service reviews
information provided by that agency regarding the proposed action and decides whether or not it concurs
with the federal agency's "may affect" determination. If the Service does not concur with the federal agency's
may affect determination consultation is terminated, otherwise the Service must prepare a biological opinion.
In this opinion, the Service determines if the proposed action is likely to |<»j>parHi7P. the continued existence
of the listed species in question or j§ likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the species. If the
Service determines that a proposed action is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the species, it
must provide to the federal agency any available reasonable and prudent alternatives that preclude jeopardy
yet still allow the proposed action to continue. The Service must also provide to the federal agency an
incidental take statement and reasonable and prndent measures to minimize, such take. These terms will be
further defined in subsequent sections of the introduction.
PROPOSED ACTION
On April 15,1991, EPA requested formal section 7 consultation with the Service on 31 registered chemicals
that may affect threatened ot endangered species. The consultation request addressed the effects of all
registered uses of these chemicals on all domestically listed species (approximately 600). The 31 chemicals
include 16 vertebrate control agents, 14 insecticides and one herbicide. The EPA selected these chemicals
based on a thorough review of all listed species and their vulnerability to pesticides. An explanation of
EPA's rationale for selecting these specific chemicals is presented in their February 26,1991, consultation
request.
Because of the size and complexity of this consultation, the Service found it necessary to divide the
consultation into two parts. This portion of the consultation contains the biological opinions for the 16
vertebrate control agents. The Sendee has reviewed each of these pesticides for their impact to jUJ federally
listed threatened, endangered and proposed species. This consultation also considered^} registered uses of
the 16 vertebrate control agents. The second portion of the consultation will provide biological opinions for
the remaining IS chemicals and will be submitted at a later date.
CONSULTATION HISTORY
The Service has consulted with EPA on the registration of pesticides since 1977. Since that time, the Service
has issued over 75 biological opinions. Some of these opinions were completed on a case-by-case basis while
others were included in "cluster" opinions addressing all pesticides registered for specific uses. The most
recent pesticide biological opinion, completed in July 1989, involved a reinitiation of.consultation on 109
pesticides primarily for listed aquatic species. The results of this consultation supersede all previous
biological opinions on these pesticides.
-------
Introduction
PROPOSED SPECIES
Due to the long timeframe attached to this consultation, many species proposed for federal listing at the
beginning of the consultation will have subsequently been listed by the time this document is final
According to regulations set forth in SO CFR Part 402.10, each Federal agency shall confer with the Service
on any action which the Federal agency determines is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of any
proposed species. The purpose of this requirement is to identify and resolve potential conflicts between an
action and proposed species. These conferences are conducted on an informal basis with the Service
providing the Federal agency with recommendations to minimize or avoid adverse effects of the action on
proposed species. If the species is listed, the Federal agency must review its action to determine whether
consultation is required. In certain instances, the Federal agency and the Service may conduct the
conference in such a thorough manner that it would satisfy the consultation requirements of section 7(a)(2) if
the proposed listing is subsequently completed.
In conducting this consultation, the Service treated proposed species as if they were already federally listed.
All recommendations and alternatives satisfy the requirements of formal section 7 consultation. Until such
time as the proposed species are officially listed, the Service requests that the EPA consider these
recommendations as advisory in nature. When a proposed species covered in this opinion is officially listed
the Service will inform the EPA and indicate that the reasonable and prudent measures or reasonable
alternatives are to be implemented.
EVALUATION METHODOLOGY
On April 22, 1991 the Service convened a team of regional representatives to prepare this biological opinion.
The team consisted of one biologist from each of the Service's regions. Each biologist was responsible for
evaluating the impact of these chemicals on species within their jurisdiction. Team members used their
broad knowledge of species biology and distribution along with the available toxicity information to evaluate
the impacts of these chemicals on all listed species.
For the most part, the Service relied on information provided by EPA in the consultation request to make its
determinations. However, in some cases, complete and consistent data were lacking from EPA's request.
This lack of data was in part because some information was not readily available to EPA and partly because
the Service did not always agree with EPA's no effect determinations and needed supporting data. As a
result, in January 1992, the Service convened a team of environmental contaminant specialists to review the
EPA data and gather additional information. In those cases where the Service obtained information contrary
or additional to that provided by EPA, we have provided citations. A list of literature citations accompanies
this introductory section and can be referred to when reviewing chemical information.
FORMAT OF THE OPINION
This biological opinion is organized into three sections. Section I contains the introduction and an
explanation of terms and methodology. Section II contains chemical information, and the actual biological
opinions for each of the 16 vertebrate control agents. Section IE provides biological information on each
"may affect" species considered in this portion of the consultation.
Section II is the main portion of this biological opinion. This section is subdivided into an additional 13 sub-
sections corresponding to the 16 vertebrate control agents (some sections contain more than one chemical).
The reference table included with each chemical provides a quick review of the Service's calls,
recommendations and justifications for each "may affect" species. Further justification including reasonable
and prudent alternatives, incidental take statements, reasonable and prudent measures and conservation
recommendations is found by locating a particular species in the rationale section. The rationale section
provides the necessary information to support the Service's biological opinion for each species. Additional
species information can be found in Section III.
Section HI contains biological information for each species considered in this portion of the consultation.
The table that begins Section III includes all federally listed threatened,-endangered and proposed species
1-2
-------
Introduction
listed prior to July 1,1991. Any species listed or proposed after that date is not considered in this opinion.
Following the table are profiles for each of the "may affect" species. These profiles contain biological
information including species status and trends, cumulative effects and the potential for that species to be
exposed to pesticides.
Cumulative effects are those effects of future non-federal (State, local government, private, or any other non-
federal entity) activities on endangered or threatened species or critical habitat that are reasonably certain to
occur in the action area. The Service must consider cumulative effects when conducting Section 7
consultations. Cumulative effects are addressed for each species in Section m - Species Profiles.
REASONABLE AND PRUDENT ALTERNATIVES
Regulations implementing Section 7 define reasonable and prudent alternatives as alternative actions
identified during formal consultation that can be implemented in a manner consistent with the scope of the
Federal agency's legal authority and jurisdiction, that are economically and technologically feasible, and that
the Service believes would avoid the likelihood of jeopardizing the continued existence of listed species or
avoid the destruction or adverse modification of critical habitat.
The Service has provided reasonable and prudent alternatives for every chemical that is likely to jeopardize
the continued existence of a threatened or endangered species. These alternatives represent the Service's
best professional judgement of the measures necessary to provide the appropriate level of protection to the
species given the data currently available.
INCIDENTAL TAKE
Section 9 of the Act prohibits any taking (to harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or
collect or attempt to engage in any such conduct) of listed species without a permit. Under the terms of
Section 7(b)(4) and 7(o)(2) of the Act, taking that is incidental to and not intended as part of the agency
action is not considered to be a prohibited taking provided that such taking is in compliance with the terms
and conditions specified in the incidental take statement included in a biological opinion. If the specified
level of incidental take is exceeded formal consultation must be reinitiated immediately.
In many situations the use of a particular chemical may result in the take of some listed species but not
necessarily result in jeopardy to that species. In those instances, the Service must determine the anticipated
level of take and provide reasonable and prudent measures for minimizing that take.
Usually, the likelihood of discovering an individual death attributable to pesticides is very small. In those
situations where the Service anticipates that the discovery of a carcass of a particular species is likely, we
have established a specific level of take which might occur as a result of the action (ie: number of
individuals). In most instances however, the Service does not expect to discover a precise number of dead or
sublethally affected species attributable to pesticides. Because of the small size, unique habitat and secretive
nature of many listed species it is highly unlikely that the Service win ever discover individual deaths.
Therefore, it is difficult to establish an anticipated level of take. In those situations where the Service
believes take may occur but is not able to assign a specific number to that take, an "unquantifiable" level of
take has been assigned. This indicates that the Service believes that take is unavoidable but unquantifiable.
In order to insure protection for species assigned a level of unquantifiable take, the Service must have a
mechanism to reinitiate consultation. Since it is so unlikely that take resulting from pesticide use will ever be
discovered, if even one dead specimen is discovered whose death is attributable to the legal use of pesticides,
then use of that pesticide must cease in all occupied habitat of the species and consultation on that chemical
for that species must be reinitiated. Take above the authorized level of one, if occurring in a single event (ie.
fish kill), is not a violation of section 9 of the Act as long as the terms and conditions as specified in the
reasonable and prudent measures are followed.
1-3
-------
Introduction
REASONABLE AND PRUDENT MEASURES/TERMS AND CONDITIONS
Specific reasonable and prudent measures that the Service considers necessary and appropriate to minimize
incidental take and the terms and conditions to implement such measures are provided for those species
receiving an incidental take statement. Reasonable and prudent measures are provided to minimize impacts
to the individuals or habitat affected by the action. Such measures are designed to decrease the level of take
to the maximum extent possible. Measures are determined to be reasonable and prudent when they are
consistent with the basic design, location, scope, duration and timing of the action. These measures
represent the Service's best professional judgement of the actions necessary to provide the appropriate level
of protection to the species given the data currently available.
POSSIBLY EXTINCT SPECIES
There are several species still listed in the U.S. that have not been seen for many years. Those species,
although not yet officially declared extinct, are nevertheless treated as extinct species. It is the Service's
position that species such as those listed below could not be affected by pesticides since they are not
expected to occur in areas of pesticide applications and are therefore not included in this consultation.
However, if the Service receives documented evidence of any occurrence of these species, the Service
believes this constitutes new information and requests reinitiation of consultation for those species on all
chemicals.
Bridled white eye
Culebra Island giant anole
Guam broadbill
little Mariana fruit bat
Scioto madtom
Caribbean monk seal
Eastern cougar
Ivory-billed woodpecker
Mariana mallard
Palos Verde blue butterfly
MONITORING AND ENFORCEMENT PROGRAM
The Service has determined, that for certain listed species considered in this opinion, an unquantifiable level
of incidental take may occur even if the recommended reasonable and prudent alternatives to preclude
jeopardy are followed. Examples of such species include many of the listed mussels, fish and selected small
mammals. To minimize take in the above-mentioned scenarios, the Service is requiring, as a reasonable and
prudent measure that EPA adopt a monitoring/enforcement program.
The Service believes that the likelihood of incidental take will be minimized if the EPA fully implements a
monitoring/enforcement program. A monitoring program will alert both the Service and EPA to possible
deficiencies in the reasonable and prudent alternatives and allow the Service to request reinitiation of
consultation to modify those deficiencies before further take occurs. The location, nature and extent of this
monitoring program should evolve through discussions between EPA and the Service.
The Service recommends that the monitoring program include but not be limited to the following actions.
Selected field applications of certain chemicals should be monitored to determine: 1) compliance with label
instructions, 2) compliance with recommended reasonable and prudent alternatives and reasonable and
prudent measures, and 3) effectiveness of recommended buffer zones for both ground and aerial applications.
In monitoring the effectiveness of recommended buffer zones, the Service suggests that field surveys (which
should include the monitoring of water quality and the persistence and concentration of applied chemicals
and their metabolites) be established as part of an efficient and regulated enforcement program. If, in the
course of conducting their monitoring program, EPA determines that buffer zones recommended by the
Service are insufficient to prevent incidental take, the Service requests that the Agency reinitiate consultation.
REPORTING REQUIREMENTS
If, in the course of conducting the required monitoring program, EPA (or individuals acting on behalf of
EPA) discovers any moribund or dead listed species, the Service must be notified. This notification should
occur within 3 working days and include the location of discovery, and suspected cause of death or illness.
Service personnel will instruct the caller as to the proper actions necessary to prepare the dead or injured
1-4
-------
Introduction
specimen for pesticide analysis. If the Service suspects that a species has been taken in notation of label
restrictions, such situations will be reported to the Service's Division of Law Enforcement and instructions
for proper handling of such specimens will be given at that time. The following is a list of contacts for each
Region.
1-5
-------
Introduction
Region 1- CA, HI, ID, NV, OR, WA
Chief, Endangered Species
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
911 N.E. 11th Ave.
Portland, OR 97232-4181 (503) 231-6241
Region 2 - AZ, NM, OK, TX
Chief, Endangered Species
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
P.O. Box 1306
500 Gold Ave. S.W.
Albuquerque, NM 87103 (505) 766-9372
Region 3 - IA, IL, IN, MI, MN, MO, OH, WI
Division of Endangered Species Room 648
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Sendee
1 Federal Drive - Fort Snelling
Twin Cities, MN 55111-4056 (612) 725-3276
Region 4 - AL, AR, FL, GA, KY, LA, MS, NC, PR, SC, TN, VI
Chief, Endangered Species
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
75 Spring Street, SW Room 1276
Atlanta, GA 30303 (404) 331-3580
Region 5 - CT, DC, DE, MA, ME, NH, NJ, NY, PA, RI, VA, VT, WV
Chief, Endangered Species
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
300 Westgate Center Drive
Hadley, MA 01035-9589 (617) 965-5100
Region 6 - CO, KS, MT, ND, NE, SD, UT, WY
Chief, Endangered Species
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Denver Federal Center
134 Union Street
Denver, CO 80225 (303) 236-8166
Region 7 - AK
Chief, Endangered Species
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
1011 E. Tudor Road
Anchorage, AK 99503 (907) 786-3431
1-6
-------
Introduction
LITERATURE CITED
(For Chemical Information Sections)
Atzert, S. P. 1971. A review of sodium monofluoroacetate (Compound 1080): its properties, toxicology, and
use in predator and rodent control. U. S. Fish Wildl Serv., Spec Sd Rep. WildL 146. Washington,
D.C. 34 pp.
Ballantyne, B. 1987. Toxicology of cyanides. Pp. 41-126 jg B. Ballantyne and T. C. Marrs, eds. Clinical and
experimental toxicology of cyanides. John Wright, Bristol, England.
Buck, W. B., G. D. Osweiler, and G. A. Van Gelder, eds. 1982. Clinical and Diagnostic Veterinary
Toxicology, 2nd ed, Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co. Dubuque, IA.
Chitty D. 19S4. Control of Rats and Mice. Oxford at the Clarendon Press, pp. 102-108.
Connolly, G. 1988. M-44 sodium cyanide ejectors in the Animal Damage Control program, 1976-1986. Pp.
220-225 jn A. C. Crab and R. E. Marsh, eds. Proc Thirteenth Vertebrate Pest Conf., Univ. Calif.
Press, Davis.
Connolly, G. 1989. Technical bulletin for the sodium fluoroacetate (Compound 1080) livestock protection
collar. U. S. Dept. Agric, Animal and Plant Health Inspection Serv., Denver, CO. 25 pp.
d-CON Co. Inc. 1974. d-CON product labeL d-CON Co. Inc, Montvale, New Jersey.
d-CON Co., Inc. 1989. d-CON product label d-CON Co. Inc., Montvale, New Jersey.
Eastland, W. G., and S. L. Beasom. 1986. Potential secondary hazards of compound 1080 to three
mammalian scavengers. WildL Soc. Bull. 4:232-233.
Eisler, R. 1991. Cyanide hazards to fish, wildlife, and invertebrates: a synoptic review. U. S. Fish WildL
Serv., Biol. Rep. 85 (1.23). 55 pp.
Evans, J., et aL 1965. Laboratory and field testing of toxicants (oral, systemic, and gases) for controlling
nutria. Project R-39, Work Unit F-392, Annual Progress Report on file at Denver Wildl. Res. Cen.
Evans, J., P. L. Hegdal and R. E. Griffith, Jr. 1970 (3-5 Mar). Methods of controlling jackrabbits. Proc.
Vertebrate Pest Conf. 4:109-115. West Sacramento, CA.
Fry, D. M., G. Santolo, and C. R. Grau. 1986. Final report for interagency agreement: effects for compound
1080 poison on turkey vultures. Dept. Avian Sciences, Univ. Calif., Davis. 38 pp.
Haco Inc. 1992a. Rodex product label. Haco Inc, Madison, Wisconsin.
Haco Inc. 1992b. Rodex Blox-1 product label. Haco Inc, Madison, Wisconsin.
Hayne, D. W. 1951. Zinc phosphide: its toxicity to pheasants and effect of weathering upon its toxicity to
mice. Michigan Agric Experiment Sta. Quarterly Bull. 33:412-425.
Hegdal, P. L. and T. A. Gatz. 1977. Hazards to pheasants and cottontail rabbits associated with zinc
phosphide baiting for microtine rodents in orchards. Final report by U. S. Fish and Wildl. Serv.,
Denver Wildl. Res. Cen. for EPA under Interagency Agreement EPA-LAG -D4-0449.
1-7
-------
Introduction
Hegdal, P. L., K. A. Fagerstone, T. A. Gatz, J. F. Glahn, and G. H. Matschke. 1986. Hazards to wildlife
associated with 1080 baiting for California ground squirrels. WildL Soc Bull. 14:11-21.
Hines, T. and R. W. Dimmick. 1970. The acceptance by bobwhite quail of rodent baits dyed and treated
with zinc phosphide. Proc Annual Conf. Southeast Assoc. Game and Fish Commissioners. 24:201-
205.
Hudson, R. H., R. K. Tucker, and M. A. Haegele. 1984. Handbook of toxicity of pesticides to wildlife, 2nd
ed. U. S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Resour. PubL 153. 90 pp.
ICI Americas Inc. 1988. Talon product label ICI Americas Inc, Wilmington, DE.
Jones. 1977. Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 4th Ed.
Keith, J. O. and E. J. O'NeilL 1964. Investigations of a goose mortality resulting from the use of zinc
phosphide as a rodenticdde. U. S. Fish and WildL Serv., Bur. Sport Fisheries and WildL On file at
Denver Wildl. Res. Cen.
Mendenhall, V. M. and L. F. Pank. 1980. Secondary poisoning of owls by anticoagulant rodentiddes. WildL
Soc Bull. 8:311-315.
Peters, 1952. Lethal synthesis. Proc Roy. Soc Lond. 139B:143-170.
Radvanyi, A., P. Weaver, C. Massari, D. Bird, and E. Broughton. 1988. Effects of chlorophacinone on
captive kestrels. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 41:441-448.
Rudd, R. L., and R. E. Genelly. 1956. Pesticides: their use and toxicity in relation to wildlife. CaL Dept.
Fish Game, Game Bull. 7. 209 pp.
Savarie, P. J. 1979. Efficacy and safety of diphaanone as a predacide. ASTM Spec Tech PubL STP 693,
Avian Mamm. Wildl. ToxicoL 69. Amer. Soc Testing and Materials, Philadelphia.
Siegfried, W. R. 1968. The reaction of certain birds to rodent baits treated with zinc phosphide. Ostrich
39:97-198.
Sine, C., ed. 1992. Farm Chemicals Handbook. Meister PubL Co., Willoughby, Ohio. 508 pp.
Thomas, N. J. 1991a. Necropsy Report, Case 10128-001: Northern spotted owL National Wildl. Health Res.
Cen., U. S. Fish Wild. Serv., Madison, WI. 1 p.
Thomas, N. J. 1992b. Diagnostic Services Case Report, Case 10128-001, Final Report: Northern spotted owL
National Wildl. Health Res. Cen., U. S. Fish WildL Serv., Madison, WI. 2 pp.
Tietjen, H. P. 1976. Zinc phosphide-its development as a control agent for black-tailed prairie dogs. U. S.
Fish Wildl. Serv. Spec Sci. Rep. WildL No. 195.14 pp.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1991. Formal request for Endangered Species Act Section 7
consultation on 31 pesticides for all uses, on all listed species. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances. Washington D.C. 290pp.
Wiemeyer, S. N., E. F. Hill, J. W. Carpenter, and A. J. Krynitsky. 1986. Acute oral toxicity of sodium
cyanide in birds. J. WildL Dis. 22:538-546.
1-8
-------
CJ
SECTION II
CHEMICAL
PROFILES
n q
-------
Aluminum Phosphide
Magnesium Phosphide
Aluminum and Magnesium phosphide
CHEMICAL INFORMATION
TYPE: Insecticide, rodenticide
FORMULATION: Pellets, tablets, fumi-cel plate, and dust in gas exchange bags or other envelopes.
REGISTERED USES: Used inside enclosures to control insects in bulk grain and peanuts, processed food
and animal feed, leaf tobacco stores, cottonseed, and a space fumigant in flour mills, warehouses, and rail
cars. They are used as outdoor fumigants in controlling vertebrates that burrow or live in burrows.
Specifically, outdoor use registration is limited to the control of marmot species - woodchucks and yellow-
bellied marmots (rock chucks), prairie dogs (except Utah prairie dog), Norway and roof rats, house mice,
ground squirrels, moles (except in North Carolina), and chipmunks (except in California).
BACKGROUND:
Mode of Action: Causes pulmonary edema or respiratory failure.
Aquatic toxicity : Aluminum and magnesium phosphide are both restricted use fumigant insecticides and
vertebrate control agents. They are used inside enclosures which can be made more-or-less air tight to
control insects, e.g. warehouses, grain storage, mills, rail cars, etc. They are also used as outdoor fumigants
in controlling vertebrates that burrow or live in burrows. The vast majority are used for insect control in
storage enclosures. Acute and chronic toxicity data are not applicable to these phosphides because they
release deadly phosphine gas when exposed to air. The mechanisms of inhalation toxicity are not well
understood, but pulmonary edema and respiratory failure is a common cause of death. Phosphine gas
released by these chemicals is highly volatile, dissipates rapidly, and does not accumulate in carcasses of
poisoned animals. The after-use residue, a hydroxide (a constituent of clay), is a relatively inert and
innocuous material. The only outdoor use is in burrows, and because of their extreme volatility, neither
compound has an opportunity to be released into an aquatic environment (and would dissipate almost
immediately even if it occurred). Thus there is no effect on listed aquatic species.
Terrestrial toxicity. As indicated, both phosphides release deadly phosphine gas when exposed to air and
should be considered as causing 100% mortality in burrows. Thus, the use of both chemicals "may effect"
any listed species which might use burrows that may be treated for control of animals listed above. Secondary
toxicity is not a concern, however, because toxicity results from inhalation.
WilHlifp, and Incidents: None reported.
n-i
-------
Aluminum Phosphide
Magnesium Phosphide
BIOLOGICAL OPINION
CHEMICAL REFERENCE TABLE
(The follcwing table contains only those species for which the Service provided a jeopardy or no jeopardy call. Species not included in
this list are either not affected by the chemical or have no chance for exposure. For a complete list of all species considered in this
opinion, refer to the master species list on page HI-1 of the species profile section.)
1 Suedes Name 1 J/NJ 1 PAGE
¦ MAMMAKS
Black-footed ferret
J
2
Fresno hanmmn rat
J
4
Giant kanramn rat
J
4
Hualanai Mexican vole
J
4
Motto Bav kanoamn rat
J
5
Point Arena Mountain Beaver
J
5
J
6
J
6
Tmton kanvamn mt
J
4
Utah nrairie doo
Nl
9
¦ RRPTTI.FS
J
7
NJ
9
NJ
10
J
8
Gonher tortoise
J
8
NJ
10
J
7
¦ iNSFfrrs
II El Semndo blue butterfly 1 J 1 9
RATIONALE FOR JEOPARDY DETERMINATIONS
Black-footed ferret - These two pesticides mil kill anything in a burrow including a black-footed ferret and
their prey species the prairie dog. The likelihood of ferrets being found in the wild, while considered low, is
still possible. The further loss or fragmentation of prairie dog habitat which has already been reduced by as
much as 98 percent (from over 100 million acres to around 2 million acres) as well as the loss of a single
ferret in the wild could result in the extinction of the species. Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that the
use of aluminum phosphide and magnesium phosphide is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the
black-footed ferret.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the black-footed ferret:
1. A black-tailed prairie dog colony or complex of less than 80 acres having no neighboring
prairie dog towns may be treated without a ferret survey. A midrange of 102 acres (61 to
294 acres) of occupied black-tailed prairie dog habitat is believed necessary to support a
single ferret, so it is highly unlikely that a ferret would be found in an isolated colony of less
than 80 acres. A neighboring prairie dog town is defined as a colony less than 7 kilometers
(434 miles) from the town to be treated, based on the longest distance that the ferret has
been observed to travel during the night.
n-2
-------
Aluminum Phosphide
Magnesium Phosphide
2. A white-tailed prairie dog colony or complex of less than 200 acres having no neighboring
prairie dog towns may be treated without a survey. It is estimated to require between 196
and 475 acres of white-tailed prairie dogs to support a single ferret.
3. Urban situations (e.g., playgrounds, golf courses, etc.) may be treated without conducting
ferret surveys. The appropriate Service office will be contacted by the pesticide user in
advance of any treatment to determine whether a proposed action fits this situation.
4. For black-tailed prairie dog colonies or complexes over 80 acres but less than 1,000 acres,
and white-tailed prairie dog colonies or complexes over 200 acres but less than 1,000 acres,
prairie dog control may be allowed after completing a black-footed ferret survey within 30
days of proposed treatments on colonies proposed for treatment, provided no ferrets or
their sign are found. Prior to treatment, if all colonies in this complex are surveyed with no
sign of ferrets, no future survey for ferrets would be recommended. These surveys will be
coordinated with the appropriate State Office of the lush and Wildlife Service.
5. For prairie dog complexes over 1,000 acres, no control shall be allowed until the complex
has been evaluated by appropriate State and/or Federal Agencies (those agencies working
on State working groups for ferret recovery) for its potential as a recovery site and until the
complex has been block cleared. One thousand acres would be a minimum complex size for
consideration as a black-footed ferret reintroduction site and would likely require intensive
management of habitat for a ferret population.
6. The EPA shall maintain records which shall be provided to the Service on an annual baas.
These records can include the amount of acres of prairie dog towns or complexes controlled
(e.g^ Federal lands, private lands on a volunteer basis), or the amount of the chemical sold
including application rates. The latter could be obtained from either the manufacturer or
the vender.
Surveys shall be supervised by biologists trained in ferret survey techniques and ferret biology at a
Service-approved training workshop. Currently, only the University of Wyoming has such a course.
Ferret surveys shall be reviewed by the Service for compliance with survey standards and Section 7
of the Endangered Species Act.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternatives to preclude
jeopardy of the black-footed ferret, no incidental take is anticipated and thus none is authorized.
Fresno kangaroo rat, giant kangaroo rat, Tipton kangaroo rat - The primary risk of aluminum and
magnesium phosphide exposure for these species would result from registered uses of these compounds as
burrow fumigants in the southern San Joaquin Valley, California. The most likely source of exposure would
be inadvertent application to kangaroo rat burrows during control of field rodents (primarily ground squirrels
and gophers) in occupied habitats. This risk may be minimized by the fact that kangaroo rat burrows differ
substantially in appearance from burrows of target species. Nevertheless, adverse effects of aluminum and
magnesium phosphide use on Fresno, giant, and Tipton kangaroo rats could be significant because of (1)
their high toxicity (100 percent mortality in treated burrows is expected); (2) the frequency of ground squirrel
control programs in areas occupied by these species; and (3) the fact that each of these kangaroo rats occupy
habitats that are significantly restricted and/or fragmented. For these reasons, it is the Service's biological
opinion that use of aluminum and magnesium phosphide is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of
these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Fresno kangaroo rat,- giant kangaroo rat,-and Tipton
n-3
-------
Aluminum Phosphide
Magnesium Phosphide
kangaroo rat: To avoid application to kangaroo rat burrows, aluminum and magnesium phosphide
shall be used within the occupied habitats of these species only by qualified individuals. Such
persons shall be limited to wildlife biologists, certified applicators, or agents of county agricultural
commissioner offices, university extension offices, or representatives of California State or Federal
agencies, who are trained to distinguish dens and burrows of target species from those of non-target
species.
Incidental Take - Despite the reasonable and prudent alternatives described above, the Service
anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a result of aluminum and
magnesium phosphide use within the occupied habitats of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measure/sl - To minimize anticipated incidental take, EPA must establish
a monitoring enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the
introduction section on page 1-5.
Hualapal Mexican vole - The primary exposure of aluminum phosphide and magnesium phosphide to the
Hualapai Mexican vole would be through its application to control ground squirrels in non-crop rights-of-way
or recreational areas. Voles are one of a number of target organisms of aluminum phosphide and
magnesium phosphide and also is highly toxic to small mammak The likelihood thar aluminum phosphide
and magnesium phosphide would be used in the habitat of the vole is small but if it were used because of the
very small number of known voles, the consequences would be severe. Therefore, it is the Service's
biological opinion that the use of aluminum phosphide and magnesium phosphide is likely to jeopardize the
continued existence of the Hualapai Mexican vole.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative's') - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Hualapai Mexican vole: prohibit the use of aluminum
phosphide and magnesium phosphide in occupied habitat of the Hualapai Mexican Vole.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternatives to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Monro Bay kangaroo rat - The primary exposure of aluminum phosphide and magnesium phosphide from
registered uses can occur when the Morro Bay kangaroo rat utilizes the burrows of targeted animals. The
extremely limited range of this species and the presence of target control species places the Morro Bay
kangaroo rat at risk. It is the biological opinion of the Service that use of aluminum and magnesium
phosphide is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Morro Bay kangaroo rat
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^) - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: prohibit the use of aluminum and magnesium
phosphide within the occupied habitat of this species.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative described above,
no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Point Arena mountain beaver - This species is vulnerable to aluminum and magnesium phosphide exposure
during registered uses of these burrow fumigants in Mendocino County, California. The primary source of
exposure would result from inadvertent application to mountain beaver burrows during control of field
rodents, primarily ground squirrels, in occupied habitats. This risk may be especially high for this species
because mountain beaver burrows and ground squirrel burrows often have similar dimensions at the ground
surface. Adverse effects of aluminum and magnesium phosphide use on the Point Arena mountain beaver
also could be significant because (1) of the high toxicity of these fumigants; (2) the frequency of ground
squirrel control programs within the occupied habitat of this species; and (3) the fact^hat the mountain
n-4
-------
Aluminum Phosphide
Magnesium Phosphide
beaver occupies highly restricted and fragmented habitats. For these reasons, it is the Service's biological
opinion that use of aluminum and magnesium phosphide within the occupied habitat of the Point Arena
mountain beaver is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Point Arena mountain beaver. To avoid application to
mountain beaver burrows, aluminum and magnesium phosphide shall be used within the mountain
beaver occupied habitat only by qualified individuals. Such persons shall be limited to wildlife
biologists, certified applicators, or agents of county agricultural commissioner offices, university
extension offices, or representatives of California State or Federal agencies, who are trained to
distinguish dens and burrows of target species from those of non-target species.
Incidental Tate - Because of the possibility of inadvertent application of these compounds to
mountain beaver burrows despite the reasonable and prudent alternatives described above, the
Service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a result of aluminum
and magnesium phosphide use within the occupied habitat of this species.
Reasonable and Pnident Measured To minimize anticipated incidental take, EPA must establish
a monitoring enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the
introduction section on page 1-5.
San Joaquin kit fox - The primary source of kit fox exposure to aluminum and magnesium phosphide would
result from erroneous application of these fumigants to kit fox dens during control of rodents, primarily
ground squirrels, in the San Joaquin Valley, California. The possibility of such error is especially high for kit
foxes because kit fox dens and ground squirrel burrows often have similar dimensions at the ground surface.
Although the kit fox is relatively wide-ranging, aluminum and magnesium phosphide use could have
significant adverse effects on this species because of: (1) the high toxicity of these fumigants; (2) the
frequency of ground squirrel control programs within the kit fox range; and (3) the fact that serious localized
effects of aluminum and magnesium phosphide use could occur in areas where the kit fox range is
geographically restricted (e.g^ the north end of the range where kit foxes are confined to a narrow strip of
rangelands, and the Santa Nella area where the range forms a "bottleneck"). For these reasons, it is the
Service's biological opinion that aluminum and magnesium phosphide use within the San Joaquin kit fox
occupied habitat is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the San Joaquin kit fox: To avoid application to kit fox dens,
aluminum and magnesium phosphide shall be used within the San Joaquin kit fox occupied habitat
only by qualified individuals. Such persons shall be limited to qualified wildlife biologists, certified
applicators, or agents of county agricultural commissioner offices, university extension offices, or
representatives of California State or Federal agencies, who are trained to distinguish dens and
burrows of target species from those of non-target species.
Incidental Take - Because of the possibility of inadvertent application of these compounds to kit fox
dens despite the reasonable and prudent alternatives described above, the Service anticipates that an
unquantifiable level of incidental take of San Joaquin kit foxes may occur as a result of aluminum
and magnesium phosphide use within the occupied habitat of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - To minimise anticipated incidental take, EPA must establish
a monitoring enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the
introduction section on page I-S.
n-5
-------
Aluminum Phosphide
Magnesium Phosphide
Stephen's kangaroo rat - The primary exposure of aluminum phosphide and magnesium phosphide from
registered uses can occur when Stephen's kangaroo rat utilize the burrows of targeted animals it is the
biological opinion of the Service that use of aluminum and magnesium phosphide is likely to jeopardize the
continued existence of the Stephen's kangaroo rat.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternativefsl - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Stephen's kangaroo rat: aluminum and magnesium
phosphide shall be used within the occupied habitat of the Stephen's kangaroo rat only by qualified
individuals. Such persons shall be limited to qualified wildlife biologists, certified applicators, or
agents of county agricultural commissioner offices, university extension offices, or representatives of
California State or Federal agencies, who are trained to distinguish dens and burrows of target
species from those of non-target species.
Incidental Take Despite the reasonable and prudent alternatives described above, the service
anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a result of aluminum and
magnesium phosphide use within the occupied habitat of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurefsl - To minimize anticipated incidental take, EPA must establish
a monitoring enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the
introduction section of page 1-5.
Blunt-nosed leopard lizard, San Francisco garter snake - The blunt-nosed leopard lizard and San Francisco
garter snake utilize burrows for all or part of their life cycle, and therefore are subject to aluminum and
magnesium phosphide exposure during registered uses of these compounds as burrow fumigants. However,
because leopard lizards and garter snakes do not construct their own burrows but utilize existing burrows of
other species (usually mammals), avoidance of exposure to aluminum and magnesium phosphide through
burrow identification is difficult. As a result, intended uses (as opposed to unintended uses) could result in
inadvertent exposure. The leopard lizard is subject to such exposure year round, since it utilizes burrows
during its activity and hibernation phases. The garter snake utilizes burrows only during its hibernation
phase (approximately November through March) and is subject to exposure only during this period. Because
of the high toxicity of these burrow fumigants, the likelihood of exposure, and the fact that the blunt-nosed
leopard lizard and San Francisco garter snake occupy significantly restricted and/or fragmented habitats, it is
the biological opinion of the Service that aluminum and magnesium phosphide use is likely to jeopardize the
continued existence of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the blunt-nosed leopard lizard: (1) To avoid application to
leopard lizard burrows, aluminum and magnesium phosphide shall be used within the blunt-nosed
leopard lizard occupied habitat only by qualified individuals; such persons shall be limited to wildlife
biologists, certified applicators, or agents of county agricultural commissioner offices, university
extension offices, or representatives of California State or Federal agencies, who are trained to
distinguish dens and burrows of target species from those of non-target species. (2) From April 15
to September 30, aluminum and magnesium phosphide use within the blunt-nosed leopard lizard
occupied habitat shall be limited to daylight hours when sir temperatures are between 77 and 95
degrees Fahrenheit (20 to 30 degrees Centigrade). Aluminum and magnesium phosphide use shall
be prohibited within occupied leopard lizard habitat during the leopard lizard inactivity period,
October 1 to April 14. unless a specific blunt-nosed leopard lizard protection program for this
period, approved in writing by the Service, is implemented.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the San Francisco garter snake: (1) To avoid application to
garter snake burrows, aluminum and magnesium-phosphide-shall be used within the San Francisco
n-6
-------
Aluminum Phosphide
Magnesium Phosphide
garter snake occupied habitat only by individuals; such persons shall be limited to qualified wildlife
biologists, certified applicators, or agents of county agricultural commissioner offices, university
extension offices, or representatives of California State or Federal agencies, who are trained to
distinguish dens and burrows of target species from those of non-target species. (2) Aluminum and
magnesium phosphide use within occupied gaiter snake habitat shall be prohibited during the garter
snake inactivity period, November 1 to March 30, unless a specific San Francisco garter snake
protection program for this period, approved in writing by the Service, is implemented.
Incidental Take - Because of the possibility of inadvertent application of these compounds to
burrows inhabited by leopard lizards and garter snakes despite the reasonable and prudent
alternatives described above, the Service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take
may occur as a result of aluminum and magnesium phosphide use within the occupied habitats of
these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - To minimize anticipated incidental take, EPA must establish
a monitoring enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the
introduction section on page 1-5.
Eastern indigo snake The eastern indigo snake would primarily be exposed to aluminum phosphide and
magnesium phosphide through the pesticide's registered uses as pest control in fumigating animal burrows
and agricultural storage enclosures. Because indigo snakes inhabit burrows and frequent agricultural areas,
exposure to the pesticide is likely to occur when such sites are fumigated. Aluminum and magnesium
phosphide produces the deadly gas phosphene when exposed to air. Indigo snakes inhabiting burrows or an
agricultural storage facility when the pesticide is used would be killed. Therefore, it is the Service's opinion
that the use of aluminum phosphide and magnesium phosphide is likely to jeopardize the continued existence
of the eastern indigo snake.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative's^ - If implemented the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the indigo snake: prohibit the use of these fumigants in animal
burrows within habitat types and locales known to support indigo snake populations.
Incidental Take - The Service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as
a result of the pesticides' use in areas frequented by the snake.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurefsl - To minimize incidental take, EPA must establish a
monitoring/enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the
introduction section on page I-S.
Gopher tortoise - Both aluminum phosphide and magnesium phosphide release deadly phosphine gas when
exposed to air and should be considered as causing 100 percent mortality in burrows. Secondary toxicity is
not a concern, however, because toxicity results from inhalation. The gopher tortoise is a burrowing species
and may be affected by the use of these pesticides within its borrows. Therefore, it is the opinion of the
Service that this pesticide is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the gopher tortoise.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to this species: prohibit the use of aluminum phosphide and
magnesium phosphide within the occupied habitat of this species west of the Mobile and Tombigbee
Rivers, Alabama.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
H-7
-------
Aluminum Phosphide
Magnesium Phosphide
EI Segundo Hue butterfly - The primary exposure of aluminum and magnesium phosphide and impact to the
El Segundo Blue butterfly is its possible use against rodents such as ground squirrels and gophers.' Mortality
to larvae could occur due to the insecticide effect of the chemicals in the soil. These populations are very
limited in their occupied habitat, one site being a two acre area set aside by a Chevron oil refinery and the
other being a 300 acre area at the western end of the Los Angeles International Airport, both located in Los
Angeles County. It is the biological opinion of the Service that use of aluminum and magnesium phosphide
is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the El Segundo blue butterfly.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: prohibit the use of aluminum phosphide and
magnesium phosphide within the occupied habitat of El Segundo blue butterfly.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative described above,
no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
RATIONALE FOR NO JEOPARDY DETERMINATIONS
Utah prairie dog Both aluminum phosphide and magnesium phosphide are registered to control marmots,
prairie dogs (except Utah prairie dogs), rats, house mice, ground squirrels, moles, and chipmunks. EPA
states that existing labels specifically prohibit application of these two pesticides where the Utah prairie dog
occurs. Provided this restriction remains and the use of these two pesticides are not allowed within the
range of the Utah prairie dog, the Service believes that the use of aluminum phosphide and magnesium
phosphide is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Utah prairie dog.
Incidental Take - Because the use of aluminum phosphide and magnesium phosphide is prohibited
within the occupied habitat of the Utah prairie dog, no incidental take is anticipated and thus none
is authorized.
Coachella Valley fringe-toed lizard - There is potential exposure to this species by aluminum phosphide and
magnesium phosphide from registered application for rodents due to the use of rodent burrows by the
Coachella Valley fringe-toed lizard. It is the Service's biological opinion that use of aluminum phosphide and
magnesium phosphide is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Coachella Valley fringe-toed
lizard.
Incidental Take - The service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as
a result of aluminum and magnesium phosphide use within the occupied habitat of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurefsl - If the following reasonable and prudent measures are
implemented, incidental take of the Coachella Valley fringe-toed lizard mil be minimized: prohibit
the use of aluminum phosphide and magnesium phosphide within the occupied habitat of the
Coachella Valley fringe-toed lizard.
Desert tortoise - There is potential exposure of aluminum phosphide and magnesium phosphide from
registered application for rodents since tortoise burrows, though they are much larger in size, may be
accidentally treated. Given that this impact would be expected to be rare, it is the Service's biological
opinion that use of aluminum phosphide and magnesium phosphide is not likely to jeopardize the continued
existence of this species.
Incidental Take - The service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as
a result of aluminum and magnesium phosphide use within the occupied habitat of this species.
n-s
-------
Aluminum Phosphide
Magnesium Phosphide
Reasonable and Prudent Measured If the following reasonable and prudent measures are
implemented, incidental take of the desert tortoise will be minimized: aluminum and magnesium
phosphide shall be used within the desert tortoise occupied habitat only by qualified individuals.
Such persons shall be limited to wildlife biologists, certified applicators, or agents of county
agricultural commissioner offices, university extension offices, or representatives of California State
or Federal agencies, who are trained to distinguish dens and burrows of target species from those of
non-target species.
Island night lizard - There is potential exposure to this species by aluminum phosphide and magnesium
phosphide from registered application for rodents due to the use of rodent burrows by the island night lizard.
It is the Service's biological opinion that use of aluminum phosphide and magnesium phosphide is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the island night lizard.
Incidental Take The service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as
a result of aluminum and magnesium phosphide use within the occupied habitat of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - If the following reasonable and prudent measures are
implemented, incidental take of the island night lizard will be minimized: prohibit the use of
aluminum and magnesium phosphide within the occupied habitat of this species.
n-9
-------
Brodifacoum
Brodifacoum
CHEMICAL INFORMATION
TYPE: Rodenticide (coumarin anticoagulant)
FORMULATION: Ready-to-use grain-based pellets, minipellets, and wax blocks (Sine 1992).
REGISTERED USES: Control of Norway rats, roof rats and house mice in and around urban, industrial,
commercial, agricultural and public buildings. Brodifacoum also may be used in and around transport
vehicles (ships, trains, and aircraft) and related port buildings, but not in sewers. It must be placed in
tamper proof bait boxes or in locations not accessible to children, pets, domestic animals or wildlife (d-CON
1989, IQ Americas 1988).
BACKGROUND:
Mode of action: Brodifacoum is a non-restricted anticoagulant rodenticide that acts by depressing the
clotting capabilities of the blood while concurrently increasing the permeability of capillaries throughout the
body. This action predisposes the exposed animal to widespread internal hemorrhage. Death generally
occurs after several days of ingestion. However, as brodifacoum is more toxic than most anticoagulants, it
may have lethal effects with only one feeding.
Aquatic toxicity: Brodifacoum is highly toxic to fish and aquatic invertebrates. Laboratory LCg, values for
rainbow trout and bluegill are 0.045 and 0.089 ppm, respectively, and the Daphnia maffta EC^ is 0.89 ppm.
However, it is unlikely that normal use of brodifacoum would harm aquatic fauna, as its application methods
(tamper-proof bait packets) and its characteristic of being essentially insoluble in water (Sine 1992) should
preclude exposure. Therefore, brodifacoum should not be subject to runoff, leaching or drift
Terrestrial toxicity: Brodifacoum has been shown to be highly toxic to birds and mammals under laboratory
conditions. Reported LD^j for rat, opossum, mallard, ring-necked pheasant are 027.0.17, 2.0, and 10.0
mg/kg respectively. Secondary field studies where fox, owls, golden eagles and red-shouldered hawks were
fed rats that had died from brodifacoum indicate significant hazard to the predators and scavengers. Since
the half-life of brodifacoum is 150 to 200 days in rat carcasses, acute and chronic secondary exposure is a
major concern for listed scavengers and predators. These species may be exposed to brodifacoum either as a
bait or by feeding on poisoned rodents. It is unlikely that liked plants or known plant pollinators will be
affected by use of brodifacoum.
Wildlife incidents: EPA reported no wildlife poisoning incidents associated with brodifacoum. However,
laboratory studies have demonstrated secondary poisoning of foxes and raptors. In addition, there are
records indicating that a northern spotted owl in Washington may have died from brodifacoum exposure in
April 1991 (Thomas 1991a and 1991b). The bird was alive and intoxicated when captured and died shortly
thereafter. Laboratory analysis indicated massive hemorrhaging and brodifacoum residues in the liver.
n-io
-------
Brodifacoum
BIOLOGICAL OPINION
CHEMICAL REFERENCE TABLE
(The following table contains only these species for which the Service provided a jeopardy or no jeopardy call. Species not included in
this list are either not affected by the chemical or have no chance for exposure. For a complete list of all species considered in this
opinion, refer to the master species list on page IH-1 of the species profile section.)
1 Suedes Name
J/NJ
PAGE
¦ MAMMAI.S
J
12
J
13
J
13
J
12
J
14
Fresno kanimmrv rut
J
14
NI
16
NJ
16
Morro Bav kanraroo rat
J
15
Perdido Rev beach mouse
J
12
NI
16
Salt march harvest mouse
J
14
NI
17
Southeastern beach mouse
I
13
NI
17
Tintnn knnramn rat
NI
16
¦ BIRDS
J
IS
NI
1R
I
16
¦ RRPnrjK
1! Eastern indico snake
NJ
18
RATIONALE FOR JEOPARDY DETERMINATIONS
Alabama beach mouse, Choctawhatehee beach mouse, and Perdido Key beach mouse - Exposure of these
beach mice to brodifacoum could occur through consumption of poisoned baits when used to control rodents
within or in close proximity to their occupied habitats. Since all three of these subspecies of beach mice
occur in areas that are being encroached upon by various types of human development, there is a high
possibility of brodifacoum being used where these mice could come in contact with it. All three mice are
restricted to mature coastal barrier dune systems along the Gulf of Mexico. The Choctawhatchee beach
mouse is presently known to occur only on Shell Island at St. Andrews Bay in Bay County, Florida, and on
approximately 7.9 km of beach dune habitat (coastline up to 150 m inland) near Topsail Hill, from around
Morrison Lake eastward to Stahvorth Lake, Walton County, Florida. The Alabama beach mouse presently is
surviving only on disjunct tracts of the sand dune system from Fort Morgan State Park to the Romar Beach
area, Baldwin County, Alabama. The Perdido Key beach mouse occurs only on Perdido Key in Baldwin
County, Alabama and Escambia County, Florida. The distance to which occupied habitat of these species
extends inland from the beach varies depending upon the configuration of the sand dune system and the
vegetation present. There are generally three types of microhabitats within the dune systems utilized by
these three beach mice-frontal and primary dunes sparsely vegetated with grasses (dominated by sea oats
and panic grasses), seaside rosemary, beach morning glory, and railroad vine; interdunal areas supporting
sedges, rushes, cordgrass, and salt-grass; and dunesfurther inland(secondary and interiordunes) dominated
n-n
-------
Brodifacoum
by growths of scrub oak, sand-live oak, seaside rosemary, and occasional patches of grasses and «lach pine
and sand pine. Because of the restricted distributions of these species, their limited populations and the
likelihood of brodifacoum being used for rodent control within or adjacent to areas which they inhabit, it is
the Service's biological opinion that the registered use of brodifacoum is likely to jeopardize the continued
existence of the Choctawhatchee beach mouse, the Alabama beach mouse, and the Perdido Key beach
mouse.
Reasonable and Prudent A1fpm»riv«r^ . If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: Prohibit use of brodifacoum within 100 yards of
occupied habitat of the Choctawhatchee beach mouse, the Alabama beach mouse, and the Perdido
Key beach mouse.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Anastasia bland Beach Mouse and Southeastern Beach Mouse - These two beach mice are endemic to the
east coast of Florida. The Anastasia Island beach mouse apparently once occurred from the St. Johns River
south to Anastasia Island, St. Johns County, Florida, but the species is now believed to occur only on
Anastasia Island. The historic range of the southeastern beach mouse was from Florida's Mosquito (Pounce)
Inlet in Volusia County south to Hollywood Beach in Broward County. However, the southeastern beach
mouse is believed to have been eliminated from the southern portion of its range and presently occurs only
from Mosquito Inlet south to, and including, Hutchinson Island in St. Lucie County. Both subspecies inhabit
sand dunes vegetated by sea oats and dune panic grass and the scrub adjoining these dunes, which is
vegetated with oaks, sand pine, palmetto, sea grapes, and/or wax myrtle. Since the ranges of both species
have been and continue to be encroached upon by human development of various types, it is likely that
brodifacoum could be used for pest control in areas where both these beach mice occur. Exposure of these
mice to brodifacoum would occur through ingestion of poison baits, which would result in direct mortality of
individuals of the species. Accordingly, it is the Service's biological opinion that the registered use of
brodifacoum is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Anastasia Island beach mouse or the
southeastern beach mouse.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternativefst - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: Prohibit use of brodifacoum within 100 yards of
occupied habitat of the Anastasia Island beach mouse and the southeastern beach mouse.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Carolina northern flying squirrel This species may be directly exposed to brodifacoum poisoning from its
registered use to control rats and mice around agricultural buildings and structures. The Carolina northern
flying squirrel occurs in coniferous and northern hardwood forests, and may occasionally forage on the
ground. Where land use changes and development encroach on the species' habitat there is a potential risk
of the squirrel coming in contact with brodifacoum bait that is placed outside of buildings (e.g., storage sheds
and barns). Brodifacoum is toxic to rodents and would most likely kill a northern flying squirrel if it
consumed the bait. Due to the restricted range and small population of the Carolina northern flying squirrel,
any poisoning of individuals could threaten the survival of the species. Therefore, it is the Service's opinion
that the use of brodifacoum is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Carolina northern flying
squirrel
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Carolina northern flying squirrel: prohibit the outdoor use
of the chemical within the species' occupied habitat.
n-12
-------
Brodifacoum
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Florida salt marsh vole Exposure of the vole to brodifacoum could occur through consumption of poisoned
baits when used to control rodents in close proximity to the vole's occupied marsh habitat. There is a
possibility of brodifacoum being used around buildings or other structures adjacent to salt marsh where the
vole could come in contact with it. The vole is restricted to a single known site in the salt marsh of
Waccasassa Bay, Levy County, Florida. Because of the restricted distribution of the species, its limited
population, and the likelihood of brodifacoum being used for rodent control adjacent to areas which the vole
inhabits, it is the Service's biological opinion that the registered use of brodifacoum is likely to jeopardize the
continued existence of the Florida salt marsh vole.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: Prohibit use of brodifacoum within 100 yards of
the landward edge of the species' habitat in Levy County, Florida.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Fresno kangaroo rat, salt marsh harvest mouse - Despite the relatively restricted patterns of brodifacoum
uses (registered for control of domestic rats and mice in an around urban and agricultural buildings), Fresno
kangaroo rats and salt marsh harvest mice are vulnerable to brodifacoum exposure because: (1) both species
occupy areas of high human activity in which
man-made structures exist near or adjacent to their habitats (agricultural areas in the San Joaquin Valley,
California, and the San Francisco Bay area, respectively); (2) both species occupy highly restricted and
fragmented habitats, which increases both the risks and potential effects of brodifacoum exposure; (3) some
formulations of this compound (bait packs and grain based pellets) could be attractive to kangaroo rats and
harvest mice; and (4) brodifacoum is highly toxic to all rodents. Based on these considerations, it is the
Service's biological opinion that brodifacoum use within the range of the Fresno kangaroo rat and salt marsh
harvest mouse is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative's') - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Fresno kangaroo rat and salt marsh harvest mouse:
Prohibit outdoor brodifacoum use within 100 yards of these species' occupied habitats.
Incidental Take - Although possible exposure of the Fresno kangaroo rat and salt marsh harvest
mouse to brodifacoum is probably minimal, the Service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of
incidental take may occur as a result of brodifacoum use within the ranges of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - To minimise anticipated incidental take, EPA must establish
a monitoring enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the
introduction section on page 1-5.
Morro Bay kangaroo rat - The primary exposure of brodifacoum from registered uses can occur when the
Morro Bay kangaroo rat ingests treated bait. The extremely limited range of this species, the presence of
target rodents, and the interspersion of this species habitat with urban, agricultural, and commercial buildings
place the Morro Bay kangaroo rat at risk. While it is required to place the bait boxes in areas not
frequented by midlife, it is probable that this species could access the bait. It is the biological opinion of the
Service that use of brodifacoum is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Morro Bay kangaroo
rat.
n-13
-------
Brodifacoum
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Morro Bay kangaroo rat: prohibit the use of brodifacoum
within 100 yards of the occupied habitat of the Morro Bay kangaroo rat
Incidental Take With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative described above,
no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Audubon's crested caracara - The caracara would be exposed to brodifacoum by consuming a mouse, rat or
other animal that had been poisoned by the rodenticide. EPA data indicates that this rodenticide would
cause lethal secondary poisoning in birds of prey. Hawks and owls have died, and eagles have suffered sub-
lethal effects, from having consumed brodifacoum poisoned rats. The caracara feeds on live prey, as well as,
feeding on carrion in areas where the rodenticide may be used. Because of the caracara's small population
size, any rodenticide induced mortality could threaten the survival of the species. Therefore, it is the
Service's opinion that the use of brodifacoum is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Audubon's
crested caracara.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Audubon's crested caracara: prohibit the use of the
pesticide within the occupied habitat of the species.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
San Clem en te Loggerhead Shrike - San Clemente loggerhead shrikes may be exposed secondarily to
brodifacoum if they consume rodents that have ingested this chemical from registered rodent control
activities. Brodifacoum is highly toxic to birds both directly and secondarily. San Clemente Island contains
buildings where brodifacoum can be used and shrikes could then contact dosed rodents. There are less than
20 pairs of these bird in the wild and in captivity. Based on these considerations, it is the Service's biological
opinion that brodifacoum use on San Clemente Island is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the
San Clemente loggerhead shrike.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternativefsl - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent alternatives
would avoid jeopardy to the San Clemente loggerhead shrike: Prohibit the use of brodifacoum on San
Clemente Island, California.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative(s) to preclude jeopardy to
this species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
RATIONALE FOR NO JEOPARDY DETERMINATIONS
Giant kangaroo rat, Point Arena mountain beaver, and Tipton kangaroo rat - Despite relatively restricted
brodifacoum use patterns (registered for control of domestic rats and mice in an around urban and
agricultural buildings), giant kangaroo rats, Point Arena mountain beaver, and Upton kangaroo rats may be
subject to periodic brodifacoum exposure because they sometimes occupy habitats that are adjacent to
human activities and structures. Tipton kangaroo rats may be found near residential, agricultural, and
commercial buildings in the southern San Joaquin Valley of California; mountain beavers near municipal and
communication structures in the Point Arena vicinity; and giant kangaroo rats in oil Gelds and rangelands in
the southwest and west central portions of the San Joaquin Valley where industrial and ranch buildings are
present. However, both kangaroo rat species occupy a more widespread range than the Fresno kangaroo rat
discussed above and much of their ranges are far removed from anticipated brodifacoum use areas.
Furthermore, restriction of this compound to use in bait boxes eliminates
n-14
-------
Brodifacoum
most avenues of exposure to mountain beaver. Therefore, it is the Services' biological opinion that
brodifacoum use within the ranges of the Tipton kangaroo rat, Point Arena mountain beaver, and giant
kangaroo rat is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of these species.
Incidental Take - Although possible exposure of the Upton kangaroo rat, Point Arena mountain
beaver, and giant kangaroo rat to brodifacoum is probably minimal, the Service anticipates that an
unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a result of brodifacoum use within the ranges of
these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurefsl If the following reasonable and prudent measures are
implemented, incidental take of the giant and Upton kangaroo rat will be minimized: Prohibit
outdoor brodifacoum use within 100 yards of these species' occupied habitats.
Louisiana black bear - The Louisiana black bear would likely only be exposed to brodifacoum by consuming
a mouse, rat or other animal that had been poisoned by the rodenticide. Black bears occasionally venture
into agricultural areas where the rodenticide may be used. Although brodifacoum is extremely toxic to
mammals, based on EPA data it is very unlikely that a mammal as large a bear would consume enough
poisoned rodents to cause lethal secondary poisoning. Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that the use of
brodifacoum is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Louisiana black bear.
Incidental Take - Although the chance of exposure and hazard are. considered minimal, because of
the high toxicity of brodifacoum to mammals, it is still a matter of concern. Thus, the Service
anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a result of this chemical's use
in areas of or adjacent to bear habitat.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - The following reasonable and prudent measure for
minimizing incidental take must be adopted: prohibit the use of the chemical within the occupied
habitat of the Louisiana black bear.
San Joaquin kit fox - Despite the restricted pattern of brodifacoum use (registered for control of domestic
rats and mice in and around urban and agricultural buildings), San Joaquin kit foxes may be subject to
periodic brodifacoum exposure because they occupy some habitats adjacent to human activities and
structures. The kit fox may be found around military structures at Camp Roberts and Fort Hunter-Liggett
(Monterey County, California); commercial and residential structures in urban and municipal areas (e.g^
Bakersfield, California); industrial structures in the Kern County oil fields; and agricultural and ranch
buildings throughout its range. There are two potential sources of kit fox exposure to brodifacoum: (1)
direct consumption of brodifacoum baits (possible especially for pellet baits); and (2) secondary poisoning by
consuming small mammals killed or incapacitated by brodifacoum exposure. However, because this species
has a relatively large range and many of its habitats are far removed from anticipated brodifacoum uses, it is
the Service's biological opinion that brodifacoum use is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the
San Joaquin kit fox.
Incidental Take Although possible exposure of the San Joaquin kit fox to brodifacoum is probably
minimal, the Service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a result
of brodifacoum use within the range of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurefsl - If the following reasonable and prudent measures are
implemented, incidental take of the San Joaquin kit fox will be minimized: Outdoor application of
brodifacoum baits within the range of the San Joaquin kit fox shall be placed in tamper resistant bait
boxes and shall not be placed in areas accessible to wildlife.
Stephen's kangaroo rat - The primary exposure of brodifacoum from registered uses can occur when
Stephen's kangaroo rat ingests treated bait. Exposure to the chemical can occur from its registered use
n-15
-------
Brodifacoum
around agricultural, commercial, industrial buildings, residences, that are interspersed with the habitat of this
species. The use of bait boxes placed in areas not usually accessible to wildlife and the large range of the
species reduces, but does not eliminate the risk to the Stephen's kangaroo rat. It is the biological opinion of
the Service that use of brodifacoum is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Stephen's
kangaroo rat
Incidental Take - The service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as
a result of brodifacoum use within the occupied habitat of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured If the following reasonable and prudent measures are
implemented, incidental take of the Stephen's kangaroo rat will be minimized: prohibit the use of
brodifacoum within 100 yards of occupied habitat.
Hawaiian hawk - Hawaiian hawks range throughout most of the Island of Hawaii below 7000 feet elevation,
preferring open, non-urban areas. These raptors feed on birds, insects, reptiles and small mammals
(including rats, mice and mongooses). While it is possible that hawks may be exposed to this rodenticide
through secondary routes, limitations on the use of brodifacoum to buildings and tamper-proof packets
greatly diminish the chances of exposure. Consequently, it is the Service's biological opinion that use of
brodifacoum as described above within habitat occupied by the Hawaiian hawk is not likely to jeopardize the
continued existence of this species.
Incidental Take- Although the possible exposure of the Hawaiian hawk to brodifacoum is probably
minimal, the Service anticipates an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a result of
this chemical's use within or adjacent to occupied habitat.
Reasonable and Prudent MeasurefsVThe following reasonable and prudent measures for minimizing
incidental take must be adopted: prohibit the use of brodifacoum within 100 yards of the Hawaiian
hawk's occupied habitat.
Eastern indigo snake - The eastern indigo snake would only be exposed to brodifacoum by eating an animal
such as a mouse or rat that had been poisoned by the rodenticide. Indigo snakes occasionally occur in
agricultural areas where rodenticides are likely to be used. Although EPA has no toxicity data for reptiles,
the data on birds is considered applicable to reptiles. Laboratory studies indicate that brodifacoum poses a
lethal secondary poisoning hazard to birds of prey. However, the snake's potential for exposure to poisoned
prey is considered minimal. Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that the use of brodifacoum is not likely to
jeopardize the continued existence of the eastern indigo snake.
Incidental Take - Although the chance of exposure is considered minimal, because of the high
toxicity of brodifacoum, it is still a matter of concern. Thus, the Service anticipates that an
unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a result of this chemical's use in areas where the
eastern indigo snake may occur.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - The following reasonable and prudent measure for
minimising incidental take should be adopted: conduct laboratory studies using surrogate snake
species to obtain toxicity data on the chemical's secondary poisoning hazard to snakes.
H-16
-------
Bromadiolone
Bromadiolone
CHEMICAL INFORMATION
TYPE: Rodenticide
FORMULATION: Concentrates, liquid baits, meal baits, paraffin blocks, ready-to-use grain-based bait
pellets and mini pellets (Sine 1992).
REGISTERED USES: Control of Norway rats, roof rats, and house mice in urban areas in and around the
periphery of homes, industrial, commercial and public buildings, alleys and cargo areas of ships, trains, and
aircraft. Bromadiolone can be used in official establishments operating under the Federal meat, poultry,
shell egg grading, and egg product inspection program. Use in sewers or public parks is prohibited (Sine
1992).
BACKGROUND:
Mode of action: Bromadiolone is a general use anticoagulant rodenticide that acts by depressing the clotting
capabilities of the blood while concurrently increasing the permeability of capillaries throughout the body.
This action predisposes the exposed animal to widespread internal hemorrhage. Death generally occurs after
several days of ingestion.
Aquatic toxicity: Bromadiolone is highly tone to fish and aquatic invertebrates. Laboratory LC^, values for
rainbow trout and bluegill are 1.4 and 3.0 ppm, respectively, and the Daphnia magna ECjq is 024 ppm.
However, it is unlikely that normal use of bromadiolone would harm aquatic fauna, as its formulations,
application methods, characteristic of being essentially insoluble in water (Sine 1992) should preclude
exposure. Therefore, bromadiolone should not be subject to runoff, leaching, or drift.
Terrestrial toxicity: Laboratory data indicate that bromadiolone's LDg, for rats is 1.125 mg/kg for the pure
compound. However, the rat LDjq is 200 g/kg at the 0.005% concentration (the standard bait formulation).
Therefore, formulated products containing bromadiolone are only slightly toxic to rodents. The LD^ for the
northern bobwhite is 100 mg/kg. There are no definitive environmental fate data available for
bromadiolone. However, the compound likely persists in carcasses of poisoned rodents. Therefore, potential
exposure of listed scavengers and predators to bromadiolone is a significant concern. These species may be
exposed to the rodenticide either as a bait or by feeding on poisoned rodents. Bromadiolone is nontoxic to
bees (Sine 1992). It is unlikely that listed plants or known plant pollinators mil be affected by use of
bromadiolone.
Wildlife incidents: EPA reported no known incidents of wildlife poisoning associated with bromadiolone.
H-17
-------
Bromadiolone
BIOLOGICAL OPINION
CHEMICAL REFERENCE TABLE
(The following table contains only thou species for which the Service provided a jeopardy or no jeopardy call. Species not included in
this list are either not affected by the chemical or have no chance for exposure. For a complete list of all species considered in this
opinion, refer to the master species list on page III-l of the species profile section.)
1 Suedes Name
J/NI
PAGE
¦ MAMMALS
Alabama beach mouse
J
20
J
21
Choctawhatchee beach mouse
J
20
NJ
22
J
21
Perdido Kev beach mouse
J
20
Point Arena mountain beaver
NJ
22
Salt marsh harvest mouse
J
21
San Joaauin kit fox
NJ
22
Southeastern beach mouse
J
21
Steohen's Irnnraroo rat
NJ
23
Tioton kansraroo rat
NJ
22
RATIONALE FOR JEOPARDY DETERMINATIONS
Alabama Beach Moose, Choctawhatehee Beach Mouse, and Perdido Key beach mouse - Exposure of these
three beach mice to the rodenticide bromadiolone could occur through direct contact with poisoned baits
when used within or in close proximity to their occupied habitats. All three subspecies are restricted to
mature coastal barrier dune systems along the Gulf of Mexico and occur in areas that are being encroached
upon by human development. Therefore, there is a possibility of exposure to bromadiolone. The
Choctawhatchee beach mouse is presently known to occur only on Shell Island at St Andrews Bay in Bay
County, Florida, and on approximately 7.9 km of beach dune habitat (coastline up to 150 m inland) near
Topsail Hill, from around Morrison Lake eastward to Stalworth Lake, Walton County, Florida. The
Alabama beach mouse presently is surviving only on disjunct tracts of the sand dune system from Fort
Morgan State Park to the Romar Beach area, Baldwin County, Alabama. The Perdido Key beach mouse
occurs only on Perdido Key in Baldwin County, Alabama and Escambia County, Florida. The distance to
which occupied habitat of these mice extends inland from the beach varies depending upon the configuration
of the sand dune system and the vegetation present. All three beach mice utilize portions of the frontal or
primary dunes; interdunal areas; and dunes further inland (secondary or interior dunes). Because of the
restricted distributions of these species and the likelihood of bromadiolone being used for rodent control
within or adjacent to areas which they inhabit, it is the Service's biological opinion that the registered use of
bromadiolone is likely to jeopardize die continued existence of the Choctawhatchee beach mouse, the
Alabama beach mouse, and the Perdido Key beach mouse.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative(s') - If implemented the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: Prohibit use of bromadiolone within 100 yards of
occupied habitat of the Choctawhatchee beach mouse, the Alabama beach mouse, and the Perdido
Key beach mouse.
n-18
-------
Bromadiolone
Incidental Tate - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Anastasla Island Beach Moose and Southeastern Beach Moose These two beach mice are endemic to the
east coast of Florida. The Anastasia Island beach mouse is presently believed to occur only on An astasia
Island, SL Johns County, Florida. The southeastern beach mouse is believed to presently occur only from
Florida's Mosquito (Pounce) Inlet in Volusia County south to Hutchinson Island in St. Lucie County, Florida.
Both species inhabit sand dunes vegetated by sea oats and dune panic grass and the scrub adjoining these
dunes, which is vegetated with oaks, sand pine, palmetto, sea grapes, and/or wax myrtle. It is likely that
bromadiolone could be used for pest control in areas where both these beach mice occur, since the ranges of
both species have been and continue to be encroached upon by human development. Exposure of the mice
to bromadiolone would occur through consumption of poison baits, which would result in direct mortality of
individuals of the species. Accordingly, it is the Service's biological opinion that the registered use of
bromadiolone is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Anastasia Island beach mouse and the
southeastern beach mouse.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: Prohibit use of bromadiolone within 100 yards of
occupied habitat of the Anastasia Island beach mouse and the southeastern beach mouse.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Monro Bay kangaroo rat - The primary exposure of bromadiolone from registered uses can occur when the
Morro Bay kangaroo rats ingest treated bait. The presence of urban development would allow placement of
bait outside of buildings adjacent to occupied habitat where the rat could access the treated bait. The
extremely limited range of this species combined with the interspersion of building and urban development
with occupied habitat, place the species at risk. It is the biological opinion of the Service that use of
bromadiolone is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Morro Bay kangaroo rat.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Morro Bay kangaroo rat: prohibit the use of bromadiolone
within 100 yards of the occupied habitat of the Morro Bay kangaroo rat.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative described above,
no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Salt marsh harvest mouse - Despite the relatively restricted patterns of bromadiolone uses (registered for
outdoor use in urban areas only), the salt marsh harvest mouse could be vulnerable to bromadiolone
exposure because: (1) this species occupies areas of high human activity (the San Francisco Bay area) in
which man-made equipment and structures exist near or adjacent to occupied habitats; (2) the species
occupies highly restricted and fragmented habitats, which increases both the risks and potential effects of
bromadiolone exposure; and (3) bromadiolone is highly toxic to all rodents. Based on these considerations,
it is the Service's biological opinion that bromadiolone use within the range of the salt marsh harvest mouse
is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^s'l - If implemented, the followiqg reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the salt marsh harvest mouse: prohibit outdoor bromadiolone
use within 100 yards of all habitats known to be occupied by this species.
Incidental Take - Although possible exposure of the salt marsh harvest mouse to bromadiolone is
probably minimal, the Service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as
a result of bromadiolone use within the occupied habitat of this species:
n-19
-------
Bromadiolone
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - To minimize anticipated incidental take, EPA must establish
a monitoring enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the
introduction section on page I-S.
RATIONALE FOR NO JEOPARDY DETERMINATIONS
Fresno kangaroo rat, Point Arena mountain beaver, and Tipton kangaroo rat - Despite restricted
bromadiolone use patterns (registered for use in pellet baits and for outdoor use in urban areas only), the
above species may be subject to periodic bromadiolone exposure where they occupy urban or municipal areas
in which this compound may be usede.g., in a few municipal areas in the San Joaquin Valley (Fresno and
Tipton kangaroo rats) and in Mendocino County, California (Point Arena mountain beaver). However,
exposure of these species to bromadiolone is considered to be unlikely, since relatively few occurrences of
these animals in urban or municipal areas are known. It is the Service's biological opinion that
bromadiolone use is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Fresno kangaroo rat, Point Arena
mountain beaver, or Tipton kangaroo rat.
Incidental Take - Although possible exposure of the Fresno kangaroo rat, Point Arena mountain
beaver, and Tipton kangaroo rat to bromadiolone probably is minimal, the Service anticipates that
an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a result of bromadiolone use within the
ranges of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measure(s> - If the following reasonable and prudent measures are
implemented, incidental take of the Fresno kangaroo rat, Point Arena mountain beaver, and Upton
kangaroo rat will be minimized: Prohibit outdoor bromadiolone use within 100 yards of all habitats
occupied by these species.
San Joaquin kit fox - Despite the restricted pattern of bromadiolone use (registered in pellet baits and for
outdoor use in urban areas only), San Joaquin kit foxes may be subject to periodic bromadiolone exposure
because they occupy some habitats that are urban or quasi-urban and are adjacent to human structures. Kit
foxes may be found around military structures at Camp Roberts and Fort Hunter-Liggett (Monterey County,
California), and around commercial and residential structures in urban and municipal areas (e.g., Bakersfield,
California). There are two potential sources of kit fox exposure to bromadiolone: (1) direct consumption of
bromadiolone baits (possible especially for pellet formulations); and (2) secondary poisoning by consuming
small mammals killed or incapacitated by bromadiolone exposure. However, because this species has a
relatively large range and many of its habitats are far removed from anticipated bromadiolone uses, it is the
Service's biological opinion that bromadiolone use is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the
San Joaquin kit fox.
Incidental Take - Although possible exposure of the San Joaquin kit fox to bromadiolone is
probably minimal, the Service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as
a result of bromadiolone use within the range of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - If the following reasonable and prudent measures are
implemented, incidental take of the San Joaquin kit fox will be minimized: Outdoor application of
bromadiolone baits within the range of the San Joaquin kit fox shall be placed in tamper resistant
bait boxes and shall not be placed in areas accessible to wildlife
Stephen's kangaroo rat - The primary exposure of bromadiolone from registered uses can occur when
Stephen's kangaroo rat ingests treated bait. It is the biological opinion of the Service that use of
bromadiolone is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Stephen's kangaroo rat.
D-20
-------
Bromadiolone
Incidental Take - The service anticipates that ail unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as
a result of bromadiolone use within the occupied habitat of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurefs) - If the following reasonable and prudent measures are
implemented, incidental take of the Stephen's kangaroo rat will be minimized: prohibit the use of
bromadiolone within 100 yards of occupied habitat
n-21
-------
Bromethalin
Bromethalin
CHEMICAL INFORMATION
TYPE: Rodenticide
FORMULATION: 0.005% to 0.01% bait concentration applied in tamper proof bait boxes or in locations
inaccessible to children, domestic animals and wildlife.
REGISTERED USES: Control of Norway rats, roof rats and house mice in and around homes, commercial,
industrial and agricultural buildings. Also airports, landing strips and urban alleys.
BACKGROUND:
Mode of action: Bromethalin is a rodenticide completely unlike anticoagulants. It is a neurotoxin that
increases cerebral pressure blocking off nerve transmission to the lungs resulting in general paralysis and
suffocation.
Aquatic toxicity: Bromethalin is almost insoluble in water [<0.01 ppm], Bromethalin is very highly toxic to
fish and aquatic invertebrates. Laboratory tests demonstrated bromethalin LCjqS of 0.053 and 0.027 ppm for
rainbow trout and Daphnia magna, respectively. EPA did not report any aquatic field studies or testing with
marine or estuarine organisms. It is highly unlikely that bromethalin will effect listed aquatic species, as the
pesticide's use in bait boxes precludes run-off into aquatic systems.
Terrestrial toxicity: Bromethalin has been shown to be highly toxic to birds and mammals under laboratory
feeding studies. LD^ values for mouse, rat, rabbit, cat, dog, and northern bobwhite are 53,9.1, 2,18,4.8,
and 4.66 mg/kg, respectively. However, due to the use pattern for this chemical, no impact is expected on
birds. However, certain listed species of mammals [rodents] are at risk if their habitat is adjacent to
buildings where bromethalin might be used and they are inclined to feed on the bait attract ant. No
secondary toxicity is possible since bromethalin does not accumulate in bodies of poisoned rodents. There
would be no direct or indirect impact on plants and/or pollinators considered in this consultation.
Wildlife, incidents: EPA reported no wildlife poisoning incidents associated with bromethalin.
H-22
-------
Bromethalin
BIOLOGICAL OPINION
CHEMICAL REFERENCE TABLE
(The following table contains oily those species for which the Service provided a jeopardy or no jeopardy call. Species not included in
this list are either not affected by the chemical or have no chance for exposure. For a complete list of all species considered in this
opinion, refer to the master species list on page IH-1 of the species profile section.)
1 Soecies Name
m
PACE
¦ MAMMALS
J
27
Anastasia Island beach mouse
1
28
J
28
Choctawhatchee beach mouse
J
27
J
28
J
29
NJ
30
J
29
Perdido Kev beach mnim
J
27
NJ
30
1
29
Southeastern beach mouse
J
28
NJ
30
Titton kanearoo rat
NJ
30
RATIONALE FOR JEOPARDY DETERMINATIONS
Alabama Beach Mouse, Choctawfaatehee Beach Mouse, and Perdido Key Beach Mouse - Exposure of these
beach mice to the rodenticide bromethalin could occur through direct contact with poisoned baits when used
within or in close proximity to their occupied habitats. Since, all three subspecies occur in areas that are
being encroached upon by various types of human development, there is a high possibility of this pesticide
being used where these mice could come in contact with it. All three subspecies are restricted to mature
coastal barrier dune systems along the Gulf of Mexico and The Choctawhatchee beach mouse is presently
known to occur only on Shell Island at St. Andrews Bay in Bay County, Florida, and on approximately
7.9 km of beach dime habitat (coastline up to ISO m inland) near Topsail Hill, from around Morrison Lake
eastward to Stalworth Lake, Walton County, Florida. The Alabama beach mouse presently is surviving only
on disjunct tracts of the sand dune system from Fort Morgan State Park to the Romar Beach area in
Baldwin County, Alabama. The Perdido Key beach mouse occurs only on Perdido Key in Baldwin County,
Alabama and Escambia County, Florida. The distance to which occupied habitat of these species extends
inland from the beach varies depending upon the configuration of the sand dune system and the vegetation
present. Both subspecies utilize portions of the frontal or primary dunes; interdunal areas; and dunes further
inland (secondary or interior dunes). Because of the restricted distributions and limited populations of these
species, and the likelihood of bromethalin being used for rodent control within or adjacent to areas which
they inhabit, it is the Service's biological opinion that the registered use of bromethalin is likely to jeopardize
the continued existence of the Choctawhatchee beach mouse, the Alabama beach mouse, and the Perdido
Key beach mouse.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: Prohibit use of bromethalin within 100 yards of
occupied habitat of the Choctawhatchee beach mouse, the Alabama beach mouse, and the Perdido
Key beach mouse.
H-23
-------
Bromethalin
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Anastasia Island Beach Moose and Southeastern Beach Moose - These two beach mice are endemic to the
east coast of Florida. The Anastasia Island beach mouse is presently believed to occur only on Anastasia
Island, St Johns County, Florida. The southeastern beach mouse is believed to presently occur only from
Florida's Mosquito (Pounce) Inlet in Volusia County south to Hutchinson Island in St Lucie County, Florida.
Both subspecies inhabit sand dunes vegetated by sea oats and dune panic grass and the scrub adjoining these
dunes, which is vegetated with oaks, sand pine, palmetto, sea grapes, and/or wax myrtle. Since the ranges of
both species have been and continue to be encroached upon by human development it is likely that
bromethalin could be used for pest control in areas where both these beach mice occur. Exposure of the
mice to bromethalin would occur through consumption of poison baits, which would result in direct mortality
of individuals of the species. Accordingly, it is the Service's biological opinion that the registered use of
bromethalin is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Anastasia Island beach mouse or the
southeastern beach mouse.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: Prohibit use of bromethalin within 100 yards of
occupied habitat of the Anastasia Island beach mouse and the southeastern beach mouse.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Carolina northern flying squirrel This species may be directly exposed to bromethalin poisoning from its
registered use to control rats and mice around agricultural buildings and structures. The Carolina northern
flying squirrel occurs in coniferous and northern hardwood forests, and may occasionally forage on the
ground. Where land use changes and development encroach on the species' habitat there is a potential risk
of the squirrel coming in contact with bromethalin bait that is placed outside of buildings (e.g^ storage sheds
and barns). Bromethalin is toxic to rodents and would most likely kill a northern flying squirrel if it
consumed the bait. Due to the restricted range and small population of the Carolina northern flying squirrel,
any poisoning of individuals could threaten the survival of the species. Therefore, it is the Service's opinion
that the use of bromethalin is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Carolina northern flying
squirrel
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Carolina northern flying squirrel: prohibit the outdoor use
of bromethalin within the species' occupied habitat
Incidental Take With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Florida salt marsh vole - Exposure of the salt marsh vole to bromethalin could occur through consumption
of poisoned baits used to control rodents in close proximity to the vole's occupied marsh habitat. There is a
possibility of the rodenticide being used around buildings or other structures adjacent to salt marsh habitat
where the vole could come in contact with it The vole is restricted to a single known area in the salt marsh
of Waccasassa Bay, Levy County, Florida. This rodenticide is highly toxic to mammals. Because of the
restricted distribution of the species, its limited population, and the likelihood of this rodenticide being used
for rodent control adjacent to areas in which the vole occurs, it is the Sendee's biological opinion that the use
of bromethalin is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Florida salt marsh vole.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: prohibit use of bromethalin within 100 yards of the
landward edge of the species' salt marsh habitat in Levy County, Florida.
D-24
-------
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Bromethalin
Fresno kangaroo rat, salt marsh harvest mouse - Despite the relatively restricted patterns of bromethalin
uses (registered for use in bait boxes in and around human structures only), Fresno kangaroo rats and salt
marsh harvest mice are vulnerable to bromethalin exposure because: (1) both species occupy areas of high
human activity in which man-made structures exist near or adjacent to their habitats (agricultural areas in the
San Joaquin Valley, California, and the San Francisco Bay area, respectively); (2) both species occupy highly
restricted and fragmented habitats, which increases both the risks and potential effects of bromethalin
exposure; and (3) bromethalin is highly toxic to all rodents. Based on these considerations, it is the Service's
biological opinion that bromethalin use within the range of the Fresno kangaroo rat and salt marsh harvest
mouse is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative's! - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Fresno kangaroo rat and salt marsh harvest mouse:
prohibit outdoor bromethalin use within 100 yards of habitats occupied by these species.
Incidental Take Although possible exposure of the Fresno kangaroo rat and salt marsh harvest
mouse to bromethalin probably is minimal, the Service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of
incidental take may occur as a result of bromethalin use within the ranges of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurefsl - To minimize anticipated incidental take, EPA must establish
a monitoring enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the
introduction section on page I-S.
Morro Bay kangaroo rat - Hie primary exposure of bromethalin from registered uses can occur when the
Morro Bay kangaroo rat ingests treated bait. The extremely limited range of this species, the presence of
target rodents, and the interspersion of this species habitat with urban, agricultural, and commercial buildings
place the Morro Bay kangaroo rat at risk. It is the biological opinion of the Service that use of bromethalin
is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Morro Bay kangaroo rat
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Morro Bay kangaroo rat: prohibit the use of bromethalin
within 100 yards of the occupied habitat of the Morro Bay kangaroo rat.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative described above,
no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
RATIONALE FOR NO JEOPARDY DETERMINATIONS
Giant kangaroo rat, Tipton kangaroo rat, Point Arena mountain beaver Despite relatively restricted
bromethalin use patterns (registered for use in bait boxes in an around human structures only), giant
kangaroo rats, Tipton kangaroo rats, and Point Arena mountain beaver may be subject to periodic
bromethalin exposure because they sometimes occupy habitats that are adjacent to human activities and
structures. Tipton kangaroo rats may be found near residential, agricultural, and commercial buildings in the
southern San Joaquin Valley of California; giant kangaroo rats in oil fields and rangelands in the southwest
and west central portions of the San Joaquin Valley where industrial and ranch building are present; and
mountain beaver near municipal and communication structures in the Point Arena vicinity. However, both
kangaroo rat species occupy a more widespread range than the Fresno kangaroo rat discussed above and
much of their ranges are far removed from anticipated bromethalin use areas. Furthermore, restriction of
this compound to use in bait boxes eliminates most avenues of exposure to mountain beaver. It is the
Service's biological opinion that bromethalin use within the ranges of the giant kangaroo rat, Tipton
D-25
-------
Bromethalin
kangaroo Tat, and Point Arena mountain beaver is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of these
species.
Incidental Take - Although possible exposure of the giant kangaroo rat, Tipton kangaroo rat, and
Point Arena mountain beaver to bromethalin is probably minimal, the Service anticipates that an
unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a result of bromethalin use within the ranges of
these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured If the following reasonable and prudent measures are
implemented, incidental take of the Tipton and giant kangaroo rat mil be minimi^- Prohibit
outdoor bromethalin use within 100 yards of habitat occupied by these species.
Stephen's kangaroo rat - The primary exposure of bromethalin from registered uses can occur when
Stephen's kangaroo rat ingests treated bait. Although this species will likely occasionally contact baits that
are located adjacent to agricultural, domestic, commercial, and industrial buildings; also airports and landing
strips, its large range and distribution reduce overall risk. It is the biological opinion of the Service that use
of bromethalin is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Stephen's kangaroo rat.
Incidental Take - The service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as
a result of bromethalin use within the occupied habitat of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - If the following reasonable and prudent measures are
implemented, incidental take of the Stephen's kangaroo rat will be minimized: prohibit the use of
bromethalin within 100 yards of this specie's occupied habitat.
n-26
-------
Chlorophacinone
Chlorophacinone
CHEMICAL INFORMATION
TYPE: Rodenticide (indandione)
FORMULATION: Tracking powder (nuisance baits - can only be used in buildings), pellet-baits
(mice/voles/cotton rats/field mice/house mice/pocket gophers), and concentrate ground spray (orchard
mice).
REGISTERED USES: Registered for control of Norway rats, roof rats and house mice in and around
homes, industrial and agricultural buildings; and for pocket gophers applied as bait in underground runways;
also registered for control of mice and voles in Idaho and Delaware; orchard mice in Delaware, Connecticut
and Arizona; control of deer mice in non-crop areas in Florida; ground squirrel control in Arizona; control
of deer mice, house mice and pocket gophers in California and nuisance bats in Georgia, Connecticut and
Colorado, but the last formulation is restricted to domiciles and other buildings.
BACKGROUND:
Mode of action: An anticoagulant, chlorophacinone is in a class of rodenticides known as indandiones.
Unlike the coumarin compounds, indandiones may cause symptoms and signs of neurologic and
cardiopulmonary injury leading to death before hemorrhage occurs. Death usually occurs after several days
ingestion.
Aquatic toxicity: Chlorophacinone is very toxic to fish and other aquatic invertebrates and the use of ground
liquid sprays poses a hazard to listed species if applied within or adjacent to their habitat where runoff or
drift can occur. Available data indicate chlorophacinone LC^ values of 0.252, 0.692, and 0.426 for rainbow
trout, bluegill sunfish, and Daphnia magna, respectively. However, this applies only to Arizona, Connecticut
and Delaware for ground sprays since Chlorophacinone mil have no effect on listed aquatic species when
used as a bait.
Terrestrial toxicitv: Toxicity varies widely among the indandiones and among species, with some birds and
mammals being highly sensitive and others fairly resistant. Massive single exposure or repeated low dosages
may cause poisoning (Buck et al. 1982). Total dosage to death will be much lower in anticoagulants with
repeated exposures over an extended period than in acute exposures, and the majority of mortalities mil
occur during or after the second week of exposure (Mendenhall and Pank 1980). Single dose toxicity may be
5-100 times the multiple dose toxicity, depending on species (Jones 1977). The amount of data describing
toxicity of indandiones to terrestrial taxa varies, with pival being the least tested compound and diphadnone
perhaps the most tested, and most toxic, compound. Laboratory data for chlorophacinone provide avian
LDjq values of > 100, > 100, 430, and 495 mg/kg for mallard, ring-necked pheasant, red-winged blackbird,
and northern bobwhite, respectively. Studies described below suggest that raptors are more sensitive to
chlorophacinone than those species mentioned above.
Radvanyi et aL (1988) demonstrated that American kestrels treated with chlorophacinone for 21 days showed
physical and behavioral changes, including massive internal hemorrhaging. Wing drooping was the first
observed sign. Adult and juvenile kestrels subjected to 53.0 mg chlorophacinone/day died after a mean of
16.5 and 103 days, respectively. In the 18 mg/day juvenile group, three of the four birds died after a mean
of 11 days of treatment. The surviving bird in this low dose group manifested signs consistent with
anticoagulant poisoning, but recovered within ten days of removal from the treatment. In the wild, however,
a ten day recovery period is likely to result in eventual mortality.
H-27
-------
Chlorophadnone
Mendenhall and Pank (1980) describe a study whereby bam owls were fed one of several anticoagulants
including the indandiones diphacinone and chlorophadnone. Barn owls exposed to these compounds via
treated rats did not die. These findings suggest that barn owls may be less sensitive to indandiones than are
other raptors. However, sample sizes were small and interspecific differences in toxicity remain poorly
quantified. Mendenhall and Pank (1980) noted that more severe effects may be expected under field
conditions because of potential stress, changes in diet, increased activity, or high susceptibility to injuries.
These studies suggest that, under some circumstances, indandiones may present a hazard to raptors that
consume poisoned rodents.
Available data indicate chlorophadnone LD^ values of 0.49 and 15 mg/kg for deer mouse and vampire bat,
respectively. While diphacinone generally appears to be more toxic to dogs than chlorophadnone, there are
insuffident data to generalize about the relative toxidty of different indandiones to raptors.
Wildlife incidents: Documented deaths - 4 San Joaquin kit foxes
D-28
-------
Chlorophadnone
BIOLOGICAL OPINION
CHEMICAL REFERENCE TABLE
(The following table contains only those species for which the Service provided a jeopardy or no jeopardy calL Species not included in
this list are either not affected by the chemical or have no chance for erp06ure. For a complete list of all species considered in this
opinion, refer to the master species list on page III-l of the species profile section.)
1 Suedes Name
PAGE
1 MAMMAI.S
J
31
J
32
J
32
J
32
J
31
Florida nanther
J
33
J
33
J
34
J
34
Crrav wolf
MI
38
NJ
38
J
34
J
35
NJ
38
J
35
Ocelot
J
35
Perdido Kev beach mouse
J
31
J
36
J
36
J
36
Southeastern beach mouse
J
32
Stenhen's bnramn rat
J
37
Tmton karonmo rat
J
34
NJ
39
¦ BIRDS
1 1
37
1 RRPTIT-RK
II Pattern indieo snake
NJ
39
Puerto Rican boa
NJ
39
II Vinrin Islands tree boa
NJ
40
RATIONALE FOR JEOPARDY DETERMINATIONS
Alabama beach mouse, Choctawhatehee beach mouse, and Perdido Key beach mouse - Exposure of these
beach mice to the chlorophadnone could occur through direct contact with the chemical when used within or
in close proximity to their occupied habitats. All three subspecies are restricted to mature coastal barrier
dune systems along the Gulf of Mexico and occur in areas that are being encroached upon by various types
human development. Therefore, there is a high possibility of chlorophadnone being used where these mice
could come in contact with it. The Choctawhatchee beach mouse is presently known to occur only on Shell
Island at St. Andrews Bay in Bay County, Florida, and on approximately 5 miles of beach dune habitat
(coastline up to 500 feet inland) near Topsail Hill, from around Morrison Lake eastward to Stalworth Lake,
Walton County, Florida. The Alabama beach mouse presently is surviving only on disjunct tracts of the sand
dune system from Fort Morgan State Park to the Romar Beach area in Baldwin County, Alabama. The
n-29
-------
Chlorophadnone
Perdido Key beach mouse occurs only on Perdido Key in Baldwin County, Alabama and Escambia County,
Florida. The distance to which occupied habitat of these mice extends inland from the beach varies
depending upon the configuration of the sand dune system and the vegetation present. All three subspecies
utilize portions of the frontal or primary dunes; interdunal areas; and dunes further inland (secondary or
interior dunes). Because of the restricted distributions of these species and the likelihood of
chlorophadnone being used for rodent control within or adjacent to areas which they inhabit, it is the
Service's biological opinion that the registered use of chlorophadnone is likely to jeopardize the continued
existence of the Choctawhatchee beach mouse, the Alabama beach mouse, and the Perdido Key beach
mouse.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative f si - If implemented the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: Prohibit use of chlorophadnone within 100 yards
of occupied habitat of the Choctawhatchee beach mouse, the Alabama beach mouse, and the
Perdido Key beach mouse.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no inddental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized
Amargosa vole - The primary exposure of chlorophadnone from registered uses can occur when the
Amargosa vole consumes bait from bait boxes used for muskrat control it is the Service's biological opinion
that use of chlorophadnone is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Amargosa vole.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternatives! - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Amargosa vole: prohibit the use of chlorophadnone within
100 yards of the occupied habitat of the Amargosa vole.
Inddental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative described above,
no inddental take is antiapated and therefore none is authorized.
Anastasia Island beach mouse and Southeastern beach mouse - These two beach mice are endemic to the
east coast of Florida. The Anastasia Island beach mouse is presently believed to occur only on Anastasia
Island, St. Johns County, Florida. The southeastern beach mouse is believed to presently occur only from
Florida's Mosquito (Pounce) Inlet in Volusia County south to Hutchinson Island in St Lucie County, Florida.
Both subs pedes inhabit sand dunes vegetated by sea oats and dune panic grass and the scrub adjoining these
dunes, which is vegetated with oaks, sand pine, palmetto, sea grapes, and/or wax myrtle. It is likely that
chlorophadnone could be used for pest control in areas where both these beach mice occur, since the ranges
of both species have been and continue to be encroached upon by human development Exposure of the
mice to chlorophadnone would occur through ingestion of poison baits, which would result in direct mortality
of individuals of the species. Accordingly, it is the Service's biological opinion that the registered use of
chlorophadnone is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Anastasia Island beach mouse or the
southeastern beach mouse.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^! - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the spedes: Prohibit use of chlorophadnone within 100 yards
of occupied habitat of the Anastasia Island beach mouse and the southeastern beach mouse.
Inddental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to predude
jeopardy to these spedes, no inddental take is antiapated and therefore none is authorized.
Carolina northern flying squirrel - This species may be directly exposed to chlorophadnone poisoning from
its registered use to control rats and mice around agricultural buildings. The Carolina northern flying
squirrel occurs in coniferous and northern hardwood forests, and may occasionally forage on the ground.
Where land use changes and development encroach cm the species' habitat there is a potential risk of the
n-30
-------
Chlorophadnone
squirrel coming in contact with chlorophadnone bait that is placed outside of buildings (e.g., storage sheds
and barns). Chlorophadnone is toxic to rodents and would most likely kill a northern flying squirrel if it
consumed the bait. Due to the restricted range and small population of the Carolina northern flying squirrel,
any poisoning of individuals could threaten the survival of the species. Therefore, it is the Service's opinion
that the use of chlorophadnone is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Carolina northern flying
squirrel.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Carolina northern flying squirrel: prohibit the outdoor use
of the chemical within the spedes' occupied habitat.
Inadental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy of the spedes, no inadental take is antidpated and therefore none is authorized.
Florida panther - The Florida panther may be exposed to chlorophadnone by feeding on rodents that are
dead or incapadtated from this rodentidde poison. Panthers on occasion venture into agricultural areas
where rodentiddes are likely used and poisoned target animals would be found. In mammal^ following oral
administration of chlorophadnone which is an anticoagulant, 90 percent of the rodentidde is eliminated in
the feces within 48 hours in the form of metabolites. Although EPA provided no hazard ratios for mammals
of any size, they concluded that secondary poisoning mortality of larger mammals may not occur because
large quantities of contaminated prey items would have to be consumed to produce a significant adverse
effect. However, rodentidde induced internal hemorrhaging could weaken a panther to the degree that the
animal would be very susceptible to disease and fatal infections. Because of the critically small panther
population, the loss of even one panther could threaten the survival of the spedes. Therefore, it is the
opinion of the Service that the use of chlorophadnone is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the
Florida panther.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative (si - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Florida panther: prohibit the use of the chemical within 20
miles of the boundary of any Federal and State lands (e.g^ National Wildlife Refuge, National Park,
National Preserve, State Park, State Preserve, State Wildlife Management Areas, etc.) and Indian
Reservations that provide suitable panther habitat south of Charlotte, Glades and Martin counties,
Florida.
Inadental Take - Although the chance of exposure is considered minimal, because individuals of the
spedes may disperse beyond a given home range, the use and toxicity of the pestidde is still a
concern. Consequently the Service antiripates that an unquantiflable level of inadental take may
occur as a result of sub-lethal or lethal effects following the use of the pestidde outside of the
prohibited use zone.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured si - The following reasonable and prudent measure for
minimizing inadental take must be adopted and implemented: within and induding the area
extending 5 miles from the edge of the prohibited use zone, the user should remove and properly
dispose of any dead or incapacitated animal likely to have been poisoned during the period of
rodentidde use.
Florida salt marsh vide - Exposure of the salt marsh vole to chlorophadnone could occur through
consumption of poisoned baits used to control rodents in dose proximity to the vole's occupied marsh
habitat. There is a possibility of the rodentidde being used around buildings or other structures adjacent to
salt marsh habitat where the vole could come in contact with it. The vole is restricted to a single known area
in the salt marsh of Waccasassa Bay, Levy County, Florida. This rodentidde is highly toxic to mammals.
Because of the restricted distribution of the spedes, its limited population, and the likelihood of this
rodentidde being used for rodent control adjacent to areas in which the vole occurs, it is the Service's
n-31
-------
Chlorophacinone
biological opinion that the use of chlorophacinone is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the
Florida salt marsh vole.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternativefs^ If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: prohibit use of chlorophacinone within 100 yards of
the landward edge of the species' salt marsh habitat in Levy County, Florida.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Fresno kangaroo rat, giant kangaroo rat, Tipton kangaroo rat - These species are highly susceptible to
chlorophacinone exposure because of the wide variety of registered uses of this compound, and the high
likelihood of such uses in and around kangaroo rat habitats in the San Joaquin Valley, California. The
primary exposure risk for kangaroo rats would occur during chlorophacinone use to control field rodents,
such as ground squirrels, pocket gophers, and deer mice. Kangaroo rats could encounter chlorophacinone
during use within their habitats (e.g., grasslands, saltbush scrub, fallow agricultural lands); in agricultural
lands adjacent to their habitats; in bait boxes or as spillage from baitboxes; and when broadcast on the
ground or inadvertently applied to their burrows. Furthermore, some chlorophacinone formulations would
be highly attractive to kangaroo rats if encountered, especially grain baits. Exposure also could occur during
chlorophacinone use to control domestic rodents around agricultural buildings and industrial structures (e.g.,
in the Kern County oil fields), though these risks are considered less likely than field exposure. Because of
these numerous exposure factors, the high toxicity of this compound to rodents, and the fact that these
species occupy significantly restricted and fragmented habitats, it is the biological opinion of the Service that
chlorophacinone use within the ranges of the Fresno kangaroo rat, giant kangaroo rat, and Tipton kangaroo
rat is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Fresno, giant, and Tipton kangaroo rat: Prohibit outdoor
chlorophacinone use within 100 yards of the occupied habitat of these species unless specific
kangaroo rat protection programs for chlorophacinone use are implemented. Such programs shall
integrate San Joaquin kit fox protection measures and shall be approved by the Service in writing.
Incidental Take - If the reasonable and prudent alternatives described above are implemented, no
incidental take of these species is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Hualapai Mexican vole - The primary exposure of chlorophacinone to the Hualapai Mexican vole would be
through its application to control ground squirrels in non-crop rights-of-way or recreational areas. Voles are
one of a number of target organisms of chlorophacinone and also highly toxic to small mammals. The
likelihood that chlorophacinone would be used in the habitat of the vole is small but if it were used because
of the very small number of known voles the consequences would be severe. Therefore, it is the Service's
biological opinion that the use of chlorophacinone is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the
Hualapai Mexican vole.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative's^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Hualapai Mexican vole: prohibit the use of
chlorophacinone within 100 yards of known Hualapai Mexican vole occupied habitat.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternatives to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Jaguarundi and Ocelot - The primary exposure of chlorophacinone to the jaguarundi and ocelot is through
its use to control field rodents in orchards, cropland, pasture, rangeland and ditch banks and rights-of-way.
There is little probability of the ocelot or jaguarundi directly consuming the chlorophacinone baits, however
n-32
-------
Chlorophadnone
it is probable that secondary poisoning may occur as a result of these species consuming target rodents that
have ingested chlorophadnone. This chemical is used in areas that are adjacent to or interspersed with
known ocelot and jaguarundi habitat. Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that the use of ctdorophacinone is
likely to jeopardize the continued existence of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative will avoid jeopardy to the ocelot and jaguarundi; prohibit use within three miles of
occupied habitat
Incidental Take - Despite the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternatives described
above, the Service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take of ocelot and jaguarundi
may occur as a result of chlorophadnone use within the range of these spedes.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurefsl - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
measures will minimis incidental take: prior to use of chlorophadnone in potential ocelot or
jaguarundi habitat, conduct survey to determine if habitat is occupied. If habitat is unoccupied, no
further restrictions are applicable. If habitat is occupied, prohibit use within three miles.
Monro Bay kangaroo rat - The primary exposure of chlorophadnone from registered uses can occur when
the Monro Bay kangaroo rat ingests treated bait. The extremely limited range of this spedes, the presence
of target rodents, and the interspersion of this spedes habitat with urban, agricultural, and commercial
buildings place the Morro Bay kangaroo rat at risk. It is the biological opinion of the Service that use of
chlorophadnone is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Morro Bay kangaroo rat.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Morro Bay kangaroo rat: prohibit the use of
chlorophadnone within 100 yards of the occupied habitat of the Morro Bay kangaroo rat
Inridental Take With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative described above,
no inadental take is antidpated and therefore none is authorized.
Point Arena mountain beaver, salt marsh harvest mouse The primary risk of exposure of these spedes to
chlorophadnone would occur during registered uses of this compound to control rodent pests within or
adjacent to occupied habitats. Mountain beaver exposure to this compound might occur during control of
most target spedes for which chlorophadnone is registered-both domestic and non-domestic-since this
spedes occupies a variety of habitats within their coastal range in Mendocino County, California, including
natural lands, disturbed sites, and some areas adjacent to residences. The harvest mouse is limited to
remaining salt marshes in the San Francisco Bay area, where adjacent man-made structures may exist;
therefore, exposure of this spedes to chlorophadnone primarily would occur during control of domestic
rodents. Because of these exposure factors, and the fact that the Point Arena mountain beaver and salt
marsh harvest mouse occupy highly restricted and fragmented habitats, it is the biological opinion of the
Service that chlorophadnone use is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the salt marsh harvest mouse and Point Arena mountain
beaver: prohibit outdoor chlorophadnone use within 100 yards of the occupied habitats of these
spedes, unless specific salt marsh harvest mouse and Point Arena mountain beaver protection
programs for chlorophadnone use, approved by the Service in writing, are implemented.
Inddental Take - If the reasonable and prudent alternatives described above are implemented, no
inadental take of these spedes is antidpated and therefore none is authorized.
H-33
-------
Chlorophadnone
San Joaquin kit fox The San Joaquin lot fox likely would be subject to chlorophadnone exposure during
numerous registered uses of this compound to control a variety of rodent pests within and adjacent to
occupied habitats in the San Joaquin Valley, California. The primary exposure risk for kit foxes would occur
during control of field rodents, especially California ground squirrels; though control of domestic rodents
around industrial, residential, and agricultural sites also poses an exposure risk. The most likely source of
exposure is expected to be secondary poisoning should kit foxes feed on rodents killed or incapacitated by
chlorophadnone poisoning. However, kit foxes also may consume chlorophadnone baits directly, and
intensive rodent control programs utilizing chlorophadnone (as well as other compounds) also may adversely
affect kit foxes through depletion of prey species. Adverse effects of chlorophadnone use on the San
Joaquin kit fox could be highly deleterious to this spedes for the following reasons: (1) chlorophadnone is
extremely toxic to mammals; (2) it is used in numerous areas occupied or frequented by kit foxes, including
rangelands, agricultural areas, and the banks of aqueducts, canals, and levees; (3) the opportunistic feeding
habits of kit faxes increase the likelihood of both primary and secondary poisoning; (4) serious localized
effects of chlorophadnone use could occur in areas where the kit fox range is geographically restricted; (5)
current chlorophadnone use restrictions are difficult to implement and enforce; and (6) several inddents of
kit fox deaths from chlorophadnone use have been documented. For these reasons, it is the Service's
biological opinion that chlorophadnone use within the range of the San Joaquin kit fox is likely to jeopardize
the continued existence of this spedes.
Reasonable and Prudent AlternativeCsl - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the San Joaquin kit fox: Prohibit chlorophadnone use within
the kit fox range as determined by the Service. Exceptions to this prohibition are as follows: (1)
Agricultural areas that are one mile or more from any kit fox habitat, such areas to be determined
and mapped by the California Environmental Protection Agency in consultation with the Service, or
to be determined by the Service; OR (2) Areas for which kit fox surveys have been conducted within
a one mile radius of proposed treatment sites and have yielded negative results, provided such
surveys are conducted by qualified individuals utilizing methods acceptable to the Service, and that
such results are submitted to the Service for review and approval.
Inddental Take Despite the reasonable and prudent alternatives described above, the Service
antidpates that an unquantifiable level of inddental take of the San Joaquin kit fox may occur as a
result of chlorophadnone use within the range of this spedes.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurefsl - To minimize antidpated inddental take, EPA must establish
a monitoring enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the
introduction section on page 1-5.
Stephen's kangaroo rat - The primary exposure of the Stephen's kangaroo rat to chlorophadnone is the
ingestion of the many bait formulations. It is the biological opinion of the Service that use of
chlorophadnone is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Stephen's kangaroo rat.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative's^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Stephen's kangaroo rat: prohibit the use of chlorophadnone
within 100 yards of the occupied habitat of this spedes.
Inddental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative described above,
no inddental take is antidpated and therefore none is authorized.
Audubon's crested caracara - Audubon's crested caracara would be exposed to chlorophadnone by
secondary poisoning from consuming contaminated rodents. Caracaras feed both on carrion and live prey.
Studies document secondary poisoning of raptors that were fed chlorophadnone contaminated rodents.
Chlorophadnone is registered for control of deer mice in non-crop areas of Florida. Caracaras occur in
open prairies and frequently use improved pastures. Since it takes several days for death to occur from
11-34
-------
Chlorophadnone
Chlorophadnone ingestion, it is conceivable that poisoned rodents may travel away from the baited area to
die. Because of the caracara's small population size, any rodentidde induced mortality could threaten the
survival of the species. Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that the use of chlorophadnone is likely to
jeopardize the continued existence of the Audubon's crested caracara.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Audubon's crested caracara: prohibit the use of the
pestidde within the occupied habitat of the species.
Inddental Take With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no inddental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
RATIONALE FOR NO JEOPARDY DETERMINATIONS
Gray wolf - Chlorophadnone is an anticoagulant rodentidde. In mammals, following oral administration, 90
percent is eliminated in the feces within 48 hours in the form of metabolites. Less than 5000 pounds of
active ingredient are formulated annually with more than 70 percent (3500 pounds) used for
industrial/commercial structural pest control Exposure to the wolf could occur by the wolf feeding on dead
pocket gophers and in Idaho feeding on dead mice and voles in orchards. Most of the pocket gophers and
well as many of the mice and voles would die in their burrows or runways so many of them would likely not
be detected by the gray wolf. No hazard ratios were given for mammals but EPA calculated the hazard ratio
of less than one for a 10 gram bird. EPA conduded that adverse effects on larger mammals may be
preduded because of their need to consume larger quantities of poisoned target animals. According to the
information provided by EPA, the largest mammals known to have died from chlorophadnone have been
mongoose and the San Joaquin kit fox which is much smaller then a wolf. Therefore, because of the
restricted use of chlorophadnone and because it is highly unlikely that the wolf would be able to consume
enough of the target spedes to cause a mortality, it is the Service's opinion that the use of chlorophadnone is
not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the gray wolf.
Inddental Take - Because it is unlikely that mortality will occur to the gray wolf, no inddental take
of the gray wolf is antidpated and thus no take is authorized.
Grizzly bear - In mammals, following oral administration of chlorophadnone which is an anticoagulant, 90
percent of the pestidde is eliminated in the feces within 48 hours in the form of metabolites. Only about
1500 pounds of active ingredient is formulated annually for non-industrial/commercial structural pest control
(e.g., control of pocket gophers). As with the wolf, exposure to grizzly bears may occur by a grizzly bear
feeding on dead pocket gophers and, in Idaho, feeding on dead mice and voles in orchards. Many of these
target spedes likely would die in burrows or runways thus reducing the number that the grizzly bear may dig
up and consume. EPA provided no hazard ratios for mammals of any size but they conduded that adverse
effects on larger mammals may not occur because of their need to consume larger quantities of poisoned
target animals. Therefore, because of the limited use of chlorophadnone expected and because it is highly
unlikely that the grizzly bear would consume enough of the target spedes to cause mortality, it is the
Service's opinion that the use of chlorophadnone is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the
grizzly bear.
Inddental Take - Because it is unlikely that mortality will occur to the grizzly bear, no inddental
take of the grizzly bear is antidpated and thus no take is authorized.
Louisiana black bear The Louisiana black bear would likely only be exposed to chlorophadnone by
consuming a mouse, rat or other animal that had been poisoned by the rodentidde. Black bears occasional
venture into agricultural areas where the rodentidde may be used. Although chlorophadnone is extremely
tone to mammals, based on EPA data it is very unlikely that a mammal as large a bear would consume
H-35
-------
Chlorophacmone
enough poisoned rodents to cause lethal secondary poisoning. Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that the
use of chlorophacinone is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Louisiana black bear.
Incidental Take - Although the chance of exposure and hazard are considered minimal, because of
the high toxicity of chlorophacinone to mammals, it is still a matter of concern. Thus, the Service
anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a result of this chemical's use
in areas of or adjacent to bear habitat
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - The following reasonable and prudent measure for
minimizing incidental take should be adopted: prohibit the use of chlorophacinone in occupied
habitat of the black bear.
Utah prairie dog The EPA has determined that the use of chlorophacinone may affect this species because
they may consume bait set out to loll other species (e.g^ pocket gophers). The only registered use that could
possibly overlap with Utah prairie dog habitat is control of pocket gophers. The registration requires that
tamper-proof bait boxes be placed in underground runways inaccessible to wildlife. It is highly unlikely that
the Utah prairie dog would be digging into these pocket gopher runways and thus obtaining the bait. It is,
therefore, the Service's opinion that the use of chlorophacmone is not likely to jeopardize the continued
existence of the Utah prairie dog.
Incidental Take - Because of the very low risk of exposure, no incidental take of the Utah prairie
dog is anticipated and thus no take is authorized.
Eastern indigo snake - The eastern indigo snake would only be exposed to chlorophacinone by eating an
animal such as a mouse or rat that had been poisoned by the rodenticide. Indigo snakes hunting for prey
may occur in agricultural or non-crop areas where rodenticides are likely to be used. In Florida the
rodenticide is used in non-crop areas for field mice and cotton rats. Although EPA has no toxicity data for
reptiles, one study indicated that gopher snakes did not die from eating poisoned rodents but did regurgitate
the poisoned prey. Other snakes however, may not regurgitate poisoned prey. The indigo snake's potential
for exposure to poisoned prey is considered minimal Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that the use of
chlorophacinone is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the eastern indigo snake.
Incidental Take Although the chance of exposure is considered minimal, because of the toxicity of
chlorophacinone, it is still a matter of concern. Thus, the Service anticipates that an unquantifiable
level of incidental take may occur as a result of this chemical's use in areas where the eastern indigo
snake may occur.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurefsl - The following reasonable and prudent measure for
minimizing incidental take should be adopted: conduct laboratory studies using surrogate snake
species, such as the black racer (Coluber c. priapus), to obtain toxicity data on the chemical's
secondary poisoning hazard to snakes. Based on the data generated by the studies, the Service will
develop and revise the reasonable and prudent measures. (Because of the status and relatively
broad geographic range of this species of indigo snake, the Service believes at this time that
prohibiting the use of chlorophacinone within the species occupied habitat would not be reasonable
and prudent).
Puerto Rican boa - The boa would only be exposed to chlorophacinone by eating an animal such as a mouse
or rat that had been poisoned by the rodenticide. Boas hunting for prey may occur in agricultural or non-
crop areas where rodenticides could be used. Although EPA has no toxicity data for reptiles, one study
indicated that gopher snakes did not die from eating poisoned rodents but did regurgitate the poisoned prey.
Other snakes however, may not regurgitate poisoned prey. The boa's potential for exposure to poisoned prey
is considered minimal because the snake usually hunts for prey in trees. Therefore, it is the Service's opinion
that the use of chlorophacinone is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Puerto Rican boa.
H-36
-------
Chlorophadnone
Incidental Take Although the chance of exposure is considered minimal, because of the toxicity of
chlorophadnone, it is still a matter of concern. Thus, the Service anticipates that an unquantifiable
level of incidental take may occur as a result of this chemical's use in areas where the Puerto Rican
boa may occur.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurers'! The following reasonable and prudent measure for
minimizing incidental take should be adopted: prohibit the use of the chemical within the known
occupied habitat of the species.
Virgin Island tree boa - The boa would only be exposed to chlorophadnone by eating an animal such as a
mouse or rat that had been poisoned by the rodentidde. Boas hunting for prey may occur in agricultural or
non-crop areas where rodentiddes could be used. Although EPA has no toxidty data for reptiles, one study
indicated that gopher snakes did not die from eating poisoned rodents but did regurgitate the poisoned prey.
Other snakes however, may not regurgitate poisoned prey. The boa's potential for exposure to poisoned prey
is considered very minimal because the snake usually hunts for prey in trees. Therefore, it is the Service's
opinion that the use of chlorophadnone is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Virgin
Islands tree boa.
Inddental Take - Although the chance of exposure is considered minimal, because of the toxicity of
chlorophadnone, it is still a matter of concern. Thus, the Service anticipates that an unquantifiable
level of inddental take may occur as a result of this chemical's use in areas where the boa may
occur.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurefsl - The following reasonable and prudent measure for
minimizing inddental take should be adopted: prohibit the use of the chemical within the known
occupied habitat of the speties.
H-37
-------
Diphacinone
Diphacinone
CHEMICAL INFORMATION
TYPE: Rodenticide (indandionc)
FORMULATION: Used mainly in the form of a flavored and weather resistant bait; also in the form of a
tracking powder (Ditrac), but this formulation is limited to indoor use only.
REGISTERED USES: Commensal and field rodent control in and around buildings, in orchards, cropland,
pasture, rangeland, ornamentals, forest, rights-of-way, along ditches and banks of waterways, in garbage
dumps and sewers. Existing label restrictions for diphadnone include Endangered Species Considerations for
pocket gophers and black-footed ferrets within prairie dog towns and use restrictions within one mile of
active dens of the San Joaquin kit fax in certain counties of California. In addition, this chemical has certain
other state registration restrictions as follows when formulated as a 02% tracking powder for nuisance bats
in Georgia, Connecticut and Colorado. As a 02% powder, diphacinone can only be used in domiciles and
other buildings and carries a specific warning against use in caves or natural areas. Diphadnone is also
registered for control of mice and voles in orchards as a bait and in Delaware, Connecticut and in Arizona as
a concentrate spray to bare ground. Furthermore, this chemical when formulated as a bait can be used to
control chipmunks, jackrabbits and muskrats. For muskrats, the bait must be placed on a floating bait box
designed and approved by the California Department of Food and Agriculture.
BACKGROUND:
Mode of action: An anticoagulant, diphadnone is in a class of Todentiddes known as indandiones. Unlike
the coumarin compounds, indandiones may cause symptoms and signs of neurologic and cardiopulmonary
injury leading to death before hemorrhage occurs.
Aquatic toxicity: Diphacinone is very toxic to fish and other aquatic invertebrates and the use of ground
liquid sprays poses a hazard to listed spedes if applied within or adjacent to their habitat where runoff or
drift can occur. EPA (1991) data indicate LCjqS for technical grade chlorophacinone of 2.09,2£2, 7.61, and
> 10 ppm for channel catfish, rainbow trout, bluegjll sunfish, and pink shrimp, respectively. However, this
applies only to Arizona, Connecticut and Delaware for ground sprays since Diphadnone will have no effect
on listed aquatic spedes when used as a bait.
Terrestrial toxiritv: Toxicity varies widely among the indandiones and among spedes, with some birds and
mammals being highly sensitive and others fairly resistant. Massive single exposure or repeated low dosages
may cause poisoning (Buck et al. 1982). Total dosage to death will be much lower in anticoagulants with
repeated exposures over an extended period than in acute exposures, and the majority of mortalities will
occur during or after the second week of exposure (Mendenhall and Pank 1980, Bennett et al). Single dose
toxicity may be 5-100 times the multiple dose toxidty, depending on spedes (Jones 1977). The amount of
data describing toxidty of indandiones to terrestrial taxa varies, with pival being the least tested compound
and diphacinone perhaps the most tested, and most tone, compound.
EPA has determined diphadnone will have no effect on avian species due to direct ingestion of bait.
However, data published by Mendenhall and Pank (1980) indicate that diphacinone may present hazards to
raptors that consume poisoned rodents. They described trials whereby 3 great-homed owls and 1 saw-whet
owl were fed mice (Peromyscus mmiculatus) that had consumed a lethal diphacinone dose during a 10-day,
free-choice test using an oat-groat 0.01% bait. All 4 owls showed signs consistent with anticoagulant
poisoning, and 3 died from massive hemorrhaging during days 7-14.
11-38
-------
Diphaanone
In a second feeding study, barn owls were fed one of several anticoagulants including the indandiones
diphacinone and chlorophacinane (Mendenhall and Pank 1980). Bam owls exposed to these compounds via
treated rats did not die and received a higher maximum potential dose of diphaanone overall than did the
other species. These findings suggest that barn ends may be less sensitive to indandiones than other raptors.
However, sample sizes were small and interspecific differences in toxicity remain poorly quantified.
Mendenhall and Pank (1980) noted that more severe effects may be expected under field conditions because
of potential stress, changes in diet, increased activity, or high susceptibility to injuries.
For listed mammals, diphaanone poses a risk due to its use in a wide variety of locations. Large mammals
[deer, antelope, bison] will not be affected if ingestion of baits occurs due to their large size. Further, listed
bats will not be effected since the tracking powder is applied only inside of buildings. Because diphaanone
has a 90 day half-life in soil, risks to secondary toxicity exists for predatory and scavenging mammals which
feed on poisoned target animals. Also secondary poisoning may effect listed snakes where their habitat
overlaps that of target species. The following table summarizes available acute oral toxicity data of
diphaanone to mammals.
Scenes
LD50 (mg/kg)
Source
rat
1.5
NIOSH (1990)
rat
1.86-2^8
Sine (1992)
dog
3
NIOSH (1990)
cat
15
NIOSH (1990)
rabbit
35
NIOSH (1990)
pig
150
NIOSH (1990)
mouse
340
NIOSH (1990)
deer mouse
0.49
EPA (1991)
Diphaanone acute oral toxicity tests with captive and free-ranging coyotes yielded an LD^, of 0.6 mg/kg (CI
= 03-12; Savarie 1979). These data indicate that coyotes are more sensitive to diphaanone than most other
taxa tested.
Using EPA's approach of a safety factor of 1/10 of the LDg, as a "risk threshold", aud assuming an oral
LD^ of 15 mg/kg for cats, the risk threshold for diphacinone is 13.5 mg for a 9 kg ocelot, 105 mg for a 7 kg
jaguarundi, and 21 mg for a 14 kg Florida panther.
Free choice exposure for five days in rats to be fed to owls (Mendenhall and Pank, 1980) resulted in
maximum diphacinone consumption by rats of 11.69 mg. EPA did not provide field residue concentrations.
However, it is clear that the risk thresholds could easily be approached with consumption of 1 or 2 poisoned
prey.
Based on available toxicity data, the calculated risk thresholds will be even lower for canids than for felids.
Assuming an oral LD^ of 3 mg/kg for dogs is applicable to a 25 kg gray wolf, the risk threshold is 15 mg.
If one uses the lower confidence interval for a coyote (03 mg/kg), then 0.75 mg is the threshold for a gray
wolf. Stresses associated with life in the mid may increase susceptibility of mid species to toxicants over that
of laboratory species. Therefore, the lower confidence interval for the coyote data may be a more realistic
estimate of toxicity to wild canids than the LD^j value. Consistent with use pattern and nature of chemical,
diphacinone mil have no direct or indirect impact on listed plants and/or plant pollinators considered in this
consultation.
WilHIifp. incidents: Known deaths implicated by diphacinone: rabbits, raccoon, mountain lion and San
Joaquin kit fox.
11-39
-------
Diphacwone
BIOLOGICAL OPINION
CHEMICAL REFERENCE TABLE
(The following table contains only those species for which the Service provided a jeopardy or no jeopardy call. Species not included in
this list are either not affected by the chemical or have no chance for exposure. For a complete list of all species considered in this
opinion, refer to the master species list on page ETI-1 of the species profile section.)
1 Suedes Name 1
J/NI 1
PAGE 1
1 MAMMALS
Alabama beach mouse
J
44
J
44
J
45
Black-footed ferret
J
45
J
46
rhnctawhatchee beach mouse
J
44
NJ
55
1
47
Florida salt marsh vole
J
47
J
48
J
48
Grav wolf
J
48
J
49
J
50
J
50
Kev Lareo cotton mouse
J
50
Krv T j)rpn wood rat
J
50
lnuisiana black bear
J
51
J
51
J
51
J
50
Perdido Kev beach mouse
J
44
J
52
J
52
San Joaouin kit fox
J
53
J
53
J
45
J
54
J
48
J
54
¦ BIRDS
1 I
I 54
1 11 Will
II Eastern inditro snake
NJ
55
II Puerto Rican boa
NJ
56
II Vinan Islands tree boa
NJ
56
n-40
-------
Diphacinone
RATIONALE FOR JEOPARDY DETERMINATIONS
Alabama beach mouse, Choctawfaatehee beach mouse, and Perdido Key beach mouse - Exposure of these
beach mice to diphacinone could occur through consumption of poisoned baits when used within or in close
proximity to their occupied habitats. All three subspecies are restricted to mature coastal barrier dune
systems along the Gulf of Mexico and occur in areas that are being encroached upon by various types of
human development. Therefore, there is a high possibility of diphacinone being used where these mice could
come in contact with it. The Choctawhatchee beach mouse is presently known to occur only on Shell Island
at St. Andrews Bay in Bay County, Florida, and on approximately 7.9 km of beach dune habitat (coastline up
to 150 m inland) near Topsail Hill, from around Morrison Lake eastward to Stalworth Lake, Walton County,
Florida. The Alabama beach mouse presently is surviving only on disjunct tracts of the sand dune system
from FoTt Morgan State Park to the Romar Beach area in Baldwin County, Alabama. The Ferdido Key
beach mouse occurs only on Perdido Key in Baldwin County, Alabama and Escambia County, Florida. The
distance to which occupied habitat of these species extends inland from the beach varies depending upon the
configuration of the sand dune system and the vegetation present Both subspecies utilize portions of the
frontal or primary dunes; interdunal areas; and dunes further inland (secondary or interior dunes). Because
of the restricted distributions of these species, their limited populations and the likelihood of diphacinone
being used for rodent control within or adjacent to areas which they inhabit, it is the Service's biological
opinion that the registered use of diphacinone is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the
Choctawhatchee beach mouse, the Alabama beach mouse, and the Perdido Key beach mouse.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: Prohibit use of diphacinone within 100 yards of
occupied habitat of the Choctawhatchee beach mouse, the Alabama beach mouse, and the Perdido
Key beach mouse.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Amargosa vole - The primary exposure of diphacinone from registered uses can occur when the Amargosa
vole eat bait from bait boxes used for muskrat control. It is the Service's biological opinion that use of
diphacinone is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Amargosa vole.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternativefsl - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Amargosa vole: prohibit the use of diphacinone within 100
yards of the occupied habitat of the Amargosa vole.
Incidental Take With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative described above,
no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Anastasia Island beach mouse and Southeastern beach mouse - These two beach mice are endemic to the
east coast of Florida. The Anastasia Island beach mouse is presently believed to occur only on Anastasia
Island, St. Johns County, Florida. The southeastern beach mouse is believed to presently occur only from
Florida's Mosquito (Pounce) Inlet in Volusia County south to Hutchinson Island in St. Lucie County, Florida.
Both subspecies inhabit sand dunes vegetated by sea oats and dune panic grass and the scrub adjoining these
dunes, which is vegetated with oaks, sand pine, palmetto, sea grapes, and/or wax myrtle. It is likely that
diphacinone could be used for pest control in areas where both these beach mice occur, since the ranges of
both species have been and continue to be encroached upon by various types of human development.
Exposure of the mice to diphacinone would occur through ingestion of poison baits, which would result in
direct mortality of individuals of the species. Accordingly, it is the Service's biological opinion that the
registered use of diphacinone is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Anastasia Island beach
mouse or the southeastern beach mouse.
H-41
-------
Diphacinone
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: Prohibit use of diphacinone within and in dose
proximity (100 yards) to the current known range of the Ana stasia Island beach mouse and the
southeastern beach mouse.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Black-footed ferret - Dipharinone's registered uses include commensal and field rodent control (rats, mice,
voles, gophers, ground squirrels) in and around buildings, orchards, cropland, pasture, rangeland,
ornamentals, forest, rights-of-way, along ditches and banks of waterways, in garbage dumps, and sewers.
Diphacinone is extremely tone to mammals both directly and indirectly (secondary effects). The ferret likely
would not be impacted directly. Known deaths implicated by this pesticide include rabbits, raccoon,
mountain lion, and San Joaquin kit fox. Diphacinone could be used to kill rodents such as ground squirrels
occurring near prairie dog towns inhabited by black-footed ferret. Mortality to the ferret would likely result
if the ferret fed on the nearby ground squirrels or prairie dogs which also would likely feed on diphacinone
bait. Therefore, it is the Sendee's opinion that the wide use of diphacinone is likely to jeopardize the
continued existence of the black-footed ferret.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the black-footed ferret: prohibit the use of diphacinone within 7
kilometers (434 miles) from a prairie dog town. The 7 kilometers is based on the longest distance
that the ferret has been observed to travel during the night. Diphacinone bait may be used within
the 7 kilometers provided:
1. A black-tailed prairie dog colony or complex of less than 80 acres having no neighboring
prairie dog towns may be treated within the 7 kilometers without a ferret survey. A
midrange of 102 acres (61 to 294) of occupied black-tailed prairie dog habitat is believed
necessary to support a single ferret, so it is highly unlikely that a ferret would be found in
an isolated colony of less than 80 acres.
2. A white-tailed prairie dog colony or complex of less than 200 acres having no neighboring
prairie dog towns may be treated within the 7 kilometers without a ferret survey. It is
estimated to require between 196 and 475 acres of white-tailed prairie dogs to support a
single ferret.
3. Urban situations (e.g^ playgrounds, golf courses, etc.) may be treated without conducting
ferret surveys. The appropriate Service office will be contacted by the pesticide user in
advance of any treatment to determine whether a proposed action fits this situation.
4. For black-tailed prairie dog colonies or complexes over 80 acres but less than 1,000 acres,
and white-tailed prairie dog colonies or complexes over 200 acres but less than 1,000 acres,
the use of diphacinone may be allowed within 7 kilometers after completing a black-footed
ferret survey within 30 days of proposed use of diphacinone, provided no ferrets or their
sign are found These surveys will be coordinated with the appropriate State Office of the
Fish and Wildlife Service.
5. For prairie dog complexes over 1,000 acres, diphacinone shall not be used within 7
kilometers until the complex has been evaluated by appropriate State and/or Federal
Agencies (those agencies working on State working groups for ferret recovery) for its
potential as a recovery site and until the complex has been block cleared. One thousand
acres would be minimum complex size for consideration as a black-footed ferret
n-42
-------
Diphacinone
reintroduction site and would likely require intensive management of habitat for a ferret
population.
Surveys shall be supervised by biologists trained in ferret survey techniques and ferret biology at a
Service-approved training workshop. Currently, only the University of Wyoming has such a course.
Ferret surveys shall be reviewed by the Service for compliance with survey standards and Section 7
of the Endangered Species Act.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternatives to preclude
jeopardy of the black-footed ferret, no incidental take is anticipated and thus none is authorized.
Carolina northern flying squirrel - This species may be directly exposed to diphacinone poisoning from its
registered use to control commensal and field rodents in and around agricultural buildings, forests and
rights-of-way. The Carolina northern flying squirrel occurs in coniferous and northern hardwood forests, and
may occasionally forage on the ground. Where land use changes, development, rights-of-way and forestry
activities encroach on the species' habitat there is a potential risk of the squirrel coming in contact with
diphacinone bait that is placed outside in such areas. Diphacinone bait formulated with apple, meat or
peanut flavors would likely be very attractive and palatable to the squirrel Diphacinone is toxic to rodents
and would most likely kill a northern flying squirrel if it consumed the bait. Due to the restricted range and
small population of the Carolina northern flying squirrel, any poisoning of individuals could threaten the
survival of the species. Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that the use of diphacinone is likely to
jeopardize the continued existence of the Carolina northern flying squirrel
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Carolina northern flying squirrel: prohibit the outdoor use
of the chemical within the species' occupied habitat.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Florida panther - The Florida panther may be exposed to diphacinone by feeding on rodents or other
animals that are dead or incapacitated from this rodenticide poison. Exposure may also occur by ingestion
of meat and fish flavored baits. Panthers venture into agricultural and other areas where this rodenticide is
likely used and poisoned target animals would be found. This poison has been implicated in the deaths of
raccoons, fox, rabbits, and mountain lion. Even if a panther ingested a sub-lethal dose of poison, rodenticide
induced internal hemorrhaging could weaken a panther to the degree that the animal would be very
susceptible to fatal disease or infections. Because of the critically small panther population, the loss of even
one panther could threaten the survival of the species. Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that the use of
diphacinone is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Florida panther.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternativefst - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Florida panther prohibit the use of the chemical within 20
miles of the boundary of any Federal and State lands (e^, National Wildlife Refuge, National Park,
National Preserve, State Park, State Preserve, State Wildlife Management Areas, etc.) and Indian
Reservations that provide suitable panther habitat south of Charlotte, Glades and Martin counties,
Florida.
Incidental Take - Because individuals of the species may disperse beyond a given home range, the
use and toxicity of the pesticide is still a concern. Consequently the Service anticipates that an
unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a result of the use of the pesticide outside of the
prohibited use zone.
n-43
-------
Diphaanone
Reasonable and Prudent Measurers') - The following reasonable and prudent measure for
minimizing incidental take should be adopted and implemented: within an area extending 5 miles
from the edge of the prohibited use zone, the user should remove and properly dispose of any dead
or incapacitated animal likely to have been poisoned during the period of rodenticide use.
Florida salt marsh vole - Exposure of the vole to diphaanone could occur through consumption of poisoned
baits used to control rodents in close proximity to the vole's occupied marsh habitat. There is a possibility of
the rodenticide being used around buildings or other structures, banks of waterways, or along ditches,
adjacent to salt marsh habitat where the vole could come in contact with it The vole is restricted to a single
known site in the salt marsh of Waccasassa Bay, Levy County, Florida. This rodenticide is highly toxic to
mammals, and has been implicated in wildlife kills. Because of the restricted distribution of the species, its
limited population, and the likelihood of this rodenticide being used for rodent control adjacent to areas in
which the vole occurs, it is the Service's biological opinion that the use of diphaanone is likely to jeopardize
the continued existence of the Florida salt marsh vole.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: Prohibit use of diphaanone within 100 yards of the
landward edge of the species' salt marsh habitat in Levy County, Florida.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Fresno kangaroo rat, giant kangaroo rat, Upton kangaroo rat - These species are highly susceptible to
diphaanone exposure because of the wide variety of registered uses of this compound, and the high
likelihood of such uses in and around kangaroo rat habitats in the San Joaquin Valley, California. The
primary exposure risk for kangaroo rats would occur during diphaanone use to control field rodents, such as
ground squirrels, pocket gophers, and deer mice. Kangaroo rats could encounter diphacinone during use
within their habitats (e.g^ grasslands, saltbush scrub, fallow agricultural lands); in agricultural lands adjacent
to their habitats; in bait boxes or as spillage from bait boxes; and when broadcast on the ground or
inadvertently applied to their burrows. Furthermore, some diphacinone formulations, such as grain pellets,
could be highly attractive to kangaroo rats if encountered. Exposure also could occur during diphacinone use
to control domestic rodents around agricultural buildings and industrial structures (e^, in the Kern County
oil fields), though these risks are considered less likely than field exposure. Because of these numerous
exposure factors, the high toxicity of this compound to rodents, and the fact that these species occupy
significantly restricted and fragmented habitats, it is the biological opinion of the Service that diphaanone
use within the ranges of the Fresno kangaroo rat, giant kangaroo rat, and Tipton kangaroo rat is likely to
jeopardize the continued existence of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternativefsl - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Fresno, giant, and Tipton kangaroo rat: Prohibit outdoor
diphacinone use within 100 yards of the occupied habitats of these species, unless specific kangaroo
rat protection programs for diphacinone use are implemented. Such programs shall integrate San
Joaquin kit fox protection measures and shall be approved by the Service in writing.
Incidental take If the reasonable and prudent alternatives described above are implemented, no
incidental take of these species is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Gray wolf - Diphacinone's registered uses include commensal and field rodent control (rats, mice, voles,
gophers, ground squirrels) in and around buildings, orchards, cropland, pasture, rangeland, ornamentals,
forest, rights-of-way, along ditches and banks of waterways, in garbage dumps, and sewers. Diphacinone is
extremely toxic to mammals both directly and indirectly (secondary effects). Diphaanone acute oral toxicity
tests with captive and free-ranging coyotes indicate that coyotes are more sensitive to diphaanone than most
other taxa tested. The susceptibility of wild species may be greater than laboratory species because of the
11-44
-------
Diphacinone
stress of life in the wild EPA concluded that the size of the larger predators may preclude adverse effects
because of their need to consume larger quantities of poisoned target animals. No information was given to
backup those conclusions. In EPA's incident reports of fish and wildlife kills, they included rabbits, raccoon,
mountain lion, and San Joaquin kit fox as being implicated as diphacinone caused deaths. EPA also suggests
that the mortality of the mountain lion and raccoon were the result of illegal uses of the pesticide.
Maximum application rates for ground or broadcast applications, e.g^ orchards and other outdoor uses is 10
pounds of bait per acre. It would, therefore, appear that the use of diphacinone, especially when used on
rangeland and forests, could result in mortality to the gray wolf as it has to other mammals. Thus, it is the
Service's opinion that the use of diphacinone is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the gray wolf.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the gray wolf: prohibit the use of diphacinone in the geographic
range of the gray wolf until after the user has contacted the local Fish and Wildlife Service and that
office has determined that there are no known wolves in the general vicinity of where diphacinone is
going to be applied.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternatives to preclude
jeopardy to the gray wolf, no incidental take is anticipated and thus none is authorized.
Grizzly bear - As stated for the gray wolf, EPA concluded that adverse impacts to the larger predators would
be precluded because of their need to consume larger quantities of poisoned animals. This appears to
conflict with the EPA 'incident reports of mortality to larger animals including raccoon, mountain lion, and
the San Joaquin kit fox. However, EPA suggests that the mortality of the mountain lion and raccoon were
the result of illegal uses of the pesticide. Data shows that canids are quite sensitive to diphacinone but no
information is available on species the size of a grizzly bear, particularly as a result of secondary poisoning.
Diphacinone's registered uses include commensal and field rodent control (rats, mice, voles, gophers, ground
squirrels) in and around buildings, orchards, cropland, pasture, rangeland, ornamentals, forest, rights-of-way,
along ditches and banks of waterways, in garbage dumps, and sewers. Grizzly bears are opportunistic feeders
and could be found feeding in a number of the above habitats. Maximum application rates for ground or
broadcast applications, e.g., orchard and other outdoor uses is 10 pounds of bait per acre. While some of
the target animals could die underground and not be dug up by the grizzly bear, from the little information
provided to the Service by EPA, it appears that the grizzly bear could be at substantial risk particularly by
ground squirrel control. Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that the use of diphacinone is likely to
jeopardize the continued existence of the grizzly bear.
Reasonable and Prudent Altemativefsl - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the grizzly bear prohibit the application of diphacinone in the
geographic range of the grisly bear until after the user has contacted the local Fish and Wildlife
Service office and that office has determined that there are no known grizzly bears in the general
vicinity of where diphacinone is going to be applied.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternatives to preclude
jeopardy to the grizzly bear, no incidental take is anticipated and thus none is authorized.
Hualapai Mexican vole - The primary exposure of diphacinone to the Hualapai Mexican vole would be
through its application to control ground squirrels in non-crop rights-of-way or recreational areas. Voles are
one of a number of target organisms of diphacinone and also is highly tone to small mammals. The
likelihood that diphaanone would be used in the habitat of the vole is small but if it were used because of
the very small number of known voles, the consequences would be severe. Therefore, it is the Service's
biological opinion that the use of diphacinone is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Hualapai
Mexican vole.
n-45
-------
Diphacinone
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^si - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Hualapai Mexican vole: Prohibit the use of diphacinone
within 100 yards of known Hualapai mexican vole occupied habitat
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternatives to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Jaguarandi and Ocelot - The primary exposure of diphacinone to the ocelot and jaguarundi is through its
use to control field rodents in orchards, cropland, pasture, rangeland and ditch banks and rights-of-way.
There is little probability of the ocelot or jaguarundi directly consuming the diphacinone baits, however it is
probable that secondary poisoning may occur as a result of these species consuming target rodents that have
ingested diphacinone. This chemical is used in areas that are adjacent to or interspersed with known ocelot
and jaguarundi habitat Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that the use of diphacinone is likely to
jeopardize the continued existence of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative will avoid jeopardy to the ocelot and jaguarundi: Prohibit use within three miles of
occupied habitat.
Incidental Take - Despite the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternatives described
above, the Service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take of ocelot and jaguarundi
may occur as a result of diphacinone use within the range of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurefsl - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
measures will minimize incidental take: Prior to use of diphacinone in potential ocelot or jaguarundi
habitat, conduct survey to determine if habitat is occupied. If habitat is unoccupied, no further
restrictions are applicable. If habitat is occupied, prohibit use within three miles.
Key Largo cotton mouse and Key Largo woodrat - Both the Key Largo woodrat and Key Largo cotton
mouse occur in subtropical, evergreen, hardwood forests on the northern half of Key Largo, Monroe County,
Florida, north of the point where U.S. Highway 1 enters Key Largo. Populations of both species may also
occur in similar habitat on Lignumvitae Key, Monroe County, where the species were introduced in 1970.
The Key Largo woodrat is primarily herbivorous, feeding mostly on buds, leaves, fruits, and seeds, but
invertebrates occasionally are included in its diet. The diet of the Key Largo cotton mouse has not been
documented, but it is believed to be very similar to that of the woodrat. The use of diphacinone baits within
or adjacent to habitat of these two species is likely due the close proximity of various types of human
development to the areas where these species occur. Exposure of the woodrat and cotton mouse to
diphacinone would result in direct mortality of individuals of the species. The most likely means of exposure
of the woodrat and the cotton mouse to diphacinone would be ingestion of the treated baits. Accordingly, it
is the Service's biological opinion that the registered use of diphacinone is likely to jeopardize the continued
existence of the Key Largo woodrat or Key Largo cotton mouse.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative's^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: prohibit use of diphacinone within 100 yards of
occupied habitat of the Key Largo woodrat and the Key Largo cotton mouse.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Louisiana black bear - The black bear may be exposed to diphacinone by feeding on rodents or other
animals that are dead or incapacitated from this rodenticide poison. Exposure may also occur by ingestion
of flavored baits. Bears venture into agricultural and other areas (e.g., along waterways, ditches, orchards,
garbage dumps, and rights-of-way) where this rodenticide is likely used and where poisoned target animals
H-46
-------
Diphadnone
and baits would be found. This poison has been implicated in the deaths of raccoons, fox, rabbits, and
mountain lion. Even if a bear ingested a sub-lethal dose of poison, rodentidde induced internal
hemorrhaging could weaken a bear to the degree that the animal would be very susceptible to f»>al disease
or infections. Because of the bear's small population and restricted range, mortality resulting from
rodentidde poisoning could threaten the survival of the spedes. Therefore, it is the opinion of the Service
that the use of diphadnone is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Louisiana black bear.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Louisiana black bear prohibit the use of the pestidde within
the current known occupied habitat of the species.
Inddental Take With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to predude
jeopardy of the spedes, no inddental take is antidpated and therefore none is authorized.
Lower Keys rabbit - The Lower Keys rabbit could be exposed to diphadnone when the rodentidde is used
around buildings, rights-of-way, ditches, along waterways, and garbage dumps that are adjacent to the rabbit's
marsh habitat. The rabbit is likely to forage in some treated areas. Continued rapid development in the
lower Keys greatly increases the potential that the rabbit would come in contact with rodentidde treated
areas. Broadcast applications of flavored baits would pose a serious threat to the spedes. Diphadnone has
been implicated in the poisoning deaths of rabbits, raccoons, fox and mountain lions. This rodentidde would
be lethal to Lower Keys rabbits if it were ingested. Because of the extremely restricted range of the species
and its small population, any rodentidde induced poisonings could threaten the survival of the spedes.
Therefore, it is the opinion of the Service that the use of diphadnone is likely to jeopardize the continued
existence of the Lower Keys rabbit.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Lower Keys rabbit: prohibit the outdoors use of the
chemical within 100 yards of the current known occupied habitat of the spedes.
Inddental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to predude
jeopardy of the spedes, no inddental take is antidpated and therefore none is authorized.
Morro Bay kangaroo rat - The primary exposure of diphadnone from registered uses can occur when the
Morro Bay kangaroo rat ingests treated bait. The extremely limited range of this spedes, the presence of
target rodents, and the interspersion of this spedes habitat with urban, agricultural, and commercial buildings
place the Morro Bay kangaroo rat at risk. It is the biological opinion of the Service that use of diphadnone
is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Morro Bay kangaroo rat
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Morro Bay kangaroo rat: prohibit the use of diphadnone
within 100 yards of the occupied habitat of the Morro Bay kangaroo rat
Inddental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative described above,
no inddental take is antidpated and therefore none is authorized.
Point Arena mountain beaver, salt marsh harvest mouse - The primary risk of exposure of these spedes to
diphadnone would occur during registered uses of this compound to control rodent pests within or adjacent
to occupied habitats. Mountain beaver exposure to this compound might occur during control of most target
spedes for which diphadnone is registeredboth domestic and non-domestic-since this spedes occupies a
variety of habitats within their coastal range in'Mendocino County, California, including natural lands,
disturbed sites, and some areas adjacent to residences. The harvest mouse is limited to remaining salt
marshes in the San Francisco Bay area, where adjacent man-made structures may exist; therefore, exposure
of this spedes to diphadnone primarily would occur during control of domestic rodents. Because of these
D-47
-------
Diphadnone
exposure factors, and the fact that the Point Arena mountain beaver and salt marsh harvest mouse occupy
highly restricted and fragmented habitats, it is the biological opinion of the Service that diphadnone use is
likely to jeopardize the continued existence of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the salt marsh harvest mouse and Point Arena mountain
beaver: prohibit outdoor diphadnone use within 100 yards of the occupied habitat of these species,
unless specific salt marsh harvest mouse and Point Arena mountain beaver protection programs for
diphadnone use, approved by the Service in writing, are implemented.
Incidental Take - If the reasonable and prudent alternatives described above are implemented, no
inddental take of these spedes is antidpated and therefore none is authorized.
San Joaquin kit fox - The San Joaquin kit fox likely would be subject to diphadnone exposure during
numerous registered uses of this compound to control a variety of rodent pests within and adjacent to
occupied habitats in the San Joaquin Valley, California. The primary exposure risk for kit foxes would occur
during control of field rodents, especially California ground squirrels; though control of domestic rodents
around industrial, residential, and agricultural sites also poses an exposure risk. The most likely source of
exposure is expected to be secondary poisoning should kit foxes feed on rodents killed or incapadtated by
diphadnone exposure. However, kit foxes also may consume diphadnone baits directly (especially flavored
pellets), and intensive rodent control programs utilizing diphadnone (as well as other compounds) may
adversely affect kit foxes through depletion of prey spedes. Adverse effects of diphadnone use on the San
Joaquin kit fox could be highly deleterious to this spedes for the following reasons: (1) diphadnone is
extremely tone to all mammals tested; (2) it is used in numerous areas occupied or frequented by kit foxes,
inducting rangelands, agricultural areas, and the banks of aqueducts, canals, and levees; (3) the opportunistic
feeding habits of kit foxes increase the likelihood of both primary and secondary poisoning; (4) serious
localized effects of diphadnone use could occur in areas where the kit fox range is geographically restricted;
(5) current diphadnone use restrictions are difficult to implement and enforce; and (6) at least one kit fox
death resulting from diphadnone poisoning is known. For these reasons, it is the Service's biological opinion
that diphadnone use within the range of the San Joaquin kit fox is likely to jeopardize the continued
existence of this spedes.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the San Joaquin kit fox: Prohibit diphadnone use within the lot
fox range as determined by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Exceptions to this prohibition are as
follows: (1) Agricultural areas that are one mile or more from any kit fox habitat. Such areas to be
determined and mapped by the California Environmental Protection Agency in consultation with the
Service, or to be determined by the Service; OR (2) Areas for which kit fox surveys have been
conducted within a one mile radius of proposed treatment sites and have yielded negative results,
provided such surveys are conducted by qualified individuals utilizing methods acceptable to the
Service, and that such results are submitted for Service review and approval.
Inddental Take - Despite the reasonable and prudent alternatives described above, the Service
antidpates that an unquantifiable level of inddental take of the San Joaquin kit fox may occur as a
result of diphadnone use within the range of this spedes.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - To minimi?*- antidpated inddental take, EPA must establish
a monitoring enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the
introduction section on page 1-5.
Silver rice rat - The silver rice rat could be exposed to diphadnone when the rodentidde is used (for control
of black and Norway rats, and house mice) around buildings, rights-of-way, ditches, along waterways, and
garbage dumps that are adjacent to the rat's wetland habitat The rat is likely to forage in some treated
11-48
-------
Dipharinone
areas. Continued rapid development in the lower Keys greatly increases the potential that the rat would
come in contact with rodenticide treated areas. Broadcast applications of flavored baits would pose a serious
threat to the species. Dipharinone has been implicated in the poisoning deaths of rabbits, raccoons, fox and
mountain lions. This rodenticide would be lethal to silver rice rats if it were ingested. Because of the
extremely restricted range of the species and its small population, any rodenticide induced poisonings could
threaten the survival of the species. Therefore, it is the opinion of the Service that the use of diphacinone is
likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the silver rice rat.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative Is-) - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the silver rice rat: prohibit the outdoors use of the chemical
within 100 yards of the current known occupied habitat of the species.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Stephen's kangaroo rat - The primary exposure of the Stephen's kangaroo rat to diphacinone is the ingestion
of the many bait formulations. It is the biological opinion of the Service that use of diphacinone is likely to
jeopardize the continued existence of the Stephen's kangaroo rat.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Stephen's kangaroo rat: prohibit the use of diphacinone
within 100 yards of the occupied habitat of this species.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative described above,
no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Utah prairie dog - Diphacinone is registered for use to control commensal and field rodents (rats, mice,
voles, gophers, ground squirrels) in and around buildings, orchards, cropland, pasture, rangeland,
ornamentals, forest, rights-of-way, along ditches and banks of waterways, in garbage dumps, and sewers.
Diphacinone is extremely toxic to mammals and its use to control any of the above species in croplands,
pastures, or rangeland in and adjacent to Utah prairie dog colonies would result in the loss of these
threatened species. It is, therefore, the Service's opinion that the wide use of diphacinone is likely to
jeopardize the continued existence of the Utah prairie dog.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^s'l - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Utah prairie dog: prohibit the application of bait of
diphacinone within 100 yards of occupied habitat of the Utah prairie dog.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternatives to preclude
jeopardy to the Utah prairie dog, no incidental take is anticipated and thus none is authorized.
Audubon's crested caracara - Audubon's crested caracara would be exposed to diphacinone by secondary
poisoning from consuming contaminated rodents. Caracaras feed both on carrion and live prey. Studies
document secondary poisoning of raptors that were fed diphacinone contaminated rodents. Diphacinone is
registered for use in pastures and rangeland. Caracaras occur in open prairies and frequently use improved
pastures. Since it takes several days for death to occur from diphacinone ingestion, it is conceivable that
poisoned rodents may travel away from the baited area to die. Because of the caracara's small population
size, any rodenticide induced mortality could threaten the survival of the species. Therefore, it is the
Service's opinion that the use of diphacinone is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Audubon's
crested caracara.
H-49
-------
Diphacinone
Reasonable and Prudent AlternativeCs"* - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Audubon's crested caracara: prohibit the use of the
pesticide within the occupied habitat of the species.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
RATIONALE FOR NO JEOPARDY DETERMINATIONS
Delmarva Fox Squirrel - Diphacinone is extremely toxic to mammals and the registered uses for outdoor
rodent control could result in exposure and incidental consumption by Delmarva fox squirrels, possibly
causing death.
Incidental Take - The Service estimates that no more than two squirrels per year may succumb to
diphacinone poisoning.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - To minimize incidental take, the Sendee recommends that
any diphacinone used within the range of the Delmarva fox squirrel should be placed in bait boxes
small enough to exclude fox squirrels.
Eastern indigo snake - The eastern indigo snake would only be exposed to diphacinone by eating an animal
such as a mouse or rat that had been poisoned by the rodenticide. Indigo snakes hunting for prey may occur
in agricultural or non-crop areas where rodenticides are likely to be used. Although EPA has no toxicity
data for reptiles, avian toxicity data may be applicable to reptiles. Compared to mammals, birds are not very
sensitive to anticoagulants, and the reptile blood clotting process is similar to that of birds. Therefore,
exposure to the anticoagulant by ingestion of a poisoned rodent may not pose a significant hazard to snakes.
The indigo snake's potential for exposure to poisoned prey is expected to be minimal. Therefore, it is the
Service's opinion that the use of diphacinone is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the eastern
indigo snake.
Incidental Take - Although the chance of exposure is considered minimal, the undocumented toxicity
of diphacinone to reptiles is still a matter of concern. Thus, the Service anticipates that an
unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a result of this chemical's use in areas where the
eastern indigo snake may occur.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurefsl - The following reasonable and prudent measure for
minimizing incidental take should be adopted: conduct laboratory studies using surrogate snake
species, such as the black racer (Coluber c. priapus), to obtain toxicity data on the chemical's
secondary poisoning hazard to snakes. Based on the data generated by the studies, the Service will
develop and revise the reasonable and prudent measures. (Because of the status and relatively
broad geographic range of this species of indigo snake, the Service believes at this time that
prohibiting the use of diphacinone within the species' occupied habitat would not be reasonable and
prudent).
Puerto Rican boa - The boa would only be exposed to diphacinone by eating an animal such as a mouse or
rat that had been poisoned by the rodenticide. Boas hunting for prey may occur in agricultural or non-crop
areas where rodenticides are likely to be used. Although EPA has no toxicity data for reptiles, avian toxicity
data may be applicable to reptiles. Compared to mammals, birds are not very sensitive to anticoagulants,
and the reptile blood clotting process is similar to that of birds. Therefore, exposure to the anticoagulant by
ingestion of a poisoned rodent may not pose a significant hazard to snakes. The snake's potential for
exposure to poisoned prey is expected to be minimal. Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that the use of
diphacinone is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the-Puerto-Rican boa.
H-50
-------
Diphadnone
Incidental Take - Although the chance of exposure is considered minimal, the undocumented toxicity
of diphadnone to reptiles is still a matter of concern. Thus, the Service anticipates that an
unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a result of this chemical's use in areas where the
Puerto Rican boa may occur.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - The following reasonable and prudent measure for
minimiring incidental take should be adopted: prohibit the use of the chemical in the known
occupied habitat of the species.
Virgin Islands tree boa The boa would only be exposed to diphadnone by eating an animal such as a
mouse or rat that had been poisoned by the rodenticide. Boas hunting for prey may occur in agricultural or
non-crop areas where rodentiddes are likely to be used. Although EPA has no toxicity data for reptiles,
avian toxidty data may be applicable to reptiles. Compared to mammals, birds are not very sensitive to
anticoagulants, and the reptile blood dotting process is similar to that of birds. Therefore, exposure to the
anticoagulant by ingestion of a poisoned rodent may not pose a significant hazard to snakes. The snake's
potential for exposure to poisoned prey is expected to be minimal Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that
the use of diphadnone is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Virgin Island tree boa.
Inridental Take - Although the chance of exposure is considered minimal, the undocumented toxidty
of diphadnone to reptiles is still a matter of concern. Thus, the Service antidpates that an
unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a result of this chemical's use in areas where the
Virgin Island tree boa may occur.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurefsl - The following reasonable and prudent measure for
minimiring inddental take should be adopted: prohibit the use of the chemical within the known
occupied habitat of the speaes.
H-51
-------
Methyl Bromide
Methyl bromide
CHEMICAL INFORMATION
TYPE: Rodenticide, fungicide, herbicide, insecticide, acaricide, nematicide.
FORMULATION: Gas or liquid fumigant
REGISTERED USES: Used as a soil fumigant on a variety of field, fruit and vegetable crops. Also used for
manure, mulch and compost fumigation, stored commodities (both raw agricultural commodities and
processed foods and feeds), greenhouses, homes, grain elevators, milk, ships, transportation vehicles.
BACKGROUND:
Mode of action: Inhalation or exposure to vapors.
Toxicity levels: Moderately to highly toxic based on toxicity to laboratory rats. No data are available on
toxicity to nontarget organisms.
Wildlife incidents: None reported.
BIOLOGICAL OPINION
Methyl bromide as currently registered, is not anticipated to impact any federally listed threatened or
endangered species. Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that if methyl bromide is applied according to label
directions, for the above registered uses, there will be no effect on listed species.
n-52
-------
Pival
Pival
CHEMICAL INFORMATION
TYPE: Rodenticide (indandione)
FORMULATION: Powder mixed with bait material (e.g., grain). Also as a ready-to-eat bait in granular,
pellet, tablet and paraffinized block forms.
REGISTERED USES: Control of Norway rats, roof rats and house mice in and around buildings, and for
California ground squirrels, thirteen-lined ground squirrels, meadow and pine mice/voles in orchards and
groves, non-crop rights-of-way, and other non-crop areas such as lawns, ornamentals, golf courses, parks, and
nurseries.
BACKGROUND:
Mode of action: Pival is an anticoagulant rodenticide in a class of chemicals called indandiones.
Indandiones depress clotting capabilities of the blood and concurrently increase permeability of capillaries
throughout the body, predisposing the animal to widespread internal hemorrhage. This generally occurs in
the rodent after several days of bait ingestion. Unlike the anticoagulant coumarin compounds, indandiones
may cause symptoms and signs of neurologic and cardiopulmonary injury in laboratory rats leading to death
before hemorrhage occurs. These actions account for the greater toxicity of indandiones in rodents.
Aquatic toxicity: There have been only two aquatic bioassays performed with pival This was with bluegills
and rainbow trout and resulted in LCSOs of 1.6 and 21.0 ppm, respectively. No bioassays have been
conducted using freshwater invertebrates, marine/estuarine organisms, or aquatic field studies. The hazard
to aquatic organisms needs to be considered, however, since pival is registered for use where the bait can be
broadcast in open areas, even though in a worst case scenario of application in an orchard, concentrations
should be far below any amount that might cause a problem. EPA has determined that this compound will
have no effect on aquatic listed species.
Terrestrial toxicity; Toxicity varies widely among the indandiones and among species, with some birds and
mammals being highly sensitive and others fairly resistant. Massive single exposure or repeated low dosages
may cause poisoning (Buck et al. 1982). Total dosage to death will be much lower in anticoagulants with
repeated exposures over an extended period than in acute exposures, and the majority of mortalities will
occur during or after the second week of exposure (Mendenhall and Pank 1980, Bennett et al). Single dose
toxicity may be 5-100 times the multiple dose toxicity, depending on species (Jones 1977). The amount of
data describing toxicity of indandiones to terrestrial taxa varies, with pival being the least tested compound
and diphacinone perhaps the most tested, and most toxic, compound.
Most of the products containing pival may only be used in and around buildings for control of rats and
mice, and it must also be applied in tamper-resistant bait boxes and in locations inaccessible to wildlife.
However, it is also registered for broadcast applications in open areas, thus it could likely cause harm to any
listed mammal which would consume the bait. While adherence to label instructions would not normally
allow access by wildlife to pival, consideration should be given to the possibility of direct oral toxicity,
especially where human development has encroached on habitat of listed mice and rats. Larger mammals
(e.g., deer) might feasibly ingest small quantities, but because of their large size, there would be no effect.
The secondary toxicity is considered very low because the levels of pival in the target animals are too low to
be toxic to a predator or scavenger under all but the most extreme circumstances.
Thus, it is concluded that there will be no effect on listed species from secondary exposure. Because birds
are considerably, less susceptible than mammalsto anticoagulants, EPA has. determined there is no effect on
n-53
-------
Pival
avian species and consequently no avian secondary effects. Potential exposure/impact of pival on
plants/pollinators would be non-existent since it is an anticoagulant.
WilHlifc InriHenu- None reported.
n-54
-------
Pival
BIOLOGICAL OPINION
CHEMICAL REFERENCE TABLE
(The following table contains only those species for which the Service provided a jeopardy or no jeopardy calL Species not included in
this list are either not affected by the chemical or have no chance for exposure. For a complete list of all species considered in this
opinion, refer to the master species list on page III-l of the species profile section.)
|L_ Soecies Name 1 J/NJ 1 PAGE
¦ MAMMALS
J
60
Amaryofia vole
J
60
J
61
J
61
Choctawhatchee beach mouse
J
60
J
61
Florida salt marsh vole
J
62
Fresno Irnnmmn rat
J
63
Giant kanearoo rat
NJ
69
J
63
Jasuarundi
J
64
Kev iArfn rntton mouse
J
64
J
64
J
65
Lower Kevs rabbit
J
65
Mono Bav kanearoo rat
J
65
Ocelot
J
64
J
60
Point Arena mountain beaveT
J
66
Salt marsh harvest mouse
J
66
San Joaauin kit fox
J
66
Silver rice rat
J
67
Southeastern beach mouse
J
61
Stenhen's kanraroo rat
J
68
- Tioton kanearoo rat
J
63
Utah oniric don
NJ
69
¦ BIRDS
| Audubon's crested caracara 1 J 1 68
1 rfpttibs
II Eastern indieo snake 1 NJ 1 70
RATIONALE FOR JEOPARDY DETERMINATIONS
Alabama beach mouse, Choctawhatchee beach mouse, and Perdldo Key beach mouse - Exposure of these
beach mice to pival could occur through consumption of poisoned baits when used to control rodents within
or in close proximity to their occupied habitats. Since all three subspecies occur in areas that are being
encroached upon by various types of human development, there is a high possibility of pival being used
where these mice could come in contact with it. All three of these beach mice are restricted to mature
coastal barrier dune systems along the Gulf of Mexico. The Choctawhatchee beach mouse is presently
known to occur only on Shell Island at St. Andrews Bay in Bay County, Florida, and on approximately 5
miles of beach dune habitat (coastline up to 500 feet inland) near Topsail Hill, from around Morrison Lake
eastward to Stalworth Lake, Walton County, Florida. The Alabama beach mouse presently is surviving only
n-55
-------
Pival
on disjunct tracts of the sand dune system from Fort Morgan State Park to the Romar Beach area in
Baldwin County, Alabama. The Perdido Key beach mouse occurs only on Perdido Key in Baldwin County,
Alabama and Escambia County, Florida. The distance to which occupied habitat of these species extends
inland from the beach varies depending upon the configuration of the sand dune system and the vegetation
present. Both subspecies utilize portions of the frontal or primary dunes; interdunal areas; and dunes further
inland (secondary or interior dunes). Because of the restricted distributions of these species and the
likelihood of pival being used for rodent control within or adjacent to areas which they inhabit, it is the
Service's biological opinion that the registered use of pival is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of
the Choctawhatchee beach mouse, the Alabama beach mouse, and the Perdido Key beach mouse.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: prohibit use of pival within 100 yards of occupied
habitat of the Choctawhatchee beach mouse, the Alabama beach mouse, and the Perdido Key beach
mouse.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Amargosa vole - The primary exposure of pival from registered uses can occur when the Amargosa vole eats
bait from bait boxes used for muskrat control Therefore, it is the biological opinion of the Service that the
use of pival is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Amargosa vole.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternativefsi If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Amargosa vole: prohibit the use of pival within 100 yards
of the occupied habitat of the Armagosa vole.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative described above,
no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Anastasia Island beach mouse and Southeastern beach mouse - These two beach mice are endemic to the
east coast of Florida. The Anastasia Island beach mouse is presently believed to occur only on Anastasia
Island, St. Johns County, Florida. The southeastern beach mouse is believed to presently occur only from
Florida's Mosquito (Pounce) Inlet in Volusia County south to Hutchinson Island in St. Lucie County, Florida.
Both subspecies inhabit sand dunes vegetated by sea oats and dune panic grass and the scrub adjoining these
dunes, which is vegetated with oaks, sand pine, palmetto, sea grapes, and/or wax myrtle. Since the ranges of
both species have been and continue to be encroached upon by various types of human development, it is
likely that pival could be used for pest control in areas where both these beach mice occur. Exposure of the
mice to pival would occur through ingestion of poison baits, which would result in direct mortality of
individuals of the species. Accordingly, it is the Service's biological opinion that the registered use of pival is
likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Anastasia Island beach mouse and the southeastern beach
mouse.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternativefst - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: prohibit use of pival within 100 yards of occupied
habitat of the Anastasia Island beach mouse and the southeastern beach mouse.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Carolina northern flying squirrel - This species may be directly exposed to pival poisoning from its
registered use to control rats and mice around buildings. The Carolina northern flying squirrel occurs in
coniferous and northern hardwood forests, and may occasionally forage on the ground. Where land use
changes and development encroach on the species' habitat there is a potential risk of the squirrel coming in
n-56
-------
Pival
contact with pival bait that is placed outside of buildings (e.g^ storage sheds and barns). Pival is toxic to
rodents and would most likely kill a northern flying squirrel if it consumed the bait Due to the restricted
range and small population of the Carolina northern flying squirrel, any poisoning of individuals could
threaten the survival of the species. Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that the use of pival is likely to
jeopardize the continued existence of the Carolina northern flying squirrel
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative(s') - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Carolina northern flying squirrel: prohibit the outdoor use
of the chemical within the species' occupied habitat.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Florida panther - The Florida panther may be exposed to pival by feeding on rodents or other animals that
are dead or incapacitated from this rodenticide poison. Exposure may also occur by ingestion of meat and
fish flavored baits. Panthers venture into agricultural and other areas where this rodenticide is likely used
and poisoned target animals would be found. This poison has been implicated in the deaths of raccoons, fox,
rabbits,and mountain lion. EPA has not provided adequate data relating to felids to evaluate the secondary
poisoning hazard of pival. Sensitivities to indandiones often vary by orders of magnitude among taxa. Some
indandiones are known to present a secondary poisoning to felids. Given the similar mode of action of pival,
such a hazard must be considered a possibility. Even if a panther ingested a sublethal dose of poison,
rodenticide induced internal hemorrhaging could weaken a panther to the degree that the animal would be
very susceptible to fatal disease or infections. Because of the critically small panther population, the loss of
even one panther could threaten the survival of the species. Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that the
use of pival is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Florida panther.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternativefsl - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Florida panther: prohibit the use of the chemical within 20
miles of the boundary of any Federal and State lands (e.g. National Wildlife Refuge, National Park,
National Preserve, State Park, State Preserve, State Wildlife Management Areas, etc.) and Indian
Reservations that provide suitable panther habitat south of Charlotte, Glades and Martin counties,
Florida.
Incidental Take - Because individuals of the species may disperse beyond a given home range, the
use and toxicity of the pesticide is still a concern. Consequently the Service anticipates that an
unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a result of the use of the pesticide outside of the
prohibited use zone.
Reasonable and Prudent Measuresfsl - The following reasonable and prudent measure for
minimizing incidental take should be adopted and implemented: within an area extending 5 miles
from the edge of the prohibited use zone, the user should remove and properly dispose of any dead
or incapacitated animal likely to have been poisoned during the period of rodenticide use.
Florida salt marsh vole - Exposure of the vole to pival could occur through consumption of poisoned baits
used to control rodents in close proximity to the vole's occupied marsh habitat. There is a possibility of the
rodenticide being used around buildings, rights-of-way, and other open areas, adjacent to salt marsh habitat
where the vole could come in contact with it. The vole is restricted to a single known site in tfifc salt marsh
of Waccasassa Bay, Levy County, Florida. This rodenticide is highly toxic to mammals, and would be lethal
to voles if consumed. Because of the restricted distribution of the species, its limited population, and the
likelihood of this rodenticide being used for rodent control in areas in which the vole may forage, it is the
Service's biological opinion that the use of pival is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Florida
salt marsh vole.
n-57
-------
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the species: prohibit use of pival within 100 yards of the
landward edge of the species' salt marsh habitat in Levy County, Florida.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Fresno kangaroo rat, Upton kangaroo rat Because pival use is relatively restricted to non-habitat areas
(registered for control of domestic rodents in and around buildings, and ground squirrel control in orchards,
non-crop rights-of-way, and other developed areas such as parks and golf courses) the likelihood of exposure
of these kangaroo rats to this compound appears to be somewhat limited. Nevertheless, Fresno and Tipton
kangaroo rats may be vulnerable to periodic pival exposure because: (1) both species occupy habitats in
which man-made structures (residences and agricultural buildings) exist nearby, and (2) both occasionally
occupy right-of-way areas (e.g., aqueduct, canal, and levee embankments) where ground squirrel control is
considered necessary. Furthermore, both species occupy highly restricted and/or fragmented habitats, and
are highly susceptible to the toxic effects of this compound. Of registered formulations and applications,
those most likely to adversely affect these kangaroo rats would be grain baits, broadcast applications, and
applications to burrows. For these reasons, it is the Service's biological opinion that pival use within the
range of the Fresno kangaroo rat and Tipton kangaroo rat is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of
these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Fresno kangaroo rat and Tipton kangaroo rat: (1) Prohibit
all outdoor uses of pival grain baits within 100 yards of the occupied habitats of these species; (2)
prohibit broadcast pival applications outdoors and pival applications to burrows within the ranges of
these species; and (3) prohibit outdoor use of pival solid baits (granules, pellets, tablets, blocks)
within the ranges of these species, unless a specific kangaroo rat protection program for solid pival
baits, approved by the Service in writing, is implemented.
Incidental Take - Despite the reasonable and prudent alternatives described above, the Service
anticipates that an unquantfiable level of incidental take of the Fresno and Tipton kangaroo rat may
occur as a result of pival use within the ranges of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurefsl - To minimize anticipated incidental take, EPA must establish
a monitoring enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the
introduction section on page 1-5.
Hualapai Mexican vole - The primary exposure of pival to the Hualapai Mexican vole would be through its
application to control ground squirrels in non-crop rights-of-way or recreational areas. Voles are one of a
number of target organisms of pival and also is highly toxic to small mammals. The likelihood that pival
would be used in the habitat of the vole is small but if it were used because of the very small number of
known voles, the consequences would be severe. Therefore, it is the Service's biological opinion that the use
of pival is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Hualapai Mexican vole.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Hualapai Mexican vole: prohibit the use of pival within 100
yards of known Hualapai Mexican vole occupied habitat.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternatives to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Jaguarundi and Ocelot - The primary exposure of pival to the ocelot and jaguarundi is through its use to
control field rodents in orchards, groves and non-crop rights-of-way. This chemical is used in areas that are
n-58
-------
adjacent to or interspersed with known ocelot and jaguarandi habitat. There is little probability of these
felids directly consuming the pival baits, however it is probable that secondary poisoning may occur as a
result of these species consuming target rodents that have ingested pivaL EPA has not provided adequate
data relating to felids to evaluate the secondary poisoning hazard of pival. Sensitivities to indandiones often
vary by orders of magnitude among taxa. Some indandiones are known to present a secondary poisoning to
felids. Given the similar mode of action such a hazard must be considered a possibility for pivaL Therefore,
it is the Service's biological opinion that the use of pival is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the
ocelot and jaguarundi.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternativefsl - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative will avoid jeopardy to the ocelot and jaguarundi: prohibit use within three miles of
occupied habitat.
Incidental Take - Despite the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternatives described
above, the Service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take of ocelot and jaguarundi
may occur as a result of pival use within the range of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
measures will minimize incidental take: Prior to use of pival in potential ocelot or jaguarundi
habitat, conduct survey to determine if habitat is occupied. If habitat is unoccupied, no further
restrictions are applicable. If habitat is occupied, prohibit use within three miles.
Key Largo woodrat and Key Largo cotton mouse Both the Key Largo woodrat and Key Largo cotton
mouse occur in subtropical, evergreen, hardwood forests on the northern half of Key Largo, Monroe County,
Florida, north of the point where U.S. Highway 1 enters Key Largo. Populations of both species may also
occur in similar habitat on Lignumvitae Key, Monroe County, where the species were introduced in 1970.
The Key Largo woodrat is primarily herbivorous, feeding mostly on buds, leaves, fruits, and seeds, but
invertebrates occasionally are included in its diet. The diet of the Key Largo cotton mouse has not been
documented, but it is believed to be very similar to that of the woodrat. The use of pival broadcast baits
within or adjacent to habitat of these two species is likely due to the close proximity of various types of
human development to the areas where these species occur. Exposure of the woodrat and cotton mouse to
pival would result in direct mortality of individuals of the species. The most likely means of exposure of the
woodrat and the cotton mouse to pival would be ingestion of broadcast baits. Accordingly, it is the Service's
biological opinion that the registered use of pival is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Key
Largo woodrat or Key Largo cotton mouse.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternativefsl If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: prohibit use of the chemical within 100 yards of
occupied habitat of the Key Largo woodrat and the Key Largo cotton mouse.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Louisiana black bear - The Louisiana black bear may be exposed to pival by feeding on rodents or other
animals that are dead or incapacitated from this rodenticide poison. Exposure may also occur by ingestion
of meat and fish flavored baits. Bears venture into agricultural and other areas where this rodenticide is
likely used and poisoned target animals would be found. This poison has been implicated in the deaths of
raccoons, fox, rabbits,and mountain lion. EPA has not provided adequate data relating to large mammals to
evaluate the secondary poisoning hazard of pival. Sensitivities to indandiones often vary by orders of
magnitude among taxa. Some indandiones are known to present a secondary poisoning to felids. Given the
similar mode of action of pival, such a hazard must be considered a possibility. Even if a bear ingested a
sublethal dose of poison, rodenticide induced internal hemorrhaging could weaken a bear to the degree that
the animal would be very susceptible to fatal disease or infections. Because of the bear's small population
0-59
-------
Pival
and restricted range, mortality resulting from rodenticide poisoning could threaten the survival of the species.
Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that the use of pival is likely to jeopardize the continued wristf-nra of the
Louisiana black bear.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternativefsl - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Louisiana black bean prohibit the use of the pesticide within
the current known occupied habitat of the species.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Lower Keys rabbit - The Lower Keys rabbit could be exposed to pival when the rodenticide is used around
buildings, rights-of-way, and other open areas that are adjacent to the rabbit's marsh habitat. The rabbit is
likely to forage in some treated areas. Continued rapid development in the lower Keys greatly increases the
potential that the rabbit would come in contact with rodenticide treated areas. Broadcast applications of
flavored baits would pose a serious threat to the species. This rodenticide would be lethal to Lower Keys
rabbits if it were ingested. Because of the extremely restricted range of the species and its small population,
any rodenticide induced poisonings could threaten the survival of the species. Therefore, it is the opinion of
the Service that the use of pival is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Lower Keys rabbit.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Lower Keys rabbit: prohibit the outdoors use of the
chemical within 100 yards of the current known occupied habitat of the species.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Morro Bay kangaroo rat - The primary exposure of pival from registered uses can occur when the Morro
Bay kangaroo rat ingests treated bait. The extremely limited range of this species, the presence of target
rodents, and the interspersion of this species habitat with urban, agricultural, and commercial buildings place
the Morro Bay kangaroo rat at risk. It is the biological opinion of the Service that use of pival is likely to
jeopardize the continued existence of the Morro Bay kangaroo rat.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Morro Bay kangaroo rat: prohibit the use of pival within
100 yards of the occupied habitat of the Morro Bay kangaroo rat.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative described above,
no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Point Arena mountain beaver, salt marsh harvest mouse - These species may be subject to pival exposure
because use patterns of this chemical (registered for domestic rodent control in and around buildings, and
for ground squirrel control in orchards, non-crop rights-of-way, and other developed areas) may include
some harvest mice or mountain beaver habitats or areas adjacent to such habitats. Both these species occupy
areas in which man-made structures or sites exist nearby (commercial and industrial buildings in the vicinity
of San Francisco Bay salt marshes, municipal and communication structures in the Point Arena vicinity, golf
courses and similar sites in both areas). Adverse effects of pival use on the harvest mouse and mountain
beaver could be significant because: (1) both species may be attracted to grain or pelletized pival baits if
applied in the vicinity of occupied habitats; (2) both are highly susceptible to the toxic effects of this
compound; and (3) die habitats of these species are highly restricted and fragmented. It is therefore the
Service's biological opinion that pival use within the ranges of the salt marsh harvest mouse and Point Arena
mountain beaver is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of these species.
H-60
-------
Pival
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the salt marsh harvest mouse: prohibit outdoor pival use within
100 yards of the occupied habitat of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Point Arena mountain beaver (1) Prohibit broadcast pival
applications outdoors and pival applications to burrows within the occupied habitat of this species;
and (2) prohibit outdoor pival use (all baits) within the occupied habitat of this species, a
specific mountain beaver protection program for pival use, approved by the Service in writing, is
implemented.
Incidental Take - Despite the reasonable and prudent alternatives described above, the Service
anticipates that an unquantfiable level of incidental take of the salt marsh harvest mouse and Point
Arena mountain beaver may occur as a result of pival use within the ranges of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - To minimize anticipated incidental take, EPA must establish
a monitoring enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the.
introduction section on page 1-5.
San Joaquin kit fox - This species may be subject to pival exposure because use patterns of this chemical
(registered for domestic rodent control in and around buildings, and for ground squirrel control in orchards,
non-crop rights-of-way, and other developed areas) include numerous areas that may be frequented by kit
foxes. Such areas within the kit fox range include several municipalities (e.g., Bakersfield, California), oil
fields, aqueduct and canal embankments, golf courses, and orchards. There are two potential sources of kit
fox exposure to pival: (1) direct consumption of pival baits (possible especially for pelletized and other solid
bait formulations, especially when broadcast or applied at burrows); and (2) secondary poisoning by
consuming small mammals killed or incapacitated by pival exposure. EPA considers the possibility of
secondary poisoning of kit foxes to be low. However, the Service questions whether the data on which EPA
makes this assumption is applicable to canid species. Adverse effects of pival use on the San Joaquin kit fox
therefore could be significant because (1) of the wide variety of pival use patterns and formulations; (2) the
opportunistic feeding habitats of kit foxes, which increases the likelihood of exposure; (3) the fact that serious
localized effects of pival use could occur in areas where the kit fox range is geographically restricted; and (4)
the possibility of secondary effects. For these reasons, the Service concludes that pival use within the San
Joaquin kit fox range is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternativefsl - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the San Joaquin kit fox: prohibit pival use within the kit fox
range as determined by the Service. Exceptions to this prohibition are as follows: (1) Agricultural
areas that are one mile or more from any kit fox habitat, such areas to be determined and mapped
by the California Environmental Protection Agency in consultation with the Service, or to be
determined by the Service. For purposes of this alternative, kit fox habitat is defined as all native
lands and r angel ands within the kit fox range whether disturbed or undisturbed, agricultural lands
known or likely to be occupied by kit foxes (e.g., orchards, fallow lands), and all urban and
municipal areas within Kern and Tulare Counties; OR (2) areas for which kit fox surveys have been
conducted within a one mile radius of proposed treatment sites and have yielded negative results,
provided such surveys are conducted by qualified individuals utilizing methods acceptable to the
Service, and that such results are submitted to the Service for review and approval; OR (3)
laboratory data acceptable to the Service demonstrates negligible risks to canid species resulting
from secondary pival exposure. If the latter is completed, a specific kit fox protection program for
pival use within the kit fox range may be implemented, provided that the Service approves of any
such program in writing.
n-6i
-------
Pival
Incidental Take - Despite the reasonable and prudent alternatives described above, the Service
anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take of the San Joaquin kit fox may occur as a
result of pival use within the range of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - To minimize anticipated incidental take, EPA must establish
a monitoring enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the
introduction section on page I-S.
Silver rice rat - The silver rice rat could be exposed to pival when the rodenticide is used (for control of
black and Norway rats, and house mice) around buildings, rights-of-way, ditches, and other open areas rhar
are adjacent to the rat's wetland habitat. The rat is likely to forage in some treated areas. Continued rapid
development in the lower Keys greatly increases the potential that the rat would come in contact with
rodenticide treated areas. Broadcast applications of flavored baits would pose a serious threat to the species.
This rodenticide would be lethal to silver rice rats if it were ingested. Because of the extremely restricted
range of the species and its small population, any rodenticide induced poisonings could threaten the survival
of the species. Therefore, it is the opinion of the Service that the use of pival is likely to jeopardize the
continued existence of the silver rice rat.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternatively! - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the silver rice rat: prohibit the outdoors use of the chemical
within 100 yards of the current known occupied habitat of the species.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Stephen's kangaroo rat - The primary exposure of the Stephen's kangaroo rat to pival is the ingestion of the
many bait formulations placed in proximity to the occupied habitat of this species including around buildings,
groves, golf courses, and non-crop rights-of-way. It is the biological opinion of the Service that use of pival
is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Stephen's kangaroo rat.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Stephen's kangaroo rat: (1) Prohibit all outdoor uses of
pival grain baits within the 100 yards of the occupied habitat of this species; (2) prohibit broadcast
pival applications outdoors and pival applications to burrows within the occupied habitat of this
species; and (3) prohibit outdoor use of pival solid baits (granules, pellets, tablets, blocks) within the
occupied habitat of this species, unless a specific kangaroo rat protection program for solid pival
baits, approved by the Service in writing, is implemented.
Incidental Take - Despite the reasonable and prudent alternatives described above, the Service
anticipates that an unquantfiable level of incidental take of the Stephen's kangaroo rat may occur as
a result of pival use within the ranges of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurefst - To minimize anticipated incidental take, EPA must establish
a monitoring enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the
introduction section on page 1-5.
Audubon's crested caracara Audubon's crested caracara may be exposed to pival by secondary poisoning
from consuming contaminated rodents. EPA did not provide adequate data relating to secondary poisoning
of birds from pival. Some indandiones are known to present a secondary poisoning hazard to birds. Given
the similar mode of action of pival, such a hazard must be considered a possibility. Caracaras feed both on
carrion and live prey. Pival is registered for use in pastures and rangeland. Caracaras occur in open prunes
and frequently use improved pastures. Since it takes several days for death to occur from pival ingestion, it
is conceivable that poisoned rodents may travel away from the baited area to die. Because of the caracara's
n-62
-------
Pival
small population size, any rodenticide induced mortality could threaten the survival of the species.
Therefore, it is the Sendee's opinion that the use of pival is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the
Audubon's crested caracara.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternativefs) - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Audubon's crested caracara: prohibit the use of the
pesticide within the current occupied range of the species.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
RATIONALE FOR NO JEOPARDY DETERMINATIONS
Giant kangaroo rat - Giant kangaroo rats may be subject to periodic pival exposure in some habitats that are
adjacent to human activities and structures where this compound may be used. Primarily, such areas would
include oil fields where industrial structures may be present and rights-of-way in the southwest and west
central portions of the San Joaquin Valley and Carrizo Plain, California. Of registered formulations and
applications, those most likely to adversely effect giant kangaroo rats would be grain baits, broadcast
applications, or applications directly to burrows. However, much of the giant kangaroo rat range is well
removed from areas where pival use is anticipated. Therefore, the Service concludes that pival use within the
giant kangaroo rat range is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of this species.
Incidental Take - Although possible exposure of the giant kangaroo rat to pival probably is minimal,
the Service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a result of pival
use within the range of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - If the following reasonable and prudent measures are
implemented, incidental take of the giant kangaroo rat will be minimized: (1) Prohibit all outdoor
uses of pival grain baits within 100 yards of the occupied habitat of this species; (2) prohibit
broadcast pival applications outdoors and pival applications to burrows within the occupied habitat of
this species; and (3) prohibit outdoor use of pival solid baits (granules, pellets, tablets, blocks) within
the occupied habitat of this species, unless a specific giant kangaroo rat protection program for pival
use, approved by the Service in writing, is implemented.
Utah prairie dog - The primary exposure of pival to this species may be from its registered uses to control
voles in noncrop rights-of-way and other noncrop areas. EPA determined that pival may affect the Utah
prairie dog which may consume pival bait. However, registered uses of this pesticide would impact only a
very, small portion, if any, of the population where there may be prairie dog colonies occurring near rights-of-
way where vole control may take place. Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that the use of pival is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the Utah prairie dog.
Incidental Take - Because pival is toxic to small mammals feeding on pival bait, the Service
anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a result of the use of pival to
control voles in rights-of-way.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - The following reasonable and prudent measures for
minimizing incidental take and implementing terms and conditions should be adopted: prohibit the
application of pival within 100 yards of occupied Utah prairie dog habitat.
Eastern indigo snake - The eastern indigo snake would only be exposed to pival by eating an animal such as
a mouse or rat that had been poisoned by the rodenticide. Indigo snakes occasionally occur in agricultural
areas where rodenticides are likely to be used. Although EPA has no toxicity data for reptiles, the data on
birds is considered applicable to reptiles. EPA did not provide adequate data relating to secondary poisoning
n-63
-------
Phial
of birds from pivaL Some indandiones are known to present a secondary poisoning hazard to birds.
Sensitivities to indandiones often vary by orders of magnitude among taxa. Some indandiones are known to
present a secondary poisoning to birds. Given the similar mode of action of pival, such a hazard must be
considered a possibility however minimal Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that the use of pival is not
likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the eastern indigo snake.
Incidental Take - Although the chance of exposure is considered minimal, because of the high
toxicity of pival, it is still a matter of concern. Thus, the Service anticipates that an unquantifiable
level of incidental take may occur as a result of this chemical's use in areas where the eastern indigo
snake may occur.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurefsl - The following reasonable and prudent measure for
minimising incidental take should be adopted: conduct laboratory studies using surrogate snake
species to obtain toxicity data on the chemical's secondary poisoning hazard to snakes. Based on the
data generated by the studies, the Service will develop and revise the reasonable and prudent
measures. (Because of the status and relatively broad geopraphic range of this species of indigo
snake, the Service believes at this time that prohibiting the use of pival within the species' occupied
habitat would not be reasonable and prudent).
11-64
-------
Potassium Nitrate
Sodium Nitrate
Potassium nitrate and Sodium nitrate
CHEMICAL INFORMATION
TYPE: Rodenticide
FORMULATION: Poisonous gas cartridges. Nitrates in cartridges range from 44% to 54% ai.
REGISTERED USES: Lawns, gardens, golf courses, cemeteries, open fields, rights-of-way and rangeland.
For use only in burrows to control pocket gophers, moles, wood chucks, rats, prairie dogs, skunks and ground
wasps.
BACKGROUND:
Mode of action: Suffocation
Aquatic toxicity: EPA did not provide any aquatic toncologjcal data on fish and invertebrates, but states,
because of the method of application and extreme volatility, the use of these two chemicals will not affect
aquatic organisms.
Terrestrial toxicity: The gas given off by these products are extremely toxic to any animal sealed in a
burrow. Effectiveness may vary depending on burrow size, openings and soil texture and moisture. These
two chemicals produce no toxic residues after the cartridge has burned. Since these two products produce a
deadly gas, any listed species trapped in burrows will be killed Consistent with use pattern and volatility of
gas, no direct or indirect impacts should occur for listed plants and/or plant pollinators considered in this
consultation.
Wildlife incidents: None reported.
11-65
-------
Potassium Nitrate
Sodium Nitrate
BIOLOGICAL OPINION
CHEMICAL REFERENCE TABLE
(The following tabic contains only those species for which the Service provided a jeopardy or no jeopardy call. Species not included in
this list are either not affected by the chemical or have no chance for exposure. For a complete list of all species considered in this
opinion, refer to the master species list on page m-1 of the species profile section.)
Soecies Name
J/NJ
PAGE
¦ MAMMALS
J
72
J
73
J
74
Giant kangaroo rat
J
73
Mono Bav kangaroo rat
J
74
Point Arena mountain beaver
J
7S
J
75
Stenhen's kangaroo rat
J
76
Tinton kangaroo rat
J .
73
NJ
78
¦ RFFTTTJ*!
J
76
NJ
79
Desert tortoise
NI
79
J
77
Gooher tortoise
J
78
NI
79
San Francisco garter snake
J
76
RATIONALE FOR JEOPARDY DETERMINATIONS
Black-footed ferret - These two pesticides are registered for uses on lawns, gardens, golf courses, cemeteries,
open fields, rights-of-way, and rangeland to control pocket gophers, moles, wood chucks, rats, prairie dogs,
skunks, and ground wasps. These pesticides are placed inside burrows and sealed giving off poisonous gas
which kills all the inhabitants in the burrows. The likelihood of ferrets being found in the wild, while
considered low, is still possible. The further loss or fragmentation of prairie dog habitat which has already
been reduced by as much as 98 percent (from over 100 million acres to around 2 million acres) as well as the
loss of a single ferret in the wild could result in the extinction of the species. Therefore, it is the Service's
opinion that the use of sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of
the black-footed ferret.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the black-footed ferret:
1. A black-tailed prairie dog colony or complex of less than 80 acres having no neighboring
prairie dog towns may be treated without a ferret survey. A midrange of 102 acres (61 to
294 acres) of occupied black-footed prairie dog habitat is believed necessary to support a
single ferret, so it is highly unlikely that a ferret would be found in an isolated colony of less
than 80 acres. A neighboring prairie dog town is defined as a colony less than 7 kilometers
11-66
-------
Potassium Nitrate
Sodium Nitrate
(434 miles ) from the town to be treated, based on the longest distance that the ferret has
been observed to travel during the night.
2. A white-tailed prairie dog colony or complex of less than 200 acres having no
neighboring prairie dog towns may be treated without a survey. It is estimated to require
between 196 and 475 acres of white-tailed prairie dogs to support a single ferret.
3. Urban situations (e.g., playgrounds, golf courses, etc.) may be treated without conducting
ferret surveys. The appropriate Service office will be contacted by the pesticide user in
advance of any treatment to determine whether a proposed action fits this situation.
4. For black-tailed prairie dog colonies or complexes over 80 acres but less than 1,000
acres, and white-tailed prairie dog colonies or complexes over 200 acres but less than 1,000
acres, prairie dog control may be allowed after completing a black-footed survey within 30
days of proposed treatments on colonies proposed for treatment, provided no ferrets or
their sign are found. Prior to treatment, if all colonies in this complex are surveyed with no
sign of ferrets, no future survey for ferrets would be recommended. These surveys will be
coordinated with the appropriate Office of the Service.
5. For prairie dog complexes over 1,000 acres, no control shall be allowed until the complex
has been evaluated by appropriate State and/or Federal Agencies (those agencies working
on State working groups for ferret recovery) for its potential as a recovery site and until the
complex has been block cleared. One thousand acres would be a minimum complex for
consideration as a black-footed ferret reintroduction site and would likely require intensive
management of habitat for a ferret population.
6. The EPA shall maintain records which shall be provided to the Service on an annual
basis. These records can include the amount of acres of prairie dog towns or complexes
controlled (e.g., Federal lands, private lands on a volunteer basis), or the amount of the
chemical sold including application rates. The latter could be obtained from either the
manufacturer or the vender.
Surveys shall be supervised by biologists trained in ferret survey techniques and ferret
biology at a Service-approved training workshop. Currently, only the University of Wyoming
has such a course. Ferret surveys shall be reviewed by the Service for compliance with
survey standards and Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act.
Incidental Take With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternatives to preclude
jeopardy of the black-footed ferret, no incidental take is anticipated and thus none is authorized.
Fresno kangaroo rat, giant kangaroo rat, Tipton kangaroo rat - The primary risk of potassium and sodium
nitrate exposure for these species would result from registered uses of these compounds as burrow fumigants
in the southern San Joaquin Valley, California. The most likely source of exposure would be inadvertent
application to kangaroo rat burrows during control of field rodents in occupied habitats. This risk may be
minimized by the fact that kangaroo rat burrows differ somewhat in appearance from burrows of target
species. Nevertheless, adverse effects of potassium and sodium nitrate use on Fresno, giant, and Tipton
kangaroo rats could be significant because of: (1) their high toxicity (100 percent mortality in treated burrows
is expected); (2) the frequency of ground squirrel control programs in areas occupied by these species; and
(3) the fact that each of these kangaroo rats occupy habitats that are significantly restricted and/or
fragmented. For these reasons, it is the Service's biological opinion that use of potassium and sodium nitrate
is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of these species.
n-67
-------
Potassium Nitrate
Sodium Nitrate
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Fresno kangaroo rat, giant kangaroo rat, and Tipton
kangaroo rat: to avoid application to kangaroo rat burrows, potassium and sodium nitrate shall be
used within the occupied habitats of these species only by qualified individuals. Such persons shall
be limited to wildlife biologists, certified applicators, or agents of county agricultural commissioner
offices, university extension offices, or representatives of California State or Federal agencies, who
are trained to distinguish dens and burrows of target species from those of non-target species.
Incidental take - Despite the reasonable and prudent alternatives described above, the Service
anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a result of potassium and
sodium nitrate use within the ranges of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurers) - To minimize anticipated incidental take, EPA must establish
a monitoring enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the
introduction section on page I-S.
Hualapai Mexican vole - The primary exposure of sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate to the Hualapai
Mexican vole would be through its application to control ground squirrels in non-crop rights-of-way or
recreational areas. Voles are one of a number of target organisms of sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate
and also is highly toxic to small mammals. The likelihood that sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate would
be used in the habitat of the vole is small but if it were used because of the very small number of known
voles, the consequences would be severe. Therefore, it is the Service's biological opinion that the use of
sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Hualapai Mexican
vole.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Hualapai Mexican vole: prohibit the use of sodium nitrate
and potassium nitrate in occupied habitat of the Hualapai Mexican vole.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternatives to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Morro Bay kangaroo rat - The primary exposure of potassium nitrate and sodium nitrate from registered
uses can occur either when Morro Bay kangaroo rat burrows are targeted or the burrows of targeted animate
contain the species. The extremely limited range of this species and the present of target control species
places the Morro Bay kangaroo rat at risk. It is the biological opinion of the Service that use of sodium or
potassium nitrate is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Morro Bay kangaroo rat.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative(s') - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: prohibit the use of potassium nitrate and sodium
nitrate within the occupied habitat of the Morro Bay kangaroo rat.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative described above,
no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Point Arena mountain beaver - This species is vulnerable to potassium and sodium nitrate exposure during
registered uses of these burrow fumigants in Mendocino County, California. The primary source of exposure
would result from inadvertent application to mountain beaver burrows during control of field rodents in
occupied habitats. Adverse effects of potassium and sodium nitrate use on the Point Arena mountain beaver
could be significant because of: (1) the high toxicity of these fumigants; (2) the frequency of rodent control
programs within the range of this species; and (3) the fact that the mountain beaver occupies highly
restricted and fragmented habitats. For these reasons, it is the Service's biological opinion that use of
11-68
-------
Potassium Nitrate
Sodium Nitrate
potassium and sodium nitrate within the range of the Point Arena mountain beaver is likely to jeopardize the
continued existence of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Point Arena mountain beaver: To avoid application to
mountain beaver burrows, potassium and sodium nitrate ghall be used within the mountain beaver's
occupied habitat only by qualified individuals. Such persons be limited to midlife biologists,
certified applicators, or agents of county agricultural commissioner offices, university extension
offices, or representatives of California State or Federal agencies, who are trained to disringnish dens
and burrows of target species from those of non-target species.
Incidental take - Because of the possibility of inadvertent application of these compounds to
mountain beaver burrows despite the reasonable and prudent alternatives described above, the
Service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a result of potassium
and sodium nitrate use within the range of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - To minimize anticipated incidental take, EPA must establish
a monitoring enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the
introduction section on page I-S.
San Joaquin kit fox - The primary source of kit fox exposure to potassium and sodium nitrate would result
from erroneous application of these fumigants to kit fox dens during control of rodents, primarily ground
squirrels, in the San Joaquin Valley, California. The possibility of such error is especially high for kit foxes
because kit fox dens and ground squirrel burrows often have similar dimensions at the ground surface.
Though the kit fox is relatively wide-ranging, potassium and sodium nitrate uses could have significant
adverse effects on this species because of: (1) the extremely high toxicity of these fumigants (100 percent
mortality in treated burrows is expected); (2) the frequency of ground squirrel control programs within the
kit fox range; and (3) the fact that serious localized effects of potassium and sodium nitrate use could occur
in areas where the kit fox range is geographically restricted (e.g^ the north end of the range where kit foxes
are confined to a narrow strip of rangelands, and the Santa Nella area where the range forms a "bottleneck").
For these reasons, it is the Sendee's biological opinion that potassium and sodium nitrate use within the San
Joaquin kit fox range is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the San Joaquin kit fox: To avoid application to kit fox dens,
potassium and sodium nitrate shall be used within the San Joaquin kit fox's range only by qualified
individuals. Such persons shall be limited to wildlife biologists, certified applicators, or agents of
county agricultural commissioner offices, university extension offices, or representatives of California
State or Federal agencies, who are trained to distinguish dens and burrows of target species from
those of non-target species.
Incidental Take - Because of the possibility of inadvertent application of these compounds to kit fox
dens despite the reasonable and prudent alternatives described above, the Service anticipates that an
unquantifiable level of incidental take of San Joaquin kit foxes may occur as a result of potassium
and sodium nitrate use within the range of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured si - To minimize anticipated incidental take, EPA must establish
a monitoring enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the
introduction section on page I-S.
Stephen's kangaroo rat - The primary exposure of potassium nitrate and sodium nitrate from registered uses
can occur either when Stephen's kangaroo rat burrows are targeted or the burrows of targeted animals
n-69
-------
Potassium Nitrate
Sodium Nitrate
contain the species. It is the biological opinion of the Service use of sodium or potassium nitrate is
likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Stephen's kangaroo rat.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternativefst - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Stephen's kangaroo rat: prohibit the use of potassium and
sodium nitrate in the occupied habitat of the Stephen's kangaroo rat .or potassium and sodium
nitrate shall be used within this species's occupied habitat only by qualified individuals. Such persons
shall be limited to wildlife biologists, certified applicators, or agents of county agricultural
commissioner offices, university extension offices, or representatives of California State or Federal
agencies, who are trained to distinguish dens and burrows of target species from those of non-target
species.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative described above,
no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Blunt-nosed leopard lizard, San Francisco garter snake - The blunt-nosed leopard lizard and San Francisco
garter snake utilize burrows for all or part of their life cycle, and therefore are subject to potassium and
sodium nitrate exposure during registered uses of these compounds as burrow fumigants within occupied
habitats (San Joaquin Valley and San Francisco Bay area, California, respectively). However, because
leopard lizards and garter snakes do not construct their own burrows but utilize existing burrows of other
species (usually mammals), avoidance of exposure to potassium and sodium nitrate through burrow
identification is difficult. The leopard lizard is subject to such exposure year round, since it utilizes burrows
during its activity and hibernation phases. The garter snake utilizes burrows only during its hibernation
phase (approximately November through March) and is subject to exposure only during this period. Because
of the high toxicity of these burrow fumigants, the likelihood of exposure, and the fact that these species
occupy highly restricted and/or fragmented habitats, it is the biological opinion of the Service that potassium
and sodium nitrate use is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the blunt-nosed leopard lizard and
San Francisco garter snake.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternativefsl - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the blunt-nosed leopard lizard: (1) To avoid application to
leopard lizard burrows, potassium and sodium nitrate shall be used within the blunt-nosed leopard
lizard range only by qualified individuals; such persons shall be limited to midlife biologists, certified
applicators, or agents of county agricultural commissioner offices, university extension offices, or
representatives of California State or Federal agencies, who are trained to distinguish dens and
burrows of target species from those of non-target species. (2) From April 15 to September 30,
potassium and sodium nitrate use within the blunt-nosed leopard lizard range shall be limited to
daylight hours when air temperatures are between 77 and 95 degrees Fahrenheit (20 to 30 degrees
Centigrade). (3) Potassium and sodium nitrate use shall be prohibited within occupied leopard
lizard habitat during the leopard lizard inactivity period, October 1 to April 15, imlftss a specific
blunt-nosed leopard lizard protection program for this period, approved in writing by the Service, is
implemented.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the San Francisco garter snake: (1) To avoid application to
garter snake burrows, potassium and sodium nitrate shall be used within the San Francisco garter
snake range only by qualified individuals; such persons shall be limited to wildlife biologists, certified
applicators, or agents of county agricultural commissioner offices, university extension offices, or
representatives of California State or Federal agencies, who are trained to distinguish dens and
burrows of target species from those of non-target species. (2) Potassium and sodium nitrate use
within occupied San Francisco garter snake habitat shall be prohibited during the garter snake
D-70
-------
Potassium Nitrate
Sodium Nitrate
inactivity period, November 1 to March 30, unless a specific San Francisco garter snake protection
program for this period, approved in writing by the Service, is implemented.
Incidental Take - Because of the possibility of inadvertent application of these compounds to
burrow inhabited by leopard lizards and garter snakes despite the reasonable and prudent
alternatives described above, the Service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take
may occur as a result of sodium and potassium nitrate use within the ranges of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurers') - To minimize anticipated incidental take, EPA must establish
a monitoring enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the
introduction section on page 1-5.
Eastern indigo snake - The eastern indigo snak<» would most likely be exposed to sodium nitrate and
potassium nitrate when these rodenticide chemicals are used to fumigate rodent burrows. Indigo snakes use
burrows for shelter particularly during the winter season. The snake typically uses gopher tortoise burrows
when they are available, but the snake is opportunistic when seeking shelter and would use rodent burrows if
necessary. The chemical gas produced by these nitrate rodenticides would be lethal to any animal inhaling
the gas inside a burrow. Because the eastern indigo snake population is relatively small and declining, and
the fact that these snakes frequent agricultural areas where the nitrate fumigants would likely be used, it is
the Service's opinion that the use of sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate fumigants is likely to jeopardize
the continued existence of the species.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - The following reasonable and prudent measure for
minimizing incidental take should be adopted: prohibit the use of these fumigants in animal burrows
within habitat types and locales known to support indigo snakes.
Inddental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no inddental take is antiapated and therefore none is authorized.
Gopher tortoise - The gopher tortoise would most likely be exposed to sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate
when these rodentidde chemicals are used to fumigate rodent burrows. Gopher tortoises use burrows for
shelter. Tortoise burrows may be found in agricultural areas where land owners may use fumigants. The
chemical gas produced by these nitrate rodentiddes would be lethal to any animal inhaling the gas inside a
burrow. Because tortoise population is relatively small and declining, and the fact that these reptiles occur in
agricultural areas where the nitrate fumigants would likely be used, it is the Service's opinion that the use of
sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate fumigants is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the gopher
tortoise.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would jeopardy to the gopher tortoise: prohibit the use of the chemical in or adjacent to
known gopher tortoise occupied habitat west of the Mobile and Tombigbee Rivers in Alabama.
Inddental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy of the speaes, no inddental take is antiapated and therefore none is authorized.
RATIONALE FOR NO JEOPARDY DETERMINATIONS
Utah prairie dog - Both potassium nitrate and sodium nitrate are registered for uses on lawns, gardens, golf
courses, cemeteries, open fields, rights-of-way, and rangeland to control pocket gophers, moles, wood chucks,
rats, prairie dogs, skunks, and ground wasps. The EPA label for the use of dexol gopher gasser requires that
this product not be used in the range of the Utah prairie dog. However, it is not known whether this
endangered spedes label is required for other uses on products of these two pestiddes. Because there is
n-71
-------
Potassium Nitrate
Sodium Nitrate
restricted use on at least some of the pesticide uses (e.g^ dexol gopher gasser), it is the Service's opinion that
the use of potassium nitrate and sodium nitrate is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the
Utah prairie dog.
Incidental Take - Because information provided by EPA restricts the use of these two pesticides only
on dexol gopher gasser, the Service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may
occur as a result of the potassium nitrate and sodium nitrate for prairie dog control
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - To minimize incidental take, the following measures should
be adopted: prohibit the use of potassium nitrate and sodium nitrate within occupied Utah prairie
dog habitat.
Desert tortoise - There is potential exposure of potassium nitrate and sodium nitrate from registered
application for rodents since tortoise burrows, though they are much larger in size, may be accidentally
treated. It is the Service's biological opinion that use of potassium nitrate and sodium nitrate is not likely to
jeopardize the continued existence of the desert tortoise.
Incidental Take - The service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as
a result of potassium and sodium nitrate use within the occupied habitat of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurers') - If the following reasonable and prudent measures are
implemented, incidental take of the desert tortoise will be minimized: sodium and
potassium nitrate shall be used within the desert tortoise occupied habitat only by qualified
individuals. Such persons shall be limited to wildlife biologists, certified applicators, or
agents of county agricultural commissioner offices, university extension offices, or
representatives of California State or Federal agencies, who are trained to distinguish dens
and burrows of target species from those of non-target species.
Coachella Valley fringe-toed lizard - The primary effect of potassium nitrate and sodium nitrate would be
due to an interface when burrows harboring the lizards are treated. It is the biological opinion of the Service
that use of sodium and potassium nitrate is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Coachella
Valley fringe-toed lizard.
Incidental Take - The service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as
a result of potassium and sodium nitrate use within the occupied habitat of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurers') - If the following reasonable and prudent measures are
implemented, incidental take of the Coachella Valley fringe-toed lizard will be minimized: prohibit
the use of potassium and sodium nitrate use within the occupied habitat of the Coachella fringe-toed
lizard.
Island night lizard - There is potential exposure to this species by sodium and potassium nitrate from
registered application for rodents due to the use of rodent burrows by the island night lizard. It is the
Service's biological opinion that use of sodium and potassium nitrate is not likely to jeopardize the continued
existence of the island night lizard.
Incidental Take - The service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as
a result of sodium and potassium nitrate use within the occupied habitat of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurefsl - If the following reasonable and prudent measures are
implemented, incidental take of the island night lizard will be minimis- prohibit the use of sodium
and potassium nitrate within the occupied habitat of this species.
n-72
-------
Sodimn cyanide
Sodium Cyanide
CHEMICAL INFORMATION
TYPE: Canid predacide
FORMULATION: Capsules (888mg sodium cyanide (NaCN), 89%ai) contained in an M-44 device.
REGISTERED USES: Control of coyotes, red foxes, gray foxes and feral dogs. M-44 use is subject to 26
restrictions designed to protect the applicator, human health, livestock, and non-target wildlife. Registered
for use only by the following agencies: U. S. Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health
Inspection Service (Hyattsville, MD), Texas Department of Agriculture, (Austin), Montana Department of
Livestock (Helena), Wyoming Department of Agriculture (Cheyenne), Navajo Fish and Wildlife Separtment
(Window Rock, AZ), New Mexico Department of Agriculture, (Las Cruces) and the kansas Department of
Wildlife and Parks (Pratt). All other NaCN products for mammalian predator control have been canceled
and uses suspended.
BACKGROUND:
Mode of action: Converts to hydrogen cyanide gas which poisons by inactivating an enzyme essential to
mammalian cellular respiration leading to central nervous system depression, cardiac arrest, and gross
respiratory failure (Ballantyne 1987).
Aouatic toxicity: NaCN is highly soluble in water (480 g/L at 1CPC; Eisler 1991) but completely dissociates
to give free cyanide which, depending on pH, forms highly toxic hydrogen cyanide (HCN). HCN does not
tend to bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms. Likewise, cyanide seldom remains biologically available in soils
because it is either completed by trace metals, metabolized by microorganisms, or lost through volatilization
(Eisler 1991). Cyanide is highly to very highly toxic to most aquatic organisms. In general, fish were the
most sensitive aquatic organisms tested under controlled conditions (Eisler 1991).
Cyanide acts rapidly in aquatic environments, does not persist for extended periods, and is highly species
selective. Organisms usually recover quickly on removal to dean water. The critical sites for cyanide toxicity
in freshwater organisms are the gills, egg capsules, and other sites where gaseous exchange and
osmoregulatory processes occur (Eisler 1991). The M-44 NaCN capsules may not be used within 200 feet of
water and the number of capsules that may be used is limited to a maximum of 20 per square mile.
Therefore, cyanide from M-44 capsules should pose negligible hazard to aquatic organisms.
Terrestrial toxicity: NaCN is highly to very highly toxic to birds and mammals. The M-44 NaCN ejector
device should be considered to have 100% efficacy. The M-44 is designed to eject a burst of crystalline
NaCN into the face of a predator tugging at the bait. On contact with mucus or saliva of the eyes, nose, and
mouth, hydrogen cyanide is immediately formed and the gas readily absorbed through the highly permeable
membranes of the nose, mouth, lungs, and stomach.
In an avian study of acute oral toxicity, three flesh-eating species (black vulture, American kestrel, and
eastern screech-owl; LDj^s = 4.0-8.6 mg/kg) were more sensitive to NaCN than three species (Japanese
quail, European starling, and domestic chicken; LDjqS - 9.4-21 mg/kg) that fed predominantly on plant
material (Wiemeyer et al. 1986). It was also noted that the associated dose-response curve was consistently
steepest for the flesh-eaters and thereby suggests further increase in hazard to species most likely to trip an
M-44 cyanide ejector device.
EPA lists a number of "may affect" mammals such as the San Joaquin kit fox, jaguar, ocelot, gray wolf, and
the Mariana crow. However, it is EPA's position that adherence to the 26 conditions effectively eliminates.
H-73
-------
Sodium Cyanide
the non-target hazards associated with the use of M-44 cyanide capsules. Conversely, it is clear from
Connolly's (1988) list of non-target species rtiat finy fjurirtn Wjtiny animal able to activate thp. triggp.fr nf
M-44s cvaniHp. p.jftfftr device is at risk. Consistent with its use pattern, no direct or indirect effects are
expected with M-44 cyanide capsules with respect to listed plants and/or plant pollinators considered in this
consultation.
wildlife, inriripnts- epa reported no wildlife poisoning incidents associated with NaCN. However, when the
M-44 user is in compliance with the 26 specific restrictions, the likelihood of the general public locating the
carcass of a non-target species is small. Many of the Animal Damage Control non-target listings (Connolly
1988) would have constituted "wildlife incidents" if located first by the general public. Also, a dead California
condor was exposed to NaCN from an M-44 even though a conclusive diagnosis of death was not made
(Wiemeyer et al. 1986).
The U. S. Department of Agriculture's Animal Damage Control program records mortality from M-44
cyanide ejector use. During 1976-1986, M-44s were used in 14 western states, killing 103,255 animals. This
total includes 4,868 non-target animals (Connolly 1988). Non-target species reported killed include grizzly
bear, black bear, mountain lion, badger, kit and swift fox, bobcat, ringtail cat, feral cat, skunk, opossum,
raccoon, Russian boar, feral hog, javelina, beaver, porcupine, nutria, rabbit, vulture, raven, crow, and hawk.
It is reasonable to believe birds deaths are underestimated in non-target kill reports because the bird's flight
response on activation of an M-44 could easily remove them from the vicinity of the device in a few seconds.
n-74
-------
Sodium Cyanide
BIOLOGICAL OPINION
CHEMICAL REFERENCE TABLE
(The following table contains only those species for which the Service provided a jeopardy or no jeopardy calL Species not included in
this list are either not affected by the chemical or have no chance for exposure. For a complete list of all species considered in this
opinion, refer to the master species list on page III-l of the species profile section.)
1 Suedes Name
J/NI
PAGE
¦ MAMMALS
Florida nanther
J
83
Grav wolf
NJ
85
NJ
85
Jaeuanindi
J
83
tauisiana black bear
J
84
Ocelot
J
83
San Joaauin kit fox
J
8S
¦ BIRDS
NJ
86
J
85
II Mariana crow
NJ
86
RATIONALE FOR JEOPARDY DETERMINATIONS
Florida panther - The panther could be exposed to sodium cyanide when the chemical is used in an M-44
device to control canid predators such as foxes and feral dogs. EPA requires a number of restrictions on the
use of the device, which would minimize the opportunity of an endangered species coming in contact with the
M-44 device. According to EPA, the M-44 shall not be used in areas where endangered species may be
adversely affected. However, the panther requires a large home range, and at times will venture from that
range in search of prey. Young panthers will also disperse to establish new home range territory.
Consequently, there is opportunity for panthers to be exposed to an M-44 device. Although these sodium
cyanide devices are designed for canid control, there are documented kills of bobcats and mountain lions.
Because of the critically small panther population, any poisoning event could threaten the survival of the
species. Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that the use of sodium cyanide is likely to jeopardize the
continued existence of the Florida panther.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the followiqg reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Florida panther prohibit the use of the chemical device
within 20 miles of the boundary of any Federal and State lands (e.g., National Wildlife Refuge,
National Park, National Preserve, State Park, State Preserve, State Wildlife Management Areas, etc.)
and Indian Reservations that provide suitable panther habitat south of Charlotte, Glades and Martin
Counties, Florida.
Incidental Take - Because individuals of the species may disperse beyond a given home range, the
use and toxicity of the pesticide is still a concern. Consequently, the Service anticipates that an
unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a result of the use of the pesticide outside of the
prohibited use zone.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - The following reasonable and prudent measure for
minimizing incidental take should be adopted and implemented: prohibit the use of sodium cyanide
(M-44s) in the geographic range of the Florida panther until after the user has contacted the local
D-75
-------
Sodium Cyanide
Fish and Wildlife Service office and that office has determined that there are no known panthers in
the general vicinity of where the M-44's are going to be used.
Jaguarundi and Ocelot - The ocelot and jaguarundi could be exposed to sodium cyanide when the chemical
is used in an M-44 device to control canid predators such as foxes, coyote and feral dogs. EPA requires a
number of restrictions on the device, which would minimize the opportunity of an endangered species coming
in contact with the M-44 device. According to EPA, the M-44 shall not be used in areas where endangered
species may be adversely affected. However, young ocelots and jaguarundi will disperse in an attempt to
establish new territories and could be exposed to an M-44 device. Although these sodium cyanide devices
are designed for canid control, there are documented kills of bobcats and mountain lions. Because of the
critically small ocelot and jaguarundi populations, any poisoning event could threaten the survival of the
species. Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that the use of sodium cyanide is likely to jeopardize the
continued existence of the ocelot and jaguarundi
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative will avoid jeopardy to the ocelot and jaguarundi: prohibit use within three miles of
occupied habitat.
Incidental Take - Despite the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternatives described
above, the Service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take of ocelot and jaguarundi
may occur as a result of sodium cyanide use within the range of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurers') - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
measures will minimize incidental take: prior to use of sodium cyanide in potential ocelot or
jaguarundi habitat, conduct survey to determine if habitat is occupied. If habitat is unoccupied, no
further restrictions are applicable. If habitat is occupied, prohibit use within three miles.
Louisiana black bear - The bear could be exposed to sodium cyanide when the chemical is used in an M-44
device to control canid predators such as foxes and feral dogs. EPA requires a number of restrictions on the
use of the device, which would minimize the opportunity of an endangered species coming in contact with the
M-44 device. According to EPA, the M-44 shall not be used in areas where endangered species may be
adversely affected. However, the bear requires a large home range, and at times will venture from that
range in search of additional prey. Young bears will also disperse to establish new home range territory.
The registered use of the canid control chemical permits up to 20 M-44 devices per square mile.
Consequently, there is opportunity for bears to be exposed to an M-44 device. Although these sodium
cyanide devices are designed for canid control, there are documented kills of other mammals including
skunks, bobcats and mountain lions. Because of the bear's relatively small population, any poisoning event
could threaten the survival of the species. Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that the use of sodium
cyanide is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Louisiana black bear.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative's') - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Louisiana black bear prohibit the use of the chemical
device within the known occupied habitat of the Louisiana black bear.
Incidental Take - Because individuals of the species may disperse beyond a given home range, the
use and toxicity of the pesticide is still a concern. Consequently, the Service anticipates that an
unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a result of the use of the pesticide outside of the
prohibited use zone.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurers') - The following reasonable and prudent measure for
minimising incidental take should be adopted and implemented: prohibit the use of sodium cyanide
(M-44s) in the geographic range of the Louisiana black bear until after the user has contacted the
n-76
-------
Sodium Cyanide
local Fish and Wildlife Service office and that office has determined that there are no known
Louisiana black bears in the general vicinity of where the M-44's are going to be used.
San Joaquin kit fox - The primary risk of exposure of San Joaquin kit foxes to sodium cyanide would occur
during use of this chemical in M-44 devices to control coyotes and other canids. M-44 devices (consisting of
a stake with an attractant and spring loaded capsule containing the active ingredient) are targeted specifically
for the control of wide-ranging canid species. They are highly attractive to such species, are highly dangerous
when triggered, and are relatively non-selective. Because of these qualities, use of M-44 devices within the
San Joaquin kit fox range would pose a significant exposure hazard to kit foxes and could have significant
adverse impacts on the species. If permitted, use of M-44 devices likely would occur throughout the kit fox
range because four potential target species (coyotes, red foxes, grey foxes, and feral dogs,) share this area.
For these reasons, it is the Sendee's biological opinion that use of sodium cyanide in M-44 devices within the
San Joaquin kit fox range is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the San Joaquin kit fox: prohibit use of sodium cyanide M-44
devices within the range of the San Joaquin kit fox.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternatives described above,
no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
California Condor - The primary exposure of sodium cyanide from registered uses can occur when a
California condor activates the M-44 device by its foraging activities. Limited reintroduction of California
condors by the Service has begun in 1991. Therefore, it is the Service's biological opinion that use of sodium
cyanide is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the California condor: the use of sodium cyanide should be
prohibited in condor occupied habitat including Ventura, Kern, Santa Barbara, Los Angeles, and San
Luis Obispo Counties. Alternative control of canid predators must be considered to avoid the
inadvertent poisoning of California condors.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative described above,
no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
RATIONALE FOR NO JEOPARDY DETERMINATIONS
Gray wolf and Grizzly bear - The registration of sodium cyanide capsules for use in the M-44 device for
control of canid predators could result in the mortality of a gray wolf or grizzly bear. However, EPA also
requires a number of restrictions, some of which should provide protection to the gray wolf and grizzly bear.
According to EPA, the M-44 shall not be used in areas where
threatened or endangered species may be adversely affected. Based on that restriction, it is the Service's
opinion that the registered use of sodium cyanide is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the
gray wolf or the grizzly bear.
Incidental Take While applicators are restricted from using the M-44 in areas where a gray wolf or
grizzly bear may be adversely affected, these two species have a very wide range and thus could be
inadvertently taken in areas not mapped and/or prior to the applicator's knowledge that the species
may be in the control area. The Service, therefore, anticipates that an unquantifiable level of
incidental take may occur as a result of the use of sodium cyanide.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - The following reasonable and prudent measures should be
adopted: prohibit the application of sodium cyanide (M-44s) in the geographic range of the gray
11-77
-------
Sodium Cyanide
wolf and grizzly bear until after the user has contacted the local Fish and Wildlife Service office and
that office has determined that there are no known wolves or grizzly bears in the general vicinity of
where the M44's are going to be applied.
Alala (Hawaiian crow) and Mariana crow- Both of these corvids are, in part, carrion feeders. M-44 sodium
cyanide devices may pose a potential threat due to the possibility that the crows may be attracted to baits
associated with capsule deployment. There are few incidents of feral dog predation on livestock in these
geographic areas and canid control is typically effected through shooting or trapping. M-44 devices are not
expected to be employed in Hawaii or Guam. The alala is currently restricted to the coastal slope of Mona
Loa on the island of Hawaii and only 12 birds were estimated to occur in the wild in 1990. The Mariana
Crow is currently restricted to forest areas from Ritidian Point to Anao along the northern clifQine, in
Northwest Field, and in the Convention Weapons Storage Areas of Guam and on the island of Rota.
Consequently, it is the Service's biological opinion that use of sodium cyanide as described above within or
adjacent to habitat occupied by the alala and Mariana crow is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence
of these species.
Incidental take- The Service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take of the alala
and Mariana common crow may occur as a result of sodium cyanide use within the occupied habitat
of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured- The following reasonable and measure for minimmng
incidental take must be adopted: prohibit the use of sodium cyanide within occupied habitat on
Guam, Rota and the island of Hawaii
H-78
-------
Sodium fluroacetate
Sodium flnroacetate (1080)
CHEMICAL INFORMATION
TYPE: Predator control - coyotes
FORMULATION: Livestock protection collar, 30 ml (300 mg Compound 1080 = 1% AI) or 60 ml (600 mg
Compound 1080 = 1% AI) rubber bladder toxicant reservoir, for use on sheep and goats only.
REGISTERED USES: Livestock depredation collar for sheep and goats to control depredating coyotes.
Registered for use only by the states of South Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, New-Mexico, and Texas. All
other uses of sodium fluoroacetate have been canceled.
BACKGROUND:
Mode of action: Inhibitor of citric acid cycle leading to general inhibition of oxidative energy metabolism at
the cellular level with the central nervous system and heart most critically affected (Peters 1952). Three
molecules of fluroacetate combine in the liver to form a molecule of flurocitrate, which poisons enzymes
critical to cellular respiration. The heart and the brain are most affected.
Aquatic toxicity: Because use of sodium fluoroacetate is limited to toxic collars on livestock in fenced
pastures, and restricted to use by trained applicators, the potential for exposure of Compound 1080 in
amounts that would cause harm in aquatic environments is virtually nonexistent However, if a lake or large
river is used as a containment barrier, exposure of aquatic species must be considered in event of a collar
puncture in or immediately adjacent to water.
Terrestrial toxicity: Sodium fluoroacetate is very highly toxic to birds and mammals The median LD^ for
13 species of birds representing five taxonomic orders is 5.5 mg Compound 1080/kg body mass, with carrion
feeding black-billed magpie (1.6 mg/kg) and turkey vulture (20 mg/kg) representing the extremes (Atzert
1971, Hudson et al. 1984). Japanese quail and turkey vulture are the only birds to give LD^qS above 10
mg/kg. The golden eagle LD^ is 3.5 mg/kg. In tests of 11 carnivorous and four herbivorous mammals the
median LD^ is 0.5 mg Compound 1080/kg body mass, with the domestic dog (0.07 mg/kg) and opossum (60
mg/kg) providing the extremes (Atzert 1971, Hudson et al 1984). Domestic sheep and cows and mule deer
all have LD^jS < 1 mg/kg. In a test of Compound 1080's secondary hazard, European ferrets were fed mice
that had been dosed with the equivalent of 1,2, 4, or 8 mg/kg of ferret body weight. The ferrets were given
one mouse at 1-2 h after dosing and all the ferrets died (Hudson et al 1984). Other studies also suggest the
potential for poisoning from secondary exposure to Compound 1080 (e.g^ Rudd and Genelly 1956, Eastland
and Beasom 1986, Hegdal et al. 1986). Another variable affecting toxicity is ambient temperature. Turkey
vultures are about 25 times as sensitive to acute Compound 1080 exposure at 8-9°C then when dosed at 23-
28°C (Fry et al. 1986).
The EPA concludes that direct ingestion of Compound 1080 likely would kill most predators, and ingestion
of dead sheep, goats, or coyotes with Compound 1080 in or on their flesh, conceivably could kill the
predators as well. Thus, concerning this pesticidal use, the possibility of direct exposure is the primary issue
in making a "may affect" determination. There is a direct exposure risk to grizzly bears and gray wolves
depredating on Compound 1080 collared livestock. There is less risk to listed species that scavenge because
of their feeding habitats and the fact that the use of the toxic collar is restricted to trained applicators.
However, when a water barrier is used to contain collared animals, carrion-feeding and predatory mammals
and birds associated with water will be at risk to exposure. There is a slight risk of poisoning associated with
exposure to carcasses of animals killed with Compound 1080. Consistent with its restricted use pattern, no
direct or indirect effects are expected with Compound 1080 with respect to listed plants or plant pollinators.
H-79
-------
Sodium fluroacetate
Wildlifg The livestock protection collar may only be used on a restricted number of sheep and
goats in accordance with specified acreage within approved enclosures that may include natural barriers such
as escarpments, lakes, and large rivers (Connolly 1989). All collared livestock must be accounted for weekly.
Once a toxicant reservoir is punctured or the collar otherwise damaged, the collar and all Compound 1080
wastes must be retrieved and properly disposed (toxic solution contains yellow dye as a safety marker).
Prompt disposal of collared livestock carcasses and predators suspected of Compound 1080 poisoning is
essential because residual toxicant on livestock and poisoning by secondary exposure from scavenging dead
predators has been reported (Rudd and Genelly 1956, Eastland and Beasom 1986, Connolly 1989). Because
of the highly controlled use of the livestock protection collar and the manageable circumstances of its use,
significant environmental pressure of sodium fluoroacetate is highly unlikely from its single registered use
provided barriers prevent contamination of natural waters.
H-80
-------
Sodium Quroacetate
BIOLOGICAL OPINION
CHEMICAL REFERENCE TABLE
(The following tabic contains only those species for which the Service provided a jeopardy or no jeopardy call. Species not included in
this list are either not affected by the chemical or have no chance for exposure. For a complete list of all species considered in this
opinion, refer to the master species list on page III-l of the species profile section.)
1 Soecies Name
J/NJ
PAGE
¦ MAMMALS
Grav wolf
J
88
1 Grizzlv bear
J
89
RATIONALE FOR JEOPARDY DETERMINATIONS
Gray wolf - The only registered use for compound 1080 is in toxic livestock collars for sheep and goats that
are used to control depredating coyotes. It is a restricted use pesticide registered for use only by the Animal
and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) and the States of SD, MT, WY, NM, and TX. While wolves
usually do not make throat attacks, there is still a possibility that they may bite into a collar while killing or
feeding on a collared animaL As little as 0.1 ml of collar contents could be fatal to a 25-pound dog, and the
amount of compound 1080 (30 ml or 60 ml) used to kill coyotes could have a lethal or sublethal effect on the
wolf. It is, therefore, the Service's opinion that the registered use of sodium Quroacetate (compound 1080) is
likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the gray wolf.
Reasonable and Prudent AlternativeCsl - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the gray wolf: prior to the proposed use of the 1080 livestock
protection collar in the following areas, the user should contact the nearest office of the Service to
determine whether use of the collar may adversely affect the wolf. If it is determined by the Service
or the user that the use of the collar may adversely impact a wolf, the collar should not be used in
these following areas.
Idaho: Northern Boise, Bonner, Boundary, Clearwater, northwest Custer, Idaho, Lemhi,
Shoshone, and Valley Counties.
Montana* Beaverhead, Carbon, Flathead, Gallatin, Glacier, Lake, Lewis and Clark, Lincoln,
Madison, Missoula, Park, Pondera, Powell, Sanders, Stillwater, Sweetgrass, and
Teton Counties.
Washington: Pend Oreille County.
Wyoming: Fremont, Hot Springs, Park, Sublette, and Teton Counties, and Yellowstone
National Park.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternatives to preclude
jeopardy to the gray wolf, no incidental take is anticipated and thus none is authorized.
Grizzly bear - As stated for the gray wolf, the only registered use for compound 1080 is in toxic livestock
collars for sheep and goats that are used to control depredating coyotes. It is registered for use only by
APHIS and several States including Wyoming and Montana. Being opportunistic feeders, grizzly bears could
feed upon live sheep or lambs and on carrion of dead collared sheep as well as coyotes that have been killed
as a result of the 1080 livestock protection collar. Although compound 1080 is highly toxic to some warm-
blooded animals, there is no information on the toxicity of compound 1080 to grizzly bears. There is a
reported LD50 for other bears of 0.5 to 1.0 mg/kg. It would, therefore, appear that a large collar (60 ml) or
a small collar (30 ml) could be toxic to even a large grizzly bear. It is the Service's opinion that the
n-81
-------
Sodium fluroacetate
registered use of sodium fluroacetate (compound 1080) is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the
grizzly bear.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the grizzly bear prior to the proposed use of the 1080 livestock
protection collar in the following areas, the user should contact the nearest office of the Service to
determine whether use of the collar may adversely impact the grizzly bear. If it is determined by the
Service or the user that the use of the collar may adversely impact a grizzly bear, the collar should
not be used in these specific areas.
Idaho: Bonner, Boundary, and Fremont Counties.
Montana: Beaverhead, Carbon, Flathead, Gallatin, Glacier, Lake, Lewis and Clark, Lincoln,
Madison, Missoula, Park, Sanders, Stillwater, Sweetgrass, and Teton Counties.
Washington: East Pend Oreille, west Okanogan, Sakagit, and Whit com Counties.
Wyoming: Fremont, Park, and Teton Counties, and Yellowstone National Park.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternatives to preclude
jeopardy to the grizzly bear, no incidental take is anticipated and thus none is authorized.
n-82
-------
Vitamin D3
Vitamin D3
CHEMICAL INFORMATION
TYPE: Rodenticide
FORMULATION: Ready-to-use bait, with station application rates ranging from 0.25-8 ounces of 0.075% AI
bait concentration.
REGISTERED USES: Control of Norway rats, roof rats and house mice in and around homes, industrial,
commercial, agricultural and poultry buildings and similar man-made structures.
BACKGROUND:
Mode of action: This product is the activated form of vitamin D and its tone effects is a combination of
actions on liver, kidney and possibly the myocardium. Death results from renal injury brought on by
hypercalcemia.
Aquatic toxicity: EPA has not required aquatic toxicity data to support the registration of vitamin D3, and
EPA provided no other aquatic toxicity with the consultation request. EPA (1991) reported that, due to the
virtual insolubility of vitamin D3 (solubility < 1 ppm) and the bait application patterns, the pesticide will not
be subject to run-off into aquatic systems. Therefore, EPA does not expect vitamin D3 to pose any problems
for listed aquatic species.
Terrestrial toxicity Vitamin D3 is classified as highly toxic to mammals with the lowest acute oral LD^
value reported by EPA of 42.0 mg/kg for the rat. Avian toxicity testing with 30% AI material yielded in the
following values: mallard LDjg > 2,000 mg/kg, mallard LC^q = 4,000 ppm, and northern bobwhite LC^ =
2,000 ppm. Although EPA provided no data concerning potential secondary exposure, EPA does not expect
vitamin D3 to pose any secondary hazard, to listed species because (1) "Bell Laboratories indicated there was
none when fed to beagles [personal communication with George Matschke, APHIS, Denver Wildlife
Research Center]", (2) "opportunities for predatory or scavenging listed species to be exposed to mice or rats
killed with vitamin D3 would be few", and (3) "using the worst case scenario of poisoned mice being
consumed by a San Joaquin kit fox [see Bromadiolone], the hazard ratio would be > 1." EPA does not
expect problems to avian species associated with direct or secondary exposure. EPA concluded that because
vitamin D3 is used in bait boxes and in locations inaccessible to wildlife, there should be no direct hazard to
listed species, except where (1) listed species habitat is adjacent to urban buildings where vitamin D3 might
be used, and (2) any listed species might be inclined to feed on bait attractive to commensal rodents.
Wildlife incidents: EPA reported no fish or wildlife poisoning incidents associated with D3.
11-83
-------
Vitamin D3
BIOLOGICAL OPINION
CHEMICAL REFERENCE TABLE
(The following tabic contains only those species for which the Service provided a jeopardy or no jeopardy call. Species not included in
this list arc either not affected by the chemical or have no chance for exposure. For a complete list of all species considered in this
opinion, refer to the master species list on page III-l of the species profile section.)
1 Soecies Name 1 J/NI f PAGE
¦ MAMMALS
Alabama beach mouse
J
92
I
93
I
93
Choctawhatchee beach mouse
J
92
I
94
J
94
Giant kanraroo rat
NJ
95
J
95
Perdido Kev beach mouse
I
92
NJ
95
Salt marsh harvest mouse
J
94
Southeastern beach mouse
J
93
Stephen's kanraroo ral
NJ
96
Ttoton kanearoo rat
NJ
95
RATIONALE FOR JEOPARDY DETERMINATIONS
Alabama beach mouse, Choctawhatcbee beach mouse, and Perdido Key beach mouse - Exposure of these
beach mice to vitamin D3 could occur through consumption of poisoned baits when used to control rodents
within or in close proximity to their occupied habitats. All three subspecies are restricted to mature coastal
barrier dune systems along the Gulf of Mexico and occur in areas that are being encroached upon by various
types of human development. Therefore, there is a high possibility of vitamin D3 being used where these
mice could come in contact with it. The Choctawhatcbee beach mouse is presently known to occur only on
Shell Island at St. Andrews Bay in Bay County, Florida, and on approximately 7.9 km of beach dune habitat
(coastline up to ISO m inland) near Topsail Hill, from around Morrison Lake eastward to Stalworth Lake,
Walton County, Florida. The Alabama beach mouse presently is surviving only on disjunct tracts of the sand
dune system from Fort Morgan State Park to the Romar Beach area in Baldwin County, Alabama. The
Perdido Key beach mouse occurs only on Perdido Key in Baldwin County, Alabama and Escambia County,
Florida. The distance to which occupied habitat of these species extends inland from the beach varies
depending upon the configuration of the sand dune system and the vegetation present. Both subspecies
utilize portions of the frontal or primary dunes; interdunal areas; and dunes further inland (secondary or
interior dunes). Because of the restricted distributions of these species and the likelihood of vitamin D3
being used for rodent control within or adjacent to areas which they inhabit, it is the Service's biological
opinion that the registered use of vitamin D3 is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the
Choctawhatchee beach mouse, the Alabama beach mouse, and the Perdido Key beach mouse.
Reasonable and Prudent AlternativeCsl - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: prohibit use of vitamin D3 within 100 yards of
occupied habitat of the Choctawhatchee beach mouse, the Alabama beach mouse, and the Perdido
Key beach mouse.
n-84
-------
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Vitamin D3
Anastasia Island beach mouse and Southeastern beach moose - These two beach mice are endemic to the
east coast of Florida. The Anastasia Island beach mouse is presently believed to occur only on Anastasia
Island, St. Johns County, Florida. The southeastern beach mouse is believed to presently occur only from
Florida's Mosquito (Ponce) Inlet in Volusia County south to Hutchinson Island in St. Lucie County, Florida.
Both subspecies inhabit sand dunes vegetated by sea oats and dune panic grass and the scrub adjoining these
dunes, which is vegetated with oaks, sand pine, palmetto, sea grapes, and/or wax myrtle. Since the ranges of
both species have been and continue to be encroached upon by various types of human development, it is
likely that vitamin D3 could be used for pest control in areas where both these beach mice occur. Exposure
of the mice to vitamin D3 would occur through ingestion of poison baits, which would result in direct
mortality of individuals of the species. Accordingly, it is the Service's biological opinion that the registered
use of vitamin D3 is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Anastasia Island beach mouse or the
southeastern beach mouse.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative (si - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: prohibit use of vitamin D3 within 100 yards of
occupied habitat of the Anastasia Island beach mouse and the southeastern beach mouse.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Carolina northern flying squirrel - This species may be directly exposed to vitamin D3 poisoning from its
registered use to control rats and mice around agricultural buildings and other man-made structures. The
Carolina northern flying squirrel occurs in coniferous and northern hardwood forests, and may occasionally
forage on the ground. Where land use changes and development encroach on the species' habitat there is a
potential risk of the squirrel coming in contact with vitamin D3 bait that is placed outside of buildings (e.g^
storage sheds and barns). Vitamin D3 bait is toxic to rodents and would most likely kill a northern flying
squirrel if it consumed the bait. Due to the restricted range and small population of the Carolina northern
flying squirrel, any poisoning of individuals could threaten the survival of the species. Therefore, it is the
Service's opinion that the use of vitamin D3 is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Carolina
northern flying squirrel.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Carolina northern flying squirrel prohibit the outdoor use
of the chemical within-the species' occupied habitat.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none i$ authorized.
Florida salt marsh vole - Exposure of the vole to vitamin D3 could occur through consumption of poisoned
baits used to control rodents in close proximity to the vole's occupied marsh habitat. There is a possibility of
the rodenticide being used around buildings or other structures adjacent to salt marsh habitat where the vole
could come in contact with it The vole is restricted to a single known area in the salt marsh of Waccasassa
Bay, Levy County, Florida. This rodenticide is highly toxic to mammals. Because of the restricted
distribution of the species, its limited population, and the likelihood of this rodenticide being used for rodent
control adjacent to areas in which the vole occurs, it is the Service's biological opinion that the use of vitamin
D3 is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Florida salt marsh vole.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: prohibit use of vitamin D3 within 100 yards of the
landward edge of the species' salt marsh habitat in Levy County, Florida.
n-85
-------
Vitamin B3
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Fresno kangaroo rat, salt marsh harvest mouse Despite relatively restricted vitamin D3 use patterns
(registered for use as ready-to-use bait in and around human structures only), Fresno kangaroo rats, and salt
marsh harvest mice are vulnerable to vitamin D3 exposure for the following reasons: (1) all occupy some
habitats in which man-made structures exist nearby (residences and agricultural buildings in the San Joaquin
Valley, commercial and industrial buildings in the vicinity of San Francisco Bay salt marshes, (2) all occupy
highly restricted and/or fragmented habitats; and (3) all rodents are highly susceptible to the toxic effects of
this compound. It is the Service's biological opinion that use of vitamin D-3 within the range of the Fresno
kangaroo rat and salt marsh harvest mouse is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Fresno kangaroo rat, salt marsh harvest mouse: prohibit
outdoor vitamin D-3 use within 100 yards of all habitats occupied by these species.
Incidental Take - Although possible exposure of the Fresno kangaroo rat and salt marsh harvest
moose to Vitamin D-3 probably is minimal, the Service anticipates that an unquartifiabk level of
incidental take may occur as a result of Vitamin D-3 use within the ranges of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measure!si - To minimis anticipated incidental take, EPA must establish
a monitoring enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the
introduction section on page 1-5.
Monro Bay kangaroo rat - The primary exposure of vitamin D3 from registered uses can occur when the
Morro Bay kangaroo rat ingests treated bait. The extremely limited range of this species, the presence of
target rodents, and the interspersion of this species habitat with urban, agricultural, and commercial buildings
place the Morro Bay kangaroo rat at risk. It is the biological opinion of the Service that use of vitamin D3 is
likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Morro Bay kangaroo rat.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Morro Bay kangaroo rat: prohibit the use of vitamin D3
within 100 yards of the occupied habitat of the Morro Bay kangaroo rat.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative described above,
no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
RATIONALE FOR NO JEOPARDY DETERMINATIONS
Giant kangaroo rat, Tipton kangaroo rat - Despite relatively restricted vitamin D3 use patterns (registered
for use as ready-touse baits in and around human structures only), giant kangaroo rats and Tipton kangaroo
rats may be subject to periodic vitamin D3 exposure because they sometimes occupy habitats thai are
adjacent to human activities and structures. Tipton kangaroo rats may be found near residential, agricultural,
and commercial buildings in the southern San Joaquin Valley; while giant kangaroo rats may be found in oil
fields and rangelands in the southwest and west central portions of the Valley where industrial and ranch
structures are present However, both species have a more widespread range than the Fresno kangaroo rat
discussed above, and large portions of their ranges are far removed from anticipated vitamin D3 uses.
Therefore, the Service concludes that vitamin D3 use within the range of the giant kangaroo rat and Tipton
kangaroo rat is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of these species.
Incidental Take - Although possible exposure «f the giafit kangaroo rat and Tipton kangaroo rat to
vitamin D-3 probably is minimal, the Service anticipates that an unquanrifiable level of incidental
take may occur as a result of vitamin D-3 use within the range of this species.
n-86
-------
Vitamin D3
Reasonable and Prudent Measured If the following reasonable and prudent measures are
implemented, incidental take of the giant and Upton kangaroo rat will be minimized: prohibit
outdoor vitamin D-3 use within areas accessible to midlife that are within 100 yards of all habitats
known or likely to be occupied by these species. Habitats likely to be occupied include native lands,
grasslands, agricultural lands fallow for two years or more, and canal and levee embankments.
Point Arena Mountain Beaver - Despite relatively restricted vitamin D3 use patterns (registered for use as
ready-to-use bait in tamper-resistant bait boxes in and around human structures only), the Point Arena
Mountain beaver is vulnerable to vitamin D3 exposure for the following reasons: (1) it occupies some
habitats in which man-made structures exist nearby (residences, agricultural buildings, municipal, and
communication structures in the Point Arena vicinity); (2) it occupies highly restricted and/or fragmented
habitats; and (3) rodents are highly susceptible to the toxic effects of this compound. It is the Service's
biological opinion that use of vitamin D-3 within the range of the Point Arena mountain beaver is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of this species.
Incidental Take Although possible exposure of the Point Arena mountain beaver to vitamin D-3
probably is minimal, the Service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur
as a result of vitamin D-3 use within the range of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - If the following reasonable and prudent measures are
implemented, incidental take of the Point Arena mountain beaver will be minimized: prohibit
outdoor vitamin D-3 use within 100 yards of all habitats occupied by this species.
Stephen's kangaroo rat -primary exposure of vitamin D3 from registered uses can occur when Stephen's
kangaroo rat ingests treated bait. It is the biological opinion of the Service that use of vitamin D3 is not
likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Stephen's kangaroo rat.
Incidental Take - The service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as
a result of vitamin D3 use within the occupied habitat of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - If the following reasonable and prudent measures are
implemented, incidental take of the Stephen's kangaroo rat will be minimized: prohibit the use of
vitamin D3 within 100 yards of all habitats occupied by this species.
D-87
-------
Warfarin
Warfarin
CHEMICAL INFORMATION
TYPE: Rodenticide (coumarin anticoagulant)
FORMULATION: Water soluble, ready-to-use baits, concentrates (in corn starch for mixing with coram eal,
rolled oats, or other materials), powder, liquid concentrates, nylon pouches, coated talc, and dust (Sine 1992).
REGISTERED USES: Control of Norway rats, roof rats, and house mice control primarily in and around
homes and other buildings. Warfarin's uses also include agricultural, commercial, institutional, and industrial
sites as well as transportation vehicles such as aircraft, ships, and rail cars. Warfarin baits must be placed in
tamperproof boxes (d-CON 1974, Haco Inc. 1992a and 1992b). Approximately 8000 pounds active ingredient
of warfarin are used annually.
BACKGROUND:
Mode of action: Warfarin (including its sodium salt) is a general use anticoagulant rodenticide that acts by
depressing the clotting capabilities of the blood while concurrently increasing the permeability of capillaries
throughout the body. This action predisposes the exposed animal to widespread internal hemorrhage. There
is a 12-72 hour delay between ingestion of a single toxic dose and the appearance of the first toxic effects. It
takes several days and repeated feedings on warfarin to kill a rodent.
Aouatic Toxicity: Warfarin is essentially insoluble in water (solubility 195 ppm), except for its water soluble
sodium salt formed in alkaline solutions. Laboratory LC^ values for rainbow trout and bluegill, are > 16 and
> 17.5 ppm, respectively, and the Daphnia magna ECg, is 17 ppm. It is unlikely that normal use of warfarin
would harm aquatic fauna, as its application methods (mainly tamper-proof bait packets in and around
buildings) and its characteristic of being essentially insoluble in water should preclude exposure. Therefore,
warfarin should not be subject to runoff, leaching, or drift.
Terrestrial toxicity: Laboratory LD^ of warfarin for rats, mallards, and northern bobwhite are 3.0,621, and
>2000 mg/kg, respectively. Data indicate that warfarin is non-toxic to bees (Sine 1992). Direct exposure of
listed species to warfarin is unlikely because the pesticide should be inaccessible to wildlife when used
according to label directions. However, there is concern for exposure where human development has
encroached on the habitat of listed rodents. Thus, there is a "may affect" situation if (1) habitat of a listed
species is adjacent to buildings where warfarin might be used and, (2) any listed species might be inclined to
feed on bait attractive to commensal rodents. The potential for significant secondary exposure to warfarin is
low because the levels of warfarin in the target animals are likely to be quite low to a predator or scavenger
under all but the most extreme circumstances.
Wildlife incidents: EPA reported no wildlife poisoning incidents associated with warfarin.
n-88
-------
Warfarin
BIOLOGICAL OPINION
CHEMICAL REFERENCE TABLE
(The following table contains only those species for which the Service prwided a jeopardy or no jeopardy call. Species not included in
this list are either not affected by the chemical or have no chance for exposure. For a complete list of all species considered in this
opinion, refer to the master species list on page III-l of the species profile section.)
1 Soecies Name
J/N
PAGE
¦ MAMMALS
Alabama beach mouse
J
98
J
99
Carolina northern flvine sauirrel
J
99
Choctawhatchee beach mouse
J
98
Florida salt marsh vole
J
100
J
100
N1
101
J
101
J
98
Point Arena mountain heaver
PJI
101
Salt marsh harvest mouse
J
100
Southeastern beach mouse
J
99
Stenhen's kanraroo rat
MI
101
Tirton kanraroo rat
N!
101
RATIONALE FOR JEOPARDY DETERMINATIONS
Alabama beach mouse, Choctawhatchee beach mouse, and Perdido Key beach mouse Exposure of these
beach mice to warfarin could occur through consumption of poisoned baits when used to control rodents
within or in close proximity to their occupied habitats. All three subspecies are restricted to mature coastal
barrier dune systems along the Gulf of Mexico and occur in areas that are being encroached upon by various
types of human development. Therefore, there is a high possibility of warfarin being used where these mice
could come in contact with it. The Choctawhatchee beach mouse is presently known to occur only on Shell
Island at St. Andrews Bay in Bay County, Florida, and on approximately 7.9 km of beach dune habitat
(coastline up to 150 m inland) near Topsail Hill, from around Morrison Lake eastward to Stalworth Lake,
Walton County, Florida. The Alabama beach mouse presently is surviving only on disjunct tracts of the sand
dune system from Fort Morgan State Park to the Romar Beach area in Baldwin County, Alabama. The
Perdido Key beach mouse occurs only on Perdido Key in Baldwin County, Alabama and Escambia County,
Florida. The distance to which occupied habitat of these species extends inland from the beach varies
depending upon the configuration of the sand dune system and the vegetation present. Both subspecies
utilize portions of the frontal or primary dunes; interdunal areas; and dunes further inland (secondary or
interior dunes). Because of the restricted distributions of these beach mice and the likelihood of warfarin
being used for rodent control within or adjacent to areas which they inhabit, it is the Service's biological
opinion that the registered use of warfarin is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the
Choctawhatchee beach mouse, the Alabama beach mouse, and the Perdido Key beach mouse.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: prohibit use of warfarin within 100 yards of
occupied habitat of the Choctawhatchee beach mouse, the Alabama beach mouse, and the Perdido
Key beach mouse.
n-89
-------
Warfarin
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Anastasia Island beach mouse and Southeastern beach mouse - These two beach mice are endemic to the
east coast of Florida. The Anastasia Island beach mouse is presently believed to occur only on Anastasia
Island, St. Johns County, Florida. The southeastern beach mouse is believed to presently occur only from
Florida's Mosquito (Pounce) Inlet in Volusia County south to Hutchinson Island in St. Lucie County, Florida.
Both subspecies inhabit sand dunes vegetated by sea oats and dune panic grass and the scrub adjoining these
dunes, which is vegetated with oaks, sand pine, palmetto, sea grapes, and/or wax myrtle. Since the ranges of
both subspecies have been and continue to be encroached upon by various types of human development, it is
likely that warfarin could be used for pest control in areas where both these beach mice occur. Exposure of
the mice to warfarin would occur through ingestion of poison baits, which would result in direct mortality of
individuals of the species. Accordingly, it is the Service's biological opinion that the registered use of
warfarin is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Anastasia Island beach mouse or the
southeastern beach mouse.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: prohibit use of warfarin within 100 yards of
occupied habitat of the Anastasia Island beach mouse and the southeastern beach mouse.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Carolina northern flying squirrel - This species may be directly exposed to warfarin poisoning from its
registered use to control rats and mice around and in the vicinity of buildings, including homes, commercial
and agricultural sites. The Carolina northern flying squirrel occurs in coniferous and northern hardwood
forests, and may occassionally forage on the ground. Where land use changes and development encroach on
the species' habitat there is a potential risk of the squirrel coming in contact with warfarin bait that is placed
outside of buildings (e.g^ storage sheds and barns). Warfarin is toxic to rodents and would most likely kill a
northern flying squirrel if it consumed the bait. Due to the restricted range and small population of the
Carolina northern flying squirrel, any poisoning of individuals could threaten the survival of the species.
Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that the use of warfarin is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of
the Carolina northern flying squirrel
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Carolina northern flying squirrel: prohibit the outdoor use
of the chemical within the species' occupied habitat.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Florida salt marsh vole - Exposure of the vole to warfarin could occur through consumption of poisoned
baits used to control rodents in close proximity to the vole's occupied marsh habitat. There is a possibility of
the rodenticide being used around buildings or other structures adjacent to salt marsh habitat where the vole
could come in contact with it. The vole is restricted to a single known area in the salt marsh of Waccasassa
Bay, Levy County, Florida. This rodenticide is highly toxic to mammals. Because of the restricted
distribution of the species, its limited population, and the likelihood of this rodenticide being used for rodent
control adjacent to areas in which the vole occurs, it is the Service's biological opinion that the use of
warfarin is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Florida salt marsh vole.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: Prohibit use of warfarin within 100 yards of the
landward edge of the species' salt marsh habitat in Levy County, Florida.
H-90
-------
Warfarin
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Fresno kangaroo rat, salt marsh harvest mouse Despite relatively restricted warfarin use patterns
(registered for use in bait boxes in and around human structures only), Fresno kangaroo rats and salt marsh
harvest mice are vulnerable to warfarin exposure for the following reasons: (1) both occupy some habitats in
which man-made structures exist nearby (residences and agricultural buildings in the San Joaquin Valley for
the Fresno kangaroo rat, commercial and industrial buildings in the vicinity of San Francisco Bay salt
marshes for the harvest mouse; (2) both occupy highly restricted and/or fragmented habitats; and (3) all
rodent species are highly susceptible to the toxic effects of this compound. It is the Service's biological
opinion that warfarin use within the range of the Fresno kangaroo rat and salt marsh harvest mouse is likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Fresno kangaroo rat and salt marsh harvest mouse:
prohibit outdoor warfarin use within 100 yards of all habitats occupied by these species.
Incidental Talce - Although possible exposure of the Fresno kangaroo rat and salt marsh harvest
mouse to warfarin probably is minimal, the Service anticipates rtiar an unquantifiable level of
incidental take may occur as a result of warfarin use within the ranges of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent MeasurefsV To minimize incidental take, EPA must establish a
monitoring/enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the
introduction section on page 1-5.
Morro Bay kangaroo rat - The primary exposure of warfarin from registered uses can occur when the Morro
Bay kangaroo rat ingests treated bait. The extremely limited range of this species, the presence of target
rodents, and the interspersion of this species habitat with urban, agricultural, and commercial buildings place
the Morro Bay kangaroo rat at risk.lt is the biological opinion of the Service that use of warfarin is likely to
jeopardize the continued existence of the Morro Bay kangaroo rat.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Morro Bay kangaroo rat: prohibit the use of warfarin within
100 yards of the occupied habitat of the Mono Bay kangaroo rat.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative described above,
no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
RATIONALE FOR NO JEOPARDY DETERMINATIONS
Giant kangaroo rat, Point Arena mountain beaver, Tipton kangaroo rat Despite relatively restricted
warfarin use patterns (registered for use in bait boxes in and around human structures only), pant kangaroo
rats, Point Arena mountain beaver, and Tipton kangaroo rats may be subject to periodic warfarin exposure
because they sometimes occupy habitats that are adjacent to human activities and structures. Upton
kangaroo rats may be found near residential, agricultural, and commercial buildings in the southern San
Joaquin Valley of California; mountain beaver near municipal and communication structures in the Point
Arena vicinity, and giant kangaroo rats in oil fields and rangelands in the southwest and west central portions
of the San Joaquin Valley where industrial and ranch structures are present. However, both kangaroo
species have a more widespread range than the Fresno kangaroo rat discussed above and large portions of
their ranges are far removed from anticipated warfarin uses. Furthermore, restriction of this compound to
use in bait boxes eliminates most avenues of exposure to mountain beaver. Therefore, the Service concludes
that use of warfarin within the range of the giant kangaroo rat, Point Arena mountain beaver, and Tipton
kangaroo rat is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of these species.
n-9i
-------
Warfarin
Incidental Take Although possible exposure of the giant kangaroo rat, Point Arena mountain
beaver, and Tipton kangaroo rat to warfarin probably is minimal, the Service anticipates that an
unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a result of warfarin use within the range of these
species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - If the following reasonable and prudent measures are
implemented, incidental take of the giant kangaroo rat, Point Arena mountain beaver, and Tipton
kangaroo rat will be minimized: Prohibit outdoor warfarin use within 100 yards of habitats occupied
by these species.
Stephen's kangaroo rat - The primary exposure of warfarin from registered uses can occur when Stephen's
kangaroo rat ingests treated bait. It is the biological opinion of the Service that use of warfarin is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the Stephen's kangaroo rat.
Incidental Take - The service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as
a result of warfarin use within the occupied habitat of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurefsl - If the following reasonable and prudent measures are
implemented, incidental take of the Stephen's kangaroo rat will be minimized: prohibit the use of
warfarin within 100 yards of its occupied habitat.
H-92
-------
Zinc phosphide
Zinc Phosphide
CHEMICAL INFORMATION
TYPE: Rodenticide
FORMULATION: Bait in the form of granules, pellets, tablets, or treated oats, wheat, or corn meaL It is
also formulated as wettable powder used to coat fruit, vegetables or dry pet food for use at specific bait
stations. Also, a 10% tracking powder which is registered for indoor use only. Broadcast baiting and aerial
application of granular bait is used. Aerial application cannot be used over unharvested crops, nor on bare
ground.
REGISTERED USES: To control rodents in orchards, rangeland, forest, vineyards, sugarcane, macadamia
nuts, agricultural crops, ornamentals, lawns, golf courses, recreational areas, rights-of-way, animal burrows,
and in and around all types of buildings.
BACKGROUND:
Mode of action: Its effect comes from the liberation and absorption of phosphine gas when the ingested zinc
phosphide comes in contact with the acidic condition in the gut. Pulmonary edema is a common cause of
death.
Aquatic toxicity: Zinc phosphide's solubility is <1 ppm, and it is relatively insoluble in alcohol or cold water.
The pesticide breaks down into zinc and phosphine gas when exposed to acidic conditions. The available
aquatic bioassay data indicate that even in a worst case scenario using broadcast application, zinc phosphide
would not affect aquatic organisms. Therefore, EPA finds that there will be no problems to aquatic
organisms associated with direct or secondary exposure to zinc phosphide.
Terrestrial toxicity: Zinc phosphide breaks down in the acidic environment of the gut and releases highly
volatile phosphine gas. Thus, there should not be a great opportunity for predators or scavengers to be
secondarily exposed to the pesticide. However, several days are required for a complete breakdown in the
gut, and there is a secondary poisoning hazard for this period (Rudd and Genelly 1956). In some instances it
may be possible for a predator or scavenger to receive lethal exposure from ingesting or inhaling phosphine
gas directly from the gut of prey that had ingested zinc phosphide bait. This has been demonstrated in
laboratory tests. There are no readily available accounts of predators or scavengers being poisoned in the
wild by secondary exposure to zinc phosphide. However laboratory tests indicate that there is potential
hazard.
In a zinc phosphide study conducted by the Fish and Wildlife Service in Michigan, Hegdal and Gatz (1977)
found that most microtine rodents and some rabbits and pheasants were killed. Other notable findings
include (1) although bait left in the field for 5 months lost 80-90% of its toxicity, it still would kill a deer
mouse, (2) hazards to seed-eating birds appear to be minimal, although 1 jay species died from apparent
direct zinc phosphide poisoning, and (3) the potential for significant secondary exposure to predators and
raptors from baiting for orchard mice is highly unlikely. In a controlled experiment, treated grain exposed to
rain and snow was still lethal to laboratory mice after 27 days of outdoor exposure (Hayne 1951).
Tietjen (1976) conducted laboratory and field studies required for development of zinc phosphide to control
blade-tailed prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus). His conclusions including the following: (1) Residues of
phosphine in vegetation from areas treated with up to 3 times a high and low application rate were nominal
and of no environmental consequence at 1,15 and 30 days posttreatment. (2) The likelihood of treatment
with 4 g per prairie dog burrow causing either primary or secondary intoxication of non-target vertebrates,
including black-footed ferrets (Mustela nigripes), is remote.
n-93
-------
Zinc Phosphide
During 1964-1965, Denver Wildlife Research Center scientists conducted studies of secondary exposure using
zinc phosphide-poisoned nutria (Mycocastor coy pus) (Evans et aL 1965). Poisoning occurred only when test
species ingested zinc phosphide directly from the stomach contents or hair of an intoxicated nutria.
Zinc phosphide initially was considered a possible substitute for strychnine, primarily because of its lower
secondary hazard potential and toxic residues are not stored in tissues of poisoned animals. Poisoning from
secondary exposure is associated with consuming stomach contents rather than the tissues of poisoned
animals (Evans et al. 1970). In addition, animals that can regurgitate are further protected if they consume
stomach contents containing zinc phosphide. Although cats can vomit after eating rats poisoned with zinc
phosphide, they do not always do so in time to save themselves (Chitty 1954). Poultry and wild birds are all
apparently very susceptible to direct poisoning from consuming treated bait (Chitty 1954). The color of zinc
phosphide-treated baits may offer some protection to seed-eating birds by stimulating a feeding aversion
(Rudd and Genelly 1956, Siefgried 1968, Hines and Dimmick 1970). The high degree of toxicity and lack of
specificity of zinc phosphide pose some hazard to all vertebrates which may encounter it (Hines and
Dimmick 1970).
Wildlife incidents: EPA reported no fish or midlife poisoning incidents associated with zinc phosphide.
Hundreds of wild geese died from consuming zinc phosphide bait 3 months after it was applied to fields to
control meadow mice (Keith and O'Neill 1964). Nearly 40% of the zinc phosphide remained on the bait
after 3 months of field exposure even though 13 inches of rain fell during the period.
n-94
-------
Zinc Phosphide
BIOLOGICAL OPINION
CHEMICAL REFERENCE TABLE
(The following table contains only those species for which the Service provided a jeopardy or no jeopardy calL Species not included in
this list are either not affected by the chemical or have no chance for exposure. For a complete list of all species considered in this
opinion, refer to the master species list on page III-l of the species profile section.)
I Species Name J
m
PAGE
1 MAMMAI.S
J
105
J
106
J
106
J
108
J
tos
J
108
Fresno kanramn rat
J
109
J
109
Grav wolf
NJ
116
NJ
116
J
109
Kev I-arco wood rat
J
109
J
110
Lower Kevs rabbit
J
110
¦I
111
Peidido Kev beach mouse
J
105
Point Arena mountain beaver
J
111
Salt marsh harvest mouse
J
111
NJ
117
Silver rice rat
J
112
Southeastern beach mouse
J
106
Steohen's kanpamo rat
J
112
J
109
Utah orairie dor
NJ
117
¦ BIRDS
J
113
Attwatert: nrairie chicken
J
in
J
113
J
113
J
114
J
114
Nene (Hawaiian
J
115
Puerto Rican olain niffcon
J
115
San Gemente saw snarrow
NJ
118
NJ
11R
Yellow-shouldered blackbird
*
116
n-95
-------
Zinc Phosphide
RATIONALE FOR JEOPARDY DETERMINATIONS
Alabama beach mouse, Choctawhatchee beach mouse, and Perdido Key beach mouse - Exposure of these
beach mice to zinc phosphide could occur through ingestion of poisoned baits when used to control rodents
within or in dose proximity to their occupied habitats. All three subspecies occur in areas are being
encroached upon by various types of human development Therefore, there is a high possibility of zinc
phosphide being used where these mice could come in contact with it All three are restricted to mature
coastal barrier dune systems along the Gulf of Mexico. The Choctawhatchee beach mouse is presently
known to occur only on Shell Island at St. Andrews Bay in Bay County, Florida, and on approximately
7.9 km of beach dune habitat (coastline up to 150 m inland) near Topsail Hill, from around Morrison Lake
eastward to Stahvorth Lake, Walton County, Florida. The Alabama beach mouse presently is surviving only
on disjunct tracts of the sand dune system from Fort Morgan State Park to the Romar Beach area in
Baldwin County, Alabama. The Perdido Key beach mouse occurs only on Perdido Key in Baldwin County,
Alabama and Escambia County, Florida. The distance to which occupied habitat of these species extends
inland from the beach varies depending upon the configuration of the sand dune system and the vegetation
present. Both subspecies utilize portions of the frontal or primary dunes; interdunal areas; and dunes further
inland (secondary or interior dunes). Because of the restricted distributions of these species and the
likelihood of zinc phosphide being used for rodent control within or adjacent to areas which they inhabit, it is
the Service's biological opinion that the registered use of zinc phosphide is likely to jeopardize the continued
existence of the Choctawhatchee beach mouse, the Alabama beach mouse, and the Perdido Key beach
mouse.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternatively) - If implemented the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: prohibit use of zinc phosphide within 100 yards of
occupied habitat of the Choctawhatchee beach mouse, the Alabama beach mouse, and the Perdido
Key beach mouse.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Anastasla Island beach mouse and Southeastern beach mouse - These two beach mice are endemic to the
east coast of Florida. The Anastasia Island beach mouse is presently believed to occur only on Anastasia
Island, St. Johns County, Florida. The southeastern beach mouse is believed to presently occur only from
Florida's Mosquito (Pounce) Inlet in Volusia County south to Hutchinson Island in St. Lucie County, Florida.
Both subspecies inhabit sand dunes vegetated by sea oats and dune panic grass and the scrub adjoining these
dunes, which is vegetated with oaks, sand pine, palmetto, sea grapes, and/or wax myrtle. Since the ranges of
both species have been and continue to be encroached upon by various types of human development, it is
likely that zinc phosphide could be used for pest control in areas where both these beach mice occur.
Exposure of the mice to zinc phosphide would occur through ingestion of poison baits, which would result in
direct mortality of individuals of the species. Accordingly, it is the Service's biological opinion that the
registered use of zinc phosphide is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Anastasia Island beach
mouse or the southeastern beach mouse.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: prohibit use of zinc phosphide within 100 yards of
occupied habitat of the Anastasia Island beach mouse and the southeastern beach mouse.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Black-footed ferret - Zinc phosphide is a restricted use rodenticide registered for use on a wide variety of
sites including orchards, rangeland, forest, agricultural crops, ornamentals, lawns, golf courses, recreational
n-96
-------
Zinc Phosphide
areas, rights-of-way, animal burrows, and in and around all types of buildings. It is used to control mice,
rats, kangaroo rats, wood rats, ground squirrels, moles, pocket gophers, prairie dogs, and muskrats. EPA has
determined that because zinc phosphide breaks down in the acidic environment of the gut and releases highly
volatile phosphine gas, there should be little opportunity for predators or scavengers to be secondarily
exposed to the pesticide. The likelihood of ferrets being found in the wild, while considered low, is still
possible. The further loss or fragmentation of prairie dog habitat which has already been reduced by as
much as 98 percent (from over 100 million acres to about 2 million acres) could cause the extinction of the
species. Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that the use of zinc phosphide is likely to jeopardize the
continued existence of the black-footed ferret.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the black-footed ferret:
1. A black-tailed prairie dog colony or complex of less than 80 acres having no neighboring
prairie dog towns may be treated without a ferret survey. A midrange of 102 acres (61 to
294 acres) of occupied black-tailed prairie dog habitat is believed necessary to support a
single isolated colony of less than 80 acres. A neighboring prairie dog town is defined as a
colony less than 7 kilometers (434 miles) from the town to be treated, based on the longest
distance that the ferret has been observed to travel during the night.
2. A white-tailed prairie dog colony or complex of less than 200 acres having no
neighboring prairie dog towns may be treated without a survey. It is estimated to require
between 1% and 475 acres of white-tailed prairie dogs to support a single ferret.
3. Urban situations (e.g., playgrounds, golf courses, etc.) and cultivated lands adjacent to
prairie dog colonies may be treated without conducting surveys. The appropriate Service
office will be contacted by the pesticide user in advance of any treatment to determine
whether a proposed action fits this situation.
4. For black-tailed prairie dog colonies or complexes over 80 acres but less than L,000
acres, and white-tailed prairie dog colonies or complexes over 200 acres but less than 1,000
acres, prairie dog control may be allowed after completing a black-footed ferret survey
within 30 days of proposed treatments on colonies proposed for treatment, provided no
ferrets or their sign are found. Prior to treatment, if aD colonies in tins complex are
surveyed with no sign of ferrets, no future survey for ferrets would be recommended These
surveys mil be coordinated with the appropriate State Office of the Fish and wildlife
Service.
5. For prairie dog complexes over 1,000 acres, no control shall be allowed until the complex
has been evaluated by appropriate State and/or Federal Agencies (those agencies working
on State working groups for ferret recovery) for its potential as a recovery ate and until the
complex has been block cleared. One thousand acres would be a minimum complex size for
consideration as a black-footed ferret reintroduction ate and would likely require intensive
management of habitat for a ferret population.
6. The EPA shall maintain records which shall be provided to the Service on an annual
basis. These records can include the amount of acres of prairie dog towns or complexes
controlled (e.g., Federal lands, private lands on a volunteer basis), or the amount of the
chemical sold including application rates. This latter could be obtained from either the
manufacturer or the vender.
Surveys shall be supervised by biologists trained in ferret survey techniques and ferret
biology at a Service approved training workshop. Currently, only the University of Wyoming
11-97
-------
Zinc Phosphide
has such a course. Ferret surveys shall be reviewed by the Service for compliance with
survey standards and Section 7 of the Endangered Species Act
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternatives to preclude
jeopardy of the black-footed ferret, no incidental take is anticipated and thus none is authorized.
Carolina northern Dying squirrel - This speciesposed to zinc phosphide poisoning from its registered use to
control rodents including mice, rats and ground squirrels in and around agricultural buildings, forests,
rights-of-way, and recreational areas. The Carolina northern flying squirrel occurs in coniferous and
northern hardwood forests, and may occasionally forage on the ground. Where land use changes and
development encroach on the species' habitat there is a potential risk of the squirrel coming in contact with
zinc phosphide bait that is placed outside of buildings (e.g., storage sheds and barns) or in rights-of-way and
forests. Zinc phosphide bait formulated as coated pet food, fruit and vegetables would likely be very
attractive and palatable to the squirrel. Zinc phosphide when ingested is toxic to rodents and would most
likely kill a northern flying squirrel if it consumed the bait. Due to the restricted range and small population
of the Carolina northern flying squirrel, any poisoning of individuals could threaten the survival of the
species. Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that the use of zinc phosphide is likely to jeopardize the
continued existence of the Carolina northern flying squirrel.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternativefsl - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Carolina northern flying squirrel prohibit the outdoor use
of the chemical within the species' occupied habitat.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Florida salt marsh vole - Exposure of the vole to zinc phosphide could occur through consumption of
poisoned baits used to control rodents in close proximity to the vole's occupied marsh habitat. There is a
possibility of the rodenticide being used around buildings or other structures and open areas adjacent to salt
marsh habitat where the vole could come in contact with it. The vole is restricted to a single known area in
the salt marsh of Waccasassa Bay, Levy County, Florida. This rodenticide is highly toxic to mammals.
Because of the restricted distribution of the species, its limited population, and the likelihood of this
rodenticide being used for rodent control adjacent to areas in which the vole occurs, it is the Service's
biological opinion that the use of zinc phosphide is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Florida
salt marsh vole.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative/si - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: prohibit use of zinc phosphide within 100 yards of
the landward edge of the species' salt marsh habitat in Levy County, Florida.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized
Fresno kangaroo rat, giant kangaroo rat, Tipton kangaroo rat These kangaroo rats are highly vulnerable
to zinc phosphide exposure because of the extremely wide variety of use patterns for which this chemical is
registered. Areas within the ranges of these species (southern San Joaquin Valley, California) where zinc
phosphide is likely to be used include the following: oil fields; rangelands; agricultural croplands; fallow
agricultural lands; rights-of-way (e.g., aqueduct, canal, and levee embankments and roads); and buildings in
and around oil fields, agricultural areas, and some municipalities (e.g^ Tipton kangaroo rats in the
Bakersfield vicinity). Most permitted zinc phosphide formulations would be highly attractive to kangaroo
rats, including pellets and tablets, corn, meal baits, pet food baits, and especially grain baits (oats and wheat).
Furthermore, some permitted application methods would greatly increase the likelihood of kangaroo rats
encountering such baits, including broadcast baiting and applications to burrows. In conclusion, because of
n-98
-------
Zinc Phosphide
(1) the numerous and potentially non-specific zinc phosphide exposure factors for these species; (2) the high
toxicity of this compound to all rodents; and (3) the fact that each of these species occupies significantly
restricted and/or fragmented habitats, the Service concludes that zinc phosphide use within the ranges of the
Fresno kangaroo rat, giant kangaroo rat, and Tipton kangaroo rat is likely to jeopardize the continued
existence of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Fresno, giant, and Tipton kangaroo rat: (1) Prohibit all
outdoor uses of zinc phosphide grain baits within 100 yards of the occupied habitat of these species;
(2) prohibit broadcast zinc phosphide applications outdoors and zinc phosphide applications to
burrows within 100 yards of the occupied habitats of these species; and (3) prohibit outdoor use of
zinc phosphide solid baits (granules, pellets, tablets, blocks) within 100 yards of the occupied habitats
of these species, unless a specific kangaroo rat protection program for zinc phosphide use, approved
by the Service in writing, is implemented.
Incidental Take - Despite the reasonable and prudent alternatives described above, the Service
anticipates that an unquantfiable level of incidental take of the Fresno, giant, and Upton kangaroo
rat may occur as a result of zinc phosphide use within the ranges of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurefsl - To minimize anticipated incidental take, EPA must establish
a monitoring enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the
introduction section on page I-S.
Key Largo woodrat and Key Largo cotton mouse - Both the Key Largo woodrat and Key Largo cotton
mouse occur in subtropical, evergreen, hardwood forests on the northern half of Key Largo, Monroe County,
Florida, north of the point where U.S. Highway 1 enters Key Largo. Populations of both species may also
occur in similar habitat on Lignumvitae Key, Monroe County, where the species were introduced in 1970.
The Key Largo woodrat is primarily herbivorous, feeding mostly on buds, leaves, fruits, and seeds, but
invertebrates occasionally are included in its dieL The diet of the Key Largo cotton mouse has not been
documented, but it is believed to be very similar to that of the woodrat. The use of broadcast baits within or
adjacent to habitat of these two species is likely due to the close proximity of various types of human
development to the areas where these species occur. Exposure of the woodrat and cotton mouse to zinc
phosphide would result in direct mortality of individuals of the species. The most likely means of exposure
of the woodrat and the cotton mouse to zinc phosphide would be ingestion of broadcast baits. Accordingly,
it is the Service's biological opinion that the registered use of zinc phosphide is likely to jeopardize the
continued existence of the Key Largo woodrat or Key Largo cotton mouse.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternativefsl - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the species: prohibit use of the chemical within 100 yards of
occupied habitat of the Key Largo woodrat and the Key Largo cotton mouse.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to these species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Louisiana black bear - The black bear may be exposed to baits used in orchards, forests, sugarcane,
vineyards, rights-of-way, other agricultural crops. Bears venture into such areas in search of food, and being
opportunistic they mil consume most any available food item. Because of the bear's small population and
restricted range, mortality resulting from rodenticide poisoning could threaten the survival and recovery of
the species. Therefore, it is the opinion of the Service that the use of zinc phosphide is likely to jeopardize
the continued existence of the Louisiana black bear.
0-99
-------
Zinc Phosphide
Reasonable and Pnident Alternative^ If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Louisiana black bear use only tamper resistant bait boxes
within the current known occupied habitat of the species.
Incidental Take With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to this species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Lower Keys rabbit The Lower Keys rabbit could be exposed to zinc phosphide when the rodenticide is used
around buildings, rights-of-way, and other open areas that are adjacent to the rabbit's marsh habitat. The
rabbit is likely to forage in some treated areas. Continued rapid development in the lower Keys greatly
increases the potential that the rabbit would come in contact with rodenticide treated areas. Broadcast
applications of flavored baits or poisoned food items would pose a serious threat to the species. This
rodenticide would be lethal to Lower Keys rabbits if it were ingested. Because of the extremely restricted
range of the species and its small population, any rodenticide induced poisonings could threaten the survival
of the species. Therefore, it is the opinion of the Service that the use of zinc phosphide is likely to
jeopardize the continued existence of the Lower Keys rabbit.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Lower Keys rabbit: Only tamper resistant bait boxes may be
used outdoors within 100 yards of the species' occupied habitat
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Morro Bay kangaroo rat - The primary exposure of zinc phosphide from registered uses can occur when the
Morro Bay kangaroo rat ingests granules, pellets, tablets, or other treated materials. The species is restricted
to only a few locations in the vicinity of Morro Bay, California. It is the biological opinion of the Service
that use of zinc phosphide is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Morro Bay kangaroo rat
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Morro Bay kangaroo rat: prohibit the use of zinc phosphide
within 100 yards of the occupied habitat of the Morro Bay kangaroo rat
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative described above,
no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Point Arena mountain beaver, salt marsh harvest mouse - These species may be subject to zinc phosphide
exposure because some uses for which this chemical is registered (e.g^ in and around buildings, lawns,
recreational areas, golf courses, and rights-of-way) could occur within harvest mice or mountain beaver
habitats or areas adjacent to such habitats. Both these species occupy areas in which man-made structures
or sites exist nearby (commercial and industrial buildings in the vicinity of San Francisco Bay salt marshes,
municipal and communication structures in the Point Arena vicinity, golf courses and similar sites in both
areas). Furthermore, adverse effects of zinc phosphide use on the harvest mouse and mountain beaver could
be significant because: (1) both species may be attracted to grain or pelletized zinc phosphide baits if
applied in the vicinity of occupied habitats; (2) both are highly susceptible to the toxic effects of this
compound; and (3) the habitats of these species are highly restricted and fragmented. It is the Service's
biological opinion that zinc phosphide use within the ranges of the salt marsh harvest mouse and Point
Arena mountain beaver is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of these species.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the salt marsh harvest mouse: prohibit outdoor zinc phosphide
use within 100 yards of occupied habitat of this species.
n-ioo
-------
Zinc Phosphide
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Point Arena mountain beaver (1) Prohibit broadcast zinc
phosphide applications outdoors and zinc phosphide applications to burrows within 100 yards of the
occupied habitat of this species; and (2) prohibit outdoor zinc phosphide use (all baits) within 100
yards of the occupied habitat of this species, unless a specific mountain beaver protection program
for zinc phosphide use, approved by the Service in writing, is implemented.
Incidental Take - Despite the reasonable and prudent alternatives described above, the Service
anticipates that an unquantfiable level of incidental take of the salt marsh harvest mouse and Point
Arena mountain beaver may occur as a result of zinc phosphide use within the ranges of these
species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurefsl - To minimize, anticipated incidental take, EPA must establish
a monitoring enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the
introduction section on page I-S.
Silver rice rat - The silver rice rat could be exposed to zinc phosphide Mien the rodenticide is used (for
control of black and Norway rats, and house mice) around buildings, rights-of-way, ditches, and other areas
that are adjacent to the rat's wetland habitat. The rat is likely to forage in some treated areas. Continued
rapid development in the lower Keys greatly increases the potential that the rat would come in contact with
rodenticide treated areas. Broadcast applications of flavored baits or poisoned food items would pose a
serious threat to the species. This rodenticide would be lethal to silver rice rats if it were ingested. Because
of the extremely restricted range of the species and its small population, any rodenticide induced poisonings
could threaten the survival of the species. Therefore, it is the opinion of the Service that the use of zinc
phosphide is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the silver rice rat.
Reasonable and Prudent AlternativeCsl - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the silver rice rat: prohibit the outdoors use of the chemical
within 100 yards of the current known occupied habitat of the species.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy of the species, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Stephen's kangaroo rat- The primary exposure of zinc phosphide from registered uses can occur Mien
Stephen's kangaroo rat ingests granules, pellets, tablets, or other treated materials. It is the biological
opinion of the Service that use of zinc phosphide is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the
Stephen's kangaroo rat.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternativefsl - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Stephen's kangaroo rat: (1) Prohibit all outdoor uses of
zinc phosphide grain baits within 100 yards of the occupied habitat of this species; (2) prohibit
broadcast zinc phosphide applications outdoors and zinc phosphide applications to burrows within
100 yards of occupied habitat of this species; and (3) prohibit outdoor use of zinc phosphide solid
baits (granules, pellets, tablets, blocks) within 100 yards of the occupied habitat of this species,
unless a specific kangaroo rat protection program for solid zinc phosphide baits, approved by the
Service in writing, is implemented.
Incidental Take - Despite the reasonable and prudent alternatives described above, the Service
anticipates that an unquantfiable level of incidental take of the Stephen's kangaroo rat may occur as
a result of zinc phosphide use within the ranges of this species.
n-101
-------
Zinc Phosphide
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - To minimize anticipated incidental take, EPA must establish
a monitoring enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the
introduction section on page 1-5.
Alala (Hawaiian crow) - The alala is found in a relatively well defined, restricted native forest area on the
Island of Hawaii. Less than 20 individuals remain in the wild. There is an ongoing and approved mongoose
trapping program in that area, and it is anticipated that certain rodenticide control measures for mongoose
will be approved for the area in the near future. As both rats and mongooses are known to eat nlaln eggs,
chicks, and fledglings, their control is recommended in the Hawaiian Crow Recovery Plan and consequently,
other rodenticide agents may be considered. The alala are curious omnivores that may eat zinc phosphide-
treated baits. Because of the above-mentioned threats, it is the Service's biological opinion that use of zinc
phosphide on the island of Hawaii is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the alala.
Reasonable and prudent Alternative's1)- If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the alala: prohibit the use of zinc phosphide within alala
occupied habitat, unless it is contained in tamper resistant bait boxes.
Incidental Take- With the implementation of the Reasonable and Prudent Alternative to preclude
jeopardy to the species, no incidental take is anticipated and, therefore, none is authorized.
Attwater's prairie chicken - The primary exposure of zinc phosphide to the prairie chicken is through its use
on agricultural crops and rangeland. The bait is in the form of granules, pellets or treated grain and
therefore would be available for direct ingestion by the prairie chicken. Zinc phosphide is acutely toxic to
birds and could cause mortality if only a few treated grains or granules were consumed. Therefore, it is the
Service's biological opinion that the use of zinc phosphide is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of
Attwater's prairie chicken.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative's') - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Attwater's prairie chicken: prohibit the use of zinc
phosphide within 100 yards of occupied habitat Tamper resistant bait boxes can be used within
occupied habitat.
Incidental Take - With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternatives to preclude
jeopardy of the species no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is authorized.
Hawaiian coot and Hawaiian duck - Both of these Hawaiian waterbirds use ponds and other water features
of golf courses and other grassy areas (such as turf farms) adjacent to wetlands. These ducks and coots will
regularly come "ashore" to feed on invertebrates, grass shoots, seeds, and other dryland foods. Such feeding
could expose them to zinc phosphide baits applied to grassy areas. The birds could be killed or sickened as
a result of such rodenticide exposure.
The Hawaiian duck population in the State of Hawaii is estimated to be several thousand, with
concentrations on the island of Kauai. Perhaps less than 100 still exist on the island of Oahu. About 1,000
Hawaiian coots remain on the islands of Kauai, Oahu, and Maui. Depletion of wetland habitat and
predation by rats, mongooses, feral pigs, cats, and dogs are implicated in the endangered status of both
species. Although depressed below "recovered" numbers, the populations of both of these species are
relatively stable, and the dramatic increase in the number of golf courses and their water features may have,
in small part, aided in their recovery. However, if zinc phosphide baits are applied to these golf courses and
turf farms, ducks and coots may ingest the rodenticide. Because of the above-mentioned threats, it is the
Service's biological opinion that use of zinc phosphide in Hawaii is likely to jeopardize the continued
existence of the Hawaiian duck and Hawaiian coot.
D-102
-------
Zinc Phosphide
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Hawaiian duck and Hawaiian coot: prohibit the use of zinc
phosphide within 100 yards of any water or wetland on or adjacent to any golf course or turf farm
on the islands of Kauai, Oahu, for the Hawaiian Duck, and the islands of Kauai, Oahu, and Maui for
Hawaiian Coot, unless it is contained in tamper resistant bait boxes.
Incidental Take- With the implementation of the Reasonable and Prudent Alternative to preclude
jeopardy to the species, no incidental take is anticipated and, therefore, none is authorized.
Mariana aw - Approximately 100 Mariana crows remain on Guam, confined to the forests at the far
northern and; possibly, south-central portions of the island. Its endangered status is due to the brown tree
snake, an introduced predator that feeds on crow eggs and chicks. Mariana crows are curious omnivores
that might eat zinc phosphide-treated baits. Because of the above-mentioned threats, it is the Service's
biological opinion that use of zinc phosphide in Guam is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the
Mariana crow.
Reasonable and Prudent AlternativeCsi - If implemented, the following reasonable and
prudent alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Mariana crow; prohibit the use of zinc
phosphide within Mariana crow occupied habitat, unless it is contained in tamper resistant
bait boxes.
Incidental Take- With the implementation of the Reasonable and Prudent Alternative to preclude
jeopardy to the species, no incidental take is anticipated and, therefore, none is authorized.
Mississippi sandhill crane - Zinc phosphide poses a threat to the Mississippi sandhill crane primarily when
the rodenticide is used in agricultural fields, rangeland, orchards, and rights-of-way. This species presently
exists in only very low numbers and is restricted to a relatively small area of Jackson County, Mississippi
The bird is non-migratory and has established fairly restricted nesting, foraging, and winter roosting areas.
Nesting is generally limited to semi-open, wet, savanna areas within its range. It normally feeds in wet
savannas, marshes, agricultural fields, and pastures. While the majority of this crane's range occurs on
National Wildlife Refuge property, it is known to forage off refuge lands The bird's diet includes
earthworms, insects, small reptiles and amphibians, small birds, mice, roots and tubers, nuts, fruits, seeds,
and grain from agricultural fields. According to the EPA's data, pheasants were killed by ingesting the
poisoned baits during a field application study. This chemical can also be relatively persistent in the
environment. Because of zinc phosphide's persistence in the environment and the high number its registered
uses, the Service believes there is a high potential for the crane to be exposed to zinc phosphide through
ingestion of baits while foraging in treated fields. Accordingly, in view of the Mississippi sandhill crane's
restricted distribution, low population level, and its feeding habits, it is the Service's biological opinion that
the use of zinc phosphide is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Mississippi sandhill crane.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternatives would avoid jeopardy to the Mississippi sandhills crane: Only tamper resistant bait
boxes may be used outdoors within occupied habitat of the Mississippi sandhill crane.
Incidental Take - With implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternative to preclude
jeopardy to the Mississippi sandhill crane, no incidental take is anticipated and therefore none is
authorized.
Nene (Hawaiian goose) - This endangered species is found only on the islands of Kauai, Maui, and Hawaii in
the State of Hawaii. They feed predominantly on plant shoots, seeds, and berries, and are known to graze
on golf courses and other maintained, grassy areas, and pastures where zinc phosphide application would
pose a significant hazard. Gosling survival in the wild is now poor, and the wild populations of geese are
supplemented regularly from captive-reared birds. Without these captive breeding programs, the species
n-103
-------
Zinc Phosphide
would not survive in the wild except in areas where they receive supplemental feed and are protected from
predators. Based on the avian toxicity data available on zinc phosphide, ingestion of the compound would be
expected to be fatal Because of the above-mentioned threats, it is the Service's biological opinion that use
of zinc phosphide near gold courses in Hawaii is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the nene.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternatively!- If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the nene: prohibit use of zinc phosphide within the 100 yards of
occupied habitat of the nene, unless it is contained in tamper resistant bait boxes.
Incidental Take- With the implementation of the reasonable and prudent alternatives to preclude
jeopardy to the species, no incidental take is anticipated and, therefore, none is authorized.
Puerto Rkan plain pigeon - The Puerto Rican plain pigeon would primarily be exposed to zinc phosphide
while foraging in treated agricultural fields. The baits could be ingested as the pigeon forages. Ingestion of
bait would be fatal, and bird kills have been documented during field studies. Due to the small population
size of this species and its flocking habit of frequenting crop fields, any pesticide induced poisoning and
mortality could threaten the survival of the species. Therefore, it is the opinion of the Service that the use of
zinc phosphide is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the Puerto Rican plain pigeon.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternative^ - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the Puerto Rican Plain pigeon: Only tamper resistant bait boxes
may be used outdoors within the species' occupied habitat
Incidental Take - Because of the chemical's toxicity and potential widespread use, and the potential
for the species to expand its range, even if the above-mentioned reasonable and prudent alternatives
are strictly followed, the Service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur
as a result of this chemical's use in areas outside the current range of the species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - To minimize incidental take, EPA must establish a
monitoring/enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the
introduction section on page I-S.
Yellow-shouldered blackbird - The yellow-shouldered blackbird would be exposed to zinc phosphide through
the pesticide's registered uses on agricultural fields. These birds often flock to agricultural fields to feed.
Ingestion of bait would be fatal, and bird kills have been documented during field studies. Due to the small
population size of this species and its flocking habit of frequenting crop fields, any pesticide induced
poisoning and mortality could threaten the survival of the species. Therefore, it is the opinion of the Service
that the use of zinc phosphide is likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the yellow-shouldered
blackbird.
Reasonable and Prudent Alternativefsl - If implemented, the following reasonable and prudent
alternative would avoid jeopardy to the yellow-shouldered blackbird: Only tamper resistant bait
boxes may be used outdoors within the species occupied habitat.
Incidental Take - Because of the chemical's toxicity and potential widespread use, and the potential
for the species to expand its range, even if the above-mentioned reasonable and prudent alternatives
are strictly followed, the Service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur
as a result of this chemical's use in areas outside the current raqge of the species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - To minimize incidental take, EPA must establish a
monitoring/enforcement program. The terms and conditions of such programs are outlined in the
introduction section on page I-S.
n-104
-------
Zinc Phosphide
RATIONALE FOR NO JEOPARDY DETERMINATIONS
Gray wolf and Grizzly bear - Zinc phosphide is registered for use on a wide variety of sites which could
occur near or in gray wolf or grizzly bear habitat including orchards, rangeland, forest, agricultural crops,
recreational areas, rights-of-way, and animal burrows. It is used to control mice, rats, grounds squirrels,
moles, pocket gophers, prairie dogs, and muskrats. EPA provided no hazard ratios but stated that zinc
phosphide is acutely toxic to mammals where they would ingest granules or bait Also nfmrHing to EPA,
there should be little opportunity for predators or scavengers to be secondarily exposed to the pesticide.
Even though the gray wolf and grizzly bear occurs in some of the same counties where these registered uses
of zinc phosphide may occur, the Service believes that the chances of gray wolf or grizzly bear mortality as a
result of them feeding on granules or bait to an extent that would result in such a mortality of the species is
extremely remote. Therefore, it is the Service's opinion that the use of zinc phosphide is not likely to
jeopardize the continued existence of the gray wolf or grizzly bear.
Incidental Take - Because zinc phosphide is toxic to mammals and because there are some
registered uses that may occur in gray wolf and grizzly bear habitat, the Service anticipates that an
unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a result of the gray wolf or grisly bear
consuming granules or bait.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - The following reasonable and prudent measures for
minimizing incidental take and their implementing terms and conditions should be adopted: with the
exception of tamper resistant bait boxes, prohibit the application of zinc phosphide in the geographic
range of the gray wolf and grizzly bear until the user has contacted the local Service office and that
office has determined that there are no known wolves or grizzly bears in the general vicinity of
where zinc phosphide is going to be applied.
San Joaquin kit fox - This species may be subject to zinc phosphide exposure because of the extremely wide
variety of use patterns for which this chemical is registered. Areas within the kit fox range (the San Joaquin
Valley of California) where zinc phosphide is likely to be used include municipalities (e^, Bakersfield); oil
fields; rangelands; agricultural areas; orchards; aqueduct, canal, and levee embankments; golf courses; and
other recreational areas. However, because there appears to be little risk of secondary poisoning as a result
of zinc phosphide use, kit foxes would have to consume zinc phosphide baits directly for exposure to occur.
Nonetheless, several zinc phosphide bait types are likely to attract kit foxes and to be consumed, including
pellets, tablets, and pet food formulations; and some permitted application methods increase the likelihood of
kit fox exposure, including broadcast baiting and applications to burrows. Overall, however, potential adverse
effects of zinc phosphide use on the San Joaquin kit fox appear to be relatively minimal because of the lack
of secondary exposure risk, and the fact that the species is relatively wide-ranging. Zinc phosphide is widely
regarded as a safe alternative for rodent control in the San Joaquin kit fox range. The Service therefore
concludes that zinc phosphide use is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of this species.
Incidental Take - Although possible exposure of the San Joaquin kit fox to zinc phosphide probably
is minimal, the Service anticipates that an unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a
result of zinc phosphide use within the range of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measurefsl - If the following reasonable and prudent measures are
implemented, incidental take of the San Joaquin kit fox will be minimized: (1) Prohibit zinc
phosphide applications to burrows and outdoor broadcast applications of all pellet, tablet, and pet
food zinc phosphide baits within the occupied habitat of this species; and (2) prohibit all other
outdoor uses of pellet, tablet, and pet food zinc phosphide baits within the occupied habitat of this
species, unless such baits are confined to tamper resistant bait boxes designed to exclude access by
San Joaquin kit foxes, or a similar kit fox protection program for zinc phosphide, approved by the
Service in writing, is implemented.
D-105
-------
Zinc Phosphide
Utah
prairie dog - Zinc phosphide is a restricted use rodenticide registered for a variety of sites Hint could occur
in or near prairie dog habitat including rangeland, rights-of-way, and animal burrows. Prating labels require
that zinc phosphide not be used within the habitat of the Utah prairie dog. With this continued label
restriction on all uses of zinc phosphide, it is the Service's opinion the use of zinc phosphide is not likely
to jeopardize the continued existence of the Utah prairie dog.
Incidental Take - With the continued implementation of the label restrictions protecting the Utah
prairie dog, no incidental take is anticipated and thus none is authorized.
San Ckmente sage sparrow - The primary exposure to zinc phosphide from registered applications for
rodents could occur if bait is ingested by this sparrow which is primarily a ground forager for insects, spiders,
and seeds. It is the biological opinion of the Sendee that use of zinc phosphide is not likely to jeopardize the
continued existence of the San Clemente sage sparrow.
Incidental Take - The service anticipates that an unquanrifiable level of incidental take may occur as
a result of zinc phosphide use within the occupied habitat of this species.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - If the following reasonable and prudent measures are
implemented, incidental take of the San Clemente sage sparrow will be minimized: prohibit the use
of zinc phosphide within the occupied habitat of the San Clemente sage sparrow, nnl«« it is
contained in tamper resistant bait boxes.
Whooping crane - Zinc phosphide is a restricted use rodenticide registered for a variety of sites that could
occur in or near where whooping cranes also may occur including rangeland and agricultural crops. It is
used to control a number of species of rodents including mice, rats, ground squirrels, and pocket gophers.
Whooping cranes do, at times, feed in these areas and could be impacted by ingesting either granules or bait.
EPA stated that zinc phosphide is acutely tone to birds but did not provide any hazard ratios. Thus, EPA
provided little information on the impact of zinc phosphide to a large bird the size of a whooping crane.
However, it is anticipated that the whooping crane would feed in zinc phosphide treated areas only rarely.
Previous EPA labels require that zinc phosphide not be used in whooping crane habitat. Therefore, it is the
Service's opinion that the use of zinc phosphide is not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the
whooping cranes.
Incidental Take - Because of the toxicity of zinc phosphide to birds and because there is a possibility
of a whooping crane occurring in areas treated with zinc phosphide, the Service anticipates that an
unquantifiable level of incidental take may occur as a result of zinc phosphide use. It is unlikely that
zinc phosphide use could be precluded from all whooping crane use because the species uses a wide
range of habitats.
Reasonable and Prudent Measured - The following reasonable and prudent measure for
minimizing incidental take and its implementing term and condition should be adopted: the user
should insure prior to the use of zinc phosphide that no whooping cranes have wandered into a
proposed treatment area. The above measure does not apply to the use of tamper resistant bait
boxes as long as the bait boxes are not used on prairie dog colonies to control prairie dogs; the food
source of the black-footed ferret.
11-106
-------
u Q
SECTION III
SPECIES
PROFILES
n
-------
MASTER SPECIES LIST
The following list contains all federally listed or proposed threatened and endangered species listed prior to July 1, 1991. To provide
sufficient time for review and analysis the Service chose July 1st as the cut-off date for including species in this consultation. All
species proposed for listing subsequent to that date are not considered in this opinion.
All species in this list were reviewed for possible effects to all 16 vertebrate control agents. Only those species receiving a jeopardy or
no jeopardy call were included in the chemical reference table at the beginning of each chemical opinion. Following the master species
list are species profiles for all species receiving a jeopardy or no jeopardy call. Species profiles contain information on species biology
and status. This information is used in conjunction with the chemical information to provide the background for the Service's opinions.
Common name (Scientific name! - Status Region
Region
MAMMALS
Alabama beach mouse (Peromvscus pollonotus ammobates) - E R4
Amaroosavole (Micro tuscallfomlcussclrpensls)- E R1
Anastasia Island beach mouse (Peromvscus pollonotus phasma) - E R4
Black-footed ferret (Mustelanioripes) - T R6
Caribbean monk seal (Monachus tropica lis) - E R4
Carolina northern flying squirrel (Glaucomvs sabrfnus coloratus) - E R4
Choctawhatcheebeach mouse (Peromvscus pollonotus aDophrvs)- E R4
Columbian white-tailed deer (Odocolleus vlratntanus leucurus) - E R1
Delmarva Peninsula fox squirrel (Sciums nioer cinereus) - E R5
Dismal Swamp southeastern shrew (Sorex tonafrostrisflshetfl T R5
Dugong (Duqonq duaon) - E R1
Eastern cougar (Fells concolorcouoart - E R5
Florida panther (Fells concotorcoivn - E R4
Florida salt marsh vole (Mlcrotus oennsvivanicus dukecampbeTO) - E R4
Fresno kangaroo rat (Dlpodomvs nltratoldes exlBs) - E R1
Giant kangaroo rat (Dlpodomvs loens) - E R1
Gray bat (Mvotte arises cens) - E R3
Gray wolf (Canto lupus) - E R6
Grtatv bear (Ursus arctos hofifollls) - T R6
Hawaiian hoarv bat (Lasturus dnereus semotus) - E R1
Hualapal mexlcan vole (Mlcrotus mexicanus huatoalensis) - E R2
Indiana bat (MvottosodaBs)- E R3
Jaauamntfl (Fete vaoouaroundl cacomttOT - E R2
Kev deer (Odocolleus ylrotnlanus clavlum) - E R4
Kav Larco cotton mouse (Peromvscus oossvplnusanapatlcola) - E R4
Key Larao woodrat (Neotoma floridana small!) - E R4
Little Mariana fruit bat (Pteroous tokudae) - E R1
Louisiana black bear (Ursus americanus luteolus) - T R4
Common name (Scientific name) - Status
Lower Kevs rabbit (Svtvilagus palustris hefneri) - E R4
Mariana fruit bat (Guam pop.) (Pteroous mariannua mariannus) - E R1
Mexican long-nosed bat (Leotonvcteris nivalis) - E R2
Mt. Graham red sauhrel fTamlasdurus hudsonlcua nrahamensls) - E R2
Morro Bay kanoaroo rat (Dlpodomvs heermannl morroensls) - E R1
Ocelot (Fells pardalls) - E R2
Ozark big-eared bat (Plecotus townsendU Inoens) - E R2
Perdldo Key beach mouse (Peromvscus poHonotustrlssvlleoslsl- E R4
Point Arena mountain beaver (Aplodontla rufa nigra) - E R1
Red wolf (Canls rufus) - E R4
Salt marsh harvest mouse (Relthrodontomvs ravtventrls) - E R1
Sanborn's long-nosed bat (Leptonvcterlssanbpmn- E R2
San Joaquin kit fox (Vulpes macrotls mutica) E R1
Seddik Mountain woodland caribou (Ranolfer tarandus caribou) - E R1
Sonoran pronghom (Antllocapra amerlcana sonoriensls)- E R2
Southeastern beach mouse (Peromvscus pollonotus nlvelventrtsl - T R4
Southern sea otter (Enhvdra hitris nereis) - T R1
Stephen's kangaroo rat (Dlpodomvs steohensl) - E R1
Tipton kangaroo rat (Dlpodomvs nltratoldes nltratoldes) -E R1
Utah prairie dog (Cvnomvs parvldens) - T R6
Virginia big-eared bat (Plecotus townsendil vionlntanus) -E R5
Virginia northern flvlno saulrret (Glaucomvs sabrinus fuscus) - E R5
West Indian manatee (Trichechus manatus) - E R4
BHDS
Akiapolaau (Hemlonathua munrol) - E R1
Alala (Hawaiian crow) (Corvus hawaPenais) - E R1
Aleutian Canada ooose (Branta canadensis leucopareta) - T R1
III-1
-------
Common name (Scientific name) - Status
Region
Region
American peregrine falcon (Falco pereorlnus anatuml - E R7
Anlomado falcon (Falco oereqrlnus lundrtus) - E R2
Arctic peregrine falcon (Falco perearinus tundrlus) - T R7
Attwaler'sgreater prairie chicken fTvmpamjchus cupldo attwateri) - E R2
Audubon's (Florida) crested caracara (Caracara cheriwav audubonll) - T R4
Bachman's warbler (Vermlvora bachmanit) - E R4
Bald eagle (Hallaeetus leucoceohalus) - E R5
Black-capped vtreo (Vlreo atricapillus) - E R2
Bridled white-eye (Zo3terops conspiclllatus consplclllalus) - E R1
California brown pelican (Pelecanus occidentalls calHomlanus) - E R1
California clapper rail (Rallus lonairostris obsoletus) -E R1
California condor (Gvmnoavps calHomlanus) - E R1
Callfoinla least tern (Sterna antillarum brown!) - E R1
Harxa Sable seaside sparrow (Ammodramus marftlmus mlrablHs) - E R4
Crested honeycreeper (Palmeria dolef) - E R1
Eskimo curlew (Numenlus boreais) E R7
Florida grasshopper sparrow (Ammodramus savannamm floridanus) - E R4
Florida scrub jay (Aohelocoma coerulescens coerulescens) T R4
Florida snail kite (Rostrhamussodabillsplumbeua) - E R4
Golden-cheeked warfaler (Dendrolca chrvsopartal- E R2
Guam broadbill (Mvlaora frevdnetl) - E R1
Guam Mlcroneslan kingfisher (Halcyon dnnamomtna ctnnamomtna) - E R1
Guam rail (Rallus owstoni) - E R1
Hawaii akeoa (Loxoo3 cocdneus cocctneua) - E R1
Hawaii creeper (Oreomvstls mana) - E R1
Hawaiian common moorhen (Qaffinula chloropus sandvlcensis) - E R1
Hawaiian coot (Fulica americana alaO - E R1
Hawaiian daik-mmped petrel (Pterodroma phaecpvda sandwlchenslsl- E R1
Hawaiian duck (Anas wwllDana) ¦ E R1
Hawaiian hawk (Buteo solitariua)- E R1
Hawaiian stilt (Hlmantopus mexlcanus knudsenl) ¦ E R1
Inuo brown towhee (Ptoflo fuscus eremophBus) - T R1
Ivory-billed woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) - E R4
Kauai aklaloa (Hemianathus procerus) - E R1
Kauai nukupu (Hemianathus lucidua hanaoeoe) - E R1
Kauai 'o'o (Moho braccatus) - E R1
Mrtland'8 waibler (Dendrolca IditlancB) - E R3
I arnn Kauai thrush (Mvadastea mvadeatlnua) - E R1
Lavsan duck (Anas lavsanensls)- E B1
Lavsan finch (Telespvza cantans) - E R1
Least Bell's vlreo Mreo bellH puailkis) - E R1
Least tem (Sterna antillarum) [Interior pop'n] - E Rfl
Light-footed clapper rafl (Rallus lonotro stria tevtoea) -E R1
Common name (Scientific name) - Status
Marbled murrelet (Brachvramohus marmoratusl - T R1
Mariana common moorhen (Galllnula chloropusguaml) - E R1
Mariana crow (Corvus hawaliensls) - E R1
Mariana orav swUtlet (Aerodramus vanikorensls bartschl) - E R1
Mariana mallard (Anas oustaletl) - E R1
Masked bobwhfte (Collnus vlrainlanus ridawavfl - E R2
Maul akepa (Loxops cocclneus ochraceus) - E R1
Maul nukupuu (Hemianathus lucldus afflnus) - E R1
Maul parrotblll (Pseudonestorxanthoohrvs) - E R1
Mlcroneslan meoaoode (Meaapodius laperouse) - E R1
Mlsslsslpplsandhlll crane (Grus canadensis pulla) - E R4
Molokai creeper (Paroreomvza flammea) - E R1
Molokal thrush (Mvadesteslanaiensus ruthal - E R1
Nene (Hawaiian goose) (Nesochen sandvlcensis) - E R1
New ell's Townsend's shearwater (Pufflnus aurtcularls newelffl - T R1
Nightingale reed warbler (Acroceohalusluscinia) - E R1
Nihoa finch fTelespvza ultima) - E R1
Nihoa mlllerbird (Acrocephalusfamlllams klnol) - E R1
Northern aolomado falcon (Falco lemoralls seotenWonadal - E R2
Northern spotted owl (Strix occfetentafls caurfnal - T R1
Oahu creeper (Paroreomvza maculate) - E R1
'O'u fHawaiian Isl. dqp.1 (Psittlrostrapslttacea) - E R1
'O'u [Kauai Isl. pop.] (Psittlrostrapslttacea) - E R1
Pallia (Loxtoldes ballleul) - E R1
Piping plover (Charadrius melodus) - E/T R6
Ponape greater white-eye (Rulda tonofrostra)- E R1
Ponape mountain starling (Aplonlspetzetnl) E R1
Po'ouH (Melamprosops phaeosoma) - E R1
Puerto Rican Parrot (Amazona vittata) - E R4
Puerto Rican plain pigeon (Columbia inornate wetmorel) E R4
Puerto Rico nightjar (whip-poor-will) (Caorimutaus noctitherus)- E R4
Red-co ckaded woodpecker (Rcoldes borealls) - E R4
Roseate tem (Sterna douoalia douaallB) - E R5
San Clemente loggerhead shrike (Lanius ludovldanus meamsl) - E R1
San Clemente sage sparrow (Amphlsplza belli clementeae) -T R1
Silver rice rat (Orvzomvs palustrts natatort - E R4
Small Kauai thrush (Mvadestespahneri) - E R1
Tlnlan monarch (Old world flycatcher) (Monarcha takatsukasae) - T R1
Whooping crane (Grus americana) - E R1
Wood storic (Mvcteria americana) - E R4
Yellow-shouldered blackbird (Aoelalus xanthomus) - E R4
Yuma dapper rail (Rallus lonolrostris vumanensls) - E R2
III2
-------
Common name (Scientific name! - Status
Region
Region
REPTILES
Alabama red-bellied turtle (Pseudemva alabamenslsl - E R4
American alligator (ABIaator mlsslsslppienslst- TtS/A) R4
American efocodlle fCrocodvlusacutus) - E R4
Atantic salt marsh snake (Nerodla tasclala taenlata) - E R4
Blue-tailed mole a kink (Eumecea eqreclus Hvldus) - T R4
Blunt-nosed leopard lizard fGambefla silus) - E R1
Coachetla Valley Irfnoe-toed lizard (Lima Inomata) - T R1
Concho water snake fNerodia harleri paudmaculata) - T R2
Culebra Island alant ancle (Anollsroosevettl) - E R4
Desert tortoise(Gcpherusaoasalzg) - T Rt
Eastern Indigo snake fDrvmarchcn corals couperfl - E R4
Flattened musk turtle fStemotheras depresaus)- T R4
GophertortoteefQoaheais polyphemus)- T R4
Island nlaht lizard (Xantusia riversianai - T R1
Mona boa fEplcrates monensls man ens Is) - T R4
Mona ground Iguana (Cvdura stelnegeni - T R4
Monltocecko (Sohaerodactvlus microplthecua) - E R4
New Mexican ridge-nosed rattlesnake (Crotalus wlllardi obscurusV T R2
Plymouth red-bellied turtle (Pseudemvs rubriventrta banqall) - E R5
Puerto Rican boa fEplcrates Inornatus) - E R4
Rlnoed sawback turtle (Graptemvs oculHera) - T R4
Saltwater crocodile (Crocodvtusporoaus) - E Ri
Sand sklnk (Neoseos revnoldsl) - T R4
San Francisco garter snake (Thamnophls slrtaltetetrataenla) - E RI
St. Croix oround Bzard fAmelva dqIqp3) - E R4
Virgin Islands tree boa fEplcrates monensls Nnomatusl grant!) - E R4
Yellow-blotched map turtle fGraptemvs flavlmaculata) - T R4
AMPHIBIANS
Cheat Mountain salamander (Ptethodon netting!) - T R5
Desert slender salamander f Batrachosepsaridus) - E R1
Golden cooul (Eleutherodactvlusiasperi) - T R4
Houston toad (Btrfo houstonenals)- E R2
Puerto Rlcan crested toad fPeltonhivne lemur) - T R4
Red Hills salamander (Phaeoonathus hubrlchtfl - T R4
San Marcos salamander (Eurvcea nana) - T R2
Santa Cruz long-toed salamander fAmbvstoma macrodactvtum croceum) - E R1
Shenandoah salamander (Plethodon Shenandoah) - E R5
Texas blind salamander fTvphlomotae rathbunO - E R2
Wyoming toad fBufo hemiophrvs baxterl) - E R6
Common name (Sd entitle name! - Status
FISH
Alabama cavefish (Speoolatvrtilnus poulsonl) - E R4
Amber darter fPerclna antesella) - E R4
Apache trout (Oncorhvnchu3apache) - T R2
Ash Meadows Amaraaosa pupflsh (Cvprinodon nevadensls mtonectesl - E RI
Ash Meadows speckled dace (Rhlnichlhvaosculusnevadensia) - E RI
Bayou darter (Elheoslomarubrumt - T R4
Beautiful shfrter fNotrools foimosua) - T R2
Big Bend gartibusia fGambusia caiaefl - E R2
Big Spring splnedaoe (Lepidomeda molfispNa pralensls) -T RI
Blacksldedace (Phoxinus cumbertandensls) - T R4
Blue shiner tCvprineHa caerula) - T R4
Bonvlail chub fGila eleaans) E R6
Borax Lake chub fGfla boraxoblua) - E R1
Boulder darter (=Elk River) (Etheosloma (Nothonotus)sp,) - E R4
Cahaba shirer (Notroplscahabae) - E R4
Cape Fear shiner fNotroplsmeklstocholas)- E R4
Chihuahua chub fGila nlarescens)- T R2
Clear Creek oambusla fQambusia heterochM - E R2
Clover Valley speckled dace fRhlnlchthvsosculusoPqol -E R1
Colorado souawfish (Ptvchocheflusludus) - E R6
Comanche Springs pupflsh (Cvprinodon eleqans) - E R2
Conasauoa logperch fPerclna lenkinsfl - E R4
Cui-ul fChasmlstes cuius) - E R1
Desert dace fEremlchthva acros) - T R1
Desert puoflsh fCvprtnodon macutarius) - E R2
Devil's Hole pupflsh (Cvprinodon (fiabolis) - E R1
FoskettsoecMed dace fRhinlchthvsosculusspp) - T R1
Fountain darter fEtheostomafontlcola) - E R2
Gila toominnow fPoedllopslsoccktentalls) - E R2
Gila trout (Oncorhvnchusoflae) - E R2
Qoldllne darter fPerclna auroBneata) - T R4
Greenback cutthroattrout fSalmo darid stomtas)- T R8
GuH sturgeon fAdoenser oxvrhvnchus desotol) - T R4
Hlko White River sorlnafish (CrenichthvabaBevi orandla) - E R1
Hutton tul chub (GBa blcolor ssp.) - T R1
Humpback chub fGlla cypha) - E R6
Independence Valley speckled dace fRhlnlchthvs osculus tethoporus) - E R1
June sucker fChasmestesDorus) - E R8
Kendall Warm Springs dace fRhlnlchthvs osculus thermaflaVE R8
Lahontan cutthroat trout fSalmo dartd henshawfl - T R1
Leon Springs pupflsh fCvprinodon bovtnua) - E R2
III-3
-------
Common name (Scientific name) - Status
Region
Region
I Ittta Colorado anlnariarift fleoidomeda vlttata) - T R2
Little Kem golden trout (Salmo aauabonlta whit ell - T R1
Loach minnow fTlarooa cobltte) - T R2
Lost River sucker (Deltlstesluxatus) - E R1
Maryland darter (Etheostoma sella re) - E R5
Moapa dace (Moapa corlaceae) - E R1
Modoc sucker (Catostomusmlcrops) - E R1
Mohave tul chub (Gila bicolormohavensls) - E R1
Neosho madtom (Noturus pladdus) - T RB
Niangua darter (Etheostoma nlanauae) - T R3
Okaloosa darter (Etheostoma okaloosae)- E R4
Owens pupfish (Cvplnodon radlosus) ¦ E R1
Owens tul chub (Gila blcolor snvderi) - E R1
Park caveflsh (Amblvopslsrosae) - T R3
Pahmnaaat roundtail chub (Gila robusta tordanl) - E R1
Pahmmp kllllflsh (Emoetrichthvs latos latos) - E R1
Palule cutthroat trout (Salmo ctertd selenlris) - T R1
Pallid sturgeon (Scaohlrhvnchusalbus) - E R6
Pacaa bluntnose shiner (Notropus stmus pecosenis) - T R2
Pecos aambusla (Gambusla nobHIsl - E R2
Pygmy sculpln (Cottusovomaeus) - T R4
RaHmfld Valley sorinofish (Crenichthvsnevadae) - T R1
Razorback sucker (Xvrauchen texanus) - E R8
Roanoke looperoh (Perclna rex) - E R5
San Marcos oambusla (Gambusla aeoroefl - E R2
Scioto madtom (Notunia trairtmanl) - E R3
Shortnose sucker (Chasmtstesbrevlrostrte) - E R1
Slackwater darter fEtheostoma boschunofl - T R4
Slender chub (HvbooslscahnD - T R4
Smokv madtom (Noturus baHevfl - E R4
Snail darter (Perclna tanas!) - T R4
Sonora chub (GBa ditaenla) - T R2
Spikedace (Meda fukiida) - T "2
Spotfin chub (Hvbopsls monachal - T R4
Unarmored threesplne stickleback (Qasterosteusaculeatus wflllamsonl) - E R1
Virgin Rfver chub (Gila robusta semlnuda) - E R6
Waccamaw sitverslde (Menldla extensa) - T R4
Warm Springs pupfish (Cvprinodon nevadensls oectoralls) -E R1
Wamnr sucker ICatostamuawamerenata) - T R1
Watercress darter fEtheostoma nuchate) - E
White River splnedace (Leoidomeda alMvallis) - E R1
White River spiingfish (Crentchthvabailevi baflevP - E R1
Woundfin (Plaaoptems aroentlasfmua) - E R8
Common name (Scientific name) - Status
Yaqui catfish flctalunis pried) - T R2
Yaqui chub (Gila purpurea) - E R2
Yaoul topmlnnow(PoecilioP3l3occldentaP3Sonorlen8l8)- E R2
YeOowfin madtom (Noturus ftavlpinnls) - T R4
SNAILS
Alamosa sorinasnall (Trvonta alamosae) - E R2
Banburv Springs Bmpet ILanx n. sp.) - E R1
Bliss rapids snail (undescribed) - E R1
Bruneau hot spring snail (undescribed) - E R1
Chlttenango ovate amber snail (Succtoea ovalls chlttenanqoensls)- T R5
Flat-splred three toothed land snail fTrlodopsis platvsavoldes)- T RS
Idaho sortnaanail (Fontelllcella Idahoensls)- E R1
Iowa pleistocene snail (Discus maccllntockD - E R3
Magazine Mountain Shagreen (Mesodonmaoazlnensls) - T R4
Noonday snail (Mesodon clarkl nantahala) - T R4
Oahu (Hawaiian) tree snails (Achatinella spp.) - E R1
Painted snake coBed forest snail (Anaulsplra plcta) - T R4
Snake River phvsa snail (Phvsa natridna) - E R1
Socqito sorinasnall (Pvrguloosls neomexlcanus) - E R2
Stock Island anaB (Orthallcus reses reaes) - T R4
Tulotoma snail fTulotoma maanlfica) - T R4
Utah valvata snaB (Valvata utahensis)- E R1
Virginia frtnaed mountain snail (Potvavrtscu3vtratnlanu8) - E R5
CLAMS
Alabama lamp paariv mussel (Lame sills vlrescens) - E R4
Appalachian monkevface peartv mussel (Quadnite sparsa) - E R4
Arkansas fatmucket (Lampsilia powetll) - T R4
Blrdwfaio paariv mussel (Conratfflla caeiata) - E R4
Cracking peartv mussel (Hemlstena feLastena) lata) - E R4
Cumberland bean pearly musael (Vlllosa (°Mfcromva) traballs) - E R4
Cumberland pigtoe mussel (Pleurobema olbbemm) - E R4
Curtis'peariv mussel (Eploblasma florentina curttsl) - E R3
Curtus' mussel (Pleurobema curium) - E R4
Dromedary peartv mussel (Dromus dromas) - E R4
Dwarf wedae mussel (Alasmfdonta heterodon) E R5
FansheD (Cvorooenla steoaria (-hrorata)) - E R4
Fat pocketbook oaartv mussel (Potamllus caoax) - E R4
Fine-rayed pltrtoe (Fusconla cunedus) - E R4
Green-blossom pearly mussel (Eploblasma (»Dvsnomta) tomlosa aubemaculum) -W
Hlogfna' eve pearly mussel (LampsBls htadnsi) - E R3
III4
-------
Common name (Scientific name) - Status
Region
Region
Inflated heelsolltter (Potamllus Inflatus) - T R4
James River aolnvmussel fPleurobema colllna) - E R5
Judge Tail's mussel (Pleurobema tattlanum> - E R4
Uttle-wlng pearly mussel (Peg las tabula) - E R4
Louisiana oearlshell (MaroarttHera hembeli) - E R4
Marshall's mussel (Pleurobema marshalll) E R4
Orange-tooted peariv mussel (Plethpbasuscooperianus)- E R4
Pale lilllput pearly mussel (Toxolasma fcCamncullna) cvllndrellus) - E R4
Penitent mussel fEploblasma penlta) - E R4
Pink mucket pearly mussel (Lampsllls orblculata (°abruptal) - E R4
Purple cat's paw mussel (Eploplasma faDvsnomla) obllauata obllauata) - E R4
Rlno pink mussel (Obovaria retusa) E R4
Rough plgtoe (Pleurobema plenum) - E R4
Shlnv ciotoe (FuBConaia edoartana) - E R4
Speckled oocketbook (Lampslfls streckerl) - E R4
Stlrnjp shell (Quadrula stapes)- E R4
Tan riffle shell (Eoioblasma walkeri) - E R4
Tar River solnvmusseHEIIlPtto <°Canthvria) stelnstansana)- E R4
Tubercled-blos3om aeartv mussel (Eoioblasma torulosatomlosa) ¦ E R4
Turgld-blossom pearly mussel (Eoioblasma (°Dvanomia) turoldula) - E R4
Whitfl cat's paw nearly mussel (Eploblasma obllauata perobllaua) - E R3
White warty-back oeartv mussel (Plethobasusclcatriocosus)- E R4
Winged mapleteaf freshwater mussel fQuadmla fraoosal - E R3
Yellow-blossom oeartv mussel (Eoioblasma ("Dvsnomla) florenttna florentlna) - E R4
CRUSTACEANS
Alabama cave shrimp (Palaemontas alabamae) - E R4
California freshwater shrtmp (SvncaHa oacHtca) - E R1
Cave crayfish (Cambarus zoohonastes)- E R4
Hay's Soring amohtood fStvoobromus havfl - E R5
Kentucky cave shrtmp (Palaemontos oanteri) - E R4
Madison Cave Isopod (Antrolana lira) - T R5
Nashville crayfish fOroonedes shoupl) - E R4
Shasta crayfish (Pactfastacusfortls) - E R1
Socorro Isoood (Thefmosoaeroma thermophHus) - E R2
Squirrel Chimney cave shrtmp (Palaemonetes cummin at) E R4
INSECTS
American burvlna beetle (Nlcrophowsamericanus) - E R5
Ash Meadows naucorid fAmbrvsusamaroosus) - T R1
Bav checkereoot butterfly (Euphvdrvas edltha bavenste) - T R1
Detta green ground beetle (Etaohras vfrlcfts) T R1
R Saminrio hhm hutterfK/ (EuphBotesbattoldesallvnl) - E R1
Common name (Scientific name) - Status
Kem primrose sphinx moth (Euoroserplnus euterpe) - T R1
Kratschmair Cave mold beetle fTexamaurops redelli) - E R2
Lanoe'a metalmark butterfly (Aoodemla mormo langeft - E R1
Lotis blue butterfly (Lvcaeldes arovroanomon lotis) - E R1
Mission blue butterfly (Icaricla icarioides mlsslonensls)- E R1
Mitchell's satyr fNeonvmoha mitchellll mttcheflifl - E R3
Myrtle's silvarapot butterfly (Soeveria zerene mvrtleae) - E R1
Northeastern beach tlaer beetle (Clcindeta dorsalls dorsalis) - T R5
Oregon sBversoot butterfly fSoeveria zerene htopolvta)- T R1
Palos Verdes blue butterfly (Glaucoosvchelvgdamus palosverdesensls)- E R1
Pawnee montane skipper (Hesperia leonardus montana) - T R6
Puritan tlaer beetle (Clcindela purltana) - T R5
San Bruno elfin butterfly (Callophrvs mossB bavensis) - E R1
Schnus swallowtail butterfly (Heradides (Paolllo) arlstodemus oonceanus) - E R4
Smith's blue butterfly (Euohilotes enootes smith!) - E R1
Tooth Cave around beetle (Rhadlne persechone) - E R2
Uncomoahore frttlllarv butterfly (Bolorta aero enema) - E R8
Valley elderberry longhom beetle (Desmocerus caHomlcus dlmorohus) - T R1
ARACHNIDS
Bee Creek Cave harvestman (Texxella reddeffl) - E R2
Tooth Cave oseudoscorolon fMlcroreaartstexana) - E R2
Tooth Cave solder fLeotoneta mvooica) - E R2
PLANTS
akoko (Chamaesvce cetastroldes var. toenana) - E R1
akoko (Chamaesvcekuwaleana) - E R1
Alabama canebrake oHcher-olant (Sarracenia rubra asp, alabamensls) - E R4
Alabama leather flower (Clematis soctelis) - E R4
alani (Medcope mucronulata) - E R1
Alslnodendron trinerve (No Common Name) E R1
Amaroosa nlterwort (NltroohUa mohavensls) - E R1
American Hart's tongue fem (Rhvllitlsscolopendriumvar. amerlcana) - T R4
Angular-fruited neraudla (Neraudla anaulata) - E R1
Antloch Dunes evening-primrose (Oenothera deltotdes sso. howellH) - E R1
Arizona aaave (Aoave arizonlca) - E R2
Arizona cflffrosefPurshla subinteora) - E R2
Arizona hedoehoa cactus (Echinocareustrialoctikfiatusvar. arizonlcus) - E R2
Ash Maadowa blazing star (Mentzelia leucoohvlla) - T R1
Ash Meadows aumotent fQrindete fraxlno-pratenste) - T R1
Ash Meadows tves la (Ivesia eremica) - T R1
Ash Meadows mBk-vetch (Astragalus phoenix) - T R1
Ash Meadows sunray (Encellopsisnudlcaullsvar. comioala) - T R1
III5
-------
Common name (Scientific name) - Status
Region
Region
Ashvdoaweed fThvmoohvlla tephroieuca) - E R2
Auoaka flsodendrion hosake) - E R1
Autumn buttercup (Ranunculus aciformis var. aestivalis) - E R6
Bakersfletd cactus (Qpuntia trealeasei) - E R1
Baker's sticky seed (Biennospetma bakeril - E R1
Bariaco fTrichllla triacantha> - E R4
Bameby reed-mustard (Schcenocrambe bamebvO - E R6
Bameby ridge-cress (Leoldlum bamebvanum) - E R6
Beach favia fLavla camosa) - E R1
Beautiful noetzea fmatabuev) (Goeteea eieoans) - E R4
BeautHul pawpaw (Deerfricolhamus pulchelius) - E R4
Black-hoe hednehan cactus (EchlnocereusrelchenbachB) - E R2
Black spared aullwort fl9 aetes metanosporat - E R4
Blowout pen stem on fPenstemon havdenll) - E R6
Blue Ride a gold en rod fSolidaoo splthamaea) - T R4
Bradshaw's lomatlum (LomaHum bradshawli} - E R1
Bradv pincushion cactus (Pediocactus sBeril - E R2
Brooksvffle bellftower (Campanula robin slae) - E R4
Bunched arrowhead fSaaittaria (aaciculatal ¦ E R4
Bunched corv cactus (Corvohantha ramillosa) - T R2
Burke's goldflelds (Lasthenla burkefl - E R1
Riittd County meadawtaam (Limnanthes floccosassp. caiifomlca) - E R1
California |ewetflower (Caulanttius califomicus) - E R1
Canbv's dropwort (OxvpoBs canbyfl - E R4
Caoia rosa (CaHlcaroa ampta> - E R4
Carter's mustard (Warea carteri) - E R4
Carter's nanlcarass IPanlcum carter!) - E R1
Cassia mirabilis (No Common Name) - E R4
Chamaeavce halemanul (No Common Name) - E R1
Chapman mododendron (Rhododendron chaomanB) - E R4
Chi sosMountain hedgehog cactus (Echlnocereus chtaoensls)- T R2
Clay-loving w0d-buckwheat (Eriooonum peBnophllum) - E R6
Clav phacelia (Phacells arttiHacea) - E R6
Clav reed-mustard (Schoenocrambearglllacea) - E R6
Cobana negra (Stahlla monoaoerma) - T R4
Conhlaenlncushion cactus (Cotvohantharobbinsorum) - T R2
Contra Coata wallflower (Erysimum caoltatum var. anoustatum) - E R1
Cooke's kokto (Kokto cookeft - E HI
Cook's hollv (Ilex cooldl) - E H4
Coolev'smeadownie fThalictnim cootevfl E R4
Cooley'swater-wfflow (Justiciacoolvf) - E R4
Cranlchtaricartfl (No Common Name) - E R4
Crenulate lead-plant (Amoroha crenulata) - E R4
Common name (Scientific name) - Status
Cumberland rosemary (Conradlna verticillata) - T R4
Cumberland sandwort (Arenarta cumbertandensls) - E R4
Cuneate Mdens (Bidens cuneata) - E R1
Cvanea suoerba (No Common Name) - E R1
Cvanea undulata (No Common Name) - E R1
Daphnopsla hellerana (No Common Name) - E R4
Davis hedgehog (Echlnocereusvlridffloms var. davisll) - E R2
Decmrent false aster (Boltcnla decunrens) - T R3
Degner's bluet (HedvoMs deoeneri) - E R1
Deftoid spurge rfEuotiorbla (=Chamaeavce) deltoldea asp, dettoldea) E R4
Diamond Head schieda (Schleda adamantls) - E R1
Oleila falcata (No Common Name) - E R1
Pubautia latifolla (No Common Name) - E R1
Oubautia panclllonila (No Common Name) - E R1
Dudley Bluffs bladderpod (Lesaterouefla conouesta) - T R6
Dwarf bear-poppy (Arctomecon humllis) - E R6
Dwarf-flowered heartleaf (Hexastvlls nanrfioral - T R4
Dwarf IHau (Wilkesla hobdvil - E R1
Dwarf take Ms (Irisiacustrisl- T R3
Dwarf naupaka (Scaevola coriacea) - E R1
Eastern prairie fringed orchid (Platanthera taucoohaea) T R3
Elfin tree fem (Cvathea drvopteroidea)- E R4
Ernbia (Solarium drvmoohitum) - E R4
Euphorbia (°Chamaesvce)aart>eri (No Common Name) - T R4
Eureka Valley duneqrass (SwaMenla alexandrae) - E R1
Eureka Valley evening-primrose (Oenothera avlta asp, eurekensls) - E R1
Ewa Plains 'akoko (Chamaesvce skottsberoiivar. kalaetoanat - E R1
Fassett's locoweed fOxvtropIs campestris var. chartacea) - T R3
Florida bonamta (Bonamia orandlflora) - T R4
Florida golden aster (Chrvsopstefloridanal - E R4
Florida torTeva fTorreva taxtfoBa) - E R4
Florida zfatohus (Ztetohus ceiata) - E R4
Four-petal pawpaw (Aslmlna tetramera) - E R4
Fragrant prickly-apple (Cereus erioohoms var. fraarans) - E R4
Fringed campion (Sflene polvpetala) - E R4
Furbish lousewort (Pedicularis furtHshlae) - E R5
Garrett's mint (Dlcerandia christmanni) - E R4
Gentian plnkroot (Sojoella aentianoides) ¦ E R4
Geocaipon (Qeocaroon minimum! T R3
Gibson's cvanea (Cvanea macrostecta var. otbsonffl - E R1
Green-flowered abutflon (Abutiton sandwlcense) - E R1
Green pitcher plant (Sarrecenia oreophBa) - E R4
Guthrie's around plum (Astraqafis blbullatus) - E R4
111-6
-------
Common name (Scientific name) - Status
Region
Region
Gypsum wild buckwheat (Eriooonum ovpsophllum) - T R2
haha (Cvanea lobata) - P R1
haha (Cvanea mceldownevft - E R1
haha (Cvanea plnnatifida) - E R1
Halrv rattier* eed (Baptlsta arachnlfera) - E R4
ha'twale (Cvrtandra munrol) - E R1
Haleakala sllvefsword (Arovroxtohlum sandwlcense ssd. macrocephalum) T R1
Haplostachvshaplostachva (No Common Name) R1
Hamerella (Ptilimnlum nodosum (°fluvlatlle» - E R5
Harper's beauty (Haroerocallls flaval - E R4
Hawaiian centaury-plant ('awtwl) (Centaurlum sebaeoldes) - T R1
Hawaiian blueorass (Poa sandvicensls)- E R1
Hawaiian red-flowered geranium (Geranium aiboreum) - E R1
Hawaiian vetch (Vlcla menzlesil) - E R1
Hayan lagu (sertanthesl (Serianthes nelsonli) - E R1
Hedvotlsparvula (No Common Name) - E R1
Heliotrope milk-vetch (Astragalus montffl - T R6
Heller's blazlnastar (Uatrls hellerfl - T R4
Hesoeromannla Ivdoatel (No Common Name) - E R1
Hidden-petaled abutilon (Abutilon eremltopetalum) - E R1
Highlands scrub hvoericum (Hypericum cumullcota) - E R4
Htao chumbo (Harrisla portortcensls)- E R4
Higuero de Sierra (Crescentia portorlcensia'i - E R4
Hltlebrand's oouanla (Gouanla hillebrantHi) - E R1
Hinckley's oak (Quercus hlncktevl) - T R2
Hoover's woolv-star (Erlastrum hoover!) - T R1
Houghton'sooldenrod (Solidaoo houohtonll)- T R3
Howell's solneflower (Chorizanthe howellH) - E R1
Hex slntenisil (No Common Name) - E R4
Jesup's milk-vetch (Astragalus robblnsH var. lesupfl- E R5
Johnston'8frankenla (Frankenla lohnstonB)- E R2
Jones'cvctodenla (Cvcladenla humllls var. lonesg) - T R6
Kaala schledea (Schledea kaalael - E R1
kamakahala (Labordla Ivdoatei) - E R1
Kanehoa Mt. stenoavne (Stenoavne kanehoana) - E R1
Kauai hau kuahlwi (Hlblscadetphus dlstans) - E R1
Kaul remva (Remva kaualensls) - E R1
Ka'u silversword (Aravroxtohlum kauense) - PE R1
Kearney blue star (Amsonla keamevana) - E R2
Kem mallow (Eremalche kemenstal - E R1
Key tree cactus (Cereus roblnID - E R4
klo'ela (Hedvotfs coriacea) - E R1
Knieskem's beaked-rush (Rhvnchoapora knteskemli) - T R5
Common name (Scientific name) - Status
Knowlton cactus (PediocactusknowftonIB - E R6
Kokl'o (HawaB tree cotton) (Kokia drvnarioldes) - E R1
ko'oko'olau (Bidens mlcrantha ssp. Kalealaha) - E R1
Ko'oloa'ula (Abutilon) (Abutilon menzlesli) - E R1
Krai's water-plantain (Saaittaria secundifolia) - T R4
Kuenzler hedoehoo cactus (Echlnocereusfendleri var. kuenzlerti - T R2
kului (Nototrichlum humile) - E R1
Lakete's mint (Dicerandra Imroaculata) - E R4
Lakeside daisy (Hvmenoxvs acaulls var. glabra) - T R3
Lanal oahnia (Gahnla lanalensls) - E R1
Lanai hesperomannla (Hesoeromannla arbuscula) - E R1
Lanal sandalwood (Santalum (revcinetlanum var. lanalense> - E R1
Lanal smooth ohvllosteola (Phvllosteola glabra var. lanalensls)- E R1
Lanal violet (Viola lanalensls) - E R1
Large-flowered flddleneck (Amslnckla orandtflora) - E R1
Large-flowered skullcap (Scutellaria montana) - E R4
Large-fruited sand verbena (Abronla macrocaroa) - E R2
Last Chance townsendla (Townsendla aorica) - T R6
Leafy prairie clover (Dalea follosa) - E R4
Leedv'sroseroot(Sedum Inteorifollum) - T R3
Lee pincushion cactus (Corvphanthasneedl var. leei) - T R2
Leoanthes ettorensis (No Common Name) - E R4
LHiwal (Acaena exioua) - E R1
Little Aoula pondweed (Potamooeton ctvstocarpus)- T R2
Little amphianthus (Amohlanthus puslllus) - T R4
Uovd hedoehoo cactus (Echlnocereus llovdll) - E R2
Lloyd's martoosa cactus (Neollovdla martopsensls) - T R2
lobed nehe (Uoochaeta lobata var. laotophvlla) - E R1
Lobelia nllhauensls (No Common Name) - E R1
Loch Lomond covote-thlstle (Ervndum constancefl - E R1
Lonasourred mint (Dicerandra comutlsslma)- E R4
Lyrate bladder-pod (Leaauereila Ivrata) - T R4
Lvslmachla Ivdoatel (No Common Name) - E R1
MacFartane's four-o'-clock (Mhabite macfartaneH - E R1
Maautre daisy (Erioeron maaulrel var. magutrel) E R6
Maaulre primrose (Primula maguireft - T R6
Malheur wire-lettuce (Steohanomeria malheurensls) - E R1
Mahoe (Alectrvon macrococcusl - E R1
Mancos milk-vetch (Astragalus humflBmus) - E RO
Ma'oD'oD (Schledea aookremnos) - E R1
Mat-forming aulllwort (Isoetesteoetiformans) - E R4
Maul remva (Remva maulenslsl - E R1
Mauna Kea silversword (Arovroxtehlum sandwlcense sandwlcense)- E R1
III-7
-------
Common name (Scientific name) Status
Region
Region
McDonald's rock-cress (Arabia mcdonaldlana) - E R1
McKHtrick pennvroval (Hedeoma apiculatum) - T R2
Mead's milkweed (Asdeolasmeadin - T R3
Menzle's wallflower (Erysimum menziesID - E R1
Mesa verde cactus (Sderocactua mesae-verdae) - T R6
Meven'soouanla (Gouania m even 10 - E R1
Mlccosukee (Florida) gooseberry (Ribes echlnellum) - T R4
Michaux's sumac (Rhus mlchauxlO - E R4
Michigan monkcv-flowcr (Mimulus alabratus var. mlghloanensls) - E R3
Minnesota dwarf trout lllv (Ervthronlum propullans) - E R3
Missouribladder-pod (Lesauerefla filiformls) - E R3
Mohr'a Barbara's button (Marshallia mohril) - T R4
Monterey allla (Gflla tenulflora ssd. arenarial - E R1
Montgomery's remva (Remva montaomeiyfl - E R1
Mountain golden heather (Hudsonla montana) - T R4
Mountain sweet pitcher plant (Sarracenla rubra ssp. ionesffl - E R4
Na'ena'e (Dubautia herbstobatae)- E R1
Na Pali Beach bluet (Hedvotls st.-lohntO - E R1
Narrowleaved haolostachvsOHaplostachvshaplostachvavar. anaustffolla) - E R1
Narrow-leaved stenoavne (Stenoavne anausttfolla var.anausttfoUa) - E R1
Na'u (Hawaiian gardenia) (Gardenia briahamU) - E R1
Navalo sedae (Carex speculcola)- T R2
Navasota Ladles'-tresses (Solranthes parkslO - E R2
nehe (Lfnochaeta kamolensls) - E R1
Nehe (Ltoochaetavenosa) E R1
NalBa'a pincushion cactus (Corvphanthaminla) - E R2
Nichol'sTurtc's head cactus (Echlnocactushorizonthalontusvar. nlchofli) - E R2
nohoanu (Geranium mutttflorum) - E R1
Northeastern bulrush (Sdnms anctetrochaetus)- E R5
Northern monkshood (Aconltum noveboracense) - T R3
North Park d ha eel la (PhaceBa formosula) - E R6
Obovate alslnldandron (Alstnldendron obovatum) - E R1
'oha wal (Permontla oblonotfolia ssp. mautenste) - E R1
Opuhe (Urera kaalael - E R1
Osterhout milk-vetch (Astragalus osterhoutfl) - E R6
Palma de manaca (Catvptronoma rivalls) - T R4
Palmate-bracted btrd's-beak (Cordvtanthuspalmatus) - E R1
Palo Colorado (Temstroemla tuauBlensis) - E R4
Palo de jazmin (Stvrax portoricenste)- E R4
Palo de niaua (Comutta obovata) - E R4
Palo de Ramon (Banara vanderblltfll - E R4
Palo de rosa (Ottoschulztarhodoxvlon) - E R4
Pelos del cBablo (Aitetkla portoricensls) - E R4
Common name (Scientific name) - Status
Pamakanl (Viola chamlssonlanassp. chamlssonlana) - E R1
Papery whitlow-wort (Paronychia chartacea) - T R4
Pedate checker mallow (Sidalcea pedata) - E R1
Peebles Navalo cactus (Pedlocactus peebleslanus var peebleslanus) - E R2
Penland alpine fen mustard (Eutrema pentandH) - T R6
Persistenttrilllum fTrillium perslstens)- E R4
Peters Mountain mallow (lllamna core!) - T R5
Phvllosteola mollis (No Common Name) - E R1
Pitcher's (dune! thistle (Cirslum pitched! - T R3
Poa stohonoalossa(No Common Name) - E R1
Point Reves clover lupine (Luolnus tldestromfl var. lavneae) - E R1
Pondbenv (Llndera mdlsstfolia) - E R3
Prairie bush-clover (Lespedeza leotostachva)- T R3
Prairie dawn flower (Hvmenoxvs texana) - E R2
Presidio manzanlta (Arctostaphylosounaens var. raven HI - E R1
Price's potato-bean (Aoios priceana) - T R4
Pvomv fringe tree (Chlonanthuspvomaeus) - E R4
Relict trilHum fTrillium reliauum) - E R4
Remy's tetramolopium (Tetramolopium remvft - E R1
Roan Mountain bluet (Hedvotls purpurea var. montana) - E R4
Robbln's clnauefoil (PotentlUa robblnstana) - E R5
Rough-leaved loosestrife (Lvstmachla asperulaefoBa) - E R4
Roundleaved chaff-flower (Achvranthessplendens var. rotundata) - E R1
Ruoel's pawpaw (Deerlngothamus ruaelin - E R4
Running buffalo clover fTrifollum stolonHerum) - E R3
Ruth's golden aster (PttvopslsruthB) - E R4
Sacramento prickly-poppy (Aroemone plelacantha ssp plnnatteecta) - E R2
Sacramento Mountains thistle (Cirslum vtnaceum) - T R2
Salt marsh bfrd's-beak (Cordvtenthusmaritlmus maritlmus) - E R1
San Benito evening-primrose (Camtesonlabenltenals) - T R1
San Clemente Island broom (Lotus dendrddeus ssd. traskiae) - E R1
San Clemente Island bush-mallow (Malacothamnusdementlnus) - E R1
San Clemente Island Indian paintbrush (Castffletaoriseal - E R1
San Clemente Island larkspur (Delphinium ktnHansel - E R1
San Diego mesa mint (Poooovne abramstn - E R1
Sandolatn oerardla (Aoallnls acuta) - E R5
San Frandsco peaks groundsel (Senecto franstecanus) - T R2
San leu la mariversa (No Common Name) - E R1
San Joaouln woolv threads (Lembertia conodonHl - E R1
San Mateo thommlnt (Acanthomlnthaobovata ssp. duttonH) - E R1
San Rafael cactus (Petflocactusdespalnfl) - E R6
Santa Ana River wootv-star (Eria strum densifoflum ssd.sanctorum)- E R1
Santa Barbara Island llveforever (Dudteva trasldae) - E R1
III8
-------
Common name (Scientific name) - Status
Region
Region
Santa Cruz cypress (Cuoressusabiamslana) - E R1
Schledea haleakalensis (No Common Name) - E R1
Schoepfia arenarla (No Common Name) - T R4
Schwelnltz's sunflower (Helianthus schweinMzH) - E R4
Scrub blazing star (Uatris ohDnaerae) - E R4
Scrub lupine (Luplnus aridorum) E R4
Scrub mint (Dicerandra fratescens) - E R4
Scrub plum (Prunus geniculate) - E R4
Scutellaria floridana (No Common Name) - T R4
Sebastopol meadowfoam (Limnanthes vlnculansl - E R1
Sentry milk vetch (Astragalus cremnophvlax var. cremnophvlax) - E R2
Shale barren rock-cress (Arabls serotlna) - E R5
Short's golden rod (Solidaoo shortll) ¦ E R4
Siler pincushion cactus (Pedlocactus slleri) - E R6
Sllene perlmanB (No Common Name) - E R1
Slender-homed splneflower (Dodecahema leptoceras)- E R1
Slender-leaved nehe (Ltoochaeta ten jlfolla) - E R1
Slender-petaled mustard (Theivpodlum stenooetalum) E R1
Slender rush-pea (Hoffmanseggla ten el la) - E R2
SmaD-anthered btttercressfCardamlne mlcrarithera) E R4
Small's milkoea (Qalactla smallH) - E R4
Sman whoried pooonla (Isotria medeololdes) - E R5
Snakeroot (Etvnaium cunetfollum) - E R4
Sneed pincushion cactus (CorvphanthasneedB var. sneedH)- E R2
Solano orass (Tuctoria mucronata> - E R1
Sonoma splneflower (Chortzanthevallda) - E R1
Spineless hedaehoo cactus (Echlnocereus trtalochlcBatus var. inefrois) - E R6
Spreading avens fOeum radlaturo) - E R4
Spring-loving centaury (Centaurtum namophilum) T R1
Steamboat Springs buckwheat (Ertooonum ovaBfoflum var. wBlamslae) - E R1
Stenoovne camnanulala (No Common Name) - E R1
St. Thomas prfcktv ash (Zanthoxvtum thomaslanum) - E R4
Swamp pink (Helonlas bullata) - T R5
Tennessee yellow-eyed orass (Xvrls tennesseensls)- E R4
Tenneaseaepurple coneflower (Echinacea tennesseensls)- E R4
Tertingua Creek cat's-eye (Crvptantha crasstoes) - T R2
Temstroemla subsesslllsfNo Common Name) - E R4
Tetramoloplum leoldotum var. leoldotum (No Common Name) - E R1
Texas poppy-mallow (Calllthoe scabrtuscuta) - E R2
Texas snowball (Stvrax texana) - E R2
Texas trailing phlox (Phlox nivalis var. texensls) - T R2
Texas wDdrtce (Ztarnta texana) - E R2
Thread-leaved tetramoloplum (Tetramoloplum flllforme) - E R1
Common name (Scientific name) - Status
TTnv polvoala (Polvoala smallll) - E R4
Toad-flax cress (Glaucocaroum suffnitescens)- E R6
Tobusch'sftehhook cactus (Andstrocactustobuschfl)- E R2
Tods en pennyroyal (Hedeoma todsenIP - E R2
Truckee barberry (Mahonla sonnefl - E R1
Tumamoc globebeny fTumamoca macdouoalll) - E R2
Uhluhl (mezoneuron) (Caesatolnla kavalense) E R1
Uinta Basin hooklesscactus (Sclerocactusqlaucus) - T R6
Ute ladles'-tresses (Solranthes diluvlalls) - T R6
Vahl's boxwood (Buxus vahllrt - E R4
villous water-fem fihl Ihi) (Marslleavlllosa) - E R1
Viola helenae (No Common Name) - E R1
Virginia round-leaf birch (Betuta uber) - E R5
Virginia spiraea (Spiraea vlroinianai - T R5
Walker's manioc (Manihot walkerae) - E R2
wawae'lole (Huoerzia mannii) - E R1
Welsh's milkweed (Asdeolaswetshli) - T R6
Western prairie fringed orchid (Ptatanthera praectara) - T R3
Wheeler's peoeromia (Peoeromla wheeled) - E R4
White birds-tn-a-nest (Mcbridea alba) - T R4
White-haired ooldenrod (Solidaoo albopflosa) - T R4
White Msette (Slsvrlnchlm dichotomum) - E R4
Wide-leaf warea (Warea amplexlfota) - E R4
Wlreweed (Poh/goneOa baslramla) - E R4
WHoht fishhook cactus (Sclerocactus wrtahHae) - T R6
Xvlosma crenatum (No Common Name) - E R1
Zapat's bladderood (Lesauerefla pallida) - E R2
Zunl fleabane (Ertaeron rtiizomatus) - T R2
III-9
-------
MAMMALS
Mammals
ALABAMA BEACH MOUSE (Peromyscus poiionotus ammobates) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: A subspecies of the oldfield mouse (Peromyscus poiionotus), the Alabama
beach mouse has a small body, haired tail, relatively large ears, and protuberant eyes. Its head and body
length are 2.7 to 3.4 inches with a tail length of 1.6 to 23 inches. The upper body is pale gray, the sides and
underparts are white, and the tail is white with an incomplete dorsal stripe.
Historically, the Alabama beach mouse was known only from Baldwin County, Alabama, where it was found
on coastal dunes form Fort Morgan to Alabama Point, and on Ono Island. Presently survives on disjunct
tracts of the sand dune system from Fort Morgan State Park to the Romar Beach area, but has apparently
disappeared from most of its original range including all of Ono Island.
The habitat is restricted to the mature coastal barrier sand dunes along the Gulf. The depth of the habitat
extending inland may be as much as several hundred meters from the primary dune line, depending on the
configuration of the sand dune system and the vegetation present. There are commonly several rows of
dunes paralleling the shoreline and occasionally ranging up to 46 feet in height The beach mice dig burrows
mainly on the lee side of the primary dunes and in other secondary and interior dunes where the vegetation
provides suitable cover. These mice are seminomadic over a relatively small range, digging as many as 20
burrows into the sand dunes for nesting, food storage, and safety refuges form predators. The mice may also
use ghost crab burrows.
The Alabama beach mouse feeds mostly on beach grass and sea oats and on invertebrates, especially in late
winter and early spring. The mouse seems to be monogamous as long as both partners remain alive,
producing litters about once a month. The litter size ranges from two to seven, averaging about four, with
the young reaching reproductive maturity as early as 6 weeks of age. The life span for a related species was
estimated at 5 months.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: Tropical storms and loss of habitat are considered to be primary factors
for the mouse's decline. It is estimated that less than half of the original habitat still remains suitable. The
major threat to the habitat continues to be human destruction of the coastal sand dune ecosystem for
commercial and residential development. In addition, recreational use of the sand dunes by pedestrians and
vehicles can destroy vegetation essential for dune development and maintenance. Such loss of vegetation
results in extensive wind and water erosion, reducing the effectiveness of coastal dunes as a protective barrier
and ultimately destroying beach mouse habitat.
House mice (Mus muscuhis), which are associated with human dwellings, may compete with the beach mouse
for food, but the evidence is not conclusive at present. The presence of feral house cats may also pose a
threat to beach mouse populations. The absence of a beach mouse population on Ono Island may be
attributable to cat predation.
Recent trapping efforts in specific areas of preferred habitat indicate that Alabama beach mice populations
are currently stable in those areas. However up to date estimates of population size are not available.
Based on data form 1985 the population was at that time estimated to be about 850 mice.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: The Alabama beach mouse may be affected by pesticides used to
control rodents such as house mice or black rats. Tone baits placed in or adjacent to areas of preferred
habitat would be a potential threat to the beach mouse.
m-io
-------
Mammals
AMARGOSA VOLE (Miaotus califomicm sdrpenas) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Amargosa vole is a small, cinnamon-colored rodent that is a subspecies of
the California vole. The range is endemic to Amargosa River drainage of the Mohave Desert The habitat
is marsh habitat of bulrush and saltgrass where the vole feeds on underground parts of plants. This species
has small home ranges, all remaining habitats are less than 5 acres in size, vegetation provides microhabitats.
It generally remains underground in summer. Critical habitat has been designated on 4,520 acres in the
northern Mojave desert of extreme southeastern Inyo County, which is the entire known range of the animal.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The exact number of this population is not known. The reasons for
decline include loss of wetlands, continued groundwater pumping, and establishment of salt cedar and
consequent displacement of food source plants. There is a potential for geothermal development in the area.
Most habitats are on private lands. BLM has land use limitations, The Nature Conservancy has a private
reserve to manage seeps and marshes that provide water.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: A golf course is proposed nearby, therefore rodenticides and
pesticides could be used in adjacent habitat.
m-n
-------
Mammals
AN ASTASIA ISLAND BEACH MOUSE (Peromyscus polionotus phasma) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: A subspecies of the oldfield mouse (Peromyscus polionotus), the Anastasia
Island beach mouse has a small body, relatively large ears, and protuberant eyes. One of the largest species
of beach mice, it averages 5.4 inches in length and 2.1 in tail length. This beach mouse is much paler than
most inland races of oldfield mice. The coloration consists of a light buff colored back, pure white
underparts, and indistinct white markings on the nose and face.
The Anastasia Island beach mouse was known historically from the mouth of the St. Johns River, Duval
County south to Matanzas Inlet, St. Johns County, Florida. It currently occurs only on Anastasia Island,
primarily at the north (Anastasia Island State Recreation Area) and south (Fort Matanzas National
Monument) end of the island. The original distribution was over about SO linear miles of beach; current
viable populations occupy only about three linear miles of beach.
This subspecies is restricted to coastal dunes and adjacent inland scrub. The habitat is characterized by sand
dunes vegetated with sea oats, dune panic grass or broomsedge, and adjacent inland areas covered by woody
vegetation such as palmetto, oak, and sand pine. Little specific information exists about this subspecies
burrowing habits, however, they are presumed to be similar to other beach mice species. Burrows are
usually located on the sloping side of a dune, and consist of an entrance tunnel, nest chamber, and an escape
tunnel. Individual mice may use up to 20 burrows. Occasionally, beach mice may also use ghost crab
burrows.
Beach mice typically feed on the seeds of beach grasses and sea oats. Small invertebrates are probably eaten
from time to time, especially in late spring and early summer when seeds are scarce. Beach mice are
nocturnal, with most activity occurring on moonlit nights and less activity under stormy conditions or
moonless nights. The breeding season appears to start in November and end in early January. The female,
which may reach reproductive maturity at 6 weeks of age, produces two to seven beach mice per litter. A
female beach mouse can usually produce litters at 26-day intervals, but mortality is high. Most of the
progeny will not survive over 4 months.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The Anastasia Island beach mouse is primarily threatened by beach and
residential development that eliminates suitable habitat. Predators include raccoons, skunks, snakes, and
feral dogs and cats. Competitors, such as house mice, are also threats. Estimates on population size include
several hundred beach mice occurring at Fort Matanzas National Monument, and a few thousand on all of
Anastasia Island. Densities range from 6-50 mice per hectare. Continued loss of suitable habitat will likely
result in declining population levels.
SPECIES/PESTICIDE/INTERFACE: The Anastasia Island beach mouse may be affected by pesticides
used to control rodents such as house mice or black rats. Toxic baits placed in or adjacent to areas of
preferred beach mouse habitat would pose a potential threat to this subspecies.
111-12
-------
Mammals
BLACK-FOOTED FERRET (Mustela nigripes) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Black-footed ferret is a weasel-like mammal that has yellow-buff coloration
with black feet, tail tip, and eye mask. The ferret has a body length of 15 to 18 inches. Black-footed ferrets
formerly ranged from the Great Plains of Canada to intermontane regions of the interior Rocky Mountains
and Southwest in all of portions of the States of Colorado, Arizona, Utah, New Mexico, Kansas, Montana,
Nebraska, Oklahoma, Texas, Wyoming, North Dakota, and South Dakota, as well as the Provinces of Alberta
and Saskatchewan, Canada. The Meeteetse, Wyoming ferret population was removed and placed at the
Wyoming Deparment's captive breeding facility at the Sybille Wildlife Research and Conservation Tyhtcaion
Center from 1985 through 1987. There are currently no known wild populations of this species. The
likelihood of ferrets being found in the wild is considered low, however, the occurrence of ferrets within the
historic range of the species must still be considered possible.
The close association of black-footed ferrets and prairie dogs is well documented. Black-footed ferrets rely
on prairie dogs for both food and shelter. Historically, ferrets have been found on grassland plains and
surrounding basins up to 10,500 feet elevation. Besides feeding on prairie dogs, which comprise its major
food source, ferrets also are known to eat rabbits, mice, voles, ground squirrels, pocket gophers, birds, and
insects. It is believed to take an occupied black-tailed prairie dog colony or complex of between 61 and 294
acres (midrange of 104 acres) to support a single ferret, while between 196 and 475 acres of white-tailed
prairie dogs is believed to be required to support a single black-footed ferret in white-tailed prairie dog
habitat.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: As stated above, there are currently no known wild populations of
black-footed ferrets. There are approximately 130 ferrets located in captive breeding facilities at Sybille near
Laramie, Wyoming; Henry Doorly Zoo in Omaha, Nebraska; the Conservation and Research Center near
Front Royal, Virginia; the Louisville Zoological Park in Louisville, Kentucky; and the Cheyenne Mountain
Zoo in Colorado Springs, Colorado.
Since the turn of the century, the ferret's habitat (prairie dog colonies) has decreased by as much as 98
percent, primarily as a result of land use changes and practices that include prairie dog control From over
100 million acres in the late 1800's, prairie dog colonies are estimated to have been reduced to about 2
million acres, only a portion of which may be suitable for ferret survival and recovery. As prairie dog
colonies become smaller and their spacing more distant, ferret populations likely suffered the following
consequences: (1) reduced gene pool; (2) decreased ability to disperse to new colonies; and (3) lowered
mating success. If some ferrets still remain in the wild, the probability of their continued survival and
viability in the wild is considered low primarily because of the following factors: (1) the catastrophic effect of
canine distemper on ferrets and their susceptibility to this disease; (2) the dynamics of ferret habitat (prairie
dog colonies as influenced by plague and continued government and private poisoning programs; (3) other
stochastic environmental events which may adversely influence the survival of fercets and their habitats; and
(4) the continued segmentation and eradication of the habitat which forces genetic isolation and elimination
of food source and habitat of the species. Non-Federal actions that are likely to adversely impact the ferret
are those that result in the loss of prairie dog habitat on private lands.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: Pesticides used to control prairie dogs and other mammals or that
are toxic directly or indirectly to mammals are likely to continue to adversely impact the black-footed ferret
either through direct toxicity or indirectly through the loss of the ferrets food source.
111-13
-------
Mammals
CAROLINA NORTHERN FLYING SQUIRREL (Glaucomys sabrinus cdUxratrus) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Carolina northern flying squirrel is a small nocturnal gliding mammal some
260 to 305 millimeters (10 to 12 inches) in total length and 95 to 140 grams (3-5 oz.) in weight It possesses
a long, broad, flattened tail (80 percent of head and body length), prominent eyes, and dense, silky fur. The
broad tail and folds of skin between the wrist and ankle form the aerodynamic surface used for gliding
Adults are gray with a brownish, tan, or reddish wash on the back, and grayish white or buffy white ventrally.
Juveniles have uniform dark, slate-gray backs, and off-white undersides. The northern flying squirrel can be
distinguished from the southern flying squirrel by its larger size; the gray base of its ventral hairs as opposed
to a white base in the southern species; the relatively longer upper tooth row, and the short, stout baculum
(penis bone) of the males. The closest relative of the northern flying squirrel is Glaucomys sabrinus fuscus,
also classified as endangered. G. s. fuscus is known only from a few areas in Virginia and West Virginia.
The northern flying squirrel is known from five isolated localities: three in the western mountains of North
Carolina (Yancey County, Haywood County, and in the vicinity of Mt Mitchell (exact county
undetermined)), and two localities in the eastern mountains of Tennessee (Carter and Sevier Counties). The
northern flying squirrel is typically a species found in more northern areas, and it was well into the 20th
century before the species was found to occur in the eastern United States to the south of New York. The
northern flying squirrel was first described from specimens taken in the Appalachians of eastern Tennessee
and western North Carolina. Only a very few specimens have been captured since that time. It is possible
that this subspecies may have been declining since the last ice age, when the climate slowly began warming
and left the remaining suitable habitat limited to a few scattered areas at high elevations. No population
estimates are available, but the northern flying squirrel seems to be extremely rare, and also extremely
difficult to collect and study. Most captures have come from Roan Mountain on the North Carolina and
Tennessee border, where a total of 25 individuals have been taken since 1968.
The northern flying squirrel occurs primarily in the ecotone, or vegetation transition zone, between the
coniferous and northern hardwood forests. Both forest types are used in the search for food, while the
hardwood areas are needed for nesting sites. Because of the flying squirrel's small size, the climatic severity
of its habitat, and the abundance of avian and mammalian predators, nesting sites represent critical
resources. During the cooler months, squirrels commonly occupy tree cavities and woodpecker holes, but
may also construct and use leaf nests - especially in the summer. The interior of both types of nests is lined
with lichens, moss, or finely chewed bark. Preliminary results from a study presently underway in West
Virginia indicate that these squirrels sometimes enter burrows in the ground, although the extent of their use
is not yet known.
Over much of its range, the northern flying squirrel can apparently subsist on lichens and fungi, but also eats
certain seeds, buds, fruit, staminate cones, insects, and other animal material
Little reproductive information is available for this subspecies. Investigators working with more northern
subspecies mention two litters of 2 to 6 young per year and a gestation period of 37 to 42 days). However,
trapping data from the southern Appalachians suggest a single annual litter in early spring. Two captive
females taken in North Carolina each bore four young. Northern flying squirrels are relatively gregarious
and are known to share nests; however, the spectacular winter nesting aggregations reported for the southern
flying squirrel (up to 50 in a nest) are unknown for this species. Northern flying squirrels apparently live in
family groups of adults and juveniles, for in those areas where the species has been located, it has often been
possible to trap two to six individuals within a 300 by 400 meter area.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: Because the northern flying squirrel is adapted to cold, boreal
conditions, its range has probably been shrinking due to natural conditions since the last ice age. Populations
are now restricted to isolated areas at high elevations, separated by vast areas of unsuitable habitat. In these
m-14
-------
Mammals
last occupied zones, the squirrel and its habitat are coming under increasing pressure from human
disturbance, such as logging and development of skiing and other recreational facilities.
Logging and other clearing activity has also resulted in the colonization of former northern flying squirrel
habitat by the southern flying squirreL Regrowth in cleared areas, if any, has tended to be deciduous forest
favored by the more aggressive southern flying squirreL Recent research on captive animals suggests that the
northern flying squirrel may be displaced by the southern subspecies in certain hardwood habitats where
their ranges overlap The southern flying squirrel, though smaller than the northern flying squirrel, is more
aggressive, more active in territorial defense, and dominant in competition for nests. When the two squirrels
meet in an ecotone between coniferous and deciduous forest, the southern subspecies would be expected to
force the northern flying squirrel out into the purely coniferous zone, which lacks favorable nesting sites and
would therefore reduce reproduction by the northern flying squirreL Also, the southern flying squirrel is
apparently the natural host for a nematode parasite, Strongeloides robustus, and has developed an immunity
to its ill effects. However, when the northern and southern flying squirrels were held together in captivity,
the parasite was transferred to the nothern flying squirrel with lethal results. Recent contact between the
two squirrels, as a result of habitat disruption, has created conditions suitable for spreading the parasite to
the northern flying squirrel and may be contributing to its demise.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: The Carolina northern flying squirrel would most likely be affected by
pesticides applied within the species' occupied habitat Where forestry, rights-of-way, agricultural activities,
and other land use changes encroach on the species' habitat, there would be potential for the squirrel to
come in contact with rodenticides and insecticides. Broadcast application of flavored poisoned bait would
pose a significant threat to the squirreL
ra-i5
-------
Mammals
CHOCTAWHATCHEE BEACH MOUSE (Peromyscus polionotus attophrys) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Choctawhatchee beach mouse has a small body, haired tail, relatively large
ears, and protuberant eyes. Head and body length is 2.7 to 35 inches; tail length is 1.7 to 25 inches. The
upper parts are colored orange-brown to yellow-brown, the underparts are white, and the tail has a variable
dorsal stripe.
Historically known from Okaloosa, Walton and Bay Counties, Florida, the Choctawhatchee beach mouse was
originally found along the Gulf on mature coastal dunes between Choctawhatchee and St. Andrew Bays. Its
current distribution is apparently limited to two areas: (1) approximately 4.9 miles of beach from around
Morrison Lake eastward to Stalworth Lake (Topsail Hill area, Walton County), and (2) Shell Island at St.
Andrews Bay in Bay County.
The habitat is restricted to the mature coastal barrier sand dunes along the Gulf. The depth of the habitat
extending inland may vary depending on the configuration of the sand dune system and the vegetation
present. There are commonly several rows of dunes paralleling the shoreline and within these rows there are
generally three types of micro-habitat. The frontal dunes are sparsely vegetated with sea oats, bunch grass,
beach morning glory and railroad vine. The interdunal areas contain sedges, rushes and salt-grass. The
dunes farther inland support growths of slash pine, sand pine, scrubby shrubs and oaks.
The beach mice dig burrows mainly on the lee side of the primary dunes and in other secondary and interior
dunes where the vegetation provides suitable cover. The mice may also use ghost crab burrows. A nocturnal
herbivore, this beach mouse probably feeds primarily on the seeds of sea oats and bunch-grass. Arthropods
are eaten seasonally in spring and summer.
A population of Choctawatchee beach mice is capable of producing a maximum of six generations per year.
Breeding may occur at any time, but reaches its peak during fall and winter. Litter size may range from two
to seven. Their average lifespan is 180 days. Females reach sexual maturity at 6 weeks of age.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: Destruction of Gulf coast sand dune ecosystems for commercial and
residential development has destroyed about 60 percent of the original habitat. A 1979 survey indicated that
the beach mouse had been extirpated from 7 of 9 previously known habitat areas, although this loss was
mitigated somewhat by the discovery of a new population on Shell Island. Results of this survey also
suggested that the house mouse, through competition for food and cover, may have displaced the beach
mouse in the mainland portion of St. Andrews State Recreation Area (across the channel from Shell Island).
Human dwellings in the vicinity of beach mouse habitat serve as points of introduction for house mice.
Predation by feral house cats associated with residential development may also occur.
Tropical storms periodically devastate sand dune communities, dramatically altering or destroying habitat,
drowning beach mice, and concentrating the mice on high scrub dunes where they are exposed to predators.
Habitat loss and fragmentation from development increases the potential impact from this threat.
In 1979, the species' total population was conservatively estimated at 515, consisting of 357 beach mice on
Shell Island, and 158 mice in the Topsail Hill area. In addition to that estimate, in 1987-88, thirty
Choctawhatchee Beach Mice were reestablished on Grayton Beach State Recreation Area. Surveys indicate
that these mice are reproducing.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: The Choctawhatchee beach mouse may be affected by pesticides used
to control rodents such as house mice and black rats. Toxic baits placed in or adjacent to beach mice habitat
would be a potential threat
m-16
-------
Mammals
DELMARVA PENINSULA FOX SQUIRREL (Sdurus niger cinemu) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Delmarva Peninsula fox squirrel is a large squirrel, weighing up to two
pounds. Its coat is a light, grizzled, grayish color with a steel-blue cast dorsally and a white cast ventrally.
The feet are white and the tail has a pronounced black stripe on the outer edge. The squirrel is presently
restricted to local disjunct populations found on the Delmarva Peninsula in Maryland, Virginia, and
Delaware. This species is found mostly in mixed stands of mature (mast-producing) hardwoods. Habitats
include groves of trees along streams and in agricultural areas, and mature loblolly pine forests adjacent to
salt marshes. The Delmarva fox squirrel feeds heavily on mast-producing trees, such as oak, hickory, beech,
walnut and loblolly pine. During the spring, they feed extensively on buds and flowers of trees, and will also
consume fungi, insects, fruit, seeds, and occasionally bird eggs and young. Two peaks occur during the
breeding season ~ one in February/March and the other in July/August. The fox squirrels are polygamous,
and the female raises the average litter of three by herself, usually in a tree den. The young are weaned
between nine to twelve weeks of age.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: Populations exist at Blackwater, Eastern Neck, Chincoteague, and
Prime Hook National Wildlife Refuges, totaling approximately 800 in 1987. Populations on state and private
land are not known. The Delmarva fox squirrel is adversely impacted by destruction of its mature woodland
habitat from timber cutting, agricultural clearing, construction and development, and competition with the
gray squirrel.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: Delmarva fox squirrels are not normally affected by most pesticides,
because they consume foods in the mature stage after pesticide application may occur. However, there is the
possibility of accidental poisoning through ingestion of granules or drinking water having dissolved pesticide
material in solution. Exposure to certain rodenticides might also pose a risk.
m-17
-------
Mammals
FLORIDA PANTHER (Felix concolor corp.) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Florida panther is a large, long-tailed cat with a great deal of color
variation: pale brown or rusty upper parts, dull white or buffy under parts; tail tips, back of ears, and sides
of nose dark brown or blackish. Mature male panthers examined in the wild in Florida since 1978 have
weighed from 106 to 154 pounds, and measured nearly 7 feet from nose to tip of tail. Females were
considerably smaller, with a weight range of 65 to 100 pounds and measuring about 6 feet. Data on panther
kitten development indicate that males 6-10 months of age weighed in at 34-55 pounds; 14-19 months, 85-86
pounds; and 24-36 months, 92-93 pounds. Females 6-10 months weighed 31-49 pounds; 14-20 months, 56-70;
and 24-43 months, 50-80 pounds.
The historic range included eastern Texas or western Louisiana and the lower Mississippi River valley east
through the Southeastern States in general (Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and
parts of Tennessee and South Carolina). Even though numerous sighting reports continue to surface
annually throughout Us historic range, it is unlikely that viable populations of the Florida panther presently
occur outside Florida. In general, panther population centers appear to indicate a preference toward large
Temote tracts with adequate prey, cover, and reduced levels of disturbance. A telemetry study on the Florida
panther was initiated in south Florida by the Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission (Commission)
in 1981. This initial study has since been expanded by the Commission, and the National Park Service
initiated additional studies in 1986. One of the goals of these telemetry projects is to learn more about
panther habitat. As of July 1989, data had been gathered from 33 radio-instrumented panthers.
Data from panthers monitored by the Commission in southwest Florida since 1985 indicate that, overall,
habitat use is highly diverse and varies from north to south. Diversity of habitats used by panthers is greater
in northern parts of the study area and dominated by uplands (hardwood hammocks, low pinelands, and
palm forests). Lower diversity and predominately wetland habitat use are characteristic of southern areas
(mixed swamp and cypress swamp). Appropriate cover is an important component of habitats used,
especially during hunting, denning and day-bedding. Saw palmetto was the dominant cover in 72 percent of
observed day bedding-sites. Home range sizes of 13 instrumented panthers in southwest Florida averaged
255 square miles for adult males and 135 square miles for adult females.
Preliminary analyses of panther diets in the southwest Florida study area indicate they subsist on a variety of
mammalian prey dominated by white-tailed deer, wild hog, and in some areas raccoon. Analysis of 83 scats
and 22 kills since 1986 indicate a difference in food habits between the north and south portions of the study
area. Deer and hogs accounted for 42 percent and 22 percent, respectively, in the south, and 23 percent and
63 percent, respectively, in the north. Occurrence of small prey appeared similar between areas.
Only preliminary data is available on Florida panther reproduction. Existing data indicates a breeding season
of November to April, a gestation period of around 90-95 days, litter sizes of 1-4 kittens, a breeding cycle of
2 years for females, and kitten dispersal at 18 months. A female has successfully reproduced at 22-23
months, and a male has possessed fertile sperm and exhibited reproduction at 26-30 months. Male panthers
examined to date exhibit an exceedingly high proportion of abnormal sperm forms (more than 90 percent),
with the major defect involving the acrosome or head of the spermatozoa. In addition, 4 to 12 (33 percent)
males examined since 1984, have exhibited cryptorchidism (one testicle does not descend property into the
scrotum). As part of the genetic preservation effort, a sperm bank was established in 1988, to cryopreserve
(freeze-store) semen collected from free-ranging males.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The only known viable population occurs in south Florida, generally
within the Big Cypress Swamp and Everglades physiographic region in Collier, Dade, Glades, Hendry, Lee,
and Monroe Counties. Scattered verified sign has recently been documented (late 1980"s) along the SL Johns
River drainage from northern Okeechobee County north to southern Putman County. Telemetry data
suggests the present population of panthers may be at or near the carrying capacity for existing habitat
m-18
-------
Mammals
conditions. Currently, the wild population is estimated to be 30-50 animals. However, the death of even one
panther would pose a serious threat to the species' survival Losses could result in population reduction
below a level necessary to maintain the demographic and/or genetic health of the species. The status of the
panther is further exacerbated by the cumulative effects of human encroachment including current and
proposed agricultural and mining operations impacting available habitat
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: Although the opportunity for the panther to come in contact with
pesticides is remote because of the species habits, there are several possible routes of exposure. Panthers
may prey on cattle treated for pest control or scavenge on dead livestock that had been treated; secondary
poisoning by scavenging on poisoned rodents or birds can occur when the panthers typical large prey species
are scarce; because these big cats occasionally venture outside a given home range, contact with pesticide
treated citrus groves, sugarcane or other crop fields may also occur.
m-19
-------
Mammals
FLORIDA SALT MARSH VOLE {Microtia pennsytvanicus dukecampbeUi) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Florida salt marsh vole is a small (178-198 mm in total length), short-tailed
rodent with a blunt head and short ears. Its fur is black-brown dorsally and dark gray ventrally. It is closely
related to the meadow vole (M. p. pennsylvanicus) but can be distinguished by its larger size, darker
coloration, relatively small ears, and by certain skull characteristics.
The Florida salt marsh vole is known only from one site at Waccasassa Bay in Levy County, Florida, where it
is found in a salt marsh with vegetation consisting of smooth cordgrass, black rush, and saltgrass. Very little
is known about the species' biology and life history. It is presumed that the Florida salt marsh vole feeds
primarily on seeds and succulent plant parts.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The Florida salt marsh vole presently easts only in extremely low
numbers (only one salt marsh vole was found during intensive trapping in 1987 and 1988) and has a very
restricted range. Any natural or human induced adverse impact to this species could result in Us extinction.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: Pesticide use for rodent control and/or mosquito control could
potentially occur within or adjacent to the Florida salt marsh vole's habitat and could pose a serious threat to
this species. Exposure to rodenticides would likely occur through ingestion of poison baits; and exposure to
other pesticides could occur through ingestion of food items contaminated by direct spray application or drift
deposition of the pesticides.
ffl-20
-------
Mammals
GRAY WOLF (Cams lupus) - E/T
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Gray wolf occurs as a result of natural recolonization which is presently
occurring in Idaho, north-central Washington, and northwestern Montana. Successful reproduction of wolves
has been recorded in southeast British Columbia, Canada, along the North Fork of the Flathead River,
Glacier National Park, and other areas in northwest Montana, and the north Cascades of Washington. The
gray wolf also inhabits the northeastern third of Minnesota, portions of the northern third of Wisconsin, and
portions of the Upper Peninsula and Isle Royale of Michigan.
The key components of wolf habitat include: (1) a sufficient, year-round prey base of ungulates (big game)
and alternate prey, (2) suitable and somewhat secluded denning and rendezvous sites, and (3) sufficient space
with minimal exposure to humans. The primary prey for wolves in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan
include deer, moose, and beaver as are wolves in the Rocky Mountains which also feed on elk, bison, ground
squirrels, snowshoe hare, and grouse. On a biomass basis, ungulates comprise the bulk (more than 90
percent) of the wolves' diet during summer and fall in the Rocky Mountains.
In the Northern Rockies, wolf pups are born any time from late March to late April or possibly early May.
Most wolves appear particularly sensitive to human activity near den sites and may abandon them if
disturbed.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The wolf population in and adjacent to Montana as of March 1991 is
estimated to be about SO wolves in 5 packs. No more than 15 wolves were believed to be present in central
Idaho as of August 1987. There are no recent population figures for the gray wolf (eastern timber wolf) but
it is estimated that there are approximately 1,200 to 1^00 of these wolves occurring in Minnesota, Wisconsin,
and Michigan. The population decline of the eastern timber wolf was a result of (1) intensive human
settlement, (2) direct conflict with domestic livestock, (3) a lack of understanding of the animal's ecology and
habits, (4) fears and superstitions concerning wolves, and (5) the extreme control programs designed to
eradicate the wolf. These factors apply to the decline in all wolf populations in the United States. Reasons
for the decline of the Northern Rocky Mountain wolf also are given as land development, loss of habitat,
poisoning, trapping, and hunting. Non-Federal actions adversely impacting the wolves include primarily
hunting and trapping of wolves on non-federal lands.
SPECIES/PESTICIDE INTERFACE: Pesticides used to control coyotes (e.g^ sodium cyanide, sodium
fluroacetate) and other mammals (e.g., ground squirrel control) could adversely impact the gray wolf.
m-21
-------
Mammals
GRIZZLY BEAR (Ursus arctos horribitis) - T
SPECIES INFORMATION: Grizzly bear populations in the conterminous United States are restricted to
north central and northeastern Washington, northern and eastern Idaho, western Montana, and northwestern
Wyoming. Only six areas are known to sustain either self-perpetuating or remnant populations, excluding
southern Colorado, where a grizzly bear was killed in the fall of 1979 in a remote section of the San Juan
National Forest. These areas include the Yellowstone Grizzly Bear Ecosystem (YGBE), the Northern
Continental Divide Grizzly Bear Ecosystem (NCDGBE), the Cabinet-Yaak Grizzly Bear Ecosystem
(CYGBE), the Selkirk Mountains Grizzly Bear Ecosystem (SMGBE), the Selway-Bitterroot Grizzly Bear
Ecosystem (SBGBE), and the North Cascades Grizzly Bear Ecosystem (NCGBE).
The primary components of grizzly bear habitat include food, cover, and denning habitat. Grizzly bears are
successful omnivores, and in some areas may be almost entirely herbivorous. Grizzly bears must avail
themselves for foods high in protein or carbohydrates in excess of maintenance requirements in order to
survive denning and post-denning periods. They are opportunistic feeders and will prey or scavenge on
almost any available food including ground squirrels, ungulates, carrion, and garbage. This search for food is
a prime influence on movements. Upon emergence from the den, they seek the lower elevations, drainage
bottoms, avalanche chutes, and ungulate winter ranges, where their food requirements can be met.
limited reproductive capacity of grizzly bears precludes any rapid increase in the population. Mating
appears to occur from late May through mid-July, with a peak in mid-June. The age of first reproduction
and litter size varies and may be related to the nutritional state of the bear. Litter sizes range from 1 to 4
with the mean of about 2.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The current population of grisly bears is estimated at between 800 and
1,000 bears. The YGBE population is estimated at between 200 and 350 while the NCDGBE population is
believed to be between 440 and 680 bears. The decline in the bear population has been related to habitat
loss and direct and indirect human-caused mortality. Most of the actions adversely impacting the grizzly bear
occur on Federal lands. Some non-Federal actions that would adversely impact the grizzly bear include
habitat destruction and direct human-caused mortality (e.g., both legal and illegal shooting of bears) on
private lands.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: Pesticides toxic to mammals and especially those toxicants use to
control coyotes and other mammals could adversely impact the grizzly bear directly or indirectly by reducing
the grizzly bears' food source.
m-22
-------
Mammals
HUALAPAI MEXICAN VOLE (Microtus madcamis hualpaiensis) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Hualapai Mexican vole is a small cinnamon-brown, mouse mammal
with a short tail and long fur that nearly covers its small, round ears. The Hualapai vole is one of three
subspecies found in Arizona. The hualapai vole is now found only in moist, grass/sedge along permanent or
semi-permanent waters, but may be capable of occupying drier areas when grass/forb habitats are available.
This species probably feeds on green plant material when available. Hualapai voles have been observed
during both day and night and are likely active year-round. No data exist on the reproductive biology of this
species although they are assumed to be similar to other subspecies which have small litters.
This species is known from only the Hualapai Mountains in Mohave County, Arizona. Three general locales
that total 2SS acres have been identified as vole habitat. Three populations have been located within these
areas and a fourth population in Pine Canyon has been reported south of the known locales.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The Hualapai vole is extremely rare and has among the most restricted
habitats of any North American mammal From 1923 to the present, only 15 specimens are known to have
been captured in the Hualapai Mountains. The most recent status survey investigated 59 potential sites but
found voles in only 2 places and sign alone in one other. Each ate was only 3-5 meters across and 75-400
meters long. These areas are thought capable of supporting a minimum of 44 voles. Past incompatible land
management practices and periods of drought have combined to cause the deterioration of most of the
habitat of the vole. The present main threat to the habitat appears to be the elimination of ground cover or
grasses, sedges, rushes and forbs around open water and seeps, primarily by grazing and heavy recreational
use.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: This species could be adversely impacted from the use of
rhodenticides, insecticides, or herbicides within occupied habitat.
m-23
-------
Mammals
JAGUARUNDI (Felis yagouaroundi cacomitti) ¦ E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Jaguarondi is a long-bodied, short-legged, uniformly colored cat. It
measures 35 to 54 inches (90 to 137 cm) from head to tail, with the tail nearly as long as the head and body.
Its pelt is either reddish or bluish gray. It is about twice the size of the ordinary house cat and weighs 15 to
18 pounds (7 to 8 kg) as an adult. The females are smaller than the males. The jaguarondi is chiefly
nocturnal but also hunts by day. It feeds mostly on small birds and mammals. It climbs trees and is able to
pursue its prey through dense underbrush. It follows regular trails to drinking places. The young have been
observed in both summer and winter, suggesting that they have no regular breeding time or produce two
litters per year. Two or three young are produced at a time. The jaguarundi live in brushy areas and thorn
thickets. In the United States, they are only found in extreme southern Texas. There is no federally
designated critical habitat. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's "Counties of Occurrence" list includes Bee,
Cameron, Hidalgo, Jim Wells, Kennedy, Kleburn, San Patricio, and Willacy Counties, Texas.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: Jaguarundi apparently migrated to southern Texas from South America
by way of Mexico and established a small population. Their numbers are extremely low in the United States.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: Because of the intensive agriculture surrounding and interspersed
with the habitat it is highly likely that a number of the chemicals considered in this request will affect this
species.
m-24
-------
Mammals
KEY LARGO COTTON MOUSE (Peromyscus gossypimis allapaticola). E
SPECIES INFORMATION: A small mouse, the Key Largo cotton mouse is brown on top with white
underparts. It has large ears, proturberant eyes, and a furry tail Evidence indicates that most cotton mice
live less than a year.
This species was once known throughout the uplands of Key Largo, Monroe County, Florida. Currently,
however, it is restricted to approximately the northern one-third of this area. In 1970, the mouse was
introduced into the Lignumvitae Key State Botanical Site. Its present status there is uncertain because a
1984 trapping effort failed to detect the species. An estimated 18,000 cotton mice may still exist in the
remaining 2,100 acres (851 hectares) of forested habitat on north Key Largo. The Key Largo cotton mouse
is most abundant in mature, tropical, hardwood hammocks with trees of 10 to 12 inches trunk diameter. It is
rarely found in young or recovering hammocks. Common plant species in typical habitat are gumbo-limbo
(Bursem simamba); pigeon plum (Cocoloba diversijolio)\ soldierwood (Cohtbrina elUptica)\ crabwood
(Gymnanthes hicida); black ironwood (Krugiodendmn ferreum); wild coffee (Pschotria undata); marlbeny
(Ardisia escallonioides); and white stopper (Eugenia axillaris). Hammock vegetation develops only on the
higher ground, 6 to 15 feet above sea level At lower elevations there is a rapid transition to mangrove
wetlands.
This mouse is a noctural feeder, existing on the buds, fruits, and seeds of many plant species. Based on one
study reproduction is seasonal and apparently begins in June. The mice construct small, spherical, leaf-lined
nests in logs, tree hollows, and crevices in the limestone rock. Females have two or three litters a year, with
litter sizes ranging from two to six young and averaging four. Weaning takes place at about 4 weeks of age.
Females are ready to mate when slightly over 70 days old.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: Destruction and alteration of tropical hardwood hammock forest have
been identified as the primary factors in the extirpation of the Key Largo cotton mouse from the southern
part of Key Largo. Pressure for development will continue to be a threat.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: The Key Largo cotton mouse would be most vulnerable to rodent
control agents used for black and Norway rats and house mice. Tone baits placed in or near the cotton
mouse habitat would be a potential threat to the species.
m-25
-------
Mammals
KEY LARGO WOODRAT (Neotoma floridana smaOi) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Key Largo woodrat is a medium-sized (200-260 gram) rat with a gray-
brown back and head. Its belly, chest, and throat are white, and the tail is hairy. This species once ranged
throughout Key Largo, but now is restricted to about the northern one-third of the area. The woodrat was
introduced into Iignumvitae Key, a State botanical site, in 1970; but, populations there were estimated to be
very low in 1988. An estimated 6,500 woodrats still exist in the remaining 851 hectares (2,100 acres) of
forested habitat on north Key Largo. The Key Largo woodrat is most abundant in mature, tropical,
hardwood hammocks with trees of 10 to 12 inches trunk diameter, and is rarely found in young or recovering
hammocks. Common plant species in typical habitat are gumbo-limbo (Bursera simamba); Pigeon plum
(Cocoloba diversifolia)\ soldierwood (Colubrina elliptica); crabwood (Psychotria undata); marlberry (Ardisis
escallonioides); and white stopper (Eugenia axillaris). Hammock vegetation develops only on the higher
ground, 6 to 15 feet above sea level At lower elevations there is a rapid transition to mangrove wetlands.
In mature hammocks, woodrats occur at a density of about 0.8 to 1 animal an acre and have a home range
of about 0.6 of an acre.
This species is a nocturnal herbivore, feeding on the buds, leaves, and fruit of many plant species. Food may
be stored in its stick nests. Like other members of its genus, the Key Largo woodrat builds one or more
large stick houses for protection from predators and for nesting. The nests are made of dead limbs and
sticks, but they may contain miscellaneous articles (glass, metal, paper, bones). Nests may be used for
several generations and become as large as 4 feet high and 6 to 8 feet in diameter. The interior of the nest
contains a small globular nest chamber made of plant fibers and grasses. Several entrances lead to the next
chamber. One woodrat may utilize several nests, but adults do not nest together. Females have two litters a
year, consisting of one to four young with an average of two. Sexual maturity occurs at about 5 months of
age.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: Destruction and alteration of tropical, hardwood hammocks have been
identified as the primary factors in the extirpation of the Key Largo woodrat from the southern part of Key
Largo. There are presently several residential projects planned or under construction on northern Key Largo
in areas near or within woodrat habitat. Pressure for development is expected to be a continuing threat in
the future.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: The Key Largo woodrat would be susceptible to rodenticides used to
control black and Norway rats. Tone bait placed in or near the woodrat's habitat could pose a threat to the
woodrat.
m-26
-------
Mammals
LOUISIANA BLACK BEAR (Ursus americanus htteoius) - T
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Louisiana black bear is a large, bulky mammal with long black hair, with
occasional brownish or cinnamon color phases. The tail is short and well haired. The facial profile is rather
blunt, the eyes small and the nose pad broad with large nostrils. The muzzle is yellowish brown and a white
patch is sometimes present on the lower throat and chest. There are five toes on the front and hind feet
with short curved claws. Large males may weigh more than 600 pounds but weight varies considerably
throughout the species range. Its skull can be distinguished from other black bears in that it is relatively
long, narrow, and flat in comparison, and has proportionately large molar teeth.
The Louisiana black bear historically occurred throughout southern Mississippi, eastern Texas, all of
Louisiana and possibly the southern most counties of Arkansas. However, it is now confined to small
numbers in Mississippi close to the Mississippi River, and to core populations in the Tensas and Atchafalaya
River basins in Louisiana. Only large stands of woodlands (bottomland hardwoods) are considered as bear
habitat, though marshes and agricultural fields (sugarcane, soybeans) are also used by the Louisiana black
bear. The Louisiana black is omnivorous and will forage on most any vegetable or animal food item it can
find or catch, including carrion.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The Louisiana black bear has suffered extensive habitat loss and
modification, with suitable habitat having been reduced by more than 80 percent by 1980. As of 1991, this
percentage is likely much higher. In 1980, it was estimated that only 5,000,000 of the original 25,000,000
acres of bottomland forest in the Mississippi River Valley remained, with another 165,000 acres being lost
each year. Presently, only approximately 100,000 acres (15%) of the original stands of the once extensive
bottomland forests of the Tensas basin remain; and in the Atchafalaya basin only about 518,000 acres remain
in the lower portion of the basin and only 100,000 to 128,000 acres in the upper or northern portion. Due to
the difficulties in accurately censusing bear numbers, present population levels within these river basins are
unknown but are expected to continue declining as remaining habitat is cleared and reduced in quality by
fragmentation due to construction, forestry, and agricultural activities.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: The Louisiana black bear would primarily be affected by pesticides
used for rodent or predator control and those pesticides applied to livestock to control insect infestations.
Due to the bear's opportunistic feeding habitats, there exists a potential for direct poisoning due to ingestion
of poison baits and secondary poisoning from ingestion of contaminated prey, so use of these pesticides in
bear habitat is a potential threat to this subspecies. Some contact with pesticides used on sugarcane or other
crops may also occur.
m-27
-------
Mammals
LOWER KEYS RABBIT (Sylvttagus pahistris hejheri) ¦ E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Lower Keys rabbit is a subspecies of the marsh rabbit, a species
widespread in the southeastern U.S. The Lower Keys rabbit is distinguished from other rabbits, in skull
proportions and sculpturing and in its darker coloration. The Lower Keys rabbit is about sixteen inches in
length, with brownish dorsal and greyish ventral fur. The rabbit is most active at night, in early morning or
late afternoon, or during overcast weather. It feeds on a variety of plants, including leaves, shoots, buds, and
flowers of grasses, herbaceous, and woody plants. Breeding behavior includes phasing Qf inferior males and
receptive females by dominant males. In late summer, adult rabbits may chase young from the nest area.
The Lower Keys rabbit builds mazes of runs, dens, and nests in its coastal (saline to brackish) or freshwater,
inland marsh habitats. Two plant species, fringe rush and bottonwood, are always present in the rabbit's
habitat. In freshwater marshes, cattails and sedges are common associates. Sometimes, spikerush is also
found. In coastal marshes, common associates include cordgrass, saltwort, glasswort, sawgrass, and sea
oxeye. The rabbit's runs, dens and nests are made in cordgrass or sedges. Nests are lined with belly hair.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: This species originally ranged throughout the larger, lower Florida Keys.
Presently, the rabbit is known from only 13 sites on lower Sugarloaf, Welles, Annette, Hopkins, Geiger, Boot
Chica, and Big Pine Keys. Historically, the species may also have existed on Cudjoe, Ramrod, Middle Torch,
Big Torch, and Key West Keys; but, it has been extirpated from these areas. The species is known to have
occurred on Saddlebunch, but because most of the appropriate habitat has been destroyed, it probably has
been extirpated there. Known localities for the rabbit are on privately-owned land; State land owned by the
Florida Department of Transportation; and Federal land owned by the National Key Deer Refuge or the Key
West Naval Air Station. The current population of the species, based on pellet counts, is estimated at 259
individuals.
Natural marsh habitats are limited in the Florida Keys, and have declined due to development. Since the
rabbit occurs in small, relatively disjunct populations, has a low population density, and does not occur east
of the Seven Mile Bridge, the species is in danger of extinction. Predation by introduced house cats is a
problem. Some road mortality occurs as rabbits attempt to move among increasingly isolated Lower Keys
marshes. In the past, the Lower Keys rabbit was often hunted by man; this is not known to be a current
threat. A U.S. Navy-sponsored study is underway at Boca Chica Naval Air Station to determine the basic
biological needs of the species, and to determine what management would be beneficial.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: The Lower Keys rabbit may be exposed to pesticides used for
mosquito control in areas of marsh habitat. Direct contact with treated areas and ingestion of contaminated
water are likely routes of exposure. The rabbit may also come in contact with rodenticides used for control
of black and Norway rats or mice in areas adjacent to the rabbit's habitat. Broadcast poison baits would be
particularly hazardous to the rabbit.
m-28
-------
Mammals
MORRO BAY KANGAROO RAT (Dipodomys heermanm morroenas) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Mono Bay kangaroo rat is a species is a small rodent weighing about 50-
70 grams (mean 66 g). In 1922, habitat for the species was less than 4 square miles at Morro Bay,
California. By 1980, less than 320 acres in four parcels remained. A 50-acrc California Department of Fish
& Game Reserve at Morro Dunes has no remaining animals Also none remain in Montana de Oro State
Park's 70-acre reserve. Habitat includes coastal dune scrub, without a thick, woody overstoiy. Also, the
vegetative cover includes a patchy, but significant unvegetated sand component This species feeds on
buckwheat, croton, other forbs. Breeding season is generally between March-October, but young are known
to occur at other times of the year as well. Estrus occurs 18-20 days, and gestation 30-33 days. This is a
subspecies of the Heermann's kangaroo rat.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: the status of the species is unknown, but the population occurs only on
one privately owned parcel. This population was censused in 1985. At that time the population was
estimated to comprise less than 50 individuals. This last wild population occurs on approximately 50 acres of
a 200 acre location in Los Osos. Individuals in the captive colony all appear to be past reproductive age.
Reasons for decline are habitat loss and fragmentation. Anticipated trends are an HCP in progress with the
Service and San Obispo County. However, both HCP and recovery efforts are currently frustrated by
landowner refusal to allow resource agency personnel on the property containing the last known population.
Non-Federal impacts to this species include additional habitat loss and degradation.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: Rodenticides and other pesticides can affect remaining animals.
Interface is unknown due to inability of access to the species.
m-29
-------
Mammals
OCELOT (Felis partialis) E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Ocelot is a medium-sized cat, tawny in color, with dark, elongated
markings. Its head and body are 27 to 35 inches (69 to 89 cm) long, and its tail is 13 to 15 inches (33 to 38
cm) long. The cat weighs 20 to 40 pounds (9 to 18 kg). The young are born in the autumn, normally two in
a litter. The ocelot is believed to be nocturnal. It preys on rabbits, wood rats, mice, and occasionally
domestic animals. The U.S. ocelot population is estimated to be 12 to 60 animals. This cat is found only in
Cameron County, Texas, on approximately 50,000 acres (20,200 hectares) of native brushland; it is fond of
dense thickets of thorny shrubs. Approximately 30,000 of these acres (12,000 hectares) are. privately owned,
currently used for lease hunting and livestock grazing (cattle and goats). The remaining 20,000 acres (8,090
hectares) are in the Laguna Atascosa National Wildlife Refuge. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's
"Counties of Occurrence'' list include Cameron, Hidalgo, Kleberg, Jim Wells, Kennedy, Starr, Willacy, and
Zapata Counties, Texas.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The loss of habitat caused by the clearing of brush for citrus, cotton,
and vegetables has contributed greatly to the decline of the ocelot in Texas. The ocelot's great commercial
value has contributed to increased poaching and other illegal activities.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: Because of the intensive agriculture interspersed with and
surrounding ocelot habitat, it is highly likely that a number of chemicals (especially vertebrate control agents)
mil adversely affect this species.
m-30
-------
Mammals
PERDIDO KEY BEACH MOUSE (Peromyscus poUonotus trissyUepsis) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: A subspecies of the oldfield mouse (Peromyscus polionotus), the Perdido Key
beach mouse has a small body, haired tail, relatively large ears, and protuberant eyes. Its head and body
length is 2.7 to 33 inches; the tail length is 1.7 to 2^5 inches. The upper parts are colored grayish fawn to
wood brown with a very pale yellow hue and an indistinct middorsal stripe. The white of the underparts
reaches to the lower border of the eyes and ears, and the tail is white to pale grayish brown with no dorsal
stripe.
The Perdido Key beach mouse currently survives on the western part of Perdido Key including the Gulf State
Park, Baldwin County, Alabama; and until the passage of Hurricane Frederick in September 1979, survived
on the eastern part of the key at the Gulf Islands National Seashore, Escambia County, Florida. The mouse
has been reestablished on the Gulf Island National Seashore. The species is presumed to have once
inhabited the entire key. The Perdido Key State Preserve is located in the central part of Perdido Key.
Beach mouse habitat exists in the Preserve, although it is less than optimum in terms of average dune height.
The habitat is restricted to the mature coastal barrier sand dunes along the Gulf. The depth of the habitat
extending inland may vary depending on the configuration of the sand dune system and the vegetation
present. There are commonly several rows of dunes paralleling the shoreline and within these rows there are
generally three types of microhabitat. The frontal dunes are sparsely vegetated with sea oats, bunch grass,
beach morning glory and railroad vine. The interdunal areas contain sedges, rushes and salt-grass. The
dunes farther inland from the Gulf support growths of slash pine, sand pine, scrubby shrubs and oaks.
The Perdido Key beach mouse is seminomadic over a relatively small range, digging as many as 20 burrows
into the dunes for nesting, food storage and refuge from predators. Burrows are dug mainly on the lee side
of the primary dunes and in other secondary and interior dunes where the vegetation provides suitable cover.
The mice may also use ghost crab burrows.
This species is nocturnal, feeding primarily on the seeds of sea oats and beach grass. When these seeds are
scarce, especially in the late winter or early spring, beach mice may consume invertebrates or fruiting bodies
of sea rocket.
Reproduction may occur throughout the year, but likely it peaks during November, December, and January.
Beach mice litters range from two to seven, and the young may reach sexual maturity by 6 weeks of age.
Studies show that female beach mice are capable of producing litters every 26 days, and they may produce 80
or more young in their lifetimes. Beach mouse life spans are short, ranging from less than S months in the
wild to over 3 years.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: Loss of habitat is considered to be the primary factor for the mouse's
decline. It is estimated that approximately 34 percent of the island has been developed and is no longer
suitable habitat. Commercial and residential development, especially if the latter is high density multiple
housing, isolates small areas of beach mouse habitat thereby fragmenting populations and upsetting gene
flow. Such barriers also prevent recolonization of an area should a population segment be extirpated.
Tropical storms periodically devastate Gulf Coast sand dune communities, dramatically altering or destroying
habitat, and either drowning beach mice or forcing them to concentrate on high scrub dunes where they are
exposed to predators. The Gulf State Park area was severely flooded by Hurricane Frederick on September
13,1979. Washovers completely destroyed mouse habitat on all dunes less than 11.5 feet high, leaving only
the dune ridges in excess of this height as habitat. At the eastern end of the Key in Gulf Islands National
Seashore, 80 percent of the area was overwashed during the hurricane.
ffl-31
-------
Mammals
Associated with residential and commercial development are house mice and feral cats. Feral house cats
may prey on beach mice, and house mice can compete with beach mice for food and cover.
Trapping at Gulf State Park in 1983 yielded 13 beach mice at a relative density of 33 mice per 100 trap-
nights. Trapping conducted in Perdido Key State Preserve and Gulf Islands National Seashore did not
produce any mice. An earlier study conducted prior to Hurricane Frederick indicated a total population of
approximately 26 beach mice at Gulf State Park (relative density of 33 mice/100 trap-nights), and 52 mice at
the Gulf Islands National Seashore.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: The Perdido Key beach mouse may be affected by pesticides used to
control rodents such as house mice and black rats. Toxic baits placed in or adjacent to beach mouse habitat
would be a potential threat to the species.
m-32
-------
Mammals
POINT ARENA MOUNTAIN BEAVER (Aplodontia rufa nigra) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The endangered Point Arena mountain beaver lives on the Mendocino coast in
the Point Arena area, California. They feed upon succulent herbaceous plant material, deciduous tree bark
and leaves that form vegetative undertones (sword fern, cow parsnip, salal, nettle, salmonberry and lupine).
Point Arena mountain beavers live 6+ years becoming mature during their second year. They mate during a
5-7 week period in mid to late winter. The females have one litter per year consisting of 2-3 (rarely 4) pups
which are born in late February and March after a 28-30 day gestation period.
Point Arena mountain beavers are restricted in geographic distribution to cool, moist areas receiving heavy
rainfall (25-60 inches per year). Within this geographic distribution populations are found in four basic
habitat types: coastal scrub; coniferous forest; riparian; and stabilized dunes.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: Fewer than 100 individuals are estimated to exist in the ten known
populations of Point Arena mountain beavers. Four populations live on Manchester State Beach (privately
owned [AT&T site]). The other populations occur on Minor Road (privately owned), Lagoon Lake
(private), Point Arena (privately and state owned), Alder Creek (private & state), Irish Gulch (private &
state) and Mallo Creek (private and state).
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: The Point Arena mountain beaver could be adversely impacted due to
the registered use of vertebrate control agents within or adjacent to occupied habitat of this species.
m-33
-------
Mammals
SALT MARSH HARVEST MOUSE (Rathmdontamys raviventris) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Salt marsh harvest mouse is found in pickleweed dominated tidal and non-
tidal wetlands of the San Francisco Bay estuary in Marin, Sonoma, Napa, Solano, Contra Costa, Alameda,
Santa Clara, and San Mateo counties.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The northern subspecies, R. r. halicoetes, occurs north of Point San
Pedro (Marin) and Point Pinole (Contra Costa) in tidal and non-tidal wetlands bordering San Pablo Bay, the
Petaluma and Napa Rivers, and Suisun Bay east to Collinsville and Antioch. The southern subspecies, R. r.
raviventris, occurs in tidal and non-tidal wetlands from Points Pinole and San Pedro south to the Alviso
district. Both subspecies have been adversely affected by loss of habitat associated with diking, filling, and
conversion of their habitat for agricultural use, salt production, urbanization, and mosquito control. This loss
has been particularly acute in the South San Francisco Bay area.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: This mouse could be adversely impacted due to the registered use of
vertebrate control agents within or adjacent to occupied habitat of this species.
m-34
-------
Mammals
SAN JOAQUIN KIT FOX (Vulpes macrotis mutica) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The San Joaquin kit fox is a small canid that weighs approximately 5 pounds.
Foraging for a variety of rodents and lagomorphs typically occurs at night, although have been
observed stalking California ground squirrels (Spermophiius beecheyi) during daylight hours, and pups may be
observed during the day at den sites. Dens are usually constructed on gentle slopes or level areas. As few
as one or as many as 32 or more entrances may be excavated at each site. Kit fox will also opportunistically
utilize man-made structures such as culverts or pipes, or may enlarge abandoned ground squirrel burrows as
denning sites.
Females produce 1 litter per year, averaging 4 pups. The pups are born in February through early May.
Both males and females sexually mature in their second year. The San Joaquin kit fox home range is
estimated at 1 to 2 square miles. Considerable overlap between individual home ranges is believed to occur.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: This species was historically distributed within an 8,700 square mile area
in central California, extending in the north from the vicinity of Tracy in the San Joaquin Valley, south to the
general vicinity of Bakersfield. Kit fox are currently limited to remaining grassland, saltbu&h, open woodland,
and alkaline sink valley floor habitats, and similar habitats located along western bordering foothills and
adjacent valleys and plains. However, some agricultural areas such as range land, irrigated pastures, and
citrus orchards, may support these animals. Intensive agriculture, oil and gas development, urbanization, and
other land-modifying actions have eliminated its habitat over extensive portions of this area.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: This species could be adversely impacted due to the registered use of
vertebrate control agents and insecticides within or adjacent to occupied habitat of this fox. The species
could be impacted through direct exposure (i.e., dermal contact, inhalation of sprays or mists, and ingestion
of contaminated baits) or secondary poisoning from feeding on contaminated food items.
m-35
-------
Mam male
SILVER RICE RAT (Oryzomys palustris natator (=Oryzomys argentatus) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Silver rice rat is of generalized rat-like appearance with a slender skull,
coarse fur, colored silver-grey along its back, and having a sparsely haired taiL This species inhabits
wetlands, utilizing salt rather than freshwater marsh; its habitats include intermittently flooded high marsh
vegetated with sea oxeye and buttonwood, saltmarsh flats covered with low grassy vegetation, and low
intertidal areas supporting mangroves. The silver rice rat maintains large home ranges, about SO acres, and
occur at low densities. The rat feeds on seeds, plant parts, and animal foods such as arthropods. This small
mammal is restricted to the Lower Keys of Monroe County, Florida.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The silver rice rat is known to occur on eight keys, generally at low
population levels. These rats are found on Big Torch, Johnston, Middle Torch, Raccoon, Saddlebunch, little
Pine, Summerland, and Water Keys. Although no population numbers are available, surveys have provided
capture rates that have varied from a 0.48 percent trap-night capture rate to a 9.5 percent capture rate.
Much silver rice rat habitat has been lost because of commercial and residential development This species
has recently been extirpated from Cudjoe Key. It is believed that the species recently occurred on Big Pine
and Boca Chica Keys, where suitable habitat still exists but where biologists have been unable to trap rice
rats. Predation by raccoons, and competion with the black rat for food and living space may have
contributed to the disappearance of the silver rice rat from Cudjoe, Big Pine, and Boca Chica Keys. Further
habitat fragmentation, due to development, could reach a point where genetic variability is no longer
sufficient to assure long-term survival of the species.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: The silver rice rat could be exposed to pesticides that are used for the
control of rodents and mosquitos. Poison baits broadcast in or adjacent to the silver rice rat's habitat would
pose a threat to the species.
in-36
-------
Mammals
SOUTHEASTERN BEACH MOUSE (Peromyscus pottonotus mrnventris) T
SPECIES INFORMATION: Th£~South eastern beach mouse is one of six existing coastal subspecies of the
oldfield mouse (Peromyscus polionotus). The oldfield mouse is a wide-ranging species in the Southeast. The
Southeastern beach mouse is the largest beach mouse; it averages 139 millimeters in total length and 52
millimeters in tail length. Although it is darker and more buffy than the Anastasia Island beach mouse, it is
still lighter than most inland subspecies of the oldfield mouse. Breeding activities may be similar to those of
beach mice on the Gulf Coast. The breeding season for beach mice appears to start in November and end
in early January. The female, which may reach reproductive maturity at 6 weeks of age, produces two to
seven beach mice per litter. A female beach mouse can usually produce liters at 20-day intervals, but
mortality is high. Most of the progeny will not survive over 4 months.
Predictably, beach mice feed on sea oats and beach grasses. Hie sea oats must be blown to the ground for
the mice to eat. During the spring and early summer when seeds are scarce, beach mice may eat
invertebrates.
The Southeastern beach mouse inhabits sand dunes which are vegetated by sea oats and dune panic grass.
The scrub adjoining these dunes is populated by oaks and sand pine or palmetto. A study conducted on
Merrit Island indicated that the Southeastern beach mouse may prefer open sand habitat with clumps of
palmetto and sea grapes, or dense scrub habitat dominated by palmetto, sea grape, and wax myrtle; over
seaward habitat with sea oats. Little specific information exists about this species' burrowing habits, although
they are presumed to be similar to those of beach mice on the Gulf Coast. Sometimes beach mice use the
former burrows of ghost crabs, but usually they dig their own. Burrow entrances are generally found on the
sloping side of a dune at the base of a clump of grass. The burrows are used for nesting and food storage as
well as a refuge.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The Southeastern beach mouse is primarily threatened by beach and
residential development which has eliminated suitable habitat. Predators such as raccoons, skunks, snakes,
great-blue herons, dogs, and cats pursue the species. Competitors, such as house mice, are also threats. The
control of free-ranging housecats has been identified as important to the species' survival.
The historic range of the threatened Southeastern beach mouse was north Florida's Mosquito (Ponce) Inlet
in Volusia County to south Florida's Hollywood Beach in Broward County. Now, the Southeastern beach
mouse has apparently been eliminated from the southern section of its habitat at Jupiter Island, Palm Beach,
Lake Worth, Hillsboro Inlet, and Hollywood Beach. Beach mice also may be gone from the East Peninsula.
Humphrey (1987) sighted only a few small, fragmented populations between Sebastian Inlet to Hutchinson
Island. The healthiest populations appear to occur on public lands: Cape Canaveral National Seashore;
Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge; Cape Kennedy Air Force Station; the southern half of Sebestian
Inlet State Recreation Area, and Pepper Park. Most of the remaining habitat for the species is on public
land, and management efforts have centered around the control of house mice. Facilities for the public have
been located inland of the dune grassland. This includes campgrounds, park concessions, refuse dumpsters,
or anywhere else where house mice could survive.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: The Southeastern beach mouse may be affected by pesticides used to
control rodents such as house mice and black rats. Toxic baits placed in or adjacent to beach mouse habitat
would be a potential threat to the species.
m-37
-------
Mammals
STEPHEN'S KANGAROO RAT (Dipodomys stephensi) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Stephen's kangaroo rat is a small rodent about 40-80 grams, mean of
approximately 65 g (based on > 500 animals). The range is endemic to select portions of western Riverside
County, a part of northern San Diego County, and extreme southwestern San Bernardino County. Federal
land includes Camp Pendleton, Naval Weapons Station (Fallbrook Annex), March Air Force Base. The
habitat includes annual grasslands with low forb and sparse perennial cover (early successional habitat) due
to fire, agriculture, and/or grazing. The food of this species includes forbs, seeds, and insects. The
reproductive habits are multiple litters/year throughout the seasons. It is a desert-adapted species that does
not require free water for surviva].
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The exact number of this population are not known. The reasons for
decline include habitat loss and fragmentation due to urbanization and industrial development Occupied
and potential habitat are mostly all in private hands. The loss of many movement corridors between existing
populations is likely. Many instances of illegal "take" of animals and habitat have been documented by
Service biologists. The non-federal impacts of the species include an interim HCP in place.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: Species may invade open agricultural fields, and adjacent habitat is
also at risk to drift of herbicides and pesticides. This species is susceptible to rodenticides used for
Spermophihis control.
111-38
-------
Mammals
TIPTON KANGAROO RAT (Dipodomys nitratoides nitratoides),
FRESNO KANGAROO RAT (Dipodomys nitratoides exilis),
GIANT KANGAROO RAT (Dipodomys ingens)
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Upton kangaroo rat, Fresno kangaroo rat, and the Giant kangaroo rat, as
with other members of this rodent genus, are highly adapted for bipedal locomotion and survival in arid
environments. They typically are active at night.
They are all found in the San Joaquin Valley in central California. They all typically feed on seeds forbes
including red stem filaree, arabian grass, and pepper grass. They also forage on the parts of these plants
during the growing season. The San Joaquin Valley kangaroo rats produce one to two litters per year,
between January and June. Fresno and Upton kangaroo rats probably have an average of 2 young per litter.
The giant kangaroo rat has between 4-6 young per litter. These species are not long lived in the wild.
Williams estimated that the Tipton kangaroo rat only produce between one and two litters in its life time.
The Tipton kangaroo rat weighs about 37 grams. It does not exhibit hording behavior to the extent that
pant kangaroo rats do. This species forages year round and consumes about 3 to 4 grams per day. Their
home range is an estimated 0.4 - 0.8 acres (1-2 hectares).
The Fresno kangaroo rat weighs about 34 grams. It feeding habitats are similar to the Tipton kangaroo rat.
The home range is estimated to be about 2.5 to 5 acres.
The giant kangaroo rat is the heaviest of all kangaroo rats, with a weight of about 130 grams. They ingest
between 5 to 10 grams per day. They also forage, collecting and storing food in their burrow systems. They
later feed on this supply when food availability is low. The home range of the giant kangaroo rat is
estimated at 030 acres.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The Tipton kangaroo rat was historically limited to the Tulare Basin
portion of the San Joaquin Valley, extending from Lemoore and Hanford (Kings County) in the north;
southeast along State Route 99 from Tipton to Pixley (Tulare County), Delano, Bakersfield, and Arvin (Kern
County); westward to the southern, eastern, and north shores of the former Buena Vista Lake (Kern
County); and then northward along the Antelope Plain from Buttonwillow to Lost Hills (Kern County) to
Kettleman City (Kings County), north to Westhaven (Fresno County). The current distribution consists of
approximately 63,000 acres of alkaline sink habitats widely dispersed within areas of intensive agricultural
production.
The original geographic range of the Fresno kangaroo rat extended from north-central Merced central
Fresno Counties. Approximately 10,000 acres of alkali sink habitats favored by this subspecies are currently
extant, principally in scattered parcels varying in size from less than 100 to over 1,000 acres.
The original distribution of the giant kangaroo rat extended from southern Merced County, through the San
Joaquin Valley, to southwestern Kern County and northern Santa Barbara County. Preferred habitat is
native annual grassland with sparse vegetation, good drainage, fine loamy soils, and a slope of less than 10
percent. Significant populations survive in only a few areas within remaining habitat, including the Panoche
Hills, Cuyama Valley, and Carrizo and Elkhorn Plains. All three species have been adversely affected by the
conversion of their habitat to agricultural and urban use.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: These species could be adversely impacted due to the registered use
of vertebrate control agents and insecticides within or adjacent to occupied habitat of these kangaroo rats.
These kangaroo rats could be impacted through direct exposure (Le., dermal contact, inhalation of sprays or
mists, and ingestion of contaminated food items).
m-39
-------
Mammals
UTAH PRAIRIE DOG (Cynomys parvidens) - T
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Utah prairie dog is a burrowing rodent in the squirrel family. This species
is confined to disjunct areas in southwest Utah including Beaver, Garfield, Iron, Kane, Sevier, Washington,
and Wayne Counties. There is a positive correlation between available moisture and prairie dog abundance
and density. Prairie dogs appear to prefer swale type formations where moist herbage is available even
during drought periods. A well-drained area is necessary for home burrows. Prairie dogs must be able to
inhabit a burrow system approximately 33 feet underground without becoming wet. The vegetative height
within the colony must be low enough to allow standing prairie dogs to scan their environment for predators.
Prairie dogs are predominantly herbivores. Grasses are preferred food items during all seasons. The flowers
and seeds of forbs also are preferred. Although forbs other than alfalfa are not always highly preferred
items, they may be critical to a prairie dog town's survival during drought. Cicada insects are a preferred
animal food item and are readily taken when available. In colonies at low elevations where moist herbage is
available, breeding occurs in the early spring and lactation continues into June. Females are capable of
giving birth annually to litters that average three to four young usually born in April.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The Utah prairie dog population was estimated to be about 95,000 in
the 1920*5, declining to a 1976 spring count of 2,160 adult animals. Overall numbers have increased during
the period 1976-1989 with the 1989 spring count of 7,377. The summer of 1989 population was estimated at
approximately 33,700 animals In 1990, Utah prairie dog numbers on public lands (two-thirds of the total
population in 1989) declined 61 percent.
The decline of the Utah prairie dog was caused by human-related habitat alteration and by posioning, which
resulted from the belief that prairie dogs compete with domestic livestock for forage. At present, the Utah
prairie dog is still threatened by loss of habitat over much of its range. In addition, the damage caused by
local concentrations of prairie dogs has provoked fanners in some areas to kill them illegally to protect crops
and cropland.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: Registered species uses that may occur in the vicinity of Utah prairie
dog habitat include, but are not limited to, rangeland, pastures, noncrop land, rights-of-way, alfalfa, barley,
oats, clover, and control of prairie dogs, ground squirrels, pocket gophers, and other mammals. Pesticides
that are toxic to mammals would have an adverse impact to the Utah prairie dog.
m-40
-------
BIRDS
Birds
ATTWATER'S GREATER PRAIRIE-CHICKEN (Tympanuchus cupido attwateri) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: Attwater's greater prairie-chicken is a brown, hen-like bird, 17 to 18 inches (43
to 45.7 cm) in length. Its feathers are heavily barred, and it has a short, rounded, dark tail. The males have
orange neck sacs and black pinnae that are used in courtship. Prairie-chickens are mainly herbivorous,
preferring forbs and agricultural crop seeds, but they will also consume insects. Breeding takes place on flat,
broad areas with little cover, called lelcs or booming grounds. These can be natural or artificial. For
example, the prairie-chicken has been observed using runways and roads as breeding areas. The males
gather at the leks in the spring and attract the females by strutting and calling. Leks are used year after
year. Breeding starts in late February and continues until early May. Nests, usually a shallow depression
lined with dead leaves and grasses, are built near leks, in medium to tall grasses. Clutch size ranges from 5
to IS eggs. Pheasants often disrupt breeding activities and will occasionally lay their eggs in prairie-chicken
nests. Prairie-chickens prefer diversified coastal prairie grassland, where short, mid-size and tall grasses are
evident. These grasslands can be maintain^ by moderate cattle grazing and prescribed burning. Vegetation
preferred by the prairie-chicken includes tall dropseed (Sporobolus asper), little bluestem (Schizachyrium
scoparium), and ragweed (Ambrosia psUostachya). The historic range of the species once extended from the
Nueces River in Texas to Abbeyville, Louisiana. Today, however, the species is found in only a fraction of its
former range. Texas has two national wildlife refuges with Attwater's greater prairie-chicken management
areas-the Attwater's Prairie Chicken National Wildlife Refuge and the Tatton Unit of the Aransas National
Wildlife Refuge. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's "Counties of Occurrence" list includes Austin, Fort
Bend, Galveston, and Refugio Counties, Texas.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The greatest threat to this species is habitat loss. Maintenance of the
coastal prairie is essential to the survival of the prairie-chicken. The goal of the recovery plan is to maintain
viable, self-sustaining populations of Attwater's greater prairie-chickens to the point where the species may
be downlisted to threatened and then eventually delisted. The tentative delisting goal is the year 2000. To
accomplish the recovery objective, the plan advocates providing and protecting adequate habitat (19,000
additional hectares), protecting the species from predation and disruption (especially by pheasants and other
exotic game birds), and implementing public education programs.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: Because of the intensive agriculture surrounding this species habitat,
exposure and possible adverse impacts are anticipated by using many of the subject chemicals.
Ill-41
-------
Birds
AUDUBON'S CRESTED CARACARA (Potyborus plancus audubonii) - T
SPECIES INFORMATION: Audubon's crested caracara is about the size of an osprey, but with shorter
wings. It has a length of about 21 to 23 inches, and a wingspread of about 48 inches. The caracara has long,
yellow legs and a massive bluish bilL Sexes are similarly plumaged; younger birds are browner than adults.
The caracara is an opportunistic feeder, its diet includes both carrion and living prey. The living prey are
usually small turtles and turtle eggs. In addition to these items, caracaras prey on insects, fish, frogs, lizards,
snakes, birds, and small mammals. A pair will sometimes join forces to subdue a larger animal such as a
rabbit or egret
The crested caracara is a bird of open country. Dry prairies with wetter areas and scattered cabbage palm
comprise typical habitat Caracaras also occur in some improved pasture lands and even in lightly wooded
areas with more limited stretches of open grassland. Adult caracaras maintain large territories, usually with
their mates. Pair bonds are strong, persisting until one of the mates dies. As the breeding season
approaches, the pair begins to spend more time at the nest site. The nest site, a bulky structure of slender
vines and sticks, is usually located in a cabbage palm. The breeding peak is from January to March, with the
usual clutch being two or three eggs. Incubation lasts about 32 days, and the young leave the nest at about 8
weeks of age. The family group usually remains together for 2 to 3 months after the young fledge.
The region of greatest abundance for the Florida population is a five-county area north and west of Lake
Okeechobee. Caracaras occur in the following Florida counties: Glades, DeSoto, Highlands, Okeechobee,
and Osceola. Some of the birds might also occur in Charlotte, Hardee, and Polk Counties. Historically the
Florida population was more widespread. The Florida population of Audubon's crested caracara is
geographically isolated from other members of its subspecies. Other populations occur in northern Baja
California, southwestern Arizona, southern Texas south to Panama, and also in Cuba and the Isle of Pines.
The subspecies also occurs occasionally in southern New Mexico and southwestern Louisiana.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: At one time the crested caracara was a common resident in the prairie
region of central Florida. The birds were sighted from northern Brevard County in the north, south to Fort
Pierce, Lake Okeechobee, Rocky Lake (Hendry County), the Okaloosa Slough, and the Everglades (Collier
County). Smaller numbers have been reported from as far north as Nassau County, and from as far south as
the lower Florida Keys (Monroe County). At present the birds are rarely found north of Orlando or east of
the St. John's River. Data gathered from 1973 to 1978 show the existence of about 150 active territories (300
adults) and about 100 immatures, giving a total population in Florida of between 400 and 500 individuals.
Most caracaras occur on privately-owned lands in Florida. A few birds may wander east to Merritt Island,
Cape Canaveral, and Patrick Air Force Base, or north to Ocala National Forest, but these would be
transients. The only Federal land on which the bird might permanently reside is the Air Force's Avon Park
bombing range in Polk and Highlands County. However, bombing range personnel informed the U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service that although caracaras are occasionally seen in the area, none have nested there in
recent years. Without any significant areas of habitat under State or Federal protection, long-term survival
of the Florida population mil depend largely upon finding innovative means of preserving the extensive tracts
of prairie habitat in private ownership.
The primary cause for the decline of the crested caracara has been habitat loss. Real estate development,
citrus groves, tree plantations, improved pastures, and other agricultural uses are all vying for the same
habitat. Less significant factors may include: illegal killing and trapping; increased numbers of road kills due
to a rising volume of traffic; slow recovery from population losses because of the caracara's low reproductive
rate; and possible loss of genetic variability (due to the relatively small population), thus making the caracara
more vulnerable to stresses than would otherwise be the case. The scarcity of the birds, combined with their
scattered territories, makes it difficult to detect changes in numbers.
111-42
-------
Birds
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: Exposure of the caracara to pesticides, rodenticides or other
agricultural use chemicals would occur primarily through ingestion of contaminated prey or carrion.
Pesticides, avicides, and rodenticides that have potential for being lethal to birds would pose a threat to the
caracara if the bird were to be exposed to the toxic agent
IIM3
-------
Birds
CALIFORNIA CONDOR (Gymnogyps califomiarms) E
SPECIES INFORMATION: This large, formerly widespread vulture has an historic range that includes the
California Coastal Ranges, Central Transverse Range, Southern Sierra Nevada mountains, to Arizona, New
Mexico, and Texas. California condor habitat includes rocky cliffs and trees for roosting, open grasslands
and oak woodlands for foraging. Reproduction occurs at 6 years of age, with a low reproductive rate. A
nesting pair only raises one chick/year and 6 months is required for young to fledge.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: Only 52 birds remain including 50 in captivity at the San Diego and Los
Angeles Zoos, and 2 released into wild. Decline of the species has occurred as a result of shooting, lead
poisoning, secondary poisoning from coyote control, loss of foraging areas due to suburbanization, and
agricultural development. Limited release of captive birds was initiated in October 1991 by the Service.
Along with successful captive breeding, the number of birds may increase in the wild.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: This species could be adversely affected due to the applications of
avicides and secondary poisoning is possible from carrion killed by rodenticides that have persistent effects.
111-44
-------
Birds
HAWAIIAN COOT (Fulica americana akd) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Hawaiian coot is a subspecies of the common American coot but is smaller
and has a white frontal shield distinctly larger than the mainland form. This waterbird occurred historically
on all the major Hawaiian islands except Lanai and Kahoolawe. Currently, it is most numerous on Oahu,
Maui and Kauai It's habitat includes thickly vegetated marshland with associated open water. The coot
feeds on seeds or invertebrates near the surface of the water or by diving or foraging in mud or sand They
nest on scattered open fresh and brackish water ponds or reservoirs, on irrigation ditches, and on small
openings of marsh vegetation. Nesting occurs mostly from March through September, although some nesting
apparently occurs during all months of the year.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The loss of wetland habitat is the primary cause of the decline of the
Hawaiian coot. Other threats include the encroachment of introduced plants, the introduction of exotic
mammalian predators, and sudden or major changes in water levels. Further expansion of housing and other
urban development in and around wetland areas mil continue to threaten the survival of the Hawaiian coot.
Annual statewide censuses from 1968 through January 1983 averaged 996 individuals for all habitats surveyed.
Populations increased in the late 1970"s with population counts ranging between 422 and 2330 birds.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: Pesticide runoff into streams and ponds in the Hawaiian Coot habitat
is a threat to the coot's survival. This species could also be adversely impacted from vertebrate control
agents when applied in the form of granules, pellets, or grain baits; or from the applications of aviades.
m-45
-------
Birds
HAWAIIAN CROW (Corvus hawtmensis) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Hawaiian crow is a large black-brown passerine. It ranges exclusively on
the island of Hawaii Historically, the crow occurred in lower forests and parklands. Currently, it easts in a
single population along the coastal slope of Mauna Loa. It's habitat includes parkland forests consisting
primarily of ohia and koa with an understory or mixture of native trees and shrubs. The crow feeds on the
fruits of trees and shrubs, mice, small lizards, nestlings of small passerine birds and nectar from flowers.
Breeding pairs nest usually in the same tree or vicinity in succeeding years. The crow's breeding season
starts from March and extends into July.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: One cause of the crow's decline is the destruction of it's habitat. This
includes the clearing of forest areas, browsing and grazing by cattle, horses, goats, and sheep. Other threats
include avian diseases and parasites, introduced rats, mongoose, feral cats and dogs, and hunting.
The total estimated population of the Hawaiian Crow in 1990 is approximately 12 birds in the wild and 10
held in captivity. The crow is critically endangered. Unless recovery action can be effectively implemented,
the species may soon become extinct.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: Pesticides sprayed in pasture land could threaten the Hawaiian Crow.
This species could also be adversely impacted from some vertebrate control agents when applied in the form
of granules, pellets, or grain baits; or from the applications of avicides. The crow is also susceptible to
secondary poisoning from eating contaminated prey items.
111-46
-------
Birds
HAWAIIAN DUCK (Anas wyvWana) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Hawaiian duck is a close relative of the mallard. The Duck is historically
found on all the main Hawaiian Islands except 1-anai and Kahoolawe. It is currently found on Kauai, Oahu,
and the Island of Hawaii It's habitat includes freshwater marshlands, flooded grasslands, coastal ponds,
streams, mountain pools, mountain bogs, and forest swamplands. The duck feeds on various types of snails,
dragonfly larvae, earthworms, grass seeds, rice, green algae, and seeds and leaf parts of other wetland plants.
The duck nests on the ground near water. Breeding occurs year-round with a peak from December to May.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The primary causes of the decline of the Hawaiian Duck include loss of
wetland habitat due to change in agricultural practices, predators, and hunting. In addition, genetic
'pollution" by feral Mallards is swamping the gene pool of the Hawaiian Ducks. The last estimated
population of the ducks on Kauai is 3,000 in the mid-do's. There was an estimated 53 birds on Oahu in 1983.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: Pesticide runoff into streams and ponds threaten the Hawaiian Duck.
This species could also be adversely impacted from some vertebrate control agents or insecticides when
applied in the form of granules, pellets, or grain baits; or from the applications of avicides.
HI-47
-------
Birds
HAWAIIAN HAWK (Buteo soStarius) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Hawaiian hawk is a small, broad-winged buteo endemic to the Hawaiian
Islands. Currently, the hawk is widely distributed on the island of Hawaii and is known to breed only there.
There were also rare historical observations on the islands of Kauai, Oahu, and Maui. The hawk is found in
both open or parkland forests and dense rain forests. They are also frequently seen in agricultural areas,
such as papaya and macadamia nut orchards, and adjacent to sugarcane fields. Hawks nest in a wide variety
of habitats, ranging from lowland agricultural areas and exotic forests to upper elevation pasturelands and
native rain forests. Nesting occurs from March through September. The hawks diet primarily consists of
rats, mice, and a wide assortment of both native and introduced bird species.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The primary cause of the hawk's decline is the harassment of nesting
birds and shooting. Harassment of breeding birds can result in nest abandonment. Disturbance of nests can
also cause young to leave the nest prior to normal fledging. Habitat destruction is also a major threat to the
hawks. Hawaii's forests have been drastically reduced as the result of cutting for firewood, timber, croplands,
and pasture. In 1984, the total hawk population was estimated to be between 1,400 and 2^00 on the island
of Hawaii
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: There may be secondary poisoning by feeding on rats, mongoose,
birds, or other prey that has been targeted for poisoning. This species could also be adversely impacted from
the applications of avicides.
Ill-48
-------
Birds
MARIANA CROW (Corvus kubaryi) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Mariana crow is the only corvid in Micronesia and is the only native Guam
forest bird with populations still existing in the wild. It is a small, black crow that was formerly common on
Guam and Rota, where it was confined to forested areas and coconut plantations. Presently, crows on Guam
are found in forest areas from Ritidian Point to Anao along the northern cliffline, in Northwest Field, and in
the Convention Weapons Storage Areas. They are no longer found in south and central Guam, but are still
fairly common on Rota. The crow is generally restricted to mature, native forest and is absent from areas of
human habitation. It is an omnivorous, opportunistic feeder that is known to feed on insects, lizards, hermit
crabs, fruits, seeds, flowers, and, according to Jenkins (1983), occasionally foliage and bark. The crow
forages on the ground as well as in the forest canopy and may also feed on other birds' eggs. Little is known
about the crow's reproductive biology, but it apparently nests year-round with clutch sizes ranging between
one and two eggs.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The primary cause of the decline of the Mariana crow is predation by
the introduced brown tree snake on Guam. Other possible causes of its decline are habitat degradation due
to increasing development on both Guam and Rota, typhoons, competition from introduced avian species,
pesticides, hunting and avian disease. The last sightings of the crow in the south of Guam occurred in the
mid-1960's, and they have been absent from central Guam since the mid-1970's. A USFWS survey in 1981
estimated a population of 357 crows, distributed primarily over the northern cliffline forests. In 198S, it was
estimated that there were less than 100 crows left on Guam. The total population on Rota, where there is
no predation by the brown tree snake, was estimated to be 1^18 birds in 1982.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: Pesticides have been used extensively in the past for agriculture and
vector control on Guam. Following World War II and up until 1970, DDT and other insecticides were
applied as often as once a week by the military. Pesticides sprayed in pasture land could threaten the
Mariana Crow. This species could also be adversely impacted from some vertebrate control agents when
applied in the form of granules, pellets, or grain baits; or from the applications of avicides. The crow is also
susceptible to secondary poisoning from eating contaminated prey items.
Ill-49
-------
Birds
MISSISSIPPI SANDHILL CRANE (Grus canadensis puBa) E
SPECIES INFORMATION: Mississippi sandhill cranes resemble great blue herons (Ardea herodias). A
major distinguishing characteristic is that cranes are completely gray. Great blue herons usually have white
on their heads and dark colored underparts. When standing erect, cranes are about 4 feet tall. Male and
female cranes are similar in appearance. All cranes have long necks, and adult cranes possess a bald red
forehead. The species vocalizations are loud and clattering Cranes are also unique in that they require
separate nesting, foraging, and roosting habitats.
Most Mississippi sandhill cranes survive on the Mississippi Sandhill Crane National Wildlife Refuge in
Jackson County, Mississippi This bird's present range ^restricted to the Pascagoula River (east), to the
Jackson County line (west), to about Simmons Bayou (south), to 4 miles north of the town of Vandeave
(north). Savannas are the preferred habitat of the Mississippi sandhill Crane and are inhabited year round.
These wet grasslands are predominated by wiregrass (Aristida spp.) with scattered longleaf pine (Pinus
pahistris), slash pine (P. elliottii), and cypress (Taxodium ascendens) trees. Other associated plants include
pitcher plants (Sa/racenia spp.), sundew (Drosera spp), clubmoss (Lycopodium alopecuroides), and pipeworts
(Eriocaulon spp.). Cranes also utilize wooded depressions (swamps or ponds) dominated by cypress,
longleaf, and slash pine trees with an understory of swamp cyrilla (Cyrilla racemiflora), buckwheat tree
(Cliftonia monophylla), wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera), and several species of holly (Ilex spp.).
Crane feeding habits vary with the seasons. In the summer, the birds feed upon the natural foods found in
swamps, savannas, and open forests. These include adult and larval insects, earthworms, crayfish, small
reptiles, frogs and other amphibians, and possibly small birds and mammals. Cranes also consume roots,
tubers, nuts, seeds, fruits, and leaves. During the other three seasons, the birds eat small corn and chufa, an
introduced plant. In the early fall, cranes usually feed on corn until the kernels become scarce. Chufa is
used year round. Pecans are often eaten from September through December.
Although some nesting occurs in forested areas, most takes place in open savannas and swamp openings.
These areas vary from dry to being covered in shallow water. Nests are constructed on the ground of
vegetation gathered in the immediate vicinity. Paired cranes select a breeding territory for courtship, mating,
and nesting, and may defend it from other cranes. Territory size probably depends on the quality and type
of the habitat, the age of the paired cranes, and the population density of other cranes. Only one pair of
birds has been observed to nest during a season in each open savanna; but, where clearings are separated by
forested areas, cranes have nested within one-half mile of each other. Nesting territories are generally used
for more than 1 year, some for 10 to 17 years. Cranes also tend to reuse nests for up to 3 consecutive years.
When new nests are constructed, they are often located close to the previous nests.
The age of sexual maturity for the Mississippi ftanriHill is thought to be 3 or 4 years of age. Females become
active a year or so later than males. Data is available showing that Mississippi sandhill cranes first lay eggs
between the ages of 3 to 6 years. Frequently, these cranes will raise only one chick a year. Hatching begins
in April, peaks during the first 3 weeks of May, and ends by mid-August. An August hatching may be the
result of renesting. Data through 1988 indicates that 73 of a total 142 wild eggs have hatched or 51 percent
However, since 1982, hatching success has apparently declined. Information was compiled for 70 eggs that
failed to hatch. Most of the eggs, a total of 43, failed because of infertility or other unknown causes. Only
11 subadult Mississippi sandhill cranes have been spotted during the winter since 1980. This supports the
theory that the species productivity has been low.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: With population estimates of less than 100 birds since 1929, the
Mississippi Sandhill Crane's status has always been precarious. During the 1950*5 thousands of acres of the
crane's favored savanna habitat were drained and converted to slash pine plantations. Dense understories
developed underneath the mature pine trees, and the once open, undisturbed habitat became unsuitable for
cranes. Commercial and residential development also progressed, and the human population increased.
Ill-50
-------
Birds
Eight paved highways now transect or border the crane's range. These roads have further depleted habitat,
caused pollution problems, and eased public access to the cranes. Sporadic crane shootings were reported in
the 1960's and 1970's. In addition, roadsides are usually sprayed with herbicides or other pollutants. Until
recently, fire ants were eliminated with Mirex. A dead crane was discovered in 1974 with Mir ex residues in
the breast muscle and brain.
Eighteen of the cranes necropsied by the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center since 1981 have had tumors.
Suspected causes have been infectious viruses or parasites, naturally occurring toxins, and genetic
predisposition. The crane's susceptibility to tumors may have resulted from a decrease in genetic variability.
Low genetic variability may also be responsible for a decrease in hatching success, and for deformities in the
captive population. Natural causes, such as flash floods, hurricanes, and droughts, have also caused some
deaths.
Most of the current crane population and its habitat is protected on the 19,273-acre Mississippi Sandhill
Crane National Wildlife Refuge. The Grand Bay National Wildlife Refuge has been acquired southeast of
the original refuge, and a second population of cranes may be introduced there if more land can be obtained.
A captive population was established at the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center in Laurel, Maryland.
Developed with wild Mississippi sandhill crane eggs, the captive population numbered 32 adults in 1989.
Captive releases to the Mississippi Sandhill Crane Refuge began in 1981, and by 1983 there were 13 free-
flying captive-raised cranes on the refuge. A total of 96 captive-raised cranes had been released by 1989, and
53 of these had survived. By 1990, eight captive-raised cranes had attempted to nest.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: Any pesticide, including rodenticides, that are known to be toxic to
birds would be a serious threat to the Mississippi sandhill crane if applied when the cranes forage off Refuge
land in adjacent crop fields (e.g. corn, grains, pasture, pecans).
m-51
-------
NENE (HAWAIIAN GOOSE) (Nesochen sandvicensis) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Nene (Hawaiian goose) is a medium-sized goose historically found on the
islands of Hawaii and Kauai. It is currently found on the islands of Hawaii, Maui, and Kauai. It's habitat
includes rugged lava flows in vast areas of upland scrub growth during nesting season and pasture land
during their non-breeding season. The Hawaiian goose feeds primarily on green vegetation and small
berries. Nesting often occurs on an island of vegetation surrounded by lava during the period of October
through February. The same nest site is usually occupied in successive years.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The primary causes of the Nene's decline are hunting and disturbance by
humans, introduced predators, competition from introduced birds, effects of introduced plants on their
habitat, modification of habitat, and low productivity of existing birds. Current estimated population include
300 birds on Hawaii and 100-150 birds on Maui. The populations appear stable. They may possibly increase
if the Nene become reestablished in lowland pasture.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: Pesticide sprayed in areas where the Nene feed or nest, such as golf
courses, pastures, and ranchland, mil threaten the Hawaiian goose. This species could also be adversely
impacted from some vertebrate control agents or insecticides when applied in the form of granules, pellets,
or grain baits; or from the applications of aviades.
m-52
-------
Birds
PUERTO RICAN PLAIN PIGEON (Cohanba inomata wetmore) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Puerto Rican plain pigeon is a large pigeon about the size and shape of a
domestic pigeon. At a distance the species appears pale blue-gray. The head, hindneck, breast, and the top
central part of the folded wing are washed with vinaceous. The wing coverts are margined with white. Legs
and feet are dark red. A variety of fruits and seeds, and livestock feed provide nourishment for this species.
Approximately 70 percent of the foods come from tree branches, and 30 percent from the ground. Principal
foods at Cidra are royal palm, mountain immortelle, West Indies trema and white prickle. Water is usually
taken from the axils of bromeliads or from water-retaining blossoms of the African tulip-tree.
General habitat types used in the past include lowland swamps and woodland, open woodland and cultivated
land in the mountains, limestone karst, and coffee plantations in upland hills. The presently occupied habitat
is located in the lower montane rainforest zone. Breeding occurs throughout the year but peaks in late
winter and spring. Some nests are flimsy platforms of twigs, occasionally placed on unused rat nests or on
an accumulation of litter in a crotch or tangle of vines. More typically, nests are built on a bare forking tree
branch or near the top of a bamboo stalk. The plain pigeon lays only one egg, but a female has been
observed to produce three broods in a year. The minimum observed incubation period is 14 days. The
mean fledging period at eight nests was 23 days. Chicks are dependent on the adults for several days after
fledging. Because of the very close nest attendance typical of the species, it suffers few losses of eggs and
young to predators. Apparently, flocking can occur at any time food is locally abundant. Adult pigeons
congregate in small flocks for feeding and drinking during the breeding season. Larger aggregations
regularly form for roosting and feeding in the fall.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: At present, there are a minimum of 204 individuals in the wild and 124
pigeons in captivity. A captive flock was established at the University of Puerto Rico's Humacao Campus in
1987. The plain pigeon historically was widespread in the western foothills and valleys of Puerto Rico. Old
records exist from Utuado, Lares, Anasco, Morovis (cave deposits), and Ponce (cave deposits). A pair was
observed at Anasco in 1926, and then no further sightings were officially reported until 1963, when some of
the birds were seen near the town of Cidra in east central Puerto Rico. Surveys conducted since 1973
indicate that the only existing population occurs near Cidra, and ranges into the surrounding municipalities,
particularly Cayey. A few of the birds have also been recently reported at Gurabo and Utuado. The area
surrounding Cidra and Cayey was densely wooded until 1910, when it was cleared for lumber and farmland.
Practically all of the open land is now in some form of agriculture.
Extensive destruction of natural forest habitat and overhunting are postulated as causes for the decline.
Today, habitat loss due to the rapid development of the Cidra area is the most serious threat to the species'
existence. Disturbance is a concomitant problem. The majority of nest failures observed during
investigations between December 1973 and September 1975 were the result of human-caused disturbances.
Severe storms and hurricanes are considered a potential threat in that they could destroy essential habitat
and kill the birds. Some pigeons are still being shot despite a Commonwealth Regulation (1967) dosing
Cidra to hunting. Establishment of new populations apparently has been limited by the bird's reluctance to
colonize new areas.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: The Puerto Rican plain pigeon is known to frequent agricultural
fields and plantations. The bird may be exposed to pesticides applied to crops (e.g., various vegetables,
coffee, bananas, sugarcane), livestock, and also for mosquito control. Rodentiades and avicides may also
affect the pigeon when these tone agents are used in agricultural areas frequented by the birds.
IH-53
-------
Birds
SAN CLEMENTE LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE (Lanius Judaviaanus meanrn) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The San clemente loggerhead shrike is a subspecies of the widespread
loggerhead shrike. This subspecies is endemic to San Clemente Island, California. Most pairs are in the
southwestern canyons on the island, habitat: contiguous stands of shrubs and trees required for nesting,
forages over wider open areas, food habits: various insects, side-blotched lizards, small birds; reproductive
habits: breeding season starts in January, clutches were completed through May. other pertinent info: see
Scott, TA. and Ml. Morrison. 1990. Natural History and Management of the San Clemente Loggerhead
Shrike. Proc. of the West. Found, of Vert. ZooL, 4(2):l-57. The California Channel Islands Species
Recovery Plan was written in 1984.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The current population: one of the most endangered vertebrate species
in North America, thought to be down to about four pairs in 1990; the race is on the brink of extinction.
The reasons for decline are loss of nesting habitat due to the introduction of feral goats. Also, predation by
ravens, domestic cats, and island foxes resulting in a high fledgling mortality. The anticipated trends: will
probably require removal of eggs and/or young to facilitate double clutching. Captive breeding may be
necessary to better insure long-term survival of this subspecies.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: Pesticides sprayed within occupied habitat could threaten this species.
The San Gemente loggerhead shrike species could be adversely impacted from the applications of avicides,
and is also susceptible to secondary poisoning from eating contaminated prey items.
ffl-54
-------
Birds
SAN CLEMENTE SAGE SPARROW (Amphispiza belli clementeae) ¦ T
SPECIES INFORMATION: The San Oemente sage sparrow is a small gray bird with black streaks on the
sides and a single black spot on the chest, dark cheeks, moustache streaks on sides of the throat, a white line
over the eye, and white corners to the tail. This sparrow is a nonmigratory subspecies of the more
widespread sage sparrow. This subspecies is endemic to San Clemente Island, California. The sparrow
apparently occupies four discontinuous areas of a maritime desert scrub community that is primarily
composed of cactus and Lycium sp. The subspecies is primarily a ground dweller and rarely occurs at an
elevation of more than 30 to 40 meters above sea level. The sparrow feeds predominantly on the ground and
uses the shrub canopy for feeding, protection, roosting, song perches, and nesting. Nests are generally
constructed about four decimeters above the ground in dense foliage.
The San Clemente sage sparrow begins the reproductive cycle in late January or early February with singing,
courtship, and territorial confrontation. Breeding behavior intensifies until actual nesting is initiated, which
extends from approximately mid-March through at least mid-June. Male maintain moderate-sized (-0.65
hectare) territories. Nests are normally located in low dense shrubs 76-127 centimeters above the ground.
Nests of this insular subspecies usually contains 1-3 eggs. While the incubation period is unknown, it is
believed to be similar to the 13-14 days of mainland sage sparrows.
Postbreeding adults and juveniles congregate to form foraging flocks containing as little as 3-4 individuals,
but as many as 20-25 individuals. San Clemente sage sparrows are primarily ground and stem gleaners that
feed on fruits of cactus (Opuntia and Bergerocactus), Atriplex semibaccata seeds, grass inflorescences, insects,
and possibly spiders.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The San Clemente sage sparrow was apparently more abundant
formerly and has since experienced a population decline. Currently the population appears to be stable or
slightly increasing at 250-400 individuals (possibly as high as 500 individuals). Suggested reasons for the
decline in the population of this subspecies include: 1) a reduced food supply, 2) habitat destruction due to
exotic, feral goats and pigs, or human activity, 3) inter-specific competition, 3) predation of nests and young
by feral cats, island fox, American kestrels, red-tailed hawks, northern harriers, and barn owls, and 4) nest
parasitism from brown-headed cowbirds which have been observed on the island as recently as 1980.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: Pesticides sprayed within occupied habitat could threaten this species.
The San Clemente sage sparrow could be adversely impacted from the applications of avicides, or vertebrate
control agents that are applied in the form of granules, pellets, or treated baits.
IH-55
-------
Birds
WHOOPING CRANE (Grus ameriama) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Whooping crane is the tallest North American bird approaching five feet
tall when standing erect There are two populations of these species including the wild population which
nests in Wood Buffalo National Park, Canada, and migrates through the Plain States from northeast
Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Oklahoma to its winter grounds in and
adjacent to Aransas National Wildlife Refuge on die Texas coast. A second flock have been cross-fostered
with sandhill cranes at Gray's Lake National Wildlife Refuge in Idaho and migrate with their foster parents
to Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge in central New Mexico. These whooping cranes feed and/or
loaf in grain fields during migration through Idaho, Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico.
Whooping cranes are territorial birds that require undisturbed wetlands with open sand and gravel bars for
nightly roosting. Critical habitat has been designated in seven national midlife refuges including Monte Vista
and Alamosa in Colorado, Gray's Lake in Idaho, Quivira in Kansas, Bosque del Apache in New Mexico, Salt
Plains in Oklahoma, and Aransas, Texas. Cheyenne Bottoms State Waterfowl Management Area in Kansas
also has been designated as critical habitat. In the winter, most foraging occurs in brackish bays, marshes,
and salt flats lying between the mainland and barrier islands. Occasionally, whooping cranes mil fly to
upland sites when attracted by foods such as acorns, snails, crayfish, and insects, and then return to the
marshes to roost. A portion of the whooping crane flock uses upland sites frequently in most years but
agricultural croplands adjacent to Aransas National Wildlife Refuge are very rarely visited. Foods utilized
during migration include frogs, fish, plant tubers, crayfish, insects, and waste grains in harvested fields.
Whooping cranes mate for life, and breeding starts at age 4 to 6. Nests are built of soft grass on a mound of
reeds or sod. Two eggs are laid, incubation lasts 30 days, and the young are precocial.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The wild whooping crane populations consist of 146 birds in the
Aransas-Wood Buffalo flock and 13 birds in the Rocky Mountain flock. Nine whooping cranes have
disappeared from Aransas National Wildlife Refuge during the winter of 1990-91. Man appears to have been
directly or indirectly responsible for the decline of the species. Most of the losses of whooping cranes (about
66 percent) occurred during migration as a result of hunting, especially between the 1880's and 1920's. Since
that time, most of the losses have been a result of habitat modification and human disturbance. For
example, between 19S6 and 1986, collisions with powerlines are known to have accounted for the death or
serious injury of at least IS whooping cranes. Most of the deaths of the Gray's Lake flock have been the
result of collisions with powerlines or fences. The Gray's Lake is steadily declining from a maximum
population of 30 birds in 1987 to the present population of 13 birds. Until the loss of the nine birds this
winter, the Aransas-Wood Buffalo flock had been slowing increasing and we would except this to continue.
Non-Federal actions that also may impact this species are unknown.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: There are numerous pesticide uses that may occur in the vicinity of
whooping crane habitat including, but not limited to, rangeland, pastures, mosquito control, noncrop land,
rights-of-way, cotton, wheat, sorghum, soybeans, oats, barley, rye, and alfalfa. These pesticide uses could
impact the whooping crane in several ways. Whooping cranes may ingest insects or other food items
contaminated with pesticides and pesticide runoff and direct application through spray drift or by accident
could reduce the food population of the crane. Cranes could be expected to forage in fields increasing their
risk of exposure. Drinking water sources also could be expected to be contaminated either through direct
application, runoff, or drift Additional impacts could be expected with cranes preening themselves and
receiving oral doses of a pesticide.
m-56
-------
Birds
YELLOW-SHOULDERED BLACKBIRD (Agekrius xanthomas) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: In size the Yellow-shouldered blackbird is slightly smaller than the red-winged
blackbird. Adults and juveniles of both sexes have all black plumage with yellow epaulettes. Juveniles can
be distinguished from adults by black speckling over the edges of the epaulettes. Adult males are
significantly larger, about 17 percent by weight, than the females.
The yellow-shouldered blackbird is endemic to Puerto Rico and nearby Mona Island. While once
widespread throughout Puerto Rico, the species is now limited to three areas: the coastal southwestern area;
a small coastal eastern area; and Mona Island. Estimated populations in 1976 were 200 in eastern Puerto
Rico; 2,000 in southwestern Puerto Rico; and 200 on Mona Island. A 1976 estimate that the population in
the Southwest was declining at a rate of approximately 20 percent per year. More recent estimates (1989
and 1990) indicate that there are approximately 350 individuals in the southwest, less than 25 in eastern
Puerto Rico, and from 400 to 500 in Mona Island There is some evidence that the yellow-shouldered
blackbird once occurred throughout Puerto Rico, although more commonly in the coastal zone. Studies of
southwestern Puerto Rico, the population center for the species, indicated that during the nesting season
(May to September) most of the birds stay either in the mangrove zone or the arid coastal fringe. Nesting
occurs in mangroves along the coast and on small off-shore islands. Other nesting habitat includes large
deciduous trees, primarily oxhorn bucida (Bucida buceras) in dry lowland pastures; coconut trees (Cocos
nucifera); royal palms (Roystonea borinquena); and on Mona, the sheer coastal cliffs which surround the
island.
Although this species is omniverous, it can be basically characterized as an arboreal insectivore. During the
nesting season the young's diet is about 90 percent arthropod material. At bird feeders and around domestic
animals, this blackbird has been observed to take cattle ration, dog food, monkey chow, nectar, fruit, cooked
rice, and granulated sugar. The nesting season in southwestern Puerto Rico is April to October. Open, cup-
shaped nests typical of the genus are usually constructed in trees. Blackbirds at the eastern end of Puerto
Rico also use cavities or hollows in dead mangroves, and those on Mona Island place their nests on the
ledges or in crevices of the sheer coastal cliffs. Nesting pairs often aggregate, and in several cases, nests
have been located in the same tree as close together as 3.5 meters. All incubation and breeding is handled
by the female, with the pur sharing equally with feeding the young. Usually only one nesting is attempted
per year. The females are known to reach breeding age during their first year, but there are no data
available for males.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: One of the principal reasons for the decline is attributed to parasitism
by the shiny cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis), which lays its eggs in the blackbird's nest and sometimes
punctures the host's eggs. The shiny cowbird is an exotic species that managed to reach Puerto Rico in
about 1955 from other antillean islands to the southeast. A 1975 survey of mainland blackbird nests showed
73.7 percent were parasitized by the cowbird. Comparisons between parasitized and unparasitized nests
revealed that only 25 percent of the former produced young, whereas 50 percent of the unparasitized nests
were productive. Three introduced pest species, the black rat (Rattus rattus); Norway rat (Rattus norvegicus);
and the mongoose (Herpestes javanicus) have contributed to the decline by preying on the blackbird's nest.
Habitat modification and destruction played an important role in the decline, eliminating both foraging and
nesting areas. Fowl pox infects about 19 percent of the adult population and may also be contributing to the
decrease. Today, an important factor is the threatened loss of habitat, especially the coastal and offshore
island mangroves where about 86 percent of the nesting now occurs.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: The yellow-shouldered blackbird would be exposed to agricultural
pesticides used on sugarcane, pineapple, coffee, various vegetables, citrus and livestock. Rodenticides,
aviades, and mosquito control applications may also affect the species when used in agricultural areas
frequented by the birds.
111-57
-------
Reptiles
REPTILES
BLUNT-NOSED LEOPARD LIZARD (Gambelia silus)
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Blunt-nosed leopard lizard is a large, robust, iguanid lizard that may
exceed 15 inches in length. The species often conspicuously basks along the edges of secondary dirt roads,
open alkaline soil areas, cm* embankments. The blunt-nosed leopard lizard typically is active when air
temperatures are between 77 and 95* F, generally between the months of April through September, although
hatchling activity can extend into October. Both adults and hatchlings remain underground in rodent
burrows during the winter months. Their diet includes hymenoptera, orthopterans, cicadas, and larval
lepidopterans.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The blunt-nosed leopard lizard was historically distributed throughout
the San Joaquin Valley and adjacent interior foothills and plains, extending from central Stanislaus County
south to extreme northeastern Santa Barbara County. Preferred habitat consists of open grassland, saltbush
shrubland, and alkaline sink communities. The area occupied by this species has been significantly reduced
and fragmented by agricultural, urban, and other man-induced actions.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: This species could be adversely impacted from burrow fumigants that
are targeted for rodents and applied in the same burrows as those occupied by the lizards.
Ill-58
-------
Reptiles
COACHELLA VALLEY FRINGE-TOED LIZARD (Uma inomata) - T
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Coachella Valley fringe-toed lizard is a medium-sized lizard approximately
150-240 millimeters in total length. The species is restricted to remaining windblown sand deposits in the
Coachella Valley from near Cabazon to near Thermal In 1979, perhaps only 99 square miles of habitat
remained. This species habitat is sand dunes with scattered creosote, mesquite, and desert willows and it
feeds on plants and insects. It is known to use rodent burrows or construct its own burrows.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The exact number of the current population is not known. The reasons
for decline includes urbanization leading to habitat loss and fragmentation, agricultural development,
windbreak construction (holds back sand), flood control, and golf course development. Anticipated trends
include continued habitat loss. Non-federal impacts to the species include habitat loss.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: This species could be adversely impacted from burrow fumigants that
are targeted for rodents and applied in the same burrows as those occupied by the lizards. The lizard is also
susceptible to poisoning or sublethal effects from eating vegetation contaminated with insecticides or
herbicides applied within occupied habitat.
m-59
-------
Reptiles
DESERT TORTOISE (Gopherus agassizu) - T
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Desert tortoise is a large terrestrial turtle which has ranged historically
over most of the southern California deserts, into Arizona and the southern part of Utah. By 1980 it was
eliminated from the Coachella and Imperial Valleys of California. In its desert habitat it feeds on cactus,
annual forbs, grasses, and flowers. Ten to 20 years is required to reach breeding age, rate of reproduction is
low, young are soft-shelled and heavily preyed upon, especially by ravens. The species forages from March
to June, estivates during the summer in burrows, may emerge in fall, and hibernates from October to March
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The exact number of the species is unknown. Reasons for the species'
continued decline includes urbanization, off-road vehicle use, mining, energy development, upper respiratory
disease (URDS) that has resulted in an estimated 50% of present mortality, loss as pets, vandalism, and the
population explosion of ravens resulting in increased predation on the tortoise.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: This species could be adversely impacted from burrow fumigants that
are targeted for rodents and applied in the same burrows a& those occupied by tortoises. Tortoises are also
susceptible to poisoning or sublethal effects from eating vegetation contaminated with insecticides or
herbicides applied within occupied habitat. They are also at some risk from dermal exposure to certain
insecticides.
ffl-60
-------
Reptiles
EASTERN INDIGO SNAKE (Drymarchon corais couperi) - T
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Eastern indigo snake is a large, docile, non-poisonous snake growing to a
maximum length of about 8 feet The color in birth young and adults is shiny bluish-black, including the
belly, with some red or cream coloring about the chin and sides of the head. Indigo snakes probably reach
sexual maturity at 3 to 4 years of age. Based on observations of captive indigos at Auburn University, mating
begins in November, peaks in December, and continues into March. Clutches averaging eight to eggs
laid in late spring hatch approximately 3 months later. The snakes remain active to some degree throughout
the winter, often emerging from their dens whenever air temperatures exceed 50 degrees Fahrenheit.
This species is currently known to occur throughout Florida and in the coastal plain of Georgia. Historically,
the range also included southern Alabama, southern Mississippi, and the extreme southeastern portion of
South Carolina. The indigo snake seems to be strongly associated with high, dry, well-drained sandy soils,
closely paralleling the sandhill habitat preferred, by the gopher tortoise. During warmer months, indigos, also
frequent streams and swamps, and individuals are occasionally found in flat woods. Gopher tortoise burrows
and other subterranean cavities are commonly used as dens and for egg laying. The home range of indigos
varies considerably according to season. Based on a study conducted in southwest Georgia, an average
seasonal range of 4.8 hectares during the winteT (December through April), 42.9 hectares during late spring
or early summer (May through July), and 97.4 hectares during late summer and fall (August through
November). The most extensive monthly movements occurred during August. Of a total of 108 den sites
located, 77 percent were in gopher tortoise burrows, 18 percent were in or under decayed stumps and logs,
and S percent were under plant debris. The study area included windrows of debris piled up in the lino's
during site preparation for a slash pine plantation. The snakes showed some tendency to prowl and locate
their dens near these windrows. This same study also indicated that during May-July that at least 10
percent, and in August-November at least 5 percent, of all indigo snake activity occurred within 150 feet of
agricultural fields. Food items include snakes, frogs, salamanders, toads, small mammals, birds, and
occasionally young turtles. The indigo snake subdues its prey (including venomous snakes) through the use
of its powerful jaws, swallowing the prey usually still alive.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The eastern indigo snake population is declining. The decline is
attributed primarily to a loss of habitat due to such land use changes as farming, construction, forestry,
pasture, etcx, and to over-collecting for the pet trade. The snake's large size and docile nature have made it
much sought after as a pet. The effect of Rattlesnake Roundups on the indigo snake are speculative. Both
indigos and rattlers utilize the burrows of gopher tortoises at certain times. Rattlesnake hunters often pour
gasoline down these burrows to drive out the snakes. While same indigos may be killed by this practice, the
actual degree of impact on the population is unknown. Recovery tasks currently being implemented include
habitat management through controlled burning, testing experimental miniature radio transmitters for
tracking of juvenile indigo snakes, maintenance of a captive breeding colony at Auburn University, recapture
of formerly released snakes to confirm survival in the wild, presentation of education lectures and field trips,
and efforts to obtain landowner cooperation in indigo snake conservation efforts.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: The eastern indigo snake would primarily be exposed to pesticide
uses cm crops such as cotton, corn, soybeans, small grains, alfalfa, hay, pasture, forestry/silviculture. Direct
exposure to treated areas and secondary exposure by ingestion of contaminated prey can occur. Secondary
exposure to rodentirides may also occur, as the indigo snake is found in or near agricultural activity, fields or
structures that would typically be treated for rodent control
m-61
-------
GOPHER TORTOISE (Gopherus pofyphemus) - T
Reptiles
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Gopher tortoise is a large, 5.9 to 14.6 inches long, dark-brown to grayish-
black terrestrial turtle with elephantine hind feet, shovel-like forefeet, and a gular projection beneath the
head on the yellowish, hingeless plastron or undershell The sex of individual turtles can usually be
determined by shell dimensions. A male turtle has a greater degree of lower shell concavity, and a longer
gular projection.
This turtle feeds primarily on grasses, grass-like plants, and legumes. Its diet may also include mushrooms,
fleshy fruits, and possibly some animal matter. Sometime between late April and mid-July, the female Hlgs a
nest in sandy soil, lays a clutch of 4 to 12 eggs, and after refilling the hole leaves the eggs for incubation by
the sun's heat Hatching occurs in August and September. The juvenile tortoises suffer a heavy natural
predation loss of almost 97 percent through the first 2 years of life. Those that survive grow to sexual
maturity slowly over a period of 13 to 21 years, depending on the portion of the range and the sex of the
turtles. Females usually reach reproductive maturity at 19 to 21 years old. The low reproductive rate is
accentuated by the fact that there is some evidence to indicate that not all females nest every year. The
juveniles that are born and survive may live an average of 40 to 60 years, sometimes 80 to 100.
The gopher tortoise most often lives on well-drained sandy soils in transitional (forest and grassy) areas. It
is commonly associated with a pine overstory and an open understory with a grass and forb groundcover and
sunny areas for nesting. Most of the gopher tortoise's life is spent in and around the burrow. The gopher
tortoise establishes a well-defined home range which increases in size as the tortoise grows older and larger.
For refuge the tortoises dig burrows .which average around 5 to 10 feet in depth and may be 10 to 20 feet (or
more) in length. The burrow becomes a more or less permanent home although there may be alternate
burrows in the area. Several other species may also share gopher tortoise burrows. Some commonly known
burrow sssociates include the eastern indigo snake, the eastern diamondback rattlesnake, and the gopher
frog. The species occurs in sandy coastal plain areas from extreme southern South Carolina to the
southeastern corner of Louisiana, and throughout most of Florida.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: Less than 20 percent of the historically available habitat remains for
the western population of the gopher tortoise. The population segment from the Tombigbee and Mobile
Rivers in Alabama, westward, is classified as threatened, and for convenience is termed the western
population. This entire western population is within the the original range of the longleaf pine. Using
statistics of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that present
ownership distribution of gopher tortoise habitat is approximately two-tenths in National Forest, one-tenth in
other public ownership, three-tenths in forest industry, and four-tenths in other private ownership. No
estimate is available for the gopher tortoise's total population size. Biologists have estimated a population
density of 0.713 tortoises per hectare in Mississippi and 0.97 tortoises per hectare in Alabama in 1975,
whereas other estimates indicate a density of 0.107 and 0.32 per hectare in those states, respectively, in the
early 1980's. Biologists were also able to document only 11 active burrows in Louisiana in 1981, and only
one remaining in 1984. There is an indicated decline in population densities ranging from 67 percent in
Alabama to 91 percent in Louisiana.
Conversion of gopher tortoise habitat to urban areas, croplands, and pasturelands along with adverse forest
management practices has reduced the western portion of the historic range. Talcing gopher tortoises for
sale or use as food or pets has also had a serious effect on some populations. The seriousness of the loss of
adult tortoises is magnified by the length of time required for tortoises to reach maturity and their low
reproductive rate. Current estimates of human predation and road mortality alone are at levels that could
offset any annual addition to the population. A number of other species also prey upon gopher tortoises
including the raccoon, who is the primary egg and hatrhling predator; gray foxes; striped skunks; armadillos;
dogs; snakes; and raptors. Imported fire ants also have been known to prey on hatrMngs Reported clutch
and hatchling losses often approach 90 percent.
m-62
-------
Reptiles
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: The gopher tortoise would primarily be exposed to pesticides that are
applied to various crops including cotton, soybeans, alfalfa, hay, pasture, as well as applications for
forestry/silviculture practices. The tortoise may be at risk from direct contact with treated areas and
ingestion of contaminated vegetation.
111-63
-------
Reptiles
ISLAND NIGHT LIZARD (Xaniusia riversiana) - T
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Island night lizard is a 5 to 6 inch broad-headed, brownish, sometimes
striped lizard. The species is endemic to Santa Barbara, San Clemente, and San Nicolas Islands of
California. It occurs under shrub cover and feeds on small insects, spiders, scorpions, and on terminal leaves
and blossoms of island plants. It has an extremely low metabolic rate in comparison with other lizards. It is
not nocturnal, but secretive by day. The California Channel Islands Species Recovery Plan was written in
1984.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The exact number of the night lizard is not known. The reasons for
decline include introduction of exotic goats, pigs, and rabbits have removed shrub cover required for shading.
Introduced rats and cats also have reduced populations. Goat and pig control is underway on San Clemente
Island.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: This species could be adversely impacted from burrow fumigants that
are targeted for rodents and applied in the same burrows as those occupied by the lizards.
ffl-64
-------
Reptiles
PUERTO R1CAN BOA (Epicmtes inomatus) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Puerto Rican boa's color is somewhat variable but usually ranges bom
pale to dark brown, sometimes grayish, with 70 to 80 darker colored blotches along the bade from neck to
vent. These dorsal blotches are generally dark-bordered with the centers of a lighter hue. Maximum size is
approximately 6 and a half feet Observations of captive specimens suggest that under natural conditions the
diet of sub-adults and adults consists of birds, small mammals and lizards. Biologists also report bat
predation by the Puerto Rican boa. The boa feeds by seizing the prey in its jaws, wrapping several coils
around the victim, and then constricting until the prey has suffocated. The prey is then swallowed head first.
The feeding habits of the very young are unknown. Two pregnant females captured and held in captivity at
University of Puerto Rico facilities gave birth to 23 live young in one case, and 26 in the other.
Reproduction presumably occurs once a year.
This species exists only in Puerto Rico. The forested limestone hill area seems to be the boa's preferred
habitat The boas utilize ground level retreats for sleeping during the day, and apparently hunt most of their
prey in nearby trees at night
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: Although no population estimates are available, a series of casual
observations were made during the period of 1972 to 1977 recorded 75 boas at 18 different localities.
Historic records, some dating back to the 1700's, indicate that during the first few centuries of Spanish
colonization in Puerto Rico the boa was relatively abundant, and oil produced from the snake's fat was
utilized extensively as an export. Impacts to the boa resulting from the oil trade were undoubtedly
heightened by a concurrent reduction of habitat. Deforestation of the island began during this period and
continued until, by the early 1900's, very little natural forest remained. When an expedition from the U.S.
Natural Museum visited Puerto Rico in 1900, the boa had become so rare that no specimens could be
collected. Predation by the mongoose, introduced into Puerto Rico in the 1900's, has been postulated as a
further cause for the boa's present status, but there is no direct evidence to support this idea. There is an
indication that the boa has recovered somewhat in recent years, although not to the degree that protective
measures can be dropped. Some illegal hunting is apparently occurring at present for the snake's oil, which
is used locally for medicinal purposes.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: The Puerto Rican boa may be exposed to pesticides that are applied
to crop fields (e.g^ coffee, sugarcane, various vegetables, pineapples), adjacent to habitat that supports boas.
Boas may come in direct contact with treated areas while hunting for prey, or ingest contaminated prey.
Rodenticides may also pose a risk if the snake were to ingest a poisoned rodent.
111-65
-------
Reptiles
SAN FRANCISCO GARTER SNAKE (Thamnophis srtatis tetrataenia) E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The San Francisco garter snake is a slender serpent of the family Colubridae.
Historically, San Francisco garter snakes occurred in scattered freshwater wetland and pond areas on the San
Francisco Peninsula from approximately the San Francisco County line south along the eastern and western
bases of the Santa Cruz Mountains, at least to the Upper Crystal Springs Reservoir, and along the coast
south to Aiio Nuevo Point, San Mateo County, and Waddell Creek, Santa Cruz County, California. Recent
studies have documented garter snake movement over several hundred yards away from wetlands into upland
hibernation habitats in small mammal burrows.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: Recently confirmed populations of the San Francisco garter snake occur
at Ano Nuevo State Reserve, Pescadero Marsh Natural Preserve, San Francisco State Fish and Game Refuge
(including both lower and upper Crystal Springs Reservoirs), Sharp Park Golf Course (Laguna Salada), Mori
Point, Cascade Ranch, and Millbrae (San Francisco Airport). The following reported locations and/or
"populations" have not been confirmed as extant by the Service or the California Department of Fish and
Game: San Bruno Mountain, Whitehouse Creek, Denniston Creek, La Honda Creek, Colma Creek, San
Gregorio Creek, San Mateo Creek, Sanchez Creek, and near Edgewood and Canada roads. Additional San
Francisco garter snakes have been reported from agricultural ponds situated along the immediate coast
between Pescadero Point and the Cascade Ranch.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: This species could be adversely impacted from burrow fumigants that
are targeted for rodents and applied in the same burrows as those occupied by the garter snakes.
ni-66
-------
Reptiles
VIRGIN ISLANDS TREE BOA (Epicrates monensis grand) - T
SPECIES INFORMATION: The Virgin Islands tree boa grows to slightly less than a meter in length (snout
to vent). The adult body color is light plumbeous brown with darker brown blotches partially edged with
black. The dorsal blotches are angulate and frequently reach the ventral scales. The dorsal surface has a
general blue-purple iridescence. The ventral surface is grayish-brown speckled with darker spots. On
juveniles of this subspecies, the dorsal ground color is light grey punctuated with black blotches.
The Virgin Island tree boa is distributed on several islands of the Puerto Rico Bank east of Puerto Rico
(including Cayo Diablo, Eastern St. Thomas, Tortola, Guana, Greater Camanoe, Necker Cay, and Virgin
Gorda). On St. Thomas, it is found in xeric forest habitat characterized by steep slopes with poor rocky
soils. On Tortola and Guana Islands it is reported to inhabit rocky cliffs. It is also found on low profile
islands, like Cayo Diablo, where the tallest vegetation is open stands of sea grape (Coccoloba uvifera). These
snakes can be found in almost every type of vegetation except very low succulent cover close to the high tide
line. The Virgin Island tree boa is most often active after dark, and during the day often seeks concealment
on the ground under rocks, logs, leaf axils of Cocos ruicifera, loose sections of termite nests, sheets of
cardboard, etc. The bulk of their diet consists of lizards (Anoiis cristateUus), but they also likely feed on
small birds and mammals.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: This species' present status is unknown. The decline of the species
throughout a large portion of its historical range has been attributed to the effects of predation by the
introduced Indian mongoose and introduced rats. Habitat destruction/disturbance due to increasing human,
dog, and housecat populations are also likely having an adverse effect on the surviving boa populations.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: Pesticide use foT mosquito control is likely to occur within or adjacent
Virgin Island tree boa habitat and has the potential to adversely affect this species. Ingestion of
contaminated prey items and water; or absorption of the pesticides through their skin following direct contact
with the spray or contact with contaminated surfaces are all likely means of exposure. Rodentiddes may also
pose a risk if the snake were to ingest a poisoned rodent.
ffl-67
-------
INSECTS
Insects
EL SEGUNDO BLUE BUTTERFLY (Euphilotes battoides altyni) - E
SPECIES INFORMATION: The El Segundo blue butterfly ranges in two small areas in Los Angeles County
- two acres of a Chevron oil refinery, and 300 acres at the western end of the Los Angeles International
Airport. The species feeds and lays eggs on a sand dune species of buckwheat.
SPECIES STATUS AND TRENDS: The exact number of this population is not known. The reasons for
decline include loss of dune habitat in western Los Angeles County. A golf course is proposed for large part
of airport dunes. The Chevron site is managed to protect this species. Non-federal impacts of the species
include a golf course and other proposed developments.
PESTICIDE/SPECIES INTERFACE: This butterfly could be adversely impacted from the dispersion of
burrow fumigants applied in nearby burrows as vertebrate control agents to soil occupied by larvae or from
insecticides applied within the species' extremely restricted habitat.
ni-68
------- |