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(122) Probable Location and State of Material: COLORLESS LIQUID HILL
INITIALLY FLOAT AS SLICK ON SURFACE OF WATER. WILL SLOWLY
DISSOLVE. SOME MAY VAPORIZE IN WARM WEATHER.
(124)	Water Chemistry: BENZENE SOLUTIONS AND SLICKS UNDERGO RAPID
EVAPORATIVE LOSSES. DISSOLVED FPACTION IS SLOWLY BIODEGRADABLE, BUT
WILL DISSIPATE FROM EVAPORATION BEFORE BACTERIAL ACTION
ISSIGNIFI CANT.
(125)	Color in Water: COLORLESS
(126)	Adequacy of Data: GOOD
2-23

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PART 3
HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS
I. INTRODUCTION
Hazardous materials are frequently stored and transported in large
quantities. An accidental release of these materials presents a
potential hazard to the public and environment. Such an incident
can be managed more expeditiously when the hazardous material is
specifically identified and characterized. Unfortunately, the
contents of storage tanks or trucks may not be specifically or
properly identified. Records or shipping papers may be
inaccessible. Even with such information, an experienced person
is needed to define the hazards and their seriousness.
Because of the immediate need for information concerning a
hazardous material, two systems for hazard identification have
been developed. Both help responders to deal with a hazardous
material incident quickly and safely, and both were devised for
persons untrained in chemistry.
The first is the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 704 M
System, which is used on storage tanks and smaller containers
(fixed facility). The second system is used exclusively on
containers and tanks transported in interstate commerce. The U.S.
Department of Transportation (DOT) is responsible for this system.
Its use, by way of placards and labels, is required under DOT
regulations found in the Code of Federal Regulations 49 (49 CFR).
II. NFPA 704 M HAZARD IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
A. Description
NFPA 704M is a standardized system which uses numbers and
colors on a sign to define the basic hazards of a specific
material. Health, Flammabi1ity, and Reactivity are identified
and rated on a scale of 0 to 4 depending on the degree of
hazard presented (Figure 3-1).
The ratings for individual chemicals can be found in the NFPA
"Guide to Hazardous Materials". Other references such as the
U.S. Coast Guard manual, CHRIS Volume 2 and the National
Safety Council's "Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene" contain
the NFPA ratings for specific chemicals. Such information can
be useful not only in emergencies but also during long-term
remedial activities when extensive evaluation is required.
3-1

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(RED)
Flammability
\ Hazard
(YELLOW)
(BLUE)
Reactivity
. Hazard
Heal th
Hazard
/ (WHITE) \
Special
Informati on
FIGURE 3-1
NFPA 704 M HAZARD IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
Summary of Hazard Ranking System
1. Health Hazard (BLUE)
Rank Number	Description
4	Materials that on very short
exposure could cause death or
major residual injury even
though prompt medical treatment
was given.
3	Materials that on short exposure
could cause serious temporary or
residual injury even though
prompt medical treatment was
gi ven.
2	Materials that on intense or
continued exposure could cause
temporary incapacitation or
possible residual injury unless
prompt medical treatment was
given.
1	Materials that on exposure would
cause irritation but only minor
residual injury even if no treat-
ment was given.
0	Materials that on exposure under
fire conditions would offer no
hazard beyond that of ordinary
combustible material.
Examples
Acrylonitrile
Bromine
Parathion
Ani1ine
Sodium hydroxi
Sulfuric acid
Bromobenzene
Pyridine de
Styrene
Acetone
Methanol
3-2

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2. Flammability Hazard (RED)
Rank Number
Description
Examples
1
0
Materials that (1) rapidly or
completely vaporize at atmos-
pheric pressure and normal
ambient temperatures and burn
readily or (2) are readily
dispersed in air and burn
readily.
Liquids and solids that can be
ignited under almost all ambient
temperature conditions.
Materials that must be
moderately heated or exposed to
relatively high ambient temper-
atures before ignition can occur,
Materials that must be preheated
before ignition can occur.
Materials that will not burn.
1, 3-Butadiene
Propane
Ethylene oxide
Phosphorus
Acrylonitrile
2-Butanone
Kerosene
Sodium
Red phosphorus
3. Reactivity Hazard (YELLOW)
Rank Number	Description
4	Materials that in themselves are
readily capable of detonation or
of explosive decomposition or
reaction at normal temperatures
and pressures.
3	Materials that (1) in themselves
are capable of detonation or
explosive reaction but require
a strong initiating source or
(2) must be heated under confine-
ment before initiation or (3)
react explosively with water.
2	Materials that (1) in themselves
are normally unstable and
readily undergo violent chemical
change but do not detonate or (2)
may react violently with water or
or (3) may form potentially
explosive mixtures with water.
1	Materials that in themselves are
normally stable but which can
(1) become unstable at elevated
temperatures or (2) react with
water with some release of
energy but not violently.
Examples
Benzoyl peroxide
Picric acid
TNT
Diborane
Ethylene oxide
2-Nitropropadene
Acetaldehyde
Potassi um
Ethyl ether
Sulfuric acid
3-3

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0	Materials that in themselves are
normally stable, even when
exposed to fire, and that do not
react with water.
4. Special Information (WHITE)
The white block is designated for special information about
the chemical. For example, it may indicate that the material
is radioactive by displaying the standard radioactive symbol,
or unusually water-reactive by displaying a large W with a
slash through it (W). For a more complete discussion of
these various hazards, consult the NFPA Standard 704 M.
III. DOT HAZARD IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM
The DOT's Hazardous Materials Transportation Administation
regulates over 1,400 hazardous materials. The regulations require
labels on small containers and placards on tanks and trailers.
These placards and labels indicate the nature of the hazard
presented by the cargo. The classification used for the placards
and labels is based on the United Nations Hazard Classes (Table
3-1). The UN hazard class number is found in the bottom corner of
a DOT placard or label.
The various hazards are defined in Table 3-2 at the end of this
part. Also shown is a color chart of the current DOT placards and
labels.
TABLE 3-1
UN HAZARD CLASS SYSTEM
United Nations
Hazard
Class Number	Description
1	Class A, B, and C Explosives
2	Nonflammable and flammable compressed gases
3	Flammable liquids
4	Flammable solids, spontaneously combustible
substances, and water-reactive substances
5	Oxidizing materials, including organic
peroxi des
6	Class A and B poisons, irritants, and etiologic
(disease-causing) materials
7	Radioactive materials
8	Corrosive materials (acids, alkaline liquids,
and certain corrosive liquids and solids)
9	Miscellaneous hazardous materials not covered
by any of the other classes
3-4

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American Industrial Hygiene Association
475 Wolf Ledges Parkway
Akron, OH 44311-1087 .
216/762-7294
American National Standards Institute, Inc.
1430 Broadway
New York, NY 10018
212/354-3300
American Petroleum Institute (API)
1220 L St. N.W. 9th Floor
Washington, D.C. 20005
202/682-8000
Association of American Railroads (AAR)
50 F. St. N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20001
202/639-2100
Chemical Manufacturer's Association
2501 M St. N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20037
202/877-1100
CHEMTREC
800/424-9300
Compressed Gas Association
1235 Jefferson Davis Highway
Arlington, VA 22202
703/979-0900
CRC Press, Inc.
2000 Corporate Blvd., N.W.
Boca Raton, FL 33431
305/994-0555, Ext. 330
The Fertilizer Institute (TFI)
1015 18th St. N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20036
202/861-4900
National Fire Protection Association
Batterymarch Park
Quincy, MA 02269
617/328-9290
4-7

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U.S. Department of Transportation
Materials Transportation Bureau
Office of Hazardous Materials Operations
400	7th St. S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20590
202/366-4555
U.S. EPA Office of Research & Development
Publications - CERI
Cincinnati, OH 45268
513/634-7562
U.S. EPA Office of Solid Waste (WH-562)
Superfund Hotline
401	M. St., S.W.
Washington, DC 20460
800/424-9346
Superintendent of Documents
U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, DC 20402
202/783-3238
U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration
Department of Labor
4015 Wilson Blvd., Room 600
Arlington, VA 22203
703/235-1452
U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Hazardous Materials Response Branch
N/OMS 34
7600 Sand Point Way NE
Seattle, WA 98115
206/527-6317
4-8
9/29/86

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PART 1
INTRODUCTION TO RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
I. INTRODUCTION
The respiratory system is able to tolerate exposures to toxic gases,
vapors and particulates, but only to a limited degree. Some
chemicals can impair or destroy portions of the respiratory tract, or
they may be absorbed directly into the bloodstream from the lungs.
Chemicals that enter the blood may eventually affect the function of
other organs and tissues. The respiratory system can be protected by
avoiding or minimizing exposure to harmful substances. Engineering
controls such as ventilation help decrease exposure. When these
methods are not feasible respirators may provide protection. Certain
respirators can filter gases, vapors, and particulates in the ambient
atmosphere, other respirators are available which can supply clean
air to the wearer.
The use of respirators is regulated by the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA). Regulations stipulate the use of
approved respirators, proper selection, and individual fitting of
respirator users. This unit discusses the topics necessary to
ensure quality respiratory protection.
II. THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
NjuI
Piiugct
Tuchej
Bronchi
6'Onchiol*
Dwphitgq)
FIGURE 1-1
STRUCTURE OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
1-1

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A. Inhalation
When air is inhaled, the chest muscles and diaphragm contract,
lifting the rib cage and dropping the diaphragm. These
actions enlarge the chest cavity. As a result, the lungs
expand and fill with air. (Figure 1-1).
Normally, air is pulled through the nose, but it also can be
inhaled through the mouth. The nasal passages are very narrow
and divided which forces the air to travel a turbulent path.
Particulate matter is impacted, and soluble particulates, and
gases are absorbed on the walls of the passages. Still, some
contaminants escape this initial deposition and penetrate
farther into the respiratory system.
The inhaled air passes through the pharynx and enters the
trachea at the larynx. The pharynx is the common port for the
passage of air and food. The trachea, commonly called the
windpipe, divides into two bronchi, one leading to each lung.
Further divisions of the bronchus are named bronchioles.
Collectively the passages are called conducting tubes because
they carry air to the sites where oxygen and carbon dioxide
are exchanged. Lining the conducting tubes are mucous and
cilia. Contaminants are caught in the mucous, swept up to the
esophagus by the cilia, and swallowed. In this way, the
respiratory system rids itself of some contaminants in inhaled
air.
At the end of the bronchioles are alveoli, sacs with very thin
walls, filled with bundles of capillaries (minute blood
vessels that connect arteries and veins). Here oxygen in the
inhaled air is diffused into the bloodstream and carbon
dioxide is diffused out to be exhaled.
B. Exhalation
When air is exhaled, the chest muscles and diaphragm are
expanded, decreasing the size of the chest cavity. This
forces air out of the lungs back along the same route.
A relaxed person breathes about 10 liters of air per minute.
During brisk activity, the volume can increase to over 75
liters per minute. In such a situation, the respiratory
system must handle a very large volume of air.
III. RESPIRATORY HAZARDS
The normal atmosphere consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9%
inert gases and 0.04% carbon dioxide. An atmosphere containing
toxic contaminants, even at very low concentrations, could be a
hazard to the lungs and body. A concentration large enough to
decrease the percentage of oxygen in the air can lead to
asphyxiation, even if the contaminant is an inert gas.
1-2

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A. Oxygen Deficiency
The body requires oxygen to live, if the oxygen concentration
decreases, the body reacts in various ways (Table 1-1). Death
occurs rapidly when the concentration decreases to 6%.
TABLE 1-1
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF OXYGEN DEFICIENCY
% Oxygen (by volume)
At Sea Level		Effects
21-16	Nothing abnormal.
16-12	Loss of peripheral vision,
increased breathing volume,
accelerated heartbeat, impaired
attention and thinking, impaired
coordination.
12-10	Very faulty judgment, very poor
muscular coordination, muscular
exertion causes fatigue that may
cause permanent heart damage,
intermittant respiration
10-6	Nausea, vomiting, inability to
perform vigorous movement, or loss
of all movement, unconsciousness,
fo1 lowed by death.
<6	Spasmatic breathing, convulsive
movements, death in minutes.
Physiological effects of oxygen deficiency are not apparent
until the concentration decreases to 16%. The various
regulations and standards dealing with respirator use
recommend that concentrations ranging from 16-19.5% be
considered indicative of an oxygen deficiency. Such numbers
take into account individual physiological responses, errors
in measurement, and other safety considerations. In hazardous
materials response operations 19.5% oxygen in air is
considered the lowest "safe" working concentration.
B. Aerosols
Aerosol is a term used to describe fine particulates (solid or
liquid) suspended in air. Particulates ranging in diameter
from 5 to 30 microns are deposited in the nasal and pharyngeal
passages. The trachea and smaller conducting tubes collect
particulates 1-5 microns in diameter. For particulates to
diffuse from the bronchioles into alveoli they must be less
than 0.5 microns in diameter. Larger particles do reach the
alveoli due to gravity. The smallest particulates may never
be deposited in the alveoli and so may diffuse back into the
conducting tubes to be exhaled.
1-3

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Aerosols can be classified in two ways: by their physical form
and origin and by the physiological effect on the body.
1.	Physical Classification
-	Mechanical dispersoid: liquid or solid particle
mechanically produced.
-	Condensation dispersoid: liquid or solid particle
often produced by combustion.
-	Spray: visible liquid mechanical dispersoid.
-	Fume: extremely small solid condensation dispersoid.
-	Mist: liquid condensation dispersoid.
-	Fog: mist dense enough to obscure vision.
-	Smoke: liquid or solid organic particles resulting
from incomplete combustion.
-	Smog - mixture of smoke and fog.
2.	Physiological Classification
-	Nuisance: no lung injury but proper lung functioning
inhibited.
Inert pulmonary reaction causing: non-specific
reaction.
-	Pulmonary fibrosis causing: effects ranging from
nodule production in lungs to serious diseases such as
asbestosis.
-	Chemical irritation: irritation, inflammation, or
ulceration of lung tissue.
-	Systemic poison: diseases in other parts of the body.
-	Allergy-producing: causes allergic hypersensitivity
reactions such as itching or sneezing.
C. Gaseous Contaminants
Gases and vapors are filtered to some degree on their trip
through the respiratory tract. Soluble gases and vapors are
absorbed by the conducting tubes in route to the alveoli. Not
all will be absorbed and so along with insoluble gases, finally
diffuse into the alveoli, where they can be directly absorbed
into the bloodstream.
1-4

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Gaseous contaminants can be classified chemically and
physiologically.
1.	Chemical Classification
-	Acidic: acids or react with water to form acids.
-	Alkaline: bases or react with water to form bases.
-	Organic: compounds which may range from methane to
chlorinated organic solvents.
-	Organometallic: organic compounds containing metals.
-	Hydrides: compound in which hydrogen is bonded to
another metal.
Inert: no chemical reactivity.
2.	Physiological Classification
Irritants: corrosive substances which injure and
inflame tissue.
-	Asphyxiants: substances which displace oxygen or
prevent the use of oxygen in the body.
-	Anesthetics: substances which depress the central
nervous system, causing a loss of sensation or
intoxication.
-	Systemic poisons: substances which can cause disease
in various organ systems.
IV. Respiratory Protection Devices
The basic function of a respirator is to reduce the risk of respiratory
injury due to breathing airborne contaminants. A respirator provides
protection by removing the contaminants from ambient air or by supplying the
wearer with an alternate source of clean breathing air.
All respiratory apparatus are composed of two main parts: (1) the device
which supplies or purifies air, and (2) the facepiece which covers the nose
and mouth and seals out the contaminants. The first component defines what
class of respirator the device is; the second determines the relative
measure of protection afforded by that respirator.
A. Classes of Respirators
Respirators are divided into two major classifications according to
their mode of operation:
1. Air Purifying Respirators (APR's) remove contaminants by passing the
breathing the breathing air through a purifying element. There are
a wide variety of APR's available to protect against specific
1-5

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contaminants, but they all fall into two subclasses: (1)
particulate APR's which employ a mechanical filter element, and (2)
gas and vapor-APR's that utilize chemical sorbents contained in a
cartridge or canister.
It is important to realize that there are limitations on the
applications of APR's. These devices are specific for certain types
of contaminants, so the identity of the hazardous agent must be
known. There are maximum concentration limits; this requires a
knowledge of the ambient concentration of the contaminant, as well
as the Maximum Use Limit (MUL) of the respirator. Since APR's only
clean the air, the ambient concentration of oxygen must be
sufficient (_> 19.5%) for the user.
2. Atmosphere - Supplying Respirators (ASR's) provide a substitute
source of clean breathing air. The respirable air is supplied to
the worker from either a stationary source through a long hose, or
from a portable container. The first type are called supplied-air
respirators and the latter are known as self-contained breathing
apparatus (SCBA).
These devices can be used regardless of the type of airborne
contaminant or oxygen concentration. However, the contaminant
concentration limits vary for the different types of ASR's and the
wearer must be aware of the limitations of his/her respirator.
B. Respiratory Protection
The protection provided the respirator wearer is a function of how well
the facepiece (mask) fits. No matter how efficient the purifying
element or how clean the supplied air, there is little protection
afforded if the respirator mask does not provide a leak-free
facepiece-to-face seal. Facepieces are available in three basic
configurations (see Figure 1-2) which relate to their protective
capacity.
-- Quarter-mask (Type B Half-Mask) fits over the bridge of the nose,
along the cheek, and across the top of the chin. The headbands
which hold the respirator in place are attached at two or four
places of the mask (i.e. two- or four-point suspension). Limited
protection is expected because the respirator can be easily
dislodged, creating a breach in the seal.
-- Half-Mask (Type A Half-Mask) fits over the bridge of the nose,
along the cheek, and under the chin. Headbands have a four-point
suspension. Because they maintain a better seal and are less likely
to be dislodged, half-masks give greater protection that
quarter-masks.
-- Full-Facepiece fits across the forehead, down over the temples and
cheeks, and under the chin. They typically have a head harness with
a five or six-point suspension. These masks give the greatest
protection because they are held in place more securely and because
it is easier to maintain a good seal along the forehead than it is
across the top of the nose. An added benefit is the eye protection
from the clear lens in the full-facepiece.
1-6

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QUARTER-MASK respirator
FACEPIECE
INHALATION VALVE
AIR PURIFYING
ELEMENT
fj
HEADBANDS
/A \
EXHALATION VALVE
HALF-MASK RESPIRATOR
AIR DIRECTING
INLET \
AIR PURIFYING
ELEMENT
EXHALATION VALVE
FULL FACEPIECE RESPIRATOR
TYPES OF RESPIRATOR FACEPIECES
FIGURE 1-2
1-7

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Not all respirators fit everyone, so each individual must find out which
masks he/she can properly wear. At best, any given respirator will fit 60%
of the working population. But with the large number of respirators
available, at least one type should be found to fit an individual.
The use of respirators is prohibited when conditions prevent a good
facepiece-to-face seal. Some examples of these conditions are beards,
sideburns, mustaches, skullcaps, long hair, make-up, and temple pieces on
eyeglasses. Because maintaining the leak-free seal is so important,
personnel required to wear respirators must successfully pass a fit-test
designed to check the integrity of the seal.
There are two types of fit-tests: quantitative and qualitative. The
quantitative test is an analytical determination of the concentration of a
test agent inside the facepiece compared to that outside the mask. This
concentration ratio is called the Protection Factor (PF) and is a measure
of the relative protection offered by a respirator. For example, if the
ambient concentration of the test agent is 1000 ppm, this respirator gives
the tested individual a PF of 100. So:
Concentration outside mask
PF = 	
Concentration inside mask
Because quantitative tests are expensive and tedious, qualitative tests are
most often performed to check respirator fit. A qualitative fit-test is not
an analytical measurement. It is a subjective test where an irritant or
aroma is used to determine if there is a good facepiece-to-face seal. If
the test subject does not respond (by smelling, tasting, coughing, etc.) to
the test agent, he/she can wear the tested respirator with a PF assigned for
that type of mask. Table 1-2 lists several types of respirators and their
PF's.
A Protection Factor is used to determine the Maximum Use Limit (MUL) of a
successfully fit-tested respirator. The MUL is the highest concentration,
not exceeding IDLH concentration, of a specific contaminant in which a
respirator can be worn:
MUL = PF x TLV
For example, if a contaminant has a TLV-TWA of 10 ppm, then the MUL for any
half-mask respirator is 100 ppm; the MUL for a full facepiece APR or demand
SCBA is 1000 ppm. If the ambient concentration is greater than 1000 ppm,
then a pressure demand SCBA is required.
Fit testing and Protection Factors are only two of the several
considerations for selecting the proper respirator. Much more detailed
information on the types and applications of APR's and ASR's is covered in
the other Parts of this Section of the manual.
1-8

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TABLE 1-2
SELECTED RESPIRATOR PROTECTION FACTORS*
Type of Respirator
PF (Qualitative Test)
Air-purifying
quarter-mask
half-mask
Air-1ine
quarter-mask
half-mask
Hose mask
full facepiece
SCBA, demand
quarter-mask
half-mask
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Air-purifying
full facepiece	100
Air-line, demand
full facepiece	100
SCBA, demand
full facepiece	100
Air-line, pressure-demand,
with escape provision
full facepiece (no test required) 10,000+
SCBA, pressure-demand or
positive pressure
full facepiece (no test required) 10,000+
* For more detailed information consult Table 5,
"Respirator Protection Factors" in ANSI Z88.2-1980.
1-9

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V. RESPIRATOR USE AND SELECTION
A. User Requirements
The health of a respirator wearer is based on how the respirator is
used. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) has prepared the
"American National Standard Practices for Respiratory Protection," and
updates it periodically. The latest version Z88.2-1980, was issued in
1980 as a voluntary standard. It addresses all phases of respirator use
and is highly recommended as a guide to respiratory protection.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) cites
Z88.2-1969 as the source of respiratory protection regulations (29 CFR
Part 1910.134) issued in 1975 which it must enforce (Appendix I).
Regulations of the Mine Safety and Health Administration also cite Z88.2
in 30 CFR Part 11 Section 11.2-1, stating that "in order to insure the
maximum amount of respiratory protection, approved respirators will be
selected, fitted, used, and maintained in accordance with the provisions
of the American National Standard Practices for Respiratory Protection,
Z88.2."
Section b 1-11 of 29 CFR 1910.134, as well as Z88.2-1980, requires a
"minimal acceptable program" to ensure sound respiratory protection
practices. The balance of the regulations discusses specific
requirements for respiratory use. The requirements for minimal
acceptable program are quoted from 29 CFR 1910.134 as follows:
1.	Written standard operating procedures governing the selection and
use of respirators shall be established.
2.	Respirators shall be selected on the basis of hazards to which the
worker is exposed.
3.	The user shall be instructed and trained in the proper use of
respirators and their limitations.
4.	Where practicable, tho respirators should bo assigned to individual
workers for their exclusive uoo. [THIS PART HAS BEEN DELETED]
5.	Respirators shall be regularly cleaned and disinfected. Those
issued for the exclusive use of one worker should bo cleaned after
each day's uso, or more often if nocossary. [DELETED] Those used
by more than one worker shall be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected
after each use.
6.	Respirators shall be stored in a convenient, clean, and sanitary
location.
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7.	Respirators used routinely shall be inspected during
cleaning. Worn or deteriorated parts shall be replaced.
Respirators for emergency use such as self-contained
devices shall be thoroughly inspected at least once a
month and after each use.
8.	Appropriate surveillance of work area conditions and
degree of employee exposure or stress shall be
maintained.
9.	There shall be regular inspection and evaluation to
determine the continued effectiveness of the program.
10.	Persons should not be assigned to tasks requiring use of
respirators unless it has been determined that they are
physically able to perform the work and use the equipment.
The local physician shall determine what health and
physical conditions are pertinent. The respirator user's
medical status should be reviewed periodically (for
instance annually).
11.	Approved or accepted respirators shall be used when they are
available. The respirator furnished shall provide adequate
respiratory protection against the particular hazard for which it
is designed in accordance with standards established by competent
authorities. The U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines,
and the U.S. Department of Agriculture are recognized as such
authorities. Although respirators listed by the U.S. Department
of Agriculture continue to be acceptable for protection against
specified pesticides, the U.S. Department of Interior, Bureau of
Mines, is the agency now responsible for testing and approving
pesticide respirators.
The complete text of 29 CFR 1910.134 can be found in Appendix I.
B. Selection
In general ANSI Z88.2-1980 states that the selection of the
proper approved respirator depends upon:
-	The nature of the hazard.
-	The characteristics of the hazardous operation or
process.
-	The location of the hazardous area with respect to a
safe area having respirable air.
-	The period of time for which respiratory protection
may be provided.
-	The activity of workers in the hazardous area.
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-	The physical characteristics, functional capabilities,
and limitations of respirators of various types.
-	The respirator-protection factors and respirator fit.
All these criteria must be considered in the selection of a
respirator. The Joint NIOSH/OSHA Standards Completion
Respirator Committee devised a "Respirator Decision Logic"
based on the above criteria(Appendix II).
Appendix III, excerpted from ANSI Z88.2-1980, indicates if a
particular respiratory protective device is suitable for
oxygen-deficient or IDLH atmospheres. This information
supplies only a portion of the information required to select
the appropriate respirator.
VI. RESPIRATOR APPROVAL
Both regulations, 29 CFR 1910.134 and 30 CFR Part 11, require the
use of approved respirators. Respirators are tested at the
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
Testing Laboratory in Morgantown, West Virginia and are jointly
approved by the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) and
NIOSH if they pass the requirements of 30 CFR Part 11.
An MSHA/NIOSH approval indicates that the respirator in use is
identical to the one submitted for the original approval. If a
manufacturer changes any part of the respirator without
resubmitting it to the NIOSH Testing Lab, the approval is invalid
and will be rescinded. This is intended to protect the respirator
user. Also, any unauthorized changes or hybridization of a
respirator by the user invalidates the respirator approval and all
the guarantees understood with the approval.
Appendix III, shows the table of contents of 30 CFR Part 11 with
approval schedules for specific types of respirators indicated in
the margins. The schedule number came from the original Bureau of
Mines' respirator approval requirements. The Bureau of Mines
preceded the Mining Enforcement and Safety Administration (MESA),
which eventually became MSHA.
All of these agencies were responsible for respirator
certification at one time or another. Thus respirators in use
today may bear approval numbers issued to the manufacturers by the
Bureau of Mines, MESA, and MSHA. The approval number must be
displayed on the respirator or its container. It consists of the
prefix TC (Testing and Certification), the schedule number,
followed by the approval number. For example in TC-13F-69, 13 is
the schedule for self-contained breathing apparatus, F indicates
the number of revisions to the schedule, and 69 is the consecutive
approval number. Also, the approval label includes the certifying
agencies.
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Periodically, NIOSH publishes a list of all approved respirators
and respirator components. The current edition, issued in 1983,
is entitled the NIOSH Certified Equipment List as of September
1983 (DHHS [NIOSH] Publication No. 83-122). This document is used
to answer two basic questions about respiratory protection:
— Is this respirator appropriate (approved) for the
existing work conditions?
-- Is this respirator (mask and purifying-elements) an
approved assembly?
If the answer to either of these questions is "no", then the
worker is prohibited from using that respirator (or type of
respirator). Appendix IV discusses the use of the "Certified
Equipment List".
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APPENDIX I
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH	1910-Subpart I
STANDARDS AND INTERPRETATIONS
PART 1910
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH STANDARDS
SUBPART I—PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
1910.1-32	General requirements.
1910.133	Eye and face protection.
1910.134	Respiratory protection.
1910.135	Occupational head protection.
1910.136	Occupational foot protection.
1910.137	Electrical protective devices.
1910.138	Additional delay in effective date.
1910.139	Sources of standards.
1910.140	Standards organizations.
1-15
1910-Subpart I

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1910.132
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
STANDARDS AND INTERPRETATIONS
SUBPART I—PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
1910.132—GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
(a) Application.
Protective equipment, including personal
protective equipment for eyes, face, head, and
extremities, protective clothing, respiratory
devices, and protective shields and barriers,
shall be provided, used, and maintained in a
sanitary and reliable condition wherever it is
necessary by reason of hazards of processes
or environment, chemical hazards, radiologi-
cal hazards, or mechanical irritants encoun-
tered in a manner capable of causing injury
or'impairment in the function of any part of
the body through absorption, inhalation or
physical contact.
(b) Employee-owned equipment.
Where employees provide their own protec-
tive equipment, the employer shall be respon-
sible to assure its adequacy, including proper
maintenance, and sanitation of such equip-
ment.
(c) Design.
All personal protective equipment shall be
of safe design and construction for the work
to be performed.
1910.133—EYE AND FACE PROTECTION
(a) General.
(1)	Protective eye and face equipment shall
be required where there is a reasonable
probability of injury that can be prevented
iiy such equipment. In such cases,
employeis shall make conveniently avail-
able a type of protector suitable for the work
to be performed, and employees shall use
such protectors. Xo unprotected person
shall knowingly be subjected to a hazardous
environmental condition. Suitable eye pro-
tectors shall be provided where machines
or operations present the hazard of flying
objects, glare, liquids, injurious radiation,
or a combination of these hazards.
(2)	Protectors shall meet the following
minimum requirements:
(i)	They shall provide adequate protection
against the particular hazards for which
they are designed.
(ii)	They shall be reasonably confortable
1910.133(a)(3)(i)
when worn under the designated condi-
tions.
(iii)	They shall fit snugly and shall not
unduly interfere with the movements of
the wearer.
(iv)	They shall be durable.
(v)	They shall he capable of being disin-
fected.
(vi)	They shall be easily cleanable.
(vii)	Protectors should be kept clean and
in good repair.
(3) Persons whose vision requires the use
of corrective lenses in spectacles, and who
are required by this standard to wvar eye
protection, shall wear goggles or spectacles
of one of the following types:
(i) Spectacles whose protective lenses pro-
vide optical correction.
Chanire 22
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OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
1910.133(a)(3)(ii)
(ii)	Goggles that can be worn over correc-
tive spectacles without disturbing the
adjustment of the spectacles.
(iii)	Goggles that incorporate corrective
lenses mounted behind the protective
lenses.
(4) E very protector shall be distinctly
marked to facilitate identification only of
the manufacturer.
STANDARDS AND INTERPRETATIONS
(5)	When 1 imitations or precautions are
indicated by the manufacturer, they shall
be transmitted to the user and care taken
to see that such limitations and precautions
are strictly observed.
(6)	Design, construction, testing, and use of
devices for eye and face protection shall be
in accordance with American National
Standard for Occupational and Educational
Eye and Face Protection, Z87.1-1968.
1910.134—RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
(a)	Permissible practice.
(1)	I" the control of those occupational dis-
eases caused by breathing air contaminated
with harmful dusts, fogs, fumes, mists,
gases, smokes, sprays, or vapors, the pri-
mary objective shall be to prevent at-
mospheric contamination. This shall be
accomplished as far as feasible by accepted
engineering control measures (for example,
enclosure or confinement of the operation,
general and local ventilation, and substitu-
tion of less toxic materials). When effective
engineering controls are not feasible, or
while they are being instituted, appropriate
respirators shall be used pursuant to the
following requirements.
(2)	Respirators shall be provided by the
employer when such equipment is neces-
sary to protect the health of the employee.
The employer shall provide the respirators
which are applicable and suitable for the
purpose intended. The employer shall be
responsible for the establishment and
maintenance of a respiratory protective
program which shall include the require-
ments outlined in paragraph (b) of this sec-
tion.
(3)	The employee shall use the provided
respiratory protection in accordance with
instructions and training received.
(b)	Requirements for a minimal acceptable
program.
(1) Written standard operating procedures
governing the selection and use of
respirators shall be established.
(2)	Respirators shall be selected on the basis
of hazards to which the worker is exposed.
(3)	The user shall be instructed and trained
in the proper use of respirators and their
limitations.
{4}—Where—practicable,——reapirr.tora
should be assigned to individual workers for
their exclusive use.
(5)	Respirators shall be regularly cleaned
and disinfected. Those issued for the cxclu
civo uge of one worker should bo cleaned
after each day'o use, or more often if neces
oary. Those used by more than one worker
shall be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected
after each use.
(6)	Respirators shall be stored in a conven-
ient, clean, and sanitary location.
(7)	Respirators used routinely shall be
inspected during cleaning-. Worn or
deteriorated parts shall be replaced. Res-
pirators for emergency use such as self-
contained devices shall be thoroughly
inspected at least once a month and after
each use.
(8)	Appropriate surveillance of work area
conditions and degree of employee exposure
or stress shall be maintained.
1910.134(b)< S)
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1910.134(b)(9)
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
STANDARDS AND INTERPRETATIONS
(9)	There shall be regular inspection and
evaluation to determine the continued
effectiveness of the program.
(10)	Persons bhould not be assigned to tasks
requiring use of respirators unless it has
been determined that they are physically
able to perform the work and use the equip-
ment. The local physician shall determine
what health and physical conditions are
pertinent. The respirator user's medical
status should be reviewed periodically (for
instance, annually).
(11)	Approved or accepted respirators shall
be used when they are available. The
respirator furnished shall provide adequate
respiratory protection against the par-
ticular hazard for which it is designed in
accordance with standards established by
competent authorities. The U.S. Depart-
ment of Interior, Bureau of Mines, and the
U.S. Department of Agriculture are recog-
nized as such authorities. Although
respirators listed by the U.S. Department
of Agriculture continue to be acceptable for
protection against specified pesticides, the
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of
Mines, is the agency now responsible for
testing and approving pesticide respirators.
(c)	Selection of respirators.
Proper selection of respirators shall be
made according to the guidance of American
National Standard Practices for Respiratory
Protection ZSS.2-1969.
(d)	Air quality.
(1) Compressed air, compressed oxygen,
liquid air, and liquid oxygen used for respi-
ration shall be of high purity. Oxygen shall
meet the requirements of the United States
Pharmacopoeia for medical or breathing
oxygen. Breathing air shall meet at least
the requirements of the specification for
Grade D breathing air as described in Com-
pressed Gas Association Commodity Specifi-
cation G-7.1-1966. Compressed oxygen shall
not be used in supplied-air respirators or
in open circuit self-contained breathing
apparatus that have previously used com-
pressed air. Oxygen must never be used
with air line respirators.
1910.131(e)(1)
(2)	Breathing air may be supplied to
respirators from cylinders or air compres-
sors.
(i)	Cylinders shall be tested and main-
tained as prescribed in the Shipping Con-
tainer Specification Regulations of the
Department of Transportation (-19 CFR
Part 178).
(ii)	The compressor for supplying air shall
be equipped with necessary safety and
standby devices. A breathing air-type
compressor shall be used. Compressors
shall be constructed and situated so as
to avoid entry of contaminated air into
the system and suitable in-line air purify-
ing sorbent beds and filters installed to
further assure breathing air quality. A
receiver of sufficient capacity to enable
the respirator wearer to escape from a
contaminated atmosphere in event of
compressor failure, and alarms to
indicate compressor failure and overheat-
ing shall be installed in the system. If an
oil-lubricated compressor is used, it shall
have a high-temperature or carbon
monoxide alarm, or both. If only a high-
temperature alarm is used, the air from
the compressor shall be frequently tested
for carbon monoxide to insure that it
meets the specifications in subparagraph
(1) of this paragraph.
(3)	Air line couplings shall be incompatible
with outlets for other gas systems to pre-
vent inadvertent servicing of air line
respirators with nonrespirable gases or
oxygen.
(4)	Breathing gas containers shall be
marked in accordance with American
National Standard Method of Marking Port-
able Compressed Gas Containers to Identify
the Material Contained, Z4S. 1-1954;
Federal Specification BB-A-1034a, June 21,
1963, Air, Compressed for Breathing Pur-
poses; or Interim Federal Specification
GG-B-00S75b, April 27, 1965, Breathing
Apparatus, Self-Contained.
(e) Use of respirators.
(1) Standard procedures shall be developed
for respirator use. These should include all
18

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OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
1910.134(e)(1)
information and guidance necessary for
their proper selection, use, and care. Possi-
ble emergency and routine uses of
respirators should be anticipated and
planned for.
(2)	The correct respirator shall be specified
for each job. The respirator type is usually
specified in the work procedures by a qual-
ified individual supervising the respiratory
protective program. The individual issuing
them shall be adequately instructed to
insure that the correct respirator is issued.
Each reopirator permanently assigned to
an individual should be durably mai'licd to
indicate to whom it wno nooigncdi Thij mark
ohall not nffoot the rcGpirator performance
in any way. Tho dato of ioounnoo ohould bo
recorded.
(3)	Written procedures shall be prepared
covering safe use of respirators in danger-
ous atmospheres that might be encountered
in normal operations or in emergencies. Per-
sonnel shall be familiar with these proce-
dures and the available respirators.
(i)	In areas where the wearer, with failure
of the respirator, could be overcome by
a toxic or oxygen-deficient atmosphere,
at least one additional man shall be pres-
ent. Communications (visual, voice, or
signal line) shall be maintained between
both or all individuals present. Planning
shall be such that one individual will be
unaffected by any likely incident and
have the proper rescue equipment to be
able to assist the other(s) in case of emer-
gency.
(ii)	When self-contained breathing
apparatus or hose masks with blowers are
used in atmospheres immediately dan-
gerous to life or health, standby men must
be present with suitable rescue equip-
ment.
(iii)	Persons using air line respirators in
atmospheres immediately hazardous to
life or health shall be equipped with
safety harnesses and safety lines for lift-
ing or removing persons from hazardous
atmospheres or other and equivalent pro-
visions for the rescue of persons from
hazardous atmospheres shall be used. A
standby man or men with suitable self-
STANDARDS AND INTERPRETATIONS
contained breathing apparatus shall be
at the nearest fresh air base for emer-
gency rescue.
(4)	Respiratory protection is no better than
the respirator in use, even though it is worn
conscientiously. Frequent random inspec-
tions shall be conducted by a qualified
individual to assure that respirators are
properly selected, used, cleaned, and main-
tained.
(5)	For safe use of any respirator, it is essen-
tial that the user be properly instructed in
its selection, use, and maintenance. Both
supervisors and workers shall be so
instructed by competent persons. Training
shall provide the men an opportunity to
handle the respirator, have it fitted prop-
erly, test its face-piece-to-face seal, wear it
in normal air for a long familiarity period,
and, finally, to wear it in a test atmosphere.
(i)	Every respirator wearer shall receive
fitting instructions including demonstra-
tions and practice in how the respirator
should be worn, how to adjust it, and how
to determine if it fits properly. Res-
pirators shall not be worn when condi-
tions prevent a good face seal. Such condi-
tions may be a growth of beard, sideburns,
a skull cap that projects under the
facepiece, or temple pieces on glasses.
Also, the absence of one or both dentures
can seriously affect the fit of a facepiece.
The worker's diligence in observing these
factors shall be evaluated by periodic
check. To assure proper protection, the
facepiece fit shall be checked by the
wearer each time he puts on the
respirator. This may be done by following
the manufacturer's facepiece fitting
instructions.
(ii)	Providing respiratory protection for
individuals wearing corrective glasses is
a serious problem. A proper seal cannot
be established if the temple bars of eye
glasses extend through the sealing edge
of the full facepiece. As a temporary
measure, glasses with short temple bars
or without temple bars may be taped to
the wearer's head. Wearing of contact
lenses in contaminated atmospheres with
a respirator shall not be allowed. Systems
have been developed for mountingcorrec-
1-19
1910.134(e)(5)(ii)

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1910.134(e)(5)(ii)
OCCUPMIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
STANDARDS AND INTERPRETATIONS
tive lenses inside full facepieces. When a
workman must wear corrective lenses as
part of the facepiece, the facepiece and
lenses, shall he fitted by qualified in-
dividuals to provide good vision, comfort,
and a pas-tight seal.
(iii) If corrective spectacles or goggles are
required, they shall be worn so as not to
affect the fit of the facepiece. Proper
selection of equipment will minimize or
avoid this problem.
(f) Maintenance and care of respirators.
(1)	A program for maintenance and care of
respirators shall be adjusted to the type of
plant, working conditions, and hazards
involved, and shall include the following
basic services:
(i)	Inspection for defects (including a leak
check),
(ii)	Cleaning and disinfecting,
(iii)	Repair,
(iv)	Storage
Equipment shall be pi operly maintained to
retain its original effectiveness.
(2)
(i)	All respirators shall be inspected
routinely before and after each use. A
respirator that is not routinely used but
is kept ready for emergency use shall be
inspected after each use and at least
monthly to assure that it is in satisfactory
working condition.
(ii)	Self-contained breathing apparatus
shall be inspected monthly. Air and
oxygen cylinders shall be fully charged
according to the manufacturer's instruc-
tions. It shall be determined that the reg-
ulator and warning devices function prop-
erly.
(iii)	Respirator inspection shall include a
check of the tie'ntness of connections and
the condition of the facepiece, head-
1910.13 l(f)(5)(i)
bands, valves, connecting tube, and canis-
ters. Rubber or elastomer parts shall be
inspected for pliability and signs of
deterioration. Stretching and manipulat-
ing rubber or elastomer parts with a mas-
saging action will keep them pliable and
flexible and prevent them from taking a
set during storage.
(iv) A record shall be kept of inspection
dates and findings for respirators main-
tained for emergency use.
(3)	Routinely used respirators shall be col-
lected, cleaned, and disinfected as fre-
quently as necessary to insure that proper
protection is provided for the wearer. Eooh
worker chould bo briefed on tho donning
procedure—a-R-ei—be—apgurod—that—ke—w+il
alwnya—roooivo—ft—ok-no—find clioinfoot-od
rocpirotiOPi Suoh ooourancos »ro of greatest
significance—when—rocpirntorc—
individually—nooigncd—te—worltcpo. Res-
pirators maintained for emergency use
shall be cleaned and disinfected after each
use.
(4)	Replacement or repairs shall be done
only by experienced persons with parts
designed for the respirator. No attempt
shall be made to replace components or to
make adjustment or repairs beyond the
manufacturer's recommendations. Reduc-
ing or admission valves or regulators shall
be returned to.the manufacturer or to a
trained technician for adjustment or repair.
(5)
(i) After inspection, cleaning, and neces-
sary repair, respirators shall be stored to
protect against dust, sunlight, heat,
extreme cold, excessive moisture, or
damaging chemicals. Respirators placed
at stations and work areas for emergency
use should be quickly accessible at all
times and should be stored in compart-
ments built for the purpose. The compart-
ments should be clearly marked.
Routinely used respirators, such as dust
respirators, may be placed in plastic bags.
Respirators should not be stored in such
places as lockers or tool boxes unless they
are in carrying cases or cartons.
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OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
1910.134(fH5)(ii)
STANDARDS AND INTERPRETATIONS
(ii) Respirators should be packed or stored
so that the facepiece and exhalation valve
will rest in a normal position and function
respiratory protection in atmospheres
containing not more than 	 per-
cent bv volume of	
paired ov uie elastomer set-
ting in an abnormal position.
(iii) Instructions for proper storage of
emergency respirators, such as gas masks
and self-contained breathing apparatus,
are found in "use and car.e" instructions
usually mounted inside the carrying case
lid.
(g) Identification of gas mask canisters.
(1)	The primary means of identifying a gas
mask canister shall be by means of properly
worded labels. The secondary means of iden-
tifying a gas mask canister shall be by a
color code.
(2)	All who issue or use gas masks falling
within the scope of this section shall see that
all gas mask canisters purchased or used
by them are properly labeled and colored
in accordance with these requirements
before they are placed in service and that
the labels and colors are properly main-
tained at all times thereafter until the
canisters have completely served their pur-
pose.
(3)	On each canister shall appear in bold let-
ters the following:
(i)
Canister foi 	
(Name for atmospheric contaminant)
or
Type N Gas Mask Canister
(ii)	In addition, essentially the following
wording shall appear beneath the appro-
priate phase on the canister label: "For
(4)	Canisters having a special high-effi-
ciency filter for protection against
radionuclides and other highly toxic par-
ticulates shall be labeled with a statement
of the type and degree of protection afforded
by the filter. The label shall be affixed to
the neck end of, or to the gray stripe which
is around and near the top of, the canister.
The degree of protection shall be marked
as the percent of penetration of the canister
by a 0.3-micron-diameter dioctyl phthalate
(DOP) smoke at a flow rate of 85 liters per
minute.
(5)	Each canister shall have a label warning
that gas masks should be used only in
atmospheres containing sufficient oxygen
to support life (at least 16 percent by
volume), since gas mask canisters are only
designed to neutralize or remove contami-
nants from the air.
(6)	Each gas mask canister shall be painted
a distinctive color or combination of colors
indicated in Table 1-1. All colors used shall
be such'that they are clearly identifiable
by the user and clearly distinguishable from
one another. The color coating used shall
offer a high degree of resistance to chipping,
scaling, peeling, blistering, fading, and the
effects of the ordinary atmospheres to
which they may be exposed under normal
conditions of storage and use. Appro-
priately colored pressure sensitive tape
may be used for the stripes.
Change 7
1-21
1910.134(g)(6)

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1910.134(g)(6)
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
STANDARDS AND INTERPRETATIONS
Table 1-1
Atmospheric contaminants to be protected
against
Acid gases	
Hydrocyanic acid gas	
Chlorine gas	
Organic vapors	
Ammonia gas	
Acid gases and ammonia gas	
Carbon monoxide	
Acid gases and organic vapors	
Hydrocyanic acid gas and chloropicrln vapor.
Acid gases, organic vapors, and ammonia
gases.
Radioactive materials, excepting tritium and
noble gases.
Particulates (dusts, fumes, mists, fogs, or
smokes) In combination with any of the
above gases or vapors.
All of the above atmospheric contaminants..
Colors assigned•
White.
White with Vi-lnch green stripe completely
around the canister near the bottom.
White with i/2-inch yellow stripe completely
around the canister near the bottom.
Black.
Green.
Green with y2-lnch white stripe completely
around the canister near the bottom.
Blue.
Yellow.
Yellow with i/2-lnch blue stripe completely
around the canister near the bottom.
Brown.
Purple (Magenta).
Canister color for contaminant, as designated
above, with y2-inch gray stripe completely
around the canister near the top.
Red with V£-lnch gray stripe completely
around the canister near the top.
•Gray shall not be assigned as the main color for a canister designed to remove acids or
vapors.
Note: Orange shall be used as a complete body, or stripe color to represent gases not
Included In this table. The user will need to refer to the canister label to determine the
degree of protection the canister will afford.
1910.135—OCCUPATIONAL HEAD PROTECTION
Helmets for the protection of heads of occu-
pational workers from impact and penetration
from falling and flying objects and from
limited electric shock and burn shall meet the
requirements and specifications established
in American National Standard Safety
Requirements for Industrial Head Protection,
1910.136—OCCUPATIONAL FOOT PP.OTECTION
Safety-toe footwear for employees shall American National Standard for Men's
meet the requirements and specifications in Safety-Toe Footwear, Z41.1-1967.
1910.136
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APPENDIX II
JOINT NIOSH/OSHA STANDARDS COMPLETION PROGRAM
RESPIRATOR DECISION LOGIC
Nelson A. Lei del and SCP Respirator Committee
I. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of the Respirator Decision Logic is to assure technical
accuracy and uniformity between substances in the selection of
respirators and to provide necessary criteria to support this selection.
The decision logic is a step-by-step elimination of inappropriate
respirators until only those which are acceptable remain. Judgement by
persons knowledgeable of inhalation hazards and respirator protection
equipment is essential to ensure appropriate selection of respirators.
The primary technical criteria for what constitutes a permissible
respirator is based on the technical requirements of 30 CFR Part II
(Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Respiratory Protective
Devices and Tests for Permissibility). The proposed health standards
will allow only respirators approved by the Safety Administration (MESA)
and NIOSH under 30 CFR 11. Classes of respirators are only included when
at least one device has been approved.
Protection factors are criteria used in determining what limiting
concentrations are to be permitted for each respirator type that will
afford adequate protection to the wearer. The referenced Subparts of 30
CFR 11 give technical descriptions concerning each type of class of
respirators referenced in the Decision Logic. 30 CFR 11 should be used
with the Decision Logic in order to properly understand the criteria for
the specification of allowable respirators.
II. GENERAL DECISION LOGIC FLOWCHART
Step 1 - Assemble Information on Substance
Assemble necessary toxicological, safety, and research information for
the particular contaminant. Typically the following are required:
1.	Permissible exposure limits specified in 29 CFR 1910.1000 (Tables
Z-l, Z-2, and 1-3). These are the former 29 CFR 1910.93 tables.
2.	Warning properties if the substance is a gas or a vapor. Refer to
Part IV (B) of this Logic.
3.	Eye irritation potential of the substance. Refer to Part IV(D) of
this Logic.
4.	LFL (Lower Flammable Limit) for the substance. Refer to Part IV (F)
of this Logic.
5.	IDLH (Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health) concentration for the
substance. Refer to Part IV(E) of this Logic.
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6.	Any possibility of poor sorbent efficiency at IDLH concentration and
below. Refer to Part IV (C) of th is Logic.
7.	Any possibility of systemic injury or death resulting from absorbance
of the substance (as a gas or vapor) through the skin. Refer to Part
IV (A) of this Logic.
8.	Any possibility of severe skin irritation resulting from contact of
the skin with corrosive gases, vapors or particulates (Refer to Part
IV (A) of this Logic).
9.	The vapor pressure of the substance (and equivalent ppm).
10.	Any possibility of high heat of reaction with sorbent material in
cartridge or canister.
11.	Any possibility of shock sensitivity of substance sorbed on sorbent
of cartridge or canister.
Step 2 - Determine Physical State of Substance
Determine the physical state(s) of the substance as it is likely to be
encountered in the occupational environment. It will be either: a) gas
or vapor; b) particulate (dust, fume or mist), or c) combination of (a)
and (b).
Step 3 - Assemble a Table of Permissible Respiratory Protection for
Substance.
This is done using the material from Step 1 and the appropriate Specific
Decision Logic Chart from Part III of this Logic and Respirator
Protection Factors in Appendix 1.
Classes of respirators are only included where at least one device has
been approved.
SPECIFIC DECISION LOGIC CHARTS
A. Specific Decision Logic Chart for Respiratory Protection Against
Gases or Vapors.
Condition	Selection Sequence
Routine Use	a) Consider skin irritation and sorption of the
material through the skin - (See IV A).
b)	Poor warning properties - Eliminate all air
purifying respirators (See IV B).
c)	Eye irritation - Eliminate or restrict use of
half mask respirators (See IV D).
1-24

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Condition
Selection Sequence
Routine Use (Con't)
apparatus (See IV E and F).
Entry and Escape
from unknown con-
centrations
F irefighting
Escape
d)	IDHL or LFL - Above this concentration eliminate
all but positive pressure self-contained
breathing apparatus and combination positive
pressure supplied-air respirator with auxiliary
positive pressure self-contained breathing.
e)	List all allowed respirators by condition and use
and type.
Use positive pressure self-contained breathing
apparatus or combination positive pressure supplied
air respirator with auxiliary positive pressure
self-contained breathing apparatus.
Use positive pressure self-contained breathing
apparatus.
Gas mask or escape self-contained breathing apparatus
(See IV C).
B. Specific Decision Logic Chart for Respiratory Protection Against
Particulates
Condition
Routine Use
Selection Sequence
a)	Consider skin irritation or sorption of the
material through the skin (See IV A).
b)	Eye irritation - Eliminate or restrict use of
half mask respirators (See IV D).
c)	Systemic poison - Eliminate single - use
respirators.
d)	For permissible exposures less than 0.05 mg/cu.m.
- Eliminate DFM respirators except with high
efficiency particulate filter.
e)	IDLH or LFL - Above this concentration eliminate
all but positive pressure self-contained
breathing apparatus and combination positive
pressure supplied-air respirator with auxiliary
positive pressure self-contained breathing
apparatus (See IV E).
f)	List all allowed respirators by condition of use
and type.
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Entry and Escape
from unknown
concentrations Use positive pressure self-contained breathing
apparatus or combination positive pressure
self-contained breathing apparatus.
Condition	Selection Sequence
Firefighting Use positive pressure self-contained breathing
apparatus (See IV F).
Escape	Gas mask or escape self-contained breathing apparatu
(See IV C).
DECISION LOGIC CRITERIA
A. Skin Absorption and Irritation
Personal protection requirements for protection against exposure to
substances which may cause injury by absorption through the skin from
materials splashed or spilled on the skin are covered in Section (f)
of each substance standard. Respirator selection criteria are based
primarily on the inhalation hazard of the substance. A supplied-air
suit may provide skin protection for extremely toxic substances which
may be absorbed through the skin, or for substances which may cause
severe skin irritation or injury.
Supplied-air suits are not covered in 30 CFR 11. Data are not
available upon which to make recommendations for supplied-air suits
for all types of exposures.
Where information is available indicating systemic injury or death
resulting from absorbance of a gas or vapor through the skin or where
severe skin irritation or injury may occur from exposures to a gas,
corrosive vapor, or particulate, the following statement is included
as a footnote to the respirator tables and both the employee and
employer are cautioned in the appendices concerning their use:
"Use of supplied-air suit may be necessary to prevent skin
contact and respiratory exposure from airborne
concentrations of (specific substance). Supplied-air suits
should be selected, used, and maintained under the immediate
supervision of persons knowledgeable in the limitations and
potential life endangering characteristics of supplied-air
suits. Where supplied-air suits are used above a
concentration which may be immediately dangerous to life and
health, (concentration) an auxiliary positive-pressure
self-contained breathing apparatus must also be worn".
The supplied-air suit statement is an advisory footnote. The
decision whether or not to include the footnote is made by the
NI0SH/0SHA Review Committees based on available information. Since
most information concerning skin irritation is not quantative, but
rather presented in commonly used descriptive terms, such as "a
1-26

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strong skin irritant, highly irritating to the skin, "corrosive to the
skin," etc., the decision made by the committees concerning skin
irritation is a judgemental decision often based on non-quantitative
information. As a guideline for the inclusion of the supplied-air suit
statement for substances which are sorbed through the skin, a single skin
penetration LD50 of 2 grams/kilogram for any species is used.
The footnote is advisory in nature and its inclusion does not make the
use of supplied-air suits mandatory. Further, employers may use
supplied-air suits in any situation where they provide adequate
protection, whether there is an advisory footnote in the respirator table
or not. To assure the health and safety of perpsons using supplied-air
suits, it is imperative that they be used under the immediate supervision
of persons knowledgeable in the limitations and potential life
endangering characteristics of supplied-air suits.
B. Poor Warning Properties
It is important to realize that 30 CFR 11 NIOSH/MESA approvals for
air-purifying (organic vapor) devices prohibit use against organic
vapors with poor warning properties. Specifically, 30 CFR 11.90 (b)
(note 4) covers gas masks (canister respirators) and 30 CFR 11.150
(Note 7) coveres chemical cartridge respirators. Thus these
approvals are only for those organic vapors with adequate warning
properties and not all organic vapors.
Warning properties inlcude odor, eye irritation, and respiratory
irritation. Warning properties relying upon human senses are not
foolproof. However, they provide some indication to the employee of
possible sorbent exhaustion or of poor facepiece fit or other
respirator malfunction.
Adequate warning properties can be assumed when the substance odor,
taste, or irritation effects are detectable and persistent at
concentrations "at" or "below" the permissible exposure limit.
It is expected that environmental concentrations will vary
considerably and, therefore, warning of a respirator failure would
soon be somewhat above the permissible exposure limit.
If the odor or irritation threshold of a substance is more than three
times greater than the permissible exposure limit, this substance
should be considered to have poor warning properties. If the
substance odor or irritation threshold is somewhat above the
permissible exposure limit (not in excess of three times the limit)
and there is no ceiling limit, consideration is given as to whether
or not undetected exposure in this concentration range could cause
serious or irreversible health effects. If not, the substance is
considered to have adequate warning properties. Some substances have
extremely low thresholds of odor and irritation in relation to the
permissible exposure limit. Because of this, these substances can be
detected by a worker within the facepiece of the respirator even when
the respirator is functioning properly. These substances are,
therefore, considered to have poor warning properties.
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Though 30 CFR 11 does not specify eliminating air purifying respirators
for pesticides with poor warning properties, the SCP Respirator Review
Committee believes the Standards Completion Program should not allow
pesticide respirators for gases and vapors with poor warning
properties.
C.	Sorbents
Where supporting evidence exists of immediate (less than three
minutes) breakthrough time at the IDLH concentration and below for a
cartridge or canister sorbent, air-purifying devices shall not be
allowed for any use, escape or otherwise.
Where these is reason to suspect that commonly used sorbents (e.g.
activated charcoal) do not provide adequate sorption efficiency
against a specific contaminant, use of such sorbents shall not be
allowed. However, where another sorbent material has been
demonstrated to be effective against a specific contaminant, approved
respirators utilizing the effective sorbent material shall be
allowed. The statement in the respirator table shall read, "Any
chemical cartridge respirator providing protection against (specific
substance)," and "Any gas mask providing protection against (specific
substance)."
Where there is reason to suspect that a sorbent has a high heat of
reaction with a substance, use of that sorbent is not allowed. In
such cases, only sorbents providing safe protection against (Specific
Substance) may be used. For such substances, a footnote is added to
the respirator table which reads as follows: "(Specific Substance)
is a strong oxidizer and should be kept away from oxidizable
material. Some cartridges and canisters may contain activated
charcoal and shall not be used to provide protection against
(specific substance). Only non-oxidizable sorbents are allowed."
Where the oxidizable material may be a oxidizable filter, the
footnote reads: "(Specific Substance) is a strong oxider and should
be kept away from oxidizable substances. Only air purifying
respirators with non-oxidizable filters are allowed.
Where there is reason to suspect that a substance sorbed on a sorbent
of a cartridge or canister is shock sensitive, use of air purifying
respirators is disallowed.
D.	Eye Irritation
For routine work operations, and perceptible eye irritations is
considered unacceptable. Therefore, only full face-piece respirators
are permissible in contaminant concentrations which produce eye
irritation. Note that 30 CFR 11.90(b) (Note 6) specifies that eye
protection may be required in certain concentrations of gases and
vapors. For escape, some eye irritation is permissible if it is
determined that such irritation would not inhibit escape and such
irritation is reversible.
Where quantitative eye irritation data cannot be found in literature
references, and theoretical considerations indicate that substance
should not be an eye irritant, half facepiece respirators are
al1 owed.
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Where a review of the literature indicates a substance causes eye
irritation but no eye irritation threshold is specified, the data,will
be evaluated to determine whether quarter of half-facepiece respirators
are to be included in the respirator tables. When a table is developed
for such substances, the respirators with quarter or half facepiece
shall be footnoted as follows: When an employee informs his employer
that he is experiencing eye irritation from ** Name ** while wearing a
respirator allowed in Table 2, the employer shall provide and ensure
that the employee use an equivalent respirator with a full facepiece,
helmet or hood.
E. IDLH
The definition of IDLH provided in 30 CFR 11.3(t) is as follows:
"Immediately dangerous to life or health" means conditions
that pose an immediate threat to life or health or conditions
that pose an immediate threat of severe exposure to
contaminants, such as radioactive materials, which are likely
to have adverse cumulative r delayed effects on health."
The purpose of establishing an IDLH exposure concentration is to insure
that the worker can escape without injury or irreversible health
effects from an IDLH concentration in the even of failure of the
respiratory protective equipment. The IDLH is considered a maximum
concentration above which only a highly reliable breathing apparatus
providing maximum worker protection is permitted. Since IDLH values
are conservatively set, any approved respirator may be used up to its
maximum use concentration below the IDLH.
In establishing the IDLH concentration the following factors are
considered:
1.	Escape without loss of life or irreversible health effects.
Thirty minutes is considered the maximum permissible exposure
time for escape.
2.	Severe eye or respiratory irritation or other reactions which
would prevent escape without injury.
IDLH should be determined from the following sources:
1.
Specific IDLH provided in the literature such as the
Hygienic Guides,
AIHA
2.
Human exposure data,

3.
Acute animal exposure data,

4.
Where such data are lacking acute toxicological data
analogous substances may be considered.
from
The following guidelines should be used to interpret toxicological
data reported in the literature for animal species:
1. Where acute exposure animal data are available (30 minutes to
1-29

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4-hour exposures), the lowest exposure concentration causing death
or irreversible health effects in any species is determined to be
the IDLH concentration.
2.	Chronic exposure data may have no relevance to the acute effects
and should be used in determining the IDLH concentration only
upon competent toxicologic judgement.
3.	Where there is no toxicologic evidence of an IDLH concentration,
500 times the permissible exposure limit shall determine the
upper limit above which only highly reliable breathing apparatus
providing maximum worker protection is used.
F.	Lower Flammable Limit and Firefighting
Contaminant concentration in excess of the LFL are considered to be
immediately dangerous to life or health. At or above the LFL, the
use of respirators is limited to those devices which provide the
maximum protection, i.e., positive-pressure SCBA, and the combination
positive-pressure supplied-air respirators with auxiliary positive
pressure SCBA.
Firefighting is defined by ANSI Z88.5-1971 as being immediately
dangerous to life. For firefighting, the only device providing
adequate protection is the positive pressure self-contained breathing
apparatus.
G.	Protection Factors
Protection factors are a measure of the overall effectiveness of a
respirator. . Filtering efficiency is a part of the protection factor
and becomes a significant consideration for less efficient air
purifying respirators.
The protection factors used in the preparation of the Standards are
based on quantitative fit tests performed at Los Alamos Scientific
Laboratory (Reference 43) and elsewhere, and in some instances on
professional judgement. In Appendix 1, the protection factors for
each class of respirators listed in the checklists are shown. The
entries in each list are for an entire class of respirators.
H.	Variations With 30 CFR 11
1.	The Type A supplied-air respirator is allowed in 30 CFR 11 for
use in immediately dangerous to life or health atmospheres.
However, the air flow requirement of 50 L/min. is insufficient to
maintain a positive pressure in the facepiece under all working
conditions. Therefore, this device should have the same
protection factor as applied to other air-purifying and
atmosphere supplying respirators having a negative pressure in
the facepiece (See Appendix I). 30 CFR 11 will require a
revision to eliminate approval of Type A supplied-air respirators
for IDLH atmospheres.
2.	30 CFR 11 does not contain protection factor requirements. Pro-
tection factors are used in the decision logic. An amendment to
1-30

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30 CFR 11 is planned to include protection factor requirements for
DFM respirators. Future amendments are contemplated for other
types of respirators.	J
3. 30 CFR 11 does not permit the use of an escape gas mask against
acid gases or organic vapors with poor warning properties. A
change to 30 CFR 11 is necessary to permit the use of an escape gas
mask against substances with poor warning properties.
I. Escape
Where escape respirators are provided, they shall be selected from
the escape category in Table 2. The employer shall provide and
ensure employees carry an escape respirator where exposure may occur
to extremely toxic substances. (An extremely toxic substance is
defined as a gas or vapor having a rat LC50 of less than 10
ppm).
The following statement is added to the introduction to the
respirator table for these substances:
Employers shall provide each employee working in areas where
** NAME** may be released into the workplace air with an
approved escape respirator as specified in Table 2. The
employer shall ensure that each employee carry the escape
respirator in the area where **NAME** may be released into
the workplace.
J. "Entry into Tanks or Closed Vessels; or ..."
Item (d)(4)(iv) is a variable provision in the introductory
statements to the respirator tables which lists the specific
operations where a respirator is considered to be an acceptable means
of control. Examples of where this may occur are for operations
which require occasional entry into tanks or other closed vessels.
1-31
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APPENDIX III
Chapter I—Mine Safety and Health Admin.
Part 11
SUBCHAPTER B—RESPIRATORY PROTECTIVE APPARATUS;
TESTS FOR PERMISSIBILITY; FEES
PART 11—respiratory protective
DEVICES; TESTS FOR PERMISSIBIL-
ITY; FEES
Use of ANSI
Z88.2
Subpart A—General Provision*
Sec.
11.1
11.2
11.2
Purpose.
Approved respirators and gas masks.
1 Selection, fit, use. and maintenance
of approved respirators
113 Definitions.
11.4 Incorporation by reference.
Subpart B—Application for Approval
11.10	Application procedures.
11.11	Contents of application.
11.12	Delivery of respirators and compo-
nents by applicant, requirements.
Subpart C—Fees
11.20	Examination, inspection, and testing
of complete respirator assemblies: fees.
11.21	Examination, inspection, and testing
of respirator components or subassemb-
lies: fees.
11.22	Unlisted fees: additional fees; pay-
ment by applicant prior to approval.
Subpart D—Approval and Disapproval
11.30	Certificates of approval; scope of ap-
proval.
11.31	Certificates of approval; contents.
11.32	Notice of disapproval.
11.33	Approval labels and markings, ap-
proval of contents, use.
11.34	Revocation of certificates of approv-
al.
11.35	Changes or modifications of ap-
proved respirators, issuance of modifica-
tion of certificate of approval.
11.36	Delivery of changed or modified ap-
proved respirator.
Subpart E—Quality Control
11.40	Quality control plans, filing require-
ments.
11.41	Quality control plans; contents.
11.42	Proposed quality control plans; ap-
proval by MSHA and the Institute.
11 43 Quality control records; review by
MSHA and the Institute; revocation of
approval
Sec.
Subpart F—Classification of Approved Respi-
rators; Scope of Approval; Atmospheric Haz-
ards; Service Time
11.50	Types of respirators to be approved;
scope of approval.
11.51	Entry and escape, or escape only;
classification.
11 52 Respiratory hazards: classification.
11.53 Service time; classification.
Subpart G—General Construction and
Performance Requirements
11.60	Construction and performance re-
quirements: general.
11.61	General construction requirements.
11.62	Component parts; minimum require-
ments.
11.63	Test requirements; general.
11.64	Pretesting by applicant; approval of
test methods.
1165 Conduct of examinations, inspec-
tions. and tests by MSHA and the Insti-
tute. assistance by applicant, observers;
recorded data: public demonstrations.
11.66 Withdrawal of applications; refund
of fees.
Subpart H—Self-Contained Breathing
Apparatus
11.70	Self-contained breathing apparatus;
description.
11.71	Self-contained breathing apparatus:
required components.
11.72	Breathing lubes; minimum require-
ments.
11.73	Harnesses: installation and construc-
tion; minimum requirements.
11.74	Apparatus containers; minimum re-
quirements.
11.75	Half-mask facepieces. full facepieces.
mouthpieces; fit; minimum require-
ments.
11.76	Facepieces: eyepieces: minimum re-
quirements.
11.77	Inhalation and exhalation valves,
minimum requirements.
11.78	Head harnesses; minimum require-
ments.
11.79	Breathing gas; minimum require-
ments.
11.79-1 Interchangeabilily of oxygen and
air prohibited.
11.80	Compressed breathing gas and lique-
fied breathing gas containers, minimum
requirements.
11.81	Gas pressure gages; minimum re-
quirements.
Schedule 13F
Reference to
DOT Regulations
13-097 O—83-
1-33

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Part 11
Title 30—Mineral Resources
Schedule 14G
Sec.
11.82	Timers: elapsed time indicators; re-
maining service life indicators, minimum
requirements.
11.83	Hand-operated valves; minimum re-
quirements.
11.84	Breathing bags: minimum require-
ments.
11.85	Self-contained breathing apparatus:
performance requirements; general.
11.85-1 Component parts exposed to
oxygen pressures: minimum require-
ments.
11.85-2 Compressed gas filters: minimum
requirements.
11.85-3 Breathing bag test.
1185-4 Weight requirement.
11 85-5 Breathing resistance test; inhala-
tion.
11.85-6 Breathing resistance test; exhala-
tion.
11.85-7 Exhalation valve leakage test.
11 85-8 Gas flow lest: open-circuit appara-
tus.
11.85-9 Gas flow test; closed-circuit appa-
ratus.
11.85-10 Service time test: open-circuit ap-
paratus.
11.85-11 Sen-ice time test; closed-circuit
apparatus.
1185-12 Test for carbon dioxide in in-
spired gas. open- and closed-circuit appa-
ratus; maximum allowable limits.
1185-13 Tests during low temperature op-
eration.
11.85-14 Man tests: testing conditions; gen-
eral requirements.
11.85-15 Man tests 1. 2, 3. and 4: require-
ments.
11 85-16 Man test 5: requirements
11.85-17 Man test 6: requirements.
11.85-18 Man tests; performance require-
ments.
11.85-19 Gas tightness test; minimum re-
quirements.
Subpart I—Gas Masks
1190 Gas masks: description.
11.91 Gas masks: required components.
11 92 Canisters and cartridges in parallel;
resistance requirements.
11.93 Canisters and cartridges; color and
markings, requirements.
11 94 Filters used with canisters and car-
tridges: location, replacement.
11.95	Breathing tubes, minimum require-
ments.
11.96	Harnesses: installation and construc-
tion; minimum requirements.
11.97	Gas mask containers; minimum re-
quirements.
11.98	Half-mask facepieces, full facepieces,
and mouthpieces: fit; minimum require-
ments.
Sec.
11.99	Facepieces. eyepieces; minimum re-
quirements.
11.100	Inhalation and exhalation valves;
minimum requirements.
11.101	Head harnesses; minimum require-
ments.
11.102	Gas masks: performance require-
ments: general.
11.102-1 Breathing resistance test; mini-
mum requirements.
11.102-2 Exhalation \alve leakage test.
11.102-3 Facepiece tests, minimum require-
ments.
11.102-4 Dust. fume. mist, and smoke tests;
canisters containing filters; minimum re-
quirements.
11.102-5 Canister bench tests; minimum re-
quirements.
Subpart J—Supplied-Air Respirators
11.110	Supplied-air respirators, description.
11.111	Supplied-air respirators: required
components.
11.112	Breathing tubes; minimum require-
ments.
11.113	Harnesses; installation and con-
struction; minimum requirements.
11.114	Respirator containers; minimum re-
quirements.
11.115	Half-mask facepieces. full face-
pieces, hoods, and helmets: fit: minimum
requirements.
11.116	Facepieces. hoods, and helmets; eye-
pieces; minimum requirements.
11.117	Inhalation and exhalation valves;
check valves; minimum requirements.
11118 Head harnesses, minimum require-
ments.
11.119	Head and neck protection, supplied-
air respirators: minimum requirements.
11.120	Air velocity and noise levels; hoods
and helmets, minimum requirements.
11.121	Breathing gas; minimum require-
ments.
11 122 Air supply source: hand-operated or
motor driven air blowers. Type A sup-
plied-air respirators; minimum require-
ments.
11.123	Terminal fittings or chambers: Type
B supplied-air respirators, minimum re-
quirements.
11.124	Supplied-air respirators; perform-
ance requirements; general.
11.124-1 Hand-operated blower test; mini-
mum requirements.
11.124-2 Motor-operated blower test: mini-
mum requirements.
11.124-3 Method of measuring the power
and torque required to operate blowers.
11.124-4 Type B supplied-air respirator;
minimum requirements.
11 124-5 Type C supplied-air respirator,
continuous flow class: minimum require-
ments.
Schedule 19C
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Chapter I—Mine Safety and Health Admin.
Part 11
Schedule 21C
Sec.
11.124-6 Type C supplied-air respirator,
demand and pressure demand class;
minimum requirements.
11.124-7 Air-supply line tests; minimum re-
quirements.
11.124-8 Harness test: minimum require-
ments.
11.124-9 Breathing tube test, minimum re-
quirements.
11.124-10 Airflow resistance test, Type A
and Type AE supplied-air respirators:
minimum requirements.
11.124-11 Airflow resistance test: Type B
and Type BE supplied-air respirators:
minimum requirements.
11.124-12 Airflow resistance test: Type C
supplied-air respirator, continuous flow
class and Type CE supplied-air respira-
tor. minimum requirements.
11.124-13 Airflow resistance test; Type C
supplied-air respirator, demand class:
minimum requirements.
11.124-14 Airflow resistance test; Type C
supplied-air respirator, pressure-demand
class; minimum requirements.
11.124-15 Exhalation valve leakage test.
11.124-16 Man tests for gases and vapors;
supplied-air respirators; general per-
formance requirements.
11 124-17 Man tests for gases and vapors:
Type A and Type AE respirators; test re-
quirements.
11.124-18 Man tests for gases and vapors;
Type B and Type BE respirators; test re-
quirements.
11.124-19 Man test for gases and vapors;
Type C respirators, continuous-flow
class and Type CE supplied-air respira-
tors: test requirements.
11.124-20 Man test for gases and vapors;
Type C supplied-air respirators, demand
and pressure-demand classes; test re-
quirements.
11 124-21 Tests for protection during abra-
sive blasting: Type AE. Type BE. and
Type CE supplied-air respirators: gener-
al performance requirements.
11.124-22 Test for protection during abra-
sive blasting; Type AE supplied-air respi-
rator; test requirements.
11.124-23 Test for protection during abra-
sive blasting: Type BE supplied-air respi-
rator; test requirements.
11.124-24 Test for protection during abra-
sive blasting; Type CE supplied-air respi-
rator. lest requirements.
Subpart K—Dull, Fume, and Mill Retpirotort
11.130	Dust, fume, and mist respirators: de-
scription.
11.131	Dust, fume and mist respirators; re-
quired components.
11.132	Breathing tubes; minimum require-
ments.
Sec.
11.133	Harnesses: installation and con-
struction; minimum requirements.
11.134	Respirator containers; minimum re-
quirements.
11.135	Half-mask facepieces. full face-
pieces, hoods, helmets, and mouthpieces;
fit; minimum requirements.
11.136	Facepieces, hoods, and helmets, eye-
pieces; minimum requirements.
11.137	Inhalation and exhalation valves:
minimum requirements.
11.138	Head harnesses; minimum require-
ments.
11.139	Air velocity and noise levels; hoods
and helmets: minimum requirements.
11.140	Dust. fume, and mist respirators;
performance requirements; general.
11.140-1 Isoamyl acetate tightness test;
dust, fume, and mist respirators de-
signed for respiratory protection against
fumes of various metals having an air
contamination level not less than 0.05
milligram per cubic meter, minimum re-
quirements.
11.140-2 Isoamyl acetate tightness test;
respirators designed for respiratory pro-
tection against dusts, fumes, and mists
having an air contamination level less
than 0.05 milligram per cubic meter, or
against radionuclides, minimum require-
ments.
11.140-3 Air-purifying filter tests; perform-
ance requirements; general.
11.140-4 Silica dust test: single-use or reus-
able filters: minimum requirements.
11.140-5 Silica dust lest; single-use dust
respirators: minimum requirements.
11.140-6 Lead fume lesi; minimum require-
ments.
11.140-7 Silica mist test; minimum require-
ments.
11.140-8 Tests for respirators designed for
respiratory protection against more
than one type of dispersoid. minimum
requirements.
11.140-9 Airflow resistance tests: all dust,
fume, and mist respirators; minimum re-
quirements.
11.140-10 Exhalation valve leakage test;
minimum requirements.
11.140-11 DOP filter test: respirators de-
signed as respiratory protection against
dusts, fumes, and mists having an air
contamination level less than 0.05 milli-
gram per cubic meter and against ra-
dionuclides: minimum requirements.
11.140-12 Silica dust loading test; respira-
tors designed as protection against
dusts, fumes, and mists having an air
contamination level less than 0.05 milli-
gram per cubic meler and against ra-
dionuclides: minimum requirements.
9
1-35

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Part 11
Title 30—Mineral Resources
Schedule 23C
Sec.
New
Schedule
Subpart I—Chemical Cartridge Respirators
1.150	Chemical cartridge respirators: de
scription.
1.151	Chemical cartridge respirators; re
quired components.
1.152	Cartridges in parallel; resistance re
quirements.
1 153 Cartridges; color and markings; re
quirements.
1.154	Filters used with chemical car
tridges; location; replacement.
1.155	Breathing tubes: minimum require
ments.
1.156	Harnesses; installation and con
struction; minimum requirements.
1.157	Respirator containers; minimum re
quirements.
1.158	Half-mask facepieces, full face
pieces, mouthpieces, hoods, and helmets
fit: minimum requirements.
1.158-1 Facepieces. hoods, and helmets
eyepieces: minimum requirements.
1.159	Inhalation and exhalation valves
minimum requirements.
1.160	Head harnesses; minimum require-
ments.
1.161	Air velocity and noise levels; hoods
and helmets: minimum requirements.
1.162	Chemical cartridge respirators; per-
formance requirements: general.
1.162-1 Breathing resistance test; mini-
mum requirements.
1.162-2 Exhalation valve leakage test;
minimum requirements.
1.162-3 Facepiece test; minimum require-
ments.
1 162-4 Lacquer and enamel mist tests;
respirators with filters, minimum re-
quirements. general.
1.162-5 Lacquer mist test, minimum re-
quirements.
1.162-6 Enamel mist test; minimum re-
quirements.
1 162-7 Dust, fume, and mist tests, respi-
rators with filters, minimum require-
ments: general.
1.162-8 Bench tests: gas and vapor tests,
minimum requirements, general.
Subpart M—Pesticide Respirators
1.170 Pesticide respirators; description
1 171 Pesticide respirators: required com-
ponents
1 172 Canisters and cartridges m parallel;
resistance requirements.
1.173	Canisters and cartridges, color and
markings, requirements.
1.174	Filters used with canisters and car-
tridges: location, replacement.
1 175 Breathing tubes: minimum require-
ments.
1 176 Harnesses: installation and con-
struction. minimum requirements.
Sec.
11.177	Respirator containers; minimum re-
quirements.
11.178	Half-mask facepieces, full face-
pieces, hoods and helmets, and mouth-
pieces; fit; minimum requirements.
11.179	Facepieces. hoods and helmets; eye-
pieces: minimum requirements.
11.180	Inhalation and exhalation valves;
minimum requirements.
11.181	Head harnesses; minimum require-
ments.
11.182	Air velocity and noise levels; hoods
and helmets: minimum requirements.
11.183	Pesticide respirators; performance
requirements; general.
11.183-1 Breathing resistance test; mini-
mum requirements.
11.183-2 Exhalation valve leakage test;
minimum requirements.
11.183-3 Facepiece test; minimum require-
ments.
11.183-4 Silica dust test; minimum require-
ments.
11.183-5 Lead fume test: minimum require-
ments.
11.183-6 Dioctyl-phthalate test; minimum
requirements.
11.183-7 Bench tests: minimum require-
ments.
Subpart N—Special Use Respirators
11.200	Vinyl chloride respirators; descrip-
tion.
11.201	Required components.
11.202	Gas masks; requirements and tests.
11.203	Chemical-cartridge respirators: re-
quirements and tests.
11.204	Powered air-purifying respirators;
requirements and tests.
11.205	Requirements for end-of-service-life
indicator.
11 206 Quality control requirements.
11.207	Labeling requirements.
11.208	Fees.
Authority: Sees. 202(h). 204. and 508, 83
Stat. 763, 764, and 803: 30 U.S C. 842(h). 844
and 957, sees. 2. 3, and 5. 36 Stat 370, as
amended 37 Stat. 681. 30 U S.C. 3. 5. and 7;
sec 8(g). 84 Stat. 1600. 29 U S C. 657(g). sees.
301(a) and 302(a) of the Federal Mine
Safety and Health Amendments Act of 1977.
Pub L. 95-164. 30 U.S C 961 and 951 and 29
U S.C. 577a. 91 Stat 1317 and 91 Stat. 1319:
sec 508 of the Federal Mine Safety and
Health Act of 1977. Pub. L. 91-173 as
amended by Pub. L 95-164. 30 li SC 957. 83
Stat. 803. unless otherwise noted.
Source' 37 FR 6244, Mar. 25. 1972. unless
otherulse noted.
Note: Nomenclature changes appear at 43
FR 12313, Mar 24, 1978
New
Schedule
10
1-36

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APPENDIX IV
NIOSH CERTIFIED EQUIPMENT LIST
I. RESPIRATOR SELECTION
The selection of an appropriate respirator for use in a given situation can
only be made by carefully considering a number of interrelated environmental,
equipment, work situation, and human factors.
Once a type of respirator is selected, then the user can refer to the
appropriate table for a list of all approved devices of that type:
Also, if the user chooses a specific respirator, he/she can look-up the
approval number for that device and determine the type of respirator
protection it provides. For example, if you were to choose an MSA half-mask
respirator with organic vapor cartridges, you would first find the approval
numbe on the cartridge label. Next you look under the schedule for chemical
cartridge respirators until you find the correct listing (in this case -
TC-23C-201). From Table IV-1, it can be seen that this respirator can be
used for organic vapors, paints-lacquers-enamels, and dusts or mists under
specified conditions.
If you want to find out if the facepiece and cartridges are an approved
assembly - that is, can these particular cartridges be used with this
facepiece - you refer to Table 111-5 of the list. Table IV-2 shows that
under approval number TC-23C-201 three different masks can be used with two
different purifying elements and 1 filter cover.
Respirator Type
Approved Schedule
Self-Contained Breathing Apparatus
Gas Masks
Supplied-Air Respirators
Dust, Fume, and Mist Respirators
Chemical Cartridge Respirators
Vinyl Chloride Respirators
TC-13F-
TC-14G-
TC-19C-
TC-21C-
TC-23C-
TC-11-
1-37
8/84

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TABLE IV-1
CHEMICAL CARTRIDGE RESPIRATORS APPROVED BY MSHA/NIOSH
Approval
number
TC-23C-
Approval
issued to
Model
number(s)
Respirator
type
Face-
piece
type
No. of
cartridges
Type of respiratory protection
0V CI S02 HC1 NH3 MA PLE PEST DFM
198
U.S. Safety
150T30
unavai1 able
Fm
ON
2
X X
199
Cesco
95RC125
unavai1 able
Fm
ON
2
X X
200
3M
8716
Su
ON
1
-- 10 ppm vinyl chloride
201
MSA
465986
466239
466240
466241
466526
466527
Rp,Fm
ON
2
X X
Fm:	Facepiece mounted cartridges
Su:	Single use
Rp:	Replaceable cartridges
ON:	Orinasal (half mask)
0 V
organic vapors
CI
Chlorine
SO 2
Sulfer dioxide
HC1
Hydrogen chloride
NH3
Ammonia
MA
Methyl amine
PLE
paints, laquers, enamels
PEST
pesticides
DFM
dust, fume, mist

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TABLE IV-2
Table 111-5. Chemical-cartridge respirators component parts, by approval number.
Approval Approval	Model	Component parts,
number	issued to	number(s)	number(s) and description
TC-23C-
198
199
200
201
U.S. Safety
Cesco
3M
MSA
150T30*
95RC1 *25
8716
465986
466239
466240
466241
466526
466527
150, facepiece assembly.
158T30 (TC-23C-198), cartridges.
95, facepiece assembly.
RC125 (TC-23C-199), cartridges.
8716 (TC-23C-200), respirator.
7-201-1, 7-201-2, 7-201-3, facepiece,
459315 (TC-23C-40), cartridges.
465947 (TC-23C-201), filters.
462603, filter covers.
* Denotes obsolete or unavailable

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PART 2
AIR-PURIFYING RESPIRATORS
I. INTRODUCTION
A respirator is used because the concentration of a contaminant is
high enough to cause some type of health effect. This may range
from respiratory irritation to systemic damage or even death. The
guidelines often used to decide the need for a respirator are the
Threshold Limit Values. A concentration greater than the TLV
requires respiratory protection. If the concentration is within
the concentration use limits of an air-purifying respirator, then
that type may be used. If it is greater, then an atmosphere-
supplying apparatus must be worn.
Air-purifying respirators can be used only under the following
circumstances:
-- The identity and concentration of the contaminant are known.
-- The oxygen content in air is at least 19.5%.
-- There is periodic monitoring of the work area.
-- The respirator assembly is approved for protection against the
specific contaminant and concentration level.
-- The type of respirator being used has been successfully
fit-tested on the wearer.
II. Respirator Construction
The facepiece is one of the two major components of an
air-purifying respirator; the air-purifying element is the other.
In some cases the two components are combined into one single
unit, more often they are separate pieces. The basic classes of
air-purifying respirators are as follows:
-- Disposable dust respirators
Many disposable cloth and paper respirators are approved, and
even more are not. Those with approval provide protection
against nuisance dusts and sometimes asbestos. With this type
of respirator it is very difficult to fit-test and obtain and
maintain a good facepiece-to-face seal.
-- Mouthbit respirators
Mouthbit respirators are approved for escape only. The mouth
piece is held by the teeth and a clamp is used to close the
nostrils. A cartridge-type filter removes the contaminant
from the atmosphere. This type of respirator can only be used
when the hazard is identified and the respirator is approved
for that hazard.
2-1

-------
-- Quarter-mask respirators (Type B Half-Mask)
The quarter-mask is used with cartridges or cloth filters for
toxic and nontoxic dusts with TLV's above 0.05 mg/m^. Below
0.05 mg/m3 a more efficient respirator must be used.
The mask fits from the top of the nose to the top of the chin.
The breathing resistance is high in comparison to larger
masks.
-- Half-mask respirators (Type A Half-Mask)
A half-mask respirator fits from under the chin to above the
nose. One or two cartridges are used to filter the air and
discarded once the use limits are reached. Whereas the
quarter-mask is approved for only dusts, the half-mask has
approved cartridges for pesticides, organic vapors, dusts,
mists, fumes, acid gases, ammonia, and several combinations.
-- Full-face respirators
The whole face, including the eyes, is protected by the
full-face mask. It gives 10 times the protection of a
half-mask (full-face mask PF=100, half-mask PF=10). The
full-face mask may be used with twin cartridges, chin-mounted
canisters, or chest or back-mounted canisters. Filters are
available for the same materials as for the half-mask, plus
several more.
-- Powered respirators
Powered respirators give no breathing resistance. They are
used with half-mask, full-face masks, and also special
helmets.
III. Facepiece
The facepiece is the means of sealing the respirator to the
wearer. Attached to the facepiece is the lens (in the case of the
full-facepiece) and the suspension for holding the mask to the
face. An adapter is attached to the cartridge or canister. With
the adapter and the mask is an inhalation check valve, which
prevents exhaled breath from coming back through the cartridge or
canister. An exhalation valve permits the exhaled breath to be
exhausted and prevents air from entering it during inhalation.
Some respirators provide an integral speaking diaphram which is
air-tight. Each respirator manufacturer has different ways of
assembling and attaching parts. This prevents hybridizing two
different makes into one, which would void its approval.
Although many configurations exist, only four types of
facepiece-element assemblies are satisfactory for use when dealing
with hazardous materials:
2-2

-------
-	Half-mask with twin cartridges or filters
-	Full-face mask with twin cartridges or filters
-	Full-face mask with chin-mounted canister
-	Full-face mask with harness-mounted canister (gas mask)
The recommended facepiece to use is the ful1-facepiece. It
provides eye protection, is easier to fit, and has a Protection
Factor 10 times greater than the half-mask.
IV. Air-Purifying Elements
Basically, respiratory hazards can be broken down into two
classes: particulates and vapors/gases. Particulates are
filtered by mechanical means, while vapors and gases are removed
by sorbents that react chemically with them. Respirators using a
combination of mechanical filter and chemical sorbent will
effectively remove both hazards.
A.	Particulate-Removing Filters
Particulates can occur as dusts, fumes, or mists. The
particle size can range from macroscopic to microscopic, and
their toxicological effects can be severe or innocuous. The
hazard posed by a particulate can be determined by its TLV. A
nuisance particulate will have a TLV of 10 mg/m^, while a
toxic particulate may have a TLV well below 0.05 mg/m^.
Mechanical filters are classified according to the protection
for which they are approved under schedule 21C of 30 CFR Part
11. Most particulate filters are approved only for dusts
and/or mists with TLV's equal to or greater than 0.05 mg/m^.
These dusts are usually considered to produce pneumoconiosis
and fibrosis. Such filters have an efficiency of 80-90% for
0.6 micrometer particles.
Respirators approved for fumes are more efficient, removing
90-99% for 0.6 micrometer particles. This type of respirator
is approved for dusts, fumes and mists with TLV's equal to or
greater than 0.05 mg/m^.
Finally there is a high efficiency filter, which is 99.97%
effective against particles 0.3 microns in diameter. It is
approved for dusts, mists, and fumes with a TLV less than 0.05
mg/m3.
Mechanical filters load up with particulates as they are used.
As they do, they become more efficient, but also become more
difficult to breathe through. When a mechanical filter
becomes difficult to breathe through it should be replaced.
B.	Gas and Vapor-Removing Cartridges and Canisters
When selecting a gas- or vapor-removing element, it must be
chosen for protection against a specific type of contaminant.
Some of the commonly employed types of chemical cartridges and
canisters and their OSHA-required color coding are listed in
2-3

-------
Table 2-1. This table has been excerpted from the OSHA respirator
regulations for general industry (29 CFR 1910.134) - the entire text of
these regulations can be found in Part 1, Appendix I of this manual
section.
1.	Style and Size
Gas- and vapor-elements are available in different styles.
The physical differences are: (1) size and (2) how they
are attached to the facepiece. The smallest elements are
the cartridges which contain 50-200 cm^ of sorbent and
attach directly to the facepiece, usually in pairs. Chin
canisters have a volume of 250-500 cm^ and are attached
to a full-facepiece. Gas mask, or industrial-size,
canisters contain 1000-2000 cnw and are attached by a
harness to the wearer's front or back and connected to the
full-facepiece by a breathing hose. Figure 2-1
illustrates several styles of APR's.
The difference in applications is the Maximum Use
Concentration (MUC) for which the cartridge or canister
can be used in accordance with its NI0SH/MSHA approval.
For example, organic vapors can be removed by the
appropriate cartridges, chin canister, or gas-mask
canister. Cartridges are approved for use in atmospheres
up to 1,000 ppm (0.1%) organic vapors, chin style
canisters up to 5000 ppm (0.5%), and gas mask canisters up
to 20,000 ppm (2.0%). However, no air-purifying
respirator is permitted in an IDLH atmosphere.
2.	Service Life
Each sorbent has a finite capacity for removing
contaminants and when this limit is reached the cartridge
or canister is said to be saturated. At this point the
cleaning element will allow the contaminant to pass
through and enter the facepiece. The length of time a
cartridge or canister will effectively sorb the
contaminant is known as the service life of the element.
Service life of a type of cartridge or canister is
dependent on several factors: the breathing rate of the
wearer; contaminant concentration; and sorption
efficiency.
a. Breathing Rate
If the breathing rate of the user is rapid, the flow rate of
the contaminated air drawn through the cartridge is greater
than it is at a moderate or slow respiration rate. A higher
flow rate brings a larger amount of contaminant in contact with
the sorbent in a given period of time which, in turn, increases
the rate of sorbent saturation and shortens service life.
2-4

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TABLE 2-1
CHEMICAL CARTRIDGE TYPES AND COLOR CODING
1910.134(K)(6)	OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH
STANDARDS AND INTERPRETATIONS
Table 1-1
Atmospheric contaminants to be protected
against
Acid gases	
Hydrocyanic acid gas	
Chlorine gas	
Organic vapors	
Ammonia gas	
Acid gases and ammonia gas	
Carbon monoxide	
Acid gases and organic vapors	
Hydrocyanic acid gas and chloropicrin vapor.
Acid gases, organic vapors, and ammonia
gases.
Radioactive materials, excepting tritium and
noble gases.
Particulates (dusts, fumes, mists, fogs, or
smokes) in combination with any of the
above gases or vapors.
All of the above atmospheric contaminants..
Colors assigned•
White.
White with Va-lnch green stripe completely
around the canister near the bottom.
White with Vi-lnch yellow stripe completely
around the canister near the bottom.
Black.
Green.
Green with Vi-lnch white stripe, completely
around the canister near the bottom.
Blue.
Yellow.
Yellow with '/i-lHch blue stripe completely
around the canister near the bottom.
Brown.
Purple (Magenta).
Canister color for contaminant, as designated
above, with 14-Inch gray stripe completely
around the canister near the top.
Red with Vi-lnch gray stripe completely
around the canister near the top.
•Gray shall not be assigned as the main color for a canister designed to remove acids or
vapors.
Note: Orange shall be used as a complete body, or stripe color to represent gases not
included in this table. The user will need to refer to the canister label to determine the
degree of protection the canister will afford.
2-5

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FIGURE 2-1
TYPICAL STYLES OF APR 1S
FACEPIEC
INHALATION
VALVE
AIR PURIFYING
ELEMENT
EXHALATION
VALVE
HEADBANDS
<— 1/2 mask and cartridges
FACEPIECE
EYEPIECE
\
AIR DIRECTING INLET
INHALATION VALVE
AIR PURIFYING
ELEMENT
EXHALATION VALVE
<— ful 1-facepiece and chin canister
FACEPIECE
EYEPIECE
OIRECTING AIR INLET TUBE
INHALATION VALVE
EXHALATION VALVE
FLEXIBLE,	_
NON-KINKING TUBE
AIR PURIFYING
ELEMENT (CANISTER)
CARRIER —-
HARNESS CASE
HEAD HARNESS
CARRIER HARNESS
NECK STRAP
CARRIER HARNESS
BODY 8TRAP
full-facepiece and industrial canister
2-6

-------
b. Contaminant Concentration
The expected service life of an organic vapor cartridge
(MUC=1000 ppm) decreases as ambient contaminant concentration
increases. As concentration goes up, the mass flow rate
increases bringing more contaminant in contact with the
sorbent in a given period of time. For example, at any
constant breathing rate, ten times as much contaminant
contacts the element when the concentration is 500 ppm
compared to 50 ppm.
One way to compensate for increased breathing rates or high
concentrations is to employ a larger canister. The expected
service life of a canister is longer than a cartridge due to
the greater sorptive capacity of the larger amount of media in
the canisters.
c. Cartridge Efficiency
Chemical sorbents vary in their ability to remove contaminants
from air. Table 2-2 compares the efficiency of organic vapor
cartridges for a numberof solvents by recording the amount of
time until a \% breakthrough concentration was measured in the
cartridge-filtered air. The initial test concentration is
1000 ppm of solvent vapor; the breakthrough concentration is
10 ppm. From the table it can be seen that it takes 107
minutes for chlorobenzene to reach a 1% breakthrough,
while it only takes 3.8 minutes for vinyl chloride. The
sorbent (activated carbon) in the organic vapor cartridge is
much better for removing chlorobenzene than vinyl chloride
under the test conditions. Cartridge efficiencies need to be
considered when selecting and using APR's. References for
cartridge efficiency studies can be found in Appendix I.
3. Warning Properties
A warning property is a sign that a cartridge or canister in
use is beginning to lose its effectiveness. A warning property
can be detected as an odor, taste, or irritation. At the first
such signal, the old cartridge or canister must be exchanged for a
fresh one. Without a warning property, respirator efficiency may
drop without the knowledge of the wearer, ultimately causing a
health hazard.
Most substances have warning properties at some concentration. A
warning property detected only at dangerous levels — that is,
greater than TLV — is not considered adequate. An odor, taste,
or irritation detected at extremely low concentrations is also not
adequate because the warning is being given all the time or long
before the filter begins to lose its effectiveness. In this case,
the wearer would never realize when the filter actually becomes
ineffective.
2-7

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TABLE 2-2
EFFECT OF SOLVENT VAPOR ON RESPIRATOR CARTRIDGE EFFICIENCY1
Time to Reach 1% Breakthrough (10 ppm)
Solvent	Minutes (2)
Aromatics 3
Benzene	73
Toluene	94
Ethyl benzene	84
m-Xylene	99
Cumene	81
Mestiylene	86
Alcohols 3
Methanol	0.2
Ethanol	28
Isopropanol	54
Allyl alcohol	66
n-Propanol	70
sec-Butanol	96
Butanol	115
2-Methoxyethanol	116
Isoamyl alcohol	97
4-Methyl-2-pentanol	75
2-Ethoxyethanol	77
Amyl alcohol	102
2-Ethyl-1-butanol	76.5
Monochlorides 3
Methyl chloride	0.05
Vinyl chloride	3.8
Ethyl chloride	5.6
Allyl chloride	31
1-Chloropropane	25
1-Chlorobutane	72
Chiorocyclopentane	78
Chlorobenzene	107
1-Chlorohexane	77
0-Chlorotoluene	102
1-Chloroheptane	82
3-(Chloromethyl	heptane)	63
2-8

-------
TABLE 2-2 (Cont'd)
Time to Reach 1% Breakthrough (10 ppm)
Solvent	Minutes
Dichlorides 3
Dichloromethane	10
trans-l,2-Dichloroethylene	33
1.1-Dichloroethane	23
cis-l,2-Dichloroethylene	30
1.2-Dichloroethane	54
1.2-Dichloropropane	65
1,4-Dichlorobutane	108
o-Dichlorobenzene	109
Trichlorides 3
Chloroform	33
Methyl chloroform	40
Trichloroethylene	55
1.1.2-Trichloroethane	72
1.2.3-Trichloropropane	111
Tetra- and Pentachlorides 3
Carbon tetrachloride	77
Perchloroethylene	107
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane	104
Pentachloroethane	93
Acetates 3
Methyl acetate	33
Vinyl acetate	55
Ethyl acetate	67
Isopropyl acetate	65
Isopropenyl acetate	83
Propyl acetate	79
Allyl acetate	76
sec-Butyl acetate	83
Butyl acetate	77
Isopentyl acetate	71
2-Methoxyethyl acetate	93
1.3-Dimethylbutyl	acetate	61
Amyl acetate	73
2-Ethoxyethyl acetate	80
Hexyl acetate	67
Ketones 4
Acetone	37
2-Butanone	82
2-Pentanone	104
3-Pentanone	94
4-Methyl-2-pentanone	96
Mesityl oxide	122
Cyclopentanone	141
3-Heptanone	91
2-9

-------
TABLE 2-2 (Cont'd)
Time to Reach 1% Breakthrough (10 ppm)
Solvent	Minutes
Ketones 4
2-Heptanone	101
Cyclohexanone	126
5-Methyl-3-heptanone	86
3-Methylcyclohexanone	101
Diisobutyl ketone	71
4-Methylcyclohexanone	111
Alkanes 4
Pentane	61
Hexane	52
Methylcyclopentane	62
Cyclohexane	69
2,2,4-Trimethylpentane68
Heptane	78
Methylcyclohexane	69
5-Ethylidene-2-norbornene	87
Nonane	76
Decane	71
Amines 4
Methyl amine	12
Ethyl amine	40
Isopropyl amine	66
Propyl amine	90
Diethyl amine	88
Butyl amine	110
Triethyl amine	81
Dipropyl amine	93
Diisopropyl amine	77
Cyclohexyl amine	112
Dibutyl amine	76
Miscellaneous materials ^
Acrylonitrile	49
Pyridine	119
1-Nitropropane	143
Methyl iodide	12
Dibromomethane	82
1,2-Dibromoethane	141
Acetic anhydride	124
Bromobenzene	142
1	Nelson, G.O., and C.A. Harder. Respirator Cartridge Efficiency
Studies, University of California, Livermore. 1976.
2	Cartridge pairs tested at 1000 ppm, 50% relative humidity,
22°C, and 53.3 liters/minute (equivalent to a moderately
heavy work rate). Pair cartridges preconditioned at room
temperature and 50% relative humidity for at least 24
hours prior to testing.
3	Mine Safety Appliances Cartridges.
American Optical Cartridges.
2-10

-------
The best concentration for a warning property to be first detected is
around the TLV-TWA. For example, benzene has an odor threshold of
4.68 ppm and a TLV-TWA of 10 ppm. This is usually considered an
adequate warning property. Conversely, dimethylformamide has a
TLV-TWA of 10 ppm and an odor threshold of 100 ppm. An odor threshold
ten times the TLV is not an adequate warning property. Adequate
warning properties are discussed in more detail in the NIOSH/OSHA
Respirator Decision Logic (Section III, Part 2, Appendix II of this
manual). A list of warning properties is found in Part 2, Appendix
II.
If a substance causes rapid olfactory fatigue (that is, the sense of
smell is no longer effective), its odor is not an adequate warning
property. For example, upon entering an atmosphere containing
hydrogen sulfide, the odor is quite noticeable. After a short period
of time, it is no longer detectable.
V. Requirements for Respirator Use
The use of an air-purifying respirator is contingent upon a number of
criteria. If the conditions spelled-out in this section of the text
cannot be met, then use of an APR is prohibited. Figure 2-2 illustrates
the selection criteria in as flow diagram. Additional information on
respirator selection can be found in Section III, Part 1 (including
appendices I and II) of this manual.
A.	Oxygen Content
The normal atmosphere contains approximately 21% oxygen. The
physiological effects of reduced oxygen begin to be evident at 16%.
Without regard to contaminants, the atmosphere must contain a minimum of
19.5% oxygen to permit use of an air-purifying respirator. This is a
legal requirement of 30 CFR Part 11 and a recommendation of ANSI Z88.2 -
1980. Below 19.5% oxygen, atmosphere-supplying respirators must be used
instead.
B.	Identification of Contaminants
It is absolutely imperative that the contaminant(s) be known so that:
-	the toxic effects of inhaling the contaminant can be determined;
-	appropriate particulate filters or cartridges/canisters can be
chosen;
-	it can be determined that adequate warning properties exist for the
contaminant;
-	the appropriate facepiece be selected (full-face mask is necessary
if the agent causes eye irritation).
C.	Contaminant Concentration is Known
The maximum concentration depends on the contaminant and the
respirator.
2-11

-------
FIGURE 2-2
SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS FLOW CHART
CAN AN AIR-PURIFYING
RESPIRATOR BE USED?
OXYGEN DEFICIENCY	IDENTIFIED AIR CONTAMINANT
STOP	yes	no
STOP
adequate warning properties?
YES	no
TLV EXCEEDED?
YES	NO
STOP
NO RESPIRATOR REQUIRED
IDLH EXCEEDED?
<3?	
YES	NO
STOP	SERVICE LIMIT CONCENTRATION OF
CANNISTER/CARTRIDOE ADEQUATE?
<7	
YES	NO
o	o
PROTECTION FACTOR OF MASK ADEQUATE?	STOP
NO	YES
o
STOP	HAS USER BEEN SUCCESSFULLY FIT-TESTED?
^7	
YES	NO
o
IS THE RESPIRATOR ASSEMBLY	STOP
APPROVED FOR THIS APPLICATION?
NO	YES
ST0P	USE APPROPRIATE
AIR-PURIFYING RESPIRATOR
2-12

-------
-	concentration must not exceed IDLH;
-	the Maximum Use Limit of the respirator cannot be exceeded
(MUL=PFxTLV);
-	the Maximum Use Concentration of a particular type and size
cartridge or canister must not be surpassed;
-	expected service life (cartridge/canister efficiency) should be
determined, if possible.
D.	Periodic Monitoring of Hazards
Because of the importance of knowing the identity and concentration of
the contaminant(s), monitoring of the work area with appropriate
equipment must occur at least periodically during the work day. This
is done to ensure that no significant changes have occurred and the
respirators being used are adequate for the work conditions.
E.	Approval Respirators
The respirator assembly (facepiece and air-purifying elements) is
approved for protection against the contaminant at the concentration
which is present in the work area. The concentration must not exceed
the NIOSH/MSHA designated MUC for that type and size cartridge or
canister.
F.	Fit-test
The wearer must pass a qualitative fit-test for the make, model, and
size of air-purifying device used. Appendix III provides instructions
for the qualitative tests.
Respirator Use and Cleaning
A.	Donning and Fitting the APR
The OSHA regulations, in 29 CFR 1910.134 (e)(5) (i), state: "Every
respirator wearer shall receive fitting instructions including
demonstrations and practice in how the respirator should be worn, how
to adjust it, and how to determine if it fits properly. Respirators
shall not be worn when conditions prevent a good face seal. Such
conditions may be a growth of beard, sideburns, a skull cap that
projects under the facepiece, or temple pieces on glasses. Also, the
absence of one or both dentures can seriously affect the fit of a
facepiece. The worker's diligence in observing these factors shall be
evaluated by periodic check. To assure proper protection, the
facepiece fit shall be checked by the wearer each time he puts on the
respirator. This may be done by fitting instructions." Appendix IV
gives instructions on checking the respirator for a proper fit.
B.	Respirator Cleaning
Once a respirator has been used it must be cleaned. All detachable
parts such as straps, valves, and gaskets are removed and cleaned
separately. Cartridges cannot be cleaned. They can be used again if
their service life has not been exhausted. The facepiece and other
parts can be washed separately in sanitizer solution made by the
2-13

-------
manufacturer or the respirator. The parts should go through two water
rinses and left to air dry. When dry, the parts are assembled and the
respirator is put in a clean plastic bag and stored where it will be
protected from conditions that could alter the shape of the mask, high
temperatures, or very dusty environments. Additional details are
provided in Appendix V.
2-14
8/84

-------
APPENDIX I
REFERENCES FOR RESPIRATOR CARTRIDGE EFFICIENCIES STUDIES
Ruch, W.E., G.O. Nelson, C.L. Lindeken, R.E. Johnsen, and D.J. Hodgkins.
"Respirator Cartridge Efficiency Studies: I. Experimental Design."
Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 33, 105 (1972).
Nelson, G.O., and D.H. Hodgkins. "Respirator Cartridge Efficiency Studies:
II. Preparation of Test Atmospheres." Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J.
33, 110 (1972).
Nelson, G.O., R.E. Johnsen, C.L. Lindeken, and R.D. Taylor. "Respirator
Cartridge Efficiency Studies: III. A Mechanical Breathing Machine to
Simulate Human Respiration." Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 33, 745 (1972).
Nelson, G.O., and C.A. Harder. "Respirator Cartridge Efficiency Studies:
IV.	Effects of Steady-State and Pulsating Flow."
Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 33, 797 (1972).
Nelson, G.O., and C.A. Harder. "Respirator Cartridge Efficiency Studies:
V.	Effect of Solvent Vapor." Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 35, 391 (1974).
Nelson, G.O., C.A. Harder, and B.E. Bigler. "Respirator Cartridge
Efficiency Studies: VI. Effect of Concentration." Lawrence Livermore
Laboratory, Rept. UCRL-76184 (November, 1974).
Nelson, G.O., A.N. Correia, and C.A. Harder. "Respirator Cartridge
Efficiency Studies: VII. Effect of Relative Humidity and Temperature."
Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, Rept. UCRL-77390 (August, 1975).
Nelson, G.O., and A.N. Correia. "Respirator Cartridge Efficiency Studies:
VIII. Summary and Conclusions." Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 37,9 (1976).
2-15
8/84

-------
-
APPENDIX II
WARNING CONCENTRATIONS OF VARIOUS CHEMICALS
The following table is a compilation of warning concentrations of various
chemicals taken from several sources. A warning concentration is that
concentration in air at which a person can detect the material either by
its odor, by its taste, or by it causing irritation. Exposure limits, where
they exist, are included so that a comparison can be made to determine if a
chemical has adequate warning properties. A material has adequate warning
properties if the effects (odor, taste, irritation) are detectable and persis-
tent at concentrations "at" or "below" the exposure limit. Please note that
some sources give a statement like "adequate" or "inadequate" for the warning
properties. Since the statement may be used in conjuction with a different
exposure limit than is used in this table, it should be used with caution.
Some of the chemicals have a range of concentrations because the different
sources have different values. This can be due to the variability of human
perceptions or different test methods. The sources may have used different
end points for their testing. This value could be when the first person
detected the odor, when everyone could smell it, or when 50% of the test
subjects could detect it. Because of these variations the full range of
warning concentrations is given so that the user can decide on which value
to use.
The warning concentrations given are generally odor thresholds with irritation
thresholds given in parentheses. Taste thresholds are noted as special cases.
The concentration units used in the table are parts per million unless other-
wise noted.
2-17

-------
CHEMICALS
WARNING CONCENTRATIONS4.5
Acetaldehyde
Acetamide
Acetic Acid
Acetic Anhydride
Acetone
Acetonitrile
Acetophenone
Acetyl Bromide
Acetyl Chloride
Acrolei n
Acrylamide
Acrylic Acid
Acrylonitrile
Akrol
Allyl Alcohol
A1 lylamine
Allyl Chloride
Allyl Chloroformate
Allyl Disulfide
Allyl Glycidyl Ether
Allyl Isocyanide
Allyl Isothiocyanide
Allyl Mercaptan
Allyl Sulfide
Ammo n i a
Ammonium Hydroxide
Ammonium Sulfamate
iso-Amyl Acetate
n-Amyl Acetate
sec-Amyl Acetate
tert-Amyl Acetate
Amyl Alcohol (Pentanol)
Amylene (2-Methyl-2-Butene)
Amyl Isovalerate
iso-Amyl Mercaptan
n-Amyl Mercaptan
n-Amyl Methyl Ketone
Amyl Sulfide
0.031 - 2.3 (50)
"odorless when pure"
0.2 - 24 (10-15)
0.14 - 81.2(5)
100
40(500)
0.002 - 0.60
5.0 x 10"4
1
0.1 - 16.6, (0.21 - 0.5)
"odorless"
1.04
19 - 100, fatigue
10
0.75 - 7.2, (0.75 - 25)
6.3	- 28.7
0.47(50-100)
1.4
0.0012
< 10
0.018
0.15 - 0.42
0.00005 - 0.21
0.000014 - 0.01
0.32 - 55 (55 - 140)
50
"odorless"
0.0028 - 0.11
0.00090 - 0.08 (200)
0.0017 - 0.082
0.0017
0.0065 - 35
0.0022 - 2.3
0.11
0.0043 - 0.7
0.07
0.0009
0.0030 - 0.005
Exposure Limitsl»2
IDLH7
TWA^	STEL	LEVEL
100(i)	150	10000
10(i)	15	1000
C 5(i)	1000
7 50(i)	1000	20000
40(s)	60	4000
0.1(i)	0.3	10
0.3 mg/m^ 0.6 mg/m^
10
2(c)	4000
2(s)	4	150
l(s)	2	300
5(i)	10	270
25 (i)	35	500
10 mg/m^	5000 mg/m^
100(i)	125	3000
100(i)	150	4000
125(i)	150	9000

-------
Exposure Limits
IDLH
CHEMICALS
WARNING CONCENTRATIONS
TWA
STEL
LEVEL
Anethole
0.0033



Anili ne
0.5 - 70
2 (s)

100
Apiol
0.0063
0.2 mg/m^
(as arsenic)


Arsenic Anhydride
1


Arsi ne
0.21 - <1
0.05(s)

6
Benzaldehyde
0.003 - 0.69



Benzene
4.68
10(c)
25
2000
Benzoyl Peroxide
"odorless"
5 mg/nv3

lOOOmg/m^
Benzyl Alcohol
5.5
Hi)

10
Benzyl Chloride
0.040 - 0.31

Benzyl Mercaptan
0.00019 - 0.037



Benzyl Sulfide
0.0021 - 0.07



Bornyl Acetate
0.0078
10 mg/m^


Boron Oxide
"immediate irritation"


Boron Trifluoride
1 - 1.5
C-l(s)

100
Bromi ne
0.05 - 3.5 (0.6 intolerable)
0.1(i)
0.3
10
Bromoacetone
0.090



Bromoacetophenone
0.079
0.5(1)


Bromoform
"adequate" 530


1,3-Butadiene
0.16 - 1.8 (>8000)
1000(i)
1250
20000
i so-Butane
1.2
800(s)


n-Butane
5.5 - >5000
800(s)


2-Butoxyethanol
(100 - 195)
25(s)
75
700
Butyl Acetate
0.037 - 20 (300)
150(i)
200
10000
iso-Butyl Acetate
0.002 - 7, (<150)
150
187

sec-Butyl Acetate
4-7
200(i)
250
10000
tert-Butyl Acetate
0.004 (200)
200(i)
250
8000
Butyl Alcohol
1 - 15 (25 - 100)
C-50(s)

8000
iso-Butyl Alcohol
40
50
75

sec-Butyl Alcohol
43
100(s)
150

tert-Butyl Alcohol
73 (100)
100(s)
150
2000
Butyl amine
0.24 - 5 (10 - 15)
C-5(i)

sec-Butylami ne
0.24 (as n-Butylamine)



tert-Butylamine
0.24 (as n-Butylamine)



Butyl Cellosolve
0.48



Butyl Cellosolve Acetate
0.20

-------
CHEMICALS
WARNING CONCENTRATIONS
n-Butyl Chloride
13
1-Butylene (1-Butene)
0.07 - 26
2-Butylene (2-Butene)
0.57 - 22
Butyl Ether
0.24 - 0.47
Butylene Oxide
0.71
n-Butyl Formate
17
iso-Butyl Mercaptan
0.00054 - 0.00072
n-Butyl Mercaptan
0.00082 - 0.38
tert-Butyl Mercaptan
0.00009 - 0.06
Butyl Sulfide
0.015 - 0.18
p-tert-Butyltoluene
5 (5-8)
n-Butyraldehyde
0.0046 - 0.039
Butyric Acid
0.00056 - 0.001
iso-Butyric Acid
0.001
Cadmium Dust
"i nadequate"
Cadmium Fume
"i nadequate"
Calcium Dodecylbenzene
0.3
Sulfonate

Calcium Hydroxide
"odorless"
Calcium Hypochlorite
3.5 (as Chlorine)
Calcium Phosphide
0.13 - 13.4
Camphor-Synthetic
0.018 - 200 (1.77)
Caprolactam
0.065
Carbaryl (Sevin^)
"essentially odorless"
Carbitol Acetate
0.157 - 0.263
Carbon Dioxide
"odorless"
Carbon Disulfide
0.0011 - 7.7
Carbon Monoxide
"odorl ess"
Carbon Tetrachloride
21.4 - 200
Carvacrol
0.0023
Chi oral
0.047
Chiordane
"odorless"
Chlori ne
0.01 - 5 (1 - 6)
Chlorine Dioxide
0.1 (5.0)
Chioroacetaldehyde
<1 (0.01 - 1)
Chloroacetic Acid
0.045
Chioroacetophenone
0.01 - 1 .35 (0.024-.063)
(CN, Tear Gas)
TWA
Exposure Limits
STEL
IDLH
LEVEL
0.5(i)
10(s)
.05 mg/m^(s)
C-0.05 mg/m^(s)
2500
20	1000
40mg/m3
40mg/m3
5mg/m3
2(i)	3 200mg/m3
5(i)	10
5mg/m^(s)	625mg/m3
5000(s)	15000 50000
10(s)	500
50(s)	400 1500
5(c)	300
0.5mg/m3(s)	2.0mg/m3	500mg/rn3
1(s)	3	25
O.l(i)	0.3	10
C-l(i)	250
0.3t	1 (15 min)t
0.05(i)	lOOmg/m3

-------
CHEMICALS
WARNING CONCENTRATIONS
Chiorobenzene
o-Chlorobenzylidene
Malononitrile
Chiorobromomethane
Chloroform
Chloromethane (See Methyl
Chloride)
Chiorophenol
o-Chlorophenol
p-Chlorophenol
Chloropicrin
Chlorosulfonic Acid
Chlorovinyl Arsine
Cinnamaldehyde
Citric Acid
Cobalt Metal Fume & Dust
Coumarin (Coumaphos, Baymix)
Crag Herbicide
m-Cresol
o-Cresol
p-Cresol
Crotonal dehyde
Crotyl Mercaptan
Crude-Heavy(Loganillas-Crude)
Crude-Light(Louisiana-Crude)
Crude-Medium(Barbados-Crude)
Cumene
Cyanogen Chloride (CNCL)
Cyclohexane
Cyclohexanol
Cyclohexanone
Cyclohexene
Cyclopentadiene
2,4-D esters
DDT (Dichlorophenyl
trichoroethane)
Decaborane
0.21 - 60
(0.2)
400
50 - 307, fatigue (> 4096)
0.034
0.0036
1.2 - 30
1.1 (0.3-0.37)
1-5 (from HC1 produced)
1.6
0.0026
"odorless"
(> 1 mg/m3)
0.0033 - 0.2
"none"
0.25 - 0.68
0.26 - 0.68
0.00047 - 0.0455
0.035 - 7.35 (45)
0.00016 - 0.0099
0.1 - 0.5
0.1 - 0.5
0.1 - 0.5
0.047 - 1.2
1
0.41 - 300 (300)
100 - 160 (100)
0.12 - 0.24
"assume 0.41", (300)
250
0.02 - 0.1
2.9 mg/rr»3
0.05 - 0.35 (fatigue)
Exposure Limits
IDLH
TWA	STEL	LEVEL
75(s)	2400
C-0.05(s)	2mg/m3
200(s)	250 5000
10(c)	1000
0.1(i)	0.3	4
0.01 mg/m3	20mg/m3
10mg/m3(n)	20mg/m3 5000mg/m3
5(s)	250
5(s)	250
5(s)	250
2(i)	6 400mg/m3
50(s)	75 8000
C-0.3(s)
300(i)	375 10000
50(i)	3500
25(i)	100 5000
300(i)	10000
75(i)	150 2000
10mg/m3	500mg/m3
lmg/m3(s)
0.05(s)	0.15 20

-------
CHEMICALS
WARNING CONCENTRATIONS
Decanoic Acid
Decanal
1-Decylene
Diacetone Alcohol
Di acetyl
Di ally1 Ketone
Di azomethane
Diborane
Di-N-Butyl Amine
Dibutyl Phosphate
Di chlorobenzene
o-Dichlorobenzene
p-Dichlorobenzene
Dichlorodiethyl Sulfide
(Mustard Gas)
Dichlorodi fluoromethane
1.3-Dichloro-5,	5-Dimethyl
hydatoi n
Dichloroethane
Di chl oroethylene
Dichlorethyl Ether
bis-a-Dichlorethyl Sulfide
Dichloroisopropyl Ether
Dichloromethane (See
Methylene Chloride)
Dichloromonof1oromethane
2.4-Dichlorophenol
1,2-Dichloropropane
2,2-Dichloropropionic Acid
(Dalapon)
Dichlorotetrafl uoroethane
Dicyclopentadiene
Dieldri n
Diesel Fuel No. 1-D
Diesel Fuel No. 2-D
Diesel Fuel No. 4-D
Di ethanolami ne
Diethyl amine
0.0020
0.0064 - 0.168
0.12
1.1 - 1.7
0.025
9.0
"i nadequate"
2-4, "not reliable"
0.27 - 0.48
"i nadequate"
0.005
2 - 50 (20-30)
15-30 (80-160)
0.19
"odorless"
"adequate," 0.01 (1.14)
120, "adequate"
0.085 - 500
1 - 35 (100-200)
0.0023
0.32
"nearly odorless"
0.21 - 0.008
50
428
"nearly odorless"
0.003 - 0.020
0.041
0.25
0.08
0.01
0.011 - 0.04
0.06 - 0.498 (50, animal
Exposure Limits
IDLH
TWA	STEL	LEVEL
50	75 2100
0.2(i)	10
0.1 (s)	40
l(i)	2 425
C-50(i)	1700
75(s)	110 1000
1000(s)	50000
0.2mg/m3(i) 0.4mg/m3
200(s)	250
200s)	250 4000
5(i)	10 250
10(s)	50000
75(s)	110
1
1000(s)	50000
5
0.25mg/m^	450mg/m3
3(s)
10(i)	25	2000

-------
CHEMICALS
WARNING CONCENTRATIONS
Diethyl ami noethanol
Diethylene Glycol
Diethylene Triamine
Diethyl Selenide
Diethyl Succinate
Di fluorodi bromomethane
Diglycidyl Ether
Diisobutyl Carbinol
Diisobutyl Ketone
Di i sopropylami ne
Dimethyl Acetamide
Dimethyl amine
Dimethylami noethanol
D i met hy1fo rmami de
1,1-Di methylhydrazi ne
Dimethyl Sulfate
Dimethyl Sulfide
Dimethyl Sulfoxide
Dimethyl Trithiocarbonate
Dinitro-o-cresol
2,6-Dinitrophenol
Di nitrotoluene
Dioxane
Dioxolane
Diphenyl
Diphenylamine Chlorasine
Diphenyl Chloroarsine
Diphenylcyanoarsi ne
Diphenyl Ether (see Phenyl Ether
Diphenyl Sulfide
Diphosgene (Trichloromethy-
chloroformate)
Dipropyl ami ne
Dipropylene Glycol
Dipropylene Glycol Methyl Ether
Dithioethylene Glycol
Dodecanol
Dodecyclbenzene Sulfonic Acid
0.04
"almost odorless"
10
0.00014
0.021
"i nadequate"
5
0.048 - 0.160
0.31
0.38 - .85 (25-50, injury)
46.8
0.021 - 6 (97 - 183 animals
0.045
100
6-14
"nearly odorless"
0.001 - 0.020
"practically no odor"
0.0058 - 0.18 mg/m3
"odorless"
0.21 (as phenol)
"inadequate"
1.8 - 170 (220-300)
64 - 128
0.01 - 0.06 (3-4)
0.22
0.030
0.3
0.0021 - 0.0047
1.2
0.10
"practically odorless"
100
0.031
0.0064
0.4 - 8
Exposure Limits
IDLH
TWA	STEL	LEVEL
10	500
1
0.2 mg/m3(as Se)
100(s)	2500
0.1(s)	85
25	2000
5(i)	1000
10(s)	400
10(i)	100
10(s)	3500
0.5(c)
0.1(c)	10
0.2mg/m3(s)	5mg/m3
1.5mg/m3(s)	200mg/m3
25(s)	200
0.2(s) 0.6	300mg/m3
100(i)
150

-------
Exposure Limits
CHEMICALS
Epichlorohydrin
EPN
Ethane
1,2-Ethanedi thiol
Ethanol
Ethanolamine
2-Ethoxy-3,4-Di hydro-1,2-Pyran
2-Ethoxyethanol
2-Ethoxyethyl Acetate
(Cel1osolve Acetate)
Ethyl Acetate
Ethyl Acrylate
Ethylami ne
Ethyl Benzene
Ethyl Bromide
2-Ethylbutanol
Ethyl Butyl Ketone
Ethyl Butyrate
Ethyl Decanoate
Ethyldi chloroarsi ne
ro Ethyl Disulfide
r^o Ethylene
Ethylene Bromide (see Ethylene
Dibromide)
Ethylene Chloride (see Ethylene
Di chloride)
Ethylene Chlorohydrin
Ethylene Diamine
Ethylene Dibromide
Ethylene Dichloride
Ethylene Glycol
Ethylene Imine
Ethylene Oxide
Ethyl Ether
Ethyl Formate
Ethyl Glycol
Ethyl Hexanol
Ethyl Hexanoate
WARNING CONCENTRATIONS
10 - 16 (100)
"i nadequate"
150 - 899
0.0042
10 - 5100
2-3
0.10 - 0.60
"practically odorless" 0.55 - 1.3
0.056 - 50 (600, animals)
0.056 - 50(R) (200 - 400)
0.00024 - 1 (75)
0.021 - .83 (100-Delayed)
0.25 - 200 (200)
much greater than 200 (6500)
0.77
"adequate"
0.0082 - 0.015
0.00017
0.14 - 1.4
0.0028
400 - 700
IDLH
TWA	STEL	LEVEL
2(i-s)	100
0.5mg/m^(s)	50mg/m3
(a)
1000(i)
3(s)	6 1000
5	100 6000
5
400(s)	10000
5(i)	25 2000
10(i)	4000
100(i)	125 2000
200(s)	250 3500
50(s)	75 3000
(a)
"odorless"	C-l 10
3.4 - 11.2 (100)	10(s) 2000
10 - 25	(c) 400
6.2 - 100	10(s) 1000
0.08	C-50(i)
2, "inadequate"	0.5(i)
0.84 - 700	1(c) 800
0.33 (200)	400 500 19000
330 (330)	100(i) 150 8000
25
0.138
0.0056

-------
CHEMICALS
WARNING CONCENTRATIONS
Ethyl Hexyl Acetate
Ethyl Hexyl Acrylate
Ethylidene Norbornene
Ethyl Isothiocyanate
Ethyl Mercaptan
Ethyl Methacrylate
n-Ethylmorpholine
Ethyl Pelargonate
Ethyl Phtmalate
Ethyl Selenide
Ethyl Selenomercaptan
Ethyl Silicate
Ethyl Sulfide
Ethyl isoValerate
ro Ethyl n-Valerate
r!o Ethyl Undecanoate
01 Eugenol
Fluoride Dust
F1uori ne
F1uorotri chloromethane
Formal dehyde
Formic Acid
Fuel Oi1#1 (Kerosene, Jet Fuel)
Fuel Oi1#2 (Diesel Oil)
Fuel Oil#4
Fuel Oi1#6 (Bunker-C)
Fumaric Acid (trans Butendioic
Acid)
Furfural
Furfuryl Alcohol
Gasoli ne
Glycol Diacetate
n-Heptal Chloride
Heptachlor
Heptaldehyde
n-Heptane
Heptanol
0.21
0.18
0.007 - 0.073
1.6 - 10.7
0.00051 - 0.075
0.0067
0.25 - 25, fatigue (40
0.0014
"odorless"
0.0012 - 0.014
0.0003
85 (250)
0.00060 - 0.068
0.12
0.060
0.00054
0.0046
(5.0mg/m3)
0.035 - 3 (25 - 100)
"odorless"
0.1 - 1.0 (.25 - 2)
21 (15)
0.082 - 1
0.082
0.5
0.13
"odorless"
0.25 - 5 (13.5 - 50)
8
0.005 - 10
0.312
0.060
0.02
0.050
50 - 220
0.057 - 20
Exposure Limits
TWA	STEL
IDLH
LEVEL
C-5
0.5 (i)	2500
5(s)	2000
0.2mg/m3(as Se)
0.2mg/m3(as Se)
10(s)	1000
2.5mg/m^(s)	500mg/m^
l(i)	2 25ppm
C-1000(s)	10000
C-2	100
5(i)	100
2(i)	10	250
10	15	250
300(i)	500
0.5mg/m3	lOOmg/m^
400(s)	500	4250

-------
CHEMICALS
WARNING CONCENTRATIONS
HETP (see TEPP)
Hexachlorocyclopentadi ene
Hexamethylenedi ami ne
n-Hexane
Hexanoic Acid
Hexanol
sec-Hexyl Acetate
Hydrazi ne
Hydrocinnamyl Alcohol
Hydrogen Bromide
Hydrogen Chloride
Hydrogen Cyanide
Hydrogen Fluoride
Hydrogen Peroxide
Hydrogen Selenide
Hydrogen Sulfide
Idoform
Iodi ne
Ionone
Isoamyl Acetate
Isoamyl Alcohol
Isobutyl Acetate
Isobutyl Alcohol
Isobutyl Acrylate
Isobutyl Cellosolve
Isobutyl Mercaptan
Isobutyraldehyde
Isobutyric Acid
Isocyanochloride
Isodecanol
Isopentanoic Acid
Isophorone
Isoprene (2-Methylbutadiene)
Isopropanolamine Dodecylbenzene
Sulfonate
Isopropyl Acetate
Isopropyl Alcohol
0.15 - 0.33
0.0009
(1400-1500)
0.0061
0.0050 - 0.09
100 (100)
3 - 4
0.00027
2 (3-6)
1 - 10 (35)
0.00027 - 5, fatigue
0.04 (5)
"odorless" (100)
0.3 - 3, fades fast (1.5)
0.00001 - 0.8 (50 - 100)
(fatigue at high concentrat
0.4 - 0.5
(1.63 - within 2 minutes)
0.000012
0.002 - 7 (100)
10 - 35 (100 - 150)
0.002 - 7 (150)
1.8 - 40
0.009 - 0.012
0.114 - 0.191
0.00054 - 0.00097
0.047 - 0.336
0.001
0.98
0.031 - 0.042
0.015 - 0.026
0.54
0.005
0.3
0.9(R) - 400 (200)
7.5 - 200 (400)
Exposure Limits
TWA	STEL
IDLH
LEVEL
0.01(i)
50(s)
50 (i)
0.1(c)
3(i)
C—5(i)
C-10(s)
3 (i)
1(1)
0.05 (i)
10(s)
0.6
C-0.1(i)
100(i)
100(s)
150(i)
50(s)
15
125
125
187
75
4000
80
50
100
50
20
75
2
300
10
3000
8000
7500
8000
C-5	800
250(i)	310	16000
400(i)	500	20000

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CHEMICALS
WARNING CONCENTRATIONS
Isopropylami ne
Isopropylether
Isopropyl Glycidyl Ether
Isopropyl Mercaptan
Kerosene (see Fuel Oil #)
Ketene
Kuwait-Crude
Lactic Acid
Laurie Acid
Lauryl Mercaptan
Light Gasoline
Li ndane
Linoleyl Acetate
Lithium Hydride
LPG
Magnesium Dodecyl Sulfate
Malathion
Maleic Anhydride
Menthol
2-Mercaptoethanol
Mercury, Inorganic (except
Mercury Pernitrate has an odor)
Mesitylene (see Trimethybenzene)
Mesityl Oxide
Methoxynaphthalene
Methyl Acetate
Methyl Acetylene-Propadiene Mix
Methyl Acrylate
Methylacrylonitri le
Methyl Alcohol
Methyl ami ne
Methyl Amyl Acetate
Methyl Amyl Alcohol (Methyl
Isobutyl Carbinol)
Methyl Anthranilate
Methyl Bromide
0.71 - 10 (10-20)
0.053 - 300 (800)
300
0.00025
(23)
0.1 - 0.5
4 x 10"7
0.0034
4 mg/m^
800
"practically odorless",
3.9 mg/m^ 21.3 mg/m^
0.0016
(0.1 m/m^)
20,000 (propane)
°-2
10 mg/rn3(R) (84.8 mg/m^)
0.25 - 0.5 (.25 - 1.83)
1.5
0.64
"odorless"
0.051 - 12
0.00012
200 (10,000)
100
20 (75)
2-14 (fatigue)
53.3 - 5900 (7500-69000)
0.021 - 10, fatigue, (20 -
0.23 - 0.40
0.52 - 50 (50)
0.00066 - 0.06
> 20, "practically no odor
Exposure Limits
IDLH
TWA	STEL	LEVEL
5 (i)	10	4000
250(i)	310	10000
50	75	1500
0.5(i)	1.5	25
300(i)	500
0.5mg/m3(s)	lOOOmg/m^
0.025mg/m3(i)	50mg/m3
lOOO(explosion)	1250 19000
10mg/m3(s)	5000mg/m3
0.25(i)
0.05mg/m3(s)	28mg/m3
15	25 5000
200(i)	250 10000
1000	1250 20000
10(i)	1000
l(s)
200(s)	250 25000
10(s)	100
25(i)	40 2000
5(s)	2000

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CHEMICALS
WARNING CONCENTRATIONS
Exposure Limits
TWA	STEL
IDLH
LEVEL
PO
I
ro
00
2-Methyl-2-Butanol (tert-Amyl
alcohol)
Methyl n-Butyrate
Methyl Cellosolve (2-Methoxye-
thanol)
Methyl Cellosolve Acetate
Methyl Chloride
Methyl Chloroform
Methyl 2-Cyanoacrylate
Methylcyclohexane
Methylcyclohexanol
Methyl Dichloroarsine
Methylene Bisphenyl Isocyanate
(MDI)
Methylene Chloride
Methyl Ethanol Amine
Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK)
Methylethyl Pyridine
Methyl Formate
Methyl Glycol (1,2-propylene
glycol)
5-Methyl-3-Heptanone (Ethyl Amyl
Ketone)
Methyl Hydrazine
Methyl Iodide
Methyl Isoamyl Alcohol
Methyl Isoamyl Ketone
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone
Methyl Isocyanate
Methyl Mercaptan
Methyl Methacrylate
2-Methylpentaldehyde
2-Methyl-1-Pentanol
2-Methylpropene
Methyl Salicylate
a-Methyl Styrene
Methyl Sulfide (see Dimethyl Sulfi
Methyl Thiocyanate
0.23 - 2.3
0.0026
0.22 - 60
0.64 - 50
10 - 100, "no odor" (500 - 1000)
20 - 500 (500-1000)
1 - 3
500
500 (500)
0.11
(0.05 - 0.1)
"can adapt to odor", 25 - 320 (5000)
3.4
4.8 - 25
0.008 - 0.050
1500 - 2000, fatigue (3500)
60
6, (50)
1 - 3
(4300)
0.20
0.28
0.28 - 8
2.0 (2)
0.0021 - 1.1
0.05 - 0.34 (170 - 250)
0.136
0.024 - 0.082
0.57
0.096
0.156
de)
0.25 - 3.2
5
50 (s
350(s
2(i
400 (s
50 (s
C-0.02(s
100 (s
200 (i
100 (i
25 (i
C-0.2(c
2(c
50
50 (i
0.
0.5( i
100 (i
200 (200)
l(i
50 (i
100
450
4
500
75
300
150
75
125
4500
1000
1000
10000
10000
10
5000
3000
5000
3000
5
20
400
4000
100
5000

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Exposure Limits
CHEMICALS
MethyItrich!orosi lane
Methyl Vinyl Ketone
Methyl vinyl Pyridine
Mineral Spirits
Morpholi ne
Musk (Synthetic)
Naphtha - coal tar
Naphtha - petroleum (rubber
sol vent)
Naphthal ene
2-Naphthol
Nickel Carbonyl
Nitric Acid
Nitric Oxide
p-Nitroanil i ne
Nitrobenzene
0-Nitrochlorobenzene
Nitroethane
Nitrogen Dioxide
Nitrogen Tetroxide
Nitrogen Trifluoride
Nitromethane
1-Nitropropane
2-Nitropropane
Nitrotoluene (m,o,p isomers)
Nitrous Oxide
n-Octane
Octanoic Acid
1-Octanol
2-0ctanol
Oenanthic Acid (Heptanoic Acid)
Oxygen Difluoride
Ozone
Parathion
Pelargonic Acid (Nonyl Alcohol)
Pentaborane
WARNING CONCENTRATIONS
1
0.2
0.040
30
0.01 - 0.14
4.0 x 10-7
4.68 - 100 (200 - 300)
< 500
0.003 - 0.3 (15)
1.3
1-3
0.3 - 1.0 (62)
"odorless", 0.3 - 1, "poor"
"odorless"
0.0047 - 6
0.002
163 - 200 (100 - 500)
4	- 5 (5 - 20)
5
"no odor-warning properties at potentially
dangerous levels"
100 (200 - 500)
300 (150)
300
1.74 (as toluene)
"poor"
4 - 150
0.0014
0.0021
0.0026
0.015
0.1 - 0.5, (fatigue)
0.005 - 0.5 (1-3.7)
0.48 mg/m^
0.00086
0.8 (1)
IDLH
TWA	STEL	LEVEL
20(s)	30 8000
100*	10000
400(s)
10(i)	15 500
0.05(s)	0.001
2	4
25(s)	100
3mg/m^(s)	300mg/m^
1(s)	200
0.5(s)
100(s)	1000
3(s)	5 50
10(s)	2000
100(s)	1000
25(s)	2300
C25(c)	2300
2(s)	200
300(s)	375 3750
0.05(s)	0.15	0.5
0.1(i)	0.3	10
0.1mg/m3(s)	20/mg/m3
0.005(s)	0.015	3

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CHEMICALS
WARNING CONCENTRATIONS
Pentachlorophenol
ri-Pentane
2,4-Pentanedione
Pentanone (Methyl Propyl Ketone)
Pentanol (see Amyl Alcohol)
Pentene (n-Amylene)	2.2
isoPentyl Acetate (see Isoamyl Acetate)
n-Pentyl Acetate (see n-Amyl Acetate)
1-Pentyl Mercaptan	0.00021
Perchloroethylene (see Tetrachloroethylene)
9.3 mg/m^ (0.3-1 mg/m3)
2.2 - 1000
0.020
8.0
Perchloromethyl Mercaptan
Perchloryl Fluoride
Pero-Klean-No-818
Petroleum Distillates (Petroleum
Naptha)
Phenol
Phenyl Ether
Phenyl Ether-Biphenyl Mixture
Phenyl Isocyanide
Phenyl Isothiocyanate
Phosgene
Phosphi ne
Phosphorus Pentasulfide
Phosphorus Trichloride
Phthal ic Anhydride
2-Picoline
Propane
Propionaldehyde
Propionic Acid
n-Propyl Acetate
Propyl Alcohol
Propylene (Propene)
Propylene Diamine
Propylene Dichloride
Propylene Glycol
Propylene Oxide
Propyl Mercaptan
n-Propyl Nitrate
much less than 0.1
10 (but not reliable)
0.005
< 500
0.047 - 5 (48)
0.001 - 0.10 (3 - 4)
0.1 - 1 (3-4)
0.029 mg/m^
0.43
0.125
0.02 - 3
"fatigue," 0.0047 (as HoS)
0.7 (2-4)
0.05 - 0.12
0.023 - 0.046
1000 - 20,000
1(R) (dulls senses
0.04 -
0.034
0.15 -
0.08 -
"poor,
0.048
0.5 -
1
200
200 (5500)
" 67.6
- 0.067
130
"odorless"
35 - 200 (457,
0.00075 - 0.02
50 - 90
animals)
Exposure Limits
IDLH
TWA	STEL	LEVEL
0.5mg/m3(s)	150mg/m3
600(s)	750	5000
200(s)	250	5000
0.1(i)	10
3(s)	6	385
400	10000
5(i)	10	100
Ki)	2
0.1(s)	2
0.3(s)	1	200
lmg/m (i)	3mg/m	750mg/m
0.2(i)	0.5	50
1	4	10000
(a)	20000
10	15
200(i)	250	8000
200(i)	250	4000
(a)
7 5 (s)	110	2000
20	2000
25(s)	40	2000

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Exposure Limits
CHEMICALS
WARNING CONCENTRATIONS
TWA
STEL
IDLH
LEVEL
ro
i
CO
Propyl Sulfide
Pyridi ne
Pyrolgallol (1,2,3-Benzenetriol)
Qui noli ne
Quinone
Resorcinol (1,3-Benzenediol)
Rotenone
Safrole
Selenium Oxide
Silver Cyanide
Silver Nitrate
Skatole (3-Methyl-Indole)
Sodium Butyldiphenol Sulfonate
Sodium Butyl phenyl phenol Sulfonate
Sodium Dodecylbenzene Sulfonate
Sodium Hydroxide
Sodium Nitrochlorobenzene Sulfonate
Sodium Octyl Sulfate
Sodium Sulfate
Sorbi tol
Stoddard Solvent
Strychni ne
Styrene
Styrene Oxide
Sulfoxide
Sulfur Dichloride (SCI2)
Sulfur Dioxide
Sulfur Monochloride (Sulfur chloride,
S2C12)
Sulfuric Acid
Sulfuryl Fluoride
Tannic Acid
TEPP (HETP, Bladex, Vapotone)
Terphenyls
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane
Tetrachloroethylene (Perchloroethylene)
0.011 - 0.17
0.012 - 5
(fatigue at 5, but taste remains)
20
0.16 - 71
0.1 - 0.5 -fatigue (0.1 - 0.5)
40
"odorless" 222 mg/m^
0.0032
0.0002 mg/m^
"odorless"
"odorless"
7.5 x 10"8 - 1.68
0.5 (as alky aryl sulfonate)
0.5 (as alky aryl sulfonate)
0.5 (as alky aryl sulfonate)
"odorless"
0.5 (as alky aryl sulfonate)
0.2
"odorless"
"odorless"
1 - 30 (400)
"odorless"
0.047 - 200 (200-400)
0.40
91
0.001
0.47 - 5 (6 - 20), 0.3-taste
0.001 (2-9)
0.6mg/m3 - 2.4 mg/m^
"odorless"
2-4
"odorless"
> 1
3-5
4.68 - 50 (106 - 690)
5(s)
O.lt
0.1(i)
10(1)
5mg/mJ(s)
10
0.3
20
lOmg/m^
0.2mg/m^ (as Se)
O.Olmg/m^ (as silver)
O.Olmg/m^ (as silver)
C-2 mg/m^(i)
100(s)
0.15mg/m3(s)
50(s)
2 (i-s)
KD
1 mg/m^(i)
5(s)
0.004mg/m^(s)
C-0.5(s)
Ks)
50 (s)
200
100
3
10
3600
75
5000mg/m^
100mg/m^
200
200mg/m-;
5000
3mg/m3
5000
100
10
80mg/m^
1000
lOmg/m^
3500mg/m3
150
500

-------
Exposure Limits
CHEMICALS
WARNING CONCENTRATIONS
TWA
STEL
ro
i
CO
ro
Tetraethyl-o-Sili cate
Tetrahydrofuran
Tetramethylbenzene
Tetranitromethane
Thiocresol (Toluenethiol)
Thiophenol
Thymol
Toluene
Toluene Diisocyanate (TDI)
o-Toluidi ne
Toxaphene (Phenatox)
1.1.1-Trichloroethane	(Methyl
Chioroform)
Trichloroethylene
Trichlorofluoromethane
T richlorophenol
1,2,3-Trichloropropane
1.1.2-Tri	chloro-1,2,2-Tri fluoroethane
Triethanolamine Dodecylbenzene Sulfonate 0.3
5.0 - 7.2
20 - 50
0.0029
(0.4)
0.0027 - 0.02
0.014
0.00086
0.17 - 40, fatigue (300-400)
0.2 - 2.14
0.0048 - 20
0.0052
20 - 400 (500-1000)
21.4 - 400
135 - 209
0.1 - 0.667
100 (100)
"nearly odorless" 68 - 135
Tri ethyl amine
Triethylene glycol
Trimethyl ami ne
Trimethyl benzene (Mesitylene)
Tri nitrobutylxylene
Triphenyl Phosphate
Turpenti ne
n-Undecane
Valeric Acid
isovaleric Acid
Vanadium Pentoxide Dust & Fume
Vanillin
Vinyl Acetate
Vinyl Chloride
Vinyl Toluene
Warf ari n
Xylene
m-Xylene
o-Xylene
p-Xylene
Xyli di ne
0.28 (50)
"practically odorless"
0.00021 - 1.7
0.027
6.5 x 10"6 - 0.0008
"odorless"
200 (200)
0.12
0.00060
0.0018
(0.5-2.2 mg/m^)
3.2 x 10~8
0.12 - 0.55
260
50 (50)
"odorless"
0.05 - 200, fatigue, (200)
1.1 - 3.7
1.8
0.47 - 0.53(R)
0.0048
200(i)
Ki)
100(s)
0.005(i)
2(c)
0.5mg/mJ
350(s)
50(s)
C-1000
50(s)
1000(s)
10(s)
It
25 (i)
3 mg/m^(s)
100(i)
0.05 mg/m^(i)
10 (i)
5(c)
50 (i)
0.1 mg/m^(s)
100(i)
100(i)
100(i)
100(i)
2(s)
250
150
0.02
lmg/m^
450
200
75
1250
15
15
35
150
20
100
0.3mg/m^
150
150
150
150

-------
iThe exposure limits are taken from the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists' (AC6IH) Threshold
Limit Values®, 1984-85, unless otherwise noted. TWA = Time Weighted Average, STEL = Short Term Exposure Limit.
- denotes a Ceiling TLV®
3mg/m3 = milligrams per cubic meter
4Fat igue - Indicates that chemical can cause olfactory fatigue.
^The basis of the exposure limit, if known, is noted by: i = eye, nose or throat irritation, s = systemic or structural
damage, c = carcinogen, n = nuisance, a = simple asphyxiant, explosion = based on explosion hazard.
^Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health Level. From NIOSH/OSHA Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
^Animal = irritation concentration based on animal studies
"^Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Permissible Exposure Limit
"'"American Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA) Workplace Environmental Exposure Limit (WEEL)
ro
I
CO
4*
9/84

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APPENDIX III
RESPIRATOR FIT TESTING
I. INTRODUCTION
All users or potential users of demand-type respiratory protection
devices should be fit tested to ensure a proper facepiece-to-face
seal. Either isoamyl acetate or irritant smoke should be used
with one of the four methods described below. A selection of
respirators should be tested, with users allowed to choose the
most comfortable from those that fit satisfactorily.
II. METHODS
A. Method No. 1 - Swab or Brush (Organic Vapors)
-	Use only facepieces equipped with organic vapor cartridges.
-	Perform the test in area with no noticeable air movement.
-	Saturate a tissue, cloth, or brush with isoamyl acetate.
-	Prior to testing, expose subject to a very low concentration
of isoamyl acetate to assure that he/she can detect the
odor.
-	After subject dons the respirator, tester visually inspects
facepiece-to-face seal. If seal obviously leaks, test ends
and mask is recorded as unsatisfactory. If subject is
uncomfortable, test ends.
-	Move saturated material slowly around entire sealing surface
of the respirator at a distance of 3 to 6 inches. Perform
first with test subject sedentary, then with subject moving
head and face (i.e., talking, moving head side to side and up
and down). End test if any leakage occurs.
-	If the subject detects the odor during fitting, record that
respirator as unsatisfactory, remove it from the subject, and
visually inspect the facepiece-to-face seal. If any doubt
exists about the respirator or cartridges, test a duplicate
to assure that the leakage was due to facepiece-to-face seal.
B. Method No. 2 - Around Seal (Particulates)
-	Use respirators equipped with high-efficiency filters.
-	Perform test in area with no noticeable air movement.
2-35

-------
-	Break both ends of an MSA ventilation smoke tube. Insert one
end into the tube connected to the positive-pressure end of a
two-way aspirator bulb and cover the other end with 1- to 2-
inch length of Tygon, surgical, or rubber tubing. Squeeze
the aspirator bulb to generate the test aerosol.
-	After subject dons the respirator, tester visually inspects
facepiece-to-face seal. If seal obviously leaks, test ends
and mask is recorded as unsatisfactory. If subject is
uncomfortable, test ends.
-	Direct the smoke around entire sealing surface of the
respirator at a distance of 3 to 6 inches. Instruct subject
to breathe shallowly during initial test around surface and
normally thereafter if no leakage is detected. If a
half-mask is being tested, instruct subject to close his/her
eyes for the duration of the test. Perform the test first
with subject sedentary, then with subject moving head and
face (i.e., talking, moving head side to side and up and
down). End test if any leakage occurs.
-	If the subject detects the odor during fitting, record that
respirator as unsatisfactory, remove it from the subject, and
visually inspect the sealing surface. If any doubt exists
about the respirator or cartridges, test a duplicate to
assure that the leakage was due to the facepiece-to-face
seal.
C. Method No. 3 - Enclosure in Plastic Bag (Organic Vapors)
i
-	Use facepieces equipped with organic vapor cartridges.
-	Saturate a tissue or cloth with isoamyl acetate and suspend
it inside the top of a plastic garbage bag or harvard hood.
-	Prior to testing, expose subject to a very low concentration
of the isoamyl acetate to assure that he/she can detect the
odor.
-	After subject dons the respirator, tester visually inspects
facepiece-to-face seal. If seal obviously leaks, test ends
and mask is recorded as unsatisfactory. If subject is
uncomfortable, test ends.
Instruct subject to put his/her head into the bag or hood and
breathe normally during a short (30-60 seconds) sedentary
period. If no leakage is detected, instruct the subject to
perform various exercises simulating, as nearly as possible,
work conditions (i.e., talking, running in place, head
movements, bending over). End test if any leakage occurs.
-	If the subject detects the odor during fitting, record that
respirator as unsatisfactory, remove it from the subject, and
visually inspect the sealing surface. If any doubt exists
about the respirator or cartridges, test a duplicate to
assure that leakage was due to the facepiece-to-face seal.
2-36

-------
D. Method No. 4 - Enclosure in Plastic Bag (Particulates)
-	Use respirators equipped with high-efficiency filters.
-	Break both ends of an MSA ventilation smoke tube. Insert one
end into the tube connected to the positive-pressure end of a
two-way aspirator bulb and cover the end with 1- to 2-inch
length of Tygon, surgical, or rubber tubing. Squeeze the
aspirator bulb to generate the test aerosol.
-	After subject dons the respirator, tester visually inspects
facepiece-to-face seal. If seal obviously leaks, test ends
and mask is recorded as unsatisfactory. If subject is
uncomfortable, test ends.
-	Generate smoke into the input of the harvard hood or a hole
punched in the top of the closed plastic bag until smoke can
be visually detected throughout the bag or hood.
-	Instruct subject to put his/her head into the bag or hood and
breathe shallowly during a short (30-60 seconds) sedentary
period. If a half-mask is being tested, instruct subject to
close his/her eyes before entering and keep them closed until
exiting. If no leakage is detected during sedentary period,
instruct subject to perform various exercises simulating, as
nearly as possible, work conditions (i.e., talking, running
in place, head movements, bending over) while breathing
normally. End test if any leakage occurs.
If the subject detects the odor during fitting, record that
respirator as unsatisfactory, remove it from the subject, and
visually inspect the sealing surface. If any doubt exists
about the respirator or cartridges, test a duplicate to
assure that leakage was due to the facepiece-to-face seal.
2-37
8/84

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APPENDIX IV
RESPIRATOR NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE PRESSURE TEST
I. Fitting
Place the respirator over the face and draw the straps securely. The
mask should not be so tight as to cause discomfort or a headache.
Secure bottom straps first.
II. Negative Pressure Test
This test (and the positive pressure test) should be used only as a
very gross determination of fit. The wearer should use this test
just before entering the hazardous atmosphere. In this test, the
user closes off the inlet of the canister, cartridge(s), or filter(s)
by covering with the palm(s) or squeezing the breathing tube so that
it does not pass air; inhales gently so that the facepiece
collapses slightly; and holds breath for about 10 seconds.
If the facepiece remains slightly collapsed and no inward leakage is
detected, the respirator is probably tight enough. This test, of
course, can only be used on respirators with tight-fitting
facepieces.
Although this test is simple, it has severe drawbacks; primarily that
the wearer must handle the respirator after it has supposedly been
positioned on his face. This handling can modify the facepiece
seal.
III. Positive Pressure Test
This test, similar to the negative pressure test, is conducted by
closing off the exhalation valve and exhaling gently into the
facepiece. The fit is considered satisfactory if slight positive
pressure can be built up inside the facepiece without any evidence of
outward leakage. For some respirators, this method requires that the
wearer remove the exhalation valve cover; this often disturbs the
respirator fit even more than does the negative pressure test.
Therefore, this test should be used sparingly if it requires removing
and replacing a valve cover. The test is easy for respirators whose
valve cover has a single small port that can be closed by the palm or
a finger.
2-39
8/84

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APPENDIX V
CARE AND CLEANING OF RESPIRATORS
I. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
Any organization using respirators on a routine basis should have
a program for their care and cleaning. The purpose of a program
is to assure that all respirators are maintained at their original
effectiveness. If they are modified in any way, their Protection
Factors may be voided. Usually one person in an organization is
trained to inspect, clean, repair, and store respirators.
The program should be based on the number and types of
respirators, working conditions, and hazards involved. In
general, the program should include:
Inspection (including a leak check)
-	Cleaning and disinfection
-	Repair
-	Storage
II. INSPECTION
Inspect respirators after each use. Inspect a respirator that is
kept ready for emergency use monthly to assure it will perform
satisfactorily.
On air-purifying respirators, thoroughly check all connections for
gaskets and "0" rings and for proper tightness. Check the
condition of the facepiece and all its parts, connecting air tube,
and headbands. Inspect rubber or elastomer parts for pliability
and signs of deterioration.
Maintain a record for each respirator inspection, including
date, inspector, and any unusual conditions or findings.
III. CLEANING AND DISINFECTION
Collect respirators at a central location. Brief employees
required to wear respirators on the respirator program and
assure them that they will always receive a clean and sanitized
respirator. Such assurances can boost morale. Clean and
disinfect respirators as follows:
-	Remove all cartridges, canisters, and filters, plus gaskets or seals
not affixed to their seats.
-	Remove elastic headbands.
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-	Remove exhalation cover.
-	Remove speaking diaphragm or speaking diaphragm-exhalation valve
assembly.
-	Remove inhalation valves.
-	Wash facepiece and breathing tube in cleaner/sanitizer powder
mixed with warm water, preferably at 120° to 140°F. Wash
components separately from the facemask, as necessary.
Remove heavy soil from surfaces with a hand brush.
-	Remove all parts from the wash water and rinse twice in clean
warm water.
-	Air dry parts in a designated clean area.
-	Wipe facepieces, valves, and seats with a damp lint-free cloth
to remove any remaining soap or other foreign materials.
NOTE: Most respirator manufacturers market their own cleaners/
sanitizers as dry mixtures of a bactericidal agent and a mild
detergent. One-ounce packets for individual use and bulk
packages for quantity use are usually available.
REPAIRS
Only a trained person with proper tools and replacement parts
should work on respirators. No one should ever attempt to replace
components or to make adjustments or repairs beyond the
manufacturer's recommendations. It may be necessary to send
high-pressure-side components of SCBA's to an authorized facility
for repairs.
Make repairs as follows:
-	Disassemble and hand clean the pressure-demand and exhalation
valve assembly (SCBA's only). Exercise care to avoid damage
to the rubber diaphragm.
-	Replace all faulty or questionable parts or assemblies. Use
parts only specifically designed for the particular
respirator.
-	Reassemble the entire respirator and visually inspect the
completed assembly.
Insert new filters, cartridges, or canisters, as required.
Make sure that gaskets or seals are in place and tightly
sealed.
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V. STORAGE
Follow manufacturers' storage instructions, which are always
furnished with new respirators or affixed to the lid of the
carrying case. In addition, these general instructions may be
helpful:
-	After respirators have been inspected, cleaned, and repaired,
store them so to protect against dust, excessive moisture,
damaging chemicals, extreme temperatures and direct sunlight.
-	Do not store respirators in clothes lockers, bench drawers, or
tool boxes. Place them in wall compartments at work stations or
in a work area designated for emergency equipment. Store them in
the original carton or carrying case.
-	Draw clean respirators from storage for each use. Each unit can
be sealed in a plastic bag, placed in a separate box, and tagged
for immediate use.
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PART 3
SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS
I. INTRODUCTION
Respiratory apparatus must frequently be used during response
to hazardous materials incidents. If the contaminant is unknown
or the requirements for using air-purifying respirators cannot be met,
then an atmosphere supplying respirator is required. Several types of
atmosphere supplying devices are available:
-- Oxygen-generating
One of the oldest respirators is the oxygen-generating
respirator, which utilizes a canister of potassium
superoxide. The chemical reacts with exhaled CO2 and water
vapor to produce oxygen which replentishes the wearer's
exhaled breath. This reoxygenated air is then returned to
the wearer. Oxygen-generating respirators have been used by
the military and for escape purposes in mines. It generally
is not used for hazardous material applications because of
the chemical reaction taking place within the respirator
itself.
-- Hose mask
This type of respirator consists of a facepiece attached to a
75-foot long (maximum), large diameter hose which transports
clean air from a remote area. The wearer breathes the air
in, or it is forced in by a blower.
-- Airline respirator
The airline respirator is similar to the hose mask, except
that air is delivered to the wearer under pressure; either
from a compressor or a bank of compressed air cylinder. The
air may flow continuously, or it may be delivered as the
wearer breathes (or demand). The air source must not be
depletable, and no more than 300 feet of airline is allowed.
An escape device is required for entry into an IDLH
atmosphere.
-- Self-contained breathing apparatus
The self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) consists of a
facepiece and regulator mechanism connected to a cylinder of
compressed air or oxygen carried by the wearer.
The self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) is generally used
because it allows the wearer to work without being confined by a hose
or airline.
The wearer of the SCBA depends on it to supply clean breathing
air. If the wearer is not properly trained to wear the SCBA or it
is not properly cared for, then it may fail to provide the
protection expected.
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The user should be completely familiar with the SCBA being worn.
Checkout procedures have been developed for inspecting an SCBA prior
to use, allowing the user to recognize potential problems. An
individual who checks out the unit is more comfortable and confident
wearing it.
There are two types of apparatus: closed-circuit, which use
compressed oxygen, and open-circuit, which use compressed air.
SCBA1s may operate in one of two modes, demand or pressure-demand.
The length of time an SCBA operates is based on the air supply. The
units available operate from 5 minutes to over 4 hours.
Both open- and closed-circuit SCBA's will be discussed and the
modes of operation explained. The bulk of the discussion deals
with open-circuit pressure-demand SCBA's which are most widely used
because they offer more protection.
II. MODES OF OPERATION
A. Demand
In the demand mode, a negative pressure is created inside the
facepiece and breathing tubes when the wearer inhales (Table 3-1).
This negative pressure draws down a diaphragm in the regulator in
an SCBA. The diaphragm depresses and opens the admission valve,
allowing air to be inhaled. As long as the negative pressure
remains, air flows to the facepiece.
The problem with demand operation is that the wearer can
inhale contaminated air through any gaps in the facepiece-to-
face sealing surface. Hence, a demand apparatus with a full
facepiece is assigned a Protection Factor of only 100, the same as
for a full-face air-purifying respirator.
B. Pressure-Demand
An SCBA operating in the pressure-demand mode maintains a
positive pressure inside the facepiece at all times. The
system is designed so that the admission valve remains open
until enough pressure is built up to close it. The pressure
builds up because air is prevented from leaving the system
until the wearer exhales. Less pressure is required to close
the admission valve than is required to open the spring-
loaded exhalation valve.
At all times, the pressure in the facepiece is greater than
the ambient pressure outside the facepiece (Table 3-1). If
any leakage occurs, it is outward from the facepiece. Because
of this, the pressure-demand SCBA has been assigned a
Protection Factor of 10,000.
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TABLE 3-1
PRESSURE INSIDE FACEPIECE OF SCBA RELATIVE TO
AMBIENT PRESSURE OUTSIDE
Demand Pressure demand
Inhalation
Exhalation
Static (between breaths)
+
same
+
+
+
III. TYPES OF APPARATUS
A.	Closed-Circuit
The closed-circuit SCBA, commonly called the rebreather, was
developed especially for oxygen-deficient situations (Figure
3-1). Because it recycles exhaled breath and carries only a
small oxygen supply, the service time can be considerably
greater than an open-circuit device, which must carry all of
the user's breathing air.
The air for breathing is mixed in a flexible breathing bag. This
air is inhaled, deflating the breathing bag. The deflation
depresses the admission valve, allowing the oxygen to enter the
bag. There it mixes with exhaled breath, from which carbon
dioxide has just been removed.
Most rebreathers operate in the demand mode. Several rebreathers
are designed to provide a positive pressure in the facepiece. The
approval schedule 13F under 30 CFR Part 11 for closed-circuit SCBA
makes no provisions for testing "demand" or "pressure-demand"
rebreathers. The approval schedule was set up to certify only
rebreathers that happen to operate in the demand mode. Thus,
rebreathers designed to operate in the positive pressure mode can
be approved strictly as closed-circuit apparatus. Since
regulations make no distinction, and selection i based on approval
criteria, rebreathers designed to maintain a pos pressure can only
be considered as a demand-type apparatus.
Rebreathers use either compressed oxygen or liquid oxygen. To
assure the quality of the air to be breathed, the oxygen must
be at least medical grade breathing oxygen which meets the
requirements set by the "U.S. Pharmacopeia".
B.	Open-Circuit
The open-circuit SCBA requires a supply of compressed breathing
air. The user simply inhales and exhales. The exhaled air is
exhausted from the system. Because the air is not recycled, the
3-3

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wearer must carry the full air supply, which limits a unit to the amount
of air that the wearer can easily carry. Available SCBA's can last from
5 to 60 minutes. Units which have 5-to-15 minute air supplies are only
applicable to escape situations.
The air used in open-circuit apparatus must meet the requirements in the
Compressed Gas Association's Pamphlet G-7.1, which calls for at least
"Grade D". Grade D air must contain 19.5 to 23.5% oxygen with the
balance being predominantly nitrogen. Condensed hydrocarbons are
limited to 5 mg/m , carbon monoxide to 20 parts per million (ppm) and
carbon dioxide to 1,000 ppm. An undersirable odor is also prohibited.
Air quality can be checked using an oxygen meter, carbon monoxide meter
and detector tubes.
IV. COMPONENTS OF A TYPICAL OPEN-CIRCUIT PRESSURE DEMAND SCBA
A. Cylinder
Compressed air is considered a hazardous material. For this
reason, any cylinder used with a SCBA must meet the Department
of Transportations (DOT) "General Requirements for Shipments
and Packaging" (49 CFR Part 173) and "Shipping Container
Specifications" (49 CFR Part 178). (See Appendix I for
excerpts.)
A hydrostatic test must be performed on a cylinder at regular
intervals for steel cylinders, every 5 years; for composite
cylinders (glass fiber/aluminum), every 3 years. Composite
cylinders are relatively new and must have a DOT exemption
because there are no set construction requirements at this
time.
ChtCk
Brrjlhlng l«g
Crmuljr Solid	for Cjrbon Dlwldr
Pll<*
Pmtu'f
Adducing ViU*
CLOSED-CIRCUIT SCBA
FIGURE 3-1
3-4

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A maximum of 45 cubic feet of Grade D air at a pressure of 2,216
pounds per square inch (psi) is needed for a 30-minute supply.
Cylinders are filled using a compressor or a cascade system of several
large cylinders of breathing air. If the cylinder is overfilled, a
relief diaphragm releases the pressure. The relief diaphragm is located
at the cylinder valve, along with a cylinder pressure gauge to be
accurate within + 5%. Because the gauge is exposed and subject to
abuse, it should be used only for judging if the cylinder is full, and
for monitoring air supply to the wearer.
B.	High-Pressure Hose
The high-pressure hose connects the cylinder and the
regulator. The hose should be connected to the cylinder only
by hand, never with a wrench. An 0-ring inside the connector
assures a good seal.
C.	Alarm
A low-pressure warning alarm is also located near the connection to the
cylinder. This alarm must sound when 75-80% of the air supply has been
consumed to alert the wearer that only 20-25% is available for retreat.
Entering hazardous atmospheres should consume no more than 20% of the
initial air supply, to allow enough for retreat when the alarm sounds.
D.	Regulator Assembly
Air travels from the cylinder through the high-pressure hose
to the regulator (Figure 3-2.) There it can travel one of two
paths. If the by-pass valve is opened air travels directly
through the breathing hose into the facepiece. If the mainline valve is
opened, air passes through the regulator and is controlled by that
mechan i sm.
Also at the regulator (before air enters one of the valves) is
another pressure gauge which also must be accurate to + 5%.
Because it is visible and well protected, this gauge should be
used to monitor the air supply.
Under normal conditions, the bypass valve is closed and the mainline
valve opens so air can enter the regulator. Once in the regulator, the
air pressure is reduced from the actual cylinder pressure to
approximately 50-100 psi by a reducing mechanism. A pressure relief
valve is located after the pressure reducer for safety should the
pressure reducer malfunction.
The air can travel no further until the admission valve is
opened. The admission valve is actually held open by a
spring. A back pressure of about 1.25 inches water column
pressure keeps the admission valve closed.
Another pressure	relief valve is sometimes placed after the
admission valve.	If pressure should accumulate near the
regulator due to	blockage or malfunction, this valve releases
the pressure.
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FIGURE 3-2
BY-PASS VALVE
REDUCING
VALVE
REDUCED
PRESSURE
PRESSURE
GAUGE
HIGH PRESSURE
\aaaaJJ
MAIN
LINE
VALVE
EXHALATION
VALVE BODY
TO FACEPIECE
HIGH PRESSURE
RELIEF VALVE
exhalation valve
SPRING
Exhalation 	,rn fry
VALVE COVER "¦
DIAPHRAGM
LOW PRESSURE
RELIEF VALVE
CYLINDER
REGULATOR COVER
ADMISSION
VALVE
SPRING
MSA PRESSURE DEMAND TYPE REGULATOR AIR FLOW
SELECTION FROM MSA PRODUCT LITERATURE, BY MINE SAFETY APPLIANCES CO., COPYRIGHTED BY
MINE SAFETY APPLIANCES CO., REPRINTED WITH PERMISSION OF PUBLISHER.

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E. Breathing Hose and Facepiece
The breathing hose connects the regulator to the facepiece.
Rubber gaskets at both ends provide tight seals. The hose is
usually constructed of neoprene and is corrugated to allow
stretching.
Above the point in the mask where the hose is connected, is a
check valve. This valve allows air to be drawn from the hose
when the wearer inhales but prevents exhaled air from entering
the breathing hose. If the check valve is not in place, the
exhaled air may not be completely exhausted from the
facepiece.
The facepiece itself is normally constructed of neoprene, but
sometimes of silicone rubber. Five- or six-point suspension
is used to hold the mask to the face. The visor lens is made
of polycarbonate or other clear material. Antifog solution
should be applied to the lens after cleaning.
At the bottom of the facepiece is an exhalation valve. About
2-3 inches water column pressure is required to open this
valve. Inside the facepiece, the static pressure normally is
maintained at about 1.5 inches water column pressure.
Some masks include an air-tight speaking diaphragm, which
facilitates communications while preventing contaminated air
from entering.
F. Back Pack and Harness
A back pack and harness support the cylinder and regulator,
allowing the user to move freely. Weight should be supported
on the hips not the shoulders.
V. INSPECTION AND CHECKOUT
The SCBA must be inspected according to manufacturers as well as
29 CFR recommendations. In addition, the SCBA should be checked
out immediately prior to use. Checkout and inspection procedures
(Appendix II) should be followed closely to assure safe operation
of the unit.
VI. APPLICABLE STANDARDS
1. American National Standard Method of Marking Compressed
Gas Containers to Identify the Material Contained, ANSI
Z48.1-1954 (R1971).
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2. Air Compressed for Breathing Purposes, Federal
Specification BB-A-1034A, June 21, 1968.
3.	Breathing Apparatus, Self-Contained, Interim Federal
Specification GG-B-675d, September 23, 1976.
4.	Compressed Air for Human Respiration, Compressed Gas
Association Pamphlet G-7, 1976.
Important Information on Cylinder
A cylinder on an SCBA typically carries the following
information (Figure 3-3):
1.	DOT exemption for composite cylinder
2.	DOT rated pressure.
3.	Cylinder number.
4.	Manufacturer's symbol
5.	Original hydrostatic test date, month/year
See Appendix I for details on DOT requirements.
t	-,r.	--	' ">
^Ali%459^W50iK
J	Sabs.-a.'-
ELASTIC. EXPANSION: .96*06 jnl
HCONTENTS: AIR; 45 SCF. AT 2216^PSIG
n^-MINE ^SAFETY APPLIANCES CO —
'SWZ i'h -^PART: NQ>:460S20^g^S£
FIGURE 3-3
INFORMATION ON TYPICAL SCBA CYLINDER
3-8
8/84

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APPENDIX I
L/a i. . . i«
DOT SPECIFICATION CYLINDERS
SHIPPING CONTAINERS
The following information has been abstracted from the Coa^. of Federal
Regulations, Title 49, Parts 100-199 and is intended to serve as an
aid for in-house use when reviewing your hazardous material procedures.
It does not include or refer to all applicable Department of Transporta-
tion (DOT) requirements. The term "cylinder" means a pressure vessel
designed for pressures higher than 40 psia (pounds per square inch
absolute) and having a circular cross section. It does not include a
portable tank, multiunit tank car tank, cargo tank, or tank car.
QUALIFICATION, MAINTENANCE AND USE OF CYLINDERS
(Sec. 173.34 and Compressed Gas Association (CGA)
Pamphlets as incorporated by reference in Title 49)
1. GENERAL QUALIFICATION (Sec. 173.34(a)(1) No person may charge
or fill a cylinder unless it is as specified in this section and
Part 178 of Title 49 .
a.	A cylinder that leaks, is bulged, has defective valves	or
safety devices, bears evidence of physical abuse, fire	or
heat damage, or detrimental rusting or corrosion, must	not
be used unless it is properly repaired and requalified	as
prescribed in this regulations.
b.	When cylinders with a marked pressure limit are prescribed,
other cylinders made under the same specification but with
a higher marked service pressure limit are authorized. For
example, cylinders marked DOT-4B500 may be used where DOT-4
B300 is specified.
2. CYLINDER MARKINGS (Sec. 173.34(c) Each required marking on a cylinder
must be maintained so that is is legible. Retest markings and original
markings which are becoming illegible may be reproduced by stamping on a
metal plate which must be permanently secured to the cylinder (See Fig-
ures 1 and 2) .
a.	Additional markings not affecting any of the prescribed markings
may be made in accordance with marking requirements of the speci-
fication .
b.	When the space 'originally provided for dates of subsequent
retests becomes filled, the stamping of additional test dates
into the external surface of the footring of a cylinder is
authorized.
c. A cylinder marking may not be changed except as follows:
(1) Marked service pressure may be changed only upon application
to the Bureau of Explosives and receipt of written instructions
as to the procedure to be followed. Such a change is not author-
ized for a cylinder which has failed to pass the prescribed periodic
hydrostatic retest unless it is reheat treated and requalified in
accordance with the requirements of this section.
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2. Changes may be made in serial numbers and in the identification
symbols by the owners. Identification symbols must be registered
and approved by the Bureau of Explosives. Serial numbers and
identification symbols may be changed only by the owner upon his
receipt of written approval from the Bureau of Explosives. The
request for approval must identify the existing markings (including
serial numbers) that correspond with the proposed new markings.
MARKING REQUIREMENTS
178.36 to 178.68 Subpart C Specifications lor Cyllnderi.
ICC 3AA2015©
A35798641©
PST(3> _
6(£ 56®+®
5-61®+® ^
5-66®+ ©-fr®
¦NO STAMPING BELOW THIS LINE
ALL STAMPING AT LEAST V. INCH HIGH
SEE 49CFR178.37-21
MARKING
^CAP
/
NECK
'RING
CYLINDER
1.	DOT or ICC marking may appear-new manufacture must read
"DOT". 49CFR171.14
"3AA" indicates spec in 49CFR170.37.
"2015" is the marked service pressure.
2.	Serial number- no dupiicales permited with any particular
symbol - serial number combination.
3.	Symbol of manufacturer, user, or purchaser.
CAUTION: This is a training aid and does
4.	"6 56" date of manufacture. Month and year.
"(£" disinterested inspector's official mark.
5.	Plus mark {+ ) indicates cylinder may be 10% overcharged
per 49CFR173.302(C).
6.	Retest dates
7.	5 pointed star indicates ten year retest interval
See 49 CFR173.34(e)(15)
include all provisions of the regulations.
Figuire 1 Marking Requirements
3. SAFETY RELIEF DEVICES (Sec. 173.34(d) Each cylinder charged with a
compressed gas, unless excepted in this paragraph, must be equipped with
one or more safety relief devices approved, as to type, location, and
quantity, by the Bureau of Explosives and must be capable of preventing
explosion of the normally charged cylinder when is is placed in a fire.
a. Cylinders shall not be shipped with leaking safety relief devices.
Safety relief devices must be tested for leaks before the charged
cylinder is shipped from the cylinder filling plant. It is ex-
pressly forbidden to repair leaking fuse plug devices, where leak
is through the fusible metal or between the fusible metal and
the opening in the plug body, except by removal of the device and
replacement of the fusible metal.
2
3-10

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b.	Except as provided in Notes 1,2,2 below, safety relief devices
are not required on cylinders 12 inches or less in length, ex-
clusive of neck, and 4*5 inches or less in outside diameter.
NOTE 1: Safety relief devices are required on specifications 9,40,41,
and 31 cylinders (Sec. 178.65). Metal safety relief valves are
required on specification 39 cylinders used for liquefied flammable
gases. Fusible safety relief devices are not authorized on specifi-
cation 39 cylinders containing liquefied compressed gases.
NOTE 2: Safety relief devices are required on cylinders charged with
a liquefied gas for which this part requires a service pressure of
1,800 psi or-higher.
NOTE 3: Safety relief devices are required on cylinders charged with
nonliquefied gases to a pressure of 1,800 psi or higher at 70 F.
c.	Except for specification 39 cylinders and cylinders for Acetylene
in solution, safety relief devices are not required on cylinders
charged with nonliquefied gas under pressure of 300 psi or less
at 70°F.
d.	Safety relief devices are prohibited on cylinders charged with
Poison A gas or liquid.
MARKING REQUIREMENTS
BOSS OR SPUD
STAMPING
COLLAR
MARKINGS ON 4B 4BA 4BW
CYLINDERS
STAMPING USUALLY/
ABOVE THIS LINE S
SEE APPLICABLE
SPEC. REQUIREMENT
ALL MARKS AT LEAST '/i INCH
HIGH SEE APPLICABLE SPEC.
DOT SPECIFICATION:
4B
4BA
4BW
MARKING:
SUB-PAR:19&20
SUB-PAR: 1ft
SUB.PAR.20
49CFR178.S0
49CFR178.S1
49CFR178.61
FOOTRING
ICC 4BA 240w
}ADA 1357864211
ABC®
12 -42®
12 — 54S®
12 — 61E
12—66
Qj DOT or ICC marking may appear-new manufacture cylinder
must read "DOT". See 49CFR171.14
"4BA" indicates DOT spec applying.
"240" is the marked service pressure.
Symbol of manufa
©
Serial number-no duplicates permitted with any particular
symbol - serial number combination.
inspector's official mark.
OPTIONAL MARKS:
1.	Owners name A address
2.	T.W.-XXX - tare weight usually pounds.
3.	WC-XXX- water capacity usually pounds.
^5^ "2.42" month and year of manufacture.
(6) Retest dates.
"S" denotes modified hydrostatic test method used.
See 49CFR173.(e)(9).
"E" denotes visual Inspection used.
See 49CFRl73.34(e)(10).
CAUTION: This is • training aid and does not
include all provisions of the regulations.
Figure 2 Marking Requirements
3
3-11

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e.	Safety relief devices are prohibited on cylinders charged with
Fluorine.
f.	Safety relief devices are prohibited on cylinders charged with
Methyl mercaptan; with Mono-, Di-, or Trimethy1amine, Anhydrous;
with not over 10 pounds of Nitrosyl Chloride; or with less than
165 pounds of Anhydrous Ammonia.
g.	Safety relief devices, if used, must be in the vapor space
cylinders containing Pyroforic liquids, n.o.s., covered by
Sec. 173.134.
4. PERIODIC RETESTING AND REINSPECTION OF CYLINDERS (Sec. 173.34(e))
a.	Each cylinder becomes due for periodic retest in accordance
with the procedures prescribed in 49 CFR 173.34(e).
b.	This periodic retest must include a visual internal and external
examination together with a test by interior hydrostatic pressure
in a water jacket or other apparatus of suitable form for the
determination of the expansion of the cylinder. The test appara-
tus must be approved as to type and operation by the Bureau of
Explosives.
SHIPMENT OF COMPRESSED GASES IN CYLINDERS (Sec. 173.301)
1.	GASES CAPABLE OF COMBINING CHEMICALLY - A cylinder charged with
compressed gas must not contain gases of materials that are capable
of combining chemically with each other or with the cylinder material
so as to endanger its serviceability.
2.	OWNERSHIP OF CONTAINER - A container charged with a compressed
gas must not be shipped unless it was charged by or with the consent
of the owner of the container.
3.	RETEST OF CONTAINER
a.	A container for which prescribed periodic retest has become due
must not be charged and shipped until such retest has been pro-
perly made.
b.	The procedures for interconnecting such as manifolding of indivi-
dual cylinders are prescribed in 49 CFR 173.301.
4.	CONTAINER VALVE PROTECTION- Containers charged with flammable,
corrosive, or noxious gases, must have their valves protected by one
of the following methods:
a.	By equipping the containers with securely attached metal caps
of sufficient strength to protect the valves from injury during
transit.
b.	By boxing or crating the containers so as to give proper pro-
tection to the valves.
4
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c.	By so constructing the containers that the valve is recessed into
the container or otherwise protected so that it will not be subjected
to a blow when the container is dropped on a flat surface.
d.	By loading the containers compactly in an upright position and
securely bracing the cars or motor vehicles, when loaded by the
consignor and to be unloaded by the consignee.
e.	By equipping with valves strong enough to avoid injury during
transit for containers containing nonliquified gas under pressure
not exceeding 300 psi at 70°F.
5.	OUTSIDE PACKAGING - Outside packagings, Specifications 2P, 2Q, 3E,
3HT, 4D, 4DA, 4DS, 9, 39, 40, and 41 must be shipped in strong
outside packagings. Outside packagings must provide protection
for the complete cylinder and against accidental functioning of
and damage to valves under conditions normally incident to trans-
portation.
6.	HORIZONTALLY MOUNTED - Specifications 3AX, 3AXX, and 3T cylinders
are authorized for transportation only when horizontally mounted
on a motor vehicle and when valves and safety devices are pro-
tected, as follows:
a.	Each cylinder must be fixed at one end of the vehicle with pro-
vision for thermal expansion at the opposite end attachment.
b.	The valve safety relief device protective structure must be suffient-
ly strong to withstand a force equal to twice the weight involved
with a safety factor of four, based on the ultimate strength of the
material used; and
c.	Each discharge for a safety relief device on a cylinder containing
a flammable gas must be upward and unobstructed.
7.	COMPRESSED GAS CONTAINERS - Compressed gases must be in metal
containers built in accordance with the DOT specifications, shown
below, in effect at the time of manufacture, and marked as required
by the specification and the regulation for retesting if applicable
(See Part 178, Subpart C).
DOT-2P
DOT-3B
DOT-4A
DOT-4C
D0T-8AL
DOT-20
DOT-3BN
D0T-4AA
DOT-4D
DOT-91
1CC-31
DOT-3C
D0T-4B
DOT-4DA
ICC-25
DOT-3A
DOT-3D
DOT-4B2 4 0FLW
DOT-4DS
ICC-26^-
DOT-3AX
DOT-3E
DOT-4B240X
DOT-4E
ICC-33
DOT-3A4 80X
DOT-3HT
D0T-4BA
DOT-4L
ICC-381
DOT-3AA
DOT-3T
DOT-4BW
DOT-5
ICC-39
DOT-3AAX
DOT-4
D0T-4B240ET
DOT-5F
DOT-401"



DOT-8
DOT-41
Use of existing cylinders authorized, but new construction not authorized.
5
3-13

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MATTER INCORPORATED BY REFERENCE (See Sec. 171.7) The references
listed below are part of the regulatory requirements of Title 49,
CFR, Parts 100-199 and are listed for convenience.
Order from:
CGA: Compressed Gas Association
500 Fifth Avenue
New York, NY 10036
1. CGA Pamphlet C-3, is titled, Standards for Welding and Brazing
on Thin Walled Containers" 1975 edition.
2 CGA Pamphlet C-6, is titled, "Standards for Visual Inspection
of Compressed Gas Cylinders." 1975 edition
3.	CGA Pamphlet C-7, Appendix A is titled, "A Guide for the Precau-
tory Markings for Compressed Gas Containers," dated May 15, 1971,
Addenda issued January 1976.
4.	CGA Pamphlet C-8, is titled, "Standards for Regulification of
DOT-3HT Cylinders, " 1972 edition.
5.	CGA Pamphlet S-1.2, is titled. Safety Relief Device Standards Part 2-
Cargo and Portable Tanks for Compressed Gases," 1966 edition
NOTE: for additional references, see Sec. 171.7.
The*following references to Title 49, CFR Parts 100-199, are listed
for convenience only.
1.	Part 171-General Information
2.	Part 172-Hazardous Materials Table
and Hazardous Materials
Communications Regulations
3.	Part 172-Subpart B-Table of Hazardous
Materials, Their Description,
Proper Shipping Name, Class
Label, Packaging, and Other
Requirements.
4.	Part 172-Subpart C-Shipping Papers
5.	Part 172-Subpart D-Marking
6.	Part 172-Subpart E-Labeling
7.	Part "172-Subpart F-Placarding
8.	Part 173-Subpart A-General (Containers general information concerning
preparation of shipments, e.g., shippers responsibility, classification
of material having more than one hazard, standard requirements for all
packages, prohibited packing, reuse of containers etc.)
NOTE: This handout is designed as a training aid for shippers and carriers
of hazardous materials. It does not relieve persons from complying
with the DOT Hazardous Materials Regulations. Final authority for
use of cylinders are found in Title 49, CFR, Parts 100-199.
NOTE: This material may be reproduced without special permission from this
office.
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION
MATERIALS TRANSPORTATION BUREAU
INFORMATION SERVICES DIVISION
TRAINING BRANCH (DMT - 4 32)
WASHINGTON, DC 20590
Revised August 1980
3-14

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APPENDIX II
SCBA CHECKOUT PROCEDURES
I. INTRODUCTION
Before a self-contained breathing apparatus can be used, it must be
properly inspected to help prevent malfunctions during use. The
two checklists that follow can help ensure proper inspection.
The first is for pressure-demand SCBA units with no demand/pressure
demand mode-select lever such as the MSA 401 or MSA Ultralite Air Mask.
The second is for SCBA's with mode-select levers, such as Scott
11A pressure paks. Note that both checklists indicate that inspection
steps marked (M) are required monthly rather than prior to each use.
II. CHECKLIST: PRESSURE-DEMAND SCBA WITHOUT MODE SELECT LEVER
Prior to starting on checklist, make sure that:
-	High-pressure-hose connector is tight on cylinder fitting.
-	Bypass valve is closed.
-	Mainline valve is closed.
-	Regulator outlet is not covered or obstructed.
A. Back Pack and Harness Assembly
1.	Straps
a.	Visually inspect for complete set.
b.	Visually inspect for frayed or damaged straps.
2.	Buckles
a.	Visually inspect for mating ends.
b.	Check locking function.
3.	Back plate and cylinder Lock
a.	Visually inspect back plate for cracks and missing
rivets or screws.
b.	Visually inspect cylinder hold-down strap; physically
check strap tightener and lock to assure that it is
fully engaged.
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B.	Cylinder and Cylinder Valve Assembly
1.	Cylinder
a. Physically check to assure that it is tightly fastened
to back plate.
(M) b. Visually inspect for large dents or gouges in metal.
(M) c. Check hydrostatic test date to assure it is current.
2.	Head and valve assembly
(M) a. Visually determine cylinder valve lock is present.
(M) b. Visually inspect cylinder gauge for condition of face,
needle, and lens.
c. Open cylinder valve; listen or feel for leakage around
packing. (If leakage is noted, do not use until
repaired.) Note function of valve lock.
C.	Regulator and High-Pressure Hose
1.	High-pressure hose and connector
Listen or feel for leakage in hose or at hose-to-cylinder
connector. (Bubble in outer hose covering may be caused
by seepage of air through hose when stored under pressure.
This does not necessarily indicate a faulty hose.)
2.	Regulator and low-pressure alarm
a.	Place mouth onto or over regulator outlet and blow. A
positive pressure should be created and maintained for
5-10 seconds without loss of air. Next, suck to
create a slight negative pressure on regulator; hold
for 5-10 seconds. Vacuum should remain constant.
This tests integrity of the diaphragm. Any loss of
pressure or vacuum during this test indicates a leak
in the apparatus.
b.	Ascertain that regulator outlet is not covered or
obstructed. Open and close bypass valve momentarily
to assure flow of air through by-pass system.
c.	Cover regulator outlet with palm of hand. Open
mainline valve and read regulator gauge (must read at
least 1,800 psi and not more than rated cylinder
pressure.)
3-16

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d.	Remove hand from outlet and replace in rapid movement.
Repeat twice more. Air should escape when hand is
removed each time, indicating a positive pressure in
chamber.
e.	Close cylinder valve and slowly move hand from
regulator outlet to allow air to flow slowly. Gauge
should begin to show immediate loss of pressure as air
flows. Low-pressure alarm should sound between 520
and 480 psi. Remove hand completely from outlet and
close mainline valve.
D. Facepiece and Corrugated Breathing Tube
1.	Facepiece
a.	Visually inspect head harness for damaged serrations
and deteriorated rubber. Visually inspect rubber
facepiece body for signs of deterioration or extreme
distortion.
b.	Visually inspect lens for proper seal in rubber face-
piece, retaining clamp properly in place, and absence
of cracks or large scratches.
c.	Visually inspect exhalation valve for visible
deterioration or buildup of foreign materials.
d.	Carry out negative pressure test for overall seal and
check of exhalation valve. In monthly inspection,
place mask against face and use following procedure;
in preparing for use, don back pack, then facepiece,
and use following procedure: "With facepiece held
tightly to face (or facepiece properly donned),
stretch breathing tube to open corrugations and place
thumb or hand over end of connector. Inhale.
Negative pressure should be created inside mask,
causing it to pull tightly to face for 5-10
seconds. If negative pressures drops this indicates
a leak in the facepiece.
2.	Breathing tube and connector
a.	Stretch breathing tube and visually inspect for
deterioration and holes.
b.	Visually inspect connector to assure good condition of
threads and for presence and proper condition of
rubber gasket seal.
3-17

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E. Storage of Units
Certain criteria must be met before an SCBA is stored. Units
not meeting the criteria should be set aside for repair by a
certified technician.
1.	Cylinder refilled as necessary and unit cleaned and
inspected.
2.	Cylinder valve closed.
3.	High-pressure-hose connector tight on cylinder.
4.	Pressure bled off of high-pressure hose and regulator.
5.	Bypass valve closed.
6.	Mainline valve closed.
7.	All straps completely loosened and laid straight.
8.	Facepiece properly stored to protect against dust, direct
sunlight, extreme temperatures, excessive moisture, and
damaging chemicals.
III. CHECKLIST: PRESSURE-DEMAND, OPEN-CIRCUIT SCBA WITH MODE-SELECT
LEVER.
Prior to starting on checklist, make sure that:
-	High-pressure-hose connector is tight on cylinder fitting.
-	Bypass valve is closed.
-	Mainline valve is open and locked (when lock present).
-	Select lever is on demand mode.
-	Regulator outlet is not covered or obstructed.
A. Back Pack and Harness Assembly
1.	Straps
a.	Visually inspect for complete set.
b.	Visually inspect for frayed or damaged straps.
2.	Buckles
a.	Visually inspect for mating ends.
b.	Check locking function.
3-18

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3. Back plate and cylinder Lock
a.	Visually inspect back plate for cracks and missing
rivets or screws.
b.	Visually inspect cylinder hold-down strap; physically
check strap tightener and lock to assure that it is
fully engaged.
B.	Cylinder and Cylinder Valve Assembly
1.	Cylinder
a. Physically check to assure that it is tightly fastened
to back plate.
(M) b. Visually inspect for large dents or gouges in metal.
(M) c. Check hydrostatic test date to assure they are
current.
2.	Head and Valve Assembly
(M) a. Visually determine if cylinder valve lock is present.
(M) b. Visually inspect cylinder gauge for condition of face,
needle, and lens.
c.	Open cylinder valve; listen or feel for leakage around
packing. (If leakage is noted, do not use until
repaired.) Note function of valve lock.
C.	Regulator and High-Pressure Hose
1. High-pressure hose and connector
Listen or feel for leakage in hose or at hose-to-
cylinder connector (Bubble in outer hose covering may
be caused by seepage of air through hose when stored
under pressure. This does not necessarily
indicate a faulty hose).
2. Regulator and low-pressure Alarm
a.	Place mouth onto or over regulator outlet and blow. A
positive pressure should be created and maintained for
5-10 seconds without loss of air. Next, suck to create a
slight negative pressure on regulator; hold for 5-10
seconds. Vacuum should remain constant. This tests
integrity of the diaphragm. Any loss of pressure or
vacuum during this test indicates a leak in the
apparatus.
b.	Read pressure on regulator gauge (must read at least
1,800 psi and not more than rated cylinder pressure).
3-19

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c.	Suck on regulator outlet. Air should be delivered
with very slight effort.
d.	On units with select lever, place hand over regulator
outlet. Select pressure-demand mode. Remove and
replace hand over outlet in rapid movement. Repeat
twice more. Air should escape when hand is removed
each time, indicating a positive pressure in chamber.
Select demand mode on select lever and remove hand
from outlet. At this point, there should be no air
leaking from any point on the pressurized unit.
e.	Close cylinder valve. Ascertain that regulator outlet
is not covered or obstructed. Position regulator
outlet is not covered or obstructed. Position
regulator to observe regulator gauge. Slowly open
bypass valve. Air should flow from outlet, and
gauge pressure should begin to decrease
immediately. Alarm should sound at pressure
reading between 500 and 480 psi. (This assures
function of bypass valve and low-pressure alarm.)
After pressure is completely released, close
bypass valve.
D. Facepiece and Corrugated Breathing Tube
1. Facepiece
a.	Visually inspect head harness for damaged serrations
and deteriorated rubber. Visually inspect rubber
facepiece body for signs of deterioration or extreme
distortion.
b.	Visually inspect lens for proper seal in rubber
facepiece, retaining clamp properly in place, and
absence of cracks or large scratches.
c.	Visually inspect exhalation valve for visible
deterioration or buildup of foreign materials.
d.	Carry out a negative pressure test for overall seal
and check of exhalation valve. In monthly inspection,
place mask against face and use following procedure;
in preparing for use, don back pack, then facepiece,
and use following procedure: With facepiece held
tightly to face (or facepiece properly donned),
stretch breathing tube to open corrugations and place
thumb or hand over end of connector. Inhale.
3-20

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Negative pressure should be created inside mask,
causing it to pull tightly to face for 5-10 seconds.
If negative pressure drops, this indicates a leak in
the facepiece.
NOTE: On Scott Pressur-Pak II and IIA facepiece units
only, place connector end of the breathing tube
approximately 1/4 - 1/2 inch from palm of hand
and exhale. If any air returns through tube,
do not use the unit.
2. Breathing Tube and connector
a.	Stretch breathing tube and visually inspect for
deterioration and holes.
b.	Visually inspect connector to assure good condition of
threads and for presence and proper condition of 0-
ring or rubber gasket seal.
E. Storage of Units
Certain criteria must be met before an SCBA is stored. Units
not meeting the criteria should be set aside for repair by a
certified technician.
a.	Cylinder refilled as necessary and unit cleaned and
inspected.
b.	Cylinder valve closed.
c.	High-pressure-hose connector tight on cylinder.
d.	Pressure bled off of high-pressure hose and
regulator.
e.	Bypass valve closed.
f.	Mainline valve open. (When mainline valve lock
present, it should be engaged.)
g.	Select lever, if present, on demand mode.
h.	All straps completely loosened and laid straight.
i.	Facepiece properly stored to protect against dust,
direct sunlight, extreme temperatures, excessive
moisture, and damaging chemicals.
3-21
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PART 4
CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
I. INTRODUCTION
Chemical protective clothing (CPC) is worn to prevent harmful chemicals
from coming in contact with the skin (or eyes). It provides a barrier
between the body and attack chemicals which have a detrimental effect on
the skin or which can be absorbed through the skin affecting other organs.
Used with respiratory protection, properly selected chemical protective
clothing can protect personnel who must work in a hostile environment from
injurious chemicals.
Protecting workers against skin exposure requires using the most effective
chemical protective clothing. Most important 1s selecting clothing made"
from material which is most resistance to the attack chemical. The style
of clothing depends on whether the attack substance is in the air or skin
exposure will be from splash or direct contact with solids or semi-solids.
Other selection criteria include the probability of being exposed (and
how),, ease of decontamination, mobility while wearing clothing, durability
of clothing, and to a lesser degree, cost.
A variety of manufactured materials exists which are used to make the fabric
for chemical protective clothing. Each of these materials will provide
provide skin protection against a range of chemicals. But no one material
affords maximum protection against all chemicals. The chemical protective
clothing selected must be made from a material which affords the greatest
deterrent against the chemicals known or expected to be encountered.
Proper selection of chemical protective clothing can minimize risk of
exposure to chemical substances, but fails to address protection against
physical hazards. Accompanying all selection decisions is the use of
personal protective equipment. Head protection is provided by hard hats;
eye and face by goggles or impact resistant lenses in spectacles; hearing
by earmuffs or earplugs; and feet by impact resistant and chemically-
resistant boots.
II. CLASSIFICATION OF CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Chemical protective clothing is classified by style, protective material
from which the fabric 1s made, and whether the clothing is single use
(disposable).
A. Style
- Fully Encapsulating Suit (FES): Fully encapsulating chemical
protective clothing is a one piece garment that completely encloses
4-1
HMFFR 1/25

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the wearer. Boots, gloves and facepiece are an integral part
of the suit, but may be removed. If removable they are connected
to the suit by devices that provide a vapor or gas proof seal.
Respiratory protection and breathing air 1s provided to the wearer
by a positive pressure, self-contained breathing apparatus worn
under the suit, or an a1r-line respirator which maintains a positive
pressure Inside the suit.
Fully encapsulating suits are primarily designed to protect the
wearer against toxic vapors, gases, mists, or particulates in air.
Concomitantly, they protect against splashes of liquids. The
protection they provide against a specific chemical depends upon
the material from which they are constructed.
-	Non-Encapsulating Suit: Non-encapsulating chemical protective
clothing (frequently called splash suits)~do not have a facepiece
as an integral part of the suit. A positive pressure self-
contained breathing apparatus or airline respirator is worn
outside the suit, or an air-purifying respirator is used. Splash
suits are of two types: a one-piece, "coverall" or a two piece,
"pants and coat". Either type may include a hood and other
accessories.
Non-encapsulating are not designed to provide maximum protection
against vapors, gases, or other airborne substances but as
their common name implies - splashes. In effect, splash suits
can be made (by taping wrist, ankles and neck joints) to totally
enclose the wearer such that no part of the body is exposed
but they are not considered to be gas tight. They may be an
acceptable substitute for a fully encapsulating suit if there
is little or no risk of skin exposure due to airborne contam-
ination.
B. Protective Material
Chemical protective clothing also 1s classified based on the material
from which it is made. All materials fall into two general categories,
elastomers and non-elastomers.
-	Elastomers: polymeric (plastic-like) materials, that after being
stretched, return to about their original shape. Most protective
materials are elastomers. These include: polyvinyl chloride,
neoprene, polyethylene, nltrile, polyvinyl alcohol, viton, teflon,
butyl rubber and others.
-	Non-elastomers: materials that do not have the quality of stretch-
ability. Non-elastomers include tyvek and tyvek coated fabrics.
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HMRFR 1/25

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C. Single-Use
A third classification is single use or disposal. This classification
is based on cost, and ease of decontamination. Disposable chemical
protective clothing is commonly considered to be less than $25.00 per
garment. In situations where decontamination is a problem more ex-
pensive clothing may be considered disposable.
III. PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS FOR CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Performance requirements must be considered in selecting the appropriate
protective material. Their relative importance is determined by the
particular work activity and site specific conditions.
Chemical Resistance: The ability of a material to withstand chemical
and physical changes. A material's chemical resistance is the most
important performance requirement. The material must maintain its
structural integrity and protective qualities upon contact with a
hazardous substance. This requirement will be discussed in detail in
Section IV.
Durability: The ability to withstand wear. The capability to resist
punctures, abrasions, and tears. The materials' inherent strength.
Flexibility: The ease to move and work in protective clothing. It
is extremely important both for glove and full-body suit materials,
for it directly impacts the worker's mobility and agility.
Temperature Resistance: The ability of a material to maintain its
chemical resistance during temperature extremes (especially heat), and
to remain flexible in cold weather. A general tendency for most
materials is that higher temperatures reduce their chemical resistance;
lower temperatures reduce flexibility.
Service Life: The ability of a material to resist aging and deter-
ioration. Factors such as chemicals, extreme temperatures, moisture,
ultraviolet (UV) light, oxidizing agents, and others decrease a
materials service life. Storage away from and proper care against
these conditions can help prevent aging. Manufacturers should be
consulted regarding any recommendations on a suit's shelf-life.
Cleanability: The ability to effectively decontaminate protective
materials. Cleanability is a relative measure of the ability of a
material to release the contact substance. Some materials are nearly
impossible to decontaminate, so it may be important to cover those
materials with disposable garments to prevent gross contamination.
4-3
HMFFR 1/25

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-	Design: The way a suit is constructed which includes the general type
and specific features 1t has. A variety of suit styles and features
are manufactured including:
0 Fully encapsulating or non-encapsulating
° One, two, or three piece suits
° Hoods, facepieces, gloves, and boots (attached or
unattached)
o Location of zipper, buttons, storm flaps, and seams
(front, side and back)
o Pockets, cloth collars, and velcro straps
® Exhalation valves or ventilation ports
° Ease of compatibility with wearing respiratory
protection
-	Size: The physical dimensions or proportions of clothing. Size is
directly related to comfort and influences the number of unnecessary
physical accidents. Ill-fitting clothing limits a worker's mobility,
dexterity and concentration. Manufacturers offer standard sizes in
boots and gloves for both men and women, however standard suit sizes
for women are not available.
-	Color: Brightly colored suit material make it easier to maintain
visual contact between personnel. Suits of darker colors (black,
green) absorb radiant heat' from external sources and transfer it to the
worker increasing heat related problems.
-	Cost: The cost of chemical protective clothing varies considerably.
Cost will often play a role in the selection and frequency of use of
CPC. In many situations, less expensive, single use garments are more
appropriate and as safe as more costly clothing. Other situations
require high quality, costly clothing which may have to be discarded
after limited use.
IV. CHEMICAL RESISTANCE
The effectiveness of protective materials against chemicals is	based on
their resistance to penetration, degradation, and permeation.	Each of
these properties must be evaluated when selecting the style of	chemical
protective clothing and the material from which it is made. In	choosing
protective materials:
-	There is no protective material that is Impermeable.
-	There is no one material that affords protection against all chemicals,
and
4-4
HMFFR 1/25

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For certain contaminants and chemical mixtures there are no materials
available that will protect for more than an hour after initial contact.
Penetration is the process of chemical transport through openings in a
garment. A chemical may penetrate due to design or garment imperfections.
Stitched seams, button holes, pinholes, zippers, and woven fabrics can
provide an avenue for the chemical to penetrate the garment. A well de-
signed and constructed garment prevents this by using selfsealing zippers,
seams overlayed with tape, flap closures, and non-woven fabrics. Rips,
tears, punctures, or abrasions to the garment will also allow penetration.
Degradation 1s a chemical action involving the molecular breakdown of the
material due to chemical contact. Degradation is evidenced by physical
changes to the material. The action may cause the material to shrink
or swell, become brittle or soft, or completely change its chemical
properties. Some changes may be a slight discoloration, rough or gummy
surface, or cracks in the material. Such changes may enhance permeation
or allow penetration by the contaminant.
Degradation test data for specific chemical or generic classes of chemical
(Table 4-1) is available from product manufacturers, suppliers, or other
sources. The published data provides the user with a general degradation
resistance rating. The rating is subjectively expressed as excellent,
good, fair, or poor. Degradation data can help in assessing the protective
capability of a material but should be supplemented with permeation test
data. The reason for this is that a material with excellent degradation
resistance can have poor permeation properties. Degradation and permeation
are not directly related and cannot be used interchangeably. The manu-
facturer should be consulted to determine on which degradation changes the
rating is based.
Permeation is a chemical action involving the movement of chemicals, on a
molecular level, through intact material. Permeation is a process which
involves the sorption of the chemical on the outside surface, diffusion
through, and desorption of the chemical from the inside surface of the
protective material. A concentration gradient (high on outside: low on
inside) is established. Because the tendency is to achieve concentration
equilibrium, molecular forces "drive" the chemical into the material
toward the area of no or lower concentration. Eventually the highest flow
of permeating chemical exists.
Permeation is measured as a rate. Permeation rate is the quantity of
chemical that will move through an area of protective material in a given
time. It is usually expressed in micrograms of chemical permeated per
square centimeter per minute of exposure (ug/cm^/min).
Several factors influence the rate of permeation. These factors include
the type of material and thickness. A general rule of thumb is that the
4-5
HMFFR 1/25

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TABLE 4-1
EFFECTIVENESS OF PROTECTIVE MATERIALS AGAINST
CHEMICAL DEGRADATION (BY GENERIC CLASS)1
Generic Class
Butyl
rubber
Polyvinyl
chloride
Neoprene
Natural
rubber
Alcohols
E
E
E
E
Aldehydes
E-G
G-F
E-G
E-F
Amines
E-F
G-F
E-G
G-F
Esters
G-F
P
G
F-P
Ethers
G-F
G
E-G
G-F
Halogenated
hydrocarbons
G-P
G-P
G-F
F-P
Hydrocarbons
F-P
F
G-F
F-P
Inorganic
acids
G-F
E
E-G
F-P
Inorganic bases
and salts
E
E
E
E
Ketones
E
P
G-F
E-F
Natural fats
and oils
G-F
G
E-G
G-F
Organic acids
E
E
E
E
1
E - Excellent	F - Fair
G - Good	P - Poop
Source: Survey of Personal Protective Clothing and Respiratory Apparatus. DOT
USCG, Office of Research and Development (September, 1974).
HMRFR 1/31

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permeation rate is inversely proportional to the thickness (2 x thickness
- 1/2 x permeation rate). Other important factors to consider are chemical
concentration, contact time, temperature, material grade, humidity, and
solubility of the material in the chemical.
Another measure of permeation is breakthrough time, expressed in minutes.
Breakthrough is the elapsed time between initial contact of a chemical
with the outside surface and detection at the inside surface of the.
material. Like permeation rate, breakthrough time is chemical specific
against a particular material and 1s influenced by the same factors. A
rule of thumb concerning breakthrough time is that it is directly pro-
portional to the square of the thickness (2 c thickness = 4 x break-through
time).
Permeation and breakthrough test data is available from manufacturers
which gives specific rates and times (Table 4-2). A given manufacturer's
recommendations serve as a relative guideline to properly select their
products. This data is produced according to the American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM) standard test method F739-81. No similar
accepted method exists for degradation testing. Although ASTM has a
standard method for permeation testing, considerable variation exists
between manufacturer's test data. The. differences are due to material
thickness and grade, manufacturing processes, temperature, chemical con-
centrations, and analytical detection method. Therefore, caution should
be used when comparing different manufacturers results. The results for
the same material/chemical combination may differ between manufacturers.
The best protective material against a specific chemical is one that has a
low permeation rate (if any) and a long breakthrough time. However, these
actions do not always correlate. Compare propyl acetate (Table 4-2) and
1,1,1-Trichloroethane against nitrile NBR or dimethyl sulfoxide and methyl
alcohol against neoprene. As indicated, a long breakthrough time does not
always correlate with a low permeation rate or vice versa. A long break-
through time is usually desired.
The literature on material testing also notes that permeation rates and
breakthrough times are not tested for those materials which receive a poor
degradation rating; only breakthrough time is measured for those chemicals
(especially corrosives) which are known to be high skin hazards. The data
reflects the testing of pure substances and not mixtures.
In addition to the manufacturer's chemical resistance data, the best
general reference for selection of CPC is Guidelines For The Selection Of
Chemical Protective Clothing, ACGIH (1983). This reference compiles
degradation and permeation test data from manufacturers, vendors, and in-
dependent laboratories with recommendations for over 300 chemicals.
Table 4-3 illustrates information presented in this particular reference.
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TABLE 4-2
PERMEATION/DEGRADATION RESISTANCE FOR EDMONT GLOVES*

NITRILE NBR
NEOPRENE
PVC

D R
P B T
P R
D R
P B T
P R
D R
P B T
P R

E A
E R I
E A
E A
E R I
E A
E A
E R I
E A

G T
REM
R T
G T
REM
R T
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REM
R T

R I
MAE
M E
R I
MAE
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R I
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A N
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A N
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A N
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D G
A T
A
D G
A T
A
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A T
A

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T H
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NR
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NR
-
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VG
ANILINE
-
3 hr.
3 hr.
CELLOSOLVE AcETAt£
1 1/2 hr.
1 1/4 hr.
-
(DMSO)
DIMETHYL SULFOXIDE
4 hr.
3 hr.
70 min.
ETHYL ETHER
2 hr.
10 min.
-
m
x
HYDROFLUORIC ACID. 48%
2 hr.
1 1/4 hr.
40 min.
METHYL ALCOHOL
11 min.
15 min.
45 min.
PROPYL ACEtAlt
20 min.

-
TOLUENE
10 min.
-
-
l.i.i-TRicrtLOftOETHANE
1- 1/2 hr.
-
-
-
XYLENE
1 1/4 hr.
-
-
-
(-) NO TEST RUN
* This is a partial list of test data taken from.the "Edmont Chemical Resistance
Guide" - Third Edition (1986), Edmont Becton Dickinson, and is intended to
illustrate the association of chemical criteria against specific test chemicals.
4-8
HMRFR 1/25

-------
KEY TO PERMEATION RATE
ND — None Detected during a six»hour test
(Equivalent to Excellent)
Simply Stated
Drops Per Hour
Through A Glove
(Eyedropper size drop)
NONE
E — Excellent; permeation rate of less
than 9.9ug/cm2/min.
0 to 1/2 drop
VG -- Very Good; permeation rate of less
than 9ug/cm2/min.
1 to 5 drops
G — Good; permeation rate of less than
90ug/cm2/min.
6 to 50 drops
F —.Fair; permeation rate of less than
900ug/cm2/min.
51 to 500 drops
P -- Poor; "permeation rate of less than
9000ug/cm2/min.
501 to 5000 drops
NR — Not Recommended; permeation rate
greater than 9000ug/cm2/min.
5001 drops up
NOTE: The current revision to the ASTM standard permeation test calls for
permeation to be reported in micrograms of chemical permeated per square
centimeter of garmet exposed per minute of exposure, "ug/cm2/min.".
HMRFR 1/25
4-9

-------
Specific chemicals are rated against a variety of protective materials.
The ratings (RR, rr, NN, nn) are based on two criteria; breakthrough times
and vendor chemical resistance data. Each rating represents a combination
of performance, number of sources confirming that performance, and con-
sistency of the data. The number and size of the letters indicate this.
The available test data and recommendations for all chemical protective
clothing is extremely limited in scope and use. The user must consider
these restrictions when selecting CPC and use the guidelines in the way
they were intended to be used.
V. PROTECTIVE MATERIALS
There is a wide range of difference protective materials. The following
is a list of the more common materials used in CPC segregated as elas-
tomers or nonelastomers. The elastomers are not listed in any particular
priority. The classes of chemicals rated as "good for" or "poor for"
represent test data for both permeation breakthrough and permeation rate.
They are general recommendations; there are many exceptions within each
chemical class. Sources consulted for this information included Guide-
lines for the Selection of Chemical Protective Clothing (ACGIH, Vol. 1,
1983) and manufacturer's literature. The costs are recent estimates and
are subject to change.
A. Elastomers
Butyl Rubber: (Isobutylene/Isoprene Copolymer)
Good for: bases and many organics
heat and ozone resistance
decontamination
Poor for: aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons
gasoline
halogenated hydrocarbons
abrasion resistance
Cost: Gloves - $10/pr.
Boots - $25/pr.
FES - $900 - $1,350
Chlorinated Polyethylene: (Cloropel, CPE)
Good for: aliphatic hydrocarbons
acids and bases
alcohols, phenols
4-10
HMFFR 1/25

-------




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HYDROCARBONS (Continued)











Aliphatic and Acyclic (291) (Continued)











Pentane r
NN
rr

NN
RR
n
nn

r RR
NN

RR
Propane n
N
R
n

R

nn

r
r

r
Turpentine N
N
r
n

rr
n
r
r
r RR
N

r
TABLE 7.2
DESCRIPTION OF CRITERIA FOR RBOOMENDATIONS (excerpts)
Symbol	Performance Data
RR Breakthrough times greater than one hour
reported by two or more testers.
R 	 No Data 	
r -
NN
N -
nn
rr Some data suggesting breakthrough times
of approximately an hour or more.
No Data
Breakthrough times less than one hour
reported by two or more testers.
	 No Data 	
Some data (usually from immersion tests)
suggesting breakthrough times greater
than one hour not likely.
	 No Data 	
Vendor Recommendations
A or B ratings from three or more
(apparently independent) vendors.
	 Same as RR
A or B ratings from less than three
vendors; no C or D. B and C ratings
(B predominant) from several vendors.
Same as rr
C or D ratings from three or more
(apparently independent) vendors.
Same as Nty
C or D ratings from less than three
vendors. B and C ratings (C pre-
dominating) from several vendors.
	 Same as nn
* Normalized four-grade system (i.e. A,B,C,D) developed to accomodaie and compare
different vendor rating scales. A = best; B ¦= good; C = fair; D = poor.

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abrasion and ozone
Poor for: amines, esters, ketones
halogenated hydrocarbons
cold temperature (rigid)
Cost: splash suit - $60
FES	- $600
Natural Rubber: (Polyisoprene)
Good for: alcohols
dilute acids and bases
flexibility
Poor for: organic chemicals
aging (ozone)
Cost: Gloves - $10-$15/doz.
Boot Covers - $5/pr.
Jleoprene: (Chloroprene)
Good for: bases and dilute acids
peroxides
fuels and oils
aliphatic hydrocarbons
alcohols
glycols
phenols
abrasion and cut resistance
Poor for: halogenated hydrocarbons
aromatic hydrocarbons
ketones
concentrated acids
Cost: Gloves - $70/doz. (supported)
- $13/doz. (unsupported)
Boots	- $35/pr.
Splash Suit - $40-$60
Nitrile Rubber: (Acrylonitrile rubber, buna-N, NBR, hycar, paracril,
krynac)
Good for: phenols
PCBs
oils and fuels
4-12
HMRFR 1/25

-------
Poor for:
Cost:
Note:
Polyurethane:
Good for:
Poor for:
Cost:
Polyvinal Alcohol: (PVA)
Good for:
Poor for:
Cost:
alcohols
amines
bases
peroxides
abrasion and cut resistance
flexibility
aromatic and halogenated hydrocarbons
ami des
ketones
esters
cold temperature
Gloves - $2/pr.
Boots - $18/pr.
The higher the acrylonitrile concen-
tration, the better the chemical
resistance; but also increases
stiffness.
bases
aliphatic hydrocarbons
alcohols
abrasion resistance
flexibility - especially at cold
temperatures
halogenated hydrocarbons
Boots	- $25/pr.
Splash Suit - $60
almost all organics
ozone resistance
esters
ethers
acids and bases
water and water solutions
flexibility
Gloves - $13/pr.
4-13
HMFFR 1/25

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Polyvinal Chloride: (PVC)
Viton:
Good for: acids and bases
some organics
amines, peroxides
Poor for: most organic compounds
cut and heat resistance
decontamination
Cost: Gloves	- $17-$25/doz. (outer)
- $6/doz. (inner)
Boots	- $15/pr.
Splash Suit - $10-$30
One-pc. Suit - $55
FES	- $300-$900
Good for: aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons
halogenated hydrocarbons
acids
decontamination
physical properties
Poor for: aldehydes
ketones
esters (oxygenated solvents)
ami nes
Cost: Gloves - $27/pr.
FES - $l,600-$3,300
Teflon:
Teflon has become available for chemical protective
suits. Limited permeation test data is published on
teflon. Teflon, similar to viton, is known to afford
excellent chemical resistance against most chemicals.
Teflon suits are relatively expensive ($2,000-$3,000).
CPC Manufacturers have developed a technique of layering materials to im-
prove chemical resistance. Essentially one suit is designed with multiple
layers. Some examples of the layered fully encapsulating suits are vtton/
butyl (Trellborg), viton/neoprene (MSA Vautex and Draeger), and butyl/
neoprene (MSA Betex).
B. Non-Elastomers
4-14
HMFFR 1/25

-------
Tyvek: (non-woven polyethylene fibers)
Good for: dry particulate and dust protection
decontamination (disposable)
1ightweight
Poor for: chemical resistance (penetration/
degradation)
durability
Cost:
Standard suit - $3-$5
Recommendations:
Used against toxic particulates but
provides no chemical protection; worn
over CPC to prevent gross contamin-
ation of non-disposable items and
under suites to replace cotton.
Polyethylene: (coated tyvek)
Good for: acids and bases
alcohols
phenols
aldehydes
decontamination (disposable)
1ightweight
Poor for: halogenated hydrocarbons
aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons
physical properties (durability)
penetration (stitched seams)
Cost: Suit - $8—$10
Gloves - $1.50/box of 100 (disposable)
Booties - $13/box of 50 (disposable)
Recommendation:
Provides limited chemical protection
against concentrated liquids and va-
pors vapors. Useful against low con-
centrations and those activities which
do not create a high risk of splash;
also worn over CPC to prevent gross
contamination of non disposables. The
disposable polyethylene gloves and
booties are considered "inner liners"
and assist decontamination procedures.
4-15
HMFFR 1/25

-------
Saranex: (laminated tyvek)
acids and bases
ami nes
some organics
PCBs
decontamination (disposable)
lightweight
durability
halogenated hydrocarbons
aromatic hydrocarbons
stitched seams (penetration may occur)
halogenated hydrocarbons
aromatic hydrocarbons
stitched seams (penetration may occur)
Cost: Suit	- $15
"OSHA" suit - $26
Recommendation: Provides greater chemical resistance
and overall protection compared to
polyethylene coated tyvek; used to
prevent contamination of non-dispos-
able clothing.
VI. SELECTING CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Selecting the most effective chemical protective clothing is easier when
the chemical for which protection 1s necessary is known. The process
becomes more difficult when the presence of chemicals is unknown, multiple
chemicals (known or unknown) are Involved, or an unidentifiable substance
1s present. As uncertainties about the substances involved increases,
selecting the proper clothing becomes more complex.
Another major difficulty 1n the selection process 1s that	there is not
enough available Information concerning the protective	qualities of
commonly used protective materials against the wide range	of chemicals
that could be encountered.
The selection process consists of:
Deciding that workers must be in an environment where
they could be exposed.
4-16
Good for:
Poor for:
Poor for:
HMFFR 1/25

-------
-	Identifying the chemical involved and determining its
• physical, chemical, and toxicological properties.
-	Deciding whether, at the concentrations expected, the
substance is a skin hazard.
-	Selecting the prorial which provides the least
permeation and degradation.
-	Determining whether a fully encapsulating suit or a non-
encapsulating is required.
In those Incidents where the presence of hazardous substances is not known
or they can not be readily identified there are usually clues which can
assist in choosing the style of clothing. Observations which could indi-
cate wearing fully encapsulating suits are:
-	visible emissions of gases, vapors, dust or smoke.
-	indications of airborne hazards on direct-reading
instruments.
-	configurations of containers or vehicles which indicate
they contain gases or pressurized liquids.
-	signs, labels, placards, or bills of lading indicating
substances that could become airborne and are highly
toxic to the skin.
-	enclosed, poorly ventilated areas where toxic vapors,
gases and other airborne substances could accumulate.
-	work functions required might expose workers to high
concentrations of skin toxics.
Unknown situations require a considerable judgement as to whether maximum
protection to the skin (fully-encapsulating clothing) is necessary, or
whether splash suits are appropriate.
After determining the type of protective garment to be worn, the
next step is to select the protective material. Vendors or manufacturers
of materials used to make chemical protective materials can sometimes
(but not always) supply information concerning their product's chemical
resistance and make recommendations about what chemicals it is good
for. The number of chemicals their product is tested against may be
limited, for they can not test against the 1000's of chemicals that
exist.
4-17
HMRFR 1/25

-------
Penetration and permeation are the two primary selection criteria. The
best protective material against a specific chemical would be one that has
a very low permeation rate (1f any), and a long breakthrough time, and has
been constructed free of design Imperfections.
Less useful information 1s degradation. This 1s usually a qualitative
determination of a materials ability to standup under the attack of a
chemical, usually expressed in subjective units of excellent, good, poor,
or similar terms. Degradation data can help 1n assessing the protective
capability of a materials, if no other data 1s available.
However, a fabric with good degradation resistance may be very permeable
to the same chemical. Permeation and degradation are not directly related
and cannot be used interchangeably. In those situations where a protective
material can not be chosen because of uncertainty of the attack substance,
there are some reasonable options.
Select a protective material which protects against the
greatest range of chemicals. There are generally garments
made from butyl rubber, viton, or teflon. Chemicals
against which these materials (or other materials) do
not provide protection could possibly be eliminated
as not present.
Clothing made of multiple protective material could be
used. Garments consisting of butyl-viton, neoprene-
viton, and neoprene-butyl are manufactured. If not
commercially available two garments made of different
material could be worn with a disposal type garment on
the outside.
Whether fully encapsulating or non-encapsulating clothing should be worn
may not be self-evident. If based on an assessment of the situation it is
determined that either style would provide effective protection other
factors to consider would be:
Ease in wearing: Non-encapsulating suits are easier
to wear. Wearers are less prone to accidents for they
have better visibility and the clothing is less
cumbersome.
Communications: It is more difficult to communicate
in fully encapsulating suits.
Decontamination: Fully encapsulating suits protect
self-contained breathing apparatus, which are
difficult to decontaminate, from being contaminated.
4-18
HMFFR 1/25

-------
-	Heat stress: Non-encapsulating clothing generally causes
less heat stress. However as less area of the body is
exposed by wearing gloves and hoods and taping hoods to
respirator masks, there is little difference in the heat
build-up of either style.
-	Cost: Non-encapsulating garments are less expensive.
VII. PHYSICAL STRESS
Wearing chemical protective clothing can cause problems. These involve
heat stress, accident proneness, and physical fatigue. The major problem
is heat stress caused by protective clothing interfering with the body's
clothing that provide a barrier against chemicals contacting the skin,
prevents the efficient dissipation of body heat. Evaporation, the body's
primary cooling mechanism is reduced, since ambient air is not in contact
with the skin's surface. Other heat exchange mechanism (convection and
radiation) are also impeded. Additional strain is put on the body as it
attempts to maintain it's heat balance. This added stress can result in
health effects ranging from transient heat fatigue to serious illness or
death.
The smaller the area of the body exposed to the air, the greater the
probability for heat stress. Fully encapsulating suits allow no ambient
air to contact the skin's surfaces to aid in the evaporation of moisture.
Heat in these suits builds up quickly. Splash suits may allow more body
surface (head, neck, and hands) to be cooled by the air, but if those
areas are covered by hoods, gloves and respirators and the joints taped,
the same conditions will exist as if wearing a fully encapsulating suit.
Heat-related problems become more common as the ambient temperature rises
above 70 F., but can occur at much lower temperatures. Although wearing
protective clothing establishes conditions that are conducive to heat-
related illness, individuals vary in their susceptibility to heat stress
and their ability to withstand high temperatures.
Accident proneness also increases when wearing chemical protective clo-
thing. Suits are heavy, cumbersome, decrease mobility and dexterity,
lessen visual and audio acuity, and increase physical exertion. The
severity of the problems depend on the style of clothing worn. These
negative qualities increase the risk of common accidental injury, for
example slips, falls, or being struck.
Increase physical exertion caused by working in protective clothing can in
itself cause problems. Worker performance may decrease due to increased
fatigue levels. Other more serious illnesses such as stroke or heart attack
could occur.
4-19
HMFFR 1/25

-------
To minimize the adverse effects of physical stress, workers wearing
protective clothing must change their normal work regimen. A medical
surveillance program, including baseline physicals and routine medical
monitoring, should be Instituted. Personnel must be allowed to accli-
mitize to stressful environmental factors by varying work and rest periods
as 'needed. Projects should be scheduled for cooler periods of the day
when possible. The Intake of fluids must be maintained at levels to
prevent dehydration, and body electroyltes replaced through added salting
at mealtimes. Compensatory efforts such as these must be established as
part of Standard Operating Safety Procedures on a site-specific basis to
reduce the risks associated with wearing protective clothing.
VIII. INSPECTION OF PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Before wearing chemical protective clothing it must be properly inspected.
The following is a checklist for visually inspecting all types of chemical
protective suits. Chemical suits should be inspected immediately before
use and monthly when not in use.
Inspection Procedures:
Spread suit out on a flat surface.
Examine the outside for the following:
° fabric for abrasions, cuts, holes, or tears
° fabric has retained the original flexibility and
durability
° seams for separations, or holes
o zippers, buttons, storm flaps, and other con-
necting devices for proper sealing and operation
° signs of previous chemical attack or Incomplete
decontamination (unusual discoloration, rough
surface, gummy feeling, cracks)
® elastic around wrists and ankles and the draw-
strings on hoods are in good condition (if
applicable)
Fully encapsulating suits require additional
inspection which include (if applicable):
o Exhalation valves (positive pressure) for debris
and proper functioning.
° Suit facepiece for poor visibility (cuts, scratches,
dirt) and an adequate facepiece to suit seal.
4-20
HMFFR 1/25

-------
° Presence and condition of waist belts, velcro
adjustments (head and hips), and ankle straps,
o Condition of integral gloves, boots, and leg
gaiters.
o Presence of hard hat or ratchet head suspension.
° Presence and condition of airline attachment
and Hoses for cooling system,
o Leak detection and pinholes.
1.	If an air source 1s available, secure the suit and inflate
1t, then using a mild soap solution observe for bubbles on
the surface or around seams,
or
2.	Inside a dark room, run a flashlight inside the suit and
look for pinpoints of light from outside the suit.
Records should be maintained on each suit's inspection, use conditions, and repair
status. These records are especially important. for fully encapsulating, suits
(FES) which are usually not individually assigned but shared.
Suggestions for maintaining records include:
1.	Inspection - who, when, and any problems.
2.	Use conditions - where, activity, and chemicals
if known.
3.	Repair status - what is the problem, who
repaired it (in-house or
manufacturer), date of
repair, and tag the suit
"out of service" if not
repaired.
Always refer to manufacturer recommendations for routine or any special inspection
procedures.
HMFFR 1/25
4-21

-------
APPENDIX I
PERMEATION REFERENCES
1.	Development of Performance Criteria for Protective Clothing Used Against
Carcinogenic Liquids. NIOSH, Technical Report No. 79-106. NTIS.
2.	"A Discussion: Resistance of Butyl Rubber Gloves to the Penetration of
Aromatic Nitro and Amino Compounds".Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 39:314-316
(1978).
3.	Henry, N. W. Ill and C. N. Schlatter. "The Development of a Standard Method
for Evaluation Chemical Protective Clothing by Hazardous Liquids" (1981).
4.	Lynch, A. L. "Protective Clothing", Handbook of Laboratory Safety, 2nd ed.
(1971).
5.	Middleton, H. W. Glove Corrosive Liquid Immersion and Permeability Study. No.
GEPP-322, General Electric Co., Neutron Devices Dept., P. 0. Box 11508, St.
Petersburg, FL 33733.
6.	Nelson G. 0. and C. M. Wong. "Glove Permeation by Organic Solvents". Amer.
Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 42:217-225 (1981).
7.	Permeation of Protective Garment Material by Liquid Halogenated Ethanes and a
Polychlorinated Biphenyl. NIOSH Publication 81-110 (1981).
8.	Sansome, E. B. and U. B. Tewari. "The Permeability of Laboratory Gloves to
Selected Solvents". Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 39:164-174 (1978).
9.	Weeks, R. W. Jr., and B. J. Dean. "Permeation of Methanolic Aromatic Amine
Solutions through Commercially Available Glove Materials". Amer. Ind. Hyq.
Assoc. J., 38:721-725 (1977).
10.	Weeks, R. W. Jr., and M. J. McLeod. "Permeation of Protective Garment
Material by Liquid Benzene and by Tritiated Water". Amer. Ind. Hyq. Assoc.
J., 43:201-211 (1982).
11.	Williams J. R. "Permeation of Glove Materials by Physiologically Harmful
Chemicals". Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J., 40:877-882 (1979).
4-13
8/84

-------
APPENDIX II
SOURCES OF OSHA STANDARDS 29 CFR 1910
Regulation	Title
29 CFR 1910.132	41CFR 50-204.7
General Requirements for
Personal Protective
Equipment
29 CFR 1910.133(a)	ANSI Z87.1-1968
Eye and Face Protection
29 CFR 1910.134	ANSI Z88.2-1969
Standard Practice for
Respiratory Protection
29 CFR 1910.135	ANSI Z89.1-1969
Safety Requirements for
Industrial Head Protection
10 CFR 1910.136	ANSI Z41.1-1967
Men's Safety Toe Footwear
ANSI - American National Standards Institute, 1430 Broadway,
New York, NY 10018.
4-15
8/84

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PART 5
DONNING AND DOFFING FULLY ENCAPSULATING SUITS
AND SELF-CONTAINED BREATHING APPARATUS
I. INTRODUCTION
In responding to episodes involving hazardous substances, it may be
necessary for response personnel to wear self-contained breathing apparatus
(SCBA) and fully encapsulating suits to protect against toxic environments.
Donning/doffing of both is a relatively simple task, but a routine must be
established and practiced frequently. Not only do correct procedures help
instill confidence in the wearer of the suit, they reduce the risk of
exposure and the possibility of damage to the suit. It is especially
important to remove the equipment systematically so as to prevent or
minimize the transfer of contaminants from suit to wearer.
The following procedures for donning/doffing apply to certain types of
suits. They should be modified if a different suit or extra boots and
gloves are worn. These procedures also assume that:
-	The wearer has been trained in the SCBA.
-	SCBA has been checked out.
-	Appropriate decontamination steps have been taken prior to removal of
the suit or other components.
-	Sufficient air is available for routine decontamination and doffing of
suit.
Donning/doffing an encapsulating suit is more difficult if the user has to
do it alone because of the physical effort required. Also the possibility
of wearer exposure to contaminants or damaging the suit greatly increases.
Therefore, assistance is needed in donning/doffing the equipment.
II. DONNING
A.	Before donning suit, thoroughly inspect for deficiencies that will
decrease its effectiveness as the primary barrier for protecting the
body. Do not use any suit with holes, rips, malfunctioning closures,
cracked masks, etc. If suit contains a hoodpiece, or a hard hat is
worn, adjust it to fit user's head. If suit has a back enclosure for
changing air bottles, open it.
B.	Use a moderate amount of talcum powder or cornstarch to prevent chafing
and increase comfort. Both also reduce rubber binding.
5-1

-------
C.	Use antifog on suit and mask facepieces.
D.	While sitting (preferably), step into legs, place feet properly, and
gather suit around waist.
E.	While sitting (preferably), over feet of suit, put on
chemical-resistant, steel toe and shank boots. Properly attach and
affix suit leg over top of boot.
1.	For one-piece suits with heavy-soled protective feet, wear leather
or short rubber safety boots inside suit.
2.	Wear an additional pair of disposable boot protectors if
necessary.
F.	Put on SCBA airtank and harness assembly. Don facepiece and adjust it
securely yet comfortably. Do not connect breathing hose. Open valve
to air tank. (The air tank and harness assembly could also be put on
before stepping into legs of suit).
G.	Depending on type of suit:
1.	Put on inner gloves.
2.	For suits with detachable gloves, secure gloves to sleeves, if this
has not been done prior to entering the suit. (In some cases,
extra gloves are worn over suit gloves.)
H.	While standing, put arms into sleeves, and then head into hood of suit.
The helper pulls suit up and over SCBA, resting hood on top of SCBA and
adjusting suit around SCBA backpack and user's shoulders to assure
unrestricted motion. To facilitate entry into the suit, bend at the
knees as hood is placed over wearer's head. Avoid bending at the
waist, as this motion tends to use up room in the suit rather that
provide slack. For a tall or stout person, it is easier to put on the
hood of the suit before getting into the sleeve.
I.	Begin to secure suit by closing all fasteners until there is only room
to connect the breathing hose.	Also, secure all belts and/or
adjustable leg, head, and waist	bands. Connect breathing hose while
opening main valve.
J. When breathing properly in SCBA, complete closing suit.
K. Helper should observe for a time to assure that wearer is comfortable
and equipment is functioning properly.
III. DOFFING
Exact procedures must be established and followed to remove the fully
encapsulating suit and SCBA. Adherence to these procedures is necessary to
minimize or prevent contamination (or possible contamination) of the wearer
through contacting the outside surface of the suit.
5-2

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The following procedures assume that before the suit is removed, it has
been properly decontaminated, considering the type and extent of
contamination, and that a suitably attired helper is available.
A.	Remove any extraneous or disposable clothing, boot covers, or gloves.
B.	If possible, wearer kicks off chemical-resistant boots unassisted. To
achieve this, oversized boots are often selected. Otherwise, helper
loosens and removes chemical-resistant boots.
C.	Helper opens front of suit to allow access to SCBA regulator. As long
as there is sufficient air pressure, hose is not disconnected.
D.	Helper lifts hood of the suit over wearer's head and rests hood on top
of SCBA air tank. For a tall or stout person it is easier to remove
the arms from the sleeves of the suit prior to removing the hood.
E.	Remove external gloves.
F.	To minimize contact with contaminated clothing, helper touches only
the outside of the suit, and the wearer touches only the inside.
Remove arms, one at a time, from suit. Helper lifts suit up and away
from SCBA back pack, avoiding any contact between outside surface of
suit and wearer's body. Helper lays suit out flat behind wearer.
G.	While sitting (preferably), remove both legs from suit.
H.	After suit is completely removed, roll internal gloves off hands,
inside out.
I.	Walk to clean area and follow procedure for doffing SCBA.
J. Remove inner clothing, clean body thoroughly.
IV. ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
A.	If work is at a very dirty site or the potential for contamination is
extremely high, wear disposable Tyvek or PVC coveralls over fully
encapsulating suit. Make a slit in back to fit around bulge of the
SCBA back pack.
B.	Wear clothing inside the suit appropriate to outside temperatures.
Even in hot weather, wear long cotton underwear, which absorbs
perspiration and acts as a wick for evaporation, thus aiding body
cooling. Long underwear also protects skin from contact with hot
surfaces of suit, reducing the possibility of burns in hot weather.
C.	Monitor wearer for heat stress.
D.	If a cooling device is used, modify donning/doffing procedure.
E.	If low-pressure warning alarm sounds signifying approximately 5
minutes of air remaining, follow these procedures:
5-3

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1.	Quickly hose off suit and scrub especially around entrance/exit
zipper. (Remove any disposable clothing.)
2.	Open zipper sufficiently to allow access to regulator and
breathing hose.
3.	Disconnect breathing hose from regulator as main valve is closed.
4.	Immediately attach canister for vapor, acid gas, dust, mist, or
fume to breathing hose. This provides protection against
contaminants still present.
5.	Continue doffing suit as in steps A through J of previous section.
Take extra care to avoid contaminating helper and wearer.
5-4
8/84

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PART 6
MANUFACTURERS AND SUPPLIERS OF
PERSONNEL PROTECTIVE GEAR
Type
RESPIRATORY PROTECTIVE APPARATUS
Company
American Optical Corp.

X


Bendix Corp.
X



E. D. Bullard Co.



X
Cesco Safety Products

X

X
DeVilbiss Co.


X
X
Glendale Optical Co., Inc.

X

X
Globe Safety Products, Inc.
X



H. S. Cover Co.

X


International Safety Instruments, Inc.
X

X

Lab Safety Supply Co.
X
X


Mine Safety Appliances
X
X

X
National Draeger, Inc.
X


X
North Safety Equipment (Norton)
X
X

X
Pulmosan Safety Equipment Corp.

X

X
Racal Airstream

X

X
Rexnord Safety Products, Inc.
X



Robertshaw Controls Co.


X
X
Scott Aviation
X
X
X
X
Siebe Gorman, Ltd.
X



Standard Safety



X
Survivair Division of U.S. Divers Corp.
X
X
X
X
3M Company

X

X
U.S. Safety Service Co.

X

X
Will son

X

X


.


Escape units with hoods.
6-1

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II. CHEMICAL PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
Type
Material
Company
Andover Industries


X
X

X







X



Barry Manufacturing Co.

X






X


X





Bata Shoe Co.
X






X



X
X




Best Manufacturing Co.


X




X
X
X

X





Boss Manufacturing Co.
X
X
X




X
X
X

X
X




Charkate Specialty
X

X












X
X
Colonial Glove & Garment
X
X









X
X




Comasec

X





X
X
X

X





Dayton Flexible Products

X





X









Defense Apparel
X
X
X




X



X



X

Disposables















X

Durafab, Inc.















X
X
Edmont

X
X




X
X
X
X
X



X

Encon


X





X

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Chemical Protective Clothing
Type
Material
Company
Expendables
X

X








X



X
X
Fyrepel Products, Inc.


X
X
X
X










X
Glover Latex, Inc.

X





X









Granet Division

X





X
X
X

X
X




Hodgman
X






X









ILC Dover



X
X

X










International Latex, Inc.

X





X
X
X

X





Iron Age Shoe Co.
X






X









Jomac Products

X
X








X





Jordan David Safety Products
X

X








X
X




Kappler Disposables















X
X
LRC Safety Products

X





X

X







La Crosse Rubber Mills
X






X
X


X
X




Lehigh Safety Shoe Co.
X






X

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Chemical Protective Clothing
Type
Material
Company
Life Support Systems




X












Lion Uniform














X


Magid Glove Manufacturing Co.
X
X
X




X
X
X

X





Mar-Mac Manufacturing Co.















X

Melco, Inc.















X
X
Mine Safety Appliances

X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X

X

X

X

Monte Glove Co.

X





X
X
X

X





National Draeger, Inc.


X
X









X



National Safety Wear, Inc.

















Neese Industries, Inc.


X








X





North Safety Equipment


X


X

X
X
X

X

X



Oak Medical Supply Co.

X









X





Pioneer Industrial Gloves

X





X
X
X







Plastex Protective Products
X

X








X

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Chemical Protective Clothing
Company
Plastimayd Corp.
Playtex Industrial Gloves
Protexall Company
Rainfair, Inc.
Ranger Rubber Company
Record Industrial Co.
Renco Corp.
Safety Clothing and Equipment
Sijal, Inc.
Standard Safety Equipment
Tingley Rubber Co.
Tracies Co.
Vidaro Corp.
Wheeler Protective Apparel
Type
Material

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RESPIRATOR AND PROTECTIVE CLOTHING MANUFACTURER ADDRESSES
A-Best Products
3865 W. 150th Street
Cleveland, OH 44111
216/941-9400
American Optical Corp.
Safety Products Division
14 Mechanic Street
Southbridge, MA 01550
617/765-9711
Andover Industries, Inc.
10 Rai 1 road Street
Andover, MA 01810
617/475-1302
Barry Manufacturing Co. Ltd.
920 Lakeshore Road East
Mississauga, Ontario Canada
416/274-3691
Bata Shoe Company, Inc.
Industrial Products Division
Bel camp, MD 21017
301/272-2000
Bendix Corp.
12345 Starkey Road
Largo, FL 33543
813/536-6523
Best Manufacturing Co.
Edison Street
Menlo, GA 30713
404/862-2302
Boss Manufacturing Co.
221 West First Street
Kewanee, IL 61443
309/852-2131
E. D. Bullard Company
2680 Bridgeway
Sausalito, CA 94965
415/332-0410
Cesco Safety Products
100 E. 16th Street
P.O. Box 1237
Kansas City, MO 64141
816/842-8500
Charkate Glove and Specialty Co.
130 W. 10th Street
Huntington Station, NY 11746
516/427-1802
800/221-0224
Colonial Glove and Garment
54 Penataquit Avenue
Bay Shore, NY 11706
516/968-8888
Comasec
Drawer 10
Niblic Road
Enfield, CT 06082
203/741-2207
Dayton Flexible Products
2210 Arbor Blvd.
Dayton, OH 45439
513/298-7511
Defense Apparel
286 Murphy Road
Hartford, CT 06114
800/243-3847
The DeVilbiss Co.
300 Phil lips Avenue
P.O. Box 913
Toledo, OH 43692
419/470-2169
Disposables, Inc.
14 Locust Street
Manhasset, NY 11030
516/627-4554
Durafab, Inc.
P.O. Box 658
Cleburne, TX 76031
817/645-8851
Edmont Division of Becton, Dicki
and Company
1300 Walnut Street
Coshocton, OH 43812
614/622-4311
Encon Manufacturing Co.
4914 Dickson Street
Houston, TX 77007
713/462-4723

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Expendables, Inc.
International Latex, Inc.
2945 Congressman Lane
213 Hanna Building
Dallas, TX 75220
Cleveland, OH 44115
214/350-6783
216/523-1000
Frommelt Industries, Inc.
International Safety Instruments, Inc
Safety Products Division
P.O. Box 846
P.O. Box 658
Lawrenceburg, GA 30246
2455 Kerper Boulevard
404/962-2552
Dubuque, IA 52001

319/589-2736
ILC Dover

P.O. Box 266
Fyrepel Products, Inc.
Frederica, DE 19946
P.O. Box 518
302/335-3911
Newark, OH 43055

614/344-0391
Iron Age Shoe Company

2408 Woodmere Drive
Glendale Optical Co., Inc.
Pittsburgh, PA 15205
130 Crossway Park Drive
412/922-7000
Woodbury, NY 11797

516/921-5800
Jomac Products, Inc.

863 Easton Road
Globe Safety Products, Inc.
Warrington, PA 18976
125 Sunrise Place
215/343-0800
Dayton, OH 45407

513/224-7468
Jordan David Safety Products

P.O. Box 400
Glover Latex, Inc.
Warrington, PA 18976
514 South Rose Street
215/343-6470
Anaheim, CA 92805

714/535-8920
Kappler Disposables, Inc.

Post Office Drawer 218
W. L. Gore & Assoc.
Guntersvi1le, AL 35976
Box 1130
205/582-2195
Elkton, MD 21921

301/392-3700
Keller Glove Mfg. Co.

Route 611
Granet Div., ESB, Inc.
Plumsteadville, PA 18949
25 Loring Drive
215/343-1135
P.O. Box 588

Framingham, MA 01701
LRC Safety Products (Surety Rubber)
617/875-3521
Rt. 46 West

Little Falls, NJ 07424
H. S. Cover Company
201/256-5500 Ext. 227
107 E. Alexander Street

Buchanan, MI 49107
La Crosse Rubber Mills Co.
616/695-9663
Indian Hill

La Crosse, WI 54601
Hodgman
608/782-3020
207 E. Wolf Street

Yorkvilie, IL 60560
Lehigh Safety Shoe Co.
312/553-0100
1100 E. Main Street

Endicott, NY 13760

607/754-7980
6-7

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Life Support Systems, Inc.
North Safety Equipment (formerly Norton)
1400 Stierlin Road
Division of Siebe North
Mountain View, CA 94043
2000 Plainfield Pike
415/962-9800
Cranston, RI 02920

401/943-4400
Lion Uniform, Inc.

Industrial Safety Division
Oak Medical Supply Company
P.O. Box 14165
The Oak Rubber Company
Northridge Branch
219 S. Sycamore Street
Dayton, OH 45414
Ravenna, OH
513/278-6531
216/296-3416
800/543-9698


Pioneer Industrial Products
Magid G1ove Mfg. Co.
1831 Olive Street
2060 N. Kolmar Avenue
St. Louis, MO 63103
Chicago, IL 60639
314/621-7788
312/384-2070

800/621-8010
Plastex Protective Products, Inc.

9-T Grand Street
Mar-Mac Mfg. Co, Inc.
Garfield, NJ 02706
Box 278
201/779-4946
McBee, SC 29101

803/335-8211
Plastimayd Corporation

2216 S. E. Seventh Avenue
Melco, Inc.
Portland, OR 97214
6603 Governor Printz Blvd.
503/232-5101
Wilmington, DE 19809

800/441-9749
Playtex Industrial Gloves

700 Fairfield Avenue
Mine Safety Appliances
Stamford, CT 06902
600 Penn Center Blvd.
203/356-8000
Pittsburgh, PA 15235

412/273-5000
Protexall Company

Box 307
Monte Glove Company
Green Lake, WI 54941
Monte Lane
414/294-6511
Maben, MI 39750

601/263-5353
Pulmosan Safety Equipment Corp.

30-48 Linden Place
National Draeger, Inc.
Flushing, NY 11354
401 Parkway View Drive
212/939-3200
Pittsburgh, PA 15205

412/787-8383
Racal Airstream, Inc.

7309A Grove Road
National Safety Wear, Inc.
Frederick, MD 21701
18 East Main Street
301/695-8200
Malone, NY 12953

518/483-7246
Rainfair, Inc.

P.O. Box 1647
Neese Industries, Inc.
Racine, WI 53401
P.O. Box 628
800/558-5990
Gonzales, LA 70737

504/644-6553

6-8

-------
Ranger Rubber Company
Division of Endicott Johnson
1100 E. Main Street
Endicott, NY 13760
607/757-4260
Record Industrial Company
P.O. Box 407
King of Prussia, PA 19406
215/337-2500
Red Kap Industries
749 Massman Drive
Nashville, TN 37210
615/889-6800
800/251-1068
Renco Corporation
2060 Fairfax Avenue
Cherry Hill, NJ 08003
609/424-5755
Rexnord Safety Products, Inc.
(Biomarine)
45 Great Valley Corporation Center
Malvern, PA 19355
215/647-7200
Robertshaw Controls Company
(Life Support Products Marketing Group)
333 N. Euclid Way
Anaheim, CA 92803
714/535-8151
Safety Clothing and Equipment Co.
4900 Campbel1 Road
Willoughby, OH 44094
216/946-1880
Scott Aviation
225 Erie Street
Lancaster, NY 14086
716/683-5100
Sijal, Inc.
P.O. Box 205
205 Roesch Avenue
Oreland, PA 19075
215/572-0216
Standard Safety Equipment (StaSafe)
Box 188
431 N. Quentin Road
Palatine, IL 60067
312/359-1400
Steel Grip Safety Apparel Co., Inc.
700 Garfield Street
Box 833
Danville, IL 61832
217/442-6240
Survivair Division
U.S. Divers Corporation
3323 W. Warner Avenue
Santa Ana, CA 92702
714/540-8010
3M/0ccupational Health & Safety
Products Division
220-7W 3M Center
St. Paul , MN 55144
612/733-6234
Tingley Rubber Company
P.O. Box 100
South Plainfield, NJ 07080
201/757-7474
Tracies Company
100 Cabot Street
Holyoke, MA 01040
413/533-7141
United States Safety Service Co.
1535 Walnut Street
P.O. Box 1237
Kansas City, M0 64108
816/842-8500
Vidaro Corporation
333 Martinel Drive
P.O. Box 535
Kent, OH 44240
216/673-7413
Wheeler Protective Apparel, Inc.
224 W. Huron Street
Chicago, IL 60610
312/787-1156
Will son Safety Products
P.O. Box 622
Reading, PA 19603
215/376-6161
6-9
8/84

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PART 1
ENVIRONMENTAL INCIDENTS
I. INTRODUCTION
An environmental incident involves a release or threat of a release
of hazardous substances that pose an imminent and substantial danger
to public health and welfare or the environment. Each incident pre-
sents special problems. Response personnel must evaluate these prob-
lems and determine an effective course of action to mitigate the
i ncident.
Any incident represents a potentially hostile situation. Chemicals
that are combustible, explosive, corrosive, toxic, or reactive, along
with biological and radioactive materials can affect the general pub-
lic or the environment as well as response personnel. Workers may
fall, trip, be struck by objects, or be subject to danger from elec-
tricity and heavy equipment. Injury and illness may also occur due
to physical stress and climate. While the response activities needed
at each incident are unique, there are many similarities. One is
that all responses require protecting the health and ensuring the
safety of the responders.
II. EXPOSURE TO TOXIC SUBSTANCES
Toxic (including radioactive material and etiological agents) or
chemically active substances present a special concern because they
can be inhaled, ingested, absorbed through the skin, or destructive
to the skin. They may exist in the air or due to site activities
become airborne or splash on the skin. The effects of these sub-
stances can vary significantly. Ingested or inhaled the substances
can cause no apparent illness or they can be fatal. On the skin they
can cause no demonstrable effects. Others however can damage the
skin, or be absorbed, leading to systemic toxic effects.
Two types of potential exposure exist:
-	Acute: Exposures occur for relatively short periods of time,
generally hours to 1-2 days. Concentrations of toxic air contam-
inants which may be inhaled are high relative to their protection
criteria. In addition, substances may contact the skin directly
through splashes, immersion, or air with serious results.
-	Chronic: Exposures occur over longer periods of time, generally
months to years. Concentrations of toxic air contaminants which
may be inhaled are relatively low. Direct skin contact by immer-
sion, splash, or air involves substances exhibiting low dermal
acti vity.
1-1

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In general, acute exposures to chemicals in air are more typical in
transportation accidents, fires, or releases at chemical manu-
facturing or storage facilities. Acute air exposures do not persist
for long periods of time. Acute skin exposures occur when workers
must be close to the substances in order to control the release
(patching a tank car, off-loading a corrosive material, etc.) or
contain and treat the spilled material. Once the immediate problems
have been alleviated, exposures tend to become more chronic in nature
as cleanup progresses.
Chronic exposures usually are associated with longer-term remedial
operations. Contaminated soil and debris from emergency operations
may be involved, soil and ground water may be polluted, or impound-
ment systems may contain diluted chemicals. Abandoned waste sites
represent chronic problems. As activities start at these sites,
however, personnel engaged in sampling, handling containers, bulking
compatible liquids, etc. face an increased risk of acute exposures
to splashes, or the generation of vapors, gases, or particulates.
At any specific incident, the hazardous properties of the materials
may only represent a potential threat. For example, if a tank car of
liquified natural gas involved in an accident remains intact, the
risk from fire and explosion is low. In other incidents, hazards are
real and risks high as when toxic or -flammable vapors are being re-
leased. The continued health and safety of response personnel
requires that the hazards - real or potential - at an episode be
assessed and appropriate preventive measures instituted.
HEALTH AND SAFETY OF RESPONSE PERSONNEL
To reduce the risks to workers responding to hazardous substance
incidents, an effective health and safety program must be implemented.
This would include, as a minimum:
-	Safe work practices.
-	Engineered safeguards.
-	Medical surveillance.
-	Environmental and personnel monitoring.
-	Personnel protective equipment.
-	Education and training.
-	Standard operating safety procedures.
1-2

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As part of a comprehensive program, standard operating safety pro-
cedures provide instructions on how to accomplish specific tasks in a
safe manner. In concept and principle, standard operating safety
procedures are independent of the type of incident. Their appli-
cability at a particular incident must be determined and necessary
modifications made to match prevailing conditions. For example,
personnel protective equipment, in principle, is an initial con-
sideration for all incidents; however, its need and the type of
equipment required is based on a case-by-case evaluation. Likewise,
someone must make the first entry onto a site. The exact entry
procedure to be used can only be determined after assessing the
conditions prevailing at that incident.
The purpose of this document is to provide standard operating safety
guides related to site control and entry. The guidance included is
not meant to be a comprehensive treatment of the subjects covered.
Rather, it is meant to be used to complement professional training,
experience, and knowledge.
IV. OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY POLICY
EPA's Occupational Health and Safety staff is responsible for devel-
oping, supporting, and evaluating a program to protect the health and
safety of EPA employees. The Standard Operating Safety Guides comple-
ment, and supplement the policies, procedures, and practices contained
in EPA's Occupational Health and Safety Manual, in particular, with
Chapter 9 - Hazardous Substances Responses, EPA Order 1440.2 - Health
and Safety Requirments for Personnel Engaged in Field Activities, and
EPA Order 1440.3 - Respiratory Protection.
1-3

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PART 2
STANDARD OPERATING SAFETY PROCEDURES
I. GENERAL
There are many guides or procedures for performing the variety of
tasks associated with responding to environmental episodes involving
hazardous substances. These may be administrative, technical, or
management-oriented. All these procedures are intended to provide
uniform instructions for accomplishing a specific task. In addition
to other types of procedures, safety-oriented operating procedures
are needed. The purpose of this document is to provide selected
standard operating safety guides which can be used to develop more
specific procedures.
II. DEVELOPMENT OF STANDARD OPERATING SAFETY PROCEDURES
A major consideration in responding to accidental releases of hazard-
ous substances or incidents involving abandoned hazardous waste sites
is the health and safety of response personnel. Not only must a
variety of technical tasks be conducted efficiently to mitigate an
incident, but they must be accomplished in a manner that protects the
worker. Appropriate equipment and trained personnel, combined with
standard operating procedures, help reduce the possibility of harm to
response workers.
For procedures to be effective:
-	They must be written in advance. Developing and writing safe,
practical procedures is difficult when prepared under the stress
of responding to an incident.
-	They must be based on the best available information, operational
principles, and technical guidance.
-	They must be field-tested, reviewed, and revised when appropriate
by competent safety professionals.
-	They must be understandable, feasible, and appropriate.
-	All personnel involved in site activities must have copies of
the safety procedures and be briefed on their use..
-	Response personnel must be trained and periodically retrained
in personnel protection and safety.
2-1

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III. RESPONSE ACTIVITIES
Many of the procedures involved in response activities are primarily
concerned with health and safety. In concept and principle, these
are generic and independent of the type of incident. They are adapted
or modified to meet site-specific requirements. Each hazardous
materials incident must be evaluated to determine its hazards and
risks. Various types of environmental samples or measurements may be
needed initially to determine the hazards or to provide additional
information for continuing assessment. Personnel must go on-site to
accomplish specific tasks. Efforts are required to prevent or reduce
harmful substances from migrating from the site due to natural or
human activities. Containment, cleanup, and disposal activities may
be required. Each of these activities requires that safety procedure
be developed or existing procedures be adapted so that response
personnel are protected.
IV. OPERATING GUIDES
The standard operating safety guides that follow cover primarily site
control and entry. These guides illustrate technical considerations
necessary in developing standard instructions. For a given incident,
the procedures recommended should be adapted to conditions imposed by
that specific situation.
2-2

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PART 3
SITE ENTRY - GENERAL MEASURES AND REQUIREMENTS
INTRODUCTION
Personnel responding to environmental episodes involving chemical
substances encounter conditions that are unsafe or potentially unsafe.
In addition to the danger due to the physical, chemical, and toxico-
logical properties of the material present, other types of hazards
electricity, water, heavy equipment, falling objects, loss of balance,
or tripping, for example - can have an adverse effect on personnel.
This part discusses safety measures and precautions associated only
with the hazardous nature of chemical compounds.
SAFETY PRACTICES
A. Personal Precautions
Eating, drinking, chewing gum or tobacco, smoking, or any
practice that increases the probability of hand-to-mouth
transfer and ingestion of material is prohibited in any area
designated contaminated.
-	Hands and face must be thoroughly washed upon leaving the
work area.
-	Whenever decontamination procedures for outer garments are in
effect, the entire body should be thoroughly washed as soon
as possible after the protective garment is removed.
-	No facial hair which interferes with a satisfactory fit of
the mask-to-face-seal is allowed on personnel required to
wear respirators.
-	Contact with contaminated or suspected contaminated surfaces
should be avoided. Whenever possible, do not walk through
puddles, leachate, discolored surfaces, kneel on ground, lean,
sit, or place equipment on drums, containers, or the ground.
-	Medicine and alcohol can potentiate the effects from exposure
to toxic chemicals. Prescribed drugs should not be taken by
personnel on response operations where the potential for
absorption, inhalation, or ingestion of toxic substances
exists unless specifically approved by a qualified physician.
Alcoholic beverage intake should be minimized or avoided
during response operations.
3-1

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B.	Site Safety Plans
-	A Site Safety Plan must be developed for all phases of site
operations and made available to all personnel. Unless time
precludes it, the plan must be written and posted.
All personnel must be familiar with standard operating safety
procedures and any additional instructions and information
contained in the Site Safety Plan.
-	All personnel must adhere to the information contained in the
Site Safety Plan.
C.	Operations
-	All personnel going on-site must be adequately trained and
thoroughly briefed on anticipated hazards, equipment to be
worn, safety practices to be followed, emergency procedures,
and communications.
-	Any required respiratory protective devices and clothing must
be worn by all personnel going into areas designated for
wearing protective equipment.
Personnel on-site must use the buddy system when wearing
respiratory protective equipment. As a minimum, a third
person, suitably equipped as a safety backup, is required
during initial entries.
-	Visual contact must be maintained between pairs on-site and
safety personnel. Entry team members should remain close
together to assist each other during emergencies.
-	During continual operations, on-site workers act as safety
backup to each other. Off-site personnel provide emergency
assi stance.
Personnel should practice unfamiliar operations prior to
doing the actual procedure.
Entrance and exit locations must be designated and emergency
escape routes delineated. Warning signals for site evacuation
must be established.
-	Communications using radios, hand signals, signs, or other
means must be maintained between initial entry members at all
times. Emergency communications should be prearranged in
case of radio failure, necessity for evacuation of site, or
other reasons.
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-	Wind indicators visible to all personnel should be strate-
gically located throughout the site.
-	Personnel and equipment in the contaminated area should be
minimized, consistent with effective site operations.
-	Work areas for various operational activities must be estab-
1i shed.
-	Procedures for leaving a contaminated area must be planned
and implemented prior to going on-site. Work areas and
decontamination procedures must be established based on
expected site conditions.
III. MEDICAL PROGRAM
To safeguard the health of response personnel, a medical program must
be developed, established, and maintained. This program has two
essential components: routine health care and emergency treatment.
A.	Routine Health Care
Routine health care and maintenance should consist of at least:
Pre-employment medical examinations to establish the indi-
vidual's state of health, baseline physiological data, and
ability to wear personnel protective equipment. The fre-
quency and type of examination to be conducted thereafter
should be determined by medical personnel knowledgeable in
the area of toxicology.
-	Arrangements to provide special medical examinations, care,
and counseling in case of known or suspected exposures to
toxic substances. Any special tests needed depend on the
chemical substance to which the individual has been exposed.
B.	Emergency Medical Care and Treatment
The Medical Program must address emergency medical care and
treatment of response personnel, including possible exposures to
toxic substances and injuries resulting from accidents or physical
hazards. The following items should be included in emergency
care provisions:
-	Name, address, and telephone number of the nearest medical
treatment facility. This should be conspicuously posted.
A map and directions for locating the facility, plus the
travel time, should be readily available.
-	The facility's ability to provide care and treatment of
personnel exposed or suspected of being exposed to toxic (or
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otherwise hazardous). If the	facility lacks toxicological
capability, arrangements should be made for consultant
services.
-	Administration arrangements for	accepting patients.
-	Arrangements to quickly obtain ambulance, emergency, fire,
and police services. Telephone numbers and procedures for
obtaining these services should be conspicuously posted.
-	Emergency showers, eye wash fountains, and first aid equipment
readily available on-site. Personnel should have first aid
and medical emergency training.
-	Provisions for the rapid identification of the substance to
which the worker has been exposed (if this has not previously
been done). This information must be given to medical person-
nel .
-	Procedures for decontamination of injured workers and pre-
venting contamination of medical personnel, equipment, and
faci1ities.
IV. EDUCATION AND TRAINING
All personnel involved in responding to environmental incidents must
be trained to carry out their response functions. Training must be
provided in the use of all equipment, including respiratory protective
apparatus and protective clothing; safety practices and procedures;
general safety requirements; advanced first aid; and hazard recogni-
tion and evaluation.
Safety training must be a continuing part of the total response
program. Periodic retraining and practice sessions not only create
a high degree of safety awareness, but also help to maintain profi-
ciency in the use of equipment and knowledge of safety requirements.
V. QUALIFIED SAFETY PERSONNEL
Personnel responding to chemical incidents must make many complex
decisions regarding safety. Making these decisions correctly re-
quires more than elementary knowledge. For example, selecting the
most effective personnel protective equipment requires not only
expertise in the technical areas of respirators, protective clothing,
air monitoring, physical stress, etc., but also experience and profes-
sional judgment. Only a competent, qualified person (specialist) has
the technical judgment to evaluate a particular incident and determine
the appropriate safety requirements. This individual, through a
combination of professional education, on-the-job experience, special-
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ized training, and continual study, acquires expertise to make sound
decisi ons.
VI. STRESS
A.	Introduction
Both physiological and psychological stress effect response
personnel. Under certain conditions, stress contributes signif-
icantly to accidents and harms workers in other ways. To reduce
the potential for abnormal physical stress or mental anxiety:
-	Workers must be periodically examined by medical authorities
to determine if they are physically, and if possible, psycho-
logically fit to perform their jobs.
-	Continual practice and training must be provided in using
personnel protective equipment, especially the self-con-
tained breathing apparatus and chemical-resistant protective
clothing.
-	An effective safety program must be implemented and a con-
certed effort made to protect the worker. These actions
help assure personnel that their health and safety will be
protected now and in the future.
B.	Weather
Adverse weather conditions are important considerations in plan-
ning and conducting site operations. Hot or cold weather can
cause physical discomfort, loss of efficiency, and personal
injury. Of particular importance is heat stress resulting when
protective clothing decreases natural body ventilation. Heat
stress can occur even when temperature are moderate. One or more
of the following recommendations will help reduce heat stress:
-	Provide plenty of liquids. To replace body fluids (water and
electrolytes) lost due to sweating, use a 0.1% salt water
solution, more heavily salted foods, or commercial mixes. The
commercial mixes may be preferable for those employees on a
low-sodium diet.
-	Provide cooling devices to aid natural body ventilation.
These devices, however, add weight, and their use should be
balanced against worker efficiency. Long cotton underwear
act as a wick to help absorb moisture and protect the skin
from direct contact with heat-absorbing protective clothing.
It should be the minimum undergarment worn.
Install mobile showers and/or hose-down facilities to reduce
body temperature and cool protective clothing.
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In extremely hot weather, conduct nonemergency response
operations in the early morning or evening.
-	Ensure that adequate shelter is available to protect personnel
against heat, cold, rain, snow, etc., which decrease physical
efficiency and increase the probability of accidents.
In hot weather, rotate workers wearing protective clothing.
C. Heat Stress Monitoring
For monitoring the body's recuperative ability to excess heat,
one or more of the following techniques should be used as a
screening mechanism. Monitoring of personnel wearing protective
clothing should corrmence when the ambient temperature is 70
degrees Fahrenheit or above. Frequency of monitoring should
increase as the ambient temperature increases or if slow recovery
rates are indicated. When temperatures exceed 80 degrees F
workers must be monitored for heat stress after every work period.
-	Heart rate (HR) should be measured by the radial pulse for 30
seconds as early as possible in the resting period. The HR
at the beginning of the rest period should not exceed 110
beats per minute. If the HR is higher, the next work period
should be shortened by 10 minutes (or 33%), while the length
of the rest period stays the same. If the pulse rate is 100
beats per minute at the beginning of the next rest period,
the following work cycle should be shortened by 33%.
-	Body temperature should be measured orally with a clinical
thermometer as early as possible in the resting period. Oral
temperature (0T) at the beginning of the rest period should
not exceed 99 degrees Fahrenheit. If it does, the next work
period should be shortened by 10 minutes (or 33%), while the
length of the rest period stays the same. However, if the 0T
exceeds 99.7 degrees Fahrenheit at the beginning of the next
period, the following work cycle should be further shortened
by 33%. 0T should be measured again at the end of the rest
period to make sure that it has dropped below 99 degrees
Fahrenheit.
-	Body water loss (BWL) due to sweating should be measured by
weighing the worker in the morning and in the evening. The
clothing worn should be similar at both weighings; preferably
the worker should be nude. The scale should be accurate to
plus or minus 1/4 lb. BWL should not exceed 1.5% of the
total body weight. If it does, workers should be instructed
to increase their daily intake of fluids by the weight lost.
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Ideally, body fluids should be maintained at a constant level
during the work day. This requires replacement of salt lost
in sweat as well.
Good hygienic standards must be maintained by frequent change of
clothing and daily showering. Clothing should be permitted to
dry during rest periods. Persons who notice skin problems should
immediately consult medical personnel.
D.	Effects of Heat Stress
If the body's physiological processes fail to maintain a normal
body temperature because of excessive heat, a number of physical
reactions can occur ranging from mild (such as fatigue, irrita-
bility, anxiety, and decreased concentration, dexterity, or
movement) to fatal. Standard reference books should be consulted
for specific first aid treatment. Medical help must be obtained
for the more serious conditions.
Heat-related problems are:
-	Heat rash: caused by continuous exposure to heat and humid air
and aggravated by chafing clothes. Decreases ability to
tolerate heat as well as being a nuisance.
-	Heat cramps: caused by profuse perspiration with inadequate
fluid intake and chemical replacement (especially salts).
Signs: muscle spasm and pain in the extremities and abdomen.
-	Heat exhaustion: caused by increased stress on various organs
to meet increased demands to cool the body. Signs: shallow
breathing; pale, cool, moist skin; profuse sweating; dizziness
and lassitude.
-	Heat stroke: the most severe form of heat stress. Body must
be cooled immediately to prevent severe injury and/or death.
Signs: red, hot, dry skin; no perspiration; nausea; dizziness
and confusion; strong, rapid pulse; coma. Medical help must
be obtained immediately.
E.	Effects of Cold Exposure
Persons working outdoors in temperatures at or below freezing may
be frostbitten. Extreme cold for a short time may cause severe
injury to exposed body surfaces, or result in profound generalized
cooling, causing death. Areas of the body which have high surface
area-to-volume ratio such as fingers, toes, and ears, are the
most susceptible.
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Two factors influence the development of a cold injury: ambient
temperature and the velocity of the wind. Wind chill is used to
describe the chilling effect of moving air in combination with
low temperature. For instance, 10 degrees Fahrenheit with a wind
of 15 miles per hour (mph) is equivalent in chilling effect to
still air at -18 degrees Fahrenheit.
As a general rule, the greatest incremental increase in wind
chill occurs when a wind of 5 mph increases to 10 mph. Addi-
tionally, water conducts heat 240 times faster than air. Thus,
the body cools suddenly when chemical-protective equipment is
removed if the clothing underneath is perspiration soaked.
Local injury resulting from cold is included in the generic term
frostbite. There are several degrees of damage. Frostbite of
the extremities can be categorized into:
-	Frost nip or incipient frostbite: characterized by suddenly
blanching or whitening of skin.
-	Superficial frostbite: skin has a waxy or white appearance
and is firm to the touch, but tissue beneath is resilient.
-	Deep frostbite: tissues are cold, pale, and solid; extremely
serious injury.
Systemic hypothermia is caused by exposure to freezing or rapidly
dropping temperature. Its symptoms are usually exhibited in five
stages: 1) shivering, 2) apathy, 1 istlessness, sleepiness, and
(sometimes) rapid cooling of the body to less than 95 degrees
Fahrenheit, 3) unconsciousness, glassy stare, slow pulse, and
slow respiratory rate, 4) freezing of the extremities, and
finally, 5) death.
Standard reference books should be consulted for specific first
aids treatments. Medical help must be obtained for the more
serious conditions.
F. Indicators of Toxic Exposure Effects
-	Observeable by others
--	changes in complexion, skin discoloration
--	lack of coordination
--	changes in demeanor
--	excessive salivation, pupillary response
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--	changes in speech pattern
- Non-Observeable by others
--	headaches
--	dizziness
--	blurred vi sion
-- cramps
--	irritation of eyes, skin, or respiratory tract
VII. SUMMARY
The health and safety of response personnel are major considerations
in all response operations. All site operation planning must incor-
porate an analysis of the hazards involved and procedures for pre-
venting or minimizing the risk to personnel. The Site Safety Plan
establishes the safety practices and procedures to be followed so
that the welfare and safety of workers are protected. The plan must
evaluate both the nature of the chemical compounds present and other
hazards that could affect response personnel.
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PART 4
SITE ENTRY - SURVEY AND RECONNAISSANCE
I. INTRODUCTION
The team initially entering the site is to accomplish one or more
of the following objectives:
-	Determine the hazards that exist or potentially exist affecting
public health, the environment, and response personnel.
-	Verify existing information and/or obtain information about the
i ncident.
-	Evaluate the need for prompt mitigation.
-	Collect supplemental information to determine the safety require-
ments for personnel initially and subsequently entering the site.
Before the team enters the site, as much information as possible
should be collected, depending on the time available, concerning the
type of hazards, degree of hazard(s), and risks which may exist.
Based upon available information (shipping manifests, transportation
placards, existing records, container labels, etc.) or off-site
studies, the team assesses the hazards, determines the need to go on-
site, and identifies initial safety requirements.
II. PRELIMINARY ON-SITE EVALUATION
The initial on-site survey is to determine, on a preliminary basis,
hazardous or potentially hazardous conditions. The main effort is to
rapidly identify the immediate hazards that may affect the public,
response personnel, and the environment. Of major concern are the
real or potential dangers from, fire, explosion, airborne contam-
inants and to a lesser degree radiation and oxygen deficient atmos-
pheres.
A. Organic Vapors and Gases
If the type of organic substance involved in an incident is known
and the material is volatile or can become airborne, air measure-
ments for organics should be made with one or more appropriate,
properly calibrated survey instruments.
When the presence or types of organic vapors/gases are unknown,
instruments such as a photoionizer (HNU Systems*) and/or a por-
table gas chromatograph (Foxboro Systems OVA*), operated in the
total readout mode, should be used to detect organic vapors.
*The use of any trade names does not imply their endorsement by
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
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Until specific constituents can be identified, the readout indi-
cates total airborne substances to which the instrument is
responding. Identification of the individual vapor/gas consti-
tuents may permit the instruments to be calibrated to these
substances and used for more specific and accurate analysis.
Sufficient data should be obtained during the initial entry to
map or screen the site for various levels of organic vapors.
These gross measurements may be used on a preliminary basis to:
1) determine levels of personnel protection, 2) establish site
work zones, and 3) select candidate areas for more thorough
qualitative and quantitative studies.
Very high readings on the HNU or OVA may also indicate the dis-
placement of oxygen or the presence of combustible vapors.
B.	Inorganic Vapors and Gases
The number of direct reading instruments with the capability to
detect and quantify nonspecific inorganic vapors and gases is
extremely limited. Presently, the HNU photoionizer has very
limited detection capability while the Foxboro OVA has none.
(See Appendix I for characteristics). If specific inorganics are
known or suspected to be present, measurements should be made
with appropriate instruments, if available. Colorimetric tubes
are only practical if substances present are known or can be
narrowed to a few.
C.	Radiation
Although radiation monitoring is not necessary for all responses,
it should be incorporated in the initial survey where radioactive
materials may be present - for example, fires at warehouses or
hazardous material storage facilities, transportation incidents
involving unknown materials, or abandoned waste sites.
Normal background exposure-rate for gamma radiation is approx-
imately 0.01 to 0.02 mi 11 i roentgen per hour (mR/hr) on a gamma
survey instrument. Work can continue with elevated radiation-
exposure rates; however, if the exposure-rate increases to 3-5
times above gamma background, a qualified health physicist should
be consulted. At no time should work continue with an exposure
rate of 10 mR/hr or above without the advice of a health physicist.
EPA's Office of Air, Noise and Radiation has radiation specialists
in each Region, as well as at Headquarters, Montgomery, Alabama,
and Las Vegas, Nevada, to assist. The absence of gamma readings
above background should not be interpreted as the complete absence
of radioactivity. Radioactive materials emitting low-energy gam-
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ma, alpha, or beta radiation may be present, but for a number of
reasons may not cause a response on the instrument. Unless
airborne, these radioactive materials should present minimal
hazard, but more thorough surveys should be conducted as site
operations continue to completely rule out the presence of any
radioactive material.
D.	Oxygen Deficiency
Normal air contains about 20.5% by volume of oxygen. At or
below 19.5% oxygen air-supplied respiratory protective equipment
is needed. Oxygen measurements are of particular importance for
work in enclosed spaces, low-lying areas, or in the vicinity of
accidents that have produced heavier-than-air vapors which could
displace ambient air. These oxygen deficient areas are also prime
locations for taking further organic vapor and combustible gas
measurements, since the air has been displaced by other sub-
stances. Oxygen-enriched atmospheres increase the potential for
fi res.
E.	Combustible Gases
The presence or absence of combustible vapors or gases must be
determined. If readings approach or exceed 10% of the lower
explosive limit (LEL), extreme caution should be exercised in
continuing the investigation. If readings approach or exceed 25%
LEL, personnel should be withdrawn immediately. Before resuming
any on-site activities, project personnel in consultation with
experts in fire or explosion prevention must develop procedures
for continuing operations.
F.	Visual Observations
While on-site, the initial entry team should make visual obser-
vations which would help in evaluating site hazards, for example,
dead fish or other animals; land features; wind direction; labels
on containers indicating explosive, flammable, toxic, or corrosive
materials; conditions conducive to splash or contact with uncon-
fined liquids, sludges, or solids; and other general conditions.
G.	Direct-Reading Instruments
A variety of toxic air pollutants, (including organic and in-
organic vapors, gases, or particulates) can be produced at, for
example, abandoned waste sites; fires at chemical manufacturing,
storage, reprocessing, or formulating facilities; or fires invol-
ving pesticides. Direct-reading field instruments will not
detect or measure all of these substances. Thus, negative
readings should not be interpreted as the complete absence of
airborne toxic substances. Verification of negative results can
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only be done by collecting air samples and analyzing them in a
laboratory.
III. OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
A.	Initial Surveys
In general, the initial entry is considered a relatively rapid
screening process for collecting preliminary data on site hazards.
The time needed to conduct the initial survey depends on the
urgency of the situation, type of incident, information needed,
size of site, availability of resources, and Level of Protection
required for initial entry personnel. Consequently, initial
surveys may need hours or days to complete and consist of more
than one entry.
B.	Priority for Initial Entry Monitoring
Of immediate concern to initial entry personnel are atmospheric
conditions which could affect their immediate safety. These
conditions are airborne toxic substances, combustible gases or
vapors, lack of oxygen, and to a lesser extent, ionizing radia-
tion. Priorities for monitoring these potential hazards should
be established after a careful evaluation of conditions.
When the type of material involved in an incident is identified
and its release into the environment suspected or known, the
material's chemical/physical properties and the prevailing weather
conditions may help determine the order of monitoring. An unknown
substance or situation presents a more difficult monitoring
problem.
In general, for poorly-ventilated spaces - buildings, ship's
holds, boxcars, or bulk tanks - which must be entered, combustible
vapors/gases and oxygen-deficient atmospheres should be monitored
first with team members wearing, as a minimum, Level B protective
equipment (Levels of Protection are described in Part 5). Toxic
gases/vapors and radiation, unless known not to be present,
should be measured next.
For open, wel1-venti 1 ated areas, combustible gases and oxygen
deficiency are lesser hazards, and require lower priority.
However, areas of lower elevation on-site (such as ditches and
gulleys) and downwind areas may have combustible gas mixtures, in
addition to toxic vapors or gases, and lack sufficient oxygen to
sustain life. Entry teams should approach and monitor whenever
possible from the upwind area.
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C.	Periodic Monitoring
The monitoring surveys made during the initial site entry phase
are for a preliminary evaluation of atmospheric hazards. In some
situations, the information obtained may be sufficient to preclude
additional monitoring - for example, a chlorine tank determined
to be releasing no chlorine. Materials detected during the
initial site survey call for a more comprehensive evaluation of
hazards and analyses for specific components. A program must be
established for monitoring, sampling, and evaluating hazards for
the duration of site operations. Since site activities and
weather conditions change, a continuous program to monitor atmos-
pheric changes must be implemented utilizing a combination of
stationary sampling equipment, personal monitoring devices, and
periodic area monitoring with direct-reading instruments.
D.	Off-Site Monitoring and Sampling
Whenever possible, atmospheric hazards in the areas adjacent to
the on-site zone should be monitored with direct-reading instru-
ments, and air samples should be taken before the initial entry
for on-site investigations. Negative instrument readings off-
site should not be construed as definite indications of on-site
conditions, but only another piece of information to assist in
the preliminary evaluation.
E.	Monitoring Instruments
It is imperative that personnel using monitoring instruments be
thoroughly familiar with their use, limitations, and operating
characteristics. All instruments have inherent constraints in
their ability to detect and/or quantify the hazards for which
they were designed. Unless trained personnel use instruments and
assess data readout, air hazards can be grossly misinterpreted,
endangering the health and safety of response personnel. In
addition, only instruments approved for use in hazardous locations
should be used, unless combustible gases or vapors are absent.
F.	Ambient Atmospheric Concentrations
Any indication of atmospheric hazards - toxic substances, combus-
tible gases, lack of oxygen, and radiation - should be viewed as a
sign to proceed with care and deliberation. Readings indicating
nonexplosive atmospheres, low concentrations of toxic substances,
or other conditions may increase or decrease suddenly, changing
the associated risks. Extreme caution should be exercised in
continuing surveys when any atmospheric hazards are indicated.
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TABLE 4-1
ATMOSPHERIC HAZARD GUIDELINES
Monitoring Equipment
Hazard
Ambient Level
Action
Combustible gas indicator Explosive
atmosphere
Oxygen concentration meter Oxygen
Radiation survey meter
Ioni zing
Radi ati on
<	10% LEL Continue investigation
with cautions.
10%-25% Continue on-site
monitoring with extreme
caution as higher levels
are encountered.
>	25% LEL Explosion hazard; withdraw
from area immediately.
<	19.5% Monitor wearing SCBA.
NOTE: Combustible gas
readings are not val id
in atmospheres with
< 19.5% oxygen.
19.5%-25% Continue investigation with
caution. SCBA not needed,
based on oxygen content
only.
>	25.0% Discontinue inspection;
fire hazard potential.
Consult specialist.
<	1 mR/hr Continue investigation.
If radiation is detected
above background levels,
this signifies the presence
of possible radiation sources:
at this level, more thorough
monitoring is advisable.
Consult with a
health physicist.
> 10 mR/hr Potential radiation hazard;
evacuate site. Continue moni-
toring only upon the advice
of a health physicist.
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Monitoring Equipment
TABLE 4-1 (Cont'd.)
Hazard	Ambient Level
Action
Colorimetric tubes
Organic and
inorganic
vapors/gases
Depends on
chemi cal
Photoionization
detector (PID)
Organi c
vapors/gases
1) Depends on
chemi cal
2) Total
response
mode
Flame ionization
detector (FID)
Organi c
vapors/gases
1) Depends on
chemi cal
2) Total
response
mode
Consult standard
reference manual for
air concentrations/
toxicity data.
Consult standard
reference manuals
for air concentrations/
toxicity data.
Consult EPA Standard
Operating Safety Guides.
Consult standard reference
manuals for air concen-
trations/toxicity data.
Consult EPA Standard
Operating Safety Guides.
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PART 5
SITE ENTRY - LEVELS OF PROTECTION
I. INTRODUCTION
Personnel must wear protective equipment when response activities
involve known or suspected atmospheric contamination, when vapors,
gases, or particulates may be generated by site activities, or when
direct contact with skin-affecting substances may occur. Full face-
piece respirators protect lungs, gastrointestinal tract, and eyes
against airborne toxicants. Chemical-resistant clothing protects the
skin from contact with skin-destrdctive and absorbable chemicals.
Good personal hygiene limits or prevents ingestion of material.
Equipment to protect the body against contact with known or antici-
pated toxic chemicals has been divided into four categories according
to the degree of protection afforded:
-	Level A: Should be worn when the highest level of respiratory,
skin, and eye protection is needed.
-	Level B: Should be worn when the highest level of respiratory
protection is needed, but a lesser level of skin protection.
-	Level C: Should be worn when the criteria for using air-purifying
respirators are met.
-	Level D: Should be worn only as a work uniform and not on any
site with respiratory or skin hazards. It provides no protection
against chemical hazards.
The Level of Protection selected should be based on:
-	Type and measured concentration of the chemical substance
in the ambient atmosphere and its toxicity.
-	Potential for exposure to substances in air, splashes of liquids,
or other direct contact with material due to work being done.
In situations where the type of chemical, concentration, and
possibilities of contact are not known, the appropriate Level of
Protection must be selected based on professional experience and
judgment until the hazards can be better identified.
While personnel protective equipment reduces the potential for contact
with toxic substances, ensuring the health and safety of responders
requires, in addition, safe work practices, decontamination, site
entry protocols, and other safety procedures. Together, these provide
an integrated approach for reducing harm to workers.
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II. LEVELS OF PROTECTION
A. Level A Protection
1.	Personnel protective equipment
-	Supplied-air respirator approved by the Mine Safety and
Health Administration (MSHA) and National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).
Respirators may be:
-- pressure-demand, self-contained breathing apparatus
(SCBA)
or
-- pressure-demand, airline respirator (with escape bottle
for Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health (IDLH) or
potential for IDLH atmosphere)
-	Fully encapsulating chemical-resistant suit
-	Coveralls*
-	Long cotton underwear*
-	Gloves (inner), chemical-resistant
-	Boots, chemical-resistant, steel toe and shank. (Depending
on suit construction, worn over or under suit boot)
-	Hard hat* (under suit)
Disposable gloves and boot covers* (Worn over fully encap-
sulating suit)
-	Cooling unit*
-	2-Way radio communications* (inherently safe)
2.	Criteria for selection
Meeting any of these criteria warrants use of Level A
Protection:
-	The chemical substance has been identified and requires
the highest level of protection for skin, eyes, and the
respiratory system based on:
-- measured (or potential for) high concentration of
*0ptional
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atmospheric vapors, gases, or particulates
or
-- site operations and work functions involves high
potential for splash, immersion, or exposure to un-
expected vapors, gases, or particulates of materials
highly toxic to the skin.
-	Substances with a high degree of hazard to the skin are
known or suspected to be present, and skin contact is
possible.
-	Operations must be conducted in confined, poorly venti-
lated areas until the absence of substances requiring
Level A protection is determined.
-	Direct readings on field Flame Ionization Dectors (FID) or
Photoionization Detectors (PID) and similar instruments
indicate high levels of unidentified vapors and gases in
the air. (See Appendixes I and II.)
3. Guidance on selection
a. Fully encapsulating suits are primarily designed to
provide a gas or vapor tight barrier between the wearer
and atmospheric contaminants. Therefore Level A is gen-
erally worn when high concentrations of airborne sub-
stances are known or thought to be present and these
substances could severely effect the skin. Since Level A
requires the use of a self-contained breathing apparatus,
the eyes and respiratory system are also more protected.
Until air surveillance data are available to assist in the
selection of the appropriate Level of Protection, the use
of Level A may have to be based on indirect evidence of
the potential for atmospheric contamination or other means
of skin contact with severe skin affecting substances.
Conditions that may require Level A protection include:
-	Confined spaces: Enclosed, confined, or poorly ventilated
areas are conducive to build up of toxic vapors, gases, or
particulates. (Explosive or oxygen-deficient atmospheres
also are more probable in confined spaces.) Confined space
entry does not automatically warrant wearing Level A pro-
tection, but should serve as a cue to carefully consider
and to justify a lower Level of Protection.
-	Suspected/known highly toxic substances: Various sub-
stances that are highly toxic especially through skin
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absorption for example, fuming corrosives, cyanide com-
pounds, concentrated pesticides, Department of Tran-
sportation Poison "A" materials, suspected carcinogens,
and infectious substances may be known or suspected to be
involved. Field instruments may not be available to
detect or quantify air concentrations of these materials.
Until these substances are identified and concentrations
measured, maximum protection may be necessary.
-	Visible emissions: Visible air emissions from leaking
containers or rai1 road/vehicular tank cars, as well as
smoke from chemical fires and others, indicate high
potential for concentrations of substances that could be
extreme respiratory or skin hazards.
-	Job functions: Initial site entries are generally walk-
throughs in which instruments and visual observations
are used to make a preliminary evaluation of the hazards.
In initial site entries, Level A should be worn when:
-- there is a probability for exposure to high con-
centrations of vapors, gases, or particulates.
-- substances are known or suspected of being extremely
toxic directly to the skin or by being absorbed.
Subsequent entries are to conduct the many activities needed
to reduce the environmental impact of the incident. Levels
of Protection for later operations are based not only on data
obtained from the initial and subsequent environmental moni-
toring, but also on the probability of contamination and ease
of decontamination.
Examples of situations where Level A has been worn are:
-	Excavating of soil to sample buried drums suspected of
containing high concentrations of dioxin.
-	Entering a cloud of chlorine to repair a valve broken in a
railroad accident.
-	Handling and moving drums known to contain oleum.
-	Responding to accidents involving cyanide, arsenic, and un-
diluted pesticides.
b. The fully encapsulating suit provides the highest degree of
protection to skin, eyes, and respiratory system if the suit
material resists chemicals during the time the suit is worn.
While Level A provides maximum protection, all suit material
may be rapidly permeated and degraded by certain chemicals
5-4

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from extremely high air concentrations, splashes, or immersion
of boots or gloves in concentrated liquids or sludges. These
limitations should be recognized when specifying the type of
fully encapsulating suit. Whenever possible, the suit
material should be matched with the substance it is used
to protect against.
B. Level B Protection
1.	Personnel protective equipment
-	Supplied-air respirator (MSHA/NIOSH approved).
Respirators may be:
-- pressure-demand, self-contained breathing apparatus
or
-- pressure-demand, airline respirator (with escape bottle
for IDLH or potential for IDLH atmosphere)
-	Chemical-resistant clothing (overalls and long-sleeved
jacket; hooded, one or two-piece chemical-splash suit;
disposable chemical-resistant, one-piece suits)
-	Long cotton underwear*
-	Coveralls*
-	Gloves (outer), chemical-resistant
-	Gloves (inner), chemical-resistant
-	Boots (outer), chemical-resistant, steel toe and shank
-	Boot covers (outer), chemical-resistant (disposable)*
-	Hard hat (face shield)*
-	2-Way radio communications* (inherently safe)
2.	Criteria for selection
Meeting any one of these criteria warrants use of Level B
protection:
-	The type and atmospheric concentration of toxic substances
has been identified and requires a high level of respira-
tory protection, but less skin protection than Level A.
These would be atmospheres:
*0ptional
5-5

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-- with concentrations Immediately Dangerous to Life and
Health, but substance or concentration in the air
does not represent a severe skin hazard
or
-- that do not meet the selection criteria permitting the
use of air-purifying respirators.
-	The atmosphere contains less than 19.5% oxygen.
-	It is highly unlikely that the work being done will generate
high concentrations of vapors, gases or particulates, or
splashes of material that will affect the skin of personnel
wearing Level B protection.
-	Atmospheric concentrations of unidentified vapors or gases
are indicated by direct readings on instruments such
as the FID or PID or similar instruments, but vapors and
gases are not suspected of containing high levels of
chemicals toxic to skin. (See Appendixes I and II.)
3. Guidance on selection
a.	Level B does not afford the maximum skin (and eye) pro-
tection as does a fully encapsulating suit since the
chemical-resistant clothing is not considered gas, vapor,
or particulate tight. However, a good quality, hooded,
chemical-resistant, one-piece garment, with taped wrist,
ankles, and hood does provides a reasonable degree of
protection against splashes and to lower concentrations in
air. At most abandoned hazardous waste sites, ambient
atmospheric gas or vapor levels have not approached concen-
trations sufficiently high to warrant Level A protection.
In all but a few circumstances (where highly toxic mater-
ials are suspected) Level B should provide the protection
needed for initial entry. Subsequent operations at a site
require a reevaluation of Level B protection based on the
probability of being splashed by chemicals, their effect
on the skin, the presence of hard-to-detect air contaim-
inants, or the generation of highly toxic gases, vapors,
or particulates, due to the work being done.
b.	The chemical-resistant clothing required in Level B is
available in a wide variety of styles, materials, construc-
tion detail, and permeability. One or two-piece garments
are available with or without hoods. Disposal suits with
a variety of fabrics and design characteristies are also
available. Taping joints between the gloves, boots and
suit, and between hood and respirator reduces the pos-
siblity for splash and vapor or gas penetration. These
5-6

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factors and other selection criteria all affect the degree
of protection afforded. Therefore, a specialist should
select the most effective chemical-resistant clothing
based on the known or anticipated hazards and job function.
Level B equipment does provides a high level of protection
to the respiratory tract. Generally, if a self-contained
breathing apparatus is required for respiratory protection,
selecting chemical-resistant clothing (Level B) rather than
a fully encapsulating suit (Level A) is based on needing
less protection against known or anticipated substances
affecting the skin. Level B skin protection is selected
by:
-	Comparing the concentrations of known or identified
substances in air with skin toxicity data.
-	Determining the presence of substances that are destruc-
tive to or readily absorbed through the skin by liquid
splashes, unexpected high levels of gases, vapor, or
particulates, or other means of direct contact.
-	Assessing the effect of the substance (at its measured
air concentrations or potential for splashing) on the
small areas left unprotected by chemical-resistant
clothing. A hooded garment taped to the mask, and
boots and gloves taped to the suit further reduces area
of exposure.
c. For initial site entry and reconnaissance at an open site,
approaching whenever possible from upwind, Level B protec-
tion (with good quality, hooded, chemical-resistant cloth-
ing) should protect response personnel, providing the
conditions described in selecting Level A are known or
judged to be absent.
C. Level C Protection
1. Personnel protective equipment
-	Air-purifying respirator, full-face, canister-equipped
(MSHA/NIOSH approved)
-	Chemical-resistant clothing (coveralls; hooded, one-piece
or two-piece chemical splash suit; chemical-resistant hood
and apron; disposable chemical-resistant coveralls)
-	Coveralls*
-	Long cotton underwear*
-	Gloves (outer), chemical-resistant
5-7

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-	Gloves (inner), chemical-resistant*
-	Boots (outer), chemical-resistant, steel toe and shank
-	Boot covers (outer), chemical-resistant (disposable)*
-	Hard hat (face shield*)
-	Escape mask*
-	2-Way radio communications* (inherently safe)
2.	Criteria for selection
Meeting all of these criteria permits use of Level C protec-
tion:
-	Oxygen concentrations are not less than 19.5% by volume.
-	Measured air concentrations of identified substances will
be reduced by the respirator below the substance's thres-
hold limit value (TLV) and the concentration is within
the service limit of the canister.
-	Atmospheric contaminant concentrations do not exceed IDLH
levels.
-	Atmospheric contaminants, liquid splashes, or other
direct contact will not adversely affect any body area
left unprotected by chemical-resistant clothing.
-	Job functions do not require self-contained breathing
apparatus.
-	Direct readings are a few ppms above background on in-
struments such as the FID or PID. (See Appendices I and
II.)
3.	Guidance on selection
a. Level C protection is distinguished from Level B by the
equipment used to protect the respiratory system, assuming
the same type of chemical-resistant clothing is used. The
main selection criterion for Level C is that conditions
permit wearing air-purifying respirators.
The air-purifying device must be a full-face respirator
(MSHA/NIOSH approved) equipped with a canister suspended
from the chin or on a harness. Canisters must be able to
*0pti onal
5-8

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remove the substances encountered. Quarter-or half-masks
or cheekcartridge, full-face masks should be used only
with the approval of a qualified individual.
In addition, a full-face, air-purifying mask can be used
only if:
-	Substance has adequate warning properties.
Individual passes a qualitative fit-test for the mask.
-	Appropriate cartridge/canister is used, and its service
limit concentration is not exceeded.
b.	An air surveillance program is part of all response opera-
tions when atmospheric contamination is known or suspected.
It is particularly important that the air be thoroughly
monitored when personnel are wearing air-purifying respira-
tors. Periodic surveillance using direct-reading instru-
ments and air sampling is needed to detect any changes in
air quality necessitating a higher level of respiratory
protection.
c.	Level C protection with a full-face, air-purifying respi-
rator should be worn routinely in an atmosphere only after
the type of air contaminant is identified, concentrations
measured and the criteria for wearing air-purifying respi-
rator met. To permit flexibility in precribing a Level of
Protection at certain environmental incidents, a specialist
could consider using air-purifying respirators in uniden-
tified vapor/gas concentrations of a few parts per million
above background as indicated by a needle deflection on the
FID or PID. However a needle deflection of a few parts per
million above background should not be the sole criterion
for selecting Level C. Since the individual components may
never be completely identified, a decision on continuous
wearing of Level C must be made after assessing all safety
considerations, including:
-	The presence of (or potential for) organic or inorganic
vapors/gases against which a canister is ineffective or
has a short service life.
-	The known (or suspected) presence in air of substances
with low TLVs or IDLH levels.
-	The presence of particulates in air.
-	The errors associated with both the instruments and
monitoring procedures used.
*0ptional
5-9

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The presence of (or potential for) substances in air
which do not elicit a response on the instrument
used.
The potential for higher concentrations in the ambient
atmosphere or in the air adjacent to specific site
operations.
d. The continuous use of air-purifying respirators (Level C)
must be based on the identification of the substances
contributing to the total vapor or gas concentration and
the application of published criteria for the routine use
of air-purifying devices. Unidentified ambient concen-
trations of organic vapors or gases in air approaching or
exceeding a few ppm above background require, as a mini-
mum, Level B protection.
D. Level D Protection
1.	Personnel protective equipment
-	Coveralls
-	Gloves*
-	Boots/shoes, leather or chemical-resistant, steel toe and
shank
-	Safety glasses or chemical splash goggles*
-	Hard hat (face shield)*
2.	Criteria for selection
Meeting any of these criteria allows use of Level D protection
-	No contaminants are present.
-	Work functions preclude splashes, immersion, or potential
for unexpected inhalation of any chemicals.
Level D protection is primarily a work uniform. It can be
worn only in areas where there is no possibility of
contact with contamination.
PROTECTION IN UNKNOWN ENVIRONMENTS
In all incident response, selecting the appropriate personnel pro-
tection equipment is one of the first steps in reducing health
effects from toxic substances. Until the toxics hazards at an
environmental incident can be identified and personnel safety measures
5-10

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commensurate with the hazards instituted, preliminary measures will
have to be based on experience, judgment, and professional knowledge.
One of the first concerns in evaluating an unknown situation is
atmospheric hazards. Toxic concentrations (or potential concentra-
tions) of vapors, gases, and particulates; low oxygen content explo-
sive potential and, to a lesser degree, the possibility of radiation
exposure all represent immediate atmospheric hazards. In addition to
making air measurements to determine these hazards, visual observa-
tion and review of existing data can help determine the potential
risks from other materials.
Once immediate hazards, other than toxic substances have been elimi-
nated, the initial on-site survey and reconnaissance, which may
consist of more than one entry, continues. Its purpose is to further
characterize toxic hazards and, based on these findings, refine
preliminary safety requirements. As data are obtained from the
initial survey, the Level of Protection and other safety procedures
are adjusted. Initial data also provide information on which to base
further monitoring and sampling. No one method can determine a Level
of Protection in all unknown environments. Each situation must be
examined individually.
ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR SELECTING LEVELS OF PROTECTION
Other factors which should be considered in selecting the appro-
priate Level of Protection are:
A. Heat and Physical Stress
The use of protective clothing and respirators increases physical
stress, in particular heat stress, on the wearer. Chemicalprotec-
tive clothing greatly reduces body ventilation and diminishes its
ability to regulate its temperature. Even in moderate ambient
temperatures the diminished capacity of the body to dissipate
heat can result in one or more heat-related problems.
All chemical protective garments can cause heat stress. Some-
what less stress is associated with Level B or C when the
protective clothing does not require the use of a hood, tightly
fitted against the respirator face piece, and taped glove,
boot, suit interfaces, since more body ventilation and evapora-
tion may occur. As more body area is covered, the probability
of heat stress increases. Whenever any chemical-protective
clothing is worn, a heat stress recovery monitoring program
must occur (see Part 3, Section V).
Wearing protective equipment also increases the risk of acci-
dents. It is heavy, cumbersome, decreases dexterity, agility,
interferes with vision, and is fatiguing to wear. These factors
5-11

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all increase physical stress and the potential of accidents.
In particular the necessity for selecting Level A protection,
should be balanced against the increased probability of physical
stress and accidents. Level B and C protection somewhat reduces
accident probability, because the equipment is lighter, less
cumbersome, and vision problems less serious.
B.	Air Survei11ance
A program must be established for routine, periodic air surveil-
lance. Without an air surveillance program, any changes could
go undetected and jeopardize response personnel. Surveillance
can be accomplished with various types of air pumps and fil-
tering devices followed by analysis of the filtering media;
portable real-time monitoring instruments located strategically
on-site; personal dosimeters; and periodic walk-throughs by
personnel carrying direct-reading instruments. (See Part 8)
C.	Decision-Logic for Selecting Protective Clothing
No adequate criteria, similar to the respiratory protection
decision-logic, are available for selecting protective clothing.
A concentration of a known substance in the air approaching a TLV
or permissible exposure limit for the skin does not automa-
tically warrant a fully encapsulating suit. A hooded, high
quality, chemical-resistant suit may provide adequate pro-
tection. The selection of Level A over Level B is a judgment
that should be made by a qualified individual considering the
following factors:
-	The physical form of the potential contaminant. Airborne
substances are more likely for body contact with personnel
wearing non-encapsulating suits, since they are not consid-
ered to be gas or vapor tight.
-	Effect of the material on skin:
-- highly hazardous substances are those that are easily
absorbed through the skin causing systemic effects, or
that cause severe skin destruction. Skin contact with
liquids are generally more hazardous than vapors, gases
and particulates.
-- less hazardous substances are those that are not easily
absorbed through the skin causing systemic effects, or
that do not cause severe skin destruction
-	Concentration of the material - the higher the concentration,
the higher the risk of harm.
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- The potential for contact with the material due to work
function and the probability of direct exposure to the small
area of skin unprotected by Level B or C chemical-resistant
clothing.
D.	Chemicals Toxic to Skin
The chemicals listed in Appendix III are identified in the Oil
and Hazardous Materials Technical Assistance Data Base System
(OHMTADS) as having adverse skin effects ranging from irritation
to absorption into the body. Knowledge concerning the presence
or absence of these materials could be useful in selecting the
necessary Level of Protection. Other substances affecting the
skin, but not listed in OHMTADS, may be present. Therefore, a
major effort should be made to identify all substances.
E.	Atmospheric Conditions
Atmospheric conditions such as stability, temperature, wind
direction, wind velocity, and barometric pressure determine the
behavior of contaminants in air or the potential for volatile
material getting into air. These parameters should be consid-
ered in determining the need for and Level of Protection
requi red.
F.	Work in Exclusion Zone
For operations in the Exclusion Zone (area of potential con-
tamination), different Levels of Protection may be selected,
and various types of chemical-resistant clothing worn. This
selection would be based not only on measured air concen-
trations, but also on the job function, reason for being in the
area, the potential for skin contact or inhalation of the
materials present, and ability to decontaminate the protective
equipment used. (See Part 6)
G.	Escape Masks
The use of escape masks is an option in Level C protection. A
specialist should determine their use on a case-by-case basis.
Escape masks could also be strategically located on-site in areas
that have higher possibilities for harmful exposure.
V. VAPOR OR GAS CONCENTRATIONS AS INDICATED BY DIRECT-READING INSTRUMENTS
Instruments such as the FID and PID can be used to detect the presence
of many organic vapors or gases either as single compounds or mixtures.
Dial readings are frequently referred to, especially with unidentified
substances, as total vapor and gas concentrations (in ppm). More
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correctly they are deflections of the needle on the dial indicating
an instrument response and does not directly relate to total concen-
tration in the air. As a guide to selecting Level of Protections,
based on dial readings response, the following values could be used.
They should not be the sole criteria for selecting Levels of Pro-
tection.
Dial Reading	Level of Protection
Background to 5 ppm	C
above background
5 ppm above background	B
to 500 ppm above background
500" ppm above background	A
to 1000 ppm above background
Vapor or gas concentration, as indicated by the readout on instruments
such as the FIDs or PIDs are a useful adjunct to professional judgment
in selecting the Level of Protection to be worn in an unknown envi-
ronment. It should not be the single selection criterion, but should
be considered with all other available information. Total vapor or
gas concentration as selection criteria for Levels of Protection
should only by used by qualified persons thoroughly familiar with the
information contained in Appendices I and II.
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PART 6
SITE CONTROL - WORK ZONES
I. INTRODUCTION
The activities required during responses to incidents involving
hazardous substances may contribute to the unwanted movement of con-
taminants from the site to uncontaminated areas. Response personnel
and equipment may become contaminated and transfer the material into
clean areas. Material may become airborne due to its volatility or
the disturbance of contaminated soil may cause it to become wind-
blown. To minimize the transfer of hazardous substances from the
site, contamination control procedures are needed. Two general
methods are used: establishing site work zones and removing
contaminants from people and equipment.
II. CONTROL AT THE SITE
A site must be controlled to reduce the possibility of:	1) contact
with any contaminants present and 2) removal of contaminants by per-
sonnel or equipment leaving the site. The possibility of	exposure or
translocation of substances can be reduced or eliminated	in a number
of ways, including:
-	Setting up security and physical barriers to exclude	unnecessary
personnel from the general area.
-	Minimizing the number of personnel and equipment on-site consistent
with effective operations.
-	Establishing work zones within the site.
-	Establishing control points to regulate access to work zones.
-	Conducting operations in a manner to reduce the exposure of person-
nel and equipment and to eliminate the potential for airborne
di spersion.
-	Implementing appropriate decontamination procedures.
III. WORK ZONES
One method of preventing or reducing the migration of contaminants
is to delineate zones on the site in which prescribed operations occur.
Movement of personnel and equipment between zones and onto the site
6-1

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WIND DIRECTION
HOT LINE
CONTAMINATION
CONTROL LINE
ACCESS CONTROL
POINTS
CONTAMINATION
, AREA
CONTAMINATION
REDUCTION
CORRIDOR
COMMAND
POST
SUPPORT
ZONE
CONTAMINATION
REDUCTION ZONE
EXCLUSION
ZONE
DIAGRAM OF SITE WORK ZONES
FIGURE 6-1

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itself would be limited by access control points. By these means,
Three contiguous zones (Figure 6-1) are recommended:
Zone 1: Exclusion Zone
Zone 2: Contamination Reduction Zone
Zone 3: Support Zone
A.	Zone 1: Exclusion Zone
The Exclusion Zone, the innermost of three areas, is the zone
where contamination does or could occur. All people entering the
Exclusion Zone must wear prescribed Levels of Protection. An
entry and exit check point must be established at the periphery
of the Exclusion Zone to regulate the flow of personnel and
equipment into and out of the zone and to verify that the proced-
ures established to enter and exit are followed.
The outer boundary of Zone 1, the Hotline, is initially estab-
lished by visually surveying the immediate environs of the
incident and determining where the hazardous substances involved
are located; where any drainage, leachate, or spilled material
is; and whether any discolorations are visible. Guidance in
determining the boundaries is also- provided by data from the
initial site survey indicating .the presence of organic or in-
organic vapors/gases or particulates in air, combustible gases,
and radiation, or the results of water and soil sampling.
Additional factors that should be considered include the distances
needed to prevent fire or an explosion from affecting personnel
outside the zone, the physical area necessary to conduct site
operations, and the potential for contaminants to be blown from
the area. Once the Hotline has been determined it should be
physically secured, fenced, or well-defined by landmarks. During
subsequent site operations, the boundary may be modified and
adjusted as more information becomes available.
B.	Subareas Within the Exclusion Zone
All personnel within the Exclusion Zone must wear the required
Level of Protection. Personnel protective equipment is designated
based on site-specific conditions including the type of work to
be done and the hazards that might be encountered. Frequently
within the Exclusion Zone, different Levels of Protection are
justified. Subareas are specified and conspicuously marked as to
whether Level A, B, or C protection is required (Figure 6-2). The
Level of Protection is determined by the measured concentration
of substances in air, potential for contamination, and the known
or suspected presence of highly toxic substances.
6-3

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Different Levels of Protection in the Exclusion Zone might also
be designated by job assignment. For example, collecting samples
from open containers might require Level B protection, while for
walk-through ambient air monitoring, Level C protection might be
sufficient. The assignment, when appropriate, of different
Levels of Protection within the Exclusion Zone generally makes
for a more flexible, effective, and less costly operation while
still maintaining a high degree of safety.
C.	Zone 3: Support Zone
The Support Zone, the outermost part of the site, is considered a
noncontaminated or clean area. Support equipment (command post,
equipment trailer, etc.) is located in the zone; traffic is
restricted to authorized response personnel. Since normal work
clothes are appropriate within this zone, potentially contaminated
personnel clothing, equipment, and samples are not permitted, but
are left in the Contamination Reduction Zone until they are
decontami nated.
The location of the command post and other support facilities in
the Support Zone depends on a number of factors, including:
-	Accessibi1ity: topography; open space available; locations of
highways, railroad tracks; or other limitations.
-	Wind direction: preferably the support facilities should be
located upwind of the Exclusion Zone. However, shifts in
wind direction and other conditions may be such that an ideal
location based on wind direction alone does not exist.
-	Resources: adequate roads, power lines, water, and shelter.
D.	Zone 2: Contamination Reduction Zone
Between the Exclusion Zone and the Support Zone is the Contamina-
tion Reduction Zone which provides a transition between contam-
inated and clean zones. Zone 2 serves as a buffer to further
reduce the probability of the clean zone becoming contaminated or
being affected by other existing hazards. It provides additional
assurance that the physical transfer of contaminating substances
on people, equipment, or in the air is limited through a combina-
tion of decontamination, distance between Exclusion and Support
Zones, air dilution, zone restrictions, and work functions.
Initially, the Contamination Reduction Zone is considered to be a
noncontaminated area. At the boundary between the Exclusion and
Contamination Reduction Zones, Contmination Reduction Corridors
(decontamination stations) are established, one for personnel
and one for heavy equipment. Depending on the size of the opera-
tion, more than two corridors may be necessary. Exit from the
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Exclusion Zone is through a Contamination Reduction Corridor. As
operations proceed, the area around the decontamination station
may become contaminated, but to a much lesser degree than the
Exclusion Zone. On a relative basis, the amount of contaminants
should decrease from the Hotline to the Support Zone due to the
distance involved and the decontamination procedures used.
The boundary between the Support Zone and the Contamination Reduc-
tion Zone, the Contamination Control Line, separates the possibly
low contamination area from the clean Support Zone. Access to
the Contamination Reduction Zone from the Support Zone is through
a control point. Personnel entering there would wear the pre-
scribed personnel protective equipment, if required, for working
in the Contamination Reduction Zone. Entering the Support Zone
requires removal of any protective equipment worn in the Contami-
nation Reduction Zone.
IV. OTHER CONSIDERATIONS
A.	Modifications
The use of a three-zone system, access control points, and exac-
ting decontamination procedures provides a reasonable assurance
against the translocation of contaminating substances. This site
control system is based on a worst case situation. Less string-
ent site control and decontamination procedures may be utilized
if more definitive information is available on the types of
substances involved and hazards they present. This information
can be obtained through air monitoring, instrument survey and
sampling, and technical data concerning the characteristics and
behavior of material present.
B.	Area Dimensions
The distance between the Hotline, Contamination Control Line, and
command post and the size and shape of each zone have to be based
on conditions specific to each site (Figures 6-2 and 6-3). Con-
siderable judgment is needed to assure that the distances between
zone boundaries are large enough to allow room for the necessary
operations, provide adequate distances to prevent the spread of
contaminants, and eliminate the possiblity of injury due to ex-
plosion or fire. Long-term operations would involve developing
reasonable methods (for example, air surveillance, swipe testing,
and visible deterioration) to determine if material is being
transferred between zones and to assist in modifying site bound-
aries.
The following criteria should be considered in establishing area
dimensions and boundaries:
6-5

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-	Physical and topographical features of the site.
-	Weather conditions.
-	Field/laboratory measurements of air contaminants and environ-
mental samples.
-	Air dispersion calculations.
-	Potential for explosion and flying debris.
Physical, chemical, toxlcological , and other characteristics of
the substances present.
-	Cleanup activities required.
-	Potential for fire.
-	Area needed to conduct operations.
-	Decontamination procedures.
-	Potential for exposure.
-	Proximity to residential or industrial areas.
C. Monitoring and Sampling
To verify that site control procedures are preventing the spread
of contamination, a monitoring and sampling program should be
established. The Support Zone should be periodically monitored
for air contaminants using direct-reading instruments and col-
lecting air samples for particulate, gas, or vapor analysis.
Analysis of soil samples collected in the most heavily trafficked
area would indicate contaminants being carried from the Exclusion
Zone by personnel, equipment, or wind. Occassional swipe tests
should be taken in trailers and other areas used by personnel.
These same types of samples should be collected and air monitored
in the Contamination Reduction Zone. Increased concentrations in
air or other environmental media may indicate a breakdown in
control over the Contamination Reduction Corridor, ineffective
decontamination procedures, or failure to restrict site access.
6-6

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r
cn
i
¦^i
CONTAMINATION REDUCTION
ZONE
SUPPORT
ZONE
EXCLUSION ZONE
(LEVEL C)
LEVEL :
B
LEGEND
-LEVEL
B
f><1 ACCESS CONTROL
POINT
W DECONTAMINATION
M STATION
8 ACRE,
EXCLUBION ZONE
NEW HAMPSHIRE WASTE SITE
FIGURE 6-2
V.

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LEGEND
Hiimiit. RAILROAD track
IXI ACCESS CONTROL POINT
XWV DECONTAMINATION STATION
8 1/2 ACRE FENCED EXCLUSION
ZONE
UPPORT,
ZONE y
BUILDINGS
EXCLUSION
ZONE
AGOOI
CONTAMINATION REDUCTION
ZONE
SHOPPING
CENTER
LOCK HAVEN WASTE SITE
FIGURE 6-3

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PART 7
SITE CONTROL - DECONTAMINATION
I. INTRODUCTION
Personnel responding to hazardous substance incidents may become
contaminated in a number of ways including:
-	Contacting vapors, gases, mists, or particulates in the air.
-	Being splashed by materials while sampling or opening containers.
-	Walking through puddles of liquids or on contaminated soil.
-	Using contaminated instruments or equipment.
Protective clothing and respirators help prevent the wearer from
becoming contaminated or inhaling contaminants; while good work
practices help reduce contamination on protective clothing, instru-
ments, and equipment.
Even with these safeguards, contamination may occur. Harmful mate-
rials can be transferred into clean areas, exposing unprotected
personnel. In removing contaminated clothing, personnel may contact
contaminants on the clothing or inhale them. To prevent such occur-
rences, methods to reduce contamination, and decontamination proced-
ures must be developed and established before anyone enters a site
and must continue (modified when necessary) throughout site opera-
tions.
Decontamination consists of physically removing contaminants or
changing their chemical nature to innocuous substances. How extensive
decontamination must be depends on a number of factors, the most
important being the type of contaminants involved. The more harmful
the contaminant, the more extensive and thorough decontamination must
be. Less harmful contaminants may require less decontamination.
Combining decontamination, the correct method of doffing personnel
protective equpment, and the use of site work zones minimizes cross-
contaminati on from protective clothing to wearer, equipment to
personnel, and one area to another. Only general guidance can be
given on methods and techniques for decontamination. The exact
procedure to use must be determined after evaluating a number of
factors specific to the incident.
II. PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
A. Initial Planning
The initial decontamination plan assumes all personnel and equip-
ment leaving the Exclusion Zone (area of potential contamination)
7-1

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are grossly contaminated. A system is then set up for personnel
decontamination to wash and rinse, at least once, all the pro-
tective equipment worn. This is done in combination with a
sequential doffing of protective equipment, starting at the first
station with the most heavily contaminated item and progressing
to the last station with the least contaminated article. Each
piece precedure requires a separate station.
The spread of contaminants during the washing/doffing process is
further reduced by separating each decontamination station by a
minimum of 3 feet. Ideally, contamination should decrease as a
person moves from one station to another further along in the
1 ine.
While planning site operations, methods should be developed to
prevent the contamination of people and equipment. For example,
using remote sampling techniques, not opening containers by hand,
bagging monitoring instruments, using drum grapplers, watering
down dusty areas, and not walking through areas of obvious con-
tamination would reduce the probability of becoming contaminated
and require a less elaborate decontamination procedure.
The initial decontamination plan is based on a worst-case situ-
ation or assumes no information is available about the incident.
Specific conditions at the site are then evaluated, including:
-	Type of contaminant.
-	The amount of contamination.
-	Levels of protection required.
-	Type of protective clothing worn.
The initial decontamination plan is modified, eliminating unneces-
sary stations or otherwise adapting it to site conditions. For
instance, the initial plan might require a complete wash and
rinse of chemical protective garments. If disposable garments
are worn, the wash/rinse step could be omitted. Wearing dis-
posable boot covers and gloves could eliminate washing and
rinsing these items and reduce the number of stations needed.
B. Contamination Reduction Corridor
An area within the Contamination Reduction Zone is designated the
Contamination Reduction Corridor (CRC). The CRC controls access
into and out of the Exclusion Zone and confines decontamination
activities to a limited area. The size of the corridor depends
on the number of stations in the decontamination procedure,
7-2

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EXCLUSION
ZONE
I HEAVY EQUIPMENT
I DECONTAMINATION
|	AREA
EXIT
PATH
CONTAMINATION
REDUCTION
ZONE
< 2 o
2 H O
a in a
< M ,
— |_U -J
xo =
^ £
LEGEND
HOTLINE
CONTAMINATION
CONTROL LINE
ACCESS CONTROL
POINT - EXTRANCE
ACCESS CONTROL
POINT - EXIT
DRESSOUT i
AREA '
REDRESS
AREA
SUPPORT
ZONE
ENTRY
PATH
CONTAMINATION REDUCTION ZONE LAYOUT
FIGURE 7-1

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overall dimensions of work control zones, and amount of space
available at the site. A corridor of 75 feet by 15 feet should
be adequate for full decontamination. Whenever possible, it
should be a straight path.
The CRC boundaries should be conspicuously marked, with entry and
exit restricted. The far end is the hotline - the boundary
between the Exclusion Zone and the Contamination Reduction Zone.
Personnel exiting the Exclusion Zone must go through' the CRC.
Anyone in the CRC should be wearing the Level of Protection
designated for the decontamination crew. Another corridor may be
required for heavy equipment needing decontamination. Within the
CRC, distinct areas are set aside for decontamination of person-
nel, portable field equipment, removed clothing, etc. These
areas should be marked and personnel restricted to those wearing
the appropriate Level of Protection. All activities within the
corridor are confined to decontamination.
Personnel protective clothing, respirators, monitoring equipment,
and sampling supplies are all maintained outside 'of the CRC.
Personnel don their protective equipment away from the CRC and
enter the Exclusion Zone through a separate access control point
at the hotline.
XTENT OF DECONTAMINATION REQUIRED
. Modifications of Initial Plan
The original decontamination plan must be adapted to specific
conditions found at incidents. These conditions may require more
or less personnel decontamination than planned, depending on a
number of factors.
1.	Type of Contaminant
The extent of personnel decontamination depends on the effects
the contaminants have on the body. Contaminants do not ex-
hibit the same degree of toxicity (or other hazard). When-
ever it is known or suspected that personnel can become
contaminated with highly toxic or skin-destructive substances,
a full decontamination procedure should be followed. If less
hazardous materials are involved, the procedure can be down-
graded.
2.	Amount of Contamination
The amount of contamination on protective clothing is usually
determined visually. If it is badly contaminated, a thorough
decontamination is generally required. Gross material remain-
ing on the protective clothing for any extended period of
time may degrade or permeate it. This likelihood increases
7-4

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with higher air concentrations and greater amounts of liquid
contamination. Gross contamination also increases the proba-
bility of personnel contact. Swipe tests may help determine
the type and quantity of surface contaminants.
3.	Level of Protection
The Level of Protection and specific pieces of clothing worn
determine on a preliminary basis the layout of the decontamin-
ation line. Each Level of Protection incorporates different
problems in decontamination and doffing of the equipment. For
example: decontamination of the harness straps and backpack
assembly of the self-contained breathing apparatus is "dif-
ficult. A butyl rubber apron worn over the harness makes
decontamination easier. Clothing variations and different
Levels of Protection may require adding or deleting stations
in the original decontamination procedure.
4.	Work Function
The work each person does determines the potential for contact
with hazardous materials. In turn, this dictates the layout
of the decontamination line. For example, observers, photo-
graphers', operators of air samplers, or others in the Ex-
clusion Zone performing tasks that will not bring them in
contact with contaminants may not need to have their garments
washed and rinsed. Others in the Exclusion Zone with a
potential for direct contact with the hazardous material will
require more thorough decontamination. Different decontamin-
ation lines could be set up for different job functions, or
certain stations in a line could be omitted for personnel
performing certain tasks.
5.	Location of Contamination
Contamination on the upper areas of protective clothing poses
a greater risk to the worker because volatile compounds may
generate a hazardous breathing concentration both for the
worker and for the decontamination personnel. There is also
an increased probability of contact with skin when doffing
the upper part of clothing.
6.	Reason for Leaving Site
The reason for leaving the Exclusion Zone also determines the
need and extent of decontamination. A worker leaving the
Exclusion Zone to pick up or drop off tools or instruments
and immediately returning may not require decontamination. A
worker leaving to get a new air cylinder or to change a
respirator or canister, however, may require some degree of
decontamination. Individuals departing the CRC for a break,
lunch, or at the end of day, must be thoroughly decontaminated.
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B.	Effectiveness of Decontamination
There is no method to immediately determine how effective decon-
tamination is in removing contaminants. Discolorations, stains,
corrosive effects, and substances adhering to objects may in-
dicate contaminants have not been removed. However, observable
effects only indicate surface contamination and not permeation
(absorption) into clothing. Also many contaminants are not
easily observed.
A method for determining effectiveness of surface decontamination
is swipe testing. Cloth or paper patches - swipes - are wiped
over predetermined surfaces of the suspect object and analyzed in
a laboratory. Both the inner and outer surfaces of protective
clothing should be swipe tested. Positive indications of both
sets of swipes would indicate surface contamination has not been
removed and substances have penetrated or permeated through the
garment. Swipe tests can also be done on skin or inside clothing.
Permeation of protective garments requires laboratory analysis of
a piece of the material. Both swipe and permeation testing
provide after-the-fact information. Along with visual obser-
vations, results of these tests can help evaluate the effec-
tiveness of decontamination.
C.	Equipment
Decontamination equipment, materials, and supplies are generally
selected based on availability. Other considerations are ease of
equipment decontamination or disposabi1ity. Most equipment and
supplies can be easily procured. For example, soft-bristle scrub
brushes or long-handle brushes are used to remove contaminants.
Water in buckets or garden sprayers is used for rinsing. Large
galvanized wash tubs or stock tanks can hold wash and rinse
solutions. Children's wading pools can also be used. Large
plastic garbage cans or other similar containers lined with
plastic bags store contaminated clothing and equipment. Contam-
inated liquids can be stored temporarily in metal or plastic cans
or drums. Other gear includes paper or cloth towels for drying
protective clothing and equipment.
D.	Decontamination Solution
Personnel protective equipment, sampling tools, and other equip-
ment are usually decontaminated by scrubbing with detergent-water
using a soft-bristle brush followed by rinsing with copious
amounts of water. While this process may not be fully effective
in removing some contaminants (or in a few cases, contaminants
may react with water), it is a relatively safe option compared
with using a chemical decontaminating solution. This requires
that the contaminant be identified. A decon chemical is then
needed that will change the contaminant into a less harmful
substance. Especially troublesome are unknown substances or
7-6

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mixtures from a variety of known or unknown substances. The
appropriate decontamination solution must be selected in consul-
tation with an experienced chemist.
E. Establishment of Procedures
Once decontamination procedures have been established, all person-
nel requiring decontamination must be given precise instructions
(and practice, if necessary). Compliance must be frequently
checked. The time it takes for decontamination must be ascer-
tained. Personnel wearing SCBA's must leave their work area with
sufficient air to walk to CRC and go through decontamination.
DECONTAMINATION DURING MEDICAL EMERGENCIES
A.	Basic Considerations
Part of overall planning for incident response is managing medical
emergencies. The plan should provide for:
-	Response team members fully trained in first aid and CPR.
-	Arrangements with the nearest medical facility for transporta-
tion and treatment of injured, and for treatment of personnel
suffering from exposure to chemicals.
-	Consultation services with a toxicologist.
-	Emergency eye washes, showers, and/or wash stations.
-	First aid kits, blankets, stretcher, and resuscitator.
In addition, the plan should establish methods for decontaminating
personnel with medical problems and injuries. There is the
possibility that the decontamination may aggravate or cause more
serious health effects. If prompt life-saving first aid and
medical treatment is required, decontamination procedures should
be omitted. Whenever possible, response personnel should accom-
pany contaminated victims to the medical facility to advise on
matters involving decontamination.
B.	Physical Injury
Physical injuries can range from a sprained ankle to a compound
fracture, from a minor cut to massive bleeding. Depending on the
seriousness of the injury, treatment may be given at the site by
trained response personnel. For more serious injuries, additional
assistance may be required at the site or the victim may have to
be treated at a medical facility.
7-7

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Life-saving care should be instituted immediately without consid-
ering decontamination. The outside garments can be removed
(depending on the weather) if they do not cause delays, interfere
with treatment, or aggravate the problem. Respirators and back-
pack assemblies must always be removed. Fully encapsulating
suits or chemical-res1 stant clothing can be cut away. If the
outer contaminated garments cannot be safely removed, the Individ-
ual should be wrapped in plastic, rubber, or blankets to help
prevent contaminating the inside of ambulances and medical person-
nel. Outside garments are then removed at the medical facility.
No attempt should be made to wash or rinse the victim at the
site. One exception would be if 1t is known that the individual
has been contaminated with an extremely toxic or corrosive
material which could also cause severe Injury or loss of life.
For minor medical problems or injuries, the normal decontamination
procedure should be followed.
C. Heat Stress
Heat-related Illnesses range from heat fatigue to heat stroke,
the most serious. Heat stroke requires prompt treatment to
prevent irreversible damage or death. Protective clothing may
have to be cut off. Less serious forms of heat stress require
prompt attention or they may lead to a heat stroke. Unless the
victim is obviously contaminated, decontamination should be
omitted or minimized and treatment begun immediately.
0. Chemical Exposure
Exposure to chemicals can be divided into two categories:
Injuries from direct contact, such as acid burns or inhalation
of toxic chemicals.
- Potential injury due to gross contamination on clothing or
equipment.
For inhaled contaminants treatment can only be by qualified
physicians. If the contaminant is on the skin or in the eyes,
immediate measures must be taken to counteract the substance's
effect. First aid treatment usually is flooding the affected
area with water; however, for a few chemicals, water may cause
more severe problems.
When protective clothing is grossly contaminated, contaminants
may be transferred to treatment personnel or the wearer and
cause injuries. Unless severe medical problems have occurred
simultaneously with splashes, the protective clothing should be
washed off as rapidly as possible and carefully removed.
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V. PROTECTION FOR DECONTAMINATION WORKERS
The Level of Protection worn by decontamination workers is determined
by:
-	Expected or visible contamination on workers.
-	Type of contaminant and associated respiratory and skin hazards.
-	Total vapor/gas concentrations in the contamination reduction
corridor.
-	Particulates and specific inorganic or organic vapors in the CRC.
-	Results of swipe tests.
A.	Level C Use
Level C includes a full-face, canister-type air-purifying
respirator, hard hat with face shield (if splash is a problem),
chemical-resistant boots and gloves, and protective clothing.
The body covering recommended is chemical-resistant overalls with
an apron, or chemical-resistant overalls and jacket.
A face shield is recommended to protect against splashes because
respirators alone may not provide this protection. The respirator
should have a canister approved for filtering any specific known
contaminants such as ammonia, organic vapors, acid gases, and
particulates.
B.	Level B Use
In situations where site workers may be contaminated with un-
knowns, highly volatile liquids, or highly toxic materials,
decontamination workers should wear Level B protection.
Level B protection includes SCBA, hard hat with face shield,
chemical-resistant gloves, and protective covering. The clothing
suggested is chemical-resistant overalls, jacket, and a rubber
apron. The rubber apron protects the SCBA harness assembly and
regulator from becoming contaminated.
VI. DECONTAMINATION OF EQUIPMENT
Insofar as possible, measures should be taken to prevent contamination
of sampling and monitoring equipment. Sampling devices become con-
taminated, but monitoring instruments, unless they are splashed,
usually do not. Once contaminated, instruments are difficult to
clean without damaging them. Any delicate instrument which cannot be
easily decontaminated should be protected while it is being used. It
7-9

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should be placed in a clear plastic bag, and the bag taped and secured
around the instrument. Openings are made in the bag for sample
intake.
A.	Decontamination Procedures
1.	Sampling devices
Sampling devices require special cleaning. The EPA Regional
Laboratories can provide information on proper decontamination
methods.
2.	Tools
Wooden tools are difficult to decontaminate because they
absorb chemicals. They should be kept on site and handled
only by protected workers. At the end of the response,
wooden tools should be discarded. For decontaminating
other tools, Regional Laboratories should be consulted.
3.	Respirators
Certain parts of contaminated respirators, such as the harness
assembly and leather or cloth components, are difficult to
decontaminate. If grossly contaminated, they may have to be
discarded. Rubber components can be soaked in soap and water
and scrubbed with a brush. Regulators must be maintained
according to manufacturer's recommendations. Persons respon-
sible for decontaminating respirators should be thoroughly
trained in respirator maintenance.
4.	Heavy Equipment
Bulldozers, trucks, back-hoes, bulking chambers, and other
heavy equipment are difficult to decontaminate. The method
generally used is to wash them with water under high pressure
and/or to scrub accessible parts with detergent/water solution
under pressure, if possible. In some cases, shovels, scoops,
and lifts have been sand blasted or steam cleaned. Particular
care must be given to those components in direct contact with
contaminants such as tires and scoops. Swipe tests should be
utilized to measure effectiveness.
B.	Sanitizing of Personnel Protective Equipment
Respirators, reusable protective clothing, and other personal
articles not only must be decontaminated before being reused, but
also sanitized. The inside of masks and clothing becomes soiled
due to exhalation, body oils, and perspiration. The manufac-
turer's instructions should be used to sanitize the respirator
mask. If practical, protective clothing should be machine washed
after a thorough decontamination; otherwise it must be cleaned by
hand.
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C.	Persistent Contamination
In some instances, clothing and equipment will become contamin-
anted with substances that cannot be removed by normal decontamin-
ation procedures. A solvent may be used to remove such contamin-
ation from equipment if it does not destroy or degrade the pro-
tective material. If persistent contamination is expected,
disposable garments should be used. Testing for persistent
contamination of protective clothing and appropriate decon-
tamination must be done by qualified laboratory personnel.
D.	Disposal of Contaminated Materials
All materials and equipment used for decontamination must be
disposed of properly. Clothing, tools, buckets, brushes, and
all other equipment that is contaminated must be secured in drums
or other containers and labeled. Clothing not completely decon-
taminated on-site should be secured in plastic bags before being
removed from the site.
Contaminated wash and rinse solutions should be contained by
using step-in-containers (for example, child's wading pool) to
hold spent solutions. Another containment method is to dig a
trench about 4 inches deep and line it with plastic. In both
cases the spent solutions are transferred to drums, which are
labeled and disposed of with other substances on site.
ANNEXES
Annex 1, 2, and 3 describe basic decontamination procedures for a
worker wearing Level A, B, or C protection. The basic decontamination
lines (Situation 1), consisting of approximately 19 stations, are
almost identical except for changes necessitated by different pro-
tective clothing or respirators. For each annex, three specific
situations are described in which the basic (or full decontamination)
procedure is changed to take into account differences in the extent
of contamination, the accompanying changes in equipment worn, and
other factors. The situations illustrate decontamination setups
based on known or assumed conditions at an incident. Many other
variations are possible.
Annex 4 describes a minimum layout for Level A personnel decontamin-
ation. The number of individual stations have been reduced. Although
the decontamination equipment and amount of space required is less
than needed in the procedures previously described, there is also a
much higher probability of cross-contamination.
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ANNEX 1
LEVEL A DECONTAMINATION
A. EQUIPMENT WORN
The full decontamination procedure outlined is for workers wearing
Level A protection (with taped joints between gloves, boots, and
suit) consisting of:
-	Fully encapsulating suit.
-	Self-contained breathing apparatus.
-	Hard hat (optional).
-	Chemical-resistant, steel toe and shank boots.
-	Boot covers.
-	Inner and outer gloves.
B. PROCEDURE FOR FULL DECONTAMINATION
Station 1: Segregated Equipment Drop
Deposit equipment used on-site (tools, sampling devices and containers,
monitoring instruments, radios, clipboards, etc.) on plastic drop
cloths or in different containers with plastic liners. Each will be
contaminated to a different degree. Segregation at the drop reduces
the probability of cross-contamination.
Equipment: various size containers
plastic liners
plastic drop cloths
Station 2: Boot Cover and Glove Wash
Scrub outer boot covers and gloves with decon solution or detergent/
water.
Equipment: container (20-30 gallons)
decon solution
or
detergent water
2-3 long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brushes
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Station 3: Boot Cover and Glove Rinse
Rinse off decon solution from Station 2 using copious amounts of
water. Repeat as many times as necessary.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
or
high-pressure spray unit
water
2-3 long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brushes
Station 4: Tape Removal
Remove tape around boots and gloves and deposit in container with
plastic liner.
Equipment: container (20-30 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 5: Boot Cover Removal
Remove boot covers and deposit in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
bench or stool
Station 6: Outer Glove Removal
Remove outer gloves and deposit in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (20-30 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 7: Suit/Safety Boot Wash
Thoroughly wash fully encapsulating suit and boots. Scrub suit
and boots with long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brush and copious
amounts of decon solution or detergent/water. Repeat as many
times as necessary.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
decon solution
or
detergent/water
2-3 long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brushes
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Station 8: Suit/Safety Boot Rinse
Rinse off decon solution or detergent/water using copious amounts
of water. Repeat as many times as necessary.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
or
high-pressure spray unit
water
2-3 long handle, soft-bristle scrub brushes
Station 9: Tank Change
If worker leaves Exclusion Zone to change air tank, this is the
last step in the decontamination procedure. Worker's air tank is
exchanged, new outer gloves and boots covers donned, and joints
taped. Worker then returns to duty.
Equipment: ai r tanks
tape
boot covers
gloves
Station 10: Safety Boot Removal
Remove safety boots and deposit in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
bench or stool
boot jack
Station 11: Fully Encapsulating Suit and Hard Hat Removal
With assistance of helper, remove fully encapsulating suit (and
hard hat). Hang suits on rack or lay out on drop cloths.
Equipment: rack
drop cloths
bench or stool
Station 12: SCBA Backpack Removal
While still wearing facepiece, remove backpack and place on table.
Disconnect hose from regulator valve and proceed to next station.
Equipment: table
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Station 13: Inner Glove Wash
Wash with decon solution or detergent/water that will not harm
skin. Repeat as many times as necessary.
Equipment: basin or bucket
decon solution
or
detergent/water
small table
Station 14: Inner Glove Rinse
Rinse with water. Repeat as many times as necessary.
Equipment: water basin
basin or bucket
small table
Station 15: Facepiece Removal
Remove facepiece. Deposit in container with plastic liner. Avoid
touching face with fingers.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 16: Inner Glove Removal
Remove inner gloves and deposit in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (20-30 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 17: Inner Clothing Removal
Remove clothing soaked with perspiration. Place in container with
plastic liner. Inner clothing should be removed as soon as possible
since there is a possibility that small amounts of contaminants might
have been transferred in removing fully encapsulating suit.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 18: Field Wash
Shower if highly toxic, skin-corrosive or skin-absorbable materials
are known or suspected to be present. Wash hands and face if shower
is not available.
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Equipment: water
soap
small table
basin or bucket
field showers
towels
Station 19: Redress
Put on clean clothes. A dressing trailer is needed in inclement weather.
Equipment: tables
chai rs
lockers
clothes
C. FULL DECONTAMINATION (SIT. 1) AND THREE MODIFICATIONS
S
1







STATION
NUMBER








T
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
2
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X










3
X





X
X

X
X
X


X
X
X
X

4
X





X
X
X










Situation 1: The individual entering the Contamination Reduction
Corridor is observed to be grossly contaminated or extremely toxic
substances are known or suspected to be present.
Situation 2: Same as Situation 1 except individual needs new air tank
and wi11 return to Exclusion Zone.
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Situation 3: Individual entering the CRC is expected to be minimally
contaminated. Extremely toxic or skin-corrosive materials are.not
present. No outer gloves or boot covers are worn. Inner gloves are
not contaminated.
Situation 4: Same as Situation 3 except individual needs new air tank
and wi11 return to Exclusion Zone.
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ANNEX 2
LEVEL B DECONTAMINATION
A.	EQUIPMENT WORN
The full decontamination procedure outlined is for workers wearing
Level B protection (with taped joints between gloves, boot, and suit)
consisting of:
-	One-piece, hooded, chemical-resistant splash suit.
-	Self-contained breathing apparatus.
-	Hard hat.
-	Chemical-resistant, steel toe and shank boots.
-	Boot covers
-	Inner and outer gloves.
B.	PROCEDURE FOR FULL DECONTAMINATION
Station 1: Segregated Equipment Drop
Deposit equipment used on-site (tools, sampling devices and containers,
monitoring instruments, radios, clipboards, etc.) on plastic drop
cloths or in different containers with plastic liners. Each will be
contaminated to a different degree. Segregation at the drop reduces
the probability of cross-contamination.
Equipment: various size containers
plastic liners
plastic drop cloths
Station 2: Boot Cover and Glove Wash
Scrub outer boot covers and gloves with decon solution or detergent/
water.
Equipment: container (20-30 gallons)
decon solution
or
detergent water
2-3 long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brushes
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Station 3: Boot Cover and Glove Rinse
Rinse off decon solution from Station 2 using copious amounts of
water. Repeat as many times as necessary.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
or
high-pressure spray unit
water
2-3 long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brushes
Station 4: Tape Removal
Remove tape around boots and gloves and deposit in container with
plastic liner.
Equipment: container (20-30 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 5: Boot Cover Removal
Remove boot covers and deposit in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
bench or stool
Station 6: Outer Glove Removal
Remove outer gloves and deposit in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (20-30 gallons
plastic liners
Station 7: Suit/Safety Boot Wash
Thoroughly wash chemical-resistant splash suit, SCBA, gloves, and
safety boots. Scrub with long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brush
and copious amounts of decon solution or detergent/water. Wrap
SCBA regulator (if belt-mounted type) with plastic to keep out
water. Wash backpack assembly with sponges or cloths.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
decon solution
or
detergent/water
2-3 long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brushes
small buckets
sponges or cloths
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Station 8: Suit/SCBA/Boot/Glove Rinse
Rinse off decon solution or detergent/water using copious amounts
of water. Repeat as many times as necessary.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
or
high-pressure spray unit
water
small buckets
2-3 long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brushes
sponges or cloths
Station 9: Tank Change
If worker leaves Exclusion Zone to change air tank, this is the last
step in the decontamination procedure. Worker's air tank is
exchanged, new outer gloves and boots covers donned, and joints
taped. Worker returns to duty.
Equipment: air tanks
tape
boot covers
gloves
Station 10: Safety Boot Removal
Remove safety boots and deposit in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
bench or stool
boot jack
Station 11: SCBA Backpack Removal
While still wearing facepiece, remove backpack and place on table.
Disconnect hose from regulator valve and proceed to next station.
Equipment: table
Station 12: Splash Suit Removal
With assistance of helper, remove splash suit. Deposit in container
with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
bench or stool
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Station 13: Inner Glove Wash
Wash inner gloves with decon solution or detergent/water that will
not harm skin. Repeat as many times as necessary.
Equipment: decon solution
or
detergent/water
basin or bucket
small table
Station 14: Inner Glove Rinse
Rinse inner gloves with water. Repeat as many times as necessary.
Equipment: water
basin or bucket
small table
Station 15: Facepiece Removal
Remove facepiece. Avoid touching face with gloves. Deposit in
container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 16: Inner Glove Removal
Remove inner gloves and deposit in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (20-30 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 17: Inner Clothing Removal
Remove clothing soaked with perspiration. Place in container with
plastic liner. Do not wear inner clothing off-site since there is
a possibility small amounts of contaminants might have been
transferred in removing fully encapsulating suit.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 18: Field Wash
Shower if highly toxic, skin-corrosive, or skin-absorbable materials
are known or suspected to be present. Wash hands and face if shower
is not available.
A2-4

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Equipment: water
soap
small tables
basins or buckets
field showers
Station 19: Redress
Put on clean clothes. A dressing trailer is needed in inclement
weather.
Equipment: tables
chai rs
lockers
clothes
C. FULL DECONTAMINATION (SIT. 1) AND THREE MODIFICATIONS
s
I







STATION
NUMBER








T
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
2
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X










3
X





X
X

X
X
X


X
X
X
X
X
4
X





X
X
X










Situation 1: The individual entering the Contamination Reduction
Corridor is observed to be grossly contaminated or extremely toxic
substances are known or suspected to be present.
Situation 2: Same as Situation 1 except individual needs new air tank
and will return to Exclusion Zone.
A2-5

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Situation 3: Individual entering the CRC is expected to be minimally
contaminated. Extremely toxic or skin-corrosive materials are not
present No outer gloves or boot covers are worn. Inner gloves are
not contaminated.
Situation 4: Same as Situation 3 except individual needs new air tank
and wi11 return to Exclusion Zone.
A2-6

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ANNEX 3
LEVEL C DECONTAMINATION
A.	EQUIPMENT WORN
The full decontamination procedure outlined is for workers wearing
Level C protection (with taped joints between gloves, boots, and
suit) consisting of:
-	One-piece, hooded, chemical-resistant splash suit.
-	Canister equipped, full-face mask.
-	Hard hat.
-	Chemical-resistant, steel toe and shank boots.
-	Boot covers.
-	Inner and outer gloves.
B.	PROCEDURE FOR FULL DECONTAMINATION
Station 1: Segregated Equipment Drop
Deposit equipment used on-site (tools, sampling devices and containers,
monitoring instruments, radios, clipboards, etc.) on plastic drop
cloths or in different containers with plastic liners. Each will be
contaminated to a different degree. Segregation at the drop reduces
the probability of cross-contamination.
Equipment: various size containers
plastic liners
plastic drop cloths
Station 2: Boot Cover and Glove Wash
Scrub outer boot covers and gloves with decon solution or detergent/
water.
Equipment: container (20-30 gallons)
decon solution
or
detergent water
2-3 long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brushes
A3-1

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Station 3: Boot Cover and Glove Rinse
Rinse off decon solution from Station 2 using copious amounts of
water. Repeat as many times as necessary.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
or
high-pressure spray unit
water
2-3 long-handle, soft bristle scrub brushes
Station 4: Tape Removal
Remove tape around boots and gloves and deposit in container with
plastic liner.
Equipment: container (20-30 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 5: Boot Cover Removal
Remove boot covers and deposit in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
bench or stool
Station 6: Outer Glove Removal
Remove outer gloves and deposit in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (20-30 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 7: Suit/Safety Boot Wash
Thoroughly wash splash suit and safety boots. Scrub with long-
handle, soft-bristle scrub brush and copious amounts of decon
solution or detergent/water. Repeat as many times as necessary.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
decon solution
or
detergent/water
2-3 long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brushes
Station 8: Suit/Safety Boot Rinse
A3-2

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Rinse off decon solution or detergent/water using copious amounts
of water. Repeat as many times as necessary.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
or
high-pressure spray unit
water
2-3 long-handle, soft-bristle scrub brushes
Station 9: Canister or Mask Change
If worker leaves Exclusion Zone to change canister (or mask), this
is the last step in the decontamination procedure. Worker's canister
is exchanged, new outer gloves and boots covers donned, and joints
taped. Worker returns to duty.
Equipment: canister . (or mask)
tape
boot covers
gloves
Station 10: Safety Boot Removal
Remove safety boots and deposit in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
bench or stool
boot jack
Station 11: Splash Suit Removal
With assistance of helper, remove splash suit. Deposit in container
with plastic 1iner.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
bench or stool
1 iner
Station 12: Inner Glove Wash
Wash inner gloves with decon solution or detergent/water that will
not harm skin. Repeat as many times as necessary.
Equipment: decon solution
or
detergent/water
basin or bucket
A3-3

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Station 13: Inner Glove Rinse
Rinse inner gloves with water. Repeat as many times as necessary.
Equipment: water.
basin or bucket
small table
Station 14: Facepiece Removal
Remove facepiece. Avoid touching face with gloves. Deposit
facepiece in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 15: Inner Glove Removal
Remove inner gloves and deposit in container with plastic liner.
Equipment: container (20-30 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 16: Inner Clothing Removal
Remove clothing soaked with perspiration. Place in container with
plastic liner. Do not wear inner clothing off-site since there is
a possibility small amounts of contaminants might have been
transferred in removing splash suite.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
Station 17: Field Wash
Shower if highly toxic, skin-corrosive or skin-absorbable materials
are known or suspected to be present. Wash hands and face if shower
is not available.
Equipment: water
soap
tables
wash basins/buckets
field showers
Station 18: Redress
Put on clean clothes. A dressing trailer is needed in inclement weather.
A3-4

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Equipment: tables
chai rs
1ockers
clothes
C. FULL DECONTAMINATION (SIT. 1) AND THREE MODIFICATIONS
s
I







STATION
NUMBER







T
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
1
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
2
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X









3
X





X
X

X
X


X
X
X
X

4
X





X
X
X









Situation 1: The individual entering the Contamination Reduction Corridor
is observed to be grossly contaminated or extremely skin corrosive substances
are known or suspected to be present.
Situation 2: Same as Situation 1 except individual needs new canister or
mask and will return to Exclusion Zone.
Situation 3: Individual entering the CRC is expected to be minimally
contaminated. Extremely skin-corrosive materials are not present. No
outer gloves or boot covers are worn. Inner gloves are not contaminated.
Situation 4: Same as Situation 3 except individual needs new canister or
mask and wi11 return to Exclusion Zone.
A3-5

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ANNEX 4
LEVEL A DECONTAMINATION, MINIMUM LAYOUT
A. EQUIPMENT WORN
The decontamination procedure outlined is for workers wearing Level A
protection (with taped joints between gloves, boots, and suit) consisting
of:
-	Fully encapsulating suit with integral boots and gloves.
-	Self-contained breathing apparatus.
-	Hard hat (optional).
-	Chemical-resistant, steel toe and shank boots.
-	Boot covers.
-	Inner and outer gloves.
B. PROCEDURE FOR FULL DECONTAMINATION
Station 1: Segregated Equipment Drop
Deposit equipment used on-site (tools, sampling devices and containers,
monitoring instruments, radios, clipboards, etc.) on plastic drop
cloths or in different containers with plastic liners. Each will be
contaminated to a different degree. Segregation at the drop reduces
the probability of cross-contamination.
Equipment: various size containers
plastic liners
plastic drop clothes
Station 2: Outer Garment, Boots, and Gloves Wash and Rinse
Scrub outer boots, outer gloves, and fully-encapsulating suit with
decon solution or detergent water. Rinse off using copious amounts
of water.
Equipment: containers (30-50 gallons)
decon solution
or
detergent water
A4-1

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rinse water
2-3 long-handle, soft-.bristle scrub brushes
Station 3: Outer Boot and- Glove Removal
Remove outer boots and gloves. Deposit in container with plastic
1i ner.
Equipment: container (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
bench or stool
Station 4: Tank Change
If worker leaves Exclusion Zone to change air tank, this is the last
step in the decontamination procedure. Worker's air tank is exchanged,
new outer gloves and boot covers donned, joints taped, and worker
returns to-duty.
Equi pment: ai r tanks
tape
boot covers
gloves
Station 5: Boot, Gloves, and Outer Garment Removal
Boots, fully-encapsulating suit, and inner gloves removed and deposited
in separate containers lined with plastic.
Equipment: containers (30-50 gallons)
plastic liners
bench or stool
Station 6: SCBA Removal
SCBA backpack and facepiece is removed. Hands and face are thoroughly
washed. SCBA deposited on plastic sheets.
Equipment: plastic sheets
basin or bucket
soap and towels
bench
Station 7: Field Wash
Thoroughly wash hands and face. Shower as soon a.s possible.
A4-2

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Equipment: water
soap
tables
wash basin/bucket
A4-3

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PART 8
AIR SURVEILLANCE
I. INTRODUCTION
Accidents involving hazardous materials or remedial actions at aban-
doned waste sites can release a variety of substances into the air.
Chemical fires, transportation accidents, open or leaking containers,
wind-blown dust, and site cleanup activities produce emissions which
can rapidly affect the health and safety of response workers and the
public. Hazardous atmospheres can involve:
-	Flammable or explosive vapors, gases, and aerosols (explosive
atmosphere).
-	Displacement of breathable air (oxygen-deficient atmosphere).
-	Radioactive materials (radioactive environment).
-	Toxic vapors, gases, and aerosols (toxic atmosphere).
The presence of one or more of these hazards determines subsequent
actions to protect people or the environment, operations to mitigate
the incident, and safety considerations for response workers.
Airborne hazards can be predicted if the substance involved, its
chemical and physical properties, and weather conditions are known.
But air surveillance is necessary to confirm predictions, to identify
or measure contaminants, or to detect unknown air pollutants.
This part provides guidance primarily on longer-term air sampling for
toxic substances. Information is given in Part 4, Initial Site Entry-
Survey and Reconnaissance, regarding initial determination of airborne
hazards.
II. OBJECTIVE OF AIR SURVEILLANCE
Air surveillance consists of air monitoring (using direct-reading
instruments capable of providing real-time indications of air
contaminants) and air sampling (collecting air on an appropriate
media or in a suitable sampling container followed by analysis).
The objective of air surveillance during response is to determine the
type of chemical compound (and associated hazard) and quantity of
airborne contaminants on-site and off-site and changes in air contami-
nants that occur over the lifetime of the incident.
8-1

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The data obtained are used to help establish criteria for worker
safety, document potential exposures, determine protective measures
for the public, evaluate the environmental impact of the incident,
and determine mitigation activities. To accomplish this requires
establishing an effective air surveillance program, tailored to meet
the conditions generated by each incident.
TYPES OF INCIDENTS
As part of initial hazard evaluation, direct-reading instruments
(DRIs), visible indicators (signs, labels, placards, type of con-
tainer, etc.), and other information (manifests, consists, inven-
tories, Agency records, etc.) are used to evaluate the presence or
potential for air contaminant release. Limited air sampling may also
be conducted if time is available. Based on an assessment of this
preliminary information, a more comprehensive air surveillance
strategy is developed and implemented.
Two general types of incidents are encountered:
-	Environmental emergencies, including chemical fires, spills, or
other releases of hazardous materials which occur over a rela-
tively short period of time. Since contaminants may be released
rapidly, there may be no time for air surveillance. In incidents
where the released material can be quickly identified (and suffi-
cient time is available), direct-reading, hand-held monitoring
instruments can be used to provide information on some types of
hazards. Air sampling generally is limited unless the release
continues long enough for appropriate equipment to be brought in.
-	Longer-term cleanup, including planned removals and remedial
actions at abandoned waste sites as well as restoration after
emergency problems have been controlled. During this period,
especially at waste sites, workers and the public may be exposed
to a wide variety of airborne materials over a much longer period
of time. Since cleanup activities require more time (and planning)
to accomplish, appropriate equipment for air monitoring and samp-
ling can be secured, and an air surveillance program established.
GENERAL SURVEILLANCE METHODS
During site operations, data are needed about air contaminants and any
changes that may occur. Surveillance for vapors, gases, and parti-
culates is done using DRIs and air sampling systems. DRIs can be
used to detect many organics and a few inorganics and provide approxi-
mate total concentrations. If specific organics (and inorganics)
have been identified, then DRIs, calibrated to those materials,
can be used for more accurate on-site assessment. In many instances
8-2

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however, only air sampling (and laboratory analysis) can be used for
detection and quantification.
The most accurate method for evaluating any air contaminant is to
collect samples and analyze them at a reliable laboratory. Although
accurate, this method has two disadvantages: cost and the time re-
quired to obtain results. Analyzing large numbers of samples in
laboratories is very expensive, especially if results are wanted
quickly. On-site laboratories tend to reduce the turn-around time,
but unless they can analyze other types of samples, they also are
costly. In emergencies, time is often not available for laboratory
analysis of samples either on-site or off-site.
To obtain air monitoring data rapidly at the site, instruments uti-
lizing flame ionization detectors (FIDs) photoionization detectors
(PIDs) and other similar instruments can be used. These may be used
as survey instruments (total concentration mode) or operated as gas
chromatographs (gas chromatograph mode). As gas chromatographs,
these instruments can provide real-time, qualitative/quantative data
when calibrated with standards of known air contaminants. Combined
with selective laboratory analysis of samples, they provide a tool
for evaluating airborne organic hazards on a realtime basis, at a
lower cost than analyzing all samples in a laboratory. An example of
an air surveillance program used by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency's Environmental Response Team is contained in Annex 5.
V. AIR SAMPLING
For more complete information about air contaminants, measurements
obtained with DRIs must be supplemented by collecting and analyzing
air samples. To assess air contaminants more thoroughly, air sampling
devices equipped with appropriate collection media are placed at var-
ious locations throughout the area. These samples provide air quality
information for the period of time they operate, and can indicate con-
taminant types and concentrations over the lifetime of site operations.
As data are obtained (from the analysis of samples, DRIs, knowledge
about materials involved, site operations, and potential for airborne
toxic hazards), adjustments are made in the type of samples, number
of samples collected, frequency of sampling, and analysis required.
In addition to air samplers, area sampling stations may also include
DRIs equipped with recorders and operated as continuous air monitors.
Area sampling stations are located in various places including:
-	Upwind - Because many hazardous incidents occur near industries or
highways that generate air pollutants, samples must be taken upwind
of the site to establish background levels of air contaminants.
-	Support zone - Samples must be taken near the command post or other
support facilities to ensure that they are in fact located in a
clean area, and that the area remains clean throughout operations
at the site.
8-3

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-	Contamination reduction zone - Air samples should be collected
along the decontamination line to ensure that decontamination
workers are properly protected and that on-site workers are not
removing their protective gear in a contaminated area.
-	Exclusion zone - The exclusion zone presents the greatest risk of
exposure to chemicals and requires the most air sampling. The
location of sampling stations should be based upon hot-spots
detected by DRIs, types of substance present, and potential for
airborne contaminants. The data from these stations, in con-
junction with intermittent walk-around surveys with DRIs, are used
to verify the selection of proper levels of worker protection and
exclusion zone boundaries, as well as to provide a continual
record of air contaminants.
-	Downwind - One or more sampling stations are located downwind from
the site to indicate if any air contaminants are leaving the site.
If there are indications of airborne hazards in populated areas,
additional samplers should be placed downwind.
VI. MEDIA FOR COLLECTING AIR SAMPLES
Hazardous material incidents, especially abandoned waste sites,
involve thousands of potentially dangerous substances - gases, vapors,
and aerosols that could become airborne. A variety of media - liquids
and solids - are used to collect these substances. Sampling systems
typically include a calibrated air sampling pump which draws air into
selected collection media. Some of the most common types of samples,
and the collection media used for them are:
- Organic vapors - Activated carbon is an excellent adsorbent for
most organic vapors. However, other solid adsorbents (such as
Tenax, silica gel, and Florisil) are routinely used to sample
specific organic compounds or classes of compounds that do not
adsorb or desorb well on activated carbon. To avoid stocking a
large number of sorbents for all substances anticipated, a smaller
number chosen for collecting the widest range of materials or for
substances known to be present generally are used. The vapors are
collected using an industrial hygiene personal sampling pump with
either one sampling port or a manifold capable of simultaneously
collecting samples on several sorbent tubes, for example, a mani-
fold with four sorbent tubes (or as individual pumps with varying
flow rates). The tubes might contain:
-- Activated carbon to collect vapors of materials with a boiling
point above 0 degrees centigrade. These materials include
most odorous organic substances, such as solvent vapors.
-- A porous polymer such as Tenax or Chromosorb to collect sub-
stances (such as high-molecular-weight hydrocarbons, organo-
8-4

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phosphorous compounds, and the vapors of certain pesticides)
that adsorb poorly onto activated carbon. Some of these porous
polymers also adsorb organic materials at low ambient tempera-
tures more efficiently than carbon.
-- A polar sorbent such as silica gel to collect organic vapors
(aromatic amines, for example) that exhibit a relatively high
dipole moment.
-- Another specialty adsorbent selected for the specific site.
For example, a Florisil tube could be used if polychlorinated
biphenyls are expected.
-	Inorganic gases - The inorganic gases present at an incident would
primarily be polar compounds such as the haloacid gases. They can
be adsorbed onto silica gel tubes and analyzed by ion chromato-
graphy. Impingers filled with selected liquid reagents can also
be used.
-	Aerosols - Aerosols (solid or liquid particulates) that may be en-
countered at an incident include contaminated and noncontaminated
soil particles, heavy-metal particulates, pesticide dusts, and
droplets of organic or inorganic liquids. An effective method for
sampling these materials is to collect them on a particulate
filter such as a glass fiber or membrane type. A backup impinger
filled with a selected absorbing solution may also be necessary.
Colorimetric detector tubes can also be used with a sampling pump
when monitoring for some specific compounds. Passive organic vapor
monitors can be substituted for the active system described if passive
monitors are available for the types of materials suspected to be
present at a given site.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health's (NIOSH)
Manual of Analytical Methods, Volumes 1-7, contains acceptable
methods for collecting and analyzing air samples for a variety of
chemical substances. Consult it for specific procedures.
COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
Samples are analyzed to determine types and quantities of substances
present. The following provides additional guidance on sample col-
lection and analysis.
- Aerosols
Samples for aerosols should be taken at a relatively high flow rate
(generally about 2 liters/minute) using a standard industrial
hygiene pump and filter assembly. To collect total particulates,
8-5

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a membrane filter having a 0.8 micrometer pore size is common.
The sample can be weighed to determine total particulates, then
analyzed destructively or non-destructively for metals. If the
metals analysis is done nondestructively or if the filter is
sectioned, additional analyses (for example, organics, inorganics,
and optical particle sizing) can be performed.
-	Sorbent Samples
The sorbent material chosen, the amount used, and sample volume
will vary according to the types and concentrations of substances
anticipated at a particular site. Polar sorbent material such
as silica gel will collect polar substances which are not adsorbed
well onto activated carbon and some of the porous polymers. The
silica gel sample can be split and analyzed for the haloacia gases
and aromatic amines.
Activated carbon and porous polymers will collect a wide range of
compounds. Exhaustive analysis to identify and quantify all the
collected species is prohibitively expensive at any laboratory and
technically difficult for a field laboratory. Therefore, samples
should be analyzed for principal hazardous constituents (PHCs).
The selection of PHCs should be based upon the types of materials
anticipated at a given site, from generator's records, and from
information collected during the initial site survey. To aid in
the selection of PHCs, a sample could be collected on activated
carbon or porous polymer during the initial site survey and ex-
haustively analyzed off-site to identify the major peaks within
selected categories. This one thorough analysis, along with what
is already known about a particular site, could provide enough
information to select PHCs. Standards of PHCs could then be
prepared and used to calibrate instruments used for field analysis
of samples. Subsequent, routine off-site analysis could be limited
to scanning for only PHCs, saving time and money. Special adsor-
bents and sampling conditions can be used for specific PHCs if
desired, while continued multimedia sampling will provide a base
for analysis of additional PHCs that may be identified during the
course of cleanup operations.
-	Passive Dosimeters
A less traditional method of sampling is the use of passive dosi-
meters. The few passive dosimeters now available are only for
gases and vapors. Passive dosimeters are used primarily to monitor
personal exposure, but they can be used to monitor areas. Passive
monitors are divided into two groups:
-- Diffusion samplers, in which molecules move across a concentra-
tion gradient, usually achieved within a stagnant layer of air,
between the contaminated atmosphere and the indicator material.
8-6

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-- Permeation devices, which rely on the natural permeation of a
contaminant through a membrane. A suitable membrane is select-
ed that is easily permeated by the contaminant of interest and
impermeable to all others. Permeation dosimeters are therefore
useful in picking out a single contaminant from a mixture of
possible interfering contaminants.
Some passive dosimeters may be read directly, as are DRIs and
colorimetric length-of-stain tubes. Others require laboratory
analysis similiar to that done on solid sorbents.
VIII. PERSONNEL MONITORING
In addition to area atmospheric sampling, personnel monitoring - both
active and passive - can be used to sample for air contaminants. Repre-
sentative workers are equipped with personal samplers to indicate con-
taminants at specific locations or for specific work being done.
Placed on workers, generally within 1 foot of the mouth and nose, the
monitors indicate the potential for the worker to inhale the con-
tami nant.
IX. CALIBRATION
As a rule, the total air sampling system should be calibrated rather
than the pump alone. Proper calibration is essential for correct
operation and for accurate interpretation of resultant data. As a
minimum, the system should be calibrated prior to and after use. The
overall frequency of calibration will depend upon the general handling
and use of a given sampling system. Pump mechanisms should be recali-
brated after repair, when newly purchased, and following suspected
abuse. Calibration methods can be found in the NIOSH Manual of
Analytical Methods (Volumes 1-7).
X. METEOROLGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Meteorological information is an integral part of an air surveillance
program. Data concerning wind speed and direction, temperature,
barometric pressure, and humidity, singularly or in combination,
are needed for:
-	Selecting air sampling locations.
-	Calculating air dispersion.
-	Calibrating instruments.
-	Determining population at risk or environmental exposure from
airborne contaminants.
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Knowledge of wind speed and direction is necessary to effectively
place air samplers. In source-oriented ambient air sampling
particularly, samplers need to be located downwind (at different
distances) of the source and others placed to collect background
samples. Shifts in wind direction must be known and samplers re-
located or corrections made for the shifts. In addition, atmodpheric
simulation models for predicting contaminant dispersion and concen-
tration need windspeed and direction as inputs for predictive calcu-
lations. ^Information may be needed concerning the frequency and
intensity with which that winds blow from certain directions (wind-
rose data), consequently, the wind direction must be continually
monitored.
Air sampling systems need to be calibrated before use and corrections
in the calibration curves made for temperature and pressure. After
sampling, sampled air volumes are also corrected for temperature and
pressure variations. This requires knowing air temperature and
pressure.
Air sampling is sometimes designed to assess population exposure (and
frequently potential worker exposure). Air samplers are generally
located in population centers irrespective of wind direction. Even
in these instances, however, meteorological data is needed for air
dispersion modeling. Models are then used to predict or verify
population-oriented sampling results.
Proper data is collected by having meteorological stations on site or
obtaining it from one or more of several government or private
organizations which routinely collect such data. The choice of how
information is obtained depends on the availability of reliable data
at the location desired, resources needed to obtain meteorological
equipment, accuracy of information needed, and use of information.
8-8

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ANNEX 5
GUIDE TO ENVIRONMENTAL RESPONSE TEAM'S
AIR SURVEILLANCE PROGRAM
I. APPROACH
A variety of long-term air surveillance programs can be designed to
detect a wide range of airborne compounds. To implement any program
a number of factors must be considered, including type of equipment,
costs, personnel required, accuracy of analysis, time required to
obtain results (turn-around-time), and availability of analytical
laboratories.
One approach to air surveillance, developed and used by the USEPA
Environmental Response Team (ERT), is described here. This program
achieves a reasonable balance between cost, accuracy, and time in
obtaining data using a combination of direct reading instruments
(DRIs) and air sampling systems to:
-	Rapidly survey for airborne organic vapors and gases.
-	Identify and measure organic vapors and gases.
-	Identify and measure particulates and inorganic vapors and gases.
The approach is based on:
-	Using flame ionization detectors (FIDs) and/or photoionization
detectors (PIDs) for initial detection of total organic gases and
vapors and for periodic site surveys (for total organics). Equip-
ped with strip chart recorders, the detectors are used as area
monitors to record total organic concentration and changes in
concentration over a period of time. Calibrated to specific
organic contaminants, they are used to detect and measure those
substances.
-	Collecting area air samples using personal pumps and organic gas/
vapor collection tubes. Samples are analyzed using the gas chroma-
tograph (GC) capabilities of field instruments. Selected samples
are also analyzed in laboratories accredited by the American
Industrial Hygiene Association (AIHA).
-	Using PIDs and/or FIDs (as a survey instrument or GC) to provide
real-time data and to screen the number of samples needed for
laboratory analysis.
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- Sampling for particulates, inorganic acids, aromatic amines, halo-
genated pesticides, etc., when they are known to be involved or
when there are indications that these substances may be a problem.
EQUIPMENT
At present, the following equipment is used for organic gas/vapor
monitoring however, other equivalent equipment can be substituted:
-	HNU Systems Photoionizer (PID)
-	Foxboro OVA (FID)
-	MDA Accuhaler 808 Sampling Pump
-	Gillian Model Number HFS-UT113 Sampling Pump
-	Tenax adsorption tubes (metal)
-	Carbon-packed adsorption tubes (metal)
-	Carbon-packed adsorption tubes (glass)
150 milligram and 600 milligram sizes
PROCEDURE
This procedure is generally applicable to most responses. However,
since each incident is unique, modifications may be needed.
Organic Gases and Vapors. The sequence for monitoring organic gases
and vapors consists of several steps.
-	Determine total background concentrations.
-	Determine total concentration on-site.
- Collect on-site area samples.
Identify specific contaminants.
area is monitored (using DRIs)
measured at both ground and
walk-throughs are to determine
to locate higher-than ambient
Background concentrations. Background readings of total organic gases
and vapors, using DRIs (FID/PID), are made upwind of the site in areas
not expected to contain air contaminants. If industries, highways, or
other potential sources contribute to concentrations on-site, these
contributions should be determined. Depending on the situation and
the time available, additional monitoring should be done nearby to
determine if contaminants are leaving the site.
Concentrations on-site. The on-site
for total gas/vapor concentrations,
breathing zone levels. The initial
general ambient concentrations and
concentrations (hot-spots).
A5-2

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Transient contributors on-site, for example, exhausts from engines,
should be avoided. Concentrations are recorded and plotted on a site
map. Additional DRI monitoring is then done to thoroughly define any
hot-spots located during the survey.
Area samples. Sampling stations are located throughout the site. The
number and locations depend on evaluating many factors, including hot-
spots (by DRI), active work areas, potentials for high concentrations,
and wind direction. As a minimum, stations should be located in a
clean off-site area (control or background station), exclusion zone,
and downwind of the site. As data are accumulated, location, number
of stations, and frequency of sampling can be adjusted.
Routinely, two 4-hour samples are collected, in the morning and after-
noon respectively, using personal sampling pumps equipped with Tenax
and/or carbon-packed, metal adsorption tubes. Total gas/vapor concen-
tration (using DRI) should also be determined at the start and finish
of each sampling run. The readings obtained may show an approximate
relationship (depending on organics present) which will be helpful
later in placing samplers.
Samples are desorbed with a thermal desorber and analyzed on the OVA-GC
for total organic concentration and number of peaks. Chromatograms
of samples taken at the same location but at different times or from
different stations can be compared. Differences in heights of "total"
peak, number of independent peaks, and relative peak heights, if
judiciously interpreted, are useful for making preliminary judgments
concerning air contaminant problems. Page A5-6 shows a suggested
format for calculating total gas/vapor concentration.
If relatively high concentrations are detected by the initial DRI
surveys samplers equipped with carbon-packed collection tubes (glass)
are run next to Tenax/carbon-packed, metal equipped samplers. The
latter samples are analyzed in the field. The carbon-packed collec-
tion tubes are analyzed by an AIHA accredited laboratory.
Area surveys using DRI are continued routinely two-four times daily.
These surveys are to monitor for general ambient levels, as well as
levels at sampling stations, hot-spots, and other areas of site activ-
ities. As information is accumulated on airborne organics, the
frequency of surveys can be adjusted.
Specific contaminants. Personal monitoring pumps with carbon-packed
collection tubes (glass) are run on the first afternoon, concurrent
with samplers equipped with Tenax/carbon-packed, metal collection
tubes. Generally, when total gas/vapor readings are low and only a
few peaks seen (from the field GC analysis of morning samples),
100-150 mg carbon-packed tubes (glass) are used and operated at a
flow rate of 100 cubic centimeters/minute until approximately 30
liters of air have been collected. Depending on suspected contam-
inants and their concentrations, higher flow rates and/or volumes may
A5-3

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be needed. When total gas/vapor readings are high and there are many
peaks (from the morning samples), then larger glass carbon collection
tubes (600 mg) are operated at a flow rate from 0.5 to 1 liters/minute
to collect 90 to 150 liters of air.
The results from laboratory analysis of glass carbon tubes are used
for a number of different purposes, including:
i
-	To identify and measure organic gases and vapors collected during
the sampling period.
-	To compare laboratory chromatograms and field chromatograms. If
only a few peaks (but the same number) are seen on each chromatogram
(and identified on the laboratory chromatogram) from samples
collected at the same location, it may be reasonable to assume,
until standards are run on the field GC, that the two chromatograms
are identifying the same materials.
-	To identify major contaminants on laboratory chromatograms and
determine what standards to prepare for the field GC. Field GC's
can then be used to identify and measure air contaminants against
laboratory prepared standards.
-	To use the field GC as a screening device for determining when
samples should be collected for laboratory analysis, or when
samples previously collected should be analyzed. Changes in the
number of peaks on the field chromatograms from samples collected
at the same location indicate changes in the air, suggesting the
need for collecting additional samples for laboratory analysis.
If desorption equipment is not available for on-site sample analysis,
glass collection tubes should be collected daily. Only samples
collected every third to fifth day are sent to AIHA accredited labora-
tories for analysis; the remaining samples are stored in a cool place
(preferably refrigerated). Selected stored samples are analyzed if
third to fifth day samples indicate changes in air contaminant pat-
terns. If daily on-site surveys detect low contaminant(s) levels,
then 100-150 mg glass carbon columns are used. If the survey reveals
relatively high levels of contaminants, then 600 mg glass carbon
tubes are used.
The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health P&CAM Analy-
tical Method No. 127 (see Annex 6) should be followed as closely as
possible. Flow rates and collection tubes described in this guide
are primarily for organic solvents. If other than organic solvents
are suspected, then the NI0SH Manual of Analytical Methods (Volume
1-7) should be consulted for the appropriate collection media and
flow rates. Table 1 lis-ts the organic solvents identified by the
NI0SH P&CAM No. 127, many of which are found at hazardous waste
sites. These are identified for possible gas chromatography/mass
spectrometry analysis.
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Particulates and Inorganic Gases and Vapors. Sampling for particu-
lates is not done routinely. If these types of air contaminants are
known or suspected to exist, a sampling program is instituted for
them. Incidents where these contaminants might be present are:
fires involving pesticides or chemicals, incidents involving heavy
metals, arsenic, or cyanide compounds, or mitigation operations that
create dust (from contaminated soil and excavation of contaminated
soi 1).
Sampling media and analytical methods for these air contaminants
should follow guidance given in the NIOSH Manual of Analytical
Methods.
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SAMPLE CALCULATION
1.	Volume sampled by MDA Accuhaler 808 Personal Sampling Pump:
Volume.sampled (cc) = (final stroke count - initial stroke count)
X (cc's/stroke*) X (multiplier factor for orifice used**)
*Specified on pump itself.
**Specified in pump operations manual and Table 2. (for MDA Accuhaler)
Calculation:
At beginning of sampling period, Accuhaler stroke counter reads
16292.9. At end of sampling period, it reads 16632.9. What is the
volume of ai r sampled?
Volume sampled (cc) = 16632.9 (final stroke count) - 16292.9 (initial
stroke count) X 5.7 (cc/pump stroke) X 1.1 (multiplier for orifice)
Volume sampled = 2131.8 cc or 2.1 liters.
2.	Reporting Format (for OVA GC Thermal Desorber)
a.	Total GC Mode:	Total concentration determined = 22 ppm as
CH4 (methane)
b.	Time weighted =	volume desorbed (liters) X concentration (ppm)
average (ppm)	volume collected (liters)
= 0.300 (liter) X 22 (ppm) = 3.14 ppm as CH4 (methane)
2.1 (1 iters)
c.	Peaks: GC mode
4 peaks observed
d.	Survey Concentration (total organics by DRI)
Start of sampling period 	 ppm, time 	
End of sampling period 	 ppm, time 	
ATTACH CHR0MAT0GRAM
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TABLE 1
Organic Solvents Identified by P&CAM Analytic Method No. 127
Organic Solvent	Molecular Weight
Acetone
58.1
Benzene
78.1
Carbon tetrachloride
154.0
Chloroform
119.0
Di chloromethane
84.9
p-Di oxane
88.1
Ethylene dichloride
99.0
Methyl ethyl ketone
72.1
Styrene
104.0
Tetrachloroethylene
166.0
Toluene
92.1
1,1,2-Trichloroethane
133.0
1,1,1-Trichloroethane
(methyl chloroform)
133.0
Trichloroethylene
131.0
Xylene
106.0
Reference: Manual of Analytical Methods
U.S. Department of Health Education & Welfare,
Public Health Service, Center for Disease Control
National Institute of Occupational Safety & Health,
DHEW (NIOSH) Publication No. 77-157-A
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TABLE 2
Multiplier Factor for MDA Accuhaler 808
Personal Sampling Pumps
Calibrat ion
at 20 cc/min
Volume/Stroke
Orifice Color	Normal Flow Rate - cc/min	Multiplier
Yel1ow
100
1.1
Orange
60
1.06
Red
20
1.00
Brown
10
0.99
Purple
5
0.97
Blue
2
•
Green
1
•
Black
0.5

Reference: Instruction Manual, Accuhaler, Personnel Sampling Pump
Models 808 and 8l¥
MDA Scientific, Inc., Elmdale Avenue,
Glenview, IL 60025
A5-8

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ANNEX 6
ORGANIC SOLVENTS IN AIR
Physical and Chemical Analysis Branch
Analytical Method
Analyte:
Organic Solvents
(See Table 1)
Air
Method No.: P&CAM 127
Matrix:
Range:
For the specific
compound, refer
Procedure:
Adsorption on charcoal
desorption with carbon
disulfide, GC
to Table 1
Date Issued:
9/15/72
Precision:
10.5% RSD
Date Revised: 2/15/77
Classification: See Table 1
1.	Principle of the Method
1.1	A known volume of air is drawn through a charcoal tube to trap the organic vapors present.
1.2	The charcoal in the tube is transferred to a small, graduated test tube and desorbed with
carbon disulfide.
1.3	An aliquot of the desorbed sample is injected into a gas chromatograph.
1.4	The area of the resulting peak is determined and compared with areas obtained from the
injection of standards.
2.	Range and Sensitivity
The lower limit in mg/sample for the specific compound at 16 X 1 attenuation on a gas chromato-
graph fitted with a 10:1 splitter is shown in Table 1. This value can be lowered by reducing the
attenuation or by eliminating the 10:1 splitter.
3.	Interferences
3.1	When the amount of water in the air is so great that condensation actually occurs in the tube,
organic vapors will not be trapped. Preliminary experiments indicate that high humidity
severely decreases the breakthrough volume.
3.2	When two or more solvents are known or suspected to be present in the air, such information
(including their suspected identities), should be transmitted with the sample, since with dif-
ferences in polarity, one may displace another from the charcoal.
3.3	It must be emphasized that any compound which has the same retention time as the specific
compound under study at the operating conditions described in this method is an interference.
Hence, retention time data on a single column, or even on a number of columns, cannot be
considered as proof of chemical identity. For this reason it is important that a sample of
the bulk solvent(s) be submitted at the same time so that identity(ies) can be established by
other means.
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3.4 If the possibility of interference exists, separation conditions (column packing, temperatures,
etc.) must be changed to circumvent the problem.
Precision and Accuracy
4.1	The mean relative standard deviation of the analytical method is 8% (11.4).
4.2	The mean relative standard deviation of the analytical method plus field sampling using an
approved personal sampling pump is 10% (11.4). Part of the error associated with the
method is related to uncertainties in the sample volume collected. If a more powerful vacuum
pump with associated gas-volume integrating equipment is used, sampling precision can be
improved.
4.3	The accuracy of the overall sampling and analytical method is 10% (NIOSH-unpublished
data) when the personal sampling pump is calibrated with a charcoal tube in the line.
Advantages and Disadvantages of the Method
5.1	The sampling device is small, portable, and involves no liquids. Interferences arc minimal,
and most of those which do occur can be eliminated by altering chromatographic conditions.
The tubes are analyzed by means of a quick, instrumental method. The method can also be
used for the simultaneous analysis of two or more solvents suspected to be present in the
same sample by simply changing gas chromatographic conditions from isothermal to a tem-
perature-programmed mode of operation.
5.2	One disadvantage of the method is that the amount of sample which can be taken is limited
by the number of milligrams that the tube will hold before overloading. When the sample
value obtained for the backup section of the charcoal tube exceeds 25% of that found on
the front section, the possibility of sample loss exists. During sample storage, the more
volatile compounds will migrate throughout the tube until equilibrium is reached (33% of
the sample on the backup section).
5.3	Furthermore, the precision of the method is limited by the reproducibility of the pressure
drop across the tubes. This drop will affect the flow rate and cause the volume to be im-
precise, because the pump is usually calibrated for one tube only.
Apparatus
6.1	An approved and calibrated personal sampling pump for personal samples. For an area
sample, any vacuum pump whose flow can be determined accurately at 1 liter per minute
or less.
6.2	Charcoal tubes: glass tube with both ends flame sealed, 7 cm long with a 6-mm O.D. and a
4-mm I.D., containing 2 sections of 20/40 mesh activated charcoal separated by a 2-mra
portion of urethane foam. The activated charcoal is prepared from coconut shells and is
fired at 600°C prior to packing. The absorbing section contains 100 mg of charcoal, the
backup section 50 mg. A 3-mm portion of urethane foam is placed between the outlet end of
the tube and the backup section. A plug of silylated glass wool is placed in front of the
absorbing section. The pressure drop across the tube must be less than one inch of mercury
at a flow rate of 1 1pm.
6.3	Gas chromatograph equipped with a flame ionization detector.
6.4	Column (20 ft X Va in) with 10% FFAP stationary phase on 80/100 mesh, acid-washed
DMCS Chromosorb W solid support. Other columns capable of performing the required
separations may be used
127-2
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6.5	A mechanical or electronic integrator or a recorder and some method for determining peak
area.
6.6	Microcentrifuge tubes, 2.5 ml, graduated.
6.7	Hamilton syringes: 10 /J, and convenient sizes for making standards.
6.8	Pipets: 0.5-ml delivery pipets or 1.0-ml type graduated in 0.1-ml increments.
6.9	Volumetric flasks: 10 ml or convenient sizes for making standard solutions.
7.	Reagents
7.1	Spectroquality carbon disulfide (Matheson Coleman and Bell).
7.2	Sample of the specific compound under study, preferably chromatoquality grade.
7.3	Bureau of Mines Grade A helium.
7.4	Prepurified hydrogen.
7.5	Filtered compressed air.
8.	Procedure
8.1	Cleaning of Equipment: All glassware used for the laboratory analysis should be detergent
washed and thoroughly rinsed with tap water and distilled water.
8.2	Calibration of Personal Pumps. Each personal pump must be calibrated with a representa-
tive charcoal tube in the line. This will minimize errors associated with uncertainties in
the sample volume collected.
8.3	Collection and Shipping of Samples
8.3.1	Immediately before sampling, the ends of the tube should be broken to provide an
opening at least one-half the internal diameter of the tube (2 mm).
8.3.2	The small section of charcoal is used as a back-up and should be positioned nearest
the sampling pump.
8.3.3	The charcoal tube should be vertical during sampling to reduce channeling through
the charcoal.
8.3.4	Air being sampled should not be passed through any hose or tubing before entering
the charcoal tube.
8.3.5	The flow, time, and/or volume must be measured as accurately as possible. The sam-
ple should be taken at a flow rate of 1 Ipm or less to attain the total sample volume
required. The minimum and maximum sample volumes that should be collected for
each solvent are shown in Table I. The minimum volume quoted must be collected if
the desired sensitivity is to be achieved.
8.3.6	The temperature and pressure of the atmosphere being sampled should be measured
and recorded.
8.3.7	The charcoal tubes should be capped with the supplied plastic caps immediately
after sampling. Under no circumstances should rubber caps be used.
8.3.8	One tube should be handled in the same manner as the sample tube (break, seal, and
transport), except that no air is sampled through this tube. This tube should be
labeled as a blank.
8.3.9	Capped tubes should be packed tightly before they are shipped to minimize tube break-
age during shipping.
127-3
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8.3.10 Samples of the suspected solvent(s) should be submitted to the laboratory for quali-
tative characterization. These liquid bulk samples should not be transported in the
same container as the samples or blank tube. If possible, a bulk air sample (at least
50 I air drawn through tube) should be shipped for qualitative identification purposes.
Analysis of Samples
8.4.1	Preparation of Samples. In preparation for analysis, each charcoal tube is scored
with a file in front of the first section of charcoal and broken open. The glass wool is
removed and discarded. The charcoal in the first (larger) section is transferred to a
small stoppered test tube. The separating section of foam is removed and discarded;
the second section is transferred to another test tube. These two sections are analyzed
separately.
8.4.2	Desorption of Samples. Prior to analysis, one-half ml of carbon disulfide is pipetted
into each test tube. (All work with carbon disulfide should be performed in a hood
because of its high toxicity.) Tests indicate that desorption is complete in 30 min-
utes if the sample is stirred occasionally during this period.
8.4.3	GC Conditions. The typical operating conditions for the gas chromatograph are:
1.	85 cc/'min. (70 psig) helium carrier gas flow.
2.	65 cc/min. (24 psig) hydrogen gas flow to detector.
3.	500 cc/min. (50 psig) air flow to detector.
4.	200°C injector temperature.
5.	200°C manifold temperature (detector).
6.	Isothermal oven or column temperature — refer to Table 1 for specific compounds.
8.4.4	Injection. The first step in the analysis is the injection of the sample into the gas
chromatograph. To eliminate difficulties arising from blowback or distillation within
the syringe needle, one should employ the solvent flush injection technique. The 10
/il syringe is first flushed with solvent several times to wet the barrel and plunger.
Three microliters of solvent are drawn into the syringe to increase the accuracy and
reproducibility of the injected sample volume.. The needle is removed from the sol-
vent, and the plunger is pulled back about 0.2 ^1 to separate the solvent flush from
the sample with a pocket of air to be used as a marker. The needle is then immersed
in the sample, and a 5-^1 aliquot is withdrawn, taking into consideration the volume
of the needle, since the sample in the needle will be completely injected. After the
needle is removed from the sample and prior to injection, the plunger is pulled back
a short distance to minimize evaporation of the sample from the tip of the needle.
Duplicate injections of each sample and standard should be made. No more than a
3% difference in area is to be expected.
8.4.5	Measurement of area. The area of the sample peak is measured by an electronic
integrator or some other suitable form of area measurement, and preliminary results
are read from a standard curve prepared as discussed below.
Determination of Desorption Efficiency
8.5.1 Importance of determination, The desorption efficiency of a particular compound can
vary from one laboratory to another and also from one batch of charcoal to another.
Thus, it is necessary to determine at least once the percentage of the specific compound
that is removed in the desorption process for a given compound, provided the same
batch of charcoal is used. NIOSH has found that the desorption efficiencies for the
compounds in Table 1 are between 81% and 100% and vary with each batch of
charcoal.
127-4
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8.5.2 Procedure for determining desorption efficiency. Activated charcoal equivalent to
the amount in the first section of the sampling lube (100 mg) is measured into a
5-cm, 4-mm l.D. glass tube, flame-sealed at one end (similar to commercially avail-
able culture tubes). This charcoal must be from' the same batch as that used in ob-
taining the samples and can be obtained from, unused charcoal tubes. The open end
is capped with Parafilm. A known amount of the compound is injected directly
into the activated charcoal with' a microliter syringe, and the tube is capped with more
Parafilm. The amount injected is usually equivalent to that present in a 10-liter sam-
ple at a concentration equal to the federal standard.
At least five tubes are prepared in this manner and allowed to stand for at least over-
night to assure complete absorption of the specific compound onto the charcoal. These
five tubes are referred to as the samples. A parallel blank tube should be treated in
the same manner except that no sample is added to it. The sample and blank tubes
are desorbed and analyzed in exactly the same manner as the sampling tube described
in Section 8.4.
Two or three standards are prepared by injecting the same volume of compound into
0.5 ml of CS-j with the same syringe used in the preparation of the sample. These
are analyzed with the samples.
The desorption efficiency equals the difference between the average peak area of the
samples and the peak area of the blank divided by the average peak area of the
standards, or
,	_	Area sample — Area blank
desorption efficiency = 	—-			
Area standard
9. Calibration and Standards
It is convenient to express concentration of standards in terms of mg/0.5 ml CS_. because samples
are desorbed in this amount of CS-j. To minimize error due to the volatility of carbon disulfide,
one can inject 20 times the weight into 10 ml of CS?. For example, to prepare a 0.3 mg/0.5 ml
standard, one would inject 6.0 mg into exactly 10 ml of CSn in a glass-stoppered flask. The
density of the specific compound is used to convert 6.0 mg into microliters for easy measurement
with a microliter syringe. A series of standards, varying in concentration over the range of
interest, is prepared and analyzed under the same GC conditions and during the same time period
as the unknown samples. Curves are established by plotting concentration in mg/0.5 ml versus
peak area.
NOTE: Since no internal standard is used in the method, standard solutions must be analyzed
at the same time that the sample analysis is done. This will minimize the effect of known day-
to-day variations and variations during the same day of the FID response.
10. Calculations
10.1	The weight, in mg. corresponding to each peak area is read from the standard curve for the
particular compound. No volume corrections are needed, because the standard curve is
based on mg'0.5 ml CS-_. and the volume of sample injected is identical to the volume of the
standards injected.
10.2	Corrections for the blank must be made for each sample.
Correct mg mg. — mgi,
127-5
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where:
mg» = mg found in front section of sample tube
mgb = mg found in front section of blank tube
A similar procedure is followed for the backup sections.
10.3	The'corrected amounts present in the front and backup sections of the same sample tube
are added to determine the total measured amount in the sample.
10.4	This total weight is divided by the determined desorption efficiency to obtain the corrected
mg per sample.
10.5	The concentration of the analyte in the air sampled can be expressed in mg per m3.
. , _ Corrected mg (Section 10.4) X 1000 (liters/m1)
ms/ itv —	,
Air volume sampled (liters)
10.6	Another method of expressing concentration is ppm (corrected to standard conditions of 25°C
and 760 mm Hg).
. , v 24.45 v 760 v (T +'273)
ppm = mg/m< ~MW~~ * ~ * 298
where:
P = pressure (mm Hg) of air sampled
T = temperature (°C) of air sampled
24.45 = molar volume (liter/mole) at 25°C and 760 mm Hg
MW = molecular weight
760 = standard pressure (mm Hg)
298 = standard temperature (°K)
11. References
11.1	White, L. D., D. G. Taylor, P. A. Mauer. and R. E. Kupel, "A Convenient Optimized Method
for the Analysis of Selected Solvent Vapors in the Industrial Atmosphere", Am Ind Hyg
Assoc J 31:225, 1970.
11.2	Young, D. M. and A. D. Crowell. Physical Adsorption of Gases, pp. 137-146, Butterworths.
London, 1962.
11.3	Federal Register, 37:202:22139-22142, October 18, 1972.
11.4	NIOSH Contract HSM-99-72-98, Scott Research Laboratories, Inc., "Collaborative Testing
of Activated Charcoal Sampling Tubes for Seven OrganiQ Solvents", pp. 4-22, 4-27, 1973.
127-6
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TABLE 1
Parameters Associated With P&CAB Analy tical Method No. 127
Organic Solvent
Method
Classification
Detection limit
(mg/sample)
Sample Volume (liters)
Minimum^) Maximum*1')
GC Column
Temp.CC)
Molecular
Weight
Acetone
D
-
0.5
7.7
60
58.1
Benzene
A
0.01
0.5
55
90
78.1
Carbon tetrachloride
A
0.20
10
60
60
154.0
Chloroform
A
0.10
0.5
13
80
119
Dichloromethane
D
0.05
0.5
3.8
85
84.9
p-Dioxane
A
0.05
1
18
100
88.1
Ethylene dichloride
D
0.05
1
12
90
99.0
Methyl ethyl ketone
B
0.01
0.5
13
80
72.1
Styrene
D
0.10
1.5
34
150
104
Tetrachloroethylene
B
0.06
1
25
130
166
1,1,2-trichloroethane
B
0.05
10
97
150
133
1,1,1-trichloroethane
(methyl chloroform)
B
0.05
0.5
13
150
133
Trichloroethylene
A
0.05
1
17
90
131
Toluene
B
0.01
0.5
22
120
92.1
Xylene
A
0.02
0.5
31
100
106
(a)	Minimum volume, in liters, required to measure 0.1 times the OSHA standard
(b)	These are breakthrough volumes calculated with data derived from a potential plot (11.2) for activated coconut
charcoal. Concentrations of vapor in air at 5 times the OSHA standard (11.3) or 500 ppm, whichever is lower,
25°C, and 760 torr were assumed. These values will be as much as 50% lower for atmospheres of high humidity.
The effects of multiple contaminants have not been investigated, but it is suspected that less volatile compounds
may displace more volatile compounds (See 3.1 and 3.2)
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PART 9
SITE SAFETY PLAN
I. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of the site safety plan is to establish requirements for
protecting the health and safety of responders during all activities
conducted at an incident. It contains safety information, instruc-
tions, and procedures.
A site safety plan must be prepared and reviewed by qualified personnel
for each hazardous substance response. Before operations at an
incident commence, safety requirements must be written, conspicuously
posted or distributed to all response personnel, and discussed with
them. The safety plan must be periodically reviewed to keep it
current and technically correct.
In non-emergency situations, for example, long-term remedial action
at abandoned hazardous waste sites, safety plans are developed
simultaneously with the general work plan. Workers can become
familiar with the plan before site activities begin. Emergency
response generally requires verbal safety instructions and reliance
on existing standard operating procedures until, when time permits, a
plan can be written.
The plan must contain safety requirements for routine (but hazardous)
response activities and also for unexpected site emergencies. The
major distinction between routine and emergency site safety planning
is the ability to predict, monitor, and evaluate routine activities.
A site emergency is unpredictable and may occur anytime.
II. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
The site safety plan must:
-	Describe the known hazards and evaluate the risks associated with
the incident and with each activity conducted.
-	List key personnel and alternates responsible for site safety,
response operations, and for protection of public.
-	Describe Levels of Protection to be worn by personnel.
-	Delineate work areas.
-	Establish procedures to control site access.
-	Describe decontamination procedures for personnel and equipment.
-	Establish site emergency procedures.
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Address emergency medical care for injuries and toxicological
problems.
-	Describe requirements for an environmental surveillance program.
-	Specify any routine and special training required for responders.
Establish procedures for protecting workers from weather-related
problems.
III. SITE SAFETY PLAN SCOPE AND DETAIL
The plan's scope, detail, and length is based on:
-	Information available about the incident.
-	Time available to prepare a site-specific plan.
-	Reason for responding.
Three general categories of response exist - emergencies, character-
izations and remedial actions. Although considerations for personnel
safety are generic and independent of the response category, in
scope, detail, and length safety requirements and plans vary consid-
erably. These variations are generally due to the reason for
responding (or category of response) , information available, and the
severity of the incident with its concomitant dangers to the respon-
der.
A. Emergencies
1. Situation:
Emergencies generally require prompt action to prevent or
reduce undesirable affects. Immediate hazards of fire,
explosion, and release of toxic vapors or gases are of prime
concern. Emergencies vary greatly in respect to types and
quantities of material, numbers of responders, type of work
required, population affected, and other factors. Emergencies
last from a few hours to a few days.
Information available: Varies from none to much. Usually
information about the chemicals involved and their associ-
ated hazards is quickly obtained in transportation-related
incidents, or incidents involving fixed facilities.
Determining the substances involved in some incidents,
such as mysterious spills, requires considerable time and
effort.
-	Time available: Little time, generally requires prompt
action to bring the incident under control.
-	Reason for response: To implement prompt and immediate
9-2

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[
actions to control dangerous or potentially dangerous
situations.
2. Effects on Plan
In emergencies, time is not available to write lengthy and
detailed safety plans. Decisions for responder safety are
based on a continual evaluation of changing conditions.
Responding organizations must rely on their existing written
standard operating safety procedures or a generic plan, and
verbal safety instructions adapted to meet site-specific
conditions. Since heavy reliance is placed on verbal safety
instructions an effective system to keep all responders
informed must be established. Whenever possible, these
incident-specific instructions should be written.
B. Incident Characterization
1.	Situation:
In non-emergency responses,for example, preliminary inspec-
tions at abandoned wastes sites or more comprehensive waste
site investigations the objective is to determine and charac-
terize the chemicals and hazards involved, the extent of
contamination, and risks to people and the environment. In
general, initial inspections, detailed investigations, and
extent of contamination surveys are limited in the activities
that are required and number of people involved. Initial or
preliminary inspections generally require 1-2 days. Complete
investigations may last over a longer time period.
Information available: Much background information.
Generally limited on-site data for initial inspection.
On-site information more fully developed through additional
site visits and investigations.
-	Time available: In most cases adequate time is available
to develop written site-specific safety plan.
-	Reason for response: To gather data to verify or refute
existing information, to gather information to determine
scope of subsequent investigations, or to collect data for
planning remedial action.
2.	Effects on Plan:
Sufficient time is available to write safety plans. In scope
and detail, plans tend to be brief containing safety require-
ments for specific on-site work relevant to collecting data.
As information is developed through additional investigations,
the safety plan is modified and, if necessary, more detailed
and specific requirements added.
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C. Remedial Actions
1.	Situation:
Remedial actions are cleanups which last over a long period
of time. They commence after more immediate problems at an
emergency have been controlled, or they involve the mitigation
of hazards and restoration of abandoned hazardous waste
sites. Numerous activities are required involving many
people, a logistics and support base, extensive equipment,
and more involved work activities. Remedial actions may
require months to years to completely accomplish.
Information available: Much known about on-site hazards.
-	Time available: Ample time for work planning.
-	Reason for response: Systematic and complete control,
cleanup, and restoration.
2.	Effects on Plan:
Since ample time is available before work commences, site
safety plan tends to be comprehensive and detailed. From
prior investigations much detail may be known about the
materials or hazards at the site and extent of contamination.
IV. SITE SAFETY PLAN DEVELOPMENT
To develop the plan as much background information as possible should
be obtained, time permitting, about the incident. This would include,
but not be 1imited to:
Incident location and name.
-	Site description.
-	Chemicals and quantities involved.
-	Hazards associated with each chemical.
-	Behavior and dispersion of material involved.
-	Types of containers, storage, or transportation methods.
-	Physical hazards.
-	Prevailing weather condition and forecast.
-	Surrounding populations and land use.
-	Ecologically sensitive areas.
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-	Facility records.
-	Preliminary assessment reports.
-	Off-site surveys.
-	Topographic and hydrologic information.
The information initially available or obtained through subsequent
characterization provides a basis for developing a site-specific safety
plan. Information is needed about the chemicals and hazards involved,
movement of material on and off the site, and potential contact with
responders or the public. This type of information is then used along
with the reason for responding (and work plan) to develop the safety
plan. The plan is tailored to the conditions imposed by the incident
and to its environmental setting. As additional information becomes
available the safety plan is modified to protect against the hazards
discerned and to provide for site emergencies that may occur.
V. ROUTINE OPERATIONS
Routine operations are those activities required in responding to an
emergency or a remedial action at a hazardous waste site. These
activities may involve a high degree of risk, but are standard opera-
tions that all incident responses may require.
Safety practices for routine operations closely parallel accepted
industrial hygiene and industrial safety procedures. Whenever a
hazardous incident progresses to the point where operations become
more routine, the associated site safety plan becomes a more refined
document. As a minimum, the following must be included as part of the
site safety plan for routine operations.
-	Describe the Known Hazards and Risks
This must include all known or suspected physical, biological,
radiological, or chemical hazards. It is important that all health
related data be kept up-to-date. As air, water, soil, or hazardous
substance monitoring and sampling data becomes available, it must
be evaluated, significant risk or exposure to workers noted, poten-
tial impact on public assessed, and changes made in the plan.
These evaluations need to be repeated frequently since much of the
plan is based on this information.
-	List Key Personnel and Alternates
The plan must identify key personnel (and alternates) responsible
for site safety. It should also identify key personnel assigned
to various site operations. Telephone numbers, addresses, and
organizations of these people must be listed in the plan and
posted in a conspicuous place.
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-	Designate Levels of Protection to be Worn
The Levels of Protection to be worn at locations on-site or by
work functions must be designated. This includes the specific
types of respirators and clothing to be worn for each level.
No one shall be permitted in areas requiring personnel protective
equipment unless they have been trained in its use and are wearing
it.
-	Delineate Work Areas
Work areas (exclusion zone, contamination reduction zone, and
support zone) need to be designated on the site map and the map
posted. The size of zones, zone boundaries, and acces'S control
points into each zone must be marked and made known to all site
workers.
-	List Control Procedures
Control procedures must be implemented to prevent unauthorized
access. Site security procedures - fences, signs, security
patrols, and check-in procedures - must be established. Procedures
must also be established to control authorized personnel into work
zones where personnel protection is required.
Establish Decontamination Procedures
Decontamination procedures for personnel and equipment must be
established. Arrangements must also be made for the proper
disposal of contaminated material, solutions, and equipment.
-	Address Requirements for an Environmental Surveillance Program
A program to monitor site hazards must be implemented. This would
include air monitoring and sampling, and other kinds of media
sampling at or around the site that would indicate chemicals
present, their hazards, possible migration, and associated safety
requirements.
-	Specify Any Routine and Special Training Required
Personnel must be trained not only in general safety procedures and
use of safety equipment, but in any specialized work they may be
expected to do.
-	Establish Procedures for Weather-Related Problems
Weather conditions can affect site work. Temperature extremes,
high winds, storms, etc. impact on personnel safety. Work
practices must be established to protect workers from the effects
of weather and shelters provided, when necessary. Temperature
extremes, especially heat and its effect on people wearing protec-
tive clothing, must be considered and procedures established to
monitor for and minimize heat stress.
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VI. ON-SITE EMERGENCIES
The plan must address site emergencies - occurrences that require
immediate actions to prevent additional problems or harm to respon-
ders, the public, property, or the environment. In general, all
responses present a degree of risk to the workers. During routine
operations risk is minimized by establishing good work practices and
using personnel protective equipment. Unpredictable events such as
fire, chemical exposure, or physical injury may occur and must be
anticipated. The plan must contain contingencies for managing them.
- Establish Site Emergency Procedures
-- List the names and emergency function of on-site personnel
responsible for emergency actions along with the special
training they have.
-- Post the location of nearest telephone (if none at site).
-- Provide alternative means for emergency communications.
-- Provide a list of emergency services organizations that may be
needed. Names, telephone numbers, and locations must be
posted. Arrangements for using emergency organizations should
be made beforehand. Organizations that might be needed are:
-	F i re
-	Police
-	Health
-	Explosive experts
-	Local hazardous material response units
-	Civil defense
-	Rescue
-- Address and define procedures for the rapid evacuation of
workers. Clear, audible warnings signals should be estab-
lished, well-marked emergency exits located throughout the
site, and internal and external communications plans devel-
oped. An example of codes that could be used for emergency
operations based on direct-reading instruments is contained in
Annex 7.
-- A complete list of emergency equipment should be attached to
the safety plan. This list should include emergency equipment
available on-site, as well as all available medical, rescue,
transport, fire-fighting, and mitigative equipment.
9-7

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Address emergency medical care.
-- Determine location of nearest medical or emergency care
facility. Determine their capability to handle chemical
exposure cases.
-- Arrange for treating, admitting, and transporting of injured
or exposed workers.
-- Post the medical or emergency care facilities location, travel
time, directions, and telephone number.
-- Determine local physician's office location, travel directions,
availability, and post telephone number if other medical care
is not available.
-- Determine nearest ambulance service and post telephone number.
-- List responding organization's physicians, safety officers, or
toxicologists name and telephone number. Also include nearest
poison control center, if applicable.
-- Maintain accurate records on any exposure or potential exposure
of site workers during an emergency (or routine operations).
The minimum amount of information needed (along with any
medical test results) for personnel exposure records is
contained in Annex 8.
-	Advise workers of their duties during an emergency. In particular,
it is imperative that the site safety officers, standby rescue
personnel, decontamination workers, and emergency medical techni-
cians practice emergency procedures.
Incorporate into the plan, procedures for the decontamination of
injured workers and for their transport to medical care facilities.
Contamination of transport vehicles, medical care facilities, or
of medical personnel may occur and should be addressed in the
plan. Whenever feasible these procedures should be discussed with
appropriate medical personnel in advance of operations.
-	Establish procedures in cooperation with local and state officials
for evacuating residents who live near the site.
VII. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE SITE SAFETY PLAN
The site safety plan, (standard operating safety procedure or a
generic safety plan for emergency response) must be written to avoid
misinterpretation, ambiguity, and mistakes that verbal orders cause.
The plan must be reviewed and approved by qualified personnel. Once
the safety plan is implemented, its needs to be periodically examined
and modified, if necessary, to reflect any changes in site work and
conditi ons.
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All agencies and organizations which have an active role at the incid-
ent must be familiar with the plan. If possible the plan should
be written in coordination with the organizations involved. Lead
personnel from these organizations should sign the plan to signify
they agree with it and will follow its provisions.
All personnel involved at the site must be familiar with the safety
plan, or the parts that pertain to their specific activities.
Frequent safety meeting should be held to keep all informed about
site hazards, changes in operating plans, modifications of safety
requirements, and for exchanges of information. It is the responsi-
bility of personnel involved at the site as workers or visitors to
comply with the requirements in the plan.
Frequent audits by the incident manager or the safety designee should
be made to determine compliance with the plan's requirements. Any
deviations should be brought to the attention of the incident manager.
Modifications in the plan should be reviewed and approved by appropri-
ate personnel.
VIII. SAMPLE SAFETY PLANS
Annex 9 and 10 are two examples of Site Safety Plans. -Since no one
sample plan or plan format can adequately address all safety require-
ments for the variety of incidents that occur, they should be used
as a guide to help develop an incident-specific plan. They can also
be used, with necessary adaptation, as generic plans for emergency
response.
In some incidents, the sample plans contained in Annex 9 and 10 might
be satisfactory to use by themself. Filling in the blanks provides an
effective safety plan. In many incidents they should only be consid-
ered as a check list. Since they do not exhaustively cover every
condition which may need addressed, users of these sample plans and
any other type examples must realize their application to any one
incident may not be acceptable. Therefore they must be used with
discretion and tempered by professional' judgement and experience.
They are not meant to be all inclusive but examples of considera-
tions, requirements, and format which should be adapted for
incident-specific conditions.
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ANNEX 8
RESPONSE SAFETY CHECK-OFF SHEET
(minimum required data)
I. BEFORE RESPONSE	Employee
1. Incident: Site 	City 	State
a. Response Dates 	
2.	Type of Response: Spill 	Fire 	 Site 	Train	Other
3.	Incident Safety Plan: Region	 ERT	 Not Developed
4.	Suspected chemical(s) involved: (a) 	 (b) 	
(c) 	 (d)		
5. Protective Level(s) involved: A 	 B 	 C 	 D
(a) If Level C - 1. Identify Canister 	
2. Describe air monitoring source(s)
(b) If Level D JUSTIFY (in comments section at bottom of page),
6. SCBA-Identify Buddy: Name/Organization 	
7. Last Response: (a) Level Used: A	 B
(b) Medical Attention/Exam Performed: Yes 	 No
II. AFTER RESPONSE
1. Protective Level Used: A	B	C	D
a. Level C - identify cannister: 	 b. Level D (comment belc
c. Level B or C skin protection: Tyvek/Saran 	 Acid/Rain 	 Other_
2. List possible chemical exposure: Same as above: (a)
(b) 	 (c) 	TdT~
3.	Equipment Decontamination: (a) clothing (b) respirator (c) monitorin
Disposed:
Cleaned:
No Action: 	
4.	Approximate time in exclusion area: 	 hours per day for 	
5. Was medical attention/exam required for this response: Yes 	 No
Part I: DATE PREPARED: 	 Reviewed by 	 Date
Part II: DATE PREPARED: 	 Reviewed by 	 Date
COMMENTS:
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ANNEX 9
(Suggested format for minimum site safety plan)
SITE SAFETY PLAN
(Name-of Hazardous Waste Site/Spill)
I.	General Information
As a minimum, all personnel involved with emergency response, waste
site cleanup, drum handling and opening, sampling, site investigations,
etc., will follow the applicable Federal/State rules and regulations. In
addition, all site personnel will follow, as a minimum, U.S. Environmenta
Protection Agency, Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, Hazardous
Response Support Division's, Standard Operating Safety Guides and Chapter
9 Hazardous Substance Response, from the EPA Occupation Health and Safety
Manual.
In the event of conflicting plans/requirements, personnel must imple-
ment those safety practices which afford the highest personnel protection
If site conditions change and it is necessary to modify Levels of
Protection A, B, or C the safety designee on-site shall notify the On-Sce
Coordinator before making recommendations to site personnel.
II.	APPROVALS
(SIGNATURE)	^	 (SIGNATURE)	
On-Scene-Coordinator (OSC)	DATE Safety Officer	DATE
(SIGNATURE)	(SIGNATURE)
REVIEW COMMITTEE	DATE OTHERS	DATE
III. Summary of Minimum Requirements
A. The safety officer/designee shall:
1.	Describe chemicals, hazards, and risk involved
2.	List key personnel
a.	Response manager (OSC)/alternate 	
b.	Safety officer(s)/alternate 	
c.	Other responsible site personnel/alternate 	
3.	Prescribe Levels of Protection
4.	Designate work zones: Support area, contamination reduction
area, exclusion area.
5.	Implement procedures to control site access.
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6.	Define decontamination procedures.
7.	Delineate entry and escape routes.
8.	Identify/contact medical facility, etc.:
a.
Fire
b.
Ambulance
c.
Pol ice
d.
Health
e.
Etc.
9.	List responsible parties and emergency contacts:
a.	Federal Government EPA/USCG/CDC/OSHA	
b.	State Government Environmental/Health Agency	
c.	County/City Government 	
10.	Establish personnel air monitoring.
11.	Specify routine and special training needed
12.	Establish procedures for managing weather-related problems.
B. Levels of Protection
1. Level C protection should be used for those job functions
1isted below where there is no potential for personnel
contact with either hazardous materials or gases, vapors, or
particulates exceeding requirements for wearing air-purifying
respi rators.
(Identify job functions in this paragraph:
e.g. - monitoring/surveillance, supervisors,
observers, etc.)
(Identify specific type of respirator in this paragraph:
e.g. - approved respirator and type of canister.)
(Identify skin protection in this paragraph:
e.g. - double boots, double gloves, tyvek/saran hooded,
disposable coveralls, etc.)
A9-2

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2.	Level B protection should be used for those job functions
listed below which based either on potential or known
site conditions and/or vapor and gas concentrations,
Level C is unsatisfactory.
Identify job functions in this paragraph:
(e.g. - Heavy equipment operations, samplers, equipment/
drum handlers, etc.)
Identify specific respiratory protection in this paragraph:
(e.g. - self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), air-line
respi rator)
Identify skin protection in this paragraph:
(e.g. - double boots, double gloves, type of chemical re-
sistant garment, etc)
3.	If Level A protection is applicable, write a paragraph in
plan listing where and when it is to be worn.
4.	Level D is not adequate protection for any work on-site
where potential for exposure is possible.
5.	Levels C and B may be modified based on monitoring and
sampling data collected on-site. Safety designee should
not make any modification to the Level of Protection
without discussing it with the On-Scene-Coordinator.
Air monitoring - Refer to, Standard Operating Safety
Guides, Part 8, Air Surveillance.
Trai ni ng
Personnel will have either formal training or prior on-the-
job-training for those tasks they are assigned to at the
incident. All unfamiliar activities will be rehearsed
beforehand.
Respiratory Protection Program
All contractor and government personnel involved in on-site
activities shall have a written respiratory protection pro-
gram. All personnel wearing air-purifying respirator on-site
are required to be fit-tested. All personnel wearing respir-
ators must have been properly trained in their use. All
respirators are to be properly decontaminated at the end of
each workday.
Persons having beards or facial hair must not wear a respir-
ator if a proper mask-to-face-seal can not be demonstrated by
a fit test. A log of all individuals wearing personnel
protective equipment shall be maintained including time in
the exclusion zone.
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F.	All contractor and government personnel who are exposed to
hazardous levels of chemicals must be enrolled in a medical
monitoring program.
G.	General Safety Rules and Equipment
1.	There will be no eating, drinking, or smoking in the ex-
clusion or contamination reduction zone.
2.	All personnel must pass through the contamination reduc-
tion zone to enter or exit the exclusion zone.
3.	As a minimum, emergency eye washes will be on the hot side
of the contamination reduction zone and/or at the work
station.
4.	As a minimum, an emergency deluge shower/spray cans are to
be located on the clean side of the contamination reduc-
tion area.
5.	At the end of the work day, all personnel working in the
exclusion area shall take a hygienic shower.
6.	All supplied breathing air shall be certified as grade D or
better.
7.	Where practical, all tools/equipment will be spark proof,
explosion resistant, and/or bonded and grounded.
8.	fire extinguishers will be on-site for use on equipment
or small fires only.
9.	Since site evacuation may be necessary if an explosion,
fire, or release occurs, an individual shall be assigned
to sound an alert and notify the responsible public
officals if required. For example, the evacuation signal
may be two long blasts every 30 seconds until all person-
nel are evacuated and accounted for.
10.	An adequately stocked first-aid kit will be on-scene at
all times during operational hours. It is suggested that
an oxygen inhalator respirator be available and a quali-
fied operator present. The location of these items and
the operator shall be posted.
H.	Morning Safety Meeting
A morning safety meeting will be conducted for all site per-
sonnel and they will sign a daily attendance sheet and should
sign a master sheet indicating they have read the site safety
plan and will comply. The safety procedures, and the day's
planned operations should be discussed.
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ANNEX 10
1440 TNI2
5/15/84
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY MANUAL
APPENDIX A - SAMPLE SAFETY PLAN
Assistance in preparing the safety plan can be obtained from
the OHS
Designee 	 located in Room 	 of Building 	
or by telephoning 	.
REVIEW
Response Safety Committee Chairperson 	
APPROVALS
OSC/SFC		
OHS Designee		
OIC		
PROJECT LEADER
Branch		
Building		
Room		
Phone		
DATE OF PLAN PREPARATION 	
HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE RESPONSE
Site Name 	Site No. 	
HAZARDOUS/SUBSTANCES (known or suspected, contaminated media
or in storage container, etc.):
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14 40 TNI 2
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OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY MANUAL
HAZARD ASSESSMENT (toxic effects, reactivity, stability,
flammabi1ity, and operational hazards with
sampling, decontaminating, etc.):
MONITORING PROCEDURES (If required by the Project Leader)
Monitoring the site for identity and concentration of
contamination in all media:
Medical monitoring procedures for evidence of personnel
exposure:
Personnel monitoring procedures:
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1440 TNI 2
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OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY MANUAL
DECONTAMINATION AND DISPOSAL
Decontamination Procedures (contaminated: personnel
surfaces, materials, instruments,
equipment, etc):
Disposal Procedures (contaminated equipment, supplies,
disposable, washwater):
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
In event of overt personnel exposure (skin contact,
inhalation, ingestion):
In event of personnel injury:
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1440 TNI 2
5/15/84
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY MANUAL
In event of potential or actual fire or explosion:
In event of potential or actual ionizing radiation exposure:
In event of environmental accident (spread of contamination
outs ide sites):
EMERGENCY SERVICES (complete here or have separate list available
on-site)
Location	Telephone
Emergency Medical Facility
Ambulance Service
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1440 TN12
5/15/84
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY MANUAL
Locat ion	Telephone
Fire Department
Police Department
Poison Control Center
PERSONNEL POTENTIALLY EXPOSED TO HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES
Personnel	Authorized to Enter site
1.		
2.		
3.		
4.		
5.		
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1440 TN12
5/15/84
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY MANUAL
Other Personnel Assigned to Handle Hazardous Substances
(decontaminate, analyze samples)
1.		
2.		
3.		
4 . 	
5.
ALTERNATIVE WORK PRACTICES
(Describe alternative work practices not specified in this
Chapter. Indicate work practices specified in the
Chapter for which proposed alternative work practices
will serve as substitute.)
APPROPRIATE LITERATURE CITATIONS
LEVEL OF PROTECTION
SITE MAP
(Attach a site map in advance of a response, if possible, or
at an early stage of an emergency response. Map should be
properly scaled and keyed to local landmarks.)
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APPENDIX I
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE HNU PHOTOIONIZER
AND
ORGANIC VAPOR ANALYZER
I. INTRODUCTION
The HNU Photoicnizer and the Foxboro Organic Vapor Analyzer (OVA)* are
used in the field to detect a variety of compounds in air. The two
instruments differ in their modes of operation and in the number and
types of compounds they detect (Table 1-1). Both instruments can be
used to detect leaks of volatile substances from drums and tanks,
determine the presence of volatile compounds in soil and water, make
ambient air surveys, and collect continuous air monitoring data. If
personnel are thoroughly trained to operate the instruments and to
interpret the data, these instrument's can be valuable tools for
helping to decide the levels of protection to be worn, assist in
determining other safety procedures, and determine subsequent moni-
toring or sampling locations.
II. OVA
The OVA operates in two different modes. In the survey mode, it can
determine approximate total concentration of all detectable species
in air. With the gas chromatograph (GC) option, individual components
can be detected and measured independently, with some detection
limits as low as a few parts per million (ppm).
In the GC mode, a small sample of ambient air is injected into a
chromatographic column and carried through the column by a stream of
hydrogen gas. Contaminants with different chemical structures are
retained on the column for different lengths of time (known as reten-
tion times) and hence are detected separately by the flame ionization
detector. A strip chart recorder can be used to record the retention
times, which are then compared to the retention times of a standard
with known chemical constituents. The sample can either be injected
into the column from the air sampling hose or injected directly with
a gas-tight syringe.
In the survey mode, the OVA is internally calibrated to methane by
the manufacturer. When the instrument is adjusted to manufacturer's
instructions it indicates the true concentration of methane in air.
In response to all other detectable compounds, however, the instrument
reading may be higher or lower than the true concentration. Relative
*The use of any trade names does not imply their endorsement by
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
1-1

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TABLE 1-1
COMPARISON OF THE OVA AND HNU
Response
Application
Detector
L i mitati ons
Calibration gas
Ease of
operati on
Detection limits
Response time
Mai ntenance
Useful range
Service life
OVA
Responds to many organic gases
and vapors.
In survey mode, detects total
concentrations of gases and
vapors. In GC mode, identifies
and measures specific compounds.
Flame ionization detector (FID)
Does not respond to inorganic
gases and vapors. Kit available
for temperature control.
Methane
Requires experience to inter-
pret correctly, especially
in GC mode.
0.1 ppm (methane)
2-3 seconds (survey mode)
for CH4
Periodically clean and inspect
particle filters, valve rings,
and burner chamber. Check
calibration and pumping system
for leaks. Recharge battery
after each use.
HNU
Responds to many organic
and some inorganic gases
and vapors.
In survey mode, detects
total concentrations of
gases and vapors. Some
identification of compounds
possible, if more than one
probe is used.
Photoionization detector (PID)
Does not respond to methane.
Does not detect a compound if
probe has a lower energy than
compound's ionization potential.
Benzene
Fai rly easy to use and
interpret.
0.1 ppm (benzene)
3 seconds for 90% of
total concentration of benzene.
Clean UV lamp frequently.
Check calibration regularly.
Recharge battery after each
use.
0-1000 ppm	0-2000 ppm
8 hours; 3 hours with strip	10 hours; 5 hours with
chart recorder.	strip chart recorder.
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response ratios for substances other than methane are available. To
correctly interpret the readout, it is necessary to either make
calibration charts relating the instrument readings to the true
concentration or to adjust the instrument so that it reads correctly.
This is done by turning the ten-turn gas-select knob, which adjusts
the response of the instrument. The knob is normally set at 3.00 when
calibrated to methane. Calibration to another gas is done by mea-
suring a known concentration of a gas and adjusting the gas select
knob until the instrument reading equals that concentration.
The OVA has an inherent limitation in that it can detect only organic
molecules. Also, it should not be used at temperatures lower than
about 40 degrees Fahrenheit because gases condense in the pump and
column. It has no column temperature control, (although temperature
control kits are available) and since retention times vary with
ambient temperatures for a given column, determinations of contam-
inants are difficult. Despite these limitations, the GC mode can
often provide tentative information on the identity of contaminants
in air without relying on costly, time-consuming laboratory analysis.
HNU
The HNU portable photoionizer detects the concentration of organic
gases as well as a few inorganic gases. The basis for detection is
the ionization of gaseous species. Every molecule has a character-
istic ionization potential (I.P.) which is the energy required to
remove an electron from the molecule, yielding a positively charged
ion and the free electron. The incoming gas molecules are subjected
to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, which is energetic enough to ionize
many gaseous compounds. Each molecule is tranformed into charged ion
pairs, creating a current between two electrodes.
Three probes, each containing a different UV light source, are avail-
able for use with the HNU. Ionizing energies of the probe are 9.5,
10.2, and 11.7 electron volts (eV). All three detect many aromatic
and large molecule hydrocarbons. The 10.2 eV and 11.7 eV probes, in
addition, detect some smaller organic molecules and some halogenated
hydrocarbons. The 10.2 eV probe is the most useful for environmental
response work, as it is more durable than the 11.7 eV probe and
detects more compounds than the 9.5 eV probe.
The HNU factory calibration gas is benzene. The span potentiometer
(calibration) knob is turned to 9.8 for benzene calibration. A knob
setting of zero increases the response to benzene approximately
tenfold. As with the OVA, the instrument's response can be adjusted
to give more accurate readings for specific gases and eliminate the
necessity for calibration charts.
1-3

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While the primary use of the HNU is as a quantitative instrument, it
can also be used to detect certain contaminants, or at least to
narrow the range of possiblities. Noting instrument response to a
contaminant source with different probes can eliminate some conta-
minants from consideration. For instance, a compound's ionization
potential may be such that the 9.5 eV probe produces no response, but
the 10.2 eV and 11.7 eV probes do elicit a response. The HNU does
not detect methane.
The HNU is easier to use than the OVA. Its lower detection limit
is also in the low ppm range. The response time is rapid; the meter
needle reaches 90% of the indicated concentration in 3 seconds for
benzene. It can be zeroed in a contaminated atomosphere and does
not detect methane.
IV. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Both of these instruments can monitor only certain vapors and gases
in air. Many nonvolatile liquids, toxic solids, particulates, and
other toxic gases and vapors cannot be detected. Because the types
of compounds that the HNU and OVA can potentially detect are only
a fraction of the chemicals possibly present at an incident, a zero
reading on either instrument does not necessarily signify the absence
of air contaminants.
The instruments are non-specific, and their response to different
compounds is relative to the calibration setting. Instrument readings
may be higher or lower than the true concentration. This can be an
especially serious problem when monitoring for total contaminant
concentrations if several different compounds are being detected at
once. In addition, the response of these instruments is not linear
over the entire detection range. Care must therefore be taken when
interpreting the data. All identifications should be reported as
tentative until they can be confirmed by more precise analysis.
Concentrations should be reported in terms of the calibration gas and
span potentiometer or gas-select-knob setting.
Since the OVA and HNU are small, portable instruments, they cannot be
expected to yield results as accurate as laboratory instruments.
They were originally designed for specific industrial applications.
They are relatively easy to use and interpret when detecting total
concentrations of individually known contaminants in air, but
interpretation becomes extremely difficult when trying to quantify
the components of a mixture. Neither instrument can be used as an
indicator for combustible gases or oxygen deficiency.
The OVA (Model 128) is certified by Factory Mutual to be used in
Class I, Division 1, Groups A,B,C, and D environments. The HNU is
certified by Factory Mutual for use in Class I, Division 2, Groups,
A, B, C, and D.
1-4

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APPENDIX II
RATIONALE FOR RELATING TOTAL ATMOSPHERIC VAPOR/GAS CONCENTRATIONS
TO THE SELECTION OF THE LEVEL OF PROTECTION
I. INTRODUCTION
The objective of using total* atmospheric vapor/gas concentrations for
determining the appropriate Level of Protection is to provide a
numerical criterion for selecting Level A, B, or C. In situations
where the presence of vapors or gases is not known, or if present,
the individual components are unknown, personnel required to enter
that environment must be protected. Until the constituents and
corresponding atmospheric concentrations of vapor, gas, or particulate
can be determined and respiratory and body protection related to the
toxicological properties of the identified substances chosen, total
vapor/gas concentration, with judicious interpretation, can be used
as a guide for selecting personnel protection equipment.
Although total vapor/gas concentration measurements are useful to a
qualified professional for the selection of protective equipment,
caution should be exercised in interpretation. An instrument does
not respond with the same sensitivity to several vapor/gas contam-
inants as it does to a single contaminant. Also since total vapor/
gas field instruments see all contaminants in relation to a specific
calibration gas, the concentration of unknown gases or vapors may be
over or under-estimated.
Suspected carcinogens, particulates, highly hazardous substances, or
other substances that do not elicit an instrument response may be
known or believed to be present. Therefore, the protection level
should not be based solely on the total vapor/gas criterion. Rather,
the level should be selected case-by-case, with special emphasis on
potential exposure and chemical and toxicological characteristics of
the known or suspected material.
II. FACTORS FOR CONSIDERATION
In utilizing total atmospheric vapor/gas concentrations as a guide
for selecting a Level of Protection, a number of other factors should
also be considered:
- The uses, limitations, and operating characteristics of the
monitoring instruments must be recognized and understood.
Instruments such as the HNU Photoionizer, Foxboro Organic Vapor
*See Part VII for explanation of term.
II-l

-------
Analyzer (OVA), MIRAN Infrared Spectrophotometer, and others do
not respond identically to the same concentration of a substance
or respond to all substances. Therefore, experience, knowledge,
and good judgement must be used to complement the data obtained
with instruments.
-	Other hazards may exist such as gases not detected by the HNU or
OVA, (i.e. phosgene, cyanides, arsenic, chlorine), explosives,
flammable materials, oxygen deficiency, liquid/solid particles, and
liquid or solid chemicals.
-	Vapors/gases with a very low TLV or IDLH could be present. Total
readings on instruments, not calibrated to these substances, may
not indicate unsafe conditions.
-	The risk to personnel entering an area must be weighed against
the need for entering. Although this assessment is largely a
value judgment, it requires a conscientious balancing of the
variables involved and the risk to personnel against the need to
enter an unknown environment.
-	The knowledge that suspected carcinogens or substances extremely
toxic or destructive to skin are present or suspected to be present
(which may not be reflected in total vapor/gas concentration)
requires an evaluation of factors such as the potential for ex-
posure, chemical characteristics of the material, limitation of
instruments, and other considerations specific to the incident.
-	What needs to be done on-site must be evaluated. Based upon total
atmospheric vapor concentrations, Level C protection may be judged
adequate; however, tasks such as moving drums, opening containers,
and bulking of materials, which increase the probability of liquid
splashes or generation of vapors, gases, or particulates, may
require a higher level of protection.
-	Before any respiratory protective apparatus is issued, a respir-
atory protection program must be developed and implemented ac-
cording to recognized standards (ANSI Z88.2-1980).
LEVEL A PROTECTION (500 to 1,000 PPM ABOVE BACKGROUND)
Level A protection provides the highest degree of respiratory tract,
skin, and eye protection if the inherent limitations of the personnel
protective equipment are not exceeded. The range of 500 to 1,000
parts per million (ppm) total vapors/gases concentration in air was
selected based on the following criteria:
- Although Level A provides protection against air concentrations
greater than 1,000 ppm for most substances, an operational re-
striction of 1,000 ppm is established as a warning flag to:
11-2

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-- evaluate the need to enter environments with unknown
concentrations greater than 1,000 ppm
-- identify the specific constituents contributing to the total
concentration and their associated toxic properties
-- determine more precisely concentrations of constituents
-- evaluate the calibration and/or sensitivity error associated
with the instrument(s)
-- evaluate instrument sensitivity to wind velocity, humidity
temperature, etc.
-	A limit of 500 ppm total vapors/gases in air was selected as the
value to consider upgrading from Level B to Level A. Thirs concen-
tration was selected to fully protect the skin until the constit-
uents can be identified and measured and substances affecting the
skin excluded.
-	The range of 500 to 1,000 ppm is sufficiently conservative to pro-
vide a safe margin of protection if readings are low due to instru-
ment error, calibration, and sensitivity; if higher than antici-
pated concentrations occur; and if substances highly toxic to the
skin are present.
With properly operating portable field equipment, ambient air
concentrations approaching 500 ppm have not routinely been encoun-
tered on hazardous waste sites. High concentrations have been
encountered only in closed buildings, when containers were being
opened, when personnel were working in the spilled contaminants,
or when organic vapors/gases were released in transportation
accidents. A decision to require Level A protection should also
consider the negative aspects: higher probability of accidents due
to cumbersome equipment, and most importantly, the physical stress
caused by heat buildup in fully encapsulating suits.
LEVEL B PROTECTION (5 to 500 ABOVE BACKGROUND)
Level B protection is the minimum Level of Protection recommended
for initially entering an open site where the type, concentration,
and presence of airborne vapors are unknown. This Level of Protection
provides a high degree of respiratory protection. Skin and eyes are
also protected, although a small portion of the body (neck and sides
of head) may be exposed. The use of a separate hood or hooded,
chemical-resistant jacket would further reduce the potential for
exposure to this area of the body. Level B impermeable protective
clothing also increases the probability of heat stress.
11-3

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A limit of 500 ppm total atmospheric vapor/gas concentration on
portable field instruments has been selected as the upper restriction
on the use of Level B. Although Level B personnel protection should
be adequate for most commonly encountered substances at air concen-
trations higher than 500 ppm, this limit has been selected as a
decision point for a careful evaluation of the risks associated with
higher concentrations. These factors should be considered:
-	The necessity for entering unknown concentrations higher than 500
ppm wearing Level B protection.
-	The probability that substance(s) present are severe skin hazards.
-	The work to be done and the increased probability of exposure.
-	The need for qualitative and quantitative identification of the
specific components.
Inherent limitations of the instruments used for air monitoring.
Instrument sensitivity to winds, humidity, temperature, and other
factors.
V. LEVEL C PROTECTION (BACKGROUND TO 5 PPM ABOVE BACKGROUND)
Level C provides skin protection identical to Level B, assuming the
same type of chemical protective clothing is worn, but lesser pro-
tection against inhalation hazards. A range of background to 5 ppm
above ambient background concentrations of vapors/gases in the atmos-
phere has been established as guidance for selecting Level C pro-
tection. Concentrations in the air of unidentified vapors/gases
approaching or exceeding 5 ppm would warrant upgrading respiratory
protection to a self-contained breathing apparatus.
A full-face, air-purifying mask equipped with an organic vapor can-
ister (or a combined organic vapor/particulate canister) provides
protection against low concentrations of most common organic vapors/
gases. There are some substances against which full-face, canister-
equipped masks do not protect, or substances that have very low
Threshold Limit Values or Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health
concentrations. Many of the latter substances are gases or liquids
in their normal state. Gases would only be found in gas cylinders,
while the liquids would not ordinarily be found in standard con-
tainers or drums. Every effort should be made to identify the in-
dividual constituents (and the presence of particulates) contributing
to the total vapor readings of a few parts per million. Respiratory
protective equipment can then be selected accordingly. It is ex-
ceedingly difficult, however, to provide constant, real-time iden-
tification of all components in a vapor cloud with concentrations of
a few parts per million at a site where ambient concentrations are
constantly changing. If highly toxic substances have been ruled out,
11-4

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but ambient levels of a few parts per million persist, it is unreas-
onable to assume only self-contained breathing apparatus should be
worn. The continuous use of air-purifying masks in vapor/gas concen-
trations of a few parts per million gives a reasonable assurance that
the respiratory tract is protected, provided that the absence of
highly toxic substances has been confirmed.
Full-face, air-purifying devices provide respiratory protection
against most vapors at greater than 5 ppm; however, until more
definitive qualitative information is available, concentration(s)
greater than 5 ppm indicates that a higher level of respiratory
protection should be used. Also, unanticipated transient excursions
may increase the concentrations in the environment above the limits
of air-purifying devices. The increased probability of exposure due
to the work being done may require Level B protection, even though
ambient levels are low.
INSTRUMENT SENSITIVITY
Although the measurement of total vapor/gas concentrations can be a
useful adjunct to professional judgment in the selection of an appro-
priate Level of Protection, caution should be used in the inter-
pretation of the measuring instrument's readout. The response of an
instrument to a gas or vapor cloud containing two or more substances
does not provide the same sensitivity as measurements involving the
individual pure constituents. Hence the instrument readout may
overestimate or underestimate the concentration of an unknown com-
posite cloud'. This same type of inaccuracy could also occur in
measuring a single unknown substance with the instrument calibrated
to a different substance. The idiosyncrasies of each instrument must
be considered in conjunction with the other parameters in selecting
the protection equipment needed.
Using the total vapor/gas concentration as a criterion used to deter-
mine Levels of Protection should provide protection against concen-
trations greater than the instrument's readout. However, when the
upper limits of Level C and B are approached, serious consideration
should be given to selecting a higher Level of Protection. Cloud
constituent(s) must be identified as rapidly as possible and Levels
of Protection based on the toxic properties of the specific sub-
stance^) identified.
I. EXPLANATION OF PHRASE TOTAL ATMOSPHERIC VAPOR/GAS CONCENTRATION
The phrase total atmospheric vapor/gas concentration is commonly
used to describe the readout, in ppm, on PIDs and FIDs. More
correctly it should be called a dial reading or needle deflection.
In atmospheres that contain a single vapor/gas or mixtures of
vapors/gases that have not been identified, the instruments do not
11-5

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read the total vapors/gases present only the instrument's response.
This response, as indicated by a deflection of the needle in the
dial, does not indicate the true concentration. Accurate dial
readings can only be obtained by calibrating the instrument to the
substance being measured.
11-6

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APPENDIX III
DERMAL TOXICITY DATA
I. SELECTION OF CHEMICALS
The approximately 350 chemicals listed in Table 111-1, at the end of
this appendix, are identified in the Oil and Hazardous Materials
Technical Assistance System (OHMTADS) as being dermally active.
Since OHMTADS contains only about 1200 chemicals, or may not indicate
a listed chemical as a skin hazard, other reference sources should
also be consulted.
The data in Table 111-1 were compiled by a toxicologist through a
special project with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. As
with any source of information, the data should be cross-checked
against other standard references.
II. USE OF TABLES
A. Categories
Table 111-1 divides chemicals into two categories:
Category 1 (more serious), which includes:
-	Gases having a systemic dermal toxicity rating of moderate to
extremely hazardous and a skin penetration ranking of moderate
to high.
-	Liquids and solids having a systemic dermal toxicity rating of
extremely hazardous and a skin penetration ranking of moderate
to high.
-	Gases having a local dermal toxicity rating of moderate to
extremely hazardous.
-	Liquids and solids having a local dermal toxicity rating of
extremely hazardous.
Category 2 (less serious), which includes:
-	Gases having a systemic dermal toxicity rating of slightly
hazardous and a skin penetration ranking of slight.
-	Liquids and solids having a systemic dermal toxicity rating of
slightly hazardous and a skin penetration ranking of moderate
to siight.
111-1

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-	Gases having a local dermal toxicity rating of slightly haz-
ardous.
-	Liquids and solids having a local dermal toxicity rating of
moderate to slightly hazardous.
B.	Physical State
The physical state of the chemicals listed is their normal state.
In a fire, some listed as solids or liquids could vaporize and
represent a greater hazard to the skin. The chemicals listed may
also be found mixed with other substances, which could change how
they affect the skin.
C.	Skin Penetration
Negligible Penetration (solid - polar)
+ Slight Penetration (solid - nonpolar)
++ Moderate Penetration (liquid/solid - nonpolar)
+++ High Penetration (gas/liquid - nonpolar)
D.	Potency (Systemic)
+++	Extreme Hazard (LD50: 1 mg/kg-50 mg/kg)
++	Moderate Hazard (LD5q: 50-500 mg/kg)
+	Slight Hazard (LD50: 500-15,000 mg/kg)
Potency (Local )
+++	Extreme - Tissue destruction/necrosis
++	Moderate - Irritation/inflamation of skin
+	Slight - Reddening of skin
Lethal amount to
a 70-kilogram man
drops to 20 ml
1 ounce - 1 pint
(1 pound)
1 pint - 1 quart
(2.2 pounds)
III. RELATION OF TABLE III-l AND LEVELS OF PROTECTION
The purpose of Table 111-1 is to provide data that a qualified person
can use in conjunction with other site-specific knowledge to select
protective clothing. The data relate to skin toxicity only and
should not be used to select respiratory protection equipment.
111-2

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The known or suspected presence and/or measured concentration of
Category 1 chemicals at or above the listed concentrations warrants
wearing a fully encapsulating suit (Level A). The known or suspected
presence and/or measured concentration of Category 2 chemicals at or
above the listed concentrations suggests that a lesser level of skin
protection (Level B or C) is needed.
There is no decision-logic for choosing protective clothing as there
is for choosing respiratory protective equipment. The use of a fully
encapsulating suit over other types of chemical-resistant clothing is
generally a judgment made by a qualified individual based on an
evaluation of all pertinent information available about the specific
incident. Other guidance and criteria for selecting personnel pro-
tection equipment are contained in Part 5, Site Entry - Levels of
Protection and in Appendix II.
IV. OTHER REFERENCES
Table 111-1 does not include all substances affecting the skin.
Other standard references should be consulted, in particular:
-	Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Physical Agents
in the Workroom Environment With Intended Changes for 1982,
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygieni sts, 6500
Glenway Ave., Building D-5, Cincinnati, OH 45211 (1982).
-	NI0SH/0SHA Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402 (August 1981).
-	Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical Substances, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402 (1980).
Whenever possible, data in one reference should be cross-checked with
other references.
111-3

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TABLE III-l
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
2,2 Dichloropropionic acid
sol 1d
+
local
++
-
2
2,4,5 - T Acid
solid
+
systemic
local
+
++
10 mg/m^/8h
2
2,4,5 - T Amines
sol id
+
systemic
local
+
++
10 mg/m^/8h
2
2,4,5 - T Esters
sol 1d
+
systemic
local
+
+
10 mg/m^/8h
2
2,4,5 - TP Acid
solid
+
systemic
local
+
++
10 mg/m^/8h
2
2,4,5 - TP Acid Esters
11 quid
++
systemic
local
+
+
10 mg/m^/8h
2
2,4,5 - T Salts
sol id
+
systemic
local
+
+
10 mg/m^/8h
2
2,4 - D Acid
sol 1d
+
systemic
local
+
++
10 mg/m^/8h
2
2,4 - Dlchlorophenol
sol Id
+
systemic
local
+
++
-
2
2,4 - D - Esters
11qu1d
++
systemic
local
+
+
10 mg/m^/Sh
2
2 - Ethylhexyl Acrylate
liquid
++
local
+++
-
2
2 - Methyl - 5 - ethyl pyri-
dine
11 quid
++
local
+
-
2

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TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
2 - Napthol
solid
+
local
++
-
2
3,5 - Xylenol
sol id
+
systemic
local
++
+
-
2
Acetaldehyde
liquid
+
local
systemic
++
+
200 ppm/8h
360 mg/rrr/8h
2
Acetic Anhydride
11 quid
+
local
systemic
++
+
5 ppm/8h
20 mg/nr/8h
2
Acetone
liquid
+++
local
++
1,000 ppm/8h
2,400 mg/m"V8h
2
Acetone Cyanohydrin
liquid
++
systemic
+++
10 ppm/8h
1
Acetoacetone
11 qui d
++
local
++
-
2
Acetyl Bromide
fuming
1iquid
+++
local
+++
5 ppm/15 min
1
Acetyl Chloride
fuming
1iquid
+++
local
+++
5 ppm/15 min
1
Acridine
sol 1d
+
local
sensitizer
+++
-
2
Acrolein
liquid
+
local
sensitizer
+++
0.1 ppm/8h
.25 mg/nr/8h
2
Acrylonitrile
liquid
+++
systemic
local
+++
++
2 ppm/8h
1
1

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TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Adlpic Acid
solid
~
local
+
-
2
Adiponltrile
liquid
-M-+
systemic
+++
18 mg/m^/8h
1
Alkyldimethyl 3,4 -
Dichlorobenzylammonium
Chloride
liquid

local
+
-
2
Allyl Alcohol
11quid
++
systemic
local
++
++
2 ppm/8h
5 mg/m3/8h
2
Allyl Chloride
11 quid

local
-H-
1 ppm/8h
3 mg/m3/8h
2
Ammoni a
gas
+
local
+++
25 ppm/8h
18 mg/nr/8h
1
Ammonium Bicarbonate
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Ammonium Bichromate
solid
+
local
++
-
2i
Ammonium Blfluoride
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Ammonium Bisulfite
solid
+
local
+++
-
2
Ammonium Carbamate
solid
+
local
+
-
2
Ammonium Carbonate
solid
+
local
++
-
2

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TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Ammonium Citrate
(Dibasic)
sol 1d
+
local
+++
-
2
Ammonium Ferrocyanlde
sol 1d
+
local
+
-
2
Ammonium Hydroxide
11 qui d
++
local
+++
-
1
Airenonium Phosphate
(Dibasic)
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Ammonium Sulfamate
solid
+
local
++
10 mg/m^/8h
2
Ammonium Sulfide
sol id
+
local
++
-
2
Aimionium Sulfite
sol id
+
local
++
-
2
Ammonium Tartrate
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Ammonium Thiocyanate
sol id
++
local
systemic
+++
++
-
2
Ammonium Thiosulfate
sol id
+
local
++
-
2
Ani1ine
11 qui d
++
local
++
5 ppm/8h
2
Antimony
solid
+
systemic
local
++
++
0.5 mg/m^/8h
2

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TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Antimony Pentachlorlde
11qu1d
++
local
+++
-
2
Argon - 37 (radioactive)
gas
+++
systemic
+-H-
-
1
Arslne
gas
+++
systemic
+++
0.05 mg/m^/8h
1
Arsenic
solid
++
local
systemic
+++
+++
.25 mg/m^/8h
1
Arsenic-74 (radioactive)
sol 1d
++
systemic
+++
-
1
Arsenic-76 (radioactive)
solid
++
systemic
+++
-
1
Arsen1c-77 (radioactive)
sol id
++
systemic
+++
-
1
Arsenic Acid
sol id
++
local
systemic
+++
+++
0.5 mg/m^/8h
1
Arsenic Disulfide
sol id
++
local
systemic
+++
+++
-
1
Arsenic Pentoxide
sol id
++
local
systemic
+++
+++
-
1
Arsenic Tribromlde
solid
++
local
systemic
+++
+++
0.5 mg/m^/8h
1
Arsenic Trichloride
solid
++
local
systemic
+++
+++
0.5 mg/m^/8h
1

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TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Arsenic Trioxide
sol id
++
local
systemic
+++
+++
.25 mg/m^/8h
1
Arsenic Trisulfide
solid
++
local
systemic
+++
+++
0.5 mg/m^/8h
1
Barium
solid
+
local
++
0.5 mg/m^/8h
2
Benzene
1i quid
++
local
systemic
++
+++
75 ppm/30 min
1
Benzophenone
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Benzoyl Chloride
liquid
++
local
+++
5 mg/m^/8h
1
Benzoyl Peroxide
solid
++
local
+++
5 mg/m^/8h
1
Benzyl Alcohol
1i quid
++
local
systemic
++
+
-
2
Benzyl Benzoate
1i quid
++
local
++
-
2
Benzyl Bromide
1iquid
++
local
++
-
2
Benzyl Chloride
1i quid
++
local
+++
1 ppm/8h
2
Beryllium Nitrate
sol id
+
local
++
0.25 mg/m3/8h
2

-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Brombenzylcyan 1de
liquid
<77 F-solid
-H-
local
systemic
++
+++
-
1
Calcium Hypochlorite
solid
+
local
++
-
1
Calcium Oxide
solid
+
local
++
10 mg/m^/30 min
2
Calcium Phosphide
solid
+
local
-H-
-
2
Camphor
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
2 ppm/8h
2
Captan
solid
-H-
local
systemic
++
++
5 mg/m^/8h
2
Carbaryl
solid
++
local
systemic
+
++
5 mg/m^/8h
2
Carbofuran
1iquid
++
local
systemic
+++
+++
0.1 mg/m^/8h
1
Carbon Disulfide
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
+++
20 ppm/8h
60 mg/m3/8h
1
Carbon Monoxide
gas
+++
systemic
+++
50 ppm/8h
1
Carbon Tetrachloride
1iquid
+++
systemic
local
+++
+
10 ppm/8h
1
Cetyldimethylbenzyl -
ammonium Chloride
sol id
+
local
+
-
2

-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Chloracetophenone
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
.05 ppm/8h
2
Chlordane
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
.5 mg/m^/8h
2
Bromine
1iquid
(fuming)
++
local
systemic
+++
++
.1 ppm/8h
1
Butyl amine
liquid
++
local
+++
5 ppm/8h
1
Butyl Mercaptan
1iquid
++
local
++
.5 ppm/8h
2
Butyric Acid
1iquid
++
local
++
-
2
Calcium Arsenate
solid
+
local
systemic
++
+++
1 mg/m^/8h
1
Calcium Arsenlte
solid
+
local
systemic
++
+++
-
1
Calcium Carbide
sol 1d
+
local
++
-
2
Calcium Cyanide
sol id
++
systemic
local
+++
++
5 mg/m^/10 m1n
1
Chlorine
gas
+++
local
+++
1 ppm/8h
3 mg/iTr/8h
1
Chlorine - 36 (radioactive)
gas
+++
local
+++
-
1

-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Chloroacetic Acid
sol id
++
local
++
-
2
Chlorobenzene
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
75 ppm/8h
350 mg/m3/8h
2
Chlorobutadiene
1iquid
++
local
++
25 ppm/8h
2
Chloromethane
gas
+++
local
systemic
+
++
100 ppm/8h
1
Chloropicrin
liquid
++
local
+++
0.1 ppm/8h
1
Chlorosulfonic Acid
liquid
++
local
+++
5 ppm/8h
1
Chlorthion
liquid
++
local
systemic
+++
+
-
2
Chromyl Chloride
liquid
++
local
systemic
+++
++
.1 mg/m^/8h
1
CMU
sol id
+
local
systemic
+
+
%
2
Copper Naphthenate
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
500 ppm
2
Coumaphos
solid
+
local
systemic
++
+++
-
2
Cresyldiphenyl Phosphate
1iquid
++
local
++
-
2

-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Crotonaldehyde
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
2 ppm/8h
2
Cumene
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
+
50 ppm/8h
2
Cupric Acetate
solid
+
local
systemic
+++
++
0.1 mg/m^/8h
2
Cupric Acetoarsenate
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
0.1 mg/m^/8h
2
Cupric Sulfate, Ammoniated
solid
+
local
++
2 mg/m^/8h
2
Cyanogen
gas
+++
systemic
local
+++
++
10 ppm/8h
1
Cyanogen Bromide
solid
++
local
systemic
+++
++
0.5 ppm/8h
1
Cyanogen Chloride
gas
+++
local
systemic
++
++
10 ppm/15 min
5 mg/m3/8h
1
Cyclohexanol
liquid
+
local
systemic
++
+
50 ppm/8h
2
Cyclohexanone
liquid
+
local
systemic
++
+
50 ppm/8h
2
Cyclohexylamine
11 quid
++
local
systemic
++
++
10 ppm/8h
2
Decaborane
sol id
+
local
systemic
++
++
.05 ppm/8h
2

-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Decanal
liquid
++
local
++
-

D1acetone Alcohol
1iquid
++
local
systemic
++
+
50 ppm/8h
2
D1amy1 amine
1i quid
++
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
Dlborane
gas
-H-
local
systemic
++
++
.1 ppm/8h
1
Dicamba
sol id
+
local
systemic
+
++
-
2
Dichlobini1
solid
+
local
systemic
+
+
-
2
Dichlone
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Dichlorodiflouromethane
gas
++
systemic
++
1,000 ppm/8h
2
Dlchloroethyl Ether
1iquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
5 ppm/8h
2
Dichloromethane
1iquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
200 ppm/8h
2
Dichloropropane
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
+
75 ppm/8h
2
Dichloropropene
1iquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
-
2

-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Dichloropropene Dichloropro-
pane
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
Dichlorvos
1iquid
++
systemic
++
.1 ppm/8h
1 mg/m3/8h
2
Dicyclopentadlene
liquid
++
local
+++
5 ppm/8h
2
Diethanolamine
sol id
+
local
++
-
2
Diethylamine
1iquid
++
local
++
25 ppm/8h
2
Diethylene Glycol
liquid
+
systemic
+
-
2
Diethylenetriamine
1iquid
+
local
+++
1 ppm/8h
2
Diethyl Phthalate; Ethyl
Formate
1iquid
++
local
+
-
2
Dimethyl amine
oily
1iquid
++
local
+++
10 ppm/8h
18 mg/nr/8h
2
N,N - dimethylani1ine
oily
1iquid
+++
systemic
local
++
+
5 ppm/8h
25 mg/nr/8h
2
Dimethylsulfate
1iquid
++
local
++~
1 ppm/8h
2
Dioxane (p-dioxane)
1iquid
++
local
systemic
++
+
50 ppm/8h
2

-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
	
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Diphosgene
gas
++
local
+++
-
1
Diquat

++
local
systemic
++
++
0.5 mg/m^/8h
2
Disulfotone
11 quid
++
systemic
+++
.1 mg/m^/8h
1
Diuron

++
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
DNBP

++
systemic
+++
-
2
DNBP-NH4-salt

++
systemic
+++
-
2
1-Dodecanol
solid
4-
local
+
-
2
Endosulfan
solid
++
systemic
+++
0,1 mg/m^/Sh
2
Endothal


local
++


Epichlorohydrin
1iquid
++
local
systemic
+
++
5 ppm/8h
19 mg/nr/8h
2
Ethlon
liquid
++
systemic
++
-
2
Ethyl Acetate
1iquid
++
local
++
400 ppm/8b
1400 mg/m3/8h
2

-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Ethyl Acrylate
1iquid
++
local
systemic
++
•H-
25 ppm/8h
100 mg/m3/8h
2
Ethyl Benzene
1iquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
100 ppm/8h
2
Ethyl Chloride
1iquid
++
local
frostbite
++
1,000 ppm/8h
2
Ethylene
gas
++
local
frostbite
++
-
2
Ethylene Cyanohydrin
liquid
++
systemic
+
-
2
Ethylene Dibromide
1iquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
20 ppm/8h
50 ppm/5 min
2
Ethylene Dichloride
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
10 ppm/8h
200 ppm/5 min
2
Ethylene Glycol D1acetate
1iquid
++
systemic
+
-
2
Ethylene Glycol Monoethyl
Ether Acetate
liquid
++
systemic
local
+
+
100 ppm/8h
2
Ethylene Glycol Monoethyl
Ether
liquid
++
systemic
+
25 ppm/8h
2
Ethylene Oxide
1iquid
+
local
+++
50 ppm/8h
2
Ethyl Ether
1iquid
+
local
+++
400 ppm/8h
2

-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Ferbam
sol id
+
local
systemic
+
+
15 mg/m^/8h
2
Ferric Hydroxide
sol id
-
local
++
-
2
Ferric Nitrate
solid
-
local
++
1 mg/m^/8h
2
Ferric Sulfate
solid
-
local
++
-
2
Ferrous Sulfate
sol id
-
local
++
-
2
Ferrous Hydroxide
sol id
-
local
++
-
2
Ferrous Sulfite
sol id
-
local
++
-
2
Fish Oil
1iquid
++
local
allergen
+
-
2
Fluorine
gas
+++
local
+++
.1 ppm
1
Formaldehyde
1iquid
++
local
systemic
+++
++
3 ppm/8h
2
Formic acid
liquid
++
local
+++
5 ppm/8h
2
Furfural
1iquid
++
local
+++
5 ppm/8h
2

-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Gas oils
liquid
++
local
+
-
2
Glyoxal
liquid
+
local
~
-
2
Guthion
solid
++
systemic
++
-
2
Heptachlor
solid
-H-+
systemic
local
++
+
.5 mg/m^/8h
2
Heptane
liquid
++
local
systemic
+
++
500 ppm/8h
2
Heptanol
liquid
++
local
systemic
+
++
-
2
HETP
liquid
+++
systemic
+++
-
1
Hexaborane
liquid
++
local
systemic
-H-
++
-
2
Hexamethylened1 ami ne
sol id
++
local
systemic
+++
++
-
2
Hexane
liquid
++
local
systemic
+
++
500 ppm/8h
2
Hexanol
1i qu1d
-H-
local
+++
-H-
-
2
Hexylene Glycol
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
+
25 ppm/8h
125 mg/nr/8h
2

-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Hydrazine
liquid
++
local
systemic
+++
++
1 ppm/8h
1
Hydrochloric Acid
liquid
++
local
systemic
+++
+
5 ppm/8h
1
Hydrofluoric Acid
liquid
++
local
systemic
+++
+
3 ppm/8h
1
3H (Tritium) (Radioactive)
gas
+++
systemic
+++
-
1
Hydrogen Cyanide
gas
+++
systemic
+++
10 ppm/8h
1
Hydrogen Fluoride
gas
+++
local
+++
3 ppm/8h
1
Hydrogen Sulfide
gas
+++
systemic
+++
10 ppm/8h
1
Hydroqulnone
solid
++
local
systemic
++
++
2 mg/m^/8h
2
Hypochlorous Acid
liquid
++
local
+++
-
2
Indole
sol id
++
local
+++
-
2
Iron Dust
solid
-
local
++
-
2
Isobutyl Alcohol
liquid
++
local
systemic
+
++
100 ppm/8h
2

-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Isobutyraldehyde
1iquid
++
local
systemic
+++
+
-
2
Isobutyric Acid
1iquid
+
local
systemic
+++
+
-
2
Isophorone
1iquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
25 ppm/8h
2
Isophthaloyl Chloride
sol id
+
local
systemic
++
+
-
2
Isopropyl Acetate
1iquid
++
local
systemic
+
+
250 ppm/8h
2
Isopropylamine
1iquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
5 ppm/8h
2
Isopropyl Ether
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
+
250 ppm/8h
2
Kepone
1 iquid
++
local
systemic
+
++
-
2
Krypton 85 (radioactive)
gas
+++
systemic
-M-+
-
1
Lead Arsenate
sol id
+
local
systemic
+
++
.5 mg/m^/8h
2
Lead Fluoborate
sol id
+
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
Lindane
sol id
++
systemic
++
.5 mg/m^/8h
2

-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Malathion
liquid
++
systemic
+++
10 mg/m^/8h
2
MCP
liquid
++
local
systemic
+++
++
-
2
Mercaptodlmethur


systemic
++
-
2
Mercuric Cyanide
solid
+
local
systemic
++
+++
.01 mg/m^/8h
2
Mercuric Nitrate
solid
+
local
systemic
++
+++
.05 mg/m^/8h
2
Methacrylonitrlle
liquid
++
local
systemic
+
++
1 ppm/8h
2
Methyl Acrylate
liquid
++
local
systemic
+++
++
10 ppm/8h
2
Methyl Amyl Acetate
liquid
++
local
systemic
+
++
50 ppm/8h
2
Methyl Amyl Alcohol
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
+
25 ppm/8h
2
Methyl Bromide
1iquid
or gas
+
local
+++
20 ppm/8h
1
Methyl Chloride
liquid
+
local
+++
100 ppm/8h
2
Methylene Chloride
1iquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
500 ppm/8h
2

-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Methyl Ethyl Ketone
1i quid
++
local
systemic
+
++
590 mg/m^/8h
2
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone
liquid
++
local
systemic
+
+
100 ppm/8h
2
Methyl Mercaptan
gas
-H-+
local
systemic
++
++
10 ppm/8h
2
Methyl Methacrylate
liquid
++
local
+++
100 ppm/8h
2
Methyl Parathion
liquid
+++
systemic
+++
200 ug/m^
1
Mexacarbate
sol id
++
local
systemic
+
+++
-
2
Monochloroacetone
liquid

local
systemic
++
++
-
2
Monochlorodifluoromethane
1iquid
++
local
(frostbite)
systemic
+++
++
1,000 ppm/8h
2
Monoethylamine
gas
+++
local
+++
10 ppm/8h
1
Monoisopropanolamine
liquid
++
local
++
-
2
Monomethylamine
gas
+++
local
+++
10 ppm/8h
1
Morpholine
~
1 ¦ ¦
1iquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
20 ppm/8h
2

-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Mustard Gas
gas
++
local
+++
-
1
m-xylene
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
+
100 ppm/8h
2
m-xylyl Bromide
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
Nab am
solid
++
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
Naled
liquid
++
local
systemic
+
++
3 mg/m^/8h
2
n-amyl Acetate
liquid
++
local
++
100 ppm/8h
2
Naphthalene
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
10 ppm/8h
50 mg/nr/8h
2
Naphthenic Acid
solid
+
local
++
-
2
n-butyl Acetate
liquid
~+
local
+
150 ppm/8h
710 mg/nr/8h
2
n-butyl Acrylate
liquid
++
local
+++
-
2
n-butyl Alcohol
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
+
50 ppm/8h
2
n-butyraldehyde
liquid
++
local
+++
-
2

-------
TABLLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
ro
en
Chemical
Physical
State
... ..
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Nickel Ammonium Sulfate
solid
+
local
++
1 mg/m^/8h
2
Nickel Carbonyl
liquid
-H-
local
systemic
++
++
.05 ppm/8h
2
Nitric Acid
liquid
+
local
+++
2 ppm/8h
1
Nitric Oxide
gas
++
local
+++
25 ppm/8h
1
Nitrilotriacetic Acid
solid
+
local
++
*
2
Nitrogen Dioxide
gas
++
local
++
5 ppm/15 min
1
Nitrobenzene
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
1 ppm/8h
5 mg/m3/8h
2
Nitrogen Chloride
1iquid
++
local
++
-
2
Nitroglycerine
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
2 mg/m^/8h
2
Ozone
gas
+
local
systemic
++
++
.1 ppm/8h
2
Nitrous Oxide
gas
++
local
+++
25 ppm/8h
2
Nonane
liquid
++
local
++
-
2

-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Nonyl Phenol
liquid
++
local
+++
-
2
n-propyl Alcohol
liquid
++
local
systemic
+
+
200 ppm/8h
2
Omazene
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
o-nitrophenol
sol id
++
local
systemic
+++
+
-
2
o-nitroaniline
solid
+
local
systemic
+
+++
-
2
0xyd1propion1trile
liquid
++
systemic
local
++
+
-
2
o-xylene
liquid
++
local
systemic
+
+
100 ppm/8h
2
para-nitroani1ine
sol id
+
local
systemic
++
++
1 ppm/8h
2
Pentanal
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
+
-
2
Perchloromethyl mercaptan
liquid
+++
local
systemic
++
++
.1 ppm/8h
2
Phenolcarbylamine Chloride
liquid
++
local
++
-
2
Phenolmercuric Acetate
solid
+
local
systemic
+
+++
-
2

-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Phosgene
gas
+
local
+++
.1 ppm/8h
1
White Phosphorous (yellow)
sol 1d
+
local
systemic
+++
++
-
1
Phosphorous Oxychlorlde
11 quid
++
local
systemic
+++
++
-
2
Phosphorous Pentasulflde
solid
+
local
systemic
+++
++
1 mg/m^/8h
2
Phosphorous Trichloride
liquid
++
local
systemic
+++
++
.5 ppm/8h
3 mg/nr/8h
2
Phthalic-Acid-Diethyl-Ester
liquid
++
local
+
-
2
Phthalic Anhydride
solid
+
local
systemic
-h-
+
1 ppm/8h
2
p-n1trophenol
sol 1d
+
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
Potassium Arsenate
sol id
+
local
systemic
++
+++
.5 mg/m^/8h
2
Potassium Arsenite
sol id
+
local
systemic
++
+++
-
2
Potassium Permanganate
sol id
+
local
+++
-
2
Propane
gas
++
local
frostbite
+++
1,000 ppm/8h
2

-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Propargite


systemic
++
-
2
Propionaldehyde
liquid
++
local
-H-+
-
2
Propionic Acid
liquid
++
local
++
10 ppm/8h
2
Propionic Anhydride
liquid
++
local
+++
-
2
Propyl Acetate
liquid
++
local
++
200 ppm/8h
2
Propyl amine
liquid
++
local
systemic
+++
++
-
2
Propylene
gas
+++
local
+
4,000 ppm/8h
2
Propylene Oxide
liquid
++
local
++
100 ppm/8h
2
p-xylene
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
+
100 ppm/8h
2
Pyrethrin I
1iquid
++
local
(allergen)
systemic
+
+
-
2
Pyrethrin II
liquid
++
local
(allergen)
systemic
+
+
-
2
Pyrethrum
solid
~
local
(allergen)
systanic
++
++
5 mg/m^/8h
2

-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetratlor
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Pyridine
liquid
++
local
systemic
-H-
+
5 ppm/8h
2
Pyrocatechol
solid
+
local
systemic
++
+
1 ppm/8h
2
Quinhydrone
solid
+
local
systemic
++
+
-
2
Quinine
solid
+
local
systemic
+
+
-
2
Quinolene
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
Qulnone
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
.1 ppm/8h
2
Resorcinol
solid
+
local
systemic
+++
++
10 ppm/8h
2
SalIcyaldehyde
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
+
-
2
sec-Butylamine
11quid
+
local
systemic
+++
++
15 mg/m^/8h
2
Selenium
sol id
+
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
Selenium 75
(Radioactive)
sol id
+
local
systemic
++
+++
-
2
Sesone
sol id
+
local
systemic
++
-
2

-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetratlor
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Silver Nitrate
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
Simazine
liquid
++
local
systemic
~
+
-
2
Sodium Anthraqulnone
Sulfonate
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Sodium Arsenate
solid
+
local
systemic
++
+++
.5 mg/m^/8h
2
Sodium Arsenite
solid
+
local
systemic
++
+++
.5 mg/m^/8h
2
Sodium Bisulfite
solid
+
local
-H-
-
2
Sodium Borate
solid
+
local
systemic
++
+
-
2
Sodium Butyldlphenyl
Sulfonate
liquid
++
local
++
-
2
Sodium Decylbenzene Sulfonate

+
local
systemic
+
++
-
2
Sodium Fluoride
solid
+
~ local
++
+++
2.5 mg/m^/8h
2
Sodium Fluorosilicate
solid
+
local
++
2.5 mg/m^/8h
2
Sodium Hydrosulfite
1iquid
++
\\U - . 1 - 1
local
ifc i i i ¦ 11
+++
-
2

-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Sodium Hypochlorite
liquid
++
local
+++
-
2
Sodium Lauryl Sulfate
sol 1d
+
local
-H-
-
2
Sodium Methyl ate
sol 1d
+
local
++
-
2
Sodium Naphthalene
Sulfate

+
local
systemic
+
++
-
2
Sodium Nitrite
solid
+
local
systemic
•H-
++
-
2
Sodium Octylsulfate
solid
+
local
+
-
2
Sodium Selenlte
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
.2 mg/m^/8h
2
Strychnine
solid
+
local
systemic
++
-H-+
.15 mg/m^/8h
.45 mg/m3/15
m1n
2
Styrene
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
100 ppm/8h
125 ppm/8h
2
2
Sulfoxide
sol id
+
local
+
-
2
Sulfur
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Sulfur Dioxide
gas
+++
local
+++
5 ppm/8h
1

-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Sulfuric Acid
liquid
-H-
local
+++
1 mg/m^/8h
1
Sulfur Monochloride
liquid
++
local
+++
1 ppm/8h
2
TBA
solid
+
local
systemic
+
++
-
2
T-Butylhydroperoxlde
liquid
+
local
systemic
+
++
-
2
TCA
solid
+
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
TDE
solid
++
systemic
+
-
2
Tert-butylamide
solid
+
local
systemic
+
+
-
2
Tetraborane
11quid
++
local
systemic
+++
+++
-
2
Tetradecanol
solid
+
local
systemic
+
+
-
2
Tetraethylene Pentamine
liquid
+
local
systemic
++
++
-
2
Tetraethyl Pyrophosphate
liquid
++
local
systemic
+
+++
-
2
Thai Hum
solid
+
systemic
+++
0.1 mg/m^/8h
2

-------
TABLE-rii-1- (•CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Thallous Nitrate
solid
+
systemic
+4+
0.1 mg/m^/8h
2
Thiophosgene
liquid
+
local
+++
-
2
Thlram
solid
++
local
systemic
++
++
5 mg/m^/8h
2
Titanium 44
solid
+
local
+
-
2
Titanium Chloride
solid
+
local
++
-
2
Toluene
liquid
+
local
systemic
+
+
100 ppm/8h
375 mg/m3/8h
2
Toluene dlisocyanate
11 quid
+
local
systemic
++
++
.02 ppm/8h
.14 mg/nr/8h
2
Toxaphene
sol 1d
++
local
systemic
+
++
.5 mg/m^/8h
2
Trlchlorfon
solid
++
systemic
++
-
2
Trichloroethane
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
++
10 ppm/8h
45 mg/rrr/8h
2
Tricresyl Phosphate
11qu i d
++
local
systemic
+
++
-
2
Triethylaluminum
11 quid
+
local
+++
-
1

-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Trlethylene Glycol
liquid
++
local
systemic
+
++
-
2
Tr1ethylenetetramine
liquid
++
local
+++
-
2
Trlmethylamine Gas
gas
++
local
+++
25 ppm/8h
1
Trimethylamine Solution
liquid
++
local
+++
25 ppm/8h
2
Trinitrotoluene
solid
++
local
systemic
++
+
1.5 mg/m^/8h
2
Uranyl Nitrate
solid

local
systemic
++
++
.25 mg/m^/8h
2
Vanadium 0xytr1chlor1de
liquid
++
local
systemic
+++
++
5 ppm/15 min
2
Vapam
liquid
++
local
systemic
++
+
-
2
Vinyl Acetate
liquid
++
local
++
10 ppm/8h
30 mg/m3/8h
2
Vinyl Bromide
gas
+++
local
systemic
+++
+++
200 ppm/8h
1
Vinyl Chloride
gas
+++
local
systemic
+++
+++
200 ppm/8h
1
Vinyl Ether
11 quid
++
local
. systemic
++
++
-
2

-------
TABLE III-l (CONTINUED)
DERMAL TOXICITY
Chemical
Physical
State
Skin
Penetration
Dermal
Toxicity
Potency
Permissible
Concentration
Category
Xenon 133 (radioactive)
gas
+++
systemic
+++
-
1
Z1nc Borate
solid
+
local
++
10 mg/m^/8h
2
Z1nc Chloride
solid
+
local
++
1 ppm/8h
2
Z1nc Cyanide
sol 1d
+
local
systemic
+
+++
-
1
Z1nc Hydrosulflte
solid
+
local
+++
-
2
Zinc Phenol sulfonate
solid
+
local
+++
-
2
Z1nc Phosphide
sol 1d
+
local
systemic
++
++
-
2

-------
PART 1
RESPONSE ORGANIZATION
I. INTRODUCTION
The number of people needed to respond to an incident involving the release
or potential release of hazardous substances can vary greatly. To successfully
accomplish the primary response goal, of protecting public health and the
environment, requires the coordinated, cooperative effort of these people.
Every incident is unique. The hazardous materials involved, their impact on
public health and the environment, and the activities required to remedy the
event are incident specific. Each incident tends to establish its own opera-
tional and organizational requirements. However, common to all incidents are
planning, organizational considerations, personnel, and the implementation of
operati ons.
II. HAZARDOUS MATERIALS CONTINGENCY PLANS
Many of the problems encountered by responders can be reduced if a hazardous
materials contingency plan exists. When an incident (involving chemicals or
other kinds of man-made or natural disasters) occurs, local government
reacts. An organization, comprised of all who are available, will naturally
evolve. Its capability, however, to efficiently manage the situation may be
severely restricted. Expertise, equipment, and funds needed to prevent or
reduce the impact of the event may not be readily available. Necessary
actions to ameliorate the situation may be delayed.
A more effective response occurs when a contingency plan exists. In general,
contingency plans anticipate the myriad of problems faced by responders and
through the planning process solves them. An organization for responding is
established, resources are identified, and prior arrangements made for obtaining
assistance. A good plan minimizes the delays frequently encountered in a
no-plan response permitting more prompt remedial actions. It also reduces
the risk to the health of both the responders and the public by establishing,
in advance, procedures for protecting their safety.
A contingency plan can lessen many of the problems encountered in a response.
However, even a good plan can not anticipate and address all the circumstances
created by a release of chemicals. Even with a plan, modifications may be
needed in the response organization to accomodate unforseen situations. A well-
written plan acknowledges that adaptations are necessary and provides the
framework for doing so without impeding the progress of implementation.
Without a plan the ability to effectively manage the incident is diminished.
Time is wasted attempting to define the problem, get organized, locate resources,
and implement response activities. These organizational difficulties can
cause delays in the response actions creating additional problems that prompt
action would have avoided. For hazardous materials contingency plans to be
effective they must be:
1-1

-------
-	Wei 1-written.
-	Agreed upon by all involved.
-	Current.
-	Flexible
-	Reviewed and modified.
-	Tested.
III. ORGANIZATION
The responders needed for an incident may range from a few to hundreds,
representing many government agencies and private industries. Functions and
responsibilities of each responding group differ. These diverse elements
must be organized into a cohesive unit capable of managing and directing
response activities toward a successful conclusion.
Relatively few well-trained response teams exist. These teams, generally
associated with metropolitan fire services or with industry, are small and
may have limited capability or responsibility. In an incident of any
magnitude, where more personnel and resources are needed, a team is assembled
from the various responding government agencies or private contractors. An
organization is then established according to an existing contingency plan;
without a plan, an ad hoc organization is created to manage that specific
incident.
The organization which is established, by a contingency plan or ad hoc, regard-
less of the number of people or agencies involved, to function effectively must:
-	Designate a leader.
-	Determine objectives.
-	Establish authority.
Develop policy and procedures.
-	Assign responsibilities.
-	Plan and direct operations.
-	Establish internal communications.
-	Manage resources (money, equipment, and personnel).
1-2

-------
IV. TABLE OF ORGANIZATION
In any incident, involving more than a few responders, it is generally
necessary to develop an organizational chart. This chart depicts the
organization's structure. It links personnel or functions, defines
lines of responsibility, and establishes internal communication channels.
To a large degree, the form and complexity of the organization chart depends
on the magnitude of the incident, the activities needed, the number of people and
agencies involved, and the project leader's mode of operation. The key
requirements are:
-	Establish a chain-of-command.
-	Assign functions.
-	Develop personnel requirements.
-	Establish internal communications.
V. PERSONNEL
To manage and direct the various operations, personnel or responding agencies
must be assigned the responsibility for certain activities. The positions,
functions, and responsibilities listed here represent personnel requirements
for a major response effort. They should be tailored to fit a particular
chemical incident.
-	Project leader/on-scene coordinator/incident manager: Has clearly
defined authority and responsibility to manage and direct all response
operations.
-	Scientific advisor: Directs and coordinates scientific studies, sample
collection, field monitoring, analysis of samples, interpretation of
results, and recommends remedial plans. Provides technical guidance to
the project leader in those areas.
-	Safety officer: Advises the project leader on all matters related to the
health and safety of those involved in site operations. Establishes and
directs the safety program. Coordinates these activities with the
scientific advisor.
-	Field leader: Directs activities related to cleanup contractors and
others involved in emergency and long term restoration measures.
-	Public information officer: Releases information to news media and the
public concerning site activities.
-	Security officer: Manages general site security. Provides liaison
with local law enforcement and fire departments control site access.
-	Recordkeeper: Maintains official record of site activities.
-	Operations officer: Directs activities of team leaders. Coordinates
these operations with the scientific advisor and safety officer.
1-3

-------
-	Team leaders: Manage specific assigned tasks such as:
—	entry team(s)
-- decontamination
-- sampling
—	monitoring
-- equipment
-- photography
-- communications
-	Financial officer: Provides financial and contractual support.
-	Logistics officer: Provides necessary equipment and other resources.
-	Medical Officer: Provides medical support. Acts as liaison with medical
community.
VI. IMPLEMENTING RESPONSE OPERATIONS
The release or potential release of a hazardous chemical requires operations (or
activities) that will eventually restore the situation to normal, or as near as
possible to pre-incident conditions. Although each incident establishes its own
operational requirements, there is a general sequence of events for all responses.
Planning and implementing a response involves, as a minimum, the following:
-	Organize: Select key personnel. Establish an organization. Assign
responsibilities. Modify as operations proceed. Institute emergency
acti ons.
-	Evaluate situation: Based on available information, make preliminary
hazard evaluation.
-	Develop plan of action: Develop preliminary operations plan for collecting
information, immediate countermeasures, remedial actions, etc. Re-evaluate
situation as supplemental information becomes available.
-- Make preliminary off-site survey: Collect additional data
to evaluate situation (monitor, sample, make visual observations).
Institute emergency actions to protect public health and
environment. Identify requirements for on-site reconnaissance.
Determine Level of Protection, if necessary, for off-site
personnel. Establish boundaries for contaminated areas.
—	Make initial on-site reconnaissance: Collect data (monitor,
sample, make visual observations) to determine or verify
hazardous conditions and make an overalll assessment of the
incident. Modify initial entry safety procedures as more data
is obtained. Determine Levels of Protection for initial entry
team(s) and subsequent operations. Plan and implement site
control and decontamintation procedures.
1-4

-------
-	Modify original plan of action: Modify or adapt original plan based on
additional information obtained during initial entries. Revise immediate
emergency measures. Plan long-term actions including:
-- Additional monitoring and sampling.
-- Resource requirements.
-- Site safety plan.
—	Cleanup and restoration measures.
—	Legal implications and litigation.
-	Complete planned cleanup and restoration:
VII. SITE RECONNAISSANCE
The greatest risk to the safety of responders is close to the release. Since
the health and safety of responders is paramount, operations on-site, must be
carefully considered, well-planned and executed. Before entering the immediate
area of a hazardous substance release, as much information as possible should be
collected in the time available, concerning the types, degree of hazard and risks
which may exist. Based on available information (shipping manifests, transportation
placards, existing records, container labels, sampling results, monitoring data,
etc.) or off-site studies, the project leader considers:
-	Off-site measurements needed.
-	The need to go on-site.
-	Equipment available.
-	Type of data needed to evaluate hazards.
—	organic vapors/gases
-- inorganic vapors/gases
-- particulates
-- oxygen concentration
-- radiation
—	samples needed for laboratory analysis
-	Levels of Protection entry team(s) need.
-	Equipment needed.
-	Number and size of entry team(s).
-	Briefing of reponse team.
1-5

-------
-	Site control procedures including:
—	designation of work zones
—	access control
-- physical barriers
-	Decontamination procedures.
-	Medical backup resources available.
-	Emergency actions/countermeasures to be taken.
-	Priority for collecting data and samples.
VIII. SUMMARY
To prevent or reduce the impact of a hazardous materials incident personnel
responding must be organized so they can effectively function. The organization
might be established by contingency plans, or an ad hoc organization formed
at the incident. To a large degree, the success of the response is dependent
upon how rapidi1y an organization is formed, begins to function and conduct
requi red acti vities.
1-6
11-85

-------
APPENDIX I
RESPONSE EQUIPMENT
The following list of equipment encompasses the entire range available for
responding to incidents involving hazardous substances. Not all of this
equipment may be needed on any given incident. The various categories of
response equipment are:
-	Communication Gear
Hand-held radios
-	Personnel Clothing and Equipment
See Schedule A
-	Field Equipment
Combustible gas indicator
HNU Photoionizer
Century Systems Organic Vapor Analyzer (OVA)
Oxygen meters
Colorimetric indicator tubes
Specific gas detectors
Radiation detector
Metal detector
Pressure-demand, self-contained breathing apparatus with extra air
cy1i nders
Full face, air-purifying respirators with appropriate canisters
Fit testing kit
Photographic equipment
Film badges
Dosimeters
Organic vapor badges
First aid kit (See Schedule B)
Hand tool kit (See Schedule C)
Reference materials (See Scheudle D)
Field support kit (See Schedule E)
Soil sampling set (See Schedule F)
Water sampling set (See Schedule G)
Air sampling set (See Schedule H)
Other field equipment (See Schedule I)
Emergency oxygen inhalator
Portable wash unit
Fire extinguisher
-	Miscellaneous Items
See Schedule J
1-7

-------
SCHEDULE A: PERSONNEL CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT
Fully encapsulating suit
Chemical-resistant splash suit
Chemical-resistant, steel-shank and toe boots
Safety work boots, leather
Work gloves
Rain suit
Wi ndbreaker
Medium weight jacket
Appropriate winter clothing
Coveralls (work)
Coveralls (Nomex)
Uniform pants and shirts
Socks (regular)
Socks (heavy)
Underclothes
Earplugs
CIi pboard
Hardhat with and without face shield
Hardhat for cold weather
Safety goggles, soft sides for full eye protection
Safety glasses
SCHEDULE B: FIRST AID KIT
A medical first aid kit consisting of:
First aid guide
Aspi rin
Pain aid
Cold tablets
EEZ lozenges
Trail antacid
Gelusil tablets
Ex-1ax
Syrup of ipecac
Vasoli ne
Antibiotic ointment
Insect repellent
Sting relief
Chigger/tick remover
Poison ivy treatment
Snake bite kit
Ammonia inhalants
Blood clotter
Tourniquet
Ice pack
Ice pack (large)
Salt tablets
Sci ssors
Forceps (Dumont 5 in.)
Tweezers
Cotton Swabs
Clean wipe alcohol swabs
Antiseptic swabs
Antiseptic spray
Burn septic spray
Spray-on bandage
Eye Drops
Eye/skin neutralizer
Eye Wash
Adhesive Tape
Cohesive Tape
Telfa steril pads
Band Aids
Curad bandage (2 1/4 x 3 1/2 in.)
Finger tip bandages
Knuckle bandages
Elastic strip bandage
Triangle bandage
Carlisle compress dressing
1-8

-------
Gauze bandage (1 in.	x 18 ft.)
Gauze bandage (2 in.	x 12 ft.)
Gauze bandage (3x3	in.)
Gauze bandage (2 x 2	in.)
Litter
Butterfly closure (medium)
Finger splint
Blanket
Powdered charcoal
Traction splints (arm and leg)
SCHEDULE C: HAND TOOL KIT
Wood mallet
Rubber mallet
Ballpeen hammer
Claw hammer
Hand hammer (nonsparking, 2 doubleface, beryl 1ium-copper)
Hacksaw
Lumberjack's knife
Duckbil1 snips (12 in.)
Rod and bolt cutter (24 in.)
Diagonal cutting pliers (8 in.)
Lineman's pliers (8 in.)
Slipjoint pliers (8 in.)
Locking plier wrench (10 in.)
Pipe wrench (non sparking)
Wrench set (combination)
Screwdrivers (5 slotted, 4 phillips)
Heavy-duty stapler and staples
Pressure gauge
Lock-type measure tape
Winding reel tape
Electrical tape
Strapping tape
Duct tape
NFPA Guide on Hazardous Materials
CHRIS Condensed Guide to Chemical Hazards
Sax Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials
Toxic and Hazardous Industrial Chemical Safety Manual
Matheson Gas Data Book
NIOSH/OSHA Pocket Guide to Chemical Substances
TLVs For Chemical Substances and Physical Agents in the Work Environment
Binoculars (7 x 35mm wide angle) (2)
Rangefinder (2)
Spotting scope
Stereoscopes
Compass (2)
Hand level (2)
Hand calculator (2)
Cassette recorder (1-hour tape)
SCHEDULE D: REFERENCE MATERIALS
SCHEDULE E: FIELD SUPPORT KIT
1-9

-------
SCHEDULE F: SOIL SAMPLING SET
Soil auger (cork screw, tube)
Auger extensions
Power head (electric)
Soil sample tubes (1 1/2 x 6 5/8 in.)
Replacement tips for tube samplers (regular)
Wet, heavy-duty tips
Scoops for bottom sediments
Stainless steel pipe section (2 in. ID/taper on penetrating end)
Electrical resistivity apparatus
Labels
Logbook for soil profile
Stainless steel spoons
Post hole digger
Pi ck-ax
Shovel
Stainless Steel pans
SCHEDULE G: WATER SAMPLING SET
Weighted bottle sampler
Pond sampler
Glass and polyethylene containers
Scoops and dippers
Suction devices (hand pumps)
Water level indicator
Cased thermometers/thermistors
Teflon bailer
Dissolved oxygen meter
Conductivity meter with 50 ft cord
SCHEDULE H: AIR SAMPLING SET
Colorimetric indicator tubes and pre-weighed filters
Hi-vol sampler
Impinger tubes
Carbon adsorption tubes
Particulate samplers
Wind direction indicator
Wind speed indicator
Barometric pressure indicator
Temperature indicator
SCHEDULE I: OTHER FIELD EQUIPMENT
Rope (300 ft, polypropylene, 16-1b) (1)
Heavy-duty tow chain (15 ft) (1)
Heavy-duty extension cord (100 ft) (1)
Garden hose (50 ft, 5/8 in. ID) (1)
Scrub brushes (4)
1-10

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Plastic buckets (4)
Large log book (1)
Safety flares (vehicle use) (2)
Rechargeable lanterns (2)
Wrecking bar (nonsparking, 30 x 3/4 in.) (1)
Spud bar (2)
Sledge hammer (4-lb) (2)
Shovel (D handle, square point, nonsparking) (2)
Shovel (D handle, round point, nonsparking) (2)
Shovel (long handle, round point, nonsparking) (2)
Buna N gloves (5)
Jasper work gloves (5)
PVC disposable gloves (5)
Neoprene gloves (5)
Solvex gloves (5)
Natural rubber gloves (5)
PVC disposable boots (5)
Life vests (5)
Hip/chest wader (5)
Rain suits (5)
SCHEDULE J: MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS
Redwood plugs (various sizes)
Valve packing
Revere miracle seal (synthetic rubber)
Nylon wi re
Paper clips and alligator clips
Magnetic hangers
Rubber bands
Paper and note pads
Pens, pencils, markers
CIi pboards
Kimwipes
Kleenex
Detergent (large)
Plastic drop sheet
Black spray paint
Yellow spray paint
Green marking tape (perimeter)
Color coding DOT security tags (red, yellow, green)
Restricted Area signs
Rubber tarp tie-down straps
Electric power outlet strip (8 outlets)
Air-tight container for sample storage
Clean water supply
Anti-fog solution
1-11

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Tuesday
February 12, 1985
Part II
Environmental
Protection Agency
40 CFR Part 300
National Oil and Hazardous Substances
Pollution Contingency Plan; Proposed
Rule

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Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules
5883
increase cannot be estimated
accurately. Because sites so listed will
have potentially major public health
impacts, the proposed changes will give
the Agency broader authority to
undertake remedial action to protect
public health and the environment.
Given limited Fund size, listing of these
sites will replace, rather than
supplement, funds spent on other sites,
resulting in no net economic impacts.
The anticipated effects of all of the
revisions are as follows:
State costs will be reduced, with a
corresponding increase in demands on
the Fund. With a total of 350 Fund-
Financed RI/FS (320 at private sites),
projected over FT 84-89 period, and 247
Fund-financed remedial designs
projected over the same period (222 at
private facilities), total cost savings to
States will be about $30 million (FY 84
dollars). Increased demand of $30
million on the Fond could decrease by
about 4 the number of sites that might
otherwise receive remedial response.
The policy change may accelerate
remedial activities by removing the
State cost-share requirement, resulting
in earlier reduced risks of exposure to
hazardous substances.
V. Summary of Supporting Analyses
A.	Classification Under E.O. 12291
Proposed regulations must be
classified as major or nonmajor to
satisfy the rulemaking protocol
established by Executive Order 12291.
E.O.12291 establishes the following
criteria for a regulation to qualify as a
major rule:
1.	An annual effect on the economy of
S100 million or more:
2.	A major increase in costs or prices
for consumers, individual industries,
Federal, State, or local government
agencies or geographic regions; or
3.	Significant adverse effects on
competition, employment, investment,
productivity, innovation, or on the
ability of United States-based
enterprises to compete with foreign-
based enterprises in domestic or export
markets.
The proposed NCP is a nonmajor rule
becaure it would have no significant
incremental economic effects. To the
extent that economic impacts do occur,
they are likely to be positive.
This regulation was submitted to
OMB for review under Executive Order
12291.
B.	Regulatory Flexibility Act
In accordance with the Regulatory
Flexibility Act of 1980, Agencies must
evaluate the effects of a proposed
regulation on "small entities." That Act
recognizes three types of such entities:
1.	Small businesses (specified by
Small Business Administration
regulations);
2.	Small organizations (independently
owned, nondominant in their field,
nonprofit); and
3.	Small governmental jurisdictions
(serving communities with fewer than
5,000 people).
If the proposed rule is likely to have a
"significant impact on a substantial
number of small entities," the Act
requires that-a Regulatory Flexibility
Analysis be performed. EPA certifies
that the NCP will not have a significant
impact on a substantial number of small
entities. To the extent that impacts on
small entities occur, they are likely to be
positive.
Small businesses and small
organizations will generally be affected
only by the proposed changes that
address enforcement actions. These
changes in the NCP generally codify
existing enforcement policies (e.g.,
proposed changes to require
enforcement responses to comply with
applicable or relevant federally
enforceable environmental standards)
and tnorefore modifying the NCP will
not impose any additional burden on
small entities subject to enforcement
actions. Although requiring community
relations plans (CRPs) at most
enforcement responses will increase
responsible party costs, these costs are
small (averaging $6,000) relative to
response costs and may save costs by
expediting the response process.
Moreover, it is a matter of Agency
discretion whether to proceed with
enforcement actions against small
entities that may be significantly
affected by such actions. Therefore,
there are no necessary adverse impacts
on small businesses and organizations
directly associated with the NCP.
The proposed changes may affect
some small government jurisdictions,
but most of the effects are likely to be
positive. For example, the proposed
change to mandate CRPs may reduce
the burden or small government
jurisdictions by providing an efficient
vehicle for the local government
involvement.
C. Paperwork Reduction Act
Today's proposed rule does not
impose any regulatory burden on parties
outside of EPA, including any reporting
or information collection requirements.
VI. Lists of Subjects in 40 CFR Part 300
Air pollution control. Chemicals,
Hazardous materials, Hazardous
substance!*. Intergovernmental relations.
National resources, Occupational safety
and health. Oil pollution. Reporting and
record keeping requirements, Superfund,
Waste treatment and disposal, Water
pollution control, Water supply.
For the reasons set forth in the
preamble. Part 300, Subpart J, Chapter I
of Title 40, Code of Federal Regulations,
is amended as follows:
1. The authority citation for Part 300
reads as follows;
Authority: Sec. 105 Pub. L 96-510. 94 Stat.
2764. 42 U.S.C. 9605: Sec. 311(c)(2). Pub. L 92-
500 as amended. 36 Stat. 865. 33 U.S.C. 1321
(c)(2); E.O. 12316, 46 FR 42237. E.O. 11735. 38
FR 21243.
Dated: January 25.1985.
Lea M. Thomas,
Acting Administrator.
1. 40 CFR Part 300 (Subparts A-G) i3
revised as follows (Appendix A is
republished without change for reader
convenience):
PART 300—NATIONAL OIL AND
HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES
POLLUTION CONTINGENCY PLAN
Subpart A—Introduction
Sec.
300.1	Purpose and objectives.
300.2	Authority.
300.3	Scope.
300.4	Application.
300.5	Abbreviations.
300.6	Definitions.
Subpart B—Responsibility
300.21	Duties of President delegated to
Federal agencies.
300.22	Coordination among and by Federal
agencies.
300.23	Other assistance by Federal
agencies.
300.24	State and local participation.
300.25	Nongovernment participation.
Subpart C—Organization
300.31	Organizational concepts.
300.32	Planning and coordination.
300.33	Response operations.
300.34	Special forces and teams.
300.35	Multi-regional responses.
300.36	Communications.
300.37	Special considerations.
300.38	Worker health and safety.
300.39	Public information.
300.40	OSC reports.
Subpart D—Plans
300.41	Regional and local plans.
300.42	Regional contingency plans.
300.43	Local contingency plans.
Subpart E—Operational Response Phases
for Oil Removal
300.51	Phase I—Discovery and notification.
300.52	Phase II—Preliminary assessment
and initiation of action.
300.53	Phase III—Containment,
countermeasures. cleanup, and disposal.

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5884	Federal Register / Vol. SO, No. 29 / .Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules
300.54 Phase IV—Documentation and cost
recovery.
300 55 General pattern of response.
300.56	(Reserved).
300.57	Waterfowl conservation.
300.58	Funding.
Subpart F—Hazardous Substance
Response
300.61	Ceneral.
300.62	State role.
300.63	Discovery and notification.
300 64 Preliminary assessment For removal
actions.
300.65 Removals.
300.68 Site Evaluation Phase and National
Priorities List Determination.
300.67	Community Relations.
300.68	Remedial action.
300.69	Doucmentation and cost recovery.
300.70	Methods of remedying releases.
300.71	Other Party Responses.
Subpart G—Trustees tor Natural Resources
300.72	Designation of Federal Trustees.
300.73	Slate trustees.
300.74	Responsibilities of trustees.
*****
Appendix A—Uncontrolled Hazardous
Waste Site Rankmg system: A users
manual.
• * * * *
Authority: Sec. 105. Pub. L. 96-510. 94 Stat.
2764. 42 U.S.C. 9605 and sec. 311(c)(2), Pub. L.
92-500. as amended: 86 Stat. 865. 33 U.S.C.
1321(c)(2): Executive Order 12316. 47 FR 42237
(August 20,1981); Executive Order 11735, 38
FR 21243 (August 1873).
Subpart A—Introduction
§ 300.1 Purpose and objectives.
The purpose of the National Oil and
Hazardous Substances Pollution
Contingency Plan (Plan) is to effectuate
the response powers and responsibilities
created by the Comprehensive
Environmental Response.
Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980
(CERCLA) and the authorities
'established by section 311 of the Clean
Water Act (CWA), as amended.
§ 300.2 Authority.
The Plan is required by section 105 of
CERCLA, 42 U.S.C 9605, and by section
311(c)(2) of the CWA, as amended, 33
U.S.C. 1321(c)(2). In Executive Order
12316 (46 FR 422373 the President
delegated to the Environmental
Protection Agency the responsibility for
the amendment of the NCP and all of the
other functions vested in the President
by section 105 of CERCLA. Amendments
to the NCP shall be coordinated with
members of the National Response
Team prior to publication for notice and
comment including the Federal
Emergency Management Agency and
the Nuclear Regulatory Commission in
order to avoid inconsistent or
duplicative requirements in the
emergency planning responsibilities of
those agencies.
S 300.3 Scope.
(a)	The Plan applies to all Federal
agencies and is in effect for:
(1)	The navigable waters of the United
States and adjoining shorelines, for the
contiguous zone, and the high seas
beyond the contiguous zone in
connection with activities under the
Outer Contintental Shelf Lands Act or
the Deep Water Port Act of 1974, or
which may affect natural resources
belonging to, appertaining to, or under
the exclusive management authority of
the United States (including resources
under the Fishery Conservation and
Management Act of 1976). (See sections
311(b)(lJ and 502(7) of the Clean Water
Act.)
(2)	Releases or substantial threats of
releases of hazardous substances into
the environment, and releases or
substantial threats of releases of
pollutants or contaminants which may
present an imminent and substantial
danger to public health or welfare.
(b)	The Plan provides for efficient,
coordinated and effective response to
discharge of oil and releases of
hazardous Bubstances, pollutants and
contaminants in accordance with the
authorities of CERCLA and the CWA. It
provides for:
(1)	Division and specification of
responsibilities among the Federal,
State, and local governments in
response actions, and appropriate roles
for private entities.
(2)	The national response organization
that may be brought to bear in response
actions, including description of the
organization, response personnel and
resources that are available to respond.
(3)	The establishment of requirements
for Federal regional and Federal local
contingency Plans, and encouragement
of preplanning for response by other
levels of government.
(4)	Procedures for undertaking
removal operations pursuant to section
311 of the Clean Water Act.
(5)	Procedures for undertaking
response operations pursuant to
CERCLA.
(6)	Designation of trustees for natural.
resources for purposes of CERCLA.
(7)	National policies and procedures
for the use of dispersants and other
chemicals in removal and response
actions.
(c)	In implementing this Plan,
consideration shall be given to the Joint
Canada/U.S. Contingency Plan; the
U.S./Mexico Joint Contingency Plan and
international assistance plans Bnd
agreements, security-regulations and .
responsibilities based on international
agreements, Federal statutes and
executive orders. Actions taken
pursuant to this Plan shall conform to
the provisions of international joint
contingency Plans, where they are
applicable. The Department of State
should be consulted prior to taking any
action which may affect its activities.
§ 300.4 Application.
The Plan is applicable to response
taken pursuant to the authorities under
CERCLA and section .311 of the CWA.
§ 300.5 Abbreviations.
(a) Department and Agency Title
Abbreviations.
DOC—Department of Commerce
DOD—Department of Defense
DOE—Department of Energy
DOI--Department of the Interior
DO]—Department of Justice
DOL—Department of Labor
DOS—Department of State
DOT—Department of Transportation
EPA—Environmental Protection Agency
FEMA—Federal Emergency
Management Agency
HHS—Department of Health and
Human Services
NIOSH—National Institute for
Occupational Safety and Health
NOAA—National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
USCG—U.S. Coa£t Guard
(1) Operational Title Abbreviations.
ERT—Environmental Response Team
FCO—Federal Coordinating Officer
NRC—National Response Center
NRT—Natiosal Response Team
NSF—National Strike Force
OSC—On-Scene Coordinator
PATT—Public Affairs Assist Team
PLAT—Public Information Assist Team
RPM—Remedial Project Manager
RRC—Regional Response Center
RRT—Regional Response Team
SSC—Scientitic Support Coordinator
§ 300.6 Definitions.
Terms not defined in this section have
the meaning given by CERCLA or the
CWA.
Actiwtiort means notification by
telephone or other expeditious manner
or, when required, the assembly of some
or all appropriate .members of the RRT
or NRT.
Claim, as defined by section 101(4) of
CERCLA, means a demand in writing for
a sum certain.
CERCLA or "Superfund", is the
Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation and Liability
Act of 1980.
Coastal waters, for the purposes of
classifying the size of discharges, means
the waters of the coastal zone except for

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Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules
5885
the Great Lakes and specified ports and
harbors on inland rivers.
Coastal zone, as defined for the
purpose of this Plan, means all U.S.
waters subject to the tide, U.S. waters of
the Great Lakes, specified ports and
harbors on the inland rivers, waters of
the contiguous zone, other waters of the
high seas subject to this Plan, and the
land surface or land substrata, ground
waters, and ambient air proximal to
those waters. The term coastal zone
delineates an area of Federal
responsibility for response action.
Precise boundaries are determined by
EPA/USCG agreements and identified
in Federal regional contingency plans.
Contiguous zone means the zone of
the high seas, established by the United
States under Article 24 of the
Convention on the Territorial Sea and
Contiguous Zone, which is contiguous to
the territorial sea and which extends
nine mMes seaward from the outer limit
of the territorial sea.
Discharge, as defined by section
311(a)(2) of CYVA. includes, but is not
limited to. any spilling, leaking,
pumping, pouring, emitting, emptying or
dumping of oil. For purposes of this Plan,
discharge shall also mean substantial
threat or discharge.
Drinking water supply, as defined by
section 101(7) of CERCLA, means any
raw or finished water source that is or
may be used by a public water system
(as defined in the Safe Drinking Water
Act) or as drinking water by one or more
individuals.
Environment, as defined by section
101(8) of CERCLA, means (a) the
navigable waters, the waters of the
contiguous zone, and the ocean waters
of which the natural resources are under
the exclusive management authority of
the U.S. under the-Fishery Conservation
and Management Act of 1978, and (b)
any other surface water, ground water,
drinking water supply, land surface and
subsurface strata, or ambient air within
the United States or under the
jurisdiction of the United States.
Facility, as defined by section 101(9)
of CERCLA, means (a) any building,
structure, installation, equipment, pipe
or pipeline (including any pipe into a
sewer or publicly owned treatment
works), well, pit, pond, lagoon,
impoundment, ditch, landfill, storage
container, motor vehicle, rolling stock,
or aircraft, or (b) any site or area where
a hazardous substance has been
deposited, stored, disposed of, or placed,
or otherwise come to be located: but
does not include any consumer product
in consumer use or any vessel.
Feasibility study, is a process
undertaken by the lead agency (or
responsible party if the responsible
party will be developing a clean-up -
proposal) for developing, evaluating and
selecting remedial actions which
emphasizes data analysis. The
feasibility study is generally performed
concurrently and in an interdependent
fashion with the Remedial Investigation.
In certain situations, the Agency may
require potential responsible parties to
conclude initial phases of the remedial
investigation prior to initiation of the
feasibility study. The Feasibility study
process uses data gathered during the
remedial investigation. This data is used
to define the objectives of the response
action and to broadly develop remedial
action alternatives. Next, an initial
screening of these alternatives is
required to reduce the number of
alternatives to a workable number.
Finally, the feasibility study involves a
detailed analysis of a limited number of
alternatives which remain after the
initial screening stage. The factors that
are considered in screening and
analyzing the alternatives are public
health, economics, engineering
practically, environmental impacts and
institutional issues.
Federally permitted release, as
defined by section 101(10) of CERCLA.
means (a) discharges in compliance with
a permit under section 402 of the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act: (b)
discharges resulting from circumstances
identified and reviewed and made part
of the public record with respect to a
permit issued or modified under section
402 of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act and subject to a condition
of such permit: (c) continuous or
anticipated intermittent discharges from
a point source, identified in a permit or
permit application under section 402 of
the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
which are caused by events occurring
within the scope of relevant operating or
treatment systems; (d) discharges in
compliance with a legally enforceable
permit under section 404 of the Federal
Wpter Pollution Control Act (e) releases
in compliance with a legally enforceable
final permit issued pursuant to section
3005(a) through (d) of the Solid Waste
Disposal Act from a hazardous waste
treatment, storage, or disposal facility
when such permit specifically identifies
the hazardous substances and makes
such substances subject to a standard of
practice, control procedure or bioassay
limitation or condition, or other control
on the hazardous substances in such
releases: (f) any release in compliance
with a legally enforceable permit issued
under section 102 or section 103 of the
Marine Protection. Research and
Sanctuaries Act of 1972; (g) any
iniection of fluids authorized under
Federal underground injection control
programs or State programs submitted
for Federal approval (and not
disapproved by the Administrator of
EPA) pursuant to part C of the Safe
Drinking Water Act; (h) any emission
into the air subject to a permit or control
regulation under section 111, section 112,
title 1 part C, title 1 part D, or State
implementation plans submitted in
accordance with section 110 of the
Clean Air Act (and not disapproved by
the Administrator of EPA), including any
schedule or waiver granted,
promulgated, or approved under these
sections; (i) any injection or fluids or
other materials authorized under
applicable State law (1) for the purpose
of stimulating or treating wells for the
production of crude oil, natural gas, or
water, (2) for the purpose of secondary,
tertiary, or other enhanced recovery of
crude oil or natural gas, or (3) which are
brought to the surface in conjunction
with the production of crude oil or
natural gas and which are reinjected; (j)
the introduction of any pollutant into a
publicly owned treatment works when
such pollutant is specified in and in
compliance with applicable
pretreatment standards of section 307
(b) or (c) of the CWA and enforceable
requirements in a pretreatment program
submitted by a State or municipality for
Federal approval under section 402 of
such Act, and (k) any release of source,
special nuclear, or by-product material,
as those terms are defined in the Atomic
Energy Act of 1954, in compliance with a
legally enforceable license, permit,
regulation, or order issued pursuant to
the Atomic Act of 1954.
First Federal official, means the first
representative of a Federal agency, with
responsibility under this Plan, to arrive
at the scene of a discharge or release.
This official coordinates activities under
this Plan and is authorized to initiate
necessary actions normally carried out
by the OSC, until arrival of the
predesignated OSC.
Fund or Trust Fund means the
Hazardous Substance Response Trust
Fund established by section 221 of
CERCLA.
Ground water, as defined by section
101(12) of CERCLA. means water in a
saturated zone or stratum beneath thp
surface of land or water.
Hazardous substance, as defined by
section 101(14) of CERCLA. means (a)
any substance designated pursuant to
section 311(b)(2)(A) of the CWA; (b) any
element, compound, mixture, solution, or
substance designated pursuant to
section 102 of CERCLA: (c) any
hazardous waste having the
characteristics identified under or listed
pursuant to section 3001 of the Solid

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5886	Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules
Waste Disposal Act (but not including
any waste the regulation of which under
the Solid Waste Disposal Act has been
suspended by Act of Congress); (d) any
toxic pollutant listed under section
307(a) of the CWA; (e) any hazardous
air pollutant listed under section 112 of
the Clean Air Act; and (f) any
imminently hazardous chemical
substance or mixture with respect to
which the Administration has taken
action pursuant to section 7 of the Toxic
Substances Control Act. The term does
not include petroleum, including crude
oil or any fraction thereof which is not
otherwise specifically listed or
designated as a hazardous substance
under subparagraphs (a) through (f) of
this paragraph, and the term does not
include natural gas, natural gas liquids,
liquified natural gas or synthetic gas
usable for fuel (or mixtures of natural
gas and such synthetic gas).
Inland waters, for the purposes of
classifying the size of discharges, means
those waters of the U.S. in the inland
zone, waters of the Great Lakes, and
specified ports and harbors on inland
rivers.
Inland zone means the environment
inland of the coastal zone excluding the
Great Lakes and specified ports and
harbors of inland rivers. The term inland
zone delineates the area of Federal
responsibility for response action.
Precise boundaries are determined by
EPA/USCG agreement and identified in
Federal regional contingency plans.
Lead agency means the Federal
agency (or State agency operating
pursuant to a contract or cooperative
agreement executed pursuant to a
contract or cooperative agreement
executed pursuant to section 104(d)(1) of
CERCLA) that has primary
responsibility for coordinating response
action under this Plan. A Federal lead
agency is the agency that provides the
OSC or RPM as specified elsewhere in
this Plan. In the case of a State as lead
agency, the State shall carry out the
same responsibilities delineated for
OSCs/RPMs in this Plan (except
coordinating and directing Federal
agency response actions).
Management of Migration, means
actions that are taken to minimize and
mitigate the migration of hazardous
substances or pollutants or
contaminants and the effects of such
migration. Management of migration
actions may be appropriate where the
hazardous substances or pollutants or
contaminants are no longer at or near
the area where they were originally
located or situations where a source
cannot be adequately identified or
characterized. Measures may include,
but are not limited to, provision of
alternative water supplies, management
of a plume of contamination or
treatment of drinking water aquifer.
Natural Resources, as defined by
section 101(16) of CERCLA, means land,
fish, wildlife, biota, air water, ground
water, drinking water supplies, and
other such resources belonging to.
managed by, held in trust by,
appertaining to, or otherwise controlled
by the United States (including the
resources of fishery conservation zonea
established by the fishery Conservation
and Management Act of 1976), any State
or local government or any foreign
government.
Offshore facility, as defined by
section 101(17) of CERCLA and section
311(a)(ll) of the CWA, means any
facility of any kind located in, on, or
under any of the navigable waters of the
U.S. and any facility of any kind which
is subject to the jurisdiction of the U.S.
and is located in. on, or under any other
waters, other than a vessel.or a public
vessel.
Oil. as defined by section 311(a)(1) of
CWA. means oil of any kind or in any
form, including, but not limited to.
petroleum, fuel oil, sludge, oil refuse,
and oil mixed with wastes other than
dredged spoil.
Oil pollution fund means the fund
established by section 311(k) of the
CWA.
Onshore Facility, (a) as defined by
section 101(16) of CERCLA, means any
facility (including, but not limited to,
motor vehicles and rolling stock) of any
kind located in, on, or under any land or
non-navigable waters within the United
States; and (b) as defined by section
311(a)(10) of CWA means any facility
(including, but not limited to, motor
vehicles and rolling stock) of any kind
located in, on, or under any land within
the United States other than submerged
land.
On-Scene Coordinator (OSC) means
the Federal official predesignated by the
EPA or USCG to coordinate and direct
Federal responses under Subpart E and
removals under Subpart F of this Plan;
or the DOD official designated to
coordinate and direct the removal
actions from releases of hazardous
substandes, pollutants, or contaminants
from DOD vessels and facilities.
Operable Unit, is a discrete part of the
entire response action that decreases a
release, threat or release, or pathway of
exposure.
Person, as defined by section 1012(21)
or CERCLA, means an individual, firm,
cooperation, association, partnership,
consortium, joint venture, commercial
entity, U.S. Government, State
municipality, commission, political
subdivision of a State, or any interstate
body.
Plan means the National Oil and
Hazardous Substances Pollution
Contingency Plan published under
section 311(c) of the CWA and revised
pursuant to section 105 of CERCLA.
Pollutant or containment, as defined
by section 104(a)(2) of CERCLA, shall
include, but not be limited to, any
element, substance, compound, or
mixture, including disease causing
agents, which after release into the
environment and upon exposure,
ingestion, inhalation, or assimilation
into any organism, either directly from
the environment or indirectly by
ingesting through food chains, will or
may reasonably be anticipated to cause
death, disease, behavioral
abnormalities, cancer, genetic mutation,
physiological malfunctions (including
malfunctions in reproduction) or
physical deformation, in such organisms
or their offspring. The term does not
include petroleum, including crude oil
and any fraction thereof which is not
otherwise specifically listed or
designated as a hazardous substance
under section 101(14)(A) through (F) of
CERCLA. nor does it include natural
gas, liquified natural gas, or synthetic
gas of pipeline quality (or mixture of
natural gas and synthetic gas). For
purposes of subpart F of this plan, the
term pollutant or contaminant means
any pollutant or contaminant wheh may
present an imminent and substantial
danger to public health, or welfare.
Release, as defined by section 101(22)
of CERCLA, means any spilling, leaking,
pumping, pouring, emitting, emptying,
discharging, injection, escaping,
leaching, dumping, or disposing into the
environment, but excludes (a) any
release which results in exposure to
persons solely within a workplace, with
respect to a claim which such persons
may assert against the employer of such
persons (b) emissions from the engine
exhaust of a motor vehicle, rolling stock,
aircraft, vessel, or pipeline pumping
station engine; (c) release of source, by-
product or special nuclear material from
a nuclear incident, as those terms are
defined in the Atomic Energy Act of
1954, if such release is subject to
requirements with respect to financial
protection established by the Nuclear
Regulatory Commission under section
170 of such act, or, for the purpose of
section 104 of CERCLA or any other
response action, any release of source,
byproduct, or special nuclear material
from any processing site designated
under section 122(a)(1) or 302(a) of the
Uranium Mill Tailings Radiation Control
Act of 1978; and (d) the normal

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Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesdaj, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules	5887
application of fertilizer. For the purpose
of this Plan, release also means
substantial threat of release.
Remedial Investigation is a process
undertaken by the lead agency (or
responsible party if the responsible
party will be developing a clean-up
proposal) which emphasizes data
collection and site characterization. The
remedial investigation is generally
performed concurrently and in an
interdependent fashion with the
feasibility study. However, in certain
situations the Agency may require
potential responsible parties to conclude
initial phases of the remedial
investigation prior to initiation of the
feasibility study. A remedial
investigation is undertaken to determine
the nature and extent of the problem
presented by the release. This includes
sampling and monitoring, as necessary,
and includes the gathering of sufficient
information to determine the necessity
for and proposed extent of remedial
action. Part of the remedial investigation
involves assessing whether the threat
can be mitigated or minimized by
controlling the source of the
contamination at or near the area where
the hazardous substances or pollutants
or contaminants were originally located
(source control remedial actions) or
whether additional actions will be
necessary because the hazardous
substances or pollutants or
contaminants have migrated from the
area of their original location
(management of migration).
Remedial Project Manager (RPM)
means the Federal official designated by
EPA (or the USCG for vessels) to
coordinate, monitor, or direct remedial
activities under Subpart F of this Plan;
or the Federal official OOD designates
to coordinate and direct Federal
remedial actions resulting from releases
of hazardous substances, pollutants, or
contaminants from DOD facilities or
vessels.
Remedy or remedial action, as
defined by section 101(24) of CERCLA,
means those actions consistent with
permanent remedy taken instead of, or
in addition to, removal action in the
event of a release of threatened release
of a hazardous substances so that they
do not migrate to cause substantial
danger to present or future public health
or welfare or the environment. The term
includes, but is not limited to. such
actions at the location of the release as
storage, confinement, perimeter
protection using dikes, trenches, or
ditches, clay cover, neutralization,
clean-up or released hazardous
substances or contaminated materials
recycling or reuse, diversion.
destruction, segregation of reactive
wastes, dredging or excavations, repair
or replacement of leaking containers,
collection of leachate and runoff, on-site
treatment or incineration, provision of
alternative water supplies, and any
monitoring reasonably required to
assure that such actions protect the
public health and welfare and the
environment. The term includes the
costs of permanent relocation of
residents and businesses and
community facilities where the President
determines that, along or in combination
with other measures, such relocation is
more cost-effective than and
environmentally preferable to the
transportation, storage, treatment,
destruction, or secure disposition off-site
of such hazardous substances or may
otherwise be necessary to protect the
public health or welfare. The term does
not include off-site transport of
hazardous substances or contaminated
materials unless the President
determines that such actions (a) are
more cost-effective than other remedial
actions: (b) will create new capacity to
manage in compliance with subtitle C of
the Solid Waste Disposal Act.
hazardous substances in addition to
those located £t the affected facility; or
(c) are necessary to protect public health
or welfare or the environment from a
present or potential risk which may be
created by further exposure to the
continued presence of such substances
or materials.
Remove or removal, as defined by
section 311(a)(8) of CWA refers to
removal of oil or hazardous substances
from the water and shorelines or the
taking of such other actions as may be
necessary to minimize or mitigate
damage to the public health, welfare, or
the environment. As defined by section
101(23) of CERCLA. remove or removal
means the clean-up or removal of
released hazardous substances from the
environment; such actions as may be
necessary to prevent minimize, or
mitigate damage to the public health or
welfare or the environment, which may
otherwise result from 9uch release or
threat of release. The term includes, in
addition, without being limited to.
security fencing or other measures to
limit access, provision of alternative
water supplies, temporary evacuation
and housing of threatened individuals
not otherwise provided for. action taken
under section 104(b) of CERCLA. and
any emergency assistance which may be
provided under the Disaster Relief Act
of 1974.
Respond or response, as defined by
section 101(25) of CERCLA, means
remove, removal, remedy, or remedial
action.
Site Quality Assurance and Sampling
Plan, is a written document associated
with site sampling activities, which
presents in specific terms the
organization (where applicable),
objectives, functional activities, and
specific quality assurance (OA) and
quality control (OC) activities designed
to achieve the data quality goals of a
specific project(s) or continuing
operation(s). The OA Project Plan is
prepared for each specific project or
continuing operation (or group of similar
projects of continuing operations). The
OA Project Plan will be prepared by the
responsible Program Office, Regional
Office, Laboratory, contractor, recipient
of an assistance agreement or other
ogranization.
Size classes of discharges refers to
the following size classes of oil
discharges which are provided as
guidance to the OSC and serve as the
criteria for the actions delineated in
Subpart EL They are not meant to imply
associated degrees of hazard to public
health or welfare, nor are they a
measure of environmental damage. Any
oil discharge that poses a substantial
threat to the public health or welfare or
results in critical public concern shall be
classified as a major discharge
regardless of the following quantitative
measures;
(a)	Minor discharge means a
discharge to the inland waters of less
than 1,000 gallons of oil or a discharge to
the coastal waters of less than 10,000
gallons of oil.
(b)	Medium discharge means a
discharge of 1,000 to 10.000 gallons of oil
to the inland waters or a discharge of
10,000 to 100.000 gallons of oil to the
coastal waters.
(c)	Major discharge means a
discharge of more than 10,000 gallons of
oil to the inland waters or more than
100.000 gallons of oil to the coastal
waters.
Size classes of releases refers to the
following size classifications which are
provided as guidance to the OSC for
meeting pollution report requirements in
Subpart C. The final determination of
the appropriate classification of a
release will be made by the OSC based
on consideration of the particular
release (e.g., size, location, impact etc.).
(a)	Minor release means a release of a
quantity of hazardous substance,
pollutant or contaminant that posed
minimal threat to public health or
welfare or the environment.
(b)	Medium release means all releases
not meeting the criteria for classification
as a minor or major release.

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5888	Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules
(c) Major release means a release of
any quantity of hazardous substances,
pollutant, or contaminant that posts a
substantial threat to public health or
welfare or the environment or results in
significant public concern.
Source control remedial action means
measures that are intended to contain
the hazardous substances or pollutants
or contaminants where they are located
or eliminate potential contamination by
transporting the hazardous substances
or pollutants or contaminants to a new
location. Source control remedial
actions may be appropriate if a
substantial concentration or amount of
hazardous substances or pollutants or
contaminants remain at or near the area
where they are originally located and
inadequate barriers exist to retard
migration of hazardous substances or
pollutants or contaminants into the
environment. Source control remedial
actions may not be appropriate if most
hazardous substances or pollutants or
contaminants have migrated from the
area where originally located or if the
lead agency determines that the
hazardous substances or pollutants or
contaminants are adequately contained.
Specified ports and harbors means
those port and harbor areas on inland
rivers, and land areas immediately
adjacent to those waters, where the
USCG acts as predesignated on-scene
coordinator. Precise locations are
determined by EPA/USCG regional
agreements and identified in Federal
regional contingency plans.
Trustee means any Federal natural
resources management agency
designated in Subpart G of this plan,
and any State agency which may
prosecute claims for damages under
section 107(f) of CERCLA.
United States, as defined by section
311(2)(5) of CWA, refers to the States,
the District of Columbia, the
Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Guam,
American Samoa, the Virgin Islands,
and the Trust Territory of the Pacific
Islands. As defined by section 101(27) of
CERCLA, United States and State
include the several States of the United
States, the District of Columbia, the
Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, Guam,
American Samoa, the United States
Virgin Islands, the Commonwealth of
the Northern Marianas and any other
territory or possession over which the
U.S. has jurisdiction.
Volunteer means any individual
accepted to perform services by a
Federal agency which has authority to
accept volunteer services (examples: see
16 U.S.C. 742f{c)). A volunteer is subject
to the provisions of the authorizing
st ltute. and § 300.25 of this Plan.
Subpart B—Responsibility
§ 300.21 Duties of President delegated to
Federal agencies.
(a) In Executive Order 11735 and
Executive Order 12316, the President
delegated certain functions and
responsibilities vested to him by the
CWA and CERCLA, respectively.
Responsibilities so delegated shall be
responsibilities of Federal agencies
under this Plan unless:
(1)	Responsibility is redelegated
pursuant to section 8(f) of Executive
Order 12318. or
(2)	Executive Order 11735 or
Executive Order 12316 is amended or
revoked.
§ 300.22 Coordination among and by
Federal agencies.
(a)	Federal agencies should
coordinate their planning and response
activities through the mechanisms
described in Subpart C of this Plan and
other means as may be appropriate.
(b)	Federal agencies should,
coordinate planning and response action
with affected State and local
government and private entities.
(c)	Federal agencies with facilities or
other resources which may be useful in
a Feder&i response situation should
make those facilities or resources
available consistent with agency
capabilities and authorities.
(d)	When the Administrator of EPA or
the Secretary of the Department in
which the Coast Guard is operating
determines:
(1) That there is an imminent and
substantial endangerment to the public
health or welfare or the environment
because of a release or threatened
release of a hazardous substance from a
facility; he/she may request the
Attorney General to secure the relief
necessary to abate the threat. The
action described here is in addition to
any actions taken by a State or local
government for the same purpose.
(e)	In accordance with section 311(d)
of CWA, whenever a marine disaster in
or upon the navigable waters of the
United States has created a substantial
threat of a pollution hazard to the public
health or welfare because of a discharge
or an imminent discharge from a vessel
of large quantities of oil or hazardous
substances designated pursuant to
section 311(b)(2)(A) of CWA, the United
States may:
(1)	Coordinate and direct all public
and private efforts to abate the threat;
(2)	Summarily remove and, if
necessary, destroy the vessel by
whatever means are available without
regard to any provisions of law
governing the employment of personnel
or the expenditure of appropriated
funds. The authority for these actions
has been delegated under Executive
Order 11735 to the Administrator of EPA
and the Secretary of the Department in
which the Coast Guard is operating,
respectively, for the waters for which
each designates the OSC under this
Plan.
(f)	Response actions to remove
discharges originating from the Outer
Continental Shelf Lands Act operations
shall be in accordance with this Plan.
(g)	Where appropriate, discharges of
radioactive materials shall be handled
pursuant to the appropriate Federal
radiological plan. For purposes of this
Plan, the Federal Radiological
Emergency Response Plan (49 FR 35896.
Sept. 12.1984) is the appropriate
response plan.
§ 300.23 Other assistance by Federal
agencies.
(a)	Each of the Federal agencies listed
in paragraph (b) of this section has
duties established by statute, executive
order, or Presidential directive which
may be relevant to Federal response
action following or in prevention of a
discharge of oil or a release of a
hazardous substance, pollutant or
contaminant. These duties may also be
relevant to the rehabilitation,
restoration, and replacement of
damaged or lost natural resources.
Federal regional contingency plans
should call upon agencies to carry out
these duties in a coordinated manner.
(b)	The following Federal agencies
may be called upon by an OSC/RPM
during the planning or implementation
of a response to provide assistance in
their respective areas of expertise as
indicated below, consistent with 'agency
capabilities and legal authorities:
(1)	The Department of Agriculture
(USDA) provides expertise in managing
agricultural, forest, and wilderness
areas. The Soil Conservation Service
can provide to the OSC/RPM
predictions of the effects of pollutants
on soil and their movements over and
through soil.
(2)	The Department of Commerce
(DOC), through NOAA, provides
scientific expertise on living marine
resources for which it is responsible and
their habitats, including endangered
species and marine mannals;
coordinates scientific support for
responses and contingency planning in
coastal and marine areas, including
assessments of the hazards that may be
involved, predictions of movement and
dispersion of discharged oil and
released hazardous substance releases:
provides information oti actual end

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Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday. February 12. 1985 / Proposed Rules	5889
predicted meteorological, hydrologic,
ice, and oceanographic conditions for
marine, coastal, and inland waters;
furnishes charts and maps, including
tide and circulation information for
coastal and territorial waters and for the
Great Lakes.
(3)	The Department of Defense (DOD).
consistent with its operational
requirements, may provide assistance to
other Federal agencies on request. The
United States Army Corps of Engineers
has specialized equipment and
personnel for maintaining navigation
channels, for removing navigation
obstructions, for accomplishing
structural repairs, and performing
maintenance to hydropower electric
generating equipment. The Corps can
also provide design services, perform
construction, and can provide contract
writing and contract administration
services for other Federal agencies. The
United States Navy (USN), as a result of
its mission and Pub. L 80-513 (Salvage
Act), is the Federal agency most
knowledgeable and experienced in ship
salvage, shipboard damage control, and
diving. The USN has an extensive array
of specialized equipment and personnel
available for use in these areas as well
as specialized containment, collection,
and removal equipment specifically
designed for salvage-related and open
sea pollution incidents. Also, upon
request of the OSC, locally deployed
USN oil spill equipment may be
provided. These services and equipment
are available on a reimbursable-basis to
Federal agencies upon request when
commercial equipment is not available.
As described elsewhere in the Plan,
DOD officials serve as OSCs for
removal action and as RPMs for
remedial actions resulting from releases
of hazardous substances, pollutants, or
contaminants from DOD vessels and
facilities.
(4)	The Department of Energy (DOE)
provides advice to the OSC/RPM when
assistance is required in identifying the
source and extent of radioactive
releases, and in the removal and
disposal of radioactive contamination.
(5)	The Department of Health and
Human Services (HHS) is responsible
for providing assistance on all matters
related to the assessment of health
hazards at a response, and protection of
both response worker's and the public's
health.
(0) The Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA) will
provide advice and assistance to the
OSC/RMP on coordinating civil
emergency planning and mitigation
efforts with other Executive agencies.
State and local governments, and the
private sector. In the event of a major
disaster declaration or emergency
determination by the President at a
hazardous materials response site.
FEMA will coordinate all disaster or
emergency actions with the OSC/RPM.
(7)	The Department of the Interior
(DOI) should be contacted through
Regional Environmental Officers (REO).
who are the designated members of
RRTs. Department land managers have
jurisdiction over the National Park
System, National Wildlife Refuges and
Fish Hatcheries, the public lands, and
certain water projects in western States.
In addition, bureaus and offices have
relevant expertise as follows: Fish and
Wildlife Service: fish and wildlife,
including endangered and threatened
species, migratory birds, certain marine
mammals: habitats, resource
contaminants; laboratory research
facilities. Geological Survey: geology,
hydrology (grouitd water and surface),
and natural hazards. Bureau of Land
Management• Minerals, soils,
vegetation, wildlife, habitat,
archaeology, wilderness: hazardous
materials; etc. Minerals Management
Services: manned facilities for Outer
Continental Shelf (OCS) oversight.
Bureau of Mines; analysis and
identification of inorganic hazardous
substances. Office of Surface Mining:
coal mine wastes, land reclamation.
National Park Service biological and
general natural resources expert
personnel at Park units. Bureau of
Indian Affairs: assistance in
implementing NCP in American Samoa.
Guam, the Trust Territory of the Pacific
Islands, and the Virgin Islands.
(8)	The Department of Justice (DOJ)
can provide expert advice on
complicated legal questions arising from
discharge or releases and Federal
agency responses. In addition, the DO]
represents the Federal Government,
including its agencies, in litigation.
(9)	The Department of Labor (DOL),
through the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration (OSHA). will
provide the OSC/RPM with advice,
guidance, and assistance regarding
hazards to persons involved in removal
or control or oil discharges and
hazardous substance releases, and in
the precautions necessary to prevent
hazards to their health and safety.
(10)	The Department of
Transportation (DOT) provides
expertise on all modes of transporting
oil and hazardous substances. Through
the USCG, DOD offers expertise in
domestic/international fields of port
safety and security, maritime law
enforcement ship navigation and
construction, and the manning,
operation, and safety of vessels and
marine facilities. The USCG also
maintains continuously manned
facilities which can be used for
command, control, and surveillance of
oil discharges and hazardous substance
releases occurring in the coastal zone.
The USCG provides predesignated
OSCs for the coastal zone.
fll) The Department of State (DOS)
will lead in the development of joint
international contingency plans. It will
also help to coordinate an international
response when discharges or releases
cross international boundaries or
involve foreign flag vessels.
Additionally, this Department will
coordinate requests for assistance from
foreign governments and U.S. proposals
for conducting research at incidents that
occur in waters of other countries.
(12) The Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) provides expertise on
environmental effects of oil discharges
or releases of hazardous substances,
pollutants, or contaminants and
environmental pollution control
techniques. EPA provides predesignated
OSCs for the inland zone and RPMs for
ell remedial actions, unless otherwise
agreed. EPA also will generally provide
the SSC for responses in inland areas.
EPA may enter into a contract or
cooperative agreement with the
appropriate State in order to implement
a remedial action.
(c)	In addition to their general
responsibilities under paragraph (a) of
this-section. Federal agencies should:
(1)	Make necessary information
available to the NRT. RRTs, and OSC3/
RPMs.
(2)	Inform the NRT and RRTs
(consistent with national security
considerations) of changes in the
availability of resources that would
affect the operations of the Plan.
(3)	Provide representatives as
necessary to the NRT and RRTs and
assist RRTs and OSCs in formulating
Federal regional and Federal local
contingency plans.
(d)	All Federal agencies are
responsible for reporting releases of
hazardous substances and discharges of
oil from facilities or vessels which are
under their jurisdiction or control in
accordance with section 104 (a) and (b)
and 101(24) of CERCLA subject to the
following:
(1) HHS is delegated all authorities
under section 104(b) of CERCLA relating
to a determination that illness, disease
or complaints thereof may be
attributable to exposure to a hazardous
substance, pollutant or contaminant. (In
addition, section 104(i) of CERCLA calls
upon HHS to: establish appropriate
disease/exposure registries: conduct
appropriate testing for exposed

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5890	Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules
individuals; develop maintain and
provide information on health effects of
toxic substances: and maintain a list of
areas restricted or closed because of
toxic substance contamination.)
(2)	FEMA is delegated the authorities
vested in the President by section 104(a)
of CERCLA to the extent they require
permanent relocation of residents,
businesses, and community facilities or
temporary evacuation and housing of
threatened individuals not otherwise
provided for. (FEMA is also delegated
authority under section 101(24) of
CERCLA to the extent they require a
determination by the President that
"permanent relocation of residents and
businesses and community facilities" is
included within the terms "remedy" and
"remedial action" as defined in section
101(24) of CERCLA.)
(3)	DOD is delegated all authority of
section 104 (a) and (b) of CERCLA with
respect to releases from DOD facilities
or vessels, including vessels owned or
bareboat chartered and operated.
(e) If the situation is beyond the
capability of State and local
governments and the statutory authority
of Federal agencies, the President,
acting upon a request by the
Government, may declare a major
disaster or emergency and appoint a
Federal Coordinating Officer to assume
responsibility for direction and control
of the Federal response.
§ 300.24 State and local participation.
(a)	Each State governor is requested
to assign an office or agency to
represent the State on the appropriate
RRT. Local governments are invited to
participate in activities on the
appropriate RRT as may be provided by
State law or arranged by the State's
representative. The State's
representative may participate fully in
all facets of activities of the appropriate
RRT and is encouraged to designate the
element of the State government that
will direct State supervised response
operations.
(b)	State and local, government
agencies are encouraged to include
contingency planning for response,
consistent with this Plan and Regional
Contingency Plans, in all emergency and
disaster planning.
(c)	States are encouraged to use State
authorities to compel potentially
responsible parties to undertake
response actions, or to themselves
undertake response actions which are
not eligible for Federal funding.
(d)	States may enter into contract or
cooperative agreements pursuant to
section 104(c)(3) and (d) of CERCLA or
section 311(c)(2)(H) of the CWA,- as
appropriate, to undertake actions
authorized under Subparts E and F of
this Plan. Requirements for entering into
these agreements are included in
§ 300.58 and § 300.62 of this Plan. While
the terms "On-Scene Coordinator,"
"OSC." Remedial Project Manager," and
"RPM" are reserved for Federal officials
for the purpose of this Plan, a State
agency may choose to use these titles
for its response personnel without such
use connoting the definitions,
responsibilities, and authorities for
these titles for Federal officials under
this Plan. In the case of a State as lead
agency, the State shall carry out the
same responsibilities delineated for
OSCs/RPMs in this Plan (except
coordinating and directing Federal
agency response actions).
(e) Since State and local public safety
organizations would normally be the
first government representatives at the
scene of a discharge or release, they
would be expected to initiate public
safety measures necessary to protect
public health and welfare, andare
responsible for directing evacuations
pursuant to existing State/local
procedures.
9 300.25 Nongovernment participation.
(a)	Industry groups, academic
organizations, and others are
encouraged to commit resources for
response operations. Specific
commitments should be listed in Federal
regional and Federal local contingency
plans.
(b)	It is particularly important to use
the valuable technical and scientific
information generated by the non-
government local community along with
those from Federal and State
Government to assist the OSC/RPM in
devising cleanup strategies where
effective standard techniques are
unavailable, and to ensure that pertinent
research will be undertaken to meet
national needs. The SSC shall act as
liaison between the OSC/RPM and such
interested organizations.
(c)	Federal local contingency plans
shall establish procedures to allow for
well-organized, worthwhile, and safe
use of volunteers. Local plans should
provide for the direction of volunteers
by the OSC. or by other Federal, State of
local officials knowledgeable in
contingency operations and capable of
providing leadership. Local plans also
should identify specific areas in which
volunteers can be used, such as beach
surveillance, logistical support, and bird
and wildlife treatment. Unless
specifically requested by the OSC,
volunteer generally should not be used
for physical removal or remedial
activities. If, in the judgment of the OSC
or an appropriate participating agency,
dangerous conditions exist, volunteers
shall be restricted from on-scene
operations.
(d) (1) If any person other than the
Federal Government or a State or
person operating under contract or
cooperative agreement with the United
States, takes response action and
intends to seek reimbursement from the
Fund, such actions to be in conformity
with this Plan for purposes of section
111(a)(2) of CERCLA may only be
reimbursed if such person notifies the
administrator of EPA or his/her
designee prior to taking such action and
receives prior approval to take such
action.
(2)	The process of prior approval of
Fund reimbursement requests is
preauthorization. Fund-preauthorization
will be considered only for
(i)	Releases warranting a removal
action pursuant to S 300.65;
(ii)	104(b) activities; and
(iii)	Remedial actions on the National
Priorities List.
(3)	All requests for preauthorization
will be reviewed to determine whether
the request should receive priority for
funding.
(4)	Preauthorization does not obligate
the Fund. For purposes of payment of a
claim under CERCLA section 112, the
responsible Federal official must certify
that costs incurred were necessary and
consistent with the Fund
preauthorization.
(5)	All persons requesting
preauthorization must demonstrate the
technical and other capabilities to
respond safely and effectively to
releases of hazardous substances, or
pollutants or contaminants.
Subpart C—Organization
{ 300.31 Organizational concepts.
Three fundamental kinds of activity
are performed pursuant to the Plan:
Planning and coordination, operations at
the scene of a discharge and/or release,
and communications. The organizational
elements created to perform these
activities are discussed below in the
context of their roles in these activities.
The organizational concepts of this Plan
are depicted in Figure 1. The Standard
Federal Regional boundaries are shown
in Figure 2 and the U.S. Coast Guard
District boundaries are shown in Figure
3.
| COOC WW W M

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Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12,1985 / Proposed Rules
5891
National Contingency Plan Concepts
30032
300.36
NRT

NRC
1
l
DOD

DOI


1


1





1


EPA

DOC

DOT
HE
I
USDA
PARTICIPATING
AGENCIES
DOE
FEMA
DOL
DOJ
DOS
HHS
30032
300.38
RRT
RRC
States
{
OSC/RPM 130033
30034
c
)
ON SCENE
FORCES
)
OTHER
RESOURCES.
300.25
<
FEDERAL
AGENCY
RESOURCES/
30023
STATE
RESOURCES.
300.24
,	1

-------
FIGURE 2
STANDARD RE6I0NAL BOUNDARIES
TEN REGIONS

-------
FIGURE 3
U.S. Coast Guard Districts
Pacific Area
COMPACAREA
Atlantic Area
COMLANTAREA
u
I3lt) DISTRICT
Mo*r
H -OAK
•t DISTRICT
BOSTON
DISTRICT
NEW YORK
CLEVELAND
FRANCISCO
« M(X
17th 0I8TRICT
JUNEAU
tth DISTRICT
NEW ORLEANS
DISTRICT
MIAMI
14th DISTRICT
HONOLULU
COAST GUARD
HEAOQUARTERS
5th DISTRICT ° C
PORTSMOUTH
BILLING CODE 6M0-50-C

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5894	Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12. 1985 / Proposed Rules
5 300.32 Planning and coordination.
(~)	National planning and
coordination is accomplished through
Ihe National Response Team (NRT).
(1)	The NRT consists of
representatives from the agencies
named in 5 300.23. Each agency shall
designate a member to the team arid
sufficient alternates to ensure
representation, as agency resources
permit. Other agencies may request
membership on the NRT by forwarding
such requests to the chairman of the
NRT.
(2)	Except for periods of activation
because of a response action, the
representative of EPA shall be the
chairman and the representative of
USCG Bhall be the vice chairman of the
NRT. The vice chairman shall maintain
records of NRT activities along with
national, regional, and local plans for
response actions. When the NRT is
activated for response actions, the
chairman shall be the EPA or USCG
representative, based on whether the
discharge or release occurs in the inland
zone or coastal zone, unless otherwise
agreed upon by the chairman and vice
chairman.
(3)	While the NRT desires to achieve a
consensus on all matters brought before
it, certain matters may prove
unresolvable by this means. In such
cases, each cabinet, department or
agency serving as a participating agency
on the NRT may be accorded one vote in
NRT proceedings.
(4)	The NRT may establish such by-
laws and committees as it deems
appropriate to further the purposes for
which it is established.
(5)	When the NRT is not activated for
a response action, it shall serve as a
standing committee to evaluate methods
of responding to discharges or releases,
to recommend needed changes in the
response organization and to
recommend revisions to this Plan.
(~)	The NRT may consider and make
recommendations to appropriate
agencies on the training, equipping and
protection of response teams and
necessary research, development,
demonstration, and evaluation to
improve response capabilities.
{7) Direct planning and preparedness
responsibilities of the NRT include:
(i)	Maintaining national readiness to
respond to a major discharge of ail or
release of a hazardous substance or
polliMant or contaminant which is
beyond regional capabilities.
(ii)	Monitoring incoming reports from
all RRTs and activating when necessary;
(iii)	Reviewing regional responses to
oil discharges and hazardous substance
releases, including an evaluation of
equipment readiness and coordinate
among responsible public agencies and
private organizations;
(iv)	Developing procedures to ensure
the coordination of Federal. State, and
local governments and private response
to oil discharges and releases of
hazardous substances, pollutants or
contaminants;
(v)	Monitoring response-related
research and development, testing, and
evaluation activities of NRT agencies to
enhance coordination and avoid
duplication of effort; and
(vi'j Monitoring response training to
encourage coordination of available
resources between agencies with
responsibilities under this plan.
[8) The NRT may consider matters
referred to it for advice or resolution by
an RRT.
(b] The RRT provides the appropriate
regional mechanism for planning and
preparedness activities before a
response action is taken and for
coordination and advice during such
response actions. The two principal
components of the RRT mechanism are
a standing team, which consists of
designated representatives from, each-
participating Federal agency, State
governments, and local governments (as
agreed upon by the States): And
incident-specific teams where
participation will relate to the technical
nature of the incident and its geographic
location. The standing team jurisdiction
will correspond with the Standard
Federal Regions and will include
communications, planning, coordination,
training, evaluation, preparedness, and
other such matters on a Region-wide
basiB. The incident-specific team
jurisdiction will relate to the operational
requirements of discharge or release
response. Appropriate levels of
activation, including participation by
State and local governments, shall be
determined by the designated RRT
chairman for the incident.
(1)	Except when the RRT is activated
for a removal incident, the
representatives of EPA and USCG shall
act as co-chairmen. When the RRT is
activated for response actions, the
chairman shall be the EPA or USCG
representative, based on whether the
discharge or release occurs in the inland
zone or coastal zone, unless otherwise
agreed upon by the co-chairmen.
[2]	Each participating agency should
designate one member and at least one
alternate member to the RRT. Agencies
whose regional subdivisions do not
correspond to the standard Federal
Regions may designate additional
representatives to the standing RRT to
ensure appropriate coverage of the
standard Federal Region. Participating
States may also designate one member
and at least one alternate member to the
Team. All agencies and States may also
provide additional representatives as
observers to meetings of the RRT.
(3)	RRT members should designate
representatives frbm their agencies to
work with OSCs in developing Federal
local contingency plans, providing for
the use of agency resources, and in
responding to discharges and releases
(see | 300.43],
(4)	Federal regional and Federal local
plans should adequately provide the
OSC with assistance from the Federal
agencies commensurate with agencies'
resources, capabilities, and
responsibilities within the region. During
a response action, the members of the
RRT should seek to make available the
resources of their agencies to the-OSC
as specified in the Federal regional and
Federal local contingency plans.
(5)	Affected States are encouraged to
participate actively in all RRT activities
[see 3 300.24(a)], to designate
representatives to work with the RRT
and OSCs in developing Federal
regional and Federal local plans, to plan
for and make available State resources,
and to sferve as the contact point for
coordination of response with local
government agencies whether or not
represented on the RRT.
(6)	The standing RRT will serve to
recommend changes in the regional
response organization as needed, to
revise the regional plan as needed, and
to evalute the preparedness of the
agencies and the effectiveness of local
plana for the Federal response to
discharge and releases. The RRT should:
(i)	Conduct advance planning for use
of dispersants, surface collection agents,
burning agents, biological additives, or
other chemical agents in accordance
with 5 300.34(e) of this Plan.
(ii)	Make continuing review of
regional and local responses to
discharges or releases, considering
available legal remedies, equipment
readiness and coordination among
responsible public agencies and private
organizations.
(iii)	Based on observations of
response operations, recommend
revisions of the National Contingency
Plan to the NRT.
(iv)	Consider and recommend
necessary changes based on continuing
review of response actions in the region.
(v)	Review OSC actions to help ensure
that Federal regional and Federal local
contingency plans are developed
satisfactorily.
(vi)	Be prepared to respond to major
discharges or releases outside the
region.

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Federal Register / Vol. 50. No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules
5895
(vii)	Meet at least semiannually to
review response actions carried out
during the preceding period, and
consider changes in Federal regional
and Federal local contingency plans.
(viii)	Provide letter reports on their
activities to the NRT twice a year, no
later than January 31 and July 31. At a
minimum, reports should summarize
recent activities, organizational changes,
operational concerns, and efforts to
improve State and local coordination.
(ix)	Encourage the State and local
response community to improve their
preparedness for response.
(x)	Conduct training exercises as
necessary to ensure preparedness of the
response community within the region.
(7) Whenever there is insufficient
national policy guidance on a matter
before the RRT, a technical matter
requiring solution, a question concerning
interpretation of the Plan, or there is a
disagreement on discretionary actions
between RRT members that cannot be
resolved at the regional level, it may be
referred to the NRT for advice or
resolution.
(c)	The OSC is responsible for
developing any Federal local
contingency plans for the Federal
response in the area of the OSC's
responsibility. This may be
accomplished in cooperation with the
RRT and designated State and local
representatives (see § 300.43).
Boundaries for Federal local
contingency plans shall coincide with
those agreed upon between EPA, DOD
and the USCG (subject to Executive
Order 12316) to determine OSC areas of
responsibility and should be clearly
indicated in the regional contingency
plan. Where practicable, consideration
should be given to jurisdictional
boundaries established by State and
local plans.
(1)	The lead agency should provide
appropriate training for its OSCs, RPMs,
and other response personnel to carry
out their responsibilities under this Plan.
(2)	To the extent practicable. OSCs/
RPMs should ensure that persons
designated to act as their on-scene
representatives are adequately trained
and prepared to carry out actions under
this Plan.
(d)	Scientific support for the
development of regional and local'plans
is organized by appropriate agencies to
provide special expertise and
assistance. Generally, the Scientific
Support Coordinator (SSC) for plans
encompassing the coastal area will be
provided by NOAA. and the SSC for
inland areas will generally be provided
by EPA. SSCs may be obtained from
other agencies if determined to be
appropriate by the RRT.
§ 300.33 Response operations.
(a)	EPA and USCG shall designate
OSCs/RPMs for all areas in each region
provided, however, that DOD shall
designate OSCa/RPMs responsible for
taking all actions resulting from releases
of hazardous substances, pollutants, or
contaminants from DOD facilities and
vessels. DOD will be the removal
response authority with respect to
incidents involving DOD military
weapons and munitions. Removal
actions involving nuclear weapons
should be conducted in accordance with
the joint Department of Defense,
Department of Energy, and Federal
Emergency Management Agency
agreement for Response to Nuclear
Incidents and Nuclear Weapons
Significant Incidents of January 8,1981.
The USCG will furnish or provide OSCs
for oil discharges and for the immediate
removal of hazardous substances,
pollutants, or contaminants into or
threatening the coastal zone except that
the USCG'will not provide
predesignated OSCs for discharges and
releases from hazardous waste
management facilities or in similarly
chronic incidents. EPA shall furnish or
provide OSCs for discharges and
releases into or threatening the inland
zone and shall furnish or provide RPMs
for federally funded remedial actions
except as otherwise agreed. The USCG
will provide an initial response to
hazardous waste management facilities
within the coastal zone in accordance
with the DOT/EPA Instrument of
Redelegation (46 FR 63294). EPA will
also assume all remedial actions
resulting from removals initiated by the
USCG in the coastal zone except those
involving vessels. The USCG OSC shall
contact the cognizant EPA RPM as soon
as it is evident that a removal may
require a follow-up remedial action to
ensure that the required planning can be
initiated and an orderly transition to
EPA lead can occur.
(b)	The OSC/RPM directs Federal
Fund-financed response efforts and
coordinates all other Federal efforts at
the scene of a discharge or release
subject to Executive Order 12316. As
part of the planning and preparation for
response, the OSCs/RPMs shall be
predesignated by the regional or district
head of the lead agency.
(1) The first Federal official to arrive
at the scene of a discharge or release
should coordinate activities under this
Plan and is'authorized to initiate
necessary actions normally carried out
by the OSC until the arrival of the
predesignated OSC. This official may
initiate Federal Fund-financed actions
only as authorized by the OSC or (if the
OSC is unavailable) the authorized
representative of the lead agency.
(2)	The OSC/RPM shall, to the extent
practicable under the circumstances,
collect pertinent facts about the
discharge or release, such as its source
and cause; the existence of potentially
responsible parties: the nature, amount,
and location of discharged or released
materials; the probable direction and
time of travel of discharged or released
materials; the pathways to human and
environmental exposure; potential
impact on human health, welfare,
environment, and safety; the potential
impact on natural resources and
property which may be affected;
priorities for protecting human health,
welfare and the environment; and
appropriate cost documentation.
(3)	The OSC/RPM shall direct
response operations [see Subparts E and
F for descriptive details]. The OSC's/
RPM's effort shall be coordinated with
other appropriate Federal, State,-local
and private response agencies. OSC/
RPMs may designate capable persons
from Federal, State, or local agencies to
act as their on-scene representative.
State and local representatives,
however, are not authorized to take
actions under Subparts E and F that
involve expenditures of CWA 311(k) or
CERCLA funds unless an appropriate
contract or cooperative agreement has
been established.
(4)	The OSC (and when the RRT has
been activated for a remedial action, the
RPM) should consult regularly with the
RRT in carrying out this Plan and will
keep the RRT informed of activities
under this Plan.
(5)	The OSC/RPM shall advise the
appropriate State agency (as "agreed
upon with each State) as promptly as
possible of reported discharges, and
releases.
(6)	The OSC/RPM shall evaluate
incoming information and immediately
advise FEMA of potential major disaster
situations. In the event of a major
disaster or emergency, under the
Disaster Relief Act of 1974 (Pub. L 93-
288). the OSC/RPM will coordinate any
response activities with the Federal
Coordinating Officer designated by the
President. In addition, the OSC/RPM
should notify FEMA of situations
potentially requiring evacuation,
temporary housing, and permanent
relocation.
(7)	In those instances where a
possible public health emergency exists,
the OSC/RPM should notify the HHS
representative to the RRT. Throughout
response actions, the OSC/RPM may
call upon the HHS representative for
assistance in determining public health

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5896	Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29. / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules
threats and for advice on worker health
safety problems.
(8)	All Federal agencies should plan
for emergencies and develop procedures
for dealing with oil discharges and
releases of hazardous substances,
pollutants, or contaminants from vessels
and facilities under their jurisdiction. All
Federal agencies, therefore, are
responsible for designating the office
that coordinates response to such
incidents in accordance with'this Plan
and applicable Federal regulations and
guidelines. The OSC/RPM should
provide advice and assistance as
requested by Federal agencies for
incidents involving vessels or facilities
under their jurisdiction. At the request
of the Federal agency, or if, in the
opinion of the OSC (or in a remedial
action, the lead agency,) the responsible
Federal agency does not act promptly or
take appropriate action to respond to a
discharge or release occurring on a
vessel or facility, including contiguous
lands under its jurisdiction, the OSC (or
in a remedial action, the lead agency)
designated to respond in the area where
the discharge or release occurs may
conduct appropriate response activities.
If this occurs, the OSC (or in a remedial
action, the lead agency) shall consult
with and coordinate all response
activities taken with the responsible
Federal agency. With respect to release
of hazardous substances, pollutants, or
contaminants from DOD facilities or
vessels, DOD designates the OSC/RPM.
(9)	The OSC/RPM should advise the
affected land managing agency and
trustees of natural resources, as
promptly as possible, of releases and
discharges affecting Federal resources
under its jurisdiction. The OSC or RPM
should consult with and coordinate all
response activities with the affected
land managing agency or resource
trustee to the extent practicable.
(10)	Where the OSC/RPM becomes
aware that a discharge or release may
adversely affect any endangered or
threatened species, or result in
destruction or adverse modification of
the habitat of such species, the OSC/
RPM should consult with the DOI or
DOC (NOAA).
(11)	The OSC/RPM is responsible for
addressing worker health and safety
concerns at a response scene, in
accordance with $ 300.38 of this Plan.
(12)	The OSC shall submit reports to
the RRT and appropriate agencies as
significant developments occur during
removal actions.
(13)	OSCs/RPMs should ensure that
all appropriate public and private
interests are kept informed and that
th°ir concerns are considered
throughout a response in accordance
with § 300.39 to :he extent practicable.
(14) The RPM is the prime contact for
remedial actions being taken (or needed
to be taken) at sites on the proposed or
promulgated National Priorities List
(NPL). These actions include:
(i)	Fund Financed Cleanup/Federal
Lead—The RPM coordinates, directs
and reviews the work of all EPA, State
and local governments. U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers, and all other agencies and
contractors to assure compliance with
this Plan. Based upon the reports of
these parties, the RPM recommends
action for decisions by lead agency
officials. The RPM's period of
responsibility begins prior to initia.tion
of ths Remedial Investigation/
Feasibility Study (RI/FS) (described in
S 300.68(e)] and continues through
design, construction, deletion of the site
from the NPL, and in some cases, the
CERCLA cost recovery activity. The
RPM should coordinate with the OSC to
ensure an orderly transition from OSC
response activities of a State-lead
remedial activities.
(ii)	Fund Financed Cleanup/Slate
Lead—The RPM serves in an oversight
capacity during the planning, design and
cleanup activities of a State-lead
remedial action, offering both technical
and programmatic guidance.
(iii)	The RPM should be involved in all
decisionmaking processes necessary to
ensure compliance with this Plan and
the cooperative agreement between the
EPA and the State.
300.34 Special force* and teams.
(a) The National Strike Force (NSF)
consists of the Strike Teams established
by the USCG on the Atlantic. Pacific
and Gulf coasts and includes emergency
task forces to provide assistance to the
OSC/RPM.
(1)	The Strike Teams can provide
communication support, advice and
assistance for oil and hazardous
substances removal. These teams also
have knowledge of shipboard damage
control and diving. Additionally, they
are equipped with specialized
containment and removal equipment,
and have rapid transportation available.
When possible, the Strike Teams will
train the emergency task forces and
assist in the development of regional
and local contingency plans.
(2)	The OSC/RPM may request
assistance from the Strike Teams.
Requests for a team may be made
directly to the Cdmmanding Officer of
the appropriate team, the USCG member
of the RRT, the appropriate USCG Area
Commander, or the Commandant of the
USCG through the NRC.
(b)	Each USCG OSC manages
emergency task forces trained to
evaluate, monitor, and supervise
pollution responses. Additionally, they
have limited "initial aid" response
capability to deploy equipment prior to
the arrival of a clean-up contractor, or
other response personnel.
(c)(1)	The Environmental Response
Team (ERT) is established by EPA in
accordance with its disaster and
emergency responsibilities. The ERT
includes expertise in biology, chemistry,
hydrology, geology and engineering.
(2)	It can provide access to special
decontamination equipment for
chemical releases and advice to the
OSC/RPM in hazard evaluation; risk
assessment; multimedia sampling and
analysis program; on-site safety,
including development and
implementation plans; clean-up
techniques and priorities; water supply
decontamination and protection;
application of dispersants;
environmental assessment: degree of
clean-up required; and diposal of
contaminated material.
(3)	The ERT also provides both
introductory and intermediate level
training courses to prepare response
personnel.
(4)	OSC/RPM or RRT requests for
ERT support should be made to the EPA
representative on the RRT; the EPA
Headquarters, pirector. Office of
Emergency and Remedial Response; or
the appropriate EPA regional emergency
coordinator.
(d)	Scientific Support Coordinators
(SSCs) are available, at the request of
OSCs/RPMs, to assist with actual or
potential responses to discharges of oil
or releases of hazardous substances,
pollutants, or contaminants. Generally,
SSCs are provided by the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) in coastal and
marine areas, and by the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) in inland
regions.
(1) During a response, the SSC serves
under the direction Of the OSC/RPM
and is responsible for providing
scientific support for operational
decisions and to coordinate on-scene
scientific activity. Depending on the
nature of the incident the SSC can be
expected to provide certain specialized
scientific skills and to work with
governmental agencies, universities,
community representatives, and
industry to compile information that
would assist the OSC/RPM in assessing
the hazards and potential effects of
discharges and releases and in
developing response strategies.

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Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules	5897
(2)	If requested by the OSC/RPM, the
SSC will serve as the principal liaison
for scientific information and will
facilitate communications to and from
the scientific community on response
issues. The SSC, in this role, will
attempt to reach a consensus on
scientific issues surrounding the
response but will also ensure that any
differing opinions within the community
are communicated to the OSC/RPM.
(3)	The SSC will assist the OSC/RPM
in responding to requests for assistance
from the State and Federal agencies
regarding scientific studies and
environmental assessments. Details on
access to scientific support shall be
included in regional contingency plans.
(e)	The USCG Public Information
Assist Team fPlAT) and the EPA Public
Affairs Assist Team (PAAT) are
available to assist OSCs/RPMs and
regional or district offices meet the
demands for public information and
participation. Their use is encouraged
any time the OSC/RPM requires outside
public affairs support. Requests for
these teams may be made through the
NRC.
(f)(1)	The RRT may be activated by
the Chairman as an emergency response
team when a discharge or release;
(1)	Exceeds the response capability
available to the OSC in the place where
it occurs;
(ii)	Transects regional boundaries; or
(iii)	May pose a substantial threat to
the public health, welfare or to the
environment or to regionally significant
amounts of property. Regional
contingency plans shall specify detailed
criteria for activation of RRTs.
(2)	The RRT may be activated during
any pollution emergency by a request
from any RRT representative to the
chairman of the Team. Request for RRT
activation shall later be confirmed in
writing. Each representative, or an
appropriate alternate, should be notified
immediately when the RRT if activated.
(3)	During prolonged removal or
remedial action, the RRT may not need
to be activated or may need to be
activated only in a limited sense, or
have available only those members of
the RRT who are directly affected or can
provide direct response assistance.
(4)	When the RRT is activated for a
discharge or release, agency
representatives shall meet at the call of
the chairman and may:
(i)	Monitor and evaluate reports from
the OSC/RPM. The RRT may advise the
OSC/RPM on the duration and extent of
Federal response and may recommend
to the OSC/RPM specific actions to
respond to the discharge or release.
(ii)	Request other Federal, State or
local government, or private agencies to
provide resources under their existing
authorities to respond to a discharge or
release or to monitor response
operations.
(iii)	Help the OSC/RPM prepare
information releases for the public and
for communication with the NRT.
(iv)	If the circumstances warrant,
advise the regional or district head of
the agency providing the OSC/RPM that
a different OSC/RPM should be
designated.
(v)	Submit Pollution Reports
(POLREPS) to the NRC as significant
developments occur.
(5)	When the RRT is activated,
affected States may participate in all
RRT deliberations. State government
representatives participating in the RRT
have the same status as any Federal
member of the RRT.
(6)	The RRT can be deactivated by
agreement between the EPA and USCG
team members. The time of deactivation
should be included in the POLREPS.
(g)	The NRT should be activated as an
emergency response team when an oil
discharge or hazardous substance
release:
(1)	Exceeds the response capability of
the regions in which it occurs;
(2)	Transects regional boundries;
(3)	Involves significant population
threat or national policy issues,
substantial amounts of property, or
substantial threats to natural resources;
or
(4)	Is requested by any NRT member.
(h)	When activated for a response
action, the NRT shall meet at the call of
the chairman and may;
(1)	Monitor and evaluate reports from
the OSC/RPM. The NRT may
recommend to the OSC/RPM. through
the RRT, actions to combat the
discharge or release.
(2)	Request other Federal. State and
local governments, or private agencies,
to provide resources under their existing
authorities to combat a discharge or
release or to monitor response
operations.
(3)	Coordinate the supply of
equipment personnel, or technical
advice to the affected region from other
regions or districts.
§ 300.35 Multi-regional responses.
(a) If a discharge or release moves
from the area covered by one Federal
local or Federal regional contingency
plan into another area, the authority for
removal or response actions should
likewise shift If a discharge or release
or substantial threat of discharge or
release affects areas covered by two or
more regional plana, the response
mechanisms of both may be activated.
In this case, removal or response actions
of all regions concerned shall be fully
coordinated as detailed in the regional
plans.
(b)	There shall be only one OSC/RPM
at any time during the course of a
response operation. Should a discharge
or release affect two or more areas, the
EPA, DOD and USCG. as appropriate,
shall give prime consideration to the
area vulnerable to the greatest threat.
The RRT shall designate the OSC/RPM
if EPA, DOD and USCG members are
unable to agree on the designation. The
NRT shall designate the OSC/RPM if
members of one RRT to two adjacent
RRTs are unable to agree on the
designation.
(c)	Where the USCG has provided the
OSC for emergency response to a
release from hazardous waste
management facilities located in the
coastal zone, responsibility for response
action shall shift to EPA, in accordance
with EPA/USCG agreements.
3 300.38 Communications.
(a)	The NRC is the national
communications center for activities
related to response actions. It is located
at USCG Headquarters in Washington.
D.C. The NRC receives and relays
notices of discharges or releases to the
appropriate OSC, disseminates OSC/
RPM and RRT reports to the NRT when
appropriate, and provides facilities for
the NRT to use in coordinating a
national response action when required.
(b)	The commandant, USCG, will
provide the necessary communications,
plotting facilities, and equipment for the
NRC
(c)	Notice of an oil discharge or
release of a hazardous substance in an
amount equal to or greater than the
reportable quantity must be made
immediately in accordance with 33 CFR
Part 153, Subpart B and section 103(a) of
CERCLA, respectively. Notification shall
be made to the NRC Duty Officer, HQ
USCG, Washington. D.C. telephone (800)
424-8802 (or current local telephone
number). All notices of discharges or
releases received at the NRC shall be
relayed immediately by telephone to the
OSC or lead agency.
(d)	The RRC provides facilities and
personnel for communications,
information storage, and other
requirements for the RRC.
S 300.37 Spelcal considerations.
(a) Response Equipment—The Spill
Cleanup Inventory (SKIM) system is
available to help OSCs and RRTs and
private parties gain rapid information as
to the location of response and support
equipment. This inventory is accessible
through the NRC and USCG's OSCs. The

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5898
Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12. 1985 / Proposed Rules
inventory includes private and
commercial equipment, as well as
government resources. The RRTs and
OSCs shall ensure that data in the
system are current and accurate. The
USCG is responsible for maintaining
and updating the system with RRT and
OSC input.
(b) Marine salvage. (1) Marine
salvage operations generally fall into
five categories: Afloat salage: offshore
salvage: river and harbor cleatance:
cargo salvage: and rescue towing. Each
category requires different knowledge
and specialized types of equipment. The
complexity of such operations may be
further compounded by local
environmental and geographic:
conditions.
(2) The nature of marine salvage and
the conditions under which it occurs
combine to make such operations
imprecise, difficult, hazardous, and
expensive. Thus, responsible parties or
other persons attempting to perform
such operations without adequate
knowledge, equipment, and experience
could aggravate, rather than relieve, the
situation. OSCs with responsibility for
monitoring, evaluating, or supervising
these activities should request technical
assistance from DOD as necessary to
ensure that proper actions are taken.
§ 300.38 Worker health and safety.
(a) Requirements under the
Occupational Safety and Health Act of
1970 (29 U.S.C. 051 et seq.) (OSH Act)
and under the lpws of States with plans
approved under Section 18 of the OSH
Act (State OSH laws), as well as other
applicable safety and health
requirements, will be applied to
response activities under this Plan.
These requirements are subject to
enforcement by the appropriate Federal
and State agencies. Federal OSHA
requirements include, among other
things, all OSHA General Industry (29
CFR Part 1910), Construction (29 CFR
Part 1926), Shipyard (29 CFR Part 1915),
and Longshorning (29 CFR Part 1918),
standards wherever they are relevant,
as well as OSHA recordkeeping and
reporting regulations. Employers at
response actions under this Plan will
also be subject to the general duty
requirement of section 5(a)(1) of the
OSH Act, 29 U.S.C. 654(a)(1). No action
by the lead agency with respect to
response activities under this Plan
constitutes an exercise of statutory
authority within the meaning of section
4(b)(1) of the OSH Act. All
governmental agencies and private
employers are directly responsible for
the health and safety of their own
employees.
(b)	Under a response action taken by
n responsible party, the responsible
party must assure that an occupational
health and safety program is made
available for the protection of workers
at the response site, and that workers
entering the response site are apprised
of the response site hazards and
provisions of the safety and health
program.
(c)	Under a Federal Fund-financed
response, the lead agency must assure
that a program for occupational safety
and health is made available for the
protection of workers at the response
site, and that workers entering the
response site are apprised of the
response site hazards and provisions of
the safety and health program. Any
contract relating to a Federal Fund-
financed response action under this Plan
shall require the contractor at the
response site to comply with this
program and with any applicable
provision of the OSH Act and State
OSH laws as defined in § 300.38(a).
$ 300.39 Public Information.
(a)	When an incident occurs, it is
imperative to give the public prompt,
accurate information on the nature of
the incident and the actions underway
to mitigate the damage. OSCs/RPMs
and community relations personnel
should ensure that all appropriate public
and private interests are kept informed
and that their concerns are considered
throughout a response. They should
coordinate with available public affairs/
community relations resources to carry
out this responsibility.
(b)	An on-scene news office may be
established to coordinate media
relations and to issue official Federal
information on an incident. Whenever
possible, it will be headed by a
representative of the lead agency. The
OSC/RPM determines the location of
the on-scene news office, but every
effort should be made to locate it near
the scene of the incident. If a
participating agency believes public
interest warrants the issuance of
statements and an on-scene news office
has not been established, the affected
agency should recommend its
establishment. All Federal news
releases or statements by participating
agencies should be cleared through the
OSC/RPM.
$300.40 OSC reports.
(a) Within 60 days after the
conclusion of a major discharge of oil. a
major hazardous substance, pollutant, or
contaminant release, or when requested
by the RRT. the EPA or USCG OSC shall
submit to the RRT a complete report on
the response operation and the actions
taken. The OSC shall at the same timp
send a copy of the report to the NRT.
The RRT shall review the OSC's report
ard prepare an endorsement to the NRT
for review. This shall be accomplished
within 30 days after the report has been
received.
(b)	The OSC's report shall accurately
record the situation as it developed, the
actions taken, the resources committed
and the problems encountered. The
OSC's recommendations are a source
for new proceduies and policy
(c)	the format for the OSC's report
shall be as follows:
(1) Summary of Events—a
chronological narrative of all events
including:
(1)	The cause of discharge of release:
(ii] The initial situation;
(iiij Efforts to obtain response by
responsible parties;
(n) The organization of the response,
including State participation:
(v)	The resources committed:
(vi)	The location (waterbody (if
applicable), State.city, latitude and
longitude] of the hazardous substance,
pollutant, or contaminant release or oil
discharge. For oil discharges, indicate
whether the discharge was in
connection with activities regulated
under the Outer Continental Shelf Lands
Act (OCSLA), the Trans-Alaska Pipeline
Authority Act or Deepwater Port Act:
(vii)	Comments on whether the
discharge or release might have or
actually did affect natural resources;
(viii)	Comments on Federal or State
damage assessment activities and
efforts to replace or restore damaged
natural resources:
(ix)	Details of any threat abatement
action taken under CERCLA or under
section 311 (c) or (d) of the CWA; and
(x)	Public information/community
relations activities.
(2)	Effectiveness of Removal
Actions—A candid and thorough
analysis of the effectiveness of removal
actions taken by:
(i)	The responsible party;
(ii)	State and local forces;
(iii)	Federal agencies and special
forces; and
(iv)	[If applicable] contractors, private
groups and volunteers.
(3)	Problems Encountered—A list of
problems affecting response with
particular attention to problems of
intergovernmental coordination.
(4)	Recommendations—OSC
recommendations, including at a
minimum-
(i)	Means to prevent a recurrence of
the discharge or release:
(ii)	Improvement of response actions:

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Federal Register / Vol. 50. No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12; 1985 / Proposed Rules	5899
(iii) Any recommended changes in the
National Contingency Plan or Federal
regional plan.
Subpart D—Plans
9 300.41 Regional and local plans.
(a)	In addition to the National
Contingency Plan (NCP), a Federal
regional plan shall be developed for
each standard Federal region and,
where practicable, a Federal local plan
shall be developed.
(b)	These plans Will be available for
inspection at EPA Regional Offices or
USCG district offices. Addresses and
telephone numbers for these offices may
be found in the United States •
Government Manual {issued annually)
or in local telephone directories.
§ 300.42 Regional contingency plans.
(a)	The RRTs, working with the States,
shall develop Federal regional plans for
each standard Federal region. The
purpose of these plans is coordination of
a timely, effective response by various
Federal agencies and other
organizations to discharges of oil and
releases of hazardous substances,
pollutants and contaminants in order to
protect public health, welfare and the
environment. Regional contingency
plans should include information on all
useful facilities and resources in the
region, from government, commercial.'
academic and other sources. To the
greatest extent possible, regional plans
will follow the format of the National
Contingency Plan.
(b)	SSCs shall organize and
coordinate the contributions of
scientists of each region to the response
activities of the OCS/RPM and RRT to
the greatest extent possible. SSCs, with
advice from RRT members, shall also
develop the parts of the regional plan
that relate to scientific support.
(c)	Regional plans shall contain lines
of demarcation between the inland and
coastal zones, as mutually agreed upon
by USCG and EPA.
$ 300.43 Local contingency plan*.
(a) Each OSC shall maintain a Federal
local plan for response in his or her area
of responsibility, where practicable. In
areas in which the USCG provides-the'
OSC. such plans shall be developed in
all cases. The plan should provide for a
well-coordinated response that is
integrated and compatible with the
pollution response, fire, emergency and
disaster plans of local. State and other
non-Federal entities. The plan should
identify the probable locations of
discharges or releases, the available
resources to respond to multi-media
'ncidents, where such resources can be
obtained, waste disposal methods and
facilities consistent with local and State
plans developed under the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act [42
U.S.C. 6901 et seq.), and a local structure
for responding to discharges or releases.
(b) While the OSC is responsible for
developing Federal local plans, a
successful planning effort will depend
upon the full cooperation of all the
agencies' representatives and the
development of local capabilities to
respond to discharges or releases.
Particular attention should be given,
during the planning process, to
developing a multi-agency local
response team for coordinating on-scene
efforts. The RRT should ensure proper
liaison between the OSC and local
representatives.
Subpart E—Operational Response
Phases for Oil Removal
§ 300.51 Phase I—Discovery and
notification.
(a)	A discharge of oil may be
discovered through;
(1)	A report submitted by the person
in charge of the vessel or facility in
accordance with statutory requirements;
(2)	Deliberate search by patrols; and
(3} Random or incidental observation
by government agencies or the public.
(b)	All reports of discharges should be
made to the NRC. If direct reporting to
the NRC is not practicable, reports may
be made to the predesignated OSC at
the nearest USCG or EPA office. All
reports shall be promptly relayed to the
NRC. Federal regional and Federal
regional and Federal local plans shall
provide for prompt reporting to the NRC
RRC, and appropriate State agency (as
agreed upon with the State).
(c)	Upon receipt of a notification of
discharge, the NRC shall promptly notify
the OSC. The OSC shall proceed with
the following phases as outlined in
Federal regional and Federal local
plans.
$ 300.52 Phase II—Preliminary
assessment and Initiation of action.
(a)	The OSC for a particular area is
responsible for promptly initiating
preliminary assessment.
(b)	The preliminary assessment shall
be conducted using available
information, supplemented where
necessary and possible by an on-scene
inspection. The OSC shall undertake
actions to;
(1)	Evaluate the magnitude and
severity of the discharge or threat to
public health, welfare, or the
environment;
(2)	Assess the feasibility of removal;
(3)	Determine the existence of
potential responsible parties; and
(4)	Ensure that authority exists for
undertaking additional response actions.
(c)	The OSC, in consultation with
legal authorities when appropriate, shall
make a reasonable effort to have the
discharger voluntarily and promptly
perform removal actions. The OSC shall
ensure adequate surveillance over
whatever actions are initiated. If
effective actions are not being taken to
eliminate the threat, or if removal is not
being properly done, the OSC shall, to
the extent practicable under the
circumstances, so advise the responsible
party. If the responsible party does not
take proper removal actions, or is
unknown, or is otherwise unavailable,
the OSC shall, pursuant to section
311(c)(1) of the CWA, determine
whether authority for a Federal
response exists, and, if so, take
appropriate response actions. Where
practicable, continuing efforts should be
made to encourage response by
responsible parties.
(d)	The OSC should ensure that the
trustees of affected natural resources
are notified, in order that the trustees
may initiate appropriate actions when
natural resources have been or are
likely to be damaged (see Subpart G of
Part 300). Where'practicable, the OSC
should consult with trustees in such
determinations.
S 300.53 Phase III—Containment,
countermeasurea, dean-up, and disposal.
(a)	Defensive actions should begin as
soon as possible to prevent, minimize, or
mitigate threat to the public health or
welfare or the environment. Actions
may include: analyzing water samples to
determine the source and spread of the
oil; controlling the source of discharge;
measuring and sampling; source and
spread control or salvage operations:
placement of physical barriers to deter
the spread of the oil or to protect
endangered species: control of the water
discharged from upstream
impoundment; and the use of chemicals
and other materials in accordance with
Subpart H, to restrain the spread of the
oil and mitigate its effects.
(b)	Appropriate actions should be
taken to recover the oil or mitigate its
effects. Of the numerous chemical
physical methods that may be used, the
chosen methods should be the most
consistent with protecting the public
health and welfare and the environment.
Sinking agents shall not be used.
(c)	Oil and contaminated materials
recovered in cleanup operations shall be
disposed of in accordance with Federal

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5900	Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules
regional and Federal local contingency
plans.
§ 300.54 Phase IV—Documentation and
cost recovery.
(a)	Documentation shall be collected
and maintained to support all actions
taken under the CWA and to form the
basis for cost recovery. In general,
documentation should be sufficient to
prove the source and circumstances of
the incident the responsible party or
parties, and impact and potential
impacts to the public health and welfare
and the environment. When appropriate,
documentation should also be collected
for scientific understanding of the
environment and for the research and
development of improved response
methods and technology. Damages to
private citizens (including loss of.
earnings) are not addressed by this Plan.
Evidentiary and cost documentation
procedures and requirements are
specified in the USCG Marine Safety
Manual (Commandant Instruction
M16000.3) and 33 CFR Part 153.
(b)	OSCs shall submit OSC reports to
the RRT as required by { 300.40.
(c)	The OSC shall ensure the
necessary collection and safeguarding of
information, samples, and reports.
Samples and information must be
gathered expeditiously during the
response to ensure an accurate record of
the impacts incurred. Documentation
materials shall be made available to the
trustees of affected natural resources.
(d)	Information and reports obtained
by the EPA or USCG OSC shall be
transmitted to the appropriate offices
responsible for follow-up actions.
5 300.55 General pattern of response.
(a) When the OSC receives a report of
a discharge, actions normally should be
taken in following sequence:
(1)	Immediately notify the RRT and
NRC when the reported discharge is an
actual or potential major discharge.
(2)	Investigate the report to determine
pertinent information such as the threat
posed to public health or welfare, or the
environment, the type and quantity of
polluting material, and the source of the
discharge.
(3)	Officially classify the size of the
discharge and determine the course of
action to be followed.
(4j Determine whether a discharger or
other person is properly carrying out
removal. Removal is being done
properly when:
(ij The clean-up is fully sufficient to
minimize or mitigate threat to the public
health, welfare, and the environment
(removal efforts are "improper" to the
extent that Federal efforts are necessary
to further minimize or mitigate those
threats).
(ii) The removal efforts are in
accordance with applicable regulations
including this Plan.
(5)	Determine whether a State or
political subdivision has the capability
to carry out response actions and a
contract or cooperative agreement has
been established with the appropriate
fund administrator for this purpose.
(6)	Notify the RRT (including the
affected State). SSC, and the trustees of
affected natural resources in accordance
with the applicable regional plan.
(b) The preliminary inquiry will
probably show that the situation falls
into one of the five classes. These
classes and the appropriate response to
each are outlined below:
(1)	If the investigation shows Jhat no
discharge exists, the case shall be
considered a false alarm and should be
closed.
(2)	If the investigation shows a minor
discharge with the responsible party
taking proper removal action, contact
should be established with the party.
The removal action should be monitored
to ensured continued proper action.
(3)	If the investigation shows a minor
discharge with improper removal action
being taken, the following measures
shall be taken:
(i)	An immediate effort should be
made to stop further pollution and
remove past and on-going
contamination.
(ii)	The responsible party shall be
advised of what action will be
considered appropriate.
(iii)	If the responsible party does not
properly respond, he shall be notified of
his potential'liability for Federal
response performed under the CWA.
This liability includes all costs of
removal and may include the costs of
assessing and restoring damaged natural
resources and other actual or necessary
costs of a Federal response.
(iv)	The OSC shall notify appropriate
State and local officials, keep the RRT
advised and initiate Phase III operations
as conditions warrant.
(v)	Information shall be collected for
possible recovery of response costs in
accordance with $ 300.54.
(4)	When the investigation shows that
an actual or potential medium oil
discharge exists, the OSC shall follow
the same general procedures as for a
minor discharge. If appropriate, the OSC
shall recommend activation of the RRT.
(5)	When the investigation shows an
actual or potential major oil discharge,
the OSC shall follow the same
procedures as for minor and medium
discharges.
§ 300.56 [Reserved]
§ 300.57 Waterfowl conservation.
The DOI representatives and the State
liaison to the RRT shall arrange for the
coordination of professional and
volunteer groups permitted and trained
to participate in waterfowl dispersal,
collection, cleaning, rehabilitation and
recovery activities (consistent with 10
U.S.C. 703-712 and applicable State
laws). Federal regional and Federal
local plans will, to th^ extent
practicable, identify organizations or
institutions that are permitted to
participate in such activities and
operate such facilities. Waterfowl
conservation activities will normally be
included in Phase III response actions
(§ 300.53 of this subpart).
§ 300.58 Funding.
(a)	If the person responsible for the
discharge does not act promptly
including timely actions, or take proper
removal actions, or if the person
responsible for the discharge is
unlaiown, Federal discharge removal
actions may begin under section
311(c)(1) of the CWA. The discharger, if
known, is liable for the costs of Federal
removal in accordance with section
311(f) of the CWA and other Federal
laws.
(b)	Actions undertaken by the
participating agencies in response to
pollution shall be carried out under
existing programs and authorities when
available. This Plan intends that Federal
agencies will make resources available,
expend funds, or participate in response
to oil discharges under their existing
authority. Authority to expend resources
will be in accordance with agencies'
basic statutes and, if required, through
interagency agreements. Where the OSC
requests assistance from a Federal
agency, that agency may be reimbursed
in accordance with the provisions of 33
CFR 153.407. Specific interagency
reimbursement agreements may be
signed when necessary to ensure that
the Federal resources will be available
for a timely response to a discharge of
oil. The ultimate decisions as to the
appropriateness of expending funds
rests with the agency that is held
accountable for such expeditures.
(c)	The OSC shall exercise sufficient
control over removal operation to be
able to certify that reimbursement from
the following funds is appropriate:
(1) The oil pollution fund,
administered by the Commandant,
USCG. has been established pursuant to
section 311(k) of the CWA. Regulations
governing the administration and use of

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Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules	5901
the fund are contained in 33 CFR Part
153.
(2)	The fund authorized by the
Deepwater Port Act is administered by
the Commandant, USCG. Governing
regulations are contained in 33 CFR
Parts 136 and 150.
(3)	The fund authorized by the Outer
Continental Shelf Lands Act, as
amended, is administered by the
Commandant, USCG. Governing
regulations are contained in 33 CFR
Parts 136 and 150.
(4)	The fund authorized by the Trans-
Alaska Pipeline Authorization Act is
administered by a Board of Trustees
under the purview of the Secretary of
the Interior. Governing regulations are
contained in 43 CFR Part 29.
(d)	Response actions other than
removal, such as scientific
investigations not in support of removal
actions or law enforcement, shall be
provided by the agency with legal
responsibility for those specific actions:
(e)	The funding of a response to a
discharge from a Federally operated or
supervised facility or vessel is the
responsiblity of the operating or
supervising agency.
(f)	The following agencies have funds
available for certain discharge removal
actions:
(1)	EPA may provide funds to begin
timely discharge removal actions when
the OSC is an EPA representative.
(2)	The USCG pollution control efforts
are funded under "operating expenses."
These funds are used in accordance
with agency directives.
(3)	The Department of Defense has
two specific sources of funds which may
be applicable to an oil discharge under
appropriate circumstances. (This does
not consider military resources which
might be made available under specific
conditions.)
(i) Funds required for removal of a
sunken vessel or similar obstruction of
navigation are available to the Corps of
Engineers through Civil Works
Appropriations. Operations and
Maintenance, General.
(li) The U.S. Navy may conduct
salvage operations contingent on
defense operational commitments, when
funded by the requesting agency. Such
funding may be requested on a direct
cite basis.
(4)	Pursuant to section 311(c)(2)(H) of
the CWA, the State or States affected by
a discharge of oil, may act where
necessary to remove such discharge and
may, pursuant to 33 CFR Part 153, be
reimbursed from the pollution revolving
fund for the reasonable costs incurred in
such a removal.
(i) Removal by a State is necessai-y
within the meaning of section
311(c)(2)(H) of the CWA when the OSC
determines that the owner or operator of
tlie vessel, onshore facility, or offshore
facility from which the discharge occurs
does not affect removal properly, or is
unknown, and that;
(A)	State action is required to
minimize or mitigate significant threat to
the public health or welfare which
Federal action cannot minimize or
mitigate, or
(B)	Removal or partial removal can be
done by the State at a cost which is less
than or not significantly greater than the
cost which would be incurred by the
Federal departments or agencies.
(ii)	State removal actions must be in
compliance with this Plan in order to
qualify for reimbursement.
(iii)	State removal actions are
considered to be'Phase III actions, under
the same definitions applicable to
Federal agencies.
(iv)	Actions taken by local
governments in support of Federal
discharge removal operations are
considered to be actions of the State for
purposes of this section. Federal
regional and Federal local plans shall
show what funds and resources are
available from participating agencies
under various conditions and cost
arrangements. Interagency agreements
may be necessary Jo specify when
reimbursement is required.
Subpart F—-Hazardous Substances
Response
9 300.61 General.
(a)	This subpart establishes methods
and criteria for determining the
appropriate extent of response
authorized by CERCLA: (1) When there
is a release of a hazardous substance or
there is a substantial threat of such a
release into the environment; or, (2)
when there is a release or substantial
threat of a release into the environment
of any pollutant or contaminant which
may present an imminent and
substantial danger to the public health
or welfare.
(b)	Section 104(a)(1) of CERCLA
authorizes removal or remedial action
unless it is determined that such
removal or remedial action will be done
properly by the owner or operator of the
vessel or facility from which the release
or threat of release emanates, or by any
other responsible party. If appropriate
response actions are not being taken or
executed properly, including in a timely
manner, the lead agency may initiate
proper action, terminate any improper
actions and should so advise any known
responsible party, and complete
response activities.
(c)	In determining the need for and in
planning or undertaking Fund-financed
action, the lead agency should, to the
extent practicable:
(1)	Epgage in prompt response.
(2)	Encourage State participation in
response actions (see § 300.62).
(3)	Conserve Fund monies by
encouraging private party clean-up.
(4)	Be sensitive to local community
concerns (see § 300.67).
(5)	Rely on established technology,
but also consider alternative and.
innovative technology when feasible
and cost-effective.
(6)	Involve the RRT in both removal
and remedial response actions at
appropriate decision-making stages.
(7)	Encourage the involvement and
sharing of technology by industry and
other experts.
(8)	Encourage the involvement of
organizations to coordinate responsible
party actions, foster site cleanup and
provide technical advice to the public
Federal and State Government and
industry.
(d)	The lead agency should, as
practicable, provide surveillance over
actions taken by responsible parties to
ensure that a response is conducted
consistent with this Plan.
(e)	(1) This subpart does not establish
any preconditions to enforcement action
by either the Federal or State
Governments to compel response
actions by responsible parties.
(2)	While some of this subpart is
oriented toward federally funded
response actions, this subpart may be
used as guidance concerning methods
and criteria for response actions by
other parties under other funding
mechanisms. Except as provided in
S 300.71, nothing in this part limits the
rights of any person to seek recovery of
response costs from responsible parties
pursuant to CERCLA section 107.
(3)	Activities by the Federal and State
Governments in implementing this
subpart are discretionary governmental
functions. This subpart does not create
in any private party a right to Federal
response or enforcement action. This
subpart does not create any duty of the
Federal Government to take any
response action at any particular time.
§ 300.62 State rote.
(a)(1) States are encouraged to
undertake actions authorized under this
subpart. Section 104(d)(1) of CERCLA
authorizes the Federal Government to
enter into contracts or cooperative
agreements with the State to take Fund-
financed response actions authorized
under CERCLA. when the Federal
government determines that the State

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5902	Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday. February 12. 1985 / Proposed Rules
has the capability to undertake such
actions.
(2) Cooperative agreements or State
Superfund contracts are unnecessary for
response actions that are not fund-
financed, including any State or. other
party actions. Coordination with EPA or
USCG is encouraged in such situations,
however.
(b)	EPA will provide assistance from
the Fund to States pursuant to a contract
or cooperative agreement The
cooperative agreement can authorize
States to undertake most actions
specified in this Subpart
(c)	Contracts and cooperative
agreements between the State(s) and
Federal Government for Fund-financed
remedial action are subject to section
104(c)(3) of CERCLA. Such agreements
are not a precondition to access,
information gathering, investigations,
studies or liability pursuant-to section
106 and 107 of CERCLA.
(d)	Prior to remedial action as defined
in section 101(24) of CERCLA. the State
must make a firm commitment, through
either a new or amended cooperative
agreement or State contract to provide
funding for remedial implementation by.
(1)	Authorizing the reduction of a
State credit to cover its share of costs;
(2)	Identifying currently available
funds earmarked for remedial
implementation; or
(3)	Submitting a plan with milestones
for obtaining necessary funds.
(e)	State credits allowed under section
104(c)(3) of CERCLA must be
documented on a site-specific basis for
State out-of-pocket non-Federal eligible
response costs between January 1,1978,
and December 11,1980. Prior to remedial
investigation activity at a site, the State
mu6t submit its estimate of these costs
as a part of the cooperative agreement
application, or as a part of the EPA State
agreement State credits will be applied
against State cost shares for federally
funded remedial actions. A State cannot
be reimbursed from the Fund for credit
in excess of its matching share nor may
the credit be applied to any other site.
(f)	Pursuant to section 104(c)(2) of
CERCLA. prior to determining any
appropriate remedial action, the lead
agency shall consult with the affected
State or States.
(g)	States are encouraged to
participate in all RRT planning and
response activities.
(h)	State and local public safety
organizations are normally expected to
initiate public safety measures (e.g.,
actions to limit public access to site) and
are responsible for directing evacuations
pursuant to existing State/local
procedures.
§ 300.83 Discovery or notification.
(a)	A release may be discovered
through:
(1)	Notification in accordance with
sections 103 (a) or (c) of CERCLA;
(2)	Investigation by government
authorities conducted in accordance
with section 104(e) of CERCLA or other
statutory authority;
(3)	Notification of a release by a
Federal or State permit holder when
required by its permit;
(4)	Inventory efforts or random or
incidental observation by government
agencies or the public;
(5)	Other sources.
(b)	All reports of releases should be
made to the NRC. If direct reporting to
the NRC is not practicable, reports may
be made to the predesignated OSC at
the nearest USCG or EPA office. All
such reports shall be promptly relayed
to the NRC.
(c)	Upon receipt of a notification of a
release, the NRC shall promptly notify
the appropriate OSC or lead agency.
The OSC or lead agency shall notify the
Governor of the State affected by the
release.
(d)	(1) When the OSC is notified of a
release which may require response
pursuant to S 300.65(b), a preliminary
assessment should be undertaken by the
OSC pursuant to S 300.64.
(2) When notification indicates that
action pursuant to $ 300.65(b) is not
required, site evaluation should be
undertaken by the lead agency pursuant
to { 300.66.
} 300.64 Preliminary esMwment for
removal action*.
(a)	A preliminary assessment of a
release or threat of a release identified
for possible CERCLA response pursuant
to § 300.65 should be undertaken by the
OSC as promptly as possible. The OSC
should base the assessment on readily
available information. This assessment
may include but is not limited to:
(1)	Identification of the source and
nature of the release or threat of release;
(2)	Evaluation of the threat to public
health by HHS;
(3)	Evaluation of the magnitude of the
potential threat
(4)	Evaluation of factors necessary to
make the determination of whether a
removal is necessary; and
(5)	Determination if a non-Federal
party is undertaking proper response.
(b)	A preliminary assessment of
releases or threats of releases from
hazardous waste management facilities
may include collection or review of data
such as site management practices,
information from generators,
photographs, analysis of historical
photographs, literature searches, and
personal interviews conducted as
appropriate. In addition, a perimeter
(off-site) inspection may be necessary to
determine the potential for a release.
Finally, if more information is needed, a
site visit may be performed, if
conditions are such that it may be
performed safely.
(c)	A preliminary assessment should
be terminated when the OSC or lead
agency determines:
(1)	There is no release or threat of
release;
(2)	The source is neither a vessel nor a
facility;
(3)	The release does not involve a
hazardous substance, nor a pollutant or
contaminant;
(4)	The amount quantity and
concentration released does not warrant
Federal response;
(5)~A	party responsible for the release,
or any other person, is providing
appropriate response, and on-scene
monitoring by the government is not
required; or
(6)	The assessment is completed.
(d)	If it is determined during the
assessment that natural resources have
been, or are likely to be damaged, the
OSC or lead agency should ensure that
the trustees of the affected natural
resources are notified in order that the
trustees may initiate appropriate
actions. Where practicable, the OSC
should consult with trustees in making
such determinations.
(e)	If the preliminary assessment
indicates that removal action under
$ 300.65 is not required, but that
remedial actions under $ 300.68 may be
necessary, the lead agency should
initiate site evaluation pursuant to
§ 300.66.
§ 300.65 Removals.
(a) (1) In determining the appropriate
extent of action to be taken at a given
release, the lead agency shall first
review th» preliminary assessment and
the current site conditions to determine
if removal action is appropriate.
(2)	Where the responsible parties are
known, an effort initially should be
made, to the extent practicable
considering the exigencies of the
circumstances, to have them perform the
necessary removal actions. Where
responsible parties are unknown an
effort initially should be made, to the
extent practicable considering the
exigencies of the circumstances, to
locate them and have them perform the
necessary removal action.
(3)	This section does not apply to
removal actions taken pursuant to
section 104(b) of CERCLA. The criteria

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Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules	5903
for such actions are set forth in section
104(b).
(b) (1) At any release, regardless of
whether it is included on the National
Priorities List, where the lead agency
determines that there is a threat to
public health, welfare or the
environment, based on the factors in
subsection (b)(2), the lead agency may
take any appropriate action to abate,
minimize, stabilize, mitigate or eliminate
the release or threat of release, or the
threat resulting from that release or
threat of release.
(2)	The following factors shall be
considered in determining the
apropnateness of a removal action
pursuant to this subsection:
(i)	Actual or potential exposure to
hazardous substances or pollutants or
contaminants by nearby populations,
animals or food chain;
(ii)	Actual or potential contamination
of drinking water supplies or sensitive
ecosystems;
(iii)	Hazardous substances or
pollutant or contaminants in drums,
barrels, tanks, or other bulk storage
containers, that may pose a threat of
release;
(iv)	High levels of hazardous
substances or pollutants or
contaminants in soils largely at or near
the surface, that may migrate.
(v)	Weather conditions that may
cause hazardous substances or
pollutants or contaminants to migrate or
be released;
(vi)	Threat of fire or explosion;
(vii)	The availability of other
appropriate Federal or State response
and enforcement mechanisms to
respond to the release;
(viii)	Other situations or factors which
may pose similar threats to public
health, welfare or the environment.
(3)_Removal	actions, other than those
authorized under section 104(b) of
CERCLA, shall be terminated after $1
million has been obligated for the-action
or 6 months have elapsed from the date
of initial response unless the lead
agency determines that: (i) there is an
immediate risk to public health, welfare
or the environment, (ii) continued
response actions are immediately
required to prevent, limit, or mitigate an
emergency, and (iii) 9uch assistance will
not otherwise be provided on a limely
basis.
(4)	If the lead agency determines that
a removal action pursuant to this
subsection is appropriate, actions
should begin as soon as possible to
prevent, minimize or mitigate the threat
to public health, welfare or the
environment. The lead agency should, at
the earliest possible time, also make any
necessary determinations contained in
paragraph (b)(3) of this section.
(c)	The following removal actions are
as a general rule appropriate in the
following situations; however, this list
does not limit the lead agency from
taking any other actions deemed
necessary in response to any situation
or preclude the lead agency from
deferring response action to other
appropriate Federal or State
enforcement or response authorities.
(1)	Fences, warning signs, or other
security or site control precautions—
where humans or animals have access
to the release;
(2)	Drainage controls (e.g. run-ofT or
run-on diversion)—where precipitation
or run-off from other sources (e.g.
flooding) may enter the release area
trom other areas;
(3)	Stabilization of berms. dikes, or
impoundments—where needed to
maintain the integrity of the structures;
(4)	Capping of contaminated soils or
sludges—where needed to reduce
migration of hazardous substances, or
pollutants or contaminants into soil,
ground water or air.
(5)	Using chemicals and other
materials to retard the spread of the
release or to mitigate its effects—where
the use of such chemicals will reduce
the spread of the release;
(6)	Removal of highly contaminated-
soils from drainage areas—where
removal will reduce the spread of
contamination;
(7)	Removal of drums, barrels, tanks
or other bulk containers containing or
that may contain hazardous substances
or pollutants or contaminants—where it
will reduce the likelihood of spillage,
leadage, exposure to humans, animals or
food chain, or fire or explosion.
(8)	Provison of alemative water
supply—where it will reduce the
likelihood of exposure of humans or
animals to contaminated water.
(d)	Where necessary to protect public
health or welfare, the lead agency may
request that FEMA conduct a temporary
relocation or evacuation.
If the lead agency determines that the
removal action will not fully address the
threat or potential threat posed by the
release and the release may require
remedial action, the OSC should
coordinate with the RPM to ensure an
orderly transition from removal to
remedial response activities.
(f) Although Fund-financed removal
actions and removal actions pursuant to
CERCLA section 106 are not required to
comply with other Federal, State and
local laws governing the removal
activity, including permit requirements,
such removal actions shall, to the
greatest extent practicable considering
the exigencies of the circumstances,
attain or exceed applicable or relevant,
Federal public health or environmental
standards. Applicable standards are
those standards that would be legally
applicable if the actions were not
undertaken pursuant to CERCLA section
104 or section 106. Relevant standards
are those designed to apply to
circumstances sufficiently similar to
those encountered at CERCLA sites that
their application would be appropriate,
although not legally required. Federal
criteria, guidance and advisories and
State standards also should be
considered in formulating the removal
action.
(g) Fund-financed removal actions and
removal actions pursuant to section 106
of CERCLA involving the storage,
treatment, or disposal of hazardous
substanres or pollutants or
contaminants at off-site facilities shall
involve only such off-site facilities that
are operating under appropriate Federal
or State permits or authorization.
5 300.68 Site evaluation phase and
national priorities list determination.
(a) (1) The Site Evaluation Phase. This
phase of response includes activities
beginning with discovery of a release
and extends through the initial
evaluaton (preliminary assessment and
site inspection—see § 300.64). The
purpose of the site evaluation phase is
to further categorize the nature of any
releases and potential threats to public
health, welfare, and the environment
and to collect data as required to
determine whether a release should be
included on the National Priorities List
(NPL). (See § 300.66 (b) and (c) below.)
(2)	Pursuant to section 104 (b) and (e)
of CERCLA and other authorities, the
lead agency may undertake preliminary
assessments and site inspections to
gather appropriate information to
determine if a release warrants
response, and if so, its priority for
response.
(3)	For response actions that may be
taken pursuant to § 300.68, a preliminary
assessment consists of a review of
existing data and may include an off-site
reconnaissance. The purposes of such a
preliminary assessment are:
(i)	To eliminate from further
consideration those releases where '
available data indicates no threat or
potential threat to public health or the
environment exists;
(ii)	To determine if there is any
potential need for removal action;
(iii)	To establish priority for
scheduling a site inspection.
(4)	A site inspection consists of a
visual inspection of the site and

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5904	 Federal Register / Vol. 50. No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12. 1985 / Proposed Rules
routinely includes collection of samples.
There are several major purposes for a
site inspection:
(1)	To determine which releases pose
no threat or potential threat to public
health and the environment;
(ii)	To determine if there is any
immediate threat to persons living or
working near the release;
(iii)	To collect data, where
appropriate, to determine whether a
release should be included on the NPL
(b)	Methods for Establishing
Priorities. (1) Section 105(8)(A) of
CERCLA requires the President to
include as part of the Plan criteria for
establishing priorities among releases
and potential releases. Three
mechanisms are set forth here for that
purpose: The Hazard Ranking System
(HRS); designation by the States of their
top priority releases; and determination
that a site poses a significant ihreat to
public health, welfare or the
environment as indicated in paragraph
(b)(4) of this section. These criteria will
be used to establish and amend the NPL
(see § 300.66(c)).
(2)	The primary mechanism for
identifying releases for inclusion on the
NPL will be scores calculated by
applying the HRS (Appendix A).
(3)	Each State may designate a release
as the State's highest priority release by
certifying in writing, signed by the
Governor or the Governor's designee,
that the release presents the greatest
danger to public health, welfare or the
environment among known releases in
the State. Each State may designate one
top priority site over the life of the NPL
(4)	In addition to those releases
identified by their HRS scores as
candidates for the NPL EPA may
identify for inclusion on the NPL any
other release that the Agency
determines is a significant threat to
public health, welfare or the
environment. EPA may make such a
determination when the Department of
Health and Human Services has issued
a health advisory as a consequence of
the release.
(c)	(1) The National Priorities List.
Section 105(8)(B) of CERCLA requires
the President to establish a list of at
least 400 releases and potential releases,
based upon the criteria developed
pursuant to section 105(8)(A) of the Act.
CERCLA also requires the States to
identify their priorities at least annually
and requires that each State's
designated top priority releases be
included among the one hundred (100)
highest priority releases, to the degree
practicable. The process for establishing
the NPL is set forth below.
(2) The NPL serves as a basis to guide
the allocation of Fund resources among
releases. Only those releases included
on the NPL will be considered eligible
for Fund-financed remedial action.
Inclusion on the NPL is not a
precondition to liability pursuant to
Agency action under CERCLA section
106 or to action under CERCLA 107. for
recovery of non-Fund-financed costs or
Fund-financed costs other than remedial
construction costs.
(3) States that wish to submit
candidates for the NPL must use the
HRS (Appendix A of this part) to score
the releases and furnish EPA with
appropriate documentation for the
scores.
-(4) EPA will notify the States at least
thirty days prior to the deadline for
submitting candidate releases for the
NPL or any revisions.
(5)	EPA will review the States' HRS
scoring documents and revise the
application of the hazard ranking
criteria when appropriate. EPA will add
any additional priority releases known
to the Agency after consultation with
the States. Taking into account the HRS
scores, the States' top priority releases,
and the criteria specified in (b)(4) of this
section, EPA will compile the NPL
(6)	Ranking of Releases. Minor
differences in HRS scores among
releases may not accurately
differentiate among threats represented
by the releases. Thus, releases having
similar scores may be presented in*
groups on the NPL.
(7)	Sites may be deleted from the NPL
where no further response is
appropriate. In deleting sites the Agency
will consider whether any of the
following criteria have been met;
(i)	EPA in consultation with the State
has determined that responsible or other
parties have completed all appropriate
response actions required at that time:
(ii)	All appropriate Fund-financed
response under CERCLA has been
completed, and EPA has determined
that no further cleanup by responsible
parties is appropriate at that time; or
(iii)	Based on a remedial investigation,
EPA has determined that the release
poses no significant threat to public
health or the environment and,
therefore, taking of remedial measures is
not appropriate at that time.
(B) All releases deleted from the NPL
are eligible for further Fund-financed
remedial actions should future
conditions warrant such action.
(9)	EPA will submit the recommended
NPL to the NRT for review and
comment. EPA will publish any
proposed revisions to the NPL for public
comment.
(10)	EPA will revise and publish the
NPL at least annually.
§ 300.67 Community rotations.
(a)	A formal community relations plan
must be developed and implemented for
removal actions taken pursuant to 300.65
and for remedial action at NPL sites,
including enforcement actions, except as
provided for in subsection (b). Such
plans must specify the communication
activities which will be undertaken
during the response and shall include
provision for a pubile comment period
on the alternatives analysis undertaken
pursuant to § 300.68. The use of the RRT
to assist community relations activities
should be considered in developing
community relations plans.
(b)	In the case of actions taken
pursuant to 300.65 or enforcement action
to compel response analogous to section
300.65, or other short term action needed
to abate a threat to public health,
welfare, or the environment, a
spokesperson will be designated by the
lead agency. The spokesperson will
inform the community of actions taken,
respond to inquiries, and provide
information concerning the release. In
such cases, if the action is of short
duration, or if response is needed
immediately, a formal plan is not
necessary. However, if the removal
action extends over 45 days, a formal
plan must be developed and
implemented.
(c)	For all remedial actions at NPL
sites including Fund-financed and
enforcement actions, a community
relations plan must )>e developed, and
approved, prior to initiation of field
activities and implemented during the
course of the action. In enforcement
actions a responsible party may be
permitted with lead agency oversight to
develop and implement appropriate
parts of the community relutions plan.
(d)	In remedial actions at NPL sites
including Fund-financed and
enforcement actions, feasibility studies
that outline alternative remedial
measures must be provided to the public
for review and comment for a period of
not less than 21 calendar days. Such
review and comment shall precede
selection of the remedial response.
Public meeting(s) should, as a general
rule, be held during the comment period.
The lead agency may also provide the
public with an opportunity to comment
during the development of the feasibility
study.
(e)	A document which summarizes the
major issues raised by the public and
how they are addressed must be
included in the decision document
approving the remedy.
(f)	In enforcement actions in litigation
under CERCLA section 106, the
community relations plan, including

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Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules 	5905
provision for public review of any
feasibility study prepared for source
control or management of migration
measures, may be modified or adjusted
at the direction of the court of
jurisdiction or to accommodate the court
calendar
(g) Where parties agree to implement
the permanent site remedy pursuant to
an administrative order on consent, the
lead agency shall provide public notice
and a 30-day period for public comment,
including comment on remedial
measures. Where settlement is
embodied in a consent decree, public
notice and opportunity for public
comment shall be provided in
accordance with 28 CFR 50.7. A
document summarizing the major issues
raised by the public and how they are
addressed will be prepared.
5 300.68 Remedial action.
(a)	(1} Introduction. Remedial actions
are those responses to releases that are
consistent with permanent remedy to
prevent or minimize the release of
hazardous substances or pollutants or
contaminants so that they do not
migrate to cause substantial danger to
present or future public health, welfare,
or the environment [CERCLA section
101(24)]. Fund-financed remedial action
may be taken only at those releases on
the NPL
(2)	The Remedial Project Manager
(RPM) shall carry out responsibilities in
a remedial action as delineated in
S 300.33(b).
(3)	Federal, State and local public
health or environmental permits are not
required for Fund-financed remedial
action or remedial actions taken
pursuant to Federal action under section
106 of CERCLA. However, remedial
actions that involve storage, treatment,
or disposal of hazardous substances,
pollutants or contaminants at off-site
facilities shall involve only such off-site
facilities that are operating under
appropriate Federal or State permits or
authorization.
(b)	(1) State-Involvement. States are
encouraged to undertake Fund-financed
remedial response in accordance with
§ 300.82 of this Plan.
(2)	States must meet the requirements
of CERCLA section 104(c)(3) prior to
undertaking Fund-financed remedial
action.
(3)	Planning activities associated with
remedial actions taken pursuant to
CERCLA section 104(b) shall not require
a State cost share unless the facility was
owned at the time of any disposal of
hazardous substances therein by the
State or a political subdivision thereof,
such planning activities include, but are
not limited to. remedial investigations.
feasibility studies, and design of the
proposed remedy. For sites owned by a
State or its political subdivision, cost
sharing commitment is required prior to
remedial action.
(c) (1) Scoping of Response Actions.
The lead agency, in cooperation with
State(s), will examine available
information and determine, based on the
factors indicated in paragraph (c)(2) of
this section, the type of response that
may be needed to remedy the release.
This scoping will serve as a basis for
requesting funding for a necessary
removal action, remedial investigation
or feasibility study. Initial analysis
should indicate the extent to which the
release or threat of release may pose a
threat to public health, welfare or the
environment, the types of removal
measures and/or remedial measures
suitable to abate the threat, and set
priorities for implementation of the
measures.
(2) The following should be assessed
in determining whether and what type of
remedial and/or removal actions should
be considered:
(i)	Population, environmental, and
welfare concerns at risk;
(ii)	Routes of exposure;
(iii)	Amount, concentration, hazardous
properties, environmental fate (e.g.
ability to bio-accumulate, persistence,
mobility, etc), and form of the
substance(s) persent;
(iv)	Hydrogeological factors (e.g., soil
permeability, depth to saturated zone,
hydrologic gradients, proximity to a
drinking water aquifer, floodplains and
wetlands proximity);
(v)	Climate (rainfall, etc.);
(vi)	The extent to which the source
can be adequately identified and
characterized;
(vii)	Whether substances at the site
may be reused or recycled;
(viii)	The likelihood of future releases
if the substances remain on-site:
(ix)	The extent to which natural or
man-made barriers currently contain the
substances and the adeguacy of the
barriers:
(x)	The extent to which the
substances have migrated or are
expected to migrate from the area of
their original location or new location if
relocated and whether future migration
may pose a threat to public health,
welfare, or the environment:
(xi)	Extent to which contamination
levels exceed applicable or relevant
Federal or State public health or
environmental standards, advisories
and criteria and the extent to which
there are applicable or relevant
standards for the storage, treatment, or
disposal of materials of the type present
at the release;
(xii)	Contribution of the
contamination ta an air, land or water-
pollution problem;
(xiii)	Ability of responsible party to
implement and maintain the remedy
until the threat is permanently abated;
(xiv)	The availability of other
appropriate Federal or State response
and enforcement mechanisms to
respond to the release:
(xv)	Other appropriate matters may
be considered.
(3) As a remedial investigation
progresses, the project may be modified
if the lead agency determines that,
based-on the factors in subparagraph (2)
of this section, such modifications would
be appropriate.
(d)	Operable Unit. Response action
may be conducted in operable units.
Operable units may be conducted as
remedial and/or removal actions.
(1)	Response actions may be
separated into operable units consistent
with achieving a permanent remedy.
These operable units may include
removal actions pursuant to $ 300.35(b),
and/or remedial actions involving
source controls, and/or management of
migration.
(2)	The RPM should recommend
whether or not operable units should be
implemented prior to selection of the
appropriate final remedial measure.
(3)	Ln some instances, implementation
of operable units can and should begin
before selection of an appropriate final
remedial action if such measures are
cost-effective and consistent with a
permanent remedy. Compliance with
{ 300.68(b) is a prerequisite to
implementing remedial operable units.
(e)	Remedial Investigation/Feasibility
Study (RJ/FS). A RI/FS should be
undertaken by the lead agency
conducting the remedial action to
determine the nature and extent of the
threat presented by the release and
evaluate proposed remedies. This
includes sampling, monitoring, and
exposure assessment, as necessary, and
includes the gathering of sufficient
information to determine the necessity
for and proposed extent of remedial
action. Part of the RI/FS may involve
assessing whether the threat can be
prevented or minimized by controlling
the source of the contamination at or
near the area where the hazardous
substances *vere originally located
(source control measures) and/or
whether additional actions will be
necessary because the hazarduus
substances have migrated from the area
of or near their original location
(management of migration). Planning for
remedial action at these releases should
also .issess the need for removals.

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5906	Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules
During the remedial investigation, the
original scoping of the project may be
modified based on the factors in
§ 300.68(c).
(f)	Development of Alternatives. (1) A
reasonable numiber of alternatives must
be developed including:
(1)	Alternatives for treatment or
disposal at an off-site facility, as
appropriate:
(ii)	Alternatives which attain
applicable or relevant Federal public
health or environmental standards;
(iii)	As appropriate, alternatives
which exceed applicable or relevant
Federal public health or environmental
standards:
(iv)	Alternatives which do not attain
applicable or relevant public health or
environmental standards but will reduce
the likelihood of present or future threat
from the hazardous substances and
which provide significant protection to
public health, welfare, and the
environment. This must include an
alternative which most closely
approaches the level of protection
provided by the applicable or relevant
standards.
(v)	No action alternative.
(2)	These alternatives should be
developed based upon the analysis
conducted under paragraphs (c), (d) and
(e) of this section. The alternatives
should consider and integrate waste
minimization, destruction, and recycling
where appropriate. This-must include an
alternative which most closely
approaches the level of protection
provided by the applicable or relevant
standards.
(g)	Initial Screening of Alternatives.
The alternatives developed under
paragraph (f) of this section will be
subject to an initial screening to narrow
.the list of potential remedial actions for
further detailed analysis. When an
alternative is eliminated in screening,
the rationale should be documented in
the feasibility study. Three broad
criteria should be used in the initial
screening of alternatives:
(1)	Cost. For each alternative, the cost
of implementing the remedial action
must be considered including operation
and maintenance costs. An alternative
that far exceeds the costs of other
alternatives evaluated and that does not
provide substantially greater public
health or environmental protection, or
technical reliability should usually be
excluded from further consideration
unless there is no other remedy which
meets applicable or relevant Federal
public health or environmental
standards.
(2)	Acceptable Engineering Practices.
Alternatives must be feasible for the
location and conditions of the release,
applicable to the problem, and represent
a reliable means of addressing the
problem.
(3) Effectiveness. Those alternatives
that do not effectively contribute to the
protection of public health, welfare, and
the environment should not be
considered further. If an alternative has
significant adverse effects, and very
limited environmental benefits, it should
also be excluded from further
consideration.
(h)	Detailed Analysis of Alternatives.
(1) A more detailed evaluation will be
conducted of the limited number of
alternatives that remain after the initial
screening in paragraph (g).
(2)	The detailed analysis of each
alternative should include:
(i)	Refinement and specification of
alternatives in detail with emphasis on
use of established technology.
Innovative or advanced technology
should be evaluated as an alternative to
conventional technology;
(ii) Detailed cost estimation, including
operation and maintenance costs, and
distribution of costs over time;
~ (iii) Evaluation in terms of engineering
implementation, reliability, and
constructability;
(IV)	An assessment of the extent to
which the alternative is expected to
effectively prevent, mitigate, or
minimize threats to, and provide
adequate protection of, public health,
welfare, and the environment This shall
include an evaluation of the extent to
which the alternative attains or exceeds
applicable or relevant Federal public
health or environmental standards
advisories and criteria. Where the
analysis determines that Federal public
health or environmental standards are
not applicable or relevant the analysis
should evaluate the risks of the various
exposure levels projected or remaining
after implemention of the alternative
under consideration.
(V)	An analysis of whether recycle
reuse, waste minimization or destruction
or other advanced, innovative or
alternative technologies is appropriate
to reliably minimize present or future
threats to public health, welfare or the
environment
(VI)	An analysis of any adverse
environmental impacts, methods for
mitigating these impacts, and costs of
mitigation.
(3)	In performing the detailed analysis
of alternatives, it may be^iecessary to
gather additional data to complete the
analysis.
(i) Selection of Remedy. (1) The
appropriate extent of remedy shall be
determined by the lead agency's
selection of a cost-effective remedial
alternative which effectively mitigates
and minimizes threats to and provides
adequate protection of public health,
welfare and the environment. This will
require selection of a remedy which
attains or exceeds applicable or relevant
Federal public health or environmental
standards. In making this determination,
the lead agency will consider the extent
to which the Federal standard(s) are
applicable or relevant to the specific
circumstances at the site.
(2)	In selecting the appropriate extent
of remedy from among the alternatives
which will achieve adequate protection
of public health, welfare and the
environment in accordance with (1) of
this subsection, the lead agency will
consider cost technology, reliability,
administrative and other concerns, and
their relevant effects on public health,
welfare and the environment.
(3)	If there are no applicable or
relevant Federal public health or
environmental standards, the lead
agency will select that cost-effective
alternative which effectively mitigates
and minimizes threats to and provides
adequate protection of public health,
welfare, and the environment
considering cost technology, and the
reliability of the remedy.
(4)	Applicable or relevant Federal
public health and environmental criteria
and advisories and State standards shall
be used, with appropriate adjustment in
determining the appropriate action.
(5)	Notwithstanding paragraph (l)(i) of
this section, the lead agency may select
an alternative that does not meet
applicable or relevant Federal public
health or environmental standards in
one of the following circumstances:
(i)	The selected alternative is not the
final remedy and will become part of a
more comprehensive remedy.
(ii)	All of the alternatives which meet
applicable or relevant Federal standards
fall into one or more of the following
categories:
(A)	Fund-Balancing-. For Fund-
financed responses only, considering the
amount of money available in the Fund,
the need for protection of public health,
welfare and the environment at the
facility under consideration is
outweighed by the need for action at'
other sites which may present a threat
to public health, welfare or the
environment. Fund-balancing is not a
consideration in determining the
appropriate extent of remedy when the
response will be performed or funded by
a responsible party.
(B)	Technical Impracticably: No
alternative that attains or exceeds
applicable or relevant Federal public
health or environmental standards is
technically practical to implement

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Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules	5907
(C) Unacceptable Environmental
Impacts: The alternatives that attain or
exceed applicable or relevant Federal
public health or environmental
standards, if implemented, will result in
significant adverse environmental
impacts; or
(iii) Where the remedy is to be carried
out pursuant to Federal action under
CERCLA section 106, the Fund is
unavailable, there is a strong public
interest in expedited clean up. and the
litigation probably would not result in
the desired remedy.
(6)	In the event that one of the
circumstances in subsection (5) of this
section applies, the lead agency shall
select that alternative which most
closely approaches the level of
protection provided by applicable or
relevant Federal public health or
environmental standards.
(7)	(i) If a factor under subsection
(i)(5) is used in eliminating an
alternative or in scaling down the extent
of remedy it must be explained and
documented in the appropriate decision
document.
(ii) If relevant Federal public health or
environmental criteria, advisories or
guidance or State standards are not
used or are adjusted, the decision
documents must explain and document
the reasons. The rationale for not using
such standards, criteria, advisories or
guidance may include one or more of the
circumstances enumerated in
§ 300.68(i)(5).
(j) Appropriate Actions: The following
remedial actions are as a general rule
appropriate in the following situations;
however, this list does not limit the lead
agency from taking any other actions
deemed necessary in response to any
situation.
(1)	In response to contaminated
ground water—elimination or
containment of the contamination to
prevent further contamination,
treatment and/or removal of such
ground water to reduce or eliminate the
contamination, physical containment of
such ground water to reduce or
eliminate potential exposure to such
contamination, and/or restrictions on
use of the ground water to eliminate
potential exposure to the contamination.
(2)	In response-to contaminated
surface water—elimination or
containment of the contamination to
prevent further pollution, and/or
treatment of the contaminated water to
reduce or eliminate its hazard potential;
(3)	In response to contaminated soil or
waste—actions to remove, treat, or
contain the soil or waste to reduce or
eliminate the potential for hazardous
substances or pollutants or
contaminants to contaminate other
media (ground water, surface water, or
air) and to reduce or eliminate the
potential for such substances to be
inhaled, absorbed, or ingested;
(4) In response to the threat of direct
contact with hazardous substances or
pollutants or contaminants—any of the
actions listed in § 300.65(c) to reduce the
likelihood of such contact or the severity
of any effects from such contact.
(k) Remedial Site Sampling: (1)
Sampling performed pursuant to Fund-
financed remedial action must have
written quality assurance site sampling
plan. Sampling performed pursuant to
the written quality assurance site
sampling plan will be adequate if the
quality assurance site sampling plan
includes, at a minimum, the following
elements:
(1)	A description of the objectives of
the sampling efforts with regard to both
the phase of the sampling and the
ultimate use of the data;
(ii)	Sufficient specification of sampling
protocol and procedures;
(iii)	Sufficient sampling to adequately
characterize the source of the release,
likely transport pathways, and/or
potential receptor exposure; and,
(iv)	Specifications of the types,
locations, and frequency of samples
taken, taking into account the unique
properties of the site, including the
appropriate hydrological, geological,
hydrogeological, physiographical, and
meteorological properties of the site.
(2)	In Fund-financed actions or actions
under CERCLA section 106, the quality
assurance site sampling plan must be
reviewed and approved by the
appropriate EPA Regional or
Headquarters quality assurance office.
$ 300.69 Documentation and cost
recovery.
(a)	During all phases of response,
documentation shall be collected and
maintained to support all actions taken
under this Plan, and to form the basis for
cost recovery. In general, documentation
should be sufficient to provide the
source and circumstances of the
condition, the identity of responsible
parties, accurate accounting of Federal
or private party costs incurred, impacts
and potential impacts to the public
health, welfare and environment. Where
applicable, documentation should also
include when the National Response
Center received notification of a release
of a reportable quantity and should
clarify when Fund-balancing has been
used to limit the Federal response.
(b)	The information and reports
obtained by the lead agency for Fund-
financed response action should be
transmitted to the RRC. Copies can then
be forwarded to the NRT, members of
the RRT, and others as appropriate. In
addition, OSCs shall report as required
by § 300.40 for all major releases and all
Fund-financed removal actions taken.
(c)	Information and documentation of
actual or potential natural resource
damages shall be made available to the
trustees of affected natural resources.
(d)	Actions undertaken by the
participating agencies in response shall
be carried out under existing programs
and authorities when available. This
plan intends that Federal agencies will
make resources available, expend funds,
or participate in responses to releases
under their existing authority. Authority
to expend resources will be in
accordance with Agencies' statutes and,
if required, through interagency
agreements. Where the lead agency
requests assistance from a Federal
agency, that agency may be reimbursed.
Specific interagency reimbursement
agreements may be signed when
necessary to ensure that the Federal
resources will be available for a timely
response to a release. The ultimate
decision as to the appropriateness of
expended funds rests with the agency
tha is held accountable for such
expenditures.
3 300.70 Methods of remedying releases.
(a)	The following section lists
methods for remedying releases that
may be considered by the lead agency in
taking response action. This list of
methods should not be considered
inclusive of all possible methods of
remedying releases.
(b)	Engineering Methods for On-Site
Actions—(l)(i) Air emissions control—
The control of volatile gaseous
compounds should address both lateral
movements and atmospheric emissions.
Before gas migration controls can be
properly installed, field measurements
to determine gas concentrations,
pressures, and soil permeabilities should
be used to establish optimum design [or
control. In addition, the types of
hazardous substances present, the depth
to which they extend, the nature of the
gas and the subsurface geology of the
release area should, if possible, be
determined. Typical emission control
techniques include the following;
(A)	Pipe vents:
(B)	Trench vents;
(C)	Gas barriers;
(D)	Gas collection:
(E)	Overpacking.
(ii) Surface water controls—These are
remedial techniques designed to reduce
water infiltration'and to control runoff
at release areas. They also serve to
reduce erosion and to stabilize the
surface of covered sites. These types of

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5908	Federal Register / Vol. 50. No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rule9
control technologies are usually
implemented in conjunction with other
types of control include the following:
(A)	Surface seals;
(B)	Surface water diversions and
collection systems:
(7) Dikes and berms;
(2)	Ditches, diversions, waterways;
(3)	Chutes and downpipes;
(•#) Levees:
(5)	Seepage basins and ditches;
(6)	Sedimentation basins and ditches;
(7)	Terraces and benches;
(C)	Grading;
(D)	Revegetation.
(iii)	Ground water controls—Ground
water pollution is a particularly serious
problem because, once an aquifer has
been contaminated, the resource cannot
usually be cleaned without the
expenditure of great time, effort and
resources. Techniques that can be
applied to the problem with varying
degrees of success are as follows:
(A)	Impermeable barriers;
(J) Slurry walls:
(2) Grout curtains:
(J) Sheet pilings;
(B)	Permeable treatment beds;
(C)	Ground water pumping:
(1)	Water table adjustment
[2]	Plume containment.
(D)	Leachate control—Leachate
control systems are applicable to control
of surface seeps and seepage of leachate
to ground water. Leachate collection
systems consist of a series of drains
which intercept the leachate and
channel it to a sump, wetwell, treatment
system, or appropriate surface discharge
point. Technologies applicable to
leachate control include the following:
(7) Subsurface drains:
[2]	Drainage ditches:
(3)	Liners.
(iv)	Contaminated water and sewer
lines—Sanitary sewers and municipal
water mains located down gradient from
hazardous waste disposal sites may
become contaminated by infiltration of
leachate or polluted ground water
through cracks, ruptures, or poorly
sealed joints in piping. Technologies
applicable to the control of such
contamination to water and sewer lines
include:
(A)	Grouting:
(B)	Pipe re lining and sleeving:
(C)	Sewer relocation.
(2) Treatment technologies.
(i) Caseous emissions treatment—
Gases from waste disposal sites
frequently contain malodorous and toxic
substances, and thus require treatment
before release to the atmosphere. There
are two basic types of gas treatment
systems:
(A)	Vapor phase adsorption;
(B)	Thermal oxidation.
(ii)	Direct waste treatment methods—
In most cases, these techniques can be
considered long-term permanent
solutions. Many of these direct
treatment methods are not fully
developed and the applications and
process reliability are not well
demonstrated. Use of these techniques
for waste treattnent may require
considerable pilot plant work.
Technologies applicable to the direct
treatment of wastes are:
(A)	Biological methods:
(J) Treatment via modified
conventional wastewater treatment
techniques;
(2) Anaerobic, aerated and facultative
lagoons;
(J) Supported growth biological
reactors.
(B)	Chemical methods;
(J) Chlorination;
(2) Precipitation, flocculation.
sedimentation;
(J) Neutralization;
(4)	Equalization:
(5)	Chemical oxidation.
(C)	Physical methods:
(f) Air stripping:
(2)	Carbon absorption:
(3)	Ion exchange;
(4)	Reverse osmosis;
(5)	Permeable bed treatment:
(6)	Wet air oxidation;
(7)	Incineration.
[iii]	Contaminated soils and
sediments—In some cases where it can
be shown to be cost-effective,
contaminated sediments and soils will
be treated on the site. Technologies
available include:
(A)	Incineration:
(B)	Wet air oxidation;
(C)	Solidification:
(D)	Encapsulation:
(E)	In site treatment:
(J) Solution mining (soil washing or
soil flushing);
[2]	Neutralization/detoxification:
(3)	Microbiological degradation.
(c) Offsite Transport for Storage,
Treatment Destruction or Secure
Disposition.
(1) General—Offsite transport or
storage, treatment destruction, or
secure disposition oflsite may be
provided in cases where EPA
determines that such actions:
(i)	Are moist cost-effective than other
forms of remedial actions;
(ii)	Will create new capacity to
manage, in compliance with Subtide C
of the Solid Waste Disposal Act
hazardous substances in addition to
those located at the affected facility; or
(iii)-Are	necessary to protect public
health, welfare, or the environment from
a present or potential risk which may be
created by further exposure to the
continued presence of such substances
or materials.
(2) Contaminated soils and sediments
may be removed from the site.
Technologies used to remove
contaminated sediments on soils
include:
(i)	Excavation;
(ii)	Hydraulic dredging:
(iii)	Mechanical dredging.
(d)	Provision of Alternative water
supplies can be provided in several
ways.
(1)	Provision of individual treatment
units:
(2)	Provision of water distribution
system;
(3)	Provision of new wells in a new
location or deeper wells;
(4)	Provision of cisterns:
(5)	Provision of bottled or treated
water
(6)	Provision of upgraded treatment
for existing distribution systems.
(e)	Relocation—Permanent relocation
of residents, businesses, and community
facilities may be provided where it is
determined that human health is in
danger and that, alone or in combination
with other measures, relocation would
be cost-effective and environmentally
preferable to other remedial response.
Temporary relocation may also be taken
in appropriate circumstances.
9 300.71 Other party responses.
(a) (1) As an alternative or in addition
to any Fund-financed response, the lead
agency may seek to have those persons
responsible for the release respond to
the release pursuant to CERCLA section
106 and other authorities.
(2)	In addition, any person may
undertake a response action to reduce
or eliminate the release or threat of
release of hazardous substances, or
pollutants or contaminants. Section 107
of CERCLA authorizes persons to
recover certain response costs
consistent with this Plan from
responsible parties.
(3)	When a person (including a
responsible party) other than the lead
agency takes the response, the lead
agency shall evaluate and approve the
adequacy of proposals submitted when
the response is:
(i)	action taken pursuant to
enforcement action under section 106 of
CERCLA: or
(ii)	action involving preauthorizatio'n
of Fund expenditures, pursuant to
§ 300.25 (d) of this Plan.
(4)	In evaluating proposed response
actions specified in (a)(3) above, the
lead agency shall consider the factors
discussed in paragraphs (c) through (i)
of } 300.68 for remedial actions and the

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Federal Register / Vol. 50. No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules
5909
factors discussed in § 300.65(b) for
removal actions. The lead agency will
not, however, apply the Fund balancing
considerations set forth in paragraph
(i)(5)(B)(ii) (A) of section 300.68 to
determine the appropriate extent of
remedy provided by parties under
paragraph (a)(3)(i) of this section.
(5)	When a responsible party or other
person takes a response action in a
circumstance other than that specified in
(a)(3) above, to be consistent with the
NCP for purposes of recovering their
costs pursuant to CERCLA section 107
(or for a State or Federal government
response, to be not inconsistent), that
person must:
(i)	Where the action is a removal
action, act in circumstances warranting
removal and implement removal action
consistent with § 300.65.
(ii)	Where the action is a remedial
action:
(A)	Provide for an appropriate
analysis of remedial alternatives;
(B)	Consider the factors discussed in
paragraphs (c) through (i) of § 300.68;
and
(C)	Select the cost-effective response;
(6)	Persons performing response
actions which are neither fund-financed
nor pursuant to enforcement action
under section 106 of CERCLA shall
comply with all otherwise legally
applicable Federal. State and local
requirements, including permit
requirements as appropirate.
(b)	Organizations. Pursuant to
CERCLA section 105(9) organizations
may assist or conduct site response by:
(1)	organizing responsible parties,
(2)	initiating negotiation or other
cooperative efforts,
(3)	apportioning costs among liable
parties,
(4)	recommending appropriate
settlements to the lead agency,
(5)	conducting the RI/FS in
accordance with this plan,
(6)	evaluating and recommending
appropriate remedies to the lead agency,
(7)	implementing and overseeing
response actions,
(8)	obtaining assurances for continued
site maintenance from responsible
parties and/or.
(9)	recommending sites for deletion
after completion of all appropriate
response action.
(c)	Certification. Organizations may
be certified to conduct site response
actions. Certification is not necessary
for, but may facilitate. Fund
preauthorization under § 300.25(d) and
lead agency evaluation of the adequacy
of responsible party proposals.
(1) An organization may request
certification by submitting a written
request to the Administrator or designee
establishing that the requesting
organization has engineering, scientific,
or other technical expertise necessary to
evaluate the appropriate extent of
remedy* oversee the design of remedial
actions, and/or implement those actions.
(2)	For each specific release being
addressed, the certified organization
must:
(i)	Meet the requirements of
5 300.25(d) if requesting
preauthorization;
(ii)	Have established procedures to
recuse members of the organization that
may have a conflict of interest with a
party potentially responsible for the
release.
(3)	The Administrator will respond to
a request for certification within 180
days of receipt of the request. The
Administrator may grant certification,
request further information relating to
the requested certification or deny
certification.
(4)	Certification is effective for 2 years
from the date of latest certification. II
certification is not renewed at that time
it automatically expires.
(5)	Certification is not to be construed
as approval by the lead agency of
response actions undertaken by that
organization. Certification does not
authorize that organization to act on
behalf of, or as a agent for the lead
agency.
(6)	Certification may be revoked'at the
discretion of the Administrator for
failure to comply with this Plan or the
requirements' of CERCLA.
(d) Releases from Liability.
Implementation of response measures
by responsible parties, certified
organizations or other persons does not
release those parties from liability.
Subpart G—Trustees for Natural
Resources
9 300.72 Designation of Federai Trustees.
When natural resources are lost or
damaged as a result of a discharge of oil
release of a hazardous substance, the
following officials are designated to act
as Federal trustees pursuant to section
111(h)(1) of CERLA for purposes of
sections 111(h)(1), 111(b) and 107(f) of
CERCLA:
(a) (1) Natural Resource Loss. Damage
to resources of any kind loclated on,
over or under land subject to the
management or protection of a Federal
land managing agency, other than land
or resources in or under United States
waters that are navigable by deep draft
vessels, including waters of the
contiguous zone and parts of the high
seas to which the National Contingency
Plan is applicable and other waters
subject to tidal influence.
(2) Trustee. The head of the Federal
land managing agency, or the head of
any other single entity designated by it
to act as trustee for a specific resource.
(b)	(1) Natural Resource Loss.
Damage to fixed or non-fixed resources
subject to the management or protection
of a Federal agency, other than land or
resources in or under United States
waters that are navigable by deep draft
vessels, including waters of the
contiguous zone and parts of the high
seas to which the National Contingency
Plan is applicable and other waters
subject to tidal influence.
(2) Trustee. The head of the Federal
agency authorized to manage or protect
these resources by statute, or the head
of any other single entity designated by
it to act as trustee for a specific
resource.
(c)	(1) Natural Resource Loss. Damage
to a resource of any kind subject to the
management or protection of a Federal
agency and lying in or under United
States waters that are navigable by
deep draft vessels, including waters of
the contiguous zone and parts of the
high seas to which the National
Contingency Plan is applicable and
other waters subject to tidal influence,
and upland areas serving as habitat for
marine mammals and other species
subject to the protective jurisdiction of
NOAA.
(2) Trustee. The Secretary of
Commerce or the head of any other
single Federal entity designated by it to
act as trustee for a specific resource;
provided, however, that where resources
are subject to the statutory authorities
and jurisdictions of the Secretaries of
the Departments of Commerce or the
Interior, they shall act as co-trustees.
(d)	(1) National Resource Loss.
Damages to natural resources protected
by treaty (or other authority pertaining
to Native American tribes) or located on
lands held by the United States in trust
for Native American communities or
individuals.
(2) Trustee. The Secretary of the
Department of the Interior, or the head
of any other single Federal entity
disignated by it to act as trustee for
specific resources.
§ 300.73 State trustees.
States may act as trustee for natural
resouces within the boundary of a State
belonging to, managed by. controlled by
or appertaining to such State as
provided by CERCLA.
§ 300.74 Responsibilities of trustees.
(a) The Federal trustees for natural
resources shall be responsible for
assessing damages to the resource in
accordance with regulations
promulgated under section 301(c) of

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5910	Federal Register / Vol. 50. No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1905 / Proposed Rules
CERCLA. seeking recovery for the losses
from the person resonsible or from (he
Fund, ana devising and earring out
restoration, rehabilitation and
replacement plans pursuant to CERCLA.
(b) Where there are multiple trustees,
because of co-existing or contiguous
natural resources or concurrent
jurisdictions, they shall coordinate and
cooperate in carrying out these
responsibilities.
*****
Appendix A—Uncontrolled Hazardous Waste
Site Ranking System: A Users Manual
(Federal Register Version; July 16,1982)
Table of Contents
List of Illustrations
List of Tables
1.0	Introduction
2.0	Using Ihe Hazard Ranking System—
Genera! Considerations
3.0	Ground Water Migration Route
3.1	Observed Release
3.2	Route Characteristics
3.3	Containment
3.4	Waste Characteristics
3.5	Targets
4.0	Surface Water Route
4.1	Observed Release
4.2	Route Characteristics
4.3	Containment
4.4	Waste Characteristics
4.5	Targets
5.0	Air Route
5.1	Observed Release
5.2	Waste Characteristics
5.3	Targets
6.0	Computing the Migration Hazard Mode
Score. SH
7.0	Fire and Explosion
7.1	Containment
72.	Waste Characteristics
7.3	Targets
8.0	Direct Contact
8.1	Observed Incident
8.2	Accessibility
8.3	Containment
8.4	Waste Characteristics
8.5	Targets
list of Illustrations
Figure No.
1	HRS Cover Sheet
2	Ground Water Route Work Sheet
3	Depth to Aquifer of Concern
4	Mean Annual Lake Evaporation (In
Inches)
5	Normal Annual Total Precipitation
(inches)
6	Distance to the Nearest Well
7	Surface Water Route Work Sheet
8	One Year 24-Hour Rainfall
9	Air Route Work Sheet
10	Work Sheet for Computing Su
11	Fire and Explosion Work Sheet
12	Direct Contact Work Sheet
List of Tables
Table Number
1	Comprehensive List of Rating Factors
2	Permeability of Geologic Materials
3	Containment for Ground Water Route
4	Waste Characteristics Values for Some
Common Chemicals
5	Persistence (Biodegradabilitj) of Some
Organic Compounds
6	Sax Toxicity Ratings
7	NFPA Toxicity Raungs
8	Values for Facility Slope and Intervening
Terrain
9	Containment Values for Surface Water
Route
10	Values for Sensitive Environment
(Surface Water)
11	NFPA Reactivity Ratings
12	Incompatible Materials
13	Values for Land Use (Air Route)
14	NFPA Ignitabiliiy Levels and Assigned
Values
15	Values for Sensitive Environments (Fire
and Explosion)
1.0 Introduction
The Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation and Liability Act of
1980 (CERCLA) (Pub. L 9&-510) requires the
President to identify the 400 facilities in the
nation warranting the highest priority for
remedial action. In order to set the priorities.
CERCLA requires that criteria be established
based on relative risk or danger, taking intb
account the population at risk: the hazardous
potential of the substances at a facility: the
potential for contamination ofdrinking water
supplies, for direct human contact, and for
destruction of sensitive ecosystems: and
other appropriate factors.
This document describes the Hazard
Ranking System (HRS) to be used in
evaluating the relative potential of
uncontrolled hazardous substance
facilities to cause human health or safety
problems, or ecological or environmental
damage. Detailed instructions for using the
HRS are given in the following sections.
Uniform application of the ranking system in
each State will permit EPA tojdentify those
releases of hazardous substances that pose
the greatest hazard to humans or the
environment. However, the HRS by itself
cannot establish priorities for the allocation
of funds for remedial action. The HRS is a
means for applying uniform technical
judgement regarding the potential hazards
presented by a facility relative to other
facilities. It does not address the feasibility,
desirability, or degree of cleanup required.
Neither does it deal with the readiness or
ability of a State to cany out such remedial
action as may be indicated, or to meet other
conditions prescribed in CERCLA
The HRS assigns three scores to a
hazardous facility:
•	Sh reflects the potential for harm to
humans or the environment from migration of
a hazardous substance away from the facility
by routes involving ground water, surface
water, or air. It is a composite of separate
scores for each of the three routes.
•	Srx reflects the potential for harm from
substances that can explode or cause Tires.
•	Soc reflects the potential for harm from
direct contact with hazardous substances at
the facility (i.e., no migration need be
involved).
The score for each hazard mode (migration,
fire and explosion and direct contact) or
route is obtained by considering a set of
factors that characterize the potential of the
facility to cause harm (Tabic II E.ich factor
is assigned a numerical value (on a sr.ile of 0
to 3. 5 or 8) according to prescribed
guidelines This value is then multiplied by a
weighting factor yielding the factor score. The
faclor scores are then combined: scores
within a factor category are added, when the
total scores for each factor category are
multiplied together to develop a score for
ground water, surface water. a:r. fire and
explosion, and direct contact.
In computing Sre or Soc, or an individual
migration route score, the product of its factor
category scores is dividpd by the maximum
possible score, and the resulting ratio is
muliipt.eil by llMl. The last step puts all
scores on a scale of 0 to 100
Sm is composite of the scores for the ijirec
possible migration routes:
SM - -J773 ys|« + si„ + si
where: Sgw - ground water route score
Ssw ¦ surface water route score
Sa ¦ air route (core
The effect of this means of combining the
route scores is to emphasize the primary
(highest scoring) route in aggregating route
scores while giving some additional
consideration to the secondary or tertiary
routes if they score high. The factor 1/1.73 is
used simply for the purpose of reducing SM
scores to a 100-point scale.
The HRS does not quantify the probability
of harm from a facility or the magnitude of
the harm that could result, although the
factors have been selected in order to
approximate both those elements of risk. It is
a procedure for ranking facilities in terms of
the potential threat they pose by describing'
•	The manner in which the hazardous
substances are contained.
•	The route by which they wculd be
released.
•	The characteristics and amount of the
harmful substances, and
•	The likely targets
The multiplicative combination of factor
category scores is an approximation of the
more rigorous approach in which one would
express the hazard posed by a facility as the
product of the probability of a harmful
occurrence and the magnitude of the
potential damage.
The ranking of facilities nationally for
remedial action will be based primarily on
Sg. Srt and Soc may be used to identify
facilities requiring emergency attention.
2.0 Using the Hazard Ranking System—
General Considerations
Use of the HRS requires considerable
information about the.facility. its
surroundings, the hazardous substances
present, and the geological character of the
area down to the aquifers that may be at risk.
Figure 1 illustrates a format'for recording
general information regarding the facility

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Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules
5911
being evaluated. It can also serve as a cover
sheet for the work sheets used in the
evaluation.
Where there are no data for a factor, it
should be assigned a value of zero. However,
if a factor with not data is the only factor in a
category (e.g., containment), then the factor is
given a score of 1. If data are lacking for more
than one factor in connection with the
evaluation of either S,,, S„, S„ Sn or Spc.
that route score is set at zero.
The following sections give detailed
instructions and guidance for rating a facility.
Each section begins with a work sheet
designed to conform to the sequence of steps
required to perform the rating. Guidance for
evaluating each of the factors then follows.
Using the guidance provided, attempt to
assign a score for each of the three possible
migration routes. Bear in mind that if data are
missing for more than one factor in
connection with the evaluation of a route,
then you must set that route score at 0 (i.e..
there is no need to assign scores to factors in
a route that will be set at 0).
3.0 Ground Water Migration Route
3.1	Observed Release. If there is direct
evidence of release of a substance of concern
from a facility to ground water, enter a score
of 45 on line 1 of the work sheet for the
ground water route (Figure 2); then you need
not evaluate route characteristics and
containment factors (lines 2 and 3). Direct
evidence of release must be analytical. If a
contaminant is measured (regardless of
frequency) in ground water or in a well in the
vicinity of the facility at a significantly (in
terms of demonstrating that a release has
occurred, not in terms of potential effects)
higher level than the background level, then
quantitative evidence exists, and a release
has been observed. Qualitative evidence of
release (e.g.. an oily or otherwise
objectionable taste or smell in well water)
constitutes direct evidence only if it can be
confirmed that it results from a release at the
facility in question. If a release has been
observed, proceed to "3.4 Waste
Characteristics" to continue scoring. If direct
evidence is lacking, enter a value of 0 on line
1 and continue the scoring procedure by
evaluating Route Characteristics.
3.2	Route Characteristics. Depth to
aquifer of concern is measured vertically
from the lowest point of the hazardous
substances to the highest seasonal level of
the saturated zone of the aquifer of concern
(Figure 3). This factor is one indicator of the
ease with which a pollutant from the facility
could migrate to ground water. Assign a
value as follows:

Otstano*
Atognad
1 vtkM
>150 feet -

	J o
76 io ISO feet. ..

	1 1
21 to 75 feci

	i 2
0 to 20 fast ...

.1 3
i
which the facilty is located, calculate it by
subtracting the mean annual lake
evaporation for the region (obtained from
Figure 4) from the normal annual
precipitation for the region (obtained from
Figure 5). EPA Regional Offices will have
maps for areas outside the continental U.S.
Assign a value as follows:
Net preaptation
Assigned
value
-10 inches
- 10 to +5 ii
r-5 to >15
+-15 inches
Permeability of unsaturated zone (or
intervening geological formations) is an
indicator of the speed at which a
contaminant could migrate from a facility.
Assign a value from Table 2.
Physical state refers to the state of the
hazardous substances at the time of disposal,
except that gases generated by the hazardous
substances in a disposal area should be
considered in rating this factor. Each of the
hazardous substances being evaluated is
assigned a value as follows:
PftyaKal state
SoW. consolidated or stabkzad 	
Solid, unconaohdated or unstaMtzad-
Powder or fine matanal		-
Uqud. sludge or gee	
Aaagned
vaue
Net precipitation (precipitation minus
evaporation) indicates the potential for
leachate generation at the facility. Use net
seasonal rainfall (seasonal rainfall minus
seasonal evaporation) data if available. If net
precipitation is not measured in the region in
combined rating factor. Evaluate several of
the most hazardous substances at the facility
independently and enter only the highest
score in the matrix on the work sheet.
Vsius for toxicity
Vslus lor persistence
i t i
0 J 1 1 2 ; 3

0 | 0 1 0 1 0
3 1 el 9 I 12

6 9 I 12 I 15

9 1 12 15 I 18
i i 1
Persistence of each hazardous 9ubstance is
evaluated onits biodegradabilily as follows:
Substanc*
Assigned
| vsJue
Easrfy biodegradable compounds 	i	0
Straight Cham hycfrocartxms	 	-		1
Substituted and other nng compounds	-	—	2
Metala. pofycycbc compounds and naioganatad
hytfrocarbons								3
More specific information is given in Tables 4
and 5.
Toxicity of each hazardous substance
being evaluated is given a value using the
rating scheme of Sax (Table 6) or the
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
(Table 7) and the following guidance:
3.3	Containment. Containment is a
measure of the natural or artificial means
that have been used to minimize or prevent a
contaminant from entering ground water.
Examples include liners, leachate collection
systems, and sealed containers. In assigning
a value to this rating factor (Table 3),
consider all ways In which hazardous
substances are stored or disposed at the
facility. If the facility involves more than one
method of storage or disposal, assign the
highest from among all applicable values
(e.g., if a landfill has a containment value of
1. and. at the same location, a surface
impoundment has a value of 2. assign
containment a value of 2).
3.4	Waste Characteristics. In determining
a waste characteristics score, evaluate the
most hazardous substances at the facility
that could migrate (i.e.. if scored, containment
is not equal to zero) to ground water. Take
the substance with the highest score as
representative of the potential hazard due to
waste characteristics. Note that the
substance that may have been observed in
the release category can differ from the
substance used in rating waste
characteristics. Where the total inventory of
substances in a facility is known, only those
present in amounts greater than the
reportable quantity (see CERCLA section 102
for definition) may be evaluated.
Toxicity and Persistence have been
combined in the matrix below because of
their important relationship. To determine the
overall value for this combined factor,
evaluate each factor individually as
discussed below. Match the individual values
assigned with the values in the matrix for the
Toxicity
Assigned
v»iue
Sn to
Su to
So to
Sai to
* 0 or NFPA
1 or NFPA
Ml 2 or NFPA
Ml 3 or NFPA


0



to* 2
tortl 3 or 4...
	
2
3
Table 4 presents values for some common
compounds.
Hazardous waste quantity includes all
hazardous substances at a facility (as
received) except that with a containment
value of 0. Do not include amounts of
contaminated soil or water in such cases, the
amount of contaminating hazardous
substance may be estimated.
On occasion, it may be necessary to
convert data to a common unit to combine
them. In such cases. 1 ton=l cubic yard=4
drums and for the purposes of converting
bulk storage. 1 drum = 50 gallons. Assign a
value as follows:
Tons/cube yards
-
Number oi drums
Ass^jned
vatue
0 		 ..
0 			
0
1 to 10		
1 to 40	— 	
1
11 to 62 . 				
41 to 250 		
2
63 to 125 		
251 to 500 	«...
3
126 to 250..-	
501 to 1.000 		 	
4
251 to 625 		
1.001 to £500. 	
5

2.501 to 5.000 		
6
1.251 to 2.500		
5,001 to 10.000 	
7
>2.500 	
>10.000		
8
3.5 Targets. Ground water use indicates
the nature of the use made of ground water
drawn from the aquifer of concern within 3
miles of the hazardous substance, including
the geographical extent of the measurable
concentration in the aquifer. Assign a value
using the following guidance:

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5912	Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday. February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules
Grewd mar un
UiuiM (»B. xbwtwIi aa&na aourtar.
tramaly low ymd. «c )			
Comntaraal. mdustnal or fngabon and tnotnar
r aourca piajanM; aismnla. not wad. but
Omiung watar with munepal watar Ivont alter-
nate unthtaalaiiad sources present)* tvaiatfe
(>c. nsrsmat hookup raquramartta), or cony-
maroal. njustnaf or vngabon Mdh no otftar
waiar soma piaienay available
Omiung «ratar no munopaf water from ataneie
untmatanad eouroaa piuaaiai martafcla	
Aae^mad
value
Distance to nearest well and population
served have been combined in the matrix
below to better reflect the important
relationship between the distance of a
population from hazardous substances and
the size of the population served by ground
water that might be contaminated by those
substances. To determine the overall value
for this combined factor, score each
individually as discussed below. Match the
individual values assigned with values in
the matrix for the total score.
Vak» for population
Vaiuo tor dto
¦no* 10
MM
awa
«Md
0
1
2
3
4
n
0
o
0
0
c
t
0


6
to
20
30
9
0

12
16
24
30

a
o
12
16
20
24
32
*
©

o
'35
40


Distanoe to nearest well is measured from
the hazardous substance (not the facility
boundary) to the nearest weO that draws
water from the aquifer of concern. If the
actual distance to the nearest well is
unknown, ose the distanoe between the
hazardous substance and the nearest
occupied building not served by a public
water supply (e.g. a farmhouse). If a
discontinuity in the aquifer occurs between
the hazardous substance and all wells, give
this factor h score of a except where it can
be shown that the contaminant is likely to
migrate beyond the discontinuity. Figure s
illustrates bow the distance should be
measured. Assign a value using the following
guidance:
>9 mtm	
f to 3 m*m.	
< to 2 ftriai	
2.000 to* to 1 <
<2.000 «Mt	
persons per acre of irrigated land. The well or
wells of concern must be within three miles
of the hazardous substances, including the
area of known aquifer contamination, but the
"population served" ned not be. Likewise,
people within three miles who do not use
water from the aquifer of concern are not to
be counted. Assign a value as follows:
Population
Anqnod
VIM

0
1 tn inn
1



3
	
imi tn mnm





Population served by ground water is an
indicator of the population at risk, which
includes residents as well as others who
would regularly use the water such a*
workers m factories or offices and students.
Include employees in restaurants, motels, or
campgrounds but exclude customers and
travelers passing through the area in autoa,
buses, or trains. If aerial photography is used,
and residents are known to use ground water,
assume each dwelling unit has 3Jb residents.
Where ground water is used far irrigation,
convert to population by assuming 1-5
AauudafcanltaKnohatf

~ i ft
o


9 1 tn *1 ft

>?o 			
3


Figure 5). consider intermittent streams. This
factor indicates the potential for pollutants
flowing overland and into surface water
bodies. Assign a value as follows:
Distance
>2 mitea	
1 to 2 m*aa		
1.000 last to 1 m
<1.000 toot	
4.0 Surface Water Route
4.1	Observed Release. Direct evidence of
release to surface water must be quantitative
evidence that the facility is releasing
contaminants into surface water.
Quantitative evidence could be die
measurement of levels of contaminants from
a facility in surface water, either at the
facility or downhill from it that represents a
significant (in terms of demonstrating that a
release has occurred, not Is terms of potential
effects) increase over background levels. If
direct evidence of release has been obtained
(regardless of frequency), enter a value of 45
on line 1 of the work sheet (Figure 7] and omit
the evaluation of the route characteristic!
and containment factors. If direct evidence of
release is lacking, enter a value of 0 on line 1
and continue with the scoring procedure.
4.2	Route characteristics. Facility slope
and intervening terrain are indicators of the
potential for contaminated runoff or spills at
a facility to be transported to surface water.
The facility slope is an indicator of the
potential lor runoff or spills to leave the
facility. Intervening teirain refers to the
average slope of the shortest path which
would be followed by runoff between the
facility boundary and the nearest downhill
surface water. TTiis rating factor can be
assessed using topographic maps. Table 8
shows values assigned to various facility
conditions.
One-year 24-hour rainfall (obtained from
Figure 8) indicates the potential for area
storms to cause surface water contamination
as a result of runoff, erosion, or Dow over
dikes. Assign a value as follows:
Physical state is assigned a value using the
procedures in Section 3.2.
4.3	Containment Containment is a
measure of the means that have been taken
to minimize the likelihood of a contaminant
entering surface water either at the facility or
beyond the facility boundary. Examples of
containment are diversion structures and the
use of sealed containers. If more than one
type of containment is used at a facility,
evaluate each separately (Table 9) and assign
the highest score.
4.4	Waste Characteristics. Evaluate
waste characteristics for the surface water
route with the procedures described in
Section 14 for the ground water route.
45 Targets. Surface water use brings into
the rating process the use being made of
surface water downstream from the facility.
The use or uses of interest are those
associated with water taken from surface
waters within a distanoe of three miles from
the location of the hazardous substance.
Assign a value as follows:
r uae fkatfi or so* II M»1
No( oararfly taad	
Co—iarrl or aidi—M
imQahon. tooAonctfy

Distance to the nearest surface water is the
shortest distance from the hazardous
substance, (not the facility or property
boundary) to the nearest downhill body of
surface water (e^j.. lake or stream) that is on
the course that runoff can be expected to
follow and that at least occasionally
water. Do not include man-made ditches
which do not connect with other surface
water bodies. In areas having less than 20
inches of normal annual precipitation (see
Distance to a sensitive environment refers
to the distance Cram the hazardous substance
(not the facility boundary) to an area
containing an important biological resource
or to a fragile natural setting that could suffer
an especially severe impact from pollution.
Table 10 provides guidance on assigning a
value to this rating factor.
Population served by surface water with
water intake within 3 miles downstream from
facility (or 1 mile in static surface water such
as a lake) is a rough indicator of the potential
hazard exposure of the nearby population
served by potentially contaminated surface
water. Measure the distance from the
probable point of entry to surface water
following the surface flow (stream miles). The
population includes residents as well as
others who would regularly use the water
such as workers in factories or offices and
students. Include employees m restaurants,
motels, or campgrounds but exclude
customers and travelers passing through the
area in autos. buses and trains. The distance
is measured from the hazardous substance,
including observations in stream or sediment
samples, regardless of facility boundaries.
Where only residential houses can be
counted (e.g„ from an aerial photograph), and

-------
Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules
5913
residents are known to be using surface
water, assume 3.8 individuals per dwelling
unit. Where surface water is used for
irrigation, convert to population by assuming
1.5 persons per acre of land irrigated. Assign
a value as follows:
Distance to Surface Water
information given in Tables 4,6, and 7,-assign
values as follows:
Population
>3
mries
2 to
3
mbes
1 to
2
mUtts
2.001
(eel
to 1
rrato
0 to
ZOOO
(Ml
0				 .
0
0
0
0
0
1 to 100	- 	
0
4
8
8
10
101 to 1,000 	
0
a
12
16
20
1,001 to 3.000		
0
12
16
24
30
3.001 to 10,000	
0
16
24
32
35
>10,000 ...
0
20
30
35
40
5.0 Air Route
5.1	Observed Release. The only
acceptable evidence of release for the air
route is data that show levels of a
contaminant at or in the vicinity of the
facility that significantly exceed background
levels, regardless of the frequency of
occurrence. If such evidence exists, enter a
value of 45 on line 1 of the, work sheet (Figure
9); if not. assign line 1 a 0 value and then
S,=0. Record the date, location, and the
sampling protocol for monitoring data on the
work sheet. Data based on transitory
conditions due to facility disturbance by
investigative personnel are not acceptable.
5.2	Waste Characteristics. The hazardous
substance that was observed for scoring the
release category may be different from the
substance used to score waste
characteristics.
Reactivity and incompatibility, measures
of the potential for sudden release of
concentrated air pollutants, are evaluated
independently, and the highest value for
either is recorded on the work sheet.
Reactivity provides a measure of the fire/
explosion threat at a facility. Assign a value
based on the reactivity classification used by
NFPA (seeTable 11). Reactivity ratings for a
number of common compounds are given in
Table 4.
Incompatibility provides a measure of the
increased hazard when hazardous
substances are mixed under uncontrolled
conditions, leading to production of heat,
pressure, fire, explosion, violent reaction,
toxic dusts, mists, fumes or gases, or
flammable fumes or gases. Table 12 provides
examples of incompatible combinations of
materials. Additional information can be
obtained from A Method for Determining the
Compatibility of Hazardous Wastes, H. K.
Hatayama. et al. EPA-600/2-80-070 (1980).
Assign a value using the following guidance:
Incompftbtaibty
No incompatible substances are present
Present but do not pose a hazard	
Present and may pose a future hazard ...
Present and posing an immediate hazard
Assigned
Toxicty should be rated for the most toxic
of the substances that can reasonably be
expected to be tiansported away from the
facility via the air route. Using the
Toncrty
Sax Level 0 or NFPA level 0	
Sax Level 1 or NFPA level 1 			
Sax Level 2 or NFPA level 2	 .
Sax Level 3 or NFPA level 3 or 4 ...
Assqned
value
Hazardous Waste Quantity. Assign
hazardous waste guantity a value as
described in Section 3.4.
5.3 Targets. Population within a four-mile
radius is an indicator of the population which
may be harmed should hazardous substances
be released to the air.
The distance is measured from the location
of the hazardous substances, not from the
facility boundary. The population to be
counted includes persons residing within the
four-mile radius as well as transients such as
workers in factories, offices, restaurants,
motels, or students. It excludes travelers
passing through the area. If aerial
photography is used in making the count,
assume 3.8 Individuals per dwelling unit
Select the highest value for this rating factor
as follows:
Distance to Population From Hazardous
Substance
Poputatton
1 to 100	
101 to 1.000 	
1,001 to 3,000	
3.001 to 10,000 _
>10,000 	
* to
o to
*
hazardous substances that are individually
ignitable or explosive are present and those
that may be hazardous in combination are
segregated and isolated so that they cannot
come together to form incompatible mixtures,
assign this factor a value of 1.
7.2 Waste Characteristics. Direct
evidence of ignitability or explosion potential
may exist in the form of measurements with
appropriate instruments. If so, assign this
factor a value of 3; if not, assign a value of 0.
Ignitability is an indictor of the threat of
fire at a facility and the accompanying
potential for release of air contaminants.
Assign this rating factor a value based on the
NEPA classification scheme (Table 14). Table
4 gives Calues for a number of common
compounds. Assign values as follows:
Iqnriatohty
Flastwwit 200 T. or NEPA IotbI 0	
Flaanpont 140 "P to 200 *F or NEPA level 1 _
FlasnpoM SO °F to 140 'F or NEPA level 2_
FlaanpoX <80 T or NB>A levels 3 or 4	

0
18
21
24
27
30
Reactivity. Assign values as in Section 5-2.
Incompatibility. Assign values as in
Section 5.2.
Hazardous Waste Quantity. Assign values
as in Section 3.4.
7.3 Targets. Distance to nearest
population is the distance from the
hazardous substance to the nearest building
or area in which one or more persons are
likely to be located either for residential,
educational, business, occupational, or
recreational purposes. It is an indicator of the
potential for harm to humans from fire and
explosion. The building or area need not be
off-site. Assign values as follows:
Distance to sensitive environment is an
Indicator of the Likelihood that a region that
contains important biological resources or
that is a fragile natural setting would suffer
serious damage if hazardous substances were
to be released from the facility. Assign a
value from Table 10.
Land use indicates the nature and level of
human activity in the vicinity of a facility.
Assign highest applicable value from Table
13.
8.0 Computing the Migration Hazard Mode
Score. SM
To compute S^, complete the work sheet
(Figure 10) using the values of S„, and
S„ obtained from the sections.
7.0 Fire and Explosion
Compute a score for the fire and explosion
hazard mode. Sn. when either a state or local
fire marshall has certified that the facility
presents a significant fire or explosion threat
to the public or to sensitive environments or
there is a demonstrated fire and explosion
threat based on filed observations (e.g..
combustible gas indicator readings).
Document the threat.
7.1 Containment Containment is an
indicator of the measures that have been
taken to minimize or prevent hazardous
substances at the facility from catching fire or
exploding. Normally it wilf be given a value
of 3 on the work sheet (Figure 11). If no
>2 mles .
1 mrie to 2 mriee —
Vfc rriie to mle	
210 teet to W mle.-
51 teet to 200 teet..
0 to 50 feet	
Assorted
value
Distance to nearest building is and
indicator of the potential for property damage
as a result of fire or explosion. Assign a value
as follows:
distance
> mrie 		
201 feel to to mrie..
51 to 200 feet-	
0 to 50 feet 		
Distance to nearest sensitive environment
is measured from the hazardous substances,
not from the facility boundary. It is an
indicator of potential harm to a sensitive
environment from fire or explosion at the
facility. Select the highest value using the
guidance provided in Table 15 except assign
a value of 3 where fire could be expected to
spread to a sensitive environment even
though that environment is more than 100 feet
from the hazardous substance.

-------
I
S914	Federal Register / Vol. SO. No. 29 / Tuesday, February 1Z 1985 / Proposed Rules
Land Use. Assign values as in section 5.3.
Population within two-mile radius
(measured from the location of the hazardous
substance, not from the facility boundary) is
a rough indicator of the population at risk in
the event of fire or explosion at a facility. The
population to be counted includes those
residing within the two mile radius as well as
people regularly is the vicinity such as
workers in factories, offices, or students. It
does not include travelers passing through
the area. If aerial photography is used in
making the count, assume 3.8 individuals per
dwelling. Assign values as follows:
Population
Angnd
vmkw
0 	

1 Id 100

10t tn IJMD

1 001 toionn

3.001 to 10.000... - 	 - . _...
4




Number of buildings within two mile
radius (measured from the hazardous
substance, not from the facility boundary) is
a rough indicator of the property damage that
could result from fire and explosion at a
facility. Assign values to this factor as
follows:
Nuntw of btAfcngt
««UB
0
0
1 tn M

97 * 9M)
2
Mi an ran

701 tn 9MY\





SJ) Direct Contact
The direct contact hazard mode refers to
the potential for injury by direct contact with
hazardous substances at the facility.
8.1	Observed Incident If there is a
confirmed instance in which contact with
hazardous substances at a facility has caused
injury, illness, or death to human, or
domestic or ttuld animals, enter a value of 45
on line 1 of the work sheet (Figure 12) and
proceed to line 4 (toxicity). Document the
incident giving the date, location and
pertinent details. If no such instance is
known, enter "0" on line 1 and proceed to
line 2.
8.2	Accessibility. Accessibility to
hazardous substance refers to the measures
taken to limit access by humans or animals to
hazardous substances. Assign a value using
the following guidance:
A 24-tntr aarpaftanoa ayatant 4*4. Mwnaon
monitonng or mn^in,¦ by gaarta or taetty
paraonnaQ wtadi conkMuoualy nonttora nd
toHUuto «ntry ooao tha taottty-,
or
an wrttcml or naumi Mm (s fl.. • tanca con*
bawd wth a carff), wtvcA umnjteWy aumuidt
the laafaty: and a mn to oontrot •) al
Mm. threu^i t* »ataa or Mhar	«
tha faoktiy (a.g., an aaandart. Mawwcn iboi*.
ton. locm antanoaa. or ooniroMad roadany
aocsaa to tha taclltty)		0
Sacuty guard, but no bamar		1
A ban mi. bLf no aaparata naaana to cuitim anvy_	2
Sanaa do agl conpMaly aaaia da tao%		3
8.3 Containment Containment indicates
whether the hazardous substance itself is
accessible to direct oontact For example, if
the hazardous substance at the facility is in
surface impoundments, containers (sealed or
unsealed), piles, tanks, or landfills with a
cover depth of less than 2 feet, or has been
spilled on the ground or other surfaces easily
contacted (e.g.. the bottom of shallow pond or
creek), assign this rating factor a value of 15.
Otherwise, assign a value of 0.
8.4 Waste Characteristics. Toxicity.
Assign a value at in section 3.4.
Targets. Population within one-mile
radius is a rough indicator of the population
that could be involved in direct contact
incidents at an uncontrolled facility. Assign a
value as follows:
Poputabon
vtiu*
n
0
1 tn 100
1
mi tn 1 nnn
2
i nni ** 1 nnn ,, .
3
inoi (n m.nnn
4
inrmfl
3


Distance to a critical habitat (of an
endangered species) is a rough measure of
the probability of harm to members of an
endangered species by direct contact with
hazardous substance. Assign a value as
follows:
OMm


0

1

2

3

-------
Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules
5915
TABLE 1
COMPREHENSIVE LIST OP RATING FACTORS
Rlgvetlia
nam CATtaovr
Imu
Chirac
CmI«1ibmC
T«r|>U
CtOUM) UATD RCUTt
SURFACE WATtt ROUTt
•	Dtpih to A^vlfar of Concara
a	Mat Pnclpiutloa
a	Ptrwakllity oI
Itoeeluracad Zone
•	Physical Scat*
•	CcM«lB«t
•	Toilclty/PtnUtMci
•	Biurdoaa Unti Quaadcy
I Water Vm
Matact Co IutmC
Pofvlatloa
tactile? Slop* tmd
Inteexeles Terra la
OiwlMr 24-Hour RalafaU
OlaiMCt Co Murut S«r(«u Kitir
Ptiytlcal Sue*
CMCtlnttt
Toalcltr/hriiaCMca
HaurdMa Uaaca QuaaClty
Pofalictoa 3am4/DtitMM
to Uaiar Utak* I
lUac 11 * 11 j /1 irn^uUl 1 c j
Toiicltjr
lUtudoM lluta Qoaatity
refilMtM tfUfcla MUI« Mlw
DlitaMa Co SaMitlva
Plra m4
tBplMi*
CoaUlawt
dartcttrlMlca
Tartaca
Direct Kvl4
IliiUklUtT
••activity
UiuialUllUy
burdM Kmc* I^hMIcj
Pd^mUcIm
raat hllilai
at Iwwtttw b
Dlar
DIM
•	Popalatloa WlUla 2-Wle MIm
•	Bvhar oI NIUIjii* VUMa 2-ml# Ml«
Ulllly
laclfeM
•	AcwaUlltty mi ^urtea S^tci
•	CoMtlNM
a Toalctty
•	rov^atte UlMa HUU ft^la
•	Ma>ia u Critical lUklut
Table 2.— Permeability1 of Geologic
Materials*
Type at matehai
A^roxemate rang*
As-
Of hy<*«ic
sorted

condudMy
value
Gay. compact «, shale: urw
<10*'cm/sec ...
0
trwcUrmJ metamorpnc and


qpwous rOCfca.


SBL loess, srfty days, srfty
<10" *>10"* cm/
1
toama. day loams; less per-
sec.

and sandstone; moderate^


permeable OS.


sand and srfty sand;
i 10'1 cm/sec
3
¦gnpous and metamorptac


nxfca; permeable baaafl and


tavoa; karvt kmestone and
dotomae


' Denved from-
Oava, S.N.. PoroaOf *nd />irmeagiaH> of Nmn/ Malaria*
in Flow- Through Pomus Aiedta, R J M OeWesl «L, Acadenv
C Press. New York. 1969
Freeze, R A and J A. Cherry, GwuncMtrer, Prwnoc^^aM,
Inc.. Nmm Yen, 1979
Table 3.—Containment Values For
Ground Water Route
(Asa»gn contamment a value of 0 if (1) Ai the hazardous
substances at ma taohty are underlain by arr essentialty
non permeable sulace (natirai or artificial) and adequate
leachate collection jysiams and daemon systems are
present or tf) there is no ground water m the victnity. The
value "0" does not mtfrcate no nsk. Rather, it indcates a
sigrattcantty lower re'ative risk when compared with more
senous sites on s nanonal level Otherwise, evaluate tha
comatfvnem for each of the afferent means of storage or
disposal at the faokty usvtg the following guidance)
Aa^gned
A. Surface frepourwln»ent
Sound run-on drvemon structure. essermatfy non
permease- bner (natural or artificial) compatible
with (ha waste, and adequate leachate coHec-
bon system. .	...	- 	 .
Essentially non permeable compaoble lm©r with
no toacftate collection system-, or inadequate
freeboard		-	
Table 3.—Containment Values For
Ground Water Route—Continued
tAaaagn containment a vaiua of 0 it. (1) AO the ha7wrrtrwts
substances at the facdity are indertam by an essentially
non permeable surface (natural or amhoaJ) and adequate
leachate coilecaon systems and csversion systems are
present or (2) there ts no ground water m the vcmty The
value "V does not tntfccate no nsa Rather, it mocates a
sqjnrficantty lower relative nsk wnen compared with more
senous sites on a national level Otherwise. *«aiuate ma
contavwnent for each of tha drtferent means of storage or
disposal at the laohty using the followmg guKlancej
PotentiaDy unsound run-on drvers^n structure, or
moderately permeable compatible i»>er
Unaound run-on dwersion structure, no bner or
^compatible hnar 		
Asvgned
B. Container*
Contarors sealed and m soutd condition, ade-
quate liner, and adeouaie leachate couaction
system			-			
Comakers sealed and m sowd condfton. no
bner or moderately permeable bner
Contamers teafcmg. moderate*? permeable >ner ..

-------
5916
Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules
Table 3.—Containment Values For
Ground Water Route—Continued
(Ass'qn contajnmeni a value ol 0 if (t) All uvj hazardous
suostantes al the facil'fy are underlain bv an essential)/
non pcrraaoie surface (natural or aruticten and aaoouste
ic«»c*£t9 collection sysions and diversion systems &re
present, o vate* in the	The
v&ue "0' does no! indicate no ask Rather, it indicates 8
SKjniltcartiy tower relative 'is»* w^en corr<>areo with more
tenous «"»> on a national level Otrwvtise evaluate the
corna>nmcnt for earh ol He Offe»r»nt means of storage or
		j al the facility using trte following guidance!
Table 4 —Waste Characteristics Values
for Some Common Chemicals—Continued
Table 5.—Persistence (Biodegfiadaeility)
of Some Organic Compounds '—Continued
Containers leaking and no towr or mcornpattte
bv»
Assigned
vaiue
C. Pltea
Piles uncovered and waste stabUued; or piles
covered, waste unstatwoeo. and essenttaBy
non permeable liner	
Piles uncovered, waste unstablrzed. moderately
permeable hner. and leechate collection
system	 	 	
Prtet incovered, waste mttWoed. moderately
permeable !vw. and no leechate collection
system	
PMes uncovered, waste metsbhzed and no bner
D. LMfUl
Essentially non permeable kner. hner compatible
with waste, and adequate leechate collection
system.
Eaeentnlty non permeefra compatible hner. no
leer-hats coflection system, and tandfin sutaoe
precludes ponding 		 	
Modentefy pormeeble. compeUie hner. and
landfill Stffeee precludes porting	
No hner or ^compatible bner moderate^ perme-
able oompatMe hner. landftfl sirfaoe encour-
agee pondmQ. no run-on control 				
Table 4.—Waste Characteristics Values
for Some Common Chemicals
Chemical/
Tox-
Persist-
tgwi-
Reac-
VotB-
Compound
icity'
ence1
ab*ty*
tivity'
bkty1
Acetalde-





hyde
3
0
3
2
•3
Acetic acwJ.. .
3
0
2
1
t
Acetone ... -
2
0
3
0
3
Aldnn	
3
3
1
0
•o
anhy^ous .
3
0
1
0
3
Arxtane
3
1
2
0
t
Benzene ..«
3
1
3
0
3
Carton





tetmchlo-





nde 	
3
3
0
0
3
CNordane
3
3
•o
•o
*0
CNoroberw





tana	
2
2
3
0
1
Chloroform. ...
3
3
0
0
3
CftaoM) ... .
3
1
2
0
1
Creso^MAP
3
1
1
0
1
Cyctohexane -
2
2
3
0
3
Enttm	—.
3
3
1
0
•o
Ethyl





benzene. ..
2
1
3
0
t
*>r<»e	
3
0
2
0
•3
Fromc aod.
3
0
2
0
2
Hydrochloric





aod . ...
3
0
0
0
3
Isopropyl
ether	
3
1
3
1
3
imane ....
3
3
1
0
0
Methane
1
1
3
0
•3
Methyl ethyl





ketone
2
0
3
0
2
Methyl





parath«n





xi kytene





solution
3
3
3
2
•2
Chemical/
Compound
Tox-
¦city 1
Persist-
e-.cet
Ignrt-
aottiTy,
Rear
trvity1
Vofa-
ti'.ty'
Naphthalene
j
2 i i
2
0
1
Nitnc attd. .
3
0
0
0
•D
Parathion
3
3
1
2
*0
PCB
3
3
eo
*0
aO
Petroleum





Kerosene





(fuel oil





no n	
3
1
2
0
*1
Phenol 	
3
1
2
0
t
Sulfuric Aod..
3
0
0
2
1
Tolueno 	
2
1
3
0
2
Tnchioroberw





zene	
2
3
1
0
i
Q'





Tnchtor-





oethane
2
2
1
0
3
Xytane ...
2
1
3
0
1
Vaiue—J Wghfy Paiaieleni Compound*
akmn
hap»acft*or
benzopyene
heptachlor epox^e
benzothMZde
1^.3.4.5.7.7-

heptachloronorbomene
benzothttpften*
hexachiorobenzene
benzyl butyt phtnelate
hexachioror-i 3,-butadene
bromochlorobenzene
heatacworocvdohexane
bromoform butanai
hex«chioroethane
bromophenyl phynQ ether
methyl benzothtazole
Chtoroane
pemachtorob^henyf
chiorohydroxy benzephenone
pentachkxoprienol.
b«-chioro(SOprQphyi ether
1 1.3.3-ietrechioroecentone
rTKJitm owirobef >zene
tetrmcNorobpherryl
DD€
thpmethytoenzothiaroie
DOT
tnchiorobemene

Uidiluiob^ihenyl
(kbutvl phthaiate
tnchloroftuoromethane
1,4-dehlorobenzene
2.4.6- tnchloropnenol
(bchtorodrtluoroethane
tnphenyl phosphate
aoldnn
bronxxWHoromethane
dwthyi phtatate
Uumufurrn
A <2-ethylhexyf) phttvilaie
cartwn tetmcwonde
dihexyl phthaiate
chtoroforrn
(^Hsobutyi pnthatate
chloromochloromethane
dwnethyt phthaiate
dioromotkchioroethane
4.6^ntro>2-ammopnenoi
tetracnioroethane
chpropyi phthaiate
endrm
1.1 ^-tnchloroethane
Value—2 Mighty PtnMsnl Compounds
ecenaphthytane
C»-2-etfiyf-4-methy4-1.3-

choxoiane
atrazne
trens-2-ehtyi-4-meth)4.1.3-

cboxotane
(dwthyl) atrmzme
guaiacoi
barbrtal
2-hydroxyat>porn/ite
bomed
tsophorone
bromobenzene
inoene
chlorobenzene
isopropen>l-r-«aooropyi ben-

zene
1.2 -bq-chloroethoxy ethane
2-methoxy bohenyl
txhloroethyl methyl ether
methyl biphenyl
chloromethyt ether
methyl chloride
chioromethyl ethyl ether
methyl idene
3-chloropyndrie
methylene chionde
dnt-butyl-cebenzoquvione
rvtroarwsole
oichicKoethv! etner
ctihycca^on*
a.mginyj sulfoxide
2.fi-dimtrctolu*ne
m>»,Ober,zfr*c
1 1 2 -tncncroeT.^lena
lnmo;~yi-uio*o-he>anydfo
tfo zme iSonxK
»1 Somewhat Persistant Compounds
1 Sax. N i.. Dangerous Proportm of Industrial Materials
Van Nostrand Rnetnhold Co.. New for*. 4th ed. *975 Tne
r*ghest rating hsted under each chemical » used
1 JRB Associates. inc. tietnoocogy for Rating ttv Hazard
Potential of Waste Disposal Sites May 5. 1960
' National Fire Protect-on Association National Pre Codes,
Vol 13. No 49. 1977
* Professional judgment based on tfrtormation oomained m
the U S. Coast Guard ChRiS Hazacdous ChemeaJ Data.
1976
A Profeeeonel judgment based on eutng hterature
Table 5.—Persistence (Biodecradabiuty)
of Some Organic Compounds *
acetylene dichicrtdo
¦imonone
oehentc ocid methyl esie*
methyl esiex ol irgnocefc

acrd
Den2ene
moihaie
benzere sulfonic acid
2-memvl-S-ethyl-pyridirH»
butyl benzene
metnyl naohtalene
butyl oromoe
meihyl paimitate
e-caprolactam
methyl phenyl catono*
cart>on-di5ui4x)e
meihvi stearete
ocrew
naphthalene
decane
nonene
1.2-dichioroethane
octane
i,2-dimethox> benzene
ocryi chionoe
1.3-^imethyi naphthalene
pentane
1.4-dtfnethy' pnenoi
phenyl benzoate
eniatsnl Compounds
acetaidehyoe
methyl benzoate
toatc acid
3-meihyt butanoi
acetone
methyl ethyl ketone
aceiophenone
2-methylprapanol
benzoc aod
octadecane
-------
Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Pre
Table 6.—Sax Toxicity Ratings'—
Continued
2 = Uodiriti Toxicity
(a)	Acute local Materials wheh on single exposure lasong
seconds, minutes. or hours cause moderate effects on the
skm or mucous membranes. These effect may be (he result
of intense exposure for a matter or seconds or moderate
exposure for a matter of hours.
(b)	Acute systemc Materials which can be absorbed into
the body by inhalation, ingestion, or tnrough the skm and
produce moderate effects fotlowng smgle exposures lasting
seconds, minutes, or hours, or loftomng ingestion of a smgte
dose.
(c)	Chfonc local Matenals which on continuous or repeat*
ed exposures extending over penods of days, months, or
years cause moderate harm to the siun or mucous mem-
branes.
(d)	Ctvcroc systemc Matenals wNch can be absorbed into
the body by mhalatxjn, ingestion, or through the skm and
wftch produce moderate effects following continuous or
repeated exposure extending over penods of days, months,
or years.
Those substances classified as havmg "moderate toxicity"
may produce irreversible as weM as reversible changes m the
human body Those changes are not of such seventy as to
threaten hfe or to produce senous physical imparnnent
Toxicity
(a)	Acute kxaL Matenets *rt*ch on smgle exposure tastmg
seconds or mmutee cause infury to stun or mucous mem-
branes or sufficient seventy to threaten Me or the cause
permanent physcal impermem or dwfigurement
(b)	Acute systems. Matenals wtwch can be absorbed into
the body by inhalation, ingestion, or through the skm and
when can cause of sufficient seventy to threaten We
foilowng a sngie exposes lastmg seconds, nvnutes, or
hours, or followmg ingestion of a angle dose.
(c)	Chronc kxal Matenals wf*ch on contmuous or repeal-
ed exposfes extending over penods of days, months, or
year? can cause injury to stun or mcous membranes of
sufficient seventy to threaten We or caun permanent tfnoaa-
mem, whefi dsftgurement. or arevombte change
(d)	Chnx*c systemic. Matenals wftch can be absorbed mto
the body by inhalation, ingestion, or through the stun and
wheh can cause death or senous pfryscaJ tmparmem foWow-
mg continuous or repeated e^sosures to small amoimta
exten&ng over penods oI days, months, or yearm.
'Sax. Nl, Dangerous Propmt>es ot industrial MetenaA
Van Nostrand R hem hold Company. New York, 4th Edition.
1975.
Table 8.—Values for Facility Slope and
Intervening Terrain
Faotity slope
Facriity is closed
basm		
Faofcty has average
slope <3% 	
Average slope 3 to
5%v	
Average slope 5 to
8% 		 	
Average slope >8%
intervervng terrain
Ter-
rain
aver-
age
slope
<3%.
or
arte
sepa-
rated
from
water
body
by
areas
of
high-
Ter-
ram
aver*
age
slope
3 to
5%
Ter-
am
aver-
age
slope
5 to
8%
age
slope
>8%
sur-
face
water
Aasgned
value
A. Surface Impoundment
TABLE S
Slirfac
t Assign contamr
site is surrour
condition and
from the was'
from entenng
tamment for
disposal at
Diking not lea* •
Dtkmg unsouno
Containers so:
rounded b>
system
Containers se':
not surTOunc-
nient system
Container* lea
structures pc
Containers '03<
ment structi.
or n danger
P9es are co>
TABLE 9.—Containment Values For
Surface Water Route
[Ass^jn contamment a value of 0 it. (t) All the waste at tho
site is surrounded by 2 miles
1 to 2 mdes
Fresh Water			
> 1 (Tile
>•4 to 1 mle
Orslance to enbeal habrtat (of endan-
> t mrie
^ to 1 mile
gered speoes)" or National Wdd-


trfe Refuge


*	Wetland ts defined by EPA m the Code of Federal Regulations 40 CFR Par
*	* Endangered speoes are des^nated by the U.S. Fish and WikJbfe Service
Table 11.—NFPA Reactivity Ratings
Table
Materials which are normally stable even
under fre exposure conditions and which
are not reactive with water 	
Matenals wtoch m themselves are nor*
malty stable but wmch may become un-
stable at elevated 'emperatures and pres-
sures or which may react wtth water wth
some release of energy but not voientty.
Matenals which tn themselves ere nor-
mally unstable and readily undergo violent
chenvcal change but do nto detonate
Assigned
value
incruc
cnecc
enei^,
sures
•cat -
and z<
nais a
Of
-------
5918
Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules
1>ble 11.—NFPA Reactivity Ratings—
Continued
NFPA lev®!
Materials wtaeh u> themaefrai are cape-
We of detonation or of mapkurm decom-
position or of eaptotry reactpn but
whch reqwes a strong otwbng sowce
or wtwcft must be heated under confine-
mem before rvtiation. Includes material*
which are sensitive to thermal or mechan-
ical ahocfc at elevated temperatwes and
presares or wtvcfi react explosively «wth
water wthout requnng heal or confine-
ment 			
Matenata wt*h w> themselves are reader
capable of detonation or of eiqriaai
decomposrton or expkame reaction at
normal temperatures and presstves. tn-
ciudea matenata wt*ch are semftha to
mechancal or loeafczed thermal thocfc	
Table 12.—Incompatible Materials
(In the kstt below, the raeang of a Group A melenaf wtth a
Group B material may have toe potential consequence aa
noted)
Gm& f-A
Gfzx*> 1-8
Acefytene ekrtgo
Aod siude
Ahakne caustic Iliads
Acad and weier
Alkakne cleaner
Battery aari
Alkalne coffoarra hqttds
Oienoi ctsamin
Alkahne corrosive battery
Elactrofyte aod
ftfld

Caustic «osMntar
EHiwm eoid l««d or aalvem
Ome studpe and othar oono*
tattng kquor and other oor-
awe alhahaa
nmrn aods
Ume wastewater
Spent eod
bme and watar
Spent snad add
Spent causae
Spent a^fwc aod




Group 2-*

Alumnum
Any waste in Qra*> M an

1-8
Berytaum

Calcium

Utnun

nnsaun
Sodum

Zinc Powdsr

Other reactwe metals and
Potential oonaaquenoee: ffre or a^toann; generabonof
flammable hydrogen ga*.
GfOtp 3-A
Grow 3~B
Any conoonftated waste *1
Gfoupe 1-A or 1-6
Cetaum
uthMD
Metal hydrides
Alcohols
Water
SO,O,. SOCV PCk. CH».
SO,
Other water«reectr> e waste
Potsnasf consequences fti, m&amsA. or heet genera*
borr. generation of AammM»*e or tone gam
Table 12.—Incompatible Materials—
Continued
(in me fasts
Group B
noted)
>, the moony of a Groiv A matonal with a
may have the potential consequence aa
Potential ooniaquancer Fire, eiptoaoi or vplent reac-
Group 5-A
Sped cyande and autfide
Nitric aod. tum*ig
°erth*oratea
Permenganates
Grow 5-6
Grot* 1-4 wastes
Other strong oiedaars

Grt»4> 4-B
Grow S-A
&mt> 6-8
Alcohols
Concentrated Group 1-A or
CMocatas
Aoebc add and other organc

1-8 wastes

ends
Aldehydes
Gro^ 2-A wastes
Chlortae
Oenoentrated nvnerai aods
Hatogenoted hydrocartxms

Chlorties
Group 2-A wastes
Waled hydrucaitons

Chrome aod
Group 4~A wastes
Unsaturated hydrocaibona

HyphocWorftm
Other Itammabte and oom-
Other reactive orparwc com-


busttse wastes
pounds and aJiertf

Wates

Potential consequence*. Generation of tone hydiugen
cyarwte or h*frogen atfflde gas.
Table 12.—Incompatible Materials—
Continued
[In the bsts below, the mxing of a Group A material with a
Grouo B matenal may have the potential consequence as
noted]
Potential
ton.
oonaequenoec fVe. t^iioao^ or Solent rase*
Sotfce- Hazardous Waste Management Law. Regulator*,
val Gudefertes lor the Handling art Hazardous Waste CaMor-
•-aa Oepartmertf of Hearth. Sacramento. Catfoma, February
1975
Table 13.—Values for Lano Use (Air Route)
Aasgned value-
Distance to NakonaJ/State >2 mm
Paid Forests, WMWe Re-
Otstanoe to Agncufanl Lands
(in Pwadeobon mtttm S yaarat:
fcg <	> 1 1
Prime Ag Land"	 2*4
Dtstanoe to .Helotic/LandmaA
Sites (Nitnal Aepaasr of
W to 1 mie
1 to 2 Mies
*to 11
1 to 2 ¦
% to * mrte
K to 1 ode
Wlo Hi
Htoia
< v* rrata
<*«*e
<*«
<*<
» of ale or
t to
* Defined m the Code of Federal Hegulationa, 7 CFR 657.5.1001.
Table 14.—NFPA ignit ability Levels and Assigned values
4 Very
txptoM imtfN when Aspersed
3 Uqurts wtich can be grated ifider a> m
auunlanor,ias>F at normal
2 Uquda wtich mot be imlaiatui) heated
»that to Vie term of dusts or mats
tamperattffo conditions. Any materials that iQrltaa
before gittm w* ooour and soidB
1 Materials that nut be preheated before ignOon cm oocu Moat combustible sofcds have a
rating of 1	
0 Materials that wti not town.
Table 15.—Values for Sensitive Environments (Fire ano Explosion)
Aas^ned value- 0
1 2 3

inn m
Dbtanoe to enseal habMat**	 > H mie
iMfeetto H *to 100 to 1.000 feet <100 *eet
* wetland is defined by EPA tn the-Code of Fedsr
** Oea^natad by 9m U^. Aah and WMMe Serwc
al Regutatxma 40 CFR Part 230. Appendb A. 196a
e.
6IUJWQ COOC MM 10 M

-------
Facility Nase:
Location:		
EPA Region:
Peraon(e) la Charge of (h« Facility:
Naae of R«vUverS	Dttti ^^
General Dcacrlptloo of tha Facility:
(For exaaple: landfill, aurfaca lapouodaent, pile, container;
typea of hacardoua aubetancea; location of tha facility;
coDtaalnatloa route of aajor concern; typea of Information
needed for rating; agency action, ate.)
Scon#: Sk -	(Sgw -	• #» -	)
®TK "
»DC "
Figure 1
HRfl COVEB SHEET
CIOUVS UaTU uhjtv vou shiit
. _ Aealgned telwe Kultl-
tttlag Factor ,r!rr!. On.1 .ll.r
Score
Hu.
icare
Ref.
(Sactloo)
^ OBSERVED UlLUI 0 4S I

4)
3.1
If obianred relaaae la |lvan • acor* of 0. proceed to line |7
I?"
^ KDUTl QLUUCTUISTICS 3.2
Dtptli to ifiUu of 0 12) 2 i
Co oc era
B«t PrMlftiitlea Oil) 1 )
reraubUlty o( CtH 0 U ) 1 J
Unsaturated loo*
Fhyalcal State 0 19) 1 3
j Total Kouta Cbarsctarlatlca Score

1)

Q COtfTAlHHEMT 0 13) I

)
3.3
Q yjisn chjuuctuistics
Bauidow Waste 013)4147# 1
QuutU?

16
•
J 4


"
m
lucni
Croiai ttater 0m 0 12) )
Olataoca to lur* 1 0 4 4 1 10 1
eat Veil/Population |l2 14 11 20
Served J 2* )0 )2 3) 40

9
40
).»


4t

3 11 line pH la », mulllfi, ~ » £] O 0
If line QJ le 0, aultlplrQ * CD i Q a Q

V.HQ

^ Divide lloiQJby 17,3)0 eod uldplr by 100 -
Figure 1
Croiad Water toute Uorfc Sheet
41
-------
DRINKING WATER
WELL SERVING
5 PEOPLE
DRINKING WATER
WELL SERVING
5000 PEOPLE

UNCONTAMINATL'D AQUIFF
		 - - 							,		
.w a i r
• •••••••••••••••••••••A
MIIMKMMIMIMMIttllt*
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••~•••a******
• *•••••»•••••••••••••••••«••••«
I • • •• ( t t • • • It I II • i	• i • • I t ••• M • I • Ml I •
!••••••
Mi (III M M t t M Mot II II Mil i t(
FIGURE 3. DEPTH TO AQUIFER OF CONCERN*
*Treat target and route characteristics factors consistently. For example, if the upper aquifer is
the aquifer of concern, then the "depth to aquifer of concern" ia 20 feet and the "population served
la 5 persona. If the lower aquifer is "of concern", the "depth" is 120 feet (assuming no known
contamination below the Indicated "hazardous substance") and the "population" is 5000 persons.
If the upper aquifer ia contaminated and the lower aquifer ia "of concern", the "depth" would be
80 feet (vertical distance between hazardous substance and aquifer of concern) and the population
would be 5000 persona.
-------
MEAN ANNUAL LAKE EVAPORATION i
(In Inches)
v\ 	' r-

v: j . • • \ \
Plate
Baaed on period 1940-35
Source: Climatic Atlaa of the United Statea, U.S. Departaent of Commerce, National Climatic
Center, Ashvllle, N.C., 1979.
•n
s.
73
9B.
<
o
01
o
2
o
to
<£>
H
c
fD
CO
CL
03
*<
CD
cr
CO
03
Ol
FIGURE 4
MEAN ANNUAL LAKE EVAPORATION
(IN INCHES)
O
•o
o
09
fD
O.
?0
c^
fD-
CO
Ol
8
-------
•n
C/l
CO
fi
sr


I P
—'W


(M
.fr? ,

* r^i
v
era
"V
V

^*- "b ""'¦"
/ '•	• / -•- *-rW^fV* J
,-S.iW-A iA-'W/''' •
r* :i ^3—,-- - ...c-X-V' /-; \r
A'tor ,-rJ"
; ) I.—. \- , ¦ ,. -A * x. tr-r-X;:? Vf
! T' 1 r-^f '	k?*3
^-. / - xh* ±r': r-^W./ ^"MrX-J:
C^T-v^ -J >_',;^ i-\lrA.1-
'» ^/tjr) '~~yr'.
^	B? k
"¦ ':! V-

Ciillti HmU k« 4«a4 la
lit»rpnliUi« oa ltM« •••-
«rili««<1 Mpi, particularly
la •onatataeM imii
UV9 0$ MOT l»ll-»0
tourcoi Cllaitlc Atlai of tht Dnlfd ititii. U.S. DtpartMnt of Co«Mrc«, $«tion«l CllMtlc C«nt«r,
Mhvl11« .N.C.. 1979.
FIGURE 5
NORMAL ANNUAL TOTAL PRECIPITATION (INCHES)
•A
©
a
CD
pa
(0
00
<
o_
s
Z
o
to
CO
H
c
A
Cft
Q.
03
«<
¦Td
(C
cr
—i
c
a
CO
03
Cn
O
T3
O
0D
ft
a.
?o
c
-------
2 MILES
^ MILE
JvVvhazardous^T^j
•\..0 SUB STANCE
WELL NO. I
WELL NQ 2

VALLEY
S-X v>-> v- ; -Zj-J-m'J-I	k-.UX'>vi
CONTAMINATED AQUIFER OF CONCERN
SERVING THE P0PULATI0N^2^S^
^ * - "i			
UNCONTAMINATEO PORTION OF THE
same aquifer
SURFACE WATER
FIGURE 6
Distance to Nearest Veil
In the situation depicted above, the distance between the hazardous substance
and the nearest well (No. 1) Is % mile. If well No. 1 did not exist, the distance
to well No. 2 would be lanaterlal since there Is a discontinuity In the aquifer
(surface water) between it and the hazardous substance. Under such circumstances,
the factor score would ba "0". However, If It could be demonstrated that the con-
taminant had migrated beyond the discontinuity, then the distance to the nearest well
would be 2 miles (assuming well No. 1 does not exist).
-------
5924
Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12,1985 / Proposed Rules
SURFACE WATER ROUTE WORK SHEET
Racing Factor
Aaaignad Value
(Clrcl* One)
ttiltl-
pllar
Scora
Max.
Scora
Raf.
(Sactlon
~
OBSERVES RELEASE
43
45
4.1
If obaerved releaie la given a valua of 45, procaad to lint 141.
If obaerved ralaaae la given a value of 0, proceed to line _LlL__
3] ROUTE CHARACTERISTICS
Facility Slopa and	0 12 3
Intervening Terrain
1-yr. 24-hr. Rainfall	0 12 3
Dlatance to Neareat	0 12 3
Surface Water
Phyileal State	0 12 3
Total Route Characterlatlca Scora
15
4.2
S CONTAINMENT
0 12 3
4J
7] HASTE CHARACTERISTICS
Toxic It y/Per alatence
Haxardoua Waate
t^iantity
0 3 6 9 12 15 18
012345678
Total Waate Characterlatlca Scora
18
8
26
4.4
EH
TARGETS
Surface Water Uee
0 12 3
3
9
Dlatance to a Sensitive
0 12 3
2
6
Environs anc



Population Served/
I 0 4 6 8 10
1
40
Dlatance to Water
}• 12 16 18 20


Intake Dovnatreaa
J 24 30 32 35 40


Total Targeta Scora
55
4.5
0 If line ~ ia 45, ¦ultlnlv FTI x 171 x IT1
It llna Q la 0, Multiply) 2| s [3J * 14| x |T1
64,350
CD
Divide line El by 64,350 and aultlplyby 100
Plgura 7
Surface Water Route Work Shaet
-------
Sourco: lilflfili frequency Atlas of tha Uoltod 8tat«*» Technical Paper Ho. 40, U.S. Departaent of Coaerce,
U.S. Government Printing Office, Waeblngtoa, D.C., 196).
©
a.
CD
PO
CD
"S.
<
o
Cn
©
o
to
CO
H
c
CD
CO
a-
01
«<
•n
CD
cr
CO
09
Cn
FIGURE 8
1-YEAR 24-HOUR RAINFALL
(INCHES)
O
•a
o
CO
CD
Q-
*
n>
CO
VI
CO
N
cn
-------
AIR ¦OUT! VDU tHIKT
. , „ Aaalioad Valua Hiltl-
® T,et" (Clrc 1« Oo.) pilar
Scora
Max.
Scora
iaf.
(Sactlon!
[D oisnvts ULEA3I 0 ts 1

4}
3.1
Date u4 UcadMi


Saspll&f Protocols
If 1 Id* 2 la 0, than t • 0. in tar oo l^na fB.
tf 1Lo« Tl It 43. than proctad to llna 121.
[3 UA3TI CBA1ACTCR1ST1CS J.l
iMctltltj and 0 12 3 1 3
lacoapatlbUlty
Toxicity 0 12) 3 9
Batordoua Vaata 0U1UI7I 1 |
Quantity


20

H TABCETS
fopulatloa Vlthla \0 9 12 15 19 1 )0
4-Hil* Udlua J 21 24 27 30
Dlacaaea to Sanaltlv* 0 12 3 2 4
CavlroBMat
Uad 0m 0 1 2 3 1 3
9.3


39
~ ~
Huitipir CU • EJ i Q]

33,100

® Dlvlrfa llaaQbr 13.100 ud Hiltlelj kj 100 *a ¦

Plyttt 9
Mr Boom Work Iknt

s
s2
Grouadvatar Routa Scora (Sgy)


Surfaca Uatar Routa Scora (Sgw)


Air Routa Scora (Ss)


s' ~ s* + Sl
gw irv "a
Hi

+s*J» *s?
VM

+& +*i Z1-"
W/M
V
Figure 10
WORKSHEET tCk COMPUTING SM
-------
Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules
5927
1
Kiting Factor |
Aaalgnad Valua
(Clxcla Ona)
ftiltl-
pllar
Scot a
Max.
Scota
Raf.
(Sactlon)
il
~~ Contaloaant
1 3
1

3
7.1
— Waata Charactariatlca



7.2
Dlxact Evldaoca
0 3
1
3

Ignitablllty
0 12 3
1
3

Reactivity
0 12 3
1
3

Incospa t ibil it y
0 12 3
1
3

Hatardoua Waata Quantity 012343676
1
8

FIRE ASD EXPLOSION VOtt SHEET
Total Waata CharacttTlatica Scora
20
' Targata
Diatanca to Naaraat
Population
Diatanca Co Naaraat
Building
Diatanca to Sanaltlva
Eov lronaaant
Land Dm
Population Vlthln
2-Mlla ftadiua
Bulldlnga Within
2-HUa SLadlua
0	12 3 4 5
0	12 3
0	12 3
0 12 3
0 12 3 4 3
0 1 2 3 4 3
Total Targtft Scot®
24
7.3
^ tt.ltu.ly m « | 2 | « |T| » IT)
1,U0
Divida lla<
L XD by 1.M0 ami mi.
ltiply by 100
. Sfl '
Flfin 11

DIRECT CONTACT UORX SHEET

Rating Factor
Aaalgned Valua
(Circla Ona)
Hulti-
pllar
Scora
Max.
Scora
Raf.
(Sactlon)
u
Observed Xncld*at 0 45 X

43
S.l
If 11a*
If 11a*
1
"T
la 43, procaad to lina 1 4 j
la 0, procaad to lina |2{
j)
AccMslblllty 0 12) 1

3
a.2
u
Containment 0 13 1

13
8.3
4 |
—'Waata Charactariatlca
Toxicity 0 12 3 3

13
8.4
liT
Targata
Population vlthln
l-«ila radiua
Oiatanca to a
critical habitat
a 012343 4 20
0 12 3 4 12
8.3

Total Targata Scora

32

6_l It lina
If lina
l
l
la 45. aultiplv I l| * 1*1 x 15
la 0, Biltiply | 2 | x 1 ^1 x |4 | * j 5 j

21,600

?l i—I
— Divida lina 1 6 1 by 21,600 and Multiply by 100 Sqc •
F1|in u
0 tract Contact Work Sbact
2. 40 CFR Subpart H. 5 300.84 is
amended by revising paragraphs (a)—[e)
as follows:
Subpart H—Use of Dispersants and
Other Chemicals
§ 300.S4 Authorization ol us*.
(a)	The OSC, with Ihe concurrence of
the EPA representative to the RRT and
the concurrence of the States with
jurisdiction over the navigable waters
polluted by the oil discharge, may
authorize the use of dispersants, surface
collecting agents, and biological
additives on the oil discharge, provided
that the dispersants, surface collecting
agents, or additives are on the NCP
Product Schedule. The OSC should
consult with other appropriate Federal
agencies as practicable when
considering the use of such products.
(b)	The OSC, with the concurrence of
the EPA representative to the RRT and
the concurrence of the States with
jurisdiction over the navigable waters
polluted by the oil discharge, may
authorize the use of burning agents on a
case-by-case basis. The OSC should
consult with other appropriate Federal
Agencies as practicable when
considering the use of such products.
(c)	The OSC may authorize the use of
any dispersant, surface collecting agent,
other chemical agent, burning agent, or
biological additive (including products
not on the NCP Product Schedule)
without obtaining the concurrence of the
EPA representative to the RRT or the
States with jurisdiction over the
navigable waters polluted by the oil
discharge, when in the judgment of the
OSC the use of the product is necessary
to prevent or substantially reduce a
hazard to human life. The OSC is to
inform the EPA RRT representative and
the affected States of the use of a
product as soon as possible and,
pursuant to the provisions in paragraph
(a) of this section, obtain their
concurrence for its continued use once
the threat to human life has subsided.
(d)	Sinking agents shall not be
authorized for application to oil
discharges.
(e)	RRTs should consider, as part of
their planning activities, the
appropriateness of using the
dispersants. surface collecting agents, or
biological additives listed on the NCP
Products Schedule, and the
appropriateness of using burning agents.
Regional contingency plans should
address the use of such products in
specific contexts. If the RRT and the
States with jurisdiction over the waters
of the area to which a plan applies
approve in advance the use of certain
products as described in the plan, the
-------
5928
Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules
OSC may authorize the use of the
products without obtaining the
concurrence of the EPA representative
to the RRT or of the States and without
consultation with other appropriate
Federal agencies.
Appendix
Note.—This is an Appendix to the
document and will not appear in the Code of
Federal Regulations.
Memorandum
Subject: CERCLA Compliance With
Other Environmental Statutes
From: Lee M. Thomas. Assistant
Administrator
To: Regional Administrator Regions 1-X
This memorandum sets forth the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
policy on the applicability of the
standards, criteria, advisories, and
guidance of other State and Federal
environmental and public health
statutes to actions taken pursuant to
sections 104 and 106 of the
Comprehensive Environmental
Response, Compensation, and Liability
Act of 1980 (CERCLA). This policy
addresses considerations for on-site and
off-site actions taken under CERCLA.
I. Discussion
The National Contingency Plan (NCP)
establishes the process for determining
appropriate removal and/or remedial
actions at Superfund sites. In the course
of this process, EPA will give primary
consideration to the selection of those
response actions that are effective in
preventing or, where prevention is not
practicable, minimizing the release of
hazardous~substances so that they do
not migrate to cause substantial danger
to present or future public health,
welfare, or the environment As a
general rule, this can be accomplished
by pursuing remedies that meet the
standards of applicable or relevant
Federal public health or environmental
laws. However, because of the unique
circumstances at particular sites, there
may be alternatives that do not meet the
standards of other laws, but which still
provide protection of public health,
welfare, and the environment
Although response actions which
prevent hazardous substances from
migrating into the environment are seen
as the most effective under CERCLA.
actions which minimize migration must
also be considered since CERCLA
primarily addresses inadequate past
disposal practices and resulting unique
site conditions. At certain sites, it may
b§ technically impracticable,
environmentally unacceptable or
excessively costly to implement a
response action that prevents migration
or restores the site to its original,
uncontaminated condition.
II. Policy
Section 104 of CERCLA requires that
for off-site remedial actions, storage,
destruction, treatment or secure
disposition be in compliance with
subtitle C of Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA). CERCLA is
silent however, concerning the
requirements of other laws with regard
to all other response actions taken
pursuant to sections 104 and 100. As a
general rule, the Agency's policy is to
attain or exceed applicable or relevant
environmental and public health
standards in CERCLA response actions
unless one of the specifically
enumerated situations is present. Where
such a situation is present and a
standard is not used, the Agency must
document and explain the reasons in the
decision documents. Federal criteria and
advisories, and State standards also will
be considered in fashioning CERCLA
remedies and. if appropriate, relevant
portions will be used. If EPA does not
use a relevant part of these standards,
criteria or advisories in the remedial
action, the decision documents will state
the reasons.
A. On-site Response Actions
(1) For removal actions, EPA's policy
is to pursue actions that will meet
applicable or relevant standards, and
criteria of other Federal environmental
and public health laws to the maximum
extent practicable, considering the
exigencies of the situation.
(2) For remedial actions. EPA's policy
is to pursue remedies that attain or
exceed applicable and relevant
standards of other Federal public health
and environmental laws, unless specific
circumstances, identified below, exist.
CERCLA procedural and
administrative requirements will be
modified to provide safeguards similar
to those provided under other laws.
Application for and receipt of permits is
not required for on-site response actions
taken under the Fund-financed or
enforcement authorities of CERCLA.
R. Off-Site Response Actions
CERCLA removal and remedial
activities that involve the removal of
hazardous substances from a CERCLA
site to off-site facilities for proper
storage, treatment or disposal must be in
compliance with all applicable or
relevant standards of Federal
environmental and public health
statutes.
Off-site facilities that are used for
storage, treatment, or disposal of
Superfund wastes must have all
appropriate permits or authorizations.
If the facility or process that is being
considered for receipt of the Superfund
wastes has not been permitted or
authorized, the State or responsible
party will be required to obtain all
appropriate permits. A State's
responsibility for obtaining any
appropriate Federal, State or local
permits (e.g. RCRA, TSCA. NPDES,
Clean Air, etc.) will be specified in a
contract or cooperative agreement with
the State as part of its assurances
required under section 104(c) of
CERCLA.
III. Federal and State Requirements That
May Be Relevant or Applicable to
Response Actions
Federal and State environmental
standards, guidance and advisories fall
into two categories:
•	Federal standards that are relevant
or applicable.
•	Other standards, criteria, advisories
or guidance to be considered.
-------
Federal Register / Vol. 50. No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules
5929
A complete list of both categories of
requirements is attached. This list is our
initial effort. A revised and annotated
list will be included in the forthcoming
Guidance for Feasibility Studies.
A.	Federal Standards That Are Relevant
or Applicable
f
Applicable standards are those
standards that would be specifically
triggered by the circumstances
associated with the proposed Superfund
remedy except for the fact that the
proposed action would be undertaken
pursuant to CERCLA section 104 or
section 106.
Relevant standards are those
designed to apply to circumstances
sufficiently similar to those encountered
at CERCLA sites in which their
application would be appropriate at a
specific site although not legally
required. Standards also are relevant if
they would be legally applicable to
CERCLA S 104 or { 106 actions but for
legal technicalities such as trigger dates
or definitions. For example, TSCA PCB
standards would be relevant even
though the PCBs were produced prior to
January 1976, which triggers TSCA
requirements.
B.	Other Requirements, Advisories or
Guidances To Be Considered
This category includes other
standards, criteria, advisories and
guidance that may be useful in
developing Superfund remedies. These
requirements, advisories and guidances
were developed by EPA, other Federal
Agencies and the States. The data
underlying these requirements may be
used at Superfund sites in an
appropriate way.
IV. Implementation
A. Removal Actions
For both on and off-site removal
actions, the On-Scene-Coordinator
should consult with the Regional
Response Team within the framework of
the Regional Contingency Plan to
determine the most effective action.
(1) On-site. For on-site removal
actions, the OSC should attempt to
attain all Federal applicable or relevant
public health or environmental
standards. The OSC also should
consider other Federal criteria, guidance
and advisories as well as State
standards in formulating the removal
action. However, because removal
actions often involve situations
requiring expeditous action to protect
public health, welfare, or the
environment, it may not always be
feasible to fully meet them. In those
circumstances where they cannot be
attained, the decision documents, OSC
reports, or other documents should
specify the reasons.
(2) Off-site. Off-site facilities that are
used for storage, treatment, or disposal
of Superfund wastes must have all
appropriate permits or authorizations.
B. Remedial Actions
1.	Presentation and Analysis of
Alternatives. As part of the feasibility
study (FS), at least one alternative for
each of the following must, at a
minimum, be evaluated within the
requirements of the feasibility study
guidance and presented to the decision-
maker.
(a)	Alternatives for treatment or
disposal in an off-site facility, as
appropriate:1
(b)	Altemativs which attain
applicable and relevant Federal public
health or environmental standards;
(c)	As appropriate, alternatives which
exceed applicable and relevent public
health or environmental standards;
(d)	Alternatives which do not attain
applicable or relevant public health or
environmental standards but will reduce
the likelihood of present or future threat
from the hazardous substances. This
must include an alternative which
closely approaches the level of
protection provided by the applicable or
relevant standards and meets CERCLA's
objective of adequately protecting
public health, welfare and environment;
(e)	A no action alternative.
In some cases, there may be some
overlap between these alternatives.
2.	Selection of Remedy. The decision-
maker will consider all of the
alternatives arrayed in the feasibility
study and will give primary
consideration to remedies that attain or
exceed applicable or relevant Federal
public health and environmental
standards. Where the selected remedy
involves an EPA standard, criterion, or
advisory, the decision-maker will ensure
appropriate coordination with affected
EPA programs.
In appropriate cases, the decision-
maker may select a remedial action that
includes both on and off-site
components.
' The decision-maker may select an
alternative that does not attain
applicable or relevant standards in one
of the following circumstances,
recognizing that a consideration in
1 These alternatives must be consistent with
forthcoming guidance on "Procedures' for
Implementing CERCLA Delegations for Off-Site
Response Actions." In some cases, off-site disposal
or treatment may not be feasible and this
alternative may be eliminated during initial
screening of alternatives. The decision documents
should reflect this screening.
making this determination is the extent
to which the standard was intended to
apply to the specific circumstances
present at the site.2
a.	The selected alternative is not the
final remedy and will become part of a
more comprehensive remedy;
b.	All of the alternatives which meet
applicable or relevant standards fall
into one or more of the following
categories:
(i)	Fund-Balancing—For Fund-
financed actions only; exercise the
Fund-balancing provisions of CERCLA
section 104(c)(4);
(ii)	Technically impracticality—It is
technically impractical from an
engineering perspective to achieve the
standard at the specific site in question;
(iii)	Unacceptable environmental
impacts—All alternatives that attain or
exceed standards would cause
unacceptable damage to the
environment; or
(c) Where the remedy is to be carried
out pursuant to CERCLA section 106; the
Hazardous Response Trust Fund is
unavailable or would be used; there is a
strong public interest in expedited clean
up; and the litigation probably would
not result in the desired remedy.
Where one of these situations is
present the decision-maker may select
an alternative which does not attain or
exceed applicable or relevant public
health or environmental standards. The
basis for not meeting the standard must
be fully documented and explained in
the appropriate decision documents.
The Agency anticipates that most of
CERCLA remedial actions will attain or
exceed applicable or relevant public
health or environmental standards.
However, where the specific
circumstances discussed above preclude
the selection of a remedy that attains
standards, the decision-maker will
select the alternative that most closely
approaches the level of protection
provided by the applicable or relevant
standard, considering the reasons for
not meeting that standard.
EPA also will use appropriate Federal
public health and environmental
criteria, advisories, and guidance and
State standards in developing
appropriate remedial alternatives. If the
decision-maker determines that such
* In determining whether a particular standard is
applicable or relevant the decision-maker should
refer to the attached list "Applicable or Relevant
Requirements." For example. RCRA did not
"contemplate" (he regulation of the indiscnminant
disposal of waste over 210 miles of roadway, or the
contamination of a river bed with hazardous waste.
In such situations. RCRA regulations would not be
applicable per se. but on a case*by*case basis part
of the regulation may be relevant.
-------
5930
Federal Register / Vol. 50. No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules
standards, criteria, advisories or
guideance are relevant, but are not used
in the selected remedial alternative, the
decision documents will indicate the
basis'for not using them.
For Fund-financed actions, where
State standards are part of the cost-
effective remedy, the Fund will pay to
attain those standards. Where the cost-
effective remedy does not include those
State standards, the State may pay the
difference to attain them.
3. Administrative and Procedural
Aspects. The following modifications
will be made to the Superfund
community relations program to ensure
that it provides a similar level of public
involvement to that provided by the
permitting programs of other
environmental laws:
•	A fact sheet should be included
with the public notice and feasibility
study which is provided to the public 2
weeks before the 3 week public
comment period. The fact sheet will
clearly summarize the feasibility study
response alternatives and other issues,
including which alternatives attain or
exceed public health and environmental
standards and criteria. For those
alternatives that do not attain
applicable and relevant standards of
other public health and environmental
laws, the fact sheet shall identify how
they fail to attain the standards and
explain how they nonetheless meet the
goals of CF.RCLA. The public notice
should include a timetable in which a
decision will be reached, any tentative
determinations which the Agency has
made, the location where relevant
documents can be obtained,
identification of community involvement
opportunities, the name of an Agency
contact and other appropriate
information.
•	A public notice and updated fact
sheet should be prepared upon (1)
Agency selection of the final response
action and (2) upon completion of the
final engineering design. Prior to
selecting the final engineering design,
the Agency may hold a public meeting to
inform the public of the design
alternatives and solicit comments.
•	If a remedy is identified that is
different from those proposed during the
feasibility study public comment period,
a new 3 week public comment period
may be required prior to amending the
record of decision, taking into
consideration the features of the
alternatives addressed in the public
comment period.
In addition, certain aspects of the
CERCLA administrative process may be
modified to assure comparability with
the administrative requirements (Le.
recordkeeping, monitoring) of the other
environmental programs.
The CERCLA enforcement community
relations program will also be modified
to provide for an enhanced public
participation program for both consent
decrees and administrative orders. This
program will be substantially equivalent
to the revised program for Fund-
financed actions. Furthermore, consent
decrees and administrative orders will
incorporate administrative requirements
(i.e. recordkeeping, monitoring) similar
to those mandated by other
environmental programs.
V. Applicability of Policy
This policy applies to three different
situations:
•	A site specific FS has not yet been
initiated.
•	The FS has been initiated, but the
remedy has not yet been selected.
•	The FS is completed and the remedy
has been selected.
All sites where the FS has not yet
been initiated must meet all of the
requirements of this policy.
Where the FS has been initiated and
the remedy has not yet been selected,
the requirements of this policy do not
apply to Record of Decisions (RODs)
signed before March 1,1985. RODs
signed before March 1.1985, should
present to the decision-maker at least
one alternative that attains or exceeds
applicable or relevant standards and, if
it is not selected should indicate the
reasons why it was not selected.
Where the FS is complete and the
remedy has been selected, the decision-
maker may on a case-by-case basis
revise the selected remedy.
If you have any questions or
comments, please contact William N.
Hedeman. Director, Office of Emergency
and Remedial Response (FTS 382-2180)
or Douglas Cohen of his Policy Analysis
Staff (FTS 382-3044).
Attachment
Applicable or Relevant Requirements
1. Office of Solid Waste
•	Open Dump Criteria (RCRA Subtitle
D, 40 CFR Part 257)
Note.—Only relevant to nonhaxardous
wastes. In most situations Superfund wastes
will be handled tn accordance with RCRA
Subtitle C requirements.
•	Hazardous Waste Regulations
(RCRA Subtitle C. 40 CFR Part 264)
including liner, cap, groundwater, and
closure requirements under the
following subparts:
F.	Ground-Water Protection
G.	Closure and Post Closure
H.	Containers
I.	Tanks
J. Surface Impoundments
K. Waste Piles
L Land Treatment
M. Landfills
N. Incinerators
2.	Office of Water
•	Maximum Contaminant Levels (for
all sources of drinking water exposure).
•	Underground Injection Control
Regulations.
•	State Water Quality Standards
(apply for surface water discharge).
•	Requirements established pursuant
to section 301 and section 403(c) of the
Clean Water Act.
•	Ocean Dumping Requirements
including incineration at sea.
•	Pretreatment standards for
discharge into a publicly owned
treatment works;
3.	Office of Pesticides and Toxic
Substances
•	"PCB Requirements including
Disposal and Marking Rule (43 FR 7150,
2-17-78): PCB Ban Rule (44 FR 31514. 5-
31-79) PCB Electrical Equipment Rule
(47 FR 37342, August 25.1982);
Uncontrolled PCBs Rule (49 FR 28172,
July 10,1984) and other related
rulemakings."
•	40 CFR 775 Subpart J—Disposal of
Waste Material Containing TCDD.
4.	Office of External Affairs
•	Guidelines for Specification of
Disposal Sites for Dredged or Fill
Material (section 404(b)(1) Guidelines,
40 CFR Part 230).
•	Denial or Restriction of Disposal
Site for Dredged Material: Final rule
(section 404(c))..
5.	Office of Air and Radiation
•	Uranium mill tailing rules.
•	National Ambient Air Quality
Standards.
•	High and low level radioactive
waste rule.
•	Asbestos disposal rules.
6.	Other Federal Requirements
•	OSHA requirements.
•	Preservation of scientific, historical
or archaeological data.
•	D.O.T. Hazardous Materials
Transport Rules.
•	Regulation of activities in or
affecting waters of the United States
pursuant to 33 CFR 320-329.
•	The following requirements are
triggered by fund-financed actions:
—Preservation of rivers on the national
inventory, Wild and Scenic Rivers
Act. section 40 CFR &302(e).
—Protection of threatened or
endangered species and their habitats.
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Federal Register / Vol. 50. No. 29 / Tuesday, February 12. 1985 / Proposed Rules	5931
—Conservation or Wildlife Resources.
—Executive Orders related to
Floodplains (11988) and Wetlands
(11990).
—Coastal Zone Management Act
Other Requirements, Advisories and
Guidance To Be Considered
1.	Federal Requirements, Advisories and
Procedures
•	Recommended Maximum
Concentration Limits (RMCLs).
•	Health Advisories, EPA, Office of
Water.
•	Federal Water Quality Criteria.
Note.—Federal water quality criteria are
not legally enforceable. State water quality
standards, developed using appropriate
aspects of Federal water quality criteria, are
legally enforceable. In many cases. States
water quality standards do not include
specific numerical limitations on a large
number of priority pollutants. When there are
no numerical state standards for a given
pollutant. Federal water quality criteria
should be considered.
•	Pesticide and Food additive
tolerances and action levels data.
Note.—Germane portions of tolerances and
action levels may be relevant in certain
situations.
•	Waste load allocation procedures,
EPA Office of Water.
•	Federal Sole Source Aquifer
requirements.
•	Public health basis in listing
decisions under sec. 112 of the Clean Air
Act.
•	EPA's groundwater protection
strategy.
•	New Source Performance Standards
for Storage Vessels for Petroleum
Liquids.
•	TSCA health data.
•	Pesticide registration data.
•	TSCA chemical advisories (2 or 3
issued to date).
•	Advisories issued by FWS and
NWFS under the Fish and Wildlife
Coordination Act.
•	National Environmental Policy Act.
•	Floodplain and Wetlands Executive
Orders.
•	TSCA Compliance Program Policy.
2.	State Requirements
•	State Requirements on Disposal and
Transport of Radioactive wastes.
•	State Approval of Water Supply
System Additions or Developments.
•	State Ground Water Withdrawal
Approvals.
•	Requirements of authorized
(Subtitle C of RCRA) State hazardous
waste programs.
•	State Implementation Plans and
Delegated Programs Under Clean Air
Act.
• All other State requirements, not
delegated through EPA authority.
Note.—Many other State and local
requirements could be relevant. The guidance
for feasibility studies will include a more
comprehensive list
3. USEPA RCRA Guidance Documents
A.	EPA's RCRA Design Guidelines
(1)	Surface Impoundments, Liners
Systems, Final Cover and Freeboard
Control.
(2)	Waste Pile Design—Liner Systems.
(3)	Land Treatment Units.
(4)	Landfill Design—Liner Systems
and Final Cover.
B.	Permitting Guidance Manuals
(1)	Permit Applicant's Guidance
Manual of Hazardous Waste Land
Treatment Storage, Disposal Facilities.
(2)	Permit Writer's Guidance Manual
for Hazardous Waste Land Treatment
Storage, Disposal Facilities.
(3)	Permit Writer's Guidance Manual
for Subpart F.
(4)	Permit Applicants Guidance
Manual for the General Facility
Standards.
(5)	Waste Analysis Plan Guidance
Manual.
. (6) Permit Writer's Guidance Manual
for Hazardous Waste Tanks.
(7)	Model Permit Application for
Existing Incinerators.
(8)	Guidance Manual for Evaluating
Permit Applications for the Operation of
Hazardous Waste Incinerator Units.
(9)	A Guide for Preparing RCRA
Permit Applications for Existing Storage
Facilities.
(10)	Guidance Manual on closure and
post-closure Interim Status Standards.
C.	Technical Resource Documents
(TRDs)
(1)	Evaluating Cover Systems for Solid
and Hazardous Waste.
(2)	Hydrologic Simulation of Solid
Waste Disposal Sites.
(3)	Landfill and Surface Impoundment
Performance Evaluation.
(4)	Lining of Water Impoundment and
Disposal Facilities.
(5)	Management of Hazardous Waste
Leachate.
(6)	Guide to the Disposal of
Chemically Stabilized and Solidified
Waste.
(7)	Closure of Hazardous Waste
Surface Impoundments.
(8)	Hazardous Waste Land Treatment.
(9)	Soil Properties, Classification, and
Hydraulic Conductivity Testing.
D.	Test Methods for Evaluating Solid
Waste
(1) Solid Waste Leaching Procedure
Manual.
(2)	Methods for the Prediction of
Leachate Plume Migration and Mixing.
(3)	Hydrologic Evaluation of Landfill
Performance (HELP) Model Hydrologic
Simulation on Solid Waste Disposal
Sites.
(4)	Procedures for Modeling Flow
Through Clay Liners.
(5)	Test Methods for Evaluating Solid
Wastes.
(0)	A Method for Determining the
Compatibility of Hazardous Wastes.
(7) Guidance Manual on Hazardous
Waste Compatibility.
4. USEPA Office of Water Guidance
Documents
A.	Pre treatment Guidance Documents
(1)	304(g) Guidance Document Revised
Pretreatment Guidelines (3 Volumes).
Provides technical data describing
priority pollutants and their effects on
wastewater treatment processes to be
used in developing local limits;
describes technologies applicable to
categorical industries.
B.	Water Quality Guidance Documents
(1)	Ecological Evaluation of Proposed
Discharge of Dredged Material into
Ocean Waters (1977).
(2)	Technical Support Manual:
Waterbody Surveys and Assessments
for Conducting Use Attainability
Analyses (1983).
Outlines methods for conducting use
attainability analyses under the Clean
Water Act.
(3)	Water-Related Environmental Fate
of 129 Priority Pollutants (1979).
Describe the transformation and
transportation of priority pollutants.
(4)	Water Quality Standards
Handbook (1983).
Provides an overview of the Criteria
Standards Program under the Clean
Water Act and outlines methods for
conducting criteria standards
modification.
(5)	Technical Support Document for
Water Quality-based Toxics Control.
C NPDES Guidance Documents
(1)	NPDES Best Management Practices
Guidance Manual (June 1981).
Provides a protocol for evaluating
BMPs for controlling discharges of toxic
and hazardous substances to receiving
waters.
(2)	Biomonitoring Guidance, July 1983,
subsequent biomonitoring policy
statements, and case studies on toxicity
reduction evaluation (May 1983).
D. Ground Water/UlC Guidance
Document
(1)	Designation of a USDW.
(2)	Elements of Aquifer Identification.
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5932	Federal Register / Vol. 50, No. 29 / Tuesday. February 12, 1985 / Proposed Rules
(3)	Interim guidance for public
participation.
(4)	Definition of major facilities.
(5)	Corrective action requirements.
(6)	Requirements applicable to wells
injecting into, through or above an
aquifer which has been exempted
pursuant to S 146.104(b)(4).
(7)	Guidance for U1C implementation
on Indian lands.
5. USEPA Manuals From the Office of
Research and Development
(1)	EW 846 methods—laboratory
analytic methods.
(2)	Lab protocols developed pursuant
to Clean Water Act section 304(h).
[FR Doc. 85-2802 Filed 2-11-85; 8:45 am]
| COOC lltO 10 M
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PART 3
CLEANUP TECHNIQUES AND RESOURCES
I. INTRODUCTION
One of the most difficult tasks in responding to a hazardous material
incident is to assess the problem. Only then c an initial containment
measures, which are so vital to the overall success of the cleanup effort,
get underway. Properly assessing the incident and applying containment
measures can greatly minimize environmental insult. Conversely, improper or
imprudent measures can spread contamination and cause life-threatening
situations, not only for those on-site but also for the nearby population.
One of the first steps in dealing with an incident is to identify the
chemicals present and their hazards. The physical state of the material -
solid, liquid, or gas - is usually easy to determine. However, response
activities can change a material and thus increase or decrease the potential
for migration. For example, washing down a water-soluble powder with water
greatly increases its mobility, while adding an absorbent (such as "speedy
dry") to a liquid minimizes its migration potential. Each incident is
unique, so there is no "one" answer to preventing migration.
II. RESPONSE PRINCIPLES
A.	Mitigation
Stopping the release is the first order of business at a hazardous waste
site or a chemical spill. Until the release is stopped, it will be
difficult or impossible to properly contain the material. Mitigating the
release may be as simple as uprighting an overturned drum or turning off
a valve. It may also be as difficult as plugging a hole in an acid tank
or patching a high-pressure transfer line. Various types of plugs,
patches saddles, and epoxies are available for this kind of activity.
Many times just shoving a stick into a hole can temporarily slow or stop
a leak.
Generally, liquids and liquified gases are the most difficult to deal
with. If a tank car has been involved in an accident or if its
structural integrity is suspect, then its contents should be transferred
to secure facilities such as tanks in as nearby tank farm. It may be
necessary to bring in tank trucks or rail cars.
B.	Containment
Until the released materials are contained, the environment will continue
to be damaged, the area of involvement will grow larger, and cleanup will
become more difficult.
3-1
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Solids are among the easiest materials to contain. Even if shipping
containers rupture, solids ordinarily don't move far. It is necessary
to close off the release area to avoid having the materials tracked away
from the site on shoes, clothing, or vehicle tires. It is also
important not to increase the mobility of the material by the
indiscriminate application of water or other liquids. In some cases,
"herding" the material with high-pressure low-volume water sprays may be
an answer. However, the consequences of this action must be thoroughly
investigated.
Liquids can be difficult to contain. In some cases, the containment may
already be in place. As an example, most tank farms have a berm around
their periphery for containment. If a transfer line breaks or if an
accident occurs in transporting or loading/unloading a liquid, however,
there will usually be no "automatic" containment. On concrete,
blacktop, or other hard surfaces, berms can be made with dirt, sand,
absorbents, or urethane foam packs specifically designed for this
purpose. If the spill is on the ground, berms can be constructed by
simply mounding the soil itself.
In many cases, though, it may be more advantageous to "herd" the liquids
by ditches, swales, and berms to an existing low point or constructing a
catch basin. This allows the material to pool and thus makes cleanup
much easier. When hazardous liquids enter storm/sanitary sewers,
culverts, or ditches, it is important to attempt to prevent migration
downstream. This may be done with earth, valves (if the system is so
equipped), or other suitable media. Any flow in the vessel from
upstream may have to be diverted from the affected area or pumped around
the spill site. When hazardous liquids enter a large or fast-flowing
body of water, booms can be used for containment. Also, overflow dams
or weirs can be used to contain liquids that sink.
Containing gases or vapors is very difficult. Materials escaping inside
a building may be partially contained. Generally, it is preferable to
attempt to disperse a gas cloud with air compressors or water mists.
Vapor clouds, however, tend to hang together and move downwind as a
mass. Weather conditions such as humidity, temperature, and wind speed
and direction can greatly affect cloud formation and dispersion. If the
cloud is large enough, evacuation may be the only answer.
C. Cleanup and Removal
Heavy equipment such as backhoes and front-end loaders are usually used
to clean up contaminated materials at the site of a release. In most
cases, after the gross contamination has been removed by the equipment,
the last fine cleaning is done with hand tools. On hard surfaces,
brooms made of absorbent materials may be the best way to pick up the
contaminated materials. A variety of containers can be used for actual
removal, depending on subsequent disposal or treatment and the
material's physical and chemical characteristics. Drums, sealed dump
trailers, lugger or roll off boxes, vacuum trucks, or tank trucks can
3-2
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all be used. All transportation, treatment, storage, and disposal of
hazardous wastes must conform with the regulations issued under
Subtitle C of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA).
Clay, flyash, baghouse dust, lime, sand, and dirt can all be used to
absorb contaminants. Additionally, neutralization, phase separation,
and gelling can be used to produce an end product which can be
disposed of or recycled.
Some hazardous materials require additional treatment that may not be
economically feasible to do at the site because of the small amounts
involved. Carbon absorption, chlorination, and other special
processing are best done at a treatment or disposal facility.
III. METHODS FOR RELEASES INTO WATER
Hazardous materials that find their way into water can do damage because
water is used by plants, animals, and humans.
A.	Chemicals That Float
Chemicals lighter than water float on the surface and can be treated
or removed in various ways. Oil booms are usually the fastest method
of containment in small, slow-current streams and are widely
available. Once the chemicals have been contained, they can be herded
to a collection point. There they can be skimmed from the surface
using several different types of skimmers. Alternatively, they can be
collected for disposal by sorbents, which can be loose or in sheets or
pads.
In some cases, surface tension modifiers can be used to break up the
floating layer. The droplets sink, making removal easier. However,
the use of these chemicals is prohibited by law in some states.
B.	Chemicals That Sink
If chemicals heavier than water enter a small stream or low-flow
situation, the easiest way to remove them from the botton is to
bypass, pump, or divert the flow, dewater the involved area, and
excavate the contaminants. If this is not feasible, they can be
dredged with conventional equipment. However, many times a dredge can
be the easiest and cheapest piece of equipment to use. The dredge
products are pumped to a spoil area. Later they can be removed or, if
environmentally sound, covered in place.
C.	Chemicals That Dissolve In Water
Removal of chemicals dissolved in water requires specialized pieces of
equipment, which must be mobilized at the site. This usually
precludes their use on very low-volume incidents. When large volumes
3-3
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of water are affected, however, it is usually cheaper to treat at the
site and discharge, rather than to haul to a treatment facility.
Among the processes that can be used on dissolved chemicals:
-	Neutralization: Can be done on a batch or continuous basis. Care
must be taken to assure that any precipate formed is removed before
the treated water is discharged to the environment.
-	Preci pi tati on: May occur as a result of neutralization and other
chemical reactions. Clarifiers or flocculants can be added to
enhance the process. Sand filters can also be used as a final step
before discharge.
-	Carbon adsorption: Can be used to remove contaminants if other
methods are inadequate. Care must be taken to ensure that as much
of the suspended solid matter as possible is removed before the
adsorption step. If not, large quantities of carbon will be used,
decreasing efficiency and increasing the cost of the cleanup.
D. Vapor Reduction
Vapor reduction is critical when volatile materials are involved
because vapors burn more readily than liquids or solids. Foams, water
sprays, or fogs have been used successfully to reduce the vapor hazard
and fight fires. Foam and water fog must be used carefully and:
-	Proper equipment must be available for the foam/water being
applied.
-	The foam/water must be applied at the proper rate to be most
effective.
-	Sufficient quantities must be available to do the complete job.
-	Foams have to be reapplied as they dissipate.
-	Foams are expensive and it may be desirable to reserve them for
fire fighting.
IV. MOBILE EQUIPMENT
Mobile units are frequently available for use on site. Generally, they
are self-contained and are able to function independently during field
operations. Several types are in use:
-	Response van: Has safety equipment, tools, materials, supplies, and
other equipment. Usually has capacity for on-site as well as remote
communications.
-	Water treatment unit: Has own generating and pumping capacity. Has
sand filters, carbon beds, and portable tanks.
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-	Mobile field lab: Has basic analytical capability to monitor air and
water contaminants. Usually has total organic carbon analyzers, gas
chromatograph, and absorption spectrophotometer.
-	Personnel trailer: Has sanitary facilities and showers for field
personnel. May also have office and communications capability.
3-5
8/84
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PART 4
INCIDENT MITIGATION
I. TECHNIQUES FOR CONTROLLING HAZARDOUS MATERIAL RELEASES
The techniques for controlling the release of a hazardous material depend
on whether the release is on land, water, or enters the air. For releases
into water, the techniques also vary depending on the material's density
and solubility. Determining the feasibility of controlling a release can
be determined by asking certain questions.
A.	Releases Affecting Air (Table 4-1)
1.	Will any natural phenomenon such as wind dispersion render the
containment device ineffective?
2.	Can the release be approached safely?
3.	Can the material be removed by reaction with a water mist?
4.	Can a suitable containment be established to collect the water?
5.	Would the repercussions of the device, especially in creating a
water pollution problem, be more harmful than natural dispersal
and/or breakdown of the released material?
6.	Would another containment device be better?
B.	Releases on Land (Table 4-2)
1.	Will any natural phenomenon such as rain, soil, or subsoil render
the containment method ineffective?
2.	Will any man-made conditions such as wells or underground drain
tile render the method ineffective?
3.	Can enough containment material, personnel, and equipment be
obtained?
4.	Can the method be deployed safely and effectively?
5.	Can the method contain the release quickly enough?
6.	At what point is the containment device likely to leak, and how
can the leaks be minimized or prevented?
7.	Would the repercussions of the method be more harmful than the
natural dispersal and/or breakdown of the released material?
8.	Would another containment device be better?
4-1
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TABLE 4-1
RELEASES IN AIR
Technique
Method
Use
Advantages
Disadvantages
Mist knockdown
Spray fine mist
into air
Water-soluble or
low-lying vapors
Removes hazard
from air
Creates water pollution
problem
Must be contained in
solution.
Fans or blowers
Disperse air by
directing blower
toward it
Very calm and
sheltered areas
Can direct air
away from
populated areas
Often not 100% effective
(Chlorine for example)
Is not effective in
winds
Needs large capacity
blowers
Is hard to control
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TABLE 4-2
RELEASES ON LAND
Technique
Application or
Construction Method
Use
Advantages
Disadvantages
Earthen
dikes
Foamed
polyurethane
Foamed
concrete
Compact earth with
earth-moving equipment
(height depends on
earth type)
Use trained personnel
to construct
Use trained personnel
to construct
Flat or sloped
surface
Material is on site
Equipment is common
Hard, dry surfaces Dike holds up to 3
feet of water
Flat ground; slow- Concrete adheres well
moving spill	to substrates (clay/
shale/grass)
Liquids seep through
soi 1
Some surface soils are
not suitable
Dike leaks on wet
ground
Equipment is not
common
Equipment is not
common
Concrete must set for
a time; will not hold
high hydraulic heads
(>15 feet)
Excavation
Excavation
and dikes
Use earth-moving
equipment; line if
possible
Use earth-moving
equipment; line if
possible
Soft ground;
natural cavity
Soft ground
Material is on site
Equipment is common
Technique needs less
space than separate
operations
Material is on site
Equipment is common
Large amounts of
material must be moved
Liquids seep through
soil
Some surface soils are
not suitable
Large amounts of
material must be
moved
Liquids seep through
soil
Some surface soil
not suitable in all
cases
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C.	Releases in Water: Materials That Are Soluble (Table 4-3)
1.	Will any natural phenonmenon such as discharge volume, spill
volume, soil structure, bottom composition, or rainfall render the
containment method ineffective?
2.	Will any man-made conditions such as dams, concrete channels, or
bypasses render the method ineffective?
3.	Can enough containment material, equipment, and personnel be
obtained?
4.	Can the method be deployed safely and effectively?
5.	Can the method contain the release quickly enough?
6.	Will leakage and seepage be problems? If so, how can they be
ameliorated or prevented?
7.	Would the repercussions of the method be more harmful than the
natural dispersion and/or breakdown of the released material?
8.	Would another containment method be better?
D.	Releases in Water: Materials That Float (Table 4-4)
1.	Will any natural phenomenon such as wind, waves, current, or tidal
action render the containment device ineffective?
2.	Will any man-made conditions such as periodic discharge from dams,
water intakes, or boat traffic render the device ineffective?
3.	Can enough devices be obtained?
4.	Can the devices be deployed safely and effectively?
5.	Can the device contain the release quickly enough?
6.	At what point is the containment device likely to leak, and how
can the leaks be minimized or prevented?
7.	Would the repercussions of the device be more harmful than the
natural dispersal and/or breakdown of the released material?
8.	Would another containment device be better?
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TABLE 4-3
RELEASES IN WATER: MATERIALS THAT ARE SOLUBLE
Technique
Application or
Construction Method
Use
Advantages
Disadvantages
Sealed
booms
Diversion of
uncontaminated
water
Ge11i ng
agent (40)
dispersion
devices
Containment
of entire
waterbody
Boom
device
to anchor
Containment
limited volumes
leaking containers
Contains entire depth
of water
Use earth-moving
equipment
Special area where
topography is right
Can put clean water back
into stream
Can be used for flowing
water
Various; requires
trained personnel
For small volumes
Stops contaminant
from flowing and
permeating ground
Use earth-moving
equipment to
construct dike with
sandbags, other
materials; install liner
For entirely
contaminated area
Can contain
waterbody
a large
Material on site
Is difficult to deploy
Is not used for large
bodies
Is difficult to get
good seal
Is difficult to move
large amounts of earth
Needs clear area with
impermeable soil to
hold water
Damages once clean
area
Materials are hard to
obtain
Cannot be used in
large area
Generates wastes
requiring off-site
disposal
Is suitable only for
waterbodies with
containable overflow
Permeability
Is easy to contruct
May be an unstable
condition
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TABLE 4-4
RELEASES IN WATER: MATERIALS THAT FLOAT
Technique
Application or
Construction Method
Use
Advantages
Disadvantages
Booms
Varies; needs deploy-
ment device
Water with not too
much current
Can be used on large
area; many varieties
available
Useful only in waves
less than 2-4 feet and
currents less than
0.7 knots
Weirs
By boat
Calm water
Is not easily clogged;
collects and contains
Not useful in rough
water
Pneumatic Use air compressor
barriers	or diffuser to deploy
Shallow water only
Does not create a
physical barrier to
vessels
Useful in rough water
Useful only in shallow
water and thin layers
of contaminants
Herding
Apply chemicals on
water
Rough water such
as shore lines
Useful in rough water.
Chemicals hard to
obtain
Is not 100% effective
-------
E. Releases in Water: Materials That Sink (Table 4-5)
1.	Will any natural phenomenon such as bottom composition, current,
waves, access, or water depth render the containment method
ineffective?
2.	Will any man-made conditions such as boat traffic, concrete
channels, or periodic discharge from dams render the method
ineffecti ve?
3.	Can enough containment materials, equipment, and personnel be
obtained?
4.	Can the method be deployed safely and effectively?
5.	Can the effectiveness of the method be evaluated?
6.	Can the method contain the release quickly enough?
7.	At what point is the containment method likely to leak, and how
can the leaks be minimized or prevented?
8.	Would the repercussions of the method be more harmful than the
natural dispersion and/or breakdown of the released material?
9.	Would another containment method be better?
4-7
8/84
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PART 5
TREATMENT METHODS
I. INTRODUCTION
Various schemes can be used to treat hazardous materials, including:
filtration, carbon adsorption, gravity separation, coagulation,
precipitation, ion exchange, oxidation, and reduction. These treatment
schemes can be applied either in a batch mode, depending on how the
hazardous materials are contained, or in a continuous flow-through
process. Discharging to a municipal sewage treatment plant, before or
after treatment on site, should also be considered, providing it does not
interfere with the plant's operations.
II. FILTRATION
Filtration physically removes particulate matter by passing contaminated
water through a layer of porous media such as sand. The treatment may be
used prior to passing the water through a carbon column, ion exchange
system, or a final polishing step. While various types of media can be
used in filtration, field applications should be kept simple. A gravity-
or pressure-flow filter column with two media would be a good choice.
During a run, the head loss gradually increases as solids accumulate in
the filter media. When the head loss reaches the limit set by the
hydraulic conditions of the filter design, the run stops and the filter is
backwashed. In some cases, the quality of effluent from the filter may
control when the run ends. Filters may be backwashed with stored filter
effluent; the backwash waste, after removal of suspended solids, is then
retreated and refiltered. Another method of on-site filtration involves
permitting water to pass by gravity through a built-up sand or coal bed.
Continuous filtration usually involves bringing a portable filter on the
site.
III. CARBON ADSORPTION
In carbon adsorption, organic chemicals and some inorganic chemicals are
removed from water by being physically adsorbed on the large surface area
of activated carbon (500-1000 square meters per gram). Activated carbon
is produced from many materials, including wood, coal, and lignite. The
adsorption process and its effectiveness depends on the nature of the
material being adsorbed and the type of carbon used. In general,
concentrations of greater than 1000 milligrams per liter (mg/1) of a
chemical require long detention times and large quantities of carbon.
The amount of carbon needed to adsorb a given chemical	must be established
by bench testing. When the carbon has been exhausted,	it must be replaced
and the spent carbon regenerated or properly disposed.	With on-site
releases, powdered activated.
5-1
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carbon could be added directly to the spill. The carbon must be
thoroughly mixed with the contaminated water for adsorption to be
effective. Off-site treatment involves pumping the contaminated water
through a carbon column. Portable carbon adsorption units are available
for spill and waste site cleanups.
IV. GRAVITY SEPARATION
Gravity can be used to physically separate suspended solids from water.
Two processes are involved:
-	Sedimentation, in which particles with a specific gravity greater than
water are removed from a suspension by settling to the bottom.
-	Flotation, in which particles with a specific gravity less than water
float to the top.
Sedimentation may be used as a pretreatment and concentration step to
reduce the load on subsequent processes. Various factors affect the rate
of settling, including particle size and shape, temperature of the water,
and the presence of other materials. The rate of settling can be
determined by field testing. While sedimentation may involve removal of
hazardous solid materials, it most often is associated with pretreating
liquids prior to other processing.
V. COAGULATION
Coagulation involves the addition of a material such as ferric chloride,
aluminum sulfate, or organic polyelectrolytes to assist in precipitation
of constituents of specific wastewaters.
A.	Ferric chloride is effective in clarifying both organic and inorganic
suspensions. For best results, the final pH should be above 6.
Lime or caustic soda may have to be added to raise the pH. Large
suspensions require addition of 50-500 mg/1; much larger amounts may
be needed for very highly concentrated or alkaline suspensions.
Excessive ferric chloride should be avoided because it results in a
brown-colored effluent.
B.	Aluminum sulfate (alum) is effective in clarifying both inorganic and
organic suspensions. The pH can usually be controlled in a range of
6.5 - 7.5, which is crucial for good results. Addition of 100-1000
mg/1 should be effective; much larger amounts may be needed for highly
concentrated or alkaline suspensions. As with ferric chloride,
suspensions with low alkalinity may require addition of lime or
caustic soda to produce the desired pH.
C.	Polyelectrolytes, which are available in cationic, anionic, or
nonionic form, may be effective alone for flocculating suspensions
5-2
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of inorganic materials. They usually are not effective alone for
flocculating organic suspensions, but can be used with alum or ferric
chloride. The amounts of polyelectrolyte added vary with both the
charge on the polymer and the suspension involved. In dilute
suspensions, 1-10 mg/1 of cationic polyelectrolytes are generally
added versus about 0.5 - 5 mg/1 of anionic and nonionic compounds.
When the suspension concentration is greater than 1000 mg/1, 1-300
mg/1 of cationic polyelectrolyte or 1-1000 mg/1 of an anionic or
nonionic compound are added.
VI. ION EXCHANGE
Ion exchange is a chemical process in which ions held by electrostatic
forces to functional groups on the surface of a solid are exchanged for
ions of a different material in solution. The process usually takes place
on a synthetic resin. Various kinds are available, including weakly
acidic, strongly acidic, basic, and strongly basic. Ions are exchanged
until the resin is exhausted; then the resin is regenerated with a
concentrated solution of ions flowing in a reverse direction, or replaced
with new resin. The amount of resin required must be established by
chemical tests of the wastewater for the ion of interest. The best type
of resin is established mainly by the specific contaminant to be removed,
the amount of wastewater involved, and other ionic demands on the resin.
Off-site ion exchange treatment can be accomplished by pumping the
wastewater through an ion exchange column with the ability to either
regenerate or replace the resin when it becomes exhausted. In-situ
treatment is similar to carbon adsorption; the resin can be mixed with the
wastewater in a suitable containment area, or portable ion exchange
columns can be brought to the scene.
VII. OXIDATION
Chlorination and aeration are two ways to oxidize materials. Oxidation
reactions are commonly used to oxidize cyanide to the less toxic cyanate
and then to carbon dioxide and nitrogen. These reactions are most
effective at alkaline pH, so both sodium hydroxide and liquid hypochlorite
in concentrations of 5% - 6% are commonly added. Dosages are determined
by a bench scale test.
Air can be used as an oxidizing agent. It is more available than chlorine
compounds, but not as strong. In general, air is introduced in the form
of bubbles which rise to the surface. As they travel through the water
column, the oxygen in air is transferred to the water, where it can
oxidize the hazardous compound. This aeration method is only useful for
easily oxidized materials.
5-3
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VIII. REDUCTION
Reduction reactions are applicable only to a small number of compounds.
Sodium bisulfite is the most suitable reducing agent, but others,
including sodium sulfite and sodium metabisulfite, can also be used. The
amount of reducing agent is determined by a bench-scale test. Excess
reducing agent can be removed by addition of more wastewater or by
aeration.
Reduction is used to change chrome compounds to chromous compounds which
are easier to precipitate. This reaction occurs at low pH, so acid must
be added to reduce the pH to 2-3.
5-4
8/84
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PART 6
DISPOSAL OF HAZARDOUS WASTES
I. SECURE LANDFILL
Leachate Removal Standpipes Monitoring Underdrains
Recompacted Clay
30 MiLHypalon Liner \
o O,
Recompacted Clay
Existing Clay
Bedrock
TYPICAL SECURE LANDFILL
FIGURE 6-1
A secure landfill is a specially designed and operated landfill which is
suitable for disposal of hazardous wastes. (Figure 6-1). Depending upon the
geology of the site, however, only solid or "solidified" wastes may be
approved for disposal.
The secure landfill area consists of several "cells". The cells contain
monitoring systems and leachate collection systems with standpipes and pumps
to allow for the removal of any detected leakage. The cells are lined with
heavy plastic, and are surrounded by nearly impermeable, compacted clay
berms. The siting requirements for secure landfills are strict; they must
be constructed in an area with a deep groundwater table and must meet other
geological and hydrological requirements to prevent groundwater
contamination.
6-1
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Usually, landfilled waste is contained in 55-gal 1 on steel drums which are
stacked in layers within each cell. To provide further protection, a
6-inch layer of dirt is compacted between each layer. The wastes within
each cell must be compatible to prevent adverse chemical reactions, and
accurate disposal records must be kept. When a cell is filled, an
additional clay liner is placed on top of the cell to seal it.
II. INCINERATION
WatarVfopor
Mbt Elnwiatuc.
Primary Combustion Chambers
AAAAA

„	TtY*
Neutralized Water
Induced Draft Fans
Ash Ito fill)
Captured Particulates
|to pond I
TYPICAL ROTARY KILN INCINERATOR
FIGURE 6-2
Incineration is a controlled process in which high-temperature combustion
totally destroys hazardous wastes or converts them to materials that can be
handled more safely. Nearly all types of toxic gases, liquids, or solid
wastes can be disposed of through incineration.
There are numerous types of incinerators. Rotary kiln incinerators
(Figure 6-2) are commonly used to destroy hazardous wastes. The wastes,
pretreated if necessary, are conveyed to the kiln or main incineration
unit. Vapors are retained in the combustion chamber for at least two
seconds while solid retention can vary from a few seconds to an hour or
more at temperatures approaching 3000°F.
6-2
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If the initial combustion produces undesirable compounds, an afterburner,
or second incinerator, may be used to ensure total destruction. When
afterburners are used, the waste containers themselves may be safely
burned. This is ideal for transformers containing PCB's. The gases
produced are piped through special scrubbers before being vented to the
atmosphere.
When properly designed and operated, incinerators are an effective disposal
method because the wastes are totally destroyed, leaving only residue for
disposal.
6-3
8/84
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PART 1
AIR MONITORING INSTRUMENTS
I.	INTRODUCTION
Response to an environmental incident requires careful preparation
and prompt action to reduce the hazards. Concurrently, the health
and safety of response personnel and the general public must be
protected. Air monitoring instruments provide an integral portion
of the information necessary to determine how these requirements
are being met. The purpose of this part is to:
-	List air monitoring instruments useful for hazardous incident
response.
-	Describe the operating theories and principles of these instru-
ments .
-	Illustrate the proper interpretation and limitations of the
data obtained.
Used correctly, these instruments provide data that help response
personnel determine:
-	Potential or real effects on the environment.
-	Immediate and long-term risks to public health, including the
health of response workers.
-	Appropriate personnel protection and respiratory equipment to
be used on-site.
-	Actions to mitigate the hazard(s) safely and effectively.
Many of the common types of monitoring and sampling equipment
discussed in this section of the manual are listed in tabular form
in Appendix I.
II.	CHARACTERISTICS OF AIR MONITORING INSTRUMENTS
To be useful in the field, air monitoring instruments must be:
-	Portable.
-	Able to generate reliable and useful results.
-	Sensitive and selective.
-	Inherently safe.
All of these traits may or may not be present in any one
i nstrument.
1-1
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A. Portability
A prime consideration that determines the usefulness of a
field instrument is portability. Transporation shock
resulting from the movement from one place to another,
together with unintentional abuse, ranks high in
shortening the usable life of an instrument. To reduce
this trauma, instruments should be selected that have
reinforced shells or frames, shock-mounted electronic
packages, or padded containers for shipment.
Exposure to the elements and the test atmosphere itself is
of concern for those instruments repeatedly used in
adverse conditions or as long-term monitors. Anodized or
coated finishes, weather-resistant packaging and remote
sensing are effective in reducing downtime and increasing
portabi1i ty.
In short, a portable unit should possess ease in
mobility, the ability to withstand the rigors of use,
quick assembly, and short check out and calibration time.
B.	Reliable and Useful Results
Response time, the interval between an instrument
"sensing" a contaminant and generating data, is important
to producing reliable and useful results in the field.
Response time depends on: test(s) to be performed, dead
time between sample periods (the time for analysis, data
generation, and data display), and the sensitivity of the
instrument. Response time establishes the pace of the
overall survey and the individual tests.
Another consideration is that the instrument must give
results that are immediately useful. Instruments should
be direct reading, with little or no need to interpolate,
integrate, or compile large amounts of data.
C.	Sensitivity and Selectivity
A third requirement of a good field instrument is the
ability to sample and analyze very low contaminant levels,
and, ideally, to discern among contaminants exhibiting
similar characteristics.
Sensitivity defines the lowest concentration an
instrument can accurately and repeatedly analyze. In the
strictest sense, it is a function of the detecting ability
of the instrument, and does not address the electronic
amplifier, if the unit has one. The operating range
establishes the upper and lower use limits of the
instrument. It encompasses the sensitivity limit at its
lower end and the overload point at its upper.
1-2
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Selectivity establishes what contaminants will elicit a
response on the instrument. Additionally, selectivity
mandates which, if any, interferences may produce a
similar response. Selectivity and sensitivity must be
reviewed and interpreted together. Many devices have high
selectivity but widely varying sensitivities for a given
family of chemicals, for example aromatics, aliphatics,
and amines.
Amplification, often used synonymously (and incorrectly)
with sensitivity, deals with an electronic amplifier's
ability to increase very small electrical signals
emanating from the detector. This capacity may be fixed
or variable. However, changing the amplification of the
detector does not change its sensitivity. For optimum
field usefulness, an instrument should possess high
sensitivity, wide range, high selectivity, and the ability
to vary the amplification of detector signals.
0. Inherent Safety
The portable instrumentation used to evaluate hazardous
material spills or waste sites must be demonstrated as
being safe to use in those hostile environments.
Electrical devices, such as the monitoring instruments,
must be constructed in such a fashion as to eliminate the
possibility of igniting a combustible atmosphere. The
sources of this ignition could be: an arc generated by
the power source itself or the associated electronics,
and/or a flame or heat source inherent in the instrument
and necessary for its proper functioning.
Several engineering, insurance, and safety industries have
standardized test methods, established inclusive
definitions; and developed codes for testing electrical
devices used in hazardous locations. The National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA), a forerunner in this
endeavor, created minimum standards in its National
Electrical Code (NEC), published every 3 years.
This code spells out among other things:
-	Types of controls acceptable for use in hazardous
atmospheres.
-	Types of areas in which hazardous atmospheres can be
generated and the types of materials that generate these
atmospheres.
1-3
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1. Hazardous Atmospheres
Depending upon the response worker's background, the term
"hazardous atmosphere" conjures up situations ranging from
toxic air contaminants to flammable atmsopheres. For our
purposes, an atmosphere is hazardous if it meets the following
cri teri a:
-	It is a mixture of any flammable material in air (see Class
and Group below) whose composition is within this material's
flammable range (LEL-LFL).
-	A critical volume of the mixture is sufficiently heated by an
outside ignition source.
-	The resulting exothermic reaction propagates the flame
beyond where it started.
Hazardous atmospheres can be produced by one of three general
types of materials:
-	Flammable gases/vapors
-	Combustible dusts
-	Ignitab 1e fibers
Whereas the flammable material may define the hazard associated
with a given product, the occurence of release, (how often the
material generates a hazardous atmosphere) dictates the risk.
Two types of releases are associated with hazardous
atmospheres :
-	Continuous: Those existing continuously in an open
unconfined area during normal operating conditions.
-	Confined: Those existing in closed containers, systems or
piping, where only ruptures, leaks, or other failures result
in a hazardous atmosphere outside the closed system.
There are six possible environments in which a hazardous
atmosphere can be generated. However not every type of control
will prevent an ignition in every environment. To adequately
describe the characteristics of those environments and what
controls can be used, the National Electrical Code defines each
characteristic:
-	Class is a category describing the type of flammable material
that produces the hazardous atmosphere:
-- Class I is flammable vapors and gases, such as gasoline,
hydrogen. Class I is further divided into groups A,B,C,and D
on the basis of similar flammability characteristics (Table
1-1).
-- Class II consists of combustible dusts like coal or grain and
is divided into groups E,F, and G.
-- Class III is ignitable fibers such as produced by cotton
mi 11i ng.
1-4
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TABLE 1-1
CLASS I CHEMICALS BY GROUPS
Group A Atmospheres
Acetylene
Group B Atmospheres
Butadi ene
Ethylene oxide
Hydrogen
Manufactured gases containing more
than 30% hydrogen (by volume)
Propylene oxide
Group C Atmospheres
Acetaldehyde
Crotonaldehyde
Cyclopropane
Diethyl ether
Ethylene
Unsymmetrical dimethyl hydrazine
(UDMH, 1-, 1-dimethyl hydrazine)
Group D Atmospheres
Acetone
Acrylonitrile
Ammoni a
Benzene
Butane
1-Butanol	(butyl alcohol)
2-Butanol	(secondary butyl alcohol)
2-Butyl	acetate
n-Butyl acetate
Isobutyl acetate
Ethane
Ethanol (ethyl alcohol)
Ethyl acetate
Ethylene dichloride
Gasoli ne
Heptanes
Hexanes
Isoprene
Methane (natural gas)
Methanol (methyl alcohol)
3-Methyl-1-butanol	(isoamyl alcohol)
Methyl ethyl ketone
Methyl isobutyl ketone
2-Methyl-1-propanol (isobutyl alcohol)
2-Methyl-2-propanol (tertiary butyl
alcohol)
Octanes
Petroleum naphtha1
Pentanes
1-Pentanol (amyl alcohol)
Propane
1-Propanol(propyl	alcohol)
2-Propanol	(isopropyl alcohol)
Propylene
Styrene
Toluene
Vinyl acetate
Vinyl chloride
Xylenes
Source: National Electrical Code, National Fire Protection
Association, 470 Atlantic Ave., Boston MA 02210 (1977).
*A saturated hydrocarbon mixture boiling in the range 20°-135°C
(68°-275°F). Also known by the synonyms benzine, ligroin, petroleum
ether, or naphtha.
1-5
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- Division is the term describing the "location" of generation
and release of the flammable material.
-- Division 1 is a location where the generation and release are
continuous, intermittent, or periodic into an open,
unconfined area under normal conditions.
-- Division 2 is a location where the generation and release are
in closed systems or containers and only from ruptures, leaks
or other failures.
Using this system, a hazardous atmosphere can be routinely and
adequately defined. As an example, a spray-painting operation
using acetone carrier would be classified as a Class I,
Division 1, Group D environment. Additionally, an abandoned waste
site containing intact closed drums of methyl ethyl ketone,
toluene, and xylene would be considered a Class I; Division 2,
Group D environment. Once the containers begin to leak and produce
a hazardous atmosphere, the environment changes to Class I,
Division 1, Group D.
2. Controls
Three methods exist to prevent a potential ignition source from
igniting a flammable atmosphere:
-	Explosion-proof: Encase the ignition source in a rigidly built
container. "Explosion-proof" instruments allow the flammable
atmosphere to enter. If and when an arc is generated, the
ensuing explosion is contained within the specially designed and
built enclosure. Within it, any flames or hot gases are cooled
prior to exiting into the ambient flammable atmosphere so that
the explosion does not spread into the environment.
Intrinsically Safe: Reduce the potential for arcing among
components by encasing them in a solid insulating material.
Also, reducing the instrument's operational current and voltage
below the energy level necessary for ignition of the flammable
atmosphere provides equal protection. An "intrinsically safe"
device, as defined by the National Electrical Code, is incapable
"of releasing sufficient electrical or thermal energy under
normal or abnormal conditions to cause ignition of a specific
hazardous atmospheric mixture in its most easily ignited
concentration. Abnormal conditions shall include accidental
damage to any...wiring, failure of electrical components,
application of over-voltage, adjustment and maintenenace
operations and other similar conditions."
-	Purged: Buffer the arcing or flame-producing device from the
flammable atmosphere with an inert gas. In a pressurized or
"purged" system, a steady stream of, for example, nitrogen or
helium is passed by the potential arcing device, keeping the
flammable atmosphere from the ignition source. This type of
control, however, does not satisfactorily control analytical
devices that use a flame or heat for analysis such as a
combustible gas indicator (CGI) or gas chromatograph (GC).
1-6
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National groups such as Underwriters Laboratories (UL),
Mutual (FM), and the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI), together with NFPA, developed test protocols for
certifying explosion-proof, intrinsically safe, or purged
devices to meet minimum standards of acceptance.
An electrical device certified under one of these test methods
carries a permanently affixed plate showing the logo of the
laboratory granting certification and the Class(es),
Division(s), and Group(s) it was tested against.
See Figure 1-1.
Certification means that if a device is certified as
explosion-proof, intrinsically safe, or purged for a given
Class, Division, and Group, and is used, maintained, and
serviced according to the manufacturer's instructions, it
will not contribute to ignition. The device is not, however,
certified for use in atmospheres other than those indicated.
Any manufacturer wishing to have an electrical device
certified by FM or UL must submit a prototype for testing.
If the unit passes, it is certified as submitted.
However the manufacturer agrees to allow the testing
laboratory to randomly check the manufacturing plant at any
time, as well as any marketed units. Furthermore, any change
in the unit requires the manufacturer to notify the test
laboratory, which can continue the certification or withdraw
it until the.modified unit can be retested.
A unit may be certified either by UL, FM or both. Both
laboratories follow test protocols established by NFPA and
ANSI. Therefore once certification is no better or worse than
the other. The important consideration is that the device is
approved for the Class(es), Division(s), and Group(s) it will
be used in.
MSA

Combustible Gas and 02 Alarm
calibrated for Pentane
model 260 part no. 449900
Intrinsically Sate for use lis hazardous locations Class I, Division 1,
Groups C and D and Non-incerfdive for use in Class 1. Division 2, Groups A
B, C, and D when used with MSA Battery, Part No 457839.
MUST BE OPERATED IN ACCORDANCE WITH INSTRUCTIONS
MFD. BY
MINE SAFETY APPLIANCES COMPANY
PITTSBURGH, PENNSYLVANIA. U.S.A.. 15208
NS79 REV 1 US PAT. NO. ).Ot2.7ti PATtNTEO IN CANADA till	396387
FIGURE 1-1
1-7
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The mention of FM or UL in the manufacturer's equipment
literature does not guarantee certification. All certified
devices that are used in hazardous (flammable) locations must
be marked to show Class, Division, and Group, per NEC Table
500-2(b).
Other organizations such as the Mine Safety and Health
Administration (MSHA), Canadian Standards Association (CSA),
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA), and the
U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) have developed their own testing and
certification schemes for electrical devices in hazardous
locations common to their jurisdiction.
MSHA tests and certifies electrical equipment to be used in
hazardous atmospheres associated with underground mining.
These atmospheres usually contain methane gas and coal dust;
hence the tests and certification are specific to those two
contami nants.
Often the same monitoring equipment is used in mines as well
as above ground and therefore carry more than one
certification, such as FM and MSHA.
To ensure personnel safety, it is recommended that only
approved (FM or UL) instruments be used on-site and only in
atmospheres for which they have been certified. When
ivestigating incidents involving unknown hazards, the
monitoring instruments should be rated for use in the most
hazardous locations. The following points will assist in
selection of equipment that will not contribute to ignition of
a hazardous atmosphere:
In an area designated Division 1, there is a greater
probability of generating a hazardous atmosphere than in
Division 2. Therefore, the test protocols for Division 1
certification are more stringent than those for Division 2.
Thus a device approved for Division 1 is also permitted for
use in Division 2, but not vice versa. For most response
work this means that devices approved for Class I (vapors,
gases), Division 1 (areas of ignitab 1e concentrations),
Groups A,B,C,D should be chosen whenever possible. At a
minimum, an instrument should be approved for use in
Di vision 2 locations .
-	An additional consideration is that all instruments used in
a methane environment should be approved by the Mine Safety
and Health Administration (MSHA) as being safe in such
atmospheres.
-	There are so many Groups, Classes, and Divisions that it is
impossible to certify an all-inclusive instrument.
Therefore, select a certified device based on the chemicals
and conditions most likely to be encountered, for example
a device certified for a Class II, Division 1, Group E
(combustible metal dust) would offer little protection
around a flammable vapor or gas.
1-8
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III. FIELD INSTRUMENTS
A.	Introduction
Many hazards may be present when responding to hazardous
materials spills or uncontrolled hazardous sites. Four
conditions can occur: oxygen deficient atmosphere; explosive
atmospheres; toxic atmospheres; and radioactive environments.
When first approaching a spill or waste site the potential
hazards must be recognized and exposure risks evaluated. This
can be in the form of a methodical preliminary site survey.
Information gained will most likely be limited but will
provide enough data to make some initial decisions. These
might include respirator and protective clothing selection or
further definition of the hazard by qualitative assessment.
Once the plan of action, based on the initial survey, is done,
hazard evaluation is not over. No matter how passive the
situation appears, the site is potentially very dynamic.
Moving tanks and drums or excavation may introduce new
hazards. To ensure a safe working environment, continuous or
periodic monitoring of the hazards must be performed.
To perform initial site surveys and subsequent monitoring,
various portable instruments must be available. Such
instruments range from portable gas chromatographs to passive
dosimeters. The variety of instruments and operating
principles is wide. New instruments are introduced each year
incorporating advances in technology.
With such a variety of portable instrumentation available, it
follows that each serves a specific purpose. Some display an
immediate readout upon each sample taken manually. Others
monitor continuously and have built-in alarms to signal a
potential hazard. Many instruments are designed to sample
over a time period to determine a time-weighted average
exposure. These may be active or passive in design. There
are instruments which utilize unique components to determine
the concentration of a hazardous substance.
B.	Oxygen-deficient Atmospheres
The oxygen content in a confined space is of prime concern to
anyone about to enter that space. Removal of oxygen by
combustion, reduction reactions, or displacement by gases or
vapors is a hazard which repsonse personnel cannot detect.
Consequently, remote measurements must be made before anyone
enters a confined space.
1-9
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Portable oxygen indicators are invaluable when responding
to hazardous material spills or waste sites. Terrain
variations in the land and unventilated rooms or areas may
contain insufficient oxygen to support life. In addition,
oxygen measurements are necessary when combustible gas
indicator (CGI) measurements are made, since the oxygen
level in the ambient air effects the accuracy of CGI1 s
readout. When used properly the portable oxygen indicator
will read the percent oxygen in the immediate atmosphere.
The normal ambient oxygen concentration is 20.8%.
Most indicators have meters which display the oxygen content
from 0-25%. There are also oxygen indicators available
which measure concentration from 0-5% and 0-100%. The most
useful range for response is the 0-25% oxygen content
readout since decisions involving air-supplying respirators
and the use of combustible indicators fall into this range.
1. Theory
The oxygen indicator has two principle componets for
operation. These are the oxygen sensing devices and the
meter readout. In some units air is drawn to the oxygen
detector with an aspirator bulb or pump; in other units, the
ambient air is allowed to equilibrate with the sensor. The
oxygen detector uses an electrochemical sensor to determine
the oxygen concentration in air. A typical sensor consists
of: two electrodes, a sensing and a counting electrode; a
housing containing a basic electrolytic solution; and a
semipermeable Teflon membrane (Figure 1-2).
°2 °2 O0 Oj °"
Protective
Disc
Thermistor
11111

Tel Ion
Membrane
Gold
Electrode
KOH
Electrolyte
Lead
Electrode
"				""" i-uiaun.unLi»uj~-Ai
Selection from Product Literature, Rexnord Electronic Products Division,
Biomarine Oxygen Sensor, by Rexnord, Inc., copyrighted by Rexnord, Inc.,
reprinted with permission of Publisher.
FIGURE 1-2
1-10
-------
Oxygen molecules (Oo) diffuse through the membrane
intothe solution. Reactions between the oxygen and the
electrodes produce a minute electric current which is
directly proportional to the sensors's oxygen content.
The current passes through the electronic circuit. The
resulting signal is shown as a needle deflection on a
meter, which is usually calibrated to read 0-10%, 0-25%,
or 0-100% oxygen.
2. Limitations
The operation of oxygen meters depends on the absolute
atmospheric pressure. The concentration of natural
oxygen (to differentiate it from manufactured or
generated oxygen) is a function of the atmospheric
pressure at a given altitude.
At sea level, where the weight of the atmosphere above
is greatest, more O2 molecules are compressed into a
smaller volume than at higher elevations. As elevation
increases, this compression decreases, resulting in
fewer O2 molecules being "squeezed" into a given
volume. Consequently, an O2 indicator calibrated at
sea level and operated at an altitude of several
thousand feet will falsely indicate an oxygen- deficient
atmosphere (less than 19.5% as defined by NIOSH).
High concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) shorten
the useful life of the oxygen detector cell.
As a general rule, the unit can be used in atmospheres
greater than 0.5% CO2 only with frequent replacing or
rejuvenating of the oxygen detector cell.
Although several instruments can measure an
oxygen-enriched atmosphere (O2 greater than 21%),
no testing or other work should ever be performed
under such conditions because a spark, arc or flame
could lead to fire or explosion.
C. Explosive Atmospheres
The combustible gas indicator (CGI) is one of the finest
instruments to be used to survey a site; typically, CGI
readings are taken concurrently with O2 level readings.
It measures the concentration of a flammable vapor or gas in
air, indicating the results as a percentage of the lower
explosive limit (LEL) of the calibration gas.
The LEL of a combustible gas or vapor is the lowest
concentration by volume in air which will explode, ignite,
or burn when there is an ignition source. The upper
explosive limit (UEL) is the maximum concentration. Above
the UEL, there is insufficient oxygen to support combustion
so ignition is impossible. Below the LEL, there is
insufficient fuel to support ignition.
1-11
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1. Theory
Most combustible gas indicators operate on the "hot
wire" principle. In the combustion chamber is a
platinum filament that is heated. The platinum
filament is an integral part of a balanced resistor
circuit called a Wheatstone Bridge. The hot filament
combusts the gas on the immediate surface of the
element, thus raising the temperature of the
filament.
As the temperature of the filament increases so does
its resistance. This change in resistance causes an
imbalance in the Wheatstone Bridge. This is measured
as the ratio of combustible vapor present compared to
the total required to reach the LEL. For example, if
the meter reads 0.5 (or 50, depending upon the
readout), this means that 50% of the concentration of
combustible gas needed to reach an unstable flammable
or combustible situation is present. If the LEL for
the gas is 5% then the meter indicates that a 2.5%
concentration is present. Thus the typical meter
readout indicates concentration up to the LEL of the
gas. See Figure l-3a.
If a concentration greater than LEL and lower than
the UEL is present, then the meter needle will stay
beyond the 1.0 (100%) level on the meter. See Figure
l-3b. This indicates that the ambient atmosphere is
readily combustible. When the atmosphere has a gas
concentration above the UEL the meter needle will
rise above the 1.0 (100%) mark and then return to
zero. See Figure l-3c. This occurs because the gas
mixture in the combustion cell is too rich to burn.
This permits the filament to conduct a current just
as if the atmosphere contained no combustibles at
all.

O J	1		 IOO
o^^oo
% LEL
% LEL
% LEL
a
b
c

FIGURE 1-3

1
-12

-------
2. Limitations
As with any instrument based on an electrochemical
reation, all CGI's have several limitations:
-The reaction is temperature dependent. Therefore,
the measurement is only as accurate as the
incremental difference between calibration and
ambient (sampling) temperatures.
-Sensitivity is a function of physical and chemical
properties of the calibration gas versus those of the
unknown contaminant. Most combustible gas indicators
are calibrated to read accurately for methane or
pentane, but not all combustible gases and vapors
will give the same response as the calibration gas.
Because of the variation in the relative response of
the flammable substance in the atmosphere to the
calibration gas (e.g. methane), the instrument may
not give an accurate indication of the flammable
hazard-- the reading (%LEL) may be higher or lower
than the actual concentration.
-There is no differentiation between petroleum vapors
and combustible gases unless a charcoal pre-filter is
employed.
-The unit is intended for use only in normal
atmospheres, not ones that are oxygen enriched or
deficient. Oxygen concentrations are less than or
greater than normal may cause erroneous readings.
-Leaded gasoline vapors, halogens, and sulfur compounds
will foul the filament which decreases its
sensitivity. Compounds containing silicone will
destroy the platinum filament.
D. Toxic Atmospheres
1. Photoionzation Detector (PID)
a. Theory
The light from the sun when passed through a prism
dispersed into the many colors that make up the while
light spectrum. The hues of colors from the deep reds
through the deep purples are a relatively small
segment in the overall electromagnetic (e-m) spectrum.
1-13
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The e-m spectrum covens long wavelengths such as radio
waves through the ultrashort wave gamma radiation
(Figure 1-4). As the wavelengths decrease in size
(higher frequencies), the wave energy increases. This
relationship between energy and frequency is based
upon Planck's equation.
All atoms and molecules are composed of particles:
electrons, protons, and neutrons. Electrons,
negatively charged particles, rotate in orbit around
the nucleus, the dense inner core. The nucleus
consists of an equal number of protons (positively
charged particles) as electrons found in the orbital
cloud. The interaction of the oppositely charged
particles and the laws of quantum mechanics keep the
electrons in orbits outside the nucleus.
The energy required to remove the outermost electron
from the molecule is called the ionization potential
(IP) and is specific for any compound or atomic
species. IP is measured in electron volts (eV). High
frequency radiation (ultraviolet and above) is capable
of causing ionization and is hence called ionizing
radi at ion.
When a photon of ultraviolet radiation strikes a
chemical compound, it ionizes the molecule if the
energy of the radiation is equal to or greater than
the IP of the compound. Since ions are capable of
conducting an electrical current, they may be
collected on a charged plate. The measured current
will be directly proportional to the number of ionized
molecules.
The photoionization process can be illustrated as:
RH + hnu 	RH+ + e"
where RH is an organic or inorganic molecule and hnu
represents a photon of UV light with energy equal to
or greater than the ionization potential of that
particular chemical species to cause the emission of
electron e".
Units which utilize photoionization include the AID
580, the Photovac Model #10A10 (includes a gas
chromatographic mode), and the HNU P101 which is
described below.
b. HNU P101 Photoionization Detector
The HNU P101 is typical of field photoionization units
now available. It consists of two modules connected
via a signal-power cord (Figure 1-5):
1-14
-------
NON IONIZING RADIATION
IONIZING RADIATION
RADIO FREQUENCIES
HEAT
GAMMA RAYS
MICROWAVES
VISIBLE
LIGHT
INFRARED
J
X-RAYS
ULTRAVIOLET
1010
106
105
105
108
104
107
103
106
102
105
101
104 103
10° 10"1
102
10"2
101
10-3
10°
10"4
10"1
10"5
10"2
10"6
10" 3
10"7
10"4
10-8
10"5
10"9
10"6 10"7
10"10 Kfn
1
1
1
1


1

1 1 1
WAVELENGTH
1 1 1
1
(um/cm)
1
1
1
t
1
I
1
(
1
(
1
I
1
1 {
1 1
104
105
106
107
108
109
1010 10U
1012
1013
1014
1015
1016
1017
1018
1019
1020 1021
t i i i i i i 1 i i i i i i i i i r
FREQUENCY (Hz) x3
INCREASING ENERGY CONTENT
FIGURE 1-4
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
-------
READOUT UNIT
Ion Chamber
PROBE
Sample
Preamp
Pump
Lamp
Ion Chamber
Bias
Battery
FIGURE 1-5
PORTABLE PH0T0I0NIZATI0N DETECTOR
Selection from Instruction Manual for Model PI 101 Photoionization
Detector, by HNU Systems, Inc., copyrighted 1975, by HNU Systems,
Inc., reprinted with permission of Publisher.
1-16
-------
-	A readout unit consisting of a 4/1/2 in. analog
meter, a rechargable battery, and power supplies for
operation of the amplifier and the UV lamp.
-	A sensor unit consisting of the UV light source,
pump, ionization chamber, and a preamplifier.
An electrical pump pulls the gas sample past a UV
source. Constituents of a sample are ionized,
producing an instrument response, if their ionization
potential (IP) is equal to or less than the ionizing
energy supplied by the instrument uv lamp being
utilized. The radiation produces an ion pair for each
molecule of contaminant ionized. The free electrons
produce a current directly proportional to the number
of ions produced. The current is amplified, detected,
and displayed on the meter.
Three probes are available with the HNU, containing
either an 11.7, a 10.2, or a 9.5-eV UV light source.
Species that have IP's greater than the lamp rating
will display a poor instrument response, or no
response at all. Thus employing the 11.7 eV lamp will
ensure the greatest range of detectable species;
however, it requires constant maintenance and frequent
lamp replacement. For many applications, the 10.2-eV
lamp/probe can be used. It offers relatively high
radiation levels without frequent lamp replacement;
and will detect many species. One notable exception
is the chlorinated aliphatics.
c. Limitations
Although the HNU photoionization unit is an excellent
instrument for survey, there are very important
1imitati ons .
-	The response to a gas or vapor may radically
change when the gas or vapor is mixed with other
materials. As an example, a HNU calibrated to
ammonia and analyzing an atmosphere containing 100
ppm would indicate 100 on the meter. Likewise, a
unit calibrated to benzene would record 100 in an
atmosphere containing 100 ppm benzene. However, in
an atmosphere containing 100 ppm of each, the unit
could indicate considerably less or more than 200
ppm, depending on how it was calibrated.
-	Radio freqency interference from pulsed DC or AC
power lines, transformers, high voltage
equipment and radio wave transmission may produce an
error in response.
1-17
-------
-	The lamp window must be periodically cleaned to
ensure ionization of the air containments.
-	Although the HNU measures concentrations from about
1-2000 ppm, the response is not linear over this
entire range. For example, the response to benzene
is linear from about 0-600 ppm. This means the HNU
reads a true concentration of benzene only between 0
and 600. Greater concentrations are "read" at a
lower level than the true value.
The HNU can be used to help determine the proper
health and safety protocols when evaluating a
hazardous waste site or spill. However, the need to
properly interpret the HNU's data and to understand
the limitations of this instrument cannot be
overemphasised. One particularly important limitation
is how the HNU responds toward mixtures of chemicals.
If only one chemical species is present, the HNU can
be set to quantitatively respond to that chemical.
However, the HNU will not quantitatively respond to a
mixture unless the IP's of all chemicals in the
mixture are the same. This is because the HNU has a
different sensitivity to compounds with different
IP's. As a rule, the HNU is more sensitive to complex
compounds and less sensitive to simpler ones. In
order of decreasing sensitivity, measured on a scale
of 1 to 10, the HNU responds to:
-	Aromatics (e.g., benzene, toluene, xylene) and
aliphatic amine hydrocarbons: 10
-	Unsaturated chlorinated hydrocarbons (e.g.,
trichloroethylene, dichloroethylene): 5-9
-	Unsaturated hydrocarbons (e.g., propylene): 3-5
-	Paraffinic hydrocarbons with 5 to 7 carbons (e.g.,
hexane, heptane): 1-3
-	Ammonia and paraffinic hydrocarbons with 1 to 4
carbons (e.g., ethane, propane): less than 1.
To compensate for this varying sensitivity, the HNU
incorporates a span pot (potentiometer), which varies
the gain on the amplifier. In the full clockwise (CW)
position at level 9.8, the HNU indicates the
approximate air concentration of all chemicals with a
sensitivity of 10 for example, aromatic hydrocarbons.
In full counterclockwise (CCW) position at level 0, it
indicates the approximate concentration of ammonia or
paraffinic hydrocarbons. With the span pot positioned
at any intermediate point, HNU indicates the
approximate air concentration of the chemical whose
sensitivity corresponds to that level.
1-18
-------
When the span pot is set at 0 (fully CCW) and the
function switch to the 0-20 range, the scale on the
meter face reads 0-2 ppm. This expansion, which is
valid only for materials that have a high relative
sensitivity (10), allows measurements in the
parts-per-bi11 ion range (ppb).
In most circumstances, using the HNU at the lowest
setting (span pot 9.8) provides adequate data to
determine the proper health and safety protocols for
on-site workers. Unfortunately, several chemicals-
for example, acrolein-exhibit medium to low
sensitivity (0-5), while their t.oxicological effects
place their threshold limit value (TLV) at a very low
level. If these chemicals are indicated by the HNU
set to 9.8, for example, improper protective gear
could be chosen. Consider this scenario:
The air in an unknown hazardous environment must
be sampled. Response personnel survey the site
with an HNU, which indicates 2.0 ppm (instrument
span set to 9.8). Later, the air contaminant is
found to be acrolein with a TLV of 0.1 ppm (100
ppb) and an immediately dangerous to life or
health (IDLH) level of 5 ppm. Since acrolein
has a low relative sensitivity, its concentration
probably was in excess to 5 ppm, the IDLH value.
Thus total reliance to the HNU data without regard for
the chemical makeup of the sample can be a problem.
2. Flame Ionization Detector (FID)
a. Theory
The FID uses ionization as the detection method, much
the same as in the HNU, except that the ionization is
caused by a hydrogen flame, rather than by a UV light.
This flame has sufficient energy to ionize any organic
species with an IP of 15.4 or less.
Inside the detector chamber, the sample is exposed to
a hydrogen flame which ionizes the organic vapors.
When most organic vapors burn, positively charged
carbon-containing ions are produced which are
collected by a negatively charged collecting electrode
in the chamber. An electric field exists between the
conductors surrounding the flame and a collecting
electrode. As the positive ions are collected, a
current proportional to the hydrocarbon concentration
is generated on the input electrode. This current is
measured with a preamplifier which has an output
signal proportional to the ionization current.
1-19
-------
A signal conducting amplifier is used to amplify the
signal from the preamp and to condition it for
subsequent meter or external recorder display. An
example of an instrument using an FID is the Foxboro
Organic Vapor Analyzer (OVA), described below.
b. Foxboro Organic Vapor Analyzer (OVA)
The Foxboro OVA consists of two major parts:
-	A 9-pound package containing the sampling pump,
battery pack, support electronics, flame ionization
detector, hydrogen gas cylinder, and an optional
gas chromatography (GC) column.
-	A hand-held meter/sampling probe assembly.
The OVA is generally calibrated to methane, but can be
calibrated to the species of interest.
The OVA can operate in two modes:
Survey mode: During normal survey mode operation, a
sample is drawn into the probe and transmitted to the
detector chamber by an internal pumping system. When
the sample reaches the FID it is ionized as described
above and the resulting signal is translated on the
meter for direct-reading concentration as total
organic vapors or recorded as a peak on a chart. The
meter display is an integral part of the probe/readout
assembly and has a scale from 0 to 10 which can be set
to read 0-10, 0-100, or 0-1000 ppm v/v.
Gas chromatography mode: Gas chromatogaphy (GC) is a
technique for separating components of a sample and
qualitatively and quantitatively determining them.
The sample to be separated is injected into a column
packed with an inert solid; a carrier gas (hydrogen)
flows through the column. As the carrier gas forces
the sample through the column, the separate components
of the sample are retained on the column for different
periods of time. The amount of time a substance
remains on the column, which is called its retention
time, is a function of its affinity for the column
material, column temperature, and flow rate of the
carrier gas. Under preset instrumental conditions,
each component elutes from the column at a different
but reproducible length of time. As the components
elute from the column, they flow into the detector.
Since the output of the detector is connected to a
strip chart recorder, separate peaks are recorded for
each component. This readout is called a gas
chromatogram. See figure 1-6. Since the retention
times are reproducible, if the retention time of an
unknown agrees with the retention time of a known,
recorded under the same set of analytical conditions,
1-20
-------
the unknown is tentatively identified. In addition,
the area under each peak is proportional to the
concentration of the corresponding sample component.
If these areas are compared to the areas of standards,
recorded under identical analytical conditions, the
concentration of the sample components can be
calculated. Note that if the "base" of the peak can be
made very narrow by varying the instrumental
conditions, component concentration is proportional to
peak height, which can be read directly off the chart.
X

Retention Time

o


—i
UJ
I


\ i
i <
*


i *
<
UJ


\ 1	Peak Height
CL


\ I


lv



TIME (seconds)
Injection	Peak Area
Selection from Product Literature,	Foxboro Analytical, by Foxboro
Analytical, copyrighted by Foxboro	Analytical, reprinted with permission
of Publisher.
FIGURE 1-6
c. Limitations
As with HNU Photoionizer, the OVA responds
differently to different compounds. Table 1-2 is
a list, provided by the manufacturer of the
relative sensitivities of the OVA to some common
organic compounds. Since the instrument is
factory calibrated to methane, all relative
responses are given in percent, with methane at
100.
1-21
-------
TABLE 1-2
Selection from Product Literature, Foxboro Analytical, by Foxboro
Analytical, copyrighted by Foxboro Analytical, reprinted with
permission of Publisher.
Thus the identity of the chemical of interest must
be ascertained before its concentration can be
determined. In addition, the unit requires an
individual trained specifically to maintain and
operate it. Experience in gas chromatography is
essenti al.
3. Infrared Spectrophotometer
a. Theory
The infared spectrophotometer is a compound
specific instrument. Each compound being analyzed
will absorb at a discrete infrared wavelength.
The unit measures how much of the IR absorbed and
indicates in ppm or per cent absorbed.
The atoms of which molecules are composed are held
together by bonds of various types and lengths.
These arrangements, as in the classical ball and
spring configurations often presented in
introductory chemistry, establish finite locations
and discrete movements for each atom (ball) and
Compound
Relative Response
Methane
Ethane
Propane
n-Butane
n-Pentane
Ethylene
Acetylene
Benzene
Toluene
Acetone
Methyl ethyl ketone
Methyl isobutyl ketone
Methanol
Ethanol
Isopropyl alcohol
Carbon tetrachloride
Chloroform
Tri chloroethylene
Vinyl chloride
100
90
64
61
100
85
200
150
120
100
80
100
15
25
65
10
70
72
35
1-22
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bond (spring). These movements can be either
vibrational-rotational stretching or bending of the
chemical bonds. The frequencies of these movements
are on the order of infrared radiation (IR). A given
bond movement can be initiated by stimulating the
molecule with IR of varying frequency. As the bond
moves, it absorbs the characteristic energy associated
with that movement. The frequencies and intensity of
IR absorbed are specific for a compound and its
concentration, providing a "fingerprint" which can be
used as an analytical tool.
Foxboro, Perkin-Elmer, and Beckman are producers of
portable infrared spectrophotometers. The Mi ran IR
manufactured by Foxboro is discussed below.
Mi ran Infrared Spectrophotometer
The Mi ran (acronym for miniature infrared analyzer) is
a field IR spectrophotometer which uses a variable
length gas cell to measure concentrations of vapors in
ambient air.
Several movable mirrors permit repeated passes,
producing paths from several centimeters to several
meters.
Field analysis presents problems not normally
encountered in spectrophotometry in the laboratory.
With lab instruments, the analyst can control the
concentration of material entering the sample cell.
To analyze uncontrollable gas the Miran must make
repeated passes to achieve reliable results. Liquid
or solid samples are preferable to gas samples because
they possess more molecules than a gas of the same
volume.
Additionally, the spectra of analyses of the same
chemical in the liquid phase and gaseous phase are
markedly different. In the gaseous state, the
molecules are free to rotate, and inter-molecular
actions are at a minimum. The liquid state "locks"
the molecules in a given structure.
Limitati ons
The Miran is designed for industrial hygiene work in
occupational settings where known types of materials
are generated and where 120-volt AC power is
available. At hazardous waste sites neither of these
conditions is common, making Mirans of questionable
value. They also have not been recognized by any
approving agencies as being safe for use in a
hazardous location. Basically, the Miran is designed
for quantifying simple one- or two-component mixtures.
They can be used on a hazardous waste site with
1-23
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another analytical procedure for confirmation such as gas
chromatography. For use in unknown situations, one of the
more advanced units may he connected to a computer which is
capable of analyzing the readout through the IR spectrum
and can narrow the list of possible compounds to a minumum
resulting in identification of individual components.
4. Direct-Reading Colorimetric Indicator Tubes
In evaluating hazardous waste sites, the need often arises
to quickly measure a specific vapor or gas. Direct-reading
colorimetric indicator tubes can successfully fill that
need. They are usually calibrated in ppm or % concentration
for easy interpretation. There are indicator tubes
abvailable for continuous sampling over a longer period of
time.
a. Theory
The interaction of two or more substances may result
in chemical changes. This change may be as subtle as
two clear liquids producing a third clear liquid, or
as obvious as a colorless vapor and colored solid
producing a differently colored substance. Detector
tubes use this latter phenomenon to estimate the
concentration of a gas or vapor in air.
Colorimetric indicator tubes consist of a glass tube
impregnated with an indicating chemical (Figure 1-7).
The tube is connected to a piston cylinder- or
bellows- type pump. A known volume of contaminated
air is pulled at a predetermined rate through the
tube. The contaminant reacts with the indicator
chemical in the tube, producing a stain whose length
is proportional to the contaminant's concentration.
Detector tubes are normally species specific. In
other words, there are different tubes for different
gases; e.g., chlorine detector tube for chlorine gas,
acrylonitri1e tube for acrylonitrile gas., etc. Some
manufacturers do produce tubes for groups of gases
(aromatic hydrocarbons, for example).
A preconditioning filter may precede indicating
chemical to:
-	Remove contaminants (other than the one in question)
that may interfere with the measurement.
-	React with a contaminant to change it into a
compound that reacts with the indicating
chemical .
-	Completely change a nonindicating contaminant
into an indicating one.
Detector tubes and pumps are available from MSA,
Bendix, Drager, and Matheson/Kitigawa.
1-24
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FTGURE 1-7
COTTON PLUG
GLASS VIAL
\
I—i—r~~I—f
O O O Q c
OJ
o o o
CO ^ in
/
PRE FILTER
INDICATING CHEMICAL
ON SILICA GEL
COTTON PLUG
DIRECT-READING COLORIMETRIC INDICATOR TUBE
-------
b. Limitations
Several different colorimetric indicating tubes
may be able to measure the concentration of a
particular gas or vapor, each operating on a different
chemical principle and each affected in varying
degrees by temperature, air volume pulled through the
tube, and interfering gases or vapors. The "true"
concentration versus the "measured" concentration may
vary considerably among and between manufacturers. To
limit these sources of error, to control the numerous
types and manufacturers of tubes, and to provide a
degree of confidence to users, the NIOSH Testing and
Certification Branch has certified Detector Tube
Units. The certified unit inculudes the aspirating
pump, detector tube, and accessories. The
certification implies that the unit must be accurate
within + or - 35% at 1/2 the PEL and + or - 25% at 1
to 5 times the PEL. A list of certified units (by
tube) can be found in the NIOSH detector tube
Certified Equipment List. (Note: the NIOSH detector
tube certification program has been discontinued.) To
improve performance of all tubes, they should be:
-	Refrigerated prior to use to maintain shelf life of
approximately 2 years.
-	Leak tested with the pump prior to sampling
and volumetrically calibrated on a quarterly basis.
Undoubtedly the greatest source of error is how the
operator "reads" the endpoint. The jagged edge where
contaminant meets indicator chemical makes it
difficult to get accurate results from this seemingly
simple test. A diligent and experienced operator
should be able to accurately read the endpoint.
5. Other gas samplers and monitors
There are several other gas monitors which utilize
electrochemical cells for detection. CO, H2S, and HCN are
three gases of interest. The principle is similar to the
O2 meter previously described. Monitors of this type are
typically adjusted to sound an alarm when a particular
contaminant level is reached.
Probably the newest detector available is the Mixed Oxide
Semi-Conductor (MOS). It can be calibrated to a variety of
gases including chlorine, TCE, ammonia, NO2, freon, and
toluene. It can be used in multiple detection units
incorporating several MOS detectors and an O2 cell.
1-26
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Several instrument packages combine two or more detectors.
For example, a combined hot wire detector for combustible
gases and an oxygen sensor use a common pump, battery, and
electronic circuit. Normally, each detector operates
independently, thereby allowing one to be used even if the
other is not working properly.
Combination units afford response personnel several
advantages over single units, chiefly portability.
Additionally, combined instruments may incorporate an
adjustable alarm circuit that alerts the user to potentially
hazardous conditions. This capacity frees the user of the
need to take frequent meter readings and focuses attention
on other hazards.
6. Programmed Thermal Desorber (PTD)
The programmed Thermal Desorber (Foxboro PTD-132A) utilizes
the principle of thermal desorption to extract contaminants
from charcoal or other detector tubes. The instrument
performs this function automatically, and, in addition, has
the ability to store the desorbed sample in a 300 ml chamber
and to make replicate sample injections into a gas
chromatograph or other analytical instrument. It allows rapid
on-site analysis of collected air samples. Within the
instrument is a small oven which is used to heat the sorbent
tube to temperatures ranging from 100 - 350 C depending upon
the application. This heating has the effect of separating
the sample from the sorbent, thus freeing it to be carried by
a flow of clean carrier gas to the storage chamber. From
there, the sample is released in carefully controlled amounts
into the analytical instrument of choice. If the instrument
is a gas chromatograph, the chromatogram is recorded in the
normal fashion and the peaks qualitatively and quantitatively
determined. The calculations necessary to find the
concentration of contaminant in the original air are simply a
volumetric ratio.
VI. REFERENCES
1.	National Electrical Code, Vol. 70, National Fire Prevention
Association, 470 Atlantic Ave., Boston, MA 02210 (1977).
2.	Clayton, George D. (ed.), The Industrial Environment - Its
Evaluation and Control, 3rd ed., Public Health Services
Publication (1973).
3.	Clayton, G.D., and F.E. Clayton (ed.), Patty's Industrial
Hygiene and Toxiciology, 3rd revised ed., Vol. 1: General
Pri nci pies, John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY ( 1978).
4.	Klinsky, Joseph (ed.), Manual of Recommended Practice for
Combustible Gas Indicators and Portable Direct Reading
Hydrocarbon Detectors, 1st ed., American Industrial Hygiene
Association, Akron, OH (1980).
5.	Conley, Robert, Infrared Spectroscopy, 2nd ed., Allyn and
Bacon, Inc., Boston, MA (1972).
1-27
9/84
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APPENDIX I


MONITORING EQUIPMENT AND SAMPLE
USED FOR EVALUATION
MEDIA

Exposure/
Contami nant
Monitori ng
Equipment
Sample Collec-
ion Media
Type Of Sample
Analytical Method/
Equipment
Combusti ble
Gas/Vapor
Combustible
Gas Indicator
N/A
Instantaneous
N/A (direct read-out)
Oxygen
Deficiency
Oxygen Meter
N/A
Instantaneous
N/A (direct read-out)
Ioni zi ng
Radiati on
1. Geiger-Muller
Counter
1. N/A
1. Instantaneous
N/A (direct read-out)

2. Film-badge
Dosimeter
2. Film w/Three Filters
(i.e. Al, Cd, Pb) 9
2. Personal
2. Densitometer9
Organics
1. Portable Gas
Chromatograph
With FID
1. N/A
1. Instantaneous
1. N/A
(direct read-out)

2. Photoionizing
Detector
2. N/A
2. Instantaneous
2. N/A
(direct read-out)

3. Low-Flow
Sampling Pump
3. Charcoal Tube/
Silica Gel
3. Personal/Area
3. Gas Chromato-
graph w/FID or
GC/Mass Spec-
trometry

4. Piston/Bellows
Pump
4. Colorimetric Tubes
4. Instantaneous
4. N/A
(direct read-out)
Pesti ci des/
Herbicides
Low-Flow
Sampling Pump
Fiberglas Filter
Followed By Silica Gel
Personal/Area
Sequenti al
Desorption^
-------
APPENDIX I (CONTINUED)


MONITORING EQUIPMENT AND SAMPLE
USED FOR EVALUATION
MEDIA

Exposure/
Contami nant
Moni tori ng
Equi pment
Sample Collec-
ion Media
Type Of Sample
Analytical Method/
Equi pment
Inorgani cs
(i .e. metals)
Hi gh-Flow
Sampling Pump
Cellulose Ester Fiber
Filter or Midget
Impinger and
Trapping Reagent
Personal/Area
Atomic Absorption
Spectrometry or
Chromatography
Parti culates/
Aerosols
1. Total Sus-
pended Parti-
cle Monitor
1. Membrane Filter
1. Area
1. N/A
(direct read-out)

2. Hi gh-Flow
Sampli ng
Pump
2. PVC Membrane
Fi1ter
2. Personal/Area
2. Gravimetric
Aci ds
1. Hi gh-Flow
Sampling Pump
1. Midget Impinger w/
H2O or Alkaline
Reagent
1. Personal/Area
1. Colorimetric/
Spectrophotom-
etry

2. Piston/Bellows
Pump
2. Colorimetric Tubes
2. Instantaneous
2. N/A
(direct read-out)
A1kali es
1. High-Flow
Sampli ng
Pump
1. Midget Impinger w/
Acidic Reagent
1. Personal/Area
1. Colorimetric/
Spectrophotom-
etry
2. Piston/Bellows
Pump
2. Colorimetric Tubes
2. Instantaneous
2. N/A
(direct read-out)
-------
APPENDIX I (CONTINUED)
MONITORING EQUIPMENT AND SAMPLE MEDIA
USED FOR EVALUATION
Exposure/
Contami nant
Monitori ng
Equi pment
Sample Collec-
ion Media
Type Of Sample
Analytical Method/
Equi pment	
Noi se
1. Sound Level
Meter w/Octave
Band Analyzer
1. N/A
Personal Noise
Dosimeter
2. N/A
1. Instantaneous
2. Personal
1. N/A
(direct read-out)
2. N/A
(direct read-out)
Heat Stress
Wet-Bulb, Dry-
Bulb, and Globe
Thermometer
N/A
Instantaneous
N/A (direct read-out)
Reprinted from "Hazardous Materials and Waste Management", Jan./Feb., 1984, with permission of the publisher.
-------
PART 2
ATMOSPHERIC SAMPLING INSTRUMENTS
I. INTRODUCTION
Typically, the atmosphere is sampled during a response to a hazardous
materials incident to identify and quantify any gases, vapors, or
particulates present. Such information may be obtained by two methods:
-	Area sampling, which involves the placement of collection devices
within designated areas and operating them over specific periods of
time.
-	Personal sampling, which involves the collection of samples from
within the breathing zone of an individual, sometimes by the
individual wearing a sampling device.
Once the sampling method has been selected, the type of sample desired
must be determined. Prevailing conditions, the scope of site operations,
and the intended use of the resulting information dictate the type
collected:
-	Instantaneous or grab-type samples, which are characteristically
collected over brief time periods. They are useful in examining
stable contaminant concentrations or peak levels of short duration.
Instantaneous samples may require highly sensitive analytical methods
due to the small sample volume collected.
-	Integrated samples, which are more typical of on-site measurements.
They are collected when the sensitivity of an analytical method
requires minimum sample periods or volumes, or when comparison must be
made to an 8-hour, time-weighted average/Threshold Limit Value or
other established standard.
Two types of sampling systems are used for the collection of integrated
samples:
-	Active samplers which mechanically move contaminated air through a
collection medium.
-	Passive samplers which rely on natural rather than mechanical forces
to collect samples. Passive samplers are classified as either
diffusion or permeation devices, according to their principle of
operation.
The sampling instrument or system chosen depends on a number of factors,
including:
-	Instrument or system efficiency
-	Operational reliability
-	Ease of use and portability
2-1
-------
-	Availability of the instrument and component parts
-	Information or analysis desired
-	Personal preference
II. ACTIVE SAMPLERS
A.	General Considerations
Active sampling systems or "trains" mechanically collect samples on
or into a selected medium. The medium is then analyzed in the
laboratory to identify and quantify the contaminant(s) collected.
Such a system typically consists of the following components:
-	An electrically powered pump to move the contaminated air. Such a
pump should contain a flow regulator to control the rate of
movement and a flow monitor to indicate that rate.
-	A sampler consisting of an appropriate sampling medium and a
container designed for that medium. The sampler used largely
depends upon the contaminant(s) to be sampled and the selected
sampling method.
-	Flexible tubing to link the sampler to the pump.
Integrated samples are commonly collected over known time periods and
at known fixed flow rates. Thus, sample train calibration and
accurate time measurement are critical to active systems.
B.	Sampling Pumps
Active sampling systems typically rely on electrically powered pumps
to mechanically induce air movement. The most practical electrical
sampling pump is powered by rechargable batteries and can operate
continuously at constant flow rates for at least 6 to 8 hours.
Typically, they are compact, portable, and quiet enough to be worn by
individuals when monitoring personal exposures.
Generally, sampling	pumps incorporate several of the following
components:
-	A diaphragm or a piston-type pumping mechanism.
-	A flow regulator	to control the sampling flow rate.
-	A rotameter or stroke counter to indicate	the flow rate or sample
volume.
-	A pulsation dampener to maintain a smooth	flow rate.
-	A pressure drop compensator to maintain a	set flow rate.
-	Special features such as a programmable timing mechanism and
approvals for use in flammable or explosive atmospheres.
2-2
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Battery-operated pumps may be classified as either high flow - 500 to
3,000 cubic centimeters per minute (cc/min) - or low flow - 50 to 200
cc/min - some, however, may reach higher or lower flow rates. The
rated stability of the pump should be accurate to within _= 5% of its
set flow rate. The type of portable pump selected is generally
determined by such factors as the physical properties of the
contaminant, the collection medium, and the collection flow rates
specified by the analytical method used.
C. Samplers - Gas and Vapor Absorbers
Impingers and bubblers are used to collect gases and vapors by liquid
absorption (Figure 2-1). These samplers ensure that contaminants in
the sampled air are completely absorbed by the liquid sampling medium
selected. Four types of absorber devices are used:
Impinger, the most widely used gas absorber device. This device,
usually made of glass, consists of an inlet tube connected to a
stopper fitted into a graduated vial such that the inlet tube
rests slightly above the vial bottom. A measured volume of
absorber liquid is placed into the vial, the stopper inlet is put
in place, and the unit is then connected to the pump by flexible
tubing. When the pump is turned on, the contaminated air is
channeled down through the liquid at a right angle to the bottom
of the vial. The air stream then impinges against the vial
bottom, mixing the air with the absorber liquid; the necessary
air-to-liquid contact achieved by agitation. Prolonged contact is
possible by increasing the volume of the absorber liquid. Most
standard methods rely on one or two impingers to absorb
contaminants, however, some may require several connected in
series. The popularity of impingers rests on such qualities as
simple construction, ease of cleaning, the small quantity of
liquid used (typically less than 25 to 30 milliliters), and a size
suitable for use as a personal monitor.
-	Fritted bubbler, similar in use and appearance to an impinger, but
is generally used when a higher degree of air-liquid mixing is
desired. With these devices, the contaminated air is forced
through masses of porous glass, called frits, breaking the air
stream into numerous small bubbles. The frits are categorized as
fine, coarse, or extra coarse, depending on the number of openings
per unit area. The size of the bubbles depends upon the size of
the openings, as well as the absorber liquid used.
-	Glass-bead column, used for special situations where the absorber
liquid is either viscous or a concentrated solution is required.
Glass beads within the column are coated with the absorber liquid,
thus providing greater surface area upon which the contaminant can
be absorbed. These devices are typically used under very low flow
rates (25 to 500 cc/min range).
-	Spiral and helical absorbers, somewhat similar in appearance to
impingers and bubblers. In general, they are used when slightly
soluble or slow reacting contaminants must be sampled, and provide
a prolonged period of contact with the absorber liquid. These
devices also require lower flow rates.
2-3
-------
FIGURE 2-1
(A) MIDGET IMPINGER (B) FRITTED BUBBLER
D. Samplers - Particulate Collectors
Airborne particulates or aerosols include both dispersed liquids
(mists and fogs) and solids (dusts, fumes, and smoke). The most
common method of sampling particulates is to trap them on filters
using active systems to collect integrated samples. The main
difference between particulate sampling trains and other active
systems is the type of sampler. Particulate collectors are generally
used to selectively gather aerosols on the basis of particle size.
Particulate samplers typically have an air inlet and a membrane or
fiber filter on which the particulates are collected; a preselector
may also be included ahead of the filter if the particulates are to
be classified by size. Particulate samplers include such components
as multi-piece filter membrane cassettes, centrifugal separators or
cyclones, impactors, impingers, and elutriators.
One group of preselectors are the centrifugal separators or cyclones
which are commonly used to separate and collect those particulates
small enough to enter the respiratory system. Cyclones commonly are
conical or cylindrical in shape, with an opening through which
particulate-laden air is drawn along a concentrically curved channel.
Larger particles impact against the interior walls of the unit due to
inertial forces and drop into a grit chamber in the base. The
lighter particles continue on through and are drawn up through a tube
2-4
-------
at the center of the cyclone, where they are collected	on a filter.
Cyclones are available down to units 10 mm in diameter	which can be
worn as personal respirable dust monitors. Figure 2-2	illustrates a
typical cylindrical cyclone collector.
FIGURE 2-2
RESPIRABLE DUST SAMPLER ASSEMBLY
Flow conneccor
assembly
Support screen
Filter
Filter
Coupler
Vortex finder
Cyclone
Sampling
line
Crlt
pot
Impactors, another group of preselectors, separate out particulates
in an airstream by directing them toward a dry or coated flat
surface. Generally, impactors are composed of a number of stacked
perforated collection beds or plates, each with openings narrower
than the one before it. As the particulate-laden air moves through
the plates, larger particles are deposited near the top and smaller
near the bottom.
Impingers may be used for the collection of particulate contaminants
in addition to gases or vapors, though applications in particulate
sampling are waning. Briefly stated, impingers act in much the same
way as impactors, differing only in the fact that impingers draw the
particulates down through a liquid in which they are deposited.
The group of preselectors of perhaps least use in sampling during
responses to hazardous materials incidents are elutriators.
Elutriators separate out particulates of varying sizes by
gravitational effects under low velocities, and are commonly classed
as horizontal or vertical based on design principles.
2-5
-------
Connected to most preselectors is a cassette containing the desired
filter material. Typically, these cassettes are molded out of
transparent polystyrene plastic to form a cylinder. They consist of
two or three stacked sections, the number depending on the
contaminant and the collection method. The sections of a cassette
are molded to fit tightly when stacked and to tightly grip the outer
edge of the filter. Each cassette has end plugs to seal the inlet
and tubing connector port only the desired collection period has been
completed (Figure 2-3).
FIGURE 2-3
ASSEMBLY OF A THREE PIECE FILTER CASSETTE
Ring piece
	 Filter
	 Backup screen
E. Sample Bags
Sample bags, although of limited use during responses to hazardous
materials incidents, offer alternatives in the collection of
instantaneous and integrated samples of gases and vapors, and are
particularly useful when representative samples are desired. Bag
sampling begins by connecting the bag inlet valve with flexible
tubing to the exhaust outlet of a typical sampling pump. The bag
inlet valve is opened, the pump turned on, and the sample collected.
Once sampling has been completed, the bag contents itself may be
sampled, directly emptied into an analytical instrument, such as a
gas chromatograph, or tested by colorimetric tube.
Sample collection bags can be constructed of a number of synthetic
materials, including polyethylene, Saran, Mylar, Teflon, and Tedlar.
They are square or rectangular with heat-sealed seams, hose valve
fittings, inlet valves, septums for syringe extraction of samples,
and come in varying volumes. The selection of a bag should be based
on a number of characteristics, including resistance to adsorption
and permeation, tensile strength, performance under temperature
extremes, construction features (seams, eyelets, and fittings), and
intended service life.
2-6
-------
F. Collection Media - Gases and Vapors
Active samplers for gaseous and vapor contaminants make use of a
variety of collection media, including solids, liquids, and a new
class of long duration colorimetric tubes. All require a pump to
ensure proper contact between the collection media and the
contaminants. Each category of media is subdivided into groups
specific for a particular contaminant or groups of contaminants.
Solid sorbents are the class of media most widely used in hazardous
materials sampling operations. These materials collect by adsorption
and are often the media of choice for insoluble or nonreactive gases
or vapors. Their popularity stems from a number of factors,
including high collection efficiencies, indefinite shelf lives while
unopened, ease of use compared to liquid adsorbers, improved tube
design, and specific analytical procedures. The solid sorbent to be
used is generally specified in standard sampling and analytical
methods. One such group of standard methods is the "NIOSH Manual of
Analytical Methods". Besides sorbent and tube configuration, these
standards also specify such requirements as maximum sample volumes
and collection rates, sample train configuration, and sample
storage. The two most widely used solid sorbents are:
- Activated charcoal, which perhaps has the broadest range of
collection efficiencies. The highest efficiencies are for organic
vapors with boiling points above 0 degrees C, and the lowest for
organic gases with boiling points below -150 degrees C. Activated
charcoal exhibits nonpolar qualities and has a greater affinity
for organic gases and vapors than for water, which is polar. This
property results in far greater retention of adsorbed organic
vapors than silica gel. Glass construction sampling tubes in
various sizes are available to satisfy any analytical method
recommending them. Typically, the tubes contain two volumes of
activated charcoal, the larger being the primary sample stage and
the smaller backup stage. (Figure 2-4).
FIGURE 2-4
A TYPICAL 150 mg
CHARCOAL TUBE FOR LOW FLOW ORGANIC VAPOR SAMPLING
7 cm overall length of glass tubing
Inlet
4 mm ID
II
|Outlet
I 6 mm OD
Fiberglass (. 2mm 3mm j
Urethane
foam dividers
A - 100 mg sorbant stage
B - 50 mg sorbent stage
2-7
-------
-	Silica gel, which is the next most widely used solid sorbent. It
exhibits polar characteristics preferentially adsorbing more polar
or polarizable compounds. Thus, in order of decreasing collection
efficiency, silica gel will adsorb water, alcohols, aldehydes,
ketones, esters, aromatic compounds, olefins, and paraffins.
Silica gel is also packaged in glass sampling tubes of several
sizes, containing two or three stages of sorbent in varying
proportions as specified by the analytical method.
-	A number of other synthetic sorbents are available for specific
gas or vapor contaminants or groups of contaminants (Table 2-1).

TABLE 2-1
SOLID SORBENTS
COMMONLY USED IN GAS AND VAPOR SAMPLING
Solid Sorbent
Representative Gas or Vapor Adsorbed
Activated charcoal -
coconut base
Organic solvents
Activated charcoal -
petroleum base
1,2 - Dibromo -3- chloropropane;
ethylene; methyl bromide; n-propyl
nitrate; 1,1,2,2, -tetrachloroethane
Silica gel
Acetic acid; amines; amides
Molecular sieve 5A
Sulfur dioxide
Molecular sieve 13X
Acrolein
Ten ax GC
Allyl glycidyl ether; diphenyl;
ethylene glycol dinitrate;
nitroglycerin; white phosphorus;
trinitrotoluene
Floricil
Polychlorinated biphenyls
Chromosorb 101
Bis-chloromethyl ether
Chromosorb 104
Butyl mercaptan
Porpak Q
Furfuryl alcohol; methyl
cyclohexanone
XAD-2
DDVP; Demeton; ethyl silicate;
nitroethane; quinone; tetramethyl lead
(as lead)
2-8
-------
- Liquid adsorbers, used with impingers or bubblers and powered
pumps to collect soluble or reactive gases and vapors (Table 2-2).
Only a relatively few analytical methods call for collection by
impinger or bubbler. Further, most of the common absorbers tend
to be contaminant-specific and have limited shelf lives.
TABLE 2-2

LIQUID ABSORBERS COMMONLY USED IN
GAS AND VAPOR SAMPLING
Absorbing Liquid
Gas/Vapor Absorbed
0.1N H2SO4
Bases and amines
0.IN NaOH
Acids and phenol
0.IN HC1
Nickel carbonyl
Alkaline CdS04
Hydrogen sulfide
(CdS04 • NaOH)

Methylene blue
Hydrogen sulfide
1% KI in 0.IN NaOH
Ozone
Nitro reagent (4-nitropyridyl
propylamine in toluene)
Diisocyanates
0.3N H202
Sulfur dioxide
0.1% Ani1ine
Phosgene
1% NaHS02
Formaldehyde
Distilled water
Acids and bases
- Long-duration, direct-reading colorimetric tubes are a relatively
recent development aimed at filling the gap left by short-term
detector tubes. These indicator tubes are generally used in the 2
hour to 8 hour range, and may be used for time-weighted average
sampling. Unlike their short-term counterparts, long-duration
tubes require an electric rather than hand operated pump and flow
rates of 10 to 20 cc/min are common. Long-duration tubes share
the same advantages and disadvantages as short-term tubes and so
have only limited application to response operations.
2-9
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G. Collection Media - Particulates
Although impingers have been used to collect airborne particulates,
the most common method is dry filtration. This method utilizes a
specialized filter material as part of an active sampling train to
mechanically collect aerosols. Two types of filter materials are
used:
-	Fiber filters, which are composed of irregular meshes of fibers
forming openings or pores of 20 micrometers in diameter or less.
As particulate-laden air is drawn through such filters, it is
forced to change direction. Particulates then impinge against the
filter and are retained. A number of fiber filters are available
(Table 2-3). The two with perhaps the greatest application to
hazardous materials operations are cellulose and glass. Filters
of these materials typically consist of thick masses of fine
fibers and have low mass-to-face area ratios, making them
excellent for particulate mass/volume analysis. Of the two,
cellulose if the least expensive, is relatively low in ash, has
high tensile strength, and is available in a variety of sizes.
Its greatest disadvantage is its tendency to absorb water, thus
creating problems in weighing. For this reason, glass fiber
filters are finding more applications.
-	Membrane filters, which are microporous plastic films formed by
precipitating a resin out of an organic colloid. This group of
filters includes such materials as cellulose triacetate, polyvinyl
chloride, Teflon, polypropylene, nylon, and silver (Table 2-3).
These filters have an extremely low mass and ash content. Some
are completely soluble in organic solvents enabling the
concentration of collected particulates into small volumes for
later analysis. Membrane filters, like fiber filters, collect
particulates by impaction rather than by acting as sieves.
2-10
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TABLE 2-3
FILTER MEDIA FOR AIRBORNE PARTICULATES
Representative Application"
Filter Medium
Cellulose ester, 0.45
micrometer pore
Cellulose ester, 0.8
micrometer pore
Fibrous glass
Polyvinyl chloride, 5.0
micrometer pore
Polyvinyl chloride, 5.0
micrometer pore,
in shielded cassette
Silver membrane
Metal fumes; acid mists
Asbestos; metal fumes; fibers;
chlorodiphenyls, (54% chlorine)
Total particulate; oil mists;
pesticides; coal, tar, and
pitch volatiles
Weight analysis; hexavalent
chromi um
Electrostatic dusts
Total particulate; coal, tar, and
and pitch volatiles; free
crystalline silica
Teflon
High temperature applications
2-11
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III. PASSIVE DOSIMETERS
Quantitative passive dosimeters have become available only since the
early 19701s, though a semiquantitative passive monitor for carbon
monoxide was patented as early as 1927. The key advantage of passive
dosimeters is their simplicity (Figure 2-5). These small, light weight
devices do not require a mechanical pump to move a contaminant through a
collection medium. Thus, calibration and maintenance are reduced or
eliminated, although the sampling period must still be accurately
measured. Despite this obvious advantage, such sources of error as
observer interpretation, and the effects of temperature and humidity hold
true for both active and passive systems. Other sources of error unique
to passive dosimeters arise from the need for minimum face velocities and
the determination of contaminant diffusion coefficients.
FIGURE 2-5
DIFFUSION-TYPE PASSIVE SAMPLER
A
A - Sampler front
B - Draft shield
C - Grid section
D - Sorbant impregnated pad
E - Sampler back
2-12
-------
The few passive dosimeters now available apply to gas and vapor
contaminants only. These devices primarily function as personal exposure
monitors, although they have some usefulness in area monitoring. Passive
dosimeters are commonly divided into two groups, primarily on how they
are designed and operated (Table 2-4).
-	Diffusion samplers, which function by the passive movement of
contaminant molecules through a concentration gradient created within
a stagnant layer of air between the contaminated atmosphere and the
indicator material. Some diffusion samplers may be read directly, as
are colorimetric length-of-stain tubes, while others require
laboratory analysis similar to that performed on solid sorbents.
-	Permeation dosimeters, which rely on the natural permeation of a
contaminant through a membrane. The efficiency of these devices
depends on finding a membrane that is easily permeated by the
contaminant of interest and not by all others. Permeation dosimeters
are therefore useful in picking out a single contaminant from a
mixture of possibly interfering contaminants. As with diffusion
samplers, some passive samplers may be of the direct reading type
while others may require laboratory analysis.
TABLE 2-4
AVAILABLE PASSIVE DOSIMETERS FOR GASES AND VAPORS
GROUPED BY PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Diffusion Devices	Permeation Devices
Ammonia	Chlorine
Carbon monoxide	Hydrogen sulfide
Ethylene oxide	Vinyl chloride
Formaldehyde
Mercury
Nitrogen dioxide
Organic vapor (general)
Phosgene
Sulfur dioxide
2-13
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IV. CALIBRATION
Atmospheric sampling systems must be accurately calibrated to a specific
flow rate if the resultant data are to be correctly interpreted. Flow
rate calibration of the electrically powered pump in active systems is
important to achieving the constant flow rates often specified in
standard analytical methods. Passive sampling systems, however, because
of their simplicity in design and principles of operation, require no
formal calibration.
As a minimum, an active sampling system should be calibrated prior to use
and following a prescribed sampling period. The overall frequency of
calibration depends upon the general handling and use a sampling system
receives. Pump mechanisms should be recalibrated after they have been
repaired, when newly purchased, and following any suspected abuse.
As a rule, the sampling system as a whole should be calibrated to the
desired flow rate rather than the pump alone. Figure 2-6 illustrates the
calibration of a respirable dust sampling train against what is known as
a primary standard. Only with all components connected can the system be
adequately examined under field-like operating conditions. Once
assembled, the flow rate of the sampling train can be measured on the
calibrator in liters per minute (L/min). The general formula used for
the calculation of a desired flow rate is as follows:
volumetric distance
Liter travelled by bubble (ml)	60 sec.
Flow rate (L/min) = 	x 	 x	
1000 milliliters travel time of bubble (sec)	minute
milliliters 60 seconds/minute
=	 x 	
second	1000 mi 11i1iters/L
A system can be calibrated by any of several devices for measuring air flow,
including:
- Soap bubble flow meter, which is the most popular. It represents a
primary standard and is used to calibrate the types of sampling pumps
discussed earlier, as well as the manually operated pumps used for
direct reading colorimetric tubes (Figure 2-6). This device typically
consists of an inverted graduated burette connected by flexible tubing
to the sampling train. Calibration is performed as follows: The
system's pump is started creating airflow into the burette. The open
end of the burette is dipped into a soap solution creating a soap film
bubble across the opening. The solution is removed, and the bubble is
allowed to rise up through the burette. Travel time of the bubble
between two graduated points on the burette is measured. The flow
rate (measured in cc's/minute) is varied by adjusting the pump flow
regulator.
2-14
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FIGURE 2-6
THE SOAP BUBBLE FLOW CALIBRATE
AS A PRIMARY CALIBRATION STANDARD
Screen
Burette
1000 ml
Filter
/cassette
Cyclone_
assembly
Beaker with
soap solution
Volumetric Sampling
container	pump
- Precision rotameter, which is the next most popular device. It
represents a secondary standard, and may be used to calibrate
instruments in the field. More compact and portable than the soap
bubble devices, the precision rotameter consists of a vertically
mounted tapered tube, with a float placed inside. As air is passed up
through the tube, the float rises until the rate of flow is sufficient
to hold the float stationary. Again, flow rate is adjusted with the
pump flow regulator.
2-15
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- Wet test meter, which consists of a partitioned drum that is half
submerged in water (Figure 2-7). Air drawn in by the sampling train
enters an opening at the center of the drum and flows into individual
compartments, which also have openings at the edge of the drum. This
in turn causes the compartments to rise and the drum to rotate. The
number of rotations is indicated on a dial on the face of the meter.
FIGURE 2-7
WET TEST METER
Gas pressure gauge
-2-
Gas thermometer
-0-
-I-
Water filling
funnel
-2-
Gas outlet on
back of meter
Water level
sight glass
Water level
Gas inlet on
back of meter
Calibration
point
Partitioned
rotating
drum
POw«l	_ 	
Service Publication No 6M. 1965
Pow«ll CM, Hosey AO (eds): Th« Industrial Environment — Its Evaluation and Control. 2nd Edition. Public Health
2-16
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- Dry gas meter, which is similar to domestic gas meters (Figure 2-8).
This device consists of two bellows connected by valves and a counting
mechanism. As air is drawn into the device, one bag fills and the
other empties. The rate of this change is then measured by dials on
the face of the meter.
FIGURE 2-8
DRY GAS METER
Mechanical valve
and counter
mechanism
Meter
readout
index
cubic
feet
Bellows or
diaphragms
Powell Cm. Hour AO fed*). The loduslrnl En»,
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APPENDIX I
REFERENCES FOR AIR SAMPLING INSTRUMENTS
The following represents a partial list of background references on the subject
of atmospheric sampling instruments. Although other sources may be available,
it is believed that these will provide the reader with a good understanding of
the subject.
The references are listed alphabetically by title and include author,
publisher, and place of publication for each entry. The year of publication is
given for governmental sources only. For the remainder, however, the reader
should attempt to obtain the most recent edition.
1.	Air Sampling Instruments for Evaluation of Atmospheric Contaminants
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
6500 Glenway Avenue, Building D-E
Cincinnati, OH 45211 (513/661-7881)
2.	Fundamentals of Industrial Hygiene
National Safety Council
444 North Michigan Avenue
Chicago, IL 60611
3.	The Industrial Environment - Its Evaluation and Control, 1973
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
Rockville, MD
(Available from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402 202/783-3238)
4.	Industrial Hygiene Field Operations Manual 1980
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Washington, DC 20210
(Available from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402 202/783-3238)
5.	Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, Volumes I and III
Frank A. Patty
John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
New York, NY
6.	NIOSH Manual of Analytical Methods, Volumes I-V11
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
Cincinnati, OH 45226
(Available from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402 202/783-3238)
2-19
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PART 3
RADIATION MONITORING
I. FUNDAMENTALS OF RADIOACTIVITY
A.	Radioactivity is the property of the nucleus of an atom to spontaneously
emit energy in the form of radiation.
B.	Radiation is excessive nuclear energy emitted in the form of high energy
electromagnetic waves or particles.
C.	An element is a pure substance which cannot be broken down chemically or
physically into simpler substances.
1.	At present 106 elements are known.
2.	The smallest indivisible portion of an element is an atom.
a.	An atom is comprised of a dense central core, called the
nucleus, containing protons and neutrons.
b.	Surrounding the nucleus are orbits, planes, or clouds of
electrons.
D.	Primary particles forming an atom are:
Particle	Electrical Charge	Mass (relative scale)
electron	minus 1	1/1800 of proton
proton	positive 1	1
neutron	neutral	1
1.	The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number and
identifies the element. Hydrogen has one proton, helium has two
protons, etc.
2.	The number of electrons in an atom equals the number of protons;
hence an atom is electrically neutral.
3.	The number of neutrons in the atom of an element varies. Atoms of
the same element with a different number of neutrons are called
isotopes of that element. The combination of protons and neutrons
in the nucleus of an atom is the mass number.
4.	All the isotopes of all the elements are called nuclides,
a. Radionuclides are radioactive.
3-1
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b. Stable nuclides are not radioactive
5. There are approximately:
1,500
nucli des
- 285
are stable
1,215
nuclides are radioactive
- 65
radionuclides found in nature
1,150
man-made radionuclides
II. RADIATION
A.	When the coulombic forces (repulsion forces due to the positive charges
of protons) are sufficient to overcome the nuclear forces (which hold
the nucleus together, "nuclear glue"), excess energy is emitted from
the nucleus in the form of electromagnetic waves or rays and/or high -
velocity particles.
B.	Three types of radiation are of major concern:
1.	Alpha particles - Particles consisting of two protons and two
neutrons bound together with an electrical charge of +2. Identical
to helium nuclei.
2.	Beta particles - Particles with a single electrical charge. When
negatively charged, identical to electrons.
3.	Gamma rays - High energy, short-wavelength, electromagnetic
radiation. Other types of electomagnetic radiation include visible
light, ultraviolet, and radar.
C.	After the emission of an alpha or beta particle (but not gamma
radiation), the original atom is transformed or transmuted into an atom
of a different element called a "daughter". The daughter product may
or may not be radioactive.
1.	By the process of ionization, radiation interacts with the
electrons surrounding the nucleus of the atoms or molecules that
comprise the material through which the radiation is traveling.
2.	This process creates an ion-pair, a positively charged atom or
molecule and an electron(s) which is freed from the atom due to the
interaction with radiation.
3.	After a series of ionizing interactions, each requiring a finite
amount of energy from the radiation, the radiation loses its
initial energy. In the case of alpha and beta particles, after
loss of all velocity:
a. An alpha particle picks up two electrons and becomes a helium
atom.
3-2
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b.	An electron loses its velocity (kinetic energy) and becomes a
free electron.
c.	Gamma radiation is eventually degraded and finally absorbed.
E. The various types of radiation differ in their ability to penetrate
matter (Table 3-1).
TABLE 3-1
ENERGY OF RADIATION: 1 MeV
Type of
radi at ion
Di stance
traveled
in air
Ion-pairs in
1 cm of air
Shielding
requi red
A1 pha
Beta
Gamma
Less than 1 inch Hundreds of
thousands
Inches
Hundreds
Hundreds of feet 1-2
A sheet of paper
1/16 inch of
aluminum foi1
2 feet of
alumi num foi1
III. IDENTIFYING CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIONUCLIDES
A.	Radionuclides have three distinct characteristics that are useful for
identification purposes:
1.	Half-1ife - the amount of time it takes for 1/2 the original
number of atoms of a specific radionuclide to decay is always the
same.
2.	Type of radiation - the type(s) of radiation emitted by a
specific radionuclide is always the same.
3.	Energy - the energy of the radiation emitted by a specific
radionuclide is always the same.
B.	Although these characteristics are specific to each radionuclide,
there is a duplication among nuclides.
3-3
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IV. RADIATION INSTRUMENT USE
A.	All radiation survey instruments work on the same principle: radiation
causes ionization in the detecting media. The ions produced are
"counted" electronically, and a relationship established between the
number of ionizing events and quantity of radiation present.
B.	Major Types of Detectors
1.	Ion detection tubes
a.	Contain gas (frequently air) at atmospheric pressure.
b.	Are generally not sensitive but are high-ranqe instruments.
c.	Are used predominantly for detecting and measuring gamma and
x-radi ati on.
2.	Proportional detection tubes
a.	Contain gas such as methane, 4% isobutane + 96% helium, p-10
(10% methane + 90% argon) at atmospheric pressure.
b.	Inherently do not detect beta and gamma radiation. In survey
instruments used primarily for detecting and measuring alpha
radi at i on.
3.	Geiger-Mueller detection tubes
a.	Contain gas such as argon, helium, and neon, all with a
quenching agent, usually below atmospheric pressure.
b.	Are sensitive, but not high-range instruments.
c.	Are used to detect gamma and/or beta radiation.
4.	Scintillation detection media
a.	Contain solid crystal. (Liquid scintillation media not
ordinarily used in survey instruments.) As radiation
interacts with media, flashes of visible light are emitted and
electronically "counted".
b.	Are used for detecting alpha or gamma radiation.
c.	Are very sensitive generally and low-range instruments.
V. INSTRUMENT CONSIDERATIONS
A. Common/General Features
3-4
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1. Audio
2.	Off-On
3.	Battery Check
4.	Range Selector
5.	Fast/Slow Response
6.	Night Light
7.	Reset
B.	Dial
1.	Readout is generally in exposure rate mi 11iroentgens/hour (mR/hr),
or roentgens/hour, or less frequently counts/minute.
(See Table 3-2 for Exposure Guidelines.)
2.	Exposure rate x exposure time = total exposure.
C.	Background
1. After sufficient period of time to warm-up, gamma instruments
indicate exposure-rate of about 0.01-0.02 mR/hr. This is due to
natural background radiation from various kinds of radionuclides
found in the soil and high energy cosmic radiation from outer
space. Generally, there is no background for alpha and beta
radiation.
D.	Calibration
1.	All radiation instruments should be calibrated frequently.
2.	Dial reading should be compared and adjusted against an accurate
secondary standard or a known exposure-rate from a radioactive
source.
VI. REFERENCES
1. Pizzarello, J., R. L. Witcokski, Basic Radiation Biology,
Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia, PA (1975).
2. Radiological Health Handbook, Department of Health and Human Services,
Bureau of Radiological Health, Publication number 017-011-00043-0,
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402.
3-5
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3.	Shapiro. Jacob, Basic Radiation Protection, Harvard University Press,
Cambridge, MA (1981)
4.	Standards for Protection Against Radiation, Department of Energy,
Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 10 CFR Chapter 1, Part 30.
3-6
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TABLE 3-2
REFERENCE CRITERIA FOR EXPOSURE TO RADIATION
GENERALIZED FEDERAL STANDARDS FOR RADIATION WORKERS
Whole-Body Dose Equivalent
5 rem/year or an accumulated dose of 5 times chronological age - 18, but
may not be received at a rate greater than 3 rem/calendar quarter.
Federal Guideline
5 rem/year = 1.25 rem/calendar quarter = 100 mi 11irem/week = 2.5 mi 11irem/hour
Units
rem = unit of biological damage from radiation. For gamma radiation: roentgen
= 1 rem or 1 mR/hour = 1 mi 11irem/hour
Background Radiation
To the whole body, typically 150 mrem/year, but wide variation geographically.
Typical gamma exposure rate on survey instrument, 0.02 mR/hr.
Example Calculation
On an incident, gamma survey instruments indicate an average exposure rate of
10 mR/hour.
10 mR/hour = 10 mi 11irem/hour
10 mrem/hour (exposure rate) x 6 hour/day (work day) x
5 days/week (work week) = 300 mrem/week (exposure per work week)
This exceeds Federal guideline of 100 mrem/week (and should not
be done).
Working at site for three months: 300 mrem/week (exposure rate/
week) x 4 weeks (weeks/month) = 1,200 mrem/month (exposure rate/
month) = 1.2 rem/month x 3 months = 3.6 rem/calendar quarter.
This exceeds Federal guideline of 1.25 rem/calendar quarter
(and should not be done).
3-7
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Biological effects of acute, whole-body radiation exposure
Type of Exposure
Biological Effects
Millirems
Dose-Level Gems
1,000,000
450,000
250,000
100,000
50,000
25,000


flififsj
Lifetime dose from ¦
natural background
radiation ot 125
millirems per year. ¦
10,000
9,000
1,000
Gastrointestinal tract x-ray _ 210
Dental x-rays (2) _
Chest x-ray	
wood.	
Housing: - brick —
_ stone	
Food, water, air _
Jet plane travel 2500 miles _
Television per year _
100
80
50
50
45
35
25
1
1





1,000	Death within 30 days.
450_
250.
100_
50_
25_
Hall of those exposed will die within 30
. days. Recovery with some permanent
impairment, ot the other 50%.
"Acute radiation sickness, few or no deaths
and signiticant lile shortening. Radiation
sickness includes vomiting, diarrhea, loss
of hair, nausea, hemorrhaging. lever, loss
ot appetite and general malaise. Recov-
ery (it no complications) in about three
months.
. Possible radiation sickness; little or no lile
shortening.
.Possible radiation sickness, headache.
10, dizziness, malaise, nausea, vomiting
diarrhea, decrease in blood pressure,
irritability and insomnia.
-Radiation eflects detectable only by labo-
ratory examination: decrease in white
blood cells, platelets ... il background infor-
mation available prior to exposure.
1 —No etlect on normal lile span.
1— 100 cases ol cancer per million persons
exposed.
.21
.10
.08
OlJ
—Currently the amount ol low-level radia-
tion a person receives can be measured
but cannot be related to the elfects on the
body Because this data is inconclusive, the
effects of low-level radiation are assumed
to be directly related to the total amount
received.
3-8
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APPENDIX
From: Basic Radiological Health, Training Manual;
Radiological Health & Training Program; USEPA.
Quantities and Units of Radiation
I. INTRODUCTION
The structure and meaning of currently
accepted definitions used in quantitative de-
termination of radiation fields must be under-
stood. Without a physically consistent, realis-
tic, and measurable description of the
radiation field, the clinician, radiologist, or
technologist could not utilize radiation with
reproducibility or safety, nor could the effects
of radiation on living organisms be ascer-
tained. The concepts discussed in this outline
represent only part of a set of radia-
tion quantities and units established by the
International Commission on Radiation Units
and Measurements (1CRU) in its Report
Number 11, Radiation Quantities and Units,
published in 1968.
II. QUANTITIES AND UNITS
The ICRU has standards which clearly
delineate radiation quantities and radiation
units.
A "quantity" may be thought of as a de-
scription of a physical concept or principle.
The magnitude or measure of a quantity is a
"unit." Fundamentally, therefore, the quan-
tity is the more important. The unit places
limits upon, but will not serve to define, the
quantity. For example, the concept of length
is a quantity; the meter is a unit of length.
An internationally accepted system of writ-
ing and abbreviating units has been estab-
lished, To avoid confusion with the name of
the man for whom a unit may be named, the
name is capitalized when referring to the
man (Roentgen) but when referring to the unit,
the name will be written in lower case
(roentgen).
The abbreviation for the unit is, however,
capitalized (R). In cases where the abbrevia-
tion conflicts with another accepted symbol,
a combination of letters, usually the first and
last, is used. An illustration is seen in the
case of the unit curie. The abbreviation used
is Ci, as other possible symbols conflict with
the symbol for coulomb and with common
chemical symbols.
A.	Radiation Quantities
Radiation may be divided into two classes:
ionizing and non-ionizing. X rays, for ex-
ample, are classified as ionizing radiations
by virtue of their energy. Ionizing radiations,
however, include many types of radiations in
addition to x rays. The ICRU has considered
ionizing radiations in two categories:
1.	Directly ionizing particles or charged
particles (electrons, protons, alpha par-
ticles, etc.), which have sufficient kinetic
energy to cause ionization by collision;
and
2.	Indirectly ionizing particles or uncharged
particles (neutrons, gamma rays, x rays,
etc.), which can interact and liberate di-
rectly ionizing particles.
Quantities describing the effects of the
interaction of directly and indirectly ionizing
radiations with matter have been developed
to cover many aspects of the interaction proc-
esses. For practical radiation protection
measurements and control, only four quanti-
ties are generally utilized. These will be
discussed in greater detail in the following
material.
B.	Exposure
Historically, the most important term as-
sociated with radiation exposure has been the
roentgen. So, after a series of redefinitions,
the roentgen has been chosen as the unit for
3-9
-------
Quantities and Units of Radiation
the quantity exposure. The current definition
of exposure is:
The exposure (X) is the quotient of AQ by
Am, where AQ is the sum of the electrical
charges on all the ions of one sign pro-
duced in air when all the electrons (nega-
trons and positrons), liberated by photons
in a volume element of air whose mass is
Am, are completely stopped in air.
*=P-
A m
Several important restrictions applying to
the quantity are immediately apparent from
the wording of the definition:
1.	The medium in which exposure is defined
is air; no other medium is acceptable.
2.	The radiations for which exposure is
defined are photons (x ray and gamma).
3.	The effect being measured is ionization
of the air.
4.	All electrons liberated in the ionizing
processes must be stopped in air.
The last restriction serves to impose upper
limits on the maximum quantum energy which
may be directly measured in terms of ex-
posure, because the range of the electrons
liberated increases as a function of the
energy. A chamber (see a discussion of the
free air chamber) which measures exposure
directly must have dimensions such that the
distances from the electrodes to the sites of
interaction are greater than the maximum
range of the secondary electrons. For ex-
ample, a chamber intended to measure expo-
sure resulting from a beam of 2 MeV pho-
tons would require overall dimensions greater
than 15 meters, because the maximum range
in air of 2 MeV electrons which may be liber-
ated is on the order of 7.5 meters.
The meaning of the symbol A (read delta)
is best illustrated by considering the fact that
the interaction of radiation is not continuous.
Interaction locations are discrete sites which
can only be described statistically. If the
measuring volume is too small, a single
measurement of the effect may include no
interaction or, through chance, several inter-
2

\
INDIVIDUAL nEASUKCMENTS
FI.UC7UML WITHIN THIS R*NC!
TRUE ALUE
= /
5 V
r.
Figure 1. — Detector Response
vs. Volume
actions may have occurred within the volume.
Therefore, an average value must be deter-
mined. This effect of random variations ob-
tained by a series of measurements is shown
in the left region of the curve in Figure 1. As
the volume is increased, the effect of the
larger volume is to average the effects mea-
sured in a series of smaller volumes. The
result approaches closely the true average,
as indicated in the center portion of the
curve. A continued increase in the volume
would now include regions outside the radia-
tion field, and the measured values would
decrease, as shown on the right. In short, the
measurement of radiation fields involves
statistical averaging procedures; the symbol
A will precede the symbols for quantities that
may be involved in such averaging proce-
dures.
C. Absorbed Dose
Exposure, as noted earlier, is limited to
measurement of the ionization in air produced
by x or y radiations. This quantity is, of
course, extremely limited: Many types of
radiation exist, and the material of interest
in which interaction occurs in most cases is
not air. Additionally, ionization produced by
the radiation may not be the effect which is
most usefully evaluated. "Absorbed dose" is
a quantity much more general in its struc-
turing. It is defined as follows:
The absorbed dose (D) is the quotient of A
by Am, where AED is the energy imparted
Radiological Health
3-10
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Quantities and Units of Radiation
by ionizing radiation to the matter in ?
volume element, and Am is the mass of the
matter in that volume element.
Am
The following points are to be seen in rhe
definition:
1.	Any type of ionizing radiation (directly or
indirectly ionizing) is included.
2.	Any material may be used in making the
measurement.
3.	The effect observed is the energy im-
parted by the radiation to the matter in
the volume element.
Most often a direct measurement of ab-
sorbed dose will be carried out by calo-
rimetry, since temperature changes—which
directly reflect the energy input to the mass
(if one excludes possible changes from as-
sociated chemical energies)—are relatively
easy to measure. Again, it must be pointed
out that selection of the size of the mass is
important as statistical averaging proce-
dures apply.
The energy imparted to the matter in the
volume element is not necessarily equal to
the amount of energy removed from the beam.
Secondary electrons, for example, may carry
some energy to matter in adjacent volumes.
The energy lost is related to another quan-
tity, "kerma" (kinetic energy released in
material).
Because absorbed dose is a general quan-
tity applying to any radiation in any material,
it could certainly be applied to x radiation in
air. Thus a relation between absorbed dose
and exposure may be established in air or in
other media.
D. Dose Equivalent
Research has shown that the effect of
ionizing radiations on biological systems is
not related exclusively to absorbed dose. The
effects observed depend on many factors and
include:
1.	Type of radiation
2.	Energy of the radiation
3.	Distribution and/or fractionation of the
radiation
4.	Biological endpoint chosen
5.	Time at which the endpoint is evaluated
6.	Species and strain of the organism utilized.
Many other factors, such as the adminis-
tration of certain drugs, also influence the
response to radiation. In an effort to provide
a comparable numerical basis for the effects
of various types of radiation for protection
purposes, a quantity termed the "dose equiva-
lent" (DE) has been defined as*.
The product of the absorbed dose (D),
quality factor (QF), and other necessary
modifying factors:
DE = D (QF) (...).
Depending upon the effect chosen for eval-
uation, the result obtained when the effects of
two types of radiation are compared (fre-
quently termed in radiobiological research
the "relative biological effectiveness" or
RBE) may vary widely. A representative value
for the RBEs is selected by a committee to be
used for radiation protection purposes. This
value is termed the "quality factor" (QF).
Typical quality factors, given here, are
taken from Rees, D. J., Health Physics:
Principles of Radiation Protection (London:
Butterworth, 1967):
Quality
Factor
Type of Radiation
1.0 X rays; y rays; electrons; and 0
rays with E max greater than 0.03
MeV
1.7 P rays with Emax not greater than
0.03 MeV
10.* Neutrons and protons up to 10 MeV
10. Naturally occurring a particles
20. Heavy recoil nuclei
• 30. In the case of irradiation of the eyes.
3-11
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Quantities and Units of Radiation
E.	Activity
A quantity is necessary to describe the rate
at which a radionuclide undergoes nuclear
transformations. Historically, radium was
used as a standard, but ICRU recommenda-
tions have established a quantity which is
independent of any particular substance and
depends only on measurable quantities, i.e.,
the number of transformations occurring and
the time during which these emissions took
place. The quantity involved is "activity" and
is defined as follows:
The activity (A) of a quantity of a radio-
active nuclide is the quotient of AN by At
where AN is the number of nuclear trans-
formations which occur in this quantity in
time At.
AN
A =	.
At
Activity applies only to the number of
nuclear transformations taking place per
unit time and is not directly related to the
exposure rate, absorbed dose rate, or dose
equivalent rate due to the radionuclide.
F,	Units
Each of the quantities discussed has a
measure or "unit" assigned to it. Exposure
is expressed in terms of the equation
x=M.
Am
where Q represents electrical charge (pro-
duced by ionization) per unit mass of air.
Hence, any units of charge over mass would
conform with the definition. The ICRU has,
however, established a special unit, the use
of which is restricted to measurement of ex-
posure only. The unit of charge used is the
"coulomb," and the unit mass is the "kilo-
gram." Specifically,
1 roentgen
= 2.58 X 10 coulombs/kilogram*
•The magnitude of this unit does not differ from the
magnitude of the previous definition.
4
Absorbed dose, defined in terms of energy
deposited in a mass, would demand units of
energy (joules, for example) per unit mass
(kilograms). Again, a special unit has been
defined which is used in referring to ab-
sorbed dose:
1 rad = 'A oo joule/kilogram
= 100 ergs/gram.
The unit of dose equivalent is the "rem,"
which is obtained by multiplying the dose in
rads by the appropriate quality factor and
other modifying factors. The ICRU notes in
its report that this statement ". . . does not
cover a number of theoretical aspects (in
particular the physical dimensions of some
of the quantities) ..." but that "... it
fulfills the immediate requirement for an
unequivocal specification of a scale that may
be used for numerical expression in radia-
tion protection." In short, since dimensional-
ity is ignored, rems = rads X QF. Since the
QF for x and gamma radiation is l,the num-
ber of rems is identical to the absorbed dose
in rads for these radiations.
The special unit for activity is the "curie."
The commission has recommended that
steps be taken to redefine the curie as
1 curie = 3.7 X 1010 s~' (exactly).
The earlier definition of the curie was based
on the activity of the radon gas in equilibrium
with one gram of radium. Recent measure-
ments have shown that the activity asso-
ciated with this standard is 3.61 X 10' °s"'
and hence the unit has been redefined as a
number independent of any given radioactive
nuclide.
111. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
In the application of instrumentation to the
assessment of the radiation fields, care must
be taken to select instruments which will
truly indicate or measure the radiation quan-
tity of interest. Exposure can only be meas-
ured directly by an air-filled device which
measures ionization in air. In practice, most
exposure measuring instruments are related
Radiological Health
3-12
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Quantities and Units of Radiation
to a free-air chamber, and do not actually
measure exposure directly. Most of the
ionization produced and measured originates
in the chamber wall--which is hopefully an
"air equivalent" material.
IV. SUMMARY
Certain of the salient features of radiation
quantities and units are presented in the
following table:
Associated Features
Quantities
Exposure
Absorbed Dose
Dose Equivalent
Radiation types
x- or gamma ray
all ionizing
all ionizing
Media in which effects are
measured
air
any
biological system
Effects observed
ionization
energy deposited
biological effect
Units
roentgen
rad
rem
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Johns, Harold E„ Physics of Radiology (2nd rev. ed.;
Springfield, 111.: Charles C Thomas, Publisher,
1964).
Radiation Quantities and Units (ICRU #11 [Washington,
D.C.: International Commission on Radiation
Units and Measurements, 1968]).
Recommendations of the International Commission on
Radiological Protection (International Commis-
sion on Radiological Protection, ICRP #6 [Elms-
ford, N.Y,: Pergamon Press, Inc., 1964]).
Recommendations of the International Commission on
Radiological Protection (International Commis-
sion on Radiological Protection, ICRP# 19[Elms-
ford, N.Y.: Pergamon Press, Inc., 1966]).
Report of Committee II on Permissible Dose for In-
ternal Radiation (International Commission on
Radiological Protection, ICRP #2 [Elmsford,
N.Y.: Pergamon Press, Inc., 1959]).
Report of Committee IV on Protection Against Elec-
tromagnetic Radiation Above 3 MeV and Elec-
trons, Neutrons, and Protons(InternationalCom-
mission on Radiological Protection, ICRP #4
[Elmsford, N.Y.: Pergamon Press, Inc., 1964]).
Symbols, Units and Nomenclature in Physics (Oak
Ridge, Term.: USAEC, Division of Technical
Information Extension, 1965).
3-13
5
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From: Basic Radiological Health, Training Manual;
Radiological Health & Training Program; USEPA.
Units of Radioactive Decay and the Decay Law
I.	INTRODUCTION
The most widely used unit of quantity of
radioactive material Is the curie.
II.	THE CURIE UNIT
A.	Original Definition
Originally, the curie unit applied only to
radium. It was based on the disintegrations
per second occurring in the quantity of
radon gas in equilibrium with one gram of
radium. If permitted to attain this equilib-
rium, one gram of radium will produce
about 0.66 mm3 of radon. In this quantity
of radon, about 37 billion atoms disintegrate
each second.
B.	Later Modifications
The International Radium Standard Com-
mission extended the definition in 1930 to in-
clude that quantity of any radioactive decay
product of radium which underwent the same
number of disintegrations per second as one
gram of radium. It avoided specifying the
figure exactly, so for some years the exact
value of the curie unit varied with each suc-
cessive refinement in the measurement of
the decay constant or the atomic weight of
radium.
C.	Modern Practice
In 1950, the International Joint Commission
on Standards, Units, and Constants or Radio-
activity redefined the curie unit by accepting
37 billion disintegrations per second as a
curie of radioactivity regardless of its source
or characteristics. At present, the unit of
quantity of radioactivity, the curie, merely
requires that in the given sample of any ma-
terial, 3.7 x 10'° disintegrations occur each
second. Smaller—and o f t e n more conven-
ient—units are the millicurie, (one-thou-
sandth of a curie: mCi), and the microcurie,
(one-millionth of a curie: ;iCi). The picocurie
(3.7 x 10 "J dis/sec or 2.22 dis/min) is often
used to express the very low natural and
environmental levels.
D. Curies and Grains: Specific Activity
The term curie originated from the num-
ber of emanations from one gram of radium.
Thus, the activity of one gram of radium is
equivalent to one curie. It is important, how-
ever, to note that when applied to radio-
nuclides other than radium, the curie unit
does not make apparent what weight of the
material is required. Since the curie of
activity is 37 billion disintegrations per
second, the weight of the material required
to produce this number of disintegrations
per second will be a function of the decay
rate of the atoms of the material (i.e., the
disintegration constant) and of the number
of atoms of the material per gram (i.e.,
gram atomic weight). As examples, a curie
of pure MCo would weigh less than 0.9
milligram, whereas a curie of naturalU
would require over two metric tons of the
metal. "Curies per gram" is termed "spe-
cific activity."
III. THE RADIOACTIVE DECAY LAW
A. The Disintegration Constant
The activity of any sample of radioactive
material decreases or decays at a fixed rate
which is a characteristic of that particular
radionuclide. No known physical or chemical
agents (such as temperature, pressure, dis-
solution, or combination) may be made to
influence this rate. The rate may be charac-
terized in at least two ways, one of which is
3-14
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Units of Radioactive Decay and the Decay Law
the use of the disintegration constant (X).
The disintegration constant (X) represents
the fraction of the total number of atoms
present which decays in a unit time. Thus
the number of disintegrations occurring per
unit time in a given sample is the product of
the number of atoms present in the sample,
(N), and the fraction of these disintegrating
in each unit time, (X), or:
where the minus sign is used to indicate that
the number of atoms is diminishing. Inte-
gration of the above equation leads to the
basic law of radioactive decay:
_ A t
Nt = N0e
Written out, this equation reads: the number
of atoms (Nt) remaining after a time (t) is
equal to the original number (N0) multiplied
by e_At, where (e) is the base of the natural
system of logarithms and (X) is the disinte-
gration constant.
B. The Half-Life
The disintegration constant is not as con-
venient as another method of representing
the rate of radioactive decay. This is the half-
life, or Ty7, of the radionuclide. It is the length
of time required for one half of the original
number of nuclei to disintegrate. The rela-
tionship of the half-life to the disintegration
constant (X) can be shown in the following way:
, _ 0.693
A	rp
1 >/i
Therefore, one may substitute this expres-
sion for (X) in the basic decay law, and
0_ 693 t
Nt = N0e" ti£
If it is desired to have the equation in
terms of activity instead of number of atoms,
2
one can multiply both sides of the equation
by the disintegration constant (X) as follows:
0. 693 I
X N t = N oe t
n
but	X N = A
therefore:
0. 693 t
At = A0e" tYj
This is the working equation for computing
the amount of radionuclide which will remain
from the original sample after an interval of
time elapses.
C.	Computational Method
Example:
Given: A0 = 10 mCi of 32P
t = 120 days
T, =14.2 days
Find At the quantity remaining after
120 days
(0. 693-) (120)
At =(10) e m
toe,
= 10e~ = 10(0.00288)
At =0.0288 mCi
This is the sort of calculation which would
be required before diluting a radioisotope for
future use or for determining the remaining
activity in a quantity of nuclide which had
been stored for some time since its stand-
ardization.
D.	Graphic Method
There is an easy graphical method of ac-
complishing this same computation. It is
based on the relation that each successive
Radiological Health
3-15
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Units of Radioactive Decay and the Decay Law
half-life reduces the activity present by one-
half, and the effect is cumulative: i.e., two
half-lives reduce to / X ]/2 or 'A; three reduce
to y2 X l/2 X l/2 or %, etc. In the general case,
= A0(j) n
where (n) is the number of half-lives elapsed.
This function is graphed in the Radiological
Health Handbook under Radioactive Decay,
Semi-Log Plot. The answer to the "example"
problem may easily be read from the graph
at the point where the line intersects the
horizontal axis. This number (8.44) is the
number of half-lives of 32P in a 120-day
period. A useful "rule of thumb" to remem-
ber is that seven half-lives will reduce any
activity to below 1 percent of its original
value.
REFERENCE
(1) Kinsman, Simon (ed#), "Table of Isotopes,"
Radiological Health Handbook (Rev. ed.; PB
121784R [Springfield, Va.: U.S. Dept. of Com-
merce, Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and
Technical Information, Sept. 1960] ).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Kaplan, I., Nuclear Physics (Cambridge, Mass.:
Addison-Wesley Pub. Co., Inc., 1963).
Kinsman, Simon (ed.), Radiological Health Handbook
(Rev. ed.; PB 121784R [Springfield, Va.: U.S.
Dept. of Commerce, Clearinghouse for Federal
Scientific and Technical Information, Sept. I960]),
Murray, R. L., Introduction to Nuclear Engineering
(2nd ed.; New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1961).
Stephenson, R., Introduction to Nuclear Engineering
(2nd ed.; New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1958).
This material was prepared by Mr. C. D. Geilker, formerly of the
Training Branch, Division of Radiological Health.
3-16
3
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From:
Basic Radiological Health. Training Manual;
Radiological Health & Training Program; USEPA.
Basic Principles of Radiation Detection Instruments
I.	INTRODUCTION
Since man can neither sense nor measure
the presence of radiation, instruments must
be used for its detection. Such instruments
measure or respond to the charged particles
which are produced as radiation interacts
with matter. The basic difference between
the various instruments is the medium in
which the ionizing events occur.
The principal means of detection are: gas
ionization, photographic emulsions, scintilla-
tion media, semiconductors, chemical de-
composition media, radiophotoluminescence
and optical density, thermoluminescence, and
calorimetry. They will be discussed in the
paragraphs that follow.
II.	GAS IONIZATION
Radiation detection devices, based on the
principle of collecting ions formed by the
interaction of ionizing radiation in the cham-
ber wall and enclosed gas, comprise a large
segment of all radiation detection instruments
now in use. The gases usually used are air
or tissue-equivalent gas mixtures, or a
mixture of a noble gas and a small amount
of a polyatomic gas such as methane or
lsobutane. The content, concentration, and
pressure will vary with the specific function
of the instrument.
REGION Of
BICOM6INA7ION
A. R
egions
of R
esponse
The relationship of the several types of
gas ionization instruments can best be il-
lustrated by a hypothetical experiment which
utilizes a detection chamber, a variable
voltage supply, and a current indicator of
high sensitivity and wide range.
In this experiment, if we expose the de-
tection chamber to a constant source of
radiation and apply an increasing voltage
IONIZATION
Chamber
REGION
PROPORTIONAL REGION G
REGION
REGION OF
LIMITED
PROPOR-
TIONALITY
CONTINUOUS
DISCHARGE
REGION
APPLIED VOLTAGE
Figure 1.— Regions of Instrument Response
across the chamber, the measured current
output produced by ionization within the
chamber will yield five regions of response,
as illustrated in Figure 1.
1. RECOMBINATION REGION
In the first region, the ions produced by
the radiation will be under very low voltage
gradients and will tend to recombine with
each other rather than migrate to the elec-
trodes and be collected. This recombination
of ion pairs decreases as the applied voltage
is increased and finally becomes negligible.
At some voltage the field strength will be
sufficient to collect essentially all of the ion
pairs that are formed. This first region is
known as the region of recombination and is
usually not useful for the operation of radia-
tion detection instruments.
3-17
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Basic Principles of Radiation Detection Instruments
2.	SATURATION OR IONIZATION CHAM-
BER REGION
This region begins at the voltage at which
all ions formed are collected. These are the
primary ions resulting from the action of
the radiation, and are comprised of ion
pairs. The negative portion of the ion pair
(electron) is accelerated toward the anode
or positive electrode of the chamber, while
the positive ion (residue of the atom) is
drawn more slowly toward the cathode or
negative electrode. For some large increment
of voltage above the region of recombina-
tion, all ions produced in the gas by radiation
are collected by the electrodes. As the
voltage is increased within this region, the
ions are given more energy and move faster
toward the electrodes. However, they do not
become energetic enough to produce addi-
tional ionization. This second region provides
the first of the three operating regions for
gas ionization instruments.
3.	PROPORTIONAL REGION
If the voltage is increased above the
ionization chamber region, the number of
ions collected by the electrodes is greater
than the number produced by the radiation.
Under the voltage gradient, the primary
electrons achieve a high enough velocity
to cause secondary ionization in the filling
gas. This secondary ionization results in an
amplification of the number of ion pairs
produced by the radiation. Hence, each pri-
mary ion pair produces several additional
ions which are collected and measured on
the instrument.
The number of secondary ions produced
for each primary ion pair formed by the
radiation is called the "gas amplification
factor." As the voltage is raised, the gas
amplification factor is increased. Gas ampli-
fication factors are normally about 103;
factors as high as 10s or 10® are some-
times attained in this region. The number
of ions collected is related to the applied
voltage, and is proportional to the number of
primary ion pairs formed. Thus, an alpha
2
particle with its high specific ionization
will produce a much larger pulse of current
than will beta radiation with its correspond-
ingly lower energy and lower specific ioniza-
tion, illustrated by the alpha and beta curves
respectively in Figure 1. This fact makes
possible pulse height discrimination between
alpha and beta which differ in the amount of
primary ionization produced.
This proportionality (of the number of
ions collected to the primary ionization) is
the reason for naming the third region of
instrument operation "the proportional re-
gion." The upper part of this region, where
the two curves begin to approach each other
(see Figure 1), is referred to as the "region
of limited proportionality" and is not gen-
erally used in radiation instrumentation.
This limit is controlled by the physical di-
mensions of the counter and the number of
gas atoms present. The true proportional
relationship no longer exists in this upper
region.
4. GEIGER-MUELLER REGION
In the G-M region the increased voltage
accelerates the primary electrons. These
latter interact with gas molecules, producing
a sequence of ionizing events during their
travel to the anode. When the secondary
ionization does start, it builds up rapidly,
since the secondary ionizing events can also
produce more ionization. The buildup of
ionization, referred to as a "Townsend ava-
lanche," then collects on the central
electrode.
Since a single ionizing event can produce
a very large number of ions, the number of
ions collected is relatively independent of
the applied voltage and the specific ionization
of the incident radiation. G-M counters op-
erating in the G-M region provide a gas
amplification factor as high as 1010 and are
extremely sensitive to any radiation which
produces even one ion pair. Consequently,
individual ionizing events may be detected.
The positive ions (often argon) produced
during this avalanche of electrons migrate
Radiological Health
3-18
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Basic Principles of Radiation Detection Instruments
to the cathode, where their electron defi-
ciency is satisfied by the excess negative
charge at the cathode. When the vacant
orbits of the gas atoms are filled, electro-
magnetic radiation is emitted. This radiation,
which may be either ultraviolet or x radia-
tion, tends to continue the discharge action,
and so sustain the period during which the
gas is essentially a conducting medium.
5. CONTINUOUS DISCHARGE REGION
If the voltage is increased above the
G-M region the gas arcs, thereby producing
a state of continuous discharge.
The experiment described (utilizing a de-
tection chamber, a variable voltage supply,
and a current indicator of high sensitivity
and wide range) is theoretically possible.
But in practice one does not convert an
ionization chamber to a proportional counter
or G-M counter by merely raising the
voltage. For practical reasons these instru-
ment types differ from each other not only
in voltage but in configuration and composition
of the contained gas.
B. Operational and Practical Considerations
The operational characteristics of detec-
tion instruments occur primarily in three of
the five regions of instrument response.
The first—the ionization chamber region—
provides low sensitivity but high range, since
it measures only the primary ionization
produced. Discrimination between the several
types of radiation is not possible except by
use of external absorbers. The operating
voltage for ionization chamber instruments
will usually be between 60 and 600 volts,
depending upon the filling gas (usually air at
atmospheric pressure) and the physical size
and shape of the chamber.
Proportional instruments provide a high
sensitivity due to their gas amplification and
a (relatively) high range, since the secondary
ionization takes place over only a portion
of the chamber volume. Due to the propor-
tionality factor which exists in this re-
gion, the instrument is inherently capable of
discriminating between different types of
radiation. Proportional counters are us-
ually filled with a mixture of argon and
methane, although air is sometimes used.
Operating voltages range from 500 to
5000 volts, depending upon chamber design
and filling gas.
The G-M region provides high sensitivity,
since any ionizing event occurring within the
G-M tube can be counted. It has a low range
due to the discharge dead time (the time
during which the gas is conducting and there-
fore insensitive to any further ionizing
events). Because of the nature of the dis-
charge, it is impossible to discriminate
between the various types of radiation in
this region. Geiger-Mueller chambers are
usually filled with argon or helium (and in
most cases, a quenching vapor) at lower than
atmospheric pressure. They operate in the
range of 600 to 3000 volts.
To suppress the secondary emission of
electrons from the cathode, a quenching
agent is used. Organic quenching agents,
usually polyatomic molecules such as ethyl
alcohol, absorb the energy from the positively
charged ion and dissociate into smaller
particles which do not emit ultraviolet light
and hence cannot eject electrons from the
cathode. The useful life of the organically
quenched tube is limited by the number of
quenching molecules present. Organically
quenched tubes have a reasonably flat plateau.
The use of halogen gases will produce the
same quenching effect; however, the halogen
ions apparently recombine after dissociation
and therefore do not limit the life of the
tube.
The G-M region is illustrated in Figure 2.
The threshold voltage is that applied voltage
where the pulses are first detected and the
avalanche effect results with further voltage
increase. Normal operating voltage is se-
lected at approximately one-third the plateau
distance to obtain the greatest stability and
life of the tube. Sustained operation in the
continuous discharge region will result in
permanent damage to the G-M tube.
Each of the regions provides certain
operating characteristics described above
3
3-19
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Basic Principles of Radiation Detection Instruments


BreoVdo-fi j


Voltage i /
\ ' /
Threihold

V/
Volloqc '
/ 1
/ i
' i
-—r
Opcrolmg
Voltoge
		—" i
i
i
I
i
APPLIED voltage
Figure 2.— G-M Response Curve
which makes it useful for one purpose or
another; The ionization chamber region,
providing a direct indication of the number of
ions produced by a given radiation, is emi-
nently suitable for indicating cumulative
exposure or radiation exposure rate. Ion
chambers are not sensitive to low radiation
intensities, but complementary to their low
sensitivity is their ability to measure large
doses or high radiation intensities. Pro-
portional instruments find their best use in
the discrimination between alpha and beta
radiation, while G-M instruments are ex-
tremely sensitive indicating devices for
measuring low intensities of radiation. Both
the proportional and the G-M instruments
are counters; that is, they provide a pulse
of current for every particle or photon which
interacts within the chamber. These two
types are useful in the measurement of
radioactivity.
III. PHOTOGRAPHIC EMULSIONS
The first method used to detect nuclear
radiation was the exposure of photographic
plates. Becquerel thus discovered radio-
activity. Radiation interaction with the silver
halide in the photographic emulsion results
in ionization. The silver ions produced are
attracted to the negatively charged sensitivity
center in the crystal, where the silver ions
are reduced to free silver. This concentra-
tion of silver ions is known as the "latent
image" and is proportional to the incident
4
ionizing radiation. The iateni jmnge acis
as a catalyst during the developing process
to convert the grain to free silver. This
results in an image amplification factor of
approximately 1U10. The fixing process dis-
solves the non-reduced silver halide in the
emulsion, leaving the final radiograph.
Photographic emulsions are used ex-
tensively in research, autoradiography,
quality control, and personnel monitoring.
With the proper selection of film, filters,
etc., the film exposure may be related to
the type, energy, and quantity of radiation
received by the film.
IV. SCINTILLATION MEDIA
Scintillation detectors were in use as early
as 1908, and played an important part in the
experiments of Rutherford and his collabor-
ators. However, scintillation counting was not
widely used until 1947, when the newly
developed photomultiplier tube eliminated
the tedium of counting scintillations under
the microscope. The theory of scintillators
is based on the luminescent property of
certain materials. The interaction of radia-
tion in a scintillation media results in
absorption of energy. This energy raises a
molecule or an ion to an excited or elevated
energy state. The return to lower energy
or metastable state levels, and finally decay
to the ground state, results in the emission
of energy as visible or near-visible light.
The magnitude of each light pulse is pro-
portional to the energy deposited in the
medium. The energy deposited in the medium
more closely approaches the total energy of
the incident radiation as the volume of the
scintillating medium increases. The combi-
nation of the phototube and suitable electronic
circuits has resulted in a very effective
counting system.
The sequence of transforming the energy
of ionizing radiation into measurable electri-
cal signals is illustrated in Figure 3. The
advantages of the scintillation detector are
the high efficiency in gamma ray detection
compared to gas flow detectors, the capacity
Radiological Health
3-20
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Basic Principles of Radiation Detection Instruments
LIGHT PHOTONS
•10 photons per
1000 eV energy
absorbed
SECONDARY
ELECTRONS
oveioge of 1 photo-
electron per 10
photons
amplification
FACTOR OF TUBE
«106 electrons pe'
light pholon
preamplifier
AND
amplifier
discriminator
and
PULSE SHAPER
scaler
or
ANALYZER
SOURCE OF RADIATION
SCINTILLATOR
(liquid or crystal)
OPTICAL WINDOW
PHOTOCATHODE
l5' DYNODE
progressive voltooe
gr oo i en I —100- 300
volts per dynode
10lh DYNODE (ANODE)
— ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
Figure 3.—Schematic Diagram of Scintillator-
Photomultiplier Counting System
to handle high counting rates because of the
very short resolving time, and the ability
to detect different types and energies of
radiation. Perhaps the greatest use of
scintillation counters is in measuring the
energy spectrum of gamma emitters. Liquid
scintillation systems have the advantage of
high sensitivity, accuracy, reasonable sta-
bility and reproducible geometry. They have
the disadvantage of poor resolution. Solid
scintillation systems have high sensitivity
and high resolution, but reproducible geome-
try is more difficult to attain.
Some of the most common scintillation
media are: silver-activated zinc sulfide for
the detection of alpha radiation, anthracene,
naphthalene, stilbene, and liquid scintil-
lators such as 2, 5-diphenyloxazole (PPO)
and 2, 2-p-phenylenebis (5-phenyloxazole)
(POPOP) for measuring beta radiation; and
thallium-activated sodium iodide crystals
for gamma detection.
V. SEMICONDUCTORS
Semiconductors use a dense ionizing me-
dium, so photons of higher energy can be
stopped completely within the medium. The
ionizing events produce an electric field at
the junction surface of two semiconductor
materials. The most widely used types of
semiconductor devices are diffused p-n
junction, surface barrier, and lithium drift
detectors.
A. Diffused p-n Junction
The diffused p-n junction detector obtains
its name from its manufacturing process. A
slice of p-type silicon or germanium crystal
with a layer of n-type impurity (usually
phosphorus) deposited on the surface is
heated to form a p-n junction just below the
surface. The phosphorus may also be painted
onto the silicon and made to diffuse into it
by applying heat. Since the n-type crystal
has an excess of electrons and the p-type
has an excess of "holes" (holes may be thought
of as unit positive charges), the natural action
of the crystal tends to align the electrons
on one side of the junction and the holes on
the other. Thus, a difference of potential is
built up across the junction.
By applying an external voltage to the
crystal of such polarity as to oppose the
natural movement of electrons and holes
(reverse bias) the potential barrier across
the junction is increased and a "depletion
region" produced. (See Figure 4.) This
Contact tor
electrical leodoff
Chorged particles
enter from this side
n-type region
prodxed by diffusion
in phosphorus
Depletion
region
/
p-typa silicon
Electreol leod"
Melol electrode
Figure 4.—Schematic Representative of a
Diffused p-n Junction Detector
3-21
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Basic Principles of Radiation Detection Instruments
depletion region is the sensitive volume of
the detector, and is analogous to the gas
volume in a gas ionization detector. Charged
particles entering the depletion region pro-
duce electron-hole pairs analogous to ion
pairs produced in gas ionization chambers.
Since an electric field exists in this region,
the charge produced by the ionizing particle
is collected, producing a pulse of current.
The size of the pulse is proportional to the
energy expended by the particle.
B. Surface Barrier Detectors
The operating principle of the surface bar-
rier and lithium drift detectors is the same
as for the p-n junction, in that a depletion
region exists when an electric field is pro-
duced. The method of producing the depletion
region, as well as its dimensions and location
within the crystal, vary from one type to
another.
The surface barrier detector depends for
its operation upon the surface states of the
silicon or germanium. At the surface of a
piece of pure crystal, an electric field exists
such that both holes and electrons are
excluded from a thin region near the surface.
For n-type crystals, the field is such as to
repel the free electrons from this region.
If a metal is joined to the crystal the free
electrons are still repelled, but a concentra-
tion of holes is produced directly under the
surface. If a reverse bias is then ap-
plied, a depletion region is produced. (See
Figure 5.)
Thin gold electrode
Choroed particles
Contact for
electrical leodoff
n-typ« tilicon
Figure 5.—Schematic Representation of a
Surface Barrier Detector
6
Surface barrier detectors give better reso-
lutions for particle spectroscopy than p-n
junctions, but deeper depletion regions are
possible with the latter. (The deeper the
depletion region, the higher the energy of
particles which can be analyzed, since the
particle must expend all its energy in the
depletion region.)
C. Lithium Drift Detectors
The lithium drift detector is produced by
diffusing lithium into low resistivity p-type
silicon. When heated to about 150° C under
reverse bias, the lithium ions drift into the
junction in such a way that the impurities
are compensated to form a depletion region
of high resistivity intrinsic silicon. Wide
depletion regions may be obtained at low bias
voltages in this manner.
Semiconductor detectors have been popular
mostly in the area of charged particle
spectroscopy. Much better resolution can be
obtained in these devices than with scintil-
lators or grid-type ionization chambers.
VI. CHEMICAL DECOMPOSITION INDICATORS
Since radiation can cause ionization, it is
possible to use the ionization produced in a
chemical system as an indication of the
amount of radiation received. This is done
in the case of chemical decomposition indi-
cators; Ions produced by radiation combine
chemically to form new compounds or change
chemical characteristics from those existing
in the pre-irradiation stage.
A typical chemical decomposition indicator
is a chloroform-water mixture. When exposed
to radiation, it produces hydrochloric acid
in proportion to the radiation absorbed. This
formation of acid decreases the pH. By the
use of a suitable indicator, it is possible to
ascertain when a predetermined dose has been
received by the chemical system. An indicator
frequently used in this system is brom-
cresol-purple.
An inherent drawback of chemical de-
composition systems is the fact that the
Radiological Health
3-22
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Basic Principles of Radiation Detection Instruments
sensitivity to radiation is quite low. While
these systems require higher exposure rates
for detectable chemical change, newer sys-
tems are being developed to respond to
lower exposures.
VII.	RADIOPHOTOLUMINESCENCE AND
OPTICAL ABSORPTION
Radiophotoluminescence is the phenomenon
by which certain materials undergo changes
in their photoluminescent properties after
irradiation. Irradiated material will fluo-
resce when activated by light of the proper
wavelength (ultraviolet or near-ultraviolet),
while unirradiated glass will not fluoresce
under the same conditions.
Silver-activated phosphate glass has proved
a useful radiation detecting medium, exhibit-
ing the photoluminescence property. The
ionizing radiation liberates electrons within
the glass. These are trapped by theAg+ ions
of the glass. The resulting metallic silver
centers serve as the origin of the photo-
luminescence. After radiation exposure of
the glass, it is subjected to ultraviolet light
and the resulting fluorescence detected by
a photomultiplier tube. The intensity of the
light emitted is proportional to the dose.
Personnel dosimeters of this type have been
developed which cover the range from 10 mR
to 104 R.
Higher radiation doses may be determined
by measuring the increased optical density
of the glass after irradiation. This is done
by making optical transmission measure-
ments using light of the proper wavelength
for the dose range of interest. This principle
is useful from 103 to 106 rads.
VIII.	THERMO LUMINESCENCE
Thermoluminescence is the phenomenon
whereby certain materials can absorb and
store energy from ionizing radiation, and
release this energy as light in the visible
or near-visible region of the spectrum when
the material is heated. Irradiation of a lu-
minescent material results in the excitation
(a) (b) (c)
	j	 — energy level - E,
		'	 — ground state - E0
Figure 6.—Schematic of Electron Energy
Bands
of electrons (see Figure 6) from the ground
state to the conduction band of the ma-
terial (a). The electrons are then trapped
in a metastable state, present as imper-
fections in the crystal lattice of the ma-
terial (b).
The electrons stored in the metastable
state are activated by the addition of energy
in the form of heat. The electron is then
able to return to the ground state, and the
energy released as light (c). The light in-
tensity is proportional to the energy absorbed
in the material from the original ionizing
radiation. The TLD (thermoluminescent
dosimetry) system requires a separate read-
out system which can measure either the
integrated light output during, or the peak
light output after, a constant heating cycle.
TLD is most widely used in person-
nel dosimetry and special research proj-
ects.
IX. CALORIMETRY
Calorimeters take advantage of radiation's
heating effect to detect its presence. A
calorimeter is a device for the measurement
of quantities of heat. Calorimeters have re-
ceived greatest application in the determina-
tion of the radiation-energy absorption in
material, since ultimately the absorbed en-
ergy is degraded into heat. Calorimetry can
also be used to determine the activity of a
sample of radioactive material. The main
advantage of the calorimetric method for
measuring absorbed energy or activity is
its inherent accuracy. For dosimetry pur-
poses a direct reading of energy absorption
can be obtained. However, the rate of heat
7
3-23
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Basic Principles of Radiation Detection Instruments
input is so small that only very high in-
tensities of radiation can be measured. For
this reason, calorimetry is not used for
routine monitoring purposes. Applications
include the measurement of the activity of
curie amounts of alpha emitters, the meas-
urement of the energy of particles produced
by particle accelerators, the dose from high
intensity x-ray machines, etc. Calorimetry
provides the only fundamental method for
measuring absorbed dose.
X. SUMMARY
Radiation detection instrument design has
been dictated by the exposure rate or activity
to be measured, the type and energy of the
radiation, accuracy desired, and the area of
interest in which the data are to be used.
Each of the primary means of detection dis-
cussed has inherent advantages and disad-
vantages. Laboratory and research studies
should utilize all types of media for specific
applications. Survey instruments use pre-
dominately gas ionization and scintillation
media. Personnel monitoring instruments
rely on gas ionization, photographic emul-
sions, and thermoluminescent media for
detection of radiation.
As a result of these considerations, radia-
tion detection instruments may be divided
into three groups:
1.	Personnel monitoring instruments, which
measure accumulated exposure that can be
related to the dose equivalent.
2.	Survey instruments designed to measure
exposure rate in milliroentgens per hour
(mR/hr) or activity in counts per minute
(cpm).
3. Laboratory instruments designed pri-
marily to relate the ionizing events in
terms of units of activity (curie).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A Manual of Radioactivity Procedures (National Bureau
of Standards Handbook No. 80 [Washington, D.C.:
Supt. of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Nov. 1961]).
Attix, F. H., and Roesch, VV. C., Radiation Dosimetry
(Vol. II Instrumentation) (2nd ed.; New York:
Academic Press, Inc., 1966).
Becker, K., "Photographic, Glass or Thermolumines-
cence Dosimetry," Health Physics, Vol. 12, No. 7
(1966).
Blatz, H„ Introduction to Radiological Health (New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1964).
Brown, W. L., "Introduction to Semiconductor Particle
Detectors," IRETransactions on Nuclear Science,
Vol. NS-8, No. 1, 1961.
Chase, C. D. and Rabinowitz, J. L„ Principles of
Radioisotope Methodology (2nd ed.; Minneapolis:
Burgess Publ. Co., 1962).
Choppin, G. R., Experimental Nuclear Chemistry (2nd
printing; Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,
Inc., 1963).
Friedlander, G„ Kennedy, J. VV„ Miller, J. W„
Nuclear and Radiochemistry (2nd ed.; New York:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1964).
Price, William J., Nuclear Radiation Detection (2nd
ed.; New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.,
1964).
8
3-24
Radiological Health
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From: Basic Radiological Health, Training Manual;
Radiological Health & Training Program;USEPA.
Survey Instruments
I. INTRODUCTION
None of the ionizing radiations is detectable
by any of man's five senses, therefore all
indications of their presence and intensity
must be obtained by instruments. Radiation
detection devices, like other measuring in-
struments, operate because of some effect
the phenomenon being measured has on
matter. In the case of radiation, this effect
is ionization. Survey meters are similar
to other radiation detection instruments in
their operational characteristics. A good
survey meter should be portable, rugged,
sensitive, simple in construction, and re-
liable. Portability implies lightness and com-
pactness with a suitable handle or strap for
carrying. Ruggedness requires that an in-
strument be capable of withstanding mild
shock without damage. Sensitivity demands
an instrument which will respond to the type
and energy of radiation being measured.
Rarely does one find an instrument capable
of measuring all types and energies of
radiation that are encountered in practice.
Simplicity in construction necessitates con-
venient arrangement of components and sim-
ple circuitry comprised of parts which may
be replaced easily. Reliability is that at-
tribute which implies ability to duplicate
response under similar circumstances. All
these conditions are not met in any one
instrument, but they are approached in many.
In any monitoring operation, one must select
the proper instrument, use it intelligently,
and then be able to interpret the results
of the meter readings.
II. IONIZATION CHAMBERS
A.	Theory
Ionization chambers are instruments in
which the ionization initially produced within
the chamber by radiation is measured without
further gas-amplification. Primary ions
formed in the chamber are attracted to the
respective electrodes, and the current pulses
are amplified externally to a measurable
current. The gas-amplification factor is
thus one.
B.	Physical Description
Ionization chamber survey meters have
three principal components: (1) the ioniza-
tion chamber; (2) the electronic circuit; and
(3) the dial or indicating meter.
(1) Ionization Chambers are usually about
30 to 50 cu. in. in volume and are filled with
air at atmospheric pressure. The chamber
wall design and type of material used in
its construction determine the types of radia-
tion to which it is sensitive. The larger
the chamber the more sensitive the instru-
ment and the greater the voltage required
for proper operation. Practically all cham-
bers have walls that conduct electricity
and serve as the cathode, while wires mounted
in the center of the chambers constitute the
anode. Operating voltage is supplied by
batteries and has a magnitude of about 100
volts. The current which flows is directly
related to the type, energy, and quantity
of radiation penetrating the chamber. With
movable shields, as in the "Juno," it is
possible to discriminate between types of
3-25
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radiation. In general, ionization chamber
survey meters are used to measure rela-
tively high level intensities. Their low sen-
sitivity enhances their capacity to measure
radiation at higher dosages or exposure
rates.
(2)	The electronic circuit is actually a
precision amplifier. Vacuum tube or tran-
sistor circuits are used to build up the
feeble ionization current so that it may be
measured directly by a microammeter. Most
survey meters incorporate a system where-
by the amplification characteristics of the
circuit may be changed by factors of ten.
This enables the operator to change the
instruments' range and sensitivity.
Since there is a gas amplification factor
of unity, circuit amplification becomes a
problem which one does not necessarily
have in a CM instrument. On the other
hand, there is no problem of quenching
the discharge or of losses due to coin-
cidence.
(3)	The indicating meter is usually a micro-
ammeter that registers the amplified cur-
rent. The dial is generally calibrated in
milliroentgens/hour or, in the case of con-
tamination monitors such as the "Samson,"
in counts per minute.
C. Operation
Most ionization chamber survey instru-
ments have a selector switch marked "off,"
"wait," and xl, xlO, xlOO. When the switch is
off, the batteries are disconnected and the
meter is short-circuited making the instru-
ment inoperative. With the switch in the
wait position, the batteries are connected,
permitting the circuit to warm up and the
instrument to be zeroed after a warmup
period of from 1-5 minutes. The meter
is connected while the ionization chamber
is disconnected making it possible to adjust
the meter accurately to zero even in the
presence of radiation.
2
The ionization chamber does not wear
out or suffer changes in characteristics
as CM tubes do; however, the circuit of the
ionization chamber survey meter has more
elements that can get out of adjustment if
not properly handled. Loose leads and weak
batteries are a source of trouble which
can be readily serviced. Other difficulties
are usually caused by faulty circuits which
cannot generally be fixed without the aid
of a competent service man.
No aural indication is used in 1C instru-
ments and thus the operator must con-
stantly watch the meter to ascertain the
field intensity. There is a lag between the
instant radiation enters the chamber and
the time when the meter reaches its maxi-
mum reading; therefore, one must allow
time for the meter to reach its maximum
before taking a reading. This is on the
order of a few seconds.
D. Calib ration
Instruments are designed by manufac-
turers to read directly in radiation intensity
units, generally mr/hr or r/hr; however,
there is considerable error in a direct
reading, since the characteristics of indi-
vidual components causes variations in in-
strument response. Each instrument must
be calibrated for accurate interpretation.
Instrument response intended by the manu-
facturer is related to one type of radiation,
usually of a definite energy range. If radi-
ation of a different energy or type is meas-
ured, the results will be incorrect and
the instrument must be recalibrated with
radiation of the same type and energy that
is to be measured.
For gamma ray calibration an ionization
chamber instrument can be checked by placing
it in a known field of radiation. Radium and
Co60 are the most frequently used sources
for gamma calibration. A plot of scale read-
ings versus true radiation intensity can be
Radiological Health
3-26
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made by comparing scale readings at known
distances from the source against the true
intensities at these distances, employing
the formulae given below.
milligrams of Ra
I =	 , or I
D2
1.59 X millicuries of Co60
where: I = Intensity, mr/hr
D = Distance from source to de-
tector, yards
From five to ten equally spaced scale
readings should be taken and a graph of
these values versus the calculated inten-
sities at the corresponding points should be
plotted on linear graph paper. A typical cali-
bration curve would plot meter readings on
the ordinate and corresponding "true" inten-
sities on the abscissa.
When calibrating an instrument, the refer-
ence point of the instrument is generally
considered as the center of the sensitive
volume. It should be pointed out that the
ionization chamber type survey instrument,
when properly calibrated, will give a good
measurement of x-or gamma radiation inten-
sity, but for alpha and beta radiation, only
qualitative measurements can be made.
E.	Uses
In x-ray survey work, calibrated ionization
chamber instruments are very useful for
measuring dose rate. Ion chambers are used
extensively for beta and gamma survey work,
and if properly modified, they may be used
for neutron monitoring.
F.	Typical Instruments
Cutie Pie: Perhaps the most widely used
and one of the most versatile ionization
chamber instruments available for radio-
logical survey work is the Cutie Pie. These
are available with maximum scale readings
up to 50 roentgens/hour.
Condenser r-meters: A very reliable and
accurate instrument for x-ray calibration
is the condenser r-meter. By nature, the
condenser r-meter measures cumulative
dose. It consists of a charger-reader mech-
anism and several detachable ion-chambers.
These chambers are charged and then left
in a radiation field for a known time. When
read on the charger-reader, they show the
total dose received during the time of ex-
posure. Ionization chambers for condenser
r-meters are available in ranges from 0.025
roentgens full scale to 250 roentgens full
scale and are nearly energy independent
(- 2%) for x-ray energies of 30 Kev effec-
tive to 400 Kev effective.
III. GEIGER-MUELLER INSTRUMENTS
A . Theory
Essentially, the theory of ion collection
in the CM type detector is the same as for
the IC instrument except that there is the
formation of secondary electrons; that is,
primary ions, formed by the incident radi-
ations, are accelerated (given energy) by
the high voltage potential and this added
energy enables them to produce secondary
ion-pairs. The ratio of the total number
of secondary ion-pairs produced to the pri-
mary ion-pair (Gas Amplification Factor)
may be as high as 10^. For control of the
amplification, a quenching gas is intro-
duced. The avalanche, caused by radiation
entering the Geiger-Mueller tube, sends a
pulse to the indicating unit of the survey
instrument. The quenching gas functions
to stop the avalanche and makes the GM
tube ready for another ionization event.
The amplification, inherent in the detector
tube, allows a single beta particle or gamma
photon to be detected.
3
3-27
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B. Physical Description
The principal elements of the portable
Geiger counter are: (1) the CM tube with
its housing; (2) the electronic circuit; and
(3) the meter.
(1) The GM Tube is essentially a glass
tube filled with an inert gas at less than
atmospheric pressure. The filling gas,
usually argon, yields ion pairs (when irradi-
ated). Generally, the tube wall is the cathode
and the wire traversing the axis of the tube
is the anode. Some tubes have a thin window
which admits alpha particles, but these are
not used in survey meters to any extent.
Each GM tube has its own characteristic
curve of counts/minute versus voltage, which
will vary with usage of the tube. The oper-
ating voltage must be well up on the Geiger
plateau for the proper operation, and it is
generally in the range of 1 to 2 thousand volts.
To count efficiently, Geiger tubes must
have adequate means for quenching the ioni-
zation avalanche started by a particle enter-
ing the tube. In survey Geiger counters the
tubes are invariably self-quenching; that
is, the gas within the tube contains from
10 to 25 per cent vapor of a substance
such as ethylene or iso-butane. Quenching
gas is decomposed by radiation, therefore
a self-quenching tube has a limited life-
time. It is thus obvious, that a Geiger
counter should not be left turned on when not
in use, especially near a source of radiation.
With a self-quenching tube there is a brief
lapse of time from the moment one particle
enters the tube until the tube is ready to
count the pulse produced by another particle.
The initial ionization, the avalanche, the
registration of the pulse, and the quenching,
all take place in the matter of a few micro-
seconds; then the tube must be cleared in
the residual ions. This clearing requires a
few hundred microseconds. Dead time be-
comes important when measuring intense
radiation fields.
4
Most Geiger tube walls are designed so
that all but the weakest beta particles may
enter. Allowing for the errors due to simul-
taneous entry, each and every beta particle
entering the tube will be counted. Gamma
ray counting is not nearly so efficient.
Since one measures each beta particle
and each gamma ray that produces ionization
within the sensitive tube volume, the instru-
ment is extremely sensitive to radiation,
and on the most sensitive scales background
levels can be read.
A discriminating shield is provided for
the GM tube or probe which when open ad-
mits both beta and gamma. With the shield
closed only gamma is admitted.
(2)	The Electronic Circuit provides the
desired voltage to the GM tube, assists in
quenching the discharge and receives, am-
plifies and transforms pulses from the tube
to the type of impulse that can be heard in
an earphone and registered on a micro-
ammeter.
(3)	The Indicating Mechanism on most
Geiger counters is usually twofold; that
is, earphones for aural indication and a
meter for visual indication. The meters
are in reality microammeters that indi-
cate radiation intensity by a pointer on a
scale. The pointer or needle will waver
slightly and an average reading should be
used. In general, the dial is calibrated
either in counts/minute or in milliroentgens/
hour, or both. Also, the instrument has a
switch for selecting different ranges of
sensitivity. For the mr/hr scale, the sen-
sitivities are usually indexed indicating full
scale values at a particular switch position,
whereas the counts/minute scale is usually
marked by xl, xlO, xlOO, or xl,000 of full
scale as read on the face of the dial.
Equipment failure is generally due to bat-
teries (some instruments have a battery
check in the "on" position), loose connec-
tions or faulty GM tube.
Radiological Health
3-28
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C.	Operation
The operation of the GM Survey Instru-
ment is essentially the same as that of the
IC Survey Instrument. The warmup period
is much less critical, and usually 5 to 10
seconds is ample. Care should be taken
not to exceed the maximum capacity of the
instrument; such excessive exposure will
likely damage the GM detecting tube. The
GM tube is in operation when in the "on"
position and no zero adjustment is possible.
It is important to remember that GM survey
meters are sensitive instruments and in
general do not read high levels of radiation
intensity.
D.	Calibration
The calibration of GM instruments is the
same as for the IC type. The only change
that might be noted is that a smaller source
of radiation might be used for calibration,
since the sensitivity of the GM is much
greater than that of the IC instrument.
E.	Uses
Survey Geiger-Mueller instruments are
useful for low level beta, and gamma ray
survey work; with proper modification, they
may also be used to monitor for neutrons.
Portable GM instruments are available in
a variety of types and full scale ranges from
.2 mr/hr to 50 mr/hr.
IV. PROPORTIONAL SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
A. Theory
This type instrument derives its name from
the fact that it operates in the proportional
region of the typical instrument response
curve. The probe has an extremely thin
window which admits alpha particles to the
ionization chamber. The operating voltage
is quite high, in the order of 1,500 to 4,000
volts. Gas amplification factors are in the
order of 10^ to 10^. This instrument can be
made to respond only to alpha particles,
by choosing the proper operating point in the
proportional region, and by circuit adjust-
ment. Alpha particles, since they have the
highest specific ionization, give greater
pulses than do beta and gamma; thus, by
properly adjusting the input sensitivity of the
main instrument circuit, we can eliminate
all indications from the detecting element
except those produced by alpha particles.
B.	Physical Description
Proportional survey instruments have
three principal components: (1) the ionization
chamber; (2) the electronic circuit; (3) the
meter.
(1)	The Ionization Chamber has walls which
serve as one electrode, and wires trans-
versing the chamber which function as the
opposite electrode. Such a chamber contains
air or gas at normal pressure. A thin window
of nylon, etc., allows alpha particles to
enter, and the ionization they produce causes
secondary ionization proportional to the pro-
duction of primary ion pairs.
(2)	The Electronic Circuit is more com-
plex than that used in other type instru-
ments. It is necessary to control the chamber
voltage within fairly narrow limits.
(3)	The Meter is marked in counts/minute
with several sensitivity scales. The dial is
used in a manner already discussed.
C.	Operation
The operation of the proportional radiation
survey instrument is similar to other in-
struments. A warmup period of several
minutes is usually required to allow the
circuit to become properly energized.
D.	Calibration
Calibration of proportional meters for
alpha contamination is accomplished by
means of known quantities of the alpha emitter
in question deposited on planchets.
5
3-29
-------
E. Uses
Proportional survey instruments find their
greatest application in alpha survey work.
In making any alpha survey, the instrument
probe must be extremely close to the sur-
face being monitored.
V. SCINTILLATION SURVEY INSTRUMENTS
A.	Theory
Scintillation counters depend upon the light
produced when ionizing radiation interacts
with a phosphor or crystal of certain sub-
stances capable of producing this light. The
scintillations produced in the phosphor or
crystal are then permitted to fall on a
photomultiplier tube which converts the light
pulses to electrical impulses. These elec-
trical impulses may then be amplified and
caused to register on a microammeter.
B.	Physical Description
Scintillation type survey instruments have
four principal components: (1) the scintil-
lating phosphor or crystal; (2) the photo-
multiplier tube; (3) the electronic circuit;
and (4) the meter.
(1) Scintillating Phosphors may be liquid
or crystalline, but for survey work, the
crystalline type is, at present, preferable.
If one is interested in detecting alpha radia-
tion, a silver activated zinc sulfide screen
(similar to the sensitive screen of a tele-
vision picture tube) is generally used.
For the detection of beta radiation, an
anthracene crystal, covered with a thin metal
foil to shield out alpha radiation, is pref-
erable; for x- or gamma radiation a sodium
iodide crystal is generally employed. When
it is desirable to detect neutrons, a secondary
reaction must be employed such as the re-
action of thermal neutrons with boron in
which an alpha particle is released. The
alpha particle may then be detected with a
ZnS phosphor.
6
(2)	The Photomultiplier Tube picks up
light flashes from the phosphor which is
in contact with it, and converts these light
flashes to electrical impulses. It consists
of a photosensitive screen, which emits
electrons when light falls on it, and a series
of dynodes at a positive potential with re-
spect to the photocathode and with respect
to each other. An electron liberated in the
photocathode is accelerated to the first
dynode, which is about 100 volts positive
to the photocathode, where it knocks out
additional electrons that are accelerated
toward the second dynode. The second dynode
is 90 to 100 volts positive to the first dynode
and the electrons striking the second dynode
produce still more electrons. This multi-
plication process proceeds through each
successive dynode until the electrons reach
the anode. From this process, the current
amplification is in the neighborhood of 10^ -
ioio.
(3)	The Electronic Circuit serves to main-
tain the voltage across the elements of the
photomultiplier tube and to amplify the cur-
rent impulses from the photomultiplier tube
to a magnitude great enough to read on a
meter.
C.	Operation
Operation of scintillation survey instru-
ments is similar to that of ion chambers
and GM instruments. It should be pointed
out that the photomultiplier tube of a scin-
tillation instrument will be ruined if ex-
posed to light without first removing the
voltage applied to the tube.
D.	Calibration
Scintillation instruments may be calibrated
in the same manner as is used for a GM or
an ion chamber instrument.
E.	Uses
As previously pointed out, scintillation
devices may be used to detect either alpha,
Radiological Health
3-30
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beta, gamma, or x-rays or neutrons simply
by placing the proper phosphor in contact
with the photomultiplier tube. Scintillation
detectors are very sensitive, more sensitive
and efficient than GM counters, particularly
to gamma radiation. They may be used to
detect extremely low levels of activity,
as the noise background may be kept much
lower than that encountered in the circuit-
ing of a GM or ion chamber instrument.
Losses due to dead time in a scintillator
are very slight, as light flashes may be
produced in many portions of the phos-
phor at the same time, and the de-
cay time of these flashes is very
short; consequently, scintillators are use-
ful for measuring very high radiation in-
tensities.
3-31
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From: Basic Radiological Health, Training Manual;
Radiological Health & Training Program; USEPA.
Personnel Instruments
I.	INTRODUCTION
A. It is extremely difficult to measure the
absorbed dose or energy deposition in tissues
from varieties of radiations. The conditions
under which one must work are generally
complex, ill defined and irregular. Normally,
the best one can hope for is an estimate of
the exposure dose to x and y radiation. To do
this requires, usually, not one instrument or
method but several. Perhaps the most prac-
tical, although less accurate, is the film
dosimeter. With adequate definition of radia-
tion conditions and proper control and inter-
pretations, it is possible to evaluate radiation
exposures under which personnel must work.
This usually gives one enough material from
which the absorbed dose might be inferred.
Then if such inferences are further substan-
tiated with dosimeter or pocket chamber data
and dose rate information from survey in-
struments one could finally arrive at a rather
reliable dose estimate. Therefore the devices
of most general importance and which will
be discussed below are: (1) film badges,
(2) pocket dosimeter, and (3) pocket cham-
bers. Survey meters are covered elsewhere
in this manual. Due to the increasing interest
in chemical dosimeters, rather than their
importance as a personnel monitoring in-
strument, certain fundamental properties of
this device are also mentioned.
II.	FILM DOSIMETRY
A. Emulsion
There are a variety of different types of
emulsions but the feature in common is a
gelatin base with silver halide which is spread
on film (cellulose) or glass. The thickness
ranges from a few microns to several hundred
microns. The most common thickness for
nuclear emulsions is from 10 to 25 microns.
This corresponds to a mass of about 2 to 5
mg/cm2. Over the emulsion there is usually
a thin protective coating of gelatin sometimes
referred to as a T coat (about 0.5 microns).
The silver halide grains in most emulsions
are silver bromide. The grain size is quite
important in determining sensitivity. Of
course other constituents of the emulsion as
well as developing techniques may modify
sensitivity. The constituents or type of the
emulsion may be varied depending on the
type radiation and the levels to be encoun-
tered. For example, if one is concerned with
recording the tracks of heavy particles, the
grain abundance is adjusted to about 3 times
that used in ordinary optical emulsions. Also,
certain sensitizers may be added, for ex-
ample, Boron-10, to greatly increase the
sensitivity for thermal neutrons.
B. Theory of Latent Image Formation
The radiation loses energy by setting free
or raising the energy of one or more elec-
trons into the conduction energy band of the
crystal. Probably more than one ionization
event is required. The electrons migrate
about the crystal, eventually being trapped in
"sensitivity centers" which might consist of
impurities or deformities in the crystal
lattice. The electrostatic potential set up
about the centers results in the accumulation
of some silver ions which tend to move
1
3-32
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freely in the crystal. The number of ions
which take part in such migration depends
primarily on the temperature. These ions
collect around the sensitivity centers due to
the attraction for the negative electrons.
Ultimately, the ions are neutralized to form
the silver atoms. These atoms constitute
the latent image of the emulsion and act as
a catalyst during the development process to
completely convert the grain to silver. Thus,
the development process is merely an am-
plification (of about 10^2) of what has already
transpired. The probability of a latent image
being established increases with an increase
in the number of electrons in the sensitivity
centers; and this number is proportional to
the energy absorbed by the emulsion from
the radiation.
C. Limitations
1. ENERGY DEPENDENCE
Figure 1 demonstrates the sensitivity of
Ilford Line film to x-rays as a function of
their effective energy. The gradual rise in
sensitivity as the energy decreases is due
primarily to the photoelectric interaction
with silver at the lower energies. The de-
crease in sensitivity below 50 Kev is due to
absorption within the outer film covering.
Although not shown in Figure 1, the sensi-
tivity would tend to decrease slowly as the
energy of the photons is increased above 1
Mev. If the film is used to measure dose
from photons of known energy and is cali-
brated for this energy, the measurements
would be reliable. On the other hand, if a
wide range of energies are to be encoun-
tered, the energy dependence should be re-
duced such that the response is essentially
flat from above 50 Kev to 3 Mev (energies
outside of these limits should not be measured
in units of roentgens1). There are several
methods which have been used to reduce the
energy dependence. A lower silver bromide
content would be of some value but this may
affect resolution as well as sensitivity.
100
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02
0.1
1 1
Mil

1 1
Mil


"FILM
\
1 PLU



S SCIN
TILL/
WOR:

\



—






—





—



A ALC
INE-
EMULSION: ANSCO P 93902
1 1 llllll 1 1 1 1 Mil

0.02 0.05 QlO 0.20 0.50 1.0 2.0
EFFECTIVE X-RAY ENERGY (MEV)
Figure 2
(Reprinted from Hine and Brownell)
Ivuliological Health
3-33
-------
Organic scintillators have been used with
some success.^
The ultra violet fluorescence effectively
increases sensitivity as well as improves
the energy response. The most common
approach has been to utilize a system of
filters calibrated to yield information as to
the energy of the unknown photons.^ Such
information may then permit an evaluation
of the exposure dose.
2. ANGULAR DEPENDENCE
Actually, the dose to material (tissue or
emulsion) is independent of the angle of inci-
dence since dose is computed first to an
infinitesimal slab then integrated over the
entire volume. But film darkening is de-
pendent on angle of incidence. Table 1
illustrates this dependence.
Table 1. Relative Film Badge Sensitivity for Y-R°ys Incident
at Various Angles
of Incidence	0.11 Mev	0.20 Mev	1.2 Mev
Angle
0° (perpendicular incidence)
22.5°
45°
67.5°
90°
3.	RATE of exposure
The bulk of evidence indicates that the
photographic effect is independent of the rate
at which that exposure is produced. It is
certainly true for intensity ratios of at least
1 to 10,000. There is little knowledge of the
effect of microsecond exposures but due to
the phenomenon of multi hits (one grain hit
by more than 1 particle), it is probably of
some significance. On exposures of several
days, there is some fading of the film. The
fading is influenced by both temperature and
humidity. By selection of films of different
sensitivity, film dosimeters of wide ranges
can be devised. For example, DuPont 502
film can be used from 100 mr to 10 r, while
Eastman 548-0 double coat is suitable from
500 to 10,000 r.
4.	DEVELOPING TECHNIQUES
Even slight deviations in the developing
time, type, quality and temperature of de-
1.00	1.00	1.00
0.87	0.92	0.97
0.46	0.73	0.91
0.33	0.45	0.92
0.16	0.41	0.94
veloper may affect the density in film dosim-
etry. Therefore, the usual procedure is to
develop a set of known standards with each
batch of unknown films.
5. MATERIAL SURROUNDING FILM PACKET
Normally, tissue equivalent or air equiva-
lent material is used (lucite, bakelite) having
an open window for the detection of beta
particles. The thickness of the material
must be sufficient to permit electronic equi-
librium for the particular energy to be
measured. Obviously, in a mixed radiation
field, this ideal is difficult and sometimes
impossible to achieve. This effect is demon-
strated in Figure 3 where the equilibrium
thickness is indicated by the dotted line.
D. Neutron Film Dosimetry
1. The measurement of thermal neutron
dosage may be accomplished through the
3
3-34
-------
1 1 f; l I 1 I l I
^— ; •


z' . •
REGION 3

REGION 2


REGION 1


L
1 1 1 1
1 1 1
1
012343670* 10
bakelite thickness, mm
ELECTRONIC EQUILIBRIUM IN BAKELITE,
OBTAINED WITH CO60 RADIATION
Figure 3
comparison of film densities under cadmium
and brass filters. These two filters are
designed to attenuate gamma radiation by
the same amount. However, because of the
(n, 7 ) reaction induced in the cadmium by
the thermal neutrons, the exposure behind
the brass when thermal neutrons are present
is lower than behind the cadmium. If a wide
spectrum of gamma energies are present, a
modification of this approach could be used.
As an alternative method of measuring neu-
tron dosage, track plates may be used. The
fast neutrons interact by (n, p) reactions and
the proton recoil tracks are counted and
their range is measured. The thermal neu-
trons interact with the emulsion by
(n, p) C*4; a cadmium filter is usually em-
ployed to distinguish between the slow and
fast neutrons. The sensitivity for slow neu-
trons may be increased by adding B*0 to the
emulsion since boron has a very high absorp-
tion cross section for thermal neutrons.
III. CHEMICAL DOSIMETRY
Due to the increased use of kilocurie
strength sources, there is a growing need for
higher range dosimeters. A considerable
amount of research is presently underway
in this field in an attempt to develop both
solid and liquid dosimeters which by color
change, photoluminescence, or other altera-
tion, the radiation dose may be estimated.
The principle of such dosimetry is based
on the Bragg-Gray Theory which states that
4
the energy absorbed for unit mass of a sub-
stance (dE/dm) is related to the degree of
ionization (Jm) per unit mass produced in a
small air cavity within the material.
= (W) (sm) (Jm)
W is the energy absorbed per ion pair in
the gas; sm is the relative mass stopping
power in the material to that in the gas. If
this principle is used to calibrate the mate-
rial to be used for a dosimeter, a very high
degree of accuracy is possible for a variety
of different types of dosimeters.
The effect produced in most liquid dosim-
eters is due primarily to the radiation effect
in water. The primary phenomenon in the
irradiation of water is the formation of the
free radicals H and OH. These may react to
form the products, hydrogen, H2 and hydrogen
peroxide, H2O2, as well as to re-combine
to form water. Hydrogen may then act as a
reducing agent on any chemical present
capable of being reduced; and H2O2 may act
as an oxidizing agent on any chemical capable
of being oxidized. One of the more useful
chemical dosimeters consists of a mixture
of water and a chlorinated hydrocarbon such
as chloroform, trichloroethylene, or tetra-
chloroethylene. In such indicators, hydro-
chloric acid is produced which may be indi-
cated by means of organic dyes which change
color depending on the hydrogen ion concen-
tration.
Silver activated phosphate glass is a par-
ticularly useful material for a solid chemical
dosimeter. The primary phenomenon of
radiation interaction is through a process of
radiophotoluminescence. As a result of ioniz-
ing radiation, new stable photoluminescent
centers are created in certain materials.
After irradiation, the materials will fluoresce
under light of the proper wave length (usually
in the ultra-violet), while unirradiated glass
will not fluoresce under the same conditions.
Radiological Health
3-35
-------
Asa final point which should be emphasized,
at the present time chemical dosimeters are
not very useful in the dose ranges of interest
in personnel monitoring. Most chemical do-
simeters do not measure exposure doses
below about 10 r.
IV. DOSIMETERS AND POCKET CHAMBERS
A. Dosimeters
A pocket dosimeter (Fig. 4) is a chamber
containing two electrodes, one of which is
quartz fiber loop free to move with respect
to its mounting. Like charges are placed on
the loop and its moutning, which forces the
loop outward from the mount due to the
repulsion of like charges. Ionization in the
chamber reduces the charge and allows the
fiber to move toward its normal position.
An optical system and a transparent scale
are all enclosed in the instrument which is
about the size and shape of a large fountain
pen. The fiber is fused to a metal frame and
the microscope is focused on a portion of
this fiber. Radiation entering the chamber
causes ionization within the sensitive volume.
This ionization discharges the electroscope;
the distance the fiber moves being propor-
tional to the dose received in the chamber.
Instruments of this type can be made suffi-
ciently rugged to withstand the shocks of
normal human activity, are small enough to
be worn comfortably, and are very useful for
measuring integrated exposures. Dosimeters
usually are made to have a full scale deflec-
tion corresponding to 200 mr, but can also
be made with other sensitivities such as 100
mr, 1 r, 10 r, 100 r, etc. The great advantage
of this type of instrument is that it can be
read at any time without the aid of a supple-
mentary charger-reader by simply holding it
up to a source of light and looking into
it.
GIqss window
-Aluminum cose
7
y//.y,:7,a z
Eye piece
Stde view showing
orrongement of fixed
ond movable fibers
A-lnsulating ring
B- Charging rod (hollow to odmit light from window)
C- Fixea heavy metal coated quortz fiber
D-Movable fine metal coated quartz fiber
£- Metal cylinder
F-Transparent scale
G-Metal support for fibers
l*<»c,krt-
-------
B. Pocket Chamber
A pocket chamber (Figure 5) has a cylin-
drical electrode with a coaxial collecting rod
well insulated from the rest of the instru-
ment. A charge is placed on this rod. Ions
formed in the chamber collect on the rod and
reduce the previously placed charge. A pocket
chamber differs from the dosimeter mainly
in that the electroscope portion (the quartz
fiber mechanism and optical system) is in an
external unit. This means that the chamber
must be charged and read with a separate
unit called a "charger-reader". The pocket
chamber is similar in size and shape to a
fountain pen. The change in charge is meas-
ured on a scale that may be calibrated in
milli-roentgens. The advantage of this unit
is its low cost when compared to a self-
reading dosimeter.
the penetration of part of the charge into the
insulator. It is not leakage in the ordinary
sense because it practically disappears if
the instrument is kept charged for a day or
so. To eliminate this, the instrument should
be charged a day or more before it is used.
Generally these instruments are designed to
respond to x- or gamma radiation, as the
walls are too thick to admit beta or alpha
radiation.
The chambers are calibrated by the manu-
facturer to read exposure in milli-roentgens,
or roentgens, but they show some energy
dependence in their sensitivity and may,
therefore, read erroneously. They are rela-
tively energy independent at high energies
(greater than 200 Kev) but it is best to know
what energy radiation is involved for correct
interpretation. Calibration curves can and
often should be made for pencil chambers.
at 	* ——¦Y'lr"
CAP COLLECTOR	CASE
POCKET CHAMBER AND CHARGER-CHARGE READER
Figure 5
C. Operation Characteristics
A small amount of dust or lint on an insu-
lator of one of these instruments can be
enough to discharge it completely. Therefore,
they must be kept clean. Dropping or sudden
jarring will also sometimes discharge the
instrument.
Insulator "soak-in" is a phenomenon regu-
larly encountered in the operation of these
chambers. When an instrument has been out
of use for some time and is charged, a rather
rapid discharge may be noted. This is due to
6
V. SUMMARY
Film badges, dosimeters, and pocket
chambers are the principal personnel moni-
toring instruments. Each has specific ad-
vantages. Film badges provide a permanent
record of exposure, but require more work
to obtain readings than the ionization in-
struments. Dosimeters are especially use-
ful to determine exposure at any time while
continuing to act as a monitor without further
attention. Pocket chambers are quite simple
and therefore represent an inexpensive means
of measuring exposure.
There are other personnel monitoring in-
struments which have limited usefulness in
this field. Hand and foot counters are only
applicable in permanent locations such as
laboratories. Pocket alarms are impractical
due to their size and weight, when carried
on the person. At the present time, chemical
dosimeters are too insensitive for measuring
low-level, chronic type of personnel expo-
sures; however they offer a valuable adjunct
Hadiologic.il Health
3-37
-------
in estimating dose intensities during radia-
tion accidents and of course there are a
variety of research and industrial applica-
tions.
REFERENCES
1.	"Report of the International Commission on
Radiological Units in Measurements (ICRU)
1959", Handbook 78, published by National Bu-
reau of Standards, January 16, 1961. Available
from Superintendent of Documents, Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 Price
65*.
2.	Hoerlin, H„ "Development of a Wavelength In-
dependent Radiation Monitoring Film", ANL5168,
1953.
3.	Tochilin, E., Davis, 1. H., Clifford, J., "A Cali-
brated Roentgen Ray Film Badge Dosimeter"
American Journal of Roentgenological Radium
Therapy, Vol. 64, page 475, 1950.
4.	Hine, G. J., and Brownell, G. L., "Radiation
Dosimetry", Academic Press Inc., 1956.
5.	Price, W. J„ "Nuclear Radiation Detection",
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1958.
6.	"Photographic Dosimetry of X- and Gamma
Rays", Handbook 57, Available from Superin-
tendent of Documents, Government Printing Of-
fice, Washington, D.C. 20402 Price 15*.
3-38
i
-------
PART 4
MANUFACTURERS AND SUPPLIERS OF
AIR MONITORING AND SAMPLING EQUIPMENT
I. AIR MONITORING/SAMPLING EQUIPMENT
Company
Ace Glass
Advanced Chemical Sensors
AeroVironment, Inc.
Air Quality Research, Inc.
American Gas & Chemical Company
Analytical Instrument Development, Inc.
Anatole J. Sipin Co., Inc.
Andersen Samplers
Bacharach Instrument Company
Barnant
Bendix Corporation
Berthold Instrument Company
BGI, Inc.
Calibrated Instruments
CEA Instruments
Delta Power Corporation
Direct Safety
Dosimeter Corporation of America
DuPont
4-1
-------
MANUFACTURERS AND SUPPLIERS OF
AIR MONITORING AND SAMPLING EQUIPMENT
AIR MONITORING/SAMPLING EQUIPMENT
Company
Dynamation, Inc.



X
X
X

Eberline Instrument Corporation

X




X
Energetics Science



X
X
X

Enmet Corporation



X
X
X

Environmental Compliance Corporation

X





Environmental Measurements, Inc.

X





Foxboro Analytical

X



X

GasTech, Inc.



X
X
X

GCA Corporation (Particulates)





X

GfG Gas Electronics



X
X
X

Gillian Instrument Corporation

X





Glasrock Filtration Division

X





GOW-MAC Instrument Company





X

Heath Consultants




X
X

HIAC-ROYCO (Particulates)





X

Hi-Q Environmental Products

X




X
HNU Systems, Inc.





X

InterScan Corporation





X

J and N Enterprises, Inc.




X
X

4-2
-------
MANUFACTURERS AND SUPPLIERS OF
AIR MONITORING AND SAMPLING EQUIPMENT
AIR MONITORING/SAMPLING EQUIPMENT
Company
/^co

J <1
O C_r
fo c
Lab Safety Supply Company
X

X
X
X
X
X
LaMotte Chemical Products, Inc.

X





Landauer R. S. Jr. & Company


X



X
Ludlum, Inc.






X
Lumidor Safety Products



X
X
X

Macurco, Inc.





X

Matheson Safety Products
X
X





MDA Scientific

X



X
X
Metrosonics


X




Microsensors Technology





X

Mine Safety Appliances
X
X
X
X
X
X

National Draeqer, Inc.
X

X
X
X


National Mine Service Company



X
X
X

Neotronics



X
X
X

Particle Measuring Systems (Particulates)





X

Photovac, Inc.





X

Products Production Marketing, Inc.


X




Research Products International






X
Rexnord Safety Products, Inc.



X
X
X

4-3
-------
MANUFACTURERS AND SUPPLIERS OF
AIR MONITORING AND SAMPLING EQUIPMENT
AIR MONITORING/SAMPLING EQUIPMENT
Scott Aviation



X
X
X

Sensidvne
X


X

X

Sentex, Inc.





X

Sierra Monitor Corporation



X
X
X

SKC. Inc.

X
X




Solar Electronics International






X
SDectrex Corporation

X




X
Technical Associates






X
Teledvne Analytical Instruments



X


X
Terradex Corporation

X
X



Texas Analytical Controls

X



X

3M






X
TSI, Inc. (Particulates)





X

Victoreen Instrument Division






X
Warrington Laboratories, Inc.






X
Will son Safety Products


X




























4-4
-------
II. MANUFACTURERS AND SUPPLIERS' ADDRESSES
Ace Glass Company
P.O. Box 688
Vineland, NJ 08360
609/692-3333
Advanced Chemical Sensors
4030 Palm Air Drive West
Pompano Beach, FL 33060
305/979-0958
AeroVironment, Inc.
145 Vista Avenue
Pasedena, CA 91107
Air Quality Research, Inc.
901 Grayson Street
Berkeley, CA 94710
800/227-1617
American Gas & Chemical Co., Ltd.
220 Pegasus Avenue
Northvale, NJ 07647
202/767-7300
800/526-1008
Analytical Instrument Development, Inc.
Route 41 and Newark Road
Avondale, PA 19311
215/268-3181
Anatole J. Sipin Co., Inc.
505 Eighth Avenue
New York, NY 10018
212/695-5706
Anderson Samplers
4215-C Wendell Drive
Atlanta, GA 30336
800/241-6898
BGI, Inc.
58 Gui nan Street
Waltham, MA 02154
617/891-9380
Bacharach Instrument Company
625 Alpha Drive
Pittsburgh, PA 15238
412/782-3500
Barnant Company
28W092 Commercial Avenue
Barrington, IL 60010
312/381-7050
Bendix Corporation
Environmental and Process
Instruments Division
P.O. Drawer 831
Lewisburg, WV 24901
304/647-4358
CEA Instruments, Inc.
15 Charles Street
Westwood, NJ 07675
201/664-2300
Calibrated Instruments, Inc.
731 Saw Mill River Road
Ardsley, NY 10502
914/693-9232
Chemetrics, Inc.
Mill Run Drive
Warrenton, VA 22186
703/347-7660
Delta Power Corporation
Box 1197
Mashpee, MA 02649
617/477-0404
Di rect Safety Company
Box 26616
Tempe, AZ 85282
800/528-7405
Dosimeter Corporation of America
11286 Grooms Road
P.O. Box 42377
Cincinnati , OH 45242
800/543-4976
DuPont
Applied Technology Division
Concord Plaza-Clayton Building
Wilmington, CE 19898
302/772-5989
4-5
-------
Dynamation Incorporated
168 Enterprise
Ann Arbor, MI 48103
313/769-0573
Dynatrol Industries, Inc.
38 Harbor View Avenue
Stamford, CT 06902
203/325-3536
Eberline Instrument Corporation
P.O. Box 2108
Santa Fe, NM 87501
505/471-3232
Energetics Science
Division of Becton, Dickinson,
and Company
85 Executive Blvd.
Elmsford, NY 10523
914/595-3010
Enmet Corporation
2308 S. Industrial Highway
Ann Arbor, MI 48104
313/761-1270
Environmental Compliance Corporation.
P.O. Box 55
Venetia, PA 15367
412/922-4646
Environmental Measurements, Inc.
215 Lerdesdorff Street
San Francisco, CA 94111
415/398-7664
Foxboro Analytical
P.O. Box 5449
South Norwalk, CT 06856
203/853-1616
GfG Gas Electronics
Park 80 West, Plaza Two
Saddle Brook, NJ 07662
201/368-9000
GCA Corporation
213 Burlington Road
Bedford, MA 01730
617/275-5444
G0W-MAC
P.O. Box 32
Bound Brook, NJ 08805
201/560-0600
GasTech, Inc.
331 Fairchild Drive
Mountain View, CA 94043
415/967-6794
Giangarlo Scientific Co., Ltd.
2500 Baldwick Road
Pittsburgh, PA 15205
412/922-8850
Gillian Instrument Corporation
1275 Route 23
Wayne, NJ 07470
201/696-9244
Glasrock Filtration Division
P.O. Box 45511
Atlanta, GA 30320
404/964-1421
Hach Chemical Company
P.O. Box 389
Loveland, CO 80537
800/525-5940
Heath Consultants, Inc.
100 Tosca Drive
P.O. Box CS-200
Stoughton, MA 02072
617/344-1400
HIAC-R0YC0 Instruments Division
Pacific Scientific
141 Jefferson Drive
Menlo Park, CA 94025
415/325-7811
Hi-Q Filter Products Company
5151 Santa Fe Street, Ste. G
San Diego, CA 92109
714/270-9675
HNU Systems, Inc.
30 Ossipee Road
Newton Upper Falls, MA 02164
617/964-6690
4-6
-------
Industrial Hygiene Service
1830 McKinley Road
Bartlesvi1le, OK 74003
918/333-2533
InterScan Corporation
P.O. Box 2496
Chatsworth, CA 91311
213/882-2331
J and N Enterprises, Inc.
P.O. Box 108
Wheeler, IN 46393
219/759-1142
Lab Safety Supply
3430 Palmer Drive, Box 1368
Janesville, WI 55347
800/356-6964
LaMotte Chemical Products Co.
Box 329
Chestertown, MD 21620
301/778-3100
Ludlum, Inc.
P.O. Box 248
Sweetwater, TX 79556
915/235-5494
Lumidor Safety Products
5364 NW 167th Street
Mi ami, FL 33014
305/625-5111
MDA Scientific, Inc.
1815 Elmdale
Glenview, IL 60025
800/323-9595
MG Burdett Gas Prod MG Science
175 Meister Avenue, Box 5328
N Branch, NJ 08876
201/231-9595
3M/0ccupational Health & Safety
Products Division
220-7W, 3M Center
St. Paul, MN 55144
800/328-1300
612/733-6234
Macurco, Inc.
3946 S. Mariposa Street
Englewood, CO 80110
303/781-4062
Mateson Chemical Corporation
Easton Division
1025 E. Montgomery Avenue
Philadelphia, PA 19125
215/423-3200
Matheson Safety Products
P.O. Box 1587
Secaucus, NJ 07094
201/867-4100
Membrana, Inc.
7070 Commerce Circle
Pleasanton, CA 94566
800/227-1245
Met One, Inc.
Box 1937
Grants Pass, OR 97530
503/479-1248
Metrosonics, Inc.
P.O. Box 23075
Rochester, NY 14692
716/334-7300
Micro Filtration Systems
6800 Sierra Court
Fulin, Ca 94566
415/828-6010
Microsensor Technology, Inc.
47747 Warm Springs Blvd.
Fremont, CA 94539
800/421-7372
415/490-0900
Mi 11ipore Corporation
Lab Products Division
80 Ashby Road
Bedford, MA 01730
800/225-1380
Mine Safety Appliances
600 Penn Center Blvd.
Pittsburgh, PA 15235
412/273-5000
4-7
-------
National Draeger, Inc.
401 Parkway View Drive
Pittsburgh, PA 15205
412/787-8383
National Mine Service Co.
4900/600 Grant Street
Pittsburgh, PA 15219
412/281-0688
Neotronics N. A., Inc.
P.O. Box 370
411 North Bradford Street
Gai nsvilie, GA 30503
Nuclepore Corporation
7035 Commerce Circle
Pleasanton, CA 94566
415/462-2230
Particle Measuring Systems
1855 South 57th Court
Boulder, CO 80301
303/443-7100
Photovac, Inc.
134 Doncaster Avenue
Unit 2
Thornhill, Ontario, Canada
L3T 1L3
416/881-8225
Porex Tech Division of GMSC
7380 Bohannon Road
Fairburn, GA 30213
800/241-6898
Products Production Marketing, Inc.
15602 Hempstead Highway
Houston, TX 77040
713/466-3540
Rac Division Andersen Samplers
4215 Wendel1 Drive
Atlanta, GA 30336
800/241-6898
Research Products International Corp.
410 North Business Center Drive
Mount Prospect, IL 60056
Rexnord Safety Products, Inc.
45 Great Valley Corporate Center
Malvern, PA 19355
215/647-7200
Roxan, Inc.
7831 Nita Avenue
Canoga Park, CA 92304
213/703-6108
SKC, Inc.
395 Val ley View Road
Eighty Four, PA 15330
412/941-9701
SCK West, Inc.
2021 GW Commonwealth
Fullerton, CA 92633
714/992-2780
Schleicher & Schuell, Inc.
543 Washington Street
Keene, NH 03431
603/352-3810
Scientific Gas Products, Inc.
2330 Hamilton Blvd.
S. Plainfield, NJ 07080
201/754-7700
Scott Aviation
225 Erie Street
Lancaster, NY 14086
716/683-5100
Sensidyne
12345 Starkey Road, Ste. E
Largo, FL 33543
813/530-3602
Sentex Sensing Technology, Inc.
553 Broad Avenue
Ridgefield, NJ 07657
201/945-3694
Sierra Instruments, Inc.
2330 Hamilton Blvd.
S. Plainfield, NJ 07080
201/754-7700
Sierra Monitor Corporation
1050 K East Duane Avenue
Sunnyvale, CA 94086
408/746-0188
4-8
-------
Spectrex Corporation
3594 Haven Avenue
Redwood City, CA 94063
415/365-6567
Staplex Company
Air Sampler Division
777 Fifth Avenue
Brooklyn, NY 11232
800/221-0822
TSI Incorporated
543 Church Street
Ann Arbor, MI 48104
313/996-0773
Teledyne Analytical Instruments
16830 Chestnut Street
City of Industry, CA 91749
213/283-7181
Terradex Corporation
460 N. Wiget Lane
Walnut Creek, CA 94598
Texas Analytical Controls, Inc.
P.O. Box 42520
Houston, TX 77242
713/491-4160
Thermo Electron Corporation
125 Second Avenue
Waltham, MA 02254
617/890-8700
United Tech Bacharach Instruments
301 Alpha Drive
Pittsburgh, PA 15238
412/784-2120
Valvo Instruments Co., Inc.
Box 55603
Houston, TX 77255
713/688-9345
Victoreen Instrument Division
Sheller-Globe Corporation
10101 Woodland Avenue
Cleveland, OH 44104
800/321-9990
Warrington Laboratories, Inc.
7801 N. lamar, D-lll
Austin, TX 78752
512/452-2590
Whatman paper Division
9 Bridewel1 Place
Clifton, NJ 07014
201/773-5800
Wheaton Scientific
1000 N. 10th Street
Millvilie, NJ 08332
609/825-1400
Willson Safety Products
P.O. Box 622
Reading, PA 19603
215/376-6161
Wisa Precision Pumps USA
235 W. 1st Street
Bayonne, NJ 07002
201/823-3694
4-9
-------
PART 1
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS SAMPLING
I. INTRODUCTION
Investigations at hazardous waste and environment-threatening spill sites
place more restrictive demands on personnel, materials, and methodologies
than those usually found in routine environmental surveys. As a result,
environmental samples often fail to meet the rigors and demands required
for many hazardous waste sampling applications. Thus, the collection of
hazardous waste samples will frequently require specialized equipment and
protocols either developed specifically for such uses or modified from
preexisting materials and/or techniques. Some important considerations
are:
-	Methods and materials must be suitable to a wide range of situations
and applications because of the unknown nature of many hazardous
waste investigations and environmental spill responses.
-	Hazardous waste sampling has the potential to produce both acute and
chronic exposure to dangerous, toxic chemicals, and this dictates
that expeditious sample collection methods be used to minimize
personnel exposure.
-	Because of the nature of the materials being sampled, the option of
using disposable sampling equipment must be considered because
attempting decontamination in the field can be impractical.
-	Hazardous waste site investigations and response actions at
environment-threatening spills generally require some level of hazard
protection that may be cumbersome, limit the field of vision, or
fatigue the sampler. Sample collection procedures must therefore be
relatively simple to follow in order to expedite sample procurement
and to reduce the chance of fatigue. Collection and monitoring
equipment should be simple to operate, direct reading, and should not
be unwieldy.
These and other factors associated with the procurement of hazardous waste
samples need to be addressed in a compilation of practical, cost effective,
and reliable methods and procedures capable of yielding representative
samples for a diverse number of potential parameters and chemical matrices.
These methods must be consonant with a variety of analytical considerations
running the gamut from gross compatibility analyses (pH, flammabi1ity,
water reactivity, etc.) to highly sophisticated techniques capable of
resolution in the part per billion (ppb) range.
1-1
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II. METHOD SELECTION CRITERIA
Even a limited literature survey will disclose the existence of a great
number of sampling methods, all of which have certain merits that warrant
consideration. Therefore, certain criteria should be considered when
decisions for selecting appropriate sampling methods and equipment must be
made. The following is a listing, not necessarily in order of relative
importance, of these criteria.
Practicality
The selected methods should stress the use of simple, pragmatic, proven
procedures capable of being used or easily adapted to a variety of
situations.
Representati veness
The essence of any sampling campaign is to collect samples that are
representative of the material or medium under consideration. The
selected methods, although strongly taking into consideration economics,
simplicity, practicality, and portability, must also be capable of
delivering a true representation of the situation under investigation.
Economics
The costs of equipment, manpower, and operational maintenance need to be
considered in relation to overall benefit. Instrumental durability,
disposable equipment, cost of decontamination, and degree of precision and
accuracy actually required are also factors to be considered.
Simplicity or Ease of Operation
Because of the nature of the material to be sampled, the hazards
encountered during sampling, and the cumbersome safety equipment sometimes
required, the sampling procedures selected must be relatively easy to
follow and equipment simple to operate. Equipment should be portable,
lightweight, rugged and, if possible, direct reading.
Compatibility with Analytical Considerations
The uncertainty of sample integrity as it relates to the analytical
techniques to be used should be reduced whenever possible. Errors induced
by poorly selected sampling techniques, especially those used in
uncontrolled situations, can be the weakest link in the quality of the
generated data. Special considerations must therefore be given to the
selection of sampling methods in relation to any adverse effects that
might surface during analysis. Proper materials of construction, sample
or species loss, and chemical reactivity are some of the factors that must
receive attention.
Versati1ity
The diversity and sheer numbers of potential parameters and scenarios
often preclude the use of novel approaches that are designed or better
1-2
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suited for classifying a small number of compounds in	a limited,
defined environment. The methods in question must be	adaptable to a
variety of sampling situations and chemical matrices.	This factor
should not, however, jeopardize sample integrity.
Safety
The risk to sampling personnel, intrinsic safety of instrumentation,
and safety equipment required for conducting the sampling all need
to be evaluated in relation to the selection of proper methods and
procedures.
The above criteria should be consulted during the selection of
appropriate sampling methods. Obviously, tradeoffs are necessary,
and therefore, some methods may prove excellent for some situations
and less satisfactory for others. This factor must be considered by
any field investigator before using any sampling procedure.
III. PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVES OF SAMPLING
The basic objective of any sampling program is to produce a set of
samples representative of the source under investigation and
suitable for subsequent analysis. More specifically, the objective
of sampling hazardous wastes is to acquire information that will
assist investigators in identifying unknown compounds present and to
assess the extent to which these compounds have become integrated
into the surrounding environment. Subsequently, this acquired
information may be used in future litigations as well as to assist
investigators in the development of remedial actions.
The term "sample" can most simply be defined as a representative
part of the object to be analyzed. This definition needs to be
qualified further, however, by the consideration of several
criteria.
Of utmost importance is representativeness. To meet the requirement
of representativeness, the sample needs to be chosen so that it
possesses the same qualities or properties as the material under
consideration. However, the sample needs only resemble the material
to the degree determined by the desired qualities under
investigation and the analytical techniques used.
Sample size is also an important criterion to be considered. Sample
size must be carefully chosen with respect to the physical
properties of the entire object and the requirements and/or
limitations of the analytical procedure. For example, although the
entire contents of an intact 55-gallon drum can certainly be
considered a representative sample of the drum material, it is an
impractical sample because of its bulk. Alternatively, too small a
sample size can be just as limiting, since representativeness and
analytical volume requirements might be jeopardized.
1-3
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A third criterion for consideration is maintenance of sample integrity. The
sample must retain the properties of the parent object (at the time of
sampling) through collection, transport, and delivery to the analyst.
Degradation or alteration of the sample through exposure to air, excess heat
or cold, microorganisms, or to contaminants from the container must be
avoided.
Finally, the number and frequency of subsamples (e.g., samples making up a
composite) required and the distribution of these subsamples need to be
considered. These criteria are often dictated by the nature of the material
being sampled; that is, whether the material is homogeneous or
heterogeneous. For example, if a material is known to be homogeneous, a
single sample may suffice to define its quality. However, if a sample is
heterogeneous, a number of samples collected at specific time intervals or
distances may be necessary to define the characteristics of the subject
materials. In addition, the nature of the chemical parameters to be
identified and the way the analytical results will be used are also
important when the number and frequency of the samples to be collected are
determined.
TYPES OF SAMPLES
Before defining the general sample types, the nature of the object or
materials under investigation must be discussed. Materials can be divided
into three basic groups as outlined in Figure 1-1.
Of least concern to the sampler are homogeneous materials. These materials
are generally defined as having uniform composition throughout. In this
case, any sample increment can be considered representative of the material.
On the other hand, heterogeneous samples present problems to the sampler
because of changes in the quality of the material over distance.
When discussing types of samples, it is important to distinguish between the
type of media to be sampled and the sampling technique that yields a
specific type of sample. In relation to the media to be sampled, two basic
types of samples can be considered: the environmental sample and the
hazardous sample.
Environmental samples are generally dilute (in terms of pollutant
concentration) samples taken in an area surrounding a spill or dump site
i.e. off-site samples from soils, rivers, lakes, etc. They usually do not
require the special handling procedures used for concentrated wastes.
However, in certain instances, environmental samples can contain elevated
concentrations of pollutants and in such cases would have to be handled as
hazardous samples.
Hazardous or concentrated samples are those collected from drums, tanks,
lagoons, pits, waste piles, fresh spills, etc., and require special handling
procedures beause of their potential toxicity or hazard. These samples can
be further subdivided based on their degree of hazard; however, care should
be taken when handling and shipping any wastes believed to be concentrated
regardless of the degree.
1-4
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Material
Homogeneous Heterogeneous
No change of quality		|	
throughout the material
1
1

Discrete
Continuous

Change of quality
Change of quality

throughout the material
throughout the material
Homogeneous
Discrete Changes
Continuous Changes
Well-mixed liquids
Ore pellets
Fluids or gases with gradients
Well-mixed gases
Tablets
Mixture of reacting compounds
Pure metals
Crystallized rocks
Granulated materials with granules

Suspensions
much smaller than sample size
FIGURE 1-1: TYPES OF MATERIAL
Source:
Kateman, G. and F. W. Pijpers.
Quality Control in Analytical Chemistry.
John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1981.
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The importance of making the distinction between environmental and
hazardous samples is two-fold:
Personnel safety requirements: Any sample thought to contain
enough hazardous materials to pose a safety threat should be
designated as hazardous and handled in a manner which ensures the
safety of both field and laboratory personnel.
Transportation requirements: Hazardous samples must be packaged,
labeled, and shipped according to Department of Transportation
(DOT) regulations and USEPA guidelines.
In general, two basic types of sampling techniques are recognized, both
of which can be used for either environmental or concentrated samples.
Grab Samples
A grab sample is defined as a discrete aliquot representative of a
specific location at a given point in time. The sample is collected
all at once and at one particular point in the sample medium. The
representativeness of such samples is defined by the nature of the
materials being sampled. In general, as sources vary over time and
distance, the representativeness of grab samples will decrease.
Composite Samples
Composites are nondiscrete samples composed of more than one specific
aliquot collected at various sampling locations and/or different points
in time. Analysis of.this type of sample produces an average value and
can in certain instances be used as an alternative to analyzing a
number of individual grab samples and calculating an average value. It
should be noted, however, that compositing can mask problems by
diluting isolated concentrations of some hazardous compounds below
detection limits.
For sampling situations involving hazardous wastes, grab sampling
techniques are generally preferred because grab sampling minimizes the
amount of time sampling personnel must be in contact with the wastes,
reduces risks associated with compositing unknowns, and eliminates
chemical changes that might occur due to compositing. Compositing is
still often used for environmental samples and may be used for
hazardous samples under certain conditions. For example, compositing
of hazardous waste is often performed (after compatibility tests have
been completed) to determine an average value over a number of
different locations (group of drums). This procedure provides data
that can be useful by providing an average concentration within a
number of units, can serve to keep analytical costs down, and can
provide information useful to transporters and waste disposal
operations.
1-6
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V. SAMPLING PLAN
Before any sampling activities are begun, it is imperative that the
purpose and goals of a program and the equipment, methodologies, and
logistics to be used during the actual sampling be identified in the
form of a work or sampling plan. This plan is developed when it
becomes evident that a field investigation is necessary and should be
initiated in conjunction with or immediately following the preliminary
assessment. This plan should be clear and concise and should detail
the following basic components:
-	background information collected during the preliminary
assessment;
-	objectives and goals of the investigation;
-	sampling methods to be used, including equipment needs,
procedures, sample containment, and preservation;
-	justification for selected methods and procedures;
-	sample locations, as well as, number and types of samples to be
collected at each;
-	organization of the investigative team;
-	safety plan (includes safety equipment and decontamination
procedures, etc.);
-	transportation and shipping information;
-	training information; and
-	additional site-specific information or requirements.
Note that this list of sampling plan components is by no means all
inclusive and that additional elements may be added or altered
depending on the specific requirements of the field investigation. It
should also be recognized that although a detailed sampling plan is
quite important, it may be an impractical undertaking in some
instances. Emergency responses to accidental spills are a prime
examples of such instances where time might prohibit the development of
site-specific sampling plans. In such cases, investigators would have
to rely on general guidelines and personal judgement, and the sampling
or response plans might be simply a strategy based on preliminary
information and finalized on site. In any event, a plan of action
needs to be developed, no matter how concise or informal, to aid
investigators in maintaining a logical and consistent order to the
implementation of their task.
1-7
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PART 2
DOCUMENTATION AND CHAIN-OF-CUSTODY PROCEDURES
I. INTRODUCTION
All information pertinent to field activities including sampling must be
recorded in various forms: logbooks, sample tags, photographs, etc. Proper
documentation and document control are crucial to enforcement actions,
since the government's case in a formal hearing or criminal prosecution
often hinges on evidence gathered by others. Therefore, each field worker
must keep detailed records of inspections, investigations, photographs
taken, and thoroughly review all notes before leaving the site.
The purpose of document control is to assure that all documents for a
specific project are accounted for when the project is completed.
Accountable documents include items such as logbooks, field data records,
correspondence, sample tags, graphs, chain-of-custody records, analytical
records, and photos. Each document should bear a serial number and should
be listed, with the number, in a project document inventory assembled at
the project's completion. Waterproof ink must be used in recording all
data in documents bearing serial numbers.
A documentation coordinator numbers all logbooks, sample tags, graphs,
chain-of-custody records, etc. In a logbook, he/she records transfer of
other logbooks to individuals who have been designated to perform specific
tasks on the project. All project logbooks are to be turned over to the
coordinator at the completion of each work period, and to a central file at
the completion of the field activity.
II. FIELD LOGBOOK
All information pertinent to a field activity must be entered in a bound
book with consecutively numbered pages. Entries in the logbook must
include at least the following:
-	Date and time of entry.
-	Purpose of sampling.
-	Name and address of field contact (Federal, State, local
representati ve).
-	Producer of waste and address (if known)
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-	Type of process producing waste (if known).
-	Type of waste (sludge, wastewater, etc.).
-	Description of sample.
-	Waste components and concentrations (if known).
-	Number and size of sample taken.
-	Description of sampling point.
-	Date and time of collection of sample.
-	Collector's sample identification number(s) and/or name.
-	References such as maps or photographs of the sampling site.
-	Field observations.
-	Any field measurements made such as pH, flammability, or explosiveness.
Because sampling situations vary widely, notes should be as descriptive
and inclusive as possible. Someone reading the entries should be able to
reconstruct the sampling situation from the recorded information.
Language must be objective, factual, and free of personal feelings or any
other inappropriate terminology. If anyone other than the person to whom
the logbook was assigned makes an entry, he/she must date and sign it.
III. PHOTOGRAPHS
Photographs are the most accurate record of the field worker's
observations. They can be significant during future inspections, informal
meetings, and hearings. A photograph must be documented if it is to be a
valid representation of an existing situation. Therefore, for each
photograph taken, several items should be recorded in the field logbook:
-	Date and time.
-	Signature of photographer.
-	Name and identification number of site.
-	General direction faced and description of the subject.
-	Location on site.
-	Sequential number of the photograph and the roll number.
2-2
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omments are to be limited to the photograph's location because any
remarks about its contents could jeopardize its value as legal evidence.
Photographs should be taken with a camera-lens system with a perspective
similar to that afforded by the naked eye. Telephoto or wide-angle shots
cannot be used in enforcement proceedings.
IV. SAMPLE LABELS
Each sample must be sealed immediately after it is collected and labeled
using waterproof ink. Label tags may be filled out prior to collection
to minimize handling of the sample containers. Figures 2-1 and 2-2 are
examples of common sample label or tag formats.
Occasionally, sample containers are marked in the field using an etching
tool rather than immediately applying a sample label or tag. This avoids
possible label contamination problems and subsequent decontamination
difficulties. In this case, the data intended for the sample label are
written into a sampling logbook and transcribed onto the label after the
sample containers have been decontaminated.
The document coordinator records the assignment of serial sample tags to
field personnel in his/her logbook. Sample tags must never be discarded.
Lost, voided, or damaged tags are immediately noted in the logbook of the
person to whom they were assigned.
Labels must be firmly affixed to the sample containers. Tags attached by
string are acceptable when gummed labels are not available or applicable.
Be sure that the container is dry enough for a gummed label to be securely
attached.
The label tag must include at least the following information:
-	Name of collector.
-	Date and time of collection.
-	Place of collection.
-	Sample number.
V. CHAIN-OF-CUSTODY PROCEDURES
As in any other activity that may be used to support litigation,
regulatory agencies must be able to provide the chain of possession and
custody of any samples which are offered for evidence or which form the
basis of analytical test results introduced as evidence. Written
procedures must be available and followed whenever evidence samples are
collected, transferred, stored, analyzed, or destroyed. The primary
objective of these procedures is to create an accurate written record
which can be used to trace the possession and handling of the sample from
the moment of its collection through analysis and its introduction as
evidence.
2-3
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OFFICIAL SAMPLE LABEL
Col 1ector	
Place of Collection
Date of Sample	
Field Information
Collector's Sample No.
Time Sampled
FIGURE 2-1
EXAMPLE OF OFFICIAL SAMPLE LABEL
2-4
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Proj. Cooe
Station No.
Secuencs No.
.YoVDay/Yr.
Ti-e

Station location
Csmp.
Grab

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF ENFORCEMENT
NATIONAL ENFORCEMENT INVESTIGATIONS CENTER
BUILDING 53, BOX 25227, DENVER FEDERAL CENTER
DENVER, COLORADO 80225
1501

Samplers: (Signature}
obve rse
Snmplc Type.'Prescrvalivcfs)
1.	General Inorganics/Ice
2.	Metals. HNO,
3.	Nutrients/HjSO, & Ice
4.	Oil 5. Grease/HjSO, &. Ice
5.	Phenolics/H..PO, & CuSO, & Ice
6.	Cy2nide/NaOH & Ice
7.	Organic Characterization/lcc
8.	.Volatile Or^anics/lcc
9.	General Organics/lce
10.	Tracer/None
11.	Solids - Inorganics/Ice or Freeze
12.	Solids - Organics/lce or Freeze
12. Biol. - lno.-gz:nics/lcc* or Freeze
14.	Biol. - Orgamcs Ice or Freeze
15.	Source Filter/None
Id. f-robe Wash,-None
17. In.pinger Catch, None
IS. ambient Filter/None
19.	Solid Adsorbant/lce or Freeze
20.	Ambient lmpingcr/Amb. or Ice
21.	Ecmhos, Ethonol or Formal
22.	Bjclcrioioc//Ice
23.	Plankton,-Formal; H^CU; Lugol's
24.	Cli!oropliyll/lcc or Freeze
25.	Polliopcnic Bjclcria/Icc
2G.
Remarks:
reverse
FIGURE 2-2
SAMPLE TAGS
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A sample is in someone's "custody" if:
-	It is in one's actual possession, or
-	It is in one's view, after being in one's physical possession, or
-	It is in one's physical possession and then locked up so that no one can
tamper with it, or
-	It is kept in a secured area, restricted to authorized personnel only.
A. Sample Collection, Handling, and Identification
The number of persons involved in collecting and handling samples
should be kept to a minimum. Guidelines established in this manual
for sample collection, preservation, and handling should be used.
Field records should be completed at the time the sample is
collected and should be signed or initialed, including the date and
time, by the sample collector(s). Field records should contain the
following information:
-	Unique sampling or log number.
-	Date and time.
-	Source of sample (including name, location, and sample type).
-	Preservative used (if any).
-	Analysis required.
-	Name of collector(s).
-	Pertinent field data (pH, DO, chlorine residual, etc.)
-	Serial numbers on seals and transporation cases.
One member of the sampling team is to be appointed field
custodian--the documentation coordinator is a good choice. Samples
are turned over to the field custodian by the team members who
collected the samples. The field custodian documents each
transaction and the sample remains in his/her custody until it is
shipped to the laboratory.
Each sample is identified by affixing a pressure-sensitive gummed
label or standardized tag on the containers). This label tag should
contain the sample identification number, date and time of collection,
source, preservative used, analysis required, and the collector's
initials. If a label tag is not available, the same information should
be recorded on the sample container legibly and with waterproof ink.
2-6
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The sample container should then be placed in a transporation case,
along with the chain-of-custody record, pertinent field records,
and analysis request form as needed. The transportation case
should be sealed or locked. A locked or sealed chest eliminates
the need for close control of individual samples. However, on
those occasions when the use of a chest is inconvenient, the
collector should seal the cap of the individual sample container in
a way that any tampering would be easy to detect.
When samples are composited over a time period, unsealed samples
can be transferred from one crew to the next. The transferring
crew lists the samples and a member of the receiving crew signs the
list. The receiving crew either transfers the samples to another
crew or delivers them to a laboratory person, who signs for the
samples.
It is desirable to photograph (preferably with a polaroid camera)
the sample location or any visible pollution to facilitate
identification later. At the time the photo is taken, the
photographer should record time, date, site location, and brief
description of the subject on the back of the photo. Photographs
and written records that may be used as evidence should be handled
in a way that chain-of-custody can be established.
B. Transfer of Custody and Shipment
When transferring the samples, the transferee must sign and record
the date and time on the chain-of-custody record (Figure 2-3).
Custody transfers made to a sample custodian in the field should
account for each sample, although samples may be transferred as a
group. Every person who takes custody must fill in the
appropriate section of the chain-of-custody record. To minimize
custody records, the number of custodians in the chain-of-possession
should be minimized.
The field custodian is responsible for properly packaging and
dispatching samples to the appropriate laboratory. This
responsibility includes filling out, dating, and signing the
appropriate portion of the chain-of-custody record.
All packages sent to the laboratory should be accompanied by the
chain-of-custody record and other pertinent forms. A copy of these
forms should be retained by the originating office (either carbon or
photocopy). Mailed packages can be registered with return receipt
requested. For packages sent by common carrier, receipts should be
retained as part of the permanent chain-of-custody documentation.
Samples to be shipped must be packed so as not to break and the package
sealed or locked so that any tampering can be readily detected.
2-7
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CHAIN OF CUSTODY RECORD
SURVEY
SAMPLERS: {stpnotvn)
STATION
number
STATION LOCATION
DATE
TIME
SAMPLE 11
Wot»r
PE
A>r
SEQ.
NO.
NO Of
CONTAINERS
ANALYSIS
RtOUiRED
Comp.
Grob.
























































































































Relinquished by: is^naivrw)
Received by:
Date/Time
Relinquished by: ts.Snotvr»)
Received by: izignotvm)
Date/Time
Relinquished by: (s^notu.-#;
Received by: (s^r^hjr,)
Date/Time
Relinquished by: (S-gnatu,,)
Received by Mobile Laboratory for field
analysis: (Srynoturm}
Date/Time
Dispolched by: /Sv"01"'*/ Dale/Time
	 _ 1
Received for Laboratory by:
Date/Time
Method of Shipment:

Distribution: Orig. — Accompany SKipmenl
1 Copy—Survey Coordinator Fi«!d Fil*s
FIGURE 2-3
CHAIN-OF-CUSTODY RECORD
2-8
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C. Evidentiary Considerations
Writing chain-of-custody procedures, as well as the various
promulugated laboratory anaytical procedures, facilitates the admission
of evidence under Rule 803(6) of the Federal Rules of Evidence (P.L.
93-575). Under this statute, written records of regularly conducted
business activities may be introduced into evidence as an exception to
the "hearsay rule" without the testimony of the person(s) who made the
record. Although it is preferable, it is not always possible for the
individuals who collected, kept, and analyzed samples to testify in
court. In addition, if the opposing party does not intend to contest
the integrity of the sample or testing evidence, admission under Rule
803(6) can save a great deal of trial time. For these reasons, it is
important to standardize the procedures followed in collection and
analysis of evidentiary samples and to describe them in an instruction
manual. If need be, the manual can be offered as evidence of the
"regularly conducted business activity" followed by the lab or office
in generating any given record.
In criminal cases, however, records and reports of matters observed by
police officers and other law enforcement personnel are not included
under the business record exceptions to the "hearsay rule" according to
Rule 803(8), P.L. 93-595. It is arguable that those portions of the
compliance inspection report dealing with matters other than sampling
and analysis results come within this exception. For this reason, in
criminal cases, records and reports of response team members may not be
admissible. The evidence may still have to be presented in the form of
oral testimony by the person(s) who made the record or report, even
though the materials come within the definition of business records.
In a criminal case, the defense counsel may be able to obtain copies of
reports prepared by a witness, even if the witness does not refer to
the records while testifying. If obtained, the records may be used in
cross examination.
Records are not automatically admitted in either of these actions.
The business records section authorizes admission "unless the source of
information or the method or circumstance of preparation indicates lack
of trustworthiness." The caveat under the public records exception
reads "unless the sources of information or other circumstances
indicate lack of trustworthiness."
Thus, whether or not the team members anticipate that various reports
will be introduced as evidence, they should make certain that all
reports are as accurate and objective as possible.
2-9
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PART 3
PACKAGING, MARKING, LABELING, AND SHIPPING
OF HAZARDOUS MATERIAL SAMPLES
I. INTRODUCTION
Samples collected during a response to a hazardous material incident may
have to be transported elsewhere for analysis. The Environmental
Portection Agency (EPA) encourages compliance with Department of
Transportation (DOT) regulations governing the shipment of hazardous
materials. These regulations (49 CFR parts 171 through 179) describe
proper marking, labeling, packaging, and shipment of hazardous materials,
substances, and wastes. In particular, part 172.402 (h) of 49 CFR is
intended to cover shipment of samples of unknown materials destined for
laboratory analysis.
II. ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES VERSUS HAZARDOUS MATERIAL SAMPLES
Samples collected at an incident should be classified as either
environmental or hazardous material (or waste) samples. In general,
environmental samples are collected off-site (for example from streams,
ponds, or wells) and are not expected to be grossly contaminated with
high levels of hazardous materials. On-site samples (for example,
materials from drums or bulk storage tanks; obviously contaminated
soil, ponds, lagoons, pools; and leachates from hazardous waste sites)
are considered hazardous. A distinction must be made between the two
types of samples in order to:
-	Determine appropriate procedures for transportation of samples. If
there is any doubt, a sample should be considered hazardous and
shipped accordingly.
-	Protect the health and safety of laboratory personnel receiving the
samples. Special precautions are used at laboratories when samples
other than environmental samples are received.
III. ENVIRONMENTAL SAMPLES
Environmental samples must be packaged and shipped according to the
following procedures.
3-1
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A.	Packaging
Environmental samples may be packaged following the procedures
outlined later in subsection V for samples classified as "flammable
liquids" or "flammable solids". Requirements for marking, labeling,
and shipping papers do not apply.
Environmental samples may also be packaged without being placed inside
metal cans as required for flammable liquids or solids.
-	Place sample container, properly identified and with a sealed lid,
in a polyethylene bag, and seal bag.
-	Place sample in a fiberboard container or metal picnic cooler which
has been lined with a large polyethylene bag.
-	Pack with enough noncombustible, absorbent, cushioning material to
minimize the possibility of the container breaking.
-	Seal large bag.
-	Seal or close outside container.
B.	Marking/Labeling
Sample containers must have a completed sample identification label
tag and the outside container must be marked "Environmental Sample".
The appropriate side of the container must be marked "This End Up" and
arrows placed accordingly. No DOT marking or labeling are required.
C.	Shipping Papers
No DOT shipping papers are required.
D.	Transportation
There are no DOT restrictions on mode of transportation.
RATIONALE: HAZARDOUS MATERIAL SAMPLES
Samples not determined to be environmental samples or samples known or
expected to contain hazardous materials must be considered hazardous
substance samples and transported according to the following
requirements:
- If the substance in the sample is known or can be identified, package,
mark, label, and ship according to the specific instructions for that
material (if it is listed) in the DOT Hazardous Materials Table,
49 CFR 172.101.
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For samples of hazardous materials of unknown content, part 172.402 (h)
of 49 CFR allows the designation of hazard class based on the shipper's
knowledge of the material and selection of the appropriate hazard class
from part 173.2 (See Table 3-1).
The correct shipping classification for an unknown sample is selected
through a process of elimination, utilizing the DOT classification system (Table
3-1). Unless known or demonstrated otherwise (through the use of radiation
survey instruments), the sample is considered radioactive and appropriate
shipping regulations for "radioactive material" followed.
If radioactive material is eliminated, the sample is considered to contain
"Poison A" materials (Table 3-2), the next classification on the list. DOT
defines "Poison A" as extremely dangerous poisonous gases or liquids of
such a nature that a very small amount of gas, or vapor of the liquid,
mixed with air is dangerous to life.
Most poison A materials are gases or compressed gases and would not be found in
drum-type containers. All samples taken from closed drums do not have to have
to be shipped as poison A's, which provides for a "worst case" situation. Based
upon information available, a judgment must be made whether a sample from a
closed container is a poison A.
If poison A is eliminated as a shipment category, the next two classifications
are "flammable" or "nonflammable" gases. Since few gas samples are collected,
"flammable liquid" would be the next applicable category. With the elimination
of radioactive material, poison A, flammable gas, and nonflammable gas, the
sample can be classified as flammable liquid and shipped accordingly. These
procedures would also suffice for shipping any other samples classified below
flammable liquids in the DOT classification table.
For samples containing unknown material, other categories listed below
flammable liquids/solids on the table are generally not considered because
classifying substances into a category below flammable liquid requires
flashpoint testing, which may be impractical and possibly dangerous at a site.
Thus, unless the sample is known to consist of material listed below flammable
liquid on the table, it is considered a flammable liquid (or solid) and shipped
as such.
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TABLE 3-1
DOT HAZARDOUS MATERIAL CLASSIFICATION (49 CFR 173.2)
Radioactive material
Poison A
Flammable gas
Nonflammable gas
Flammable liquid
Oxidizer
Flammable solid
Corrosive material (liquid)
Poison B
Corrosive material (solid)
Irritating material
Combustible liquid (in containers having capacities exceeding 110
gal Ions)
ORM-B
ORM-A
Combustible liquid (in containers having capacities of 110 gallons or
less)
ORM-E
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TABLE 3-2
DOT LIST OF CLASS "A" POISONS (49 CFR 172.101)
Material	Physical state at standard temperature (0°C)
Arsine
Gas
Bromoacetone
Liquid
Chloropicrin and methyl chloride mixture
Gas
Chloropicrin and nonflammable, nonliquified

compressed gas mixture
Gas
Cyanogen chloride
Gas (> 13.1°C)
Cyanogen gas
Gas
Gas identification set
Gas
Germane
-
Grenade (with Poison "A" gas charge)
-
Hexaethyl tetraphosphate/compressed gas mixture
Gas
Hydrocyanic acid (prussic) solution
Liquid
Hydrocyanic acid, liquified
Gas
Insecticide liquified gas containing Poison "A"

or Poison "B" material
Gas
Methyldichloroars ine
Liquid
Nitric oxide
Gas
Nitrogen peroxide
Gas
Nitrogen tetroxide
Gas
Nitrogen dioxide, liquid
Gas
Parathion/compressed gas mixture
Gas
Phosgene (diphosgene)
Liquid
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V. PROCEDURES: SAMPLES CLASSIFIED AS FLAMMABLE LIQUID (OR SOLID)
The following procedure is designed to meet the requirements for a "limited
quantity" exclusion for shipment of flammable liquids and solids, as set
forth in parts 173.118 and 173.153 of 49 CFR. By meeting these
requirements, the DOT constraints on packaging are greatly reduced.
Packaging according to the limited quantity exclusion requires notification
on the shipping papers.
A.	Packaging
1.	Collect sample in a glass container (16 ounces or less) with
nonmetallic, teflon-lined screw cap. To prevent leakage, fill
container no more than 90% full at 130°F. If an air space in the
sample container would affect sample integrity, place that
container within a second container to meet 90% requirement.
2.	Complete sample identification label tag and attach securely to
sample container.
3.	Seal container and place in 2-mil thick (or thicker) polyethylene
bag, one sample per bag. Position identification tag so it can be
read through bag. Seal bag.
4.	Place sealed bag inside metal can and cushion it with enough
noncombustible, absorbent material (for example, vermiculite or
diatomaceous earth) between the bottom and sides of the can
and bag to prevent breakage and absorb leakage. Pack one bag per
can. Use clips, tape, or other positive means to hold can lid
securely, tightly, and permanently.
5.	Place one or more metal cans into a strong outside container, such
as a metal picnic cooler or a DOT approved fiberboard box.
Surround cans with noncombustible, absorbent, cushioning material
for stablility during transport.
6.	Limited quantities of flammable liquids, for the purpose of the
exclusion, are defined as one pint or less (49 CFR part 173.118 (a)
(2)).
7.	Limited quantities of flammable solids, for the purpose of this
exclusion, are defined as one pound net weight in inner containers
and no greater than 25 pounds net weight in the outer container (49
CFR part 173.153. (a) (1)).
B.	Marking/Labeling
1.	Use abbreviations only where specified.
2.	Place following information, either hand printed or in label form,
on the metal can
-	Laboratory name and address
-	"Flammable Liquid, n.o.s. UN1993" or "Flammable Solid, n.o.s.
UN 1325."
Not otherwise specified (n.o.s.) is not used if the flammable
liquid (or solid) is identified. Then the name of the specific
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material is listed before the category (for example, Acetone,
Flammable Liquid) followed by its appropriate UN number found in
the DOT hazardous materials table (172.101).
3.	Place the following DOT labels (if applicable) on outside of can
(or bottle).
-	"Flammable Liquid" or "Flammable Solid."
-	"Dangerous When Wet". Must be used with "Flammable Solid" label if
material meets the definition of a water-reactive material.
-	"Cargo Aircraft Only". Must be used if net quantity of sample in
each outer container is greater than 1 quart (for "Flammable
Liquid, n.o.s.") or 25 pounds (for "Flammable Solid, n.o.s.").
4.	Place all information on outside shipping container as on can
(or bottle), specifically,
-	Proper shipping name.
-	UN or NA number.
-	Proper label(s).
-	Addressee and addressor.
(Note that the previous two steps (B.2 and B.3) are EPA
recommendations. Step B.4 is a DOT requirement.
5.	Print "Laboratory Samples" and "This End Up" or "This Side Up"
clearly on top of shipping container. Put upward pointing arrows
on all four sides of container.
C. Shipping Papers
1.	Use abbreviations only where specified.
2.	Complete carrier-provided bill of lading and sign certification
statement (if carrier does not provide, use standard industry
form). Provide the following information in the order listed.
(One form may be used for more than one exterior container.)
-	"Flammable Liquid, n.o.s. UN1993" or "Flammable Solid, n.o.s.
UN1325."
-	"Limited Quantity" (or "Ltd. Qty.").
-	Net weight or net volume (weight or volume may be abbreviated)
just before or just after "Flammable Liquid, n.o.s. UN1993" or
"Flammable Solid, n.o.s. UN1325"
-	Further descriptions such as "Laboratory Samples" or "Cargo
Aircraft Only" (if applicable) are allowed if they do not
contradict required information.
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3. Include chain-of-custody record, properly executed, in outside
container if legal use of samples is required or anticipated.
D.	Transportation
1.	Transport unknown hazardous substance samples classified as
flammable liquids by rented or common carrier truck, railroad, or
express overnight package services.
2.	Do not transport by any passenger-carrying air transport system,
even if they have cargo only aircraft. DOT regulations permit
regular airline cargo only aircraft, but difficulties with most
suggest avoiding them. Instead, ship by airlines that only carry
cargo.
3.	DOT regulations do not apply to transport by government-owned
vehicle, including aircraft, but EPA personnel must still use
procedures described except for execution of the bill of lading
with certification.
E.	Other Considerations
1.	Check with analytical laboratory for size of sample to be
collected and if sample should be preserved or packed in ice.
2.	For EPA employees, accompany shipping containers to carrier and, if
required, open outside container(s) for inspection.
3.	For overnight package services, determine weight restrictions - at
least one service limits weight to 70 pounds per package.
VI. PROCEDURES: SAMPLES CLASSIFIED AS POISON "A"
A. Packaging
1.	Collect samples in a polyethylene or glass container with an outer
diameter narrower than the valve hole on a DOT specification
#3A1800 or #3AA1800 metal cylinder. To prevent leakage, fill
container no more than 90% full (at 130°F).
2.	Seal sample container.
3.	Complete sample identification tag and attach securely to sample
container.
4.	Attach string or flexible wire to neck of the sample container;
lower it into metal cylinder partially filled with noncombustible,
absorbent cushioning material (for example, diatomaceous earth or
vermiculite). Place only one container in a metal cylinder. Pack
with enough absorbing material between the bottom and sides of the
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sample container and the metal cylinder to prevent breakage and
absorb leakage. After the cushioning material is in place, drop
the end of the string or wire into the cylinder valve hole.
5.	Replace valve using Teflon tape, torque to 250 foot/pounds (for
1-inch opening), and replace valve protector on metal cylinder.
6.	Place one or more cylinders in a sturdy outside container.
B.	Marking/Labeling
1.	Use abbreviations only where specified.
2.	Place following information, either hand printed or in label form,
on the side of the cylinder or on a tag wired to the cylinder
valve protector.
-	"Poisonous Liquid, n.o.s. NA1955" or "Poisonous Gas, n.o.s.
NA1955".
-	Laboratory name and address.
-	DOT label "Poisonous Gas" (even if sample is liquid) on
cylinder.
3.	Put all information on metal cylinder on outside container.
4.	Print "Laboratory Sample" and "Inside Packages Comply With
Prescribed Specifications" on top and/or front of outside
container. Mark "This Side Up" on top of container and
upward-pointing arrows on all four sides.
C.	Shipping Papers
1.	Use abbreviations only as specified.
2.	Complete carrier-provided bill of lading and sign certification
statement (if carrier does not provide, use standard industry
form). Provide following information in order listed. (One form
may be used for more than one exterior container.)
-	"Poisonous Liquid, n.o.s. NA1955".
-	Net weight or net volume (weight or volume may be abbreviated),
just before or just after "Poisonous Liquid, n.o.s. NA1955" .
3.	Include a chain-of-custody record, properly executed, in container
or with cylinder if legal use of samples is required or
anticipated.
4.	For EPA employees, accompany shipping container to carrier and, if
required, open outside container(s) for inspection.
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D. Transportation
1. Transport unknown hazardous substance samples classified as
poison A only by ground transport or government-owned aircraft.
Do not use air cargo, other common carrier aircraft, or rented
aircraft.
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