THE
ST. MARYS RIVER,
MICHIGAN:
AN ECOLOGICAL
PROFILE
Fish and Wildlife Service
Great Lakes National Program Office
U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
-------
Regional Center for Environmental Information
US EPA Region III
1650 Arch St.
Philadelphia, PA 19103
Cover:
Top--Aerial view (looking east) of the St. Marys Rapids. Sault Ste. Marie
Ontario, is on the left; Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, on the right. Photo
courtesy of Clarence D. McNabb.
Bottom Left--Aerial view of a 305-m l°ng iron-ore carrier, sailing south
through the Nicolet reach of the St. Marys River. Photo courtesy of
Clarence D. McNabb.
Bottom Right--West Nicolet wetland complex, Mich}gan. Predominant emergent
vegetation in the foreground is Sgarganium jUrycarpum (bur reed)* trees in
the background are Picea marina (black sprucey photo courtesy of Walter
G. Duffy.
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Biological Report 85(7.10)
May 1987
THE ST. MARYS RIVER, MICHIGAN: AN ECOLOGICAL PROFILE
by
Walter G. Duffy
National Wetlands Research Center
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
1010 Gause Boulevard
Slidell, LA 70458
and
Ted R. Batterson
Clarence D. McNabb
Department of Fisheries and Wildlife
Michigan State University
East Lansing , MI 48824
Project Officer
Edward C. Pendleton
National Wetlands Research Center
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
1010 Gause Boulevard
Slidell, LA 70458
Performed for
U.S. Department of the Interior
Fish and Wildlife Service
Research and Development
National Wetlands Research c.pnter
Washington, DC ?0?40
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-PuMication Data
Duffy, Walter G.
The ecology of the St. Marys River, Michigan.
(Biological report ; 85 (7.10))
"Performed for National Wetlands Research Center."
"May 1987."
Bibliography: p.
Supt. of Docs, no.: I 49.89/2:85(7.10)
1. Stream ecology--Saint Marys River (Mich, and Ont.)
2. Estuarine ecology—Saint Marys River (Mich, ard Ont.)
3. Saint Marys River (Mich, and Ont.) I. Batterson,
Ted R. II. McNabb, C. D. III. United States.
Environmental Protection Agency. Great Lakes National
Program Office. IV. National Wetlands Research Center
(U.S.) V. Title. VI. Series: Biological report
(Washington, D.C.) ; 85-7.10.
QH105.M5D84 1987 574.5'26323'0977491 87-600098
This report may be cited as:
Duffy, W.G., T.R. Batterson, and C.D. McNabb. 1987. The St Marys River. Michigan:
an ecological profile. U.S. Fish Midi- Serv. Blol. Rep. 85(7.10). 138 pp.
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PREFACE
This monograph on the ecology of the
St. Marys River is one of a series of
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service profiles
concerning important coastal ecosystems of
the United States. The purpose of this
profile is to synthesize the literature
available for the St. Marys River and to
describe the ecological structure and
functioning of the river. The St. Marys
River is the sole outlet from Lake
Superior—an ol igotrophic lake containing
one-tenth of the world's surface water--
and forms a connecting channel to Lake
Huron. Although relatively short in
length, the river is unique in having an
immense drainage basin consisting of both
an immediate basin and the drainage basin
of Lake Superior. The large volume of
oligotrophic water passing through the
river from Lake Superior influences the
physical and chemical nature of the
river's water and its biological
communities.
The St. Marys River historically
supported an important subsistence fishery
and continues to provide a valuable sport
fishery while also serving as a major
transportation link between north-central
and northeastern North America. While
development along the river is limited,
human activities associated with shipping
and industry have physically altered the
ecosystem and resulted in at least
localized contamination.
This profile is intended to provide a
useful reference to the scientific infor-
mation available for the St. Marys River.
The profile includes a description of the
general setting, geologic history, and
human settlement of the area (Chapter 1),
and a detailed description of the river's
physical and chemical characteristics
(Chapter 2). The biological communities
of the river are described (Chapter 3) and
ecological relationships discussed
(Chapter 4) prior to a discussion of
management considerations (Chapter 5).
Any questions or comments about or
requests for this publication should be
directed to:
Information Transfer Specialist
National Wetlands Research Center
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
NASA - Slidell Computer Complex
1010 Gause Boulevard
Slidell, Louisiana 70458.
hi
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Multiply
nanometers (nm)
micrometer (ym)
millimeters (mm)
centimeters (cm)
meters (m)
kilometers (km)
square meters (m2)
square kilometers (km2)
hectares (ha)
liters (L)
cubic meters (m3)
cubic meters (m3)
milligrams (mg)
grams (g)
kilograms (kg)
metric tons (mt)
metric tons (mt)
kilocalories (kcal)
Celsius degrees
i nches
i nches
feet (ft)
fathoms (fm)
miles (mi)
nautical miles (nmi)
square feet (ft2;
acres
square miles (mi2)
gallons (gal)
cubic feet (ft3)
acre-feet
ounces (oz)
pounds (lb)
short tons (ton)
British thermal units (Btu)
Fahrenheit degrees (°F)
CONVERSION TABLE
Metric to U.S. Customary
- 5
0.3937 X 10
0.3937 X 10
0.03937
0.3937
3.281
0.6214
10.76
0.3861
2.471
0.2642
35.31
0.0008110
0.00003527
0.03527
2.205
2205.0
1.102
3.968
1.8(°C) + 32
To Obtain
inches
inches
i nches
inches
feet
miles
square feet
square miles
acres
gal Ions
cubic feet
acre-feet
ounces
ounces
pounds
pounds
short tons
Btu
Fahrenheit degrees
U.S. Customary to Metric
25.40
2.54
0.3048
1.829
1.609
1.852
0.0929
0.4047
2.590
3.785
0.02831
1233.0
28.35
0.4536
0.9072
0.2520
0.5556(°F - 32)
mi 11imeters
centimeters
meters
meters
kilometers
kilometers
square meters
hectares
square kilometers
liters
cubic meters
cubic meters
grams
kilograms
metric tons
kilocalories
Celsius degrees
iv
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CONTENTS
Page
PREFACE 111
CONVERSION TABLE 1v
FIGURES v11
TABLES x11
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xvi
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION (GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL ASPECTS) 1
St. Marys River as a Natural Unit 1
Geology 3
Preglacial History 3
Wisconsinan Glacial History 6
Postglacial History 9
Early Flora and Fauna 9
Cultural Aspects 11
Pre-European Settlement 11
European Settlement 13
Forestry and Land Use 14
Commercial Shipping and Industry 15
Comparisons with Other Connecting Channels 18
CHAPTER 2. THE ENVIRONMENT 21
Temperature, Wind, and Light 21
Air Temperature 21
Water Temperature 21
Wind Patterns 23
Light 25
Precipitation and Hydrology 26
Precipitation
Hydrology 26
The Underwater Realm 31
Water Clarity 31
Nutrients and Dissolved Gases 3?
Contaminants 34
CHAPTER 3. THE BIOTA 35
Primary Producers 35
Emergent Wetlands 35
Submersed Wetlands 39
Phytoplankton 42
Annual Productivity of the Primary Producers 43
v
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Paae
Secondary Producers 44
Zooplankton 44
Benthic Invertebrates 46
Benthic Micro- and Meioinvertebrates 46
Benthic Macroinvertebrates 46
Annual Production of Invertebrates 63
Fishes 65
Juvenile and Adult Fishes 65
Ichthyoplankton and Spawning 75
Movement of Fishes 78
Sea Lamprey 80
Amphibians and Reptiles 81
Birds 82
Waterfowl 88
Colonial Waterbirds and Shorebirds 92
Raptors 98
Passerine Birds 99
Mammal s 101
Small Mammals 103
Large Mammal s 106
CHAPTER 4. ECOLOGICAL RELATIONS 110
Temperature and the Biota 110
Primary Producers 110
Secondary Producers Ill
Annual Temperature and Detritus 112
Food Webs 112
Production and Detrital Material 112
Predator-Prey Interactions 114
CHAPTER S. MANAGEMENT 118
Commercial Navigation 118
Fisheries Management 120
Commercial Fisheries 120
Sport Fisheries 121
Exotic Species 122
Wildlife Management 123
Wetland Management 124
REFERENCES 127
vi
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FIGURES
Number Page
1 Location map of the St. Marys River and vicinity 2
2 Watershed map of the St. Marys River 3
3 Surficial geology of eastern upper Michigan and northeastern
Ontario 3
4 Paleogeography of the latest Precambrian time in Michigan
illustrating drainage from remnant mountains 5
5 Rock strata of the Great Lakes region 5
6 Preglacial drainage pattern of the Great Lakes region 6
7 Pleistocene glaciation of the Great Lakes region from
14,000 to 10,300 YRP 8
8 Cross-section of the geology of Sault Ste. Marie and vicinity 9
9 Pollen profiles for sediments from Upper Twin Lake, near the
head of the St. Marys River 10
10 Time distribution in Michigan of some late Pleistocene and post-
Pleistocene vertebrates, and dominant tree types 11
11 Historical photograph of dip-net fishing at the rapids at
St. Marys Rapids, ca. 1800 13
12 The rapids area of the St. Marys River: (A) 1860-88, (B) 1983 16
13 Mean monthly air temperature for Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan 21
14 Location of the emergent wetland near the Dunbar Forest
Experiment Station 22
15 Mean daily water temperatures for two sites within the Dunbar
emergent wetland and adjacent navigation channel in 1983 23
16 Annual curve of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR)
400 to 700 nm at the Dunbar Forest Experiment Station 25
vii
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Number Page
17 Calculated full-sunlight maximum curve for the Dunbar Forest
Experiment Station showing ice and snow cover on the St. Marys
River and the growing season for submersed and emergent aquatic plants .... 26
18 Yearly average discharge of the St. Marys River at Sault Ste.
Marie from 186(1 to 1984 27
19 Monthly average discharge of the St. Marys River at Sault Ste.
Marie for the period 1900 to 1978 27
?0 Sites of the St. Marys River monitored during commercial
ship passages for the open-water period of 1984 29
21 Water level changes and current velocities generated by the
upbound passage of the Ashley Lykes on 30 July 1984 at
wetland Site B of the St. Marys River 3!
22 Attenuation coefficients for photons between 400 and 700 nm
for three lakes in Florida (Apopka, Orange, and Okeechobee)
and Lake Nicolet, Michigan 32
23 Relationship between maximum depth of boundaries of submersed
meadows and mean turbidity in water over these boundaries
during growing seasons of 198? and 1983 in the St. Marys River 33
24 An emergent wetland on the St. Marys River showing a well-developed
stand of hardstem bulrush and a section with eroding bur reed 37
25 Annual cycle of live biomass in stands of hardstem bulrush
(Scirpus acutus) in the St. Marys River expressed as a
percent of seasonal maximum standing crop 33
26 Electron micrograph of diatoms and colonial heterotrophs of the
periphyton community in emergent wetlands of the St. Marys River 39
27 Growing season biomass of the quill wort Isoetes riparia in a
monot.ypic stand in the Neebish Island region of the St. Marys
River in 1981 41
28 Growing season biomass of charophytes (95£ Nitella flexilis,
5% Chara qlobularis) in a stand in the Neebish Island region
of the St. Marys River in 1981 42
29 Abundance of copepods in open waters of the St. Marys River
17 November 1971 to 17 November 197? 46
30 Sediment particle size distribution downstream of Point Iroquois
and Izaak Walton Bay in the upper portion and in Lake Nicolet in the
lower portion of St. Marys River 53
31 Distribution of total benthos in fine sand and coarse/medium
sand by depth in the St. Marys River 53
viii
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Number Page
3? Abundance of total benthos by depth and habitat in the lower
St. Marys River during 1982 and 1983 53
33 Relationship between diversity of benthic invertebrates and
water depth in the lower St. Marys River . . 54
34 Comparison of estimated abundance of chironomids and oligochaetes in
the St. Marys River during 1982 from samples sieved through two
separate mesh sizes 54
35 Distribution of Tubifex tubifex in the St. Marys River . 57
36 Distribution of Hexagenia spp, in the St. Marys River 57
37 Distribution of net-spinning caddisfly larvae in dewatered area,
St. Marys rapids, 6-7 November 1973 62
38 Oensity of total zooplankton within the Lake Nicolet emergent wetland
during 1983 and density and biomass of the open-water area during
1971 and 1972 63
39 Seasonal abundance and biomass of benthic invertebrates in an emergent
wetland of Lake George and the Dunbar emergent wetland of the
St. Marys River during 1981 64
40 Seasonal occurrence of larval fish in the St. Marys River 77
41 Movement of walleye in the St. Marys River towards Munuscong Lake during
January-February and dispersal from the lake in July-August 1983 79
42 Distribution of sea lamprey ammocoetes in the St. Marys River 81
43 Major migration corridors for dabbling ducks through the
Great Lakes region 89
44 Major migration corridors for diving clucks through the
Great Lakes region 89
45 Major migration corridors for geese through the
Great Lakes region 90
46 Number of duck broods and ducks in Munusocong Lake waterfowl management
area, 1950-69 91
47 Areas of waterfowl concentration in the St. Marys River 94
48 Recovery patterns of mallards, black ducks, scaup, and other ducks
banded in the St. Marys River during 1963-78 95
49 Population estimates for waterfowl using the St. Marys River during
January through April, 1979 and 1980 96
50 Nesting sites of colonial waterbirds in the
St. Marys River area q7
ix
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Number
51 Areas of the St, Marys River used by northern bald eagles for nesting
and feeding during winter, 1979 and 1980 99
5? Estimated winter home range of northern bald eagle pair inhabiting
the Sault Ste. Marie area 100
53 Abundance of selected passerine birds illustrating occurrence as a
function of forest age 103
54 Changes in the white-tailed deer distribution form 1920 to 1975 106
55 Distribution of white-tailed deer winter yarding areas on islands
in the St. Marys River and adjacent lands 107
56 Distribution of moose in the Sault Ste. Marie District of Ontario and
the eastern Upper Peninusla of Michigan 108
57 Relationship of wolf densities in seven stationary populations to the
total biomass of ungulates present 108
58 Gray wolf territories in the vicinity of the St. Marys River 109
59 Relationship between mean height of tallest shoots from two separate
stands of Scirpus acutus and temperature as degree-days above the
germination threshold of 7 °C 110
60 Relationship between mean height of tallest shoots for Sparganium
eurycarpum and temperature as degree-days above the
germination threshold of 7 °C 110
61 Relationship between mean dry weight of Lestes disjunctus disjunctus
and temperature as degree-days above the developmental
threshold of 4.3 °C HI
62 Simplified diagram of energy flow among biotic communities of
the St. Marys River 115
63 Seasonal composition of lake herring diet in the St. Marys River
illustrating dietary switch in July 115
64 Seasonal abundance of common zooplankton, macroinvertebrates, and
larval fish in the Dunbar emergent wetland 117
65 Relationship between maximum wave height and vessel speed at
a distance 100 ft from the shipping line 118
66 Maximum change in stage height versus maximum 10-second mean current
velocity observed during drawdown for the 130 ship-passage events
monitored during the open-water period of 1984 on the
St. Marys River 119
67 Daily tow induced changes in turbidity levels at low flow (simulated) 119
x
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Number Page
68 Survival of walleye and northern pike larvae at various intervals
of 2-minute exposure to air simulating drawdown with vessel passage 120
69 Average catch of fish in the St. Marys River, excluding the rapids,
per angler per hour during 1937-45 and 1971-79 121
70 Number of rainbow/steel head trout and Chinook salmon stocked
fn the St. Marys River by the Michigan Department of Natural
Resources during 1898-1985 122
71 Number of hunters on and white-tailed deer harvested from
Drummond Island, Michigan, from 1935 through 1983 124
xi
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TABLES
Number page
1 Predominant soil types in eastern Chippewa County, Michigan, on
islands within or lands adjacent to the St. Marys River 4
?. Areas of the five largest islands in the St. Marys River 4
3 Fossils from the Devonian period collected from four sites in the
St. Marys River 6
4 Approximate geologic time scale relating to the evolution of the
Great Lakes 7
5 Summary of faunal remains recovered from Whitefish Island, Ontario,
in the St. Marys River 12
6 Engineering events associated with the development of the
St. Marys Rapids and River 17
7 Average discharge of the St. Marys River over the rapids, through
hydroelectric power plants, and through navigation locks 17
8 Summary of physical characteristics of Great Lakes connecting channels 19
9 Area of portions of the immediate watershed of the St. Marys River
below Mission Point and estimates of volumes of water in runoff
per year and per second .' 28
10 Vegetational status of various emergent wetland sites of the
St. Marys River and predicted vessel-passage effects 30
11 Species list of macrophytes in permanently flooded portions of emergent
wetlands (mean growing season depth of 3.0 m or greater) of the
St. Marys River 36
12 Generalized occurrence of vegetation types that dominate biomass in
emergent wetlands of the St. Marys River 37
1'. Biomass in monotypic stands of dominant emergent plants in wetlands of
the St. Marys River at time of peak standing crop (September-October) 38
xii
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Number Page
14 Species list of macrophytes in submersed wetlands of the
St. Marys River 40
15 The most common diatoms in the Lake Nicolet reach of the St. Marys River
during 1982 42
16 Aerial net annual primary productivity of plant communities in the
St. Marys River 43
17 Species of zooplankton collected from the St. Marys River and average
abundance in each of four separate habitats 44
18 Percentages of major taxa of macroinvertebrates retained by 600 um,
250 ym, and 149 ym sieves 47
19 Macroinvertebrates collected from the St. Marys River 48
20 Benthic macroinvertebrates characteristic of separate reaches of the
St. Marys River 55
21 Average number of benthic macroinvertebrates/m2 and percent of the total
represented by major taxomonic groups collected from offshore stations
of the St. Marys River during 1983 56
22 Average number of benthic macroinvertebrates/m2 and percent of the total
represented by major taxonomic groups collected from shipping channel
stations of the St. Marys River during 1983 58
23 Average number of benthic macroinvertebrates/m2 and percent of the total
represented by major taxonomic groups collected from windward emergent
wetland stations of the St. Marys River during 1983 59
24 Average number of benthic macroinvertebrates/m2 and percent of the total
represented by major taxonomic groups collected from lee emergent wetland
stations of the St. Marys River during 1983 59
25 Average number of benthic macroinvertebrates/m2 and percent of the total
represented by major taxonomic groups in Sparganium eurycarpum stands
during 1983 60
26 Benthic macroinvertebrates characteristic of separate habitats in the
St. Marys River 61
27 Average number of common macroinvertebrates/m2 in the St. Marys Rapids
and Lake Nicolet Rapids 62
28 Estimated annual secondary production by zooplankton in emergent
wetlands of Lake Nicolet of the St. Marys River 64
29 Estimated benthic invertebrate production in the emergent littoral zone
and 3-m depth contour of Lake George and Nicolet and in the
Lake Nicolet Rapids 65
xiii
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Humber Page
30 Fishes identified from the St. Marys River 67
31 Fifteen most abundant fishes in each of five habitat types 70
32 Percent composition of 15 most abundant fishes collected with a
4.9-m otter trawl at the 1.5 and 3.0-m depth contours in open-water
habitats of the upper, middle, and lower St. Marys River and
Lake George basin 71
33 Percent composition of 15 most abundant fishes collected with experi-
mental bottom gill nets in open-water habitats of the upper, middle,
and lower St. Marys River, Lake George basin, Raber Bay, and
Potagannissing Bay 72
78
, o sea lamprey caught in assessment traps below the
my Corps of Engineers hydroelectric generating plant at
iault Ste. Marie, Michigan 80
39 "mphihians and reptiles observed and potentially occurring in the
St. Marys River and vicinity 81
40 Birds observed in the vicinity of the St. Marys River 33
41 Mean dates of nest initiation and initial sightings of Class IA broods
in boreal lakes on the northern edge of the St. Marys Rive*- 91
42 Number and species of waterfowl using the Munuscong Lake Waterfowl
Management Area during October and November 1982-84 92
43 Waterfowl population estimates from the St. Harys River during
November 1979-04 93
44 Waterfowl observed and maximum numbers recorded in the St. Marys River
during January through April, 1979 and lq^0 96
45 Nesting habitat of colonial waterbirds 1n t,1e St. Marys River 96
xiv
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Number Page
46 Estimated size of St. Marys River populations of common colonial
waterbirds in 1976 and 1977 97
47 Number of active and failed northern bald eagle and osprey nests and
young produced from the St. Marys River during 1973 through 1985 98
48 Raptors observed along the St. Marys River during January through
April , 1979 and 1980 99
49 Characteristic birds of wetland habitats in the boreal region 101
50 Characteristic birds of upland habitats in boreal forests 102
51 Mammals observed in the St. Marys River and vicinity 104
52 Relative abundance of white-tailed deer in Chippewa County, Michigan,
during July through October of 1975 through 1983 107
53 Annual net primary productivity in Lake Nicolet 113
54 Annual net secondary production in Lake Nicolet 114
55 Sportfishing recapture rates for common fishes of the
St. Marys River tagged in 1982 121
56 Summary of creel census data from the Ontario side of the
St. Marys Rapids, 1971-82 122
57 Number of furbearing mammals collected and reported by trappers
in the eastern Upper Peninsula of Michigan and the
Sault Ste. Marie district of Ontario 125
XV
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
A literature synthesis such as this
profile is developed from the work of many
researchers. Space limitations prevent us
from covering some topics in the detail
they deserve. However, we hope that our
interpretation and summary of data pre-
sented by others reflect their original
conclusions. Much of the data used in
writing this profile were gathered by
students, faculty, and staff of the
Department of Fisheries and Wildlife,
Michigan State University. Our own
research and observations made while on
the river have also influenced the writing
of this profile. The preparation of this
publication has been sponsored by the
Great Lakes National Program Office of the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and
the National Wetlands Research Center of
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Natural resource agencies from the
State of Michigan and Province of Ontario
shared unpublished data from the river,
enabling us to treat certain topics which
could not have been discussed otherwise.
Tom Weise (Michigan Department Of Natural
Resources) and Evan Thomas (Ontario
Ministry of Natural Resources) were very
generous with unpublished information.
Colleagues who reviewed earlier drafts
include David Behmer (Lake Superior State
College), Paul Bertram (U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency), Richard Greenwood,
Edward Pendleton, and Larry Sisk (U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service), Joseph Leach
and D.M. Whittle (Ontario Ministry of
Natural Resources), and Asa Wright
(Michigan Department of Natural
Resources). We appreciate the comments
and constructive criticism offered by each
and share their interest in the river.
Rob Brown and Dana Criswell (U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service) provided editorial
assistance. Their comments often provided
clarity where none seemed possible.
Sue Lauritzen assisted in drafting many of
the figures and Anita McKelroy,
Joyce Rodberg, and Daisy Singleton
assisted in word processing.
xvi
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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
(GEOLOGICAL AND HISTORICAL ASPECTS)
ST. MARYS RIVER AS A NATURAL UNIT
The St. Marys River is a former strait
which connects Lakes Superior and Huron.
The most northern of the Great Lakes
connecting channels, it originates from
Whitefish Bay in Lake Superior between
Point Iroquois, Michigan, and Gros Cap,
Ontario. It flows in a southeasterly
direction approximately 112 km before
emptying into Lake Huron at De Tour,
Michigan (Figure 1). The river falls
about 6.7 m between its headwaters and
mouth; however, 6.1 m of this drop in
elevation occurs at the St. Marys Rapids,
23 km below the headwaters. The river is
bounded on the south and west by the Upper
Peninsula of Michigan: on the north and
northeast by the Ontario mainland; and on
the east, first by St. Joseph Island,
Ontario, and then by Drummond Island,
Michigan, which forms the most southerly
border.
A number of small- to medium-sized
rivers drain the area adjacent to
St. Marys River to form the immediate
drainage basin, much of which lies over
the southern edge of the Precambrian (or
Canadian) shield (Figure 2). The river
itself is unique in that it is relatively
short in length, yet has a large drainage
basin. The basin's large size is due to
the fact that the river is the only out-
flow from Lake Superior with its drainage
basin of 21,000 km2 (39% of this is cov-
ered by the lake; International Joint
Commission [IJC] 1976). The volume of
oligotrophic water in Lake Superior is
approximately 12,000 + 200 km3 --roughly
one-tenth of all the world's surface water
(Matheson and Munawar 1978). About 95% of
the land surface of both basins is covered
by forests. An important ecological con-
sideration is that the water which drains
from the immediate watershed is a mere
fraction of that which flows out of
Lake Superior.
The surficial geology of the
southwestern St. Marys River Valley is
primarily lacustrine sediments and
moraines (Figure 3). On the southwestern
edge of the valley in Michigan, level
lakebed plains are interrupted by gently
rolling plateaus, low rounded ridges, or
lakeshore features such as remnant beach
ridges, sand dunes, bluffs, or marshland
(Veatch et al. 1927). In Ontario, on the
northeastern edge of the valley, knobby
Precambrian rock is partially covered by a
thin layer of till or lacustrine clay
(McCuthcheon 1968). Numerous lakes also
dot the Precambrian shield area north of
the river. Mineral soils in the vicinity
of the river are comprised of clays,
loams, or sands (Table 1). These soils,
in general, are highly retentive of water
as are the organic soils common west and
south of Munuscong Lake.
Water currents of the river are highly
variable and are influenced mainly by dis-
charge to the river from Lake Superior and
water-surface elevation at Lake Huron.
Current velocities are impeded by high
surface-water levels in the river's mouth
at Lake Huron brought about by easterly
or southerly winds or low barometric pres-
sure. On the other hand, high surface-
water levels in Lake Superior result in
greater discharge to the river and
increased current velocities; however,
discharge to the river has been controlled
by compensating gates since 1921. Surface
currents are also influenced by winds,
particularly in broad expanses of the
river. The passage of commercial vessels
temporarily alters both surface and sub-
surface water currents as well.
Hydrologically, the St. Marys River may
be divided into three major reaches:
(1) the upper river extending from White-
fish Bay, Lake Superior, to the St. Marys
Rapids, (2) the rapids, and (3) the lower
river extending from the foot of the
1
-------
rapids to De Tour Passage at Lake Huron.
The upper river, 22.5 km long, decreases
in width rapidly and is characterized by
sandy or rocky shores, with emergent wet-
lands occurring only in protected areas.
The rapids separating the upper and lower
river is an area 1.2 km long and 1.6 km
wide, where the river drops 6.1 m. Sub-
strate in the rapids consists of boulders
1.0 m or more in diameter and exposed bed-
rock. The topography of the upper river
and rapids is more pronounced than that of
the lower river, rising to a maximum ele-
vation about 200 m above the river on the
north. South of the river, elevation
rises abruptly to about 30 m above the
water level, then grades into a gently
rol1i ng broad piai n.
I he lower river has a very irregular
shoreline and contains four large islands:
Sugar, Neebish, and Drummond on the Ameri-
can side, and St. Joseph on the Canadian
side, as well as more than 100 smaller
LAKE SUPERIOR
Whitefish Bay
20 km
I 4
ONTARIO
.¦r?.S. .aj}-A St. Marys Sault Ste.
Rapids. Marie
Point
Iroquois
Sault SteVL^Island
Lake George
Lake N
MICHIGAN
St Joseph
Island
Munuscong
n.'v.vT.' Potagannissing
4"*vEay'
Lime
Island
De Tour
Drummond
Island
LAKE HURON
Figure 1. Location map of the St. Marys River and vicinity.
-------
I AKt SUPERIOR
MICHIGAN
LAKE HURON
1
Waiska River
6
Bennet Creek
2
Charlotte River
7
Root River
3
Little Munuscong River
8
Garden River
4
Munuscong River
9
Echo River
5
Big Carp River
10
Bar River
Figure 2.
River.
Watershed map of the St. Marys
islands <4 km2 in area (Table 2). Sugar
island is 24 km long, has a maximum width
of 13 km, and is oriented north to south.
It separates the Lake George and Lake
Nicolet reaches of the river immediately
below the rapids. Approximately 742 of
the river's flow courses through the Lake
Nicolet reach while the remaining 26%
flows through Lake George (Liston et al.
1986). Both lakes are broad expanses in
the river which empty into channels formed
by St. Joseph and Neebish Islands and the
Michigan mainland. Below Neebish Island
these channels discharge into Munuscong
Bay, where the river widens and flows
southeasterly before discharging into
Lake Huron between Drummond Island and
the Michigan mainland. The lower
LAKE
SUPERIOR
LAKE HURON
50 km
KEY
Lake sediments lj
Ground moraines and outwash plains Bfi
Wisconsin end moraines H
Thin till over moderately rolling bedrock CD
Figure 3. Surficial geology of eastern
upper Michigan and northeastern Ontario.
river is bordered on the west by extensive
areas of emergent wetlands which grade
into forested or palustrine wetlands as
defined by Cowardin et al. (1979).
Chippewa County, Michigan, borders the
river with 4,848 ha of coastal wetlands
(Jaworski and Raphael 1978). On the
river's east border, relief is greater
and palustrine wetlands are generally
restricted to tributary mouths. The
eastern shore consists of unconsolidated
or rocky shores in exposed reaches, with
emergent wetlands occupying more protected
areas.
GEOLOGY
Preglacial History
The present configuration of the Great
Lakes Basin is primarily the result of
glaciation during the Pleistocene epoch
3
-------
Table 1. Predominant soil types in eastern Chippewa County, Michigan, on islands
within or lands adjacent the St. Marys River (Veatch et al . 1927).
Location
West —~ Munuscong ' *
Lake Sugar Neebish Sand Lake De Tour Drummond
Soil Type Nicolet Island Island Island Area Area Island
Bergland silty clay
loam x x x
Bruce fine sand loam x x
Blue Lake sandy loam
(stoney phase) x
Coastal beach x x x x x x x
Carbondale muck x x
Detour stoney loam x x
Eastport sand x
Grandby sand x
Johnswood stoney loam x
Muni sing stoney loam x x
Muni sing stoney
sandy loam x x x
Newton sand x
Ontonagon clay x
Ontonagon silty
clay loam x x x
Rock outcrops x x x
Spaulding peat x
Strongs loamy sand x
Tahquamenon peat x
Table 2. Areas of the five largest islands
in the St. Marys River.
Area
Island
(km2)
St. Joseph
596
Drummond
311
Sugar
117
Neebi sh
52
Lime
4
approximately 10 thousand to 1 million
years ago. The five Great Lakes basins
were covered with ice until 10-14 thousand
years ago and are relatively young in
geologic time. Despite this relatively
young age and the^ inf1uence of glacial
activity on reshaping surface topography,
events of earlier geologic history have
some bearing on basin formation and
present lake conditions.
The Precambrian era, which ended about
600 million years before the present
(YBP), was a period of intensive volcanic
and tectonic activity in the Upper Great
Lakes area. The northern Great Lakes
area--what is now central Canada and the
north-central United States—was formed
1.9 to 2.0 billion YBP by the collision of
smaller pieces of continents (Kerr 1985).
Volcanic and tectonic activity and subse-
quent compression formed the igneous and
metamorphic rocks of the region. Though
the continent was formed roughly 2 billion
YBP, some rocks from the Canadian shield
have been dated to 3.5 billion YBP (Dorr
and Eschman 1970).
Rocks formed during periods of volcanic
activity were later intermittently
-------
reworked through crustal deformation and
igneous intrusion during several orogenies
(mountain-building episodes) in Precam-
brian time. One such mountain range,
known as the "Northern Michigan High-
lands," extended from the Upper Peninsula
of Michigan across the St. Marys River
Basin into Ontario (Figure 4). Material
eroded from this mountain range, along
with Canadian shield rock, forms the
parent materials of the Lake Superior
watershed and basin (Figure 5).
During most of the Paleozoic era,
shallow seas inundated much of the North
American interior, including Michigan,
portions of Ontario, and the entire
St. Marys River Basin (Hough 1958, 1963).
During the early Ordovician period, these
seas temporarily retreated from the north-
ern Great Lakes area, including the
St. Marys River Basin, only to readvance
over the entire Michigan basin until later
in the Paleozoic era. Sediments which
accumulated on these sea floors eventually
formed the relatively resistant dolomite,
rock formations of the Great Lakes area.
Dolomite formed during the Silurian
period of the Paleozoic era has an obvious
influence on the Great Lakes Basin (Hough
1958). Silurian-aged dolomite encircles
Lakes Michigan and Huron, then extends
between Lakes Erie and Ontario into New
—
Figure 4. Paleogeography of the latest
Precambrian time in Michigan, illustrating
drainage from remnant mountains (Dorr and
Eschman 1970).
KEY
Pennsylvanian and Mississippian rocks
Upper and lower Devonian rocks !¦
Silurian rocks
Ordovician rocks
Cambrian rocks
Precambrian rocks i)®Si
Figure 5. Rock strata of the Great Lakes
region (modified from Upchurch 1976).
York State to form the Niagara Escarpment
over which the Niagara River drops to form
Niagara Falls. The Door Peninsula separa-
ting Green Bay from Lake Michigan, the
Saugeen Peninsula separating southern
Georgian Bay from Lake Huron, and the
islands of northern Lake Huron are all
also formed from Niagaran Dolomite. In
the St. Marys River system, St. Joseph and
Drummond Islands were formed from the same
rock formation. This relatively resistant
dolomite, in general, forms the higher
elevation portions of the Great Lakes
Basin. Less resistant shales and slates
formed in the late Paleozoic era when
inland seas were retreating are found in
the lower elevations of the Great Lakes
Basin.
Dolomite deposits of the Great Lakes
area contain a variety of fossil fishes
and marine Invertebrates which are
indicative of warm, well-oxygenated inland
seas. Fossil remains recovered within the
St. Marys River Basin are predominantly
marine invertebrates (Table 3). However,
a number of marine vertebrates associated
with the Silurian seas have been collected
5
-------
Table 3. Number or presence (x) of fossil taxa from the Devonian period
collected at four sites in the St. Marys River (Dorr and Eschman 1970).
Site
West Neebish St. Joseph Lime Drummond3
Taxa Channel Island Island Island
Trilobites
5
Cephalopods
1
Scyphozoans
1
Brachiopods
11
Bryozoans
6
Corals
2
Pelecypods
Gastropods
Stromatapods
4 x
2 xx
x
5 xx
2 x
2 xx
4 x
5 x
x x
aQuarries on Drummond Island are rich in upper Devonian fauna and pre-
sumably contain all or most of the taxa listed (Dorr arid Eschman 1970).
nearby; these include walrus from nearby
Mackinac Island and bowhead whale from
northern lower Michigan.
Following the Paleozoic era and the
retreat of seas from the midcontinent
region, a period of erosion began which
lasted throughout the Mesozoic and
Cenozoic eras until the Pleistocene epoch
(approximately 200 million years). Erosion
over such a long period created a system
of valleys whose axes were aligned along
belts of weaker rock (Dorr and Eschman
1970). These stream valleys formed the
drainage pattern of the midcontinent
region and were the eventual sites of the
present Great Lakes basins (Figure 6).
Wisconsinan Glarial History
Subsequent to the development of the
pre-plei stocene dra''na9e system, continen-
tal glacial ice invade^ Great Lakes
region in four major stages beginning
about 1 million VBP (Tjjble 4), The flow
of ice was guided by major topographic
features, with deeper jce forming in
existing stream va^eys and scouring them
further (Hough 1963). The basins of the
Great Lakes were thus formed by stream
erosion and glacial scour.
The first lakes that can be established
as existing in Great Lakes basins were
Figure 6. Preglacial drainage pattern of
the Great Lakes region (Hough 1958.).
formed only about 14 ,000 YBP, although
earlier lakes probably occupied the region
during interglacial periods. Each glacial
advance, however, destroyed geologic evi-
dence of these lakes such as beaches,
shore terraces, shoreline deposits, and
erosional features. As a result, the most
complete record comes from the Wisconsinan
series of the Pleistocene epoch dating
from 50,000 to 10,000 YBP.
During the Wisconsinan glacial period,
ice extended over the entire Great Lakes
region. As glacial ice began to retreat,
existing lake basins were gradually
6
-------
Table 4. Approximate geologic time scale relating to the evolution of the
Great Lakes (Dorr and Eschman 1970).
Start of period
Era Period Epoch Series (YBP)
Precambrian
Paleozoic
Mesozoic
Cenozoic
Tertiary
Quaternary
Pleistocene
Holocene
Nebraskan
Kansan
II lionian
Wisconsinan
Periglacial &
Algonquin
(substage)
Max. lake
i solation
Broad lake
connections
Modern lake
configuration
8 altithermal
3.5 billion
600 million
190 million
60 million
1 million
700 thousand
300 thousand
50 thousand
14 thousand
10.6
8.1
thousand
thousand
6 thousand
aSee text for description of series in Holocene.
uncovered and filled with water from
glacial melt and normal runoff. With
continued retreat, a series of proglacial
lakes were formed behind glaciers held in
by ice dams in the north and by higher
ground in the south (Figure 7A-F). Early
proglacial lakes initially occupied
only the southern Great Lakes Basin
(Figure 7A). As glacial retreat con-
tinued, greater areas of lake basins were
exposed and pressure on the Earth's sur-
face created by hundreds of meters of ice
was gradually alleviated (Dorr and Eschman
1970). This allowed the Earth's surface,
which had been compacted by the weight of
ice, to rebound upward. Crustal rebound
and the resulting uplift closed off former
lake outlets and altered drainage
patterns; at the same time, new outlets
were opened by the retreating glaciers
(Figure 7B). These processes continued
over thousands of years and caused
lake-surface levels to fluctuate from
<150 m to >334 m above present sea level.
The earliest known lakes of the
Superior basin that directly affected the
St. Marys River Valley came into existence
several thousand years after Lakes Chicago
and Maumee (Figure 7A; Hough 1963). The
Superior basin was occupied by Lake Kewee-
naw about 12,700 YBP. At this time, ice
had retreated to the southern portion of
the St. Marys River Valley (Figure 7C).
Glaciers subsequently readvanced over th^
area, then again retreated, uncovering
the St. Marys Valley about 11,000 YBP
(Figures 7D and 7E; Saarnisto 1974). With
the deglaciation of the Superior basin,
discharge was directed through the
St. Marys Valley and the St. Marys River
was formed (Figure 7F).
7
-------
14,000 YBP
13,200 YBP
Laka
Chicago
Laka
Mcag
12.000 YBP
1 1.800 YBP
Champlain
Algonq
Algonquin
ly Laka Erla
Early
1 1,500 YBP
10,300 YBP
Chtmplikn
TI
Laka
OAtafib
¦•fly Laka Irl*
Laka outlat
Olaotal A poat-glaolal lakaa
^ Raoaaalonal loa frant
Raadvanoa or major halt In raaaaalanal
la a frant
Figure 7. Pleistocene glaciation of the Great Lakes region from 14 000 to
10,300 years before present (YBP) (modified from Bailey and Smith 1981).
8
-------
Postglacial History
Geologic structures underlying the
St. Marys River Valley, built over
billions of years, and surface features,
scoured during Pleistocene glaciation,
have changed little since 11,000-
10,000 YBP. Much of the bedrock of the
river basin consists
sandstones, volcanic, and
of Precambrian origin in
Ordovician-aged dolomites
(Figure 8). The primary
the surficial geology of
River Basin during the
fluctuating water level.
of resistant
granitic rocks
the north and
in the south
influence on
the St. Marys
Holocene was
Water levels in the Great Lakes rose to
>334 m above sea level 11,200 YBP as gla-
cial meltwater fed proglacial Lake Agassiz
and the Superior basin and both drained
southeast through the St. Marys Valley
(Figure 7F). At this time the St. Marys
River was probably a strait connecting
Lakes Superior and Huron. However,
glacial retreat opened a new outlet
at North Bay, in Lake Huron, and by
10,600 YBP lake levels had declined so
that only fluvial connections existed
ONTARIO
SI Marys River
MICHIGAN
Sugar laiand
KEY
Surficfaf dvpoatta
Ptfcambiian bedrock
Cambrian bedrock
QtmcM lift
L*»* flow*
rm SMHtfttMW
¦»*?. Baddad aand and gravel
S*dlm*nlary rock
- ^ Clay
if: Dlabts* dikt
.Mli Qranttic loch
»»»; Volcanic rock
between the Upper Great Lakes (Bailey and
Smith 1981). Another period of high water
levels occurred 8,100-6,000 YBP as crustal
rebound closed drainage outlets, but
quickly receded as new outlets were
opened. Then, as recently as 3,000 YBP,
crustal rebound uplifted rock ledges at
Sault Ste. Marie to a level higher than
the water level of Lake Huron (Moore
1948). This transformed the strait
connecting Lakes Superior and Huron into
the St. Marys River.
Present lake levels have varied rela-
tively little during the past 4,000 years.
Historically, fluctuating water levels
eroded surface deposits in the St. Marys
Valley, leaving remnant beaches, sand
dunes, and other littoral features
in their place (Boissonneau 1968).
Lacustrine-deposited clays now comprise
much of the area's soils south of the
Canadian shield.
Figure 8. Cross-section of the geology of
Sault Ste. Marie and vicinity (modified
from Hunter and Associates 1979).
Early Flora and Fauna
As the glacial ice front retreated from
the St. Marys River region, tundra veg-
etation soon became established in the
area. Pollen cores taken from Twin Lake
northeast of Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario,
indicate that tundra vegetation pre-
dominated in the area from 10,650 to a
little before 10,000 YBP (Saarnisto 1974).
Characteristic plants of the area at this
time included sedges (Cyperaceae), sage-
wort (Artemi si a sp,), ragweed (Ambrosia
sp.), willow (Salix sp.), and green alder
(Alnus crispaT"! Spruce (Picea sp.)
forests, with associated red pine (Pinus
resinosa) and jack pine (F\ banksiana),
succeeded tundra vegetation (Figure 5).
The spruce forest gradually gave way
to birch (Betula sp.) forests which
also contained red and jack pine,
alder, fir (Abies sp.), and sweet gale
(Myrica sp.). The birch forest finally
succeeded to pine forests comprised of
red, jack, and white pine (£. strobus).
With retreat of the glaciers and the
establishment of vegetation in the region,
animal communities became established,
changing in composition with the changing
forests (Figure 10). Evidence from other
parts of the Great Lakes region suggests
that the earliest vertebrate mammal most
9
-------
&
J
6?
%r &
& v* V*' ^
9.5 _
O 10.0 —
10.5
Figure 9. Pollen profiles for sediments from Upper Twin Lake, near the head
of the St, Marys River (Boissonneau 1968).
likely to have inhabited the St. Marys
Valley may have been the woodland musk ox
(Symbos cavifrons), which followed the
retreating glaciers north (Dorr and
Eschman 1970). As forests became well
established in the area, other mammals
which likely invaded from southern
Michigan and Ontario were the now extinct
Scott's moose (Cervalces), giant beaver
(Castoroides pjiioensisj. and woodland
caribou (Ranqi fer tarantus caribou),
followed by American elk (Cervus elaphus),
wolves (Canis sp-). black Eear (Ursus
americanus) > ~beaver (Castor canadensis),
and muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus). Giant
beaver, whi ch~~pVobabiy did not inhabit
the regi°n for a very long period of
time, were imposing aquatic mammals. An
immature specimen from Indiana was over
2 m long- Adults are thought to have
reached 3 m in length ar)(j weighed 215 kg;
by compar1s°n, the present day adult
beaver averages about 25 kg (Dorr and
Eschmann 1970) . The-jr food source was
probably herbaceous wetland plants, a diet
similar to that of muskrats, since their
teeth were not adapted for gnawing. Wood-
land caribou were last reported from Drum-
mond Island in the St. Marys River around
1900 (Bayliss and Bayliss 1955).
Proglacial lakes and their connecting
channels and outlets had an important
influence on the biogeography of Great
Lakes fish communities (Bailey and Smith
1981). Early proglacial lakes emptied to
the Mississippi and Ohio River drainages
{Figure 7B). Connections with the Atlan-
tic, through drainage to the Susquehanna
and Hudson Rivers, and with the Arctic,
through drainage to Lake Agassiz to the
northwest, where later established
(Figure 7C). This pattern of lake forma-
tion and drainage allowed fish which had
sought refuge from glacial ice in more
southerly or westerly drainage basins to
reinvade the Great Lakes Basin.
The earliest information on radiocarbon
ages of the fish fauna from Michigan dates
10
-------
************ musk-ox
********************* mammoth
***************************** mastodon
** caribou
** "peccary
** spruce dominant
*********** spruce-fir dominant
** spruce-pine equal
** jackpine dominant
** pine maximum
** hardwoods increasing
** hardwood maximum
** oak-pine
(rapid climatic
deterioration)
H 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4
Time (years x 1,000 before present)
1
Figure 10. Time distribution in Michiqan of some late Pleistocene and post-Pleistocene
vertebrates, and dominant tree types (Dorr and Eschman 1970).
to only several hundred years before Euro-
pean settlement (Dorr and Eschman 1970).
At this time, common fishes of the present
Upper Great Lakes, such as whitefish
(Coregonus sp.), muskellunge (Esox masgui-
nongy), silver redhorse (Moxostoma anlsu-
rum) , and
commersoni),
region.
white sucker(Catostomus
had already colonized the
CULTURAL ASPECTS
Pre-European Settlement
There is evidence of human occupation
of the St. Marys River Valley for the past
11,000 years (Conway 1977). Early human
occupation was probably temporary, how-
ever, since people of the Early and Middle
Archaic periods (12,000-5,000 YBP) were
primarily hunters who would not have been
attracted to the Great Lakes shores for
extended periods of time (Cleland 1982).
Archaeological artifacts indicate that
during the Late Archaic period (5,000-
3,000 YBP), Upper Great Lakes people began
to exploit spring spawning fish as a
source of food immediately after winter
when other resources were not abundant
(Cleland 1982). From this time through
the Early Woodland period, about
2,300 YBP, the technology for capturing
fish evolved from harpoons, spears, and
gorges to net seines.
The introduction of nets to the Upper
Great Lakes and subsequent Improvements in
net design, such as the development of
11
-------
gill nets, enabled native people to more
efficiently capture fish. Early fishing
remained centered around spawning seasons
in spring and fall when fish which had
been dispersed over wide areas of the
Great Lakes concentrated in tributaries,
embayments, or marshes. Here they could
more easily be harvested. Net fishing, in
contrast to earlier methods, required
cooperation among community members. The
need for cooperation, in combination with
the seasonal nature of fishing, served to
alter habitation patterns among Upper
Great Lakes people and permanant villages
began to be established. Conway (1980)
distinguished between two types of
communities which existed in the St. Marys
River area: small, repeatedly occupied
sites apparently used as summer fishing
stations and much larger, more intensively
occupied villages such as the village on
Whitefish Island located in the St. Marys
River rapids.
Whitefish Island served as a year round
fishing community for Ojibwas and other
Upper Great Lakes people for at least
2,000 years (Conway 1977). Archaeolo-
gical examination of Whitefish Island
(Table 5) suggests that intensive seasonal
occupation of the area dates to around
300 B.C. (Conway 1977). As late as 1641
French missionaries Charles Raymbault and
Isaac Jogues reported several thousand
"Saulteurs" or people of the rapids at
this village during October. At about the
same time, Pere Galinu wrote in his
Narratives of 1670 that the "fishery could
easily support 10,000 men" (MacDonald
1977). Whitefish spawning in the fall and
Table 5. Summary of faunal remains recovered from Whitefish Island, Ontario, in
the St. Marys River (Conway 1977; Hunter and Associates 1979).
Species
MAMMALS
Varying hare (Lepus americanus)
Beaver (Castor canadensis)
Muskrat (Ondatra zibethica)
Dog (Cam's familiaris)
Black bear (Ursus americanus)
Mink (Mustela visonl "
Marten (Martes americana)
Fisher (Martes pennantiT
Otter (Lutra canadensis)
Lynx (Lynx canadensis)
c.f. BobcatTLynx rufus)
Caribou (Rangifer tarandus)
Cow (Bos taurus)
Sheep (Ovis aries)
c.f. Goat (Capra hi reus)
BIRDS
Common loon (Gavia immer)
Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)
c.f. Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos)
Ruffed grouse and/or ptarmigan
Ducks
Shorebirds
REPTILES
Painted turtle (Chrysemys pi eta)
Species
FISH
Lake sturgeon (Acipenser fulvescens)
Bowfin (Amia calva)
c.f. Brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis)
c.f. Lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush)
c.f. Whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis)
Cisco (Coregonus artediiT or round
whitefish (Prosopium cylinaraceum)
c.f. Northern pike (Esox lucius)
c.f. Muskellunge (Esox masquinongy)
c.f. White sucker (Catostomus
comtnersoni)
c.f. Longnose sucker (Catostomus
catostomus)
Brown bullhead (Ictalurus nebulosus)
Channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus)
Smallmouth bass (MicropteTus dolomleul)
c.f. Largemouth bass (Micropterus
salmoides)
Walleye (Stizostedion vitreum)
c.f. Sauger (Stizostedion canadense)
Drum (Aplodinotus grunnTens")
12
-------
the presence of whitefish in nearby
shallow water areas in spring attracted
large numbers of people to the area during
these seasons. The rapids fishery for
whitefish, unlike most other fishing
methods of the time, was a dip net
fishery. Whitefish were netted by two men
in a canoe: one man paddled and guided
the canoe through the rapids and the other
captured fish using a long handled net
(Figure 11). Accounts of the fishery by
early French explorers indicated that a
skillful team in a single canoe could
harvest several hundred whitefish per
hour, with individual fish averaging
4-6 kg each (Bayliss and Bayliss 1955).
The large concentration of people
attracted to the area by fish apparently
depleted the region's wildlife, making
them even more dependent on the fishery
for subsistence. In the St. Marys River
Valley, Ojibwas lived almost entirely on
fish, even making their moccasins and
snowshoe laces from sturgeon skin (Bayliss
and Bayliss 1955). The Ojibwa word for
whitefish was Atikameg, which, literally
translated, means caribou of the waters,"
underscoring the importance they placed on
this fish (MacDonald 1977). CI eland
(1982) reported examining 37,000 bones
from seven separate occupations of a
village on Boi s Blanc Island in the
Straits of Mackinac similar to the village
on Whitefish Island. In this village fish
bones comprised 912, on average, of the
bones sampled in six of the occupations
and 18% in the 7th. He calculated that
fish supplied 66? of the usable meat
obtained by these people, with whitefish
and sturgeon being important species.
European Settlement
Exploration of the interior of North
America was, in part, motivated by a
desire to find a water route around or
through the continent. Much of the early
exploration of the Great Lakes area can be
Figure 11. Historical photoqraph of dip-net fishing at the rapids at St. Marys
Rapids, ca. 1900 (courtesy of the Materna Studio, Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan).
13
-------
attributed to Father Samuel de Champlain.
In 1603, he ascended the St. Lawrence
River to the site of present-day Montreal,
where he learned of a waterway extending
as far as Lake Huron and heard reports of
copper deposits located beyond this lake
(Bayliss and Bayliss 1955). From 1603
until his death in 1635, Champlain pursued
a water route to the Orient through North
America, mainly assisted by priests that
he invited from France to explore the
Great Lakes area and serve as mission-
aries. Two of these priests, Fathers
Brule and Grenoble, are believed to have
been the first Europeans to visit Lake
Superior in 1622 (MacDonald 1977). Since
the St. Marys River is the only outflow
from Lake Superior, the two probably
ascended the river and passed through the
village at the rapids during this trip.
Later missionaries to visit the area
included Fathers Charles Raymbault and
Isaac Jogues, who in 1641 gave the
St. Marys River its present name and were
thus responsible for the names given the
twin cities of Sault Saint Marie, Michigan
and Ontario {Bayliss and Bayliss 1955).
The word sault is the current spelling of
the 17th century French word saut, which
in modern English means "waterfall" or
"rapids." Before European settlement the
area was called Bawating or "place of the
rapids" by the Ojibwa (MacDonaJd 1977).
Following the visit of Raymbault and
Jogues, the sault and St. Marys River soon
became the center of French activity in
the Upper Great Lakes and remained so for
almost 50 years. Trade, fine maple-
sugaring 1n the area, and a superb white-
fish fishery at the rapids all encouraged
settlement. In 1668 Father Jacques Mar-
quette founded the first mission in the
Michigan Territory at Sault Ste. Marfe.
Several years later, in 1671, it was the
site where a special envoy of King
Louis XIV claimed, In the presence of the
assembled Indian Nations, the possession
of the Great Lakes for France (Larson
1981). However, by 1690 La Salle's dis-
covery of the mouth of the Mississippi
River, local wars between the Chippewa and
Sioux, and hostility between the French
and British in the Upper Great Lakes
region all acted to displace trading acti-
vities southward, and the Sault Ste. Marie
area began a period of prolonged decline
(Bayliss and Bayliss 1955).
Early in the 18th century England
extended its influence into French terri-
tory when the French conceded Nova Scotia
and Newfoundland as part of the Peace of
Utrecht which ended the War of Spanish
Succession (Larson 1981). By 1760 English
rule extended from the maritime provinces
through the Lake Superior region. Britain
was interested in the Upper Great Lakes
because of the profitable fur trade and
its Hudson Bay Company. The potential for
fur trading during this period is illus-
trated by the account of one fur buyer who
was able to purchase 12,000 beaver skins
over a 2-day period in the Sault Ste.
Marie area (Bayliss and Bayliss 1955).
The establishment of the St. Marys
River as an International Boundary between
Canada and the United States in 1783
marked the beginning of American influence
in Sault Ste. Marie. Provisions for
actual boundary lines were not made, how-
ever, until the Treaty of Ghent ended the
War of 1812 in 1814. American rule was
established on the south side of the river
in 1820 and soon after, in 1822, a garri-
son was built to protect American
interests.
Forestry and Land Use
American rule south of the river came
at a time of economic, environmental, and
demographic change in the area. Depletion
of beaver populations in the region caused
a shift in the focus of commerce from fur
trading to Lake Superior's fisheries, sur-
rounding forest lands, and ore deposits
(MacDonald 1977). During the mid-18001s,
the population increased and changed in
composition as people of European ancestry
settled the area. In 1850 about 900 non-
Indian people lived in Chippewa County,
Michigan. By 1930 the county's population
was almost 25,000 and a similar number of
people lived in the Sault Ste. Marie dis-
trict of Ontario (Veatch et al. 1927; 0ri'„.
Min. Nat. Resour. 1980). While the popu-
lation of Chippewa County and Sault
Ste. Marie, Michigan, has not increased
substantially since the early 1900's, the
population of Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario,
has continued to grow. At present, the
combined population of the two cities is
about 100,000, with 85,000 living In
Ontario. Growth of Sault Ste. Marie,
14
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Ontario, is projected to continue and
reach 120,000 by 2001 (Ont. Min. Nat.
Resour. 1980).
Many of the earliest settlers were
drawn to the St. Marys River Valley by the
logging industry. The first sawmill in
the valley was built in Sault Ste. Marie,
Ontario, in 1783 (Ont. Min. Nat. Resour.
1980); it supplied wood only for local
use. The commercial logging industry began
in the eastern Upper Peninsula of Michigan
around 1838 and developed into a booming
industry by the 1870's with large rafts of
logs being towed down the St. Marys River
(Ont. Min. Nat. Resour. 1980; Karamanski
1984). Until 1900, white pine was the
primary wood timbered because of its abun-
dance and its low density, which allowed
it to float more easily than many other
species. In 1896, during the height of
this period, a single sawmill at Bay Mills
near the head of the St. Marys River cut
31 million board feet of white pine
(Karamanski 1984).
By the turn of the century, the vast
white pine forests of the region had been
virtually depleted and the logging indus-
try shifted its emphasis to hardwood spe-
cies. This concentration on hardwoods
continued until the 1930's when the lack
of markets for wood during the depression
caused timber production to decline drama-
tically. Following the depression, the
logging industry began to recover and it
continues to be an important local indus-
try presently. Hardwoods are still
logged, but pulpwoods such as spruce, bal-
sam fir, tamarack, aspen, and jack pine
make up much of the wood being cut, par-
ticularly in the eastern Upper Peninsula
of Mi chigan.
Agricultural development of the
St. Marys River Valley followed the boom
in lumbering during the latter half of the
19th century. Early logging depended
heavily on horses and farmers could sell
hay as well as grain, beef, and pork to
logging camps (Ont. Min. Nat. Resour.
1980). Agricultural production of the
valley is, however, limited by an average
growing season of only 134 days and
shallow, poorly drained soils (Veatch et
al. 1927; N0AA 1983). Present agriculture
of the valley is oriented toward dairying
and beef production, with hay being the
chief crop. Roughly 140,000 ha of the
valley is under cultivation in Michigan
and Ontario combined (Veatch et al. 1927;
Ont. Min. Nat. Resour. 1980).
Commercial Shipping and Industry
During the early 1800's, when American
rule was being established on the south
side of the river, Sault Ste. Marie became
the major gateway to the northwest and to
the resources of the Lake Superior region.
To improve trade routes to and from Lake
Superior, construction of a ship canal
around the St. Marys Rapids was proposed
by the Governor of Michigan in 1837
(Larson 1981). An earlier canoe canal on
the Canadian side of the rapids had been
destroyed during the War of 1812. How-
ever, poor planning, financial problems,
and disagreement between the Federal gov-
ernment and the State of Michigan over
property rights doomed the project before
construction was actually started (Bayliss
and Bayli ss 1955).
Until 1855 the sole method whereby
vessels could gain access to Lake Superior
was a portage route on the Canadian side
of the rapids. The first steamship to
enter Lake Superior in 1845 was hauled
over this portage on greased ways and cap-
stans (Larson 1981). Although the process
took several months, occasional vessels
continued to be portaged in this way
because of the increasing commerce on Lake
Superior. A small fleet was established
above the rapids by the early 1850's.
On August 26, 1852, the construction of
a St. Marys Falls Canal was approved
through an Act of the U.S. Congress
(Bayliss and Bayliss 1955). The Act spe-
cified that the canal was to be at least
60 ft wide, 12 ft deep, and 250 ft long.
The canal was completed in June of 1855,
22 months after construction was started
and within $200 of the $1,000,000
estimated cost. It was the first in a
succession of alterations to the rapids
and river associated with commercial
navigation.
The St. Marys Rapids have been exten-
sively altered since those initial efforts
to construct navigation canals and locks
(Figure 12). Many of these alterations
15
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ONTARIO
MICHIGAN
ONTARIO
MICHIGAN
Figure 12. The rapids area of the
St. Marys River: (A) 1860-88, (b) 1983
(Koshinsky and Edwards 1983).
increased trade, and stimulated greater
shipping activity and the use of larger
vessels (Table 6). Presently, navigation
locks occupy both sides of the river: on
the U.S. side, two canals feed ships into
four navigation locks, while on the Cana-
dian side, there is a single canal and
navigation lock. The largest of the navi-
gation locks is now the new Poe Lock on
the U.S. side of the rapids. This lock is
365.8 m long, 33.5 m wide, and 9.8 m deep.
A larger lock 394.4 m long, 35.1 m wide,
and 9.8 m deep is planned and would enable
even larger vessels to navigate through
the river system.
Other alterations to the St. Marys
Rapids include those for hydropower devel-
opment, rail and highway traffic, and flow
control structures (Table 6). Use of the
rapids for hydropower began in 1898 with
construction of the Edison Sault Electric
Company's power house and canal. Later, a
second hydroelectric plant on the Canadian
side of the rapids and a third plant
operated by the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers were constructed. At present,
an average 93.3% of the river's flow at
the rapids is diverted through hydro-
electric power plants (Table 7). The
intense demand for water created by
hydropower and shipping interests led to
the construction in 1921 of flow control
structures. Called compensating works,
the flow control structures are a series
of 16 gates which span the head of the
remaining rapids. These gates may be
opened to allow flow over the rapids or
closed to divert water away from the
rapids and through power or shipping
canals, thereby compensating for varia-
tions in natural discharge caused by
chanqing water levels of Lake Superior.
During the past 15 years, increased
demand for water has heightened concerns
for maintaining water flow sufficient to
support aquatic biota inhabiting the
rapids. After analyzing the hydrologic
characteristics of the rapids and flow
requirements of the organisms inhabiting
them, Koshinsky and Edwards (1983) recom-
mended that flow either be maintained at
roughly 565 m3 /s or adequate water levels
be maintained by strategic placement of
berms. A series of berms was constructed
in 1986 to maintain water levels over the
rapids.
In addition to modifying the rapids,
commercial shipping necessitated the
dredging of natural channels in shallower
portions of the river. As the sizes of
navigation locks were increased to accom-
modate ever-larger vessels, the sizes of
ship channels had to be increased to fully
utilize these locks. In 1857, soon after
the first lock was completed, a 37-m wide,
3.7-m deep channel was dredged through
shallow portions of lower Lake George and
the East Neebish Rapids (Table 6). This
route through Lake George was later aban-
doned in favor of a route through Lake
Nicolet because of the difficulty in navi-
gating the East Neebish Rapids (Larson
1981). When completed in 1894, the chan-
nel through Lake Nicolet was 92.3 m wide,
6.1 m deep, and extended from the upper
lake through the Middle Neebish Channel
16
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Table 6. Chronology of engineering events associated with the development of the
St. Marys Rapids and River. Adapted from Koshinsky and Edwards (1983).
Year Event
1797 Navigation lock 11.5 m long constructed on Canadian side.
1822 Raceway and sawmill built on American side by U.S. Army.
1839 Navigation canal started on American side, construction later aborted.
1855 Navigation lock completed on American side; construction had been started in
1853.
1859 Dredging of Lake George Channel completed.
1887 Lock of 1855 dismantled and replaced by larger set.
1881 Weitzel Lock on American side completed.
1888 International railway bridge completed.
1894 Dredging of Lake Nicolet Channel completed.
1896 Canadian Government canal and lock completed; old State locks on American
side replaced by Poe Lock.
1901 Construction of compensating works begun.
1902 Edison Hydroelectric Canal and power plant completed; canal diverted enough
water to operate 41 turbines, each using approximately 10.6 m3/s.
1908 Ship canal through West Neebish Rapids (rock cut) completed.
1914 Davis Lock on American side completed.
1915 Additional 37 turbines added to Edison Hydroelectric plant.
1916 Hydroelectric canal and plant completed on Canadian side.
1919 Sabin Lock on American side completed.
1921 Construction of compensating works completed.
1927 Widening of Middle Neebish Channel completed.
1933 Widening of canal through West Neebish Rapids completed.
1943 MacArthur Lock on American side completed, replacing Weitzel Lock.
1969 Abitibi Paper Company water use reduced from approximately 198 to 1 m3/s
permanantly.
1982 Hydroelectric plant on Canadian side redeveloped and capacity increased from
510 to 1,076 m3/s.
1986 Berm constructed to maintain water level over rapids.
Table 7. Average discharge of the St. Marys River over the
rapids, through hydroelectric power plants, and through
navigation locks (Koshinsky and Edwards 1983).
Area
Discharge
(m3/s)
Percent
Rapids (compensating works)
99.2
4.7
U.S. navigation locks
36.8
1.7
Canadian navigation locks
5.7
0.3
U.S. Government power plant
359.5
16.9
Edison Sault Electric Company
631.3
29.7
Great Lakes Power Corporation
990.0
46.7
Total
2,122.5
100.0
17
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between Sugar, Neebish, and St. Joseph
Islands into Munuscong Bay. Subsequently,
the West Neebish Channel below Lake
Nicolet was opened to shipping by
excavating the West Neebish Rapids, an
area now known as "the rock cut" because
the ship channel was literally cut through
bedrock. In the 1920's all channels were
deepened to 7.4 m and later deepened to
8.3 m. At present, 101 km of shipping
channels, ranging from 91 to 457 m in
width, extend from above the rapids south
through Munuscong Bay (Larson 1981).
Traditionally, the shipping season
extended from ice break-up in mid-April
through mid-December when ice formation
impeded ship traffic and operation of the
locks. During the 60's, however, demand
for commodities being shipped on the Great
Lakes increased and the shipping season
was extended past mid-December to early
January despite problems caused by ice.
Later, the River and Harbor Act of 1970
and the Water Resources Development Act of
1974 authorized a Winter Navigation Demon-
stration Program for the St. Lawrence Sea-
way. The goal of this program was to
determine the feasibility of extending the
navigation season on the Great Lakes.
From 1974 through the winter of 1978-79
the locks at Sault St. Marie remained open
all year and shipping was conducted during
winter months. Since 1979 the locks have
been closed for the season between late-
December and mid-January while opening
dates have varied between 23 March and
1 April (Liston et al. 1986). The program
successfully demonstrated that engineering
changes in the operation of locks, ves-
sels, and the river itself could extend
navigation beyond traditional winter clos-
ing dates. However, recent declines in
the demand for iron ore and other commodi-
ties have resulted in only modest support
for this program.
The St. Marys River is utilized as a
source of water in manufacturing as well
as for shipping and hydropower. The
dominant manufacturing industry of the
area is the Algoma Steel Corporation's
steel mill at Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario
(Acres Consulting Service, Ltd. 1977).
This mill employed 10,000 people in
the mid-1970' s, but employment levels
have declined since then. The second
largest industry, Abitibi Paper and Pulp
Corporation, is also located in Sault
Ste. Marie, Ontario, and employs 450
people. No other major industries are
located along either side of the river.
In the past, minor amounts of copper,
lead, and silver were mined in the
St. Marys River Valley and dolomite was
quarried on East Neebish Island. A quarry
on Drummond Island was once the world's
largest producer of dolomite, but produc-
tion has been greatly reduced in recent
years. Other than dredging of minor
amounts of gravel from the upper river,
mining appears to have had little direct
influence on water quality in the river.
Water quality throughout most of the
river is good, the exception being the
area downstream from Sault Ste. Marie
along the Ontario shoreline. Here indus-
trial discharges from Algoma Steel and
Abitibi Paper have decreased water quality
(Veal 1968). The main contaminants dis-
charged from these industries are phenols,
cyanide, ammonia, and heavy metals (Acres
Consulting Service Ltd. 1977; Ont. Min.
Environ. 1983). Sediments of the upper
river have also been contaminated with
wood chips, nitrogen, and oil and grease
originating from Algoma Steel and Abitibi
Paper (Veal 1968; Hiltunen and Schlosser
1983). Sediments in the vicinity of a
former leather tannery immediately
upstream from the rapids on the Michigan
side of the river are also contaminated
with chromium, cyanide, copper, and lead
{Kenaga 1979) .
COMPARISONS WITH OTHER CONNECTING
CHANNELS
This monograph is published in the
estuarine profile series, although the
St. Marys River would not be considered an
estuary by most definitions or classifica-
tion schemes (Cowardin et al. 1979). The
term estuary is most often applied to
transitional environments between marine
and freshwater where salinity gradients
occur. However, freshwater estuaries are
also recognized. For the Great Lakes, an
estuary is defined as "the lower reach of
a tributary to the lake that has a drowned
river mouth, shows a zone of transition
from stream water to lake water, and is
influenced by changes in lake level as a
18
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result of seiches or wind tides" (Bates
and Jackson 1980). Brant and Herdendorf
(1972) were among the first investigators
to describe the characteristics of Great
Lakes estuaries, pointing out their physi-
cal and chemical similarities to marine
estuaries. The above definition encom-
passes characteristics of the St. Marys
River, but for comparative purposes we
have chosen to refer to the river as
either a river system or a Great Lakes
connecting channel.
River systems have classically been
viewed as progressions from rocky high-
gradient headwater streams to low-gradient
mud-bottomed rivers, with channels pro-
gressing from straight, to braided, to
meandering patterns (Minshall et al.
1985). The St. Marys River, with its
large volume of oligotrophic water enter-
ing at the headwaters and relatively lit-
tle flow contributed by tributaries, does
not fit this classic view and may well be
unique among North American rivers. The
discharge of Lake Superior into the river
influences the ecosystem in ways analogous
to the ways large hydroelectric reservoirs
influence rivers, shifting stream ecosys-
tem structure and function in either an
upstream or downstream direction, depend-
ing on the location of the outflow
relative to the reservoir thermocline
(Ward and Stanford 1983). However,
natural meteorological cycles and wind
conditions acting on Lake Superior make
discharge conditions less stable than
those from hydroelectric dams, and it is
unlikely that the influence of discharge
on ecosystem function or structure would
be unidirectional. The upper reach of
the Angara River, flowing from the ul tra-
oligotrophic Lake Baikal in the Soviet
Union, may be similar to the St. Marys,
but comparative data are lacking.
The rivers most similar to the
St. Marys are other connecting channels of
the Great Lakes: the St. Clair, Detroit,
Niagara, and St. Lawrence Rivers. Like
the St. Marys, these rivers receive water
from one Laurentian Great Lake and,
excepting the St. Lawrence River, dis-
charge into another. The St. Lawrence
River empties into the Gulf of
St. Lawrence below Ste. Foy, Quebec.
While all the connecting channels share
certain physical characteristics, drainage
patterns from the Great Lakes and human
settlement have contributed disproportion-
ally to the degradation of connecting
channel ecosystems in the lower Great
Lakes. Drainage from the Great Lakes,
except for a minor diversion from Lake
Michigan at Chicago, is from Lake Superior
through Lakes Huron and Michigan, Erie,
and Ontario before finally discharging
into the St. Lawrence River. Because
drainage is from one lake to another, the
size of the drainage basin influencing the
lakes and their connecting channels
becomes progressively larger as one moves
down and out through the Great Lakes
ecosystem (Table 8).
While the size of the drainage basin
has some influence on ecosystem character,
the major influence on lower Great Lakes
connecting channels has been patterns of
human population settlement. Population
growth in the Great Lakes Basin has
centered in the south, while the northern
Table 8. Summary of physical characteristics of Great Lakes connecting
channels (Upchurch 1976).
Total land
Length Drop Average flow drained
Channel (km) (m) (m3/s) (km2)
St. Marys River 112 6.8 2,100 128,000
St. Clair River 43 1.5 5,300 379,700
Detroit River 51 1.0 5,400 397,600
Niagara River 60 99.3 5,700 456,400
St. Lawrence River 808 74.0 6,700 527,100
19
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portions of the basin remain relatively
undeveloped. Furthermore, access to water
for human consumption, transportation,
and industry has tended to concentrate
the greater population of the south near
Great Lakes connecting channels or tribu-
tary mouths. The metropolitan areas of
Detroit, Buffalo-Niagara Falls, and
Montreal all are situated along the lower
connecting channels. Heavy use of these
waterways for industry, shipping, elec-
trical power generation, and wastewater
treatment has resulted in the degradation
of water quality, including the contamina-
tion of both water and sediments with
toxic chemicals.
These water quality problems, in turn,
have contributed to shifts in the
composition of biological communities.
Today blue-green algae predominate over
diatoms or green algae, and oligochaetes
make up >901 of the benthic fauna in some
reaches of the Detroit River {Hiltunen and
Manny 1982; Manny et al., unpubl. MS.).
Fishes such as yellow perch (Perca
flavescens) and rock bass (AmblopHtes
rupestrus) have become abundant in the
Tower connecting channels, while histori-
cally important species such as whitefish
have been eliminated (Edsall et al.,
unpubl. MS.).
While the St. Marys River has suffered
some degradation in water quality and has
been physically altered by humans, it
retains more of the biological components
common to the early Great Lakes than do
any of the other connecting channels. As
will be pointed out in later chapters,
relatively little is known about the
influence of human activities on the
ecology of the St. Marys River. In lieu
of either quantitative or qualitative
information on certain biological
components, published information from
other Great Lakes connecting channels may
shed light on mechanisms contributing to
changes in population abundance and
community patterns over time.
20
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CHAPTER 2. THE ENVIRONMENT
TEMPERATURE, WIND, AND LIGHT
Air Temperature
Air temperatures for the St. Marys
River region are derived from the weather
data collected at the National Weather
Service Office at Sault Ste. Marie,
Michigan (NOAA 1984). Extension of these
temperatures to the entire length of the
river is justified based on the findings
of Greene (1983). He reports that from
November 1971 to April 1977 mean monthly
air temperatures for Sault Ste. Marie, the
Dunbar Forest Experiment Station (some
22 km south), and De Tour Village,
Michigan, at the mouth of the river were
highly correlated and that the station
means for Sault Ste. Marie and Dunbar were
not significantly different. Station
means for De Tour Village were signifi-
cantly warmer than Sault Ste. Marie but
only by 1 to 2 °C.
At Sault Ste. Marie, the coldest month
of the year is January, which averages
-10.4 °C, while July is the warmest month,
averaging 17.5 °C (Figure 13). Air tem-
peratures in this area are moderated
throughout most of the year by Lake
Superior, which seldom freezes over.
Based on the 30-year period 1951-80, the
average first day of 0 "C in the fall is
September 27 and the average last occur-
rence in the spring is May 26. Most
summers pass without temperatures reaching
32.2 °C and the highest temperature on
record is 36.7 °C, which occurred in 1888.
Water Temperature
The water temperatures of the St. Marys
River are typically cold and are near 0 "C
for 4 months of the year. Temperatures of
the headwaters are primarily dictated by
25-
20 -
o
1b-
-------
freeze over during his study, with a mean
date of December 17. Raber Bay froze over
by December 21, followed by Izaak Walton
Bay on January 2. The last sites to
freeze over, all in mid-January, were the
faster reaches of the river at Six Kile
Point, Upper Lake Nicolet, a nd finally
Frechette Point. Maximum Ice thickness
also occurs differentially at different
sites of the river but not necessarily in
the same order as above. In fact, Greene
(1983) reported that maximum ice thickness
occurred at Frechette Point on February 25
while Munuscong Lake did not reach maximum
ice thickness until March 16. The pattern
of ice break-up and ice-free conditions is
the reverse of the freeze-up trends:
faster, deeper areas break up sooner than
the slower, shallower areas. These pat-
terns of ice growth and decay can vary
significantly from year to year (Greene
1983}.
Waters within emergent wetlands warm
more rapidly in spring and reach greater
maximum summer temperatures than water
offshore. During 1983, continuous water
temperature records were provided by
recording thermistors positioned 25 cm
above the sediment surface 600 m offshore
from the wetland face (the face being the
boundary between oper>-water and emergent
plants), 60 m sftorexard, and 240 m shore-
ward of the west Nicolet Lake wetland face
(Figure 14; Liston et al. 1986). Daily
water temperature records from the Sault
Edison power canal at Sault Ste. Marie
were also available for comparison with
Lafce Nicolet resell data. Water tempera-
tures recorded at the power canal were
similar to mean daily water temperatures
at the offshore site in Lake Nicolet.
Differences were generally <1,0 °C,
indicating little spatial variability.
This was not the case when offshore
channel water temperatures were compared
to temperatures of water masses at two
locations within the wetland (Figure 15).
Ice went off the wetland during the first
week In April 1983, while ice-off on the
adjacent navigation channel began in
March. Water temperature closest to the
shore rose rapidly rear the time of ice-
off and quickly exceeded offshore channel
temperatures (Figure 15). There was
approximately a 1-week lag in temperature
increase for the wetland area closer to
the channel. Once the wetland sediments
Sugar Island
Lake Nicolet
West
Nicolet Wetland
Figure 14, Location of the emergent
wetland near the Dunbar Forest Experiment
Station.
in this area thawed, temperatures rose
abruptly and exceeded offshore channel
temperatures by 1 to 6 "C until late July.
Both wetland sites were warmer than chan-
nel waters until August ard were nearly
the same at all locations for the last
3 weeks in August and the first week of
September. Thereafter, wetland sites
decreased in temperature more rapidly than
the channel waters. The wetland site far-
thest from the shore reached 0 "C 4 weeks
earlier than the channel, and ice sheets
formed on the wetlands prior to formation
in the adjacent channel.
Growth of the ice sheet was measured in
the west Lake Nicolet wetland during the
winter of 1982-83 (Liston et al . 1986). ft
thin sheet of ice was present by late
December. It grew gradually thicker until
it reached a maximum thickness of 60 cm in
mid-February in outer portions of the wet-
land. Systems of cracks were observed in
the ice sheet, but open cracks--typical of
hing&s between anchored shore-zone ice and
22
-------
28
24
20
16
12
8
4
0
Aug Sep Oct
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul
Nov Dec
Month
Figure 15. Mean daily water tempertures for two sites within the Dunbar emergent
wetland and adjacent navigation channel in 1983.
floating ice moving with waves and
currents--were never observed. Borings
made along four transects of this wetland
in mid-January 1983 revealed that in the
nearshore areas the ice sheet was verti-
cally continuous with the upper surface
layers of the sediments, where over 90% of
the emergent plant rootstocks were
located. These data suggested that as
winter progressed, this frozen sediment-
ice junction would extend further towards
the channel. If hinges did not occur in
the ice sheet, vertical movement of the
sheet caused by waves moving onshore from
channel areas could uplift and detach
plant rootstocks from sediments at the
frozen sediment-ice junction. Wind driven
waves are likely to cause such disruption
in shallow water portions of the wetlands
during early ice sheet formation when open
water exists offshore in the river. Water
movements associated with winter naviga-
tion would be the sole cause of disruptive
uplift forces during the time of late ice
sheet development and during the winter
period of stable maximum ice sheet thick-
ness, when offshore waters are frozen.
During the early phases of the spring
ice-off process, thawing and opening
occurred in very shallow water near the
shore zone. During this phase, the ice
sheet remained vertically continuous with
frozen sediments in intermediate depths
(ca. 0.4 m) in the wetland. Ice floes
moved down offshore channels before ice on
the wetland broke up. As offshore areas
cleared of ice, ice floes were exported
from the upstream outer fringes of the
wetland. These floes tended to be
imported by currents into other portions
of the wetland downstream. The potential
for imported floes to affect the root-
stocks in sediments of wetlands appeared
dependent on water depth, size and thick-
ness of floes, and force of movement of
floes. At intermediate water depths in
the wetland, sediments with rootstocks
tended to remain frozen as the ice sheet
thinned, broke up, and cleared. During
the ice-off process, movement of ice by
currents and waves appeared to have
potential for localized disruptions of
rootstocks, particularly at intermediate
water depths in the wetland.
Wind Patterns
Phillips (1978) presented wind data for
Lake Superior with reference to Whitefish
23
-------
Bay and Sault Ste. Marie. Whether these
data are applicable to the entire length
of the St. Marys River is unknown. Lake
Superior lies in the mid-latitude zone of
westerly winds. Northwest and southwest
winds blow about 40% of the time, with
wind speeds averaging between 8 and 15 m/s
over the lake. Light (less than 4 m/s),
persistent winds are much less frequent
over the lake as compared to land sta-
tions. At Sault Ste. Marie these light
surface winds are least frequent in the
spring, occurring about 461 of the time,
and most frequent during the summer and
early fall months, when they occur about
652 of the time. These light winds are
strongly affected by urban areas, land-
forms, lakes, and streams. Variations in
diurnal wind speeds follow the usual
pattern of higher velocities during
mid-afternoon, with lower speeds at
sunrise and toward dusk. There is also a
frequent local circulation pattern of air
from lake to land during the daytime and
from the land to lake during the nighttime
because of air and water temperature
di fferences.
Lake Superior and, similarly, the
St. Marys River are subject to important
wind-driven forces such as waves and
seiches. Wind speeds are generally higher
over the lake due to the relative lack of
friction, and are especially strong when
the direction allows a long fetch over
open water. Strong, prevailing north-
westerly winds cause the formation of
large waves which can travel long
distances before reaching Whitefish Bay
and the headwaters of the St. Marys River.
The highest reported 1-min wind on the
lake was 41 m/s in June 1950. At Sault
Ste. Marie, Ontario, the fastest wind was
24 m/s in November 1963 (Phillips 1978),
and at Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, a wind
speed of 27 m/s was recorded in November
1975 (NOAA 1985); both land values were
significantly less than that reported for
the lake. For Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan,
Phillips (1978) compared wind directions
during wet and dry periods for 4 months
(January, April, July, and October) over a
9-year period, 1963-71. Prevailing wind
direction during wet weather in January
was from the northwest or west, with south
winds two to three times more likely to
occur during wet weather. Northwest and
west winds had an atmost equal chance of
occurring on dry as wet days. A wet day
is defined as one in which a measurable
amount (0.2 mm) of precipitation occurs
over most of the land basin. Winds in
April had a much greater directional
variability, blowing ¦f01" more than half
the time from the southerly quadrant.
Winds with an easterly con>Ponent predomi-
nated, especially soiitheasterlies during
wet weather, and exceeded 15% frequency of
occurrence. Summer winds returned to
being predominantly from the westerly
quadrant and there was an equal percent
frequency of occurrence (35%) of both wet
and dry weather winds from the west.
October wind directions begin to resemble
January patterns and are mostly from the
westerly quadrant, overall , the prevail-
ing winds are from the westerly quadrant.
Regions of wide expanse (for example,
Lake Nicolet and Munuscong Lake) have
shorelines variously exposed to waves and
currents. Shores with the most exposure
have no emergent vegetation; the bottom is
rock or shifting sand. Where emergent wet-
lands do occur, two vegetation types
appear to result from the degree of
exposure: (1) least-protected sites have
Scirpus americanus or Eleocharis smallii
as the dominant vegetation types! ancF
(2) most-protected sites have Scirpus
acutus and Sparqanium eurycarpum "as the
"dominant vegetation types.
Least-protected sites occur along the
eastern or windward shore of the river and
are subjected to the greatest amount of
wind-generated waves. Some most-protected
sites occur on the eastern shore of the
river but are found in sheltered loca-
tions, such as Baie de Wasai and Shingle
Bay in Lake Nicolet. The western shore of
the Lower St. Marys River lies in the lee
of the prevailing winds and development of
most-protected emergent wetlands is more
pronounced along that shoreline. The
large tract of Scirpus acutus and
Sparganium eurycarpum that extends from
just north of the Charlotte River north-
ward 10 to 12 km is a good example of
wetland development on a most-protected
site. This site is described in detail in
Liston et al. (1986) and portions of it
are shown in Figure 24.
24
-------
Light
Light is another important environmen-
tal parameter providing physical energy to
the St. Marys River. This energy not only
heats the water and sediments in shallow
reaches of the river but also provides the
energy needed by the primary producers for
photosynthesis. These organisms utilize
electromagnetic radiation in the wave hand
from 400 to 700 nm (referred to as photo-
synthetically active radiation or PAR).
PAR photon flux density (PFD), which is
expressed as moles of photons per unit
area per unit time, varies considerably on
both a short- and long-term basis. Short-
term fluctuations, on the order of minutes
or days, are the result of variable cloud
cover and atmospheric moisture, both of
which reduce the amount of solar radiation
impinging on the river. Long-term
fluctuations, or annual cycles, are the
result of the changing angle of the sun.
Maximum instantaneous PAR photon flux
densities measured at the surface of the
waters of the St. Marys River are about
1,900 microEinsteins per meter squared per
second (UE • m sec-1) and occur near
solar noon on cloudless days in summer.
Typically, values are much less than this
since this area is predominated by cloudy
days and high levels of atmospheric mois-
ture. Daily PAR values measured for the
St. Marys River at the Dunbar Forest
Experiment Station (46° 19'N, 84° 8'W)
varied greatly but showed a gradual
increase from minimal values in the winter
to the highest values during the summer
(Figure 16). In some cases, daily photon
flux values exceeded the maximum full-
sunlight curve. However, the maximum
photon flux curve was empirically derived
from relatively long-term PAR records for
the site. Figure 17 illustrates the
maximum ful 1-sunlight curve on which is
superimposed the growing season for
emergent and submersed plants using
germination temperature thresholds for
start in the spring and field observations
for the end in the fall (Liston et al.
1986): the period of ice and snow cover is
also shown.
Figure 16. Annual curve of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) 400 to 700 nm at
the Dunbar Forest Experiment Station. The smooth upper line represents the calculated
full-sunlight maximum curve for that location; 1982 daily values plotted below (Liston
etal. 1986; McNabb, unpubl. data).
25
-------
60-,
50
40-
PAR
/*E~2 30-
day _1
20-
Growing
Season
10
Ice and Snow
' JAN ' FEB 1 MAR 1 APR ' MAY JUN ' JUL 1 AUG ' SEP ' OCT ' NOV ' DEC
Figure 17. Calculated full-sunlight maximum curve for the Dunbar Forest Experiment
Station showing ice and snow cover on the St. Marys River and the growing season for
submersed and emergent aquatic plants (McNabb, unpubl. data).
PRECIPITATION AND HYDROLOGY
Precipitation
The winters in the St. Marys River area
are cold and snowy with total snow-fall
accumulations ranging from a minimum of
0.82 m in 1899-1900 to a high of 4.54 m
during the winter of 1976-77. November 21
is the average date for the appearance of
permanent snow cover which normally
remains until April 7.
The following are 30-year (1951-80)
averages for precipitation (as water
equivalents) at Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan
(NOAA 1985). The annual mean is 85.0 cm.
Monthly variations are significant:
February is the driest month, with a
normal monthly mean of 4.3 cm, while
September is wettest, with a monthly mean
of 9.9 cm. Monthly averages over the
30-year record are also quite variable.
The minimum monthly average was 0.4 cm for
October 1963, while the maximum monthly
average was 24.1 cm for August 1974.
Maximum precipitation in 24 hours ranged
(on a monthly basis) from a low of 2.8 cm
in February 1977 to a high of 15.0 cm in
August 1974- These data are in close
agreement to values reported by Phillips
(1978) for overall averages of precipita-
tion on Lake Superior.
Hydrology
Water budgets for Lake Superior were
developed by both the International Joint
Commission (presented in Matheson and
Munawar 1978) and Bennett (1978). Both
are in close agreement and show that there
are only two major losses of water from
the lake: by outflow via the St. Marys
River or by evaporation. Losses of water
by municipal or industrial uses or by
ground-water flow are considered to be
negligible. Outflow to the St. Marys River
accounts for 652 of the total losses.
Outflow from Lake Superior via the
St. Marys River has been recorded since
1860 and has fluctuated greatly (Fig-
ure 18). The mean flow rate for the
124 years of record (1860-1984) is
2,144 m3 Is, while monthly rates have
ranged from a minimum of 1,161 m^/s in
September 1955 to a maximum of 3,597 mJ/s
in August 1943. It should be noted that
since the completion of the Long Lac and
Ogoki Diversions in the 1940*s, in which
some waters originally draining north into
James Bay were diverted to Lake Superior,
there has been an increase in the annual
flow. The effect of these diversions has
been an increase of 196 m3/s in the mean
discharge of St. Marys River. Monthly
flows (mean, maximum, and minimum) of the
river from 1900 to 1978 are presented in
Figure 19. The flow is least in March
26
-------
1860
1880
1900
1920
1940
1960
1980
Figure 18. Yearly average discharge of the St. Marys River at Sault Ste. Marie from
1860 to 1984 (Quinn and Kelley 1983; U.S. Army Corps of Eng., Detroit District,
unpubl. data).
(1,869 m3/s), when Lake Superior levels
are lowest, and greatest in September
(2,379 m3/s), when the lake level is
highest.
As mentioned in Chapter 1, there are a
number of watersheds that drain into the
4.0
3.8
1.0-1 1 » 1 > » > . i 1—
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Figure 19. Monthly average discharge of
the St. Marys River at Sault Ste. Marie for
the period 1900 to 1978 (U.S. Army Corps
of Eng., Detroit District, unpubl. data).
St. Marys River. By far the most
important is the Lake Superior Basin,
which also includes the Goulais River on
the Canadian side. The other drainage
basins that discharge to the St. Marys
River are all of much smaller magnitude
than that of Lake Superior (cf. Figure 2).
On the U.S. side, these include basins
which are drained by a number of small
streams in the vicinity of Sault Ste.
Marie, Michigan, north of the Charlotte
River; the Charlotte River; Little
Munuscong River; Munuscong River; and the
Gogomain River. Together, these four
rivers drain 64t of the immediate
watershed. On the Canadian side, a number
of watersheds are drained by the Big Carp
River, Little Carp River, Root River,
Garden River, Little Garden River, Echo
River, and Bar River. Except for
discharge measurements of Lake Superior,
there is little information on flows from
the other watersheds that drain into the
St. Marys River. The Water Resources
Branch of the Ontario Ministry of the
Environment has discharge data for the
27
-------
Root River dating back to 1971. On the
U.S. side there have been no flow data
collected on tributaries draining into the
river. However, Liston et al. (1986),
using data presented by Sommers (1977) for
annual precipitation, runoff, and ground
water, estimated annual discharge for
various portions of the immediate
watershed of the St. Marys River below
Mission Point on the U.S. side (Table 9).
The largest drainage basin after Lake
Superior is the Munuscong River which was
estimated to discharge 1.9 x 10"6 m3 per
year. During 1982 the average discharge
of the St. Marys River at Sault Ste. Marie
was 1,988 m3/s. Using these values, it
can be calculated that the annual dis-
charge of the Munuscong River was equaled
by 16 min of discharge for the river at
Sault Ste. Marie in 1982. Mean discharge
for the total watershed was estimated to
be 0.15 m3/s (Table 9). In 1982, this
discharge rate was 0.007$ of the average
discharge of the St. Marys River at Sault
Ste. Marie. It is apparent from these
calculations that Lake Superior exerts the
most influence on the water budget of the
St. Marys River.
Discharge measurements were made by
Liston et al. (1986) on the outlet
channels from Lake Hicolet during "the
interval April-October 1983. Total
discharge from this reach of the river for
this period was found to be 74$ of the
river's discharge at Sault Ste. Marie.
Flushing rates (discharge divided by lake
volume) were calculated and found to
average 1.31 lake volumes per day. It is
clear from these results and hydrographic
features of lower reaches of the river
that any materials in solution or
suspension tend to be transported through
the length of the St. Marys River in a
short period of time (days). However,
this is a generalization and comparisons
between near-channel sites and sites
closer to shore in the broad reaches of
the river showed areas of stagnation
(Liston et al. 1986).
NOAA (1985) reports that the swiftest
currents in the navigable channels occur
at the Little Rapids Cut, where speeds
vary from 1.0 m/s at a high water
discharge of 3,115 m3/s to 0.6 m/s at a
low water discharge of 1,614 m3/s--a 36£
reduction in speed for those two discharge
extremes. In other reaches of the river
the speed can be reduced by as much as 46Z
between those two levels of discharge.
Current velocities lessen away from the
navigable channels (U.S. Army Corps of
Table 9. Area of portions of the immediate watershed of the
St. Marys River below Mission Point and estimates of volumes
of water in runoff per year and per second (from Liston et
al. 1986).
Area Runoff Mean
Region (km2) (m3/yr) (m3/s)
Islands:
Sugar Island
Neebish Island
St. Joseph Island
Lime Island
Mainland:
Above Charlotte River
Charlotte River
Little Munuscong River
Munuscong River
Gogomain River
Totals
44
183,860
0.01
55
229,820
0.01
146
449,300
0.01
4
13,000
0.01
86
358,920
0.01
187
642,920
0.02
179
576,910
0.02
562
1,880,300
0.06
95
254,610
0.01
1,358
4,589,640
0.14
28
-------
Engineers 1984) and in some areas are
virtually nil along the shoreline unless
induced by winds or the passage of
commercial vessels. McNabb et al . (1986)
found that current speed in a channelized
area of an emergent wetland along the
river in the Lake Nicolet reach went from
0.0 m/s to 1.0 m/s as a commercial vessel
passed the study site.
The water levels of the St. Marys River
are subject to three types of fluctua-
tions: seasonal, long range, and short
period. Seasonal fluctuations cover a
period of 1 year, long-range fluctuations
a few or many years, and short period
fluctuations from several minutes to a few
days. Seasonal fluctuations are the most
regular, with highest water levels occur-
ring during the summer and the lowest
occurring during the winter. These fluc-
tuations are the result of a number of
factors, including precipitation, evapora-
tion, and runoff. These are compounded by
the regulated monthly flows of the river
at Sault Ste. Marie. On average there is
about a 0.3 m change in water-level fluc-
tuation during a year. Long-range fluctu-
ations have been more dramatic, with a
1.2 m difference between the highest and
lowest monthly mean levels in the Upper
St. Marys River and 1.5 m in the lower
river over the last 80 years (NOAA 1985).
Short-period fluctuations can also be
quite dramatic as indicated by one
recorded event in which the change in
stage height varied by over 1.5 u within a
3-h period. Typically these events" are
much less dramatic and ephemeral, with
changes in water level varying by a few cm
and lasting only a matter of hours. These
short-period fluctuations are typically
caused by winds, sudden changes in baro-
metric pressure, seiches (which are oscil-
lations caused by one or both of the
former), and increased discharge of the
river.
Additional influences on the hydrology
of the St. Marys River are generated by
commercial cargo ships as they ply the
waterway (Alger 1979; Wuebben 1983; McNabb
et al. 1986). Between 1970 and 1981, the
number of times ships passed through the
locks at Sault Ste. Marie ranged from a
minimum of 11,059 in 1977 to a maximum of
13,991 in 1973. In recent years, the num-
ber of passages has decreased as older,
smaller ships have been replaced by newer,
larger ones. In 1981, 526 different ships
used the locks (Liston et al. 1986); of
those, 13 were of the largest size class
that travel the Great Lakes (305 in long).
Wuebben (1983) has modeled the effects
expected on shoreline areas of the St.
Marys River from the passage of those
large ships. A principal effect of these,
and of vessels of smaller size, is the
creation of a water cycle in which there
is a drawdown along adjacent shorelines as
ships pass and then subsequent resurgence
of water back into the area of drawdown.
An intensive study of the effects of
ship passage at various wetland and one
nonwetland site of the St. Marys River was
undertaken during 1984 by HcNabb et al.
(1986). They categorized the various
wetland sites studied (Figure 20) and
estimated the drawdown that would occur if
Sugar
Island
Lake George
Nicole)
Figure 20. Sites of the St. Marys River
monitored during commercial ship passages
for the open-water period of 1984. A
through I are emergent wetland sites; F is
a nonemergent-wetland site (McNabb et al.
1986).
29
-------
Root River dating back to 1971. On the
U.S. side there have been no flow data
collected on tributaries draining into the
river. However, Liston et al . (1986),
using data presented by Sommers (1977) for
annual precipitation, runoff, and ground
water, estimated annual discharge for
various portions of the immediate
watershed of the St. Marys River below
Mission Point on the U.S. side (Table 9).
The largest drainage basin after Lake
Superior is the Munuscong River_which was
estimated to discharge 1.9 x 10"6 m3 per
year. During 1982 the average discharge
of the St. Marys River at Sault Ste. Marie
was 1,988 m3/s. Using these values, it
can be calculated that the annual dis-
charge of the Munuscong River was equaled
by 16 min of discharge for the river at
Sault Ste. Marie in 1982. Mean discharge
for the total watershed was estimated to
be 0.15 m3/s (Table 9). In 1982, this
discharge rate was 0.007X of the average
discharge of the St. Marys River at Sault
Ste. Marie. It is apparent from these
calculations that Lake Superior exerts the
most influence on the water budget of the
St. Marys River.
Di scharge measurements were made by
Liston et al. (1986) on the outlet
channels from Lake Micolet during the
interval Apri1-October 1983. Total
o-1scharge from this reach of the river for
tnis period was found to be 742 of the
nver s discharge at Sault Ste. Marie,
ushing rates (discharge divided by lake
nW^re ca1culated and found to
, 1.31 lake volumes per day. It is
fit9/ m ttlese resul ts and hydrographic
eatures of lower reaches of the river
nat any materials in solution or
thJp.nsi°" te"d to be transported through
chnrt6" • of the St• Marys River in a
thic .'3eri0^ °f time (days). However,
d genera1l'zation and comparisons
ciJET ~ nea:-^annel sites and sites
tha v>- shore 1n the broad reaches of
iM . lver showed areas of stagnation
(Liston et al. 1986).
currSJt (-985) reP°rts that the swiftest
at Si -1" navigable channels occur
varv ,e RaPlds Cut, where speeds
di^hJ„7" r° m/s at a high water
low mat j°" ^,115 rn3/s to 0.6 m/s at a
reduction .dlschar9e 1.614 m»/s--a 362
extrpmle 1n_speed for those two discharge
the other reaches of the river
betwppn i-h°an reduced by as much as 46%
hose two levels of discharge.
nav^oTtf^ veJoc1t1es lessen away from the
navigable channels (U.S. Army Corps of
Table 9. Area of portions of the immediate watershed of th*
St. Marys River below Mission Point and estLates of ,olw«
™°" per year a"'1 <*<¦ "COM (fron, Lis?on et
Area Runoff Mean
Re910n (km2) (m»/yr) (mVs)
Islands:
Sugar Island
Neebish Island
St. Joseph Island
Lime Island
Mainland:
Above Charlotte River
Charlotte River
Little Munuscong River
Munuscong River
Gogomain River
Totals
44
55
146
4
183,860
229,820
449,300
13,000
0,01
0.01
0.01
0.01
86
187
179
562
95
1,358
358,920
642,920
576,910
1,880,300
254,610
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.06
0.01
4,589,640 0.14
28
-------
Engineers 1984) and in some areas are
virtually nil along the shoreline unless
induced by winds or the passage of
commercial vessels. McNabb et al. (1986)
found that current speed in a channelized
area of an emergent wetland along the
river in the Lake Nicolet reach went from
0.0 m/s to 1.0 m/s as a commercial vessel
passed the study site.
The water levels of the St. Marys River
are subject to three types of fluctua-
tions: seasonal, long range, and short
period. Seasonal fluctuations cover a
period of 1 year, long-range fluctuations
a few or many years, and short period
fluctuations from several minutes to a few
days. Seasonal fluctuations are the most
regular, with highest water levels occur-
ring during the summer and the lowest
occurring during the winter. These fluc-
tuations are the result of a number of
factors, including precipitation, evapora-
tion, and runoff. These are compounded by
the regulated monthly flows of the river
at Sault Ste. Marie. On average there is
about a 0.3 m change in water-level fluc-
tuation during a year. Long-range fluctu-
ations have been more dramatic, with a
1.2 m difference between the highest and
lowest monthly mean levels in the Upper
St. Marys River and 1.5 m in the lower
river over the last 80 years (NOAA 1985).
Short-period fluctuations can also be
quite dramatic as indicated by one
recorded event in which the change in
stage height varied by over 1.5 m within a
3-h period. Typically these events' are
much less dramatic and ephemeral, with
changes in water level varying by a few cm
and lasting only a matter of hours. These
short-period fluctuations are typically
caused by winds, sudden changes in baro-
metric pressure, seiches (which are oscil-
lations caused by one or both of the
former), and increased discharge of the
river.
Additional influences on the hydrology
of the St. Marys River are generated by
commercial cargo ships as they ply the
waterway (Alger 1979; Wuebben 1983; McNabb
et al. 1986). Between 1970 and 1981, the
number of times ships passed through the
locks at Sault Ste. Marie ranged from a
minimum of 11,059 in 1977 to a maximum of
13,991 in 1973. In recent years, the num-
ber of passages has decreased as older,
smaller ships have been replaced by newer,
larger ones. In 1981, 526 different ships
used the locks (Liston et al. 1986); of
those, 13 were of the largest size class
that travel the Great Lakes (305 m long).
Wuebben (1983) has modeled the effects
expected on shoreline areas of the St.
Marys River from the passage of those
large ships. A principal effect of these,
and of vessels of smaller size, is the
creation of a water cycle in which there
is a drawdown along adjacent shorelines as
ships pass and then subsequent resurgence
of water back into the area of drawdown.
An intensive study of the effects of
ship passage at various wetland and one
nonwetland site of the St. Marys River was
undertaken during 1984 by McNabb et al.
(1986). They categorized the various
wetland sites studied (Figure 20) and
estimated the drawdown that would occur if
F\
A
Liiil
Figure 20. Sites of the St. Marys River
monitored during commercial ship passages
for the open-water period of 1984. A
through E are emergent wetland sites; F is
a nonemergent-wetland site (McNabb et al.
1986) .
Sugar
Island
Lake George
Lake Nicolet
29
-------
a 305-m ship moving at the existing speed
limit passed those sites (Table 10). The
estimates of drawdown are from Wuebben
(1983) and the categorization is based on
interpretation of oblique aerial photo-
graphs taken during November 1983 and
earlier work on those wetlands by Liston
et al. (1986).
At the sampling site for each ship
passage, changes in water level, current
direction, and velocity were measured. In
total, 130 ship passages were monitored
during 1984 (McNabb et al. 1986). A pre-
dictable pattern of water movement
occurred at these six sites (Figure 20A-F)
for many of those events. The water cycle
illustrated in Figure 21 is applicable, in
a generic sense, to water cycles created
at other sites during various ship
passages.
The water cycle associated with ship
passage is divided into five phases:
initial, standing wave, drawdown, surge,
and postpassage (separated by dashed
vertical lines in Figure 21). The first
phase (initial) is characterized by little
or no change in water level and ambient
current velocities, which for this vessel
passage were zero. In the second phase
(standing wave), the water level increased
and current velocities were detected for
the first time. Currents generated were
directed towards the shore, reached
maximum velocity midway through the phase,
then returned to zero. Drawdown began
after the water level had reached its
highest elevation, when currents were
directed away from the wetland and towards
the navigation channel. The greatest
current velocity, 0.2 ro/s, was noted in
this phase. For other ship-passage
events, maximum current velocities were
usually noted during drawdown although
some occurred during the next phase, the
surge. Drawdown continued until the
current direction reversed itself and flow
was directed back towards the shore. This
flow reversal began after the water level
had reached its lowest point; this marked
the beginning of the surge of water back
into the wetland. The surge continued
until current velocities diminished to
almost zero and water level neared the
baseline. The final phase of the water
cycle (postpassage) was characterized by
water-level fluctuations around the base-
line and current velocities that exceeded
ambient conditions. It was during post-
passage that waves created by the wake of
the passing ship crossed the sampling
station. This cycle typifies water
movements associated with ship passage for
all of the events monitored during the
study, but the magnitude of the various
ship-induced phenomena varied considerably
between events (McNabb et al. 1986). For
Table 10. Vegetational status of various emergent wetland
sites of the St. Marys River and predicted vessel-passage
effects. A disturbed vegetation pattern is one in which there
are distinct disruptions within the emergent wetlands (McNabb
et al. 1986).
Predicted
Vegetation Vegetation drawdown
Site3 type pattern (m)
A
Most-protected
Undisturbed
0.06
B
Most-protected
Di sturbed
0.39
C
Least-protected
Di sturbed
0.29
D
Most-protected
Undisturbed
0.20
E
Most-protected
Di sturbed
0.49
F
None
—
0.30
aSites refer to Figure 20.
30
-------
Standing wave Surge
Initial Drawdown Post-passage
-6
SITE B
0.20
0.10
0.05
Time (min)
Channel
Shore
Figure 21. Water-level changes and current velocities
generated by the upbound passage of the Ashley Lykes on
30 July 1984 at wetland Site B of the St. Marys River (McNabb
et al. 1986).
the 130 ship-passage events, the greatest
current velocities recorded were around
1.0 m/s, which is approximately the same
as the fastest currents that have been
measured in the river. The total change
in water level within these sites ranged
from 0.01 to 0.70 m. Overall, the
influence of vessel passage on wetlands
varied considerably from site to site.
No one factor dictates the extent to
which water levels fluctuate and current
velocities are generated. Factors such as
vessel length, beam, draft, speed, and
hull design, as well as distance from the
wetland and basin morphometry, all con-
tribute to the hydrological changes that
plants experience as ships pass. The
plants themselves probably also influence
the extent and magnitude of these fluxes.
THE UNDERWATER REALM
Water Clarity
Water entering the St. Marys River is
exceptionally clear for a large river in
the Upper Great Lakes region. Calculated
extinction coefficients for Upper Lake
Nicolet for wavelengths between 400 and
700 nm ranged from 0.35 to 0.94/m. These
coefficients are a measure of the attenua-
tion of light in a water column due tq
absorption by the water itself, dissolved
compounds (e.g. organic acids, which color
water shades of brown), suspended particu-
late matter, and scattering. Attenuation
coefficients for Lake Nicolet and three
lakes in Florida are presented in Fig-
ure 22. Dissolved organic substances that
31
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/ \
Okeechobee \
Orange
Nicoet
Apopka
N
400
520 560
Wavelength (rjm)
600
640
680
Figure 22. Attenuation coefficients for
photons between 400 and 700 nm for three
lakes in Florida (Apopka, Orange, and
Okeechobee) and Lake Nicolet (Batterson,
McNabb, and Craig, unpubl. data).
color the Florida lakes brown absorb
photons of light in the wave band around
480 to 500 nm. These substances are not
common in the waters of Lake Nicolet. The
lake also does not contain suspended
particulate matter that absorbs and scat-
ters photons at wavelengths >560 nm. It
is apparent from these data that light is
not attenuated as rapidly through the
water column of Lake Nicolet as it is in
the Florida lakes. Attenuation coeffi-
cients from Lake Nicolet are similar to
those Schertzer et al . (1978) and Jerome
et al. (1983) reported for Lake Superior.
Turbidity is the expression of the
optical property that causes light to be
scattered and absorbed. Water of the
upper reaches of the St. Marys River has
low turbidity, with values typically less
than 1 nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU)
(U.S. Geological Survey 1974-84; Liston et
al. 1986). However, in downstream areas,
clays in the watershed are mobilized by
rain and snowmelt and are carried into the
river by diffuse overland runoff and
streamflow. The clay-laden plumes of
major streams entering the river along the
western shore are visually prominent
during the ice-free season. A fraction of
these clays settle out in downstream
reaches of the river. In shallow
deposition areas, clays are resuspended
during periods of high wind and other
turbulent conditions. Thus, water in
western Munuscong Lake and along the
southwest shore of Neebish Island are
frequently turbid in the ice-free season,
with measurements in excess of 50 NTU
(Liston et al. 1986). When the watershed
and river are covered with snow and ice,
turbidity through the length of the river
is low: on the order of 1 NTU.
During ice-free months inputs from the
watershed, resuspension by waves at the
shoreline, and currents combine to
increase turbidity; turbidity levels
increase as one proceeds downstream. This
increase is least pronounced in main chan-
nel water that moves rapidly through the
system. Here, turbidity increases average
from 1 NTU to 7.5 NTU1 s from the head of
the river through lower reaches to the
mouth. Turbidity is higher in off-channel
water in wide reaches of the river (Liston
et al. 1986). Excluding the areas of
localized high turbidity mentioned above,
off-channel turbidity increases from 2 to
14 NTU between Lake Nicolet and Raber Bay
of the river.
Submersed aquatic plants in the system
are particularly sensitive to changes in
light intensity that accompany increasing
turbidity. These plants form extensive
underwater meadows in the river where pre-
dominantly clay, rather than sand or
cobble, sediments occur. The depth to
which these meadows grow, and therefore
the area which meadows can cover, is
dependent on the availability of light.
Light along the bottom of the river, where
these plants germinate each year,
decreases with increasing turbidity.
Depth restriction of submersed meadow
development by turbidity in the St. Marys
River is shown in Figure 23. It is
apparent from the shape of the curve in
Figure 23 that even small changes in
turbidity between 2 and 6 NTU's have a
very large effect on the ability of
species in the river to colonize the clay
sediments available below a depth of 4 m.
Thus, turbidity exerts a control on the
amount of primary production that occurs
in submersed wetlands.
Nutrients and Dissolved Gases
Data on alkalinity, pH, and dissolved
oxygen are available for the St. Marys
32
-------
Q.
3
X
(B
Mean growing season turbidity (NTU)
Figure 23. Relationship between maximum
depth of boundaries of submersed meadows
and mean turbidity in water over these
boundaries during growing seasons of 1982
and 1983 in the St. Marys River. Left
portion of the curve is for upstream
locations and right portion is for
downstream sites.
River from a number of sources (Upper
Lakes Reference Group 1977; U.S. Geologi-
cal Survey 1974-84; Liston et al. 1986).
Results from these investigations are
similar. Alkalinity is typically 40 mg
CaC03/L (or 0.8 mi 11iequivalents/L), pH
ranges between 7 and 8, and dissolved
oxygen concentrations vary seasonally,
though the water is always more than 90%
saturated. Dissolved oxygen concentrations
throughout the river are adequate to sup-
port all forms of aquatic life (Liston et
al. 1986) and are well above the 5.0 mg/L
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
recommends for supporting fish populations
(Brungs 1977).
The concentration of carbon dioxide
that is dissolved in water is important to
phytoplankton and submersed macrophytes
for photosynthesis. Calculations of free
C02 can be made i f one knows the tempera-
ture of the water, pH, and alkalinity (see
Wetzel 1983), Using an atmospheric value
of 0.033% CO2 by volume, equilibrium con-
centrations for CO2 dissolved in the river
would be about 1.1 mg CO 2 / L at 0 °C,
0.6 mg CO2/L at 15 °C, and 0.4 mg CO2/L at
30 °C. Free C02 concentrations calculated
from data collected by Liston et al.
(1986) were always greater than
concentrations which would be in river
water in equilibrium with the atmosphere.
This indicates that phytoplankton and
submersed plants in the river use less C02
than is produced by respiration of
organisms in the system; that is, the
river is a heterotrophic system (Odum
1971). Light-dark bottle oxygen studies
in the Lake Nicolet reach of the river
demonstrated the heterotrophic nature of
the system as well (McNabb et al . unpubl.
data).
Liston et al. (1986) report concentra-
tions of silica (dissolved reactive Si02)
in the open waters of the St. Marys River.
Silica concentrations were always one
order of magnitude greater than the con-
centration reported in the literature to
be limiting to growth of the planktonic
diatoms which dominate macrophytoplankton
of this system (100 mg/m3 or less; Wetzel
1983). Silica concentrations tended to
vary seasonally such that spring and fall
minima and summer maxima existed (Liston
et al . 1986). Schelske and Stoermer
(1971) and Schelske et al. (1983)
described the principal mechanism for
silica reduction in growing seasons as
removal by diatoms. In the St. Marys
River, silica removal may have been
accomplished upstream of sampling points
by diatoms in the plankton of Whitefish
Bay, or by benthic diatom communities and
littoral periphyton populations in reaches
of the river. Silica concentrations
ranged from 980 to 3,660 mg/m3 with a mean
of 2,181 mg/m3 for the years 1982 and 1983
(Liston et al. 1986). This is very close
to the mean concentration of 1,840 mg/m3
reported by Schelske and Callender (1970)
for three stations in Whitefish Bay.
These data show that silica was not a
limiting nutrient for diatom production in
the St. Marys River.
Total nitrogen (TN) ranged from 262 to
668 mg/m3 (average = 413 mg/m'), while
total phosphorus (TP) ranged from 1 to
31 mg/m3 (average = 13 mg/m3) during 1982
and 1983 (Liston et al. 1986). Total
phosphorus concentrations reported by
Liston et al . (1986) are similar to values
presented by the Upper Lakes Reference
Group (1977) and the U.S. Geological
Survey (1974-84). Sakamoto (1966),
Chiaudani and Vighi (1974), and Smith and
Shapiro (1981), among others, have shown
33
-------
that the ratio of TN to TP in the photic
zone is a useful index for separating
lakes into N-limited and P-limited
categories. Their work predicted that if
the TN:TP ratio was >10, algal production
was likely to be phosphorus-limited. The
TN:TP ratio for the St. Marys River varied
during the growing season, averaging 32
but always exceeding 10 (Liston et al.
1986); this suggests that in regard to
these two mineral nutrients, growth of
planktonic algae was limited by phosphorus
rather than nitrogen.
Wetzel (1983) reports ranges for TN and
TP concentrations typical of eutrophic,
mesotrophic, and oligotrophic pelagic
waters of reservoirs and lakes. In
oligotrophic waters, TN ranges from 307 to
1 ,630 mg/m3 and TP ranges from 3 to
17.7 mg/m3 . Samples from the St. Marys
River always had concentrations of TN
within the given range, while TP concen-
trations were within their given range
more than 682 of the time, indicating the
oligotrophic nature of these waters.
Contaminants
The water quality of the St. Marys
River is generally quite excellent and
basically resembles that of Lake Superior
(Hamdy et al . 1978). However, the Great
Lakes Water Quality Board (1985) has
identified the river as one of 42 areas of
concern within the Great Lakes in which
environmental quality has been degraded
and beneficial uses of the water and the
biota have been adversely affected. It
was not included on the list of "problem
areas" until 1974 even though elevated
concentrations of phenols had been recog-
nized as early as the 1940's (Great Lakes
Water Quality Board 1985). There have
been many sources of contamination to the
river, all the result of human activity in
the vicinity of Sault Ste. Marie. These
sources include municipal wastewater
treatment facilities, combined sewer
overflows, industrial discharges,
commercial cargo vessel discharges, and
urban nonpoint run-off. Many 0f
problems have been rectified and water
quality in general has improved since the
late 1960's (Hamdy et al. 1978).
Presently, the problems are restricted
to the Canadian shore and are mainly the
result of discharges from the Sault Ste.
Marie, Ontario, sewage treatment plant,
Algoma Steel Corporation, and the Abitibi
Paper Company. Natural and human con-
straints have minimized flows along the
Canadian side of the river and, coupled
with the lateral discharge from the Sault
Edison Hydroelectric Power Canal on the
Michigan side, have tended to confine the
contaminants to the Ontario shoreline
(Hamdy et al . 1978; Great Lakes Water
Quality Board 1985). In the past, some of
the contaminants have been detected at
elevated levels as far down-stream as the
outlet of Lake George (Lake Huron-Lake
Superior-Lake Erie Advisory Board 1968).
Contaminants that continue to be of
concern include toxic substances such as
phenols, ammonia, cyanide, and heavy
metals (chromium, copper, iron, lead,
mercury, zinc), oil and grease mixed with
fibrous woody material, and bacteria
(fecal coliforms, fecal streptococci,
heterotrophic types, and Pseudomonas
aeruginosa). Some remedial actions to
combat these problems have been imple-
mented and others are to follow which will
be closely monitored by the Great Lakes
Water Quality Board (1985).
34
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CHAPTER 3. THE BIOTA
PRIMARY PRODUCERS
Emergent Wetlands
Throughout the length of the St. Marys
River, a series of constricted channels
and broad lake-like vistas await the voy-
ager. Except near the cities of Sault
Ste. Marie, long stretches of shoreline
are without homes or commercial develop-
ment. Rocky shores are found in con-
stricted reaches of the river where
current velocities are high. Elsewhere,
clay mixed with a variable fraction of
sand and organic detritus forms a hydro-
soil that slopes gently away from the land
toward navigation channels. Unoccupied
shorelines with fine-grained hydrosoil
tend to be inhabited by emergent vegeta-
tion. Stands of emergent vegetation are
particularly well-developed where wind and
waves are not a prominent feature of the
shore-zone environment. It is not uncom-
mon for stands of emergent plants to
extend uninterrupted along protected
shores for 3 to 5 km. Some 42 species of
submersed and emergent plants occur in the
zone of permanent water in these wetlands
(Table 11).
Annual production of biomass in wet-
lands facing on the river is dominated by
three emergent plants: Scirpus acutus,
Sparganium eurycarpum, and Eleocharis
smallii Thardstem bulrush, bur reed, and
spike rush, respectively). Submersed
species occur as a diffuse understory of
low biomass. Seeds of the dominant emer-
gent species germinate on wet soils near
the shoreline, rather than in permanently
flooded portions of wetlands. Species
become dominant by the spread of rhizomes
from successful colonizers outward from
the shore. As a result of such growth,
rhizomes and roots become a tightly packed
fibrous mesh in the upper 15 cm of soil
throughout emergent wetlands.
Vegetative and clonal growth produces
and maintains emergent wetlands on the
St. Marys River and gives rise to
monotypic stands of emergent species;
these are more common than mixed stands of
emergent plants in the St. Marys wetlands.
Aerial photographs taken over the last 3
decades indicate that clones of dominant
species tend to be long-lived. These
clones have maintained their position
relative to one another in these wetlands
so that the structure of emergent vegeta-
tion has been a relatively permanent
feature of the undisturbed shorelines for
at least 30 years. It is of interest to
note that Phragmites austral is (common
reed) and Typha latifolia (common cat-
tail), species that are aggressive and
well-established elsewhere in the Great
Lakes region, are present only in small
stands in drier, shoreward portions of
wetlands along the St. Marys River. These
clones may have been established from seed
late in the process of wetland develop-
ment, or existing clones may be remnants
of stands that have been replaced by the
dominant species of today.
Individual wetlands bordering the
St. Marys River have their own peculiari-
ties in terms of distribution and abun-
dance of dominant vegetation. However, a
generalized picture of their structure can
be obtained by combining detailed maps of
seven wetlands selected as representative
of those occurring along the river (Liston
et al. 1986). These maps cover a combined
total area of 167 ha in the wetlands.
Table 12 lists types of dominant vegeta-
tion in these systems and suggests the
probability of encountering particular
types of vegetation while traversing these
wetlands.
Scirpus acutus is clearly the dominant
plant Tn shore-zone wetlands. While
clones of this plant occur at all water
35
-------
Table 11. Species list of macrophytes in permanently
flooded portions of emergent wetlands (mean growing
season depth of 3.0 m or qreater) of the St. Marys
River (Liston et al. 1986).
Species
Common name
Acorus calamus
Alisma plantago-aquatica
Carex retrorsa
Dulicium arundinaceum
Eleochari s aciculari s
Eleocharis paucif1o"ra
EleocharTs smal1ii
Equisetum fluviati1e
Eriocaufon septangulare
Hypericum boreale
Isoetes brauni i
Isoetes riparia
Juncus balticus
Juncus brevicaudatus
Juncus effusus
Juncus pelocarpus
Myriophyl1um exalbescens
Nuphar variegatum
Phragmites australi s
Polygonum natans
Pontedaria cordata
Potamogeton gramineus
Potamogeton natans
Potamogeton pectinatus
Potamogeton richardsoni i
Potamogeton spirillus
Potamogeton zosteriformis
Ranunculus flabellaris
Ranunculus reptans
Sagittarfa" engelmanniana
Sagittarfa latifolia
Scirpus iFutus
Scirpus americanus
Scirpus validus
Sparganium ameri canum
Sparganium chlorocarpum
Sparganium eurycarpum
Sparganium fluctuans
Typha angustifolia
Typha latifolia
Utncularia cornuta
Vallisneria americana
sweet-flag
water plantain
sedge
three-way sedge
needle rush
spike rush
spike rush
horsetai1
pipe wort
St. John1s wort
qui 11 wort
qui 11 wort
rush
rush
rush
rush
watermilfoil
ye How water lily
common reed
smartweed
pickerel weed
variable pondweed
floating-leaf pondweed
sago pondweed
clasping-leaved pondweed
pondweed
flat-stemmed pondweed
yellow water crowfoot
buttercup
arrowhead
duck potato; wapato
hardstem bulrush
three-square bulrush
softstem bulrush
bur reed
bur reed
bur reed
bur reed
narrow-leaved cattail
common cattail
bladderwort
water celery; tape grass
aThe taxonomy follows that of Voss (1972) where possi-
ble or Fassett (1957) if not included in Voss.
36
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Table 12. Generalized occurrence of
vegetation types that dominate biomass in
emergent wetlands of the St. Marys River
(McNabb et al. 1986).
Fraction of
Vegetation type wetland occupied
Monotypic stands
Scirpus acutus 0.46
Sparganiurn eurycarpum 0.11
Eleocharis sma11ii 0.05
Phragmites australis 0.01
Scirpus americanus 0.01
Typha latifolia 0.01
Mixed stands
S. acutus/E. smal1ii 0.12
acutus/S. parganium
S. eurycarpum 0.03
— Other mixed stands 0.04
Opening in emergent stands 0.15
depths in the wetlands, its presence in
monotypic stands on wetland fringes facing
the river is a distinctive feature of St.
Marys River vegetation. Secondary species,
Sparganium eurycarpum and Eleocharis
smal lii ,"~are confined to water more shal-
low than typically found at the Scirpus
acutus fringe. There are sites along the
river where the S^ acutus fringe has died
back, leaving Sparganium eurycarpum on the
exposed wetland edge (Figure 24). Stands
of S. eurycarpum do not appear well
adapted to water movements that occur on
these exposed outer edges of wetlands and
are eroding.
There are seasonal changes in the
abundance of vegetation in the shore zone
of the St. Marys River. Generalized pat-
terns for annual abundance of live
rootstocks and shoots of Scirpus acutus
are shown in Figure 25. Sparganium
eurycarpum, Eleocharis smallii, ancT
Phragmi te"s australis were observed to have
patterns of biomass abundance similar to
that of the Scirpus acutus.
Figure 25 shows that rootstocks of
dominant emergent plants are present in
the hydrosoil year round. They reach
maximum biomass late in the growing
A
B
Figure 24. An emergent wetland on the
St. Marys River: (A) undisturbed portion
showing a well-developed stand of
the hardstem bulrush on the outer
wetland fringe, and (B) adjacent section
with eroding bur reed on the outer fringe
behind rootstock remnants of the bulrush
(Liston et al. 1986). (Photograph
courtesy of Clarence D. McNabb.)
season, about October 1. Portions of root
stocks degenerate in winter. After ice
leaves emergent wetlands in spring, hydro-
soils warm and rootstocks prepare for the
surge of a new growing season. Buds on
rootstocks germinate to form shoots: cell
division and enlargement in the hydrosoil
at the base of the shoot push it upward
into the light, and eventually above the
water surface into the air. Live root-
stocks die back rapidly during this
freshening of the wetland, apparently
yielding their food and nutrient reserves
to new shoot growth. A tight cycling of
nutrients results from this and leaves few
37
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100
90 -|
RootstocKs
80
70 "1
60 A
Ice
Ice
40 A
30 A
20 -1
10 A
Shoots
24-Apr
14-Jan
06-Oc!
20-Jun
Figure 25. Annual cycle of live biomass
(organic dry weight) in stands of hardstem
bulrush (Scirpus acutus) in the St. Marys
River expressed as a percent of seasonal
maximum standing crop.
nutrient resources available in stands for
invading species, particularly in this
oligotrophic system.
Shoot growth from warm hydrosoils is
rapid in June and July. As shoots approach
maximum biomass in August, photosynthetic
food resources are allocated to the growth
of rootstocks. As shown in Figure 25,
rootstocks increase from an annual minimum
in midsummer toward their maximum in late
September. Table 13 gives estimates of
biomass for emergent plants at maturity in
the fall and distribution of biomass
between shoots and rootstocks. it can be
observed that the annual cycle of plant
growth in these wetlands protects shore-
zone sediments from erosion. A high den-
sity mesh of rootstocks occurs in the
surface of the clay hydrosoils, except in
summer when shoots are present to dissi-
pate the energy of waves and currents that
may move over the hydrosoil.
An observer traversing emergent wet-
lands of the St. Marys River during the
first few weeks after ice-out would come
upon decaying stalks of Scirpus acutus
standing upright in the water, bases
planted firmly on the sediments, tops
broken at the water!ine and gone, forming
windrows upon which noisy black terns
(Chiidonias niger) nest. Underwater
stalks would be clearly visible in the
clean, shallow water, and covered with a
delicate fuzz, perhaps 5-mm thick, that
collapses into a thin layer of slime when
a stalk is pulled from the water. This is
the periphyton of emergent wetland plants,
a mix of micro-organisms covering the
Biomass in monotypic stands of dominant emergent plants in
: the St. Marys River at time of peak standing crop
»- £ M/Nl'/lUl
Table 13.
wetlands of the St. nary a
(September-October). AFDW = ash-free dry weight.
Species
Total live biomass
(g AFDW/m2)
Live shoot/root
biomass ratio
Scirpus acutusa
Low density
Medium density
High density
1,340
1,620
3,540
0.2
0.5
2.2
Sparqanium eurycarpum
1,830
0.4
Eleocharis smallii
600
0.7
Phraqmites austral is
2,000
0.2
Scirpus americanus
320
0.5
Liston et al. (1986) distlnguisneu uiree ucidhics
aerial photographs and ground-truth measurements of shoots/m2 and leaf
area/m2.
38
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underwater surfaces of macrophytes. Auto-
trophs in this community are species of
diatoms. An array of single-celled and
colonial heterotrophs is common as well
(Figure 26).
The periphyton community found on
stalks in emergent wetlands develops in a
relatively short period of time after
ice-out because of the growth habits of
emergent plants. Surfaces of S. acutus
and other dominant macrophytes are pushed
continually upward and out of the water as
plants grow. The portion of a stalk on
which an ice-out community resides is not
permanently in place until the stalk stops
growing in August. Two or three months of
late summer and fall follow before ice
begins to form around stalks and their
periphyton. After ice-out, light and some
warmth return to the wetland, but the com-
munity has little time for development;
stalks will crumble and decay in the warm
water of the weeks ahead. Overwintering
periphyton survivors will join the species
mix on the sediment surface, perhaps to
produce progeny that will rise again into
the water column on the epidermis of a
growing bulrush. Early arrivals, however,
will have little time to profit in their
new found space. In a matter of days
after attaching to a stalk, they will be
pushed upward through the air-water
interface into a desiccating environment.
Figure 26. Electron micrograph of diatoms
and colonial heterotrophs of the
periphyton community in emergent wetlands
of the St. Marys River. The length of the
line is 100 microns. (Photograph courtesy
of John R. Craig.)
Only late arrivals on new basal tissue
have any kind of longevity on plant
stalks. And so the periphyton community
goes from year to year in spurts of
development that are interrupted by desic-
cation in the air, ice in winter, or col-
lapse of overwintering shoots in spring.
In this changing community, Liston et
al. (1986) found mean net periphyton pro-
ductivity in the growing seasons of 1982
and 1983 to range from 20 to 40 mg C/m2 of
emergent plant surface per day on differ-
ent emergent species on different sites
along the river. The mean for all mea-
surements was 32 mg C/m2 of plant surface
per day. By their methods of conversion
from carbon to organic dry weight, this
amounted to approximately 9 g ash-free dry
weight net production per m2 of plant sur-
face over the duration of ice-free months
of the year, May through October.
The area on emergent plant stems avail-
able for colonization varied both season-
ally and among plant species (Liston et
al. 1986). For example, stands of Scirpus
acutus of different densities growing in
0.7 m of water had 1-9 m2 of surface for
periphyton colonization per m2 of wetland
when stands were mature in late summer.
However, in June, early in the growing
season, only 7%-10% of this area was
available for colonization. Sparganium
eurycarpum had 6-8 m2 of surface for peri-
phyton per m2 of wetland in mature stands
in late summer in water 0.4 m deep. These
authors used underwater shoot area per
unit area of wetland to estimate annual
growing season periphyton productivity at
about 12 g ash-free dry weight per m2 of
wetland. This amounted to only 2% of the
annual production of shoots of emergent
plants on which the periphyton grew.
Submersed Wetlands
Upstream of the river's fork at Mission
Point and through Lake Nicolet and its
downstream reaches, submersed wetlands
spread as meadows of low-growing plant^
over bottom sediments where the river is
broad, substratum is suitable, and water
clarity is good (Liston et al. 1986;
McNabb et al . 1986). There is, however,
virtually no information on submersed wet-
lands in Lake George of the St. Marys
River (Liston et al. 1983).
100 microns
39
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Twenty-two species of plants have been
documented in the submersed wetlands of
the St. Marys River (Table 14). However,
three species dominate biomass in sub-
mersed stands: Chara globularis (charo-
phyte), Isoetes riparia (qui 11 wort), and
Nitelia flexilis (charophyte). These are
low-growing plants, rising 10-30 cm above
the sediment surface. In narrow channels,
meadows tend to carpet sediments from
edges of navigation channels shoreward.
The shoreward depth limit of submersed
meadows is about 2 m. From the water's
surface, low-growing meadows of these
plants at a depth of 2 m or more are not
obvious to the casual observer. More
impressive are very widely scattered clus-
ters of the pondweed, Potamogeton
richardsonii, which punctuate the meadows
and ri se to the surface of the water from
as deep as 2.5 m. However, submersed
meadows of dominant low-growing species
are much more widespread and are impres-
sive indeed when one is snorkeling or
using SCUBA.
Beds of dominant submersed macrophytes
are found on predominantly clay sediments
that contain various fractions of sand and
silt. Clays on slopes of dredged naviga-
tion channels are occupied, as are broad
clay flats common in the river. Extensive
sand benches occur in portions of the
river at depths <2 m. The sand shifts
under the influence of currents and waves,
thereby creating an inhospitable substra-
tum for permanent submersed plant colon-
ization. Cobble and rock sediments are
not occupied by submersed macrophytes.
These substrates are generally devoid of
Table 14. Species list of macrophytes in submersed
wetlands of the St. Marys River (Liston et al. 1986,
McNabb et al. 1986).
Species
Common name
Chara globularis
Eleochans acicularis
Eleocharis canadensis
Isoetes Hpana
Lobelia dortmanna
MyriopFiyllum exITbescens
Myriophyl 1 urn tenellum"
Najas flex-his
Nitelia" flexilis
Potamogeton gramineus
Potamogeton filiformfs
Potamogeton pectinatus
Potamogeton praelongus
Potamogeton richardsonii
Potamogeton robbinsii"
Potamogeton zosteri fo'rmi s
Ranunculus reptans
SagittarTa cuneata
Sagittarfa enqelmanniana
Tolypel1a~ intricata
Utricular^a cornuta
Vallisneria amerlcana
charophyte
needle rush
northern el odea
qui 11 wort
water lobelia
water milfoil
water milfoil
bushy pondweed
charophyte
variable pondweed
pondweed
sago pondweed
whitestem pondweed
clasping-leaved pondweed
Robbins' pondweed
flat-stemmed pondweed
buttercup
arrowhead
arrowhead
bladderwort
water celery; tape grass
The taxonomy follows that of Voss (1972) where possi-
ble or Fassett (1957) if not included in Voss. The
charophytes follow the taxonomy set forth in Wood
(1967).
40
-------
microalgae as well. Macroscopic filament-
ous algae (Family Zygnemataceae) are sea-
sonal. They appear at low biomass along
shorelines and in submersed vegetation
shortly after ice-out.
Stands of Isoetes riparia are virtually
monotypic in distribution and are never
the deepest stands occurring on a site
occupied by submersed plants. Beds of
_I. riparia are confined to depth contours
of 2-3.5 m. Nitella flexilis occupies the
deepest portions of submersed wetlands on
suitable sites along the river. Monotypic
stands of this species extend to depths of
16 m at the head of the river (Duffy et
al . 1985) and 3 m in the reach below
Munuscong Lake (Liston et al. 1986).
Stands of Chara globulari s occur in more
shallow water than stands of jj. flexilis
in reaches of the river where they both
occur. Stands of C. globulari s may be
monotypic or mixed- with F! Tlexilis.
Eleochari s aciculari s (needle rush) and
Myriophyl1um tenellum (water milfoil) are
common in submersed meadows. They are
very small plants and contribute little to
biomass. In the St. Marys River, the com-
mon species of submersed wetlands are
typical of nutrient-poor rather than
nutrient-rich environments.
Lake Superior water moving downstream
tends to be well dispersed over submersed
meadows, even in broad reaches of the
river. This causes temperatures in the
meadows to be lower than temperatures in
the shallows of adjacent shorelines from
ice-out to August (see Figure 15). Onset
of plant germination in submersed meadows
is delayed by low temperatures in spring
relative to vegetation in shore zones.
In recent times, submersed meadows in
various portions of the St. Marys River
have maintained their boundaries, species
composition, and characteristic biomass
between years (Liston et al. 1986). This
occurs because dominant species tend to be
perennial. Isoetes riparia maintains
rosettes of leaves year round on individ-
ual plants firmly rooted in sediments.
Shoots of charophytes persist in stands
year round as well. Shoots of these
plants have a fine meshwork of rhizoids
that anchor them to the sediments. When
water temperatures in wetlands reach
5-6 °C, generally near June 1, new growth
appears on overwintering plants: leaves on
rosettes of _I* riparia and shoots from
rhizoidal bulbils (nodules) and old shoots
of charophytes. A new standing crop in a
growing season develops more rapidly in
warm than in colder parts of the system.
Lag-time on cold sites can be as much as
2-3 weeks. As new shoots of charophytes
grow, overwintering biomass in meadows
degenerates to detritus and is sloughed or
mineralized at a rate nearly equivalent to
the rate of new tissue accumulation. As
new leaves are formed on rosettes of
X- riparia, older leaves decompose at a
similar rate. New rosettes are also pro-
duced within stands of JL riparia from
fertilized megaspores. These Become
established late in the growing season but
contribute little biomass in the year of
their formation. Thus, growth and decom-
position occur in meadows such that rela-
tively constant biomass is maintained
throughout the growing season. This char-
acteristic of submersed wetlands of the
river is illustrated in Figures 27 and 28.
The pattern shown in the figures can be
disrupted on a particular site if patches
of vegetation tear loose from the sedi-
ments and drift downstream.
Monotypic and mixed stands of dominant
submersed plants on sites sampled in the
river had a mean peak biomass in the range
90
o
4 40
30
20
10
0 ¦ 1 —r 1 1 -1 7 —I 1——
24-May 13-Jun 03-Jul 23-Jul 12-Aug 01-Sep
Figure 27. Growing season biomass of the
quillwort, Isoetes riparia, in a monotypic
stand in the Neebish Island region of the
St. Marys River in 1981. One standard
error of the mean is given (Liston et al.
1986).
41
-------
901
80-
30 -
20-
10-
0 4— 1 1 1 T 1 T r T 1 T
24-May 13-Jun 03-Jul 23-Jul 12-Aug 01-Sep
Figure 28. Growing season biomass of
charophytes (95% Nitella flexi1 is, 5%
Chara globularis) in a- stand Tn the
Neebish Island region of the St. Marys
River in 1981. One standard error of the
mean is given (Liston et al, 1986).
of 10-70 g ash-free dry weight/m2 during
1979-83 (Liston et al. 1986). The mean of
all samples from all sites in 1979-83 was
36 g ash-free dry weight/m2 (Liston et al.
1986). This range and mean of seasonal
maximum biomass is low relative to more
fertile lakes and streams. Wetzel (1983)
reports biomass in the range of 200-500 g
ash-free dry weight/m2 for submersed
stands in nutrient-rich waters.
Phytoplankton
The knowledge of St. Marys River phyto-
plankton is limited and fails to take into
account the total phytoplankton community,
which includes nannoplankton and micro-
algae as well as net plankton. Most of
the work consists of qualitative and semi-
quantitative counts restricted to diatoms
and other macroplankton. Briggs (1872)
was the first to publish on the phyto-
plankton of the St. Marys River. Since
that early work, monitoring studies have
been conducted below the head of the river
by the National Water Quality Network
(1960-64), the Ontario Ministry of the
Environment (Upper Lakes Reference Group
1977), and the U.S. Geological Survey
(1974-84). Liston et al. (1981, 1983,
1986) have also studied the macrophyto-
plankton of the St. Marys River. Diatoms
dominate the flora, and the species that
are present characterize oligotrophic
waters, similar to reports for Lake
Superior (Schelske et al . 1972; Feldt et
al . 1973; Vollenweider et al. 1974;
Munawar and Munawar 1978). Other algal
groups that have been identified in the
phytoplankton of the river include phyto-
flagellates (Chrysophyceae, Cryptophyceae,
and Dinophyceae), greens, and blue-greens.
In 1982, 72 species of diatoms were
identified in the Lake Nicolet reach of
the river, representing 26 genera and
11 families (Liston et al. 1986). The 14
most common diatoms of that study are
listed in Table 15. Life habits as
defined in Hutchinson (1967) and Patrick
(1977) indicate that of those species pre-
sented in Table 15, Asterionella formosa,
Cyclotella comta, Cyclotella glomerata,
Fragilaria crotonensis, Melosira
islandicaT Stephanodiscus hantzschii, and
Synedra ulna are truly planktonic.
Achnanthes minutissima is the only benthic
species fisted in Talile 15, but many of
the 72 species reported in Liston et al.
(1986) also had benthic affinity. These
species were apparently dislodged from the
bottom and swept up into the plankton by
currents. Such a mix of typically plank-
tonic species with those that are benthic
in habit was also observed by Kreis et al.
(1983) in the plume of the St. Marys River
in Lake Huron. Benthic populations com-
prised as much as 40% of the total algal
Table 15. The most common diatoms in the
Lake Nicolet reach of the St. Marys River
during 1982 (Liston et al . 1986). The
taxonomy follows that of Patrick and
Reimer (1966) and Weber (1971).
Achnanthes minutissima
AsterioneTla formosa
Cyclotella comta
Cyclotella glomerata
Cyclotelfa Kutzingiana
Fragilarfa construens
Fragilarfa crotonensis
Melosira Tslandica
Rhizosolenia eriensis
Stephanodiscus hantzschii
Synedra acus
Synedra nana
Synedra ulna
Tabellaria fenestrata
42
-------
assemblage in terms of cell volume, while
the remainder were truly planktonic in
occurrence.
Chlorophyll _a_ concentrations measured
by Liston et al . ( 1986 ) indicated that
planktonic algal biomass varied only
slightly between upstream and downstream
reaches of the St. Marys River during
ice-free months. The mean chlorophyll £
concentration was 0.88 mg/m3 , which fall?
within the range 0.3-3.0 mg/m3 typical of
oligotrophic waters (Wetzel 1983). This
value is also very close to concentrations
reported by Vollenweider et al . (1974),
Watson et al. (1975), El-Shaarawi and
Munawar (1978), for waters of Lake
Superior which are classified as being
oligotrophic.
Similar to chlorophyll _a_ concentra-
tions, primary productivity of the plank-
ton of the river is within the range
associated with oligotrophy. Wetzel (1983)
reports a range of mean net productivity,
measured by radioactive carbon methods, of
<50 mg C • m" • day"1 and 50 to 300 mg
C • m 2 • day"1 for ultraoligotrophic and
oligotrophic waters, respectively. The
range of measurements reported by Liston
et al. (1986) was 56.5 to 58.9 mg
C • fit2 day-1
Overall, the species composition, bio-
mass, and productivity of the phytoplank-
ton of the St. Marys River are very
similar to that of Lake Superior. How-
ever, there is an important difference
between those two environments: in the
river, the phytoplankton community is
transient, since it is constantly being
transported downstream at a relatively
rapid rate.
Annual Productivity of the Primary
Producers
During 1982-83, Liston et al. (1986)
made measurements to determine the rela-
tive importance of emergent wetlands,
submersed macrophyte communities, and
phytoplankton as food-producing components
of the St. Marys River ecosystem. Data
from seven emergent wetlands from the head
of the river downstream were treated to
yield an estimate of annual productivity
for the average m2 of all dominant species
combined. Estimates for the average m2 of
submersed macrophyte meadows and open-
water phytoplankton habitat were made as
well. These data are given in Table 16
and show that emergent plants on an areal
basis were by far the most productive com-
ponent of the river system: some 200 times
more productive than phytoplankton and
40-50 times more productive than submersed
plants. Periphyton on submersed shoots of
emergent wetland plants had annual produc-
tivity on the same order as that of the
phytoplankton. Thus, in the St. Marys
system, food production for consumers was
concentrated along edges of the river in
emergent wetlands and along the bottom in
submersed plant communities. The optimum
foraging theory (Werner et al. 1983a, b)
suggests that these areas of high food
density are not ignored by mobile inverte-
brate and vertebrate consumers. While
phytoplankton productivity is low and food
particles for plankton grazers are widely
spaced in the water column, relatively
large quantities of phytoplankton are
carried daily through the riverine habi-
tats of stationary filter-feeding inverte-
brates, such as net-building caddisfly
larvae and clams, by water masses moving
downstream.
Table 16. Aerial net annual primary pro-
ductivity® of plant communities in the St.
Marys River (Liston et al. 1986).
Community
type
g AFDW • m~2 • yr_l
Phytoplankton
7
Submersed macrophytesb
35
Emergent wetlands
Shoots
650
Periphyton
12
Rootstocks
930
.Ash-free dry weight (AFDW).
Periphyton of submersed macrophytes not
included. Submersed plants have little
periphyton except during decomposition
phase In summer.
43
-------
SECONDARY PRODUCERS
Zooplankton
Zooplankton of freshwater ecosystems
represent an important link between phyto-
plankton and higher trophic levels.
Phytoplankton in the pelagic zone of lakes
and rivers are minute in size and have a
low standing stock-biomass; however, they
constitute the basis of pelagic food webs
by virtue of their characteristically
rapid turnover times (Kerfoot and Dermott
1980). Zooplankton concentrate the energy
available as phytoplankton biomass into
larger particles which are then available
to fish and other planktivorous feeders.
The importance of zooplankton to both
adult and juvenile planktivorous fish has
been documented for several decades (Wells
1970; Hall et al. 1970; Werner and Hall
1974). Despite their importance, few
studies of the St. Marys River zooplankton
have been undertaken.
Thirty species of zooplankton empty
into the river from Whitefish Bay (Selgeby
1975). Of these, nine species of copepods
and three species of cladocerans were
common (Table 17). Calanoid copepods
accounted for 50% of the total number of
zooplankton collected, cyclopoid copepods
40%, and cladocerans the remaining 10%.
Seasonally, the winter zooplankton commu-
nity consisted primarily of adult stages
of Piaptomus sici1i s, Diaptomus ashlandi,
and Limnocalanus macrurus, and immature
copepodids of Cyclops bictTspi'datus thomasi
(Figure 29). During summer, immature
calanoids, adult Cyclops bicuspidatus
thomasi, and Cladocera predominated in the
open-water environment.
The zooplankton community of the lower
river was sampled by Thomas and Liston
(1985) near Raber Bay. They report a zoo-
plankton community very similar in species
composition to the summer community found
by Selgeby (1975) in the upper river, but
far less abundant (Table 17). However,
Thomas and Liston (1985) utilized a net
with 351 ym mesh openings, which would be
expected to capture only adult stages or
larger individuals, whereas Selgeby (1975)
sampled with a 120 um mesh net.
Table 17. Species of zooplankton collected from the St. Marys River and aver-
age abundance in each of four separate habitats (Selgeby 1975; Duffy 1985;
Thomas and Liston 1985).
Number/m3
Species
Rapids
area
Navigation
channel
Open
water
nearshore
Number/L
Emergent
macrophyte
bed
C0PEP0DA
Cyclopoida
Cyclops bicuspidatus thomasi
Cyclops vernal is
Cyclops strenuus
Macrocyclops albidis <1 137
Mesocyclops edax
Calanoida
Diaptomus ashlandi
Diaptomus minutus
Diaptomus oregonensis
diaptomus sicilis
Epischura lacustris
(Continued)
1,556
5
6
5
2
143
<1
<1
32
2
1,272
1,091
25
41
105
1
7
<1
803
207
61
7
12
4
44
-------
Table 17. (Concluded)
Number/m3
Species
Rapids
area
Navigation
channel
Open
water
nearshore
Number/L
Emergent
macrophyte
bed
COPEPODA (continued)
Calanoida (continued)
Eurytemora affini s <1
Limnocalanus macrurus 33 163 16
SeneceTla calanoides 9 4
CLADOCERA
Acroperus harpae <1 365
Alona costata <1
Alona guttata <1 92
Alona exigua 5
Alona intermedia 11
Alona quadrangularis 29
Alona rectangularis 87
Alonella acutirostris <1 46
Bosnnna longirostris 187 13 6 13
Camptocerus rectirostris 64
Ceriodaphma lacustris <1
C. megalops <1
Ceriodaphnia quadrangula 41
Chydorus gibbosus <1 3
Chydorus sphaericus
-------
In contrast to the pelagic or open-
water community, the
emergent wetlands are almost e"tir® *
Cladocera (Duffy 1985). ^tjer^re the
maximum density of zoop an or(jer 0f
emergent wetlands is more thaan or
SKlSS foSar op
SSI •S&'^isSSrs. MT£«
jc-72
13-NOW-71
Cyclops bicuspidatus ffiomas
08-Sep-72
31-May-72
Feb-72
shfandi
piapiomus
Diaptomus sicilis
08-Sep-72
S1-May-72
21-Feb-72
13-Nov-71
Diaptomus minuius
Limnocalanus macrurus
17-Oec-72
U-Nov-71 21-F»b-72 31 -Way-72 OB-Sep-72
l7-Oec-72
(Table 17), which are both quite small.
Common species which are larger and
probably important with respect to stand-
ing stock biomass included Macrocyclops
albidis. Eurycercus l_an]®JJ_ajtus, and Si da
crystallina as we FT as Ostracoda. Of the
29 species of zooplanktori found in emer-
gent wetlands by Duffy 11985), nine were
considered rare.
Benthic Invertebrates
Benthic invertebrates may be separated
according to size into macro-, meio-, and
microbenthos. Benthic macroinvertebrates
are generally considered as those organ-
isms retained by sieves with screen open-
ings of 250-500 "lei obenthos are
organisms retained by sieves in the
62-250 pm range, and microbenthos those
animals passing through sieves with 62 pm
openings. In freshwater ecology, rela-
tively little emphasis has been placed on
separate size classes of benthic inverte-
brates, and when finer mesh sieves have
been used, the goal has often been to
quantify the abundance of early instars of
aquatic insects or other macroinverte-
brates.
Rpnthir micro- and meioinvertebrates.
The micro- and meiobenthos of the Great
Lakes have remained largely unstudied
(Nalepa and Quigely 1983) and little quan-
titative information exists for these com-
ponents of the St. Marys River benthic
community. Liston et al. (1980) list per-
centages of various benthic invertebrates
retained by sieves of 600, 250, and 149 ym
aperture (Table 18). Although these data
illustrate size distributions of macroben-
thic invertebrates and that some are in
the size range of meiobenthos, the meio-
benthic invertebrates were not specifi-
cally examined in this study. Information
which does exist for meio- and micro-
benthos in the St. Marys River suggests
nematodes, ostracodes, and Hydra spp. are
most abundant (Schirripa 1983; Duffy
1985). Other meiobenthos recorded include
cyclopoid and harpactacoid copepods,
cladocerans, tardigrades, and Nemertinea
(Hiltunen 1979; Poe et al. 1980; Duffy
1985).
Figure 29. Abundance of
waters of the St. Marys River, 17 "ovemoer
1971 to 17 November 1972 (Selgeby
Benthic macroinvertebrates. In con-
trast to the micro- and meiobenthos, there
is considerable information on the
46
-------
Table 18. Percentages of macroinverte-
brate taxa from the St. Marys River
retained by 600 urn, 250 um, and 14 ym
sieves (Liston et al. 1980).
Sieve aperture
Taxa 600 pm 250 um 149 ym
01igochaeta
552
44? 1%
Amphipoda
93
7
--
Isopoda
100
—
—
Ephemeroptera
70
28
2
Tri choptera
97
3
—
Corixidae
100
—
—
Chi ronomidae
14
70
16
Ceratopogonidae
40
57
3
Hydracarina
48
48
4
distribution and
abundance
of benthic
macroi nvertebrates,
•
The earliest pub-
1ished information
was
records
of mollusks
collected in the vicinity of Drummond
Island and eastern Chippewa County
(Goodrich and Van der Schalie 1939).
Studies during the 1960's, 70's, and 80's
by both American and Canadian researchers
produced the bulk of data now available on
benthic fauna of the river. Some care
must be used in comparing studies, how-
ever, since sieves with different size
mesh openings have been employed and those
studies utilizing finer mesh sieves in the
St. Marys River (Liston et al. 1986) and
elsewhere have demonstrated shifts in
composition and abundance caused by the
increased retention of smaller organisms
(Nalepa and Robertson 1981).
The St. Marys River supports a diverse
benthic invertebrate community; 303 sepa-
rate taxa have been recorded (Table 19).
Benthic invertebrate community composition
is influenced primarily by substrate com-
position, depth, water temperature, water
currents, and the presence and density of
aquatic macrophytes. For purposes of this
monograph, four distinct habitats will be
recognized: soft substrates, emergent wet-
lands, rapids, and the shipping channel.
In addition, wave-swept rock shores are a
separate habitat for which only qualita-
tive information exists. Two broad
taxonomic groups, Chironomidae and
Oligochaeta, are numerically abundant in
almost all habitats. Other important
benthic taxon, such as burrowing mayflies,
are restricted to specific habitat types.
Soft substrates occupy the majority of
the river's bottom beyond the outer edge
of emergent wetlands or rocky shores. At
the head of the river, where wave energy
from Whitefish Bay is dissipated in shal-
low water, sediment is predominantly sand
interspersed with patches of gravel, cob-
ble, or rock (Figure 30; Duffy et al .
1985). Sediments in the middle and lower
river below the rapids are composed of
finer particle silts and clays (Fig-
ure 30). These silts and clays cover
extensive areas of the lower river except
where dredged material has been disposed,
sandy areas along exposed shorelines, and
occasional rock outcrops. In the absence
of overriding factors, such as point-
source pollution, sediment character has a
major influence on benthic•community com-
position and abundance.
Water depth and current act in concert
with substrate character in influencing
the benthic invertebrate community.
Investigations of sandy substrates near
the head of the river indicate that maxi-
mum densities of benthic macroinverte-
brates occur at depths of 11-15 m (Duffy
et al . 1985 ; Figure 31). Results from
this study also indicated that fine sand
substrates supported greater densities of
benthic macroinvertebrates than medium-to-
coarse sand. Storms from Lake Superior
and Whitefish Bay routinely generate
1.5-2 m waves in the river's headwaters,
which hinders macroinvertebrate coloniza-
tion of loose sand substrates in shallow
water.
The lower river has a predominantly
silt and clay substrate and is not subject
to violent storms; its abundance of
benthic invertebrates is relatively
uniform among all depths and habitat
types, except for the shipping channel
(Figure 32). The number of taxa is also
negatively correlated with increasing
depth in the lower river (Figure 33).
These results support the hypothesis of
Barton and Griffiths (1984), who suggest
that exposure to wind has a significant
influence on the Great Lakes benthic
community inhabiting depths shallower than
20 m.
47
-------
Table 19. Macroinvertebrates collected from the St. Marys River (Duffy
unpubl. data).
Scientific name
Scientific name
PORIFERA
Eunapius fragilis
Spongilla lacustris
TARDIGRADA
COELENTERATA
Hydra americana
TURBELLARIA
Dugesia sp.
NEMERTEA
BRYOZOA
OLIGOCHAETA
Branchiobdellidae
Bdellodrilus sp.
Glossoscolecidae
Sparganophilus ei seni
Haplotaxidae
Haplotaxis gordioides
Lumbriculidae
Lumbricuius variegatus
Stylodrilus heringianus
Naididae
Amphichaeta sp.
Arctionais 1omondi
Chaetogaster diastriphus
Chaetogaster 1imnae "
Nai s barbata
Nais communi s
Nais simplex
Nais variabilis
Ophidonais serpentina
Paranai s~Ti ttoralis
Paranai s simplex
?TquetielTa rnichiganensis
Pristina foreli
Pri stina longi seta longiseta
Specaria josinae
Stevensoniana trivandana
Stylaria fossularis "
Uncinais uncinata
Veldovskyella comata
ianus
OLIGOCHAETA (Continued)
Tubificidae
Aulodrilus americanus
Aulodri1 us 1imnobi us
Aulodri1 us piqueti
Aulodrilus pleuriseta
Euilyodrilus vejdovskyi
rTmnodrilus anqustipenTs
Limnodrilus cervix
Limnodrilus cladaredeanus
Limnodrilus hoffmei steri
Limnodrilus profundi cola
LimnodriJus spiralis
Limnodrilus udekemiar
"Feloscolex "ferox
Peloscolex freyf
Peloscolex multisetosis
Peloscolex superiorensTs
Peloscolex variegatus
"Fotamothrix moldavfeTisis
Potamothrix vejdovskyf
Psammoryctides curvis"etosus
Rhyacodri]us~montana
Rhyacodrilus coccineus
Tubifex ignotus
Tubifex kessleri
Tubifex newaensis
Tubi fex temp 1etoni
Tubi fex tubi fex
HIRUDINEA
Erpobdellidea
Pina lateralis
Erpobdella punctata
Mooreobdella microstoma
Nephelopsis obscura
Glossiphoni idae
Actinobdella sp.
Actinobdella inequiannulata
BatracobdelTa michiganiensis
Glossophonia complanata
Wlobdel la~elongata
Helobdella fusca
Helobdella michiganiensis
Helobdella stagnalfs
Placobdella montifera
Hirudinidae
Haemopsis marmata
(Continued)
48
-------
Table 19. (Continued).
Scientific name
Scientific name
HIRUDINEA (Continued)
Macrobdella decora
Pisacolidae
Pi sacola spp.
POLYCHAETA
Manayunkia speciosa
ISOPODA
Asellidae
Asellus intermedia
Asellus racovitzae racovitzae
Li reus sp.
AMPHIPODA
Gammaridae
Allocrangonyx sp.
Crangonyx gracilis
Gammarus fasciatus
Talitridae
Hyalella azteca
Haustoriidae
Pontoporeia hoyi
DECAPODA
Astacidae
Orconectes propinquus
Orconectes virilis
ACARINA
Hydracarina
COLLEMBOLA
Isotomurus sp.
EPHEMEROPTERA
Baetidae
Baetis sp.
Callibaetis sp.
CIoen sp.
Baeti scidae
Baetisca sp.
EPHEMEROPTERA (Continued)
Caenidae
Brachycercus sp.
Caenis sp~l
Ephemeridae
Ephetnerella sp.
Ephemera sfmulans
HexageniaTTmbata
Heptagenndae
Stenacron sp.
Stenonema tripunetaturn
Le ptophlebidae
Leptophlebia sp.
Paraleptophlebia sp.
Metretopodidae
Siphloplecton sp.
Siphlonuridae
Ameletus sp.
Isonychia sp.
Parameletus sp.
ODONATA
Aeschnidae
Aeschna canadensis
Boyeria sp.
Coenagrionidae
Enallagma boreale
Enallagma hageni
NehalennTa irene
Cordulidae
Epicordulia
Somatochlora sp.
Gomphidae
Arigomphus sp.
Dromogomphus spinosus
Lestidae
Lestes disjunctus
Libellulidae
Libelulla sp.
Sympetrum rubicundilum
HEMIPTERA
Belostomatidae
Belostoma sp.
Lethocerus sp.
Corixidae
Sigara alternata
Trichocorixa sp.
(Continued)
49
-------
Table 19- (Continued).
Scientific name
HEMIPTERA (Continued)
Gelastocoridae
Gelastocoris sp.
Gerridae
Gerris sp.
Hebridae
Hebrus sp.
Merragata sp.
Hydrometridae
Hydrometra sp.
Mesoveliidae
Mesovelia sp.
Nepidae
Ranatra sp.
Notonectidae
Buenoa sp.
Veli idae
Microvelia sp.
MEGALOPTERA
Sialis sp.
NEUROPTERA
Sisyra sp.
TRICHOPTERA
Helicopsychidae
Helicopsyche boreal is
Hydropsychidae
Cheumatopsyche sp.
Hydropsyche sp.
Potamyia flava
Hydroptilldae
Hydroptila sp.
IthytrichTa sp.
Ochrotrichia sp.
Oxyethira sp.
Lepidostomatidae
Lepidostoma sp.
Leptoceridae
Ceraclea sp.
Mystacides sp.
NectopsycHe sp.
Neuroclipsis sp.
Nyctiophylax sp.
Oecetis sp.~
Scientific name
TRICHOPTERA (Continued)
Trianodes sp.
Setodes ~sp.
Limnephi1idae
Grammotaulus sp.
Limnephi1 us sp.
Nemotaulus sp.
Platycentropus sp.
Pycnopsyche sp.
Molanmdae
Molanna sp.
Philopotamidae
Wormaldia sp.
Phryganeidae
Agrypnia sp.
BanksioTa sp.
Fabria sp.
Ehryganea sp.
Ptilostomis sp.
Polycentropidae
Phylocentropus sp.
Polycentropus sp.
Psychomyi idae
Psychomia sp.
Rhyacophilidae
Rhyacophila sp.
LEPIDOPTERA
Pyralidae
Acentropus sp.
Bellura sp.
Nymphula sp.
^raponyx sp.
PLECOPTERA
Perlidae
Isoperla sp.
COLEOPTERA
Chrysomelidae
Donacia sp.
Dytiscidae
Deronectes depressus
Hydrovatus sp.
Elmidae
Dubiraphia sp.
(Continued)
50
-------
Table 19. (Continued).
Scientific name
Scientific name
COLEOPTEFtA (Continued)
Microcylleopus sp.
Gyrinidae
Gyrinus sp.
Dineutus sp.
Haliplidae
Brychius sp.
Hali pi us sp.
Haliplus cribrarius
Hydrophilidae
Helophorus sp.
Noteridae
Hydrocanthus sp.
Pronoterus sp.
Psephenidae
Psephenus sp.
HYMENOPTERA
DIPTERA
Anthomyi idae
Ceratopogonidae
A11udomyi a needhami
Bezzia varicolor
Culicoides sp.
Dasyhelia sp.
Palpomyia prunescens
Stilobezzia sp.
Chi ronomidae
Ablabesmia sp.
Chi ronomus sp.
CIadotanytarsus sp.
CIinotanypus sp.
Coleotanypus sp.
Conchapelopia sp.
Consteropel1 ina sp.
Corynoneura sp.
Cricotopus sp.
Cryptochironomus sp.
Cryptocladopelma sp.
Cryptotendipes sp.
Demi cryptochi ronomus sp.
Diamesa sp.
Dicrotendipes sp.
Endochironomus sp.
Enfeldia sp.
Epocicocladius sp.
Eukerfernlia sp.
Glyptotendipes sp.
DIPTERA (Continued)
Heterotrissocladius sp,
Labrundinia sp.
Larsia sp.
Lauterborniella sp.
Metriocnemus sp.
Microspectra sp.
Microtendipes sp.
Monodiamesa sp.
Orthocladus sp.
Parachironomus sp.
Paracladopelma sp.
Para!auterborniel 1 a sp.
Parametriocnemus sp.
Paratanytarsus sp.
Phaenospectra sp.
Polypedilum sp.
Potthastia sp.
Procladius sp.
PsectrocTadius sp.
Psectrotanypus sp.
Pseudochi ronomus sp.
?s"eudosmittia sp.
Rheotanytarsus sp.
Stempellinia sp.
Stenochironomus sp.
Stictochironomus sp.
Tanytarsus sp.
Thienemanniella sp.
Tribe!os sp.
TrissocVadius sp.
Xenochironomus sp.
Culicidae
Aedes intrudens
Chaoborus sp.
Dixidae
Pixa sp.
Ephydridae
Empididae
Hemerodromia sp.
Sciomyzidae
Sepedon fuscipenis
Simulidae
Simulium sp.
Stratiomyiidae
St rati omys sp.
Tabanidae
Chrysops sp.
Tlpulidae
Antocha sp.
(Continued)
51
-------
Table 19. (Concl j1eurocera acuta
TrirScatellidae
Pomatiopsis lapiriaria
Valvatidae
Vajvata siacera. sfncera
YaTvata trtcaranata
VivTparTSae
Campeloroa feci sum
PELECYPOOA
Unions'dae
Alasim'donta calceolus
Anodonta gratidis grand is
Anodontoides ferussacianus
£iliptio cornplanata
LarapsVlisTadiata silique idea
Lasmipona compressa
Lasmicjona casta ta
ligumia recta 1stissima
Spha?rTT3ae
PUidium cowpressm?
9\ si<11 am fa? lax
Pisidium nttiduro
Pisidium idahoensis
Pisidiura variabile
Plsidium sp.
Sphaeriuro nitidum
Sphaerium occidentale
Sphaerium rhomboideuro
Spheeriurn securls
Sphaerium striatfnum
Sphaerium sp.
52
-------
The benthic invertebrate community of
soft substrates in the St. Marys River may
be characterized as one dominated both
numerically and in terras of taxonomit
diversity by chironomid larvae ancf
oligochaetes. Fifty-one separate taxa
Point Iroquois
3u cn
tzaak Walton Bay
1.5 m r/.A
2.5 m
< 0.07
Lake Nicolet
lak* sediment
Qr*dQ*d material
<0.07 0.0? 0.15 0.25
Particle size (mm)
0.60
Figure 30. Sediment particle size distri-
bution downstream of Point Iroquois and
I2aak Walton Bay in the upper portion and
in Lake Nicolet in the lower portion of
the St. Marys River.
Coare^i'Macfium Sana
10 12 14
Depth (m)
Figure 31. Distribution of total benthos
in fine sand and coarse/medium sand by
depth fn t#re St. Marys River.
Chanrmi
j.c m
nOJO fn)
take Ntco^ Wetland
Rapids
Figure 32. Abundance of total benthos by
depth and habitat in the lower St. Marys
fliver during 1982 and 1983.
each of chironomids and oligochaetes have
been recorded from tfie river. Studies
using finer nesh sieves (Listen et al,
1980, 1983, 1986), compared to studies
using coarser mesh sieves (Hiltunen 1979;
Poe and Edsall 1982), generally report
chironomids as being more abundant than
oligochaetes. Data collected from the
sa.me areas by Hiltunen 11979) and Li'ston
et al. (1986) Indicate chironomids are
tmcferrepresented in samples rinsed through
coarse mesh (500 y) sieves, while olfgo-
chaetes are apparently not {Figure 34).
53
-------
28
26
22
o
«
£1
E
3
z
0
10
8
6
2
4
Depth (m)
Figure 33. Relationship between diversity
of benthic invertebrates and water depth
in the lower St. Marys River.
Chironomids
40 -
35 -
2 30-
0.5 mm
10 -
0.25 mm
30
40
0
10
20
35
Oligochaetes
30 -
0.5 mm
25-
£
a.
E
w
o
c
o
«
0-
10-
0.25 mm
Number (thousandsVm2
Figure 34. Comparison of estimated
abundance of chironomids and oligochaetes
in the St. Marys during 1982, taken using
two separate seive sizes (Hiltunen 1979;
Liston et al. 1986).
Three genera of chironomids, Larsia
spp., Procladius spp., and Stichtochiron-
omus spp., are ubiquitous and another
10 genera are common in one or more parts
of the river (Table 20). Chironomids
represent the greatest proportion of the
total benthic community in sand substrate
near the head of the river, but they are
most abundant numerically in the middle
reaches of the river (Table 21). in con-
trast to the chironomids, oligochaetes
generally represent a progressively larger
proportion of the total benthic fauna as
one proceeds from the upper to lower river
(Table 21). However, organic enrichment
in the upper river near Sault Ste. Marie
has stimulated the population explosion of
certain pollution-tolerant species of
oligochaetes (see below).
The soft bottom benthic invertebrate
community consists of a variety of other
taxa. While Chironomidae and Oligochaeta
are most diverse and abundant, other taxa,
such as Ephemeroptera, Amphipoda, and
Mollusca, are common or abundant and con-
tribute substantially to standing stock
biomass (Table 21). Because of their cen-
trol role in trophic interactions, Epheme-
roptera may be the most important group of
benthic invertebrates in the St. Marys
River. Eighteen species or genera have
been collected from the river. Nymphs of
two may-fly species, Hexagenia 1imbata and
Ephemera simulans, are particularly abun-
dant in areas of soft substrate. Nymphs
of both species grow quite large relative
to most aquatic invertebrates and, with
the more abundant HL 1imbata having a
2-year life cycle in the St. Marys River,
can represent a considerable proportion of
the standing stock biomass (Liston et al .
1983; Schloesser and Hiltunen 1985).
Throughout its range, H. 1 imbata is most
abundant in depositfonaT environments
where fine sediments predominate, while
species of Ephemera are reported to prefer
substrates of slightly coarser sediments
(Hunt 1953; Erickson 1968). The distribu-
tion of both mayflies in the St. Marys
River generally supports these observa*
tions. Hexagenia 1imbata is most abundant
in parts of Lakes George and Nicolet and
in the lower river where fine sediments
occur, while simulans is more common in
coarser sediments of Lake Nicolet and the
upper river (Hiltunen 1979; Liston 1983,
54
-------
Table 20. Benthic macroinvertebrates characteristic (occur at >50% of
stations) of separate reaches of the St. Marys River (Duffy unpubl. data).
River Reach
Taxa Upper Middle Lower Lake George
Oligochaeta
Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri x x
LimnodriTus sp. x x
Peloscolex ferox x x
Peloscolex sp. x
frotamothrix vejdovski x
Amphichaeta sp. x
Ophidonafs~ serpentina x
Isopoda
Asellus sp. x
Amphipoda
Gammerus fasciatus x
Hyalella azteca x x
Acari na
Hydracarina
Ephemeroptera
Ephemera simulans
Hexagenia~Timbata
Trichoptera
x
x
Mystacides sp.
Pnylocentropus sp.
Polycentropus sp. x
Diptera (Chironomidae)
Ablabesmia sp. x
CrIcotopus sp. x
Cryptochfronomus sp. x
nae en
X
Dicrotendipes sp. x
Endochtronomus sp. x
Larsia sp" x x x
Paratanytarsus sp. x x
Polypedllmn sp. x x
ProciadiusT x
PsectrocTadfus sp. x
S^ctochlronomus sp. x
x
x
Mystacides sp. x
Pnylocentropus sp. x
x
x
xx x
x
x x
Tanytarsus sp. x
Thienemanniena sp. x
Mollusca
Amnicola sp. x x x
Physa sp. x
Pisldium idahoensis x x
Pisldium sp. xx
Sphaertum sp. x
56
-------
Table 21. Average number of benthic macroinvertebrates/m2 and
percent of the total represented by major taxonomic groups collected
from offshore stations of the St. Marys River during 1983 (Duffy
unpubl. data).
Locati on
Ta xa
"TOE"
Tr
W
"TOT
TR[ PIT
W
9,879
18,710
20,846
13,895
Percent
8,613
9,682
7,381
14
17
21
21
29
41
35
0
7
<1
2
2
1
4
2
5
2
<1
5
3
2
<1
3
2
1
1
<1
0
3
1
3
2
5
1
0
73
64
67
67
52
44
48
3
3
3
2
6
6
6
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
1
1
<1
2
2
<1
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
1
2
2
3
<1
1
2
2
2
1
Oligochaeta
Polychaeta
Amphipoda
Isopoda
Ceratopogonidae
Chironomidae
Ephemeroptera
Tri choptera
Gastropoda
Pelecypoda
Other
aInitials correspond to the following areas of the river: IWB = Izaac
Walton Bay, LN = Lake Nicolet, MNC = Middle Neebish Channel, NML =
north Munuscong Lake, SML = south Munuscong Lake, PAF = Pt. aux
Frenes, and RB = Raber Bay.
1986). Trichoptera are almost never
numerically abundant, but are one of the
most taxonomically diverse benthic groups
in the St. Marys River.
The distribution of benthic macroinver-
tebrates of soft substrates was surveyed
by Veal (1968) in relation to industrial
and municipal discharges from the city of
Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario. Veal found
that sediments below these effluents con-
tained elevated levels of chromium, iron
oxide, phenols, phosphorus, and nitrogen.
Mood chips and oil were also present in
some areas. Within this zone of contami-
nated sediments the mayfly Hexagenia
occurred only occasionally and the typical
soft bottom benthic fauna of the river was
replaced by one consisting, entirely in
some areas, of the poll ution-tolerant
oligochaetes Tubifex tubi fex and
Limnodrilus hoffmei steri. At the time of
Veal' s (1968"] sampl i ng, these impacts to
the benthic community extended from an
area immediately above the rapids to
Little Lake George at the northeast corner
of Sugar Island (Figures 35, 36). Veal
(1968) suggested that the American side of
the river and Lake Nicolet were not con-
taminated by industrial discharges. How-
ever, sampling intensity in these areas
may not have been great enough to deter-
mine if the benthic community had been
altered. Since this survey, the area has
again been sampled by Hamdy et al. (1978)
and Kenega (1979), both of whom generally
corroborate Veal's earlier work. A later
survey of the distribution of Hexagenia by
Hiltunen and Schloesser (19831 indicated
these mayflies had been eliminated from
areas slightly further downstream than
previously suggested. Hiltunen and
Schloesser (1983) correlated the absence
of Hexagenia with the presence of oil in
sediments. Oil would severely reduce
osmoregulatory and feeding efficiency as
well as general movements of Hexagenia
nymphs. Hiltunen and Schloesser (1983)
also report observing emerging subimagoes
entrapped in surface oil film.
56
-------
ONTARIO
1.636
237
George
Nicole?
MICHIGAN
Munuscong
Lake
LAKE HURON
Numbers = Individualsym2
Figure 35. Distribution of Tubifex
tubifex in the St. Marys River.
ONTARIO
George
69
Nicoiet
484
MICHIGAN
Munuscong^
Lake
LAKE HURON
Numbers = Individuals/m2
Figure 36. Distribution of Hexagenia spp.
in the St. Marys River.
Except for this area of sediment and
water-quality impairment, the soft bottom
benthic fauna of the river is indicative
of good water quality. Common oligochaetes
found throughout the river are a mixture
of pollution-tolerant taxa (Limnodrilus
hoffmei steri and Limnodrilus spp.) and"
species associated with mesotrophic condi-
tions (Peloscolex ferox and Potamdttinx
vejdovski; Table 2Of! Species intolerant
of organic enrichment, such as Stylodrilus
heringianus, are also found over wide
areas of the river (Veal 1968; Hiltunen
1979; Liston et al. 1980). However,
oligochaetes generally are not present in
high densities outside of the zone of
organic enrichment around Sault Ste.
Marie. Chironomids associated with clean
water, such as Heterotrissocladius spp.,
Microspectra spp., and Polypedi1 urn spp.,
are common, while the pollution-tolerant
Chironomus spp. are rare.
The shipping channel is essentially a
portion of the soft-bottom habitat which
has been altered by dredging. This area
is apparently poor habitat for benthic
macroinvertebrates as only two taxa are
common and both diversity and density are
much lower in the shipping channel than in
all other habitats (Table 22; Liston et
al. 1980, 1986). The sole exception is in
areas where depositional material settles
within the channel. This occurs at the
junction of the Middle Neebish Channel and
Munuscong Lake and in the southern portion
of the river below Munuscong Lake. Here,
the polychaete worm Manyunkia speciosa and
oligochaetes sometimes reach abundance.
Turbulence created by passing ships and
their propwash is likely the reason for
the lack of benthic organisms in the ship-
ping channel.
Emergent wetlands provide a habitat for
benthic macroinvertebrates that is alter-
nately benign and harsh. In winter, ice
may extend through the water column into
bottom sediments in many of the emergent
wetlands of the St. Marys River. Still,
some aquatic invertebrates remain in these
areas throughout winter and convert blood
sugars into alcohols in order to prevent
freezing (Duffy and Liston 1985). How-
ever, in spring, water temperatures rise
more rapidly In these shallow areas than
do water temperatures offshore, allowing
growth to begin earlier (see Chapter 2).
57
-------
Table 22. Average number of benthic macroinvertebrates/m2 and percent
of the total represented by major taxonomic groups collected from
shipping channel stations of the St. Marys River during 1983 (Duffy
unpubl. data).
Location3
twb ni m RWT SFC m EE
Average number/m2 854 597 647 4,403 455 693 1,841
Percent
Oligochaeta
Polychaeta
Amphipoda
Isopoda
Ephemeroptera
Trichoptera
Ceratopogonidae
Chironomidae
Gastropoda
Pelecypoda
Other
6
45
7
36
23
43
24
0
0
0
14
0
0
52
<1
2
0
<1
2
0
0
0
0
<1
<1
0
0
0
0
6
0
7
0
1
<1
0
0
0
<1
<1
0
0
0
0
11
3
0
0
0
93
41
72
38
67
56
23
0
0
<1
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
<1
<1
0
<1
<1
6
10
2
4
0
<1
aFor key to area of river abbreviations see Table 21.
Water temperatures in these shallow areas
also reach greater maximum levels in sum-
mer than in offshore sites, again favoring
development. The structure provided by
aquatic macrophytes serves as substrate
for peri phytic growth, which many of the
invertebrates feed on, and as cover from
fish and other predators. Emery (1978)
characterized aquatic macrophyte beds and
wetlands as "organic matrices" which favor
diversity in aquatic ecosystems much as
coral reefs in marine environments do.
The benthic macroinvertebrate community
of emergent wetlands in the St. Marys
River, like the soft-bottom community, is
taxonomically diverse. a total of
171 separate taxa have been recorded from
emergent wetlands, with 118 of these being
aquatic insects. Among the insects,
Chironomidae represent the richest fauna
of emergent wetlands with 38 genera, while
other groups poorly represented in the
soft-bottom community, such as Hemiptera,
Odonata, and Coleoptera, are well repre-
sented in emergent wetlands (Table 20).
The abundance of benthic invertebrates
in wetlands appears to be influenced by
the degree of wind exposure. This
influence is from the direct physical
effects of wave action that Barton and
Hynes (1981) describe for other parts of
the Great Lakes, from the negative effects
of wind on macrophyte development, and the
effects of wind on macrophyte community
composition. Comparison of benthic inver-
tebrate densities reported from both lee
and windward wetlands of the lower river
reveals that densities in wetlands exposed
to wind (Table 23) are almost consistently
lower than densities found in wetlands on
the lee side (Table 24). Whereas Llston
and his colleagues (1986) sampled primar-
ily Scirpus acutus stands, Duffy (1985)
studied the invertebrate community inhab-
iting Sparganiurn eurycarpum stands. The
invertebrate community associated with
JS. eurycarpum, which tends to occur in
more protected areas, was more diverse
than the invertebrate community associated
with Scirpus acutus, with Hemiptera,
Odonata, Coleoptera, and Hlrudinea each
common at times (Table 25).
Chironomids and oligochaetes numeri-
cally dominate the emergent wetland
58
-------
Table 23. Average number of benthic macroinverte-
brates/m2 and percent of the total represented by
major taxonomic groups collected from windward
emergent wetland stations of the St. Marys River
during 1983 (Duffy unpubl. data).
Location3
Taxa ME 5ME FAF KF
Average number/m2
2,735
7,070
10,967
8,382
Percent
Oligochaeta
17
20
70
36
Polychaeta
<1
42
<1
2
Amphipoda
1
<1
2
2
Isopoda
<1
0
<1
<1
Ephemeroptera
<1
3
1
<1
Trichoptera
<1
<1
<1
<1
Ceratopogonidae
4
<1
<1
<1
Chironomidae
66
32
21
58
Gastropoda
<1
<1
<1
<1
Pelecypoda
<1
<1
<1
<1
Other
6
<1
3
<1
aFor key to area of river abbreviations see Table 21.
Table 24. Average number of benthic macroinvertebrates/m2 and pereent
of the total represented by major taxonomic groups collected from lee
emergent wetland stations of the St. Marys River during 1983 (Duffy
unpubl. data).
Location®
Taxa ~!WB En RnC RmE SHE FSF RF
Average number/m2
9,391
15,692
10,260
7,642 18,607
10,638
19,267
Percent
Oligochaeta
24
15
14
26 65
80
66
Polychaeta
0
<1
3
<1 18
1
2
Amphipoda
1
1
2
4 <1
<1
1
Isopoda
0
2
<1
4 <1
0
<1
Ephemeroptera
3
5
<1
1 <1
<1
<1
Trichoptera
<1
2
<1
<1 <1
0
<1
Ceratopogonidae
5
<1
3
<1 <1
0
<1
Chironomidae
64
72
79
58 15
18
22
Gastropoda
<1
1
<1
<1 <1
0
<1
Pelecypoda
<1
1
<1
<1 <1
<1
<1
Other
1
<1
<1
4 <1
<1
7
aFor key to area of river abbreviations see Table 21.
59
-------
Table 25. Average number of benthlc
macroinvertebrates/m2 and percent of the
total represented by major taxonomic
groups in Sparganium eurycarpum stands in
the St. Marys River during 1983 (Duffy
1985).
Taxa
Date
13 May
17 June
6 July
Percent
Oligochaeta
12
47
18
Hirudi nea
0
3
2
Amphipoda
4
3
1
Isopoda
0
3
<1
Ephemeroptera
<1
7
2
Odonata
5
1
3
Trichoptera
6
4
<1
Hemiptera
<1
3
<1
Ceratopogonidae
2
<1
5
Chironomidae
67
16
64
Coleoptera
0
1
<1
Gastropoda
4
<1
1
Total number/m2
2,135
10,245
24,043
benthic macroinvertebrate community, just
as they do in soft-bottom habitats
(Tables 24, 25). Liston et al. (1986)
found chironomids were most abundant in
the lee wetlands of the Lake Nicolet and
middle channel portions of the river. As
they did in soft-bottom habitats, oligo-
chaetes represented a greater proportion
of the total fauna in the southern portion
of the river than in the middle or upper
river. Seasonally, maximum densities of
oligochaetes were found in June, roughly
1 month prior to peak densities of chiro-
nomids (Duffy 1985). However, earlier
studies suggested both groups may reach
maximum densities later in summer during
some years (Duffy unpubl. data).
While chironomids and oligochaetes are
the most abundant macroinvertebrates in
emergent wetlands, a variety of more con-
spicuous taxa better serve to characterize
this habitat. Characteristic macroinverte-
brates of the St. Marys River emergent
wetlands include a number of taxa which,
having specific habitat requirements, are
dependent on and occur only or primarily
in this habitat (Table 26). For example,
larvae of the beetle Donacia sp. are
phytophagus and develop within the stems
of the emergent macrophyte Sparganium
eurycarpum. While less common, larvae of
the moth Bellura spp. have similar habitat
requirements, but develop in Scirpus spp.
stems. The mayfly Si p hioplecton spp.
occurs along the wetland face, it is an
active swimmer about which little is known
since it is infrequently captured by con-
ventional benthic sampling techniques.
Many of the Hemiptera and certain species
of Odonata are restricted to more dense
stands of macrophytes (Duffy 1985).
The great volume of flow combined with
the irregular boulder substrate in the St.
Marys Rapids has prevented quantitative
sampling to date, even though these rapids
are considered one of the most important
fish habitats in the river. However,
information on the benthic macroinverte-
brate community inhabiting the rapids was
gathered in November 1983 when the Inter-
national Lake Superior Board of Control
(ILSBC) closed the compensating gates at
the head of the rapids and "dewatered" the
rapids (ILSBC 1974; Koshinsky and Edwards
1983). This enabled biologists to enter
the rapids area and examine its benthic
fauna. Another approach to understanding
the benthic community of the rapids was
attempted by Schirripa (1983) who sampled
benthic macroinvertebrates in the smaller
rapids emptying from Lake Nicolet.
The composition of the benthic macroin-
vertebrate community of both the St. Marys
Rapids and Lake Nicolet Rapids is substan-
tially different from the composition in
other habitats in the river (Table 27).
In both rapids Trichoptera larvae (espe-
cially two genera of net-spinning caddis-
flies of the family Hydropsychidae,
Hydropsyche cf. bi fida and Cheumatopsyche
spp.) are much more abundant than in other
habitats. In the St. Marys Rapids, cf.
bifida is the predominant taxa, comprising
about 80% of the Hydropsychidae (Fig-
ure 37). However, in the Lake Nicolet
Rapids, Cheumatopsyche spp. are predomi-
nant and comprise $5% of the Hydropsy-
chidae (Schirripa 1983). Koshinsky and
Edwards (1983) attributed the preponder-
ance of H. cf. bifida in the St. Marys
Rapids to its affinity for faster flowing
water. Cheumatopsyche spp. are known to
60
-------
Table 26. Benthic macroinvertebrates characteristic (occur at >50%
of stations) of separate habitats in the St. Marys River (Duffy
unpubl. data).
Habitat
Taxa Wetland Soft bottom Channel Rapids
Oligochaeta
Ophidonais serpentina x
Lironodrilus sp. x
Peloscolex" ferox x
Sty!aria fossularis x
Polychaeta
Manayunkia speciosa x
Amphipoda
Gammarus fasciatus x
HyaleHa azteca x x
Hydracarina x x x x
Ephemeroptera
Baetis sp. x
Caenis sp. x
Ephemera simulans x
Hexagenia limbata x
Stenonenia tripunctatum x
Leptophlebia sp. x
Trichoptera
Cheumatopsyche sp. x
Helicopsyche boreal is x
Hydropsyche bifida x
Polycentropus sp. x
Hemi ptera
Corixidae x
Coleoptera
Donacia sp. x
Diptera
Ceratopogonidae x x
Cryptochironomus sp. x x
Dicrotendipes sp. x
Epoicocladius sp. x
Larsia sp~ x x x x
Paratanytarsus sp. x x
aedilum sp. x x
ius sp. x x
PsectrocTadius sp. x
Stictochironomus sp. x x
Tanytarsus sp. x x
SimuliumTp. x
Mollusca
Amnicola sp. x x
Physa sp. x
Pisidium sp. x x
Sphaerium sp. x
Polypedi"'
Prociadii
61
-------
Table 27. Average number of common macroinver-
tebrates/m2 in the St. Marys Rapids and Lake Nicolet
Rapids (Koshinsky and Edwards 1983; Schirripa 1983).
Rapids area
Taxa
Lake Nicolet
St. Marys
01 igochaeta
788
Amphi poda
69
rare
Heptageniidae
223
12
Leptophlebia sp.
887
—
Total Ephemeroptera
1,504
—
Hydropsychidae
885
4,660
Total Trichoptera
1,140
__
Chironomidae
8,433
—
Mol1usca
13
--
Other
148
—
Total macroinvertebrates
12,096
—
Hydra americana
18,131
—
ONTARIO
,000
7,601-10,000
Whitefish Island
Water line af 1/2
gate open
>10,000
International border ^
Flow
J.
J
MICHIGAN
Figure 37. Distribution and abundance of net-spinning caddisfly larvae in dewatered
area, St. Marys Rapids, 6-7 November 1973 (Koshinsky and Edwards 1983).
62
-------
inhabit slower flowing and warmer water
than Hydropsyche spp. (Wiggins 1979);
these observations seem consistent with
the distribution of these taxa in the
St. Marys River.
Overall, the macroinvertebrates of both
rapids are typical of the benthic commu-
nities found in rapids or rocky streams.
Differences among the two sites appear to
be related primarily to current velocity.
In addition to Cfreumatopsyche spp., both
heptageniid mayflies and the crayfish
Orconectes proolnquus were more abundant
in the moderate flow of the Lake Nicolet
Rapids than in the St. Marys Rapids.
Schirripa U9B3) also found high densities
of the meiobenthic Hydra americanus at the
Lake Micolet Rapids during July.
Annual Production of Invertebrates
Production refers to the net productiv-
ity or sum of growth increments of all
individuals in a population- It includes
biomass devoted to eggs and sfted exuviae,
but excludes energy devoted to maintenance
activities {Wetzel 1983). Production
gives an indication of how energy flows
Cbraitct -iti eccsyste- and 15 -ilsc af wine
in cjnpar' >7 eco>;ystems.
No published information exists for
zooplankton production in the St. Marys
River. However, Selgeby (1975) reported
standing stock biomass of zooplankton
entering the river from Whitefish Bay From
which inferences about production can be
made, and Duffy (unpubl. data) estimated
production of zooplankton in emergent
wetlands.
In lake water entering the river,
zooplankton standing stock increased from
roughly 4 mg dry wt/m3 in early June to
14 mg dry wt/m3 by late August during a
period when average biomass of individual
zooplankters was declining (Figure 38).
This period of increasing biomass is
undoubtedly the period of peak zooplankton
production in the open waters of the St.
Marys River. The increase in standing
stock corresponds with seasonal maximum
water temperatures and a pulse in phyto-
plankton availability.
Zooplankton standing stock in emergent
wetlands averaged 3.3 mg dry wt/mJ during
Biomass per unii volume
31 -May-72
l»S*p-73
Average biomass per Individual
13-Ho«-71
si-M-ay-rz
0a-S«p-72
1 T-D»c-T
Figure 38. Density of total zooplankton
within the Dunbar emergent wetland during
J933 aic. clers-'ty aic tyicmis-S o~ <'T-en-
tfats- araa 1371 and 1572 .'Ealceby
19751.
April through July, 1933 [Duffy, unpubl.
data). Eurycercus lamellatus and
Simocephalus serrutatus, two large clado-
cerans, contributed most to the estimated
annual zooplankton production in the wet-
lands (Table 28). Seasonally, standing
stock values were greatest during late
June through early July corresponding with
increasing water temperatures, the begin-
ning of the phytoplankton pulse in the
river, and a pulse in the release of dis-
solved organic material from the emergent
macrophytes in the wetlands.
Seasonal standing crop of benthic
invertebrates reflects trends 15
abundance, but also size of individuals in
the population. However, because of the
taxonomic diversity of the benthos,
generation times are variable and total
standing stock data are not always useful
for predicting annual production. For
example, with the exception of a peak in
63
-------
Table 28. Estimated annual secondary pro-
duction by zooplankton in emergent wet-
lands of Lake Nicolet of the St. Marys
River (Duffy unpubl. data).
Production
(mg dry wt^
Taxa m • yr )
Cladocera
Eurycercus lamellatus
Simocephalus serrulatus
Chydorus sphaericus
Acroperus narpae
Other Cladocera
Copepoda
Macrocyclops albidis
abundance at the 3 m depth of Lake George
during June, benthic invertebrate abun-
dances in both emergent wetlands and soft-
bottom areas of Lakes George and Nicolet
show similar seasonal trends (Figure 39A,
B). Yet, biomass in soft-bottom areas of
Lake Nicolet are much lower than in Lake
George (Figure 39C, D). These differences
are a reflection of differences in species
composition between the two basins. The
soft bottom areas of Lake George support
greater numbers of Hexagenia 1imbata and
fingernail clams (Spfiaeril'dae) than simi-
lar substrates in Lake Nicolet, which sup-
port a more abundant chironomid community.
However, differences in taxonomic composi-
tion and standing stock are not reflected
in annual production.
Annual benthic invertebrate production
estimates for areas of the St. Marys River
261.7
270.1
9.2
2.2
17.1
Lake George
Lake George
Lake Nicolet
30-
E
| 25 -J
E
- 20 A
J 15-
a
<
Apr
40 -
35 H
^ 30-
| 25 H
t-
o> 20 H
Lake Nicolet
Aug
Oct
Dec
Figure 39. Seasonal abundance *nd biomass of benthic invertebrates in an emergent
wetland of Lake George and the Lake Nicolet emergent wetland of the St. Marys River
during 1981. M
-------
that have been studied are remarkably
similar (Liston et al. 1983; Schirripa
1983; Duffy 1985). In soft bottom off-
shore areas of Lake George Hexa^enia
limbata and fingernail clams contribute
over half of the annual production, while
in Lake Nicolet most of the total produc-
tion is contributed by chironomids,
oligochaetes, and the amphipod Hyallela
azteca (Table 29). Overall, on a unit
basis, annual benthic invertebrate produc-
tion is greater in emergent wetlands and
rapids areas than in soft-bottom areas of
the river.
Fishes
Juvenile and adult fishes. The fish
community of the St. Marys River may be
described as a percid community (sensu
Ryder and Kerr 1978). A percid community
contains four critical species which
contribute to the persi stance of the
community: walleye (Stizostedion vitreum
vitreum), northern pTice (Esox 1 ucius),
yellow perch (Perca flavescens), and white
sucker (Catostomus comnersoni). Kitchell
et al. (I97Tr~oF?erve3—tTiaF"slow-flowing
rivers having a variety of substrates,
Table 29. Estimated benthic invertebrate production in the emergent littoral
zone and the 3-m depth contour2 of Lakes George and Nicolet and 1n the Lake
Nicolet Rapids as mg dry wt • m~ • yr 1 (Duffy unpubl. data).
Lake Nicolet Lake George
Taxon Rapids Littoral Offshore Littoral Offshore
10
166
1,155
80
1,284
132
20
774
11
199
3
69
43
47
762
95
6,206
7
26
222
181
Ephemeroptera
Ameletus sp.
Caenis sp.
Ephemera simulians
Ephemeral!a sp.
Hexagenia limbata
Leptophlebia sp. 3,770
Stenonema tripunctatum 2,270
Trichoptera
Ceraclea sp.
Cheumatopsyche sp. 3,003
Grammotaulus sp.
Phryganea sp.
Phylocentropus sp.
Polycentropus sp.
Trianodes sp.
Other Trichoptera
Hemiptera
Sigara cornuta 1,368 19 43
Odonata
Aeshna canadensis 4,767
Arigomphus sp. 2,633
Enallagma~boreale 127 428
Lestes disjunctus 134
Llbellula sp. 176
29
3
201
38
263
14
12
64
280
229
97
186
38
38
11
38
53
27
39
39
(Continued)
66
-------
Table 29. (Conclu'ed).
lake Nicolet Lake George
Taxon RapTds CTttoral Offshore Littoral Offshore
Diptera
Chironomidae
Ablabesmyia sp.
Cryptochironomus sp.
Larsia sp.
Paratanytarsus sp.
Polypedilum sp.
Procladius sp.
PsectrocTadius sp.
Stictochironomus sp.
Other Chironomidae 3,330
Simulidae
Simuliam sp. 112
Amphipoda
Hyalella azteca
Gammarus fasciatus
Isopoda
Asellus intermedia
Lirceus sp.
Decapoda
Orconectes propinqus 11,200
Gastropoda
Pelecypoda
Spaeri idae
01 igocheata
Stylaria fossularis
Other 01igocheata
Miscellaneous taxa
Totals 23,683
90
1,069
412
537
466
331
552
596
299
488
158
1,200
305
35
1,520
2,205
839
1,197
1,192
1,045
594
659
155
50
274
25
452
55
95
10
2,923
704
2,900
280
6
8
2,250
2,228
812
912
354
85
111
129
2,777
25
645
117
1,008
984
306
792
123
237
108
406
144
397
53
4,347
2,045
1,464
2,003
291
1,468
2,336
563
1,800
857
24,682
14,464
20,020
18,846
littoral areas, and good water quality
siirilar to the St. Marys River, were
optimal habitat for percid communities.
The St. Marys River is richer in species
than the Precambrian Shield lakes consi-
dered by Ryder and Kerr (1978) and
contains northern redbelly dace (Phoxinus
eos) and brook stickleback (Culea
inconstans). species usually considered
mutually exclusive with percid communities
because of their association with bogs.
However, the greater diversity of fishes
(Table 30) in the St. Marys River is a
reflection of the river's varied habitats
as well as its connections with the
oligotrophic fish communities of Lakes
Superior and Huron.
Primary fish habitats of the St. Marys
River are (1) the open-water main stem
66
-------
Table 30. Fishes identified from the St. Marys River (compiled
from various sources).
Scientific name
Common name
PETROMYZONTIDAE
Petromyzon marinus
Larcpetra lamottei
ACIPENSERIDAE
Acipenser fulvescens
LEPISOSTEIDAE
Lepi sosteus osseus
AMI IDAE
Ami a calva
CLUPEIDAE
Alosa pseudoharengus
Dorosoma cepedianum
SALMONIDAE
Coregonus artedi i
Coregonus clupeaformis
Prosopturn cylindraceum
Salmo gairdneri
Salmo trutta
Sal mo salar
SaTvelinus fontinalfs
Salvelinus
namaycusH"
fori ti'nail's
SalveliniTs rontinaiis x
Oncorhynchus gorbusch'a
Oncorhyncftus kisutch
flncorhynchus tshawytscha
OSMERIDAE
Osmerus mordax
UMBRIDAI
Umbra Hmi
ESOCIDAE
Esox lucius
Esox masqui'nongy
CYPRINIDAE
Carassius auratus
Couesius plumbeus
QypHnus carplo
Hypopsis storeriana
Nocornls micropogori
Notemigonus cryso^eucas
Notropis "atherlnoides
Notropis cornutus
namaycush
Sea lamprey
American brook lamprey
Lake sturgeon
Longnose gar
Bowfin
Alewi fe
Gizzard shad
Lake herring
Lake whitefish
Round whitefish
Rainbow trout
Brown trout
Atlantic salmon
Brook trout
Lake trout
Splake
Pink salmon
Coho salmon
Chinook salmon
Rainbow smelt
Central mudminnow
Northern pike
Muskellunge
Goldfish
Lake chub
Carp
Silver chub
River chub
Golden shiner
Emerald shiner
Common shiner
(Continued)
67
-------
Table 30. (Continutd).
Scientific name
Common name
Notropis
Notropis
Notropis
Notropis
Notropis
Phoxinus
heterodon
heterolepis
hudsonius
stramineus
volucellus
eos
Pimephales notatus
Pimephales promelas
Rhinichthys atratulus
Rhinichthys cataractae
Semoti1 us atromacuTatus
CATOSTOMIDAE
Catostomus catostomus
Catostomus commersoni
Moxostoma anisuram
Moxostoma erythrurimi
Moxostoma macrolepidoturn
ICTALURIDAE
Ictalurus nebulosus
Ictaluru? punctatus
ANGUILLIDAE
Anguilla rostrata
CYPRINODONTIDAE
Fundulus diaphanus
GADIDAE
Lota lota
Blackchin shiner
Blacknose shiner
Spottall shiner
Sand shiner
Mimic shiner
Northern redbelly dace
Bluntnose minnow
Fathead minnow
Blacknose dace
Longnose dace
Creek chub
Longnose sucker
White sucker
Silver redhorse
Golden redhorse
Shorthead redhorse
Brown bullhead
Channel catfish
American eel
Banded killifish
Burbot
GASTEROSTEIDAE
Culea inconstans
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Pungitius pungitius
PERCOPSIDAE
Percopsi s omiscomaycus
PERCICHTHYIDAE
Morone chrysops
CENTRARCHIDAE
Ambloplites rupestri s
Lepomis gibbosus
Lepomis macrochirus
Micropterus dolomieui
Mi cropterus salmoides
Pomoxis nlgromaculatus
Brook stickleback
Threespine stickleback
Ninespine stickleback
Trout-perch
White bass
Rock bass
Pumpkinseed
B1uegill
Smallmouth bass
Largemouth bass
Black crappie
(Continued)
68
-------
Table 30. (Concluded).
Scientific name
Common name
PERCIDAE
Etheostoma exile
Etheostoma nigrum
Perca flavescens
Perca caprodes
5tTzostedion canadense
Stizostedion vitreum vitreum
Iowa darter
Johnny darter
Yellow perch
Logperch
Sauger
Walleye
SCIAENIDAE
Aplodinotus grunniens
COTTIDAE
Cottus
Cottus
bairdi
cognatus
ricei
Cottus
Myoxocephalus quadricornis
Freshwater drum
Mottled sculpin
Slimy sculpin
Spoonhead sculpin
Fourhorn sculpin
portion and embayments of the river,
(2) emergent wetlands bordering more
protected reaches, (3) sand and/or gravel
beaches, and (4) the St. Marys Rapids.
Many species are associated with more than
one of these habitats or may move among
habitats on a diel or seasonal basis.
However, each habitat supports a
collection of species which distinguishes
it from other habitats (Table 31).
Open-water areas of the St. Marys River
provide a heterogeneous environment for
fishes despite the outward appearance of
uniformity. Variations in depth and sub-
strate character occur both longitudinally
from the upper to lower river and horizon-
tally across the river. Depth, in turn,
influences both water temperature and tur-
bidity, with the greatest turbidity occur-
ring near tributary mouths. Water
currents are strongest and unidirectional
in shipping channels in the main stem,
becoming weaker and under greater wind
influence away from these channels in
embayments (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
1984). In addition, seasonal meteorologi-
cal and hydrologic cycles influence these
abiotic environmental factors. Water tem-
perature, hydrologic patterns, water qual-
ity, depth, and substrate conditions in
combination with more subtle biotic and
abiotic influences largely determine the
fish species present and their distribu-
tion within the open-water habitats of the
river.
Overall, the fish community of open-
water areas is dominated by demersal
species, and only two pelagic species,
lake herring (Coregonus artedii) and rain-
bow smelt (Osmerus mordax), contribute
substantially In relative abundance
(Tables 32 and 33). Smaller species and
juveniles of species which attain larger
sizes are most effectively sampled with
otter trawls in the open-water habitat
(Liston et al. 1981, 1983). Among smaller
species, trout-perch (Percopsis
omiscomaycus), johnny darter (Etheostoma
nigrum), and spottail shiner (NotropTs
hudsonius) are most abundant throughout
the river (Table 32). Yellow perch are
the most common juvenile fishes in open-
water habitats.
In the upper river adjoining White-fish
Bay, clear water and sandy substrates
favor johnny darter and ninespine stickle-
back (Pungitius pungitius), species that*
are also abundant in the other Upper Great
Lakes (Scott and Crossman 1973). Mottled
sculpin (Cottus bairdi) and juvenile
yellow perch are abundant (>10% of total
number) in the upper river as well. Below
the rapids, both trout-perch and spottail
69
-------
Table 31. Fifteen most abundant fishes in each of five habitat types ranked
from most (1) to least (15) abundant (Liston et al. 1980, 1983, 1986).
Habi tat
Ron^ STfshore
Veg. Veg. trawl gill net
Species Beach Shore Shore TT5~ m 3.0 m 1.5 m 3.0 m
Rank
Trout-perch
Bluntnose minnow
Carp
Common shiner
Emerald shiner
Golden shiner
Lake chub
longnose dace
Mimic shiner
Spottail shiner
Johnny darter
Logperch
Yellow perch
Walleye
Black crappie
B1ueg ill
Rock bass
Smallmouth bass
Silver redhorse
White sucker
Rainbow smelt
Brown bullhead
Ninespine stickleback
Brook stickleback
Mottled sculpin
Lake herring
Lake whitefi sh
Pink salmon
Northern pike
Alewife
Gizzard shad
1
15
13
1
1
13
8
8
9
10
13
—
—
—
—
1?
14
4
14
14
—
--
--
--
2
1
4
11
11
--
--
10
—
--
--
"" —
~ -
9
—
— —
12
—
— ~
5
2
5
5
3
--
--
3
4
1
2
2
11
13
11
—
—
4
6
--
—
—
—
13
14
8
6
8
3
4
5
6
6
--
—
—
--
6
5
7
7
7
10
—
—
_ __
3
2
—
--
--
7
12
12
8
9
7
7
13
15
--
—
14|
15
14
—
—
--
15
9
10
6
7
1
1
13
11
11
14
15
2
2
10
6
—
--
10
9-
_ _
—
—
12
8
—
__
—
—
15
12
—
--
9
5
—
—
—
__
--
4
3
--
--
14|
12
__
--
—
—
--
9
__
—
—
--
3
4
--
--
—
--
8
11
5
3
—
--
—
—
shiner are abundant everywhere, while
mimic shiner (Notropis volucellus), white
sucker, and mottled sculpin are most
numerous in the narrower channels of the
middle river. Below Neebish Island, the
river contains large embayments and open
shoreline areas, as does Lake George.
These open shoreline areas are utilized by
spawning trout-perch (Magnuson and Smith
1963) and also appear to favor spottail
shiner. Below the rapids, johnny darter
and juvenile yellow perch are abundant in
Lake George, while black crappie (Pomoxls
nigromaculatus) are common only in the
lower river below Munuscong Lake
(Table 32).
Larger fishes collected with gill nets
also exhibit distributional patterns among
river reaches (Table 33). In the upper
river, rainbow smelt, yellow perch, and
the ubiquitous white sucker predominate
(Greenwood 1983b; Liston et al. 1986).
Lake whitefish are also more common in the
70
-------
Table 32. Percent composition (by number) of 15 most abundant
fishes collected with a 4.9-m otter trawl at the 1.5 and 3.0-m
depth contours in open-water habitats of the upper, middle, and
lower St. Marys River and Lake George Basin (Liston et al. 1980,
1983, 1986).
Upper Middle Lake Lower
Species river river George river
Rainbow smelt
0.4
1.8
1.7
4.2
Bluntnose minnow
0
0.3
°,4
1.6
Emerald shiner
0
0.8
T
2.6
Mimic shiner
0
18.1
T
4.7
Spottail shiner
0.2
13.0
19.1
15.7
White sucker
4.2
5.2
3.8
2.2
Trout-perch
0.2
13.7
36.2
45.4
Brook stickleback
2.8
3.2
1.0
0.3
Ninespine stickleback
31.3
6.3
1.6
0.3
Mottled sculpin
12.8
11.6
0.4
1.2
Black crappie
T
0.1
T
3.3
Rock bass
0.1
2.6
1.3
1.7
Yellow perch
14.0
6.9
15.6
8.1
Johnny darter
32.4
9.6
10.0
6.5
Logperch
T
3.7
2.0
0.9
Cumulative %
98.3
96.9
97.1
98.7
Total fish
4,005
9,441
3,234
20,248
Number samples
26
78
10
84
Average fish/sample
154.0
121.0
322.4
241.0
aT = <0.12.
upper river than elsewhere. In the lower
river, below the rapids, four species of
fish—lake herring, northern pike, white
sucker, and yellow perch—are common in
most reaches (Schorfar 1975; Wolgemuth
1977; Miller 1979; Liston et al. 1980,
1981, 1986). Walleye are relatively
abundant in Munuscong Lake and southward,
less common from Munuscong Lake to the
rapids, and were not collected above the
rapids. Walleye are actually more abun-
dant in the lower river and Potagannissing
Bay during most of the year than Table- 33
indicates, but move seasonally to summer
feeding areas (see below). Another spe-
cies common in the lower river but not
collected above the rapids is brown
bullhead (Ictalurus nebulosus. Although
abundant in the St. Marys River, lake
herring are presently on the threatened
species list in Michigan (Mich. Dep. Nat.
Resour. 1984).
Several of the more abundant fishes
collected with gill nets are not resident
species. Rainbow smelt move into the
river from Lake Huron in spring to spawn
when water temperatures are 4-5 "C and are
only susceptible to gill nets for a brief
period when migrating to spawning sites.
However, dietary studies of piscivorous
fish suggest that low numbers of rainbow
smelt remain in the river through summer.
Despite this, rainbow smelt are the second
most abundant species collected from the
river with gill nets (Liston et al. 1980,
1981, 1986). Lake herring also leave the
river during mid- to late summer when
water temperatures rise to near this
specie's upper thermal limit of 20 ®C
(Dryer and Beil 1964). Pink salmon
(Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) are only abundant
in the river during the fall of odd-
numbered years when most spawn. Pink sal-
mon were accidentally Introduced into Lake
71
-------
Table 33. Percent composition (by number) of 15 most abundant fishes
collected with experimental bottom gill nets in open-water habitats of the
upper, middle, and lower St. Marys River, Lake George basin, Raber Bay, and
Potagannissing Bay (Liston et al. 1980, 1983, 1986).
Upper Middle Lake Lower Raber Potagannissing
Species river river George rivera Bay Bay
Alewi fe
Lake herring
Lake whitefish
P1nk salmon
Rainbow smelt
Northern pike
Spottail shiner
White sucker
Brown bullhead
Trout-perch
Rock bass
Yellow perch
Hall eye
Cumulative %
Total fish
Number samples
Average fish/sample
aT « <0.1X.
1.1
0.2
0.5
5.4
1.2
1.5
0.9
29.0
3.2
26.8
57.0
23.7
6.3
0.5
0
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.7
1.7
0.8
Ta
0
0
32.4
5.7
1.2
8.6
10.7
4.5
7.9
11.7
21.8
10.6
6.0
5.1
2.0
0.3
2.6
1.0
—
—
28.7
23.1
30.5
10.1
9.5
18.9
0
0.9
0.6
0.8
0.3
5.1
1.1
1.4
0.5
0.6
—
--
0.7
7.1
6.9
2.8
0.7
4.7
13.3
11.7
20.2
16.6
8.6
26.4
0
3.5
3.8
14.1
4.2
5.1
95.1
96.8
92.6
97.7
98.6
95.5
457
2,661
652
3,562
885
3,542
18
31
22
30
8
22
32.6
50.2
23.2
79.1
110.6
161.0
Superior from a hatchery. In the Pacific
Ocean they spawn every other year. In
Great Lakes, most spawning occurs in
odd-numbered years, although spawning
during even-numbered years has been
documented.
Other species of interest not listed in
Table 33 are smallmouth bass (Mlcropterus
dolomieui), which are seasonally abundant
1n the lower river, chinook salmon
(Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), and lake stur-
geon (Acipenser fulvescens). Chinook sal-
mon, another introduced Pacific salmon,
move Into the river from Lake Huron 1n
August and September to spawn. Lake stur-
geon occur throughout the river 1n low
numbers (Wolgemuth 1977; Liston et al.
1986) and are presently on the threatened
species list in Michigan.
The. fish community of emergent wetlands
i* composed of a complex of Cyprinidae
and juveniles of other species, with
larger adult fish utilizing these habitats
only seasonally or during diel foraging
movements (Liston et al. 1983, 1986).
Three species of shiners (emerald
[Notropis atherinoldes], spottail, and
mimic) are abundant in most emergent wet-
land areas of the river (Table 34).
Emerald shiners are rare only in Lake
George wetlands. Other species composing
>52 of the total fishes in wetlands are
gizzard shad (Dorosoma cepedianum) in the
lower river below Munuscong Lake and
bluntnose minnow (Pimephales notatus).
juvenile brown bullhead, bluegill (Lepomis
macrochirus), and yellow perch in the
middle river. Juvenile yellow perch also
comprise >5? of the fishes in the Lake
George wetlands (Table 34).
Habitat segregation by fishes of the
St. Marys River is perhaps most clearly
illustrated in juvenile bluegill whose
distribution 1s restricted to emergent
wetlands. Although juveniles are season-
ally abundant in emergent wetlands,
72
-------
neither juveniles nor adults were col-
lected in open water areas during 5 years
of sampling with a variety of gear types
(Liston et al . 1980, 1981, 1983, 1986).
Furthermore, bluegill are not reported in
sport fishing catches from the river
(D. Behmer, Lake Superior State college,
Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan; pers. comm.).
Liston et al . ( 1986} suggested that juve-
nile bluegill from the lowar river could
not be separated from pumpkinseed {Lepomi s
gi bbosus). However, age I individua1s
collected from Lake Nicolet wetlands and
reared in aquaria were bluegill (Duffy
1985). The absence of adult bluegill and
distribution of juveniles pose interest-
ing, but unresolved, questions regarding
predation pressure on the local ecology of
this species.
Within wetlands, microhabitat differ-
ences (such as differences in macrophyte
density) are more easily discernable than
are microhabitat variations in open-water
communities. Liston and colleagues (1986)
sampled fishes in both emergent macrophyte
beds and in openings within or between
beds. They found that the same species
used each microhabitat, but a slightly
different community composition existed in
each area. In openings within emergent
wetlands devoid of emergent plants, the
three most abundant species were emerald
shiner, mimic shiner, and bluegill. Within
emergent macrophyte beds, the three most
abundant species were spottail shiner,
bluegill, and gizzard shad. Hart (1983)
found that juveniles of both bluegill and
rock bass (Ambloplites rupestris) pre-
ferred open areas within wetlands, but
congregated along edges near emergent
macrophytes.
A total of 44 species of fishes use
wetlands in the St. Marys River. These
wetlands serve as nursery areas for all
Table 34. Percent composition (by number) of 15 most abundant fishes
collected with small experimental trap nets set along shore in open-
water habitats of the upper, middle, and lower St. Marys River and the
Lake George Basin (Liston et al. 1980, 1983, 1986).
Upper Middle Lake Lower
Species river river George river
Gizzard shad
0.5
T*
0.1
8.2
Rainbow smelt
2.7
T
0
4.8
Bluntnose minnow
2.4
5.4
3.3
4.1
Common shiner
1.9
1.2
25.0
1.0
Emerald shiner
21.3
5.2
T
34.4
Mimic shiner
11.2
17.0
2.1
12.1
Spottail shiner
43.0
3.7
51.5
18.4
White sucker
6.8
4.3
1.2
0.5
Brown bullhead
0.3
14.3
1.5
1.2
Trout-perch
0.9
0.2
0.1
1.8
Black crapple
0
0.5
2.3
4.6
B1uegill
1.9
20.7
0.5
2.1
Rock bass
0.6
1.9
0.8
1.1
Smallmouth bass
T
1.6
0.5
0.8
Yellow perch
3.5
7.1
6.6
2.3
Cumulative %
97.0
83.1
95.5
97.4
Total fish
17,287
10,290
11,769
37,964
Number 24-h samples
26
28
36
26
Average fish/sample
665.0
368.0
327.0
1,460.0
aT =<0.1X.
73
-------
the centrarchids plus yellow perch, north-
ern pike, bowfin (Ami a cal va), "longnose
gar (Lepisosteus osseus), brown bullhead,
and cyprinids, as well as other species.
Adult fishes move into these areas on a
diel basis to forage or rest. Adult wall-
eye are sometimes collected in large num-
bers as they move into emergent wetlands
to forage after dark (Liston et al. 1986).
Yellow perch, conversely, move into wet-
lands at night to rest and may be observed
lying on bottom within Scirpus beds
(Duffy, pers. observ.). Finally, wetlands
are used as spawning habitat by some of
the more important fish species of the
St. Marys River, such as northern pike,
smallmouth bass, and yellow perch (see
below).
Fish use of beach shoreline habitat has
been investigated in the middle portion of
the river from Lake Nicolet to Munuscong
Lake, but use of similar habitats in other
river reaches has not (Liston et al. 1980,
1981). The fish community found in these
beach zones comprises species found in
wetlands as well as small demersal species
common in open-water areas (Table 35).
Throughout the area sampled, the most com-
mon species collected in beach zones were
trout-perch and emerald, spottail, common
(Notropis cornutus), and mimic shiners.
Juvenile walleye are also common in beach-
zone habitats. Among beach zones sampled,
walleye were most common near the mouth of
the Charlotte River, a tributary to the
St. Marys River, and lake chub (Couesius
piumbeus) were collected only from a beach
located on Chicken Island in the Middle
Neebi sh Channel.
The fish community inhabiting the
St. Marys Rapids is discrete from the fish
communities of other parts of the river.
Unfortunately, these rapids are so large
as to defy quantitative sampling methods
and most of the information available is
from sportfishing harvests. However,
Gleason et al. (1981) did obtain quantita-
tive samples of fish, using the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers power canal and tail-
race paralleling the upper rapids. The
rapids have been a locus of fishing activ-
ity from pre-European times to the present
(see Chapter 1). Ernest Hemingway, who
fished these rapids in the 1920's, is said
to have called the rapids "the best rain-
bow trout fishing in the world ... second
Table 35. Average number of fish
collected with a 61.5-m beach seine along
exposed shoreline areas of the St. Marys
River on St. Joseph Island, Chicken
Island, and at Dunbar Research Station
during 1979 and 1980. (Liston et al 1980
1981).
Year
Species
1979
1980
Alewi fe
0.3
0
Rainbow smelt
1.9
0.2
Northern pike
0.2
0
Lake chub
1.4
1.4
Blacknose shiner
0
0.4
Common shiner
6.0
3.0
Emerald shiner
3.7
21.4
Golden shiner
2.7
0
Mimic shiner
2.9
2.4
Rosyface shiner
0
0.4
Spottail shiner
6.7
12.8
Blacknose dace
0
0.2
Longnose dace
1.6
0.6
White sucker
1.3
0.2
Silver redhorse
1.1
0.6
Shorthead redhorse
0.2
0
Brown bullhead
0.5
0
Trout-perch
14.1
11.6
Mottled sculpin
1.0
0
Slimy sculpin
0
0.2
Rock bass
1.2
2.0
Yellow perch
1.9
1.0
Wa 11 eye
2.1
1.8
Johnny darter
1.0
1.4
Logperch
0.3
0.2
Other species
0.2
0
Number of species
26
20
Average fish/seine
53.7
61.8
Number of seines
21
5
Total fish
1,127
309
only in strenuousness to angling for tuna
off Catalina Island ..." (Damman 1972).
Principal fish species caught in the
rapids by anglers are lake whlieftsh
(Coregonus clupeaformls) and rainbow trout
(Salmo qairdneH) Tn roughly equal
proportions (Koshlnsky and Edwards 1983).
Lake (Salvelinus namaycush). Drown {Salmo
trattajj and Brook trouts (Salvelinus
fontinalis) are also caught in the rapids.
74
-------
During autumn, walleye and Chinook salmon
move into the rapids area. Koshinsky and
Edwards (1983) list 38 species of fish
which have been collected from the rapids.
Among these, the abundant forage species
are longnose dace (Rhinichthys cataractae)
and slimy sculpin (Cottus cognatusT.
Another species of interest, the sea 1am-
prey (Petromyzon marinus), is also
abundant in the rapids.
In the power canal adjacent the rapids,
white and longnose suckers (Catostomus
catostomus) were the most common species
collected (Gleason et al. 1981). Other
species collected in the power canal which
are characteristic of the rapids habitat
Include Chinook salmon during the spawning
season and occasional brook trout.
Ichthyoplankton and spawning. Ichthyo-
plankton studies in the St. Marys River
have identified 39 separate species
(Table 36; Liston et al. 1980, 1981, 1983,
1986; Gleason et al . 1981; Duffy 1985;
Jude et al. 1986). Fish larvae collected
in the river consist not only of larvae
from fish inhabiting the river, but also
larvae from fish resident in tributaries
and Whitefish Bay. The predominance of
rainbow smelt larvae in samples attests to
the importance of tributary and Whitefish
Bay contributions to the river's ichthyo-
fauna. Rainbow smelt spawn in small
tributaries or along rocky shorelines.
However, Jude et al. (1986) found drift of
larvae from the upper to lower river
through the Edison Sault power canal was
minimal. The ichthyoplankton fauna in all
reaches of the river is dominated by rain-
bow smelt (Gleason et al. 1981; Liston et
al. 1986). A marked seasonal succession
of fish larvae is apparent though, (Fig-
ure 40) and is the result of differential
timing of reproduction by various species
in response to environmental stimuli
(Liston et al. 1980).
At ice-out in spring the ichthyoplank-
ton population consists of larvae from
fall- or winter-spawning Take herring,
lake white-fish, burbot (Lota lota), and
fourhorn sculpin (Myoxoccphalus quadri-
cornis; Figure 40). Soon after ice-out.
Table 36. Fish larvae collected in the St. Marys River
(Liston et al. 1980, 1981, 1986; Ashton, unpubl. data).
Scientific name
Common name
Peptromyzontidae
Lampetra sp.
Petromyzon marinus
Amiidae
Amia calva
Clupeidae
Alosa pseudoharengus
Salmonidae
Coregonus artedii
Coregonus clupeaformis
Onchorhynchus gorbuscha
Osmeridae
Osmerus mordax
Umbridae
Umbra Umi
Esocldae
Esox lucius
Brook lamprey
Sea lamprey
Bowfin
Alewife
Lake herring
Lake whitefish
Pink salmon
Rainbow smelt
Central mudminnow
Northern pike
(Continued)
75
-------
Table 36. (Conclude^l).
Scientific name
Common name
Cyprinidae
r,yprinus carpio
Notemigonus crysoleucus
Notropis cornutus
Notropis atherinoides
Notropis volucelTu?
Notropi s hudsoniu~
Notropis sp.
Pimepnales spp.
Catostomidae
Catostomus commersoni
Moxostoma sp.
Ictaluridae
Ictalurus nebulosus
Cypri nodontidae
Fundulus diaphanus
Gadidae
Lota lota
Gasterosteidae
Pungitius pungitius
Percopsidae
Percopsis omiscomaycus
Centrarchidae
Amblopli tes rupesris
Lepomiis macrocnirus
Lepomis gibbosus
Lepomis spp.
Micropterus dolomieui
Sciaenidae
Aplodinotus grunniens
Percidae
Etheostoma nigrum
Etheostoifia sp.
Perca flavescens
PercTna caprodes
Percina sp.
Stizostedion vitreum
Carp
Golden shiner
Common shiner
Emerald shiner
Mimic shiner
Spottail shiner
Unidentified shiner
Unidentified minnow
White sucker
Unidentified redhorse
Brown bullhead
Banded kilUfish
Burbot
Nine spine stickleback
Cottidae
Cottus
sp.
Myoxocephalus quadricornis
Trout-perch
Rockbass
Bluegill
Pumpkinseed
Unidentified sunflsh
Smallmouth bass
Freshwater drum
Johnny darter
Unidentified darter
Yellow perch
Logperch
Unidentified darter
Walleye
Unidentified sculpin
Fourhorn sculpin
76
-------
beginning in May to early June, larvae of
spring-spawning species, such as rainbow
smelt, yellow perch, and white sucker,
appear and dominate the ichthyoplankton
community. Larvae of summer-spawning
Cyprinidae and other species, such as
bluegill, pumpkin seed, and alewife (Alosa
pseudoharengus) appear in samples from
late June through the remainder of summer
(Figure 39).
Distinct habitat associations are
exhibited by many of these fish larvae as
well as other species for which quantita-
tive information is difficult to obtain
(Table 37). Goodyear et al . (1982) com-
piled information on spawning and nursery
areas for the St. Marys River. Although
much of the information presented in their
report was anecdotal, their findings
generally support field studies. Species
which spawn in tributaries and drift down-
stream to the St. Marys River, such as
rainbow smelt, white sucker, and burbot,
are usually more abundant at offshore
sites than at nearshore ones (Table 37).
However, white sucker larvae are abundant
at both offshore and nearshore sites,
which may reflect an affinity for more
protected habitats. Dense schools of
white sucker larvae may be observed
drifting down tributaries in early summer,
normally concentrated within 1-2 m of the
tributary bank. Larvae of fishes that
spawn in emergent wetlands, including
cyprinids, bluegill, and yellow perch,
generally are much more abundant near this
habitat than elsewhere (Table 37). Larvae
of other fish that spawn in wetlands
remain in these habitats until they are
quite mobile and are, therefore, under-
estimated in sampling. Examples from the
St. Marys River include northern pike,
smallmouth bass, bowfin, common carp
(Cypri nus carpio) , and central mudminnow
(Umbra 1imi).
Lake whitefish
Lake herring
Burbot
Northern pi ke
Fourhorn sculpin
Central mudmi nnow
Rainbow smelt
Yellow perch
Trout-perch
Walleye
Cottus sp.
Cyprinidae
Johnny darter
Logperch
Percidae
Etheostoma sp.
Ninespine stickleback
White sucker
Moxostoma sp.
Rock_bass
Catostomidae
Lepomis sp.
Carp
Alewife
' April ' May ' June ' July ' August 'September'
Figure 40. Seasonal occurrence of larval fish in the St. Marys River.
77
-------
Table 37. Fish larvae collected from each of three habitat types
in the St. Marys River during 9 April through 28 September 1981 as
a percent of the total (Liston et al. 1980, 1983, 1986)
Species
Lake herring
Lake whitefish
Alewife
Rainbow smelt
Central mudminnow
Carp
Cyprinidae
Catostomidae
(cf. white sucker)
Burbot
Trout-perch
Ninespine stickleback
Rock bass
Lepomis sp.
Johnny darter
Yellow perch
Logperch
Cottus sp.
Fourhorn sculpin
Total no./100m3 water
Total no. collected
Habitat and depth
Shore
Mid-depth
Navigation channel
0.5 m
1.5-2 m
9-10 m
Percent of
total
1.0
1.3
0.3
2.9
0.3
<0.1
0
0.3
2.7
1.3
69.2
69.9
0
0.1
0
3.4
3.1
1.1
32.3
9.0
0.8
12.4
1.4
11.3
0.4
4.8
8.0
0.1
0.2
0.5
0
0.2
0.4
0.1
0.1
0
23.1
0.7
0.1
2.8
1.2
1.1
10.2
3.8
0.4
10.0
4.0
1.5
0.1
0.5
1.8
0
0
0.2
338.4
58.3
22.0
1,569
3,897
3,133
The majority of species in a percid
community like the St. Marys River--lake
whitefish, white sucker, longnos* sucker,
silver redhorse (Moxostoma anisuram),
shorthead redhorse ~(M. macrolepi'dotum),
walleye, trout-perch, and several species
of cyprinids--spawn over or on exposed
rock, gravel, or rubble in we 11-oxygenated
water (Balon 1975). Other species such as
brown bullhead and sculpins spawn in holes
or cavities and guard their nests. Still
other species, including species of
centrarchids and sticklebacks, build
nests.
The presence of wetland areas enables
species which use vegetation in spawning
to reproduce and maintain populations in
the river. Yellow perch spawn in wetlands,
including those of the St. Marys River,
draping egg masses over vegetation.
Northern pike and central mudminnows spawn
in wetlands very near the water's edge.
These species have adhesive eggs which
attach to either live or dead vegetation,
and their larvae are adapted to low-oxygen
conditions, which occur where decomposing
aquatic macrophytes form a thick organic
layer over bottom sediments (Balon 1975).
Movement of fishes. Many of the fish
species inhabiting the river undertake
seasonal movements from one area to
another. For some species these movements
only amount to a seasonal dispersal Into
adjoining habitats. However, for other
species, such as lake herring and walleye,
these seasonal movements may be character-
ized as migration because they are a
periodic departures from and returns to an
area (Odum 1971).
78
-------
Several investigators have attempted to
quantify winter movement of fishes in the
shipping channel of the St. Marys River
using remote sensing techniques (Behmer
and Gleason 1975; Dahlberg et al. 1980).
However, in each of these studies results
have been undermined by an inability to
collect fish from the shipping channel in
order to "ground truth" recorded data.
Each study was conducted in late winter
and recorded a preponderance of pelagic
fish. Dahlberg et al. (1980) suggested
that many of the fish they recorded were
possibly rainbow smelt beginning to move
toward tributary streams in preparation
for spawning.
Other information on migration and dis-
persal of fish in the river comes from
mark and recapture studies of adult fishes
by Listen et al. (1986). In this study,
14,946 fish were tagged and released, with
452 recovered at later dates. Fish tagged
were generally hardier species that could
withstand the handling required for this
type of study. White sucker, yellow
perch, rock bass, smallmouth bass, and
brown bullhead moved relatively short dis-
tances before being recaptured, generally
<5 km. Northern pike were also sedentary
during most of the year, moving greater
distances during the spring spawning
period, and also randomly undertaking
extensive movements o,n occasion. In con-
trast to the sedentary nature of these
species, walleye were found to undertake
seasonal migration within the river.
Liston et al. (1986) found that walleye
undertook extensive prespawning movement
toward Munuscong Lake, a known walleye
spawning location, where most of the fish
were tagged during winter and early spring
(Figure 41A) . Beginning in summer, a
postspawning dispersal away from Munuscong
Lake was also undertaken by walleye (Fig-
ure 41B). Average distance traveled by
walleye before being recaptured was 14 and
17 km in the 2 years of this study. How-
ever, larger fish undertook , much more
extensive movements than small fish
(Liston et al. 1986).
Other fish undertaking seasonal move-
ments or migration in the St. Marys River
are Chinook salmon, pink salmon, lake her-
ring, and sea lamprey. Sea lamprey will
be treated separately later because of
their unique role in the Great Lakes.
Figure 41. (A) Movement of walleye in the
St. Marys River towards Munuscong Lake
during January-February and (B) dispersal
from the lake in July-August 1983 (Liston
et al. 1986).
"Chinook salmon were introduced to the
riVer in 1975 by the Michigan Department
of Natural Resources, and a population is
maintained . through periodic stocking
¦operations (J. Schorfar, Mich. DNR,
Newberr'y; pers. comm.). Adult Chinook
salmon are in the river for only a brief
period during late summer and autumn when
they return from Lake Huron, moving up the
river to the rapids area where they were
stocked.
79
-------
Pink salmon also inhabit the river for
a brief period in late summer and fall as
adults. However, unlike other Pacific
salmon, in the Great Lakes most pink sal-
mon only spawn every other year. Also,
unlike Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) and
other Pacific salmon which were introduced
to the Great Lakes to create a sport
fishery, pink salmon were accidentally
introduced to Lake Superior in 1956 (Scott
and Crossman 1973), but now spawn in most
of the tributaries to the St. Marys River.
Lake herring inhabit the river during
most of the year and exhibit two types of
movement, one associated with feeding and
another in physiological response to water
temperature. In October and November when
water temperature nears 4-5 °C lake her-
ring move into the river to spawn. Most
migrate from Lake Huron and probably the
North Channel. Following spawning, fish
remain in the river through winter and
spring until late June or early July. At
this time, water temperature usually
approaches 20 °C, the upper thermal limit
for lake herring, and the fish move from
the river to deeper areas. During some
years, dispersal from these shallower
habitats precedes the mass emergence of
burrowing mayflies and lake herring will
return for several weeks to feed, then
again disperse (Duffy and Liston 1981).
Sea lamprey. The sea lamprey is one of
many accidentally introduced species now
thriving in the Great Lakes. However,
unlike other species, sea lamprey are
parasitic on and predators of other large
fishes. Sea lamprey are anadromous and in
spring move up rivers or streams until
locating gravel or rubble substrate in
which to spawn (Applegate 1950). After
hatching, their ammocoetes burrow out of
the nest and drift downstream, settling in
soft silt or mud substrates where they
burrow in tail first and remain for a
variable period of time (Scott and
Crossman 1973). During the ammocoete
phase, sea lamprey are particle feeders
and only become parasitic/predaceous after
completing transformation to the adult
phase.
The introduction of sea lamprey to the
Great Lakes brought about massive changes
to the Indigenous fish community. Already
stressed by commercial fishing pressure,
lake trout were nearly extirpated by sea
lamprey predation (Lawrie 1978). Secondary
species also affected included lake white-
fish, lake herring, and other fisn large
enough to be preyed upon. Efforts to con-
trol sea lamprey in the Great Lakes began
in the 1940's and eventually led to the
development of the chemical lampricide
TFM, now widely used to treat streams
where ammocoetes are identified. The sea
lamprey problem also encouraged the forma-
tion of the International Oeat Lakes
Fishery Commission by the United States
and Canada.
Sea lamprey spawn in the St. Marys
River at the St. Marys Rapids, tributaries
to the river, and probably at lesser
rapids located below Lakes Nicolet and
George (Daugherty et al . 1984; Heinrich,
U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Marquette,
Michigan; pers. comm.). For sea lamprey
control purposes, the St. Marys River is
considered a tributary to Lake Huron. The
St. Marys River population of sea lamprey
is sizable, and 20% of the adults captured
from Lake Huron tributaries in 1983 were
taken at the St. Marys Rapids (Daugherty
et al. 1984). The adult population in the
river appears to have remained stable in
recent years. Catch of adult sea lamprey
in assessment traps at the rapids almost
doubled after 1981 (Table 38). However,
increased catches are the result of
changes in waterflow at sampling sites
(Whittle, Ontario Min. Nat. Resour.,
Burlington; pers. comm.).
Table 38. Number of adult sea lamprey
caught in assessment traps below the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers hydroelectric
generating plant at Sault Ste. Marie,
Michigan (Daugherty and Purvis 1985).
Year
Total number
1977
1,419
1978
1,148
1979
1,213
1980
1,995
1981
1,954
1982
3,848
1983
3,999
80
-------
Ammocoete populations also appear to be
expanding in the St. Marys River. Recent
surveys located 1,134 sea lamprey ammocoe-
tes in the river, with most of these col-
lected in the Lake Nicolet reach {Fig-
ure 42: Daugherty and Purvis 1985).
Unlike most streams used by sea lamprey
for spawning, the St. Marys River is large
and its considerable volume prevents
treatment with chemical lampricides.
Since this population is probably contrib-
uting significantly to the northern Lake
Huron population, recent recommendations
to the International Great Lakes Fishery
Commission have included exploring alter-
native methods of controlling sea lamprey
in larger rivers.
Amphibians and Reptiles
The amphibian and reptile communities
of the St. Marys River are rather depau-
perate and no studies specific to the
river have been published. The range of
29 species of amphibians and reptiles
encompasses the river and these are listed
in Table 39, Herdendorf et al. (1981)
ONTARIO
Lake George
20 km
St Joseph
Munuscong Lafce
Potaganmssing
A Bay
V • <&J3
LAKE HURON
Figure 42. Distribution of sea lamprey
ammocoetes in the St. Marys River
(Daugherty et al. 1984).
Table 39. Amphibians and reptiles observed and potentially occurring in the
St. Marys River and vicinity (Connant 1975; Duffy, unpubl. data).
Scientific name
Common name
TESTUDINES
Chelydridae
Chelydra serpentina
Emydidae
Clemmys insculpta
Chrysemys pi eta marginata
Chrysemys pi eta belli
SQUAMATA
Snapping turtle
Wood turtle
Midland painted turtle'
Western painted turtle
Colubridae
Nerodia sipedon sipedon
Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis
ThamnophTs sauritus septentrionalis
Storeria occipitomaculata
occlpi tomaculata
Storeri a dekayi dekayi
Diadophis punctatus edwardsi
Opheodrys vernal Is vernal is
Northern water snake
Eastern garter snake
Northern ribbon snake
Northern red-bellied^snake
Northern brown snake
Northern ringneck snake
Eastern smooth-green snake
(Continued)
81
-------
Table 39. (Concluded).
Scientific name
Common name
Lampropeltis triangulum triangulum
Vipendae
Sistrurus catenatus catenates
Eastern milk snake
Eastern massasauga
CAUDATA
Necturidae
Necurus maculosus
Salamanridae
Notophthalmus viridescens viridescens
Notophthalmus viridescens 1ouisianensis
Ambystomatidae
Ambystoma laterale
Ambystoma maculatiim
Plethodontidae
Plethodon cinereus cinereus
Hemidactyl turn scutatum
Mudpuppy3
Red-spotted newta
Central newt
Blue-spotted salamander
Spotted salamander
Red-backed sa"lamandera
Four-toed salamander
ANURA
Bufonidae
Bufo americanus
Hylidae
Hyla crucifer
Hyla versicolori - Hyla chrysoscelisa
Ramdae
Rana clami tans melanota
Rana catesbeiana
Rana pipiens
Rana palustris
Rana sptentrionalis
Rana sylvatica '
American toad
Northern spring peeper3
Gray tree frog
Green frog
Bull frog
Northern leopard froga
Pickeral frog
Mink frog
Wood froga
.Species identified from the immediate vicinity of the river.
Species whose northern edge of geographic range is at the southern edge of
the St. Marys River Basin.
listed 17 species *s probable inhabitants
of emergent wetlands along the river based
on records for Chippewa County, Michigan,
in Ruthven (1928). However, only 12
species have been positively identified
from the river.
Jefferson's salamander (Ambystoma jef-
fersonianum) was among the species Ruthven
(1928) recorded for Chippewa County.
ever, this record is in question because
the northern range limit of Jefferson's
salamander is now considered to extend
from middle New York State to northern
Indiana (Conant 1975), far south of the
St. Marys River area.
Birds
The St. Marys River and surrounding
area support a rich community of birds.
Of the 172 known species of the area
(Table 40), waterfowl, colonial water-
birds, shorebirds, some raptors, and pas-
serine birds are intimately associated
with the river. Others are associated
82
-------
Table 40. Birds observed in the vicinity of the St. Marys River (Duffy
unpubl, data; Weise unpubl. data).
Scientific name
Common name
GAVIIFORMES
Gaviidae
Gavia immer
PODICIPEDIFORMES
Common loon
Podicipedidae
Podilymbus podi ceps
"Podiceps a'uritus
PELECANIFORMES
Pied-billed grebe
Horned grebe
Phalacrocoracidae
Phalacrocorax auritus
Double-crested cormorant
CICONIFORMES
Ardeidae
Ixobrychus exifis
Ardea herodias
Butorides striatus
nosus
American bittern
Least bittern
Great blue heron
Green-backed heron
ANSERIFORMES
Anatidae
Cygnus columbianus
Anser albifrons
Chen caerulescens
Branta bernicla
Branta canadensis
Aix sponsa
Anas crecca
Anas discors
Anas rubripes
Anas platyrhynchos
Anas acuta
pei
Aythya~vaii si neria
Aythya americana
Aythya collaris"
Aythya marila
Aythya affim's
mstrionicus histrionicus
Clangula hyemalis
Melanitta fusca
Melanitta nigra
Bucepnala" albeola
Bacepnala" clangula
Tundra (whistling) swan
Greater white-fronted goose
Snow goose
Brant
Canada goose
Hood duck
Green-winged teal
Blue-winged teal
American black duck
Mallard
Northern pintail
Gadwall
Canvasback
Redhead
Ring-necked duck
Greater scaup
Lesser scaup
Harlequin duck
Oldsquaw
White-winged scoter
Black scoter
Buffiehead
Common goldeneye
(Continued)
83
-------
Table 40. (Continued).
Scientific name
Mareca americana
ITophodytes cucullatus
Mergus merganser
Mergus serrator
FALC0NIF0RMES
Cathartidae
Cathartes aura
Accipitridae
Pandion haliaetus
Haliaeetus leucocephalus
Circus c.yaneus
Ttccipiter strTatus
Accl piter cooperii"
Accipiter gentilis
Buteo lineatus
Buteo platypterus
Buteo .iamaicensis
Buteo lagopus
Falconidae
Falco sparverius
Falco columbarius
Falco peregrinuT"
Falco rusticolus
GALLIFORMES
Phasianidae
Dendragapus canadensis
Bonasa utnSelTus
Tympanuchus phasianellus
Meleagris gallopavo
GRUIFORMES
Rallidae
Rail us limicola
Porzana~carolina
Gallinula chloropus
Fulica americana
GruitTae
Grus canadensis tabida
CHARADRIIFORMES
Charadriidae
Pluvialis squatarola
PIuvial T? domini ca
Common name
American wigeon
Hooded merganser
Common merganser
Red-breasted merganser
Turkey vulture
Osprey
Bald eagle
Northern harrier
Sharp-shinned hawk
Cooper's hawk
Northern goshawk
Red-shouldered hawk
Broad-winged hawk
Red-tailed hawk
Rough-legged hawk
American kestrel
Merlin
Peregrine falcon
Gyrfalcon
Spruce grouse
Ruffed grouse
Sharp-tailed grouse
Wild turkey
Virginia rail
Sora (rail)
Common (gallinule) moorhen
American coot
Greater sandhill crane
Black-bellied plover
Lesser golden plover
(Continued)
84
-------
Tabte 40. (Continued).
Scientific name
Common name
Charadrius semipalmatus
Charadrius vociferns
Scolopacidae
Tringa melanoleuca
Tringa flavipes
Actitis macularia
Bartramia longicauda
Arenaria interpres
Cal idris. minutilla"
Calidris alpina
"5irninago~ganinago
Scolopax minor
Laridae
Larus Philadelphia
Larus delawarensis
Larus argentatus
Sterna caspia
Sterna hirtindo
"CTilidonias niger
COLUMBIFORMES
Semipalmated plover
Ki11 deer
Greater yellowlegs
Lesser yellowlegs
Spotted sandpiper
Upland plover
Ruddy turnstone
Least sandpiper
Dunlin
Common snipe
American woodcock
Bonaparte's gull
Ring-billed gull
Herring gull
Caspian tern
Common tern
Black tern
Columbidae
Columba 1i v i a
Zenaida macroura
Rock dove
Mourning dove
CUCULIFORMES
Cuculidae
Coccyzus erythropthalmus
STRIGIFORMES
Strigidae
Otas asio
Bubo virginianus
"Ryctea scandlaca
Athene cunicularia
Strix varia
Strix nebulosa
Asio flammeus
^egolius acadicus
CAPRIMULGIFORMES
Black-billed cuckoo
Eastern screech owl
Great horned owl
Snowy owl
Burrowing owl
Barred owl
Great gray owl
Short-eared owl
Northern saw-whet owl
Caprimulgidae
Chordelles minor
Caprimulgus~vocTferus
Common nighthawk
Mhip-poor-wi11
(Continued)
86
-------
Table 40. (Continued).
Scientific name Common name
AP0DIF0RMES
Apodidae
Chaetura pelagica
Trochilidae
Archilochus colubris
TROGONIFORMES
Alcedinidae
Ceryle alcyon
PICIFORMES
Chimney swift
Ruby-throated hummingbird
Belted kingfisher
Pi cidae
Sphyrapicus varius
Picoides pubescens
Picoides villosus~
Colaptes auratus
Dryocopus pileatus
PASSERIFORMES
Yellow-bellied sapsucker
Downy woodpecker
Hairy woodpecker
Northern flicker
Pileated woodpecker
Tyrannidae
Contopus boreali s
Empidonax minimus
Savornis"phoebe
Myiarchus crinTtus
Tyrannus tyrannus
Contopus virens
Alaudidae
Eremophila alpestri s
Hirundinidae
Progne subi s
Tachycineta bicolor
Riparia rTparia
Hirundo pyrrhonota
Hirundo rustica
Stelgidopteryx ruficollis
Corvidae
Perisoreus canadensis
Cyanocltta cristata
Corvus brachyrhynchos
Corvus corax
Paridae
Parus atrlcapillus
Parus hudsonicus
Parus bicolor
Olive-sided flycatcher
Least flycatcher
Eastern phoebe
Great crested flycatcher
Eastern kingbird
Wood p.ewee
Horned lark
Purple martin
Tree swallow
Bank swallow
Cliff swallow
Barn swallow
Rough-winged swallow
Gray jay
Blue jay
American crow
Common raven
Black-capped chickadee
Boreal chickadee
Tufted titmouse
(Continued)
86
-------
Table 40. (Continued).
Scientific name
Sittidae
Sitta canadensis
Sitta carol inelisi s
Certhiidae
Certhia ameri cana
Troglodytidae
Troglodytes aedon
Troglodytes troglodytes
Ci stothorus platensis
Ci stothorus Palustris
Muscicapidae
Regulus satrapa
Regulus calendula
Si a 1 i a s i a 1 is
Catharus fuscescens
Catharus ustulatus~
Hylocichla mustelina
Turdus migratorius
Mimidae
Duroetella carolinensis
Toxostoma rufum
Bombyci11i dae
Bombyci11a cedrorum
Laniidae
Lanius excubitor
Lani us ludovicianus
Sturnidae
Sturnus vulgari s
Vireuniaae
Vireo philadelphicus
Vireo olivaceus
Vi reo gilvus
Vireo solitarius
Emberizidae
Vermivora perigri na
Vermivora ruficapiTla
Dendroica petechia
Dendroica pensylvanica
Dendroica tigrina
DendroicT palmarum
Dendroica mgrescens
Dendroica virens
Dendroi ca dominica
Dendroica magnolia
Dendroica coronata
Dendroi ca castanea
Dendroica fusca
Oporonis Philadelphia
Mniotilta vana
Common name
Red-breasted nuthatch
White-breasted nuthatch
Brown creeper
House wren
Winter wren
Sedge wren
Marsh wren
Golden-crowned kinglet
Ruby-crowned kinglet
Eastern bluebird
Veery
Swainson's thrush
Wood thrush
American robin
Gray catbird
Brown thrasher
Cedar waxwing
Northern shrike
Loggerhead shrike
European starling
Philadelphia vireo
Red-eyed vireo
Warbling vireo
Solitary vireo
Tennessee warbler
Nashville warbler
Yellow warbler
Chestnut-sided warbler
Cape May warbler
Palm warbler
Black-throated blue warbler
Black-throated green warbler
Yellow-throated warbler
Magnolia warbler
Yellow-rumped warbler
Bay-breasted warbler
Blackburnian warbler
Morning warbler
Black-and-white warbler
(Continued)
87
-------
Table 40. (Concluded)
Scientific name
Motaci11a rutici1 la
Piranga oli vacea
PheuctTcus ludovicianus
Passerina cyanea
Spizella passerina
Spizella pallida
Passerculus sandwichensis
Passerella iliaca
Melospiza melodia
Melospi za georgi ana
Zonotrichia leucophrys
Jurico hyemalis
Calcarius lapponicus
Plectrophenax nivalis
Dolichonyx oryzivorus
Agelaiur~phoeniceus
Euphagus carolinus
Euphagus cyanocephalus
Quiscalus quiscula
Molothrus ater
Fringillidae
Pinlcola enucleator
Coccothraustes vespertinus
Carpodacus purpureus
Loxla curvirostra
Carduells flammea
Carduelis pinus
Carduelj"? tri s ti s
Passeridae
Passer domesticus
Common name
American redstart
Scarlet tanager
Rose-breasted grosbeak
Indigo bunting
Chipping sparrow
Clay-colored sparrow
Savannah sparrow
Fox sparrow
Song sparrow
Swamp sparrow
White-crowned sparrow
Dark-eyed junco
Lapland longspur
Snow bunting
Bobolink
Red-winged, blackbird
Rusty blackbird
Brewer's blackbird
Common grackle
Brown-headed cowbird
Pine grosbeak
Evening grosbeak
Purple finch
Red crossbill
Common redpoll
Pine siskin
American goldfinch
House sparrow
with riparian areas along or upland habi-
tats adjacent to the river, while still
other species are temporary inhabitants
during spring and fall migration.
Waterfowl¦ Waterfowl use the St. Marys
River for breeding an.d rearing young.
Both ducks and geese migrate through the
area to and from breeding areas further
north 1n spring and (Figures 43-45).
Ducks and geese first arrive in spring,
usually during late March or early April.
Robinson and Jensen (1980) reported that
mallards (Anas pi atyrhynchos) began
returning to the river and 26 March
1n two consecutive years, cornmon niergan-
sers (Mergus merganser) also returned in
late March, and black ducks (Anas
rubripes) arrived slightly later in early
April. Before initiating nesting, both
ducks and geese feed in the nearby flooded
grain fields and extensive wetlands bor-
dering the river. Important Canada geese
(Branta canadensis) feeding areas are
located on western St. Joseph Island and
east of Lake George (Ont. Min. Nat.
Resour. 1985). Both dabbling ducks and
geese concentrate in grain fields west of
Munuscong Lake at this time (Duffy, pers.
observ.).
Nesting on the river and 1n lakes
throughout the region begins about 1 month
88
-------
using a corridor
I I 101.000-350,000
31.000-100,000
200 km
Figure 43. Major migration corridors for dabbling ducks
through the Great Lakes region (Bellrose 1968).
Estimated number
using a corridor
I I 251,000-500.000
76.000-250,000
777A 26,000- 75,000
Figure 44. Major migration corridors for diving ducks through
the Great Lake region (Bellrose 1968).
89
-------
Estimated number
using a corridor
Figure 45. Major migration corridors for geese through the
Great Lake region (Bellrose 1968).
after arrival, and initial broods appear
in early June (Table 41). Concentrations
of breeding waterfowl in the river's
fringing marshes appear to be similar to
concentrations in inland wetlands in the
general region. During a 20-year period,
Weise (1985) found density of breeding
pairs of ducks averaged 8.9/km2 in
Munuscong Lake marshes (Figure 46). These
pairs produced an average of 8.4 ducklings
per brood during the 20-year period (Weise
1985). In a 100 km2 area of boreal forest
bordering the northeast edge of the river,
density of breeding pairs of ducks aver-
aged from 5.3 to 9.4/km in 1980 (McNicol
and Ross 1982). McNicol and Ross (1982)
found the average mortality of ducklings
through age class III" that is, from
hatching to just before flight
capability—ranged from 49%-78S among
species. Sources of mortality, however,
were not identified.
Species of ducks nesting in Munuscong
Lake marshes were common goldeneye
(Bucephala clangula), mallard, blue-winqed
teal (Anas discors), and black duck (Weise
1985). American wigeon (Mareca americana)
and common mergansers were uncommon in the
Munuscong Lake marsh, but common mergan-
sers do nest and are abundant in other
areas of the river. Other waterfowl
commonly nesting in the emergent wetlands
bordering the river include American coots
(Fulica americana) and Canada geese, plus
occasional northern pintails (Anas acuta)
and common loons (Gavia immer). Many of
these species use the marshes well into
fall at which time they are joined by spe-
cies such as ring-necked ducks (Aythya
collaris) staginq for southward miqratlon
(Table 42).
Fall migration from the river begins
with the departure of blue- and green-
winged teal (Anas crecca) in September,
followed by most dabbling ducks in
October. Diving ducks begin to move
through the area in October, and by late
October or early November the river is
90
-------
Table 41. Mean dates of nest initiation and initial
signtings of Class IA duck broods in boreal lakes on the
northern edge of the St. Marys River (McNicol and Ross
1982). In class IA broods, young are down-covered and
1-7 days old.
Species
Mean nest
initiation date
Mean date of
initial class IA
brood siting
Common goldeneye
Hooded merganser
Common merganser
Ring-necked duck
Mallard/Black duck
1 May
20 April
4 May
8 June
unknown
15 June
11 June
25 June
14 July
10 June
Duck broods
Ducks
Figure 46. Number of duck broods and
ducks in Munuscong lake waterfowl manage-
ment area, 1950-69 (Weise, Michigan
Department of Natural Resources, unpubl.
data).
host primarily to scaup (Aythya affinis
and marila) and redhead (A. americana;
Table 43; Ceolin 1980; Wei si 1985a).
Several areas on the river are heavily
used by rafting scaup, redhead, and other
waterfowl (Figure 47).
Recovery of waterfowl banded in the
St. Marys River indicates that most
migrate from the river to the east or
southeast United States (Figure 48A-D).
The greatest number of mallard and black
ducks are recovered from Michigan and
Ontario, but both tend to radiate away
from the river in a southern and eastern
direction (Figure 48A, B). Teal appear to
move in a more south-southwest direction,
while greater and lesser scaup migrate to
the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coasts
(Figure 48C, D).
The most common species of waterfowl
present in the St. Marys River during
winter are common goldeneye, common mer-
ganser, and mallards (Figure 49; Robinson
and Jensen 1980). Overwintering black
ducks were also present in low numbers
during the winters of 1978-79 and 1979-80
(Table 44). Additional species using the
river during winter were bufflehead
(Bucephala albeola), harlequin ducks
(HistrionTcus histrionicus), and wood
ducks (Aix sponsa) but each species was
represented by fewer than 10 individuals
(Robinson and Jensen 1980). Canada geese
were observed in low numbers through the
91
-------
Table 42. Number of species of waterfowl using the Munuscong Lake
Waterfowl Management Area during October and November of 1982
through 1984 as determined from aerial surveys (Weise 1985a).
1982 1983 1984
Species Oct. Nov. Oct. Nov. Nov.
Wood duck
50
10
4
Ma Hard
500
108
25
9
Black duck
125
20
7
Blue-winged teal
35
Ring-necked duck
994
3,700
140
51
Bufflehead
100
67
50
18
Common goldeneye
10
4
Hooded merganser
10
3
Canada goose
250
27
8
4
Others3
81
Number of survey flights
2
1
1
1
a0ther species recorded in November 1982 include gadwall, black
duck, pintail, and hooded merganser.
winter of 1978-79 and increased to between
50 and 80 birds in spring, but were not
recorded on the river during the winter of
1979-80 (Jensen 1980; Robinson and Jensen
1980).
Several areas of water which remain
open throughout winter were found to be
important to wintering waterfowl. These
included (1) the rapids area, (2) an area
along the Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, shore
below the rapids, extending 3-5 km either
side of Bellevue Park, and (3) the outflow
area of Edison Sault Electric Company's
hydroelectric plant. Mallards, black
ducks, and Canada geese used the area
along the Ontario shore, while common
goldeneye and common mergansers used the
rapids, hydroelectric plant outflow, and
any open water areas which appeared in the
channel north of Sugar Island (Robinson
and Jensen 1980). Other open water areas
which exist in the river during winter are
the "rock cut," where swift water currents
maintain an open channel » and De Tour
Passage. Neither of these sites was
heavily used by waterfowl during the
winters that Robinson and Jensen (1980)
surveyed the river.
Wintering waterfowl apparently select
their sites based primarily on open water
and secondarily on food availability
(Jensen 1980; Robinson and Jensen 1980).
Mallards, black ducks, and Canada geese
congregated around Bellevue Park where
they were fed corn by people visiting the
park. Common mergansers and common gold-
eneye used the hydroelectric outflow for
roosting and the rapids area for feeding.
Colonial waterbirds and shorebirds.
The many islands of the St. Marys River
are extensively used by colonial water-
birds and shorebirds. Colonial waterbirds
nest on these islands and feed in either
open-water areas of the river or its
marshes.
The most common colonial waterbirds
associated with the river are ring-billed
gulls (Larus delawarensis) and common
terns (Sterna hirundo; " Table 45).
Population trends of these species and
other colonial waterbirds 1n the St. Marys
River have been shifting 1n recent years
primarily because of rising water levels
in the Great Lakes (brought about by
increased precipitation) and cooler
92
-------
Table 43. Number and species of waterfowl using the St. Marys River during
November from 1979 through 1984 as determined from aerial surveys (Weise
1985a).
Year
Common name
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
American wigeon
75a
25
25
Gadwall
75a
Mallard
100a
100
765
Black duck
-------
WHITEFISH
Dabbling duo
Scaup
MICHIGAN
Ringneck ducks
Canada geese )
Canada geese & /
ciabtJling ducks
Scaup &
LAKE HURON
Figure 47. Areas of waterfowl concentra-
tion in the St. Marys River during fall
and spring. Concentrations of Canada
geese and dabbling ducks inland are during
spring; all others are full concentrations
(Weise, unpubl. MS.; E. Thomas, Ontario
Ministry of Natural Resources unpubl.
data).
summers which have reduced evaporation
(Table 46; Scharf 1981; Scharf and Shugart
1985). Common terns, once more common,
have been declining in numbers throughout
the Great Lakes while ring-billed gull
populations have increased. Scharf (1981)
found this trend to be intensified in
parts of the St. Marys River where ship-
ping traffic accelerates the erosion of
dredged material islands used by colonial
waterbirds for nesting. As erosion and
increasing water levels decrease the
amount of habitat available to colonial
waterbirds, the larger, earlier nesting
ring-billed gulls displace common terns
and other smaller species from nesting
sites (Scharf 1977, 1978, 1981; Scharf and
Shugart 1985).
Double-crested cormorants (Phalacroco-
rax auritus) are also increasing in num-
bers in the Upper Great Lakes, with this
population now in the logarithmic phase of
growth (Scharf and Shugart 1985). The
success of double-crested cormorants is
attributed to an abundant food supply,
declines in chlorinated hydrocarb0n pol1u_
tion, and possibly protected nesting
sites. In the St. Marys River, double-
crested cormorants nest only in the upper
river, although they may feed in other
areas.
Two colonial waterbirds associated with
marshes of the river are ^1 ue herons
(Ardea herodi as) and black terns
(Chiidoni as ni ger). Great blue herons
nest in trees on islands within the river
from Lake George south to P°tagannissing
Bay (Figure 50) and feed in marshes on
small fishes and amphibians. Black terns
nest on rafts of dead emergent macrophytes
within the river's emergent wetlands and
feed in shallow-water areas of these
marshes as well as in more open areas.
Populations of both appear to be stable,
but rising water levels are expected to
have a negative effect on black terns by
decreasing marsh-nesting habitat (Scharf
1978). Of the other colonial waterbirds,
herring gulls are common throughout the
river, while black-crowned night-herons
(Nycticorax nycticorax) nest only at the
mouth of the river.
Nesting success of colonial waterbirds
is generally high. Scharf (1977) found
that the percentage of eggs hatching among
various species was generally in the 80%-
90% range, the exception being those birds
nesting on eroding islands. On these
islands birds may be forced to select less
favorable nesting sites, exposing their
eggs and young to predators, or they may
lose eggs to wave action (Scharf 1977).
More recent work on common terns agrees
with Scharf's results (Smith and Heinz
1984). Smith and Heinz (1984) found
greatest nesting success on Raber Island,
where 53 nests produced an average of
2.2 terns per nest, and Steamboat Island,
which produced an average of 0.43 young
per nest among 19 nests. Lime Island sup-
ported 209 nests, but no young terns were
produced. High water levels and waves
produced by ship traffic, along with
natural wave action, are thought to be the
reason for nest failure on Lime Island
since no deformities were found in either
chicks or embryos of St. Marys River com-
mon terns (Smith and Heinz 1984; T.J.
Miller, U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv.,
Minneapolis, Minnesota, pers. comm.)*
94
-------
black duck
mallard
33
other ducks
scaup
Figure 48. Recovery patterns of mallards, black ducks, scaup, and other ducks banded
In the St. Marys River during 1963-78, showing number of ducks recaptured 1n each
State or region (Welse, unpubl. MS.)
95
-------
1979
Mallards and black ducks
Table 44. Waterfowl observed and maximum
numbers recorded in the St. Marys Rjver
during January through April , 1979 an
-------
Table 46. Estimated size of St. Marys
River populations of common colonial
waterbirds in 1976 and 1977 {Scharf 1978).
Year
Common name
1976
1977
Herring gull
1,690
1,650
Ring-billed gull
5,568
7,866
Common tern
434
379
Greet blue heron
143
142
Mo quantitative information exists
for shorebirds in the St. Marys River.
However, increases in nesting sites
indicate that greater sandhill cranes
(Grus canadensis tabia) may have
increased fn numbers during recent years
(Duffy, pers. observ.). Greater sandhill
cranes nest and feed in wetlands along
both the Michigan and Ontario shores of
the river. They also use more inland
areas on St. Joseph Island, Ontario,
and open fields in Chippewa County,
Mi chigan.
common tern
sandhill crane
JL r-»—.
" V£.9^1
great blue heron
herring & ring-billed gulls
m
Figure 50. Nesting sites of colonial waterbirds in the St. Marys River area (Scharf
1978).
-------
Another shorebird of interest is the
piping plover (Charadrius melodus), a spe-
cies recently placed on the Federal list
of endangered species. Though it does not
nest in the St. Marys River, one of the
piping plover's few remaining nesting
sites is located at nearby Vermilion
Point, Lake Superior.
Raptors. The variety of habitat types
associated with the St. Marys River
attracts a number of raptors to this area
as either seasonal or year-round residents
or migrants (Table 40). Among the more
conspicuous are northern bald eagles
(Haliaeetus leucocephalus), osprey
(Pandion haliaetus), snowy owl s ( Nyctea
scandiaca), and great gray owis (Strix
nebulosaTT Rare species recorded from the
vicinity of the river include the gyrfal-
con (Falco rusticolus), peregrine falcon
(F. peregrinus), and burrowing owl (Athene
cunicularia). Some quantitative
i nformation exists for northern bald
eagles and ospreys and for raptors using
the river during winter months (Robinson
and Jensen 1980; Weise 1985).
Northern bald eagles presently nest in
two locations on Sugar Island (Weise
1985a) and the number of nests has
remarned stable over the^ past 13 years
(Table 47). However, it is not known if
the same nest sites have been used over
this period or if the same pairs of eagles
have been nesting. Nesting failure, com-
mon in the 1970's, declined in the 1980's,
and 7 eaglets were produced during the
1981-85 period (Table 47).
Pairs of osprey nesting on the river
increased dramatically between 1977 and
1982 and. now appear to have stabilized at
15 or 16 nests (Table 47). As with north-
ern bald eagles, the , number of young
osprey produced along the river showed a
marked increase beginning in 1981. Adult
osprey are commonly sighted along the
river where they nest on navigational aids
and hunt for fish in shallower water or at
the surface in deeper water. Visual
inspection of fish remains under nests
revealed a high proportion of white sucker
in summer and pink salmon in fall (Duffy,
pers. observ.). Both osprey and northern
bald eagle are listed as threatened spe-
cies in Michigan; northern bald eagle is
also listed as a threatened species by the
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Mich. DNR
1984; U.S. Fish Wild!. Serv. 1986).
Other common raptors associated with
the river include barred owls (Strix
Table 47- Number of active and failed northern bald eagle and osprey nests
and young of each produced from the St. Marys River from 1973 through 1985
(Wei se 1985a).
Year
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
Active
nests
1
0
5
4
4
6
9
10
12
15
15
16
15
Osprey
"Failed
nests
Total
young
0
2
0
0
3
7
3
1
2
4
3
6
4
8
5
5
4
15
2
23
4
21
6
17
n .d.
n.d.
Active
nests
Northern bald eagle
Failed
0
2
2
2
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
2
nests
0
0
2
1
1
1
1
2
0
1
0
0
0
Total
young
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
2
0
2
1
2
98
-------
varia), northern harrier (Cireus cyaneus),
broad-winged hawks (Buteo piatypterus),
and American kestrels (Falco sparverius).
Northern harriers are common in wetlands
and fields along the river's edge where
they nest and feed. American kestrels are
also common over fields and may often be
seen perching on utility lines along road-
ways. These species are replaced by
broad-winged hawks and barred owls in the
spruce and hardwoods along the river and
upland forests further back from the
river's edge.
Seven species of raptors were found to
inhabit the St. Marys River and its imme-
diate vicinity during winter (Table 48;
Jensen 1980; Robinson and Jensen 1980).
Among these, northern bald eagles were
most dependent on the river. Robinson and
Jensen (1980) report that northern bald
eagles and snowy owls were the only rap-
tors consistently sighted in winter,
though they noted that other observers had
reported from three to six great gray owls
in the area. During the winter of 1978-79
five great gray owls inhabited Neebish
Island and several more were observed in
separate locations within the Dunbar
Forest adjacent to this island (Duffy,
pers. observ.). Variable numbers of great
gray owls continued to return to this area
in winter through 1981.
Table 48. Number of raptors observed
along the St. Marys River during January
through April, 1979 and 1980 (Robinson and
Jensen 1980).
Year
Common name
1979
1980
Northern bald eagle
2
2
Goshawk
1
0
Rough-legged hawk
5
5
Red-tailed hawk
1
2
Gyrfalcon
1
0
Snowy owl
5
5
Great gray owla
3-6
<4
aNumber of great gray owls based on per-
sonal observations by Duffy.
Robinson and Jensen (1980) noted that a
pair of bald eagles frequented the area
around Sault Ste. Marie during the winters
of 1977-78 and 1978-79 (Figure 51). They
also sighted eagles at the south end of
Sugar Island, but could not be certain if
these were the same individuals frequent-
ing Sault Ste. Marie or if those at Sault
Ste. Marie were the same pair each winter
since none were marked. Since their work,
a second nest has been identified on Sugar
Island, suggesting two pairs of northern
bald eagles may winter in the area. Based
on sighting, feeding observations, the
distribution of open water, and previous
studies, Robinson and Jensen (1980)
estimated that the northern bald eagle's
winter home range encompassed the Sugar
Island area (Figure 52). Winter food con-
sisted primarily of fish and waterfowl,
but eagles appeared to be opportunis-
tically feeding on other birds and carrion
as wel1.
Passerine birds. Passerine birds are
far more diverse than are the groups pre-
viously discussed. However, other than
observational records, no information
exists specific to passerine birds and
ONTARIO
Sugar Island
MICHIGAN
Resting
areas
Feeding
sites
Figure 51. Areas of the St. Marys River
used by northern bald eagles for nesting
and feeding during winter, 1979 and 1980
(Robinson and Jensen 1980).
99
-------
the n *ter s edge to alder thickets several
hundred meters back from the river.
ONTARIO
Estimated winter home range
Sugar
Island
Neebish Island
20 km
Figure 52. Estimated winter home range of
northern bald eagle pair inhabiting the
Sault Ste. Marie area {Robinson and Jensen
1980).
their use of the St. Marys River. In lieu
of quantitative information, observational
records from the river basin will be sup-
plemented with data from the boreal region
further north in Ontario.
Passerine birds most closely associated
with the St. Marys River include red-
winged blackbirds (Agelaius phoeniceus).
swamp sparrows (Melospiza georgiana), and
tree (Tachycineta bicolor), bank (Riparia
riparia), cliff (Hirundo pyrrhonota) and
barn TB* rustica) swallows. Red-winged
blackbirds nest at the waters edge,
usually shoreward of emergent wetlands
along the river. These birds rely heavily
on emergent wetlands for their food, which
consists of insects associated with these
wetlands. in the St. Marys River, red-
winged blackbirds have been observed
walking over floating windrows of Scirpus
eating damselfly nymphs (Duffy, pers.
observ.5. Red-winged blackbirds also feed
on emerging damselflies and other aquatic
insects (Duffy 1985). Swamp sparrows also
feed along the waters edge and nest from
Over the open water, the most common
passerine bird on the St. Marys River is
the tree swallow. This species nests in
tree holes or cavities in riparian forests
and feeds on a variety of insects. On the
St. Marys River they appear to feed
heavily on emerging chironomids, but
quantitative data are lacking. Bank
swallows nest where earthen banks provide
suitable nesting habitat, such as banks
along the Charlotte River, a tributary to
the St. Marys River. Cliff swallows nest
urder the eaves of buildings adjacent to
the river, and barn swallows nest in barns
or other old buildings. Jhe iast three
swallows all feed on insects over oDen
fields and wetlands bordering the river
and over open water as well.
In addition to the species mentioned, a
variety of passerine birds are typical
inhabitants of wetlands in the boreal
region, which begins around the St. Marys
River (Table 49). The richest wetland
habitat for birds in the boreal region is
riparian habitat which supports a number
of species and, collectively, densities of
around 300 breeding pairs/km2 (Erskine
1977). Bogs, while containing a number of
species, typically support much lower
densities of breeding birds.
k diverse passerine bird community
inhabits upland forests in the boreal
region (Table 50) and most of these
species have been recorded from the
St. Marys River area (Weise 1985; Duffy
pers. observ.). Factors contributing to
this diversity are age, type, and variety
of forest vegetation and food resources
(Erskine 1977; Welsh 1981). Welsh (1981)
found that forest age was a major
determinant in passerine bird community
composition (Figure 53). Erskine (1977)
reported the greatest diversity was often
associated with more diverse forest cover,
but density was more often related to
food and in particular insects. For
example, spruce forests with spruce
budworm (Choristoneura fumi ferna)
infestations typically support almost
500 breeding pairs/km2 while noninfested
spruce forests contained from 370-
394 pairs/km2.
100
-------
Table 49. Characteristic birds of wetland habitats in the
boreal region (Erskine 1977).
Habitat
Common name Bog Fen Riparian
Marsh hawk
X
Sandhill crane
X
Woodcock
X
Lesser yell owlegs
X
X
Yellow-bellied sapsucker
X
Eastern kingbird
X
Eastern wood pewee
X
Olive-sided flycatcher
X
Alder flycatcher
X
Tree swallow
X
Gray (Canada) jay
X
Hermi t thrush
X
Swainson's thrush
X
Northern water thrush
X
Ruby-crowned kinglet
X
Parula warbler
X
Mourning warbler
X
Canada warbler
X
Yellow warbler
X
Magnolia warbler
X
Myrtle warbler
X
Blackpoll warbler
X
Palm warbler
X
Veer y
X
Solitary vireo
X
Common yellowthroat
X
American redstart
X
Purple finch
X
Northern junco
X
White-throated sparrow
X
Lincoln's sparrow
X
Swamp sparrow
X
Song sparrow
X
American robin
X
Mammals
The mammalian fauna of the St. Marys
River area reflects the region's
transitional position at the northern edge
of the Great Lakes hardwood and southern
edge of the boreal forests. The mammals
recorded from the river and its immediate
vicinity may be classified into two
groups: those whose range extends across
the Great Lakes region and others whose
range stops in this region. Furthermore,
the St. Marys River acts as a "filter-
bridge" between southwestern, northwest-
ern, and eastern Appalachian faunal
elements (Pruitt 1951). In all,
56 species of mammals have been recorded
from the area as well as 3 species
formerly occupying the region, but now
extirpated. Forty-six are considered here
as small mammals and nine are large
mammals (Table 51).
101
-------
Table 50. Characteristic birds of upland habitats in boreal forests (Erskine
1977).
Common name
Habitat
nrrTir"""" HemTock-" Red7~white, Poplar-
spruce rir Pine mix p1tch pine b1rch
x
X
Chipping sparrow x
White-throated sparrow x x x
Red-breasted nuthatch x x®
Solitary vireo x x
Red-eyed vireo x
Purple finch x
Rose-breasted grosbeak
Brown-headed cowbird
American robin
Ruffed grouse
Spruce grouse x
Northern three-toed woodpecker x x
Yellow-bellied sapsucker
Yellow-bellied flycatcher x x
Blue jay x
Gray (Canada) jay x
Black-capped chickadee
Boreal chickadee x x
Brown creeper x x
Winter wren x x
Swainson's thrush x x x
Golden-crowned kinglet x x
Ruby-crowned kinglet x x *
Least flycatcher
Nashville warbler x x
Magnolia warbler x x x
Myrtle warbler x x
Tennessee warbler x a
Black-throated green warbler x x
Black-throated blue warbler
Blackburnian warbler x x x
Black-and-white warbler x
Bay-breasted warbler x
Canada warbler
Parula warbler x
Pine warbler a x
Ovenbird x x
Veery
American redstart x
Slate-colored junco x x
x
x
xxx
x
x
*ln hemlock alone; others in hemlock mixed with spruce, fir, or pine.
102
-------
Chestnut-sided warbler
Ovenbird
10 13 17 20 23 26 38 50 75 100 200 300
10 13 17 20 23 26 38 50 75 100 200 300
Canada warbler
Redstart
7 10 13 17 20 23 26 38 50 75 *00 200 300
Tree stand age {yr)
10 13 17 20 23 26 38 50 75 100 200 300
Tree stand age (yr)
Figure 53
function
Abundance of selected passerine birds illustrating occurrence as a
of forest age (Welsh 1981).
Small mammals. Small mammals most
closely associated with the St. Marys
River include beaver (Castor canadensis),
river otter (Lutra canadensis), muskrat
(Ondatra zibethica), mink (Mustela vison),
raccoon (Procyon " lotor), American water
shrew (Sorex palustris hydrobadistes), and
northern water shrew. Although quantita-
tive data are lacking, muskrat are perhaps
the most common, and the two species of
shrews may also be abundant. However,
beaver probably have the greatest influ-
ence on the river.
Beaver are anatomically, morphologi-
cally, and ethologically more specialized
for swimming than any other rodent (Hill
1982). Their size, large hind legs, wide
hind feet, flattened tail, type and loca-
tion of ears, eyes, and nose have enhanced
their survival in wetlands. They are
found throughout the river, its tributar-
ies, and surrounding wetlands. The pre-
ferred food of beaver is poplar and wil-
low; the succulent parts are eaten during
the warmer months and bark and cambrium
are eaten during the winter (Hill 1982).
Species not intimately associated with
the river include a variety of shrews,
mice, and voles as well as other small
mammals. In upland hardwoods red
(Tamiasciurus hudsonicus} and gray squir-
rels (Sciurus carolinensus), eastern chip-
munks (Tamius striatus), deer mice
(Peromyscus mani culatus), and shorttail
shrews (Blarina brevicauda) are common
(Manville 1949; Duffy, pers. observ.).
These species are replaced by red-backed
(Clethrionomys gapperi occidental is) ana
meadow voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus),
masked shrews (Sorex cinereus), snowshoe
hares (Lepus americanus), and deer mice in
spruce and cedar wetlands, while meadow
jumping mice (Zapus hudsonius) and mink
are characteristic of riparian habitats.
103
-------
Table 51. Mammals observed and potentialy occurring in the st. Marys
River and vicinity (ManviHe 1949, 1950, 1951; Pruitt 1951).
Scientific name Common name
INSECTIVORA
Talpidae
Parascalops breweri
Condylura cristata
Scalopus aquaticus
Soricidae
Sorex cinereus
Sorex fumeus
Sorex arcticus
Sorex palustri s
Sorex palustris hvdrobadi stes
Microsorex hoyi
Blarina brevicauda
Hairy-tailed mole
Star-nosed mole
Eastern mole
Masked shrew
Smoky shrew
Arctic shrew
Northern water shrew
American water shrew
Pygmy shrew
Shorttail shrew
CHIROPTERA
Vesperti1ioni dae
Myotis 1uci fugus
Myotis 1uci fugus leibi i
Myotis keem
Lasionycteris noctivagans
Eptiesicus fuscus
Lasiurus boreal is
Lasiurus cinereus
Little brown myotis
Small-footed bat
Keen myotis
Silver-haired bat
Big brown bat
Red bat
Hoary bat
CARNIVORA
Ursidae
Llrsus americanus
Procyonidae
Procyon lotor
Mustelidae
Martes americana
Martes pennanti
Mustela erimnea
Mustela frenata
Mustela rlxosa
Mustela son
Lutra canadensis
Taxidea taxus
MephftTs mephitis
Meph
Gulo
Tuscus
Camdae
Vulpes fulva
Urocvon cinereoargenteus
Can is Tatrans
£anTs lupus
Black bear
Raccoon
Marten
Fi sher
Shorttail weasel
Longtail weasel
Least weasel
Mink
River otter
Badger
Striped skunk
Wolverine (vanished)
Red fox, Cross fox
Gray fox
Coyote
Gray wolf
(Continued)
104
-------
Table 51. (Concluded).
Scientific name
Common name
CARNIVORA (continued)
Felidae
Lynx canadensi s
Lynx rufus
Felis concolor
Lynx
Bobcat
Mountain lion (vanished)
RODENTIA
Sciuridae
Marmota monax
Eutamias minimus
Tamias striatus
Tamiasciurus hudsonicus
Sciurus caroiinensis
Glaucomys sabrinus
Castoridae
Castor canadensis
Cricetidae
Peromyscus maniculatus
Synaptomys cooperi
Phenacomys intermedius
Microtus pennsylvanicus
Microtus chrotorrhinus
ClethTTonomys gapperi occidentalis
Ondatra zibethica
Muridae
Rattus norvegicus
Mus musculus
Zapodidae
Zapus hudsonius
Napaeozapus insignis
Erethizontidae
Erethizon dorsatum
LAGOMORPHA
Woodchuck
Least chipmunk
Eastern chipmunk
Red squirrel
Eastern gray squirrel
(Black squirrel)
Northern flying squirrel
Beaver
Deer mouse
Southern bog lemming
Heather vole
Meadow vole
Yellow-nose vole
Gapper's red-backed vole
Muskrat
Norway rat
House mouse
Meadow jumping mouse
Woodland jumping mouse
Porcupine
Leporidae
Lepus americanus
ARTIODACTYLA
Cervidae
Odocoileus virginianus
Alces alces
Ranglfer caribou
Snowshoe hare
White-tailed deer
Moose
Woodland caribou (vanished)
105
-------
The small mammal communities of islands
within the St. Marys River are similar to
the communities of the mainland, with some
exceptions (Manville 1950, 1951; Pruitt
1951). On Sugar Island, Pruitt (1949)
found the same fauna as in Chippewa
County, Michigan, except that bobcats
(Lynx rufus), gray squirrels, and raccoons
were absent on the island. Drummond
Island, which is separated from the main-
land by a wider expanse of water than
Sugar Island, contained nine fewer species
than Chippewa County (Manville 1950).
Pruitt (1951) noted that the river acted
as a barrier to the distribution of some
species, with the arctic shrew (Sorex
arcticus), and badger (Taxidea taxus)
restricted to the east and gray fox
(Urocyon cinereoargenteus), northern fly-
ing squirrel (G1aucomys" sabrinus), 13-
lined ground squirrel (Spermophilus
trideceml ineatus), and eastern cottontail
rabbit (Sylvilagus floridanus) restricted
to the west side. However, badger were
reported as occurring on the west side and
gray fox on Drummond Island by Manville
(1950) and badger have more recently been
observed in the Barbeau, Michigan, area
(Duffy, pers. observ.).
Large mammals. The distribution and
abundance o? large mammals in the
St. Marys River region characterize the
differences between the fauna of mixed
boreal forests of Ontario's Algoma
District and the northern Great Lakes
forest of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan.
Moose (A1 ces alces) are common on the
Ontario side of the river but uncommon on
the Michigan side. Gray wolves (Canis
lupus) and lynx (Lynx canadensis) also are
more common in Ontario than in Michigan.
In contrast, white-tailed deer (Odocoileus
virginianus) and bobcat are more common in
Michigan than Ontario, and black bear
(Ursus americanus), coyote (Canis
latrans), bobcat, and red fox (Vulpes
fulva) occur throughout the entire region
(Robinson and Fuller 1980). Three species
on;e found in the area have been extir-
pated: woodland caribou (Rangi fer
caribou), mountain lion (Felis concolor),
and wolverine (Gulo 1uscus). Woodland
caribou apparently inhabited the St. Marys
River region until as recently as the
early 1900's (Manville 1950) and still
inhabit boreal forests northeast of Lake
Superior around Wawa, Ontario.
The most common large mammals in the
St. Marys River region are white-tailed
deer, even though this species is not
abundant on the Ontario side of the river.
White-tailed deer were absent from this
area until around 1850 when they moved
into the area through Michigan, then
across the St. Marys River into Ontario
(Robinson and Fuller 1980). By the early
1900's, white-tailed deer were common
throughout the St. Marys River Basin
(Figure 54). White-tailed deer range and
population size continued to grow with the
expansion of logging through the early
20th century. Logging opened the forest
canopy and promoted the growth of forbs,
shrubs, and saplings, which provided
suitable forage for white-tailed deer
during this period. Since the 1940's,
however, forests have matured and both the
range and population size of white-tailed
deer have decreased.
In northern climates white-tailed deer
gather in "yards" during winter, where
:Woodland caribou
1940
1955
1975
Subsequent,
white-tailed
deer ranges
.Original
white-tailed
deer range,
1920
Figure 54. Changes in the white-tailed
deer distribution from 1920 to 1975 and
current caribou distribution (Smith and
Borczon 1977).
106
-------
suitable browse, typically white cedar, is
available; they disperse to summer ranges
in spring. Recent studies of white-tailed
deer using the St. Marys River estimated
that approximately 700 to 1,100 animals
wintered in a "deer yard" on Neebish
Island and fewer than 100 in another yard
northwest of Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario
(Robinson and Amacher 1982). Through
radio tracking studies Robinson and
Amacher (1982) determined that white-
tailed deer wintering on southern Neebish
Island dispersed to the remainder of this
island and to Sugar Island in spring. The
distribution of critical white cedar habi-
tats suggests white-tailed deer should be
even more abundant in the southern portion
of the river (Figure 55). Population
information for other portions of the
St. Marys River are unavailable. However,
Drummond Island has in the past been a
productive deer hunting area (see Chap-
ter 5). Observational records suggest the
white-tailed deer population of Chippewa
County, Michigan, has also remained
relatively stable during the past decade
(Table 52; Weise 1985b).
North and east of the river, moose
become more common than white-tailed deer.
Distribution of these two species is
related to habitat and forage preferences,
but also to disease. White-tailed deer
are commonly infested with a clinically
silent nematode (Parelaphostrongylus
tenuis) which causes moose disease (Coady
1982). When moose accidentally ingest the
intermediate host snails carrying infected
larvae, they develop a neurological dis-
order usually resulting in death. Because
of this, the two species co-occur only in
low densities.
An estimated 41 moose occur within
25 km of the St. Marys River (Robinson and
ONTARIO
WHITEFISH
BAY
Neebish Isl
MICHIGAN
20 km
SI Joseph
Isl
LAKE HURON
Figure 55. Distribution of white-tailed
deer winter yarding areas on island in the
St. Marys River and adjacent lands
(Robinson and Fuller 1980).
Table 52. Relative abundance of white-tailed deer in Chippewa County,
Michigan, during July through October of 1975 through 1983 {Weise 1985b).
Total number
Average no/100 hr
Percent
Year
observed
observation time
Male
Female
Fawn
Unidentified
1975
202
6.1
7.9
34.2
27.7
30.2
1976
329
11.6
9.4
31.9
22.4
36.1
1977
332
9.9
11.1
34.0
18.6
36.1
1978
188
6.2
3.3
34.0
22.3
40.4
1979
102
3.1
7.8
39.2
24.5
28.4
1980
115
5.5
7.8
30.4
14.8
47.8
1981
187
5.6
13.4
39.0
24.1
23.5
1982
122
4.0
14.0
37.0
25.4
23.7
1983
176
5.8
10.8
39.8
21.6
27.8
107
-------
Fuller 1980). Six of these were found in
Michigan, 12-15 on St. Josephs Island, and
the remainder on the Ontario mainland.
Distributional records indicate that the
river is an area of dispersion from higher
density areas in Ontario toward Michigan
(Figure 56). However, the population size
of moose on the Michigan side of the
St. Marys River has not increased appre-
ciably since Manville (1950) and Pruitt
(1951) surveyed mammals of the region.
Population density of timber or gray
wolves in boreal forests is positively
related to ungulate (deer and moose)
biomass (Figure 57; Keith 1981). However,
the presence of people influences wolf
population size through disturbance, hunt-
ing, and competition for food resources
(Robinson and Amacher 1982). These fac-
tors combine to limit the population of
timber wolves in the vicinity of the
St. Marys River relative to areas further
north and further east around Algonquin
ONTARIO
LAKE SUPERIOR
density
Individual sightings
20 km
MICHIGAN
LAKE HURON
Figure 56. Distribution of moose in the
Sault Ste. Marie District of Ontario and
the eastern Upper Peninsula of Michigan
(Robinson and Fuller 1980.
50 j
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10-|
5
0
0.05 (x) + 4.09; r = 0.95
0
200 400 600
Ungulate population biorflass index
800
Figure 57. Relationship of wolf densities
in seven stationary populations to the
total biomass of ungulates present (Keith
1981).
Provincial Park, Ontario (Kolenosky 1981).
Timber wolf population size in the vicin-
ity of the St. Marys River was estimated
by Robinson and Amacher (1982) to be
roughly 18 animals or one wolf/82-114 km2.
These wolves appeared to be associated
with 10 separate packs (Figure .58).
Packs VI, VII, and IX were most closely
associated with the St. Marys River and
frequented deer yards during winter, as
did pack X further to the east. Other
packs relied on either moose or garbage
dumps for winter food resources. The
proximity of winter deer yards in Michigan
to several wolf packs was suggested as a
mechanism which could draw wolves across
the river (Robinson and Amacher 1982).
One pair of wolves was tracked from a
point on southern St. Joseph Island,
across Potagannissing Bay and Drummond
Island, to Cockburn Island. However,
movement of wolves on the river during
winter was generally limited.
Other large mammals studied by Robinson
and Amacher (1982) were red fox, coyote,
bobcat, and lynx. Both coyote and red fox
were common and crossed the frozen river
more frequently than other large mammals
in winter (Fuller and Robinson 1982a).
Furthermore, movement of coyote and red
fox did not appear to be impeded by ship
although white-tailed
restricted following
winter (Fuller and
traffic through ice,
deer movement was
ship passages in
Robinson 1982b).
108
-------
K. i c)
II (3-5)
"1(2)/
ONTARIO
IV (5) . ••
V (2)
VI (3)
WHITEFISH
BAY
.VII (2)
X (?)
MICHIGAN
50 km
i i
VIII (5)
> IX <24)
LAKE HURON
Cockburn
Island
Figure 58. Gray wolf territories in the vicinity of the St. Marys
River. Pack number denoted by Roman numerals and approximate size
of pack by Arabic numerals (Robinson and Amacher 1982).
109
-------
CHAPTER 4. ECOLOGICAL RELATIONS
TEMPERATURE AND THE BIOTA
Primary Producers
The St. Marys River has annual water
temperature characteristics that are
unusual when compared to other North
American rivers at the same latitude and
continental climate. It lies in a cold
system in which rising springtime tempera-
ture and maximum summer temperature lag
about a month behind most rivers in the
temperate zone. In the fall of the year,
water in the river is warmer than in its
continental counterparts.
Temperature peculiarities of the
St. Marys River are inherited from heat-
exchange characteristics of water in Lake
Superior. Lake Superior water moves
rapidly down channels through the length
of the river, entraining off-channel water
as it goes. Except in backwaters remote
from channels, little time is available
for water in the river to exchange heat
y s 1.56 (X* °-®7; r = 0 96
»180
with the atmosphere, and water tempera-
tures in lower reaches differ only a few
deqrees from those at the head of the
river. Reproduction and growth of flora
and fauna populations are keyed to water
temperature. An example can be taken from
the growth of plants that provide food and
cover in nursery areas for fish in emer-
gent wetlands.
The effect of temperature on growth of
Scirous acutus and Sparganiurn eurycarpum
jfpthe shore~~zone of the St. Marys River
is illustrated in Figures 59 and 60.
Shoots of these two dominant plants, as
well as the secondary dominants Eleocharis
smallii Britton and Scirpus americanus,
orow from the base men stems on rootstocks
near the surface of the hydrosoils. In
Figures 59 and 60, shoot heights of emer-
gent plants are plotted as a function of
cumulative degree-days from germination in
the spring to maximum biomass later in the
qrowing season (Liston et al. 1986). A
degree-day (°d) was taken as °d = Tj - 7
100 zo° 300
Cumulative degree—day*
y = 3.34 (x) 0.6D;, = 0.99
7= 120
Figure 59. Relationship between mean
height of tallest shoots from two separate
stands of Scirpus acutus and temperature
as degree-days above the germination
threshold of 7 °C.
0.2 0.4 0.6
Cumulative degree—days (thousands)
Figure 60. Relationship between mean
height of tallest shoots for Sparganium
eurycarpum and temperature as degree-days
above the germination threshold of
7 °C.
110
-------
where: Tj was the daily mean water tem-
perature (°C) in stands of plants during
days in the growing season after germina-
tion was initiated, and 7 was the thresh-
old water temperature (°C) for initiating
growth of shoots in spring.
Control of emergent plant growth by
heat in the environment has several impor-
tant consequences for casual observers of
wetland phenomena and for the scientist
making measurements in them. In spring-
time, as water and hydrosoils in wetlands
along the river warm, shoots break the
surface of water in a proliferation that
spreads from warm shallows at the shores
to more slowly warming waters at the outer
edge. The speed of this spread depends
upon the degree of isolation that wetlands
have from cold water meandering across
them from adjacent river channels. Liston
et al. (1986) have shown that summertime
development of wetland vegetation can lag
on sites exposed to cold currents, such
that cover and maximum annual biomass of
dominant species occur several weeks after
they are present on warm sites. Time of
development of wetland plants similarly
differs between years, particularly those
of warm versus cold springtimes. Thus,
shoots growing in shore-zone wetlands of
the St. Marys River in spring and early
summer are monitors of temperature
regimes. Production of periphyton and
invertebrates is keyed to the same tem-
perature regimes.
Secondary Producers
The influence of water temperature on
development of invertebrates in emergent
wetlands is similar to the relationship
observed with macrophytes. The damsel fly
Lestes di sjunctus di sjunctus oviposits in
stems of Sparganium eurycarpum along the
St. Marys River during August; these eggs
remain in stems until spring and begin
hatching when water temperature exceeds a
thermal threshold of 4.3 °C (Duffy 1985).
Development of nymphs after hatching is
logarithmically related to water tempera-
ture as cumulative degree-days (Fig-
ure 61). Total physiological time
required for L. di sjunctus di sjunctus to
complete nymphal development was 680 and
710 #d in 1982 and 1983, respectively. A
similar growth relationship is seen in
y = 0.081 (e) 0 006 |x|: r = 0.99
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
300
500
70O
100
Cumulative degree—days
Figure 61. Relationship between mean dry
weight of Lestes di sjunctus di sjunctus and
temperature as degree-days above the
developmental threshold of 4.3 °C.
another damselfly, Enalla^ma boreale, and
growth of other aquatic invertebrates is
also regulated by water temperature.
Invertebrate density in emergent
wetlands at ice-out is extremely low.
However, warming of these shallow-water
environments stimulates the hatching of
cladoceran ephippial eggs and eggs from a
variety of macroinvertebrates. Cladoceran
zooplankton become abundant in emergent
wetlands within weeks of ice-out, and with
hatching and migration, macroinvertebrates
also soon become common. For example,
Corixidae migrate into wetlands from
ground-water fed tributaries, where they
spend the winter. As water temperature
continues to increase, both diversity and
density of the invertebrate community in
emergent wetlands increase.
Fish use of emergent wetlands begins at
the time ice is breaking up in spring.
Hatching of lake whitefish and lake her-
ring eggs, spawned the previous November,
coincides with ice-out in some years.
These eggs collect along wetlands or in
other backwater areas; larvae have been
collected from Lake Nicolet wetlands while
slush ice remained along shore (Duffy
pers. observ.). Northern pike begin to
spawn soon after ice-out, depositing eggs
on Carex and other dense aquatic macro-
phytes near shore. Other spring-spawning
species of fish, such as central mud-
minnow, brown bullhead, bowfin, yellow
111
-------
perch, and Centrarchidae, also use emer-
gent wetlands. As water temperatures
rise, their eggs begin to hatch, and lar-
val development begins in the presence of
abundant food resources—the rich micro-
invertebrate community.
Annual Temperature and Detritus
Organic material from macrophyte pro-
duction in emergent and submersed wetlands
of the St. Marys River becomes food for
higher organisms principally through the
detrital food web. Muskrats and crayfish
are principal grazers of fresh plant mate-
rial in emergent and submersed wetlands,
respectively. At the maximum densities of
recent years, they graze a very small
fraction of annual plant production in the
system: on the order of 1% or less of
organic dry weight production (McNabb,
unpubl. data).
Ungrazed shoots of emergent plants die
back with frost in October-November of
each year. They remain in situ and are
partially fragmented by freezing and thaw-
ing, and by waves. At ice-out and in the
month or 6 weeks thereafter, some small
fraction of dead shoots is exported into
river channels on ice-floes and currents.
The majority of overwintering shoot mate-
rial is trapped in situ by new shoots that
break the water surface as springtime pro-
gresses. As in offshore submersed wet-
lands, decomposition of dead shoots from
the previous year accelerates with rising
water temperatures in May and June. In
years of average temperature, shoots are
completely fragmented by the end of June
and refractory portions join refractory
detritus from previous years on the sedi-
ment surface. The wetland is thus pulsed
in springtime with detritus and the micro-
organisms of its decay. McNabb (unpubl.
data) estimates conservatively that 60% of
annual shoot production is normally
mineralized if situ in the month of June:
on the average, some 400 g organic dry
weight per m2.
Availability of detritus from plants in
submersed charophyte meadows is clearly
tied to temperature-regulated metabolic
rates of micro-organisms of decomposition
(Liston et al . 1986). Biomass in sub-
mersed charophyte meadows at the beginning
of growing seasons consists largely of
degenerating tissue that has overwintered
in situ. Micro-organisms of decomposi-
tion form a metabolically active periphy-
ton on plants at this time. They,
together with detrital fragments of plant
origin, constitute a significant food sup-
ply for consumer organisms of some 30-35 g
organic dry weight per m2 of meadow. This
constitutes a detrital pulse in the system
that is mineralized at a temperature-
dependent accelerating rate with rising
temperature in June. By early August,
detritus is virtually absent from charo-
phyte meadows, and fresh plants of the new
growing season approach maximum annual
biomass. These overwinter to start the
cycle anew in the following year.
Thus, the St. Marys ecosystem is pulsed
with macrophyte detritus of autochthonous
origin in May and June of each year. This
detritus is at first concentrated in
shore-zone emergent wetlands and in sub-
mersed wetlands along the bottom in deeper
water. Consumer organisms in these loca-
tions experience a peak food availability
that will not be repeated for another
year. Eventually, material from shore
zones and offshore sources is dispersed in
downstream environments by currents moving
through the wetlands.
FOOD WEBS
Production and Detrital Material
Estimates of annual net primary produc-
tivity in the plankton, submersed wet-
lands, and emergent wetlands of the
St. Marys River were given earlier in this
ecological profile (Table 16). Measure-
ments for these were made by techniques
that yielded production estimates per unit
area of habitat. Thus they indicate por-
tions of the system in which primary pro-
duction is most concentrated, but say
little about relative contribution of
phytoplankton and macrophytes to primary
productivity of the river system as a
whole. It is clear, for example, from
casual observation of the river, that
emergent wetland production, while very
high, occurs in an area much smaller than
the surface area of open water where rela-
tively low phytoplankton production
112
-------
occurs. Contributions of emergent
wetlands and plankton communities to total
primary productivity in the ecosystem, as
well as the contribution from submersed
wetlands, can be estimated if areas
occupied by these community types are
known. In this regard, reliable data are
available for the broad expanse of the
river known as Lake Nicolet (McNabb,
unpubl. data); these were used to develop
Table 53. Data suggest that relative pro-
ductivities given in Table 53 for commun-
ity types likely hold in a general way for
broad lake-like portions of the system
(not narrow, restricted channels) where
mean turbidity in the growing season is
low (<8 NTU).1 In western Munuscong Lake,
for example, where submersed wetland
development is severely depressed by high
turbidity and poor light penetration, sub-
mersed plants contribute very little to
overall ecosystem production.
Estimates in Table 53 show that root-
stocks of emergent plants in shore-zone
wetlands of Lake Nicolet have higher
annual productivity than other components
lNTU = Nephelometric Turbidity Unit.
of the lake's primary production. Some
portion of the energy in food reserves
stored in rootstocks over the winter is
used to initiate shoot development in
spring. Rootstock production not used in
this manner becomes detritus in upper
layers of tightly packed clay sediments in
wetlands. Rates at which animals that
burrow in the hydrosoil return some frac-
tion of this detritus to the water column
are unknown. Observations of hydrosoil
cores during growing seasons suggest that
rootstock detritus is largely mineralized
in situ, with little organic material from
rootstock production entering food webs in
overlying water.
Shoots of macrophytes in emergent and
submersed wetlands are important sources
of organic material for consumer organisms
of the river. Estimates in Table 53 show
that annual production of these is 4 to
10 times greater than annual production of
phytoplankton in Lake Nicolet. Measure-
ments in the water column of Lake Nicolet
have shown the plankton community to be
more heterotrophic in nature than autotro-
phic; net primary productivity/respiration
(P/R) ratios are consistently <1.0 in
Table 53. Annual net primary productivity in the
St. Marys River (McNabb, unpubl. data).
Lake Nicolet
reach of the
Community
type
Hectares g AFDW • m"2
occupied • yr-1
Metric tons
AFDW/yr
Relative
productivity3
Phytoplankton
3,958 5
198
1
Submersed macrophytes*5
2,100 35
735
4
Emergent wetlands
298
Shoots
650
1,940
10
Periphyton
12
36
0.2
Rootstocks
930
2,770
14
'Metric tons organic weight (AFDW) per year relative to the phytoplankton.
Periphyton of submersed macrophytes not Included: hence, submersed wetland
productivity underestimated by an amount due to periphyton. Submersed plants
have little periphyton except during decomposition phase in summer.
113
-------
ice-free seasons (McNabb, unpubl. data).
Detrital materials that have their origin
in shoot production in emergent and sub-
mersed wetlands of the lake, and in
similar wetlands upstream, doubtless con-
tribute substantially to the heterotrophic
character of the river's plankton
community.
Invertebrate consumers play an integral
role in processing nutrients which become
available through development and senes-
cence of primary producers. Through feed-
ing activities, both zooplankton and
macroinvertebrates alter the size of
particles in the environment and their
surface-to-volume ratio (Wetzel 1983;
Merritt et al. 1984). Invertebrates also
transform inorganic nutrients into organic
matter, which is stored as standing stock
biomass available to higher trophic
levels. This organic matter may be trans-
ferred from one part of the ecosystem to
another through drift, emergence of
aquatic insects, or other movements.
Biomass of aquatic invertebrates is most
available to fishes or invertebrate pre-
dators (Healey 1984), but amphibians,
waterfowl, and shore and passerine birds
also feed on invertebrates.
The detrital pulse provided by charo-
phyte meadows during June is likely used
by benthic macroinvertebrates. Second-
year cohorts of the burrowing mayflies
Hexagenia and Ephemera complete nymphal
development in June before emerging in
early July. Benthic invertebrate standing
crop in portions of the river with higher
population densities of these mayflies and
other filter-feeding taxa exhibit a rise
to seasonal maxima in June (Chapter 3),
whil standing crop ir> areas where density
of filter feeders is relatively low do not
peak in June.
Detrital material resulting from the
decomposition of emergent macrophytes
during May and June fuels a pulse of
invertebrate biomass comprised primarily
of zooplankton in emergent wetlands.
Standing stock biomass of the two most
abundant zooplankton species in these
emergent wetlands, Ch^dorin sphaericus and
Acroperus }"creases ~~fTo¥~ May
through early July (Duffy 1985) While
these species are small, they have rapid
development times relative to larqer
macroinvertebrates.
Estimates of absolute annual inverte-
brate production for the Lake Nicolet
reach exhibit a pattern similar to the
pattern of absolute primary production
Production per unit area is less in off-
shore soft-bottom communities than in
emergent wetlands. However, on an aerial
basis the soft-bottom benthic community
contributes the greatest amount to macro-
invertebrate production in Lake Nicolet
(Table 54). Similarly, if zooplankton
production in the open water were mea-
sured, absolute production there could be
expected to be far greater than in emer-
gent wetlands because of greater open
water area. Organic material articulated
as secondary production comprises the food
resource of a variety of fishes.
Predator-Prey Interactions
Vertebrate predators can have a pro-
found effect on invertebrate community
54. Annual secondary production in Lake HUoUt (Duff, unpubl. data).
Table
Organic weight
Hectares
Metric tons
Habitat
type
Soft bottom benthos
Emergent wetland benthos
Emergent wetland zooplankton
Rapids benthos
occupied g dry wt
yr"1 organic wt/yr
2,647
14.46
382.39
298
24.68
73.55
298
0.56
1.67
1
23.68
0.24
114
-------
composition (Brooks and Dodson 1965; Hall
et al. 1970). Furthermore, alterations in
aquatic invertebrate community structure
have a demonstrated influence on algal
community composition and on water quality
(Spencer and King 1984). Because both
predator and prey communities are dynamic,
shifts in trophic relations occur both
seasonally and with ontological changes
(development) in animals.
Trophic relations of fishes and other
animals inhabiting the St. Marys River are
depicted in Figure 62. Among the fish
species present, four--walleye, yellow
perch, northern pike, and white sucker—
are considered critical species in percid
communities such as the St. Marys River.
Walleye and northern pike are primarily
piscivorus and potentially influence the
remainder of the fish community. Juvenile
walleye derive a substantial proportion of
their caloric intake from young-of-the-
year yellow perch, while adults shift to
feed on rainbow smelt, trout-perch, and
alewife (Whalen 1980; Sargent 1982; Liston
et al. 1986). The only nonfish prey con-
sumed in any number by walleye are burrow-
ing mayflies, which compose more than 50%
of the prey items consumed by walleye dur-
ing midsummer in the St. Marys River
(Joyce 1983). Northern pike examined from
the river have been almost entirely
piscivorus, feeding most heavily on
rainbow smelt and spottail shiners
(Borgeson 1983).
The diet of white suckers in the
St. Marys River has not been studied.
However, their inferior mouth and demersal
habit suggest benthic feeding. This has
been confirmed by a number of studies
which report chironomids, mollusks, and
cladocerans as important prey (Scott and
Crossman 1973). Yellow perch from the
river have a varied diet which changes
with ontological development (Whalen
1980). Cladocera compose much of the diet
OMNIVOROUS »
SMALL~">v
LARGE FISH
BIRDS
FISH
RIPARIAN VEGETATION
V CD J
RAPTORIAL
BIRD8
TERRESTRIAL^
INVERTEBRATES,
NONVASCULAR
^ CD
PLANTS
OETRITUS
MAMMAL8
MVASCULAR
I! PLANTS j
ZOOPLANKTON
AQUATIC J*
MACROIN VERTEBRATE 8
Figure 62. Simplified diagram of energy flow among biotic communities of the
St. Marys River.
115
-------
of juvenile yellow perch 30-60 mm in total
length, while fish 80-130 mm long eat more
aquatic insects and begin to eat crayfish.
Crayfish compose the bulk of the adult
yellow perch diet, with fish and burrowing
mayflies also important.
Another abundant fish in the open-water
habitats of the St. Marys River is the
lake herring, a fish listed as threatened
in Michigan. Lake herring are pelagic and
predominantly zooplanktivorous. In the
St. Marys River, zooplankton compose >99%
of the diet of lake herring from October
through May. However, a mayfly, Leptoph-
lebia, which migrates from deep to shallow
water in March is eaten during its migra-
tion. Beginning in June, dipteran pupae,
Hymenoptera, and burrowing mayfly nymphs
are also included in the diet. This diet
switches entirely to emerging burrowing
mayflies in early July (Figure 63). Dur-
ing a relatively brief 2-week period in
midsummer, lake herring ingest >90% of
their annual caloric intake from burrowing
mayflies (Duffy 1982). Much of this
energy is likely not assimilated, but
probably constitutes a pulse of energy
used in development of gonads prior to
spawning in November. Duffy (1982) hypo-
thesized that the decline of lake herring
in the Great Lakes may be related more to
declining water quality and the disappear-
ance of Hexaqenia than to other causes.
Many predators switch to feeding on the
mayflies Hexagenia and Ephemera after
their mass emergence in the St. Marys
Zooplankton
Mayflies
Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Dec
Figure 63. Seasonal composition of lake
herring diet in the St. Marys River
illustrating dietary switch in July
(Duffy, unpubl. data).
River. Normally piscivQru
walleye and northern pi^e ' suc^
emerging subimagoes, as
and rock bass ~
Common
as
feed on the
yellow perch
into open-water areas aft^r9ansers move
on adults returning to the
birds feeding on the adult
mayflies include herring
gulls, and black terns.
dark to feed
river. Other
stages of these
and ring-billed
dragonflies
and damsel flies have been 'es
on adults resting on e">ergent- m,rrneu J"9
in wetlands (Duffy, pers. observ ) P ytes
Emergent wetlands borderinq the
stem of the river are structurally
plex. In emergent wetldnds
beds of Sci rpus acutus
Wet lands - ¦ ^jp. r-i nn rn« mdl H
com-
expansi ve
and Sparganium
eurycarpum are interrupted by pockets of
open water containing species of submerged
macrophytes; Potamogeton, Ranunculus, and
M.yriophyllum are common. This hetero-
geneous environment offers invertebrates
and larval and juvenile stages of fish
refuge from larger predators. Macrophyte
tissues also greatly increase the surface
area available for colonization by peri-
phyton. In more protected wetlands the
1uxurient growths of periphyton which
cover these macrophytes in midsumner sup-
port dense invertebrate communities.
Macroinvertebrates commonly associated
with this periphyton include the caddis-
flie Mystacides and Ceraciea and the may_
flies Caenls and CaTjibaetis (Allard
1982). However, the invertebrate commun-
ity characteristic of periphyton is
numerically dominated by chydorid
cladocerans, chironomid larvae, naidid
oligochaetes, and ostracods.
The invertebrate community that
emergent wetland periphyton as a
resource also serves as a food
for predators. Predation in the
wetlands appears to be more diffuse than
in open-water habitats, with a variety of
predators consuming the invertebrate prey
of this environment. Common invertebrate
predators of emergent wetlands include
damsel fly and dragonfly nymphs, dytiscid
beetle larvae, some chironomid larvae, and
some caddisfly larvae (particularly the
9enus Polycentropus). Five species of
Odonata from the St. Marys River whose
w6re examined all consumed chydorid
cladocerans, chironomid larvae, ostracods,
and smaller caddisfly larvae and mayfly
nymphs (Day 1983; Duffy 1984, 1985).
These diets overlap widely with the diets
uses
food
resource
emergent
116
-------
of larval and juvenile yellow perch, blue-
gill, and rock bass, which along with
Cyprinidae are the most common young fish
in emergent wetlands. Larvae of each of
these fish species feed primarily on
cladoceran zooplankton; then as they deve-
lop into juvenile stages, they incorporate
larger prey, such as chironomid larvae,
into their diets.
Larval and juvenile fish predation
influences invertebrate community composi-
tion and abundance in emergent wetlands.
Zooplankton abundance in these wetlands is
maximal in June and July, then decreases
during August (Figure 64). During July and
August, larval fish, particularly bluegill
and rock bass, develop into juvenile
stages and their diet volume increases.
As density of zooplankton decreases in
August, juvenile fish begin feeding more
on chironomid larvae and other macroin-
vertebrate taxa (D.E. Ashton, U.S. Army
Corps Eng.; New Orleans, Louisiana; pers.
comm.). These larval and juvenile fish-
invertebrate trophic interactions charac-
terize emergent wetland trophic dynamics
of the St. Marys River. However, other
predator-prey interactions involving
amphibians, birds, and fish also occur.
In May and June red-spotted newts are
conwion in emergent wetlands near the
water's edge. These newts feed on
caddisfly, chironomid larvae, and other
invertebrates found among the dense
aquatic macrophytes along shore (Duffy
1982). Great blue herons also forage for
juvenile fish in emergent wetlands;
unfortunately, quantitative information is
lacking on their diet in the St. Marys
River. Another colonial waterbird, the
black tern, feeds on juvenile and small
fish in the emergent wetlands and other
shallow-water environments of the river.
Black terns can have a devastating impact
on juvenile stages of bowfin. Juvenile
bowfin school and are heavily pigmented,
making them quite visible from the air.
Schools remain in densely vegetated areas
most of the time, but cross open-water
areas when moving from one macrophyte bed
to another. At these times black terns
often congregate in flocks over a school
of young bowfin, diving repeatedly to cap-
ture fish (Duffy, pers. observ.).
In addition to these interactions, a
number of mammals, birds, and fish use
emergent wetlands as foraging habitat
(Figure 62). However, trophic interac-
tions of many animals in the St. Marys
River have not been studied.
Zooplankton
40-
35 -
Cladocera
m 30 -
¦o
c
as
Copepoda
15-
24-May
04-May
03-Jul
12-Aug
21-Sep
13-Jun
23-Jul
01-Sep
1
Macroinvertebrates
1
1
9-
Oligochaela
Chironomidae
21-Sep
12-Aug
03-Jul
24-May
11-Oct
01-Sep
04-May
23-Jul
13-Jun
Larval fish
14-
Yellow perch
10-
£
0>
£>
E
3
z
Lepomis sp
12-Aug 01-Sep
24-May 13-Jun
03-Jul
23-Jul
Figure 64. Seasonal abundance of common
zooplankton, macroinvertebrates, and
larval fish in the Dunbar emergent wetland
(Ashton and Duffy, unpubl. data).
117
-------
CHAPTER 5- MANAGEMENT
COMMERCIAL NAVIGATION
Commercial navigation has had a major
influence on the St. Marys River since
1797 and has resulted in extensive modifi-
cations of the river (Chapter 1; Table 6).
Prior to the 1970's, when most shipping
was done during the ice-free period of
April through November, there was little
concern over the impacts of navigation on
this ecosystem. However, during the early
1970's, an increasing demand for contin-
uous transport of goods and materials pro-
vided the impetus for a proposed plan of
year-round shipping. This meant keeping
shipping channels open during periods when
the river was normally ice-bound. This
raised a great amount of concern as to the
potential impact such an action would have
on the fish and wildlife of this system
(Greenwood et al. 1985).
There are a number of ways commercial
shipping influences the St. Marys River,
whether ice cover exists or not. Some of
these influences are associated with main-
tenance activities to support shipping,
such as dredging, installation of naviga-
tion aids, and locks and their operation.
Physical phenomena associated with vessel
passage also impact the river through
alterations in hydro!ogic patterns. The
passage of a vessel through shipping chan-
nels or the river temporarily alters the
hydrologic pattern in the vicinity of the
vessel and, depending on the severity of
the hydrologic response, may affect sedi-
ment transport, shoreline erosion, or
aquatic biota (Upper Mississippi River
Basin Commission [UMRBC] 1981).
Hydrologic influences on a point in the
river during vessel passage are affected
by location of vessels in the river, their
draft, speed, and direction of travel with
respect to prevailing currents, frequency
of passages, bathymetry of the river, and
sediment type (UMRBC 1982; viuebben 1983).
A vessel in motion within g river system
or constricted channel Pushes water ahead
of it, lowering water level in the vicin-
ity of midship; a trough -j s thus created
that moves with the ship. The inf"|uence 0f
this trough becomes greater as it moves
away from the vessel into shallow water,
unlike the situation if large, deep water
bodies where influence decreases with
distance. In addition, a Vessel passing
through a river or constricted channel
forces water to pass beneath its hull at
higher speeds than ambient, resulting in
changes in pressure on the sediment
(Wuebben 1979). As a vessel passes by a
point in the river, water level initially
rises, then drops, only to rise again as
the moving trough of water passes. The
height of this wave is related to both
vessel speed and velocity 0f water cur-
rents generated by vessel passage (Fig-
ures 65, 66). Other factors affecting the
hydrologic response to vessel passage are
bathymetry of the river, bed-sediment
3.0-r
2.8-
2.6
_2.4-
£2.2-
2.0-
1.8
I1"'
.5 1 *v
| 0.8-
* 0.6-
0.4-
0.2-
00 + . , , .
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Vessel speed
Figure 65. Relationship between maximum
wave height and vessel speed at a distance
100 ft from the shipping Tine (Ashton
118
-------
10 20 30
Negative change in stage height (cm)
Figure 66. Maximum change in stage height
versus maximum 10-second mean current
velocity observed during drawdown for the
130 ship-passage events monitored during
the open-water period of 1984 on the
St. Marys River. (McNabb et al. 1986).
character, and the presence or absence of
emergent wetland vegetation (Alger 1978;
Wuebben 1983; Smart et al. 1985; McNabb et
al. 1986).
Increased sediment transport and shore
erosion have been documented as resulting
from vessel traffic in the St. Marys River
and elsewhere (Alger 1978; Smart et al.
1985). Alger (1978) recorded three modes
of sediment transport in the St. Marys
River: typical bed load, movement of
individual sand grains, and explosive
liquefaction. Explosive liquefaction
occurs primarily in sand substrate when
pressure changes created by the moving
trough associated with a vessel reduce
effective sediment weight to zero, allow-
ing particles to flow up into the water
column (Alger 1978). When this occurs,
patches of sediment appear to burst away
from the bottom. In the Mississippi
River, resuspension of fine sediments and
increased turbidity (Figure 67) have been
positively correlated with vessel speed
and frequency of passage (UMRBC 1981;
Smart et al. 1985). The distance sedi-
ments are transported following vessel
passage is a function of particle size,
ambient water currents, and the intensity
of hydrologic alterations.
Winter studies on the St. Marys River
have addressed the influence of ship
traffic on under-ice drift and
20 40 60
% of day change in turbidity exceeded
Figure 67. Daily tow induced changes in
turbidity levels at low flow (simulated)
(UMRBC 1981).
macroinvertebrate displacement through
cracks in ice (Gleason et al. 1979b; Poe
and Edsall 1982; Jude et al. 1986). The
number of benthic invertebrates, amount of
macrophyte material, and biomass of zoo-
plankton and detritus were all greater
under ice with ship traffic than without
ship traffic (Poe and Edsall 1982). Pres-
sure from vessel-induced waves was found
to displace benthic invertebrates up
through cracks in ice (Gleason et al.
1979b). However, the number displaced was
found to be small in relation to, but
representative of, populations existing in
the area studied.
In a study of invertebrate populations
of emergent wetlands of the St. Marys
River, Duffy (1985) reported 18.9% of the
mortality of Lestes di sjunctus disjunctus
was attributed to shipping. Tfiese damsel -
flies oviposit in stems of Sparganium
eurycarpum during July and August, but
eggs do not hatch until spring. Rising
water levels in April 1983 floated broken
plant stems away from anchored shoots,
allowing vessel-induced currents, such as
those measured by McNabb and his
colleagues (1986), to pull these floating
stems containing eggs out of the emergent
wetlands.
The value of emergent wetlands as
spawning sites and nursery areas for many
species of fish has stimulated interest in
the influence of shipping on these
habitats. Although Liston (1983, 1986)
119
-------
documented heavy use of these habitats by
larval fish in the St. Marys River, no
studies to assess shipping influences have
been undertaken. However, laboratory
studies have been conducted on the effects
of simulated drawdown on eggs and larvae
of walleye and northern pike (Holland and
Sylvester 1983). In these studies, eggs
of neither species were affected by tem-
porary dewatering, but larvae of both
species were. Greater mortality of both
walleye and northern pike larvae occurred
as frequency of drawdowns increased (Fig-
ure 68). Holland and Sylvester (1983)
suggested that fishes most susceptible to
drawdown would be nest-builders such as
centrarchids, fishes with adhesive eggs
like northern pike, and those with photo-
phobic larvae like walleye.
Small boats operated for recreational
purposes may also influence sediment
transport and erosion. No studies of
recreational boating have been conducted
on the St. Marys River. However, in shal-
low backwater areas of the Mississippi
River practically any recreational boat is
capable of resuspending fine sediments
(Smart et al. 1985). Recreational boats
operated in shallow bays or other deposi-
tional environments of the St. Marys River
probably also resuspend fine sediments,
although the impact of this is unknown.
Despite the history of navigation and
associated maintenance activities on the
St. Marys River, no attempt has been made
to quantify the influence of these main-
tenance activities on biota. A consider-
able literature base does exist on the
influence of dredging on aquatic biota, as
well as limited information for shore
birds (Morton 1977; Scharf 1978). Impacts
on aquatic biota from dredging are usually
classified as either acute or chronic;
acute effects include physical removal or
burial of benthic species, while chronic
effects include a variety of physiological
and behavioral responses (Rosenberg and
Snow 1975; Morton 1977; Stern and Stickle
1978). Scharf (1978) found that colonial
nesting birds used dredge-spoil islands,
and that the composition of disposed sedi-
ments influenced bird species composition.
Navigation locks present an apparent
barrier to fish migration and may also
alter water quality. Sparks and Thomas
(1978) found suspended particulate matter
decreased almost 50% below an Illinois
River lock within 8 days of its closure,
but they could not separate the influence
of the lock discharge from the absence of
barge traffic. In areas of reduced water
quality navigation lock discharge has been
shown to be beneficial by reaerating water
low in dissolved oxygen (Wilhelms 1985).
FISHERIES MANAGEMENT
&Z\ Walleye
m
Control
KS Northern Pike
12 6 3
Frequency of dmntering In hours
Sound fisheries management should inte-
grate a number of techniques into a pro-
gram designed to assist the natural
fisheries resource decisionmaker. Tech-
niques used should include monitoring of
recruitment by stocks or populations,
monitoring of both commercial and sport
harvest, monitoring the effects of cul-
tural impacts on populations and indivi-
duals, and periodic assessment of habitat
quality and quantity. Natural resource
agencies in both the State of Michigan and
Province of Ontario, with support from
their respective Federal agencies, have
implemented programs which address most of
these topics.
Figure 68. Survival of walleye and
northern pike larvae at various intervals
of 2-mlnute exposure to air simulating
drawdown with vessel passage (Holland and
Sylvester 1981).
Commercial Fisheries
Commercial fishing in the St. Marys
River has been phased out since the early
-------
part of the 20th century, although limited
subsistence fishing by the Sault Band of
the Chippewa Tribe is permitted (Chap-
ter 3). Commercial fishing, primarily for
lake whitefish and walleye, is permitted
in the North Channel of Lake Huron, which
borders the eastern edge of Potagannissing
Bay, and in northern Lake Huron.
Williamson (1983) suggests that harvest of
species which undertake seasonal movements
out of the river, such as walleye, yellow
perch, and lake herring, could be signifi-
cant, but the extent of this harvest is at
present unknown.
Sport Fisheries
Sportfishirg harvests have been peri-
odically monitored since the 1930's by the
Michigan Department of Natural Resources
and more recently by the Ontario Ministry
of Natural Resources. Data from areas of
the river excluding the rapids indicate
catches declined roughly threefold from
the 1930's through the 1970's (Figure 69).
Principal fish species harvested by sport-
fishing are walleye, yellow perch, and
northern pike. Additional species of sea-
sonal importance are rainbow smelt and
white sucker in spring, lake herring in
summer, arid chinook salmon in fall.
Information from tag and recapture studies
of St. Marys River fish indicate sport-
fishing may be an effective harvest method
for selected species over time (Table 55;
3.0
i
o
| 0.6-
0.2
0.0
1937 1939 1941 1943 1945 1971 1973 1975 1977 1979
Figure 69. Average catch of fish in the
St. Marys River, excluding the rapids, per
angler per hour during 1937-45 and
1971-79. (Roelofs 1946; Mich. Dep. Nat.
Resour., unpubl. data; Ont. Mir. Nat.
Resour., unpubl. data).
Table 55. Sportfishing recapture rates
during 1982-83 for common fishes of the
St. Marys River tagged in 1982 (Liston et
al. 1986).
Recapture rate {%)
Common name
1982
1983
Sum
Smallmouth bass
13.6
14.8
28.4
Northern pike
13.4
12.3
25.7
Walleye
2.5
7.0
9.5
Yellow perch
3.4
5.3
8.7
Rock bass
1.3
5.0
6.3
White sucker
0
0.3
0.3
Muskellunge9
25.0
0
25.0
a0nly four individuals tagged.
Liston et al. 1986). Data summarized by
Koshinsky and Edwards (1983) indicatf
average sportfishing catches in the rapid:
area are roughly 0.1 fish/angler-hour,
lower than in the remainder of the river,
where catches in recent years have aver-
aged roughly 0.5 fish/angler-hour
(Table 56; Figure 69). Principal species
of fish harvested from the rapids area are
rainbow trout and lake whitefish.
The Michigan Department of Natura'
Resources estimates that, overall, the St.
Marys River accounted for roughli
110,000 angler-days of sportfishing annu-
ally (Koshinsky and Edwards 1983).
Approximately 20% of this activity wa:
estimated to be related to the stocking o
Pacific salmon and trout, with the remain-
der directed towards native species.
Based on these estimates and estimates oJ
the value of an angler-day at $25, thi
value of the St. Marys River sport fisher:
to Michigan anglers is approximate!.
$2.5 million dollars annually. Sport-
fishing data for the Ontario side of th'
river suggest that approximate!:
10,000 angler-days may be attributed t*
the rapids area annually, but informatioi
for the remainder of the river is no1
available.
Historically, data such as those men-
tioned above gathered State- and Province-
wide have been used to evaluate and manag<
fish populations, primarily through catcl
121
-------
Table 56 Summary of creel census data from the Ontario side of the
St. Marys Rapids, 1971-82 (Koshi'nsky and Edwards 1983).
Year
-ygyi 197^ 1976 1977 1977 1982
May-Oct May-Aug May-Aug May-Aug Aug-Nov May-Sep
Angler hours
Total catch (No.)
Catch per hour
Rainbow trout
Lake whitefish
Other salmonids
Other fish
19 971 10,252 11,391 3,700 16,816
1*361 385 797 407 1,740
0.07 0.09 0.07 0.11 0.10
Percent of total catch
14
38
5
43
41
47
4
8
21
56
48
16
46
13
3
68
11
13
36
11
22
18
13
5
quotas, license fees, and stocking Pr0~
grams (Figure 70). More recently, body
burdens of toxic substances have been used
in recommending levels of consumption of
fish. However, with certain exceptions,
the value of different habitats to fish
has generally not been quantified or used
in management programs until recently. An
exception to this is the St. Marys Rapids
where the amount of water flow is critical
to the amount of fish habitat. Here, the
area of rapids inundated tinder vari°us
flow regimes has been quantified and used
1896 1908 1918 1928 1938 19*8 1958 1868
Figure 70. Number of rai'nbow/steeThead
trout and chlnook salmon stocked in the
St. Marks River by the Michigan Departmef1t
of Natural Resources during 1898-1985
(Mich. Dep. Nat. Resour., unpubl. data)-
in developing water-use policies which
would minimize impacts to fishery
resources (Koshi'nsky and Edwards 1983).
Exotic Species
The introduction of exotic fish species
into the Great Lakes ecosystem has altered
community composition of both fish and
their prey and confronted fishery resource
managers with often difficult problems.
Much of the f 1 sh biomass now present In
the Great Lakes is represented by exotic
species. They were introduced either
intentionally or accidentally, or they
invaded the lakes through their connection
with the Atlantic Ocean. The most noto-
rious of these exotic species are alewife
and sea lamprey.
In the St. Marys River, the exotic spe-
cies of most concern is the sea lamprey.
Unlike other species which have made their
way into the Great Lakes, sea lamprey are
parasitic and attack larger species of
fish (Chapter 3). Sea lamprey are of
special concern in the St. Marys River not
only because the river offers habitat for
spawning and ammocoete development, but
more importantly because the river is too
large to be treated with the chemicals
used to control sea lamprey in smaller
tributary streams (Daugherty et al. 1984;
°augherty and Purvis 1985). At present,
122
-------
sea lamprey spawning in the St. Marys
River appear to be contributing substanti-
ally to the Lake Huron population
(Daugherty et al. 1984).
While sea lamprey have had a negative
effect on fisheries of the Great Lakes,
other exotic species have provided addi-
tional fishery resources. Rainbow smelt
eggs were intentionally introduced into
the St. Marys River during the early
1900's, but apparently did not survive
(Koshinsky and Edwards 1983). Later, an
accidental introduction of rainbow smelt
into northern Lake Michigan (Scott and
Crossman 1973) served to populate the
entire Upper Great Lakes, and rainbow
smelt now represent a limited spring sport
fishery in some tributaries of the St.
Marys River. Coho and Chinook salmon,
successfully introduced to Lake Michigan
in the 1960's, now provide both an open
water and riverine sport fishery in the
Great Lakes.
Alewife were first reported from the
Great Lakes in collections from Lake
Ontario in 1673 (Scott and Grossman 1973).
They became abundant in Lake Ontario by
the late 1800's, began dispersing to other
lakes in the early 1900's, and by 1949
inhabited all of the Great Lakes. Popula-
tion increases during the 1950's were
followed by massive dieoffs of alewives
during the 1960's. During this period
alewife dieoffs plagued beaches and har-
bors from Toronto to Chicago. The intro-
duction of top predators such as Pacific
salmon beginning in the late 1960's and to
a lesser extent the rejuvenation of lake
trout populations and the commercial har-
vest of alewife have since reduced popula-
tions below former nuisance levels. In
the St. Marys River, alewife are season-
ally common but not abundant.
WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT
Wildlife management practices rely on
information similar to that used by fish-
eries managers. However, wildlife manage-
ment practices have tended to place
greater emphasis on habitat considerations
than fisheries management, perhaps because
terrestrial habitat is more easily quanti-
fied. Wildlife data collected by both
State and Provincial natural resource
agencies are, in general, difficult to
relate directly to the St. Marys River
ecosystem. Census data often cover wide
geographic areas of which the river may be
a small part. Other animals are season-
ally mobile and may use the river for
short periods of time. The exception to
this generalization is waterfowl, for
which some data from the St. Marys River
exi st.
Several important waterfowl hunting
areas are located within the St. Marys
River ecosystem. These include Pumpkin
Point Marsh and Echo Bay on the east
(Ontario) side of Lake George and
Munuscong Lake. Ceolin (1980) estimated
that hunters harvested 1,093 migratory
waterfowl from Pumpkin Point Harsh during
almost 2,700 hours in the 1979-80 Ontario
hunting season. Site-specific information
on waterfowl harvest from the Michigan
side of the river is not available, though
Jaworski and Raphael (1978) do report an
annual average of 5,214 ducks harvested in
Chippewa County, Michigan, during 1961-70.
If harvest success estimates for Chippewa
County are similar to those reported by
Ceolin (1980), it can be estimated that
roughly 12,700 hours were devoted to
waterfowl hunting annually, with much of
this probably along the St. Marys River.
The value of Michigan's marshes along the
St. Marys River for waterfowl hunting was
estimated to be $374,000 annually
(Jawarski and Raphael 1978; Raphael and
Jaworski 1979). Principal species har-
vested in early fall are mallard and ring-
neck ducks, with scaup becoming the
principal species in late October and
November (Ceolin 1980; Weise 1985a).
Riparian areas adjacent to the river
also support populations of big and small
game animals and furbearing mammals which
are harvested by sport hunters and
trappers. Whitetail deer and black bear
are harvested on both sides of the river,
moose on the Ontario side only. In
Ontario, whitetail deer are less common
than in Michigan and a greater proportion
of big game hunting effort is directed
toward moose. Principal small game
animals harvested from the river basfn are
ruffed grouse and snowshoe hare (Ont. Min.
Nat. Resour. 1980; Mich. DNR 1985).
123
-------
White-tailed deer harvest records from
Drummond Island provide the best informa-
tion relating harvest of game animals
directly to the river {Figure 71). These
data illustrate a general increase in the
number of hunters from 1935 through 1968,
During the same period, the number of
whitetail deer harvested was cyclical,
with peaks in harvests occurring at 5- to
10-year intervals. However, since the late
I960's when the maximum number of hunters
on the island was recorded, both deer har-
vested and number of hunters have
declined. On larger St, Joseph Island,
Ontario, only 55 whitetail deer were
harvested by 525 hunters in 1978 (Ont.
Min. Nat. Resour. 1980).
Moose harvest records from the Ontario
Ministry of Natural Resources (1980)
indicate fewer moose are killed in the
south portion of the Sault Ste. Marie
District bordering the St. Marys River
than in the north half. In the south half
of the district 296 moose were killed,
representing a 551 harvest level in 1979.
However, harvest rates were higher than
average around Gros Cap and the Garden
River bordering the St. Marys River. In
the north half of the district the
424 moose killed represented a 25% harvest
level for 1979.
Quantitative data for other game spe-
cies are either lacking or not specific to
the area bordering the river. The
Oeec Harvested
1934
1944
1954
1964
1974
1964
F'fiure 71. Number of hunters on and
white-tailed deer harvested from Drummond
Island, Mfchigan, from 1935 through 1983
(Mich. Dep. Nat. Resour,, unpubl. data).
Michigan Department of Natural Resources
(1985) reports from 35,110 to 45,120 hun-
ters annually in the Upper Peninsula of
Michigan pursuing ruffed grouse during the
period 1979-83. Snowshoe hare and wood-
cock were the next most commonly sought
species. These are also the most commonly
hunted species in the Sault Ste. Marie
District of Ontario (Ont. Min. Nat.
Resour. 1980).
Furbearing mammals collected from the
area around the St. Marys River are pre-
sented in Table 57. The most commonly
collected species in both Michigan and
Ontario is beaver, with mink, muskrat, and
otter also common. Marten (Martes ameri-
cana), fisher (M. pennanti), and lynx are
harvested in Ontario (Table 57), but pro-
tected in Michigan. Trapping represents a
small industry on both sides of the river.
Total value of furs collected from the
Upper Peninsula of Michigan ranged from
$4.5 to $8.6 million annually during 1981
through 1984, and totaled roughly $100,000
in the Sault Ste. Marie District of
Ontario in 1979.
WETLAND MANAGEMENT
During the last century, biological
resources of the St. Karys River have been
influenced by the activities associated
with the region's expanding populations
and commerce (Chapter 1). In response to
the intensified use of the river system
accompanying these activities, a number of
statutes have been enacted by governments
to manage biological resources in the pub-
lic interest. Three statutes of the State
of Michigan are particularly important for
the protection of the primary food produc-
tion and nursery areas for fish and wild-
life resources, and particularly for the
emergent wetlands.
The Great Lakes Submerged Lands Act of
1955 established a fixed elevation, the
ordinary high-water mark, below which
alterations of the shore zone, including
wetlands of the St. Marys River, are regu-
lated. The Shorelands Protection and
Management Act of 1970 mandates the State
Department of Natural Resources to regu-
late use and development within three
types of sensitive coastal areas:
124
-------
Table 57. Number of furbearing mammals collected and reported by
trappers in the eastern Upper Peninsula of Michigan (numbers in
parentheses are for Chippewa County only) and the Sault Ste. Marie
District of Ontario (Ont. Min. Nat. Resour. 1980; Mich. Dep. Nat.
Resour. 1985).
Michigan
Year Otter Muskrat Bobcat Beaver Mink
1975
91
184
n.d.
n ,d.
n .d.
1976
127
222
n .d.
n .d.
n .d.
1977
143
240
(28)
(1,168)
n .d.
1978
111
171
(45)
(681)
n .d.
1979
90
230
(47)
(771)
n .d.
1980
167
677
(73)
(2,571)
n .d.
1981
101
181
(30)
(1,239)
140
1982
51
24
(20)
(599)
378
1983
124
182
(11)
(2,569)
227
1984
89
174
(25)
(1,260)
378
Canada
Otter
Marten
Lynx
Fisher
Mink
1978-79 94 994 6 1 287
high-risk erosion, flood-risk, and envi-
ronmental areas. Sensitive environmental
areas are those considered necessary for
preservation and maintenance of fish and
wildlife resources of the Great Lakes and
their connecting channels. Emergent wet-
lands along and adjacent to the shore of
the St. Marys River have been designated
as sensitive environmental areas under
this act. At the time of this writing,
some 55 km of shoreline along the main
channel of the river in Michigan have been
so designated. The Wetland Protection Act
of 1979 more broadly regulates alteration
of wetlands in the State as a whole,
including those of the St. Marys River.
It is clear from these examples, and other
U.S. Federal and Canadian legislation of
similar intent, that a framework is in
place by which emergent wetlands of the
St. Marys River system can be preserved
and managed as biological resource produc-
tion areas. The legislation should be
applied to the extensive submersed wet-
lands of the river as well. Like their
emergent counterparts, they are also
essential for production of fish and wild-
life resources and sediment stabilization.
125
-------
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loire-ioi
REPORT DOCUMENTATION »• «•
PAGE Biological Report 85(7.10)
S. RscJptanfs Actasslon No.
4. TWa and SuMttla
The St. Marys River, Michigan: An Ecological Profile
1. Rsport Data
May 1987
«.
J. MMd
Walter G. Duffy1, Ted R. Batterson2, and Clarence D. McNabb2
*. Performing OrganUatlan Rapt. No.
••Authors' affiliations:
National Wetlands Research Center Department of Fisheries and
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Wildlife
1010 Gause Boulevard Michigan State University
Slidell, LA 70458 East Lansing, MI 48824
10. Pra|act/Task/Worli Untt No.
11. ContracttC) or OranKQ) No.
ta
(6)
12. tunmtng Organization Nam* and Addrasa , _ _
National Wetlands Research Center Environmental Protection
Fish and Wildlife Service . Agency
U.S. Department of the Interior Great Lakes National Program
Washington, DC 20240 !1C® nrn
a 536 S. Clark St., Room 958
Chicago, IL 60605
13. Typa of Report * Parted Covarad
14.
IS. SupplamanUry Nous
If. Abstract (Unit 200 words)
St. Marys River, the single outlet from Lake Superior, flows between Michigan and Ontario
and has formed the International Border between the United States and Canada since 1783.
Although the riverbed and a major rapids system have been modified to accommodate
commercial navigation and for hydroelectric generation, the St. Marys River retains more
of its biological and physiochemical integrity than any other Laurentian Great Lakes
connecting channel. This oligotrophic lake's cold, wel1-oxygenated water contributes >90%
of the river's annual flow and has a major influence on the evolution of its biological
conmunities. This monograph reviews the published and unpublished ecological information
available for the St. Marys River. The authors begin by reviewing the geologic history,
human exploration, and settlement of the region, then proceed to a description of
the physical and chemical characteristics of the river. The third chapter describes the
biological communities presently inhabiting the river. A fourth chapter synthesizes
ecological relationships within the river, emphasizing detrital food webs and trophic
interactions. In the final chapter, anthropogenic influences on the river ecosystem are
reviewed and various natural resource management strategies suggested.
17. Dinwim Analyst* a. Descriptor*
Rivers, wetlands, mammals, birds, waterfowl, fishes, amphibians, reptiles,
invertebrates, aquatic plants
k. M—tHhw/Opin-twdid Ttrmi
St. Marys River, navigation, locks, dredging, water quality, temperature,
nutrient cycling, production, productivity
e. COMTI RaM/Oraup
U.
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