910/9-80-077
oBft
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Region 10
1200 Sixth Avenue
Seattle WA 98101
Water
December 1980
EPA-10-WA-KING-Metro-WWTW-80
Environmental
Impact Statement
Draft
Wastewater Management Plan
For the
Lake Washington/Green River Basins
Appendices
-------
APPENDICES
DRAFT ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT
DRAFT WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT PLAN
LAKE WASHINGTON/GREEN RIVER BASINS
Prepared for:
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region 10
By:
Jones & Stokes Associates, Inc.
2321 P Street
Sacramento, CA 95816
U.S. EPA UBRMV REGION 10 MATEMU
¦iiKiiaiiiiii
HIRIIHRRRIhII
RX0000D2175
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
APPENDIX A - LAND USE AND SOCIO-ECONOMICS A-l
APPENDIX B - AIR QUALITY B-l
APPENDIX C - WATER QUALITY AND BIOLOGY C-l
APPENDIX D - SOIL, GEOLOGY AND GROUNDWATER D-l
-------
Appendix A
LAND USE AND SOCIO-ECONOMICS
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Part I: Existing Conditions A-l
CHAPTER 1 - INSTITUTIONAL AND PUBLIC FACILITIES/
SERVICES SETTING A-3
Introduction A-3
Institutional Setting A-4
Wastewater Management A-10
Water Supply A-26
Drainage and Flood Control A-36
Solid Waste Management A-40
Recreation A-43
Social Services A-46
Transportation A-53
Electricity and Gas A-55
CHAPTER 2 - LAND USE: PLANS, POLICIES, AND
PROJECTIONS A-59
Introduction A-59
Existing Land Use A-59
Land Use Planning A-61
Projected Urban Land Uses A-71
CHAPTER 3 - AGRICULTURAL LANDS AND THEIR
PRESERVATION IN KING COUNTY A-77
Introduction A-77
National Significance of Agricultural Lands A-77
Description of the Agricultural Land Resource
in King County A-82
Impact of Urbanization on King County
Agricultural Land A-98
Measures to Mitigate the Loss of Agricultural
Lands A-101
Existing Policies for Agricultural Land
Preservation in King County A-103
CHAPTER 4 - CULTURAL RESOURCE SETTING A-l0 9
Acknowledgement A-109
Introduction A-109
Archeology A-109
Ethnography A-l14
History A-115
Attachment A A-l19
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Page
CHAPTER 5 - OVERVIEW OF REGIONAL ECONOMY AND
HOUSING A-123
Economic Profile of Study Area A-123
Housing A-137
CHAPTER 6 - OVERVIEW OF PUBLIC FINANCE A-149
Rules Governing Local Government Finance A-149
Responsibility for Service Provision A-151
General Financial Outlook A-152
Fiscal Profiles of Study Area Cities A-152
Considerations for Future Fiscal Outlook A-160
CHAPTER 7 - DESCRIPTION AND ASSESSMENT OF PSCOG
POPULATION, EMPLOYMENT AND LAND USE FORECASTS A-16 3
Population Forecasts of Federal, State, and
Regional Agencies A-163
Methodology of PSCOG's Regional Population
Forecast A-168
Subarea Patterns of Population and Land Use A-173
Part II: Selected Secondary Land Use Impacts A-185
CHAPTER 8 - IMPACTS OF PROJECTED GROWTH ON
PRIME FARMLAND CONVERSION A-187
Introduction A-187
Method for Forecasting the Conversion
of Prime Farmland A-187
Results and Discussion of the Prime Farm-
land Conversion Forecast A-189
Summary A-196
CHAPTER 9 - CONSISTENCY OF THE PROPOSED SERVICE
AREA WITH LOCAL LAND USE PLANS AND POLICIES A-199
Introduction A-199
Summary of Proposed Service Area Changes A-200
King County A-201
Algona A-206
Auburn A-20 6
Bellevue A-207
Black Diamond A-208
Bothell A-208
Clyde Hill A-209
Enumclaw A-20 9
Hunts Point A-210
Issaquah A-210
Kent A-211
Kirkland A-212
Medina A-212
Mercer Island A-212
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Page
Pacific A-212
Redmond A-213
Renton A-213
Tukwila A-214
Pierce County A-214
Snohomish County A-215
Brier A-218
Everett A-218
Lynnwood A-219
CHAPTER 10 - REFERENCES TO APPENDIX A A-221
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
1-1 Institutional Overview: Lake Washington/ A-8
Green River Basins
1-2 Detailed Management Framework: Sewerage A-ll
Facilities
1-3 Detailed Management Framework: Septic A-12
Tanks
1-4 Lake Washington/Green River Basins Com- A-14
ponent Agencies
1-5 Status of Sewer District Plans A-18
1-6 Important Provisions of the Existing and A-27
Proposed On-Site Wastewater Disposal Re-
gulations for King County
1-7 Status of Comprehensive Water Plan A-35
Approvals
1-8 Existing Local Government Surface Runoff A-37
and Drainage Programs in King County
1-9 Solid Wastes Not Accepted for Disposal A-42
at King County Landfills
1-10 Recreational Opportunities Afforded by A-47
Wastewater Technology Alternatives
1-11 Local Police Jurisdictions and Officers A-49
Employed (1979)
1-12 Jurisdictions With Local Fire Service A-51
and County Fire Districts Within Study
Area
1-13 School Districts and Enrollment (1979) A-52
Within Study Area
2-1 Subcounty Area Development Concept A-65
2-2 Status of Community Plans and Drainage A-70
Basins Contained Within Each Community
Planning Area
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Table Page
2-3 Population Projections for the Year 2000 A-72
for Drainage and Subdrainage Basins
2-4 Urban Acres Projections for the Year A-73
2000 for Drainage and Subdrainage Basins
2-5 Project Population Density for Additional A-75
Urban Acres by Drainage and Subdrainage
Basins
3-1 U. S. Prime Farmland Use A-79
3-2 Summary of Agricultural Districts A-85
3-3 Summary of Significant Lands A-86
3-4 Agricultural Districts in King County A-87
and Lake Washington/Green River Basins
3-5 Estimated Distribution of Agricultural A-88
Land Use by Type of Use and Area
3-6 Estimated Agricultural Land Use by A-90
Industry
3-7 King County Gross Farm Receipts by Major A-91
Category 1959-1974
3-8 King County Agricultural Employment by A-94
Activity and Type 19 74
3-9 Potential Consumer Savings by Product A-97
for Locally Produced Items
3-10 1990 Projected Loss of Significant Agri- A-100
• cultural Lands by Area
3-11 Prime Agricultural Land Mitigation Matrix A-102
5-1 Employment in North Lake Washington Basin A-126
5-2 Employment in North Lake Sammamish Basin A-127
5-3 Employment in East Lake Washington Basin A-128
5-4 Employment in South Lake Washington Basin A-129
5-5 Employment in South Lake Sammamish Basin A-130
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6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
132
133
1 33
135
1 36
138
139
140
141
141
142
142
145
146
Employment in the Green River Basin
Employment in the White River Basin
Employment in Mercer Island Basin
Summary of Basin Allocations of PSCOG
Employment Forecast
Comparison of Policy and Trends Alloca-
tion of Employment by Subbasin
General Housing Characteristics in King
and Snohomish Counties Outside Seattle,
1970 and 1976
Comparative Changes in Population and
Housing Units in King and Snohomish
Counties Outside Seattle, 1970-1976
Composition of the Housing Stock by Type
of Structure in King and Snohomish Coun-
ties Outside Seattle, 1970-1976
Occupied Dwelling Units by Type of Struc-
ture in King and Snohomish Counties Out-
side Seattle, 1970 and 1976
Housing Tenure of Households in King and
Snohomish Counties Outside Seattle, 1970
and 1976
Housing Vacancy Rates by Tenure in King
and Snohomish Counties Outside Seattle,
1970 and 1976
Change in Number of Households by Tenure
and Type of Structure Occupied and Change
in Number of Dwelling Units by Type of
Structure in King and Snohomish Counties
Outside Seattle, 1970-1976
Number of Households by Subbasin, Based
on PSCOG Population Forecast
Dwelling Units Required to Meet Housing
Demand {Including 5 Percent Vacancy
Factor), 1980-2000
-------
Table
Page
7-1 Washington State Population Forecasts A-166
and Projections
7-2 Comparison of Regional and King County A-167
Population Forecasts
7-3 Summary of Basin Allocations of PSCOG A-178
Population Forecast
7-4 Comparison of Policy and Trends Popu- A-179
lation Allocations of Population by
Subbasin
7-5 Summary of PSCOG Land Use Projections A-182
by Basin
7-6 Comparison of Policy and Trends Pro- A-183
jections of Urban Land Use by Subbasin
8-1 Calculation of Vacant Land Conversion A-190
Rates Within Agricultural Districts
8-2 Forecast of Prime Farmland Conversion A-191
-------
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1-1 Component Agencies in the Lake Washington/ A-15
Green River Basins
1-2 Local Service Areas, Existing Sewer Ser- A-20
vice Areas and Metro Collection System
1-3 Current Water Supply Facilities, Seattle A-29
Water Department and City of Tacoma
1-4 Major Existing Recreation Areas: Seattle/ A-44
Everett/Tacoma SCSA
1-5 Travel Corridors, Central Puget Sound A-54
Region
1-6 Puget Sound Power and Light Service Area A-56
and Power Plant Locations
2-1 Urban Land Uses in the Lake Washington/ A-60
Green River Basins, 1975
2-2 LDIS Building Permit Data, 1979 Total A-62
Residential Units, Unincorporated King
County
3-1 Map of SCS Important Farmlands and of A-83
King County Agricultural Districts
3-2 Actual and Projected Trends in Farmland, A-95
King County
4-1 Areas with High Potential for Archeo- A-lll
logical Resources
4-2 Locations of Archeological, Ethnographic A-118
and Historic Sites
7-1 Interaction of the Demographic and Em- A-171
ployment Forecasting Processes
7-2 The Process of Allocation Among Subareas A-175
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Part I: Existing Conditions
A-l
-------
Chapter 1
INSTITUTIONAL AND PUBLIC FACILITIES/
SERVICES SETTING
Introduction
This chapter provides an overview of existing insti-
tutions and key public facilities/services in the Lake
Washington/Green River Basins. The institutional setting
consists of a review of the provisions of selected laws and
the responsibilities of selected agencies of particular im-
portance to this Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). An
understanding of the institutional setting in the study area
is necessary in order to identify responsible agencies for
regulatory authority and impact mitigation.
The public facilities and service systems reviewed
here are wastewater management, water supply, drainage and
flood control, solid waste management, recreation, social
services, transportation, and electricity and gas. For
each of these services, existing agencies and facilities
are discussed, existing plans of key agencies are summarized
and existing local policies regarding coordination of growth
and service provision are reviewed. The review of public
services emphasizes the King County portion of the study
area, since little information was available for the Pierce
and Snohomish County portions.
An understanding of the workings of public service
systems is important to this EIS for two main reasons.
First, local planning agencies such as King County and the
Puget Sound Council of Governments (PSCOG) have policies
which encourage the coordination of growth and the provision
of public services; in accordance with these policies, pro-
vision of wastewater services to growing areas should be
synchronized with the provision of other key public services.
Second, policies and plans for public services have important
environmental interactions with Renton facilities planning;
for example, the existing and planned surface water supply
for the Seattle region system must be understood in order
to assess the water quality and fisheries impacts of con-
tinued discharge of Renton treatment plant effluent to the
Duwamish River.
-------
Institutional Setting
Federal Laws Related to EIS
Several federal lavs directly affect this EIS on waste-
water management in the Lake Washington/Green River Basins.
These include the Clean Water Act of 1977, the National
Environmental Policy Ac- of 196 9, and a series of federal
environmental laws with which the preparation of this EIS
must be coordinated.
Clean Water Act. The U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) is charged with administering the Federal Water
Pollution Control Act, commonly referred to as the Clean
Water Act. The goals of the act are to achieve "fishable,
swimmable" surface waters throughout the nation by 1983,
and to achieve no discharge of pollutants by 1985. Section
201 of the Clean Water Act establishes a construction grants
program for municipal wastewater facilities, wherein federal
grants are offered for the planning
-------
2. Any adverse impacts which cannot be avoided should
the project be implemented.
3. Alternatives to the proposed action.
4. The relationship between local short-term uses
of man's environment and the maintenance and
enhancement of long-term productivity.
5. Any irreversible and irretrievable commitments
of resources.
In 1978, the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ)
issued regulations implementing NEPA. Significant require-
ments of these regulations include maximum opportunities
for public participation (including EIS scoping meetings);
page limitations for EISs; and an easy to understand writing
style. Each federal agency is responsible for preparing
its own procedures for implementing NEPA, which are to be
consistent with the CEQ regulations. EPA issued its final
regulations on November 6, 1979 (Federal Register, Vol. 44,
No. 216, pg. 64174) .
EIS-Related Environmental Laws and Policies. Under
the CEQ and EPA regulations for implementing NEPA, the pre-
paration of EISs must be coordinated with a series of environ-
mental laws and policies. The provisions of these laws and
policies are summarized below.
Clean Air Act. Under the Clean Air Act, states are
required to prepare state implementations plans (SIPs)
demonstrating means for achieving and maintaining national
ambient air quality standards. The EPA procedures for
implementing NEPA require formal consultation with state
and regional air quality planning agencies to determine con-
formity of a proposed action with the SIP. The Draft EIS
must include a statement indicating whether the project con-
forms with the SIP. If the project does not conform to the
SIP, EPA will not give the project final approval.
Endangered Species Act. Under this act, federal agencies
are prohibited from jeopardizing threatened or endangered
species or modifying habitats essential to their survival.
EPA procedures for implementing NEPA require formal con-
sultation with the Fish and Wildlife Service or National
Marine Fisheries Service, as appropriate, and subsequent
development of mitigation measures if endangered species
may be affected by a project.
A-5
-------
Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act. Under this act,
federal agencies involved in projects resulting in modi-
fications of streams or other water bodies are required to
protect fish and wildlife resources which may be affected
by the project. EPA procedures for implementing NEPA require
consultation with the Fish and Wildlife Service and appropriate
state wildlife agencies to develop mitigation measures for
adverse impacts.
National Historic Preservation Act. Under this law,
if federal agencies undertake activities affecting sites
of historic, architectural, archeological, or cultural value
that are listed on the National Register of Historic Places,
then the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation must be
consulted and mitigation measures must be developed.
Archeological and Histovia Preservation Act. This law
requires federal agencies to undertake data recovery and
preservation activities if federal activities may cause
irreparable destruction of significant scientific, prehistoric,
historic, or archeological data.
Coastal Zone Management Act. This act establishes
funding and requirements for state coastal zone management
programs; in Washington, shoreline management programs have
been prepared to meet requirements of both the state Shore-
line Management Act and the federal act. Under the EPA pro-
cedures for implementing NEPA, if EPA activities have sig-
nificant coastal zone impacts, then a determination of con-
sistency with the applicable coastal zone management program
is required.
EPA Policy on Agricultural Lands Protection. In September
1978, EPA issued its policy to protect environmentally signi-
ficant agricultural lands. Under this policy, EPA is required
to identify the direct and indirect impacts of its actions
on environmentally significant agricultural lands, and to
avoid or mitigate, to the extent possible, identified adverse
impacts.
EPA Policy on Floodplain and Wetlands Protection. In
January 1979, EPA issued its statement of procedures on
floodplain management and wetlands protection. Under these
procedures, EPA is required to assess floodplains and
wetlands impacts of its actions, and to either avoid adverse
impacts or minimize them if no practicable alternative to
the action exists.
A-6
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Overview of Agency Responsibilities
Table 1-1 is a matrix of agency responsibilities in
the Lake Washington/Green River Basins. Responsibilities
are shown for both public service systems (wastewater manage-
ment, water supply, drainage/flood control, solid waste
management, and recreation) and environmental management
activities (water quality, fish and wildlife, air quality
and land use). For each agency, responsibilities in each
functional area are classified as either advisory, planning,
regulatory, implementing (construction and operation), or
funding. Not shown in this table are the numerous agencies
engaged in research and monitoring activities.
Key Agencies and An Overview of Their Responsibilities
Environmental Protection Agency. The EPA has regulatory
authority in the fields of water quality, wastewater manage-
ment, water supply, solid waste management, and air quality.
EPA water quality responsibilities are established in the
Clean Water Act, the provisions of which have been previously
reviewed. EPA responsibilities in water supply, solid waste,
and air quality are established in the Safe Drinking Water
Act, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, and Clean Air
Act, respectively.
Corps of Engineers. Under the federal Flood Control
Act, the Corps of Engineers is responsible for flood control
planning and implementation on major rivers and streams.
Under Section 404 of the Federal Water Pollution Control
Act, as amended, the Corps administers the national permit
program for dredge and fill activities.
Department of Ecology. The DOE is the equivalent of
EPA at the state level, having regulatory responsibility
in the fields of water quality, wastewater management, solid
waste management, air quality, and flood control. In addition,
DOE administers the state Shoreline Management Act.
Departments of Fisheries and Game. The Department of
Fisheries is responsible for managing food fish and shell-
fish, whereas the Department of Game is responsible for
managing various game species, including game fish. These
agencies advise DOE on water rights and allocation, and must
jointly issue a hydraulics permit for alteration of natural
streams and their uses.
A-7
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Table 1-1. Institutional Overview:
Lake Washington/Green River Basins
Agency
Wastewater
Management
Water
Supply
Public Service Systems
Drainage/
Flood Control
Solid Waste
Management
Recreation
Transportation
Vfoter
Quality
Environmental Management
Fish and
Wildlife
Air
Quality
Land Use
Federal
Q>A
Army Corps of
Engineers
Depart, of Housing
& Urban Develop-
ment
USDA, Forest
Service
Her itage Con-
servation &
recreation
Service
Depart. of
Transportation
Fish & Wildlife
Service
R$
R
Pl$
$
PRI$
R
R$
K$
R
R$
PRI?
A$
PI$
State
Dept. of Ecology
Dept. of Fisheries
Dept. of Gane
Dept. of Natural
Resources
Parks i Recreation
Cdimis^jon
Dept. of Social &
Health Services
Dept. of Trans-
portation
Regional/Local
PSOOG
Seattle-King County
Dept. of Public
Health
R-tro
Counties
R$
R
PI$
P
PR?
R
R
R
R
R
PR
Rl$
PRI$
PI$
PI?
P
PR15
R
PI?
R$
R
R
R$
R$I
R$I
R$P
K$
PR
PI?
PIS
PI$
R
PI?
PRI?
PRI$
-------
Table 1-1 (cont.)
Agency
Wastewater
Management
Water
Supply
Public Service Systems
Drainage/
Flood Control
Solid Waste
Management
Recreation
Transports t ion
Environmental Management
Water Fish and Air
Quality Wildlife Quality Land Use
King County
Soil Con-
servation District
Cities
Water and Sever
Districts
Sno-met
Puget Sound Air
Pollution Control
Ajcncy
PI?
PI?
PI?
PI?
PI?
A
PRI?
PI?
PI$
PI?
PI$
A
PRI?
PI?
PI?
A
PRI?
PR
CODE
A = Advisory
P = Planning
R - Regulatory
I = Implementing
? - Funding
>
i
V£>
-------
Department of Natural Resources. This department is
a major environmental agency within the state, with res-
ponsibility for state lands management, forest practices,
geological services, and limited drainage and flood control
activities.
The Puget Sound Council of Governments. PSCOG is a
voluntary association of local governments within King,
Kitsap, Pierce and Snohomish Counties. PSCOG is responsible
for developing advisory regional plans and policies, and
is also responsible for conducting reviews of projects using
federal assistance under Office of Management and Budget
Circular A-95.
Metro. Metro is a regional service agency with planning,
implementation, and funding responsibilities in the fields
of water quality and transit. Metro's past water quality
planning activities have included management of the River
Basin Coordinating Committee (RIBCO) studies, preparation
of the 208 areawide water quality management plan, and
preparation of a facilities plan for its four Puget Sound
plants. Metro acts as a "wholesaler" for wastewater services.
Counties and Cities. The Lake Washington/Green River
Basins contain portions of three counties (King, Snohomish
and Pierce} ar.d 18 cities. As general purpose governments,
these counties and cities undertake a spectrum of public
services and environmental management activities.
Wastewater Management
The wastewater management system within the Lake Washington/
Green River Basins has been reviewed in detail in Metro's
Technical Memo No. 3 and also in Metro's 208 plan. This
section highlights the most important features of this system.
Existing Agencies and Facilities
Agency Responsibilities. Table 1-1 includes an overview
of agency responsibilities on wastewater management in the
Lake Washington/Green River Basins. Detailed management
frameworks for wastewater and septic tanks are presented in
Tables 1-2 and 1-3, respectively. At the federal level,
the EPA provides funding for planning programs and establishes
regulations for industrial and municipal effluent limitations.
Under the federal Clean Water Act, the EPA funds facilities
planning established in Section 201, areawide waste treatment
management planning provided for in Section 208, and a continuing
state planning process established in Section 303. Within
A-10
-------
Table 1-2. Detailed Management Framework:
Sewerage Facilities
o = Authority exists, but is not being exercised
• - Authority Is being exercised
~ = New program or strengthening required
>.
0
c
01
Ol
<
o
o
c
E
c
o
u
>
c
ID
£
T3
<
*•*
C
4>
E
0.
0
m
>
OJ
D
0
1
o
e
0
u
UJ
Ol cv
o _
o .2
° s
w &
fl
CQ to
a a
oj a»
Q O
{Q
0)
CO
9)
c
5
3
O
X
A
c
*
£
c
3
o
ja> o
« 01
3 £
*
a>
V)
c
3
o
a
o
o
2
o
>.
o
o
o
u
0
m
^ cn D
c ~ c c r=
c
3
O
o
O)
c
§ 2
© a
I
c
M
V
S
4)
cn
PLANNING/MONITORING/INFORMATION FEDERAL STATE LOCAL
Anticipate future sewerage needs • •
Coordinate sewerage plans with land use plans
0
• 0 0000
Planning/Design of sewerage facilities
0 0 0 m
0
Monitoring and research
•
0
0
CO#
0 0
Establish funding priorities
•
0
•
. 00
•
Establish water quality standards
•
•
REGULATORY
NPDES discharge permits
•
•
•
Industrial pretreatment
t
•
•
Sewerage requirements for new development
0
. 0
t
Reveiw/approval of sewerage facility plans
CONSTRUCTION/OPERATION/MAINTENANCE
Local collector sewers
• •
•
• •
• o o
•
Regional interceptor sewers
0
0 0*
0
Treatment plants
0
O 0 •
0
Combined sewer overflow abatement
0 0
ECONOMIC ASSISTANCE
Section 201 facilities grants
•
•
Other grants
• •
•
This table summarizes the current authority and active programs of agencies responsible for each aspect ol water quality maintenance and
improvement. Those agency/functions denoted by a bold outline indicate areas in need of specific action by that agency. An indication ol
authority without active program does not necessarily indicate a deficiency unless encompassed by a bold outline. This table is based upon a
report entitled, "Existing Management Programs for Water Quality in the Cedar and Green River Basins in King County" {See Appendix III,
Tecrnical Report #8.)
SOURCE: Metro, 1978b.
A-11
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Table 1-3. Detailed Management Framework
Settle Tarks
8 H 5
8 « o
"5 S ifl
£ ~ i ¦*=
• «¦ — »
w f = ^
¦= « c £
- as S £ I
? « or 2 *_
0
a * 3 ^ o
< e t s u
a T3 3 s V
o
^ 5 ? S u
^ ~ ^ JE
w _ * «—¦ >_ HI _ -
?» i* .= ® >¦« 2 o o
(3
O
S > > 5» — 2-
S = A ^ o y S . -
i- « - e u ¦& £.ac*
^ -m S A U W 2 ^ ^ > w
Authority exials, 6ut a rot being exercised a S - £ "5 o " "5 « o 5 5
• = Authority fa being exercleed 6 ? * .* cc o c £ C I ^ 1
E "5 S> „ S S '- = 5 a i S 5 <*>
~ = New program or atrengthenlng required g £ g ™ £5 £ -n" o t ° * ®
' S " I " 1 * ? 1 ? I * * 1
c"?o5 o • as .£ = i 5 ^ • —
uj 3 u: x O O u * S x » to en a.
PLANNING/MONITORING,'INFORMATION federal
STArt
LOCAL
Coordinate wastewater disposal
witft land use planning
00030
~
Resaarc=-i'development of alternative o •
on-site disposal systems
o •
O O 0-
o
o
Water quality monitoring (coliform; nutrients! o •
0 *
o o •
•
G
Technical assistance • • »
C 4
• * •
•
» 0
Public education • • •
0 •
• • [7]
r
« o
Establish water quality standards
• •
Establish funding priorities •
m .
• :^i nn
•
REGULATORY
Des grvperlcmance standards
«
« •
»
Pa^iew'Aoprova nt proposed ce'.s aprre-its
•
• •
t
Inspection of on-site disoosal systems
•
3 0
r
Mortgage insurance policies •
Evict residents rf hsaJlh hazard exists
0
o
Administer septic tank maintenance program
0
0 fc"| 0
R
r=i
Lcensing of septic tank installers/Pumpers
•
«
CONSTBUCT10N/OP£HAT!£JN/MA)NTENANCE
Sanilary sewers (1o replace tailing systems)
» • «
»
Rehabilitation of laiJmq syslems
0 C 0
o
0
R
Maintenance of on-site systems
0 c o
o
o
R
ECONOMIC ASSISTANCE
Section 201 tacilities grants •
»
Other grants •
•
»
This labia summarizes the current authority and active programs of agencies resporsiole lor each aspect of water quality maintenance ant
improvement. Those agency/tvnctiors denoted by 4 bold outline indicate areas in need of specific action by that agency. An indica: on c
authority without active program does not necessarily indicate a deficiency unless encompassed ty a sole outline. This table is based upon ;
report entitled. Existing Management Programs for Waler Quality in tie Cedar and Green River Basins in King County" (See Appendix II'
Technical Report #6.)
SOURCE; Me-rOj. 1978b.
a-: 2
-------
Section 402 of the act, the effluent limitation requirements
are enforced through the permit program, known as the NPDES.
The administration of this program is the state's responsibility,
subject to review and approval by EPA.
At the state level, DOE administers the water pollution
control programs, including Section 303(e) and Section 208
planning programs. DOE administers Section 201 facilities
grants and establishes requirements for and reviews local
sewer plans. Also at the state level, the Department of
Social and Health Services (DSHS) has planning and regulatory
responsibilities in regard to health aspects of water quality.
When a threat to public health exists, DSHS has the authority
to require the development of a sewerage system. Additionally,
DSHS establishes minimum standards for the regulation of
on-site sewage disposal systems by local health departments.
At the regional and local levels, PSCOG provides policy
guidance for wastewater management. The King County and
Snohomish County Departments of Health regulate on-site sewage
disposal systems through a permit and maintenance program.
The responsibility for carrying out areawide waste treatment
management planning and for 201 facilities planning or the
Metro regional system lies with Metro. Through the collection
of service fees from component agencies, Metro is also involved
in the funding of facilities. Sno-Met, a regional agency
in Snohomish County, is responsible for areawide water quality
planning ("208 planning") for that area.
Local wastewater management plans are the responsibility
of cities, sewer districts and water districts acting as
sewer districts; cities and special districts within the
study area are listed in Table 1-4 and shown in Figure 1-1.
These plans describe existing conditions, and needs and costs
for sewer facilities, and are submitted for review and approval
to King County, Metro, DOE and DSHS.
On-site sewage disposal systems (mainly septic tanks)
are regulated by the King County and Snohomish County Depart-
ments of Health through administration of their permit programs.
Snohomish County has adopted strict regulations for on-site
disposal systems which have resulted in one of the lowest
failure rates for new systems in the state.
Existing Facilities - Sewer and Nonsewer. A description
of existing wastewater facilities in the study area is pre-
sented in the main volume of this EIS and will not be covered
here.
a-13
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Table 1-4. Lake Washington/Green River Basins Component Agencies
No.
Agency
Sewered ?
Currently (1979) served by:
1
City of Everett
Yes
Evere tt
2
Fircrest Sewer Dist.ri.ct
Yes
Everett
3
Snohomish County
No
4
Silver Lake Water District
No
5
Alderwood Water District
Yes
Metro (West Point)/Lynnwood
6
City of Edmonds
Yes
Edmonds
City of Mountlake Terrace
Yes
Lynnwood
3
City of Brier
Yes
Metro (West Point)
9
City of Lynnvood
Yes
Lynnwood
10
Northeast Lake Washington
Yes
Metro (West Point)
Sewer District
11
City of Bothe 11
Ye s
Metro (West Point)
12
King County Water
Yes
Metro (West Point)
District No. 104
13
King County
No
14
Holiday Lake Sewer District
No
15
City of Kirkland
Yes
Metro (Renton)
16
City of Redmond
Yes
Metro (Renton and
We = t Point)
17
City of Bellevue
Yes
Metro (Renton and
West Point)
IB
Sahallee Sewer District
Yes
Metro (West Point)
19
King County Water
Yes
Metro (West Point)
District No. 82
20
Kir.g County Water
No
District Nc. 121
21
Shorewood Apart.-ner.ts
Ye s
Metro (Renton)
22
last Mercer Island
Ye s
Metro (Renton1
Sewer District
23
Mercer Islar.d Sewer District
Yes
Metre (Renton1
24
King County Water
Yes
Metro (Renton1
District No. 107
25
Eastgace Sewer District
Ye s
Metre (Renter)
25
Lake Samnamsn Stat-e Par.<
i'e s
Metro (Eentonl
27
City of Issaquar.
Yes
Metro (Renton)
23
3ryn Mawr Sewer District
Yes
Metre (Renton]
29
City of Renter
Yes
Met.ro (Renton)
30
Kir.g County Water
No
District No. 90
31
Val-Vue Sewer District
Yes
Metro (Renton a.-.d
West Point)
32
City of Tukwila
Yes
Metro (Rer.ton)
33
Cascade Sewer District
Yes
Metro (Renton)
34
King County Water
Yes
Metro (Renton)
District No. 10S
35
City of Kent
Yes
Metro (Renton)
36
City of Auburn
Yes
Metro (Rer.ton)
37
King County Water
No
District No. 36
3a
City of Black Diamond
No
39
City of Algona
Yes
Metro (Renton)
40
City of Pacific
Ye s
Metro (Renton)
SOURCE: Metro, 1979d.
A-l 4
-------
Figure 1-1. Component Agencies in the
Lake Washington/Green River Basins
1979e.
-------
Wastewater Management Planning
The plans to coordinate the various agencies and their
functions in wastewater management are reviewed in the
following section.
Metro Comprehensive Plan. The objective of Metro's
comprehensive plan, adopted in 1959, is to "guide the proper
development of metropolitan facilities constructed or acquired
by the Municipality and of local sewer facilities constructed
or acquired by component cities or special districts within
the Municipality." Since 1959 this plan has been amended
14 times to add, modify and eliminate specific facilities
in the original system. The amended plan together with Metro's
rules and regulations guide the development of the Metropolitan
sewerage system. A decision to sewer an area, however, is
determined jointly by Metro, the contract agencies and local
land use agencies.
River Basj.n Coordinating Committee. In addition to
the comprehensive plan, several other reports and studies
serve as planning guides to Metro's long range wastewater
program. The sewerage needs for the Metro area were analyzed
in a 1974 RIBCO study and a plan for sewerage facilities
and a staged program for interceptor construction were
recommended. Some of the conclusions from the RIBCO study
have subsequently been altered by the Metro council. In
particular, sewer extension policies are now governed by
Resolution 2933.
Areawide Water Quality Plan. Metro's Areawide Water
Quality Plan ("208 plan") serves as an important input into
Metro's long range wastewater program. The plan emphasizes
the need to coordinate sewerage plans with land use plans
and to improve the procedures for allocating grant funds.
To accomplish these objectives, the plan identified five
recommendations. They are: 1) a 20-year sewage management
needs map; 2) 5-year facility request list; 3) annual facility
prioritization process; 4) interceptor extension procedures?
and 5) an "early warning system". In addition, the Areawide
Water Quality Plan addresses the problem of failing septic
tanks. Since it is recognized that sewerage systems are
not appropriate or desirable in most rural areas, this plan
recommends numerous programs to improve septic tank manage-
ment (Metro, 1978b).
Puget Sound Plants. Of recent importance to Metro's
wastewater program is the "201" planning process for the
Puget Sound treatment plants. The results of this planning
effort have been summarized by Metro (1980a) as follows:
A-16
-------
"The Metro Council has adopted a Combined Sewer Overflow
Program as part of the Comprehensive Plan. In addition the
Metro Council has raade decisions to phase out the Alki and
Carkeek Park treatment plants, and to 1 de-emphasize' the
use of the West Point treatment plant. The 'de-emphasis'
of West Point affects the Renton 201 study in terms of the
potential service area and in terms of sludge handling."
Metro has applied for a waiver from the secondary treat-
ment standard for the West Point, Richmond Beach and (po-
tentially) Duwamish treatment plants. A final decision is
dependent upon the disposition of Metro's waiver application
and upon the results of Metro's toxicant studies (Metro,
19 7 9d) .
Sewer District Planning. King County sewer districts
are required to submit a comprehensive plan to King County
for approval. These plans must include: 1) a general plan
of sewers to serve present and future needs of the district;
2) provisions for treatment plants and disposal methods
3) provisions for collection facilities; and 4) a method
for distributing the expense of sewers throughout the district.
As new sewerage needs develop within a district, adoption
of a plan for "additions and betterments" is provided for
in the same manner as the comprehensive plan. Table 1-5
presents the current status of sewer district plans.
King County Sewerage General Plan. The King County
Sewerage General Plan is a key input to Metro's wastewater
management planning. Adopted as a part of King County's
comprehensive plan, this plan serves as a primary vehicle
to coordinate the provision of sewer services with land use
plans of incorporated cities and the county. The principal
mechanism to accomplish this objective is the designation
of "local service areas" which represent the maximum area
where sewer services may be provided. Local service areas
are shown in Figure 1-2, which also compares the existing
sewered area to local service area boundaries.
Local service areas are the primary criteria for all
required King County facility approvals, including the approval
of sewer agency comprehensive plans and certification of
sewerage facilities. An amendment process has been estab-
lished in the plan update to expand services areas in the
future.
In incorporated areas, it is the responsibility of the
applicable city to ensure that sewer extensions are consistent
with the local services area of the plan. At a minimum,
the existing area and facilities designate the local service
area.
A-17
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Table 1-5. Status of Sewer
District Plans
District
Adopted
Adopted
in Fu 1 1
Adopted
in Par t
Inter im
Approva1
Comne n t s
Ca scade
Yes
12/29/75
Mot i on No. 22 59
Yes
East gate
Ye s
12/20/78
Ye s
Lakehaven
Ye s
1 1/9/77
Ord. No. 3484
Ye s
Adopted in Part pending
clarification and resolu-
tion of inconsistencies
between area zoning, Federal
Way Community Plan and
Comprehensive Plan.
N.E. Lake
Wa s h i n g t o n
Ye s
3/19/79
Ord. No. 4147
Ye s
Sewer Service consistent
with General Sewerage Plan <5c
North shore Corrmunit^ Plan
Saha1ee
Ye s
9/20/79
Ord. No. 4489
Ye s
Yes
Service to Local Service
Areas described in Sewerage
General Plan. Valid for
period not to exceed 12
months after the adoption
of the East Sarrmami sh Com-
munity Plan. The plan is
then subject to Council
reexami nation.
Trend
Ye s
5/3/76
Ord. No. 2707
Yes
Va1 Vue
Yc s
12/19/77
Ord. No. 3526
Yes
-------
Table 1-5. Con't.
Adopted Adopted Interim
District Adopted in Full in Part Approval Conrments
Yes Service to Local Service
Water District 82 9/20/79 yes yes Areas described in Sewerage
Ord. No. 4491 General Plan. Valid for a
period not to exceed 12
months after the adoption of
the East Sarrmamish Community
Plan. Then subject to
Council reexamination.
Wa t e r
District
90
No
Adopted by Council,
(9/26/77; Ord. No. 3403)
vetoed b^ executive
Ye s
Limited to areas described
Wa te r
District
104
9/20/79
Ord. No. 4495
Ye s
in Sewerage General Plan
Ye s
Limited to LSA described
Wa t e r
District
107
1/23/78
Ord. No. 3578
Ye s
in Sewerage General Plan.
No extensions pending adop-
tion of Newcastle Community
Plan
Ye s
Limited to areas established
Wa t e r
District
108
1 1/21/79
Ord. No. 4579
Ye s
yes
by Sewerage General Plan.
Valid for period not to
exceed 12 months after the
adoption of Soos Creek Com-
munity Plan, then subject to
Council reexamination.
SOURCE: Metro, 1980a.
-------
Mini
J
.j"
s
*)
)
r
LEGEND
— micucc'TOft tcwc*
0 n/mpmm ttatiom
n flllTlNl ftCWCft ttftvtcc MtCJkS
««*« couMrv local scavcc *«*«
5
SOURCE' MODIFIED FROM METRO, 1979d
Figure 1-2. local service areas, existing sewer service areas
& METRO COLLECTION SYSTEM
-------
To extend local service areas beyond the existing
facilities, municipal comprehensive plans are used. In un-
incorporated areas where community plans have been adopted,
the community plans are used to expand the local service
area.
The designation of local service areas was originally
based upon the following criteria (King County Department of
Planning and Community Development 1980a):
"1) For those lands in unincorporated areas addressed
by the Federal Way Ccnrnunity Plan, Northshors Canmunity
Plan, Highlive Ccrnmunity Plan, and Sea-Tac Communities
Plan, the planned land uses requiring sewer service
were identified using policies D-24, D-25, and D-26
of the Comprehensive Plan and other applicable canmunity
plan policies. In addition, local service areas for
these community plans were assigned to lands within
the same subdrainage basin on those lands meeting
Comprehensive Plan Policies where slope or soil conditions
could not support alternative on-site methods provided
that sewers will serve only the planned land use and
density of the community plan.
"2) For the remaining unincorporated area, the following
lands are included as local service areas:
a. land within 330 feet of existing sewers and within
the subdrainage basin;
b. lands within [ULIDs] which have been formed with
facilities funded and under contract and lands
which are designated for sewer service in proposed
camrunity plans where ULID petitions have been
certified;
c. lands for which plots requiring sewer service
have received preliminary or final approval sub-
sequent to Ordinance 3579;
d. lands identified in Ordinance 3579, Exhibit A,
as 'urban sewer service areas';
e. local service area boundaries were adjusted to
include lands entirely surrounded by local
service areas designated according to criteria
(a)-(d) above.
f. except where Community Plan or Cattnunity Plan
Revision has specifically recommended that an
area not be served by sewers, existing plots which
are made up of lots averaging 15,000 square feet
or less in size are eligible for local sewer
service.
A-21
-------
"3) Incorporated areas were generally included in local
service areas consistent with municipal land use plans.
"4) In recognition of the Countywide significance of
agricultural lands, floodways and wetlands, such
areas are not included in any local service areas
unless there is existing direct service to users.
"5) The location of the specific boundary lines of the
property line maps is on property boundaries where
possible. The lines are adjusted to the nearest
boundary where lots are less than one acre in size,
and adjusted to either property lines or portions of
sections where more than one acre is involved."
Local Policies Regarding Wastewater Service Provision
In this section, King County and Metro policies regarding
wastewater service provisions are reviewed, and state and
local health department on-site system regulations are pre-
sented .
King County Policies. King County's draft General
Development Guide, in addition to incorporating the county's
Sewerage General Plan, also contains 12 general policies
on utility services (which include sewerage, drainage, water
supply, gas, electricity, and solid waste). These policies
are as follows:
o Utilities should be planned and designed to support
planned land uses and densities throughout King Ccunty.
o King County should review sewer arid water facility
plans to insure their consistency with applicable
land use plans and policies and with projections of
future growth.
o In urban and suburban subcounty areas where adequate
utilities are now lacking, King County should encourage
the appropriate public or private agencies to provide
necessary facility improvements.
o Priority should be given to funding utility improve-
rrents in urban and suburban subcounty areas and in
designated employment centers, and in developing
portions of the transitional subcounty area.
o Utilities in rural and reserve areas should be provided
at levels appropriate for rural land uses and densities.
A- 22
-------
o In rural subcounty areas, new connections to major
water transmission facilities should be discouraged.
o The design, location, and construction of utilities
in environmentally sensitive areas should be restricted
as necessary to minimize environmental imoacts and
protect valuable environmental features.
o Sewer and water facilities should not be located
within wetlands.
o Utility lines should be installed underground where
feasible, particularly in areas subject to extensive
public view, areas with high population density, and
in newly developing areas.
o Any above-ground utility lines should be designed
and located to minimize unsightly views and environ-
mental impacts.
o Underground utilities should be grouped together and
located where accessible.
o The installation of utility lines should be coordinated
to the extent possible to reduce street excavations
and restorations.
Also of importance is the General Development Guide's
development policy recommending that subdivisions with densi-
ties of three dwelling units per acre or more be served with
sanitary sewers. Additional policies regarding the siting
of major public facilities, such as sewage treatment plants,
are presented in the Community Facilities chapter of the
General Development Guide.
Metro Policies. Sewer service in the study area is
provided at two levels. At the first level, direct sewerage
service is provided to individual parcels from the general
purpose governments, sewer districts and water districts acting
as sewer districts. At the second "wholesale" level, waste-
water is transported through interceptor sewers to regional
treatment plants operated by Metro.
Metro's rules and regulations provide for a review and
approval process to regulate connections to Metro facilities.
Resolution 2933, adopted in 1978, amended the certification
process to "include all direct connections to extensions
of existing Metro interceptors and trunks". The resolution
requires that, "prior to official consideration by Metro
of any request for extension or connection to the Metro system,
certification of consistency with local land use plans from
all cities and counties having zoning jurisdiction over any
portion of the service area, any area determined by Metro
capable of being served by the proposed extension or connection,
and any area through which the facility would be constructed".
A-2 3
-------
Resolution No. 2933 is designed to ensure that the
extension and connection to Metro interceptors is consistent
with the local land use plans and policies of affected
jurisdictions. In addition to Resolution 2933, a second
key resolution (No. 2698), adopted in 1977, requires local
agency compliance with federal grant conditions that may
be imposed on grants for Metro wastewater facilities.
Nonsewer Policies. Until recently, conventional sewer
systems were viewed by most governmental authorities as the
best method in handling wastewater. With increasing concern
for the cost and growth impacts associated with the extension
of sewer facilities in rural areas, policies now reflect
a new attitude toward on-site wastewater disposal systems
(Metro, 1980a). The 1977 Clean Water Act has incorporated
this attitude by providing increasing "201" funds for innovative
and alternative technologies, including on-site systems.
The responsibility for review and management of on-
site wastewater disposal systems in the study area lies with
the DOE and DSHS. The enforcement of rules established by
the State Board of Health is to be carried out by the local
health departments and boards. The general requirement for
local health agencies is that their regulation must be "equal
to or more stringent than state regulation." This test of
consistency, however, is open to interpretation.
The state rules for governing wastewater disposal systems
have been analyzed by Metro (1980a) as follows:
"1) An approved management system is required for systems
that exceed 3.5 dwelling units per acre, serve 12
people per acre, or generate waste flows of 12,000
g/d. If they exceed 17,500 g/d, the DOS must approve
the system and its management. This is an area of
overlapping authority. If the system is within a sewer
utility, the utility must approve the system before
a permit is issued.
2) Connection to a public sewer is required for any
dwelling unit within 200 feet. If sewage flow is
more than 1,000 g/d for a dwelling unit, and the unit
is more than 200 feet from a public sewer, the health
officer may use his/her discretion.
3) A local authority may choose between two methods of
determining minimum lot size for on-site systems. One
correlates soil type and water supply to lot size.
Under this rrethod, 12,500 square feet is the smallest
A-24
-------
lot possible for an on-site system. The second method
requires the health officer to consider more generalized
factors before approving a miniirium lot size. Essentially,
if engineering justification can be demonstrated for
a specific lot, it may be approved. General experience
indicates that a 9,600 square foot lot is typically
the snallest possible under this method. A third
method applies only to systems within a sewer utility.
It requires the utility health officer, and other
local agencies to determine the appropriate size of
the lot. The utility must agree to provide maintenance
and cperation responsibility.
4J Before a septic tank and drainfield is covered, the
health officer must grant approval of the system. For
long life systems, this standard is critical. Un-
fortunately, the standard may be too weak. It does
not require inspection of the system, only approval.
Health Departments, short on staff and funds, may
only review preliminary and final construction plans,
instead of inspecting a site. They will not know,
therefore, whether physical damage to the drainfield
has occurred during construction or whether it was
properly designed and installed."
In addition to the standards listed above, other guide-
lines for various wastewater management alternatives have
been adopted by DSHS. If compliance with state guidelines
is accomplished, the local agency may approve alternative
systems.
King County, Snohomish and Pierce Counties have each
adopted on-site system regulations consistent with the state
requirements. King County's regulations are currently being
reviewed to reflect the policy direction of on-site systems
as long-term wastewater treatment and disposal alternatives.
Table 1-6 summarizes provisions of the existing and proposed
King County on-site system regulations.
Snohomish County's on-site system regulations require
a 100 percent reserve area regardless of location and a minimum
lot size of 12,500 square feet. Snohomish County's regulations
do not allow for on-site systems other than septic tanks/
drainfields (Metro, 1980a).
Pierce County has adopted the state rules, and requires
a 100 percent reserve area regardless of location. The county
has several mound systems and over 150 community systems
in operation.
A- 25
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Water Supply
Existing Agencies and Facilities
Agency Responsibilities Table 1-1 includes an overview
of agency responsibilities in water supply in the Lake Washington/
Green River Basins. At the federal level, the EPA establishes
drinking water regulations and the Array Corps of Engineers
is responsible for constructing and operating multiple-purpose
water projects. At the state level, water rights and uses
are regulated by the DOE, Departments of Fisheries and Game;
the DOE is also responsible for statewide water planning.
Health aspects of water supply are regulated by the DSHS.
At the regional and local levels, PSCOG and King County
have established advisory policies regarding water supply,
and the Seattle/King County Department of Health regulates
public health aspects of water supply. The main operating
agencies for water supply are the Seattle Water Department,
cities and water districts.
Almost all of the Lake Washington/Green River Basins
study area is supplied with water by the Seattle Water Depart-
ment, which serves about one million residents. Of these,
450,000 are served by 34 retail water purveyors (cities and
water districts) and the remaining 550,000 are served directly
by Seattle. The Seattle Water Department service area takes
in almost all of the study area, with the exception of south
King County and parts of Pierce and Snohomish Counties. Within
the Seattle Water Department Service area, the only major
cities not supplied by Seattle are Issaquah, Redmond, Kent,
and parts of Renton. These cities serve about 150,000 residents
from local groundwater suoplies (Seattle Water Department,
1979).
Several additional cities and water districts within
the Lake Washington/Green River Basins lie outside the
Seattle Water Department service area and also provide their
own supplies. These include several water districts in
Snohomish County and south King County, and the City of Auburn.
Existing Water System. Surface water supplies most
of the Lake Washington/Green River Basins population. The
main watersheds providing water to the Seattle Water Depart-
ment are those of the Cedar River and Tolt River. In addition,
the Green River provides water for the City of Tacoma, which
lies outside the study area.
A- 26
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Table 1-6. Important Provisions of the Existing and
Proposed On-Site Wastewater Disposal
Regulations for King County
n_Lmijm Lot_
Size:
Re s_e e Dr^a i n-
field area
EXJ_STJNG
General Engineering
criteria, if 30" or
mo re of original
topso i1
If 20-30' of topsoil,
five acre minimum.
50% Rese r ve Ar ea
NEW
Same
If 24-30" of topsoil
2.5 acremin jmum.
If 2Q-2V topsoil,
5 acre mi nimum.
50% reserve inside
a sewe r service area
or transitional area
1 0 0% reserve area
outside a s ewe r
service or transi-
tional area.
3. £eL£2.!a t ' on
T§£i
Inspection
At discretion of
Health Officer.
App rova 1 Requ i red
Designer inspection.
Health Officer may
inspect at his dis-
c r e t ion. Adm i n i s t r a -
tive policy goal of
attaining 100% site
inspection.
5. Not_j_ce t_o
CFTecl< System
None
Education
Pr_o^r_am
Exce s s i_v_e
lit y
Standard
None
None
8. A1ternat ives
SOURCE: Metro, 1980a.
No prov i $ i on
A-27
He a 1t h Dept. must
notify owner three
years after install-
ation that septic
tank shou1d be
checked and pumped
i f neces sar y.
Health Department
must provide con-
tinuing education
p r og r am.
So i1 wh i ch per c s at
the rate of one min-
ute or less. Special
review of a system
for s uch soils at
Health Officer
discretion.
A11ows alternat ives
wh i ch the state has
app roved.
-------
Groundwater in the Lake Washington/Green River Basins
is found in three groundwater regimes, the foothills, drift
plains and valley segments. In some places, groundwater
yields are high (500 gpm for individual wells}, whereas in
other places, yields are low or variable (CH2M Hill, 1974a).
In general, little is known about the supply capability of
groundwater resources in the study area.
Seattle Water Department. Because it supplies the
majority of the population within the Lake Washington/Green
River Basins, this review of the existing water system will
focus on Seattle facilities. Recent (1972-1976) average
annual water use for Seattle has been 153 MGD; of this total,
82 MGD (53 percent) was sold to direct service customers,
41 MGD (27 percent) was sold to water districts and cities,
and 30 MGD (20 percent) represent system losses and "public
uses" such as flushing Green Lake (Seattle Water Department,
1979) .
As mentioned, the Seattle Water Department's current
sources of supply are the Cedar and Tolt Rivers; the Cedar
River supplies two-thirds of Seattle's water and the Tolt
River supplies the remaining third. The Chester Morse Dam
on the Cedar River provides 4 0,000 acre-feet of storage in
Morse Lake (see Figure 1-3); Chester Morse Lake is used for
power generation in addition to water supply. Cedar River
water is conveyed to Seattle's distribution system via a
diversion structure at Landsburg, which has a current capacity
of 220 MGD. The developed average annual water supply capacity
from the Cedar River is 150 MGD; the Seattle Water Department
currently has a water rights claim for an average annual
diversion from the Cedar River of 300 MGD. Raw Cedar River
water is screened, chlorinated and fluoridated prior to dis-
tribution .
The Tolt River system consists of a dam and reservoir
on the South Fork Tolt River (see Figure 1-3). The South
Fork Tolt River Reservoir has a storage capacity of 60,000
acre-feet. Water is diverted into the Tolt regulating basin
and then into Tolt pipeline No. 1 (capacity = 100 MGD) for
distribution. The developed average annual water supply
capacity from the South Fork Tolt River is 60 MGD; the Seattle
Water Department has water rights permit for 18 2 MGD, and
has an application for a water right to the North Fork Tolt
River on file. Only minor treatment of Tolt River water
is currently required; however, naturally-occurring high
concentrations of asbestos fibers are found in both the North
and South Forks, and the requirement for direct filtration
is currently being studied.
A-28
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FIGURE 1 -3
CURRENT WATER SUPPLY FACILITIES
SEATTLE WATER DEPARTMENT & CITY OF TACOMA
fOM'Sf/
Riven
fOUK
SOUTH FORK TOUT
DAM 6 RESERVOIR
SHIP
CANAL
LAKE
SAMMAMISH
LAKE
WASHINGTON
Landsburq
Dlvirtion
MASONRY
OAM
LAKE
YOUNGS
CHESTER MOUSE LAKE
HOWARD HANSON DAM
— HOWARD HANSON RESERVOIR
Palmer Diversion
C Ptp«ltn«
SOURCE' CH2M HILL, 1974a
A-29
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City of Tacoma. The City of Tacoma, which is not within
the study area, annually diverts about 72 MGD from the Green
River, whose watershed is within the study area. The Corps
of Engineers Howard Hanson Reservoir on the Green River provides
107,000 acre-feet of storage for flood control and low flow
augmentation (see Figure 1-3) . Water is diverted to the
Tacoma water system through the Palmer diversion and pipeline.
Operation of the Howard Hanson Reservoir is discussed further
in the following section on drainage and flood control.
Water Supply Planning
Water Rights and Minimum Flow Constraints. Water supply
planning in the Lake Washington/Green River Basins is constrained
by the water rights and minimum flow requirements established
by the DOE under three state laws. The 1917 Water Code provides
for DOE adjudication of existing water rights, and a post-
1917 procedure for appropriating waters to a beneficial use.
The 1969 Minimum Water Flows and Levels Act allows DOE to
establish minimum flows for fish and wildlife, aesthetics,
or water quality control. The Water Resources Act of 1971
requires DOE to establish base flows on perennial rivers
and streams to provide for preservation of fish, wildlife,
scenic, aesthetic, other environmental, and navigation values;
this law allows DOE to reserve waters for beneficial use in
the future and to suspend additional appropriations until
sufficient information is available to make sound water use
decisions.
Implementation of these requirements is complex in part
because each of the three state laws exempts pre-existing
water rights and/or rights relating to water storage and
reservoirs- The status of water rights is often unclear
and cannot be legally clarified without adjudication (Metro,
1978d).
The Departments of Fisheries and Game are also active
in establishing river flows. The departments may request
DOE to set minimum flows for fish, game and wildlife purposes.
Also, the departments administer a hydraulics permit program;
projects which involve use, diversion, obstruction, or flow
changes on any river or stream require a hydraulics permit.
River Basin Coordinating Committee. In 1972, RIBCO
was created to coordinate and integrate the results of four
environmental management studies for the Cedar and Green
River basins: water quality, water resources, urban drainage,
and solid waste. One of these studies was the Water Resources
Management Study (WRMS) initiated in 1971 by Seattle and
A-30
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Metro, whose purpose was to develop and recommend a water
resource management program for the Cedar and Green River
basins capable of meeting the region's water requirements
through the year 2000. The boundaries of the WRMS study
area include almost all the Lake Washington/Green River Basins,
with the exception of the extreme southern portion of the
study area drained by the White River.
The WRMS projects that Seattle area water use will increase
from 188 MGD in 1972 to 320 MGD in the year 2000, and that
Tacoma area water use will increase from 80 MGD in 1972 to
160 MGD in the year 2000. The present supply capability of
Seattle area facilities is estimated at 225 MGD (150 MGD
from the Cedar River, 60 MGD from the South Fork Tolt River,
and 15 MGD from groundwater); the present supply capability
of the Tacoma area's Green River supply is estimated at 230
MGD. The WRMS concludes that a shortfall (water need) of
95 MGD would exist for the Seattle area by the year 2000;
current management plans indicate an adequate supply for
the Tacoma area.
The WRMS identifies and evaluates a variety of structural
and nonstructural ways of obtaining additional water, and
also examines institutional alternatives for water resource
management. The recommended plan is a "multipurpose" plan
relying mainly on additional Cedar River water storage and
diversions. Additional water is provided for lake flushing,
fish spawning, flood control, and power generation, in addition
to identified municipal and industrial needs. To implement
the plan, the WRMS recommends a more centralized water resources
institutional arrangement, adoption of multiple-use and water
conservation policies by the responsible agencies, and several
additional studies.
In 1974, the Seattle Water Department assumed lead agency
responsibility for implementing the WRMS; Seattle drew up
a detailed implementation plan and has undertaken most
activities required by this implementation plan. However,
interagency agreements regarding institutional responsibilities
of Metro, Seattle, and King County in implementing the plan
have not been completed (Seattle Water Department, 1979) .
Seattle Complan. In 1979, the Seattle Water Department
released a draft of its Comprehensive Regional Water Plan
(Complan), aimed at identifying 50-year water supply needs.
The Complan consists of three elements; 1) development of
a new source of water for satisfying future demand, 2) im-
provements to the existing system, and 3) management programs
and issues.
A-31
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The Complan projects that Seattle service area water
use will increase from a current demand of 155 MGD to 253
MGD in the year 2025; the population served is projected to increase
from one million at present to 1.5 million in the year 2025.
Most of this increase (90 percent) is projected to occur
in the suburban purveyor areas (which include most of the
Lake Washington/Green River Basins study area). Since the
existing system's capacity is identified as 210 MGD (this
figure excludes groundwater) the Complan concludes that an
additional supply of 50 MGD is needed by the year 1995. The
Complan's projections of municipal and industrial water demand
and of future water needs are considerably lower than those
developed for the WRMS.
The Complan considers four potential sources of future
water supply: the Everett-Sultan River system; the North
Fork Tolt River; the North Fork Snoqualmie River; and the
Cedar River. The Cedar River, which was recommended by the
WRMS, was considered infeasible for a major source of new
supply because the Army Corps of Engineers, subsequent to
the WRMS, had increased revised flow requirements at the
Chittenden Locks (required for navigation of the Lake Washington
Ship Canal), thereby reducing significantly the available
yield. The draft Complan tentatively recommends joint develop-
ment of the North Fork Tolt River by the Seattle Water Depart-
ment and Seattle City Light; its firm yield would be 70 MGD,
based on existing instream flow requirements established
by the Washington Departments of Fisheries and Game. This
selection will not become final until 198 3. Development
of the North Fork Snoqualmie River could become the preferred
water source if its costs were equivalent to the North Fork
Tolt River and if it were feasible. Until a new water source
is developed in the year 1995, the Complan recommends purchase
of surplus water from the City of Tacoma.
In addition to development of a new water source, the
Complan recommends numerous improvements to the existing
water supply system. The most significant of these is im-
provements of the flood control capabilities of the Cedar
Masonry Dam.
Total costs of the Complan projects to provide water
needs through the year 2025 are $221 million. These costs
are to be met through revenue bonds, federal financing and
Seattle Water Department operating revenues. Because many
of the projects primarily benefit suburban water purveyors,
62 percent of the total Complan costs would be allocated
to purveyors.
A-3 2
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The management programs and issues addressed by the
Complan are system expansion and purveyor contracts, water
service policy, demand metering, water conservation, facility
site disposal, water quality control, and watershed management.
Of particular interest to this EIS is the Complan's water
conservation program, whose goal is a reduction of 7 percent
in water demand. The long-term water conservation program
consists of voluntary cooperation projects (school visitation
and curriculum development, speakers bureau, bill stuffers,
distribution of water conservation kits, promotion of water
saving plumbing fixtures, and education of groups), and public
use management projects (leak detection, reservoir rehabilitation,
pipeline relining and replacement, and revision of plumbing
and building codes). It is estimated that water, sewer and
electricity savings attributable to the conservation program
would be $3.4 million per year over the short term and $4.7
over the long term.
Relationship of Snohomish Basin to Cedar-Green Basin
Planning. As mentioned, the Seattle Complan's tentative
choice of a regional water supply is the North Fork Tolt
River, the second choice being the North Fork Snoqualmie River
if cost and feasibility problems could be solved. Planning
for the North Fork Snoqualmie River, a portion of the Snohomish
basin, has occurred as part of the Snohomish mediated agreement
and the Snohomish mediated plan. A reconnaissance report
on the Snohomish mediated plan prepared by the Army Corps of
Engineers (1976) analyzes the feasibility of a multipurpose
dam on the North Fork Snoqualmie River. This report concludes
that purchase of municipal and industrial water from this pro-
ject is essential to economically justify the project, accounting
for 48 percent of the project benefits.
The only potential purchasers of large volumes of municipal
and industrial water from a North Fork Snoqualmie River project
are the Seattle Water Department or wholesale customers of
the Seattle Water Department which might separate from the
Seattle water system and independently sponsor the project.
The Seattle Complan concludes that the North Fork Snoqualmie
project could be supported by Seattle if the difference in
water supply costs between the North Fork Snoqualmie and
the North Fork Tolt would be paid by a party other than
Seattle ratepayers (i.e., by residents of the Snohomish basin
receiving flood control benefits).
The regional water supply source selection issue has
been summarized by one commentator (Beaulieu, 197 9) as
follows:
A-3 3
-------
"Assuming that Seattle retains its de facto role as
the regional water supplier, should Seattle support multi-
purpose development of the North Fork Snoqualmie or the North
Fork Tolt, considering 1) the effective veto this might
mean for the North Fork Snoqualmie program, 2) all of the relative
merits, danerits, elanents, and uncertainties attached to both
alternatives, and 3) that sponsorship of the North Fork Sno-
qualmie by Seattle might make this source financially un-
attractive to [its] customer service area."
Local Comprehensive Water Plans. Under King County
Ordinance 1709, King County water districts and cities wishing
to provide service to unincorporated areas must prepare com-
prehensive water plans. These plans must be approved by
the King County Council. Table 1-7 indicates the status
of approval of comprehensive water plans in the study area
as of June 1979; as shown, few of these plans had been approved
at that time. This table also indicates whether the water
districts and cities are supplied by Seattle, or whether
they have an independent supply.
Local Policies Regarding Water Service
The City of Seattle and King County policies regarding
coordination of growth and water service previsions are discussed
in this section.
City of Seattle. The Seattle Water Department has estab-
lished a policy and procedure for new water service connections
outside its direct service area (Seattle Water Department,
1979). The policy states that Seattle is "committed to a
water service policy which is consistent with the policies
and regulations of appropriate state, regional, county, and
local jurisdictions administering land use and environmental
controls." The policy requires that only bona fide water
purveyors be allowed to connect to the Seattle system, and
that they must connect at existing Seattle pipelines; if
a new pipeline could be used as part of the regional water
supply, however, Seattle would consider financing part or
all of the new pipeline.
King County. King County's draft General Development
Guide contains several general utility policies applicable
to water supply planning. These policies are listed in the
"wastewater management" section.
A- 34
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Table 1-7. Status of Comprehensive Water Plan Approvals
Purveyor
Supplied By Independent Status of Comprehensive Plan
Seattle Supply Approval as of June 15, 1979
Kino County Water Districts
14, 63, 69, 11, 38
X
57
X
53
X
66
X
63, 97, 99
X
78
X
79
X
81
X
82
X
83
X
8 6
X
87
X
90
X
94
X
101
X
104
X
105
X
107
X
10S
X
111
X
117
X
121
X
125
X
Cities Wishing to Serve
Unincorporated Areas**
Bellevue
X
Auburn
X
Bothe11
X
Kent
X
Issaquah
X
Pacific
X
Renton
X
X
Planned merger; not approved by
King County Council
No plan submitted
Not approved
No plan submitted
Consolidated into City of Bellevue
plan
City of Renton will abort
Approved
Approved
Not approved
Not approved
Will be dissolved
Ho plan submitted
Not approved
No plan submitted
No plan submitted
Approved
Not approved
Approved by King County Council
Approved by Xing County Council
Approved by King County Council
Approved by King County Council
Prepared to merge with District 82
No plan submitted
Mot approved
Not approved
Not approved
Not approved
Not approved
Not approved
Not approved
* Small water associations and companies also must prepare comprehensive plans; they are not
included in this table.
**The remaining cities in the study area are not required to prepare comprehensive plans.
SOURCE: King County Building and Land Development Division, psrs. comm.
A-35
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In addition, King County has two key ordinances which
affect local water service planning. Ordinance 1709 requires
both water and sewer districts to prepare comprehensive plans
in order to provide better coordination between King County
and special districts. Ordinance 3579, passed in 1978,
designates areas approved for water service. Essentially,
service is approved in areas with existing water facilities,
including land within 330 feet of these facilities.
Drainage and Flood Control
Existing Agencies and Facilities
Table 1-1 includes an overview of agency responsibilities
in drainage and flood control in the Lake Washington/Green
River Basins. Under the federal Flood Control Act, the Army
Corps of Engineers is responsible for flood control planning
and implementation on major rivers. The Corps controls the
Howard Hanson Dam, on the Green River, and regulates outflow
for flood control purposes. The Corps also has widened and
deepened the Sammamish River Channel connecting Lake Washington
and Lake Sammamish to prevent flooding. To maintain navigation,
the Corps periodically dredges the Duwamish River and the
Lake Washington Ship Canal. Other federal agencies directly
involved in drainage and flood control include the EPA, which
funds nonpoint source pollution control programs, and the
Department of Housing and Urban Development, which administers
the national flood insurance program.
At the state level, water uses are regulated by the
DOE and Departments of Fisheries and Game. At the regional
and local levels, PSCOG and King County Soil Conservation
District have advisory roles, and Metro has responsibility
for 208 areawide water quality management planning.
Local drainage facilities planning and implementation
are the responsibility of cities and with unincorporated
areas, of the counties. Historically, these activities have
consisted of constructing conveyance facilities such as storm
sewers and drainage ditches. Systems aimed at preserving
natural drainage courses and minimizing water quality and
quantity impacts have only recently received attention (Metro,
1978d). Table 1-8 shows the extent of surface runoff and
drainage programs undertaken by local governments in King
County; these programs tend to have different emphasis within
each jurisdiction, as shown by the table.
A-36
-------
Table 1-8. Existing Local Government Surface Runoff
and Drainage Programs in King County
/
. «¦
4? /
suaQASiN Surface water plan
Ad*q»l« lor Wtlei Quality
NO
NO
rjo
NO
NO
NO
YES
YES
NO
NO
YES
INSUF
INSUF
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
o o
Z 2
NO
NO
INSUF
YES
YES
INSUF
NO
NO
NO
NO
YES
NSUF
INSUF
NO
INSUF
INSUF
NO
NO
NO
NO
iNSuf
NO
INTERAGENCY AGREEMENTS FOR DRAINAGE
NO
YES
NO
MO
NO
NO
NO
INSUF
NO
IMSUF
YES
INSUF
NO
NO
NO
NA
NO
YES
NO
VES
NO
USE MOKIITOHINC OATA QN:
Stiaini Flaw
NA
NO
NO
YES
NO
INSUF
NO
NO
NA
INSUF
NO
YES
NO
NO
NO
YES
INSUF
INSUF
YES
NO
NA
Slrtim Had/ Laki Condition!
NA
NO
NO
YES
NO
NO
NO
NO
INSUF
NO
NO
YES
NO
NO
NO
NO
INSUF
INSUF
VES
NO
iNXLFf
PUBLIC ACQUISITION/CONSTRUCTION FOR DRAINAGE
Bai«d on Sifritc* WjIii Pfjn
INSUF
NO
INSUf
NO
NO
NO
INSUF
YES
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
YES
NO
YES
YES
NO
YES
NO
NO
NO
NO
YES
YES
NO
NO
INSUF
VES
INSUF
NO
NO
NO
1NiUf
NO
PUBLIC WORKS PROGRAMS FOR:
Sit Ml Cltinioi
INSUF
INSUF
YES
YES
NO
YES
YES
INSUF
NO
YES
INSUF
YES
YES
INSUF
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
VES
CaUh 8uin hUintuianoa
JN5UF
rNSUf
INSUF
IMSUF
YES
YES
YES
IMSUF
NO
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
INSUF
YES
YES
YES
YES
NO
IhSUf
Sadinunt Buin hUintcnanc*
NA
MA
NO
INSUF
NO
INSUF
NO
NA
NO
NA
YES
YES
YES
NA
YES
YES
NA
NA
YES
NO
NA
Slractn Chfcnn*! MainleauKi
NA
INSUF
NA
INSUF
NO
NSUF
YES
NA
NA
INSUF
NA
Yes
YES
NA
NO
NA
NA
Y£S
NO
NO
NA
ON-SITE DRAINAGE SYSTEM MAINTENANCE
NO
MO
MO
INSUF
YES
INSUF
NO
r.o
INSUF
INSUF
NO
YES
YES
NO
INSUF
INSUI
iNSUF
INSUF
IN SUF
NO
INSlJF
DRAINAGE REVIEW Of DEVELOPMENT PROPOSALS
Raviaww hat Vfiui Quality Exptrliu
INSUF
INSUF
YES
INSUF
NO
NO
YES
YES
NO
NO
YES
YES
YES
YES
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
NO
INSUF
NO
YES
INSUF
YES
NO
YES
NO
NO
YES
YES
NO
VES
YES
YES
IfeSUf
YES
YES
INSUF
NO
YES
NO
ON-SITE AEGUL ATIONS OR POLICIES FOft:
Wtlar Quantity in Oarriopminl Pima
NO
YES
NO
YES
YES
YES
VES
NO
INSUF
INSUF
YES
YES
YES
NO
NO
YES
YES
YES
INSUF
NO
NO
W«1«l Qullilv in Otvalopmnl Plan!
NO
INSUF
NO
YES
YES
VES
tNSUf
NO
NO
NO
ikisui
YES
IMSUF
INSUF
NO
YES
WSUf
INSUF
INSUI
NO
WO
Du(ia| and Gridini Activities
INSUF
IMSUF
INSUF
YES
lis aljl
YES
INSUF
INSUF
INSUF
YES
(NSUF
YES
VES
INSUF
NO
YES
YES
INSUF
INSUF
IMSUF
JM5UF
Conauoclion Actiirlli«t
INSUF
INSUF
YES
YES
INSUF
YES
YES
INSUF
YES
YES
INSUF
YES
YES
YES
INSUF
YES
YES
INSUF
YES
YES
YES
RtbntiM / 0«U«tioF
INSUF
YES
YES
YES
NSUF
YES
INSUF
YES
VES
>NSUI
YES
YES
YES
NO
YES
YES
INSUI
YES
YES
VES
Construction Act»ilt«a
INSUF
YES
YES
YES
INSUF
YES
YES
IMSUF
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
YES
VES
VES
Op*»tloa, «u . of Piiatl* Diatn«g* Ftcililiai
NO
NO
NO
VES
INSUF
NSUF
NO
NO
INSUF
NO
NO
YES
YES
NO
INSUF
iNSUF
NO
YES
NO
WO
NO
FUNDING
Attempting lo Augnwril Water Quality Fundi
INSUF
NO
MO
YES
WO
YES
insuf
NO
NO
IWbUF
NO
YES
NO
NO
NO
NO
INSUF
NO
YES
IWSUl
NO
PERCENT OF CiTY DEVELOPED
CSX
lift*
9im r t« »< « ,¦ t •
-------
Drainage and Flood Control Planning
River Basin Coordinating Committee. An urban drainage
study was conducted for the Cedar and Green River basins
as part of the RIBCO planning process. The methodology of
this study involved projection of land use changes for 27
drainage subbasins and development of recommended drainage
facilities for each subbasin to mitigate adverse water quality
and quantity impacts identified by computer modeling. The
recommended facilities are both structural (e.g., channelization,
holding ponds) and nonstructural (e.g., runoff control legis-
lation, floodplain zoning). Total capital costs of the
recommended facilities are $86.3 million.
Army Corps of Engineers. The Army Corps of Engineers
{1975), in addition to preparing the RIBCO urban drainage
study, recently completed a study of flood control needs
for the Cedar River. The existing spillway arrangement on
the Cedar Masonry Dam currently precludes use of Chester
Morse Lake as a flood control facility; the lake is currently
used mainly for water supply and power generation. The Corps
of Engineers recommends that improvements be made to the
dam's spillway and that increased floodplain management be
instituted, since the development has recently begun to
encroach on the floodplain. The Cedar River Dam improvements,
included in the Seattle Water Department's Complan, are
expected to increase the storage capacity of Chester Morse
Lake by 20 MGD for flood control, water supply, and fishery
enhancement.
Metro. Metro's major role in drainage and flood control
planning is as the designated 208 planning agency. Metro's
areawide water quality 208 plan, adopted in 1978, emphasizes
the development of adequate surface runoff drainage control
programs. Specific recommendations for improved management
practices are presented in the 208 plan for erosion and sedi-
mentation, fecal pollution, weeds and algae, toxic pollutants
and sewerage facility needs. Comprehensive demonstration
water quality plans were prepared for two drainage subbasins,
one of which (Juanita Creek) lies within the Renton study
area.
Local Governments. The City of Bellevue is the most
active city in the Lake Washington/Green River Basins study
area in drainage planning. The city has developed a com-
prehensive plan to utilize and preserve natural drainage
courses. King County, in addition to developing the drainage
policies mentioned below, developed the comprehensive water
quality plan for Juanita Creek as part of Metro's 208 planning
effort.
A- 38
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Green River Basin Program. This planning program was
initiated by King County, the King County Soil Conservation
District, and the Cities of Auburn, Kent, Renton, and Tukwila
through intergovernmental agreement in May 1978. The program
is designed to ensure continued multiple uses of the Green
River, while at the same time minimizing flood damage. Specific
objectives of the program are as follows:
o Adopt a basinwide perspective
o Encourage public involvement in decisions
o Conserve valuable natural resources
o Improve intergovernmental cooperation
o Produce multiple benefits from all projects
o Promote local control of water resource management
Several structural flood protection projects are part
of the Green River basin program. The East Side Watershed
Project is to provide flood protection to the eastern part
of the lower Green River Valley, in Kent and Auburn; a pump
plant was completed in 1972, and an alternative for drainage
channels and storage is currently being finalized. The West
Side Watershed Project is to provide protection to the lower
Green River Valley west of the river. The Green River levee
project, currently under study by the Army Corps of Engineers,
involves a levee system along the lower Green River. The
most important structural element of the program is operation
of the Howard Hanson Dam, which regulates flows from the
upper Green River Basin; its operation affects the design
of all other projects.
Nonstructural flood prevention alternatives are also
being considered in the Green River basin program. These
include on-site drainage retention ordinances, designation
of flood hazard areas from which development is precluded,
identification of critical drainage areas and other areas
of concern, and development of federal funding assistance
for land acquisition and nonstructural alternatives.
Resource enhancement is receiving attention in the program
through several activities, in particular the Green River
and Environment Study (King County Department of Planning
and Community Development, Planning Division, 1979g), which
is a comprehensive recreation and conservation plan for the
river. Basinwide issues addressed by this study are as
follows:
o Howard Hanson Dam, operation of which affects fish,
recreation, water supply, and flood control
A-39
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o Minimum flow for fish (No universally accepted
minimum flow exists for the Green River; Hanson
Darn maintains a minimum flow of 110 cfs; the
Department of Fisheries feels that a low flow of
300 cfs is needed)
o Declining water quality, due to siltation, bacteria,
and toxic substances
o Increased shoreline diking and bank armoring, with
consequent loss of vegetation and wildlife habitat
o Lack of adequate development setbacks, foreclosing
future opportunities for recreation and conservation
o Development in the "meander advance zone", which
will require future structural measures to protect
development from the advancing river
Local Policies Regarding Drainage Facilities and Flood
Control
King County Policy and Ordinances. King County's draft
General Development Guide contains policies encouraging the
retention of natural drainages. King County Ordinances 2281
and 2812 establish regulations requiring new developments
to retain surface runoff for controlled release. Ordinances
1096 and 1838 establish a policy of recognizing wetlands
as important elements of natural drainage systems.
Cities. Most cities of the Lake Washington/Green River
Basins have policies or regulations for minimizing surface
runoff and drainage impacts from new development. The status
of these policies and regulations is shown in Table 1-8.
Solid Waste Management
Existing Agencies and Facilities
Table 1-1 includes an overview of agency responsibilities
in solid waste management in the Lake Washington/Green River
Basins. At the federal level, EPA establishes regulations
for solid waste disposal and funds solid waste programs.
At the state level, the DOE develops and updates the state
solid waste management plan and regulates solid waste disposal
practices.
A-40
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At the regional and local level, the Seattle/King County
Department of Public Health regulates all solid waste handling
and disposal operations. Metro is responsible for planning
and implementing programs for sewage sludge management.
The local solid waste management system involves the
basic steps of collection, transfer, and disposal. Most
of the solid waste in King County is collected by private
companies. King County and the City of Seattle are the main
local agencies responsible for operating transfer stations;
currently, King County operates six transfer stations and
Seattle operates an additional two.
Landfilling is currently the main type of solid waste
disposal in the study area. King County operates one major
regional landfill at Cedar Hills, with an area of 920 acres,
and five rural landfills; Seattle operates two landfills;
the Cities of Skykomish and Carnation each operate one small
landfill; and private companies operate three small landfills.
Table 1-9 indicates the types of solid waste accepted at
each of the landfill sites. The Cedar Hills landfill, which
is the main landfill relied upon by King County, has enough
capacity for the next 20 years (King County Department of
Building and Land Development, pers. comm.).
The Cedar Hills regional landfill and Metro's Renton
treatment plant are related in two ways. First, Renton treat-
ment plant sludge is disposed of at the Cedar Hills site.
Second, leachate from Cedar Hills is treated at the Renton
treatment plant.
Solid Waste Management Plans and Policies
River Basin Coordinating Committee/King County Solid
Waste Management Plan. A recommended solid waste plan was
developed as part of the RIBCO studies and currently functions
as King County's solid waste management plan. The plan is
designed to address the following needs: shortage of landfill
capacity, improvements in landfills to meet environmental
standards, compliance with Seattle/King County Departments
of Public Health health and safety standards, a new sewage
sludge disposal alternative, and lack of interagency coor-
dination .
The solid waste plan recommends a regional management
approach for solid waste disposal; this proposal eventually
led to the designation of PSCOG and its solid waste committee
as a regional solid waste management board. Among the project
proposals in the solid waste plan are new transfer stations,
A-41
-------
Table 1-9. Solid Wastes Not Accepted for Disposal at King County Landfills
King County
Cedar Falls
Cedar Hills
Duvall
Enumclaw
Hobart
Vashon
City of Seattle
Kent-Highlands
Midway
Small Municipalities
Carnation
Skykomish
Private
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-------
upgrading the existing solid waste management system to meet
environmental standards, a home solid waste segregation
program, and construction of an energy recovery facility
with eventual phasing out of regional landfill disoosal.
Improved operating practices are also recommended. Ten-year
(1975-1984) capital costs of the plan are $109 million, and
10-year operation and maintenance costs are $95.3 million.
King County Solid Waste Management Policies. King County's
draft General Development Guide contains six general policies
to guide solid waste management. These policies encourage
a regional approach to solid waste management, with resource
and energy recovery systems as the preferred solid waste
disposal system, and with the disposal of hazardous and other
special wastes being the responsibility of producers of such
wastes, subject to applicable government regulations.
Recreation
Existing Agencies and Facilities
Table 1-1 includes an overview of agency responsibilities
in recreation in the Lake Washington/Green River Basins.
Agencies responsible for planning, funding and operating
parks and recreation facilities are the U. S. Forest Service,
the State Parks and Recreation Commission, the Department
of Natural Resources, the Department of Game {which manages
public fishing areas), King County Parks Division, and city
park departments. Advisory roles are undertaken by the Heritage
Conservation and Recreation Service (HCRS) at the federal
level and PSCOG at the regional level; HCRS also provides
federal funding for parks under the Land and Water Conservation
Act.
Residents of the study area enjoy a wide range of re-
creational opportunities; through a short automobile ride,
these opportunities extend into Snohomish, Pierce, and eastern
King Counties. Major existing recreation areas within this
three-county, Seattle/Everett/Tacoma Standard Consolidated
Statistical Area (SCSA) are shown in Figure 1-4.
Within the Seattle/Everett/Tacoma region rivers, lakes,
marine shorelands, and the inland waters of Puget Sound offer
many opportunities for water-oriented recreation such as
boating, sailing, water skiing, swimming, and fishing. The
popularity of water-oriented recreation has been a strong
motivating factor for historic and current water pollution
control activities within the Puget Sound region.
A-4 3
-------
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Figure 1-4. Major Existing Recreation Areas:
Seattle/Everett/Tacoma SCSA
SOURCE: BOR, 1977.
-------
The Bureau of Outdoor Recreation (BOR) (1977) (now known
as HCRS) recently completed a case study of recreational
needs in the Seattle/Everett/Tacoma SCSA as part of the
National Urban Recreation Study. This assessment concludes
that water-oriented recreation is an especially important
planning priority for all local jurisdictions:
"Although each local jurisdiction has its own system
of parks and programs to meet the particular needs of its
residents, same unfilled needs are common to all. Boating
facilities are generally inadequate throughout the study
area and are given high priority by both planners and users
of park systems. While swinming beaches are currently adequate
to meet existing needs, acquisition to meet future needs
should be planned and effected to make the maximum use of
available opportunities. Preservation of and access to the
shorelines of Puget Sound, Lakes Washington and Sanmamish,
and other water areas in the study area are continual concerns
due to the rapid development of these sites for private purposes."
Recreation Planning and Policies
Planning for recreation is undertaken by each of the
operating agencies listed in Table 1-1. This discussion
will focus on recreation planning and policies of King County,
the BOR's case study of the Seattle/Everett/Tacoma SCSA;
the Washington Statewide Outdoor Recreation Plan; and Metro
and EPA facilities planning recreation coordination.
King County. In recent years, King County has been
able to expand and improve its park and recreation system,
largely through passage of the Forward Thrust bond issue
in 1968. The King County Planning Division (1977c) recently
published the Park Policy Task Force Report, which estab-
lishes guidelines and standards for assessing future needs
for recreation facilities.
Based on recommendations in this report, King County's
draft General Development Guide presents policies to guide
the acquisition and development of county parks. Different
policies are established for four types of parks: neighborhood
parks (5-10 acres), community parks (20-40 acres), resources-
based parks (1-100 acres) and major urban parks (at least
100 acres).
National Urban Recreation Study. The BOR has identified
28 sites in the Seattle/Everett/Tacoma SCSA especially suitable
for recreation development or conservation. Many of these
sites had been identified in existing plans and programs
A-4 5
-------
of parks and recreation agencies; in some cases, acquisition
or development had already begun. Those located within the
Lake Washington/Green River Basins are as follows: Sammamish
River corridor, Bellevue Airport, Tiger Mountain, Cedar River
corridor, Green River corridor, and Green River gorge.
The Green River gorge was identified by BOR as the
highest priority site for nonurban recreation, park, or open
space. The Green River Gorge Conservation Area covers a
12-mile stretch of the river. The State of Washington, as
of 1977, owned 1,059 acres within the conservation area.
King County and the City of Auburn are participating with
the state in additional acquisitions.
Washington Statewide Outdoor Recreation Plan. The
Interagency Committee for Outdoor Recreation updated Washington's
Statewide Outdoor Recreation Plan in 1979. The plan, required
in order for Washington to receive Land and Water Conservation
Fund.grants, includes the results of a statewide recreation
survey and proposes solutions for 13 recreation issues. Among
these issues are energy and recreation, natural heritage
sites, scenic and recreational rivers, wetland and floodplains,
and historic preservation.
Metro and U. S. Environmental Protection Agency's
Facilities Planning Recreation Coordination. Federal regu-
lations require that wastewater facilities planning identify
opportunities for recreation, open space, and access to water
bodies, and that coordination be established among facilities
planning agencies, EPA and HCRS. In response to this require-
ment, Metro (1980c) has described recreation opportunities
afforded by five wastewater technology alternatives, and
has documented Metro/EPA/HCRS coordination.
Metro's identification of recreation opportunities
is shown in Table 1-10. For each of five wastewater tech-
nology alternatives, recreation opportunities within four
categories (trails/paths, sports/activities, parks/open space,
and other) are shown.
Social Services
Police
Police service in King County and Snohomish County occurs
at two levels. At the city level, local police service the
incorporated areas. In the unincorporated areas, county
sheriffs are responsible for policing services. Table 1-11
A- 4 6
-------
Table 1-10. Recreational Opportunities Afforded by
Wastewater Technology Alternatives
'l'RA J LS/PATIl'i . S P 0 R T S/A C TIVITIES I'ARKS/QPEN SPACE . OTHER
Linear Parks
Hiking Trails |
Jogging Trails
Ricvcle Paths
Equestrian
Trails
Athletic Fields
Courts
Swimming/
beaches
o
¦H
c
o
•H
O.HJ
F. 0)
rtl Vi
U<
Fishing Piers
Boat launch
Areas
ti
0
o
.c
u
o
xi DISPOSAL
•
•
•
SATELLITE
PRETREATMENT
AND TRANSFER
OLLECTION
•
o
e
•
TREATMENT
0
•
•
«
9
0
«
•
•
•
DISPOSAL
•
o
a
•
DECENTRALIZED
TREATMENT
COLLECTION
•
0
«
•
TREATMENT
o
•
0
©
•
e
•
•
•
DISPOSAL
•
»
(>
o
u
-------
Table 1-10. Con't.
TRAILS/PATHS SPORTS/ACTIVITIES PARKS/OPEN SPACE OTHER
Linear Parks
Hiking Trails
¦
Jogging Trails
Bicycle Paths |
Equestrian
Trails
Athletic Fields
Courts
jSwimming/
beache s
Camp/Picnic
Areas
Fishing Piers
Boat Launch
Areas
Neighborhood
Parks
Arbore t uir./
Gardens
Water access
Open Space/
Natural Habitat
Agricultural
[ Lands
Environmental
Education
Community
Meeting Rooms
COMMUNITY
SYSTEMS
COLLECTION
TREATMENT
•
9
>
' DISPOSAL
00
•
INDIVIDUAL
ON-SITE
SYSTEMS
COLLECTION
TREATMENT
DISPOSAL
SOURCE: Metro, 1980c.
-------
Table 1-11. Local Police Jurisdictions
and Officers Employed (1979)
Local Jurisdiction Officers Employed
King County
Auburn 40
Bellevue 92
Black Diamond 2
Kent 42
Kirkland 23
Mercer Island 27
Redmond 2 7
Renton 56
Tukwila 24
Snohomish County
Brier N/A
Everett N/A
Lynwood N/A
Mountlake Terrace N/A
A-49
-------
presents the jurisdictions within the study area with police
service and, for cities, the number of officers employed.
In King County the Office of Law and Justice Planning is
responsible for the planning of police services.
Fire
Fire service in King County and Snohomish County also
occurs at two levels. In the incorporated areas fire service
is provided by the local jurisdiction. In the unincorporated
areas of King County and Snohomish County fire districts
have been established and are serviced by the county. Table
1-12 presents the jurisdictions with local service and the
county fire districts within the study area.
Schools
Table 1-13 includes the school districts within the
study area. In addition, the Educational Service District
No. 121 provides support services to the school districts
in both King County and Pierce County. In Snohomish County,
the Educational Service District No. 189 provides support
services.
Health Services
Areawide health services planning is carried by the
Puget Sound Health Systems Agency (PSHSA). The PSHSA estab-
lishes long-range health goals for the communities in their
health systems plan. The policies of PSHSA address the following
health care areas: primary care, mental health, acute care,
and long-term care. In addition to the health systems plan,
PSHSA provides an annual implementation plan which discusses
the steps to be taken to carry out the goals.
King County Policies Regarding Service Facility Siting
King County's draft General Development Guide contains
several policies to guide the location of community facilities
such as police and fire stations, schools and hospitals.
These policies provide guidance in weighing public access
considerations with local land use impacts.
A-50
-------
Table 1-12. Jurisdictions With Local Fire Service And
County Fire Districts Within Study Area
Local Jurisdiction
Fire Service
County Fire Districts
King County
Auburn
No.
10
Bellevue
No.
17
Black Diamond
No.
25
Bothell
No.
30
Issaquah
No.
31
Kent
No.
34
Kirkland
No.
37
Mercer Island
No.
39
Redmond
No.
40
Renton
No.
41
Tukwila
No.
42
No.
44
No.
46
Snohomish County
Everett
Lynwood
Mountlake Terrace
Paine Field
No.
No.
No.
1
7
9
No. 10
No. 11
A-51
-------
Table 1-13. School Districts and Enrollment
(197 9) Within Study Area
School District Enrollment
(1979)
King County
Federal Way
No.
210
15 , 368
Enumclaw
No.
216
3,791
Mercer Island
No.
400
4,596
Highline
No.
401
17,548
Renton
No.
403
13,444
Bellevue
No.
405
20,276
Auburn
No.
408
8,381
Tahoma
No.
409
1,549
Issaquah
No.
411
7,419
Shoreline
No.
412
10,701
Lake Washington
No.
414
17,658
Kent
No.
415
16,375
Northshore
No.
417
13,558
Snohomish County
Edmonds N/A
Everett N/A
SOURCE: Educational Service District No. 121, pers. comm.
A- 52
-------
Transportation
Existing Agencies and Facilities
Table 1-1 includes an overview of the transportation
(limited here to road and highway) responsibilities of
agencies in the Lake Washington/Green River Basins. Planning,
funding, and construction are undertaken by the federal and
state Departments of Transportation for major highways. At
tha regional and local levels, PSCOG is responsible for
regional transportation planning; King County undertakes
ccur.tywide transportation planning; and cities and counties
are responsible for planning, funding, and construction of
local roads. Metro is responsible for operating the mass
transit system in the study area.
The major freeways within the study area are Interstate 5
(north-south) and Interstate 90 (east-west). Several major
travel corridors have been delineated in the study area and
its vicinity by PSCOG. These are illustrated in Figure 1-5.
Transportation Planning and Policies
The most important local transportation planning in
the Lake Washington/Green River Basins is undertaken by PSCOG
and King County. PSCOG published a 1990 Transportation System
Plan for the Central Puget South Region, covering King, Sno-
homish, Pierce, and Kitsap Counties in 1974. This plan is
currently being updated, and is scheduled for adoption in
January 1981. It is expected that the updated plan will
have a subregional emphasis, and will focus on needs,
priorities, and policies rather than specific projects (PSCOG,
1979a). Regional issues which are expected to be addressed
by plan policies are:
o Lack of funds for highway capital investment
o Increasing scarcity and cost of gasoline
o Equitable level of highway and transit services
o Positive relationship between land use and trans-
portation
o Air quality degradation and need to conform to
ambient air quality standards.
King County undertakes transportation planning through
participation in the King Subregional Council of PSCOG. In
addition, the county in 1977 updated its transportation goals
and policies. Policies were developed for three main areas
of concern: people and goods, environment, and providers.
A-5 3
-------
FIGURE 1-5
TRAVEL CORRIDORS
CENTRAL PUGET SOUND REGION
CORRIDORS
KITSAP CO.
MASON CO.
I—"
I Pit
IL A COCM P UYAUU*
/
SOURCE- PSCOG, t979a
A- 54
-------
Electricity and Gas
In recent years energy concerns have come to play an
important role in public facilities planning. In King County,
a comprehensive community energy management plan is currently
under study to tie together previous energy planning efforts.
Although this study provides a data base for monitoring local
energy conditions, the regional context must also be under-
stood to effectively assess potential power problems. The
following summary reviews existing regional supply and demand
conditions for natural gas and electricity and examines the
future energy outlook.
Existing Conditions
Electricity. Electricity consumption on a per capita
basis within the study area is among the highest in the nation
(PSP&L, 1979) . Per capita consumption is currently about
double the national average. This condition reflects the
past availability of relatively cheap hydroelectric supplies.
This fortuitous situation for consumers is changing in light
of recent developments and national trends.
End use consumption of electricity in King County com-
prises 23 percent of the total energy usage for the county.
The vast majority (58 percent) of electricity consumption
is for residential uses. Electricity demand for commercial
purposes accounts for 25 percent, and industrial uses account
for 14 percent. Government needs account for the remaining
3 percent.
Electricity is supplied to most of the study area by
Puget Sound Power and Light (PSP&L) (see Figure 1-6 for map
of service area and power plant locations). Snohomish County
is supplied electricity by Snohomish Public Utility District.
In 1979, 78 percent of the electricity supplied by Puget
Sound Power and Light came from hydroelectric plants (PSP&L,
1979). The majority of PSP&L hydropower base is supplied
under contractual agreement with three Washington public
utility districts, which operate five Columbia River hydro-
electric plants, and by purchases from other sources, mainly
other utilities and Canada (PSP&L, 197 9). An agreement with
Canada to purchase a block of power generated in the U. S.
from water stored by the Canadians in the upper Columbia
accounts for 10 percent of the hydropower base for the PSP&L
service area (PSP&L, 1979).
A-5 5
-------
FIGURE 1-6
PUGET SOUND POWER & LIGHT SERVICE
AREA & POWER PLANT LOCATIONS
VANCOUVER
C A N A D A
VANCOUVER
ISLAND
'_////////s
Whitehorn
Noofcsack
•////.
Bellingham
Upper Baker
////////
Lo«tr BaKer.
ICTORI A
SKagit Nuclear Si te I Planned)
Oevehett
South WhidDey
Chief Joseph
D A HO
Wells
Rocky Reacfi
Grand
Coulee
SPOKANE Q
Snoqualmie
E ATT.LE
WEN ATC H E E
Shuffleton
Sremerf on
Rock Island
&
TACOMA
ELLENSSURG T
O
Whit® River
P wonapum
Pri««t Roptd*
Satsop
Nuclear
Site
Olympic
E lectron
PACIFIC
OCEAN
Centraha
n I CH LAND
HanfoM Alomic Plant
WPPSS 1,2,4- Nucleor
WASHING TON
Jofcn Ooy COjrjir^^--,T
McNary
Trojan
Nuclear
PI on t
Pebble Springs Nuclear
Site ( Pionned )
The DaMe*
Bonneville
PORTLAND
OREGON
- LEGEND-
Pugef Power Service Area
Bellevue - Company Headquarters
and Division Office
£ Division Office
O Major Cities Outside of Service Area
A Oil - Fired Steam Plant
£& Coal-Fired Steam Plcnt
¦ Puget Power Hydroelectric Project
A-5 6
Jjg PUD Hydroelectric Project on
the Columbia River
Federal Hydroelectric Project on
the Columbia River
Nuclear Project
Turbine
NOTE: COLSTRIP PROJECT IN MONTANA
NOT MAPPED.
source: puset sound power e. light
-------
Plants which utilized thermal sources accounted for
the remaining 22 percent of PSP&L electricity production
in 1978. Coal-fired generating plants provided the bulk
(19 percent) of the thermal-generated electricity. The
remaining 3 percent of the PSP&L electricity supply in 1978
was mostly nuclear-generated power.
Natural Gas. Natural gas is distributed within the
study area by Washington Natural Gas. Supplies of natural
gas are purchased from Northwest Pipeline Corporation, which
obtained about 62 percent of gas supply in 1979 from Canada
and the balance from the Rocky Mountain region and the
southwestern U. S. Of the total amount of natural gas consumed
in King County in 197 8, residential uses accounted for 5 3
percent, industrial uses 35 percent, commercial uses 10 percent,
and government uses accounted for 2 percent (King County,
1980). In total, natural gas comprised 20 percent of the
overall energy usage by fuel type.
Future Outlook
Electricity. Utilities serving the study area are placing
increasingly greater reliance upon thermal sources for the
generation of electricity. With most of the sites for hydro-
electric plants utilized, increased use of coal and nuclear
power is projected. This trend is exemplified by a 6 percent
decrease between 1978 and 1979 in the relative share of hydro-
power meeting PSP&L's electricity demands (PSP&L, 1979) .
However, with much uncertainity presently surrounding the
nuclear industry, most of the plans for expansion of nuclear
generating capability have been indefinitely postponed.
The near-term outlook for electricity supplies in the
study area can best be described as uncertain. While energy
forecasts range from an adequate supply situation to black-
out conditions, many of the determining factors are unpredictable
or uncertain (e.g., annual rainfall, conservation impact
and resolution of nuclear issues). Similar to the energy
picture on the broader national level, the long-term electricity
outlook far the study area will remain unclear until certain
policy conflicts are resolved. However, three outcomes appear
likely. First, conservation efforts will be increasingly
stressed to minimize overall electricity needs. Second,
coal-fired plants will be relied upon to a significant degree
in meeting additional electricity needs. Finally, electricity
prices can be expected to increase dramatically as the move
away from cheap hydroelectric sources occurs.
One issue which could significantly affect the energy
outlook for the study area is the pending petition filed
by PSP&L with the Washington Utility and Transportation
Commission (WUTC). This petition requests a 4-year restriction
A-5 7
-------
Chapter 2
LAND USE: PLANS, POLICIES, AND PROJECTIONS
Introduction
In recent years, the Lake Washington/Green River Basins
have experienced rapid population growth. Along with rapid
growth has come a corresponding demand on the resource base
of the area. Local officials and the public have expressed
a number of concerns relating to the impacts of rapid growth.
One important concern is the ability of the limited supply
of land to meet the diverse demands placed upon it. To deter-
mine the most efficient use of the land supply, a wide range
of opportunities and constraints must be considered.
This chapter describes the existing land use in the
study area, reviews current trends in land development, sum-
marizes local land use plans and policies, and presents PSCOG's
projections of urban acre increases.
Existing Land Use
Existing Urban Acres
Figure.2-1 identifies the urban or built-up portion
of the study area in 1975 (USGS, 1979a). Urban or built-
up land is classified as: residential? commercial and services;
industrial; transportation; communications and utilities;
industrial and commercial complexes; mixed urban or built-
up land; and other urban or built-up land. As shown, the
urbanized areas are concentrated in the western portion of
the study area. (The unmapped portion of Figure 2-1 generally
represents forested areas unsuitable for urban uses.)
Vacant Lands - Supply
The Vacant Lands Inventory undertaken by King County
in 1977, and updated in 1978, provides the estimates of the
supply of developable land in the study area (King County
Department of Planning and Community Development, Planning
Division, 1979a). (No comparable data are available for
Snohomish County.) Vacant land was tabulated by zoning category,
physical suitability, sewer service and development status.
A-5 9
-------
LEGEND
fl«U« *1
•(I
URBAN LAND USES IN THE LAKE WASHINGTON/
GREEN RIVER BASINS, 1975
-------
Agricultural lands of county significance identified by
Ordinance 3064 were not considered as available vacant land.
From this inventory, vacant land free from severe physical
hazards was determined. The methodology for this inventory
was existing zoning only, and did not take into account
potential zoning or planned land use by community plans.
Questions have been raised as to whether the entire
supply of unconstrained vacant land accurately represents
land available for development. In response, alternative
definitions for land potentially available for development
were examined and it was concluded that, on the whole, uncon-
strained vacant land represents a good measure (King County
Department of Planning and Community Development, Planning
Division, 1979a).
Results of the updated Vacant Land Inventory indicate
that almost all communities in King County have an ample
supply of single-family zoned land to meet 1990 needs. Also,
sufficient land for industrial needs is projected. Commercially
zoned land in outlying areas, however, may run short in meetirfg
anticipated needs, assuming no change in zoning. Even more
critical, the study found that most communities have less
than a 12-year supply of multifamily zoned land. The most
recent update to the Vacant Land Inventory should be available
sometime in the spring of 1980.
Recent Development Trends - Demand
Monitoring efforts which provide data on development
activity are, on-going processes in King and Snohomish Counties.
The King County land development information system (LDIS)
supplies data for determining recent land use trends. As
a supplement to existing land use data, King and Snohomish
Counties provide building activity information. Subdivisions,
plat activity, and building permits are tabulated and presented
as indicators of development trends and the demand for land.
Figure 2-2 shows King County LDIS building permit data for
total residential units during 1979.
Land Use Planning
Land use plans and policies within the study area have
been described in considerable detail in the appendix to
Metro's Technical Memo No. 3. This section reviews the land
area planning process in the study area and highlights planning
policies related to environmental protection.
A-61
-------
* Jl • •» 4 I • MM . m • » • «»t • •« 10 « • • II « • Nllf . a III • ¦ t« C
«
m
~7
K
Figure 2-2
x
L.D I.S BUILDING PERMIT DATA
1979 TOTAL RESIDENTIAL UNITS
Unincorporated King County
C
EG
20- 39
40- 99
100-199
200-390
King County
Division of Pfenning
Incorporated
Areas
<
I 300.000
-------
Agency Responsibility
Land use planning in the Lake Washington/Green River
Basins is accomplished at the city and county level. In
incorporated areas land use planning is the responsibility
of the municipality. In some cases municipal planning efforts
include small urban enclaves or adjacent unincorporated
county lands outside of the municipality's borders. At the
county level land use planning for the unincorporated areas
of Snohomish and King Counties is accomplished through the
county comprehensive plan and community planning areas. Once
the community plans are completed and adopted they become
amendments to the county's comprehensive plan, and guide
specific land use decisions within that community planning
area.
In an effort to coordinate land use planning at a regional
level the Puget Sound Council of Governments (PSCOG), through
subregional councils, provides guidelines for land use planning
for the cities and counties. The subregional councils address
a wide range of land use issues with goals and policies
designed for local adoption. The status of PSCOG subregional
planning is discussed below, followed by a more detailed
discussion of the status of county and city planning.
PSCOG Plans and Policies
Subregional plans have been prepared and adopted for
King County and Snohomish County. In Pierce County only
part one ("growth concept and policies") has been adopted.
The general purpose of these plans is to serve as a county-
wide guide to growth management decisions. These plans
provide a policy framework by focusing on five major subject
areas: phased growth, activity centers, transportation,
public utilities, and intergovernmental coordination.
The principal concept behind these policies is to achieve
optimum development phasing through consideration of a wide
range of factors. These factors include the supply and demand
for land, costs, amenities, natural hazards, environmentally
sensitive areas, and the availability and capacity of existing
public facilities. Policy implementation guidelines included
in the subregional plans emphasize local programs for the
monitoring of changes in land use conditions.
County Plans and Policies
The Comprehensive Land Use Plan adopted by King County
in 1964 established the policy framework for land use planning
in the Lake Washington/Green River Basins study area. While
numerous amendments and community plans have been adopted
A-6 3
-------
to update the plan, a need has been recognized for more effective
guidance in land use decisions and regulations. In response,
King County began its growth management program in 197 8 and
is culminating it in the preparation of the General Development
Guide. This guide will replace the 1964 plan and amendments.
The community plans will remain in force to provide more
detailed guidance for local areas.
Development Concept. The 1964 comprehensive plan utilized
an urban centers development concept as the mechanism to
define the "countywide geographic pattern of present and
desired future land uses which carries out the purposes and
goals of the plan". While the plan's goals have remained
virtually unchanged, new approaches in development concepts
have been under study to achieve more consistency between
development policy and implementing regulations.
King County has recently chosen a subcounty area develop-
ment concept with designated employment centers to establish
a functional relationship between policies and implementing
tools (King County Growth. Management Program, 19 80) . The
five subcour.ty areas of the development concept are: urban,
suburban, transitional, reserve and rural [Table 2-1). The
urban, suburban, and transitional subcounty areas together
comprise an "urban service area" which would acconur.cdate
expected growrh. The reserve area would serve as additional
capacity if monitoring of growth factors (land capacity,
population, etc.) indicates the need. The rural areas are
designated as permanently low density and serve as the county's
agricultural, forest and wilderness resources base.
The location of "urban service areas" will be determined
by such elements as the Sewerage General Plan. In addition,
the community plans and their revisions will play a key role
in adjustments to the reserve/transitional boundary for exten-
sion of urban service areas.
Open Space and Environmental Protection.
Introduction. The draft General Development Guide (King
County Growth Management Program, 1980) contains a number
of policies related to environmental protection. Because
these policies serve as potential mitigation measures for
growth-related secondary impacts in this EIS, they are reviewed
below.
King County's draft General Development Guide covers
open space and environmental protection policies in six subject
areas: general policies, parks and recreation, resource
lands, environmentally sensitive areas, surface water, and
heritage sites. The following sections and ordinances of
the comprehensive plan will be replaced with the adoption
of this part of the General Development Guide:
A-64
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Table 2-1. Subcounty Area Development Concept
WIM
(Older fvlJf 4rrrIpprtf (tfttrn)
SUtURBA*
(K*w, mllr developed areas)
tRAlftlHMAt
[tirje tracts of »Kwt •
la »c<(MW>dit( frowllt la i*>l
5-10 rears)
•i Sim
(leicivc opt lo#i if fnlwtr uffatn
development net currently needed
to accomodate short tern qrowth)
RURAL
(Retain pefMitenlly)
Ik(ww4ilr ItiMtnlltli (pwoctit, InAtilrlil b«nlk l« Ikil S-IO l(WI
• 1mU|
residential (*l. US, *0)
(DMtKiil [I. Ml
4n4uilrlll J*. HP)
• local i<««r S+r«|ce Area
• Mater Service Arc*
• friad frocesatof
• fterelepw*! iKwt Uei
o Clf - llftcfc (tmI
special tv**% «IIkiU< to
icvlUllJt ((flitri,
tnpro<« service*
a ImU| - All iflntl tMMrajt^
except CI, fi-S» A, an# ft
a local $Mr Scrit(« Area
a Mater Service Area
• Clf - Crawl* Cm! f«fc«cy
Iwmd
a llrciallMJ Ptnalt
• Oe*etup»*nl l«fa(lv«i
a loatM • Alt io*tt tatwiH
dccfi &, fi-i» A, anJ ft
(tM A, IA for resaurce
preservation)
« local Sewer Service Area
(AltfcMijfc service a«f *at
bt currently available)
a Hater Service Are*
a CI' - Orvwtb
faatfi far ceoters
a latje planned c«munM/
4e*ei«|p*(ait encourage' In
u*« areas
s
1 \
If
2 >v
? >
* M
t s
i *
v «
i
9 —
• lonU| - CR. t s, A. FA
• Simc fcilfMitl water service
area
a ionlnj - C-S, A, fR or new
ratal tot»l«f
o Ito local Sewer Service Aiei
(eacept ruril town cenleis)
• Aew m-site sewage diipoial
regulation* for rural areas
o ta*e designated nater service
area - no new fcool-ups to
water supply pipelines
o Clf - No new «aJor facilities
• Uctacfcrd
deoslty residential
- TǤttl*r
- run
- ault 1 -f «al If
• IMtMtei
fertldlMot
• ttljfeer JtMtljr
(lltft lots Mly lor
ccrllla sensitive irtn)
a All residential ln«».
• rtyitir subdlvfitoft
• IU0|
- Mlll-faalljr
. tonftkwsii
- swfeuban cluster
o taawnrclal m4 Mitlrlil
dtvelopaent *• o
** o»
- £
«* m
1 1:
• • —
-• * a
* a
1 £2
3-
s 2u
£ as
JC o •
2 25
• Clustered development with
large tracts tl open space
fn« sewers}
a Soae reilteadil develop-
aeat an large lots
• Agriculture
0 Wood lots
o CiwMerclal development only
U ntl«libori»¦* at itfuttmncm itsit* (toisi
tfcinlterl*) ill# w»J lype of
-------
Section E - Open Space Development Policies (1964)
Ord. 10 96 - Open Space Element
Ord. 14 8 9 - Shoreline Access
Ord. 1683 - Steep Slopes
Ord. 1838 - Wetlands
Ord. 1840 - Wildlife Habitat
Ord. 3813 - Park Development
Ord. 2991 - Heritage Sites
Ord. 2429 - Watersheds
Motion 2137 - All-Terrain Vehicle Plan
General Policies. The policies set forth in this section
provide guidelines for addressing the basic development concept
of the General Development Guide. The goal is to protect
environmental resources and preserve adequate open space
for recreation and urban separation throughout the county.
Parks and Recreation. These policies are reviewed in
Chapter 1 of this appendix.
Resource Lands. Resource lands are agricultural and
forest lands which are important for their managed production.
County policies regarding the use and preservation of agri-
cultural lands are reviewed in Chapter 3 of this appendix.
Forest lands in King County are recognized as a valuable
resource for a multiplicity of uses. Whether for the economic
value of forest products or for aesthetic or recreational
purposes, it is important to protect valuable timberland
from displacement by urban development. The following selected
county policies recognize the value of forestlands as a unique
resource:
OS-302 Large acreages of public and private lands
which are valuable for timber production should
be protected from encroaching urban development
and services.
OS-304 Utility lines and transportation corridors
should be discouraged in forest areas.
Environmentally Sensitive Areas. The county has primary
responsibility for protecting environmentally sensitive areas
which are critical to., the proper functioning of natural systems.
Environmentally sensitive areas are defined to include "lands
which are subject to natural hazards and lands which support
unique, fragile and valuable elements of the environment".
The county policies are designed to protect both human and
natural systems from the impact of development in these areas.
The subject areas covered under these policies are: general
policies, waterbodies and watercourses, floodplains, wetlands,
steep slopes/lands1ide and erosion hazards, seismic hazard
areas, coal mine hazards, wildlife habitats, and critical
natural areas. The following policies have been excerpted
and listed below because they are of key importance to this EIS:
A-6 6
-------
General Policies.
OS-404 The county should review all proposed capital
improvement projects for the impact on sensitive
areas and take appropriate actions to mitigate
or avoid any adverse impacts.
OS-405 Where necessary to meet the sensitive area
policies of this plan, development should be
required to locate outside sensitive areas
by clustering units on nonsensitive portions
of the site.
Waterbodies and Watercourses.
OS-406 Setbacks/ limitations on vegetation removal,
and other appropriate design and construction
controls should be required of any new develop-
ment adjacent to lakes, rivers, and streams
in order to protect water quality, minimiae
erosion and sedimentation, and preserve the
natural drainage, habitat, and aesthetic
functions of the waterbody or course.
OS-407 New developments adjacent to watercourses
should preserve an undisturbed corridor along
the river or stream, wide enough to maintain
the natural functions of the watercourse.
Floodp lains.
OS-412. New development should be discouraged within
the 100-year floodplain. Any proposed develop-
ment or modification of the 100-year floodplain.
should be evaluated for the purpose of protecting
the floodplain's valuable natural functions
as well as minimizing flood hazards.
OS-413 Due to the greater risks associated with deep
and fast-flowing floodwaters, no development
of permanent structures should be permitted
within the floodway.
Wetlands.
OS-416 Wetlands which are valuable for flood control,
drainage, water quality, habitat or other
important natural functions should be retained
in a natural state.
OS-418 Development should not be permitted adjacent
to a wetland where such development would create
adverse impacts impairing the valuable functions
of the wetland.
A-6 7
-------
Steep Slopes - Landslide and Erosion Hazards.
OS-421 As slopes increase, development intensity,
site coverage, and vegetation removal should
decrease in order to mitigate the problems
of drainage, erosion, siltation, and land-
sliding associated with hillside development.
OS-422 Steep slopes with a grade of 40 percent or
more should not be built upon and should be
retained in a natural state.
OS-423 No development should be permitted in severe
landslide hazard areas except, in unusual
circumstances, where extensive soils, hydro-
logy, and engineering studies clearly demon-
strate that the proposed development will pose
no significant risk of landslide, erosion,
sedimentation, or drainage problems and will
not result in excess public costs.
Coal Mine Hazards.
OS-4 2 8 No permanent structures should be permitted
in coal mine hazard areas unless it is con-
clusively demonstrated through geotechnical
engineering studies that all significant
hazards have been eliminated and that the site
is as safe as a site which has not been pre-
viously mined.
Surface Wazev. The county's surface water policies
encourage multiple use, basinwide approaches to surface
water resource management. The policies encourage main-
tenance of natural drainages and control of stormwater run-
off from new development.
Heritage Sites. Heritage sites are defined as "buildings
and sites in King County which are valuable to preserve and
restore because they depict the cultural and industrial history
of the Pacific Northwest". County policies encourage the
identification, preservation, and restoration of heritage
sites.
Community Plans.
Policies. The community plans provide more detailed
guidance for land use plans within the study area. Adopted
as elements of the comprehensive plan, community plans are
area-specific manifestations of countywide policies regarding
land use planning. Whereas the policies in the comprehensive
plan are long-term by design, the community plans address
the needs and conditions of local communities on a relatively
short-term basis, 6-10 years.
a-6 a
-------
Future Land Use. As discussed, specific land use deci-
sions are guided by the more detailed community plans upon
their adoption. Table 2-2 identifies the status of the 14
community plans within the study area as of March 1980. In
addition, the drainage basins within each community planning
area have been identified.
In accordance with King County's new subcounty area
development concept, the draft General Development Guide con-
tains a map showing land use designations for each community
planning area. More detailed land use designations are
contained in each community plan.
City Plans and Policies
As previously discussed, municipalities are responsible
for land use planning within their boundaries. As a result,
there exists a wide range of unconsistency in planning approaches
and documentation. The following is a list of municipalities
in the study area and a summary of the status of their land
use plans, if any (Metro, 1980a).
King County
Black Diamond
Algona
Auburn
Tukwila
Bellevue
Bothell
Issaquah
Kent
Kirkland
Pacific
Redmond
Renton
Comprehensive plan adopted over 10 years ago
Comprehensive plan and comprehensive sewerage
plan adopted in 1968
Comprehensive plan in the process of being
updated
No information available
Comprehensive plan adopted in 1974
Comprehensive plan adopted about 10 years ago
Comprehensive plan adopted in 1974
No information available
Comprehensive plan adopted over 10 years ago
Community Development guide adopted in 197 9
Comprehensive plan from 1968 is currently
being updated
No information available
Snohomish County
Lynwood
Brier
Everett
Comprehensive plan adopted in 1965
Everett community plan adopted in 1972
reflects city's policy
Comprehensive plan adopted in 1966
A-6 9
-------
Table 2-2. Status of Community Plans and Drainage Basins
Contained Within Each Community Planning Area
County/Community
Planning Area
King County
Northshore
Bear Creek
East Sammamish
Newcas tie
Tahoma/Raven
Heights
Soos Creek
Enumclaw
Federal Way
Highline
Snohomish County
Paine Field
Everett
Alderwood
South-West
County
North Creek;
Maltby
Plan Completion Schedule Drainage Basins
Adopted August 1977
Adopted October 1971
Completed, pending
before county council
Scheduled for comple-
tion March 1980
Scheduled for comple-
tion December 1980
Adopted November 197 9
Scheduled for comple-
tion mid 1982
Adopted 197 5
Completed December
1977
Adopted plan in 1968
Plan never developed
planning function - city
Plan adopted 1973
Last plan adopted 1966
North Lake Washington, North Lake
Sammamish, East Lake Washington
North Lake Sammamish
North Lake Sammamish, South Lake
Sammamish
South Lake Sammamish, East Lake
Washington, South Lake Washington
South Lake Sammamish, South Lake
Washington, Green River Basin
South Lake Washington, Green River
Basin
Green River Basin, White River
Basin
Green River Basin, White River
Basin
Green River Basin
North Lake Washington
North Lake Washington
North Lake Washington
North Lake Washington
Adopted in 1977
North Lake Washington, North Lake
Sammamish
A- 70
-------
Projected Urban Land Uses
Projections of land demand have been prepared by the
Puget Sound Council of Governments (PSCOG) for the Metro
Renton facilities plan. Based on household and employment
forecasts PSCOG has generated projections of population increase
(reviewed elsewhere in this appendix) and the increases in
urban acres for each subdrainage basin for the years 1990
and 2000. This section reviews these urban acreage projections.
Trends and Policy Projections
The PSCOG has developed two alternative sets of projections.
Utilizing the same base model, each scenario locates growth
differently according to various development criteria. The
trends projection represents a continuation of existing (1976)
comprehensive plans. The policy projection is a phased growth
scenario which relies upon additional jurisdictional policy
input. Among other assumptions, it assumes no extension of
sewers past the local service areas defined in the King
County Sewerage General Plan.
Population Projections
Table 2-3 presents PSCOG's population projections for
the year 2000 by drainage and subdrainage basin; the popula-
tion projections are reviewed in detail in Chapter 6 of this
appendix. These population projections are presented here
only for the purpose of comparison with projections of urban
acreage.
Urban Land Projections
Table 2-4 presents PSCOG's projection of urban acres
for the year 2000 for each drainage and subdrainage basin.
As Table 2-4 indicates, urban land in the total study area
is expected to increase by 47 percent for the year 2000 under
the trends scenario and 41 percent under the po.licy scenario.
This substantiates the phased growth scenario associated
with the policy projection. Of the seven drainage basins,
three (North Lake Washington, Green River and White River)
will absorb urban land at a rate higher than the overall
average under the policy scenario. Under the trends scenario
four drainage basins (North Lake Sammamish, South Lake Washington,
Green River, and White River) increase their share of urban
land at a rate higher than the average. Only the Green River
and White River drainage basins are expected to convert land
to urban acres at a rate higher than the average under both
projections.
A- 71
-------
Table 2-3. Population Projections for the Year 2000
for Drainage and Subdrainage Basins
Percent of
Study Area
Maior Basin/Subbasin
1980
Year
2000
Increase
Percent
Increase
Year
2000
Increase
Percent
Increase
Increase in
Population
Policy
1980-2000
1980-2000*
Trend
1980-2000
1980-2000*
Policy
25. 4
Trend
16.8
North Lake Washington
99,611
167,702
68,091
68
153,650
54 ,039
54
Swamp Creek
North Creek
Little Bear Creek
45,578
44,612
9,421
73,883
74,851
18,968
28,305
30,239
9,547
62
68
101
65,709
68,393
19,548
20 ,131
23,781
10,127
44
53
107
10. 5
11.3
3.6
6.3
7.4
3.2
North Lake Sammamish
47,140
81,312
34,172
72
101,972
54,832
116
12.7
17.1
Sammamish River
Evans Creek
Pine Lake
27,129
16,506
3,505
37,160
38,376
5,776
10,031
21,870
2,271
37
132
65
39,223
54,920
7,829
12,094
38,414
4,324
45
233
123
3.7
8.2
0.8
3.8
1 2.0
1.3
East Lake Washington
121,142
180,694
59,552
49
151,258
30,116
25
22.2
9.4
Juanita Creek
Kelsey Creek
Coal Creek
55,149
26,298
39,695
73,300
37 ,599
69,795
18,151
11,301
30,100
33
43
76
67,660
35,236
48,392
12,511
8, 938
8,697
23
34
22
6.8
4.2
11.2
3.9
2.8
2.7
South Lake Washington
63,601
77,158
13,557
21
105,217
41,616
65
5.1
12.9
May Creek
Cedar River
17,995
45,606
22,546
54 ,612
4,551
9,006
25
20
32,133
73,084
14,138
27, 478
79
60
1.7
3.4
4.4
8.6
South Lake Sammamish
38,024
51,863
13,839
36
59,340
21,316
56
5.2
6.6
Tibbetts Creek
East Lake Sammamish
Issaquah Creek
24,187
2,559
11,278
30,823
3,467
17 ,573
6,6 36
908
6 ,295
27
35
56
31,024
4, 252
24 , 064
6, 837
1,693
12,786
28
66
113
2.5
0.3
2. 3
2.1
0. 5
4 . 0
Green River Basin
133,075
193,877
60,802
46
230,053
96,97 8
73
22. 7
30 . 2
Mill Creek
Green River
Soos Creek
Lake Young
Jenkins Creek
Covington Creek
New.iukum Creek
49,126
37,742
22,595
2,054
7, 215
10,490
3, 853
67,885
60,259
33,904
2,901
9,898
12,910
6,120
18,759
22,517
11,309
847
2,683
2,420
2,267
38
60
50
41
37
23
59
77,177
59,395
42,892
5,772
15,734
21,188
7,895
28,051
21,653
20,297
3,718
8,519
10,698
4 , 042
57
57
90
181
118
102
105
7.0
8. 3
4 . 2
0. 3
1.0
0. 9
0. 8
8. 7
6.7
6 . 3
1. 2
2.7
3. 3
1 . 3
White River Basin
13,804
29,244
15,440
112
33,299
19,495
141
5. 8
G. ]
Morcer Island
20,690
23,398
2, 708
1 3
23,661
2,971
14
1.0
0. 9
iitutty Area Total
537,08V
805,24U
268,161
50
858,450
321 ,363
60
100
] 00
*Totd]s may not add duo to rounding.
-------
Table 2-4. Urban Acres Projections for the Year 2000
for Drainage and Subdrainage Basins*
Percent of
Policy Trend Study Area
Percent
Year
Percent
Increas
e in
Major Basin/Subbasin
Year
Increase
Increase
2000
Increase
Increase
Urban Acres
1980
2000
1 980-2000
1980-2000*
Trend
1990-2000
1580-2000*
Pol icy
Trend
North Lake Washington
14,086
21,590
7 , 504
53
20,434
6 , 348
45
24. 2
17.7
Swamp Creek
5,572
8,668
3,096
56 H
8, 329
2,757
49
10.0
7.7
North Creek
6 , 386
9,808
3,422
54 H
8, 984
2,598
41
11 .0
7.3
Little Bear Creek
2,128
3,114
986
46H
3,121
993
47
3. 2
2. 8
North Lake Sajnmamish
8,658
12,233
3,575
41
14,404
5,746
66
11.5
16.1
Sammamish River
3, 534
4,744
1,210
34L
5,204
1,670
47
3.9
4.7
Evans Creek
4,111
6,160
2,049
5 OH
7,664
3,553
86
6.6
9.9
Pine Lake
1 ,013
1,329
316
31L
1,536
523
52
1.0
1. 5
East Lake Washington
16,346
19,702
3, 356
21
18,933
2,587
16
©
CO
7. 2
Juanita Creek
7 ,759
9,612
1,853
24L
8,991
1 ,232
16
6.0
3.4
Kelsey Creek
2,922
3,398
476
16L
3,439
517
18
1. 5
1. 4
Coal Creek
5,665
6,692
1,027
18L
6,503
838
15
3. 3
2. 3
South Lake Washington
8,944
11,165
2,221
25
13,660
4 ,716
53
7.2
13.2
May Creek
2,744
3,553
809
2 9L
4,394
1,650
60
2.6
4.6
Cedar River
6,200
7,612
1,412
2 3L
9,266
3,066
49
4. 5
8.6
South Lake Sammamish
5, 896
7,324
1,428
24
7,942
2,046
35
4 . 6
5. 7
Tibbetts Creek
3,145
3,478
330
11L
3,546
401
13
1.0
1. 1
East Lake Sammamish
724
968
24 4
34L
1,055
331
46
0.8
0.9
Issaquah Creek
2,009
2,878
869
4 3H
3,341
1,332
66
2.8
3.7
Green Hiver Basin
18,293
28,681
10,38 8
57
30,433
12,140
66
33.5
33.9
Mill Creek
5,234
11,310
6,076
116H
10,772
5,538
106
19.6
15.5
Green River
4,458
5,888
1,430
32L
5,969
1,511
34
4.6
4 . 2
Soos Creek
3, 199
4,613
1,414
4411
5,192
1,993
62
3.7
5.6
Lake Young
463
563
100
22L
794
331
71
0 . 3
0 . 9
Jenkins Creek
1,524
1,86 7
34 3
231
2,372
84 8
56
1.1
2.4
Covington Creek
2,488
3, 172
684
27L
4 ,108
1,620
65
2. 2
4. 5
Newaukura Creek
927
1,268
341
37L
1,226
299
32
1.1
0.8
White River Basin
2,701
4,940
2,239
8 3H
4 ,567
1,866
69
7.2
5.2
Mercer Island
2,560
2,878
318
12L
2,879
319
12
1.0
0. 9
Study Area Total
77,484
108,513
37,029
40
113,252
35,768
46.2
100
100
Totals may not add due to rounding.
-------
Additionally, Table 2-5 presents the projected popula-
tion density for added urban acres within each subdrainage
basin. A wide range of projected population density is shown
by this table.
A-74
-------
Table 2-5. Projected Population Density for
Additional Urban Acres by Drainage and
Subdrainage Basins
Policy-
Trend
Density ,
Density,
Population/
Population,
Major Basin/Subbasin
Acre Added
Acre Added
North Lake Washington
9. 07
8.51
Swamp Creek
9.14
7. 30
North Creek
8. 84
9.15
Little* Bear Creek
9.63
10. 20
North Lake Sammamish
9. 55
9. 54
Sammamish River
8. 29
7. 24
Evans Creek
10. 67
10. 81
Pine Lake
7.19
8. 27
East Lake Washington
17.74
11. 64
Juanita Creek
9.79
10.16
Kelsey Creek
23. 74
17. 29
Coal Creek
29. 31
10. 38
South Lake Washington
6.10
8. 82
May Creek
5. 63
8.57
Cedar River
6.38
8. 96
South Lake Sammamish
9.69
10 . 42
Tibbetts Creek
20.11
17. 05
East Lake Sammamish
3. 72
5.11
Issaquah Creek
7. 24
9.60
Green River Basin
5. 85
7. 99
Mill Creek
3.09
5. 06
Green River
15. 75
14. 33
Soos Creek
8.00
10. 18
Lake Young
8. 47
11.23
Jenkins Creek
7.82
10.05
Covington Creek
3.54
6.60
Newaukum Creek
6. 65
13.52
White River Basin
6.90
10.45
Mercer Island
8. 52
9. 31
Study Area Total
8.64
8. 98
A-7 5
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Chapter 3
AGRICULTURAL LANDS AND THEIR PRESERVATION
IN KING COUNTY
Introduction
One of the major environmental issues associated with
this EIS is the impact of projected growth accommodated by
expanded wastewater facilities on agricultural land within
the Lake Washington/Green River Basins. EPA policy requires
that the direct and secondary impacts be determined and mitigation
measures be recommended in the EISs for EPA-funded wastewater
projects. In addition, the preservation of agricultural
land is a major land use issue within King County, which
has historically sought to preserve agricultural land through
a series of increasingly stronger policies and programs.
This chapter summarizes the national significance of
agricultural lands; describes agricultural land resources
in King County; describes the potential impacts of urbaniza-
tion on King County farmland; presents a general review of
mitigation measures for agricultural land conversion; and
describes existing governmental policies aimed at preserving
agricultural land.
National Significance of Agricultural Lands
This section describes national trends in agricultural
land conversion, the environmental and economic rationale
for protection of agricultural lands, and EPA's policy regarding
agricultural land protection. The following definitions
will be used in this analysis:
Prime farmland: Land suitable for farming or silvi-
culture with "soil quality, growing season, and moisture
supply needed to economically produce sustained high
yields of crops when treated and managed, including
water management, according to acceptable farming methods"
(Lee, 1978). Prime farmlands are the "most efficient,
energy conserving, environmentally stable lands available
for meeting food needs" (CEQ, 1978).
Cropland: Land in cropland use. Not all cropland is
prime farmland.
Important farmland: Important farmland is that farmland
being mapped by the SCS under its current (LIM-3) mapping
program. It consists of the following categories:
prime farmland, unique farmland (additional farmland
A-7 7
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used for the production of specific high value crops),
additional farmland of statewide importance (to be
determined by state agencies), and additional farmland
of local importance (where appropriate, to be determined
by local agencies).
National Trends in Agricultural Land Conversion
In 1975 the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) inventoried
384 million acres of prime farmland in the United States
(Dideriksen, 1977 [see Table 3-1]). Of this total, 250 million
acres were in cropland, 77 million acres were in pasture
or range, 43 million acres were in forest use, and 14 million
acres were in miscellaneous other uses. Total land in cropland
use (prime plus nonprime) in 197 5 amounted to 4 31 million
acres.
Cropland Acreage Change, 1967 to 1975. Approximately
78 million out of 431 million acres of cropland were converted
to noncropland uses during 1967-75. Most of the converted
cropland acreage was put to less intensive agricultural use
(pasture and range). Much of this change is attributed to
low soil fertility, erosion, and the existence of terrain
unsuitable for efficient use of agricultural machinery. On
the other hand, 4 9 million acres of noncropland were converted
into cropland during the same period, most of that addition
coming out of pasture and rangeland.
There was a net loss of cropland to urban and water
uses between 1967 and 1975 amounting to more than 5 million
acres. Conversion of actively farmed cropland to nonagri-
cultural uses was estimated to have taken place at the rate
of 700,000 acres per year.
Prime Farmland Conversion, 1967 to 1975. Of the over
5 million acres of cropland converted to urban and water
uses between 1967 and 1975, about 83 percent (4.5 million
acres) was prime farmland. Other irreversible conversion
of prime farmland involved 2.9 million acres withdrav/n from
pasture and range, forests and other uses. Total conversion
of prime land to urban and water uses was 7.4 million acres
over the 8-year period, or slightly less than a million acres
a year. This amounts to a loss of slightly more than 4 square
miles of prime farmland per day.
Rationale for Protection of Agricultural Lands
The continued loss of agricultural lands, and particularly
prime farmland, has become a national concern for several
reasons. The high level of concern exists because prime
farmland is a nonrenewable resource, and its conversion to
urban uses is irreversible.
A- 7 8
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Table 3-1
U.S. Prime Farmland Use
Land u*«
Prime
farmland
(million
acres)
Prime farmland
Percent of
total
Percent of
noncropped
Cropland
250
65
0
Pasture and range
76
20
58
Forest
43
11
31
Other land
IS
4
11
Total
384
100
100
SOURCE: Dideriksen, 1977.
A-7 9
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Loss of Food Production Capability. Technological advances
have contributed to an increase in crop yields (output per
acre) of about 60 percent and in total output by 160 percent
from 1949 to 1975 (EPA, 1979b). These increases took place
during a period when the acreage of cropland used for crops
decreased by some 20 million acres (5 percent). A major
source of this increased agricultural capacity has been tech-
nological advances such as synthetic fertilizers and hybrid
plants.
Although the productivity of U. S. farms over the past
25 years has markedly increased, observers expect productivity
to level off in the future due to increased costs of energy,
fertilizer, pesticides, and farm machinery, decreasing effective-
ness of pesticides, limited availability of irrigation water,
and biological ceilings on the rate of growth of production
per acre (CEQ, 1978). As productivity begins to stabilize,
it will become increasingly important to preserve those lands
best able to produce crops.
Considerable uncertainty exists regarding U. S. cropland
"needs" for meeting domestic and export demand. Under certain
conditions (high population growth, high economic growth,
low application of technology), the supply of prime farmlands
could be in full use early in the 21st century (EPA, 1979b).
Use of more marginal farmland for growing crops would result
in lower yields, higher costs and food prices, and greater
environmental impact (see discussion below).
Increased Export Demand. In 1977 U. S. farms exported
50 percent of wheat production, 68 percent of rice production,
28 percent of grain sorghum production, and 28 percent of
corn production (CEQ, 1978). These exports, worth $23.7
billion, have a favorable effect on the U. S. balance of
trade. Recent increases in export demand (for example, since
1974) have been associated with increased domestic food prices;
policies to preserve the most productive agricultural land
can help insulate domestic consumers from price increases
attributable to increased export demand (EPA, 1979b).
Lower Food Prices for Local Markets. In some cases
consumers benefit from lower food prices when commodities
are produced locally, resulting from lower transportation
costs. Also, consumers shopping at local farm stands or
farmers' markets benefit from the minimization of "middleman"
costs.
Open Space, Aesthetic, and Environmental Benefits. Close-
in open space near urban areas is rapidly disappearing. Close-
in open space provides important aesthetic and psychological
benefits to urban dwellers, but can also provide certain
environmental benefits as well. Open lands can help protect
watersheds, insulate environmentally sensitive areas from
incompatible uses, provide important elements of wildlife
habitat, and provide vegetative removal of some air pollutants.
A- 80
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At the same time, it must be recognized that intensive
agriculture can pose numerous environmental threats, in parti-
cular from nonpoint sources of water pollution. Agricultural
runoff can carry excessive concentrations of sediment, nutrients
from commercial fertilizers, biocides, and organic wastes;
control of agricultural nonpoint source pollution requires
application of appropriate management practices. Also, local
air quality may be affected by wind-blown dust and detritus.
Production on newly-developed marginal farmlands tends to have
greater environmental impacts than production on prime farmlands.
About 400,000 acres of marginal cropland added each year
depend upon dammed or diverted water or deep wells for irri-
gation water (CEQ, 1975); these new water demands are becoming
increasingly difficult to meet in the water-short western
U. S. Some of the new cropland is created by draining wetlands,
usually destroying their biological value. Also, marginal
lands tend to require extensive use of commercial fertilizer,
which requires extensive amounts of energy to manufacture
and can cause excessively high concentrations of nutrients
in agricultural runoff.
EPA Policy on Protection of Agricultural Lands
EPA in 1978 established an agencywide policy to assure
that its actions, regulations, and programs reinforce the
retention of environmentally significant agricultural land
(EPA, 1978a). ("Environmentally significant" agricultural
land consists of the same categories as "important" farmland,
as defined by the SCS, together with the following additional
categories: farmlands on or contiguous to environmentally sensi-
tive areas, farmlands of waste utilization importance, and
farmlands wi.th significant investments in Best Management
Practices for nonpoint source pollution.)
The EPA policy is responsive to the Council on Environmental
Quality's (CEQ) 1976 directive to federal agencies to evaluate
fully impacts of agency actions on prime farmlands. Among
the actions which EPA has established to implement its policy
on protection of agricultural lands, several are related
directly to this EIS:
-"Specific project decisions involved in the planning, design,
and construction of sewer interceptors and treatment facilities
shall consider farmland protection. Consistent with Agency
cost-effectiveness guidelines, interceptors and collection
systems should be located on agricultural land only if nec-
essary to eliminate existing discharges and serve existing
habitation.
-"Primary and secondary impacts on agricultural land shall
be determined, and mitigation measures reccrtmended in environ-
mental assessments and reviews and environmental impact
statements of EPA decisions...
A-81
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-"Agricultural land protection efforts of states, local governments,
or other federal programs shall be supported through intergovernmental
coordination and EPA project reviews."
Description of the Agricultural Land Resourca
In King County
Agriculture played an important role in the history
of King County, in that early settlers were attracted to
the county's agricultural potential and accessibility to
markets. Urbanization of the county since 1950, and
development of irrigated agriculture in eastern Washington,
have reduced the importance of King County agriculture to
the local, state, and national economies. Nevertheless,
preservation of remaining prime farmland in King County is
important for the economic and environmental reasons cited
in the previous section. This section describes the location
of agricultural lands in King County and the Renton study
area; describes trends in agricultural land acreage and use;
summarizes the economics of agriculture in the county; and
describes a previous forecast of the future of King County
agriculture in the absence of development pressure.
Location of Agricultural Lands
King County's moderate coastal climate is conducive
to the growing of several crop types. Because the county
has large mountainous areas, agriculture has historically
constituted less than 10 percent of the county's land use.
Agriculture has concentrated in the river valleys of the
Green, Snoqualmie, and Sammamish Rivers, the Enumclaw Plateau,
and Vashon Island.
SCS - Mapped Important Farmlands. The SCS has recently
completed its inventory of important agricultural lands in
King County. These lands are mapped in Figure 3-1. The
prime farmlands shown on this map consist of Class II and
Class III soils. The additional farmland of statewide importance
shown on this map consists of certain Class IV soils considered
to be prime forestland. The total acreage of prime farmland
in King County is 100,990 acres; the total acreage of the
additional farmland of statewide importance is 143,737 acres.
The SCS map of important farmlands must be used with
caution for planning purposes, because development has occurred
on some of the lands designated as important farmlands (King
County Office of Agriculture, pers. comm.).
Agricultural Districts and Agricultural Lands of County
Significance. King County Ordinance 3064, adopted in 1977,
establishes eight agricultural districts (areas where agri-
cultural activities are concentrated) and designates certain
A-8 2
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ENUMCLAW
PLATEAU
SAMMAMlSH VALLEY/
BEAR CREEK
LEGEND
Figure 3-1. map of scs important farmlands & of
KING COUNTY AGRICULTURAL DISTRICTS
-------
lands within these districts as agricultural lands of county
significance. {Policy aspects of Ordinance 3064 are reviewed
in a later section.) Agricultural lands of county significance
are defined by Ordinance 306 4 to include unincorporated lands
with Class II, III and {under some circumstances} IV soils;
lands not in wooded or urban uses; lands where urban-level
sewer or water lines are not in place; and lands with contiguous
parcels greater than 20 acres.
Tables 3-2 and 3-3, respectively, summarize data on
lands included within agricultural districts and agricultural
lands of county significance. Agricultural districts are
shown in Figure 3-1. Table 3-2 indicates that, of the 108,865
acres in agricultural districts, 21,905 acres (20 percent)
are in incorporated cities and 86,960 acres are unincorporated;
cities are allowed to join in the county's program if they
choose. Table 3-2 also shows that about 4 5 percent of the
unincorporated lands within agricultural districts are not
zoned for agricultural use. Table 3-3 shows that of the
agricultural lands of county significance, almost all {87
percent) are in farm use and almost all (89 percent) are
zoned for agricultural use.
Four King County agricultural districts are located
within the Lake Washington/Green River Basins (see Table 3-4).
These are Saramamish Valley/Bear Creek, lower Green River
Valley, upper Green River Valley, and Enumclaw Plateau. These
four districts cover 70,635 acres (65 percent of the land
in agricultural districts) and contain 22,475 acres of agri-
cultural lands of county significance (69 percent of the
lands so designated).
Table 3-5 shows the distribution of agricultural land
use for each King County agricultural district. Total for
the four agricultural districts within the Renton study area
are 28,250 acres in dairy/livestock use and 2,145 acres in
horticultural use (concentrated in the lower Green River
Valley).
The main criteria used to establish agricultural districts
were concentration of prime agricultural lands and concentration
of lands participating in the county's open space taxation
program (described in a later section). Those areas excluded
from agricultural districts, but with at least some prime
soils, include the Soos Creek Plateau (where prime farmland
is scattered), the south end of Lake Sammamish (where no
commercial farming exists), and the Cedar River Valley (where
no commercial farming exists).
Trends in Agricultural Land Acreage and Use
In 1945, a total of 165,636 acres were in farm use in
King County (defined as cropland, pastureland, woodland,
A-8 4
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Table 3-2. Summary of Agricultural Districts
Name of District
Total
Area
Circumscribed
Included*
Unincorporated Lands Contained
Area
Acreage by Zoning
A-Zoned
Other Zones
Upper Snooualmie Valley
Snoqualmie Valley/Patterson Creek
North Creek Valley
Sanroamish Valley/Bear Creek
Lo.ver Green River Valley
Upper Green
Enurrclaw Plateau
Va^hon Island
3,640 ac.
23,050 ac.
730 ac.
11,535 ac.
18,840 ac.
2,965 ac.
37,035 ac.
11,070 ac.
-0-
300 ac.
510 ac.
2,200 ac.
16,060 ac.
-0-
2,835 ac.
-0-
3,640 ac.
22,750 ac.
220 ac.
9,335 ac.
2,780 ac.
2,965 ac.
34,200 ac.
11,070 ac.
—0—
16,845 ac.
220 ac.
250 ac.
1,460 ac.
2,830 ac.
26,170 ac.
-0-
3,640 ac.
5,905 ac.
-0-
9,085 ac.
1,320 ac.
135 ac.
8,030 ac.
11,070 ac.
TOTALS
108,865 ac.
21,905 ac.
86,960 ac.
47,775 ac.
39,185 ac.
~Inclusion dependent upon joint interlocal agencies.
SOURCE: King County, 1977a.
-------
Table 3-3. Summary of Significant Lands
Name of District
Un incorporate
i Significant Lands
Total
By Use
By Zoning
Acreage
Vacant
Fanned
A-Zoned
Other Zones
Upper Sp.oqualir.ie Valley
-0-
-0-
-0-
-0-
-0-
Sr.cqu3Lide Vallev/Patterson Creek
9,990 ac.
820 ac.
9,170 ac.
9,140 ac.
850 ac.
Korth Crc-ek Valley
—0-
-0-
-0-
-0-
-0-
Sanmainish Valley/Eear Creek
1,735 ac.
300 ac.
1,435 ac.
95 ac.
1,640 ac.
Lour Green River Valley
1,510 ac.
235 ac.
1,275 ac.
1,290 ac.
220 ac.
Upper Green Valley
865 ac.
95 ac.
770 ac.
805 ac.
60 ac.
Knurrclaw Plateau
18,365 ac.
2,800 ac.
15,565 ac.
17,440 ac.
925 ac.
Vashon Island
-0-
-0-
-0-
-0-
-0-
TOTALS
32,465 ac.
4,250 ac.
28,215 ac.
28,770 ac.
3,695 ac.
SOURCE: King County, 1977a.
-------
Table 3-4. Agricultural Districts in King County
and Lake Washington/Green River Basins
District
Acres in
District
Acres in Class
II and III Soils
Within Renton Study Area
Sammamish Valley/ 11,535
Bear Creek
Lower Green River 18,840
Valley
Upper Green River 2,96 5
Valley
Enumclaw Plateau* 37,035
Subtotal 70,375
Remainder of King County
Upper Snoqualmie 3,64 0
Valley
Lower Snoqualmie 2 3,0 50
Valley/Patterson
Creek
Vashon-Maury Islands 11,070
Subtotal 37,760
TOTAL 108,135
6, 100
14,110
NA
17,810
38,020
NA
20,435
480
20,915
58,935
Lands Designated
of Countywide
Significance
1,735
1,510
865
18,365
22,475
0
9, 990
0
9, 990
32,465
Acres in
Agricultural Uses
3,865
6,235
NA
18,980
29,080
NA
12,025
2,200
14 ,225
43,305
*A small portion of the Enumclaw Plateau agricultural district is not within the Renton
study area.
SOURCE: John M. Sanger Associates, 1978.
-------
Table 3-5. Estimated Distribution of Agricultural
Land Use by Type of Use and JVrea
Snoqualmie
Valley
Sammamish
Valley
Bear Creek
Lower
Green
Valley
Upper
Green
Valley
Enuraclaw
Plateau
Vashon/
Maury
Islands
Total
Acres
<%)
Acres
<%)
Acres
U)
Acres
(%>
Acres
<%)
Acres
(%)
Acres
(%)
Dairy Pasture
and Cropland
and Other
Livestock
11,725
(97.5)
3,605
(93.2)
4,805
(77.1)
1,540
(79.4)
18,300
(99.7)
1,675
(76.8)
41,650
(93.4)
Percent
28. 2
8. 7
11. 5
3.7
43.9
4.0
100. 0
Horticultural
(Ornamental
and Vegetable/
Berry)
300
(2.55)
265
(6.8)
1,430
(10.9}
400
(20.6)
50
(0.3)
505
(23.2)
2,950
(6.6)
Percent
10. 2
9. 0
48-5
13.6
1.7
17.0
100.0
TOTAL
12,025
(100)
3, B7 0
(100)
6,235
(100)
1,940
(100)
18,350
(100)
2,180
(100)
44,600
(100)
Percent
27.0
8.6
14 .0
4.4
41.1
4.9
100.0
Notes: Total approximates data from census of agriculture on total crop and pasture land.
Total land in farms in the county (not including very small farms) is about 55,500
acres.
SOURCE: John M. Sanger Associates, 1978.
-------
and other farm uses such as buildings), and 74,306 acres
were in cropland use. In 1974, land in farm use declined
to 55,513 acres and land in cropland use declined to 33,974
acres (John M. Sanger Associates, 1978). During this 29-
year period, then, King County lost 66 percent of its land
in farm use and 46 percent of its land in cropland use. Leading
this decrease in acreage were woodlands, which have relatively
low economic value.
Table 3-6 shows estimates of King County land in agri-
cultural use by product for 1974 (the latest year for which
statistical data are available from the agricultural census),
and also shows these data for the years 1969 and 1964.
(Definitions of land in "agricultural use" and land in "farm
use" described in the above paragraph differ slightly.) As
shown, dairy land has consistently represented about 90 percent
of the total land in agricultural use. Vegetable and berry
production account for about 6 percent of the land in agri-
cultural use, and other livestock accounts for an additional
3 percent (John M. Sanger Associates, 1978). In the 10-
year period, 1964-1974, total land in agricultural use declined
from 59,751 acres to 46,275 acres, a decrease of 23 percent.
Most of this loss was from dairy land; however, land in vege-
table production suffered a disproportionate loss (49 percent
reduction in acreage) during this period.
Between 1945 and 1975, the number of farm operations
in King County declined drastically, from 6,500 to 1,200.
A trend toward a smaller number of larger farm units has
been firmly established.
The King County Office of Agriculture differentiates
"commercial" farms from "hobby" farms. A commercial farm
is defined as any farm over 20 acres; a farm of 5-20 acres
with gross sales of $100 per acre; or any smaller farm with
at least $1,000 in gross sales. All other farms are considered
hobby farms. Of the 1,200 farms in King County, 270 (22
percent) are considered commercial. Of the 270 commercial
farms, 110 are dairy farms, 100 are ornamental horticulture
farms, and approximately 40 are vegetable or berry farms
(John M. Sanger Associates, 1978).
Economics of Agriculture in King County
Farm Income. Table 3-7 shows King County gross farm
receipts from 1959 to 1974. As shown, farm sales increased
from $20.5 million in 1959 to $40.5 million in 1974. When
accounting for inflation, real increases in farm sales amounted
to about 17 percent; this increase occurred entirely between
1969 and 1974, reversing a previous decline in real dollars
between 1959 and 1969 (John M. Sanger Associates, 1978).
A-8 9
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Table 3-6. Estimated Agricultural Land
Use by Industry
1974 1969 1964
Acres % Acres % Acres %
DAIRY 41,255 89 44,591 90 53,536 90
Pastured 29,194 36,118 41,373
Silage 12,061 8,472 12,163
>
' POULTRY 600 1 N/A N/A
V£>
O
OTHER LIVESTOCK 1,180 3 1,493 3 1,531 3
VEG/BERRY 2,580 6 2,869 6 4,234 7
Vegetable 1,810 1,968 3,560
Berry 770 901 674
OTHER 209 <£1 257 ^1 300 *1
ORNAMENTAL 451 1 218 ^1 150 <1
TOTAL 46,275 100 49,767 100 59,751 100
SOURCE: John M. Sanger Associates, 1978, based on census of agriculture.
-------
Table 3-7. King County Gross Farm
Receipts by Major Category
1959-1974
1959
1964
1969
19741
Product
($1,000)
($1,000)
($1,000)
($1,000)
Value of all farm products sold
20,538
21,032
22,389
40,496
Percent of state sales
6
3
3
2
All crops
6,240
6,207
6,871
10,574
Percent of state sales
2
2
2
1
Field crops
107
81
93 2
327 2
Vegetables, berries, fruits,
and nuts
2,944
2,365
2,1312
2,270*
Ornamental horticultural products
3,189
3,760
4,6472
7,916
All livestock and livestock products
14,298
14,799
14,995
29,834
Percent of state sales
7
6
4
6
Dairy products
7,636
8,103
8,4822
18,4832
Poultry and products
4,003
3,600
3,5902
6,450
Cattle and calves
1,9123
2,2273
2,281z
3,5522
Other livestock and their products
7483
8703
6422
1,0192
*1974 definition (of farm) has been changed, but any errors due to
continuity error would be insignificant.
2For farms with sales of $2,500 and over. Resulting errors are in'
significant.
Estimated frcm available census data.
SOURCE: John M. Sanger Associates, 1978, based on census of agriculture.
A- 91
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King County's proportion of state farm sales has declined
from 6 percent in 1955 to 2 percen- in 1S74, chiefly due
to increased production from eastern Washington irrigated
agriculture during this period.
Farm income in 1978 for King County is estimated at
$50-55 million, up from $40.5 million in 1974. The 27Q com-
mercial farms in King County account for 92 percent of this
farm income (John M. Sanger Associates, 1978).
Dairy products have been and continue to be the single
largest sector of King County agriculture, accounting for
46 percent of the county's gross farm receipts in 1974. Other
important sectors are ornamental horticulture (20 percent),
poultry and poultry products (16 percent), cattle and calves
(9 percent), vegetable and berries (6 percent), and other
livestock <3 percent). Brief profiles of these sectors are
provided below (John M. Sanger Associates, 1978).
Products and Fesd. The King County dairy industry continues
to expand in terms of milk production, value of dairy products,
and production of dairy feed crops. The profitability of
the dairy industry has depended more on milk prices than
on changes in demand for milk. The dairy industry's continued
growth in King County depends on the ability to produce dairy
feed crops locally (which is less expensive than importing
feed)( short hauling distances to processors and urban markets,
and favorable prices.
Ornamental Horticulture. This sector, which includes
greenhouse crops, outdoor nursery crops, and bulbs, has experi-
enced continued growth over the last 2 0 years. Its growth
is directly related to urban market demand. Receipts from
greenhouse products appear to represent about 75 percent
of total ornamental horticulture sales.
Poultry Produats, This sector experienced real growth
in the 1969-1974 period, after experiencing a decline from
1959 to 1959. Increases in sales are attributable entirely
to increases in prices, which rose 8 0 percent between 1968
and 1976; the number of chickens and eggs sold during this
period appears to have declined. King County's population
of state poultry receipts, about 11 percent, is still signi-
ficant .
Cattle and Calves. This sector is largely a by-product
of the dairy industry. Recent increases in the inventories
and sales of steers, bulls, and calves are directly related
to recent growh in the dairy indus-ry.
Vegetables and Berries. Vegetable crops grown in King
County, in. decreasing order of production, include sweet corn,
cabbage, lettuce, rhubarb, cucumbers, snap beans, carrots, and
A- 9 2
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cauliflower. Berry crops, also in decreasing order of production,
include strawberries, blueberries, red raspberries, currants,
cherries, and blackberries. The vegetable and berry sector
has experienced a significant decline in output and gross
income since 1959. Problems faced by this sector include
nonlocal competition, loss of land to urbanization, shortage
of harvest labor, and movement of food processors to other
counties.
Other Livestock. This sector includes sales of hogs,
sheep, goats, and horses, and their products. In terms of
constant dollars, this sector has been stable for the past
20 years. Breeding, stabling, training, showing, and racing
of horses in King County occurs to a greater extent than
in any other Washington county, due to the relationship of
these activities to population concentrations. Much of the
economic activity associated with horses is not represented
in the farm economy.
Farm Employment. In the three-county Puget Sound region
(King, Pierce, and Snohomish Counties), agricultural employment
has declined from 17,600 jobs in 1956 to 7,000 jobs in 1973
(John M. Sanger Associates, 1978). This trend reflects the
decline of regional agriculture, reduced labor requirements
due to technological advances, and growth in the remainder
of the regional economy. In 197 3, agricultural employment
represented about 1 percent of the total employment in the
three-county region.
In 1974, agricultural employment within King County
was estimated to be about 2,300 full-time equivalent jobs
(John M. Sanger Associates, 1978) (see Table 3-8). The actual
number of farm job positions is considerably higher (about
5,600 during peak months) due to part-time and seasonal help.
In King County shifts in production methods and in the
relative strength of agricultural sectors appear to affect
employment levels more than gross farm income. Because the
dairy industry is becoming increasingly dominant in the county's
agriculture, and because it is relatively capital intensive,
continued employment losses can be expected even with increased
milk production (John M. Sanger Associates, 1978).
Importance of Agriculture to the Local and Regional Economy
King County agriculture is not considered to be economically
significant to the local or regional economies (John M. Sanger
Associates, 1978). As mentioned, agricultural employment
is less than 1 percent of the three-county regional employment.
It is estimated that direct, indirect and induced employment
attributable to King County agriculture is 3,790 jobs (John M.
Sanger Associates, 1978); each full-time job in agriculture
generates 0.65 jobs in related economic activities.
A- 93
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Table 3-8. King County Agricultural
Employment by Activity and Type
1974
Part-Time
Full-Time & Seasonal* Total**
Dairy
476
90
566
Horticulture
510
482
992
Poultry
101
15
116
Other
52
28
80
Vegetable
102
444
546
1241
1059
2300
* Full-time equivalents
** Includes proprietors
SOURCE: John M. Sanger Associates, 1978.
A-9 4
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Acres in Thousands
Figure 3-2. Actual and projected
Trends in Farmland/ Kinq County
120
inq County
100
Actual
Proj ected
80
60
10
Land In Farms
20
Cropland & Pastureland
Cropland-Harvested U Pastured
_ Pastureland
1959
1969
197 A
1979
1984
1989
SOURCE: John M. Sanger Associates, 1978.
-------
Linkages of the agricultural industry to other sectors
through purchase of supplies and through provision of agri-
cultural products are not particularly strong within King
County or region. Many of the agricultural suppliers are
located outside the region, and the local food processing
industry is relatively small, with processors tending to
move away from King County. The major customers for local
agricultural products within King County are the remaining
local processors and the local agriculture industry itself.
Also, direct sales to consumers are fairly important, accounting
for $1 to $4 for every $1,000 of agricultural output {John M.
Sanger Associates, 1978).
Local agriculture does result in consumer savings for
consumers who purchase products at farm stands or farmers
markets, or who pick these crops themselves. For example,
Table 3-9 contains estimates of the potential consumer savings
for a pound of strawberries or a mixed vegetable basket purchased
from a farm stand, "U-pick" farm, and the Pike Place farmer's
market.
Forecast of Agriculture's Viability Without Urbanization
Pressure
Urbanization is only one factor leading to the historical
decline of agriculture in King County. A recent study (John M.
Sanger Associates, 1978) attempted to forecast the future
of agriculture in King County from 1974 to 1985 without urbani-
zation pressure. Based on trends alone, the study found
that a small increase in acreage (about 900 acres) of land
in agricultural use is possible, primarily in the vegetable/berry
and ornamental horticulture sectors. Gross farm receipts
were forecast to increase by $6.6 million by 1985. Direct,
indirect and induced employment was forecast to increase
by 450 jobs (few of these jobs would be direct jobs in agri-
culture) .
In terms of agricultural sectors, the dairy and beef sectors
were forecast to continue recent increases in production
due to favorable milk prices, high milk yields, and local
production of dairy feed. The increase in milk production
does not necessarily require an increase of land in dairy
farms. The vegetable and berry sector was forecast to increase
slightly in income ($1.2 million) and acreage (550 acres).
This would require preservation of existing productive lands
and the elimination of development pressures; conditions
are not completely favorable to growth of the vegetable and
berry sector even if development pressures were removed.
Ornamental horticulture was forecast to grow at historical
rates (increasing by $3 million in sales by 1985) , and poultry
production was forecast to remain stable.
A-9 6
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Table 3-9. Potential Consumer Savings
by Product for Locally
Produced Items
Mixed Vegetable
Strawberries
Basket
Retail Price at Chain Store
80c/lb
$3.70
Farm Stand Price
45c/lb
2.42
Savings ac Farm Stand
35c/lb
1.28
U-pick Price
30c/lb
—
Savings with U-Pick
Excluding Labor
50c/lb
Pike Place Price
67c/lb
—
Savings at Pike Place
13c/lb
.56
SOURCE: John M. Sanger Associates, 1978, based on estimates
by Agland Investment Services, Inc.
A-97
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Impact of Urbanization on
King County Agricultural Land
This section presents an overview of the process by
which agricultural land is converted to urban uses, and
describes the results of a previous forecast of agricultural
land conversion in King County given continuation of current
development trends.
Overview of the Agricultural Land Conversion Process
A farmer's decision to sell farmland for development
is a complex phenomenon. Four different types of factors
appear to be at work: economic (net returns) , demographic
(age), secondary (impacts of neighboring land uses), and
transitional (desire for change) (CEQ, 1976) .
Economic Factors. These are of two sorts. First, a
very high price for a farm may be offered, in which case
it may be difficult not to sell the farm. Second, economic
returns may not be sufficient to continue farming. Causes
for poor returns may include low prices for products, low
yields, high transportation costs to the market, high costs
for farm supplies, high labor costs, and high property taxes.
It is important to note that high property taxes at the urban/
rural fringe due to valuation of farmland at its highest
and best use are only one of the many factors influencing
the farmer considering the sale of farmland.
Demographic Factors. The most important demographic
factor in the decision to sell a farm is age of the owner.
As farmers near the age of retirement, they may attempt to
pass the farm on to a relative or willing neighbor; if this
is not possible, then farmers may consider putting their
farms up for sale.
Secondary Factors. These relate to limitations placed
on farm production due to urban encroachment. These may
include limitations on crop dusting or fertilizer production,
traffic conflicts on farm roads, and theft or vandalism of
crops. Each of these factors can reduce farm productivity
and create a nuisance for farm operations.
Transitional Factors. These factors are difficult to
predict. As urban encroachment advances, an "impermanence
syndrome" may become establsihed and a farmer may begin to
consider moving to another location to either continue farming
or to look for a different kind of work.
Interaction of Various Factors. The interaction of
these various factors in the decision to sell a close-in
farm has been described by EPA (1977c) as follows:
A-98
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"As urban pressures begin to weigh on agricultural operations,
a chain of events is set in motion. Rising taxes and development
pressure begin to take their toll on neighboring farms; as
the number of farms begins to dec1 Lie, the important support
industries, such as feed and grain dealers, farm equipment
outlets, etc., begin to leave the area... In time, farm
labor bee cnes more expensive and scarce... The farmer slowly
feels his political strength drain away as county and local
governments...begin passing "nuisance" ordinances... Typically,
the farmer's profit margin begins to shrink... For those
who wish to rsnin in farming, the choices ccme dewn to hanging
on for as long as possible and then selling to the highest
bidder, usually a developer, or selling out and iroving the
operation to an area that has a stronger agricultural ccmunity."
Previous Forecast of Agricultural Land Conversion
A recent study (John M. Sanger Associates, 1978) forecasted
the impacts of urban development on agricultural lands in
King County. The study noted that current trends indicate
the desirability of the Sanunamish and lower Green River Valleys
for industrial and commercial development and the desirability
of the upper Green River Valley, Enumclaw Plateau, and Snoqualmie
Valley for low density residential development.
The baseline population projection used for this forecast
was the PSCOG "T208" projection. This projection incorporates
an assumption that agricultural lands will not be developed.
For purposes of the forecast of agricultural land conversion,
the T2Q8 projection was adjusted by removing this assumption;
by increasing estimates of growth rates and land absorption;
and by changing certain growth distribution patterns.
The results of the forecast are shown in Figure 3-2.
As shown, total land in farms was forecast to decrease by
as much as 31,000 acres, or 40 percent, by 1990. Of this
total, 10,000-12,000 acres represent losses due to direct
conversion to urban uses and up to 21,000 acres represent
land purchased and taken out of production in anticipation
of future demand.
Table 3-10 shows forecasted losses of county-designated
significant agricultural lands by agricultural district.
As shown, about 6,000 acres (20 percent) of significant agri-
cultural lands were forecast to be directly lost to urban
uses by 1990; this figure could be as much as 18,000 acres
(60 percent) when considering land taken out of production
in anticipation of demand. The greatest relative decreases
in significant agricultural land were forecast to occur in
the upper Green River Valley and Sammamish Valley/Bear Creek.
Direct losses of significant agricultural land within the
Renton study area represent over 90 percent of the significant
lands lost countywide; this is attributable to relative lack
of development pressure outside the Renton study area.
A-9 9
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Table 3-10. 1990 Projected Loss of
Significant Agricultural
Lands1 by Area
Agriculture District
Total
Designated
Landsl
Estimate of Potential
Conversion to Urban Uses
Snoqualmie Valley/
Patterson Creek
9,990
Acres
250-630
% of Total
3-6 %
Satnmarnish Valley/
Bear Creek
Lower Green River
Valley
Upper Green River
Valley
Enumclaw Plateau
1,735
1,510
865
18,365
32,465
510-850
100-140
750
4,470
6080-6840
29-49?
7-9 %
87%
24%
19-21%
xLands designated by Ordinance 3064.
SOURCE: John M. Sanger Associates, 1978.
A-100
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Measures to Mitigate the Loss of Agricultural Lands
Measures to mitigate the loss of agricultural lands
to urban uses have been comprehensively reviewed in a recent
EPA (1979b) Environmental Impact Statement for wastewater
facilities improvements in Modesto, California, located in
the highly-productive San Joaquin Valley. Table 3-11 lists
the mitigation measures developed by Gruen Gruen + Associates
for this EIS and indicates which level of government would
be responsible for implementation; whether each measure is
regulatory or incentive; the time frame for implementation;
whether the approach is direct or indirect, and how effective
each measure is expected to be (subjectively determined).
The mitigation measures listed in Table 3-11 are organized
into seven groups, according to their basic goal.
1) Measures Which Affect the Amount of Urban Development.
Because urbanization of agricultural lands is a major cause
of the loss of prime agricultural land, limiting the amount
or urban development permitted would limit agricultural land
losses.
2) Measures Which Affect the Density of Development. By
increasing the density at which urban development takes place,
the amount of agricultural land lost could be reduced.
3) Measures Which Affect the Location of Urban Development.
The most direct approach to protecting agricultural lands
is to allow development only on lands not suited for agri-
cultural use, and to preserve all existing agricultural uses.
4) Measures Which Limit the Availability of Urban Infrastructure.
Limiting expansion or extension of urban services such as
roads, water, and sewers is one way of preventing urban encroach-
ment on agricultural lands.
5) Measures Which Promote Agricultural Uses. Measures
in this category represent actions which could be taken to
strength the competitive position of agriculture and help
it to gain better economic returns.
6) Measures Which Use Tax Policy to Protect Agricultural Uses.
These measures use tax incentives to encourage agricultural
uses or discourage urban uses of agricultural lands. Differ-
ential or preferential assessment of agricultural land is
the single most commonly-employed approach to preserving
agricultural lands, but the effectivenss of this approach
is limited, especially when considering close-in agricultural
lands (CEQ, 1976).
7) Measures Which Use a Performance Standard for Urbanization
Of Agricultural Lands. Performance standards are a flexible
method for achieving land use objectives. With regard to
agricultural land preservation, a performance standard could
A-101
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Table 3-11
PriTie Agricultural Land MiU'Jtior Matrix
hEasum: prcposeo
I.HPLF.TMATION
T^l'E "F
TA.i
WW IMP L£.MLVTAH;,£ ;
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or RCCT
strong ?>:r:Kr
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t'n* 2m~w.r -f ur-DJf h'vs I ?r-« r
uinit the i.TOunt of land zoned Cor urban
level OP'Tien t
•
•
•
0
•
0
Li*nit lumber of auiidmg permits issued
•
•
•
0
•
0
Limit industrial qrovth generators
•
•
•
•
0
0
t' fi~t ch* jatsitw vf dev 4 lapmgnt
tow minimum lot sizes in jrbar inai
•
•
O
•
•
•
¦High minimum lot sizes m rural .areas
•
0
•
•
0
•
0
Maximum lac sires in urbjn areas
•
•
#
o
»
0
0
linmuffi ne ighoorfiood Joniitiei in urban
areas
•
•
•
• .
•
0
rrs.fi11 development in urban dreds
•
•
•
•
0
0
Cluster development in urban areas
•
•
•
0
0
Cluster development in rural rtreas
•
•
•
•
0
Affaet tH# ../* tve I j r/>a ¦« I:
•lil'ol Af'jjn I. 4
"rowth on or toward non-prime lands
0
•
•
r 0
0
0
Prohibition ot subdivision on unincorpor-
ated l^nds
0
•
•
•
0
0
Eligibility toe housing psai# of urban infra&trus
zurt
Establish an urban service area for
short-term qroven
0
0
0
0
0
Establish an uroan expansion area for
loriq-cem qrowth
0
0
0
0
0
SPA clean water grants
0
0
0
0
•
0
Restrict state and federal highway aid
0
•
0
0
0
0
federal ftegional Council coordination
0
0
0
0
0
Pramott ijrieulz^raL waea
Bring new agricultural lands into pro-
duction
•
0
•
0
0
|
Put purchased agricultural land to agri-
cultural use
0
0
0
0
0
0
Growth of cooperatives
0
0
0
0
0
0
merchandising methods
0
0
0
0
0
0
Intermediate technology cor agricultural
production
0
0
0
0
0
0
National (and/or state) prime agricultural
0
0
0
0
O
0
0 1
Assure adequacy z>( future water supolies
(:cnaervat.on, reclamation, now projects!
0
0
0
0
1 • 1
# U»t tar polisy es#ruinr
0
•
|
0
LoAipdrative mifef-city analysis of peimu
agcicultur.il land retention
0
0
j
0
Ciii t-snj IJ com: 11 ions
0
0
0
•
0
| 0
j 0
Conversion coefficients
0
0
0
0
0
0
| 0
', Assueei feasibility. *»»iqneff.t to j COluft" refills lu-l'iwvi" r', ti-*
Ueiiwi to cuAkid«r
-------
measure the land utilization efficiency of a city or county
by "establishing a minimum collective density of new development
on prime agricultural land over time, thereby ensuring that
prime agricultural land would not be developed in a wasteful
manner. A suitable indicator of land utilization efficiency
is the coefficient of conversion; the amount of prime agri-
cultural land converted to urban use per unit of population
growth" (EPA, 197 9b).
Some of the measures listed in Table 3-11 are in effect
in King County. The next section reviews existing policies
for agricultural land preservation within King County.
Existing Policies for Agricultural Land Preservation
In King County
The section reviews existing federal, state, regional
and local policies for agricultural land preservation within
King County.
Federal
Federal activities related to agricultural land preservation
are carried out mainly by the CEQ and the SCS. The CEQ has
provided a directive to federal agencies evaluating effects
of agency actions on prime and unique farmlands which states
that "efforts should be made to assure that such farmlands
are not irreversibly converted to other uses unless other
national interests override the importance of preservation
or otherwise outweigh the environmental benefits derived
from their protection"; consistent with this CEQ directive,
EPA issued its policy on protection of environmentally signi-
ficant agricultural lands, which has previously been discussed.
The SCS, which is concerned with maintaining the productivity
of American agriculture, has a policy to make and keep current
an inventory of the prime and unique farmland of the nation.
The SCS and CEQ are currently conducting a national
agricultural lands study to be completed in 1981. The study
is assessing policy alternatives for agricultural land pre-
servation .
State
The main state policy to preserve agricultural land
in Washington is the Open Space Taxation Act, enacted in
1970. The purpose of the act is to preserve open space lands
for "...food, fiber, and forest crops, and to assure the
use and enjoyment of natural resources and scenic beauty
for the social well-being of the state and its citizens"
(RCW 84.34.-10). Three types of open space land are eligible
for classification under the act: open space land, farm
land, and timber areas; in practice almost any open land
can qualify as open space (CEQ, 1976). Few owners of timber
A-10 3
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land have applied for classification under the act because
of passage of the more favorable Forest Taxation Act in 1971,
which exempts standing timber from property taxes and subjects
it to a yield tax at the time of harvest.
Under the Open Space Taxation Act, the three types of
open space lands are taxed at their current use value, rather
than at market value. Agricultural land, for example, is
taxed at an agricultural use value determined by establishing
the productive capacity of the land. ..Either the assessor
or the owner may initiate the removal of land from open space
classification. When land is removed from open space classi-
fication the owner must pay back taxes calculated as the
difference between the taxes that would have been due under
market value assessment and the taxes actually paid under
the program, summed for up to 7 years; the owner is assessed
an interest charge, and sometimes an additional penalty,
as well. The goal of this "rollback" provision is to discourage
conversion of open space lands and provide some measure of
equity to taxpayers not participating in the open space taxation
program.
The CEQ (1976) has recently evaluated the effectiveness
of all state preferential assessment programs currently in
effect, including Washington's. The review found that, with
respect to retarding the conversion of farm and other open
landr preferential assessment is "marginally effective and
its cost in terms of tax expenditures is high, in most cases
so high as to render it an undesirable tool" for maintaining
farmland and open space. The CEQ found that the principal
effect of preferential assessment is to increase the pro-
fitability of farming by reducing production costs, but that
it affects neither the decision to sell for noneconomic reasons
(death or retirement) nor the major component of demand for
land conversion, accessibility to urban centers.
The CEQ was unable to generate quantitative data regarding
effectiveness of the Washington Act in preventing urbanization
of close-in agricultural lands. However, local and state
officials involved in administering the act, when interviewed,
felt that land would be withdrawn from open space classification
as urban pressures increase and sufficiently high prices
are offered. Bills introduced in the Washington Legislature
to provide additional disincentives to conversion of agri-
cultural and open space lands by requiring local planning
and land use controls to designate and protect important
agricultural, forest, and mineral resource lands, have not
been successful.
Regional
The Puget Sound Council of Government's (PSCOG) King
Subregional Plan provides a countywide guide for growth manage-
ment decisions and serves as a policy guide for PSCOG activities.
A-104
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The King Subregional Plan's policy related to agricultural
land preservation is that "local land use plans should recognize
and protect areas where open space or extremely low intensity
uses are of local or subregional benefit". Three implementation
guidelines have been established for this policy:
"Tax incentives, development rights purchase, open space
easanents, and other measures should be applied to reinforce
agricultural activity where it is still a productive, beneficial,
and financially feasible land use.
"Encourage land use regulations and economic development
programs that foster retention or creation of agricultural
support activities, such as food processing or transportation
facilities.
"Recognize that withholding of urban services and development
from designated agricultural areas underscores the need for
more efficient development in urbanized areas."
King County
King County, recognizing the importance of agricultural
land preservation, has sought to preserve agricultural land
through a series of increasingly stronger policies and programs.
These include policies in the King County Comprehensive Plan,
Communities Plans, and Sewerage General Plan; policies adopted
by King County in 1972 and 1974 (Ordinances 1096 and 1839);
the county's existing agricultural protection program (Ordinance
3064); and the county's proposed purchase of development
rights program (Ordinance 4341). Each of these efforts is
discussed below.
King County Comprehensive Plan, Communities Plan, and
Sewerage General Plan. The county's Comprehensive Plan,
adopted in 1964, identified certain land areas for continuation
in agriculture and stated as a goal the "protection of certain
agricultural, floodplain, forest, and mineral resource areas
from urban-type development".
Communities plans, which augment the Comprehensive Plan
through detailed 6-10 year plans for specific land areas,
have been proposed or prepared for the following communities
within the Renton study area; East Sammamish, Soos Creek
Plateau, and North Shore (additional communities plans are
currently under preparation). The East Sammamish Community
Plan does not contain specific policies related to agricultural
land preservation. The Soos Creek Plateau Communities Plan
encourages buffering of farmland from higher density development,
does not allow extension of sewer services to rural agricultural
lands, and encourages farm owners to participate in the current
use taxation program; it also recommends revision of the
King County zoning code to allow small-scale farms to have
A-105
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on-site produce sales. The North Shore Communities Plan
seeks to retain the present agricultural uses in the Sammamish
River Valley community through designating lands as agricultural
on the land use plan map; recommending that the availability
of sewer service to lands designated agricultural not be
used to justify redesignation to more intensive uses; recom-
mending withholding of King County permission allowing agri-
cultural land connections to Metro interceptors; and recommending
evaluation of the impacts of land conversion on neighboring
agricultural uses.
The King County Sewerage General Plan prepared in 1978,
is an element of the King County General Plan which designates
local service areas; these local service areas are the only
areas authorised to receive sewerage service. The Sewerage
General Plan excludes agricultural lands (as well as floodways,
and wetlands) from local service areas "unless there is existing
direct service to users". The agricultural lands affected
by this policy are defined as lands in incorporated or unincor-
porated areas meeting the criteria for agricultural lands
of county significance established by Ordinance 30 64; a pro-
posed amendment could rncdify this definition to consist of
Priority 1 lands eligible under the County Purchase of Develop-
ment Rights Program.
King County 1972 and 1974 Policies. In 197 2, the King
County Council reinforced the agricultural preservation goal
of the 1964 Comprehensive Plan by adopting Ordinance 1096
which established tha policy that lands with "Class II and
III soils having agricultural potential and other classified
or unclassified land presently being farmed shall be reserved
for current and anticipated needs". The concept of withholding
certain agricultural-productive lands from development was
further reinforced by Ordinance 18 3 9 adopted in 1974.
King County Existing Agricultural Protection Program
(Ordinance 3064). In 197 5, the King County Council established
a 1-year moratorium on development of farmland until a more
comprehensive preservation program could be established.
Ordinance 3064, adopted in January 1977, initiated this program.
Ordinance 3064 which superseded Ordinances 1096 and 1839,
established eight (meeting certain criteria previously discussed)
agricultural districts (areas where agricultural activities
are concentrated). Data related to agricultural districts
and agricultural lands of county significance have previously
been reviewed.
Ordinance 3064 sets guidelines for development-related
activities in both agricultural districts and agricultural
lands of county significance. For lands located within agri-
cultural districts, the ordinance requires King County to
assure that the agricultural potential of the districts is
not adversely affected by the county's development approval
of projects proposed by other agencies, or by county approval
of connections to interceptor sewers.
A-10 6
-------
Ordinance 3064 sets stronger requirements for county
actions related to agricultural lands of county significance.
For these lands, the ordinance requires King County to disapprove
applications for rezoning to higher intensity uses; approve
water and sewer extensions only if in the best interests
of farmers in the area; approve new subdivision proposals
only if the smallest resulting parcel is at least 10 acres
(40 acres in the Snoqualmie Valley and upper Green River
Valley); and approve annexations only if the annexing juris-
diction's plans and zoning for the land are for agricultural
use.
Essentially, Ordinance 3064 sets county guidelines for
Office of Agriculture reviews of development and utility
proposals. Its effectiveness in achieving permanent protection
of agricultural lands is constrained by the advisory nature
of these reviews.
County Purchase of Development Rights Program. In November
1979, a $50,000,000 bond issue was approved by the King County
electorate for the acquisition of voluntarily offered develop-
ment rights for priority farmlands remaining in King County.
This program, similar to one undertaken in Suffolk County,
New York, allows the owner of farmland who sells development
rights to the county to retain all other ownership rights
to the property. The program ensures permanent protection
of farmland and open space once development rights are purchased
by the county.
Three land acquisition priority groups have been established
as follows:
-First priority: approximately 6,000 acres in the Sammamish
River Valley, lower Green River Valley near Kent/ and
upper Green River Valley (these lands are considered
to be most threatened by development), together with
approximately 1,7 00 scattered acres growing vegetable
and berry crops;
-Second priority: all farmlands (15,000 acres) in the
lower Snoqualmie Valley, 3,700 acres of farmlands in
the Enumclaw Plateau, and all farmland greater than
100 contiguous acres outside previously designated
areas;
-Third priority: all other farmland within agricultural
districts.
Studies in support of the purchase of development rights
program indicate that the program would not cause shortages
of land needed for projected residential or industrial develop-
ment (Farmlands Study Committee, 1979). It has also been
shown that the purchase of development rights program could
save 17,000-23,000 acres of farmland, increase gross farm
A-10 7
-------
receipts by $3.3-$5.7 million, and increase direct, indirect,
and induced agricultural employment by 230-390 jobs (John
M. Sanger Associates, 1978). In addition, the purchase of
development rights program would significantly lower farm
start-up costs and significantly increase income for parti-
cipating farms by lowering the costs of land. This is especially
significant given that the average King County farmer is
52 years of age; many new farmers are likely to be making
investment decisions on King County farmland in the r.ear future
(Farmland Study Committee, 1979}.
A-108
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Chapter 4
CULTURAL RESOURCE SETTING
Acknowledgment
This chapter was prepared under contract to Jones &
Stokes Associates by Mr. Hal Kennedy, University of Washington,
Office of Public Archaeology.
Introduction
The Lake Washington/Green River Basins study area is
over 50 miles in north/south orientation and approximately
20 miles at its widest. Given the size of the area involved,
a cultural resource overview of this size must, by necessity,
be brief. This is as it should be, since specific alter-
natives for Metro improvements within the study area had
not been determined at the time this overview was prepared.
When specific improvements of the area's sewerage system
have been selected, a closer examination of the known and
potential cultural resources will be made. This overview,
then, is intended to provide a brief description of cultural
resources within the development area that might be impacted.
Attachment A to this chapter is a letter report des-
cribing the results of subsurface coring of the Renton
treatment plant site to determine whether archeological
resources are present on the site. The sampling did not
indicate the presence of subsurface cultural resources.
Archeology
Archeological Overview
The Puget lowland environment is composed of a number
of microenvironments, resulting in an area of resource abundance
and diversity attractive to human occupation. Generally
there are two types of environments within the Renton study
area: 1) uplands which have resulted from glaciation and
2} river floodplains which owe their environmental conditions
to more recent deposition and erosion. These two general
types of environments can be further classified to indicate
microenvironments where there is high potential for the location
of archeological sites.
A-10 9
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The uplands have resulted primarily from a lobe of the
cordilleran icecap which pushed into the area. The last
glacial retreat ended around 13,000 years ago and left many
lakes and poorly drained depressions. The earliest known
archeological site in western Washington, the Mar.is Mastodon
sice, indicates that these bogs and swamps were areas of
prehistoric activity. The soils of the uplands have formed
in glacial material under the influence of coniferous forest
vegetation. These forested areas do not contain the abundance
and diversity which is found in other microenvironments.
Human occupation of these regions would have been more in-
tensive before the coniferous forest vegetation was estab-
lished.
In the southern portion of the study area occurs the
northern extension of the prairie/forest mosaic which charac-
terizes the southern Puget lowlands. These prairies contained
abundant floral and faunal resources utilized by the aboriginal
inhabitants and also contained the only readily available
openings for the agriculturally oriented Euro-Americans
when they first began to settle in the Puget lowlands. While
the prairie openings have been free of forest for many years,
it is unclear whether they occur because of natural soil
and precipitation conditions or frequent burning of the prairies
by natural causes and humans. It should be noted that the
size of the prairies decreased when fire control began. The
fact that prairie maintenance by prehistoric populations
is considered a possible major cause in the existence and
continuance of these microenvironments emphasizes the importance
of these areas as containing desirable resources in the local
settlement/subsistence systems.
The floodplains are another important microenvironment
in both prehistoric and historic settlement/subsistence systems.
After the retreat of the ice lobe, the river systems began
downcutting until the present levels were reached. Because
of various factors such as high sea levels and isostatic adjustment
the present river valleys do not appear to have been inhabited
until 3,000-4,000 years ago. Cultural activities on the
various floodplains in the study area have been obscured
by rapid erosion and deposition.
Based on the above descriptions, a map (Figure 4-1)
has been prepared indicating areas within the Lake Washington/
Green River Basins that have a high potential for archeological
resources. The map generally delineates those areas where
an increased number of archeological sites are expected to
occur. It does not ascribe cultural resource importance
to any portion of the study area. If the prehistory of the
A-110
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Wa
m
LEGEND
AREAS WITH HIGH POTENTIAL
FOR ARCHEOLOGICAL RESOURCES
-------
study area were better known, areas of low potential might
actually be considered scientifically more important for
locating archeological sites in order to achieve a more complete
understanding of the study area. Relatively little is pre-
sently known about the prehistory of the area, and any area
containing archeological resources, no matter how abundant,
is deemed scientifically important.
Locations of Archeological Sites
Most of the archeological syntheses of western Washington
have been based upon archeological remains from coastal sites.
The distinctive characteristics which have been identified
for western Washington as a whole are inappropriate for a
land-locked region such as the study area. Basically, the
western Washington arecheological sequence has been divided
into three periods: 1) circa 8,000-5,000 years ago, 2) circa
5,000-1,000 years ago, and 3) circa 1,000-100 years ago.
Only the early period is represented fully within the
study area. The artifact assemblage is characterized by
chipped stone tools including heavy unifacial and bifacial
choppers, scrapers of simple forms, single or bipointed pro-
jectile points or knives (usually of basalt), and a lack
of ground stone. Most known sites are on second terraces
of river and stream valleys, but somewhat later variations
are represented on natural prairies. The middle and later
periods are characterized primarily by material from shell
middens where bone is better preserved and artifacts recovered
represent activities in coastal regions.
There have been a few archeological sites investigated
within the study area which indicate to some degree an inland
archeological sequence. These sites are the Marymoor site
(45KI09) (Greengo and Houston, 1970), the Imhof and Schodde sites
(45PI44 and 45PI45) (Hedlund, 1973), the Jocumsen site (45KI05)
{Hedlund, 1976), and the Sba'badid site (45KI51) (currently
being analyzed).
The earliest cultural occupation uncovered to date is
from the Jocumsen site. Archeological materials were found
below what was identified as Osceola mudflow deposits. The
massive mudflow covered the extreme southern portion of the
study area around 5,600 years ago (corrected radiocarbon
date). The cultural material below the mudflow deposits
was radiocarbon dated at 6,100-6,350 years ago (corrected
radiocarbon date). The artifacts recovered were primarily
A-11 2
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made of stone and consisted of points, bolas, scrapers, gravers
and etching tools called burins. Besides the stone tools,
features found included fire lenses and possible rock align-
ments .
Above the mudflow deposits were apparently other cultural
occupations as evidenced by the occurrence of lithic and
historic artifacts. The surface indications to the prehistoric
postmudflow site indicate that the site is approximately
25 acres in extent. Separation of the cultural materials
into different time periods beyond the pre/postmudflow was
not attempted. From what little is known there appear to
be possibly three later cultural occupations represented
at this site. Only one radiocarbon sample was dated from
the postmudflow deposits. It was dated at 805-945 years ago
(corrected radiocarbon date).
Some of the projectile point styles (an indication of
temporal occupation) resemble types found at the Imhof and
Marymoor sites and indicate a similar time period of cultural
occupation. Two radiocarbon samples were dated at the Imhof
site, which is located near the Jocumsen site, indicating
cultural occupation occurred between 370-775 years ago.
The Marymoor site (45KI09) was excavated between 1964-
1970. The site consists of two areas which are 120 meters2
and 200 meters2. Though the site is stratified and contains
cultural material representing various time periods, a clear
temporal separation of materials is lacking. Two radiocarbon
samples were dated indicating an age of 1,750-2,650 years
ago (corrected radiocarbon date). Houston (1971) assigns
the cultural materials into two time periods of 3,250-1,200
years ago and materials later than 1,200 years ago. The
latter occupation includes historic materials.
The only other archeological site which has been excavated
to date (Sba'badid) is located in the City of Renton. Just
recently excavated, the recovered materials are presently
being analyzed. This site brings our knowledge of the archeo-
logical sequence up to the historic period. The site consists
of the remains of two houses, 1) proto-historic, where traditional
tools made from native materials were still being used along
with introduced Euro-American manufactured items and 2) historic,
where Euro-American goods have replaced traditional items
made from stone and bone (Chatters, pers. comm.). When the
report is completed our understanding of at least one discrete
time period will be enhanced.
A-113
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Only the Sba'badid site has produced any quantity of
bone and shell. The other sites, especially those located
on prairies (Kedland, 1973, 1976) are more appropriately
termed lithic scatters, though certain features such as
charcoal lenses do occur at these sites. Because most of
the archeological syntheses for western Washington use
differences in bone tool styles (which do not occur in most
sites within the study area), ~here is a general lack of
correspondence between archeological sites within the study
area and the rest of western Washington. The types of archeo-
logical sites recorded, but not further investigated, include
lithic scatters (possibly due to the lack of preservation)
and midden sites, which sometimes include shell from fresh-
water mussels but more generally include extensive organic
staining. Special site types recorded include petroglyph
and burial sites.
It has been noted that at some of the archeological
sites investigated, historic items were recovered. These
can be separated into two types of sites: those related
to inclusion of Euro-American goods within the Native American
cultural systems and those related exclusively to Euro-American
activity.
Ethnography
The presence of Euro-Americans altered the Native American
cultures by the introduction of historic trade goods and
of new diseases. Geographic distribution of Native Americans
was also impacted by the presence of Euro-Americans.
The ethnographic groups which occupied the study area
included the Duwamish, centered around the Black River. The
Sammamish are sometimes included as Duwamish, but they may
have been a separate group occupying the area around Lake
Sammamish and the eastern shore of Lake Washington. The
Duwamish were the only group to include salt water as part
of their territory. Although the Suquamish possibly occupied
the northern portion of the study area, they were centered
on the other side of Puget Sound. The southern portion of
the study area included a number of small groups which have
been included in the single designation of Muckleshoot. The
Skopahmish occupied the upper Green River while the St'kamish
were on the White River.
The settlement/subsistence of these various groups was
influenced by the seasonal availability of resources. Although
there was some seasonal movement of people, the area was
very rich in resources, permitting permanent houses, in contrast
A-114
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to the territories of other hunting and gathering people.
Hunting, root and berry gathering, and fishing provided the
vast majority of food. The proportion of seafood and the
other resources in the diet of each group varied, depending
upon access and location of the resources. Trade probably
also was a factor in availability of foodstuffs.
Locations of resources, permanent villages, and temporary
camps from informants and early histories and ethnographies
have been compiled by T. T. Waterman {1922, n.d.) and B.
Lane (1973-1975). Verification of these localities by archeo-
logical survey and testing is lacking in most cases.
History
Euro-American knowledge of the area began in 17 92 when
Captain Vancouver explored Puget Sound. Settlement of the
area did not begin until 1833 when the Hudson's Bay Company
built "Nisqually House" (later known as Fort Nisqually) at
what is now Dupont. Fort Nisqually was established for trade
with the local Indians to obtain furs. It was not until
1840 when the Puget Sound Agricultural Company (PSAC) was
formed as a subsidiary of the Hudson's Bay Company that the
Puget Sound area was more than a way-station between Fort
Vancouver and Fort Langley, B.C. Farming and animal husbandry
was begun by PSAC but was restricted to the immediate environs
of Fort Nisqually. American settlers soon began arriving
in the area, with the first group settling in Tumwater in
1844 .
After the British/American boundary was resolved in
1846, settlement by Americans began in earnest. To attract
settlers to the northwest, tha Donation Act of 1850 was enacted.
This act allowed every citizen over the age of 21 to claim
between 320 and 64 0 acres; the Donation Land Claims within
the study area are indicative of the earliest Euro-American
settlements. The 1850s saw the beginnings of Seattle and
the settlement of the lower Duwamish River Valley and the
prairie region around the White River. The 1855-1856 Indian
War temporarily stunted growth within the study area. In
October 1855, there was an attack on White River settlers.
Outlying claims were abandoned and numerous blockhouses were
constructed. After the battle on Connel's Prairie, which
marked the end of hostilities, settlement within the study
area was slow to recover since many settlers preferred to
relocate in other areas rather than to return to their
abandoned claims.
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Coal was discovered in what is now Renton in 1853 but
large-scale operations did not begin until 1873. During
the early 1860s areas such as Mercer Island were surveyed
and opened by the federal government for homesteading. Because
of the Civil War few new people were attracted to the area.
An exception is Issaquah, which was first settled in 1862,
principally to develop a coal mine.
The 1870s witnessed an increase in population within
the study area. Claims and settlements began in what are
now known as Bellevue, Juanita, Kirkland, Maple Valley, Mercer
Island, Redmond, and Renton, although it was much later when
most of these claims were platted as towns, Renton, however,
was platted as a town in 1876. Activities related to these
claims included farming, logging {Juanita began as a sawmill),
and coal mining. The Seattle/Walla Walla Railroad was begun
and eventually connected the coal mining areas with Seattle.
During the 1880s population continued to increase. The
name of Bellevue was selected for the new town which had
grown around the earlier farms. Auburn was platted in 1886
and two separate communities were platted as Kent in 1888.
Bothell began as a shingle mill in 1886, and 2 years later
the town was platted. Coal mining caused the platting of
numerous towns in the 1880s, such as Black Diamond, Franklin
and Ravensdale. Kirkland was founded during this period,
with a huge steel plant envisioned. Lots were platted and
new buildings were constructed in 18 86, but the steel plant
never materialized. In the Sammamish River Valley numerous
settlements were platted and farming began in logged-off
areas. In 1889, Washington became a state. By the end of
the decade coal, timber and farming prospects had attracted
numerous people and the economic base for the area was well
established.
Examples of the history of the area are indicated by
the National and State Historic Register of Historic Places.
Recently, the King County Historic Preservation Office completed
a windshield survey of a large portion of the study area.
Potentially eligible historic places were identified during
this survey although only those structures which could be
seen from public roads were included. The majority of National
and State Register and potential register places consists
of existing structures - there are a few exception such as
the old Fort Steilacoom - Fort Bellingham Military Road which
occurs in the western portion of the study area and the Naches
Pass Wagon Road which occurs in the southern portion. Only
small portions of these roads remain undisturbed.
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Locations of Archeological, Ethnographic and Historic Sites
Figure 4-2 is a map showing locations of archeological,
ethnographic and historic sites in the Lake Washington/Green
River Basins by section. This mao shows: 1) known sites
from an archeological records survey, 2) known sites from
an ethnographic records survey, 3) known sites from the
National Register of Historic Places and a register-eligible
records survey, 4) known sites from the State Register of
Historic Places and a register-eligible records survey, and
5) known sites from a Donation Land Claims records survey.
This map, used in conjunction with Figure 4-1, should assist
the study area wastewater facilities planners in identifying
areas of cultural resource importance.
A-117
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J~
LEGEND
~
»S<1 r ill Of I set Of PuMl i C iSC tiCCKOi*
rtcuiic «-t
LOCATIONS OF
ARCHEOLOGICAL, ETHNOGRAPHIC
& HISTORIC SITES
-------
ATTACHMENT A
Results of Subsurface Coring of
Renton Treatment Plant Site
A-119
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UN1VKRSITY OF WAS 111.NCJ'T( )N
SK \ ] 1I.1-, W AS1 11 N( 1 K >N
July I't, 1930
Institute fur /umi i'iuiu iitii/ Slm/trj
Office of Public Archaeology
Engineering Annex, FM-12
(206) 5^3-8359
At Herson
Jones and Stokes Associates, Inc.
2321 P. Street
Sacramento, California 95816
RE: Subsurface Coring of Metro's Renton Sewage Treatment Plant.
Dear Mr. Herson;
This report in letter format describes the results of the University
of Washington's Office of Public Archaeology subsurface coring con-
ducted at Metro's Renton sewage treatment plant. This research was
conducted under contract with Jones and Stokes Associates for the
Renton Facilities Plan Environmental Impact Statement. The contract
called for sub-surface sampling of approximately 25~30 acres spaced no
more than 50 meters apart. In actuality, however, sample locations
were usually 25 neters apart.
Figure 1 indicates the locations of the sub-surface samples. A total
of 59 cores were taken using a I inch I.D. corer with a maximum depth
of 2.05 meters. Cores were taken every 25 meters, as determined by
meteric tape and Brunton compass. In cases where the original ground
surface had been disturbed (e.g. by filling, dike construction, road
beds, etc.) that location was skipped. These areas are indicated on
Figure I. In the southeastern corner of the sample area, immediately
east of the structure termed the "Butler Building", no systematic grid
system was used. Four cores were taken from this area, the distances
between them simply being estimated.
Dense vegetation made it difficult to determine which areas (if any)
could be considered the original ground surface. Certainly, much of
the area was disturbed when the dyke was constructed. The narrow strip
connecting the northern area with the southern appeared to be heavily
disturbed: asphalt paving, dirt roads, piles of rock and gravel, and
of course the Butler Building. During an earlier construction phase at
the Renton Facility, reports indicated that a substantial amount of
fill had been deposited on the area dealt with in this report. This
fill, however, could not be detected due to heavy ground cover.
u
Recycled P.iper
A-120
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A1 Herson
Page Two
July 11», 1980.
As previously mentioned, subsurface sampling of the proposed Renton
expansion consisted of 59 cores, with a mean depth of 1.813 meters.
The cores were for the most part uniform: 15~25 centimeters of dry
brown compacted clayey silt, with sod, roots, etc., followed by a
brown or grayish/brown clayey silt. This clayey silt would occasion-
ally contain small lenses of very fine-fine sands. Below ca. .75
meters the silt would contain some iron oxide mottling, and would
continue to become moister with depth. Virtually no gravel or other
rock was encountered below the sod layer in any of the cores.
None of the 59 cores indicated the presence of sub-surface cultural
resources. In two of the cores, occasional flecks of charcoal were
noted, but these are not considered to be significant. No strati-
graphic bands of any kind were observed in any of the cores, and no
artifacts were recovered.
Recommendat ions:
The Office of Public Archaeology recommends that work be allowed to
proceed in the expansion area of the Renton facility. It does not
appear that cultural resources are present at the site, at least to
a depth of 1.8 meters. This assessment applies only to the area
actually cored - it is possible that cultural resources exist at
some other locations nearby. If the ground is to be substantially
disturbed below a depth of 1.8 meters, and if cultural resources are
noted, then work should be halted immediately, the Office of Archae-
ology and Historic Preservation should be contacted, and a qualified
archaeologist should be allowed to assess the significance of any
resources.
This report should not be considered to be permission to proceed with
the project in question. It contains professional opinions on cultural
resources which might be affected by the project. This report should
be submitted to the appropriate review agencies for their comments prior
to the commencement of arty ground disturbing activities.
We appreciate your concern for the cultural resources of the area, and
hope we can be of further assistance to you in the future. If you have
any questions concerning the survey results or our recommendations
please contact Mr. Kennedy ([206] 5^3-8359) at your convenience.
S i nee re t y .
Paul E. Buck
Staff Archaeologist
cc Jeanne Welch
PEB:db
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CHAPTER 5
OVERVIEW OF REGIONAL ECONOMY AND HOUSING
This chapter discusses the economy of and housing con-
ditions in the Renton 201 Study Area. It draws on projec-
tions developed by the Puget Sound Council of Governments
{PSCOG), which are presented in Chapter 7 of this appendix,
to describe expected future conditions.
Economic Profile of Study Area
The Regional Context
The Renton study area comprises most of the urban and
urbanizing areas of King County outside the City of Seattle.
The Seattle region as a whole found its early economic
strengths in processing and shipping of lumber, fishing
and agricultural products. By the early twentieth century,
the manufacturing and trade base of the economy was well-
established.
The region enjoyed substantial growth with the coming
of the aerospace industry in the 1940's when non-resource-
based manufacturing outpaced the traditional regional in-
dustries. In the 197 0's the region has further developed
into a service-based economy with major growth in finance,
insurance, real estate, trade, tourism and other service
industries.
The City of Seattle still contains the major concen-
tration of manufacturing jobs in the region, although cer-
tain of the outlying communities (particularly Renton, Belle-
vue, Kirkland and Redmond) have attracted production units
and corporate offices of major manufacturers over the years.
Manufacturing employment is fairly highly concentrated:
three firms (Boeing, Weyerhaeuser and PACCAR) employ half
of the county's manufacturing labor force. This concentra-
tion has contributed to the pattern of boom and bust in the
regional economy over time, as aerospace firms in particular
have been subject to marked employment cycles contributing
strongly to the past vicissitudes of the regional economy.
Most current observers believe that the diversification
of the regional economy - a trend of the 1960's that has
continued through the 1970's - has strengthened the region's
ability to withstand downturns in any one of its major in-
dustries and that cyclical variations will be much less ex-
treme in the future than they have been in the past.
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Sources of Economic Data on the Basins
of the Renton 201 Study Area
The study area for the EIS consists of seven basins
lying along a north-south axis to the east of the communi-
ties on the shore of Puget Sound. This area lies mostly
in King County but it includes small portions of Snohomish
County on the north and of Pierce County on the south.
The basins are the analysis areas as outlined by Brown &
Caldwell (see Figure 4, Section E of T echni cat Memorandum
No. 3, Brown & Caldwell/Jones & Jonas, January 16, 1980).
While the State of Washington tabulates employment
data by county for various industry groups and these county
data are considered quite reliable, comparable data for sub-
areas of counties are not available. For this reason, all
subarea employment figures must be viewed as rough estimates.
In describing the current and future economies of the
basins, it must be kept in mind that the basin delineation
reflects more closely water ar.d wastewater supply or service
areas than economic units. Thus, several economic areas
may be divided by basin boundaries. Two important examples
are Renton (divided between the South Lake Washington and
the Green River basins) and Bellevue (divided among the East
Lake Washington, North Lake Sairimamish and South Lake Samma-
mish basins).
PSCOG data on employment have been allocated to basins,
but data from the two principal other sources have been
tabulated on other bases. It has not always been possible
confidently to assign specific employment uses to basins
where basin boundaries do not coincide with municipal bound-
aries. Reference to Figure 6 (1975-1977 commercial and in-
dustrial land use) in Metro's Technical Memorandum No. 2
(December 7, 1979) was of some assistance.
In addition to PSCOG allocations of existing and fore-
cast employment in major sectors, the other sources consulted
included the Seattle-King County Manufacturers Directory
1979-80 published by the Research Department of the Seattle
Chamber of Commerce and publications of local Chambers of
Commerce throughout the study area. In lists of individual
employers, specific employment estimates derive from local
Chamber sources; where range employment estimates are given,
the sources is the Directory.
North Lake Washington
The North Lake Washington basin lies primarily in
Snohomish County. It is composed of three subbasins: Swamp
Creek on the west (in which most of Lynnwood and all of Brier
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are located), North Creek in the center (in which the sou-
thernmost portion of Everett and the bulk of Bothell are lo-
cated) and Little Bear Creek on the east (which contains no
incorporated places).
Current Employment Patterns. The major private-sector
employers in southern Snohomish County are:
Boeing
12,000
Everett
747 aircraft
General Telephone of
the Northwest:
2, 7C0
Everett
telephone service
Scott Paper
1, 700
Everett
pulp, paper, lumber
John Fluke Manufactur-
ing
1, 400
Mountlake
Terrace
electronic equipment
ELDEC
900
Lynnwood
electronic equipment
Bayliner Marine Corp.
900
•p
boats
Weyerhaeuser Co.
900
Everett
wood products
E. A. Nord
750
Everett
doors & wood products
Western Gear Corp.
600
Everett
heavy machinery
Associated Sand & Gravel 300
Everett
concrete products
Major public and semi-public employers include the county,
the school districts and the hospitals. Several retail firms
(Safeway Stores, Sears, Roebuck, K-Mart and The Bon] each
employ over 300 persons. The unincorporated community of
Woodinvilie has several small manufacturing firms including
the Chateau Ste. Michelle winery.
Everett is the closest major employment center, but most
of Everett's employment lies outside the North Lake Washington
basin. The chief city within the basin is Lynnwood (popula-
tion 22,000) which serves as the commercial center of southern
Snohomish County. In the northern King County portion of the
basin the chief town is Bothell (population 7,000). Much of
the basin is characterized by residential development, gen-
erally at low densities.
Employment Projections. PSCOG estimates of current and
future employment are presented in Table 5-1.
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Table 5-1
EMPLOYMENT IN NORTH LAKE WASHINGTON BASIN
1930
1990
20C-0
Percent Changs
19 80 to 20CO
Existing
{axtimated}
13,570
Policy Allocation 13,570 25,283 37,004
Trends Allocation 13,570 24,341 34,545
+154.6
+172.7
Note: Only jobs in manufacturing; transportation, communication and
utilities; wholesale, retail, service and government [including
education) have been allocated to basins. Self-employment and
jobs in agriculture, mining and construction are excluded. For
the region as a whole, allocated jobs account for about 34 percent
of total employment.
Source: PSCOG, Memorandum of January 30, 1980.
In the basin as a whole and in all three subbasins, em-
ployment is projected to more than double in the next two
decades. Under the Policy Allocation, basin employment ex-
ceed employment under the Trends Allocation by about 2,500
jobs. The parts of the basin closest to existing employment
centers (Swamp and North Creek subbasins) would have greater
employment growth under the Policy Allocation than they would
under the Trends Allocation; the opposite is true of Little
Bear Creek subbasin, where employment growth would be greater
under the Trends Allocation.
North Lake Sammamish
The North Lake Sammamish basin surrounds the northern half
of Lake Sammamish and lies entirely within King County. The
North Lake Sammamish basin is composed of three subbasins.
The Sammamish Creek subbasin (to the west) and the Evans Creek
subbasin (to the northeast) contain the majority of both popu-
lation and jobs. Pine Lake, on the east, contains no incor-
porated places and is relatively undeveloped. This basin con-
tains much of eastern Redmond and the strip of Bellevue along
the shoreline of the lake.
Current Employment Patterns. The City of Redmond has a
significant employment base, much of it appearing to lie
within the North Lake Sammamish basin (rather than in the
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East Lake Washington basin, where the western portion of Red-
mond lies). Major private-sector employers in Redmond in-
clude ;
Sunstrand Data Control 1,000-2,499 Redmond
Eddie Bauer 1,000-2,499
Universal Seafoods, Ltd. 500-999
Rockcor, Inc. 500-999
Tone Commander Systems 2 50-499
Physio-Control Corp. 250-499
Redmond
Redmond
Redmond
electronic equip-
ment and instruments
clothing
food products
aerospace machinery
and equipment
Redmond telephone equipment
Redmond medical instruments
Other employment would be principally in local-population-
service jobs in the retail, service, government and education
sectors, in keeping with the overall residential character of
the basin. Much of the land, particularly on the east shore
of Lake Sammamish, is still undeveloped.
Employment Projections. PSCOG estimates of current and
future employment are presented in Table 5-2.
Table 5-2
EMPLOYMENT IN NORTH LAKE SAMMAMISH BASIN
Percent Change
1990 2000 1980 to 2000
10,987 16,370 +115.8
14,009 22,241 +193.2
1980
Existing ? 5g5
(estimated)
Policy Allocation 7,585
Trends Allocation 7,585
Note/Source: Same as for Table 5-1
In the basin as a whole, employment is projected to more
than double in the next two decades. This change parallels
projected population growth. Under the Trends forecast, the
number of jobs added would exceed the number added under the
policy projection by about two-thirds. Under both allocations
of future employment, most of the jobs in this subbasin will
be in local-population-related positions such as in retail,
service, government and education.
East Lake Washington
The East Lake Washington basin lies along the eastern
shore of Lake Washington, and is entirely within King County.
A-127
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The East Lake Washington basin is composed of three subbasins.
Two of these lie along the eastern shore of Lake Washington,
the Juanita Creek subbasin to the north and the Coal Creek
subdivision to the south. The Kelsey Creek subbasin is con-
siderably smaller and lies to the east in a landlocked loca-
tion between Lake Washington and Lake Samnamish. This basin
contains most of Bellevue (except for the eastern edge) and all
of Kirkland.
Current Employment Patterns. Bellevue and Kirkland con-
tain headquarters offices and/or production facilities of a
number of major private-sector firms:
Sunstrand Data Control
1, 500
Bellevue
aerospace and elec-
tronic equipment
Puget Sound Power & Light
600
Bellevue
electric power
Teltone Corp.
250-499
Kirkland
communications equipment
Timberland Industries
250-499
Kirkland
wood products
Lakeside Industries
250
Bellevue
concrete
PACCAR
230
Bellevue
corporate offices,
trucks, railroad cars
Pacific Coca-Cola Bottling
225
Bellevue
soft drinks
Heath Techna Corp.
•>
Bellevue
corporate offices
Major public and semi-public employers include Overlake Memor-
ial Hospital, the school districts and state, county and city
offices. Several retail firms (Safeway, Nordstrom's, Frederick
& Nelson] employ over 300 persons each. Bellevue has a large
number of small firms and local employment exceeds the local
labor force, resulting in a net in-commute. It is the major
retail and commercial center for the eastside.
Employment Projections. PSCOG estimates of current and
future employment are presented in Table 5-3.
EMPLOYMENT
Existing
(estimated)
Policy Allocation
Trends Allocation
Note/Source: Same as for Table 5-1
Table 5-3
IN EAST LAKE WASHINGTON BASIN
Percent Change
1980 1990 2000 1980 to 2000
38,132 -
38,132 49,277 57,532 +50.9
38,132 50,148 58,193 +52.6
A-128
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The basin's employment is forecast to expand by about
half in the next two decades - a modest increase compared to
recent history. The three subbasins are quite similar eco-
nomically, since they are all primarily residential in char-
acter but with considerable local employment particularly in
administrative, professional, managerial and other white col-
lar jobs. The Trends and Policy Allocations differ very little
in this basin and its constituent subbasins.
South Lake Washington
The South Lake Washington basin skirts the southeastern
shore of Lake Washington and extends in a southeasterly di-
rection through and beyond Maple Valley and Summit {both
unincorporated communities in the Cedar River Valley). The
South Lake Washington basin is composed of the May Creek sub-
basin on the north and the Cedar River subbasin on the south.
The Cedar River subbasin extends approximately 15 miles to
the southeast. This basin contains the northern and eastern
portions of the City of Renton.
Current Employment Patterns. Major private-sector firms
located in this area include:
administrative offices and
707-727-737 production
foundry, railroad cars
telephone service
utility
Boeing ? Renton
PACCAR 1,800 Renton
Pacific NW Bell 370 Renton
Puget Sound Power &
: , 325 Renton
Light
Major public and semi-public employers include Valley General
Hospital, the school districts and the City of Renton. Sears,
Roebuck employs about 350 persons locally. Renton is the
major employment center south of Lake Washington. Part of
its employment base lies in the adjacent Green River basin.
Employment Projections. PSCOG estimates of current and
future employment are presented in Table 5-4.
Table 5-4
EMPLOYMENT IN SOUTH LAKE WASHINGTON BASIN
Percent Change
1980 to 2000
+2 3.3
+ 36.6
1980 1990 2000
Existing n,_
(estimated) m.uit
Policy Allocation 26,022 27,497 32,097
Trends Allocation 26,022 28,987 35,548
Note/Source: Same as for Table 5-1
A-1 29
-------
On the whole, employment growth in this basin is not
expected to be dramatic: it would experience the lowest
growth rate of the seven basins in the study area.
The portions of the two basins along Lake Washington
are predominantly industrial and commercial, while interior
areas are generally undeveloped or in low-density residential
use. The May Creek subbasin forecasts under Policy and
Trends Allocations are very close, while in the Cedar River
subbasin, employment under the Trends Allocation would exceed
that under the Policy Allocation by about three-fourths.
Probably the difference would be distributed upstream of
Lake Washington corresponding to the somewhat less concen-
trated population growth pattern associated with the trends
forecast.
South Lake Sammamish
The South Lake Sammamish basin adjoins both east and
west sides of Lake Sammamish from about its midpoint south-
ward, extending in a southeasterly direction along Issaquah
Creek. The basin is composed of three subbasins: Tibbets
Creek on the western shore of the lake, and East Sammamish
and Issaquah Creek on the eastern shore, with the former at
the northern boundary of the basin and the latter extending
to the southeast. The Town of Issaquah is wholly contained
within this basin, and is the basin's only incorporated
Current Employment Patterns. Economic activity is at a
small scale. The City of Issaquah has two major employers,
Darigold (a local dairy) and Data I/O, an electronics firm.
The latter is reported to be moving its manufacturing opera-
tions out of Issaquah. Other employment would be in the
local-population-serving sectors of retailing, service, edu-
cation, and government.
Employment Projections. PSCOG estimates of present and
future employment are presented in Table 5-5.
place
Table 5-5
EMPLOYxMENT IN SOUTH LAKE SAMMAMISH BASIN
1980
1990
2000
Percent Change
1980 to 2000
Existing
(estimated)
4, 707
Policy Allocation 4,707 8,471 10,570
Trends Allocation 4,707 8,719 11,178
+124.6
+137.5
Note/Source: Same as for Table 5-1
A-130
-------
The PSCOG forecast implies a little more than doubling
of the employment in the basin, a rate of growth that is
slightly more rapid than the forecast rate of population
growth. Among the three subbasins, there is little difference
in the forecast employment levels under the Trends and Policy
Allocations.
Green River Basin
The Green River Basin lies south of Lake Washington.
It consists of seven subbasins: Green River and Mill Creek
on the west; Soos Creek running south to north in the center;
and Lake Young, Jenkins Creek, Covington Creek and Newaukum
Creek (in north-to-south order) on the east. The basin con-
tains the west and south portions of Renton in addition to
the Cities of Tukwila, Kent, Auburn, Algona, Pacific and Black
Diamond.
.Current Employment Patterns. This basin is the largest
of the seven and has the largest number of local jobs. Major
private-sector employers include:
Boeing Co.
8, 500
Auburn
aircraft parts
Boeing Co.
6, 500
Kent
aerospace, computer services
Western Electric
675
Kent
telephone equipment
Tally Corp.
500-999
Kent
electronic computing
equipment
Cummins NW Diesel
?
Renton
?
Heath Tecna
400
Kent
transportation and
electronics
Heath Tecna
400
Renton
plastic products, machine parts
Burlington Northern
RR 400
Auburn
rail transportation
Far West Garments
250-499
Tukwila
outerwear
Warn Industries
250-499
Kent
lighting equipment
Pacific NW Bell
370
Renton
telephone service
Puget Sound Power &
Light
325
Renton
utility
Tradewell Stores
300
Kent
food distribution
Valley Publishing
300
Kent
printing
American Strevell
250
Kent
food distribution
National Can
250
Kent
aluminum beverage cans
Austin Company
200
Renton
building design and
construction
In addition, Auburn has substantial federal government
employment (over 1,100 altogether in GSA and FAA agencies).
Renton has 1,025 jobs at the Valley General Hospital. The
city governments and the school districts are major public-
sector employers. Other local-population-serving employment
includes retail (Sears, Roebuck in Renton and K-Mart in Kent)
and service firms. Black Diamond has a small amount of
mining employment.
A-131
-------
Originally an agricultural area, the Green River Valley's
transition to urban development began in the 1960's with the
completion of the Howard Hanson Dam which opened the way to
residential, commercial and industrial development. Employ-
ment in the basin increased by over 15,000 jobs in the 1970's,
a significant share of which is attributable to new Boeing
operations.
Employment Projections. PSCOG estimates of existing and
future employment are presented in Table 5-6.
Table 5-6
EMPLOYMENT IN THE GREEN RIVER BASIN
Percent Change
1990 2000 1980 to 2000
62,091 75,052 +54.2
63,878 77,676 +59.6
Note/Source: Same as for Table 5-1
1980
Existing
(estimated) '
Policy Allocation 48,674
Trends Allocation 48,674
While the growth rate for this basin is not very high
(50 to 60 percent over the next two decades), this basin is
projected to experience the largest numerical increase in
employment of the seven basins in the study area. The vast
majority of the employment growth would take place in the
Mill Creek and Green River subbasins, which is where current
employment is most heavily concentrated.
The Trends Allocation shows an increase in basin employ-
ment of about 2,600 jobs (10 percent) more than the Policy
Allocation. All of the subbasins show this same general pat-
tern except for Soos Creek, where employment would be about
the same under the two allocations.
White River Basin
The White River basin is the southernmost in the Renton
201 study area, extending into the northern portion of Pierce
County. It is the smallest in area of the seven basins and
has not been divided into subbasins. The only incorporated
place is the City of Enunclaw.
Current Employment Patterns. Two small manufacturing
establishments are located in Enumclaw: Garrett-Weldco In-
dustries (construction and woodworking machinery and equipment)
and Ly-Line Products (public buildings and furnishings). Both
A-132
-------
employ fewer than 100 workers. Other employment in this basin
would presumably be in small-scale enterprises, local-popula-
tion-serving activities, government and education.
Employment Projections. PSCOG estimates of existing and
future employment are presented in Table 5-7.
Table 5-7
EMPLOYMENT IN THE WHITE RIVER BASIN
Percent Change
1980 1990 2000 1980 to 2000
Existing ^ pi-n _
(estimated) '
Policy Allocation 2,950 3,451 4,395 +49.0
Trends Allocation 2,950 3,728 4,745 +60.8
Note/Source: Same as for Table 5-1
Employment in the White River basin is projected to expand
slightly faster under the Trends Allocation than under the
Policy Allocation.
Mercer Island
The Mercer Island basin encompasses all of Mercer Island,
in the middle of Lake Washington. It has no subbasins. The
City of Mercer Island also encompasses the entire island.
Current Employment Patterns. Mercer Island is primarily a
bedroom community for Seattle and eastshore cities. The largest
employers on the island are the city and the school district.
Economic activity is limited to local shopping areas.
Employment Projections. PSCOG estimates of present and
future employment are presented in Table 5-8.
Table 5-8
EMPLOYMENT IN MERCER ISLAND BASIN
Percent Change
1980
1990
2000
1980 to 2000
Existing
(estimated)
2,392
-
-
-
Policy Allocation
2,392
3,264
4,137
+ 73.0
Trends Allocation
2,392
3,248
4,109
+ 71. 8
Note: Same as for Table 5-1.
Source: Donald R. Pethick, Senior Planner, PSCOG, letter
to Jeff Bauman, METRO, Kay 8, 1980.
A-133
-------
The Policy Allocation anticipates a slightly larger amount
of employment growth on iMercer Island than does the Trends
Allocation.
Statistical Summary of PSCOG Employment Projections
by Basin and Subbasin
Table 5-9 provides a summary of PSCOG employment estimates
for the seven basins in the Renton 201 Study Area.
In four basins, growth from 1980 to 2000 is projected to
exceed the average growth in the 201 Study Area as a whole.
The fastest growth would occur in the two northernmost basins.
Growth in the South Lake Sammamish basin would also be fairly
rapid, twice the rate of growth in the Study Area. The large
percentage growth on Mercer Island would represent a relatively
small absolute increase. In the other four basins, growth over
the 20-year period would generally not exceed 60 percent.
The largest absolute increase in jobs is expected to occur
in the Green River basin, which has the largest concentration
of existing employment. But growth will be most dramatic in
the North Lake Washington basin which is projected to have one
of the highest growth rates as well as the second highest abso-
lute number of jobs added.
The difference between the Policy Allocation and the Trend
Allocation is most marked in the North Lake Sammamish and South
Lake Washington basins. In the first case, Trends employment
is indicated to exceed Policy employment by about 6,000; in
the second, by 3,500. Only in the North Lake Washington basin
would the Trends Allocation result in fewer year 2000 jobs than
the Policy Allocation.
Differences among subbasins between Policy and Trends Allo-
cations are shown in Table 5-10. There, the percentages given
represent each subbasin's share of the total 201 Study Area em-
ployment change over the two-decade period. Subbasin figures
generally move in the same direction as basin totals (comparing
the Policy with the Trends Allocations). The exceptions are
in subbasins with low 1980 employment. In all of those cases
(except Soos Creek), the Trends Allocation assigns greater em-
ployment growth than does the Policy Allocation. The differences
are most marked in the Kelsey Creek and Cedar River subbasins
in each of which Trends would result in about 3,000 more jobs
than the Policy Allocation.
A-134
-------
Table 5-9
SUMMARY OF BASIN ALLOCATIONS OF PSCOG EMPLOYMENT FORECAST
Policy Allocation. Trends Allocation
Major Basin
1970
1980
1990
2000
Percent Change,
1980-2000
1990
2000
Percent Chai
1980-2000
North Lake Washington
7,021
13,570
25,283
37,004
+172.7
24,341
34,545
+154.6
North Lake Samitiamish
2,546
7,585
10,987
16,370
+115.8
14,009
22,241
+193.2
East Lake Washington
24,236
38,132
49,277
57,532
+ 50.9
50,148
58,193
+ 52.6
South Lake Washington
17,232
26,022
27,497
32,097
+ 23.3
28,987
35,548
+ 36.6
South Lake Sammamish
2,843
4,707
8,471
10,570
+124.6
8, 719
11,178
+137.5
Green River Basin
33,119
48,674
62,091
75,052
+ 54.2
63,878
77,676
+ 59.6
White River Basin
1,644
2,950
3,451
4, 395
+ 49.0
3,728
4,745
+ 60.8
Mercer Island
N.A.
2,392
3,264
4,137
+ 73.0
3,248
4,109
+ 71.8
Study Area Total
88,641*
144,032
190,321
227,157
+ 57.7
197,058
248,235
+ 72.3
N.A.: not available.
~Not including Mercer Island.
Note/Source: Same as for Table 5-1
-------
Table 5-10
COMPARISON OF POLICY AND TRENDS ALLOCATION
OF EMPLOYMENT BY SUBBASIN
Policy Trends
Subbasin
Numerical
Change,
1980-2000
% of Study
Area Change
Numerical
Change,
1980-2000
% of Study
Area Chanae
Swamp Creek
13,730
14. 74
12,120
11.63
North Creek
6, 552
7. 14
5,415
5.20
Little Bear Creek
3, 052
3. 28
3,440
3. 30
North Lake Washington 23, 434
25. 16
20,975
20. 13
Sarrunamish River
4, 452
4. 78
7,784
7.47
Evans Creek
3, 951
4. 24
6,342
6. 09
Pine Lake
382
0. 41
530
0. 51
North Lake Sammcunish
8, 785
9. 43
14,656
14. 06
Juanita Creek
6,540
7.02
6,017
5. 77
Kelsey Creek
2,372
3.08
5,992
5.75
Coal Creek
9, 988
10. 73
8,052
7.73
East Lake Washington
19, 400
20.83
20,061
19. 25
May Creek
2,222
2. 39
2,856
2. 74
Cedar River
3,853
4.14
6,670
6. 40
South Lake Washington 6,075
6. 52
9,526
9.14
Tibbets Creek
4, 410
4.74
4,423
4. 24
East Lake Sammamish
262
0. 28
302
0. 29
Issaquah Creek
1,191
1.28
1,746
1.68
South Lake Sammamish
5, 863
6. 30
6,471
6. 21
Mill Creek
11,950
12.83
13,145
12 .61
Green River
9, 274
9.96
9,531
9.15
Soos Creek
3, 403
3.65
3, 385
3. 25
Lake Young
315
0.34
397
0. 38
Jenkins Creek
560
0.60
1,036
0.99
Covington Creek
839
0.90
1, 408
1.35
Newaukum Creek
37
0.04
97
0.09
Green River
26, 378
28. 33
29,002
27. 83
White River
1, 445
1.55
1, 795
1.72
Mercer Island
1, 745
1.87
1,717
1.65
STUDY AREA
93,125
99.99
104,203
99.99
Note/Source:
Same as for
A-136
Table 5-1
-------
Hous inq
Growth in the Renton 201 Study Area will depend not only
on the availability of the wastewater system capacity pro-
posed for partial funding by EPA and the strength of the
economy but also on the ability of workers employed in the
area to find affordable housing. PSCOG projections anticipate
the presence of 107,030 additional households in the study
area by the year 2000 under the Policy Allocation and 127,410
additional households under the Trends Allocation. Allowing
for vacancies, these increases will require between 112,380
and 133,780 added living units to meet demand.
Previous housing studies completed for the area (or,
more specifically, for King County) have considered housing
demand but not housing supply. In other words, projections
of the future number of dwelling units in the region have
been based on the number of residents and households, without
examination of the construction industry's ability to build
the number of living units demanded. This approach has been
reasonable in the past because vacancy rates for some types
of housing have remained high, implying that supply has indeed
been adequate to meet demand.
This chapter reviews housing conditions in the study area
since 1970 and develops the projection of required units
summarized above. Primary data sources for the review of
past housing conditions are the Annual Housing Survey: 1976,
published by the U. S. Bureau of the Census, and materials
published by the King County Planning Division. The geographic
organization of data in these sources does not conform to the
boundaries of the Renton 201 Study Area or the basins within
it. For information from the Annual Housing Survey} the por-
tion of the Seattle-Everett Standard Metropolitan Statistical
Area (SMSA)* outside the central city (which is Seattle) is
used as an approximation for the Renton 201 Study Area. This
*A Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area (SMSA) is comprised of one or
more cities with 50,000 or more population ("central cities") and the bal-
ance of the county in which each central city is located. Additional
counties may also be included depending on specific population criteria.
There are three SMSA's in Washington: Seattle-Everett, Spokane and Tacoma.
The Seattle-Everett SMSA encompasses King and Snohomish Counties. Seattle
is the only "central city" in the Seattle-Everett SMSA.
A-137
-------
results in an overcount of units and households because most
of the City of Everett and other Paget Sound shoreline com-
munities lie within the SMSA but outside the Renton Study
Area.
Recent Trends and Existing Conditions
In 1970, the portion of the Seattle-Everett SMSA outside
central cities had 270,700 dwelling units. Of those; 268j900
were considered to be suitable for year-round occupancy and
248,300 were occupied, leaving an overall vacancy rate of
7.7 percent, as shown in Table 5-11.
By 1976, the number of dwelling units in the area had
grown to 319,600, an increase of 18.1 percent. The number of
year-round units had grown to 317,000 (up 17.9 percent) and the
number of occupied units to 301,100 (up 21.3 percent). The
overall vacancy rate thus declined to 5.0 percent, as indicated
in Table 5-11.
Table 5-11
GENERAL HOUSING CHARACTERISTICS IN KING AND
SNOHOMISH COUNTIES OUTSIDE SEATTLE, 1970 AND 1976
1970 1976
All dwelling units 270,700 319,600
Year-round dwelling units 268,900 317,000
Occupied year-round dwelling units 248,300 301,100
Overall vacancy in year-round units 7.7% 5.0%
Source: Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Annual
Housing Survey: 1976, Seattle-Everett, Washington SMSA
(Part A, Table CI). Data for 1976 are based on a sample
of 15,000 units. Data for 1970 are based on a complete
count of units conducted for the U. S. Census of housing.
In the Seattle region, as elsewhere in the county, the
number of households is rising faster than the population.
That means that more living units are needed than were for-
merly needed to accommodate the same population. At least
part of the decrease in the vacancy rate is therefore attribut
able to a decrease in the average number cf persons per house-
hold, as shown in Table 5-12.
Both the increase in housing units and the decrease in
vacancy may be characterized in greater detail by examining
A-133
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Table 5-12
COMPARATIVE CHANGES IN POPULATION AND HOUSING
UNITS IN KING AND SNOHOMISH COUNTIES
OUTSIDE SEATTLE, 1970-76
%
1970 1976 Change Change
Population m dwelling S29,200 898,600 69,400 8.4
units
Number of occupied 248,300 301,000 52,800 21.3
dwelling units ' ' '
Average number of
persons per household 3.34 2.98 0.36 -10.3
Source: U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Annual Housing
Survey: 1973, Seattle-Everett, Washington SMSA (Table CI).
patterns of tenure (owner vs. renter) and types of structures.
This characterization is useful as a basis for evaluating
projections of future supply and demand.
Type of Structure. The Annual Housing Survey indicates
that the housing stock in 1970 was comprised primarily of
single-family detached dwelling units, and that the units
built between 1970 and 1976 were also primarily in single-
family detached structures. These units were not, however,
added in proportion to their share of the existing stock
during the six-year period, as shown in Table 5-13. The table
indicates that two types of structures - single-family attached
and two- to four-family structures - increased their relative
shares of the housing stock between 1970 and 1976. The number
of units in single-family attached structures increased over
150 percent during the period.
This strong increase in single-family attached units re-
sulted in an increased vacancy rate for them by 1976 (up from
0 percent to 5.3 percent), as shown in Table 5-14. There was
also a slight increase in the vacancy rate for mobile homes,
caused by a decline in mobile home occupancies rather than an
increase in the number of units. All other structure types
experienced a decrease in vacancy rates, with the most dramatic
decrease in units in structures with five or more dwellings
(27.2 percent vacancy in 1970; 11.1 percent in 1976).
Tenure. Tenure refers to the ownership status of the
residents in a dwelling unit. In 1970, 74.1 percent of house-
holds in the Seattle-Everett SMSA outside central cities were
owner-occupants; by 1976, owner-occupants constituted only 72.5
A-139
-------
Table 5-13
COMPOSITION OF THE HOUSING STOCK BY TYPE OF
STRUCTURE IN KING AND SNOHOMISH COUNTIES
OUTSIDE SEATTLE, 1970-1976
1970
19 76
Chanqe
Number
Number
Number
of
% of
of
% of
of
% o f
Type of Structure
Units
Total*
Uni ts
Total*
Units
Total
1 family, detached
211,200
78.5
246,000
77.6
34,800
72.5
1 family, attached
2, 100
0. 8
5,600
1.8
3,500
7. 3
2-4 families
8, 800
3. 3
14,600
4.6
5,800
12.1
5+ families
34,900
13.0
38,800
12.2
3,900
8. 1
Mobile home
11,900
4.4
11,900
3.8
-0-
0.0
TOTAL
268,900
100.0
317,000
100.0
48,000
100.0
*Year-round units
Note: Detail may not add to total because of rounding.
Source: u. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Annual Housing
Survey: 197S, Seattle-Everett, Washington SMSA (Table CI).
percent of the households. This decline occurred because
owner-occupants constituted only about 65 percent of the added
households, or fewer than their historic share, as indicated
in Table 5-15.
Vacancy rates for owner- and renter-occupants are esti-
mated by counting the number of dwellings "for sale only" or
"for rent" and comparing them to the number of occupied plus
available units. The estimated vacancy rates for 1970 and
1976 are presented in Table 5-16, which shows a dramatic de-
crease in the renter vacancy rate during the six-year period.
The high rate of renter vacancy in 1970 and its sharp
decline during the period suggest that the rental market had
been overbuilt and that builders responded by slowing con-
struction on the types of units likely to be occupied by
renters. In fact, the Annual Housing Survey shows that the
number of renter households who occupied dwellings in struc-
tures of five or more units increased by 9,000 during 1971-76
while the number of units in such structures that was added
to the stock equaled only 3,900. (About 100 new owner house-
holds also occupied dwellings in structures of five or more
units.)
A-1 40
-------
Table 5-14
OCCUPIED DWELLING UNITS BY TYPE OF STRUCTURE
IN KING AND SNOHOMISH COUNTIES OUTSIDE SEATTLE,
1970 AND 1976
19 70 1976
Type of Structure
Number
of
Units
Number of
Occupied
Units
%
Vacant
Nuirtoer
of
Units
Number of
Occupied
Units
%
Vacant
1 family, detached
211,200
201,000
4.8
246,000
236,300
3.9
1 family, attached
2,100
2,100
0.0
5,600
5, 300
5.3
2-4 families
8,800
7,800
11. 3
14,600
13,100
10. 3
5+ families
34,900
25,400
27.2
38,300
34,500
11.1
Mobile homes
11,900
11,900
0.0
11,900
11,800
0.8
TOTAL
268,900
248,200
7.7
317,000
301,100
5.0
Source: U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Annual Housing
Survey: 1976, Seattle-Everett, Washington SMSA {Part A, Table CI).
Table 5-15
HOUSING TENURE CLF HOUSEHOLDS IN KING AND SNOHOMISH
COUNTIES OUTSIDE SEATTLE, 1970 AND 1976
1970
1976
Change
Number of
% of
Number of
% of
Number of
Tenure
Households
Total
Households
Total
Households
Owner-occupant
183,900
74.1
218,400
72.5
34,500
Renter-occupant
64,300
25.9
82,700
27.5
18,400
TOTAL
248,200
100.0
301,100
100.0
52,900
Total
65.2
34. 8
100.0
Source: U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Annual Housing
Survey: 1976} Seattle-Everett, Washington SMSA (Part A, Table CI).
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Table 5-16
HOUSING VACANCY RATES BY TENURE IN KING AND SNOHOMISH
COUNTIES OUTSIDE SEATTLE, 1970 AND 1976
Vacancy Rate
Tenure 19 70 197 6
Owner-occupant 1.9% 1.2%
Renter-occupant 16.1 6.0
TOTAL 7.7 5.0
Source: U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Annual Housirq
Survey: 19763 Seattle-Everett, Washington SMSA (Part A, Table Cl).
Structure Type and Tenure. A more comprehensive look at
changing conditions in the housing market may be gained by
looking at both type of structure and tenure together. Table
5-17 summarizes the changes that occurred between 1970 and 1976.
Table 5-17
CHANGE IN NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLDS BY TENURE AND TYPE
OF STRUCTURE OCCUPIED AND CHANGE IN NUMBER OF
DWELLING UNITS BY TYPE OF STRUCTURE IN KING AND
SNOHOMISH COUNTIES OUTSIDE SEATTLE, 1970^-76
Type of Tenure
All
Change in
ff of D.U. as
Type of Structure
Owne r-
occupied
Renter-
occupied
All
Occupied
Dwelling
Units
% of Change in
Occupied D.U.
1 family, detached
32,000
3,300
35,300
34,800
98.6
1 family, attached
2,700
500
3,200
3,500
109.4
2-4 family
200
5,100
5,300
5, 800
109.4
5+ family
100
9,000
9, 100
3,900
42.9
Mobile homes
-700
600
-100
-0-
-0-
TOTAL
34,300
18,500
52,800
48,000
90.9
Source: U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Annual Housing
Survey: 1976, Seattle-Everett, Washington SMSA (Part A, Table Cl).
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Future Housing Conditions
Future housing conditions in the Seattle-Everett SMSA
outside of Seattle may be characterized based on evidence drawn
from the data for 1970-76 presented above and on other available
sources of information, as described below:
Evidence Drawn from 1970-76 Data. The information pre-
sented in the preceding section suggests that housing supply
was generally responsive to housing demand during the 1970-76
period. Faced with high vacancy rates for all types of housing
(except one-family structures) in 1970, developers provided
only enough additional units of each type during the ensuing
six years to allow for more reasonable vacancy factors by the
end of the period. For example, the addition of 9,100 units in
structures of five or more dwellings allowed the vacancy rate
for that type to drop from 27.2 percent in 1970 to 11.1 percent
in 1976; in contrast, the addition of 3/200 one-family attached
units allowed the vacancy rate for that type to rise from 0.0
percent in 1970 to 5.3 percent in 1976.
The fact that vacancy rates for most types of dwellings
were so high in 1970 may be attributed to unexpected economic
conditions - in particular, employee layoffs at Boeing plants -
in the late 1960's and early 1970' s. While population and
dwelling unit estimates for King and Snohomish Counties are
not readily available for years prior to 1970, estimates for
the 1970's show absolute population declines for King County
outside Seattle and the SMSA outside Seattle between 1971 and
1974 and for the Cities of Seattle and Everett in almost every
year since 1970. To the extent that laid-off workers left the
area or, more probably, that population growth expected before
the Boeing layoffs materialized did not occur, the housing
supply exceeded demand during the aerospace recession years.
Another feature of the housing market that is evident in
the 1970-76 data is the urbanization of the housing stock out-
side Seattle. As the population has moved outward from Seattle,
the composition of the housing stock has shifted to include
greater proportions of one-family attached and two- to four-
family structures. While the changes have been modest thus
far, they are indicative of a continuing evolution in the
character of the greater metropolitan area.
Other Available Information. Conversations with local
planning staff during May 1980 indicated that housing supply
has generally kept up with demand in the study area. Current
vacancy figures are lower than those calculated in 19 76, but
slightly higher than they were one year ago despite the adverse
economic conditions that are currently inhibiting housing pro-
duction. *
*The Federal Home Loan Bank of Seattle Housing Vacancy Survetfj 1980 estimates
that the vacancy rate for all types of housing units in the Seattle-Everett
area was 1.4 percent in January 1979 and 1.5 percent in February 1980.
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The PSCOG allocations of future population among subareas
of the Renton 201 Study Area are based in part on the presence
and relative location of undeveloped land zoned for residential
use. To the extent that increases in the housing supply are
assisted or limited by land availability, then, the PSCOG popu-
lation distribution and its implied housing demand have already
been adjusted to account for that influence.
Conclusions. The foregoing paragraphs suggest that there
is sufficient undeveloped residential land in the Renton 201
Study Area to accommodate the additional dwelling units de-
manded by the population expected to locate there. In principle,
the residential construction industry will be able to provide
the number of units demanded if historical experience is a valid
indicator of future conditions. A projection of the number of
new dwelling units needed to meet expected demand in the Study
Area is developed in the next paragraphs, and factors which may
influence both housing supply and housing demand are discussed
in the following section.
The magnitude of housing demand and supply in the Study
Area may be estimated by adjusting the population forecast
by a household size factor. The population forecast, organized
by subarea, is presented in Table 7- (page ). The average
number of persons per household may be expected to continue its
decline through the year 2000. The PSCOG forecasts appear to
use average household sizes for the Study Area of 2.72 in 1976,
2.65 in 1980 and 2.61-2.62 in 1990*; this pattern suggests that
it is reasonable to use an estimate of 2,60 persons per house-
hold for the year 2000. These figures, in turn, suggest that
the Study Area will h=.ve 300,7 20 hcuserclds under the Policy
Allocation, an estimated increase of 105,84C over the 1980 esti-
mate, by the year 2000. The projected increase for each sub-
area and for the Study Area as a whole under the Policy and
Trends Allocations are shown in Table 5-18.
To fully nee- the demand for housing, the number of dwell-
ing units built must exceed the number of additional house-
holds so that some vacancies exist. Vacancy rates of less
than five percent are generally considered to indicate a tight
housing market. The numbers of dwelling units that would be
required to meet demand, including a five percent vacancy rate,
during the 1980-2000 period are shown in Table 5-19.
Influences on Housing Supply and Demand
The estimate of additional housing units developed in
Table 5-19 is essentially a mathematical projection that
represents the number of units that will be built if an
*See memorandum from King Subregional Staff to Users of the Population and
Employment Forecasts, re: 1990 Forecasts of Population and Employment,
dated January 26, 1979, page 5.
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Table 5-18
NUMBER OF HOUSEHOLDS BY SUBBASIN, BASED ON PSCOG POPULATION FORECAST
Policy Trends
Percent Change Percent Change
Major Subbasin
19801
19902
20003
1980-2000
19902
20003
1980-2000
North Lake Washington
3.7,590
51,000
64,500
+ 71.6
47,630
59,100
+ 57.2
North Lake Sammamish
17,790
23,070
31,270
+ 75.8
27,950
39,220
+120.5
East Lake Washington
45,710
56,210
69,500
+ 52.0
50,750
58,180
+ 27.3
South Lake Washington
24,000
26,760
29,680
+ 23.7
34,140
40,470
+ 68.6
South Lake Sammamish
14,350
17,700
19,950
+ 39.0
19,420
22,820
+ 59.0
Green River Basin
50,220
62,670
74,570
+ 48. 5
72,230
88,480
+ 76.2
White River Basin
5,210
8, 320
11,250
+115.9
9,250
12,810
+145.9
Mercer Island
7,810
8,540
9,000
+ 15.2
8,490
9,020
+ 15.5
TOTAL
202,680
254,270
309,720
+ 52.8
269,840
330,090
+ 62.9
NOTE: Detail may not add to total because of independent rounding.
'Average household size of 2.65 persons.
2Average household size of 2.62 persons for Policy, 2.61 persons for Trends.
3Average household size of 2.60 persons.
Source: Gruen Grueri + Associates estimates
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Table 5-19
DWELLING UNITS REQUIRED TO MEET HOUSING DEMAND
(INCLUDING FIVE PERCENT VACANCY FACTOR), 1980-2000
Policy
Trends
tejor Subbasin
Increase in Increase in Increase in Increase in
Households Dwelling Units Households Dwelling Units
White River Basin
Mercer Island
North Lake Washington
North Lake Sammairiish
East Lake Washington
South Lake Washington
South Lake Sairmamish
Green River Basin
26,910
13,4 80
23,790
5,680
5,600
24,350
6,040
1,190
28,260
14,150
24,980
5,960
5,880
25,570
6, 340
1,250
21,510
21,430
12,460
16,470
"8,470
38,270
7,600
1,290
22 r590
22,500
13,080
17,290
8,890
40,180
7,980
1,360
TOTAL
107,040
112,390
127,500
133,870
NOTE: Detail may not add to total because of independent rounding.
assumed set of conditions is met. That set of conditions
includes land availability as postulated by PSCOG for each
allocation, household sizes as described above, the ability
of developers to build the amount of housing demanded and
the ability of households to pay for that housing.
The last two conditions are particularly subject to
variation. The ability of developers to build the amount
of housing demanded will depend on economic and financial
circumstances as well as political and governmental factors.
Economic circumstances that will influence output center on
the ability to produce housing at a price that can be paid by
households, whether at the market price or under the auspices
of a subsidy program. Relevant financial circumstances will
include interest rates and the amount of money available for
both construction and mortgage lending. Political and govern-
mental factors include potential growth management programs
that would limit the number of units built as well as other
regulations which may increase or decrease the attractiveness
of building various types of housing (i.e., laws addressing
rent control or condominium conversions).
The ability of households to pay for the housing they
demand (or desire) will depend largely on the same set of
circumstances. Historically, a household has been able to
purchase housing priced at 250 percent to 300 percent of its
annual income. The highest interest rates experienced in
Source: Table 5-18
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CHAPTER 6
OVERVIEW OF PUBLIC FINANCE
The population growth and land use change accommodated
by the Metro wastewater facilities expansion proposed for
partial funding by EPA must also be accommodated by the lo-
cal governments in whose jurisdictions it occurs. One im-
portant aspect of accommodation by governments is their re-
spective capabilities to provide public services. In large
part, this ability is dependent on the financial conditions
of those governments, conditions which result from the bal-
ance between revenues collected and costs incurred. This
chapter presents an overview of public finance in the Renton
201 Study Area. It begins with a background description of
the rules for local government finance, discusses general
fiscal conditions within the King County portion of the Study
Area, presents fiscal summaries for the seven largest Study
Area cities and for King County which focus on their indi-
vidual ability to accommodate growth, and concludes with a
review of factors which could affect future local fiscal con-
ditions .
Rules Governing Local Government Finance
The finances and financial condition of a public entity
- whether county, city or special district - result from the
balance between the revenues collected by the entity and the
costs it incurs. Costs are incurred when the entity provides
public services such as general government, police and fire
protection, street maintenance, water, wastewater treatment
and education. Revenues are collected from property taxes,
sales taxes, development fees, user charges, licenses, and
from other (federal and state) governments and other sources
(generally permits, fines and fees). The collection of
revenues by local governments is subject to the regulations
described below.
Balanced Budgets
In Washington, state law requires that local governments
operate with balanced budgets? that is, that costs may not ex-
ceed revenues in a given year. Given that requirement, they
must sometimes adjust the types and amounts of services they
provide or the types of revenues they collect in order to
assure balance from one year to the next.
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Property Tax Limitations
The task of balancing costs and revenues is complicated
for local governments by a limit on the amount of revenue they
may raise via the property tax. By law, the total property
tax revenue collected by a jurisdiction may equal no more than
106 percent of the largest amount collected in the previous
three years. There are three exceptions to this limitation:
(1) tax revenues from new development may be added to the
tax base as if it had produced revenue in the previous year
(but existing development in annexed areas does not count as
new development), (2) general obligation bonds voted by the
electorate are repaid with supplemental property tax levies,
and (3) local voters may suspend the 106 percent limitation
one time for one year only. The latter process allows a
jurisdiction to effect a large increase in its property tax
collection, and that collection can then serve as a new base
which may later be increased by six percent per year.
The 106 percent regulation has encouraged some local
governments to place more emphasis on sources of revenue
other than the property tax, including participation in the
state retail sales tax and user charges, to help cover their
costs. Several cities which do not currently have a business
and occupation tax are considering adopting one to provide
additional funds.
Bonding Limitations
There are three major types of bonds issued to provide
funding for capital improvements by local governments in the
State of Washington: general obligation (G.O.) bonds, reve-
nue bonds, and local improvement district (LID) bonds. Bond-
ing capacity - that is, the dollar amount of bond obligations
that may be issued - is determined differently for each of
the three.
General obligation bonds are limited by the assessed val-
uation in the jurisdiction. The total G.O. bonding capacity
is equal to 7.5 percent of current assessed valuation, divided
equally among open space and park facilities, utilities and
general purposes. Of the 2.5 percent of assessed valuation
available for general purpose bonds, about one-third (0.07 5
percent of assessed valuation) may be voted by the legislative
body (e.g., the city council). They are repaid out of the city's
general fund. Any other G.O. bonds must be passed by the voters,
and the property tax collected to repay those bonds is not sub-
ject to the 106 percent limit.
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Revenue bonds are usually issued by enterprise services
such as water and sewer utilities (in incorporated areas,
these utilities are owned and operated by the cities in most
cases), and are repaid out of revenues - such as user fees -
generated by those enterprises. The bonding capacity for
these obligations is limited by the revenue forthcoming into
these funds. The regulation is that debt coverage must equal
140 percent of debt service on all outstanding bonds.
Local improvement district bonds are issued by LID's
to fund specific capital improvements in specifically defined
geographic areas, usually covering several blocks. These
bonds are repaid by assessments on property which receives
the benefit of the improvements. The assessments are based
either on linear feet of street frontage or on a zone system
(a combination of frontage and depth), and are payable over
10 years. Cities act as "go-betweens" for LID bonds but have
no direct financial responsibility for them.
The relationship between a city's outstanding bonds and
its bonding capacity is one indicator of that city's ability
to pay for capital facilities needed to serve growth. The
seven largest King County cities within the Renton 201 Study
Area have substantial unused bonding capacity for both gen-
eral obligation and revenue bonds.
Responsibility for Service Provision
As noted above, local governments incur costs when they
provide public services to the residents and businesses within
their jurisdictions. The responsibility for service provision
- that is, who provides which services - is shared by the
county with either cities or special districts, depending on
whether an area is incorporated (cities) or unincorporated
(the rest of the county).
In both types of areas, King County is responsible for
providing some services, including streets and roads; health;
law, safety and justice; solid waste collection; and some
parks. In incorporated areas, the city provides general
government, police and fire protection, parks and recreation,
water and sewer services. Some cities also provide libraries.
In unincorporated areas, general government and police (sher-
iff) protection are provided by the County but fire, water
and sewer are provided by special districts. There are also
special districts for libraries and hospitals, but these dis-
tricts may include some incorporated areas.
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General Financial Outlook
Interviews conducted by Gruen Gruen + Associates with
finance officers and city treasurers in the seven largest
cities within the King County portion of the Renton 201 Study
Area revealed that six of the cities have a number of simi-
larities with respect to their respective financial outlooks.
City officials expressed confidence about their financial
conditions. They attributed that confidence to a variety of
sources; one common theme was a strong industrial tax base
and/or a variety of land use types within the city. They
acknowledged that the 106 percent limit on property tax reve-
nue has imposed some constraint on covering the cost of ser-
vices if these services are to be maintained at current levels;
some cities, however, have been able to increase their staffs
by up to 10 percent during the past year, indicating that the
constraint has not as yet been too severe. All the officials
interviewed indicated that voters in their cities had shown
no reluctance to pass local bond issues and none of the cities
were near their bonding capacity on outstanding bond issues.
All of the cities indicated that their major ongoing expendi-
tures are for labor, especially in the public protection
(police and fire) areas.
The seventh city, Mercer Island, and the county govern-
ment both expressed considerably less optimism. Mercer Is-
land differs from the other cities in that it is a fully-
developed, contained bedroom community with a tax base that
is almost exclusively residential. It therefore does not en-
joy the increase in property tax base associated with new de-
velopment nor the increase in sales tax revenue generated by
growth and inflation. The county faces a different fiscal
situation: it is responsible for providing labor-intensive
services which cannot bring in revenues directly via user
charges, and has more difficulty than the cities in passing
bond issues because it serves a more diverse constituency
and greater geographic area.
Fiscal Profiles of Study Area Cities
Auburn
The City of Auburn's budget for 1980 totals $20,413,615,
of which $5,678,158 (28 percent) is allocated to the current
expense fund. Major revenue sources are the property tax, the
sales tax and monies from the federal and state governments.
Important contributors of revenue are Boeing, other industrial es
tablishments and the city's numerous automobile dealers. Major
A-152
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expenditure categories in the total budget are personnel (27
percent of the total budget; this figure includes overtime
and benefits), construction projects (20 percent) and pro-
fessional services (11 percent). A major proportion of the
construction allocation is devoted to roadway projects.
Auburn has grown from a population of 21,653 in 1970 to
25,735 in 1979 (Washington OFM 1979), an increase averaging
just under two percent per year. While projections are not
available specifically for the city, an indication of future
growth may be inferred from the PSCOG projections for the
Green River Basin, in which it is located. Those projections
anticipate a growth rate of 3.8 percent per year under the
Policy Allocation and 4.5 percent per year under the Trends
Allocation. While it is probable that much of this growth
will locate north of Auburn - i.e., in Kent or elsewhere
along the State Highway 167-West Valley Highway (State Highway
181) corridor - it is also likely that some of the growth will
occur in Auburn. The city is currently experiencing industrial
growth to the northwest of downtown and is considering annexa-
tion of the newly developed Stuck River area.
The city has thus far had no difficulty in accommodating
growth. 'It has ample remaining bonding capacity, and that
capacity will increase when a new assessment base is imple-
mented in the next year or so. With a major portion of the
city's budget devoted to personnel costs, the current budget's
provision for approximately 20 new employees, bringing the
total permanent full-time staff to about 200, is a significant
indication of the ongoing ability to provide services. It
should be noted, however, that the ability to provide services
to new areas is a matter of careful consideration for the city
and is not to be taken for granted.
Bellevue
The City of Bellevue budget for 1980 balances at
$46,502,345, of which $20,841,628 (45 percent) is for current
government services. Major revenue sources for current gov-
ernment services are the property tax (20 percent), retail
sales tax (20 percent), gross business receipt tax (19 per-
cent) and intergovernmental transfers (24 percent, including
federal monies). The city's property tax base includes a
number of industrial establishments, corporate headquarters
buildings and hotels. Major expenditure categories for the
total budget are personnel (35 percent) and maintenance oper-
ations (27 percent). The relatively small allocation for
capital outlays may reflect Bellevue's status as a developed
city with little need for new road and major utility construc-
tion.
A-153
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Bellevue's population grew from 61,196 in 1970 to 77,515
in 1979 (Washington OFM, 1979) , an average annual growth rate
of 2.7 percent. City officials note that their ultimate popu-
lation will depend on zoning but would probably lie between
120,000 and 140,000. Noting that most new development does
not impose capital costs on the city because they are paid by
developers, the officials are confident in Bellevue's ability
to fiscally accommodate that growth. They base their outlook
on the city's low current tax rates, a good comprehensive plan
and capital improvements plan, careful analysis and implementa-
tion of service needs and continued increases in revenues re-
sulting from such new developments as the Boeing computer
center and Bell Square. As in other Study Area cities, Belle-
vue has had no trouble passing bond measures but still has
ample bonding capacity (a total of $117.2 million available
on January 1, 1980). The 1980 budget adds 56 employees to the
city staff, increasing the total staff by 9.5 percent.
City officials also suggest that while growth within the
current city boundaries poses no problem, annexations would be
considered very carefully. The primary reason for concern
about annexations is that annexed property cannot be added
to the tax base in calculating the 106 percent property tax
revenue limit unless it has been built in the previous year.
Therefore, the city would most likely try to assure itself
that the added area would pay its own way before pursuing an
annexation.
Kent
The City of Kent budget for 1980 anticipates revenues
and expenditures of $26,413,484. Of that total, $8,977,966
(34 percent) is allocated to the current expense fund. Major
revenue sources for the current expense fund are property
taxes (29 percent), sales and use taxes (24 percent) and in-
tergovernmental transfers (16 percent). Major property tax
contributors are Boeing (with almost 15 percent of total as-
sessed valuation), Pacific Northwest Bell Telephone Company
(about 2 percent), Puget Sound Power and Light and American
Strevell. For the total budget, user charges exceed inter-
governmental transfers and are exceeded only by property
taxes as a source of revenue.
The population of Kent has grown from 16,596 in 1970 to
21,100 in 1979 (Washington OFM, 1979), but the story told by
population alone is misleading. Both the population of the
surrounding unincorporated area and the employment base of the
city have grown rapidly in recent years. The population in the
area served by the Kent School District is estimated to number
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about 75,000 (McCarthy, 1980, pers. comm.), and the city pro-
vides a variety of services to the residents of the unincor-
porated area. Much of the industrial growth in the State
Highway 167-West Valley Highway corridor is also located with-
in the city. Building permits for commercial and industrial
development totaling $65 million were issued by the city in
the first eleven months of 1979, and permits totaling $59.8
million were issued during 197 5-78. The rapid growth in the
Valley corridor prompted city officials to undertake a major
comprehensive planning effort for that area to assure its
development in an orderly and beneficial manner.
The City of Kent looks favorably upon development, recog-
nizing that that development will necessitate provision of
additional capital facilities in the future. A recent bond
prospectus indicates that outstanding issues comprise only
5.9 percent of the city's bonding capacity.
Kent also is willing to consider annexations much more
readily than is the City of Bellevue. This difference in at-
titude may be attributed to several factors. First, Kent pro-
vides fire service to the unincorporated area east of the city,
through a contractual arrangement with the local fire district.
Second, Kent already provides services such as parks and recrea-
tion to unincorporated area residents. (It is for this reason
that the city relies heavily on user fees to fund some ser-
vices, in an attempt to assign the costs of those services to
the people who actually use them.) Third, King County has
recently begun to disallow water and sewer improvements in un-
incorporated areas, in an effort to direct urban growth toward
existing population centers. (King County has approval power
over capital improvements proposed by special districts in
unincorporated areas.) This policy would require unincorporated
areas in which new development relies upon these services to
seek annexation to the city. Such annexations would not nec-
essarily create a fiscal dilemma for Kent, because the new de-
velopment would qualify to increase the city's property tax
revenue base.
Nevertheless, the city continues to seek sources of funds
other than the property tax to pay for services. The user fees
charged by the city are one source. New sources under consid-
eration are a Business and Occupations Tax and a Payroll Tax.
The rationale behind these latter two are that they would be
borne by the businesses and industries which require a sub-
stantial amount of the services provided by the city.
Kirkland
The City of Kirkland budget for 1980 totals $17,711,053,
of which $3,923,643 (22 percent) comprises the current expense
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fund. Primary sources of revenue for the current expense fund
are retail sales and use tax (21 percent), property tax (16
percent), intergovernmental transfers (16 percent), charges for
services (15 percent) and gross receipts business taxes (14
percent). The city's three major retail areas are instrumen-
tal in generating sales tax revenue. Major ongoing expendi-
tures are for police and fire protection and water and sewer
projects. The city also places a strong emphasis on parks and
recreation.
Kirkland's population grew from 15,070 in 1970 to 19,000
in 1979 (Washington OFM, 1979), an average annual increase of
2.6 percent. This average rate masks a population decline in
mid-decade; growth since 1974, when the city had an estimated
14,850 residents, averaged 5.0 percent annually. It is un-
likely, however, that growth will continue to be significant,
because there are few remaining large open spaces within the
city limits. As a result, capital infrastructure to serve
whatever new growth may occur is already in place. A few
small annexations are considered possible, but would have to
be initiated by annexation area residents rather than the city.
Reasons why residents of adjacent unincorporated areas might
seek annexation to Kirkland include public service deficiencies
and slow response times in the county and the fact that Kirkland
already provides some services - notably fire protection and
sewer - to some areas outside the city.
Accommodating anticipated growth is not expected to be a
problem for the city, even though revenues are not keeping up
with costs. As noted above, the capital facilities needed are
already in place, and are oversized to handle higher densities
of development if required. If capital improvements are needed,
there is sufficient unused bonding capacity, and the voters
have not refused a bond issue in at least 10 years. The city
has a potential source of revenue that is not now being tapped
- the Business and Occupation Tax - and is placing additional
emphasis on user charges and development fees. Industrial or
commercial development that occurs in infill areas will generate
new revenues with little or no additional cost to the city.
Overall, Kirkland has adopted a conservative fiscal outlook
that will enable the city to use forthcoming revenues ef-
ficiently.
Mercer Island
The City of Mercer Island budget for 1980 estimates
revenues and expenditures totaling $12,150,000. The general
fund comprises $4,544,000, or 37 percent of the total. Major
sources of revenue for the general fund are property tax
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(38 percent), utilities taxes (19 percent) and intergovern-
mental revenues (13 percent). Sales tax revenue is minimal
(5 percent of the general fund) because the city is primarily
residential, with commercial uses limited to convenience and
specialty stores. Major expenditures are for fire and police
protection.
The city's population grew from 19,819 in 1970 to 22,110
in 1979 (Washington OFM, 1979), an average increase of only 1.2
percent per year. The population estimate for 1980 is the same
as for 1979 (Bunnell, 1980, pers. comm.). Future growth is
expected to be limited; there are an estimated 1,000 building
sites remaining on the island.
Mercer Island's residential character has placed it in
a less optimistic fiscal condition than its more diversified
neighbors east of Lake Washington. The city's sales tax reve-
nue declined by about 33 percent when the tax was removed
from food. The 106 percent property tax revenue limit has
hampered the city's ability to provide services in the past.
Voters exercised their option to suspend the limit this year,
which allowed property tax revenue to rise approximately 40
percent, but fiscal problems are expected to return next
year with reimposition of the limit. While city officials say
they are in a poor fiscal position to accommodate major growth,
however, they indicate that they could serve the potential
development of remaining sites into single-family residences
because their capital facilities are in place and there would
be no additional streets to patrol or maintain.
Redmond
The City of Redmond budget for 1980 totals $16,617,051.
The current expense fund comprises $4,548,558, or 27 percent
of the total. The retail sales and use tax is the most import-
ant source of revenue for the current expense fund, contributing
about 25 percent of the fund total? other important sources are
intergovernmental transfers (21 percent) and property taxes
(18 percent). The city's strong commercial base, focused on
Redmond Way, is a major contributor of both sales and property
taxes. About 75 percent of ongoing expenditures is devoted
to personnel costs.
Redmond has experienced rapid growth since 1970. Its
population has increased from 11,020 in that year to 21,360 in
1979 (Washington OFM, 1979), a growth rate averaging 7.6 percent
per year. The city treasurer estimates current (1980) population
at 24,000. The city's planning area is large enough to even-
tually include a population of 50,000 to 80,000 residents,
A-1S7
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extending east and possibly south of the current city limits
to encompass a part of the unincorporated county area.
The city is able to fiscally accommodate expected popu-
lation growth. While residential development does not neces-
sarily pay its own way in Redmond, it does draw with it a com-
mercial base that generates revenues via property and sales
taxes. Host of the capital facilities needed to serve a future
larger population are already in place; it is relatively new,
however, and by the time it begins to require substantial main-
tenance and repair work the city expects to have adequate tax
receipts to cover the costs. Redmond also has approximately
half its bonding capacity available for future commitments.
Renton
The City of Renton budget for 1980 estimates total reve-
nues and expenditures of $24,899,848. The city's budget sum-
mary does not specify the amount allocated for current expen-
ses. Major revenue sources for the total budget are charges
for services (18 percent), intergovernmental transfers (16
percent), property tax {14 percent) and retail sales and use
tax £8 percent). The city's most important taxpayer - of both
property and sales tax - is Boeing, and the financial condi-
tion of the city is closely related to the financial condition
of Boeing. The largest current expenditure category is police
and fire protection, accounting for 20 percent of the total
budget.
Renton has grown from a population of 25,878 in 1970 to a
population of 30,700 in 1979 (Washington OFM, 1979), an average
annual increase of 1.9 percent. As in Kirkland, though, the
city's population declined in the early part of the decade, large-
ly because of massive layoffs at Boeing. Since 1972, when the
number of Renton residents was estimated at 25,200, the growth
rate has averaged 2.9 percent per year. Current (1980) popu-
lation is estimated at 31,000 (Marshall, 1980, pers. comm.).
Future growth could occur either within the current city
limits or through annexation of areas to the east, north (to-
ward Bellevue) and west (toward Bryn Mawr and Skyway), and
could double Renton1s population size. City officials are
confident of their fiscal ability to handle continuing
growth, noting that in most cases they are able to limit in-
creases in spending to the 6 percent allowed for increases in
property tax revenues. One indicator of Renton's ability to
provide additional services is the hiring of 30 new full-time
employees this year, which brought the city's total permanent
workforce to 300. The city's $80 million G.O. bonding capacity
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is barely committed, allowing for substantial capital improve-
ments construction if approved by the voters. With its sub-
stantial industrial tax base - Boeing and Pacific Car alone
comprise 60 percent of the total - and growing sales tax base
(sales tax receipts increased 182 percent between 1973 and
1979), the non-residential revenue sources will play a key
role in helping the city provide for future growth, assuming
that Boeing's current strength is maintained.
King County (Unincorporated Area)
Public services to unincorporated areas of King County
are provided either by the county government or by special
districts. The county provides general government; law,
safety and justice (which includes sheriff and the court sys-
tem) ; health; streets and roads; solid waste; and parks and
recreation. These services are financed by property taxes
and sales taxes. Property taxes are paid to the county by
residents of both incorporated and unincorporated areas, but
the county levies differ between the two because the range of
services differs. Similarly, the county's share of sales tax
receipts from incorporated areas is smaller than its share of
the sales tax from unincorporated areas, because the cities
receive a portion of sales taxes collected within their bound-
aries .
Special districts are responsible for provision of water,
sewer, fire protection, hospitals and libraries. There are
currently over 100 special districts in King County. These
districts obtain revenues through property taxes and user
charges. They also have the power to issue bonds.
Services are delivered by the special districts in several
ways. They may provide services directly; for example, by
owning and operating fire stations or libraries. They may
also contract with cities or other special districts for ser-
vices. For example, one fire district contracts with the City
of Redmond to provide fire service in its jurisdiction; for
this service, the district pays Redmond its total revenue less
the costs of administering the district. This type of arrange-
ment is also used for water and sewer services.
Finally, special districts may purchase services from
"wholesalers" and retail them to their jurisdictions. For
example, the City of Seattle sells water to many special dis-
tricts (and cities) which in turn sell it to residential and
business customers. Similar arrangements are made with the
Municipality of Metro Seattle for sewer service.
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CHAPTER 7
DESCRIPTION AND ASSESSMENT OF PSCOG
POPULATION, EMPLOYMENT AND LAND USE FORECASTS
Population Forecasts of
Federal, State and Regional Agencies
Population Forecasts as a Basis for Decisionmaking
Decisions about wastewater system investments depend
upon forecasts of when the need for various facilities
will arise and the level of demand that can reasonably be
expected. The high cost of these capital-intensive facili-
ties makes it particularly important to reach accurate con-
clusions about sizing and phasing of proposed new facilities.
Because of the long lead time required for facilities de-
sign and construction, these decisions must be made con-
siderably in advance of the time new facilities will actually
be needed.
Facilities planners use forecasts of population, em-
ployment and land use to help them make decisions about
the scale and location of facilities needed in the future.
For wastewater treatment facilities, a forecast at least
10 years into the future is necessary; for interceptors,
at least twenty years into the future. A low forecast car-
ries the risk of underbuilding, which may pose future con-
straints on development or require duplication of services
(such as parallel interceptors). A high forecast may mean
the public is paying for capacity it isn't using. The more
accurate the forecast, the easier it will be to avoid the
risks of under- or over-building and to maximize the utility
of the public investment.
At the present time, part of the cost of local
wastewater facilities is paid by the federal taxpayer.
The U. S. government, through the Environmental Protection
Agency, can fund 75 percent of the cost of eligible facili-
ties planned by local wastewater agencies and approved by
authorized state agencies. Population forecasting plays a
role in EPA funding decisions as well as in wastewater agency
planning. EPA wants to distribute its limited funds equit-
ably among applicants. To help ensure a fair distribution
of resources, EPA must seek a funding approach based on con-
sistency in population forecasting among regions. Other-
wise, regions that forecast on the low side would be at a
disadvantage in obtaining funds compared to regions that
forecast on the high side.
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The effort to achieve equity in the distribution of
funds for population-serving facilities is not limited to
EPA. Recognizing the importance of working with a consistent
set of population forecasts, the federal government has
established national forecasts by state for use in a variety
of intergovernmental assistance programs. While this broad
federal effort is still in evolution, EPA was one of the
first agencies to address this problem by establishing
state-by-state forecasts for reference in all EPA funding
decisions.
EPA Grant Regulations Relating to Population Forecasts
In 1978, EPA established regulations for population fore-
casts to be used in facilities planning. The forecasts are
to be based on state projections prepared for EPA by the
Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) of the Department of Com-
merce in 1977. BEA is the federal agency responsible for
most economic forecasting, and is known in particular for
its OBERS series of forecasts, on which the projections
prepared for EPA were-, in part, based.
EPA has determined that its funding decisions will be
based on BEA's state totals, which each state is required
to disaggregate to water quality planning areas. There are
two exceptions to the mandate to use the BEA projections:
(1) in the event either a state, or a water quality planning
area, had completed its own population forecast prior to
June 26, 1978, that forecast can be used instead of the BEA-
based projection if the state projection does not exceed by
more than five percent the BEA state total, and the regional
projection does not exceed by more than ten percent the re-
gional total determined by disaggregating the BEA state pro-
jection; or (2) the BEA projection is successfully appealed
to EPA in Washington.
The Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) Projections
The BEA work, is based on analysis of the national economy
and of each state's economy in relation to the nation as a
whole. The procedure builds from initial estimates of in-
dustrial earnings. These are translated into personal earn-
ings which are then translated into population estimates by
state. BEA consulted with the states on its "first cut"
projections, made adjustments for the 1970 census undercount,
and finally constrained all state projections to a national
projection. It is this last step that earns the BEA approach
the descriptive of "top down": all the individual area pro-
jections must be made to add to a national control total.
For all states, including Washington, BEA developed pro-
jections for 1980, 1985, 1990 and 2000. Because no adopted
A-16 4
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Washington state forecast predates June 1978/ these BEA pro-
jections would normally serve as the basis of EPA funding
decisions in the State of Washington.
Status of BEA Projections in the State of Washington
The State of Washington had been undertaking its own
population forecasting at the time BEA's work for EPA was
proceeding, and in 1979 the state published that forecast.
Because the state's forecast deviated sharply from the BEA
projection (exceeding the BEA figures by about 20 percent)
a resolution of the difference was sought by EPA in order to
make clear the basis on which the agency's funding decisions
in Washington State would rest.
EPA's Region X office in Seattle requested from the
headquarters office in Washington the acceptance of the 1979
state forecast by the Office of Financial Management in lieu
of the BEA projection. This request was denied. Instead,
EPA's Washington office authorized interim use of a forecast
based on the BEA projection increased by 10 percent in the
year 2000. Table 7-1 presents a comparison of the forecasts
mentioned so far: the initial BEA projection, the adjusted
BEA projection authorized for EPA use in funding decisions
and the OFM 197 9 forecast rejected by EPA for funding pur-
poses. A fourth forecast presented in the table represents
OFM1s most recent revised state forecast.
The four projections presented in Table 7-1 show a wide
range in year 2000 population levels. Only a small amount
of this difference is attributable to different 1980 bases;
most of it arises from differences in rates of growth.. The
State of Washington forecast represents about 24 percent more
people in the state in the year 2000 than the 4,853,000
level acceptable to EPA.
There has been considerable discussion between EPA and
the state about the differences in their forecasts, and EPA
has indicated procedures for challenges to the projections
EPA has proposed to use for funding decisions. It is not
known whether the State of Washington plans further
challenges, nor is it yet known how the anticipated publica-
tion of new OBERS state projections or the actual 1980 cen-
sus enumeration (when published) could affect the ultimate
population figures applied in EPA's funding decisions.
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Table 7-1
WASHINGTON STATE POPULATION FORECASTS AND PROJECTIONS
(0001s)
1980 1985 1990 2000
1. BEA 1977 Projection
for EPA
3,733 3,908 4,076 4,417
2. BEA Adjusted Projection
Approved for Interim 3,926 4,159 4,392 4,858
EPA Use in Funding
Decisions
3. OFM August 19 79
Forecasts
4,036 4,490 4,836 5,345
4. OFM December 19 79
Revised Forecasts
4,068 4,619 5,090 6,024
Sources:
1. U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis: Popula-
tiorij Personal Income and Earnings by Statej Projections to 2000}
October 1977.
2. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region X, Craig Partridge,
pers. comm., April 2, 1980.
3. Washington, State of, Office of Financial Management: Recommended
Washington State Population Forecasts for Use in Municipal Wastewater
Treatment Construction Grants Program} September 1979.
4. Washington, State of, Office of Financial Management: State and
County Population Forecasts by Age and Sex: 1980-200G (Special
Report No. 30), January 1980.
Multiplicity of Local and Regional Forecasts
Disagreement about the future population is not confined
to state-level projections. There is also lack of agreement
about regional forecasts. At the regional level, the disparity
is of concern not only because it affects funding levels
but also because it suggests contradictory guidance to the
regional wastewater agency, Metro. That is because Metro
is both required to use the allocations of state population
projections to regions in its wastewater facilities planning
according to state law, and also required to abide by regional
planning criteria according to the charter of the agency
and according to the Metro 208 plan. Where state and regional
agencies disagree on the future growth of the region, Metro
cannot follow both paths simultaneously. Table 7-2 compares
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the most recent state-allocation-based forecasts for the
Puget Sound region and King County to that based on Puget
Sound Council of Governments projections.
Table 7-2
COMPARISON OF REGIONAL AND KING COUNTY
POPULATION FORECASTS
(000 's)
Area
Projection by 1980
1990
2000
Puget Sound
Region
PSCOG
OFM (8-7 9)
OFM (12-79)
2,175 2,570 2,974
2,190 2,655 2,935
2,210 2,798 3,326
King County
PSCOG
1,235 1,400 1,575
(Policy)
1,429 N.T.
(Trends)
OFM (8-79}
OFM (12-79)
1,268 1,530 1,707
1,280 1/611 1,928
N.T.: Not Tabulated.
Sources:
1. Puget Sound Council of Governments (Mayor Beth Bland): Memorandum
to King Subregional Council re: Forecasts, February 13, 1980.
2. Washington, State of, Office of Financial Management: 1979 Revision
of County Population Forecast for Washington State: 1980-2000 (Table 1)
August 1, 1979. December 1979 forecasts from PSCOG memo cited in (1)
Not shown in Table 7-2 are the Department of Ecology al-
locations to county and region of the state projections adopted
by EPA. These projections (BEA plus 10%, the second row of
projections in Table 7-1) have not been accepted by the State
of Washington and regional allocations are not completed at
this time. But the scale of the difference in magnitude be-
tween OFM1s most recent projections and EPA's adopted projec-
tions is about 24 percent (see discussion of Table 7-1). If
that same difference also applies at the regional and county
level, the gap between EPA's adopted population in the county
and OFM's would be roughly 375,000 people; between EPA's and
PSCOG1s, roughly 20,000 people.
above.
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These differences remain unresolved at the present time.
Their importance to the project lies in the fact that EPA
will not fund wastewater facilities capacity to serve popula-
tion levels in excess of the agency's adopted projections.
While both PSCOG's and OFM's projections exceed the EPA
figures, the gap is much greater if OFM's figures are used
as the basis of facilities planning than if PSCOG's figures
are used. Metro is addressing this discrepancy by using a
future population range rather than a single point estimate
in considering the possible scale of regional elements. While
the PSCOG subarea allocation does provide some guidance as to
the distribution of any future population in excess of PSCOG's
King County forecast, it is not a perfect guide because of the
possibility that some of the subareas will be fully built out
by the year 2000, resulting in population shifts to other
areas and changes in the various subareas' shares of total
regional population. Such shifts, too, could potentially have
an influence on the choice of project alternatives in some
of the subareas.
The foregoing discussion gives an indication of how
alternative population forecasts can affect decisions re-
lating to wastewater system capacity, choice of project
alternatives and available federal funding. In the next two
sections of this chapter, the PSCOG population projections
are explored in greater detail, both in terms of total fore-
cast growth and its geographical distribution.
Methodology of PSCOG's Regional Population Forecast
Conceptual Basis
PSCOG has used a forecasting model as the major tool in
predicting the growth of the region comprised of King, Kitsap,
Pierce and Snohomish Counties. A model is simply a mathematical
description of how change takes place in that portion of the
real world being analyzed or forecast - in this case, the
four-county region.
The general approach in constructing a model is to simu-
late retrospectively using data from a historic period in or-
der to shed light on the types of changes taking place and how
changes in any one characteristic of regional economic and
demographic development affects others. PSCOG did essentially
this, looking closely at the structure of and changes in the
regional economy and population during the 1960's.
In constructing the Puget Sound regional economic model,
PSCOG was able to draw upon similar work elsewhere, and
applied many of the approaches developed by a group which
prepared a forecasting model of the San Diego regional economy
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for the Comprehensive Planning Organization (CPO) of the San
Diego Region. That model bears the acronym IPEF, which stands
for interactive population/employment forecasting model. The
term "interactive" pertains to the fact that the model con-
siders the population implications of the economic forecasts,
then adjusts the economic forecast to correspond to the popu-
lation, then adjusts population again consistent with the ad-
justed economic forecasts, then readjusts the economic fore-
casts, and so on, with each adjustment in population and the
economy diminishing in magnitude until the two are consistent
with one another.
The main advantage of beginning the forecast with the
economy (rather than just looking at, say, historic popula-
tion change and the population structure of the region) re-
lates to the fact that in a free economy with fairly unhampered
mobility, much of the population change in any region can be
explained by economic factors. Thus, rather than attempt to
forecast population directly, it makes sense to step back and
examine the underlying causes of population change, which can
generally be identified in terms of economic change. That is
what the economic portion of the IPEF model as adapted by
PSCOG attempts to do.
The Economic Model
The economic portion of PSCOG's model is an economic base
model. It considers the driving engine of regional change to
be the "basic" economic activities of the region: those ac-
tivities which result in exports from the region to the out-
side world and corresponding income earnings from those ex-
ports. Examples of the exports of the PSCOG region include
aircraft and other transportation equipment, paper and allied
products and electrical instruments. While some of these
locally-produced products are in fact purchased locally for
use, the vast majority of them are exported out of the region.
These then form part of the economic base of the Puget Sound
Region.
All economic activities have a certain "basic" (or export)
component and a certain "non-basic" (or support) element.
The PSCOG model divides the regional economy into 26 sectors
and classifies them according to their proportion of basic
and nonbasic activity. It uses employment as the principal
measure of economic activity. In preparing the actual forecast,
some of the activities are forecast separately outside the
model, while others (especially those with a large degree of
interaction with other economic sectors within the region)
are forecast using regression equations based upon those
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factors which appeared in the past to have most influenced
a sector's employment and its interaction with other sectors.
Sector forecasts are prepared using a series of simul-
taneous equations so that the calculation procedures reflect
intersectoral adjustments to change in all other sectors;
finally, the total employment forecast is determined.
The Demographic Model
The population forecast using the cohort-survival method,
begins by describing the number of people by sex in different
age groups. For forecasting, this basic population is then
aged using age-specific death rates, and applying birth rates
that reflect the number of women in their childbearing years
and their age-specific fertility rates.
Then adjustments in the population figures are made in
response to the conclusions of the first-stage employment
forecast, which indicates what the magnitude of the civilian
labor force would have to be to fill all the jobs which have
been forecast while allowing for a specified percentage of
unemployment. Figure 7-1 shows both the demographic sector
and the employment sector and how they interrelate in the
forecasting process.
Application of the PSCOG Model
The resulting forecast was completed in 1972. This fore-
cast covered King, Pierce and Snohomish Counties; it was then
combined with a similar forecast for Kitsap County. It in-
cluded sector and total employment forecasts and population
for 1980 and 1990 as well as more detailed economic and popu-
lation data for the region and the counties.
A number of changes in the context of regional growth in
the Pacific Northwest became apparent early in the 197 0's
which eventually were deemed sufficient to warrant an update
of the forecasts with revisions in certain inputs. Among
other things, the development of the Trident Submarine Support
Site, the energy crisis, the rapid development of Alaska,
changes in the rate of growth of demand for commercial air-
craft and the prospect of a continuing low birth rate were
taken into consideration in a second complete run of the
model which was completed in 1976. This time, the forecast
was prepared for five year intervals from 1975 through 2000,
and the new forecast could take advantage of several more
years of historic data as well as a reliability testing of
the forecasting process for 1973.
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Figure 7-1
INTERACTION OF THE DEMOGRAPHIC AND EMPLOYMENT FORECASTING PROCESSES
DEMOGRAPHIC SECTOR
EMPLOYMENT SECTOR
BASE YEAR
POPULATION
BY AGE G«0UPS
BY SEX
NORMAL
GROWTH
POPULATION
BY AG £ QiOm
BY SEX
MET MIGRATION
AGE GROUPS
BY SEX
BIRTHS BV
FEMALE
A&E GROUP
DEATHS BY
AGE. GROUP
BY SEX
COMPOSITE
LABOR FORCE
PARTICIPATION
RATE
LABOR FORCE
PARTICIPATION
RATES BY AGE
AND SEX
RECOMPUTE
ACTIVE DUTY
MILITARY
TOTAL
POPULATION
LABOR
FORCE
TECHNOLOGICAL
GROWTH
<
PER CAPITA
INCOME
HOUS
SE(
EMPLC
EHOLD
LVIN&
?YMENT
RE&IONAL
ATTRACTIVENESS
EXPORT
INDUSTRY
EMPLOYMENT
INTERINDUSTRY
EMPLOYMENT
TOTAL
EMPLOYMENT
EXOGENOUS
MARKETS
RAW MATER AL
5UPPLY
RELATIVE
WAGES
t/NEMPLOYMEMT
Source: PSCOG:
Employment and Population Forecasts for the Central
Vuget Sound Region, 1975-2000, April 1977.
-------
It is the 1976 forecast that now serves as the basis of
PSCOG forecasting of economic and population growth in the
PSCOG region through the end of the century.
Critique of the Approach
The development and use of any model requires two kinds
of inputs: data and assumptions. For economic data (in this
case, employment is the main kind of data used), reliability
is probably fairly good. It is with regard to assumptions
that reliability is more open to question. In the preceding
section, a number of the factors which persuaded PSCOG to
revise their forecasts in 1978 were mentioned. These factors,
and others, remain subject to change over time, and the moni-
tors of models must constantly remain informed of such changes
and alert to the possibility that major changes in such out-
side factors can render a forecast out-of-date. A good cur-
rent example might be the potential economic effects of the
Mount St. Helen's volcano on the climate for industrial in-
vestment in the Pacific Northwest.
A second factor which can influence the accuracy of model-
based forecasts over time is technological change. Changes in
production (speed, price, type of raw materials used) affect
the intersectoral flows of goods, meaning that the historical
relationships between sectors will not remain fixed but will
change over time.
Finally, changes in the economy can result from independent
changes in the region's demography. For example, the federal
government could change the scale of its regional operations.
The number of persons of retirement age moving into (or out
of) the region could alter independently of the economic base,
but since their consumption represents part of the region's
overall economic activity, this demographic change would af-
fect the region's overall employment.
These are just examples of the ways in which a model can,
over time, come to be less and less reflective of the economy
and demography it might once have simulated very closely.
Because the larger economic context (national and international)
is far from static, it is reasonable to expect these changes
over time. What that means for the accuracy of model-based
forecasts in general, and the PSCOG forecasts in particular,
is that their accuracy tends to be reduced over the long
run: they forecast more accurately one decade ahead than
two. But taking these considerations into account, the com-
bination of economic/demographic forecasting used by PSCOG is
generally considered to be the best available technology for
regional forecasting.
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Subarea Patterns of Population and Land Use
Need for Subarea Projections
The population forecast for the Renton 2 01 Study Area
projects the amount and timing of future growth in the re-
gion as a whole. In order to estimate the geographic dis-
tribution of that growth in various time periods - informa-
tion needed to project the demand for facilities capacity
in different parts of the study area - the regionwide fore-
cast must be allocated among subareas. The subareas used
for the Renton 201 Study Area are major drainage basins and
subbasins.
The factors which influence the distribution of popu-
lation within a region are many and subject to change result-
ing from both national and local forces. Among these forces
are social and economic conditions, housing options, trans-
portation opportunities, existing and allowable future land
use and local political attitudes.
Land use opportunities are perhaps the most immediately
relevant factor, because they directly affect the potential
for employment growth and housing construction in a specific
area. To a great extent, population and land use changes
both cause and result from each other: population growth
causes land use change, which in turn may generate more popu-
lation growth.
All of the factors which influence population growth,
including land use opportunities, are subject to variation.
To account for this variation, it is useful to develop pro-
jections which describe ranges of future conditions rather
than one specific set of conditions. PSCOG has projected two
sets of allocations which define a range. The allocation
methodology ana results are discussed in succeeding sections
of this chapter.
The Allocation Process
To allocate the projected regional population among
major drainage basins and translate that population alloca-
tion into land use changes, PSCOG used a computer-assisted
model (the Activity Allocation Model, or AAM) which requires
a multi-step process of analysis. The first step was data
gathering and organization. Patterns of population, employ-
ment and land use that existed in the base year (1970) arid
those anticipated in 198 0 were mapped and sent to local
officials for review. If the review indicated that changes
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were necessary, those chances were made. The mapped infor-
mation was then tabulated for small geographic units known
as AAM districts. (The Renton 201 Study Area contains all
or part of 71 AAM districts.)
The second step in the allocation process was the for-
mulation of policies which characterized the two projections.
The policies describe future transportation opportunities,
land availability, employment patterns and water and sewer
availability. The Trends projection was characterized by the
primary importance of market demand in determining patterns
of land use, $nd thus only the limitations inherent in the
current development context were imposed. Such limitations
included zoning, subdivision regulation, land costs, avail-
ability of services, existing tax laws and the availability
of funds to construct new infrastructure {i.e., highways,
sewer interceptors and water supply systems). The Policy
projection, in contrast, was characterized by inhibitions
on the conversion of land from rural to urban use. It thus
provided that only low density uses would be allowed to de-
velop on unsewered land, that sewer extension decisions would
be made by local governments rather than sewer and water dis-
tricts and that sewer service areas would be expanded only
by small amounts by 1990. In addition, the Policy projection
contained "a significant increase" in incentives for compact
development and infill development.
The third step in the process was to run the computer
model. The model, described more fully in the next section,
uses the data and policy inputs to allocate population,
employment and land use among AAM districts. The results
of this set of model runs were estimates of the distribution
of these three variables in 1990.
After these results were available, two steps were taken.
One was the reorganization of AAM district estimates into
allocations for drainage subbasins and major drainage basins.
This process required that some AAM districts be split be-
cause they were located in more than one subbasin. The
splitting procedure, which produced 222 subdistricts, was
based on the zonal allocation procedure used for the 208
water quality study completed in 1978 with adjustments for
changes in subbasin boundaries and knowledge of current local
development trends. The subdistricts were then reassembled
to produce subbasin and basin allocations.
The other step taken after the first set of model runs
was to repeat the process to produce allocations for the year
2000. For this iteration, the 1990 allocations constituted
A-17 4
-------
the base year data. Policies for urban form, particularly
those governing water and sewer availability, were adjusted
to reflect the changes assumed to have occurred during 1930-90.
The model was run again, to produce population, employment
and land use allocations for the year 2000. Finally, AAM
districts were again split and reassembled to conform to
subbasin and basin boundaries. The allocation process is
summarized in Figure 7-2.
The Activity Allocation Model
The Activity Allocation Model, which was the computer
model used to project the geographic distribution of future
population, employment and land use among subareas, is based
on changes in urban form observed between 1960 and 197 0.
According to a PSCOG Information Item prepared in 1971, it
Figure 7-2
THE PROCESS OF ALLOCATION AMONG SUBAREAS
Base Year Data Map
Regional Forecast
Policies for
urban
Expansion
Base Year Dara Table
for 71 AAM Districts
Disaggregation
of AAM Districts
into 222 Subdistricts
Model Runs:
Population,
Employment,
Land Use by
AAM District
Reaggregation
of 222 Subdistricts
into 22 Subbasins
and 7 Basins
A-175
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seeks to answer the question "What significant relationships
can be found between the 1960 census data set and the 1970
census data set which can be used to account for the changes
in households and employment which occurred over the ten-
year interval?" It then uses the answers to those questions
to predict future changes in households and employment by
translating them into a set of equations.
The model's ten equations for population and employment
allocation require two types of inputs: data inputs and
policy inputs. The data inputs for population equations
describe the number and distribution of households in various
income categories, the household density, the amount of manu-
facturing employment, the existing relative location of
employment opportunities (expressed as a highway travel time
radius) and a "composite amenity index". The policy inputs
for population equations describe travel time to future em-
ployment opportunities, water and sewer service availability,
the relative location of households in other, income cate-
gories and the amount of vacant land available in each dis-
trict. The water, sewer and transportation (travel time)
policies are required; the others are optional.
Land use data are put into the model in the employment
equations, and land use policies are put into both the popu-
lation and employment equations. Projections of land use in
each geographic area emerge when household and employment pro-
jections are divided by average density factors to produce
estimates of acreage absorbed by new development.
Resulting Population Allocation
The two constructed alternatives for future population
growth resulted in distinctly different distributions of
expected growth. The Policy scenario resulted in a concen-
tration of expected new residents in the western part of the
Study Area while the Trends scenario resulted in a more even
distribution with an exception in the Green River Basin.
North Lake Washington. The northernmost basin in the
Study Area would capture about 26% of regional population
growth under the Policy allocation but only about 17% under
the Trends scenario. In both cases, growth would be concen-
trated in the two western subbasins.
North Lake Sammamish. The North Lake Sammamish basin
would rank second in the proportion of population growth
captured in the Trends scenario, more than doubling its cur-
rent size. It would rank fourth under the Policy scenario,
increasing by about 7 2%.
A-176
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East Lake Washington. The East Lake Washington basin
would receive over 22% of Study Area population growth in the
Policy allocation but only about 9% in the Trends allocation.
The western concentration of the Policy alternative is empha-
sized by the projection that Coal Creek subbasin would account
for over half of the basin's growth in that scenario.
South Lake Washington. This basin would account for
approximately 13% of Study Area growth in the Trends scenario
and about 5% in the Policy scenario. Growth under Trends
would increase population there by 65% in the 20-year period;
growth under Policy would increase it by only 21%.
South Lake Sammamish. The South Lake Sammamish basin
would capture comparable amounts of Study Area growth under
both alternatives: about 5% under Policy and about 7% under
Trends. Because of differences in Study Area totals, however,
the basin would grow by 36% under Policy and 56% under Trends
during the 20-year forecast period.
Green River. The Green River basin had the greatest
1980 population of all seven basins. The Trends allocation
projects that the basin will receive 30% of population growth
in the Study Area, resulting in nearly a 73% increase in
population. The Policy allocation projects that the basin
will capture almost 23% of area-wide population growth, for
an increase of about 46%.
White River. Population growth in the White River
basin is expected to be similar under both alternatives at
about 6% of Study Area growth. As in the South Lake Samma-
mish basin, the difference in Study Area population neverthe-
less results in a difference in basin growth over the 20-year
period: 112% under Policy; 141% under Trend.
Mercer Island. Mercer Island is expected to accommodate
only one percent of the growth in the Study Area under either
allocation alternative. Its population would increase approxi-
mately 13% under the Policy allocation and 14% under the
Trends allocation.
Summary of Population Forecast Allocations. Table 7-3
summarizes the amount of growth in each basin expected under
each allocation scenario. Table 7-4 summarizes projected
growth by subbasin and the distribution of areawide growth
among basins and subbasins.
A-177
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Table 7-3
SUMMARY OF BASIN ALLOCATIONS OF PSCOG POPULATION FORECAST
Policy Allocation Txends Allocation
Percent Change Percent Change
1970 1980 1990 2000 1980-2000 1990 2000 1960-2000
North Lake Washington
99,61L
133,62?
167,702
+
68.4
124,305
153,650
+
54. 3
North LaHe Satttmamish
47,140
60,453
81,312
72.5
72,937
101,972
+
116-3
East Lake Washington
121,142
147,259
180,694
49. 2
132,449
151,25S
+
24.9
South Lake Washington
63,601
"70,107
77,159
+
21.2
89,110
105,217
+
65. 4
Squth Lake Sammamish
38,024
46,367
51,863
+
36.4
50,678
59,340
¦h
56. 1
Green Rivet
133,075
164,193
193,877
+
45 .7
386,510
230,053
+
72.9
White River
13,804
21,798
29,244
•f
111.9
24,131
33,299
+
141.2
Mercer Island
20,690
22 r57D
23,398
+
13.1
22,376
23,661
+
14.4
STUDY AREA TOTAL
537,037
666,374
805,248
+
49,9
704,496
858,450
+
59.8
Source: Puget Sound Council of Governments, Population, Employment and Urban Land for
Major Drainage Basins, Renton 201 Study Area (Preliminary).
-------
Table 7-4
COMPARISON of policy and trends population
ALLOCATIONS OF POPULATION BY SUBBASIN
Policy Trends
Numerical
% of
Numerical
% of
Change,
Study Area
Change,
Study Area
Subbasin
1980-2000
Change
1980-2000
Change
Swamp Creek
28,305
10.56
20,131
6.26
North Creek
30,239
11.28
23,781
7.40
Little Bear Creek
9,547
3.56
10,127
3.15
North Lake Washington
68, 091
25.39
54, 039
6.82
Samrnamish River
10,031
3.74
12,094
3.76
Evans Creek
21,870
8.16
38,414
11.95
Pine Lake
2, 271
0.85
4, 324
1. 35
Lj'cvth Lake Sam currish.
34, 172
12. 74
54, 832
17.06
Juanita Creek
18,151
6.77
12,511
3,89
Kelsey Creek
11,301
4.21
8,938
2.78
Coal Creek
30,100
11.22
8,66 7
2.70
East Laks Washington
59, 552
22.21
30,116
9.37
May Creek
4,551
1.70
14,138
4 .40
Cedar River
9,006
3.36
27,478
8.55
South Lake Washington
13, 55?
5.06
41, 616
12.95
Tibbets Creek
6,636
2.47
6,837
2.13
East Lake Samrnamish
908
0.34
1,693
0.53
Issaquah Creek
6,295
2.35
12,786
3.98
South Laks Sarmamish
13j839
5.16
21, 316
6.63
Mill Creek
18,759
7.00
28,051
8.73
Green River
22,517
8.40
21,653
6.74
Soos Creek
11,309
4.22
20,297
6.3 2
Lake Young
847
0.32
3,718
1.16
Jenkins Creek
2 ,683
0.98
8,519
2.65
Covington Creek
2,420
0.90
10,698
3.33
Newaukum Creek
2,267
0.85
4,042
1.26
Green River
60, 802
22.67
96,978
30.18
White River
15, 440
5.76
19,495
6.07
Mercer Island
2,708
1.01
2,971
0.92
STUDY AREA
268,161
100.01
321j 363
100.01
Source: Puget Sound Council of Governments, Population, Employment,
and Urban Land for Major Drainage Basins, Renton 201 Study
Area (Preliminary).
Resulting Land Use Projections
Projected land use patterns also differ between the Policy
and Trends alternatives, with the Policy projection allocating a
greater proportion of new urbanized acres to the western part
of the Study Area. The difference, however, is not as great as
as in the population allocation. One reason may be the assump-
tion of different land use densities in the various basins.
A-1 7 9
-------
North Lake Washington. The northernmost basin in the
Study Area would account for over 24 percent of the increase
in urban acreage under the Policy allocation but not quite
18 percent under the Trends allocation, ranking second among
the eight basins in either case. Within the basin, urban
acreage would increase by 53 percent under Policy and by 45
percent under Trends.
North Lake Sammamish. The North Lake Sammamish Basin
would accommodate the third largest share of the Study Area
increase in urban acreage under either projection. In the
Policy scenario, its urban acreage would increase by 41 per-
cent and it would account for almost 12 percent of the total
Study Area growth. In the Trends scenario, urban acreage in
the basin would increase by 66 percent, and this increase would
account for 16 percent of the Study Area total.
East Lake Washington. East Lake Washington would ex-
perience greater growth under the Policy projection, with a
20 percent increase in urban acreage and nearly 11 percent
of the Study Ar^a total. Its increase under the Trends pro-
jection would be 15 percent, accounting for only 7 percent
of the Study Area's overall increase in urban acreage.
South Lake Washington. This basin would receive approxi-
mate ly—Ewic^~THe~~gxowth—under the Trends projection that it
would under the Policy projection. Under Policy, its urban
acreage would increase by 25 percent and account for 7 percent
of the Study Area increase. Under Trends, its urban acreage
would grow by almost 53 percent and account for 13 percent of
Study Area growth.
South Lake Sammamish. South Lake Sammamish would cap-
ture slightly more of the Study Area's new urban land use
under Trends (nearly 6 percent) than under Policy (under 5
percent). This growth would increase urban uses in the basin
by 3 5 percent under Trends and 24 percent under Policy.
Green River. Green River would capture about one-third
of the urban acreage increase in the Study Area in either
projection. This projection would represent a 56 percent in-
crease in the basin's urban land under Policy and a 66 percent
increase under Trends.
White River. The White River basin, southernmost in
the Study Area, would experience enormous urban growth in
either scenario but that growth would represent only a small
proportion of the Study Area total. Under Policy, the basin's
A-180
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urban acreage would increase 83 percent, equal to 7 percent
of the total; under Trends, it would increase 69 percent,
equal to 5 percent of the Study Area total.
Mercer Island. Mercer Island would account for only
one percent of urban growth in the Study Area in either pro-
jection. This growth would increase the Island's total urban
acreage by about 12 percent in either case.
Summary of Land Use Projections. The projected growth
in urban land use in each basin is summarized in Table 7-5.
Table 7-6 shows the acreage increase and percentage of total
Study Area acreage increase expected by subbasin.
Critique of the Activity Allocation Model
The Activity Allocation Model, used to distribute popu-
lation among basins and subbasins in the Study Area, is open
to criticism on several grounds. First, because it is based
on urban changes observed between 1960 and 1970, it cannot
account for influences on urban form not present during that
decade. A commonly-cited example is the cost of energy and
particularly gasoline, which rose sharply in 1973 and again
beginning in April 1979; it is not yet known to what extent
this force will alter patterns of urbanization.
The model's prediction of location decisions based on
surface observations rather than underlying forces leaves it
open to the same type of criticism. Because the allocating
equations are based on observations made during one period,
they may be chance results of a combination of factors not
recognized during that period. This problem is described in
statistics as one of covariance; the distinction is between
(1) a case in which a change in condition A causes a change
in condition B and (2) a case in which changes in conditions
A and B are both caused by a change in condition C.
Other problems with the model may result from local data
availability and consistency of measurement. While any model
is susceptible to this type of problem, the heavy reliance
on land use information - which is often either not avail-
able or not consistent - makes it worthy of mention in this
case.
Future Socio-Economic Influences on Population and Land Use
Distributions
While the future distribution of population and land
use within the Renton 201 Study Area will vary with sewer,
water and transportation as predicted by the allocation
A-181
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Table 7-5
SUMMARY
OF PSCOG
LAND
USE PROJECTIONS BY BAS
Policy Projection
IN
Trends Projection
Percent
Percent
Change,
Change,
Drainage Basin
1980
1990
2000
1980-2000
1990
2000
1990-2000
North Lake Washington
14,086
18,183
21,590
+ 53.3
16,981
20,434
+ 45.1
North Lake Sammamish
8,658
10,129
12,233
+ 41.3
11,345
14,404
+ 66.4
East Lake Washington
16,346
18,430
19,702
+ 20.1
17,976
18,933
+ 15.8
South Lake Washington
8,944
9,954
11,165
+ 24.9
11,538
13,660
+ 52.7
South Lake Sammamish
5,896
6,835
7,324
+ 24.2
7,148
7,942
+ 34.7
Green River
18,293
24,662
28,681
+ 56.8
26,719
30,433
+ 66.4
White River
2,701
3,599
4,940
+ 82.9
3,768
4 ,567
+ 69.1
Mercer Island
2,560
2,805
2,878
+ 12.4
2,811
2,879
+ 12.5
STUDY AREA TOTAL
77,484
94,597
108,513
+ 40.0
98,286
113,252
+ 46.2
Source: Puget Sound Council of Governments, Population, Employment, and Urban Land
for Major Drainage Basins, Renton 201 Study Area (Preliminary).
-------
Table 7-6
COMPARISON OF POLICY AND TRENDS PROJECTIONS
OF URBAN LAND USE BY SUBBASIN
Policy Trends
Numerical
% of
Numerical
% of
Change,
Study Area
Changej
Study Area
Subbasin
1980-2000
Chanae
19S0-20QC
Change
Svanp Creek
3,096
9.98
2,757
7 .71
North Creek
3,422
11.03
2,598
7.26
Little Bear Creek
986
3.18
993
2.78
North Lake Washington
7,504
24.18
6, 348
17.75
Sammamish River
1,210
3.90
1,670
4.67
Evans Creek
2,049
6.60
3,553
9.93
Pine Lake
316
1.02
523
1.46
North Lake Sanmamish
3, 575
11.52
S, 746
16, 06
Juanita Creek
1,853
5.97
1,232
3.44
Xelsey Creek
476
1.53
517
1.45
Coal Creek
1,027
3.31
838
2.34
East Lake Washington
3, 356
10.82
2, 58?
7.23
May Creek
809
2.61
1,650
4.61
Cedar River
1,412
4.55
3,066
8.57
South Lake Washington
2,221
7.IS
4, 716
13.18
Tibbets Creek
333
1.07
401
1.12
East Lake Sammamish
226
0.73
313
0.88
Issaquah Creek
869
2.80
1,332
3.72
South Lake Washington
1,428
4.60
2,046
5.72
Mill Creek
6,076
19.58
5,538
15.48
Green River
1,430
4.61
1,511
4.22
Soos Creek
1,414
4.56
1,993
5.57
Lake Young
100
0.32
331
0.93
Jenkins Creek
343
1.11
848
2.37
Covington Creek
684
2.20
1,620
4.53
Newaukum Creek
341
1.10
299
0.84
Green River
10, 388
33.48
12,140
33. 94
White River
2,229
7.22
1,366
5.22
Mercer Island
318
1.02
319
0.39
STUDY AREA TOTAL
31,029
100.00
35,768
99.99
Source: Puget Sound Council of Governments, Population, Employment, and
Urban Land for Major Drainage Basins, Renton 201 Study Area
(Preliminary).
model, it will also be affected by other factors. Changes in
technology, for example, may alter travel methods and times as
well as employment and housing opportunities. Changes in family
structures, which have been observed during the last decade
and are expected to continue during the next one, may change
the relationships between employment and population levels.
A-18 3
-------
Homogeneity or heterogeneity of household income levels may
affect the operation of the allocation equations, which pre-
dict that most income groups seek locations near the next
higher group but not near their own group. The successful
implementation of county policies affecting growth (for
example, those refusing to allow new water and sewer exten-
sions in unincorporated areas) and the degree to which those
policies are circumvented (for example, by annexations) will
also affect the ultimate distributions; the financial capa-
bilities of the county and of various cities to provide ser-
vices may also have an effect. The potential influence of
these factors serve as reminders that the dependability of
forecasts diminishes with increasing numbers of years into
the future because the forecasts cannot account for unfore-
seen circumstances and conditions.
A-184
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Part II: Selected Secondary Land Use Impacts
A-18 5
-------
Chapter 8
IMPACTS OF PROJECTED GROWTH ON
PRIME FARMLAND CONVERSION
Introduction
A major issue in this EIS is the impact of wastewater
facilities expansion in the study area upon agricultural
resources of King County. (The Pierce and Snohomish County
portions of the study area contain no significant agricultural
resources.) Chapter 3 of this appendix reviewed the location
of agricultural land in King County, the importance of agri-
culture to the local and regional economy of the county,
and existing federal, state, and local policies for agri-
cultural land preservation. This chapter assesses the impacts
of the growth projected for the study area on the conversion
of prime farmland to urban uses. The EPA agricultural land
preservation policy requires that EISs assess such impacts
and contain appropriate mitigation measures. The chapter
contains three major sections: a description of the methods
used to forecast prime farmland conversion, a description
and discussion of the forecast results, and a summary.
This chapter is limited to assessing the impacts of
growth on prime farmland conversion, and discusses neither
the potential role of Metro's wastewater facilities plan
in facilitating the conversion process nor potential mitigation
measures. The role of Metro's wastewater facilities plan
is discussed in the main text of the EIS, and potential
mitigation measures are listed in Chapter 3 of this appendix
and also discussed in the main EIS text.
Method for Forecasting the Conversion
of Prime Farmland
Prime Farmland Considered
Federal agricultural land preservation policies require
that the SCS mapping of "important farmlands" be used as
the main agricultural resource to be protected in federal
actions. As discussed in Chapter 3 of this appendix, in
King County, SCS-mapped important farmlands consist of "prime"
A-187
-------
farmlands (Class II and III), and "additional farmlands of
statewide importance" (Class IV forestland). For this EIS,
it was decided to limit the analysis to prime farmlands only,
since within King County the SCS mapped forestlands are less
threatened and less of a public policy concern.
The prime farmlands considered in this analysis are
mapped in Chapter 3. It is important to note that the SCS-
mapped prime farmlands, since they are based on a soils
definition only, are not all in active farm use; an unknown
but probably significant proportion of these prime farmlands
are either vacant or subdivided into rural residential lots.
Agricultural Districts
As discussed in Chapter 3, four agricultural districts
are located within the study area — Sammamish Valley/Bear
Creek, Upper Green River Valley, Lower Green River Valley
and Enumclaw Plateau — which together contain almost all
of the study areas' prime farmland acreage. The Enumclaw
Plateau agricultural district has been excluded from this
analysis for two reasons. First, relatively little urban
growth is projected for the Enumclaw Plateau. Second, the
Enumclaw Plateau has been designated as a "nonsewer area"
in Metro's wastewater management planning; therefore, the
Metro plan will have no direct impacts on this area.
Agricultural Land Conversion Rate
The main variable required to forecast the conversion
of prime farmland is the rate of conversion, expressed as
the number of acres converted over a given time period. The
method used here assumes that, in each agricultural district,
prime farmland will be converted to urban uses at the same
rate that suitable vacant land will be converted to urban
uses. Since land use projections conforming to the boundaries
of the agricultural districts are not available, the agricultural
district vacant land conversion rates were calculated by
compiling the conversion rates for each Activity Allocation
Model (AAM) district within an agricultural district, and
then weighting the AAM conversion rate by the proportion of
each AAM district lying within the agricultural district.
Low Conversion and High Conversion Scenarios
Low conversion and high conversion scenarios have been
developed to establish a range of agricultural land conversion
A-138
-------
forecasts. The low conversion scenario uses the PSCOG policy
projection, which assumes that agricultural lands of county
significance (almost all of which are prime -- see Chapter 3)
will not be developed and that policies discouraging urban
sprawl will be effective. The high conversion scenario uses
the PSCOG trends projection, which also assumes protection
of county significant lands, but which assumes a more dis-
persed, lower density, regional development pattern; however,
the high conversion scenario removes the assumption that
county significant lands will not be available for development,
and assumes that these lands will be converted at the same
rate as noncounty significant prime farmlands.
Limitations of Methods
Several limitations exist to the methods described above.
First, the method assumes that prime farmland will be converted
at the same rate as suitable vacant land; local factors within
each agricultural district could cause this assumption to
be invalid. Second, in the PSCOG land use projections,
"ranchettes" or "hobby farms" are not considered urban land
uses, even though conversion of commercially-viable parcels
to these uses represents a significant loss of agricultural
productivity. Similarly, removal of agricultural land from
production due to speculation is also attributable to the
urbanization process but not accounted for in the conversion
forecast.
A third and last limitation is that an up-to-date statis-
tical inventory of prime farmland within each agricultural
district is lacking. The last such inventory was for the year
1976 (John M. Sanger Associates, 1978). The 1976 inventory
was assumed to be reasonably accurate for the year 1980 for
the Sammamish Valley and Upper Green River Valley agricultural
districts. For the Lower Green River Valley district, the
1976 inventory was updated because a significant amount of
development has occurred within this district between 1976
and 1980 .
Results and Discussion of the Prime
Farmland Conversion Forecast
Tables 8-1 and 8-2 present the results of the prime
farmland conversion forecast. Table 8-1 shows the steps
leading to the estimation of vacant land conversion rates
for the policy and trend projections for each agricultural
district. Table 8-2 shows the forecast of prime farmland
A-189
-------
Table 8-1.
Calculation of Vacant Land Conversion Rates within Agricultural Districts
Pi strict/AAM
Samsuaiiish Valloy District
4240
4300
4410
4420
45.10
4520
4530
TOTAL
Lower Green River Valley District
3010
30 50
3100
it 30
3140
3150
3100
3450
3510
3540
TOTAL
Upper Gre^r. River Vailey District
3120
31 30
3200
3 2 20
w;
M:
¦u:
M O
(T
P W -ri
b r-t
u n
&
W CN
SJ I
k o
§ -n
U 0 —
ia n 13
t> H'd
•h § §
°lh
•»3-
.5
8!
ra a>
o -u
£2
1,809
50,262
2,671
3,595
2,640
3,174
2,775
366
31,472
337
1,422
937
1,026
1,195
20
3,172
732
710
323
34 7
421
-10
, 168
550
932
275
310
326
5
10
78
50
33
34
35
0
20
59
66
28
30
27
2
60
4
3
1
6
4
16
2,554
3,407
3,993
1 ,964
4 ,731
2 ,700
2,766
6,538
1,520
2,025
941
984
1,144
781
1,927
1,562
B45
3,529
619
465
390
400
336
259
606
301
275
806
163
243
369
347
334
277
549
567
313
74 3
217
317
41
41
29
33
31
19
33
23
30
52
39
35
29
35
28
35
37
21
35
68
2
9
23
2
27
1
9
19
5
3
31
30
15,832
1, 964
21,795
24 ,034
5,418
781
15,616
17,345
30 7
259
S21
508
495
277
762
1,397
6
33
3
3
9
35
5
50
5
25
20
TOTAL
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Table 8-2. Forecast of Prime Farmland Conversion
Agricultural Districts
Item
Sammamish Lower Green Upper Green Study Area
Valley River Valley River Valley Total*
Total acres 11,535
Prime acres 6,100
Agricultural land of
county significance
(acres) 1,735
Land eligible for
priority 1 of PDR
program (acres) 2,193
Vacant land conversion
rate, 1980-2000 (policy) 16%
Vacant land conversion
rate, 1980-2000 (trend) 24%
Prime farmland con-
version, 1980-2000
(low forecast)
- acres 698
- % of total prime
farmland 11%
Prime farmland con-
version, 1980-2000
(high forecast)
- acres 1,464
- % of total prime
farmland 24%
18,840
12,000
1,510
1,518
31%
30%
3,252
27%
3,600
30%
2,965
865
865
2,180
6%
17%
0
0%
149
17%
33,340
18,965
4,110
5,891
3,950
21%
5,213
27%
~Excludes Enumclaw Plateau.
A-191
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converted between 1980 and 2000 for each district and for
the study area as a whole (excluding the Enumclaw Plateau).
The results of the conversion forecast are reviewed below
for each district; a discussion of the results then follows.
The reader is referred to Chapter 3 of this appendix for
general information on agricultural production characteristics
of the three agricultural districts considered here.
Sammamish Valley Agricultural District Forecast
The Sammamish Valley agricultural district encompasses
approximately 11,500 acres north of Lake Sammamish, extending
down through the Sammamish Valley on the west and through
the Bear Creek Valley on the east (see Chapter 3 for location
map). Of the total area in the district about 53 percent
or 6,100 acres is considered prime farmland (John M. Sanger
Associates, 1978). Lands designated of county significance
comprise 1,735 acres.
Low Conversion Scenario. Based on an analysis of the
AAM districts comprising the Sammamish Valley agricultural
district, the vacant land conversion rate for 1980-2000 under
the policy projection is 16 percent. Under the low conversion
scenario, the 1,735 acres designated as county significant
agricultural lands are withdrawn from the total number of
prime acres. This results in 4,365 acres of remaining prime
farmland to which the vacant land conversion rate of 16 percent
may be applied. The result is 698 acres of prime farmland
converted to urban uses between 1980 and 2000.
High Conversion Scenario. For the high conversion scenario
the vacant land conversion rate for 1980-2000 under the trend
projection is 2,490. Since the high conversion scenario
does not assume withdrawal of agricultural lands of county
significance from the prime acres available for development,
all 6,100 acres of prime farmland are subject to the 24 percent
conversion rate. This results in 1,464 acres of prime farmlands
converted between 1980 and 2000.
Lower Green River Valley Agricultural District Forecast
The Lower Green River Valley agricultural district skirts
the western border of the study area from the Pierce County
boundary to north of Kent (see Chapter 3 for location map).
The district contains 18,840 acres, of which approximately
12,000 acres are prime farmland (Jones & Stokes Associates
estimate). Within the district only 1,510 acres are desig-
nated as county significant agricultural lands, since most
of the prime farmland is located within the boundaries of
Auburn and Kent.
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Low Conversion Scenario. Based on an analysis of the
AAM districts comprising the Lower Green River Valley agri-
cultural district, the vacant land conversion rate is 31
percent under the policy projection under the low conversion
scenario. This rate is applied to the 10,490 acres of prime
farmland remaining after subtracting the 1,510 acres desig-
nated of county significance. A total of 3,252 acres of
prime farmland would be converted to urban uses under the
low conversion scenario between 1980 and 2000.
High Conversion Scenario. The vacant land conversion
rate for 1980-2000 under the trend projection is 30 percent.
Under the high conversion scenario, this rate applies to
all 12,000 acres of prime farmland in the district. This
results in 3,600 acres of prime farmland converted to urban
uses between 1980 and 2000.
Upper Green River Valley Agricultural District Forecast
The Upper Green River Valley agricultural district sur-
rounds the Green River as it traverses in an east-west direction
from its point of origin to east of the City of Auburn (see
Chapter 3 for location map). It encompasses 2,965 acres
of which 865 acres are prime. Lands designated of county
significance account for 865 acres (John M. Sanger Associates,
1978).
Low Conversion Scenario. Based on an analysis of the
AAM districts comprising the Upper Green River Valley district,
the vacant land conversion rate is 6 percent under the policy
projection. Since all of the prime acres are also designated
as county significant agricultural lands, there would be
no prime acres converted to urban uses in the Upper Green
River Valley agricultural district under the low conversion
scenario.
High Conversion Scenario. The vacant land conversion
rate under the trend projection is 17 percent. Under the
high conversion scenario, this rate applies to all 865 acres
of prime farmland in the district. This results in 149 acres
of prime farmland converted to urban uses between 1980 and
2000.
Discussion
The preceding forecast of prime farmland conversion
uses a single method in all agricultural districts. Several
factors exist which can influence whether the low or the
high conversion scenario is more likely to occur.
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One common factor that will influence both the extent
and distribution of prime farmland conversion is the outcome
of the PDR program. If acquisition of Priority 1 farmlands
is largely successful, these lands will be protected and
the low conversion scenario would be more likely to occur.
Preliminary responses from landowners who indicate willing-
ness to have their land assessed for development rights vary
according to district. About 90 percent of the landowners
in the Sammamish Valley district have indicated interest
in the program while only slightly more than 50 percent in
the Upper and Lower Green River Valley agricultural districts
have likewise responded (King County Office of Agriculture,
pers. comm.).
A second common factor influencing the extent and dis-
tribution of prime farmland conversion is the King County
Sewerage General Plan, which within unincorporated King County,
does not allow sewer service for agricultural lands of county
significance. A proposed amendment to the county Sewerage General
Plan, which has been adopted by Metro, substitutes Priority 1
lands under the PDR program as the lands to be protected,
and does not allow service to these lands even if they become
annexed or incorporated in the future, as long as they were
unincorporated as of 1980. The role of the county's Sewerage
General Plan, and Metro's adoption of the proposed plan amend-
ment, as a mitigation measure for agricultural land conversion
is discussed in the EIS text. What should be noted here
is that implementation of the plan and its amendment would
increase the protection afforded to the Priority 1 lands,
making the low conversion scenario more likely to occur.
Reviewed below are factors specific to each agricultural
district which will further influence the extent and distri-
bution of prime farmland conversion. These factors consist
of urbanization trends, existing zoning constraints, and
the amount of Priority 1 lands under the PDR program included
within each district.
Sammamish Valley Agricultural District. The expansion
of adjoining urban centers such as Redmond is the main factor
responsible for urban land demand within the Sammamish Valley
agricultural district. This demand is primarily for industrial
and commercial use.
Of the 11,535 acres in the Sammamish Valley agricultural
district, 81 percent or 9,335 acres are unincorporated. In
1977, only 3 percent of these county lands were zoned for
agricultural, with the remaining 9,085 acres zoned for an
eventual transition to urban use (King County, 1977a).
Similarly, 95 percent of county significant agricultural
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lands were zoned for urban uses, with 73 percent of those
zoned for commercial and industrial uses. Therefore, land
zoned for urban uses represents a sizeable share of prime
farmland threatened by development.
Priority 1 lands of the county PDR program include approxi-
mately 2,200 acres in the Sammamish Valley agricultural district.
If the acquisition is 100 percent successful, 36 percent
of the total supply of prime farmland within the district
would be preserved. If the PDR program is not successful,
protection of the 2,200 acres would rely mainly upon the
county Sewerage General Plan process. The remaining 64
percent of the prime farmland, in either case, would be
afforded only the limited protection in Ordinance 3064.
Lower Green River Valley Agricultural District. From
a regional perspective, the Lower Green River Valley agri-
cultural district is located in a corridor projected for
considerable growth. On a more local level, considerable
growth is projected for Kent and Auburn, and almost all of
this growth would occur on outlying prime agricultural land.
The demand for land in the Lower Green River Valley
agricultural district is primarily for commercial and in-
dustrial uses. In 1977, of the 18,640 acres in the district,
15 percent or 2,780 acres are unincorporated (Kir.q County,
1977a). Of these, agriculturally-zoned lands accounted for
53 percent, with the remaining 1,320 acres in a variety of
urban use zones. County significant agricultural lands comprise
1,510 acres, with 85 percent zoned for agricultural use.
The incorporated areas of Kent and Auburn account for
the remaining 16,060 acres in the district. A recently
completed land use study for the City of Kent (Kramer, Chin
and Mayo, 1980) indicates that a large portion of the city's
agricultural lands is zoned for a transition to urban uses,
primarily industrial. In addition, the City Council has
indicated a preference for a development plan which would
eventually convert the majority of agricultural lands to
residential and industrial uses. Within the incorporated areas
of Auburn, which contain sizeable amounts of prime farmland,
no agricultural preservation is currently planned.
The Lower Green River Valley agricultural district contains
1,860 acres of farmland eligible for Priority 1 of the county's
PDR program, 15.5 percent of the district's total prime farmland.
Since most of the district's prime farmland is located within
Kent and Auburn and is planned for urban development, successful
implementation of the PDR program would not protect most
of the district prime farmland from urbanization.
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Upper Green River Valley Agricultural District. The
Upper Green River Valley agricultural district is comparatively
removed from regional growth corridors. However, although
it is zoned almost entirely for agriculture, the demand for
large (10-acre) residential lots nevertheless threatens
the agricultural nature of this relatively small district.
If a patchwork of land uses were to result, the economic
viability of commercial agriculture in this district would
be endangered.
The Priority 1 acquisition list of the PDR program
designates all acres of prime farmland, as well as an addi-
tional 1,365 acres of essentially Class IV soils, as eligible.
If the PDR program is successfully implemented in this
district, then all prime farmland would be protected. If
the PDR program is not successful, then protection from
conversion, as in the Sammamish Valley agricultural district,
would rely mainly upon the Sewerage General Plan process.
Summary
Table 8-2 presented forecasts of conversion of prime
farmland between 1980 and 2000. The total prime farmland
converted in the three districts considered ranges between
3,950 acres (low scenario) and 5,213 acres (high scenario)
over the 20-year period, representing a loss of 21 percent
to 27 percent of the remaining prime farmland in the three
districts. In the Sammamish Valley district, forecast con-
versions range from 698 acres to 1,464 acres; and in the
Lower Green River Valley district, from 3,252 acres to 3,600
acres; and in the Upper Green River Valley District from
0 acres to 149 acres.
These findings must be qualified by the limitations
of the forecasting methods employed. These include the
assumptions that prime farmland will be converted at the same
rate as suitable vacant land; the exclusion of hobby farms
and vacant land held for speculation from the conversion
forecast; and the lack of an up-to-date statistical inventory
of prime farmlands.
Several factors will influence whether the low conversion
scenario or the high conversion scenario is more likely to
occur. These include the county's PDR program, the King
County Sewerage General Plan process, urbanization trends,
and existing zoning constraints.
The environmental and economic impacts of the prime
farmland conversion forecast will depend largely on the size
and productivity of the prime farmland parcels converted.
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Under the high conversion scenario, much of the acreage con-
verted is of prime farmland that is not of county significance
and not included in Priority 1 of the PDR program; under
the low conversion scenario, essentially no county significant
or Priority 1 lands are converted. Although some of the
noncounty significant and nonpriority 1 prime farmland is
productive land within municipal boundaries, much of it is
of limited productivity because it is in small parcel sizes
or not being actively farmed. Conversion of these noncounty
significant and nonpriority 1 prime farmlands nevertheless
represents the irreversible loss of a nonrenewable resource.
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Chapter 9
CONSISTENCY OF THE PROPOSED SERVICE AREA
WITH LOCAL LAND USE PLANS AND POLICIES
Introduction
During June 1980, a series of interviews was conducted
by Kahn/Mortimer/Associates to help determine whether the
service areas map included in the Municipality of Metropolitan
Seattle's April 1980 Preliminary Wastewater Management Plan
was an accurate reflection of the land use policies of cities
and counties within the study area. The following analyses
summarize Kahn/Mortimer/Associates findings based on meetings
and, in a few cases, telephone conversations with local
agency staff as well as review of adopted plans and other
relevant documents.
A revised service areas map was also prepared with
changes recommended as a result of the analyses. Among the
changes suggested are alterations to some of the definitions
of service area categories used on the April 1980 map. These
are needed in particular to distinguish between areas whose
status is unclear for two critically different reasons :
1. Areas where sewer service appears consistent with
local policy but service may not be provided by
Metro; and
2. Areas where local policies do not provide clear
guidance regarding sewering.
This difference is particularly important since the
facilities plan treated all of these areas as nonsewered
lands. In fact, a substantial proportion of the "nonsewer
area", especially in Snohomish County, will in all likelihood
be sewered and may well be served by Metro.
The other significant change that should be made in
the service areas map is to eliminate virtually all of the
nonsewer area (long-term land use certain) in unincorporated
portions of King County. According to both county officials
and staff, at present and until such time that the proposed
county General Development Guide is adopted, county policies
do not provide a sufficient basis for declaring with certainty
which areas would not be sewered before the year 2000. The
only exceptions are agricultural lands specifically identified
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pursuant to county ordinance. The basis for this recommenda-
tion, as well as other changes, is discussed more fully in
the text.
Summary of Proposed Service Area Changes
King County
1. Change nonsewer area long-term land use certain
to nonsewer area long-term land use uncertain in
eastern unincorporated part of study area.
2. Change unincorporated agricultural areas eligible
for acquisition under farmland program from non-
sewer area long-term use uncertain to nonsewer area
long-term use certain in Sammamish Valley, Upper
Green River Valley, Lower Green River Valley and
Enumclaw plateau.
3. Adjust service area boundaries to reflect recent
annexations and amendments to King County Sewerage
General Plan.
o Sky Mountain and Viewmont, south of 1-90 and
east of Lakemont Boulevard,
o Both sides of Renton-Maple Valley Road east
of Renton.
o Kent, east of Highway 167 to 277th South,
o Auburn, vicinity of South 304th Street and
51st Avenue South,
o Auburn, east of Highway 167 between 288th and
277th Streets.
4. Correction to show area south of 27 7th and west of
Green River in Auburn within sewer service area.
5. Identify Enumclaw and Black Diamond as non-Metro
sewer service areas.
6. Show agricultural lands on both sides of Sammamish
River from power line north to Redmond City boundary
as nonsewer area with long-term land use certain.
Pierce County
Identify Pierce County portions of study area as potential
non-Metro area as well as nonsewer area long-term land use
uncertain pending county action on Lakeland Hills.
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Snohomish County
1. Extend boundaries of potential Everett sewer service
area to approximately 132nd South and to include
areas in North Creek served by Fircrest and Eastmont
Districts.
2. Show portions of Snohomish County study area bordered
by King County line, Interstate 5 and approximately
132nd South, including City of Lynnwood as sewer
service area.
3. Identify Lynnwood as potential Metro service area.
King County
King County's land use policies are expressed in a variety
of plans, ordinances and regulations applicable at various
points in the land development process. Because of the purpose
of this analysis the following discussion deals only with
those elements that are most critical to determining the
future status of large areas of the county, rather than
scattered specific sites. The existence of certain natural
environmental conditions and resources, such as steep slopes
and wetlands, can, of course, also affect the location and
nature of future development. These conditions, however,
would probably not affect the identification of service areas
on a regional scale.
1964 Comprehensive Plan
The 1964 plan, altered by several amendments dealing
with open space preservation and housing and augmented by
community and special purpose plans, remains the overall
policy guide for development in the unincorporated part of
King County. The plan's urban centers development concept
attempts to direct growth to physically suitable locations
adjacent to already developed activity centers. Density
is related to the availability of services as well as to
steep slopes and other natural limits to development. The
protection of agricultural lands from urban-type development
is a goal of the 1964 plan. Subsequent ordinances in 1972
and 1974 reinforced the concept of witholding certain productive
agricultural land from development.
In 1978, the County Council and County Executive established
a growth management program to reexamine and update the
comprehensive plan. The new county comprehensive plan is
proposed to include two major components: the General
A-201
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Development Guide, comprised of countywide policies and a
map, and the more detailed, short range community plans.
The March 1980 discussion draft of the General Develop-
ment Guide incorporates a subcounty area development concept
with designated employment centers. The five subcounty areas
proposed in the draft are urban, suburban, transitional,
reserve and rural. The urban, suburban and transitional
subcounty areas would together compose an urban service area
with the capacity to accommodate population and employment
growth expected for a 10-year period. Based on monitoring
of land capacity, population, development and employment
trends, the urban service area could be extended into parts
of the reserve area if needed to accommodate new growth. The
rural area would be permanently low density with agriculture,
forestry and wilderness areas.
The discussion draft of the General Development Guide is
under review by the County Council Growth Management Committee
A draft of the guide will be circulated for wide public review
later this year. Adoption of a new comprehensive plan appears
unlikely before 1981.
Community Plans
Community plans are detailed land use and capital im-
provement plans intended to deal with local needs and condi-
tions within a 6-10 year framework. Ordinance 3669 requires
that the comprehensive plan and community plans be consistent
with one another. When adopted by the County Council,
community plans become an element of the comprehensive plan.
The following describes the status of the nine community
plans within the Metro study area:
1. Northshore. Adopted August 1977. Ongoing revision
includes development of area zoning. Hearings
expected to start in fall 1980.
2. Bear Creek. Adopted October 1971. Public facilities
study that could lead to amendments scheduled tc
start in fall 1980.
3. East Sammamish. Completed. Adoption expected in
fail 1980.
4. Newcastle. Plan development underway.
5. Tahoma/Raven Heights. Plan development underway.
Completion expected by January 1981.
A-20 2
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6. Soos Creek. Adopted November 1979.
7. Enuraclaw. Plan development expected to start'
January 1981.
8. Federal Way. Adopted 1975.
9. Highline. Completed December 1977. Area zoning
under development.
Given their limited time frame, the community plans
may not provide an adequate basis for identifying the extent
of the future service area. In a memorandum to Jeff Bauman,
Metro, Karen Rahm, manager of the King County Planning
Division stated, however, that the existing local service
area, which is based on the community plans, provides enough
developable land to accommodate "almost three times the expected
growth in unincorporated areas over the next ten years. There-
fore, most of the uncertain areas shown . . . will not need
sewers within the time frame of the Renton 201 plan and should
not be included in the calculation of future sewerage capa-
city. "
Sewerage General Plan
Originally adopted in January 1979, the Sewerage General
Plan is an element of the comprehensive plan used to coor-
dinate the provision of sewer services with the land use
plans of the county and the incorporated cities. The plan
designated specific geographic areas called local service
areas (LSAs), which represent the maximum area where sewer
service may be provided. In unincorporated areas adopted
community plans are used to designate local service areas.
Limited local service areas have been identified for those
parts of the county where community plans are not yet adopted.
In incorporated areas municipal comprehensive plans were
used as a guide for designating LSAs beyond existing facilities.
As a result of Metro Resolution 3380 by which the
Sewerage General Plan was adopted, the concept of local
service areas has been eliminated within existing city
boundaries. Future annexations are, however, subject to
a iMetro restriction on service to agricultural lands, wetlands
and floodways.
The Sewerage General Plan is automatically amended by
virtue of the county council's adoption of a community plan
designating an LSA. Amendments to the LSA boundaries may
also be requested by a citizens community plan committee,
A- 20 3
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by sewer agencies and by incorporated cities or may be
initiated by the county if needed in order to maintain at
least a 5-year supply of developable land within the unin-
corporated portion of the LSA. In all cases, the county
is to consider the potential impact an amendment could have
on floodplains, wetlands and agricultural lands. Measures
are also to be considered to protect these areas.
Farmland Preservation
As noted above, King County has taken a series of actions
to protect and preserve productive agricultural areas. These
lands are specifically identified in the Sewerage General
Plan as those which meet the criteria for agricultural lands
of county significance in King County Ordinance 3064. That
ordinance identifies and maps about 43,000 acres of farmland
in agricultural districts within which the county is required
to ensure that sewer connections would not adversely affect
agricultural potential. Requirements in the Sewerage General
Plan reinforced 3064 by requiring evaluation of the potential
impact of sewer service on these lands.
The farmland and open space ordinance that was approved
in the November 1979 election authorized the county to
purchase the development rights (or, in some cases, total
interest) to an estimated 32,000 acres of farmland. This
regulation, Ordinance 4341, identifies and maps lands in
both incorporated and unincorporated areas.
A pending amendment to the Sewerage General Plan would
substitute the lands identified in Ordinance 4341 for the
Ordinance 3064 lands as the definition of agricultural lands.
As noted above, in March 1980, the Metro council, including
representation from the King County council as well as cities
within the county, approved the Sewerage General Plan with
the reference to Ordinance 4341 as well as a restriction
on service to unincorporated areas designated as agricultural
lands, wetlands and floodways. State law requires county
council readoption of the Sewerage General Plan as amended
by Metro.
The primary concern that King County officials and staff
have expressed about the proposed service area map has to
do with the distinction between certain and uncertain nonsewer
areas in the unincorporated parts of King County. A March 19,
1980 memorandum from King County Planning Division Manager
Karen Rahm states:
"Outside the ISA, however, County policy calls for
retaining sane areas for possible future urban (sewered)
A- 20 4
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development. Reserve zoning to irrplerrent this policy has
been applied in portions of the Soos Creek Ccrrmunity Planning
area. These zones, G-5, GR-2.5, and GR-5 should he shown
as "uncertain." According to existing County policy, these
are the only areas designated as uncertain for future sewer
service . . . existing County policy limits sewer service
to the LSAs of the sewerage General Plan with potential
service to designated Reserve Areas in the future. (Under-
lining added).
County Councilmember Bruce Laing, chairman of the Growth
Management Committee, has stated, however, that county policie
do not provide a basis for distinguishing between certain
and uncertain nonsewer areas. In a June 6, 1980 letter to
Jeff Bauman, Metro, Laing writes:
"As we indicated to you at the committee meeting, the
land use "certain" and "uncertain" areas shewn on the map
do not correspond to adopted or proposed County policies.
The County Council is in the process of considering a proposal
to designate Rural (certain) and Reserve (uncertain) areas
as part of the General Development Guide, but no such desig-
nation has yet been made. We are hoping to reach a tentative
committee decision on this issue in August and may be able
to offer METRO additional guidance at that time."
Laing also questioned the necessity for designating
a boundary between certain and uncertain nonsewer areas at
this time.
Despite the implication in Rahm 1 s memo that areas which
are neither LSAs or designated Reserve Areas are certain
nonsewer areas, it appears that the county is not prepared
to identify long-term unsewered areas at this time. "The
concept of designating certain nonsewer areas parallels the
notion of a long-term rural area in the proposed Development
Guide," explained county planner Nancy Fox. "Our primary
concern is that the concept has not yet been adopted." Fox
said that even the adopted community plans were an inappro-
priate basis for identifying areas that would remain unsewered
during the next 20 years because of their 6-10 year time
frame. Fox agreed, however, that sufficient basis could
probably be found in county policy to conclude that the county
intent was not to sewer unincorporated agricultural lands
designated in Ordinance 3064 at least within the study period.
Based on a review of relevant county documents and the
comments summarized here, it is recommended that for the
present all unincorporated areas not identified as LSAs be
designated as nonsewer areas with long-term land use uncertain
with the exception of agricultural lands designated in King
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County Ordinance 3064. Since this analysis is being conducted
at a relatively gross scale, the only unincorporated agri-
cultural areas that should be specifically mapped as long-
term certain nonsewer areas are the extensive and contiguous
tracts in the following areas:
1. Sammamish River Valley between Bothell and Redmond;
2. Lower Green River Valley between Kent and Auburn;
3. Upper Green River Valley northwest of Enuraclaw;
4. Enumclaw plateau south of the Enumclaw LSA and
the Enumclaw-Auburn Road.
These areas are identified in both 3064 and 4341. According
to Pat Van Almkirk of the County Office of Agriculture, the
major difference in coverage between the two ordinances occurs
in the plateau north of Enumclaw. This area should remain
uncertain nonsewer pending adoption of the development guide
or further direction from King County.
Algona
Algona's comprehensive plan, adopted in 1970, is now
being revised. According to City Clerk Margaret Grass and
Mayor John Matchett it provides little guidance for waste-
water planning and has no policies regarding future annexation.
City Ordinance 304 requires that all new development within
the city be sewered if it is within 200 feet of a sewer line.
Grass said that sewer lines have been extended across Highway
167 to serve scattered development on the west side of the
West Valley Highway. In the event of annexation beyond this
area the city would probably be willing to extend sewer service.
Given the present King County Sewerage General Plan, which
limits the service area to the present city boundaries, only
the area within the city should be identified as a sewer
service area.
Auburn
Auburn's 1968 comprehensive plan identified "prime
residential subareas" east, west and south of the city that
would require sewer service in order to be developed. Since
that time, much of this area has been annexed and added to
Auburn's sewer service area except for the agricultural land
west of Highway 167 between South 277th and South 283th Streets.
According to Planning Director George Schuler, the city's
sewers are sized to handle development west of the city.
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The draft revised Comprehensive Sewerage Plan (May 16, 1980)
includes this unincorporated agricultural area as well as
a portion of northern Pierce county within the Auburn service
area. The Pierce County area is part of the proposed 1,266-
acre Lakeland Hills development that would require construction
of a 12.6 mgd sewer lift station to serve the proposed project
and other development in the area.
Auburn and Kent have jointly adopted South 277th Street
as the common boundary between their planning areas. Schuler
said that as a result of recent annexations Auburn's northern
boundary now extends along South 277th between Highway 167
and the Green River. The area between Auburn Avenue and
the Green River, although now unsewered and in agricultural
use, is within the Auburn service area. This tract is, however,
part of a proposed 256-acre residential development that
would extend north into the unincorporated area outside of
the King County LSA. Annexation of either the northern,
unincorporated, part of this tract by Kent, as proposed by
the developer, or the agricultural area west of Highway 167
by Auburn would be in apparent conflict with the King County
Sewerage General Plan because of their agricultural status.
The sewer service area on the map should, however, be revised
to include the agricultural area south of 277th, which Auburn
proposes for sewer service, and all other recently annexed
areas.
Bellevue
The Bellevue City Council has asked for an examination
of the city's annexation and service policies as part of
its current revision of the 1975 Comprehensive Plan. These
policies will eventually be included in a utilities element
and an annexation policy element. The city is also preparing
a comprehensive sewer plan, scheduled for completion in fall
1980, but its relationship to the utilities element is unclear.
The February 1977 precomprehensive plan update, the
current statement of Bellevue's land use goals and policies,
does not include any specific references to the provision
of sewer service. According to Utilities Manager Walt Davis,
neither does the city have any ordinances requiring new develop-
ment to be sewered. But Davis says that Bellevue's unwritten
policy is to extend sewer service "wherever appropriate"
within the urbanized portions of the city's sewer service
area and to eventually sewer the entire service area. Both
he and Planning Director Jim Smith noted that the service
area includes areas outside the city that were formerly served
by districts taken over by Bellevue. Services may also be
provided to unincorporated areas that remain within the juris-
diction of other districts by separate agreement.
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Smith said that Bellevue would like to have King County
become a party to the sphere of influence agreement adopted
jointly with Issaquah and Renton in June 1979. Both Bellevue's
adopted land use probability map and the four alternative
land use concepts under consideration by the county for the
Newcastle area proposed development at densities that would
require sewer service south of the intersection of Interstate
40 5 and Coal Creek Parkway and in the Newport hills south
and east of the Bellevue boundaries. In addition, the Sewerage
General Plan has already been amended to include the proposed
Sky Mountain and Viewmont developments south of Interstate
90 and east of Lakemont Boulevard within the LSA. Bellevue
will be providing sewer service although the area is within
the Lake Hills Sewer District.
Although both the Bellevue plan and the Newcastle alter-
natives call for development that would require sewers in
portions of the Newcastle area, no changes should be made
until the Newcastle plan is adopted. The sewer service area
should be changed, however, to include the proposed develop-
ments east of Lakemont Boulevard as reflected in recent amend-
ments to the Sewerage General Plan. No other changes are
required in the Bellevue area.
Black Diamond
The City of Black Diamond is not sewered now and is
not included within Metro's proposed sewer service area.
According to Mayor Vivian Bainton, the city is seeking funding
to develop a sewer system and does propose to eventually
service the entire incorporated area. No service would be
provided outside the city, she said, but the Palmer Coke
area, which had been previously denied annexation because
of the lack of sewers, might be annexed. Part of this area
could be developed for nonresidential use only in the future.
In general, Bainton said, Black Diamond does not encourage
growth outside its boundaries. The service area map should
be changed, however, to show the city as a sewer service
area.
Bothell
Although some low-density development within the city
is served by septic tanks, the entire city and its planning
area cculd be included within the proposed sewer service
area according to Assistant Director of Public Works Donna
Evans. She said that city ordinance requires all new develop-
ment to be served by sewers if located within 150 feet of
a line unless precluded by topographic conditions. In
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practice, she said, hookups are not always required unless
a health problem would be created.
Bothell's 1974 Comprehensive Plan states that the ex-
pansion of water and sewer facilities should reflect community
goals and aid in implementing the plan. It also specifies
that the city's southern limits should not extend beyond the
area to which the city "can logically provide services".
Planning Director Don Taylor said that the city had no policies
indicating a need to extend the sewer service area to the
south. The North Creek Valley Plan, adopted in December
1979, does however, provide for a variety of development
types that would require sanitary sewers in the partially
unincorporated eastern part of the Bothell planning area.
This area is bisected by Interstate 405 and it extends north
to about Bloomberg Hill Road in Snohomish County. The King
County portion of the valley is designated as a local service
area in the Sewerage General Plan despite its present agri-
cultural use. Bothell's North Creek plan does, however,
conflict with the Snohomish County North Creek Comprehensive
Area Plan that was adopted in 1977. That plan designates
the valley east of Interstate 40 5 and the Bothell Highway
as a watershed area with primarily rural density development
(.4 to 1 unit per acre) permitted.
Planning Director Taylor said that part of the Alderwood
area in Snohomish County had been incorrectly designated
as a long-term uncertain nonsewer area. Bothell has an agree-
ment with the Alderwood Sewer District, he said, to provide
sewer service to part of the area between Interstate 40 3 and
State Route 527 in Snohomish County. He added that the city
has considered annexation in this area as well as in the North
Creek valley. In the latter case this would conflict with
Snohomish policies.
Clyde Hill
Deputy City Clerk Norris Tibbetts was not aware of any
city policies relating to sewer service in the comprehensive
plan reportedly adopted in 1972. But he said that Ordinance
10 7 requires that all development in the city be sewered.
Enumclaw
Enumclaw is not within the proposed Metro service area,
but it is adjacent to the study area and is identified as
a local service area in the county Sewerage General Plan.
Planner Kurt Johnson said that the 1968 comprehensive plan
requires sewer service for development at densities of five
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units per acre or more. This policy will probably remain
in the plan after revisions are adopted in August 1980. The
new plan, he said, will also include policies on agricultural
preservation.
At present, said Johnson, Enumclaw has no policy on
annexations and handles requests on a case by case basis.
Among the annexations now pending only one, which proposes
a commercial use inconsistent with the existing plan, is
on agricultural land. With the exception of the King County
fairgrounds and limited areas along Southeast 448th Street
and south of Southeast 424th the present sewer service area
is contained within Enumclaw's corporate limits. Until the
revised comprehensive plan is adopted the extent of the pro-
posed sewer service area is accurately represented by the
Sewerage General Plan.
Hunts Point
Clerk Treasurer Nadine Cook was not aware of any policies
in the comprehensive plan, reportedly adopted in 1964, that
would conflict with including the city within the sewer service
area. According to Cook, city ordinance requires that all
plats be sewered. She said that no further land was available
for development within the city limits and with the exception
of possibly two single family homes all development was sewered.
Issaguah
Issaquah's Sewerage General Plan shows only existing
sewers, said Public Works Director Jack Crumley, but the city's
intent is to sewer the entire Issaquah Creek drainage basin.
Areas that the city would propose to sewer are included in
part of the East Sammamish area that will probably be in-
cluded in the local service area according to the completed,
but not yet adopted, East Sammamish Community Plan. The
city's sewer plan also calls for the extension of a 10-inch
line south to serve the flat area along the Issaquah Creek
and the Issaquah-Hobart Road. None of the alternatives that
the county is considering for this part of Tahoma-Raven Heights
would require sewers.
Planning Director Dwight Hartman agreed that the intent
of sewering the entire basin is implied in the 1968 compre-
hensive plan. The only area within the city that should
not be included within the sewer service area at present
is the watershed south of interstate 90 around Tradition
Lake. Although Issaquah is obligated to provide service
within the corporate limits, it is zoned for public use,
which would preclude development.
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The city spokesmen agreed that the sewer service area
should be adjusted to include the airfield between Southeast
58th and Interstate 90 and the incorporated area southeast
of Issaquah Creek and northeast of 1-90. These areas are
not sewered at present, but Crumley said that the city has
already extended a 12-inch gravity line to the northwest
city limits and has received requests about the possibility
of extending sewers into the northeastern part of the city.
Kent
A substantial part of the western section of the city,
in the Green River valley, is in a holding zone and has not
been included within Kent's service area in the County's
Sewerage General Plan. Much of this incorporated area has
been identified in King County Ordinance 4341 as eligible
for acquisition under the farmland preservation program.
But according to Kent planner Dan Leonard, the 197 9 Valley
Floor Plan identified part of this area for potential in-
dustrial use. Among the alternative proposals being con-
sidered by the Kent City Council as part of the Valley Studies
Land Use Program is one that would retain the agricultural
area west of the Green River. The area east of the river,
now zoned manufacturing/agriculture, is being favored for
industrial use. Another plan revision under consideration
would set aside about 400 acres of wetland for preservation
in the Green River valley. Leonard said that it would be
appropriate to designate this incorporated agricultural area
as a nonsewer area with uncertain long-term land use until
a new valley plan is adopted.
The Kent sphere of interest, a policy guideline adopted
by the City Council in 1972 and amended in December 1978,
suggests that "Kent has more than an adequate amount of
commercial and industrial zoned land and should not annex
land with the intent of devoting such additional areas to
such uses but should annex primarily developed residential
areas." (Underlining added.) Among the areas proposed for
eventual annexation in this document are two agricultural
areas between the Green River and the City of Auburn that
are proposed for development and are also designated agri-
cultural lands. A proposal by the landowner, Wembley Enter-
prises, that this area be annexed to Kent would, however,
appear to conflict with the annexation policy favoring
already developed residential areas. Moreover, according
to Leroy Jones of the County Office of Agriculture, annexa-
tion of this area would conflict with county policy restricting
the annexation of farmland.
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One other minor change that should be made is tc include
the strip of land between the Wembley tract and Highway 167,
which has already been annexed by Kent, within the proposed
sewer service area.
Kirkland
Kirkland's 1977 Land Use Policies Plan indicates that
the entire city will eventually be sewered except for the
area adjacent to Bridle Trails Park. This area is desig-
nated for a maximum of one unit per acre. According to
planner Eric Shields, Kirkland's policies for the Bridle
Trails area are essentially the same as those of Bellevue
and King County.
The city has a franchise to provide sewer service in
the unincorporated area east to the 132nd Street boundary
with Redmond's planning area. To the north of the city,
he said, the plan calls for densities of at least four units
per acre, which would also be sewered. With the exception
of Bridle Trails Park, therefore, inclusion of the entire
city and its planning area within the sewer service area
is consistent with local policy.
Medina
Ordinance 85 mandates sewer hookups for all development,
according to a city representative. He was not aware whether
the 1955 Comprehensive Plan included any relevant policies.
Mercer Island
The entire City of Mercer Island is now served by sewers
according to planner David Guillen. He was not aware of
any policies in the 1960 Comprehensive Plan that precluded
the city's designation as a sewer service area.
Pacific
The entire City of Pacific should be included within
the sewer service area pursuant to its subdivision ordinance
which requires that new development be on sewers if they are
available. According to Utilities Supervisor Tim Handorff,
the West Hill area of the city now uses septic tanks. Prior
to the completion of Pacific's sewer system, however, the
1970 comprehensive plan stated that although there were no
plans at that time to construct sewers in the west plateau
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area, once the system was completed there would be no topo-
graphic barriers to serving this area with a trunkline from
the valley floor. The 1974 comprehensive sewer plan, said
Handorff, requires the creation of a local improvement
district as a condition of extending service to this area.
Based on these comments, inclusion of the entire city within
the sewer service area would be consistent with city policy.
Redmond
The Sewer Facilities Plan, now incorporated in the 1979
Redmond Community Development Guide, proposes new sewers
in areas where the planned density of development "is high
enough to justify sanitary sewers from a planning, environ-
mental and financial standpoint." The Community Development
Guide also specifies that sewer service will be provided
outside the city only to areas that agree to annex. A map
of the proposed local service area included in the Redmond
plan is generally consistent with the proposed sewer service
area identified in'the Metro facilities plan.
According to planner Kay Shoudy, the possible location
of future Metro interceptors in the Bear Creek and Evans
Creek areas is shown in the Redmond plan for information
only and is not indicative of any city policy as to which
areas should be sewered. More specific guidance on the future
location of interceptors and sewer service boundaries will
be provided as a result of current studies which are intended
to lead to the adoption of a Redmond growth management program.
Planning Director Carl Lindberg and Shoudy agreed that
to be consistent with the Development Guide Policy to "pre-
serve prime agricultural lands and participate in the King
County agricultural preservation program," the Sammamish
Valley agricultural lands on both sides of the river north
of Northeast 100th Street and the power line should be con-
sidered as a nonsewer area with certain long-term land use.
This area is now designated by the city for agricultural
and ranch estate use. The future use of lands south of the
power line, which are also eligible for acquisition under
the King County program is under study. The future status
of this incorporated area should be identified as nonsewer
area with long-term land use uncertain.
Renton
The proposed sewer service area is consistent with Renton
policies to the extent that it includes the entire area within
the present corporate limits. Renton's 1971 subdivision
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ordinance requires that all new subdivisions be sewered.
However, according to senior planner David Clemens, three
pending annexations between Southeast 132nd and Southeast
142nd streets and continued development in the East Renton
plateau indicate the likelihood of a larger area being sewered
in the near future. He said that there also have been septic
tank problems in this area.
Three of the four alternatives under consideration by
King County for the Newcastle planning area provide for only
large lot zoning east of about 148th Avenue SE. Renton's
current northeast planning area study will probably propose
that most of the area east to 164th Avenue be developed with
single family hones at densities high enough to require sewers,
said Clemens. He said that 142nd Avenue would probably be
an appropriate 19 90 boundary for the sewer service area and
154th Avenue would likely be the boundary by 200 0.
Although all four Newcastle alternatives would require
sewer service as far east as 148th Avenue SE and north of
Renton between Interstate 40 5 and Coal Creek Parkway, these
areas should be identified as nonsewer areas with long-term
land use uncertain until additional areas are annexed by
Renton or the Newcastle plan is adopted. The future use
of part of the area between Renton and Bellevue is also un-
certain because of the proposed Newcastle incorporation.
Recent sewerage plan changes along the Cedar River should,
however, be shown.
Tukwila
The City of Tukwila is completely encompassed by the
King County Sewerage General Plan's local service area. Acting
Planning Director Mark Caughey said that the city's intent
is that sewer service be available throughout the city,
although septic tanks have been allowed in individual cases.
He also said that there is no city ordinance that requires
sewer hookups. The 1977 comprehensive plan, however, includes
the objective of providing "an efficient and adequate sanitary
sewer service to the residents and businesses of the city."
Caughey concluded that identifying Tukwila as a sewer service
area would not conflict with any city policies.
Pierce County
The Puyallup River Basin Water Qualitv Management Plan
adopted by Pierce County in 1974 and amended in 1977 and
1979 assumes that the portion of the Metro study area within
Pierce County would be served by the Lake Tapps sewer system.
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The City of Auburn, however, has requested that Metro approve
an extension of service for the proposed Lakeland Hills
development, which would cover 486 acres in the cities of
Auburn and Pacific and another 780 acres in Pierce County.
On October 9, 1979, the Pierce County Commissioners
deferred action on a certification for sewage disposal service
from Metro until the county had approved the Lakeland Hills
master plan and revised the Puyallup Basin Plan to show re-
direction of the sewage drainage pattern in northern Pierce
County to the Metro-Auburn drainage basin. In deferring
action the County Board stated, "From information now available
to Pierce County, the Board of County Commissioners at this
time can see no reason why eventual certification cannot be
granted following satisfactory completion of the foregoing con-
ditions." More recently, Assistant Planning Director Ken Jones
confirmed that "in all likelihood the area would be
sewered." But, according to Jones, the County had not yet acted
on either the master plan of the water quality management plan.
Based on these factors the area should be designated as a non-
sewer area with long-term land use uncertain, with an indication
that sewer service might not be provided by Metro.
Snohomish County
The unincorporated portions of the study area in
Snohomish County are covered by four area plans: Southwest
Snohomish (1966), Paine Field (1968), Alderwood (1973) and
North Creek (1977). In addition to the policies included in
these plans, the county health department requires that all
single-family lots smaller than 12,500 square feet must be
sewered.
Southwest Snohomish
This document was originally developed in 1966 as an
areawide plan covering both the unincorporated part of Southwest
County and the Cities of Edmonds, Mountlake Terrace, Lynnwood
and Brier. Although its policies are now somewhat dated, the
plan is not scheduled for revision because of the likelihood
that a substantial portion of the area will eventually be
annexed.
According to county planner Larry Springer, except for the Swamp
Creek basin, much of the unincorporated area is planned for
sewerable densitites of 3.5 to 5.4 units per acre or more. Until
a decision is made regarding the Swamp Creek interceptor, said
Springer, the County will treat the Swamp Creek basin, between
Interstate 5 and Highway 99 north of Lynnwood, as an urban
reserve.
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Alderwood
The Alderwood area plan identified the need for sanitary
sewers as "the most pressing problem in the community," but
assumed that sewers would probably not be introduced into the
area until 1977. The plan encouraged developing areas in the
vicinity of the North Creek trunk sewer to use that facility.
It was recognized at the time the plan was developed, however,
that development of a Swamp Creek basin sewer system would
likely be critical to the provision of sewer service throughout
the planning area.
The Alderwood plan proposes predominantly medium density
development (urban 4 to 7 and suburban 2 to 4 units per acre)
in the northern part of the planning area, on the plateaus and
in other areas showing few limitations for development.
Residential estate development, allowing a maximum density of
two units per acre, occurs generally in areas that have
development limitations because of slope and soil characteris-
tics. "Generally, not more than three homes per acre should
be built where septic tanks are the means of sewage disposal,"
the plan says. It also specifies, however, that septic tank
disposal systems should be considered only as an interim
solution. The plan also discourages "the continued use of
land for single-family dwellings on septic tanks in those areas
where soil and slope conditions are not suitable for such
development such as in the Swamp Creek drainage way." With the
exception of the northern part of the planning area, where most
development is proposed at a scale that would require sewers,
most of the Alderwood area is identified as having limitations
for septic use.
Based on county policies, Springer concluded that it
would be appropriate to include the entire planning area within
the proposed sewer service area. It is unclear, however, how
much of the Alderwood area will ultimately be served by Metro.
At present, sewage from the Alderwood District's Swamp Creek
and North Creek facilities is being treated by Metro. In
addition, as noted, the city of Bothell has an agreement with
the District to serve a portion of the area north of the King
County line adjoining Bothell. Metro has a specific obligation
to construct an extension to the Swamp Creek trunk when the
sewer line between the northern end of the present Swamp Creek
trunk and the King County line can no longer handle the combined
Alderwood and Northeast Lake Washington flows to West Point.
If treatment is centralized at the Metro Renton facility, Swamp
Creek would continue to discharge to West Point.
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Paine Field
Originally adopted in 1968, this plan is being revised
in conjunction with the development of a Paine Field airport
plan. At present, the major recommended land use is low-
density urban (2 to 4 units per acre) with light industrial
and commercial development in the Highway 525 and Evergreen
Way corridors and at the Snohomish County airport. Much of
the planning area is still served by septic tanks although it
is within the jurisdiction of sewer agencies including the
City of Everett. The portion of the planning area within
Everett's service area would be handled by Everett's proposed
south end interceptor.
Based on the types and density of development allowed
in this area it should be considered as a sewer service area.
It is likely, however, that service will be provided by the
City of Everett.
North Cree*k
The North Creek comprehensive area plan focuses most
intense development in areas already served with utilities
and limits development in environmentally sensitive watershed
and agricultural areas. The plan requires that subdivisions
be sewered in those areas where facilities are available
or being installed. Where sewers are not planned, lots must
be large enough to allow septic tanks to be used on a long-
term basis.
In general, higher density development requiring sewers
is proposed for the area west of 35th Avenue Southeast. A
subarea comprehensive plan now being developed by county staff
will probably show rural development (2.5- and 5-acre zoning)
east of 51st Southeast according to county planner Springer.
An exception would be sections 34 and 35 where the Snohomish
Cascades and Silver Fox developments would be located.
According to Clair Olivers, Everett associate engineer,
at least part of the planning area, which is within the Fir-
crest Sewer District, would likely be served by Everett. The
Silver Lake area, also within the Fircrest District, and the
northernmost section of the North Creek planning area, within
the Eastmont District, are also considered to be within
Everett's potential service area.
Springer said that it would be appropriate to designate
the area west of 35th Southeast and Bothell Highway as a sewer
service area. The eastern part of the area would not likely be
sewered within the planning period unless the Woodinville
incorporation occurs, he said, and should be identified as a
non-sewer area with long-term land use uncertain at least until
the subarea plan is completed. At that time it may be appro-
priate to classify the area as a non-sewer area with certain
long-term land use.
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Brier
Brier Planning Commission Chairman Ken Merriman explained
that the city adopted the 1966 Southwest Snohomish County plan
by reference at about the time it incorporated. Because of its
stringent building requirements, the city has not felt the need
for a more detailed land use plan.
Sewer service is now available in Brier south of 228th
Street and in part of the area west of Brier Road. The city-
is zoned for only 12,500- and 20,000-square-foot single family
lots, but an ordinance requires connection to available sewers
except in the unsewered northeast part of the city. Brierwood,
a proposed 12-acre development in the northeast area is,
nevertheless, being planned for sewering by extending a line
from an existing trunk sewer.
Louis Caviezel of the Edmonds engineering firm of Lovell-
Sauerland & Associates, which provides services to Brier, said
that he has prepared a comprehensive sewer plan that would
provide for sewering the rest of the city. He said that a
moratorium on septic tanks has been imposed by the county in
the now unsewered northwest part of the city. Planning Commis-
sion Chairman Merriman said that he saw no conflict between
existing city policies and a proposal to sewer the entire city.
He concluded that it would be appropriate to designate the
city as a sewer service area. It seems likely that the Alder-
wood Water District will continue to transport sewage from this
area to Metro for treatment.
Everett
Although the City of Everett is outside of the proposed
Metro service area, it provides treatment service to several
districts serving parts of Snohomish County that could be
handled by Metro. According to Planning Director Dennis
Derickson, it is important for the city to know which areas its
proposed interceptor system will have to accommodate. The
April 1980 Draft Environmental Impact Statement for the
Everett subregion interceptor sewers specifically identifies
areas within the Alderwood and Fircrest Sewer Districts that
have alternatives to Everett service. Derickson said,
however, that the entire south end service area could
theoretically be handled by Metro.
Since Everett does not anticipate receiving federal fund-
ing to upgrade its system, there could be opposition to shifting
portions of the service area to Metro, Derickson said. The
Draft EIS indicates that both the Alderwood and Fircrest
Districts have entered into preliminary negotiations with
Everett that could result in capital improvement contracts to
help finance the upgraded system.
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Several different land use plans cover those southern
portions of Everett and its service areas that could be served
by Metro. The 1972 Everett community plan identified 132nd
Street as the ultimate southern boundary of the Everett service
area. It also specified goals and policies to ensure preserva-
tion of flood plains and an open space network. The 1972
policies were intended to clarify the 1971 Comprehensive Plan
Map that is still used as "a legal guide for future land use
in Everett."
The parts of the city within the study area are proposed
for primarily single-family development. Commercial use is
planned along Evergreen Way and South Broadway with multi-family
development proposed for an area south of the Broadway commercial
corridor, north of Silver Lake and west of Evergreen Way at the
city limits. The parts of the Alderwood and Fircrest Water
Districts that could be served by Everett are covered by
Snohomish County's Southwest and North Creek plans respectively.
As noted above, except for the Swamp Creek basin, the
southwest planning area is proposed for primarily medium
density development at 3.5 to 5.4 units per acre or higher.
Planned uses would be mostly single-family development north of
124th Southwest with multi-family and commercial development to
the south. The North Creek plan proposes suburban (1 to 4 per
acre) and high urban (7 to 12 per acre) development in Fircrest's
Silver Lake area. Based on this information from Everett and
Snohomish County, the parts of the Alderwood and Fircrest
districts within Everett's potential service area should be
identified as sewer service areas that might not be served by
Metro.
Lynnwood
Until the State Department of Ecology imposed a moratorium
on all new sewer extensions, the City of Lynnwood's unwritten
policy was to extend service to all areas withinihe city limits.
The 1966 Southwest Snohomish County plan still serves as the
city's land use policy, but the City Council has authorized a
major revision of this plan. Bill Wiselogle of the Planning-
Department said that work had not yet begun on the revision.
Although the new plan could affect ultimate densities, it would
not likely change the extent of the service area within the
corporate area as the present system encompasses the entire city.
Wiselogle said that it would be appropriate to identify the
entire city as a sewer service area. At this time, however, it
is still not determined whether Lynnwood will be included in the
Metro service area. According to Wiselogle, the city would
prefer to expand its own treatment capacity and may apply to the
state for funding to do so later this year. In view of this
uncertainty, Lynnwood should be identified as a possible non-
Metro sewer service area.
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CHAPTER 10
References to Appendix A
Beaulieu, Peter D. 1979. The water supply source selection
issue: Water resources planning in the Cedar, Green and the
Snohomish Basins: Staff report. Water Resources Committee,
King Subregional Council, Puget Sound Council of Governments.
CH2M Hill. 197 4a. Environmental management for the metropoli-
tan area, part I: Water resources.
Council on Environmental Quality. 1975. Environmental quality:
The sixth annual report of the Council on Environmental Quality.
1976. Untaxing open space: An evaluation of the
effectiveness of differential assessment of farms and open
space.
. 1978. Environmental quality: The ninth annual
report of the Council on Environmental Quality.
Dideriksen, R.I. 1977. Potential cropland study. U.S. Dept. cf
Agriculture Statistical Bulletin No. 578.
Farmlands Study Committee. 1979. Saving farmlands and open
space.
Federal Home Loan Bank of Seattle. 1980. Housing vacancy survey.
Greengo, Robert E., and R. Houston. 1970. Excavations at the
Marymoor site. Unpublished report.
Hedlund, Gerald. 197 3. Background and archaeology of inland
cultural sites on Conel's Prairie, Washington (45P144 and
45P145). Green River Community College, Auburn, Washington.
1976. Mudflow disaster. N.w. Anthro. Res. Notes
10 (1) :77-89.
Houston, R.B. 1971. Archaeological excavations at the Marymoor
site, 1964-1970. Bachelor's honor thesis, University of
Washington, Seattle.
John M. Sanger Associates. 1978. Purchase of development rights
to retain agricultural lands: An economic study. Report to
the Office of Agriculture, King County, Washington.
King County. 1977c. King County agricultural protection program:
Background and effects of Ordinance 3064 designating agricul-
tural lands and districts in King County.
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. 1930. Draft comprehensive community energy
management plan.
King County, Dept. of Planning and Community Development, Planning
Division, 1977c. Park policy task force report.
. 197 9a. King County supply-demand study, part I:
Capacity of existing zoning.
. 1979g. A river of Green.
. 1980a, Sensitive areas map folio.
King County, Growth Management Program, 198 0. General development
guide: Draft.
Kramer, Chin and Mayo, Inc. 1980. Valley studies program -
land use study.
Lane, 19 73. Political and economic aspects of Indian-white
culture contact in western Washington in the mic-19th
Century. Unpublished report.
Lee, L.K. 1978. A perspective on cropland availability. U.S.
Dept. of Agriculture Economic Report 4 06.
Metro. 1978b. Areavide water quality plan, Kir.g County, Washing-
tony Cedar-Green River Basins.
. 197 8d. Existing management programs for water quality
in the Cedar-Green River Basins in King county,* areavide water
quality plan for King County, Washington, Cedar-Green River
Basins. 208 Plan Technical Appendix No. 8.
1979b. 20 year report, 1959-1979.
1979d. Technical memorandum number 1 and appendix:
Existinq wastewater facilities and characteristics. Wastewater
Management Study, Lake Washington/Green River Basin.
1979e. Technical memorandum number 2 and. appendix:
Study area characteristics. Wastewater Management Study, Lake
Washington/Green River Basin.
1980a. Technical memorandum number 3 and appendix:
Existing plans, policies, rules, regulations, and agreements.
Wastewater Management Study, Lake Washington/Green River Basin.
A- 22 2
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. 19 80c. Technical memorandum number 5 and appendix:
Facility planning issues, objectives, and criteria for screen-
ing alternatives.
National Archives and Records Service. n.d. Puget Sound geography.
Manuscript No. 1864. Positive copy available at University of
Washington Seattle.
Puget Sound Council of Governments. 1977. Employment and popula-
tion forecasts for the central Puget Sound region, 197 5-2000.
. 1979a. Interim report on transportation plan update
in the central Puget Sound region.
. 1979b. Memo from King Subregional Staff to users of
the population and employment forecasts regarding 1990 fore-
casts of population and employment. January 26, 1979.
1980a. Letter from Donald R. Pethick to Jeff Bauman.
May 8, 1980.
. 1980b. Memo from Mayor Beth Bland to King Subregional
Council regarding forecasts. February 13, 198 0.
. 1980c. Memo from Don Pethick and Jim Billing to
Renton 201 study file regarding procedures for disaggregation
of forecasts. January 30, 1980.
Puget Sound Power and Light. 1979. Annual report.
Seattle Water Dept. 197 9. Draft Seattle comprehensive regional
water plan and draft EIS.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1975. Cedar River flood reduction
study.
. 1976. Snohomish River Basin mediated plan recon-
naissance report.
U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. 1976. Annual
housing survey, Seattle-Everett, Washington SMSA.
U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Outdoor Recreation. 1977.
National urban recreation study: Seattle/Everett/Tacoma SCSA.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1977c. Draft background
paper on EPA programs and environmentally significant agricul-
tural lands.
A- 223
-------
. 197 8a. EPA policy to protect environmentally sig-
nificant agricultural lands.
. 197 8b. Manual for evaluating secondary impacts of
wastewater treatment facilities.
. 1979b. Draft EIS: Modesto wastewater facilities
improvements.
U.S. Geological Survey. 1979a. Land use and land cover, Seattle,
Washington, 1975. Land use series map MP L-4.
. 1979b. Land use and land cover, Tacoma, Washington,
1975. Land use series map MP L-l.
Washington. Office of Financial Management. 1979. State of
Washington population trends 197 9.
. 1980. State arjd county population forecasts by
age and sex, 1980-2000. January, 1980.
Waterman, T.T. 1922. The geographical names by the Indians of
the Pacific Coast. Geo. Rev., pp 175-194.
A- 224
-------
APPENDIX B
AIR QUALITY
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pat?e
CHAPTER 1 - AIR QUALITY TRENDS B-l
Introduction B-l
Ozone B-l
Carbon Monoxide B-4
Particulates B-4
CHAPTER 2 - SUMMARY OF THE PUGET SOUND AIR
QUALITY MANAGEMENT PLAN B-9
Introduction B-9
Nonattainment Areas B-9
Control Strategies B-13
-------
LIST OF TABLES
Table # Page
1-1 Ozone Monitoring Data - Hourly B-3
Average (pphm)
1-2 Carbon Monoxide Monitoring Data (ppm) b-5
1-3 Suspended Particulate Monitoring Data -
Annual Geometric Mean (pg/m3)
2-1 Designation of Areas Within Central Puget B-10
Sound Region That Have Not Attained
National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(extracted from Federal Register for
March 3, 1978)
2-2 Summary of Priorities for Transportation B-15
Control Measures for Air Quality
LIST OF FIGURES
1-1 1977 Atmospheric Sampling Network Puget B-2
Sound Air Pollution Control Region
1-2 Ambient Concentrations of Suspended b-7
Particulates - 1977
2-1 Suspended Particulates Nonattainment Area B-ll
2-2 Carbon Monoxide Nonattainment Area B-12
2-3 Photochemical Oxidant Nonattainment Area B-14
-------
Chapter 1
AIR QUALITY TRENDS
Introduction
The Puget Sound Air Pollution Central Agency (PSAPCA)
and the State of Washington, Department of Ecology, operate
39 gaseous and particulate air monitoring stations within
the central Puget Sound region, of which eight are located
within the study area (Figure 1-1). The following pollutants
are currently being monitored: carbon monoxide (CO), ozone,
total suspended particulates (TSP), nitrogen dioxide, nitrogen
oxides, sulfur dioxide, and nonmethane hydrocarbons. Data
from these monitoring stations serve as the basis for char-
acterizing the degree and spatial extent of air quality
problems within the'Puget Sound area. Applicable ambient
air quality standards and the status of air quality planning
are discussed in Chapter 2 of this appendix.
Currently, concentrations of ozone, CO, sulfur dioxide,
and TSP exceed national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS),
within the Puget Sound area. This chapter summarizes air
quality trends for ozone, CO, and TSP within the study area.
Since concentrations of sulfur dioxide do not exceed NAAQS
within the Lake Washington/Green River Basins study area,
this pollutant will not be discussed here (NAAQS for sulfur
dioxide are exceeded in the Tacoma area only).
Ozone concentrations have generally increased in the
past 5 years, with the Lake Sammamish State Park site
recording the highest value in the central Puget Sound region
(Table 1-1). The number of violations of the former 0.08
ppm federal ozone standard show no clear trends, as presented
below:
In February 1979, EPA changed the federal primary and
secondary standards for ozone from the previous level of
0.0 8 ppm to 0.12 ppm.
Ozone
Year
Number of hours recorded
over 0.08 ppm
1976
1977
1978
1979
1
38
11
14
B— 1
-------
[SLANG CD
KIT SAP CO
Snsfuhsh CO
_ KING CO
V—
S 5260.0
+ 17
+31
5235.0 rj ' A
5230.0
°77
+ 36
7 ATMOSPHERIC SAPLING NETWORK
PUGET SOUNC SIR POLLUTION CONTROL REGION
600.0
550.0
512.0
UT« i<[LOnCTCRS €fi5T)
Figure 1-1
B-2
SOURCE: PSAPCA
-------
Table 1-1. Ozone Monitoring Data - Hourly Average (pphm)
Station
King County - McMicken
Heights
K( ;n t - North Central
Avenue
1975
Highest Second
Highest
13
12
1976
Highest Second
Highest
1977
Highest Second
Highest
JO
13
10
12
1978
12
12
1979
1980
Highest Second Highest Second Highest Second
Highest Highest Highest
Bothell - Public Works
LXjpcirtinent
King County - Lake
Samnamish State Park
17
16
16
14
IS
15
Kent - 86th Avenue
South
King County - Fall
City
Enunclaw
14
11
5
14
11
5
10
13
10
13
Sunner - Suiner Jr.
High School
15
14
15
14
16
15
Notes: Dashes indicate station not in operation; pphm = parts per hundred million by volimj.
SOURCE: State of Washington, Department of Ecology, Puget Sound Air Pollution Control Agency.
-------
Carbon Monoxide
Although no violations of the 1-hour NAAQS for CO have
occurred in the Puget Sound region, violations of the 3-
hour federal standard have been recorded. Because violations
of the 8-hour standard have been recorded in Bellevue, it
has been designated a "hot spot" within the nonattainment
area. Ambient monitoring data indicate that the CO problem
has not worsened during the last 4 years for stations within
the study area.
Available CO monitoring data are shown in Table 1-2.
Ambient monitoring data for CO within the study area are
rather incomplete. Additional CO monitoring data are needed
to adequately characterize the extent of CO problems.
Particulates
Monitoring data indicate that ambient concentrations
of TSP have increased over the past few years, especially
in the Seattle and Tacoraa areas (see Table 1-3). Levels
of TSP exceed secondary standards in Kent and Renton; these
areas have been designated nonattainment areas.
From 19 77 TSP monitoring data, PSAPCA developed a map
of TSP isopleths which indicate that elevated concentrations
of TSP are concentrated in the Seattle and Tacoma areas
(Figure 1-2).
B-4
-------
Table 1-2. Carbon Monoxide Monitoring Data (ppn)
Station
1-Hour
1975
8-Hour
Nimber
8-Hour 1-Hour
Averages
1976
8-Hour
Nmiber
8-Hour 1-Hour
Averages
1978
8-Hour
1979
Second Exceeding
Second Exceeding
Number
8-Hour 1-lIour
Averages
8-Hour
Second Exceeding
Niinber
8-Hour
Averages
Second Exceeding
Highest Highest Highest , 9 ppm Highest Higliest Highest 9 ppn Highest Highest Highest 9 ppm Highest Highest Highest 9 pun
Bellevue-
Tochternan
Building
13
10
22
14
13
Bellevue -
Stuvtevant's H 10 3 17 12 10 4
S[jort SIsojj
-------
Table 1-3. Suspended Particulate Monitoring Data - Annual Geometric Mean (yg/m3)
Station
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
King County, McMicken Heights
-
42*
35
35
30
42
40
39
Auburn, Health Department
52
55
63
51
38
49
54
54
Bellevue, Puqet Fewer Bldg.
36
40
35
32
27
36
38
42
Kent, North Central Avenue
-
-
-
33*
32
49
57
-
Renton, S.E. District Health
Center
29
36
31
33
27
38
38
36
Renton, Municipal Bldg.
43
44
42
43
37
50
51
31
Everett, Medical Dental Bldg.
42
50
38
40
20
45
44
45
Kent, 86th Avenue South
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
54
Kent, Memorial Park
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
65
Tukwila, South Center
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
46
Notes: *Based on less than 12
months cf
data. Dashes
indicate
stations
not in
operation.
SOURCE: State of Washington, Department of Ecology.
-------
SUSPENOED PARTICULATES j
1977 ANNUAL GEOMETRIC MERNSj
" " inicflOGRflns/C'j ncr^i -J
iaiwo ca
SHCHOnlSW CO
KING CO
TCLI VrtTEP RES'
|46
KING CO
rwuflstCN co pierce co
UT* lKlLOrt£7EflS EPST]
Figure 1-2. Ambient Concentrations of Suspended Particulates -
1977.
SOURCE: PSAPCA B"7
-------
Chapter 2
SUMMARY OF THE PUGET SOUND AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT PLAN
Introduction
The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 stipulate that
designated agencies in areas with ambient concentrations
of air pollutants in excess of NAAQS are to prepare a plan
to attain NAAQS bv December 31, 198 2. An extension to
December 31, 1987 is possible for CO and ozone under certain
circumstances.
Governor Ray designated the PSAPCA as lead agency to
develop a plan for attaining NAAQS in the central Puget Sound
region. Control strategies aimed at reducing pollutant
emissions were developed through an integrated planning process
involving the PSAPCA, PSCOG, elected officials, technical
committees, and a citizens group- The resultant AQMP was
submitted to EPA as part of the Washington state implementa-
tion plan. The EPA partially and conditionally approved
the state implementation plan on June 5, 1980.
Nonattainment Areas
EPA-designated nonattainment areas in the central Puget
Sound region are presented in Table 2—1. Secondary NAAQS
(designed to protect the public welfare) for TSP are regularly
exceeded at monitoring stations in Renton and Kent. The
TSP nonattainment area includes Seattle, Tacoma, Kent, and
Renton {Figure 2-1).
A small area adjacent to the ASARCO copper smelter in
Tacoma was originally classified as a nonattainment area
for sulfur oxides, but the EPA later changed this designa-
tion to unclassifiable (PSCOG, pers. comm.). Since Tacoma
is not located within the wastewater management study area,
portions of the AQMP dealing with sulfur oxides will not
be discussed.
The boundaries for the CO nonattainment area were deter-
mined to be contiguous with the Federal Aid Highway urban
area: that boundary designated for transportation planning
proposed by PSCOG. In addition, certain "hot spots" were
identified as especially troublesome locales (Figure 2-2).
B-9
-------
Table 2-1. Designation of Areas Within Central
Puget Sound Region That Have Not Attained
National Ambient Air Quality Standards
(Extracted from Federal Register
for March 3, 1978)
P r i m a ry
Standard
Exceeded
Secondary
Standard
Exceeded
TOTAL SUSPENDED PARTICULATE (TSP)
Sea ttl e - That area including the north X
portion of the Duwamish industrial area,
and extending to the southern boundary
of the Central Business District (C8D).
Seattle - An area of the Duwamish Valley X
extending approximately 2h miles further
south than the above area.
Renton
Kent
Tacoma - That a re a including theTideflats
industrial area, east end of the CBD,
and the north end of South Tacoma Way
Corri dor.
SULFUR DIOXIDE (SO?)
Tacoma - A parabolic shaped area extend-
ing about 3k miles SSW from the ASARCO
copper sme 1ter.
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)
Greater Seattle-Tacoma Area - Boundaries
to be de te rmi ned.
OXIDANT Ox
Greater Seattle-Tacoma Area-in general, X
from Puget Sound at the west to North
Bend at the east, from Puyallup at the
south to Edmonds at the north.
SOURCE: PSAPCA and PSCOG, 197 8.
B-10
-------
;'/////[/\ Primary Standards
3Zj Secondary Standards
flflflYSVILLE
EVEFCTT
JSlflNO CO
jorsflP co\
SNOHOMISH
SNOKOMSM CO
TOLT HATER fl£S
5280.0
BELLEVUE
m
KITSAP CO
KING CO
PUYPILUP
THURSTON CO \ PIERCE CO
550.0
UTM iKHOflETERS EAST)
520.0
510.0
Figure 2-1. Suspended Particulate Nonattainment Area.
SOURCE: PSAPCA and PSCOG, 197 8.
B-ll
-------
Figure 2-2. Carbon Monoxide Nonattainment Area
SOURCE: PSAPCA and PSCOG, 1978.
B-12
flflRYSVlLLE
EVERETT
3313.0
ISLfHO CO
3310.0
Snohomish
noNflOE
SNOWCMISM CO
TOLT WATER *ES
0ELLEVUE
SEATTLE
BREMERTON
SNOQURLME
BENTON
KITSAP CO
PIERCE CO
AUBURN
32HOJ)
TnCCnfl
ENUMCLRW
PUYRLLUP
PIERCE CO
nitfS
PIERCE CO
THURSTON CO
350.0 5310 160.0 363.0 370.0 373.0 330.0
UTfl (KILOMETERS EAST)
-------
The ozone nonattainmsnt area encompasses nearly all
of King County and portions of Pierce and Snohomish Counties,
reflecting the regional nature of ozone problems (Figure 2-3) .
The Lake Sammamish State Park monitoring station has recorded
the highest concentration (0.17 parts per million) of ozone
in the region.
Control Strategies
Based on determinations of reasonably available control
measures for stationary and mobile sources, strategies for
reducing emissions were developed in the central Puget Sound
AQM?. The level of control necessary to attain NAAQS was
based on ambient air quality monitoring data and its relation-
ship to NAAQS. The relationship between emissions and ambient
concentrations was assumed to be direct and linear. Therefore,
by estimating the emissions generated in both the base year
and some future year, it was possible to predict changes
in ambient concentrations. The level of control is defined
as the emission reduction needed to achieve the NAAQS for
a given pollutant.
Control strategies for TSP focus on three classes of
particulate emissions: point sources, fugitive industrial
emissions, and nontraditional sources such as roadway dust
suspended by vehicular traffic. All traditional industrial
sources within the nonattainment area will be required to
employ reasonably available control technology. Controlling
fugitive TSP emissions usually involves enclosing an other-
wise open source and passing the dust through a standard
pollution collection system. Measures aimed at reducing
road dust emissions include:
o Street cleaning
o Oiling or paving of road shoulders, parking lots,
and truck loading areas
o Construction of curbs or use of other barriers
to prevent auto access to unpaved surfaces
Motor vehicles are the primary source of CO and hydro-
carbon (precursor to ozone) emissions in the Puget Sound
region. Accordingly, control strategies for these pollutants
focus on measures to control transportation sources; priorities
for transportation control measures are summarized in Table 2-2.
Also, since stationary sources account for approximately
36 percent of volatile organic compound emissions, a program
was developed to control these emissions utilizing reasonably
available control technology. These stationary sources in-
clude petroleum refineries, gasoline loading terminals, gaso-
line distribution plants, service stations, and surface coating
operations.
B-13
-------
PJfiflYSVlLLL
EVCRET7
[SLPNu 03
5N0W0n 5H
luNnOt
5N0Wutt[SW CO
KING CO
roLr wptcr *cs
5200.0 -A*
I
1
Asearric
V,'.
s?to.o
oRtflLnTCN
UHLfllC
"FNf uN
<[TShP CO
52S3.0
BUBUflN
5240-0
[NUnCLfiU
cm co
PlCflCC CO
PUfHLL'JP
3223.0
32110
rwoftsroN co \ vex: ca
\
310.0 5110 520.0 323.0 5 30.0 5310 5M0.0 341.0 550.0 5310 '.60.0 563.0 570.0 573.0 580.0 563.0 590.0 5«J) MOJ tOJJ
urn (xiLOficrcps ChSti
Figure 2-3. Photochemical Oxidant Monattainment Area.
SOURCE: PSAPCA and PSCOG, 197 8.
B-14
-------
^able 2-2. Summary of Priorities fc-r Transportation
Control Measures for Air Quality
Control Measure
REASONABLY AVAIW31E CONTROL KEASURES
RECC-WOEC 3V EPA:
Programs/Projects/Poll cies
Committed to Implementation
Prior to 1982
Cltliens 5 Technical Coralttee
Recamendations
First Priority
For Further
Development
Second Priority
For Further
Development
lrr proved fijbllc firs it
Exclusive Pus and carpool lanes
lorg range transit Improvements
Parx/ride and fringe parking lots
On-street parking controls
Traffic flow improvements
Areawide ride-sharing programs
Sicycle lanes and storage; pedestrial
facilities
Road pricing to discourage single
occapa/it autos
Vehicle inspection/maintenance
Flexitime/staggered hours/4-day work w««ic
Employer programs - ride sharing, transit
usage
Controls on axtanded vehicle idling
Alternative fuels, engines, other fleet
vehicle controls
Othar-than-lig.it dally vehicle retrofit
Extreme cold start amission reduction
program
3edestriin/transit -nails
Private car restrictions
X"
X*
OTHES CONTROL MEASURES:
Restriction of parking supply in areas
of high venicuiar use
Standardization of off-strset parking rates
to ^inimt:e venicle cruising
Land jse csrttrcls :j benefit afr quality
Implementation cf .Hetror^WSITicn Study
reccmnendacions for post 1930
X
X*
X-*
x-*
Recommendation sf tfie Citizens Comni'tee
Secarmencatlon of trie Technical Cannittee
SOURCE; PSAPCS. ar.-d PSCOG, I97S.
3~l3
-------
Appendix G
WATER QUALITY AND BIOLOGY
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pace
CHAPTER 1 - INLAND SURFACE WATER CONDITIONS C-l
Overview of Study Area Characteristics c-l
Hydrology C-l
Water Quality C-3
CHAPTER 2 - BENEFICIAL USES OF SURFACE WATER C-3 7
State of Washington Protected Uses C-37
Summary of Uses of Study Area Surface Waters C-37
CHAPTER 3 - PUGET SOUND WATER QUALITY AND BIOLOGY C-4S
Physiography C-4S
Currents and Circulation C-4 5
Water Quality Conditions and Effects of
Puget Sound Outfalls C-5 3
Marine Ecology C-61
CHAPTER 4 - REGIONAL OVERVIEW OF INLAND FISH AND
WILDLIFE RESOURCES C-S7
Terrestrial and Wetland Habirats C-5 7
Aquatic Habitats C-7 0
Species and Kabita-s of Special Inrarest C-7 2
CHAPTER 5 - FISHERIES C-7 8
Anadromous Salmonids C-7S
Puget Sound Marine Fisheries C-51
Indian Fisheries and Catch Allocation C-91
CHAPTER 6 -
REFERENCES FOR APPENDIX C
C-103
-------
LIST OF TABLES
Table # Page
1-1 State of Washington Water Quality C-9
Standards
1-2 Water Quality Problems of Lakes, Rivers, C-10
and Streams
1-3 Suggested Criteria for Judging the Trophic C-ll
Status of Temperate Lakes and the Respective
Values for Lake Washington
1-4 Pollutant Levels in Stormwater and Combined C-13
Sewer Overflows (CSOJ
1-5 Lake Sammamish Chemical and 3iological C-15
Properties
1-6 Lake Wate-r Quality Ratings C-16
1-7 Industrial Contributors to the Renton C-22
Collection System
1-8 Industrial Heavy Metal Discharges C-24
1-9 Average Annual Concentration and Load C-25
From the Renton Sewage Treatment Plant
1-10 NPDES Permit Heavy Metals Limitations for C-27
the Renton Treatment Plant
1-11 Fishable Ratings of Rivers C-31
1-12 Swiranahle Ratings of Rivers C-32
1-13 Fishable Ratings of Small Streams C-33
1-14 Swimmable Ratings of Small Streams C-35
2-1 Protected Characteristic Uses of Major C-38
Surface Waters of the Study Area
2-2 Known Uses of Surface Waters in the Lake C-39
Washington/Green River Basins
4-1 Terrestrial and Wetland Habitat Types in C-68
Lake Washington/Green River Basins
4-2 Summary Definitions of Habitat Cover Types C-71
-------
Types of Riverine Habitats
Freshwater and Anadromous Fishes, and
Habitat Use in Streams of the Lake
Washington/Green River Basins
Washington Department of Game Nongame
Program Listing of Species and
Habitats of Concern
Current Status of Species of Special
Interest Found Within the Study Area
Habitat Use of Searun Dolly Varden
Char in Study Area
Washington Sport Salmon Catch in
Seattle-Bremerton Area of Puget Sound
1977 Puget Sound Commercial Salmon
Catches in Numbers of Fish
Life History Chart - Common Fishes
of Puget Sound
1977 Estimated Harvest of Marine Fish
by Recreational Anglers in Seattle-
Bremerton Area of Puget Sound
1977 Puget Sound Trawl Landings
Anadromous Salmonid Catch in U.S. vs.
Washington Case Area, in Number of Fis
-------
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure # Page
1-1 Major Surface Water Bodies in the Study C-3
Area Showing Salmon Use
1-2 Lower Green-Duwamish River with River Mile C-7
Index
1-3 Milfoil Weed Infestation in the Study C-17
Area Vicinity
1-4 Diurnal Variation of Dissolved Oxygen and C-20
Temperature
3-1 Subdivisions of Puget Sound C-46
3-2 Circulation in Central Puget Sound C-48
3-3 Generalized Current Directions - C-49
Richmond Beach
3-4 Generalized Current Directions - C-50
Alki Point
3-5 Generalized Current Directions - C-51
Point Pulley
3-6 Generalized Current Directions - C-52
Elliott Bay
3-7 Characteristic Biota of Rock and Cobble C-62
Tidelands in Puget Sound
3-8 Characteristic Biota of Sandy Gravel C-62
Tideland in Puget Sound
3-9 Characteristic Biota of Muddy Silt and C-63
Sand Tideland in Puget Sound
4-1 Terrestrial Habitat Map of Lake Washington/ C-69
Green River Basins
5-1 Major Surface Water Bodies in the Study C-79
Area Showing Salmon Use
5-2 Summary of Freshwater Life History and C-80
Habitat Uses of Chum Salmon in the Study
Area
-------
Figure # Page
5-3 Summary of Freshwater Life History and C-82
Habitat Uses of Coho Salmon in the Study
Area
5-4 Summary of Freshwater Life History and C-83
Habitat Uses of Sockeye Salmon in the Study
Area
5-5 Summary of Freshwater Life History and C-85
Habitat Use of Chinook. Salmon in the Study
Area
5-6 Summary of Freshwater Life History and C-86
Habitat Use of Steelhead in the Study Area
5-7 Summary of Freshwater Life History and C-87
Habitat Use of Searun Cutthroat Trout in
the Study Area
5-8 Food Web of Common Biota of Puget Sound C-95
5-9 Commercial Value of Puget Sound Fish - C-99
1974
-------
Chapter 1
INLAND SURFACE WATER CONDITIONS
This chapter describes hydrologic and water quality-
conditions in study area streams and lakes. Special emphasis
is placed on the Green-Duwamish River water quality and the
effects of the existing Renton treatment plant discharge.
Overview of Study Area Characteristics
Climatic conditions in the study area are typical of
the Puget Sound area. Warm, moist air from the southwest
in the spring and early summer, and cool, drier from the
northwest in the fall predominantly govern the weather
patterns.
The average annual precipitation ranges from 35 inches
in the lowlands to 150 inches or more in the surrounding
mountains. Seventy-five percent of the annual precipitation
falls between October and March and only 5 percent in July
and August.
Summer temperatures are generally around 70°F while
winter temperatures are usually in the low 40s. Occasional
warm spells with temperatures up to 85°F occur, but generally
these temperatures occur less than 15 days per year.
The length of the growing season ranges from 145 days
at Bothell to 240 days at the University of Washington, on
the western side of Lake Washington.
River flows in the study area are characterized by two
flood peaks. The first occurs during the wet winter season
and the second occurs during spring snowmelt. The low flow
period occurs in late summer.
The soils in the Puget Sound area were formed from
glacial material deposited 12-14 thousand years ago. Alluvial
and lacustrine soils were formed in the lowland area during
postglacial activity. Soils have also recently formed on
mud deposited from the osceola mud flow (Metro, 1979e).
Hydrology
The hydrology of the study area has been explained
in detail in work performed as part of the Renton facilities
C-l
-------
planning effort (Metro, 1979e). The major surface water
bodies in the study area are shown in Figure 1-1. The
hydrology of lakes, rivers and streams of the study area
is summarized below.
Lakes
The largest lakes in the study area are Lakes Washington
and Sammamish.
Lake Washington. Lake Washington, located within the
boundaries of Metropolitan Seattle, is the largest lake in
the study area, with a surface area of 32,000 acres, a
maximum length of 22 miles and a maximum width of 4 miles.
Lake Washington drains a total area of 476 square miles,
with the majority of inflow provided by the Cedar River
from the southeast and the Sammamish River to the northeast.
The lake stage is regulated by the Hiram M. Chittenden
Locks located below Lake Union on the western side of Lake
Washington. The lake is regulated between 20.0 feet mean
sea level (MSL) and 21.9 feet MSL to provide passage for
commercial and recreational vessels from Puget Sound to
Lake Washington. At an average lake stage of 21 feet MSL,
the lake has a volume of approximately 2.3 million acre-
feet .
The Chittenden Locks were constructed in 1917 by the
U. S. Army Corps of Engineers under the sponsorship of
King County and the State of Washington. Construction of
the locks, which opened the lake's vessel traffic to Puget
Sound, required lowering of the lake stage and changing the
lake outflow characteristics. Before construction of the
locks, Lake Washington drained into the Black River and
eventually into Puget Sound. At that time the Cedar River
also drained into the Black River. After construction of
the locks and lowering of the lake stage, the lake ceased
to drain into the Black River and the Cedar was diverted
into Lake Washington. Currently 340 cfs annually are
required in the operation of the locks, 325 cfs for lockage
and 15 cfs for the fish ladder (CH2M Hill, 1974a).
Lake Sammamish. Lake Sammamish, located 4 miles east
of Lake Washington, is the second largest lake in the study
area. The lake, used primarily for fisheries and recreation,
is approximately 8 miles long and 1.5 miles wide, with 4,900
acres of surface area. Lake Sammamish, at a mean depth of
58 feet, has a total volume of 285,000 acre-feet. The lake
drains a total area of about 98 square miles with 70 percent
of the runoff entering through Tibbett and Issaquah Creeks.
Lake Sammamish drains from its northern end into Lake Wash-
ington by way of the 14-mile Sammamish River.
C-2
-------
SNOQUALMIE RIVER BASIN
r
^>trX
In ^ . > V
'.'Si j ryi *
^COVMQTON CHEEK
NEWAUklM ,
. «^„>?¦-".'i L..Ei V~p-
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EM^O.N /AJ-1 J.Sn Jl .---! r. .ly'T / £ED^ RIVER BASIN . .4-'
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seven uakc ¦/i
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V Iiva^CWEK
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PUGET SOUND DRAINAGES
*
C Ml NOOK SALMON
• COHO (»4LVCA> salmon
0 CHUH{DOS I Sil HON
• SOCMVE I RED) MLMON
(A) ttaOKATCS MOiAVlE ftUT
UNCONFlAwCD u >£
• «Aru«*l (FA1L91 tARRtER
TO DISTRIBUTION
>—« frAM lamtll TO 0l*riM»UTfQM
»0U*CC ViLllAMt, 4t Si. 1»T»
Figure 1-1. major surface water bodies in the
STUDY AREA SHOWING SALMON USE
-------
Small Lakes. Metro (1979e) inventoried many of the
over 30 small lakes dispersed throughout the study area.
These lakes range in size from less than 5-150 acres. The
drainage areas for these lakes also vary from 1-175 acres.
Most lakes have some level of urbanization in their
vicinity. Shoreline development is extensive at some of
these lakes. Lake Meridian, for example, has 82 percent
of its shoreline developed. In contrast, other lakes only
have a few homes along the shore.
Streams
Green-Duwamish River.
Overview of Hydrology. The Green River originates in
the Cascade Mountains and flows northwesterly for about 80
miles to the Town of Tukwila in the Puget Sound lowlands.
The river is renamed the Duwamish below Tukwila where the
Black River and the Green River converge. The Duwamish River
flows for 11 miles to Elliott Bay and Puget Sound.
The Green River drains 483 square miles, including both
lowlands and mountains. The Green River is regulated by
the Howard Hansen Dam and reservoir; the reservoir has an
active storage of 106,000 acre-feet. Details regarding
state minimupa flow standards and their relationship to
Howard Hansen Dam releases are provided in the next section.
Flow is diverted from the Green River for several purposes.
The major diversion, approximately 113 cfs, located at Palmer,
is for municipal and industrial water supply for Tacoma.
Other diversions include irrigation and stock watering.
The highest flows in the Green River occur in December
and January, and the lowest flows occur from July to September.
The mean annual flow at Auburn is 1,345 cfs for 35 years
prior to construction of Howard Hansen Dam. The l-in-10-
year 7-day low flow for the same period is 107 cfs.
Below Auburn, drainage from the lower Green River basin
enters the river. In 1972 a pumping plant was installed
at Renton to pump floodwater from the eastern valley into
the Green River. However, the system of drainage canals
tc convey this floodwater to the pumping station is still
in the design stages. When complete, stormwater during flood
events will be added to the flow of the Green River.
The Green River is primarily used for municipal and
industrial water supply, fisheries, recreation and irrigation.
C-4
-------
State Minimum Flow Standards and Howard Hansen Dam
Re leases. Freshwater inflow from the Green River is an
important parameter affecting physical, chemical, and bio-
logical aspects of the Green-Duwamish River and estuary. The
Washington Department of Ecology (DOE 1980) recently adopted
minimum instream flow standards for the Green River. Adopted
minimum flows at Auburn, upstream from the tidally-influenced
estuary, are as follows:
650 cfs December 1-June 15
300 cfs July 15-September 30
550 cfs November 1-15
Summer low flows at Auburn presently regularly drop
as low as about 200 cfs. Implementation of the 300 cfs
summer minimum flow is uncertain. Revised operation of
Howard Hansen Dam could provide some additional flow.
Existing water rights can not be affected under the Wash-
ington instream flow program (DOE, 1980).
In some years, streamflow releases from Howard Hansen
Dam are purposely timed in fall to stimulate the upstream
migration of chinook salmon and aid in management of the
Indian fishery for coho salmon. In late August and September,
chinook salmon congregate in Elliott Bay and the lower
Duwamish estuary in preparation for their spawning run up
the Green River. The entire run of chinook is usually
needed for spawning purposes to maintain the run.
In late September and October, coho salmon congregate
in Elliott Bay and the lower estuary in preparation for their
spawning run. Coho are usually present in excess of spawning
requirements and Indian commercial fishing is usually permitted.
However, gill nets used in the fishery do not selectively
fish for coho, and chinook would be caught also.
To stimulate the chinook to move upstream so that the
fishery can be opened for coho, the Washington Department
of Fisheries requested the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers
to release additional water from Howard Hansen Dam. This
stimulates the chinook and coho in the estuary to move up-
stream and allows the opening of the Indian fishery in the
estuary to succeeding "waves" of coho.
The amount of additional water released from the dam
is about 500 cfs, for a total river flow at Auburn of about
700 cfs. There is no water in Howard Hansen Reservoir
specifically allocated for this purpose. The water released
is leftover summer storage, and is not available in drier
years. This release is not necessary in years when sub-
stantial fall rains occur.
C-5
-------
Green-Duwamish Estuary. The Green-Duwamish estuary
is of special concern because it is the present and one
alternative future receiving water body for Renton treatment
plant effluent. Discharge of the effluent presents a po-
tential conflict with the anadromous fisheries resources
of the river. Physical and chemical characteristics of the
Green-Duwamish estuary are given by Metro {1979e). Additional
relevant material is presented here.
The Green-Duwamish estuary extends from its mouth at
Elliott Bay upstream to the upper limit of tidal influence,
about river mile 13, above the Renton sewage treatment plant
(Figure 1-2). The lower 5.5 miles are dredged for ship
navigation. The upper section averages about 5 feet deep
(Yake, 1980). The Renton plant discharges at river mile
12. The section between mile 5 and mile 7 can range from
0-40 percent salt water depending on tidal stage and river
flow. The section above mile 7 is predominantly fresh,
though hydraulically influenced by tides.
At MSL the estuary has a water surface area of about
1 square mile. The estuary is well stratified (salt-wedge
type) at fresh water inflows greater than about 1,000 cfs.
At inflows less than 1,000 cfs, the estuary grades into the
partly mixed type (Santos and Stoner, 1972).
Cedar River. The Cedar River originates in the Cascade
Mountains. The river flows for 50 miles from the Cascades,
onto the Puget Sound lowlands, and ultimately into Lake
Washington at Renton.
The Cedar River is regulated by Chester Morse Lake,
located 37 miles upstream of the mouth. This lake, with
an active storage of 40,000 acre-feet, provides water for
the City of Seattle and for power generation. Between 150
and 300 cfs are diverted at the Landsburg diversion dam by
Seattle for municipal and industrial (M&I) use (Metro, 1979e).
The flow of the Cedar River reaches a maximum in the
winter months of December and January and a minimum between
July and September. The average annual flow of the Cedar
River before the Landsburg diversion dam is 700 cfs. The
once in 10-year 7-day low flow is 184 cfs. Downstream at
Renton, the average and l-in-10-year 7-day low flow are 632
cfs and 40 cfs, respectively (CH2M Hill, 1974a).
The Cedar River is primarily used for water supply,
recreation, fisheries, and to meet the flow needs of the
Chittenden Locks.
Sammamish River. The Sammamish River flows from Lake
Sammamish to Lake Washington. The river, approximately 14
C-6
-------
ft Eft TOM
TREATMENT
PLANT
Out Ion
G-
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
9.0 10.0
11.0
DUWAMtSH WATERWAY/ESTUARY
LOWER GREEN/DDWAM ISH RIVER
(dredged waterway)
SOURCE"- YAKE , 19B0
FIGURE 1-2. LOWER GREEN-DUWAMISH RIVER WITH RIVER MILE INDEX
-------
miles long, drains an area of 196 square miles. The Sammamish
River is a narrow, slow-moving river that flows through agri-
cultural lands and several communities.
The Sammamish River channel was modified in the early
1960s to accommodate higher flows. The work, performed by
the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers and King County, consisted
of widening, straightening and deepening the main channel.
Removal of riparian vegetation was also part of this project.
Recreational uses of the Sammamish River include swimming,
fishing and boating.
Other Rivers. Metro (1979e) has surveyed the conditions
of the numerous small streams in the study area. The Metro
analysis is summarized in the water quality section.
Water Quality
The State of Washington water quality standards for
lakes and rivers are shown in Table 1-1. A summary of water
quality problems in study area lakes and rivers was prepared
as part of Metro's 20 8 planning, and is shown in Table 1-2.
The water quality conditions of individual lakes and rivers
are reviewed below.
Lakes
All the lakes within the study area are classified in
the DOE water quality standards as "lake class".
Lake Washington. The quality of Lake Washington has
been monitored since the early 1930s. Between the initiation
of sampling and present time, the lake has gone from oligo-
trophic to eutrophic and then improved in quality and is
currently mesotrophic (STR, Inc., 1974c) (Table 1-3).
During the 1950s, the quality of Lake Washington steadily
declined due to disposal of treated sewage from 11 treat-
ment plants, combined sewer outflows (CSOs) and saltwater
intrusion. Algal productivity, nutrients and salinity were
all increasing in response to the sewage inflows and saltwater
intrusion.
In 1963, concentrations of nutrients and chlorophyll a
reached maximum levels and began to decline. The decline
was associated with the diversion of sewage from Lake Wash-
ington begun in 1963. By 1968 all sewage had been diverted
from Lake Washington. In diverting the sewage from the lake,
C-8
-------
Table 1-1. State of Washington Water Quality Standards
86-
o cro
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4
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£ S
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(10%>100)
>9.5 <110
16
t= 23/ (T+5)
(10%>43| >7.0 < 110 t=a/(T_4)
6. 5-8. 5
(0.1)
7.0-8.5
(0.1)
<5
< 5
Shall be less than those which may
affect public health, the natural
aquatic environment, or the desir-
bility of the water for any usage.
Aesthetic values shall not be inrpaired
by the presence of materials or their
effects, excluding those of natural
origin, which offend the senses of
sight, arell, touch or taste.
A
Excellent
|| U0%>200) >8"0 <110 t=286/(T+7>
§ 14
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18
t= 12 (T- 2)
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(0.25)
7.0-8.5
(0.25)
< 5
<5
Sliall be below those of public
health significance, or which may
cause acute or chronic toxic
conditions to the aquatic biota,
or which nay adversely affect any
water.
Aesthetic values shall not be impaired
by the presence of materials or their
effects, excluding those of natural
origin, which offend tie senses of
sight, smell, touch or taste.
B
Good
m aj 200
8 g (10%>400)
u« 3
Si 100
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>6.5
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(h)
<110
<110
21
t= 24/ (T+9)
19
t= 16/T
6.5-8.5
(0.5)
7.0-B.5
(0.5)
: 10
<10
Shall be be lew those which adversely
affect public health during the
exercise of cliaracteristic usages, or
which nay cause acute or chronic
toxic conditions to the aquatic biota,
or which may adversely affect charac-
teristic water uses.
Sliall not be reduced by dissolved,
suspended, floating or submerged
matter not attributable to natural
causes, so as to affect water usage or
taint the flesh of edible species.
C
Fair
200
a w
Ul QJ
S <5 (10i>400)
&4
£
>5.0
(e)
>4.0
(e)
<110
<110
24
t= 39/(T+ll)
22
t= 20/(T+2)
6.5-9.0
(0.5)
7.0-9.0
(0.5)
<10
<10
Shall be less than tliose which may
affect public health, the natural
aquatic environment, or the desir-
ability of the water for any usage.
Aesthetic values shall not be inpaired
by the presence of materials or their
effects, excluding those of natural
origin, which offend the senses of
sight, smell, touch or taste.
lake Class
50
(10%>100)
HI
n
(g) <110
(h)
) Dissolved oxygen shall not exceed values shown, or 50 percent saturation, whichever is greater.
(f) No measurable decrease from natural conditions.
(g) No measurable change from natural conditions.
(Ii) Dissolved oxygen shall not exceed values sliown, or 70 percent saturation, whichever is greater.
SOWCE: M.'tro, 1979c. State of Washington.
-------
Table 1-2. Water Quality Problems of
Lakes, Rivers, and Streams
Lakai
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-------
Table 1-3. Suggested Criteria for Judging the Trophic Status
of Temperate Lakes and the Respective
Values for Lake Washington
ITEM
OLIGOTROPIIIC
EUTROPIIIC
LAKE
WASHIngton
Chlorophyll a ug/1^" (growth season
mean)
0-4
10-100
4 .77
2 2
Primary productivity mgC.m per day
(growth season mean)
30-300
1,000-3,000
3507
3 ">
Hypolimnetic O2 deficit in mg 02/cm
per day (mean rate)
.025
.055
Ortho PO4-P in ug/14 (winter mean)
-
10
16.5^
NOj-N in ug/1^ (winter mean)
-
300
340?
5 2
Total P annual supply in g/m per
year for mean depth 32.9 m
.22
.42
.4B0
5 5
Total N annual supply in g/nt per
year for mean depth 32.9 m
3.00
6.00
4.33®
^Based on data from several lakes in Canada and United States.
2
Modified from Rhode {1969), including data from Schindler and Nighswander (1970).
3
After Mortimer {1941, 1942).
^Modified from Sawyer (1952).
"*After Vollenweider (1968) .
6
Criteria are from Welch and Spyridakis (1972).
^1974 conditions as reported in Edmondson (in press).
80ata from Emery et.al. (1973).
SOURCE: Metro, 1979e. State of Nashinqton.
-------
it is estimated that 55 percent of the total phosphorus and
12 percent of the total nitrogen inflow to the lake was
removed (STR, Inc., 197 4c).
In addition to reduction in nutrients, water clarity
also improved during the 1960s. Secchi disk readings went
from 1 meter in the 1950s to 13 meters in 1977 (Metro, 1979e).
The increase in clarity has been associated with a recent
increase in Daphnia sp., which is a grazer of phytoplankton.
In the mid-1970s Daphnia replaced Diaptomus sp. as the
dominant zooplankton species in Lake Washington, Metro, 1978e).
In the years before the lake became eutrophic, nitrate
was in excess during spring algal blooms while phosphate
approached zero (Metro, 1979e). However, the high phosphorus
content of the treated sewage being discharged into the lake
during the 1950s changed the phosphorus-limiting situation
to nitrate-limiting. During the period of severe eutro-
phication nitrate was near zero and phosphate in excess.
Since diversion of treated sewage, the lake has returned
to a phosphorus-limiting condition (Metro, 1979e).
Metro (1979e) and STR, Inc., (1974a) have identified
improvement in lake quality following diversion of sewage
but stated that conditions have not yet reached pre-1950
conditions. The open water areas of Lake Washington are
currently rated satisfactory in terms of the state standards
(Metro, 1973c). However, nearshore areas have localized
problems due to stormwater runoff and CSOs. Currently there
are 38 CSOs that discharge 858 million gallons annually
(Metro, 1978c). Stormwater runoff and CSOs transport
nutrients, coliforms, toxic material and sediment to Lake
Washington. CSO flows have been characterized by Metro
(Table 1-4). Metro has also developed a program for control
of CSOs (Brown and Caldwell, 1979b). This includes in-
creasing pumping capacity, in-line storage, and off-line
storage.
Lake Sammamish. Lake Sammamish is considered to be
mesotrophic. This condition has not changed significantly
in the last century (Metro, 1979e). Dissolved oxygen varia-
tions in the hypolimnion, significant enough to violate
standards, occur annually (CH2M Hill, 1974a). However, it
is felt that this variation may be natural (STR, Inc., 1974c).
In the early 1960s, Lake Sammamish received domestic
and industrial wastewater. A diversion project designed
to eliminate the discharges was begun in 196 5 and completed
in 1969. Diversion of the wastewater reduced phosphorus
and nitrogen by 39 and 22 percent, respectively. Lake
Sammamish, however, did not respond to the diversion of
C-12
-------
Table 1-4. Pollutant Levels in Stormwater and
Combined Sewer Overflows (CSO)
Parameter
Units
Stormwater
CSO
Minimum
Maximum
Average
Minimum
Maximum
Averane
BOD
ma/1
8
30
19
15
82
60
COD
mg/1
57
97
78
100
330
240
Total Susp. Solids
ma/1
54
190
99
140
1400
2 2 Ca
Orgar.iC-N
mg /I
1 . 1
3 . 5
1. 9
-
-
-
NK , "N
ma / 1
D . 09
C . 59
0.37
0 . 46
1 . 50
0.92'
N02-!'
ma/1
0 . 02
0.12
0.07
0.15
0.33
0 . 2"s
N03-r:
ma/1
0 . 51
0. S3
0.69
0 .15
0 . 36
0. 27a
Hydrolvzable-P
mg/1
0.17
0.71
0. 36
1 .18
1.74
1 . 4Ca
Crthe-?
mg/1
0.05
0. 16
0.11
-
-
-
Cu
ma/I
0.04
0.44
0.14
0.07
0.24
0.2;
?b
mc/1
0 .08
0.44
0.30
0.56
0.94
¦"I r- *
He
mg/1
0.OOG3
0.OOOS
0.0005
0.01
0.01
o.c:
.r
nn /1
0 . 009
¦ Or23
0.-06
- 0.02
0. 19
0.09
Cad--.::-!
nc/1
0.004
0.013
0 .006
0.01
C .02
o.c:
:r.
mg/1
0.068
0.36
0.28
0.23
0 . 50
0.35
*:*•
mc/1
0.02
0 .04
0 . 03 =
0.04
0 .05
0 . 05
Fe
na/1
0.19
2 . A
1 . 4
-
-
-
Chlorides
mc/1
5.3
24.0
10.S
-
-
-
?-lfates
no/I
7
26. 1
13 . 4
-
-
-
Trtal Coliforms
#/100 mis
1.6 x 103
•1.6 x 105
6.7 x 105
1.9 x 104
7.0 x 106
2.3-', >: 1 C6
"oca! Colifcrr-s
f/100 mis
30
4.4 X 10^
i
6 . ¦' y. 10'
3.(? y 103
7.3 x 10:
2.49 y. 10 :
Fc-cal Streptc-
2
e
, _ 4
:oc:i
IV100 mis
5 x 10'
1.8 x 10"
4 . 5C x 1C
¦ 1974. 1975 CATA.D c'ata , not overflow veiahter*
Fror- epa report (10), not overflow weiohte^
T ~~ ''etro report (9), arab samples
SOURCE: Brown and Caldwell, 19 79b.
C-l 3
-------
sewage as completely as Lake Washington. There has been
no apparent change in the late summer hypolimnion oxygen
deficit, the nitrate corvcen.tr at ion., primary production or
DO profiles. Small reductions in orthophosphate have occurred
(CH2M Hill, 1974a) .
Current lake conditions have been summarized by Metro
(1979e) and are shown in Table 1-5.
Small Lakes. The trophic status of various small lakes
ranges from mesotrophic to highly eutrophic. Metro (1979e)
rated several small lakes for their aesthetics, fishability,
and swimming. The ratings were based upon water quality
criteria such as coliform, bacteria, turbidity, macrophytes,
DO, temperature and productivity. Metro's ratings are shown
in Table 1-6.
The primary water quality problems in small lakes
identified by Metro relate to coliform, bacteria, sedimenta-
tion, and aquatic weeds. The source of coliform was identi-
fied by Metro (1978b), as failing septic tanks, CSOs and
animal wastes. Most of the developed areas near the small
lakes rely upon on-site disposal systems. The suitability
of the soils for these systems varies, and in some areas
failures have occurred.
Sedimentation is related to land use practices. Land
clearing, construction, high density development, increased
runoff rates, logging, and stream channelization have been
identified as sources of increased sediment loads to small
lakes (Metro, 1978b).
Aquatic weeds have become a nuisance to boating, swimming,
and aesthetics in many small lakes, as well as Lake Washington
and Lake Sammamish (Figure 1-3). Eurasian water milfoil
is the primary problem species (Metro, 1978b). The aquatic
weeds respond to the nutrient levels and temperatures in
the lakes, The shallowness of many of the small lakes leads
to warm temperatures. Some of the small lakes have up to
90 percent of the surface covered with weeds (Metro, 1979e).
The aquatic weeds become a nuisance not only in terms of
aesthetics but also because they interfere with swimming,
boating, and fishing. Decaying weeds exert an oxygen demand
which lowers dissolved oxygen concentrations.
The degree to which increased nutrients due to urbani-
zation contribute to aquatic weed problems is unknown. De
facto introduction of Eurasian water milfoil in a lake may
be the main problem.
C-14
-------
Table 1-5. Lake Sammamish Chemical and Biological Properties
1964-1965
1974
Chi a (growing
season) ug/1
7.1
6.8
10-lC0a
Primary Productivity
during growth season
mgC/m2 day (growth season mean)
889 (1970)
775
1000-3000a
02 deficit rate
mg/lm2 day
0.053
0.06 - 0.1
—
Total P (winter
mean) ug/1
24
34 (ortho-P),
12)
10s
Secchi: Depth
(summer mean) m
2.9
3.1
Total P Income
kg/yr
19,100
11,800
39%b
Total Surface
Loading g/a2 yr
0.97
0.06
0.26C
Total N Income
kg/yr
49,100
38,298
22%b
Total Surface
Loading g/m2 yr
4.96
3.84
.u
o
o
n
a Levels suggested as being indicative of eutropnic conditions:
(1) Based on data from several lakes in Canada and United States.
(2) Modified from Rhode (1969) , including data from Schir.dler
and Nightswander (1970).
(3) Modified from Sawyer (1952).
b
Percent of nutrients diverted by "Metro" construction.
Vollenweider1s (I960) suggested nutrient loading rate as indicative
of a eutrophic condition.
SOURCE: Metro, 197 9e.
C-15
-------
Table 1-6. Lake Water Quality Ratings
Lake
Aesthetics
Fishar>i lity
Swirunab i lity
Trout
Slab l tat
Spiny Ray
Habitat
5ma11 Lakes
Bass
Fa i r
InsuCficiort Data
Fa i r
Beaver
Good
Good
Good
Fair
Cottage
Poor
Fair
Fa i r
Fair
Deep
Good
Cood
Cood
Good
Desire
Poor
Fair
Fair
Poor
Dolloff
Poor
InsuCficient Data
Poor
Kathleen
Fa l r
Fair
Fa Lr
Fai r
Luce rne
Good
Insufficiont Data
Good
Mer i c ia n
Good
Fair
Good
Good
Moaeysmith
Poor
Insufficient Data
Poor
Morton
Fair
—
Fair
Fair
Number Twelve
Fa i r
Good
Good
Fa i r
Pan the r
Poor
Insufficient Data
Poor
Phantom
Fair
Insufficient Data
Insufficient Data
Pine
Fair
Good
Good
Poor
Pipe
Good
Fair
Good
Good
Retreat
Good
Fair
Good
Good
Sawyer
Fair
Good
Good
Fa i r
Shadow
Good
Good
Good
Fair
Shady
Fair
Fair
Good
Fair
Sprir.g/Otter
Fair
Fa i r
Fair
Good
Wi Iderncss
Fair
Fair
Fair
Good
Ldr^e Lakes
Saiv^amsh
Fair
Good
Good
Good
Washington
Good
Good
Good
Good
SOURCE: Metro, 1979e.
C-16
-------
Figure 1-3. Milfoil Weed Infestation in
the Study Area Vicinity
Laki Sjmmjmnh
PUGET SOUND
Otter lak»
Shadow Lak*
Metro, 1978b
C
-17
-------
Lakes of Special Concern, Three lakes in the study area
(Lake Desire, Pipe Lake, Pine Lake) are of special concern
because of the decentralization treatment considered for these
areas in Metro's wastewater management planning. The water
quality of all three lakes was summarized by Metro (1979e).
Metro (1979e) found Lake Desire to be "one of the few
lakes in the region that is aesthetically undesirable con-
sistently". The lake is highly discolored due to bog seepage
and algal growth, and is considered eutrophic. Lake Desire
was studied by Metro in 1976. Significant levels of nutrients
and bacteria were found (Metro, 1976). Failing septic tanks
and development were identified as causes of lake water quality
problems.
The Lake Desire area is being considered for possible
installation of sewers and hook-up with the Cascade Sewer
District. It is not known what effects sewering would have
on lake water quality.
Pipe Lake was rated by Metro (1979e) as good with respect
to aesthetics and swimmability and good-to-fair for fish-
ability. The quality of Pipe Lake has been investigated
by Metro (1976). Pipe Lake was found to be between meso-
trophic and eutrophic in 1973. Although phytoplankton density
in the lake was found to be low relative to other lakes in the
area, macrophytes were at problem levels (Metro, 1976).
Pine Lake was rated by Metro as one of the most eutrophic
in the study area (Metro, 1979e). This is based upon high
nutrient levels, high phytoplankton densities and undesirable
algal species present in the lake. Coliform counts were
found to be within proposed state standards.
Pine Lake is currently being studied as part of a joint
Metro/USGS investigation. Data have been collected for
nutrients, temperature, dissolved oxygen and chlorophyll a.
Preliminary results show good water quality for a eutrophic
lake. However, it has been suggested that these data are
atypical and are responding to the preceding dry year (Metro,
pers. comm.).
Streams
Green-Duwamish Rivers. The Green River is rated in
the DOE water quality standards as Class "A" from the con-
fluence with the Black River to Flaming Geyser Peak. This
reach also has a classification of water quality limited
due to nonpoint sources (WQ-NPS). Above Flaming Geyser Peak
C-18
-------
the river is rated Class "AA" with a no discharges classi-
fication above approximately Palmer. Below the Black River
it is rated Class "B".
Water quality conditions of the Green River have been
analyzed in several reports (Metro 1979e; Metro, 1978c; STR,
Inc. , 1974c) . The quality of the Green River decreases in
a downstream direction. In the lower reaches, point and
nonpoint source discharges, including runoff from agricultural
and urban lands, adversely influences the quality in the lower
river.
Temperatures in the Green River are, to a large extent,
inversely proportional to flow: high temperatures occur
in the late summer when flows are low. DOE temperature
standards at Auburn and Tukwila are usually exceeded each
year during this low flow period. Temperatures in the lower
Green River have displayed an increasing trend since about
1964. This trend is probably due to increasing urbanization,
increasing point source discharges, and loss of riparian
vegetation.
Dissolved oxygen problems exist in the Green River due
to high temperatures and algal respiration. Metro (197 9e)
found dissolved oxygen concentrations at Auburn to average
1-2 mg/1 higher than downstream at Tukwila. Figure 1-4 depicts
a diurnal oxygen profile in the lower Green River. During
the night and early morning hours the dissolved oxygen is
minimum due to respiration of algae. As photosynthesis begins,
the dissolved oxygen and percent saturation increases. In
this example, it is only during the height of photosynthetic
oxygen production that the dissolved oxygen standard is achieved.
State coliform standards are violated annually at Auburn
and Tukwila. Metro found little correlation between coliform
counts and flow; however, there is an apparent trend of in-
creasing coliform in a downstream direction (Metro, 1979e).
Nutrient conditions on the Green River have been summarized
by Metro (1979e). Nitrate ranged from 0.015 mg/1 to 0.518
mg/1 in the period October 1978 to September 197 9. Total
phosphate increases in a downstream direction. Orthophosphate
is the phosphorus form most easily taken up by aquatic macro-
phytes and algae.
Green-Duwamish Estuary.
Historical Conditions. The Green-Duwamish estuary was
formerly the receiving water body for many M&I discharge
point sources of pollution, and was highly polluted. Dis-
solved oxygen concentrations near the bottom occasionally
approached 0 mg/1 during the low flow period in late summer/
C-1 9
-------
Figure 1-4
DIURNAL VARIATION OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN AND TEMPERATURE
Dissolved Oxygen
mg/l
Temperature. °C
22 0 +
TEMPERATURE
< 10 00
21.0
DISSOLVED OXYGEN.
MG/L
DISSOLVEO OXYGEN.
% SATURATION J
¦49.00
20.0
8 0 mg/l. Slate standard
lor dissolved oxygen
| % Saturation
"*8.00 ^ 100%
9.0
7 00
~ 80%
18.0
70%
Noon
Au«utt 21, 1974 MtTIO Station 31S Xen» / D««-Moin#i Bridge
SOURCE: Metro, 1979e.
C-20
-------
early fall in the 1960s. Since then most Mil discharges
have been routed to the West Point treatment plant. Combined
sewer overflows and the Renton treatment plant are the
remaining major point source discharges to the estuary (DOE,
pers. comm.).
Region Treatment Plar.t Pollutant Loading. The main
point source discharge to the Green-Duwanish estuary is now
the Renton treatment plant. The Renton. plant discharges
secondary treated effluent to the Green River 1-nile above
the confluence with the Black River. The Renton plant
receives both municipal and industrial wastes. Summaries of
industrial contributions to the Renton plant are presented
in Tables 1-7 and 1-S.
The treatment plant is currently discharging at about
40 MGD. Effluent and wasteload characteristics are shown
in Table 1-9
Effects of Renton Treatment Plant Efflusnt. Known effects
of Renton treatment plant effluent on concentrations of ammonia,
dissolved oxygen, chlorine, coliform bacteria, pclychlorinatec
biphenyls (PCBsl, heavy metals, and temperature in the Green-
Duwamish estuary are reviewed below.
Ammonia. There are no state receiving water standards
for ammonia. The CI. £. Environmental Protecticn Agency (EPA)
(1976) criterion for ammonia is 0.02 mc/1 unionized ammonia.
The Rentor. treatment plant discharge presently causes vio-
lations of the EPA unionized ammonia criterion in late summer.
SaraDling in 1979 revealed values as high as C.105 mg/l
(Bernhardt, 1930).
Unionized ammonia is toxic to salmonid fishes (LC50)
at levels of about 0.2 mg/l. Welch and Trial (1979) found
that present total ammonia levels in the estuary would cause
unionized ammonia to exceed 0.5 mg/l under temperature and
pH conditions that occurred during an algal bloom in the
estuary in 1966.
Dissolved C'xygsn. State dissolved oxygen standards
in the Green-Duwamish River are 5 mg/l or 70 percent satura-
tion (whichever is greater) in waters cf salinity over 1,000
mg/l below the Black River (Class 3) and E mg/l above the
Black River (Class A) . In the freshwater reach belov; the
Black River, the standard is 6.5 mg/l (Class B|.
.Maximum dissolved oxygen concentrations in the Green-
Ouwaraish estuary approach is 12 mg/L in winter, coincident
with high flow and low temperatures. Minimum concentrations
during the low flow period of late summer commonly violate
C-21
-------
Table 1-7. Industrial Contributors to the
Renton Collection System
Industry
Industrial Category
BOD,
mg / I
SS,
rrtg/l
Flow, gpd
AD&S Radiator Repairs
Radiator shops
Alaska Fish Fertilizer
Agricultural chemicals
Associated Vinters
Wine
1, 477
242
Auburn Dairy Products
Milk processing
12D
33 ,800
Bellevue Plating
Metal finishing & allied services
Blue Banner Foods
Pickled fruits and vegetables
1 ,760
520
13 ,700
Bob's Heat
Meat process/meat pack/sausage
Boeing Company, Renton
Metal finishing & allied services
940,700
Boeing Company, Space
Center
Metal finishing & allied services
276,600
Borden Chemical
Industrial organic chemicals
Burlington Northern,
Auburn
Railroad switching terminals
Darigold-Issaquah
Milk processing
2,106
372
124,300
Dato I/O Corp.
Metal finishing & allied services
16,000
Davis Walker
Steel wiring drawing
10
2471
73,000
Emerson G.M. Diesel
Metal finishing & allied services
Evans Engine & Equipment
Farwest Paint Mfg.
Company
Paint manufacturing
Forte Rentals
Misc. personal services
General Disposal
Refuse systems
General Meat
Meat process/meat pack/sausage
987
244
8,700
George A. Hormell
Meat process/meat pack/sausage
621
175
14,500
Green River Cheese
Cheese processing
13,971
1326
10, 900
Heath Tecna
Metal finishing i allied services
191 , 900
Kalda Mfg.
Printed circuit boards
Kelly Moore Paint
Paint manufacturing
Kent Highlands
Refuse systems
540
108
King County Solid Waste
Refuse systems
1 ,312
562
Kirkland Custom Cannery
Canned and cured fish
458
386
850
Heat Specialists
Meat process/meat pack/sausage
396
700
Meisel Photo Chrome
Photo processing
N C Machinery Company
Misc. personal services
National Can
Metal cans
IS
SS
541 , 600
Northwest Metal Products
Metal finishing & allied services
Pace National
Soaps, detergents, cleaning preps
3,816
290
1,575
Pacific Car & Foundry
Metal finishing & allied services
2 3 7 B
50 , 700
Pacific Coca Cola
Bottled £ canned soft drinks
538
190
141,600
Pascal
Drugs
Precision Metal Products
Metal finishing i allied services
Propellers Inc.
Metal finishing & allied services
Protective Coatings
Metal finishing i allied services
23,000
C-22
-------
Table 1-7. Cont'd.
Randy's Foods
382
75
Safeway Bakery
5,405
7292
16,795
Safeway Beverages
Bottled & canned soft drinks
550
190
53,000
Safeway Distribution
Center
Milk processing
6,418
1673
228 , 800
Service Laundry
Industrial laundry
867
726
37,000
Shasta Beverages
Bottled & canned soft drinks
1 ,635
50
25 , 500
Societe Candy
Candy manufacturing
1,589
200
44,300
Ste. Michelle
Wine
1,576
285
Sunstrand Data Control
Printed circuit boards
53,300
Tavoler Laboratory
Fish hatchery
Universal Seafoods
Fresh or frozen packaged fish
129
119
110 ,200
Van Waters & Rogers
Chemicals and allied chemicals
Walt's Renton Radiator
Radiator shops
Westak-North, Inc.
Metal finishing & allied services
27,800
Western Pneumatic Tube
Metal finishing & allied services
Western Processing
Inorganic chemicals
aData obtained from Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle's Industrial Wastewater
Records (ICR and surcharge records). No data indicates flows and loadings are
less than or equal to domestic equivalent.
SOURCE: Metro, 197 9d.
C- 23
-------
Table 1-8. Industrial Heavy Metal Dischargesa
Company
Heavy
metals, pounds/year
Cd
Cr
Cu
Ni
Pb
Zn
Bellevue Plating
0.033
1.37
3.4
16.0
0.44
16.0
Boeing, Renton
7.0
780.0
250.0
20.0
70.0
220.0
Cedar Hills
4.0
5.0
6.0
20.0
7.9
1200.0
Data I/O
71.0
140.0
11.0
24.0
4 . 4
Davis Walker
1.0
22.0
26.0
33.0
10.0
10.0
Factoria
0.1
13.0
3.1
0.97
H i N
0.06
3.3
0.7
15.7
Heath Tecna
200 .0
2000.0
270 .0
550.0
60.0
120.0
Kalda
0.12
0.2
71.0
0.67
6.39
16.0
Kelly Moore
0.1
1 . 3
0.2
0.5
4.2
Meisel
0.1
—
4.2
1.0
1. 0
National Can
3.0
140.0
70.0
150.0
40.0
150.0
Pace
0.5
2.7
1.8
1.4
3.6
10.0
Pacific Propeller
97. 9
87. 4
26.0
24.0
8.7
120.0
Protective Coatings
100.0
190.0
12.0
15.0
3. 3
18.0
Service Laundry
1.4
1. 2
2.7
9.1
3.4
5.0
Sundstrand
0.26
4.3
7.1
5.7
1.0
4.3
Van Waters
0.097
0.5
27.0
0.6
3.3
7.0
Westak
0.8
30.0
13.0
18.0
200 . 0
Data obtained from Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle's Industrial Wastewater
Records (ICR and surcharge records). No data indicates flows and loadings are
less than or equal to domestic equivalent.
SOURCE: Metro, 1979d.
C-24
-------
Table 1-9- Average Annual Concentration and Load
From the Renton Sewage Treatment Plant
Average Annual
Concentration
Average Annual
Load*
BOD
9.0
2,980
Suspended Solids
12.0
3, 970
COD
52.0
17,200
Total Nitrogen
17.0
5, 630
Orthophosphate
4.3
1,420
Temperature
56-73PF
-
PH
6.7-6.9
-
Dissolved Oxygen
7.0
-
Chlorine Residual
. 25
82
Coliforms
<100 per 100 ml
-
Mercury
.0014
. 47
Cadmium
< .004
.18
Cooper
.03
10. 3
Lead
< .02
3.8
Zinc
.04
12 . 2
Nickel
.03
3.0
Chromium
.02
5. 9
*Assuming an effluent flow of 39.7 MGD.
SOURCE; Metro, 197 9d.
C- 25
-------
the state standard of 5 mg/1 in the salt wedge. Dissolved
oxygen values between 4 arid 5 mg/1 in the salt wedge are
common. Values below 3 mg/1 have not been recorded since
1969 (Metro, 1979e).
Some dissolved oxygen samples taken in September 1979
were in violation of the state standards both in the fresh-
water and saltwater reaches of the estuary; values as low
as 4.9 mg/1 were found (Bernhardt, 1980).
Present discharges of ammonia from the Renton treatment
plant are at least partially responsible for dissolved oxygen
standard violations in the estuary. Yake (1980) found that
nitrogenous BOD accounted for over 95 percent of the total
instream BOD. Carbonaceous BOD was relatively unimportant.
Residual Chlorine, There are no numerical state stan-
dards for chlorine in receiving waters. The EPA (1976)
criterion is 0.002 mg/1.
The Renton effluent was found toxic (96-hour LC50) to
coho salmon at a concentration of 29 percent. Removal of
chlorine eliminated the toxicity characteristic at that con-
centration (Buckley and Matsuda, 1973). Although dechlori-
nation has been added to the Renton plant since the 197 3
work was conducted, violations of the EPA (1976) criterion
of 0.002 mg/1 have been found. In November 1979, values
as high as 0.19 mg/1 were found in the immediate vicinity
of the discharge, and values as high as 0.07 mg/1 were found
1-mile downstream (Bernhardt, 1930}.
Coliform Bacteria. Coliform bacteria levels in the
Green-Duwamish estuary are highly variable. Violations of
state standards occur throughout the year (Metro, 1979e).
The Renton treatment plant effluent does not appear to be
responsible for the violations (Bernhardt, 1980). CSOs and
nonpoint source runoff are probably principal sources.
Poly chlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs). Metro (1979e) has
summarized the occurrence of PCBs in the Duwamish River
estuary. High concentrations have been found in fish flesh
and in the bottom sediments. The major sources have not
been identified. PCBs have been cited as a possible cause
of fin erosion and liver disease in Duwamish estuary fishes
(Miller, et al., 1977).
Heavy Metals. There have been no studies conducted
of heavy metals in Duwamish River sediments or biota. Metro
conducts monitoring for heavy metals in the Renton effluent.
NPDES effluent limitations for the existing permit and for
the new draft permit are shown in Table 1-10. Effluent
C-26
-------
Table 1-10. NPDES Permit Heavy Metals Limitations
for the Renton Treatment Plant
Existing Permit New Draft Permit
April
Monthly
October
Daily
November
Monthly
March
Daily
Year-round
Daily
Cadmium
Mg/1
4
6
4
6
1 . 6
lb/day
1
2.5
1
2.5
0.48
Chromium (total)
Mg/i
20
130
20
130
100
lb/day
5
12
5
12
30. 02
Copper
pg/i
40
200
40
200
8
lb/day
13
19
16
30
2. 40
Lead
pg/i
50
140
50
140
21
lb/day
15
45
18
52
6. 31
Mercury
Mg/i
1.5
1. 5
1. 5
1.5
0.2
lb/day
—
—
—
0.06
N ickel
yg/i
30
60
30
60
100
lb/day
9
20
9
20
30 .02
Silver
Mg/i
-
-
—
-
0.68
lb/day
—
—
—
—
0. 20
Zinc
Mg/1
90
180
90
180
4
lb/day
36
56
41
65
1. 20
SOURCES: Metro, 1979d; Metro, pers. comm.
-------
limitations in the new permit are based on meeting EPA (1976)
receiving water criteria under 4:1 dilution condition in
the Green-Duwamish River (DOE, pers. comm.).
Temperature. The state temperature standards in the
Green-Duwamish estuary are 19°C in the marine portion and
21°C in the freshwater portion below the Black River (Class
B), and 18°C above the Black River (Class A). Temperature
standards in the estuary are violated annually during the
summer months. Upstream at Tukwila, standards are violated
about one year in two (Metro, 1979d).
Renton treatment plant effluent is about 23°C in
September (Bernhardt, 1980). The role of the Renton dis-
charge in causing repeated temperature standard violations
during the summer is uncertain. Bernhardt (1930) found that
the Renton effluent increased the receiving water temperature
by 1.4°C, from 18.5°C-19.9°C, on September 18, 1979. Tidal ac-
tion in the receiving waters probably causes slugs of water to
have higher temperatures than would be dictated by a mass-
balance mixing of the river water and the effluent.
Cedar River.- The Cedar River below the Landsburg
diversion is rated as Class "A". Above the diversion, the
river is rated Class "AA".
The quality of the Cedar River has been analyzed in
several studies, (STR, Inc., 1974c; Metro and Seattle Water
Department, 1979; Metro, 1978c). The quality of the Cedar
River decreases in a downstream direction. Diversion of
flow and return flows from point and nonpoint sources in-
fluence the river quality.
Water quality problems have periodically occurred in
the Cedar River. Temperature is the primary problem. Vio-
lations of the state standards have been measured during
the summer months. These violations have occurred not only
during extreme low flows, but even during flow events as
high as a 7-day low flow that occurs once every 2 years
(Metro, 1979e). Shallow river depth and diversion of flows
significantly affect temperatures in the river.
A temperature study was recently conducted on the Cedar
River (Metro and Seattle Water Department, 197 9). The study
found increasing temperatures in a downstream direction.
Temperature increases due to Chester Morse Lake were also
identified.
A temperature simulation model was developed for the
Cedar River as part of the Metro/Seattle Water Department
Study. This model, calibrated against data collected in
C- 28
-------
1972, showed that the DOE temperature standard has historically
been violated under natural conditions. Temperatures were
also simulated under three different flow regimes. The
results indicated that alternative flew regiir.es could reduce
the length of the violation from 2 3 days to 16 days.
Dissolved oxygen concentrations have been measured at
or near saturation in the Cedar River for most of the year.
The lowest dissolved oxygen concentrations are found in the
summer when temperatures are high. Dissolved oxygen during
the sunrr.er months is also influenced fcy algal photosynthesis
and respiration, which can cause diurnal fluctuations. Only
a few violations of the standard have been measured. However,
the potential for violations exists given warm summer tempera-
tures and diurnal fluctuations in dissolved oxygen.
Coliform counts in the Cedar River are within the DOE
standards. Occasional violations in the lower Cedar River
have occurred; these are thought to be caused by nonpoint
sources (Metro, 1979e).
The macroinvertebrate community in the Cedar River is
generally represented by species sensitive to organic enrich-
ment, The species diversity does not change significantly
along the river. The presence of pollution-sensitive species
and a relatively stable diversity are signs of good water
quality and very little organic enrichment.
Sammair.ish River. The Sanmamish River has been rated
in DOE standards as Class "AA" for its entire length. Water
quality conditions of the Sammamish River have been surnmarized
in several studies (Metro, 1979e; STR, Inc., 1974c).
The primary water quality problem in the Sammamish River
is temperature. The temperature standard is violated during
summer months annually (STR, Inc., 1974c). This is due to
the low flaws and low velocity, combined with lack of shading.
In addition to the lack of shading, releases of warm epilimnic
water from Lake Sammamish increases the stream temperature.
Nutrients and coliform bacteria have, at times, caused
problems in the Sammamish River. The sources of these inputs
are urban and agricultural runoff to tributaries and directly
to the river.
Warm temperatures and nutrient inputs tend to stimulate
growth of algae, which in turn creates diurnal variations
in dissolved oxygen. Temperatures also directly affect dis-
solved oxygen by changing the amount of dissolved oxygen
in solution. The dissolved oxygen standard for Lake Sammamish
has occasionally been violated.
C-29
-------
River Use Ratings
Metro (1980f) has recently rated study area rivers for
fishability and swimmability. These ratings are shown in
Tables 1-11 and 1-12.
Small Streams
Generally, the primary water quality problems for small
streams are nonpoint-source related. Agricultural and urban
land uses contribute high loads of sediment, nutrients and
coliforms relative to undisturbed conditions. The urban
runoff problem is currently being examined by Metro in its
208 areawide water quality planning. A guidebook to con-
struction practices needed to control erosion was developed
by Metro (Metro and King County Conservation District, 1977).
Metro {1980f) has recently rated small streams for
fishability and swimmability. These ratings are shown in
Tables 1-13 and 1-14.
C- 30
-------
Table 1-11. Fishable Ratings of Rivers
Total
Overall
Station
DO Temperature
Conductivity
pH
Points
Rating
Upper Green
B319
E
G
E
G
80
G
A319
E
G
E
G
80
G
Lower Green
315
E
G
E
E
84
E
311
E
G
P
G
74
F
3106
E
G
P
E
74
F
Duwamish
309
E
G
P
E
78
F
307
E
G
P
G
74
F
305
E
E
P
G
86
G
Cedar
H438
E
G
E
E
84
G
A438
E
G
E
E
84
G
0438
E
G
E
E
84
G
Sammamish
0486
E
E
F
E
92
E
0480
E
E
G
E
96
E
0450
E
E
G
G
92
E
Ship Canal
540
E
E
G
E
96
E
512
E
E
P
E
90
E
Explanation of
Overall
Ratinqs:
DO and Temperature:
pH and Conductivity:
Excellent
(E) = 40
points
Excellent
(E) = 10 points
Good
(G) = 24
points
Good
(G) = 1
5 points
Fair
-------
Table 1-12. Swimmable Ratings of Rivers
Station
Fecal
Coliforms
PH
Heavy
Metals
Points
Final
Rate
Upper Green
B319
All 9
E
E
E
G
G
F
95
70
E
G
Lower Green
315
311
3106
P
P
P
E
E
G
G
F
F
40
30
30
P*
P*
P*
Duwamish
309
307
305
P
P
F
E
G
F
G
P
P
40
15
15
F
P*
P
Cedar
H438
A438
0438
E
E
F
E
E
E
G
F
F
90
80
40
E
G
F
Sammamish
0486
0480
0450
E
F
P
E
G
G
F
G
F
80
40
20
G
F
P*
Ship Canal
540
512
E
E
E
E
G
F
90
80
E
F
Explanation of Overall Ratings:
Fecal Coliforms:
Excellent (E)
Good (G)
Fair (F)
Poor (P)
Poor (P)*
50 points
30 points
10 points
0 points
Median >200 orgs/100 ml
- automatic Poor rating
pH and Heavy Metals:
SOURCE: Metro, 1980f.
Excellent (E)
Good (G)
Fair (F)
Poor (P)
Overall:
Excellent (E)
Good (G)
Fair (F)
Poor (P)
2 5 points
15 points
5 points
0 points
100 - 81 points
80 - 41 points
40 - 21 points
< 21 points
-------
able 1-13.
Fishable
Ratings
of Small
Streams
vs
e
0
0)
§
>
0]
jj
4J
Station
3
aj
u
1/5
a.
•H
a>
a,
tn
2
tl
s
£
Dissolve
Oxygen
—-1
1
Cri
DO %
Saturate
1
3
*8
8
a.
2.
„o
&
r-H
nj
C
->-4
Cit
Mill Creek
A315
P
P
P
G
E
F
G
G
75
p
E315
F
P
P
G
F
P
F
G
13
p
Spring Brook
0317
F
P
P
F
G
P
F
E
15
p
E317
P
P
P
F
G
P
F
G
8
p
H317
F
P
P
G
G
P
G
G
17
p
McAleer Crsek
A432
P
P
P
E
G
P
E
E
18
p
E432
P
P
F
E
G
P
E
E
23
F
Fairweather
A4 9 9
P
P
F
E
E
P
E
E
25
F
Tibbetts Creek.
AS 30
P
P
F
E
F
G
E
E
24
F
B630
P
P
P
r?
F
P
E
E
16
P
U630
F
P
P
E
F
F
E
r
22
F
Issaquah
0631
G
G
G
G
F
G
E
E
61
E
A631
G
P
E
E
F
P
E
E
56
G
North Fork
A632
G
P
F
E
F
F
E
G
35
F
East Fork
0633
G
P
F
E
F
G
E
E
39
F
Mason
0634
F
F
E
G
F
E
E
G
52
G
Holder
A640
G
P
E
E
F
E
E
E
61
E
Carey
A6 50
F
P
E
E
F
E
E
E
51
G
15 Mile
A660
F
P
F
E
F
E
E
E
31
F
Soos Creek
032Q
G
P
F
E
F
G
G
E
37
F
F32Q
F
P
F
G
F
G
G
E
25
F
Covington
C320
F
P
F
E
F
P
G
E
24
F
Jenkins
D 3 70
G
P
G
E
F
G
G
E
47
o
Little Soos
G 3 20
F
P
F
E
F
E
G
E
29
F
West Branch
B 3 2 0
F
F
F
E
F
G
G
E
32
F
Swamp
O 4 70
G
P
F
E
F
P
G
E
34
F
B470
G
P
G
E
F
F
G
E
45
G
Morth
0474
E
F
P
E
F
P
G
E
44
G
D474
E
P
F
E
F
F
G
E
45
G
Little Bear
0473
F
P
F
G
F
G
G
E
25
F
B478
F
P
F
E
F
G
G
E
27
F
Bear-Evans
0434
P
P
G
G
F
G
G
E
30
F
B484
F
E
F
E
F
F
G
E
50
G
C484
F
P
G
G
F
G
G
E
35
F
G434
P
E
F
E
F
G
G
E
47
G
J434
F
P
F
E
F
E
G
E
28
F
N484
F
P
F
G
F
G
G
E
25
F
Coal Creek
(Green River)
C325
£
P
P
E
F
E
E
E
46
G
Longfellow
C370
P
P
F
E
G
P
E
E
23
F
C- 33
-------
Chapter 2
BENEFICIAL USES OF SURFACE WATER
Surface waters in the Lake Washington/Green River Basins
are used for many purposes, including water supply, swimming,
boating, fish and wildlife habitat, and aesthetic appre-
ciation. This chapter describes the beneficial uses of the
study area surface waters. The chapter is divided into two
parts. The first part discusses characteristic uses offi-
cially protected by the State of Washington. The second
part is a survey-level summary of the known uses to which
the study area streams and lakes are actually put.
State of Washington Protected Uses
The water quality standards of the State of Washington
list "characteristic" uses to be protected in Washington
streams (WAC 17 3-201-0 50). These uses include fisheries,
wildlife, recreation, water supply, navigation, log storage
and rafting, and hydropower. However, the listing is "non-
inclusive". Apparently, uses other than those listed are
intended to be protected.
Table 2-1 shows the officially listed protected uses
of the major lakes and streams of the study area. As shown,
all the listed uses are protected in virtually all the lakes
and streams in the study area.
Summary of Uses of Study Area Surface Waters
While the State of Washington protects virtually all
surface waters for virtually all beneficial uses, a given
lake or stream is typically put to only some of these uses.
Table 2-2 is a listing of known (observed) uses of study
area surface waters. Virtually all lakes and streams offer
significant fish habitat, wildlife habitat, and aesthetic
uses. Recreational fishing and stock watering are the two
next most frequent uses; the intensity of these two uses
varies greatly from one water body to the next, as described
in the footnotes.
C- 37
-------
Table 2-1. Protected Characteristic Uses of Major Surface Waters of the Study Area
Protected Uses
¦.d
.C
G] W
b Di H
tn R C U* O
0) CP
u e 10 *** c S § So £L & S fa-5
— e — — — -• 3 w 9 O -H W £) Q —f E --H (J 3 -H 3 *J 3 H Vi 4-J
, "• — " * -l — B" H W ^ (/] rH U) +J 0
.i _i — jj -
tj cn
¦ » . r> ¦> '—i 4 ucn -h m 04J tr> tr E-u -h w c/j to
p a 0 ta mc -h -H -H H ^ w u u> ^ Oh
Ej^ ex: 3 ejc ^ *d eu v-j 4J x* -3+3 mm 3 a> h 3
nj M 85 Cui gin £ E ul n <3 ^ 0 H tr> 0
fuvj-t-i-C-H+Jjlajsai Ha) h u
0) ¦—i i> O flu) >U) e J ¦ojj u -D > tjro -y
6 g §&&£ S% B'2 SM S3 & 3S £
Lake
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
I*ike
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
A
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
L«ake Washington
Lake Saniitunisli
Issaquah Cr.
Qxiar R. - fake Wash-
ington to Landsburt)
Dam A xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Other Lake washing-
ton Tributaries AA xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Duw;imish R. - Mouth
to Black R. (lije
Ch. 173-201-080
VfflC) B XX X X X X X XX xxxx
Duwanusli R. - Black
R. lipstreom to
Limit of Tidal In-
fluence A xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
CUreen R. - Mouth
to Aj)( l jx .
Kimner (see Gi.
173-201-080 WAC) A xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Green R. - approx.
Kimitr to Study
Area Boundary
(tiee Cli. 173-
201-080 WAC) AA xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
WliiteR. A xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Elliott Bay, East
of a Line Between
Pier 91 and Du-
w.unisli liead Axx xxxxxxx x xx
Puyot ;>xind AAxx xxxxxxx x xx
SOURCi;: Ch.:(JL_-«: 173-201 WAC.
-------
Table 2-2. Known Uses of Surface Waters in the Lake Washington/Green River Basins
u M
in rn
•o w
to
2
QJ CP
C
(0
8 ii
S:
10
o
- H
4->
<1>
1 Sanmamish R. be-
low Hollywood x x x xxxxxx
2 Swanp Cr. x x x x
3 North Cr. x x x x
4 Little Bear Cr. x x x x x
5 Sanniamish R.
above llt>llyv«xxj xx x xxxxxx
6 Big Dear Cr.xxx x xxx
7 Evans Cr. xxx x xxx
8 i^unitaui^li I»iKo x x xxxxxx x
o
^ 9 Tribs. to E.
Saniikwiish Lake
10 Tribs. to W.
Sanmamish I^ike xxx
11 Tibbetts Cr. x x xxx
12 Issaquah Cr. xxx x xxx
13 Lake Washington x x xx xxxxxx
14 Juanita Cr. x xxx
15 Forbes Cr. x xxx
16 Tribs. to E.
I*ike Washington x x
17 Kelsoy Cr. -
Mercer SI. x xxx
18 Coal Cr. x xxx
19 Riy Cr. x xxx
20 Cedar R. x x xx xx xxxx
21 Grc-en R. -
Uiw.nni.sh U. xxxxxx xxxxx x
22 Mil] Cr. x x xxx
2J Cr. x x x x x x
24 Jenkins Cr. x x x xxx
25 Covington Cr. x x xxx
l'l> rA'w.uiknii Cr. xxx x x x v.
-------
Table 2-2 Con't.
(i, fU
•«H -H
U >} H
•«j 04
G 0-) o.
g'O W
M o.
3 Q<
-»J 5
rH CO
iij
,1-5
CT>
5
\i
4-»
-------
Table 2-2 Con't.
1C Minor stock watering use.
IE,J Mainly recreational power boats, rafting. Heavy use.
Channelized.
1L Passage habitat for anadromous salmonids.
1M Waterfowl use of river.
IN Bicycle trail along Sammamish River.
21 Kids fish, light use.
2L Spawning and rearing of chinook, coho, and sockeye
salmon.
31 Kids fish, light use.
3L Spawning and rearing of chinook, coho, and sockeye
salmon.
4C Stock watering near mouth of creek.
41 Kids fish, light use.
4L Spawning and rearing of chinook, coho, and sockeye
salmon.
5B Irrigation water supply.
5E,J Mainly recreational power boats, rafting. Heavy use.
Channelized.
5L Passage habitat for anadromous salmonids.
5M Waterfowl use of river.
5N Bicycle trail along Sammamish River.
6A,B Small amount of municipal, agricultural use.
6L Important spawning and rearing stream for chinook, coho,
and sockeye salmon.
6M Wetlands in upper watershed.
7A,B Small amount of municipal, agricultural use.
8A Small amount of municipal use.
8H Indian commercial salmon fishing.
81 Heavily fished recreationally.
8J Heavy boating use.
8L Rearing and passage of chinook, coho, and sockeye salmon.
Probable sockeye spawning in lake.
8M Wetlands near north end of lake.
9L Probable spawning of coho and sockeye salmon in Pine
Lake Cr. Other creeks have natural barriers to migration.
1QL Some spawning use by coho, sockeye salmon. Most creeks
have natural barriers to migration. Area is urbanized.
C-41
-------
ILL Coho, sockeye spawning, probable chinook spawning.
12A A few individual home domestic water supply withdrawals.
12D Hatchery waste from Issacruah Fish Hatchery.
12L Spawning and rearing of chinook, coho, and sockeye salmon.
Important, heavily utilised stream. Issaquah State
Fish Hatchery augments natural reproduction.
12M Waterfowl use cf wetlands.
13A Some industrial water withdrawal.
13G Log storage at south end of lake, near Highway 520.
13H Indian commercial salmon fishing, primarily near north
and south ends of lake.
131 Heavy recreational fishing use.
13J Heavy recreational boating use ail year.
13L Spawning of sockeye salmon, rearing and passage of
sockeye, chinook, and coho salmon.
13M Waterfowl use.
13N Lake is bordered by many public parks.
14L Coho, sockeye spawning and rearing use impaired by
flash flooding, sedimentation, pollution, and poaching
due to urbanization.
15L Coho spawning and rearing impaired by urbanization
effects.
17L Chinook, Coho, sockeye spawning and rearing impaired
by effects of urbanization.
17M Wetlands around Mercer Slough.
1SL Coho salmon spawning and rearing, probable sockeye
spawning and rearing. Salmonid use impaired by effects
of urbanization, especially sedimentation.
19L Chinook, coho, and sockeye salmon spawning and rearing
impaired by effects of urbanisation, especially sedi-
mentation.
20A Major municipal and industrial water supply for City
of Seattle diverted at Landsburg.
20C Minor stock watering use.
20E Navigable to Renton.
20? Hydropower generation at Chester Morse Lake.
20H Commercial Indian salmon fishery.
201 Heavy recreational fishery.
20L Spawning and rearing of chinook, coho, and sockeye
salmon. Important, heavily utilized spawning stream.
C-42
-------
21A Major municipal and industrial supply for City of
Tacoma is diverted from upper watershed near Palmer.
Some direct industrial process and cooling water
diversions in estuary.
21B Some agricultural use in lower Green River valley.
21D Renton sewage treatment plant discharges near mouth
of Black River.
21E Navigable to large seagoing commercial vessels, to
Boeing Field.
21F Hydropower generation below Howard Hansen Reservoir.
21H Commercial Indian salmon fishery.
211 Heavy recreational fishing for salmon and steelhead.
21J Rafting and canoeing popular.
21L Major spawning and rearing stream for chinook, coho
and chum salmon, and steelhead.
22L Coho salmon spawning, rearing.
22M Wetland areas in watershed.
23A A few residential domestic diversions. Lake youngs
is storage for Seattle M&I supply.
23C Minor amount of stock watering use.
23D Receiving water for hatchery waste from Soos Creek
Hatchery.
23L Spawning and rearing of chinook, coho, and chum salmon.
Soos Creek State Hatchery augments natural reproduction.
24A A few residential domestic supply diversions.
24C Minor stock watering use,
24L Spawning and rearing of coho salmon.
24M Wetlands in watershed.
25C Minor stock watering use.
2 5L Spawning and rearing of chinook and coho salmon.
2 5M Wetlands in watershed.
25D Receiving water for dairy farm wastes.
26L Spawning, rearing of chinook, coho, and chum salmon.
Fishery habitat adversely affected by dairy waste.
26M Waterfowl use of wetlands in watershed.
27F Hydropower generation below Lake Tapps.
27L Chinook, coho, chun salmon spawning and rearing.
28H Commercial salmon and shrimp fisheries.
29H Commercial salmon, marine fisheries.
291 Recreational salmon, marine fisheries, recreational
shellfishing on eastern Puget Sound beaches.
C-43
-------
Chapter 3
PUGET SOUND WATER QUALITY AND BIOLOGY
This chapter summarizes the physical, chemical and bio-
logical conditions of Puget Sound, emphasizing the results
of previous studies on the impacts of Metro's Puget Sound
outfalls. (Metro currently operates four primary treatment
plants discharging to Puget Sound: Alki, Carkeek Park,
Richmond Beach, and West Point.) Information presented here
on impacts of Puget Sound plants, which discharge primary
effluent, will assist in predicting impacts if secondary
effluent is discharged to the sound from Renton treatment
plant. The potential impacts of alternative Renton treat-
ment plant outfalls on the sound are assessed in the main
body of this document. This chapter contains separate sections
in physiography, currents and circulation, wdste quality
conditions and marine ecology. Fishery resources of Puget
Sound are described separately in Chapter 5 of this appendix.
Much of the recent knowledge of Puget Sound has come
from a series of 11 Metro-sponsored studies, the Puget Sound
Interim Studies. These studies are summarized in Duxbury
(1976). The knowledge of potential impacts of Metro treated
sewage discharges into Puget Sound was compiled in the Draft
EIS for Metro's Puget Sound plants (EPA, 1977a). This chapter
summarizes those findings and also incorporates more recent
knowledge.
Physiography
Puget Sound is a semienclosed water body where sea water
from the open ocean mixes with fresh water from rivers draining
into the sound (Figure 3-1). The sound consists of a series
of interconnecting deep basins separated by relatively shallow
sills (e.g., Admiralty inlet sill, Tacoma Narrows sill).
All four potential Metro Puget Sound discharge locations
are located in the sound's central basin, which averages
about 660 feet (200 meters) deep. For comparison, the Tacoma
Narrows sill is about 140 feet (44 meters) deep, and the
Admiralty inlet sill is about 200 (60 meters) deep.
Currents and Circulation
Water circulation in Puget Sound is a fundamental physical
process that will govern the initial mixing, distribution,
and residence time of Renton effluent should it be discharged
in the sound. Circulation can be described by two basic
C-4 5
-------
Strait of Juan de f
-------
patterns: daily oscillating circulation patterns that are
due to tidal currents, and monthly or yearly net circulation
patterns that are due to a combination of basin morphology,
coastal upwelling, freshwater inflow, and the daily tidal
currents.
Dr. Alyn C. Duxbury of the University of Washington,
has provided the facilities planning consultants with a summary
of these Puget Sound circulation patterns, as they relate
to proposed Renton treatment plant outfall sites. The fol-
lowing text is extracted from his commentary. This text,
and the circulation and current data shown in Figure 3-2
through 3-6, provide a summary of the present knowledge of
currents and circulation in Puget Sound in general and at
the proposed discharge locations in particular.
"Water budget studies have been conducted that define
the net circulation in and out of the central basin at its
northern end, Admiralty Inlet. These studies indicate that
the long-term circulation trends, inflow at depth, and seaward
flew at the surface, are not constant, but change through
the annual cycle in response to changes in river discharge
and summer upwelling along the Washington coast. It is this
type of circulation that really determines the capability
of the central basin to cleanse itself of any materials added
by man to the water mass by pumping them seaward to the ocean.
The tidal currents, on the other hand, are those flews which
are oscillatory turbulent flows that mix and disperse any
materials added at a point source. These flows which change
with the ebb and flood may ccmbine with the topography of
the basin and shore to produce localized eddies and flew
patterns within the central basin that may act to concentrate
car rapidly disperse an effluent discharged from a point source.
The tidal period pumping may also carbine with the physical
configuration of the basin to alter the net flows.
"Various researchers have found that the exchange rate is
appreciable and acts to carry surface water from Puget Sound
seaward through the central basin, thus preventing localized
accumulation1'2'3. The findings of these associated analyses
are consistent and indicate that unlike many estuaries the
main basin of Puget Sound system has a large advective transport
that forces an exchange of water with the Pacific Ocean via
the Strait of Juan de Fuca.
1Friebertshauser, M.A. and A.C. Duxbury, "A Water Budget
Study of Puget Sound and its Subregions", Limnology and
Oceanography 17:, pages 237-247, 1972.
2Collias, E.E. and J.H. Lincoln, A Study of the Nutrients
in the Main Basin of Puget Sound, Department of Oceanography,
University of Washington, February, 1977.
3Bames, C.A. and C.C. Ebbasmeyer, Sore Aspects of Puget
Sound's Circulation and Mater Properties, 1976.
C- 47
-------
Edmonds
Alki Point
Figure 3-2. Circulation in Central Puget Sound
EXPLANATION: Letters and solid arrows denote surface cir-
culation above approximately 50 m as follows; A - outflow
from Colvos Passage; B - southward flow due to "pumping"
action of Tacoma Narrows; C - surface divergence of output
from Colvos Passage; D - outflow from Duwamish River; E -
net northward flow. Large arrows denote deep circulation
beneath approximately 50 m. SOURCE: EPA, 1977a.
C-43
-------
ESS
FLOOO
POINT WCLL5 >
SNQhQM1; h CQON ry
'*tNG ZOUSTr
MlCHMONQ
\ asacm
i. i *IC»UO*0
\ \ bsa:*
jE^HSOn1
POINT.
46frf«s:N,
'MEAOC* PClNT
\coioc* u*cc*s
at acm
f ME AOO* ^OlN *
\S0l3£» GA*C£*S
\ as a cm
SEATTLE
a A r
WEST POINT
Figure 3-3. Generalized Current Directions - Richmond Beach.
SOURCE: Metro, 1979e.
C- 49
-------
^ flood
EBB
>99
NT
Figure 3-4. Generalized Current Directions - Alki Point
SOURCE: Metro, 1979e.
C-50
-------
FLOOD
EBB
X
-------
*C&T POtNT
> FLOOD
SEATTLE
JCSIOfl-ATOi
^n.PCiNT
OUWMMlS*
Figure 3-6. Generalized Current Directions - Elliott Bay
C- 52
-------
"Within the central basin there is a general circulation
that is related to the tidal forces and the configuration
of the basin that is superimposed on a net two-layered flow
where flew at depth can be reversed fran surface flow. During
the rising tide the flood current passes down the central
portion of the Sound past Seattle toward Commencement Bay
through East Passage. However, during the ebb the currents
in this channel south of Seattle are weak. This has been
noticed in direct observations as well as in dye studies
of the hydraulic working model of the Sound. The reason
for this is that on the flood the main channel serves as
an unrestricted route for water that must supply the inter-
tidal volume for the entire southern Sound complex. On the
ebb water fran the southern portion of the Sound exiting
at high speed through the Tacara Narrows is directed northward
through Colvos Passage along the west side of Vashon Island.
This jet action at Point Defiance acts also to entrain water
frcm Carmencement Bay during the ebb. The net result is
a predominantly northward flow through Colvos Passage and
a required compensating southerly flow in East Passage.
A more thorough discussion of this is presented by Barnes
and Ebbesmeyer1.
"The water flowing northward through Colvos Passage
is split into two portions by Blake Island. Sane goes into
Yukon Harbor exiting to the main basin north of Blake Island
while some passes between Blake Island and the north end of
Vashon Island. The water passing between Blake and Vashon
Islands toward the end of the ebb is directed across the Sound
toward Fauntleroy. At the start of the flood the same water
can be caught up in the southerly flow down East Passage and a
portion be made to cycle once more into the southern Sound
system or around Vashon Island. The water entering the main
basin north of Blake Island heads toward Alki Point but
diverges near midchannel. Evidence of this recycling and
clockwise circulation about Vashon and Maury Islands is also
shewn in photographic studies of the Puget Sound hydraulic
model2.
"Barnes and Ebbesmeyer estimate that the punping action of
the tidal flow in the Tacara Narrows speeds up the circulation
in the main basin so that a water parcel at the entrance to the
main basin only takes about four weeks to transit its length.
A model test showed that when either the Tacctta Narrows was
blocked or when Colvos Passage was blocked, the circulation
in the main basin was much slower. Mr. J. Lincoln, creator
and operator of the Puget Sound model, estimates that 20-25
percent of the water exiting Colvos Passage on the ebb may be
captured by the southerly set in East Passage and farced to
recycle.
1Ibid.
2f'fcGary. N. and J. Lincoln, Tide Prints: Surface Tidal Currents
in Puget Sound, 1977.
C-53
-------
"Both model studies and direct observations of currents by
drogue studies show that surface and near-surface waters in
East Passage south of Point Pulley will tend to go south instead
of north and be caught in the clockwise flow about Vashon and
Maury Islands.
"More site-specific observations of conditions in the vicinity
of potential outfall sites are offered to allow comparison of
localized current patterns, bathymetry and shoreline uses. In-
formation on local currents is drawn from a July 1957 oceano-
graphic field study of conditions along the eastern shoreline,
which was designed to determine the structure of nearshore tidal
flow in response to local topography1. Additional data were
derived frcm Puget Sound model maintained by the University of
Washington, Department of Oceanography2.
"It is important to emphasize that these observations are
preliminary. More thorough circulation studies would be neces-
sary in order to determine an optinal outfall alignment and
diffuser design.
"Point Pulley Area
"Current patterns in the Point Pulley area are characterized
by large eddy formations as the tide floods from lower low to
higher high tide. Extensive counterclockwise eddies are evident
at high tide which reverse to clockwise eddies as the current
ebbs north...".
"The Point Pulley area is used to demonstrate eddies for
students visiting the Puget Sound model. On ebb tide dye tracer
material moves clockwise and is later carried out into the main
channel by flood tide. Currents in the main channel are relatively
slow, reflecting the wide, deep cross-section of this part of the
central basin. As observed earlier, there is net southward movement
and a particle discharged in this area would probably flew south
and around the west side of Vashon Island before having an oppor-
tunity to exit north of Alki Point.
"Direct measurements taken in the July 1957 survey indicated
that off Des Moines the ebb flow was weak and erratic, whereas
the flood currents were more definite. Slightly north of Des
Moines at Pulley Point, both ebb and flood currents were similar
with eddies forming on the lee of the point with either flow during
the larger tidal ranges. At the lower tidal ranges the currents
were weaker and more erratic and tended to favor a southerly flow
lBrcwn and Caldwell, Metropolitan Seattle Sewerage and Drainage
Survey, 1956-1958, Chapter 2, pages 281-294.
2McGary, N., and J. Lincoln, Tide Prints: Surface Tidal Currents
in Puget Sound, 1977.
C- 54
-------
because of its extended duration. At Seahurst Park both north and
south setting currents were found with a stronger south-setting
current at the surface. It was also recognized in 1957 that the
predominantly northerly flow in Cc-lvos Passage required a net
southward transport in East Passage. The requirerient for this
compensating southerly flow disappears a little farther north,
and at about Lincoln Park, there is no longer a predominance of
southerly flew over northerly flew near the east shore.
"In 1957 an outfall discharge alternative was considered off
Seahurst, about two miles north of Point Pulley. Water depths
of 200 feet were attainable less than one-half mile fron shore.
Comparisons of project effluent impacts on recreational beaches
or shellfishing indicated a Seahurst outfall produced lower shore-
line colifcm counts than a West Point outfall of ocrsparable length
and effluent flew. There is a large county park in the Seahurst
area which covers about, a mile of shoreline.
"Alki Point Area
"The Alki Point area supports major shoreline recreational
uses as vail as careiercial fishing. Alki Beach Park covers 79 acres
of sandy gravel to rocky beaches in the area which support diverse
irarine organisms within easy access to the public. Local beaches
provide hardshell clams, which are harvested recreaticnally. Local
offshore resources include extensive eel grass beds, which are
attractive to other marine organisms which ultimately sapport
recreational crab harvesting and a commercial herring fishery, as
well as diversified sport fishing and underwater diving activities'.
"When Alki Point was studied, the investigators also had
access to a 1933 study as well as their own 1957 data. In this
case it was found that Alki Point created eddies on either sice
of the point. However, there appeared to be an intersection
between Alki Point and Duwamish Head. On the flood tide the
current sweeping into Elliott Bay divides with a western branch
which picks up Duwamish River water and carries it out around
Duwamish Head close to shore. This flew pattern can also be
observed in the Puget Sound hydraulic model2, the rounding cf
Duwamish Head by this flow can create eddies between Duwamish
Head and Alki Point. While on the ebb, Alki Point may be the
principal generator for eddies in the same location. Thus,
between Alki Point and Duwamish Head it is difficult to
determine which eddy belongs to which point of land. South
of Alki Point the eddy on the flood is unique to Alki Point.
'McGreevy, Randall, Seattle Shoreline Environment, Seattle Pepart-
irent cf Caimunity Development arid Washington Sea Grant Program.
2McGary, N., and J. Lincoln, Tide Prints.
C- 55
-------
"The measurements of the current off ALki Point did lead to a
conclusion that the water at distances more than 1,500 feet off-
shore is not deflected by Alki Point or in risk of being carried
onshore by eddy action. This is a better situation than at West
Point, which requires 5,500 feet.
"An analysis was made of the time required for a water particle
to reach the shore if it were close enough inshore to be deflected
by Alki Point and possibly involved in any eddy circulation. As
expected, the results determined by drogue motion shewed that the
farther off the point, the longer the time required to reach the
shore. What is more important is the difference in time required
if the distance frcm Alki Point were to the west or the southwest.
The data showed that the time to reach shore was much greater if
the starting location was to the west of the point, as opposed to
the southwest. This means a discharge point located in excess of
1,500 feet due west of Alki Point would have an excellent oppor-
tunity of preventing an onshore migration of effluent in the
proximity of the point. The depth of water would be less than 200
feet at a positicn 1,500 feet offshore.
"The direct measurements of currents and the model studies of
Puget Sound both indicate that Alki Point is about opposite the
portion of flow from Colvos Passage which exits to the main basin
north of Blake Island. It would be best if any discharge fran the
Alki Point location were prevented fran being incorporated into the
water frcm Colvos Passage that might work its way southward into
East Passage. Thus, a discharge at Alki Point should be placed so
that it favors the northwest direction fran the point. This would
help subject the effluent to the northward moving water and also
satisfy the condition of preventing its onshore flew due to eddies
as previously mentioned. Effluent discharged at about 200 feet
depth that would rise and embed itself in the northward-moving
surface layer would find a diffusion and dispersing environment
similar to West Point.
"Elliott Bay Area
Currents in Elliott Bay are generally sluggish when canpared
with Point Pulley or Alki Point; this is true on all stages of the
tide1. Studies in 1957 covering two very different ranges of ebb
and flood tides help to define the probable extremes of current
velocity and water mass movement in the bayz. The 1957 survey
summary states that for the naximum tidal range observed (13.5
to 14.5 feet), nearshore currants observed at flood stage in
both surface and deep waters were parallel to shore on each side
of the bay and were directed away fran the lewer end of the bay...
Longshore flows appeared to originate off the mouth of West
Waterway of Duwamish River.
xMcGary, N., and J. Lincoln, Tide Prints.
2Brcwn and Caldwell, Metropolitan Seattle Sewerage and Drainage
Survey.
C- 56
-------
"Under the minimum tidal range, currents were extremely slow
and erratic, although longshore movement away frcm the lcwer end of
the bay was noted at flood tide. Deep currents in the central part
of the bay were not observed. It appears, nevertheless, that they
must be directed toward the lcwer end of the bay. In addition to
the ccunterflow along the shore of the bay, some upwelling probably
occurs at the lower end.
"During the period of maximum tidal variation, longshore current
velocities toward Duwamish Head were found to range frcm 20 fpm to
40 fpm, apparently irrespective of depth. Under these conditions,
it would be possible for a water mass to travel from the end of
the bay to the shore area between Duwamish Head and Alki Point during
half a tidal cycle, or about 6 hours. Onshore current velocities
of 20 fpm were observed during the maximum tidal range and are
appropriate for calculating rainiirum travel times directly onshore.
"Local bottom conditions are such that outfall depths approaching
200 feet are attainable within 1,500 feet fran shore. Although
currents are generally more sluggish, it is considered possible
that sewage effluent could be carried to Duwamish Head or beyond
in six hours. Comparisons of alternative outfall designs of
equivalent length for Elliott Bay and West Point were favorable
to an Elliott Bay site in terms of onshore movement of coliform
baselines; however, consistent compliance with, shellfish standards
applicable to nearby Alki Beach would be a concern to longshore
movement of effluent leaving Elliott Bay. In addition, Elliott
Bay is identified as a critical migration area for several
varieties of salmcn and trout, as well as other species. Elliott
Bay provides habitat for over 100 varieties of fish as well as many
interesting and valuable marine invertebrates, shorebirds, and
occasional visiting marine nairmals1.
"Richmond Beach Area
"Prevailing currents in the vicinity of Richmond Beach are
parallel to shore. This pattern has been observed for surface
conditions and at depth. Current directions reverse rapidly
following the direction of tidal movement. Accordingly,
periods of slack water are brief. Onshore currents develop
as part of the reversal in current direction. Local eddy
formation appears to be minimal ccmpared with the point areas2.
"McGreevey, Randall, Seattle Shoreline Environment.
2McGary, N., and J. Lincoln, Tide Prints.
C-57
-------
"Currents in the Richmond Beach area were observed under a
variety of tidal conditions cm four different days in the 1957
survey . Significant variations in current velocity were observed
with depth and tidal range. Maximam surface velocities averaging
70 feet per minute <£pm) were observed parallel to those on a
flood tide having a 12-foot range while the same condition
produced 30 to 35 fpn at depths of 100 to 200 feet. Onshore
currents were in the 10-15 fpm range. Outfall alternatives con-
sidered for the Richmond Beach area suggested a higher degree
of treatment was required to insure compliance with coliform
bacteria standards for shellfishing due to the relatively
short shoreward travel times involved."
Water Quality Conditions and Effects of
Puqet Sound Outfalls
This section describes water quality conditions in Puget
Sound, emphasizing the known effects of Metro Puget Sound
plant discharges.
Salinity Dynamics
The waters of Puget Sound are a continuously changing
mixture averaging about 10 parts sea water to 1 part fresh
water, for an average salinity of about 28 parts per thousand
(EPA, 1977a). The two greatest sources of fresh water in
the vicinity of the proposed Puget Sound outfall sites are
the Duwaraish River and the Lake Washington Ship Canal; these
sources are small compared to other rivers discharging into
the sound. Freshwater lenses form on the water surface near
the two sources, especially during periods of high discharge
following winter rains. These lenses may migrate from their
sources until gradually dissipated by tidal current shear
and turbulence.
Water diversity is an important physical factor affecting
vertical water circulation and mixing. Water layers of
different densities have minimal mixing. The vertical density
gradient in Puget Sound is due to temperature and salinity
differences, though temperature has little effect most of
the year. During the summer, there is a distinct thermocline
at a depth of 33 to 40 feet (10 to 12 meters). During winter,
the vertical density gradient is small in the central basin,
typically with a surface a-t (an index of density) of 23.0
and a bottom a-t of 24.0. In summer, the maximum density
gradient can be 4 to 6 a-t units in the top 30 meters. Mixing
of sewage effluent into sea water would be greater in absence
of a vertical density gradient.
'Brown and Caldwell, Metropolitan Seattle Sewerage and
Drainage Survey
C-58
-------
Turbidity
Puget Sound is turbid much of the year, primarily due
to phytoplankton growth or to suspended sediment discharged
by rivers. Turbidity was the most detectable water quality
change found in studies of the impacts of the West Point
submarine discharge. The turbidity increase was not associated
with any adverse effect on marine life (Environmental Quality
Analysts, 1974).
Dissolved Oxygen
In fall or early winter, near-surface waters in Puget
Sound rarely have dissolved oxygen concentrations below 70
percent saturation, and they usually exceed 85 percent satura-
tion. During phytoplankton blooms in the spring, surface
and near-surface dissolved oxygen saturation can reach 150
percent, and values at depth can be as low as 60 percent
saturation (Metro, 1979e). These variations are probably due
almost entirely to natural processes.
Significant dissolved oxygen depressions due to the
present sewage discharges into Puget Sound have not been
detected (Duxbury, 1976). Oxygen profile data within .125
mile of the West Point outfall (Environmental Quality Analysts,
1974) show a .05 mg/1 drop in dissolved oxygen concentration
at depths below 130-150 feet, as compared to data from stations
far from the outfall. This drop has been attributed to the
effluent plume (EPA, 1977a).
The West Point plant discharges primary effluent of
about 10 0 mg/1 BOD. It should be noted that any Renton
treatment plant discharge to Puget Sound would be secondary
effluent with about .33 as much BOD.
Nutrients
Studies of inorganic phosphate, dissolved silicate,
nitrate, nitrite, and ammonia showed that the West Point
discharge caused no detectable changes along the central
axis of Puget Sound. Directly over the effluent plume,
however, local increases in nitrate, ammonia, and phosphate;
and local changes in temperature, dissolved oxygen, salinity,
and density, have been observed (Duxbury, 1976).
Heavy Metals
Studies of heavy metals in water, sediments, lead, nickel,
and biota in Puget Sound were conducted by Schell, et al.
(1977). The input of copper, lead, and zinc from the West
Point plant was estimated to be less than 1.5 percent of
the total from all sources (mainly rivers and urban runoff),
C- 59
-------
The concentrations of copper, nickel, arsenic, mercury and
cobalt in waters of Puget Sound were comparable to open-
ocean concentrations. Cadmium and BOD concentrations were
somewhat higher in the sound waters but there was no evidence
that the sewage effluents were responsible. The concentrations
of heavy metals in waters near the West Point outfall were
no different than at Puget Sound stations distant from the
outfall.
Bacteria
Coliform bacteria are indicators of possible sewage
effluent contamination of marine and fresh waters. The fecal
coliform standard for Puget Sound is a median value of 14
organisms per 100 ml, with no more than 10 percent of the
samples exceeding 43 organisms per 100 mg (Chapter 173-201
WAC) .
Stations along Puget Sound beaches and offshore frequently
fail to meet coliform standards. In 1976, virtually all
the Metro beach and offshore stations failed to meet the
standards (EPA, 1977a). In the period October 1978 to March
1979, 13 of 21 stations along the eastern shore of Puget
Sound failed to meet the standards (Metro, 1979c). The mean
of the fecal coliform counts at the stations most in violation
was about 80 per 100 ml.
Although these standards violations prohibit commercial
shellfishing, recreational shellfishing is popular at beaches
near Puget Sound outfalls. There is no record of any adverse
pubLic health impact. The relative contributions of bacteria
from Metro outfalls and other sources (urban runoff, combined
sewer overflows) have not been identified. Combined sewer
overflow discharges in the vicinity of the Alki outfall are
probably implicated in the coliform standard violations.
Sediments
The distribution of heavy metals in bottom sediments
in central Puget Sound has been studied (Schell, et al.,
1977). Sediment core samples showed pronounced enrichment
of zinc, copper, lead, and mercury over the past 50-year
period. The enrichment was almost uniform over central Puget
Sound, with these notable exceptions:
o high enrichment of zinc in Shilshole Bay
o high enrichment of lead near the Alki Point outfall
o high enrichment of mercury near Point No Point and
the West Point outfall
C-60
-------
Although the heavy metals concentrations in Puget Sound
sediments have definitely increased over the past 50 years,
there is no uniform pattern of heavy metals increasing near
the Metro sewage outfalls. High enrichment factors suggest
a problem may exist with mercury, but the source has not
been identified (EPA, 1977a). The dogfish shark, Squalus
acanthia, is commercially harvested in Puget Sound, but cannot
be marketed in the United States due to high mercury levels.
The heavy metals picture is complicated by the fact that
dredge spoils from the Duwamish estuary are dumped in Elliott
Bay, and tidal current disperses fine sediment particles (to
which heavy metals adhere) from these spoils. Duwamish estuary
sediments carry a number of industrial waste pollutants,
as described in Chapter 1.
Marine Ecology
The following section discusses the biological aspects
of Puget Sound, emphasizing the known impacts of Metro Puget
Sound plant discharges. Intertidal, subtidal, and pelagic
habitats are reviewed.
Intertidal Habitats
Intertidal habitats are those which occur between the
higher high and lower low tide lines. The organisms of these
habitats are adapted to the various degrees of exposure along
the longitudinal gradient. The faunal composition of intertidal
habitats in Puget Sound, and in all marine areas in general,
depends greatly on substrate type. Figures 3-7, 3-8, and 3-9
illustrate the characteristic biota of Puget Sound rock and
rubble tidelands, sandy gravel tidelands, and muddy silt
and sand tidelands, respectively.
Shellfishing is a particularly important human use of
Puget Sound intertidal habitats. Recreational shellfishing
occurs May through September on beaches adjacent to Alki
Point and Point Pulley. Geoducks and hardshell clams are
especially popular. Filter-feeding shellfish tend to con-
centrate bacteria, heavy metals, and persistent organic toxi-
cants. Existing Metro outfalls may contribute to fecal con-
form standards violations along Puget Sound beaches, but
the relative contribution is not known (EPA, 1977a).
Studies of lead and mercury concentrations in mussels
and clams show trends toward higher values near West Point,
but the concentrations are within accepted toxicity guidelines
(Schell, et al., 1977).
C-61
-------
Pock arid CoQbli Ti4«l»ndi
Ph'C* S^orf Cnd
A eg"* a»"ncHi
LrJ«"-»
Cfiiron
Bun *t\a
Wrinsiw
Pi,rgii l
•i-qn High ••>t«r
9 lood ilr I
Wwiit" PurC « I
/*>«* '
Axemen*
S«j Soui"
Mli-i-rt. i* Oifr
s
64CJC Shr-na
*«« Son
CauirtC^w
$mnr
•iji
Low L3-v Mutt
:JV«5 s
qcc«*
&nn..n«
0itr^4\j
s Loifl*
Wlfcilt Qf $cu <1\«
5*4 CuCbffiaH
Figure 3-7. Characteristic Bicta of Rock
and Cobble Tidelands in Puget Sound
23
FROM: McGreevy, 1973.
Sjndy CraMl TidMand
ngiiin^ T,|jf CrOrit
Acw« **"»«'~
. w3* Lov*
Co^uqaettf
PiCtf'C S4l*»o*
S*«w rr^,y4
4 P ij Pffdl
5*(V» Cr*o
Glt*r-4t
TdtOMi Sculpt
Figure 3-8. Characteristia Siota of Sandy
Gravel Tide land in Pucet Sound
FROM: McGreevy, 1973.
C-62
-------
Muddy Silt & Sand Tidtljnd
T,a* D»t*i
Hi^h HiQh Water
CinncA 0nh:
St+t'v P'cKirff**
Sij qro-'" 9ttfU>o SeuJ&n
Snqiibh A S^ri«l Sol*
5«a 'r r /
jSff I f ,. Lov LowW*llf
C'«4ft Sfta<« Ci*4IH
S*"<3 HccMH
Coitv^iiad Maim
/
Sim Noi*ClftnH
Ml Grin
OuiXenm
G**&
invirironff
Qttntui 'fffltri
/
if, Buii«f or
Granitcfe. Owt
StubQv Sou-4
G'»nf C-*nlw"<»
Sit CutuifHr
Si^ma e*e*
Figure 3-9. Characteristic Biota of Muddy Silt and
Sand Tideland in Puget Sound
SOURCE: McGreevy, 1973.
C-63
-------
Subtidal Habitats
Subtidal habitats are the bottom habitats that occur
below the low tide line. The biota typically include a diverse
assemblage of flora and fauna including attached diatoms,
foraminifera, clams, snails, polvchaetes and other worms,
crustacea, echinoderms, and fishes,
A survey of subtidal habitats and organisms near the
West Point outfall was conducted by Harman, Stober, et al.
(1977). They found no statistically significant effects
of the discharge on benthic macrofauna or foraminifera.
However, the data suggested some subtle change in inverte-
brate faunal composition.
iMoulton and Miller (1974) had earlier conducted a survey
of bottom-dwelling fishes off Metro's West Point and Alki
Point outfalls. The more common species were English sole,
rock sole, Dover sole, and ratfish. The incidence of tumors
in English sole, off West Point, was high, but high incidence
of tumors were cited elsewhere where no sewage discharges
existed; the tumors were not specifically attributed to the
West Point outfall. Incidences of fin erosion and nematode
infestation were low, and judged insignificant with respect
to the outfall. There was no evidence that wastewater discharge
adversely impacted nearshore shallow water fishes.
Pelagic Habitat
Pelagic habitat is the open-water region above the Puget
Sound bottom. Characteristic biota include phytoplankton,
zooplankton, and fishes, many of which are of commercial
importance. Fishery resources of Puget Sound are described
in Chapter 5.
Phytoplankton growth in Puget Sound is characterized
by a series of intense blooms beginning in spring and recurring
throughout the summer- In winter, growth is limited by sunlight
and other physical factors. In spring and summer, nitrate
depletion occasionally limits blooms. Zooplankton grazing
appears unimportant in limiting blooms {EPA, 19 77a) .
Acoustical (sonar) tracking surveys indicated no effect
of the West Point outfall on pelagic fish distribution or
abundance (Duxbury, 1976).
Effluent Toxicity to Marine Organisms
Stober, et al. (1977) conducted bioassay tests of both
the acute (lethal) and chronic (sublethal) effects of West
Point effluent on five species of marine organisms indigenous
to Puget Sound.
C-64
-------
Acutely toxic concentrations
-------
Chapter 4
REGIONAL OVERVIEW OF INLAND
FISH AND WILDLIFE RESOURCES
This chapter describes the fish and wildlife resources
of the Lake Washington/Green River Basins from a general
viewpoint. There is no emphasis given to any specific geo-
graphic areas where impacts are expected.
This chapter approaches species by habitat or cover
type. Terrestrial and wetland habitats are briefly reviewed
first, followed by freshwater aquatic habitats. Habitats
and species in Puget Sound and the Green-Duwamish River
are discussed in Chapters 1 and 3 of this appendix. The
last section of this chapter describes species and habitats
within the study area that are of special interest.
Terrestrial and Wetland Habitats
Metro's Technical Appendix No. 2 (Metro, 1979e) presents
good concise descriptions of the terrestrial and wetland
habitat types occurring in the study area, and of the suc-
cessional dynamics and interrelationships among habitat types.
The terrestrial and wetland habitat types, excluding urban,
suburban, and agricultural lands, are summarized in Table 4-1.
A complete species list of amphibians/ reptiles, birds, and
mammals, indicating relative abundance by habitat type, is
given in Technical Appendix No. 2 (Metro, 1979e).
No complete mapping of wildlife habitat types in the
study area exists, but there are some partial sources. The
U. S. Geological Survey has recently produced two land use
and land cover maps that cover about 90 percent of the study
area (USGS, 1979a; 1979b). King County's Sensitive Areas
Map Folio (King County Department of Planning and Community
Development, 1978d) maps wetlands, including marshes, bays,
and swamps. USGS topographic maps indicate marshes and other
nonfcrested wetlands.
Figure 4-1 is a wildlife habitat/cover type map that
has been developed from these various partial sources, the
main one being the USGS land use/land cover maps (USGS, 1979a;
1979b>. The purpose of Figure 4-1 is to show the general
distributions of the major habitat types in the study area.
Local inaccuracies undoubtedly exist due to changes in the
study area occurring since the mapping photos were taken
(1975). A major deficiency of the mapping is that riparian
forest 2ones were too narrow to be mapped.
C-67
-------
Table 4-1. Terrestrial and Wetland Habitat Types in Lake Washington/Green River Basins
(Metro, 1979e) .
Habitat-Type
Mature forest
Second-growth forest
Riparian forest
Early succession
Grassland
Swamp
Bog
Fresh roarsh
Characteristic Species
Western hemlock; western red cedar;
grand fir; Pacific dogwood; sword
fern; wood sorrel
Douglas fir; western hemlock;
western white pine; bitter cherry;
red elder; salnranberry; thimbleberry
Black cottonwood; bigleaf maple;
red alder; willcw; rose; sedge
Fireweed; thistles; bracken; grasses;
salmonberry; thimbleberry
Grasses; sedges; forbs
Western red cedar; red alder; Sitka
spruce; skunk cabbage
Labrador tea; swamp laurel; sundews;
sedges
Cattail; bulrushes; sedges; rushes;
reed canary grass
Caiments
Not ccrrmcn in study area; aniiral
diversity low; hundreds of years
to regenerate; highly vulnerable
to human disturbance
Most cannon type in study area;
succeeds early succession; suc-
ceeded by mature forest; aninial
diversity usually high
Along edges of rivers and lakes;
animal diversity high
Recent disturbance (fire, logging);
succeeded by second-growth forest
after about 15 years or more
Natural grasslands unccmtton in
study area
Unccramon; succeeded by drier
forest-type; animal diversity low
Scattered throughout forested lew-
lands; acidic, wet soil; low
animal diversity
Perennially wet; emergent vegetation
high productivity and diversity
-------
MILES
A\
?-^rTC 9 ,
%
\Tft>8^\ *S- ,
LEGEND-
Figure 4-1. terrestrial habitat map of lake
WASHINGTON / GREEN RIVER BASINS
-------
Table 4-2 lists summary definitions of the habitat/cover
types on Figure 4-1 (Anderson, et al.; 1976) and the corresponding
habitat type(s) discussed in Technical Memorandum No. 2 (Metro,
1979e) .
Figure 4-1 shows that the great majority of the nonurban
and nonagricultural lands in the study area are in evergreen,
deciduous, or mixed evergreen/deciduous forest. These lands
are located mainly in the eastern portions of the study area.
Wetland habitats are in small patches dispersed widely through-
out the study area.
Aquatic Habitats
The study area is rich in freshwater aquatic habitats,
including two major river systems, over 30 smaller streams,
two large lakes, and over 50 smaller lakes. These water
bodies host a wide variety of freshwater and anadromous fishes,
many of which are of commercial or recreational importance.
The following section discusses lake and pond habitats, followed
by riverine habitats. Puget Sound habitats are reviewed
in Chapter 3 of this appendix.
Lakes and Ponds
Lakes and ponds are bodies of permanent standing water
situated within a depression or dammed river channel. They
are generally distinguished from wetland habitats (swamps,
marshes, bogs) by lack of emergent vegetation. Small lakes
are generally referred to as ponds.
Lakes in the study area vary from the few large, deep,
cool lakes that are host to juvenile sockeye salmon, to the
numerous small, shallow, relatively warm lakes that contain
mainly warmwater fish species (crappie, bluegill, black bass).
Some lakes contain both, trout and warmwater fish species.
Technical Appendix No. 2 (Metro, 1979e) contains a
generalized mapping of the larger lakes in the study area.
It also contains summary physical, chemical, and biological
descriptions of Lake Washington, Lake Sammamish, and 22
smaller lakes in the study area. Use of study area lakes
by anadromous salmonid fishes is mapped in Chapter 5 of this
appendix.
Riverine Habitats
Riverine habitats include all freshwater wetlands and
deepwater habitats contained within a channel, except those
dominated by persistent emergent vegetation (swamps, marshes)
or those with ocean-derived salinities exceeding 500 mg/1.
C- 70
-------
Table 4-2.
Land Cover Classification
Herbaceous rangeland
Shrub and brush rangeland
Mixed rangeland
Deciduous forest land
Evergreen forest land
Mixed forest land
Forested wetland
Nonforested wetland
Summary Definitions of
Definition
Dominated by naturally
occurring or artificially
maintained grasses and forbs
Dominated by low woody
vegetation
More than one-third
intermixture of above
two types
Predominance of deciduous
trees
Predominance of evergreen
trees
More than one-third
intermixture of above
two types
Wetland dominated by
woody vegetation
Wetland dominated by
herbaceous vegetation
or nonvegetated
Cover Types
Corresponding Habitat Type(s)
Grassland
Early succession
Grassland, early succession
Second-growth forest
Mature forest; second-growth
forest
Second-growth forest
Swamp
Bog; fresh marsh
-------
The study area is rich in riverine habitats; it contains
two major rivers (the Cedar and the Green-Duwamish) and
many smaller streams.
Riverine habitats in general can be divided into four
intergrading habitat types, as listed in Table 4-3.
As water flows downhill in a large river system with
a well-developed floodplain, intermittent habitats typically
are succeeded by upper perennial habitats, which are succeeded
by lower perennial habitats, which are succeeded by tidal
habitats. Not all streams necessarily exhibit all these
habitats, nor in this order. All four riverine habitat types,
except tidal, are well represented in the study area. Table 4-4
lists the freshwater and anadromous fishes of the study area,
and shows their occurrence in the main habitat types and
stream systems in the study area. Fish use data are further
refined in areas of expected impact in Chapter 5.
Species and Habitats of Special Interest
Wetlands
Presentation of wetland habitats is of special concern
in the study area. Wetlands are mapped and defined earlier
in this chapter. These habitats are of great value due to
the wide diversity of fauna that they support, and also because
they can remove sediment and nutrients from water flowing
through them. EPA policies require that wetlands impacts
be minimized in wastewater facilities planning.
Washington Nongame Program
The Washington Department of Game's nongame program
has compiled a listing of species and habitats of concern
within the study area (Table 4-5). The current status of
these species and habitats is given in Table 4-6.
Threatened and Endangered Species
There are no known plant or animal species that have
been federally listed as "threatened" or "endangered" that
are permanent or regular residents of the inland study area
or Puget Sound. Listed species that are occasional visitants
to the area include the gray whale (Eschrichtius robustus),
peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus), and bald eagle (Halaeetus
leucocephalus) (Metro, pers. comm.).
C-72
-------
Table 4-3. Types of Riverine Habitats (from: Cowardin, et al., 1979)
Habitat Type
Intermittent
Upper Perennial
Lower Perennial
Tidal
Characteristics
Contains flowing water only part of year. Standing water may or may
not remain in pools.
Relatively high gradient and fast water velocity. Rock, cobble,
gravel or sand substrate. Riffle and pool sequences.
Relatively low gradient and slow water velocity. No tidal influence
on water stage or velocity. Sand or mud substrate. Meandering,
sinuous stream channel.
Flow velocity fluctuates under tidal influence. Ocean-derived salinity
less than 500 mg/1 at low flow.
-------
Table 4-4. Freshwater and Anadromous Fishes, and Habitat Use in Streams
of the Lake Washington/Green River Basins
Habitat Types
Common Name (Scientific Name)
Pacific lamprey (Entosphenus tridentatus)
Chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta)
Coho salmon (O. kisutch)
Sockeye salmon (0. nerka)
Chinook salmon (0. tshawytscha)
Mountain whitefish (Prosopium wi1liamsoni)
Cutthroat trout (Salmo clarki)
Rainbow trout (S. gairdneri)
Dolly varden (Salvelinus malma)
Longfin smelt (Spirinchus thaleichthys)
Eulachon (Thaleickthys pacificus)
Northern squawfish (Ptychocheilus oregonensis)
Longnose dace (Rhinichthys cataractae)
Speckled dace (R. osculus)
Largescale sucker (Catostomus macrocheilus)
Threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus)
Coastrange sculpin (Cottus alenticus)
Prickly sculpin (C. asper)
Riffle sculpin (C. gulosis)
Torrent sculpin (C. rhotheus)
i—1
•H
i—1
•H
-p
4->
Tidal
Lower
Perenr
Upper
Perenr
li
c
M
m
m
s,r
m
m
s
s
m
m
s,r
s, r
m
m
s
s
m
m
s, r
y
s,r
m
m
y, S ,r
s, r
m
m
y(s,r
s , r
m
m
y,s,r
y
y
m
m
s
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
y
m
m, s , r
s,r
y
s, r
s, r
r
y
y
Key: m = migration s = spawning r = rearing y = year-around resident
SOURCE: Compiled by Jones & Stokes Associates.
-------
Table
4-5. Washington Department of Game Nongame Program
Listing of Species and Habitats of Concern
(Source:
Washington Ncngaire Program)
location
(Townshipj
Range,
Section)
Type*
Description
24N,6E,9
PC
Seasonally wet bog with various carex and
Scirpus species (PCW G)
24N,6E,27
SP
Cimicifuqa elata (tall buqbanel
23N,5E,7
SA
Spirinchus thaleichthys (Lake Washington
longfin smelt)
24N,4E,23
SA
Pandion haliaetus (osprey) nest
25N,7E,29
SA
Pandion haliaetus (osprey) nest
27N ,7E,8
SA
Ardea hercdias (qreat blue heron) rookery
2SN,8E,22
SP
Hemi tones conge stum (qnctre plant)
Kellogg Lake
27N,5E,13
PC
Pseudotsuga menziesii, Alnus rubra
27N, 4E, 8
PC
Alnus rubra forest
20N,5E,21
SA
Pandion haliaetus (osprey) nest
20N,5E,15
SA
Pandion haliaetus (osprey) nest
20NP5E,10
SA
Pandion haliaetus (osprey) nest
20N,4E,30
SA
Mustela erminea (short-tailed weasel)
2QN,4E,29
SA
Vulpes vulpes cascadensis (cascade red fox)
20N,4E,22
SA
Sciurus griseus (western gray squirrel)
Bolites sanora (the Sonora skipper)
19N,4E,5
SP
Spiraea pyramidata (pyramid spiraea)
21N,6E,27
SP
Cimicifuqa elata (tall bugbane)
22N,5E,26
SA
Polites mardon (mardon skipper)
21N,4E,29
SA
Mustela erminea (short-tailed weasel)
21N,4E,14
SA
Ardea herodias (qreat blue heron) rookery
22N,6E,4
SA
Polygonia oreas (oreas angle winq)
19N,7E,9
SP
Arenaria paludicola (swairp sandwort)
22N,7E,34
SA
Mustela erminea (short-tailed weasel)
22N,SE,5
SP
Polystichum lonchitis (mountain holly fern)
22N,6E,24
SA
Martes pennanti (fisher)
*PC - plant oannunity
SP - special plant
SA - special animal
C-7S
-------
Table 4-6. Current Status of Species of Special Interest Found Within the Study Area
(Source: Washington Department of Game, Nongame Program)
Special Animals
Cascade red fox
Western gray squirrel
Sonora skipper
Short-tailed weasel
(Ermine)
Great blue heron
Oreas angle wing
Fisher
Lake Washington
longfin smelt
Osprey
Purple martin
Pileated woodpecker
Anna's hummingbird
Green heron
Shorthead sculpin
Pygmy whitefish
White sturgeon
Western brook lamprey
Western pond turtle
Preferred habitat: subalpine meadow system.
Distribution and abundance: currently under study by Keith
Aubry, College of Forest Resources, University of Washington.
Limited range. Occurs in Tacoma/Puyallup vicinity and in oak
patches of fourth Puget Sound.
Widespread, but rare.
Status undetermined.
Colonial nester, potentially threatened due to loss of habitat.
Scattered distribution, uncommon.
Habitat is later successional stages of coniferous forests.
Rarely seen; considered uncommon.
Occurs only in Lake Washington and its tributaries.
Potentially threatened due to loss of habitat. Retention of snags
and buffer strips near lakes and streams is important. Distur-
bance near nests should be kept to a minimum.
Uncommon, status undetermined.
Potentially threatened; old-growth habitat - requires large snags.
Recent rare breeder.
Uncommon; never an abundant species in Washington.
Scattered streams, locally abundant.
Locally abundant - Lake Chester Morse, status undetermined.
Locally common, status undetermined.
Coastal streams, locally abundant.
Suspected decline in existing small populations. Threatened due
to loss of habitat.
-------
Table 4-6 (cont'd.)
Special Animals
0
1
-J
-J
Van Dyke's salamander
Northwestern
salamander
Pacific giant
salamander
Lynx
Mountain lion
(cougar)
Wolverine
Golden eagle
Williamson *s
sapsucker
Spotted owl
Boreal chickadee
Black swift
Plant Communities
Pseudotsuqa
menziesii
Alnus rubra forest
Seasonally wet bog
with various Carex
and Scirpus species
Alnus rubra
Status undetermined.
Status undetermined.
Status undetermined.
Rare statewide; common in suitable habitat.
Uncommon; widely distributed in state.
Rare, potentially threatened.
Uncommon; status undetermined.
Status undetermined.
Potentially threatened. Requires old-growth, large snags.
Peripheral species, Washington is the southwest limit of its
range; status undetermined.
Uncommon, status undetermined.
This is a second-growth stand, 45-85 years old, in the Lee Forest
on University of Washington property. The site was mentioned in
a report to the Intercampus Committee for Educational and
Scientific Preserves (ICCESP) in 1970. It may have some value as
a preserve.
This is a maturing alder forest with some Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuqa
menziesii) on school lands. Recommended to ICCESP (1970) for a
natural area for outdoor lab work for the University of Washington.
May have been logged by now.
Wetland vegetation adjacent to farmland; typical for the area.
This is a mixed deciduous forest of mostly alder and bigleaf maple
(Acer macrophyllum) . It- is also part of the Lee Forest site
mentioned above.
-------
Chapter 5
FISHERIES
The fishery resources of Puget Sound arid the Lake
Washington-Green River Basins are important economically,
recreationally, culturally and scientifically. This chapter
gives background information on the biology, legal and
institutional aspects, and economics of fisheries of the
Lake Washington/Green River Basins and of Puget Sound.
Anadromous Salmonids
The anadromous salmonids occurring in the study area
include all five species of Pacific salmon (chinook, coho,
red, chum, pink) and sea-run rainbow trout (steelhead), cut-
throat trout, and Dolly Varden char. These species are found
in Puget Sound and, except pink salmon, spawn in study area
streams. The following discussion summarizes the inland
distribution, life histories, human uses and economic values
of local anadromous salmonid resources.
Inland Distribution
Figure 5-1 indicates the use of the study area streams by
salmon. The Lake Washington drainage system contains chinook,
coho and sockeye. The Green-Duwamish River and White River
contain chinook, coho and chum. The White River also has
pink salmon below the study area. Anadromous steelhead and
cutthroat trout are also widely distributed in study area
streams. The Green-Duwamish supports a popular steelhead
fishery.
Life Histories of Anadromous Fish in Study Area
Chum Salmon. Chum salmon are also known as dog salmon or
fall salmon. They spawn in nearly all the tributary basins
of the Green-Duwamish system, and in the main river channel
as well. Split channel areas and slower velocity riffle areas
are the principal spawning habitats used. They also spawn in
the lower White River. The number of spawners in the Green-
Duwamish system averaged 11,300 fish in 1966-1971 (Williams,
et al., 1975). The fry migrate immediately after emerging
from the gravel. The freshwater life history and habitat uses
of chum salmon are summarized in Figure 5-2.
C-78
-------
SNOOUALME RIVER BASIN
/
r~
' rf ^ S-i! x"? t,wa
«> s
: % Lwf* ^Try
/ .4£»»5l*L LAM
„< ~V" \AV -y
UTTLE t
BASIN
•^u./ v$tj.. < ^xjfj
. ¦ './ ¦' \V -¦'v'^- ? "f'v ^
>*ryS^wSfe. • V ZTt&. I.A*X»»**.^_J 1
[.. -¦ 1 4w£* wir, B*an '^r.
:<-r--;-*f j i -
PUGET SOUND DRAW AGES
-LEGEND -
CMIHOOt tttlDK
CWO faiLVKH} •AL.ttOH
c»»um jbitek j»a uo*
»OC*lT£ 1-HlDl VAllbCM
mOiCftTn »f)0»*«i..e »wT
«*c©«c***co vie
fttTu**k I»«ILS) lAMtlEW
10 D>*T«i#oriDl»
CAM IMMU TO BIITRWTlM
>OkrK( «ILiUHk,rn, 1*M
MKT *OJND
Figure 5-1. major surface water bodies in the
STUDY AREA SHOWING SALMON USE
-------
Figure 5-2. Summary of Freshwater Life History and
Habitat Uses of Chum Salmon (Oncorhynchus keta)
in the Study Area.
LIFE HISTORY
Green-
Duwamish
Bas in
Puyallup
Basin
V\onth
Fresh -wafer
Life Phase
Upstream migration
Spawning
Jntragravel develop
Juvemie rearing
Juv. out migration
Upstreom migration
Spawning
intragravel ceveiop
Juvenile rearing
Juv our rnigrcfion
HABITAT USE
SMALL TRIBUTARY LARGE TRIBUTARY MAIN RIVER ESTUARY OCEAN GENERAL COMMENTS
Mature Adults i ! Up to 30 days. Late fall early
, 1 Some use
(spawning; i ; winier months.
Adultt always die after
spawning.
Eggs & Larvae i !
, ! Some use ! 90 to ! 50 day* winter months.
imcuba'ion) j I
Spawns 3,000 io 3,500 egg*
per female.
Juveniles
{rearing}
Move to sec soon after
hatching.
Spends approx. 3-4 months in
shoreline areas.
little if any fresh-woter
growth.
Gcowfh io
Maturity
3«5 yrs. at sea
variable.
ftonge oo'fh to Alaskan waters.
Mafun ng
Adults
Returning to original spawning grounds To complete life cycle,
normally ar age 3 or 4 years.
Average weights 11 -12 lbs.
25 lbs. maximum,
SOURCE: Williams, et al.# 1975
C-80
-------
Coho Salmon. Coho salmon are also known as silver salmon,
silverside and hooknose. They utilize freshwater habitats
throughout the study area, and are also artificially pro-
pagated at the Issaquah and Soos Creek hatcheries. In the
period 1966-1971, natural and artificial spawning escapements
averaged 13,800 and 17,400 fish, respectively, in the Lake
Washington basin, and 6,200 and 37,300 fish, respectively,
in the Green River basin (Williams, et al. , 1975).
Coho salmon may spawn in streams ranging from the main
stems of large rivers to intermittent tributaries. The
young generally remain in fresh water for one year before
migrating to sea. Rearing of young occurs in streams or the
larger lakes (Washington, Sammamish). An important feature
of the coho salmon life history is dependence on fresh water
habitats during the summer, when temperatures are relatively
high and flows low, as compared to chum and chinook salmon,
which do not oversummer. The fresh water life history and
habitat uses of coho salmon are summarized in Figure 5-3.
Sockeye Salmon. Sockeye salmon are also known as red
salmon or blueback. Nonanadromous populations which exist
in landlocked lake systems are called kokanee. Sockeye
utilize the lake Washington drainage system. Spawning occurs
in tributary streams and along the shoreline of Lake Washing-
ton, and probably in Lake Sammamish as well. The Cedar
River, Issaquah Creek and Big Bear Creek drainages are the
more important systems for spawning adults (Williams, et al.,
1975). Rearing of juveniles occurs in spawning streams, but
the major rearing waters are Lakes Washington and Sammamish.
One to three years are spent in freshwater habitats before the
juveniles migrate to sea. In 1966-1971, sockeye escapement
in the Lake Washington system averaged 150,000 fish annually
(Williams, et al., 1975). The Issaquah Creek hatchery
occasionally propagates sockeye salmon, but they are essen-
tially dependent on natural habitat. The freshwater life
history and habitat uses of sockeye salmon are summarized in
Figure 5-4.
Chinook Salmon. Chinook salmon are also known as king
salmon, tyee or blackmouth. Male fish which migrate back to
fresh water and mature after only one summer in the ocean are
called jacks. Chinook salmon are found in the Lake
Washington-Green River and White River basins. Except for a
relatively small run of spring chinook in the White River,
virtually all chinook populations in the study area are
summer-fall run.
Chinook salmon spawn mainly in the larger, mainstem
areas, though the cumulative use of smaller creeks is probably
also important. The more important spawning streams are
Issaquah Creek, Big Bear Creek, the Cedar River and the Green
River. Chinook are artificially propagated at the Issaquah
C- 81
-------
Figure 5-3. Summary of Freshwater Life History and Habitat
Uses of Coho Salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch)
in the Study Area
LIFE HISTORY
Lake
Washington
Basin
Green-
Duwamish
Basin
Puyallup
Basin
Month
Fresn-waier
Life Phase
Upstream migrafion
Spawning
nfragravel develop
Juvenile rearing
Juv. out migration
Upstream migration
Spownmg
nfragravel develop
Juvenile rearing
Juv. out migration
Upstream migration
Spawning
Intragravel develop
Juvenile rearing
Juv out migration
HABITAT USE
SMAU TRIBUTARY LARGE TRIBUTARY MAIN RIVER
ESTUARy
OCEAN
GENERAL COMMENTS
Mature Adults
(spawning)
£993 & larvae
(incubation)
30 to 60 doyi late fail
through early winter.
80 to ISO day* winter
month*
Some use
especially
in side
channels
I Adults olwoys die after
| spownmg.
Average number of eggs 3,000
per female.
Juveniles
[rearing)
1 2 to 14 month*, spends
entire year in stream.
Some use, ex-
tern unknown
30-120 days sea
ward migration
Populations limited by low
summer flow conditions.
Growth to
Maturity
Spend 1-2 ys at
sea 2 yrs. typ.
Ranges north and south in
ocean: some Puget 5nd. p'op.
Maturing
Aduhs
Returning f© original spawning grounds to complete life cycle, normally at age
3 yeors.
J Average weight* 8-10 lbs.
31 lbs. maximum weight.
SOURCE:
Williams, et al., 1975
C- 82
-------
Figure 5-4. . Summary of Freshwater Life History and Habitat
Uses of Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchos nerka)
in the Study Area
LIFE HISTORY
Lake
Washington
Basin
Monfh
rresn-warer
Life Phase
Upstream rmgraMon
Spa w ni ng
nrragravei develop
Juvenne rearing
Juv out migration
HABITAT USE
LAKE TRIBUTARY LAKE SYSTEM
MAIN RIVER
ESTUARY
OCEAN
GENERAL COMMENTS
Mature Aduirs
(spawning)
2-4 months lafe
summer & fall
Some shoreline \ Main migration
spownmg June, July, Aug.
Adults olways d^e after
spownmg.
Eggs 4 Larvae
(.ncubation)
9Q to 150 days winter months.
Spawns 2,000—2,500 eggs
per femoie.
Juveniles
{rearing)
1 to 3 yrs. J These areas used during seaward
Spent m lake | mrgrotjon
Some stoy to maturity m la *e
-------
and Soos Creek hatcheries. In the period 1966-1971, natural
and artificial spawning escapements averaged 5,500 and 5,000
fish, respectively, in the Lake Washington system, and 6,700
and 8,500 fish, respectively, in the Green-Duwamish system
(Williams, et al., 1975).
Chinook fry rear in their spawning streams. Important
rearing also occurs in Lake Sammamish, the Sammamish River
and Lake Washington. Juveniles spend about 60-120 days in
fresh water, migrating to the ocean in spring through mid-
summer. The freshwater life history and habitat uses of
chinook salmon in the study area are summarized in Figure 5-5.
Anadromous Trout and Char. Steelhead (anadromous rainbow
trout), and anadromous cutthroat trout are generally found in
streams that are accessible to salmon, as shown in Figure 4-2.
Steelhead and cutthroat are somewhat more adept at negotiating
potential barriers to upstream migration than salmon. There-
fore, steelhead and cutthroat may utilize some upper reaches
or small tributaries that salmon do not. Anadromous Dolly
Varden generally utilize larger streams for spawning, and
not the smaller tributaries. Life histories and habitat uses
of anadromous steelhead, cutthroat trout and Dolly Varden are
summarized in Figures 5-6 and 5~7, and Table 5-1.
Human Uses
Pacific salmon are fished for both commercial and sport
purposes. Tables 5-2 and 5-3 show available data on commer-
cial and sport catches in Puget Sound; it should be noted
that Puget Sound salmon contribute to ocean fisheries as far
north as southeastern Alaska and as far south as Eureka,
California.
Indians, primarily the Muckleshoot tribe, use salmon for
ceremonial and subsistence purposes as well as commercial.
Indians operate gill net fisheries in the Green River, and in
Lakes Washington and Sammamish. The last section of this
chapter provides further detail on the Indian fisheries.
Anadromous steelhead, cutthroat trout and Dolly Varden
char generally do not enter commercial ocean fisheries. Some
enter Indian gill net fisheries in fresh water. Sport angling
in fresh water is the main human use of anadromous trouts and
char.
Economic Value
Miller (1976) estimated the annual net economic value of
the total commercial and sport catch of salmon, steelhead and
cutthroat trout production in the Cedar River at $2.3 million.
C-84
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Figure 5-5. Summary of Freshwater Life History and
Habitat Use of Chinook Salmon (Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha) in the Study Area
LIFE HISTORY
Lake Washing-
ton Basin
Fresh-water
Life Phase
Upstream migration
Spawning
intragravel develop.
Juvenile rearing
Juv out migration
Green-Duwamish Upstream migration
Basin
Puyallop
Basin
•5
&
A3
L
|
W U
Spawning
Introgravei develop.
Juvenile rearing
Juv. out migration
Upstream migration
Spawning
intragravel develop.
Juvenile rearing
Juv. out migration
Upstream migration
Spawning
intragravel develop
Juvenile rearing
Juv. out migration
Month
HABITAT USE
SMALL TRIBUTARY LARGE TRIBUTARY
MAIN RIVER
ESTUARY
OCEAN
GENERAL COMMENTS
Mature Adults j
(spawning) ,
Some use
30 to 60 days fall months
Adults always dre otter
spawning.
Eggs 4 Larvae |
incubation) !
Some use
90 to 150 days in grovel
winrer months
60 to 120 days, spring months
through summer
| Average njmoef of eggs 4.000
! per female. -Wax. 13,500.
Juveniles
(reoring)
Some use
30-60 days sea-
ward migration
j limited by loss of natural
i spooning and reanng areas.
Growth to
Maturity
1 -5 yrs 3 yrs
typical
Ranges north to A.oskan worer,
Some Puge' Sound orooer
Maturing
Adults
Returning to original spawning grounds to complete life
cycle, normally at age 4 yeors.
Average -ve>gnt* 20-25 lbs.
I 2o lb. max.mum weight.
SOURCE: (Williams, et al., 1975).
C-85
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Figure 5-6. Summary of Freshwater Life History and Habitat Use of
Steelhead (Salmo qairdneri gairdneri) in the Study Area
Cedar
Basin
Green-
Duwamish
Basin
Summer
steelhead
Winter
steelhead
Summer
steelhead
Winter
steeihoad
Upstream migration
Spawning
Intragravel develop.
Juvenile rearinglV
Juv. out migration
Upstream migration
Spawning
Intragravel develop.
Juvenile reari ngl/
Juv. out migration
Upstream migration
Spawning
Intragravel develOD.
Juvenile rearing!^
Juv out migration
Upstream migration
Spawning
Intragravel develop
Juvenile reanrtgL/
Juv. out migration
LIFE HISTORY
A M J J A S
Normally exterds over a 2-year period.
HABITAT USE
Specie
Life
Smatl Tributary Large Tributary Main River Estuary
Ocean
General Comments
Summer
stee(h*ad
Mature Adults
(spawning)
EggtA Larva*
(incubtlionl
Juveniles
(rearing)
Up to 120 days. winto through soring; extensive
uai in ltd* channels.
SO to 150 days, winter through spring.
Normally 2 years in fresh water, including takes, * 30-60 days a»*
ponds, and Houghs. ward migration.
Oo nor die aftar spawning.
Average 4.000 tggs per
female.
Limited by fow of taring
areas; attain length of
Inches before migration
Growth to
Maturity
J J. 13 months,
variable 1 to
10 wa.
flange generally north and
into Gulf of Alaska.
Maturing
Adu'U
Return approximately it much as 9 months prior to spawning to original
normally ai age 4 years.
3 yeari.
rearing areas.
Average weights 5-tO lb*.
Wh ter
tie- i»d
Matuf* <«dulti
lip awn.
£99* 4 L arvae
lmcub#tior\l
Juveniles
Ueanngl
Growth to
Maturity
Matunng
A0uMl
Up to ISO days. wini«f through spring; extensive
un in nda channel*.
SO to 1S0 days, winter through spring.
NOfmvly 2 years tf> fresh water, including iikn,
ponds, and nought.
Return to original rearing area, normally at age 4 yiiri.
30-60 d.-rys
ward migration.
17-34 months;
variable M2 to
3 years.
Do not die after spawning.
Avna
Cul# of Alaska.
Average weights tbi.
SOURCE: PNRBC, 1970.
C- 86
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Figure 5-7. Summary of Freshwater Life History and Habitat Use of
Searur. Cutthroat Trout (Salrao clarki) in the Study Area
LIFE HISTORY
Cedar
Basin
Green-
Duwamish
Basin
Upstream migration
5 pawning
rntragra«5: develop,
Jtvenile rearing-!/
Jlw. out migration
Upstream migration
Spawning
Intrsgravei develop.
Juvemie rearing^
Juv. out migration
ii
Normally extends over a two-year period.
HABITAT USE
Estuary
Oca an
Mitufi Adu't*
lipvwmng)
£?gi4 la*v«
f jncutjtflioil)
Juveniles
&}.
Canard Command
Oo not d*a after (pawning.
Average 750 sggs per fernaia.
POQufatiOnt limited by tow
umrnr flow conation*.
flange generally through
Pupet Sound and along ocean
coact.
Averega vvevjhn V2-3 I be
SOURCE: PDTRDC, 1970.
C-87
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Table 5-1. Habitat Use of Searun Dolly Varden Cha:
(Salvelinus malma) in Study Area
UiltPh*
Maturt Adultf
(so*wvningi
& Larvai
(incubationl
JuvBmlai
Growtta to
M*iuffTV
Maturing
Adulti
SmatlTributary Lar^* Tributary Mttn Bn»» fettuary
60-1j Jays, fall to aarty
¦AinUf,
10 to 150 day*. winter.
UauaHy 2 or 3 yean
torn* in /aket.
:tudine Ourinfl seaward
migration.
Appro*imil«ly 6 month*.
Return to ordinal r*»nng area, to loawn at agt 3 of 4 y«ar»; arrive lovvvf
rwar re-Khej m wmmw pricf to spawvrwng period.
Gtr*r«i Commanti
Do net di« afta/ ipjvvning.
Egg* make up about 1/5 of
body weight at 600-550
eggi/di.
Population* limited by km
sumii-wr fto* conation*.
Ranj* generally thrash
Puja'Sound and itongocaai
caa«t.
Avtraga waighu ?~8 to.
SOURCE: PNRBC, 19 70.
C- 88
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Table 5-2. Washington Sport Salmon Catch in
Seattle-Bremerton Area (Salmon Punch Card
Area #10) of Puget Sound
Year Total Salmon
1964 21,466
1965 28,368
1966 22,533
1967 18,564
1968 17,785
1969 16,589
1970 23,200
1971 35,225
1972 32,942
1973 42,574
1974 69,341
1975 78,832
1976 62,607
1977 39,372
1978 56,479
SOURCE: Department of Fisheries, 1977; Department of Fisheries,
pers. comm.
C-89
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Table 5-3. 1977 Puget Sound Commercial Salmon
Catches in Numbers of Fish
Net-all citizen
Net-Indian
Troll-all citizen
Troll-Indian
Chinook
136,194
108,469
346
9,836
Chum
279,786
177,976
2
4
Pink
1,858,761
175,218
723
615
Coho
555,618
447,528
1,069
1,109
Sockeye
1,473,453
365,672
4
40
Total
4,303,812
1,274,863
2,144
11,604
SOURCE: Department of Fisheries, 1979.
0
1
VO
o
-------
Conservatively, the Green-Duwamish River contributes
over $2.6 million worth of salmon to the sport and commercial
fisheries in Washington. This estimate is based on: 1)
an annual contribution of 220,000 salmon (Williams, et al.,
1975); 2) 1977 commercial fish values of fish caught in Puget
Sound (Washington Department of Fisheries, unpublished data);
and 3) the commercial catch of each species being in pro-
portion to the number of adult fish entering the river, as
listed in Williams, et al. (1975). This value assumes all
fish are caught commercially. It would be considerably higher
if sport fishing were considered.
The Department of Game estimated the net economic value
of the Green River steelhead fishery at 2-3 million dollars
(Cummins, 1976, in Metro, 1979e).
Puget Sound Marine Fisheries
Life History and Ecology
Puget Sound supports a wide variety of marine and anaaro-
mous fishes. Table 5-4 summarizes the life histories of some
of the more common species. Figure 5-8 depicts trophic
relationships among these species and man.
Catch
Tables 5-5 and 5-6 show the commercial trawl catch in
Puget Sound and the sport catch in the Seattle-Bremerton area
of Puget Sound in 1977. English sole and hake are the main
commercial species. Pacific cod ar.d copper rockfish are the
main recreational species.
Economic Value
Figure 5-9 illustrates the total Puget Sound catch as
compared to the economic value, using 197 4 data. As shown,
salmon account for about one-third of the catch, but about
three-fourths of the value.
Indian Fisheries and Catch Allocation
Regulation of Puget Sound area and anadromous and marine
fishery resources is shared among the Washington Departments
of Fisheries and Game, the Pacific Fishery Management Council
and the International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Commission.
C- 91
-------
Table 5-4 . Life History Ch^.i
Name
English sole
Max. Size Mature Size
ParoiJhrys vetulus
(cm)
¥
49 29.5/26
Dover sole
Micros tcmjs pacificus
71
39/45
Jtock sole
Ijepidopsetta bilineata
60
31/28
Dog fish
Squalus acanthias
160
93/72
Slender sole
Lyopsetta exilis
35
16/14
Rex sole
Sartci sole
G1yptocephasus zachirus 49
Psettichthys jnelanostictus 63 28/25
Arrowtooth flounder Atheresthea stomias 84
Flathead sole
Starry flounder
Hippoglossoides elassodon 46 Age2/3
Piatichthys stellatus 91 30/35
- Common Fishes of Puget Sound
Depth Range
Shallow-deep
Sp. Win.
Shallcw-lOOOm
37-366m
Surface-730m
Shallow-513m
Shallow->366m
Shallow->183m
Shallcw-700m
Shallcw-550m
Shallcw-275m
Habitat
Sandy-nud
bottom
Middy
bottom
Open
water
Rocky
areas
Sandy
bottcm
Sandy
bottom
Food
Crustaceans, shrimp, worms,
clam siphons, brittle stars,
molluscs
Burrcwing forms
Mollusc siphons, clams, worms,
shrinps, snail crabs,
sandlanoes, brittle stars
(Forrester & Ttvcnpson, 1969)
2/3 fish diet; herring, smelt,
anchovies, sandlance, squid
octopus, hake, crabs, shrinp
(Bonham, 1954)
Fish-herring (67%), eel pcuts,
smelt, torn cod, prickleback,
shiner perch (24%), mysids,
shrinp (Pandalus, Crago),
squid (Miller, 1967)
Herring, sand dabs, shrinp,
krill (Gotshall, 1969).
Larvae eat copepods, nauplii
and eggs (Earraclough & Felton,
1968)
Clams, worms, crustaceans
'Smith, 1936)
Young - copepods, nauplii,
barnacle larvae and cladocera
(Barraclough, 1967). Mults -
worms (68$), clams (lanelli-
branches) (23%), crabs (44).
Mud caimon in storiach (Miller,
1967)
Spawn
Jan-tlar
Dec-Feb
Feb-Apr
Nov-Dec
April
Mar-Apr
Mar-May
Mar-Apr
May-May
-------
Table 5—4. Life history chart-fish, (cont'd.)
fJame
Max. Size Mature Size
(cm) (cm)
$
-------
Table 5-4. Life history chart-fish, (cont'd.)
O
t
vo
4^
Name
Ratfish
Striped
surfperch
True or
Pacific cod
Wal1 eye
Pol lock
Hydrolaqus colliei
Ercbiotoca lateralis
Gadus nidcrocephalus
Theraqra chalcogramna
Max. Size
(cm)
97
38
100
91
Mature Size
(cnt) _
25/20
Major references: Clemens 3 Wilby, 1961; J. L. Hunt, 1973
Other references as noted.
Depth Range
Shallow-275m
60(3 yr) Shallow-355nt
(Sp.) (Fall)
Shallow-3C6m
Habitat Food Spawn
Pelagic Shrimp (Pandalus S Crago), Oct-Nov
Orisaster, mussels (333)
Fish: ratfish S flathead sole
(It). (Johnson & Morton, 1972)
Small crustaceans, worms, mussels, June-July
herring eggs.
Worms, crabs, molluscs,
shrimps, herring, sanalance,
pollock, flatfishes.
Shrimp, sandlance, herring,
young salmon (in Alaska),
niysids, euphausids.snel t.
(Armstrong & Hinslow, 1968)
Hov-Dec
Apr-May
Note: Small crustaceans refers to copepods, amphipods, cladocerons, decapod and barnacle larvae, euphausids, etc.
SOURCE: Schell, et al., 1977.
-------
Figure 5-8. Food Web of Common Biota of Puget Sound
Sandsole
Sne 11
Herring
Pollock
Afrttwtooltl
Flou n der
» | Rjllrsl
M A N
Cucumber? , starf;-sn
Slickly
£ciooui
Starry Fiaunier
Flathead Sole
English Sole
0ov»r Sol®
Slindsr Safe
Rex Sole
Rock So'e
Plankton. Crustaceans, Detritus, Algae
Mussel?, Cla^s. Barnacle*. Shnmo.Crabs
SOURCE: Schell, et al., 1977)
C-95
-------
Table 5-5. 1977 Estimated Harvest of Marine Fi
by Recreational Anglers in Seattle-Bremerton
Area of Puget Sound (Punch Card Area #10)
Species
Number of :
Flatfish-unclassified
3,934
C-0 sole
73
English sole
165
Rock sole
882
Sand sole
642
Starry flounder
31
Arrowtooth flounder
52
Speckled sanddab
48
Pacific sanddab
7,210
Sablefish
757
Greenling-unclassified
32
Lingcod
172
Kelp greenling
93
Striped seaperch
301
Pile perch
128
White seaperch
144
Pacific cod
29,227
Pacific tomcod
171
Walleye pollock
4 ,827
Pacific hake
3 ,903
Rockfish-unclassified
3,015
Yellowtail rockfish
500
Black rockfish
1,192
Bocaccio
34
Yelloweye rockfish
92
Greenstriped rockfish
85
Brown rockfish
336
Canary rockfish
231
Copper rockfish
14,229
Quillback rockfish
3,662
Dogfish shark
504
Sculpin-unclassified
28
C-96
-------
Table 5-5. Cont.
Species Number of Fish
Cabezon 12
Red Irish lord 38
Ratfish 44
Unknown 6,4 02
SOURCE: Department of Fisheries, 1977.
C- 97
-------
Table 5-6. 1977 Puget Sound Trawl Landings (Pounds)
Food Fish
English sole
697,314
Rock sole
29,655
Dover sole
130,985
Starry flounder
202,016
Other flathead
42
Sand sole
9,649
Truecod
87,395
Lingcod
710
Other rockfish
18,778
Miscellaneous species
132,567
Reduction
Hake 80,4 43
Dogfish 100
Animal Food
Hake 713,434
SOURCE: Department of Fisheries, 1978
C- 98
-------
Figure 5-9. Commercial Value of Puget Sound Fish - 1974
PUGET SOUND 1974
TOTAL PRODUCTSON
94,127,803
HALIBUT
1,101,407
ALBACORE TUNA
3,037,573
HERRING
12,139.035
SALMON
32.493.222 lbs.
POCKFISH
& OCEAN PERCH
13,026.693
MISC.
11,271.563 lbs
TRUE
SOLE & FLOUNDER
7,502,024
8,079,883
SHELLFISH
5.474,398 lbs
TOTAL VALUE TO FISHERMEN
$35,731,666
HERRING
$1.569,741
SALMON
S24.922.095
ALBACORE TUNA
Sl.072.970
HALIBUT
$856,408
ROCKFISH & OCEAN PERCH
S1.293,927
sole & flounder
$1,036,946
TRUE COD
S930,133
SHELLFISH
S3 006.107
MISC
S 1,043,339
SOURCE: Fisheries Statistical Report, 1974; in EPA, 1977a.
C-99
-------
Superimposed on the authority of these agencies are catch
allocation requirements that have resulted from a series of
court decisions over the past decade, the most famous of which
was the decision rendered by U. S. District Judge George Boldt
in 1974 in the case of United States v. Washington. The Boldt
decision decreed that certain treaty Indian tribes in western
Washington have the right to the opportunity to take up to
half of the anadromous fish returning to the usual and accus-
tomed fishing grounds of the tribes.
Many harvest management changes have been ordered to
implement the Boldt decision. Among these are liberalization
of permissible fishing methods used by Indians, and restric-
tion of methods and fishing areas to non-Indians.
Table 5-7 shows the catch by Indians and non-Indians of
anadromous salmonids from 1974 to 1977. As shown, the Indian
catch is far below 50 percent, but catches have been rising.
C—100
-------
Table 5-7. Anadromous Salmonid Catch in U. S. v. Washington
Case Area, in Numbers of Fish
1974
1975
1976
1977
Treaty Indian
Catch Percentage
788,582 11.9
827,356 12.1
896,153 13.8
1,630,399 16.9
Non-Indian
Catch
5,845,482
5,987,374
5,600,131
6,691,223
Percentage
88 .1
87.9
86.2
83.1
SOURCE: Northwest Indian Fisheries Commission, 1980
-------
Chapter 6
REFERENCES FOR APPENDIX C
Anderson, J. R., et al. 1976. A land use and land cover classification
system for use with remote sensor data. U.S. Geological Survey Profes-
sional Paper 964. 28 pp.
Bernhardt, J. 1980. Effects of wastewater discharged fran the Renton
sewage treatment plant on water quality of the Green/Duwaraish River:
Draft staff report. Washington Dept. of Ecology, Olympia. 21 pp.
Brown and Caldwell. 1979b. Combined sewer overflow control program.
Seattle.
Buckley, J. A,, and R. J. Matsuda. 1973. Toxicity of the Renton treatment
plant effluent to cobo salmon, Qncorhynchus kisutch. Metro, Seattle.
32 pp.
Cowardin, L. M., et al. 1979. Classification of wetlands and deepwater
habitats of the United States. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington,
D.C. FWS/OBS-79/31. 103 pp.
Duxbury, A. C. 1976. Interim reports for the municipality of metropolitan
Seattle. Metro Puget Sound Studies. Seattle.
Environmental Quality Analysts, Inc. 1974. Study of wastewater discharge
areas: Carkeek Park, West Point submarine outfalls. Seattle.
Harman, R. A., et al. 1977. Distribution of subtidal benthic organisms,
sediments, am habitats near the West Point outfall and partial analysis
of data. Metro Puget Sound Studies. Seattle.
McGreevy, R. 1973. Seattle shoreline environment. City of Seattle, Washington
Sea Grant Program.
Metro. 1976. An intensive water quality survey of 16 selected lakes in the
Lake Washington and Green River Basin. Seattle. 88 pp.
. 1978b. Areawide water quality plan, King County, Washington,
Cedar-Green River Basins. Seattle.
i . 1978c. A profile of water quality in the Cedar-Green River
Basins: Areawide water quality plan for King County, Washington, Cedar-
Green River Basins. 208 Technical Appendix No. 5. Seattle.
C-103
-------
. 1978e, A baseline study of the benthic ccrnnunity in small
streams: Areawide water quality plan for King County, Washington, Cedar-
Green River Basins. 208 Technical Appendix No. 12. Seattle.
. 1979c. Water Quality Monitoring Review Board, six-month report,
October 1978 to March 1979. Seattle.
. 1979d. Technical memorandum number 1 and appendix: Existing
wastewater facilities and characteristics. Wastewater managenent study,
Lake Washington/Green River Basins. Seattle.
. 1979e. Technical memorandum number 2 and appendix: Study area
characteristics. Wastewater managsnent study, Lake Washington/Green River
Basins. Seattle.
. 1980f. Water Quality Monitoring Review Board, six-ironth report.
October 1979 to March 1980. Seattle.
Metro and King County Conservation District. 1977. Construction and water
quality: A guide to recommended construction practices for the control of
erosion and sedimentation to improve water quality in King County, Washing-
ton. 208 Plan Staff Report. Seattle.
Metro and Seattle Water Dept. 1979. Cedar River temperature study.
Miller, B. S., et al. 1977. Ecological and disease studies of fishes near
Metro-operab=3 sewage treatment plants on Puget Sound and the Duwamish
River. Metro Puget Sound Interim Studies. Seattle.
Miller, J. W. 1976. The effects of minimum and peak Cedar River streamflows
on fish production and water supply. M.S. thesis, Dept. of Civil Engineering,
University of Washington. 230 pp.
Moulton, L. L./ and B. S. Miller. 1974. Ecological survey of demersal fishes
at Metro's West Point and Alki Point outfalls. Washington Sea Grant
Technical Report 74-11.
Northwest' Indian Fisheries Commission. 1980. Treaty fishing rights and the
Northwest Indian Fisheries Catmission. Olympia. 12 pp.
Pacific Northwest River Basins Ccmnission. 1970. Comprehensive study of
water and related land resources, Puget Sound and adjacent waters.
Appendix XI: Fish and wildlife.
RIBCO Task Force for Citizen Participation. 1974. The growth issue in the
Green/Cedar River Basins of King County. Seattle.
C-104
-------
Santos, J. G., and J. D. Stoner. 1972. Physical, chemical, and biological
aspects of the Duwamisb River estuary, King County, Washington, 1963-1967.
U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Papa: 1873-C. 74 pp.
Schell, W. R., et al. 1977. Heavy metals near the West Point outfall in the
Central Basin oF~Puget Sound. Metro Puget Sound Interim Studies. Seattle.
STR, Inc. 1974c. Environmental management for the metropolitan area
Part III: Water quality, Appendix B: Water quality analyses. Seattle.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1976. Quality criteria for water.
Prepared by Office of Hazardous Materials. 256 pp.
. 1977a. Draft EIS for metropolitan Seattle. Volume I: Regional
analysis. Seattle.
U.S. Geological Survey. 1979a. Land use and land cover, Seattle, Washington,
1975. Land Use Series Map L-4.
. 1979b. Land vise and land cover, Tacana, Washington, 1975.
Land Use Series Map L-l.
Washington, Dept. of Ecology. 1980. Green-Duwamish River Basin instream
resources protection program including proposed administrative rules, and
supplemental environmental impact statement. Prepared by Water Resources
Policy Development Section. Olympia. ca. 100 pp.
Washington, Dept. of Fisheries. 1977. Washington State sport catch, 1977,
Olympia. 63 pp.
Welch, E. B., and W. T. Trial. 1979. Armenia toxicity affected by pH and
nitrification in the Duwanvish River estuary. Report to Brown and Caldwell
Engineers, Seattle.
Williams, R. W., et al. 1975. A catalog of Washington streams and salmon
utilization. Volume I; Puget Sound region. Washington Dept. of Fisheries,
Olympia. 34 pp.
Yake, W. E. 1980. The impact of effluent frcm the Renton wastewater treat-
ment plant on the dissolved oxygen regimen of the lower Green/Duwamish
Rivers. Washington Dept. of Ecology, Water and Wastewater Monitoring
Section, olympia. 19 pp. + appendix.
C-105
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APPENDIX D
SOIL, GEOLOGY AND GROUNDWATER REPORT
RENTON WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT PROGRAM-
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT
Prepared for
Jones & Stokes Associates, Inc.
by
H. Esmaili & Associates, Inc.
August, 1980
-------
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION D-l
CHAPTER 2 - BACKGROUND INFORMATION D-3
Physiography D-3
Climate D-5
REGIONAL GEOLOGY AND GROUNDWATER CONDITIONS- • • • D-5
Stratigraphy and Occurrence of Groundwater- - • D-5
Groundwater Quality D-13
REGIONAL SOIL CONDITIONS D-18
Regional Soil Associations D-18
Alderwood Consociation D-20
Oridia-Seattle-Woodinville Association . - D-20
Buckley-Alderwood Association D-20
Everett Consociation D-21
Beausite-Alderwood Association D-21
Alderwood-Kitsap-Indianola Association • • D-21
Puget-Earlraont-Snohomish Association • - - D-21
Characteristics of Major Study Area Soils • • • D-22
Uses and Limitations of Major Study Area- . - .
Soils D-22
Agricultural Use of Soils D-25
Use of Soils for Wastewater Management . . D-29
CHAPTER 3 - EXISTING AND PROJECTED WASTE LOADS D-33
Waste Sources-Sewered Areas D-33
Land Application Alternatives D-33
Soils, Crops, and Groundwater Conditions • D-37
Wastewater Characteristics D-38
Migration Pathways for Pollutants D-40
Waste Loads to Groundwater D-41
Non-Sewered Areas D-41
Wastewater Characteristics D-42
Local Soil and Groundwater Conditions- • • D-43
Migration Pathways for Pollutants • • • • D-45
Waste Load Emissions D-49
CHAPTER 4 - EVALUATION OF IMPACT OF LAND APPLICATION
AND ON-SITE DISPOSAL PRACTICES D-53
Sewered Areas D-53
Major Contaminants of Concern D-53
Assimilative Capacity of Local Soils • • • D-53
Impacts of Effluent Reuse on Crops • • • • D-54
-------
Page
Impact on Groundwater Resources D-54
Nonsewered Areas D-54
Major Contaminants of Concern D-54
Analysis of Septic Tank Failure Data . . . D-54
Treatment Capability of Local Soils. . . . D-54
Potential Pollutant Loadings to Ground-
water Aquifers D-54
CHAPTER 5 - MITIGATION MEASURES D"59
Sewered Areas D-d9
Non Sewered Areas D-60
References D-65
-------
LIST OF TABLES
Table # Page
2-1 Monthly Precipitation, Evapo- D-6
ration and Average Temperature
Data for Seattle-Tacoma Airport,
Washington, 1945-1978 period
2-2 Pleistocene and Recent Stratigraphy D-9
of the Lake Washington/Green
River Basins Study Area
2-3 Pleistocene Stratigraphy and D-10
Water-Bearing Properties of
Units
2-4 Drinking Water Standards D-14
2-5 Ground Water Quality Character- D-15
istics for Selected Wells and
Springs in the Renton Study
Area
2-6 Generalized Physical Character- D-23
istics of Some Dominant Soils
in the Renton Study Area
2-7 Use and Limitations of Some D-26
Dominant Soils in the Renton
Study Area
2-8 Guide to Agricultural Capability D-27
Classes and Subclasses
2-9 Soil Limitation Rating for Septic D-30
Tank Filter Fields
2-10 Soil Limitation Rating for D-31
Sewage Lagoons
2-11 Soil Limitation Rating for Irri- D-32
gation Reuse of Treated
Wastewater
3-1 Population and Wastewater Pro- D-34
jections for Alternative Land
Application Treatment Facilities- • •
3-2 Precipitation and Evapotranspira- D-36
tion Data for Botbell, Washington . .
-------
Table #
Page
3-3 Guidelines for Interpretation of D-39
Water Quality for Irrigation
3-4 Representative Data on Chemical D-44
and Bacterial Characteristics
of Septic Tank Effluent
3-5 Estimated Range in Daily Per D-50
Capita Total Nitrogen Emissions
Resulting From On-Site Waste-
Water Treatment and Disposal,
gms per day
3-6 Estimated Range of Nitrogen, D-52
Phosphorous and Total Dissolved
Solids Emissions to Groundwater
Resulting from On-Site Wastewater
Disposal
5-1 Septic Tank Siting problems and D-62
Alternative Solutions for Renton
Study Area Soils
-------
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure # Page
2-1 Study Area Boundaries & Exist- D-4
ing Metro Facilities
2-2 General Geologic Map of the D-7
Renton Study Area
2-3 Schematic Hydrogeologic Sections D-12
of the Lake Washington/Green
River Basins
2-4 Variation in Inorganic Consti- D-17
tuents with Age and Depth of
Aquifer in the Renton Study
Area
2-5 General Soil Associations D-19
2-6 Generalized Soil Drainage D-24
Characteristics
3-1 Decentralized Treatment Facilities D-35
Service Areas
3-2 Schematic Flow Path for Effluent D-46
from a Septic Tank Drainfield
Installed over a Perched Water
Table
3-3 Schematic Flow Path for Effluent D-48
from a Septic Tank Drainfield
Installed over a Permeable
Formation
-------
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The objectives of this appendix are as follows:
1. Summarize available information on soils, geology,
groundwater hydrology and groundwater quality
characteristics in the Renton Study area.
2. Estimate existing and projected waste loads from
sewered areas proposed to use a land application
effluent disposal method and from all on-site
disposal facilities used in nonsewered portions of
the study area.
3. Analyze the impact of land application and on-site
disposal practices on soils, crops, and groundwater
resources and evaluate any public health hazards
associated with these disposal methods, and
4. Develop recommendations for mitigating any adverse
environmental impacts of the proposed facilities
within the study area. This discussion is limited
to the impacts outlined in the preceding paragraph.
This appendix is a part of the overall Environmental Impact
Statement and is intended to provide substantiation for the
more generalized discussion contained in the main volume of
the EIS on related subject matters.
D-l
-------
CHAPTER 2
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
General data on environmental setting, soils and ground-
water aquifer conditions in the Renton study area are
presented in this chapter. A map of the study area is
shown in Figure 2-1.
Physiography
Landforms in the Lake Washington/Green River Basins project
area are primarily the result of accumulation and erosion of
glacial and non-glacial sediments deposited during the past
15,000 years (late Pleistocene). Four advances of ice from
Canada are recognized in deposits of the Puget Lowland. The
present topography most strongly reflects erosion and deposi-
tion during and after the most recent advance of ice (Vashon).
This advance scoured deep, elongate, north-trending troughs
into older deposits. In the project area these troughs include
Lake Washington, the Green-Duwamish River Valley and the
Sammamish River Valley.
Inter-trough areas are covered primarily by a non-stratified,
poorly sorted mixture of clay, silt and sand with minor amounts
of coarser material. This material, known as till, was deposited
by glaciers. Till deposited as the ice advanced is fairly
compact while that deposited as the ice retreated is generally
loosely compacted. These two occurrences are expressed at
the surface in two contrasting land forms. Compact till forms
elongate hills aligned with their long axes parallel to the
direction of ice flow. Where loosely compact till occurs the
surface is characterized by a chaotic, undulating topography.
These areas are marked by many small depressions and lakes.
Terraces occur along many valley walls in the Puget Lowland.
They were formed by meltwater channels that flowed in a gutter
position between the edge of the ice and valley walls.
As ice retreated from the project area meltwater eroded
shallow channels into the inter-trough areas (drift plains).
These channels appear as sinuous, braided topographic lows and
are commonly filled with sand and gravel. They are most easily
recognized where they have eroded across elongate-parallel
ridges.
After the final advance of ice had retreated north of the
Strait of Juan de Fuca, seawater re-entered the Puget Lowland
and inundated the deep ice-scoured troughs. At this time the
Green-Duwamish Valley was an extension of Puget Sound. It has
D-3
-------
Lfu.
Figure 2-1. study area boundaries
-------
since been filled with sediment deposited by rivers flowing
from the Cascade Mountains to the east. These rivers have
incised deeply into the drift plains.
Tertiary bedrock crops out at various locations in the
project area. In the southeast section of the study area, near
Black Diamond, Tertiary bedrock forms numerous, isolated hills
that rise above the surrounding drift plain. The major outcrop
of Tertiary rocks is a northwest-trending ridge that extends
from the southern edge of Lake Washington to the southeast
beyond the study area. This ridge forms the highest terrain
in the area and includes the Newcastle Hills, Tiger Mountain
and Squak Mountain.
CIimate
Maritime air masses originating in the Pacific Ocean
strongly influence weather in the Lake Washington/Green River
Basins. Winters are mild and generally fairly dry. Precipi-
tation increases from west to east across the study area; in
the west annual precipitation averages about 35 inches and in
the east about 50 inches. The Olympic Mountains and Vancouver
Island block the Puget Lowland from severe storms and precipi-
tation is mostly of low intensity. The long wet season and
mild summers result in the development of a very lush vegetative
cover throughout the project area. Annual variations in aver-
age temperature, rainfall and evaporation thought to be
representative of the study area are presented in Table 2-1.
Annual precipitation increases eastward toward the Cascade
Mountains and ranges from approximately 40 inches at the western
edge of the study area to approximately 60 inches over the
eastern portion.
REGIONAL GEOLOGY AND GROUNDWATER CONDITIONS
Stratigraphy and Occurrence of Groundwater
In this section the stratigraphy and occurrence of ground-
water in surficial deposits and water-bearing units will be
described. These deposits are primarily of Pleistocene and
more recent age. Textural variations between and within
geologic units are of fundamental importance in determining
the distribution of groundwater and the potential for aquifer
contamination. A general geologic map of the study area is
shown in Figure 2-2.
Pleistocene glacial and non-glacial sediments were deposited
on an eroded terrain of Tertiary marine sedimentary and volcanic
rocks. Groundwater generally does not occur in usable quantities
D-5
-------
Table 2-1. Monthly Precipitation, Evaporation arid Average Temperature
Data for Seattle-Tacoma Airport, Washington, 1945-ly78 period
Pa rartie ter
Jan.
Feb.
March
April
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Total
. . a
Average Precipitation
(inches)
5.79
4.19
4.16
2.46
1.70
1.53
0.71
1.08
2.03
3.91
5 .88
5.94
39.38
Maximum Precipitation*3
(inches)
12.92
9.11
8.40
3.75
4.76
3.90
2.10
2.16
4 .60
CD
V0
9 69
9.50
55.14
Minimum Precipitationb
(inches)
0.86
1.66
0.57
0. 33
0.35
0.13
tr
0. 17
0.32
1.00
1.11
3. 75
23.78
Average Toajierature3
C°F)
38.2
42.3
44.1
48.7
54.9
59.8
64.5
63.8
59.6
52.2
44 .6
40 , 5
b
Potential Evapotranspiratxon
(inches)
0.3
0.6
1.2
1.8
3.1
3.B
4.5
4.1
2.8
1.8
0 .8
0.5 .
25.3
source: Wastewater Management Study-Lake Washington/Green River Basins, Technical Appendix No. 2, Study Area Characteristics
^source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Heather Service
-------
SOURCE *• UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
6E0L0SICAL SURVEY WATER SUPPLY PAPER 1852
EXPLANATION
O
Alluvium
£frram, lake. and telle y-gl.ic >er
litpoaif* of clny. nil, »and, gravel,
and prat. Yield* rtry email I..
v*ry large guantmtt *f water in
wtllt. dejhending en caa rteneme oj
Ike tedimtHlary malert*J
ra
O^crula Mud Dow
Unsortcd mixture vj nick fragment*
that flowed down lie H'ktle Hirer
Valley from lie elope* of Mount
Maimer ohu-l i.too years ap«
Yield* trery Utile valer la m-eUi
izjj ri^~^
Z-zJ/0*o
Ovi-y/
*7///j
Vtuihon Dnfl
Qvo. euluatk drpueit*. Sand an.1
grate! depoailtd A, glacial melt-
water etrenma. Hoy contain nn
occanonnl ten* nf clny. rUt.vr peat
Include ndrantt m»d recemuiumat
• Kitro«A, I km altmnal material,
arul thin hll af Itmiied areal eitsnt
Yield email la >ery large quantifies
utnter It tc'Ii. generally a goad
producer
Qvt. till. A cum/tncl nulvrr nf clay,
till. 0aad, <1 nil grurel Hay include
email arena uf nndijfere nliated
Vamlan or pre-Y*t»e* drift
iieiti* saiall guanlihee uf aaier
la wella
Glacial and nonirlacui dcpottu.
undivided
Contains many mlrnte uf clay. milt,
land, giaerl. till, and peal Ua„
alio include small erect »/ \'aihon
lilt or outuaeM. heldt email to
large qnamtiliee qf welter te well*
• .
bedrock
Sedi mtnlary. igneous, and meta-
morphu rocke each u« tomdelvne.
ekale. coal. granitic and gneiss,c
rocke. and httcauc atk and Im rn
flows Generally yield* eery little
water la well*
FIGURE 2-2.
GENERAL GEOLOGIC MAP OF THE RENTON STUDY AREA
-------
in these rocks. Yields of 30 to 50 gpra can be obtained from
sedimentary units on the north side of the Newcastle Hills,
however, as early as 1963 it was reported that the rate of
withdrawal was greater than the rate of groundwater replenish-
ment (Liescb, et al., 1963).
The Pleistocene stratigraphy of the Puget Lowland consists
of a complex accumulation of glacial-related and inter-glacial
sediments. Lateral texturai changes within a unit hamper the
ability to predict the occurrence of water-bearing zones in the
subsurface. The more important water-bearing geologic units
are generally the younger and better understood.
Glacial sediments with different water-bearing properties
were deposited in a number of depositional environments. Glacier
ice advancing south from Canada blocked the northward drainage
of the area and created an extensive lake in the Puget Lowland.
As the ice continued to advance lacustrine (lake-deposited)
silts and clays were progressively overlain by gravel and sand
deposited by meltwater streams immediately in front of the ice.
With further advance of ice, a poorly sorted mixture of clay,
silt, sand, gravel, and boulders was deposited on top of the
lacustrine and fluvial deposits and deep troughs were locally
scoured. As the ice melted, meltwater streams deposited large
quantities of sand and gravel in front of the receding glacier
as recessional outwash.
Regional drainage of surface waters in the Puget Lowland
during interglacial intervals was, and presently is, to the
north through the Strait of Juan de Fuca, Interglacial sediments
appear to have been deposited on broad alluvial plains and
consist dominantly of sand, silt, clay and occasionally peat.
These sediments were derived largely from the erosion of volcanic
material in the Cascade Mountains.
The Pleistocene and more recent stratigraphy are shown in
Table 2-2. Lithologic characteristics and water-bearing pro-
perties of these units are summarized in Table 2-3. Groundwater
resources and the stratigraphy of counties included in the
Henton EIS study area have been described for Snohomish County
(Newcomb, 1952), northwest King County (Liesch, et a.1. , 1963).
southwest King County (Luzier, 1969), and central Pierce County
(Walters and Kimmel, 1968). These reports present detailed
descriptioas -of local stratigraphy and assessments of water
resources availability in the various survey areas. The principal
water-bearing units in the project area include sand and gravel
of the Salmon Springs Drift, advance outwash (including the
Esperance Sand) and recessional outwash of Vashon Drift, alluvial
floodplain deposits and alluvial fan deposits.
D-3
-------
Table 2-2. Pleistocene and Recent Stratigraphy of the Lake
Washington/Green River Basins Study Area3
n
SJOHOMISH COUNTY
NOftTHWCSTUN KING
COUNTY
PtEICl COUNTY
SOUTMWfSTON KING
COUNfY
KING COUNTY
CLIMATE UNITS
UC1NT
UT8 FlflSTOCENE
>
Sand Me*b«
mi
mi
Till
ArfxHCT ewleq*
Sand
^lchM
-------
Tacle 2-J Pleistocene atratiqrapry a*id wat«r-9earin:7 Prorartias of 'Juts
Oeoos i cion-ai Period
Cmolcfcjic Lmta
Litroiogy
Water-3edr1ng
Properties
Extent of Ocv«lO?i!i«rit
Cjr.ean-.-.acion Po^ar.tial
ween: Ij.toi ;lac:.il
wiu mudrlows
cn-anael iaris and
grav»l3 ir. fl^oo-
f.Lai^» 3'-rrcuj-i-.' 1
fcv suit Jrj clay
3 nd 1 icw aquifers ara
in hv-drolog ic :cn-
tiriiity vitn surf^e
wj:«r. ^verji?«
a7 cf draw-
dcwn. Avscjijij
^/.OO upa.'ijot.
r.iyr.arouB, small, snallcw
•2one5tic: -c.Ia 2raw
vatar from 4l IJ
ruJilaw ^nositJ
jer.araLiy *0: # iJjrrt
i: -sjt=r
jer.araily a fairly .-.19,-.
•tor-.ta-ir.jtt 10.*> ~ot«s-tial
; : la-f: .11 ae : at i-jr
'-eltj ;r»v---U
sand 4.i4 ;r*vej
hiqr.iy permeatl«. t_i.--k
jnd re.-e.v» ibunaa.ic
recharge
4OC1UV tria is tne t_m.-
supplier if 7r»!J"d -'s^r
to municipal walls
"odaran rs-taiTundtios
cottrciil its •~igr
cerT^ar11ity
Vaanon Recessional
outwain
doounantly sand anc
gravel-nur.or amounts
of nit ar.d el-ay
saturated locAlly-
generally well drained
cr^riy anal] domestic
wells draw watar fron
t.nit uriic
highly jusc«ptible to
ition-aaptc idlly
uniri a uni; is thir.
.'At.'Ori Till
dominance ;lay,
3llt WILT, ».Tl4li8t
Amounts si p«oiiLna
and cocfcl«s-occa-
iionai .ar.jei sf
Sin J j.-.a r.'ive.,
^enerail.. iO
feet cn;c-\
generally coos-sand
And gravel lenses yield
small juvount* of wa^er
ta :3i»(t!ic veils
rsar.y jiMli drra*stic
veil a Jraw wactr rci*
tr. 14 jnit
snallau1 r^rr^ai aoyifars
are ver suscaf ;;fcl« t ?
=or.eatr.irazuor sr: jf-.s".
qs ary l r jjrr.er
'.'ii.-ion. AJvartc«
• includes
Lsperartce aar.d>
Jowir-antiy sand anc
•gravel
saturated tnrcjqhsut
*kc«oc a: t*< ddtje af
drift =Lj-.-a onttra it
13 typically well
•ictvr^d, yields
50 ;3 100 gps coirnof:
T**60 3 ^pd/fooe
hiqnly dev^lsr^d Jot
aoth dcresci: arid
¦^unicifJL -4*Lls
low ior.tATir.a:ion potential
KCijpt ¦.-.-are it .sccur* at
trie jir^j;c
. ™.Li t.itecqijcii*
-p?«f -lay Jrut
dominant. •• silt and
clav wit.', trtr, sand
deposits
no-, j producti.1/*
iquif»r-i«lp9 to
cor.fir.« jnd#riy ifq
units-!¦>
'/»;y alow
•? 3i^nfiC4r,t ?ioor.d
«4ter development
r.o csw'.a.ni-.a-
tion pota~.ua 1
j.i.rvj.i i: r;nq» :.jcu-
jjfon ijrif^s Jn »•:
up to jC; fsttt ;c
sjnd ar.d travel
Wl th l«3»*f IPO'intS
of jilt .j.-.J clay
sa tura - ad c^iccrnqnout-
jrairnoa at outcroo
licrited due to we4cr.tr-
in-q . Gcnar*lly confinea
Av«raq« yi*id is 15>; ^pm
••Ltn iceciiJi- i-i^ac.ufs
as "iigr, «a .0 gpW/'foot
oC drawdown. Yielas 'jp
to iOOO ?pm
'.r. r-anv p.lacd3 :'£¦
irt;r,cip4i source oi
¦jtour.dwator to
pa. wells
vflry l.v* r-.a.-i.-ation
?a:cn:.4i
P'-v .»i I ct>r«
J i a ; .J C. 10 n
P'-ytilup /nrmation
very ii-t
"#arly i^omedol*
not 4 janece ot grourd-
w <11« r
r.o 4«velotjrwnt
-.ot ar;-iicaDl«
wfv fit.«
x.'sii va ter-ieari.-iq
JOnee ;ccji locally
"Qt -ir* uoir.nc vauica
cf ijrounJ-Atcr
evi 4«v*i09-
fteit
r.otvnt i4 .
Ai-ivrvan 1'irMuw
not roi"3*jr 1 zed l:i
project acta
• r : ...'j -;l*w :j c io.1:
~.i :ir«? Ori?t
lit!, aarii and Biior
amounts ¦jfavel
locally /ioIJs ^od«rttc
imoiircs nt wac.-r to
'|f-m ar:i»4l'i He*
obtJinarla trom pror-crly
con*trucica wdl«
.orv Uctle devu U|.-
•/err law j or. cam r.it 1 _• :i
f or-.-r t »al
it J.., I.J.-r i 1' *•'» -»i » am WjU-ira, •*; Al., il'teH).
D-10
-------
The relationship between the various geologic units in
the project area is illustrated schematically in Figure 2-3.
Of special note is the lateral discontinuity of most units.
Till of the most recent glaciation is the most areally wide-
spread and laterally continuous Pleistocene unit in the area.
It acts as a "leaky" barrier to the downward movement of ground-
water. It is not entirely impermeable but groundwater movement
through it is very slow. Aquifers underlying the till and
other deeper aquitards occur under confined conditions except
where they are exposed in valley walls. In these areas, ground-
water discharges through springs, many of which are large
enough to serve as domestic and municipal sources of water
supplies. At the edges of drift plains, aquifers typically are
fairly well drained and not completely saturated. Wells in
an aquifer at the edge of a drift plain usually have lower
yields than wells in the interior of the drift plains.
Deltas and alluvial fans often occur where rivers draining
the Cascade Mountains enter glacier-scoured, north-trending
troughs in the study area. These deposits are very permeable,
receive abundant recharge and often are surrounded by less
permeable silts and clays. As a result they are not extensively
drained and contain large quantities of water. Some of the
highest yields in the project area sre obtained from wells drilled
in delta and fan deposits and many municipal supplies are obtained
from this aquifer.
The occurrence and distribution of water-bearing units in
the project area have been described in detail in a report pre-
pared by Metro (Metro, 1980). In the present report, emphasis
is placed on those units which form significant recharge areas
and units which may be susceptible to contamination due to
land application of wastewaters.
Recharge of groundwater underlying drift plains in the pro-
ject area occurs primarily by the infiltration and percolation
of incident precipitation. Valley aquifers are recharged both
by infiltration of incident precipitation and infiltration
inflow from streams and rivers. Areas with high recharge poten-
tial occur where soils with high percolation rates are developed
on deposits of sand, gravel and alluvium (Everett soils series)
that are not directly underlain by till of the latest glaciation.
These areas are localized in the project area; till is by
far the most common unit at the surface. Aquifers within and
beneath till are recharged slowly by groundwater moving down-
ward through the till and the potential for contamination of
these aquifers does not appear to be great.
Groundwater contamination of water-bearing zones in the
upper part of the Vashon till and in overlying permeable deposits
is a very real possibility, especially in non-sewered areas.
D-ll
-------
800
700
600
Qvr
Qvr
Qvo
u.
— 400
ar
2 300
Qvl
Oo
Qvl
~—
> 200
Ui
-J 100
UJ
Qvr
Oo
Oal
Qvr
Qss
Qss
100
?00
LEGEND-
~ Oo! RECENT ALLUVIUM
HQ Qvr RECESSIONAL 0UTWA5H
HILLS
Qvt VASHON TILL
Qvo ADVANCE OUTWASH
Ov!
1000
OLITMPIA INTER6LACIAL DEPOSITS
0
1
Qss SALMON SPRIN6S DRIFT
BOO
Qotd OLDER QUATERNARY DEPOSITS
H / T*
TERTIARY SEDIMENTARY BEDROCK
Ovt
600
Qvt
Qvo
CROSS SECTIONS MODIFIED FROM
WASHINGTON STATE MATER SUPPLY
BULLETIN 20, 1963
Qvt
Qvt
200
Qvo
Qvr
Qol
1/2
V /v '
MILES
400
SCHEMATIC H Y DROG EOLOGIC SECTIONS OF THE LAKE WASHINGTON / GREEN RIVER BASINS
FIGURE 2-3
-------
Vashon till is fairly compact throughout most of its thickness.
The top portion, however, on which the Alderwood soil series is
developed, is tapped by many small domestic wells, and is
generally loosely compacted and susceptible to contamination.
Recessional outwash sands and gravels that were deposited
on top of the Vashon till are highly permeable, and are often
well drained and thin. These deposits are widespread through-
out the project area (Figure 2-2) and are susceptible to
contamination from nonpoint and point sources of pollution
resulting from land use practices.
Groundwater Quality
In this section the chemical quality of groundwater in
terms of its suitability for domestic use and human consump-
tion, and potential contamination problems, will be discussed.
Chemical standards for drinking water are shown in Table 2-4.
In the project area groundwater has been analyzed primarily
for inorganic constituents. Data concerning organic consti-
tuents, bacteria content and trace and heavy metal concentrations
are lacking. Chemical analyses of groundwater from selected
wells in the project area are presented in Table 2-5.
The quality of groundwater in the project area, almost
without exception, is good to excellent. In some localities
wells yield water with objectionable concentrations of iron
and/or chloride and dissolved solids that exceed national
drinking water standards. The concentration of orthophosphate
is high throughout the project area and typically is highest
in the deeper aquifers. This is generally attributed to inherent
aquifer characteristcis and not to human activities.
Groundwater with objectionable levels of iron is very
common in the study area; however, no areal or stratigraphic
pattern has been found in the occurrence of high iron concen-
trations. The solubility of iron in water increases with
increased levels of acidity. Widespread occurrence of acidic
peat layers in the study area is usually cited as playing an
important role in the occurrence of groundwater rich in iron.
Groundwater with chloride and dissolved solids concentra-
tions exceeding the standards for drinking water occurs in two
known wells in the project area. Both of these wells are deep
(600 and 1,461 feet) but the specific aquifer tapped by the wells
is not definitely known. Saltwater intrusion does not appear
to be the cause for the poor water quality in these wells.
Rather the quality characteristics are more probably caused by
connate waters trapped within the water-bearing strata.
D-13
-------
Table 2-4. Drinking Water Standards
Constituent Recommended Concentration Limit*
(mg/£)
Inorganic
Total dissolved solids
Chloride (CI)
Sulfate (SOi2-)
Nitrate (NO3)
Iron (Fe)
Manganese (Mn)
Copper (Cu)
Zinc (Zn)
Boron (B)
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
Arsenic (As)
Barium (Ba)
Cadmium (Cd)
Chromium (CrvI)
Selenium
Antimony (Sb)
Lead (Pb)
Mercury (Hg)
Silver (Ag)
Fluoride (F)
500
250
250
4 5+
0.3
0.05
1.0
5.0
1.0
0.05
Maximum permissible concentration
0.05
1.0
0.01
0.05
0.01
01
05
002
05
1.4-2.4
Organic
Cyanide
Endrin
Lindane
Methoxychlor
Toxaphene
2,4-D
2,4,5-TP silvex
Phenols
Carbon chloroform extract
Synthetic detergents
Radionuclides and
radioactivity
Radium 226
Strontium 90
Plutonium
Gross beta activity
Gross alpha activity
Bacteriological
Total coliform bacteria
0.05
0.0002
0 .004
0.1
0.005
0.1 .
0.01
0.001
0.2
0.5
Maximum permissible activity
(pci/fc)
5
10
50 ,000
30
3
1 per 100 mil
Sources: U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1975 and World Health
Organization, European Standards, 1970
~Recommended concentration limits for these constituents are mainly to
provide acceptable esthetic and taste characteristics.
rLimit for NOj expressed as N is 10 mg/l according to U. S. and Canadian
standards; according to WHO European standards, it is 11.3 mg/Z as N
and 50 mg/Z as NO!-
D-14
-------
Table 2-5. Ground Water Quality Characteristics for Selected Wells and Springs in the Renton Study Areaa
Aquifer
Well
Number
S1O2
F'e
Hn
Ca
Mg
Na
K
HCO3
so4
CI
F
NO 3
P04
B
TDS
Hardness
EC
} j mhos/cm
@ 25°C
pi!
Uni ts
A1 luviuin
21/4-lQl
37
1.5
0 . 3
17
5.2
17
1.3
109
0.0
11
0.2
0.1
1.5
.
146
64
203
7.3
21/5-19A2
31
0.01
a .01
9 .
8
7.5
8.9
-
69
2.1
11
0.0
-
-
-
114
56
-
6.7
2 3/5-17F2
14
o.o
-
12
3.5
4.0
0.5
49
10
2.2
0.1
0.8
0 .02
-
71
44
110
6.9
Recessional Outwasli
21/7-1OFls
12
0.01
-
a.
5
2 . 3
5.8
0.3
44
4.2
1.2
0.1
2.5
0 .02
_
59
30
HB
6.7
22/0-2bLls
13
0 04
-
11
2.0
3. 3
0.5
44
o.a
2.2
0.1
0 .9
0.02
-
56
36
87
7 . 3
24/4-12M1
27
0 05
-
12
12
5.
0
75
18
7.7
-
0.4
-
-
137
75
-
7.4
Advance Outwash
22/5-6Hls
29
0.04
-
13
8.2
5.3
4.0
78
9.6
4.2
0.4
4.0
_
_
116
66
161
7.2
22/6-13A2
20
0 .29
-
12
5.0
5.1
0.8
71
3.0
1.0
0.1
0. 1
0.4
-
83
50
119
7.5
25/5-J Als
30
0.07
-
6.
6
6.5
4 .
7
50
4 .8
5.5
0.0
0.09
-
-
75
43
-
7 .1
25/5-24R1
19
5.8
0.00
8 .
8
6.8
5.7
2.1
61
7.7
4.0
0.0
0.4
-
0 .10
82
50
126
7.3
Salmon Springs Drift
21/4-lMl
30
0.11
-
18
6.8
8.0
1.1
107
0.6
1.8
0.2
0.3
0.56
_
130
73
170
7.9
22/5-17R1
37
1.3
-
15
12
6.7
2.7
10 3
14
4.5
0.1
0.2
0.11
-
143
88
200
7.4
2 3/5-3M1
47
0 lb
0.2
15
7.1
11
-
9 5
3 .0
6.5
0.0
0.0
-
-
77
67
-
6 .1
25/5-5111
5b
2 2
-
12
6.4
17
101
1.3
6.8
0.0
0.0
-
-
151
57
-
7.3
Stuck Drift
21/5-1ON 2
19
G. 74
-
12
1.5
9 6
2.4
260
6.0
9.2
0.1
0.1
0.85
_
285
36
440
8.5
21/5- 1-lDl
17
G .4
-
14
4.5
7 2
2.0
159
44
24
0.1
0.4
U . 13
-
2 56
54
406
8.2
2'1/5-lbMi
4b
<0.1
-
3
4
1.4
57
155
0.5
8.9
-
tr
-
-
205
14
-
H .0
25/5-32N1
44
<0.1
-
10
10
22
137
0.2
13
-
0.0
-
-
174
88
-
7 .b
Tor11ary Bedrock
24/5-2 3C2
05
0.26
0 .02
10
6.6
14
56
37
3.9
0.0
0.0
_
_
173
67
_
6 . 7
24/5-2 3fc;l
4b
1
1 C
"°
*
0.70
32
6.3
18
9.6
171
3 .0
0.1
0.0
196
106
307
8.0
^in itkj/1 unless otherwise indicated
Sio^-silica Ca-Calcium K=Potassiun>
l'e-1 ton Mij-Magnesi um HC03=Bi cat bond te
Mii-Maiujanese Nj-Sodium SO.j = Sul fate
Suuia-d of Data: hiesch and others (1963), Luzier
Cl = chloride P04=0rthophosphate EC=Specific Conductance
F^I'luoride B-Boron
NOj-Nitrate TDS=Total dissolved
H96a) soUd!i
-------
Nitrate in groundwater is of particular interest as it can
be considered as an indicator of contamination caused by
excessive use of fertilizers, heavy concentration of septic
tanks, or failing sewerage_systems. The maximum allowable
nitrate level (45 mg/1, NO3) in drinking water is not exceeded
in groundwater from wells in the study area. The nitrate level
typically is less than 1 mg/1 as NO3. Nitrate (NO3) level,
however, is highest in the shallow unconfined aquifers and de-
creases progressively in the deeper, generally confined aquifers
(Figure 2-4). This trend suggests that perhaps land use
activities may be responsible for the higher nitrate levels in
the shallow aquifers. This can potentially become a problem if
the density of septic systems, for example, increases significantly.
Systematic variations in the concentration of other in-
organic constituents also occur between different aquifers.
The concentrations of almost all inorganic constituents increase
with increasing depth (or age) of the aquifer. Figure 2-4 shows
this trend for total dissolved solids, chloride, sulfate and
bicarbonate.
The chemical quality of groundwater derived from recent
alluvium in river valleys is most heavily influenced by the
quality of surface waters which are usually in hydraulic con-
tinuity with groundwater bodies . Observed levels of inorganic
constituents (Table 2-5, Figure 2-4) in alluvial groundwater
do not suggest any contamination of these ivater bodies. Although
variations in the chemical quality of groundwater occur in the
project area, with the exception of iron, the maximum allowable
levels of inorganic constituents are almost never exceeded.
The contamination potential of the aquifers in the project
area varies significantly and is summarized below:
1. There is little or no contamination potential, from
normal landuse practices, for aquifers that occur
below the Vashon till. Shallow wells that tap perched
water bodies in the upper, loosely compacted, portion
of the till as well as wells that tap recessional out-
wash sand and gravel deposited on top of the till, must
be viewed as susceptible to contamination.
2. Almost all municipal groundwater supplies are
obtained from the deeper aquifers or deltas and
alluvial fans. Contamination of these aquifers
by normal land use practices is unlikely.
3. There are virtually thousands of small, shallow wells
in the project area that are used for domestic
purposes. Most of these domestic wells occur in non-
sewered areas, and are subject to a high risk for
contamination, Water quality as well as water level
D-16
-------
250
ce
o
o
3
cc
o>
e
-J
Z
z
O x
UJ ^
O
>
2 <
uj ^
< *
-1
o v-
> V-
UJ s
O 3
CE O
< o
200
1
~ CO
: o
-J cc
-------
monitoring of selected shallow domestic wells through-
out the study area is essential for identifying
potential groundwater pollution problems in the future.
REGIONAL SOIL CONDITIONS
The analysis of environmental impacts associated with the
implementation of various wastewater management alternatives
requires knowledge of the occurrence, distribution and charac-
teristics of major soil types. The success of wastewater
treatment and disposal strategies which utilize the soil as
the ultimate disposal medium, such as individual on-site waste
treatment and land application systems, are especially depen-
dent upon careful prior assessment of soil and other site-
specific conditions. This section provides a regional overview
of soils in the Renton EIS Study Area, with particular emphasis
on those properties of relevance to wastewater management. A
map of regional soil associations is presented, and a discus-
sion of generalized physical properties, uses and limitations
of dominant soil types is provided.
Regional Soil Associations
Soil development is governed by the interaction of the
five dominant soil forming factors: climate, parent material,
relief, time and organisms, as first quantified by Jenny
(Jenny, 1941). Geology, physiographic position and precipita-
tion comprise what are perhaps the dominant influences in the
Renton study area, and have led to the development of distinctly
contrasting groups of soils which are readily differentiated
on a regional scale, A somewhat unusual situation exists in
western King County in that a single soil type, the Alderwood
series, dominates over 50 percent of the landscape.
Detailed mapping of soils in the study area is available
through the USDA - Soil Conservation Service surveys published
for King County {SCS, 1973), Pierce County (SCS, 1979), and
Snohomish County (SCS, 1947). These documents provide detailed
maps plus descriptive and interpretative information on all
significant soil types identified within the various survey
areas. In conjunction with on-site inspection (for soil series
verification), these detailed maps are suitable for use in
operational planning.
For regional planning purposes, however, generalized maps
depicting broad patterns of associated soils are often more
appropriate. Figure 2-5 depicts the distribution of regional
soil associations and consociations in the Renton study area,
as condensed from the detailed SCS field sheets. Soil associa-
tions are defined as sets of delineated land bodies representing
D-ia
-------
LEGEND
SOURCE^ METRO, 1979•
MUCKLIV - ALDC* WOOD
DATA nor AVAIlAftLC
Figure 2-5. general soil associations
"-ream. mm
-------
natural physiographic units in which two or more individual
soil series occur together with some regularity of pattern and
composition. Thus, associations are mapping units comprised
of at least two series which may not necessarily be similar, in
any way, but which tend to occur in some definable relationship
in the landscape. A soil consociation is simply a map unit in
which a single soil series dominates the landscape. While
other soil types will still be found within a consociation, no
single one occupies a significant fraction of the land area.
Seven regional associations and consociations have been identi-
fied in the study area, and are briefly described below.
Alderwood Consociation. This unit consists of moderately
well drained soils developed on consolidated glacial till of the
Vashon formation. It is the most widespread unit in the study
area and is composed of about 85 percent Alderwood series 8
percent Everett series, and 7 percent miscellaneous inclusions
of other soil types. The soils occur on level to very steep
glacial drift plains, terraces and uplands, and are typically
associated with coniferous vegetation. The dominant Alderwood
soil is underlain by very slowly permeable glacial till at a
depth of 20 to 40 inches. A perched water table often develops
over this layer during the winter months. Typical uses of soils
in this map unit include timber production, range, and urban
development.
Oridia-Seattle-Woodinville Association. The association
consists of poorly drained soils developed from recent silty
alluvium and organic detritus. It is comprised of about 17
percent Oridia series, 13 percent Seattle series, 10 percent
Woodinville series, and 60 percent miscellaneous inclusions
and variants. The soils occur on level stream bottoms and
river valleys, particularly along the Green and White Rivers.
They are typically deep but are strongly affected by wetness.
Both flooding and the formation of a high water table are common
during the winter months. Where adequately drained this associa-
tion includes the most productive agricultural soils in the area
and is used for dairy farming and for intensive production of
row, truck, and berry crops.
Buckley-Alderwood Association. This association consists
of poorly and moderately well drained soils, and is comprised
of about 60 percent Buckley series developed on the Osceola
mudflow, 35 percent Alderwood series developed on Vashon till,
and 5 percent miscellaneous inclusions. The association occurs
on level to steep glacial drift plains and terraces in the
southeast portion of the study area. Both dominant series are
underlain by very slowly permeable material at a depth of 20 to
40 inches, and a seasonal high water table commonly develops
during the winter months. The soils are used extensively for
dairy farming, pasture and hay production, and for urban
development.
D-20
-------
Everett Consociation. This unit consists of somewhat
excessively drained soils developed on gravelly glacial outwash
or till. It is composed of about 70 percent Everett series,
15 percent Neilton series, 7 percent Alderwood series, and
8 percent miscellaneous inclusions. The unit is found on
nearly level to rolling terraces and uplands throughout the
study area, and is typically surrounded by the genetically
related Alderwood Consociation. The dominant Everett series
is deep and coarse textured, and is underlain by rapidly per-
meable sands and gravels. It is used primarily for timber
production, pasture and urban development.
Beausite-Alderwood Association. This association consists
of well and moderately well drained soils developed on glacial
till or sandstone. It is comprised of about 55 percent Beausite
series, 30 percent Alderwood series, and 15 percent miscellaneous
inclusions. The soils occur on rolling to steep uplands to the
south and west of Issaquah. They are moderately deep and are
underlain by slowly permeable material at a depth of 20 to 40
inches. A high water table occurs seasonally in the Alderwood
series. Typical uses of these soils include timber production,
pasture and urban development.
Alderwood-Kitsap-Indianola Association. This association
consists of moderately well and excessively drained soils
developed on rolling to steep uplands and terraces on Mercer
Island and along the northeast end of Lake Washington. It is
composed of about 50 percent Alderwood series developed on
glacial lake deposits. 15 percent Indianola series formed on
recessional outwash, and 5 percent miscellaneous inclusions.
Both the Alderwood and Kitsap soils are underlain by slowly
permeable glacial material at a depth of 20 to 40 inches and
are subject to the formation of a seasonally high water table.
The Indianola series is underlain by rapidly permeable sandy
glacial outwash. The soils in this unit are used primarily
for timber production, pasture and urban development.
Puget-Earlmont-Snohomish Association. This association
consists of poorly drained soils developed on recent silty
alluvium. It is comprised of about 25 percent Puget series,
25 percent Earlmont series, 20 percent Snohomish series, and
30 percent miscellaneous inclusions. The unit occurs on level
basins, primarily along the Sammaraish River. The soils are
deep but are strongly affected by wetness. Both flooding and
a high water table are commonly associated with all three domi-
nant soils. Where adequately drained the soils are generally
well suited to intensive farming of truck and row crops.
D-21
-------
Characteristics of Major Study Area Soils
Each of the major soil series comprising the map units
described above is listed on Table 2-6, together with repre-
sentative physical characteristics as published by the Soil
Conservation Service. The depth, texture, and permeablity of
each significant soil horizon is identified. Additional infor-
mation on the effective soil depth, available water holding
capacity, soil drainage and runoff class, and the occurrence
of both flooding and a seasonal high water table is also listed
for each series. Corresponding information on soils not listed
may be found in one of the three soil surveys covering the study
area.
Soil permeability and drainage characteristics are par-
ticularly relevant to the determination of appropriate site-
specific land uses. Permeability is technically defined as
the "ease with which gases, liquids or plant roots penetrate
or pass through a bulk mass of soil" (Soil Science Society of
America, 1970). Soil drainage class refers to the frequency
and duration of periods when the soil is free of saturation, and
reflects the combined influences of water input, runoff, perme-
ability, physiographic position and soil texture, structure, and
organic matter content on the overall soil moisture status.
Drainage classes vary from very poor, when the water table is at
or near the surface during the greater part of the year, to
excessive when water drains so rapidly that the maintenance of
soil moisture levels which are adequate for plant growth is
di fficult.
In the Renton Study area soil permeability and drainage
are closely related to surficial geology. Figure 2-6 depicts
generalized soil drainage classes based on the dominant series
identified on the regional soil map. Typically, soils developed
on consolidated glacial till have permeable surface horizons
and very slowly permeable substrate. These moderately well and
well drained soils dominate the study area. Interspersed with
the above soils are areas where coarse textured, unconsolidated
glacial outwash material was deposited by receding glaciers.
Soils developed on such material are rapidly permeable through-
out their depth and are rated as either excessively or somewhat
excessively drained. Areas of predominantly poorly drained
soils occur in the flood plains and stream bottoms along the
Green, White and Sammamish Rivers. These soils are derived
from silty alluvium, and are often stratified with layers of
organic peat and muck separating mineral horizons.
Uses and Limitations of Major Study Area Soils
Physical and chemical properties of soils determine their
suitability for agriculture and other land uses. Of particular
importance to this study is the suitability of the soils to
D-22
-------
Table 2-6. General J zed Physical Characteristics of Some Dominant Soils in the Ronton Study Area
a
i
NJ
u>
bo11 I'ai cut Physiographic
Scries Material Position
MdeivooJ glacial uplands
till
BcdUilte sandstone uplands
till
buckley mudflow plains
dia tomu- floodplains
Ceou^a
CJ1 tlj
glacial Ltiriaces
outwash
liidianola glacial terraces
outwash
Kitsap glacial terraces
lake
deposits
Ondia alluviutii river valleys
Puijet alluvium depressions
organi c degression:
detritus
alluvium iiver valleys
WuoJiuvi lie ulluvi »iin stream
U>11 (.in .
Dominant Hon zons
Thickness
(in)
U^DA
Texture
Fermeabil ity
lin/hr)
3a+
O-lb
16-60+
0-46
•46-6U +
0-32
32-60+
0-30
30-60+
O- JA
24-60+
0-17
17-27
2 7-60+
gravel iy
sandy loaifl
consol willed
glacial till
gravelly
sandy loani
sandstune
silt loam
gravelly
sandy clay
loam
silt luam
muck
gravelly
sandy loaat
very gravelly
coarse sand
loamy fine
sand
sand
silt loam
iilty clay
loam
&ilty clay
loam
mucky
silt loam
mucky po
2-6.3
<0.06
0.63-2
0.06-2
0.6J-2
0.63-2
2-6 .A
>20
6.3-20
>20
0.63-2
<0,06
0.2-2
0.06-0.2
0.63-2
0.63-2
0.63-2
if-6. 3
Effective
Kootiny
Depth
(in)
Available Drainage
Matei Class
Seasonal
High Water
Table Depth Runoff
(ft) Clabs
Flooding
low moderately 2-3 5 slow to rmru;
we]l moderate
moderate none
high
high
somewhat
poor
excessive
moderate somewhat >5
excessive
moderate moderately 1.5-3
Weil
high
hi gh
high
high
hi gh
soniewha t
poor
poor
very poor
0-1
ponded
f requent
slow to none
moderate
slow to IIOI1C-
iiioderate
slow to frequent
[ onded
frequen'
1 I k |
-------
-fl.
V
TO VCfir POORLY DRAINED SOILS
FIGURE 2-6. GENERALIZED SOIL DRAINAGE CHARACTERISTICS
-------
receive and assimilate wastewater applied to either the surface
by irrigation or discharged through subsurface drain fields.
Soil capability for agriculture is also a significant issue in
the area, as evidenced by the recent bond initiative passed by
the King County voters to preserve the county's prime farmland.
Wastewater management planning can have a significant impact on
the fate of farmland by either encouraging or discouraging urban
or industrial growth in agricultural areas.
Table 2-7 lists the agricultural capability class and
typical land use of each major soil series and slope class.
The degree of soil limitation for wastewater management is also
indicated for on-site septic tank drain fields, sewage lagoons,
and for wastewater irrigation. These potentials and limitations
and the rating systems utilized to arrive at them are discussed
for agriculture and wastewater management, respectively, in the
following sections.
Agricultural Use of Soils. The conversion of agricultural
lands to urban uses is of major concern to King County residents.
Recently the voters passed a bond initiative designed to preserve
the county's prime farmlands from urbanization through the pur-
chase of development rights on a voluntary basis. Agricultural
land use and the role of agriculture in the local economy are
discussed in some detail in Chapter 3 of Appendix A of the EIS.
This section will, therefore, be limited to addressing the
questions of what constitutes prime farmland on the basis of
soil characteristics. The extent and location of prime farm-
lands are also addressed in Chapter 3 of Appendix A.
While a number of criteria are currently in use for rating
agricultural lands, the USDA1s Land Capability System (SCS, 1973)
is perhaps the most widely used criterion for defining "prime"
agricultural lands. The system expresses a soil's potential
for farming based on a number of properties such as soil depth,
texture, stoniness, slope, permeability, erodibility, etc. For
a given soil any one of these factors which is most limiting -co
agriculture ultimately determines into which of eight capability
classes and four subclasses the particular soil will be cate-
gorized. These capability classes and subclasses are described
in Table 2-8. Generally, lands included in Classes I through
IV are considered to be suitable for farming, with increasingly
stringent restrictions on the types of crops which can be pro-
duced and the degree of conservation management necessary to
achieve reasonable yields while protecting the soil resource.
The term "prime farmland" under this system is reserved for
lands falling in Class I or II. Lands in Classes V through VIII
are generally considered unsuited for crop production due to one
or more overriding limitations which cannot be readily mitigated.
Such lands are used for range, pasture and timber, and for their
recreational, watershed and wildlife amenities.
D-25
-------
Table 2-7. Use and Limitations of Some Dominant Soils in the Renton Study Area
Series
Map
Symbola
Slope
(percent)
Agricultural
Capabili Ly
Class
Typical
Usat;eb
Limitations for Waste Disposal
Septic Tank Leach Fields
Sewage Lagoons
Irrigation
Reuse
degree of
hazard
type of
hazardc
decree of
hazard
type of
hazardc
degree of
hazard
type of
hazard^
A1derwood
AKb
0- 6
I Ve
TPItU
severe
d . p-
moderate
s
moderate
d
AfC
6-15
1 Ve
TPItU
severe
d, p-
severe
s
moderate
s . d
Ak»
15-30
Vie
TP
severe
d,p-
severe
s
severe
s , d
AkF
25-70
Vile
T
severe
s.p-
severe
s
severe
s , d
He a u s1 Ie
beC
6-15
I Ve
TPU
severe
d ,p-
severe
s
moderate
s, d
UeD
15-30
Vie
TP
severe
d ,p-
severe
s
severe
s , d
beF
40-75
Vile
T
severe
s, p-
severe
s
severe
s,d
Buckley
Uu
<3
IIIw
P , 11
severe
w
severe
o
moderate
p- , w
La rImont
La
< 1
11 w
PR
severe
f .w
severe
f ,o
inodera te
f , w
hveret t
tvB
0- 5
I Vs
TPU
moderate
p+
severe
P+
moderate
p+
EvC
5-15
Vis
TPU
moderate
p+
severe
p+
severe
p+,
EvD
15-30
Vis
T
severe
s, p+
severe
s , j>+
severe
s , p+
Indianola
InA
0- 4
I Vs
TU
moderate
P+
severe
P+
severe
p+
InC
4-15
I Vs
T
modera te
p+
severe
p+
severe
P+ ,s
InD
15-30
Vie
T
severe
s, p+
severe
S, p+
severe
s . p+
Ki tsap
Kpb
2- 8
llle
TP
severe
p-
modera te
s
modera te
P-, d
KpC
8-15
I Ve
TP
severe
p-
severe
s
moderate
P-,s
KpD
15-30
Vie
TP
severe
s,p-
severe
s
seve re
a ,p-
Oridia
Os
< 2
IIw
RPU
severe
f.»
severe
f
modera te
w, f
Puu«il
Pu
< 1
11 Iw
RP
severe
5
1
a
severe
{
moderate
w, f
Sea 11le
Sk
< 1
IIw
PHIt
severe
w, o
severe
o
severe
o , w
Snohomish
So
< 2
IIw
ItPH
severe
f . w,o
severe
f , p+ , o
moderate
w, f
Vi'oodinvi 1 le
Wo
< 2
IIw
RPU
severe
W , f
severe
f ,o
moderate
w, f
refers to detailed soil survey map sheets
^'= timber
H=rour crops
U-urban development
P-pasture
ll=liay crops
~d=shallow depth
1 = d oodi ng
o=ort;anic soil layers
|j-=slow permeabi 1 i ty
p+=excessi ve permeabi 1 i ty
s=excessive slope
w^Iiigh seasonal water table
-------
Table 2-8. Guide to Agricultural Capability
Classes and Subclasses
Capability
Class
Descript ion
Lands
Suited to
Cultivation
I
Lands have few limitations which restrict
their use
II
Lands have some limitations which reduce the
choice of crops or require moderate conser-
vation practices
III
Lands have severe limitations which reduce
the choice of crops or require special
conservation practices, or both
IV
Lands have very severe limitations which
reduce the choice of crops or require very
careful management, or both
Lands
Generally
Unsuited to Cultivation
V
Lands have little or no erosion hazard but
have other limitations impractical to remove
that limit their use largely to pasture,
range, woodland, wildlife habitat and water-
shed
VI
Lands have severe limitations that make them
generally unsuited to cultivation and limit
their use largely to pasture, range, woodland,
wildlife habitat and watershed
VII
Lands have very severe limitations that make
them unsuited to cultivation and restrict
their use largely to grazing, woodland, wild-
life habitat and watershed
VIII Lands have limitations which preclude their use
for commercial cultivation and restrict use to
recreation, wildlife habitat, and watershed
D- 27
-------
Table 2-8, continued. Guide to Agricultural Capability
Classes and Subclasses
Capability
Subclass
Description
e
Erosion hazard is the dominant limitation
w
Poor drainage, flooding or a seasonal high
water table are the dominant limitations
s
Soil depth, texture, coarse fragments,
fertility, salinity or water holding capacity
are the dominant limitations
c
Climate is the dominant limitation
Source: Soil Conservation Service, 1973
D- 28
-------
The Renton Study area contains no Class I lands but does have
significant tracts of lands included in Classes II through IV.
These lands represent the majority of cultivated farmlands in
the county and occur primarily along the Green, White, Sammamish
and Snoqualmie Rivers. A map depicting the distribution of prime
agricultural and forest lands in King County is presented in
Figure 3-1 of Appendix A.
Use of Soils for Wastewater Management. Properties of soils
which affect their suitability for wastewater treatment and dis-
posal are of special interest in this study. Ideally, sites for
the disposal of wastewater should have conditions which guarantee
that the waste will both readily infiltrate into the soil and
will receive adequate treatment during passage through the soil
mantle. Table 2-7 rates each of the major soil series and slope
classes with respect to their limitations for the installation
of septic tank leach fields, construction of wastewater lagoons,
and for the disposal of wastewater by land irrigation. These
ratings are based on published criteria which are reproduced
in Tables 2-9 through 2-11. While the assigned ratings shown
in Table 2-7 are derived from somewhat generalized soil pro-
perties, the rating criteria themselves are appropriate for use
in site-specific planning once the basic soils information has
been collected.
As indicated in Table 2-7 most of the soils have signifi-
cant limitations for on-site wastewater treatment and disposal.
Sites for septic tank filter fields should have several feet
of unsaturated, permeable material overlying bedrock or any
hardpan layer, should not be overly affected by either internal
wetness or surface flooding, and should be on a slope less
than 5 percent. With the exception of the Everett and Indianola
series all major soils in the Renton area have severe limitations
with respect to septic tank installation. The most common limi-
tations center around insufficient depth, slow permeability,
flooding, and the occurrence of a water table within 2 feet of
the surface. The Everett and Indianola soils are limited by
excessively rapid permeability which provides inadequate treat-
ment of effluent and, therefore, presents a hazard to groundwater
quality. Construction of storage ponds or treatment lagoons
is similarly restricted by soil characteristics in the study
area. In this case the primary restrictions result from either
steep slope, flooding hazard or excessive permeability. The
soils are somewhat better suited for disposal of wastewater by
irrigation reuse. Several of the alluvial soils are highly
suited to this use if adequately drained. Numerous other soil
types have moderate restrictions stemming from either slope,
inadequate depth or excessive permeability.
D-29
-------
Table 2-9. Soil Limitation Rating for Septic Tank Filter Fields
Soil Property
or Quality
Degree of Limitation
Slight
Moderate
Severe
permeability (in/hr)
1-6.3
0.63-1
6.3-20
<0.63
>20
percolation rate (min/in)
10-45
45-75
3-10a
>75
<3»
depth to seasonal
high water table (ft)
>4
2-4
<2
drainage class
well
somewhat poor to
moderately well, somewhat
excessive3-
poor or very poor,
excessive1
depth to bedrock or
hardpan (ft)
>6
4-6
<4
slope (percent)
<5
5-9
>9
overflow hazard
(frequency in years)
none
<1 in 10
>1 in 10
overflow duration (hr)
none
<48
>48
modified to reflect potential for groundwater contamination
Source: adapted from SCS, 1969
-------
Table 2-10. Soil Limitation Rating for Sewage Lagoons
Soil Property
or Quality
Degree of Limitation
Slight
Moderate
Severe
permeability (in/hr)
<0 .63
0 .63-2 .0
>2 .0
depth to bedrock (ft)
>6
4-6
<4
slope (percent)
<2
2-10
>10
organic matter (percent)
<2
2-15
>15
coarse fragments of
6 in. diameter
(% by volume)
<10
10-50
>50
coarse fragments of
6 in. diameter
(% by volume)
< 5
5-20
>20
USDA Soil Texture
clays,silty
sandy loams through
sands and loamy
clays, and
clay loams
sands
sandy clays
Source: SCS, 1969
-------
Table 2-11. Soil Limitation Rating for Irrigation Reuse of Treated Wastewater
Soil Property
or Quality
Degree of Limitation
Slight
Moderate
Severe
effective depth (in)
>48
24-48
< 24
permeability of least
permeable soil horizon
(in/hr)
0.6-6
6-20; 0.06-0.6
>20; <0.06
infiltration rate (in/hr)
>0.6
0.2-0.6
<0.2
drainage class
moderately well
to well
somewhat excessive;
somewhat poor to poor
excessive;
very poor
runoff class
none to slow
medium
rapid or very rapi
flooding
none
during non-irrigation
season
druing irrigation
season
slope (percent)
<2
2-9
>9
assumes that the wastewater source is biodegradable and nontoxic
Source: adapted from Lockwood Corporation, 1973
-------
CHAPTER 3
EXISTING AND PROJECTED WASTE LOADS
This chapter presents a summary of existing and projected
waste loads resulting iron on-site wastewater rnanagerreat in
the nonsewered portions of the E1S study area, and from the
possible implementation of decentralized wastewater treatment
including land disposal in the sewered area, as developed under
Alternative C. Waste loadings associated with expansion of the
Ren tor. plant and development of the Kenmore facility are covered
elsewhere in the EIS.
ffaste Sources-Severed Areas
Land Application Alternatives. Currently no land appli-
cation methods are employed for disposing of wastewaters in
any sewered portions of the study area. Alternative C of the
Facilities Plan calls for the construction of six small satel-
lite sewage treatment plants, in addition to plant expansion
at Renton and construction of a new treatment plant at Kenmore.
Population and wastewater flow projections for the satellite
plants are shown in Table 3-1. These satellite plants would
serve isolated sewer service areas which are spatially separate
from the service area of the major treatment plants, and which
would otherwise require the construction of intercepter sewers
with actual effluent treatment to take place at the major
facilities. The treatment process at the satellite plants would
include grit screening and lagoon detention,
Effluent would be stored in aerated lagoons for eight months
of the year, and would be applied to agricultural land devoted
to non-food crops during the months of June through September.
The approximate locations of the six satellite plants and
their proposed service areas are depicted in Figure 3-1. Because
preliminary economic analysis indicates that this alternative
would be considerably more expensive than other options, it
was never developed to the point of actual site selection.
The draft facilities plan indicated the need for about
1,164 acres of land to dispose of the total effluent discharged
from all six satellite treatment plants. Based on this acreage
and an annual average flow of 1.56 mgd, a unit irrigation
application rate of 1.5 acre-foot per acre would be required.
Data on monthly precipitation, potential evapotranspiration,
and measured actual evapotranspiration for Bothell, Washington
and net evapotranspiration at Seattle-Tacoma Airport are presented
in Table 3-2. These data indicate that the applied water
demand for irrigated pasture over the five-month period from
D- 33
-------
Table 3-1. Population and Wastewater Projections for Alternative
Land Application Treatment Facilities9-
Service area
Sewered population
(year 2000)
Average flow
(year 2000)
mgd
Peak flow
(year 2000)
mgd
Pine Lake
420
0 .14
0 . 56
Lake Desire
770
0 .12
0 . 26
Pipe Lake
1,120
0 .22
0 .63
Timberlane
1, 720
0.35
1 .06
Sunrise
2 ,170
0 .25
0.43
Sahalee
1 , 880
0 .49
1 .82
TOTAL
8 ,080
1 .57
4 .76
ci
Source: Brown and Caldwell, 19S0
D-34
-------
Service areas for decentralized
facilities.
| | •(»(« TIWII L A MO U«C CCflTAIN
f j HOa-scwc* «alA liffM Tlfla lard utf u«iCfftTAiH)
figure 3-1. Service Areas for Decentralized Facilities.
-------
Table 3-2, Precipitation and Evapotranspiration
Data for Bothell, Washington^
Month
Precipitation
inches
ETp
inches
ETa
inches
Vet ETp
inches
Net
ETp
Seattle-
Tacoma
Airport0
January
5 .4
0.4
0 .4
_
_
February
4.2
0.6
a .6
-
-
March
3.8
1.1
i.i
-
-
April
2.5
1 . 9
1.9
-
-
May
2.4
2.9
2.9
0.5
1 .40
June
2.1
3.6
3.4
1. 5
2 ,27
July
0.9
4 . 3
2.6
3.4
3 .78
August
1.0
3.9
2.0
2.9
3 .02
September
2.0
2.8
2.2
0.8
0.77
October
3.8
1.8
1 . 8
-
-
November
5.3
0.8
0.8
-
-
December
6.1
0 .6
0.6
-
-
Total
39.5
24.7
20 .3
-
-
May-Sept.
Toral
8.4
17.5
13 .10
9 .1
11 .24
Applied water
demand13
-
-
-
12 .1
15 . 00
f'Source: Soil Conservation Service, 1973
Assuming an irrigation efficiency of 75 percent
cCalculatecl from data presented in Table 2-1
D-3 5
-------
May through September varies from 12.1 to 15.0 inches for these
areas. Using these demand rates and ignoring direct rainfall
on the storage ponds it appears that 20 to 50 percent more
irrigated crop land may be required for the six satellite plants
than the acreage estimated in the draft plan. Allowance for
incident precipitation on the storage ponds and for infiltration/
inflow, if these flows are not included in the reported average
discharge values, will further increase the acreage requirements.
Soils, Crops, and Groundwater Conditions. No specific sites
have been recommended for the land application treatment facili-
ties. Consequently, it is not possible to discuss the
environmental advantages and disadvantages of such sites. In
general, however, soils m the service areas of all plants
with the exception of Pine Lake are dominated by the Alderwood
Association; the Pine Lake area is dominated by the Everett
Association. The Alderwood soil series, which is the major
soil within the Alderwood Association, has a coarse, highly
permeable top soil underlain by slowly permeable consolidated
glacial till at a shallow depth. The Everett soil series has
a deeper rooting zone and is highly permeable throughout the
profile. Additional data on the characteristics of these soils
are presented in Table 2-7. From an agronomic point of view,
careful management would be required for effluent irrigation
operations on the Alderwood soil series. For example, the rate
of effluent application must be closely controlled to avoid water-
logging conditions and the buildup of a shallow water table.
No similar risks exist on Everett series; however, this soil
has a low capability to purify the effluent. Detailed criteria
for evaluating the suitability of these and other soils for
effluent applications are outlined in Table 2-11.
Development of Alternative C in the Facilities Plan was
not pursued to the point of identifying a specific crop for
irrigation disposal. Presumably, irrigated pasture would prove to
be the preferred crop to be grown because of its high ET demand
ana consequently minimum acreage requirements for disposal of
a given effluent volume. Additional advantages of pasture in-
clude the high nitrogen requirement, low management needs, and
tolerance to any adverse wastewater constituents.
A review of the geologic map (Figure 2-2) of the study area
indicates that the service area of all six satellite plants is
generally located on glacial deposits (Vashon till and Vashon
recessional outwash). Specifically, Lake Sunrise, Sahalee, Pine
Lake, and Lake Desire plants would most probably be located
on Vashon till whereas Timberlane and Pipe Lake plants would
be located on Vashon recessional outwash. Vashon recessional
outwash is composed of sand and gravel with minor amounts of
silt and clay. This water bearing- formation is highly suscep-
tible to contamination due to its relatively high permeability.
D-37
-------
Nitrogen and other contaminants not assimilated in the root
zone would readily migrate into the underlying aquifer. Vashon
till, on the other hand is comprised primarily of clay and
silt with relatively small amounts of pebbles and cobbles.
Occasional lenses of sand and gravel are also encountered in
these stratified deposits. Although shallow perched aquifers
which are also susceptible to contamination may develop in
this formation, the potential problems resulting from land appli-
cation would be more localized and of lesser magnitude than is
the case with the Vashon outwash material.
Based on the above discussion it appears that some poten-
tial for pollution of shallow groundwater supplies does exist
if land application operations are not properly managed. A
well designed and managed project should, however, have no
significant impact. The major precaution, especially for those
disposal sites located on Vashon recessional outwash deposits,
is to limit the effluent application to evapotranspiration
requirements of crops plus some allowance for leaching require-
ments. Site specific investigations including soil chemical
and physical analysis should be undertaken prior to construction
of any of these effluent disposal facilities .
Wastewater characteristics. The suitability of a given
water as a source for crop irrigation depends primarily upon
its chemical composition. Reclaimed wastewaters may, in
addition, exhibit undesirable physical and biological properties
which can impair their potential for beneficial reuse.
Evaluation of effluent quality must consider possible deleterious
impacts of reuse on soil characteristics, crop yields, quality
and marketability,
To date, the most comprehensive guidelines for assessment
of water quality for irrigation are those prepared by the
University of California Agricultural Extension Service. Suita-
bility is determined on the basis of conformance with well-
documented, acceptable ranges in chemical characteristics.
Attention is paid to four major hazard areas:
1. Soil salinity hazard
2. Soil permeability hazard
3. Specific ion toxicities
4. Miscellaneous hazards
Quality limitations are presented in Table 3-3 in terms of
individual hazard areas. The criteria presented are intended
to be applicable over a wide range of conditions. As is true
of any generalized guidelines, however, certain baseline
D- 38
-------
Table 3-3. Guidelines for Interpretation of Water Quality for Irrigation
Degree of Problem
Irrigation Problem
None
Increasing
Severe
Salinity (affects watei- availability)
Electrical conductivity, mmho/em
<0.75
0.75-3.0
>3.0
Permeability (affects infiltration rate)
Electrical conductivity, mmho/cm
Adjusted SARa by clay mineralogy
Montmorillonitic clays
11litic-vermiculitic clays
Kaolinitic-sesquoxides clays
>0.5
<6
< 8
<16
0.5-0.2
6-9
8-16
16-24
<0.2
>9
>16
>24
Specific ion toxicities (affects sensitive
crops'3)
Sodium, adjusted SAR
Chloride, mg/1
Boron, mg/1
<3
< 142
<0.75
3-9
142-355
0.75-2.0
>9
>355
>2 .0
Miscellaneous effects (affects sensitive
crops)
NO3-N or NH4-N mg/1
]fC03, mg/1 (overhead sprinkling)
pH, uni Ls
<5
<92
6.5-8.4
5-30
92-519
>30
>519
^Adjusted sodium adsorption ratio
Includes most woody perennials
Source: Ayors, 1976
-------
assumptions underlie the development of the suitability recommen-
dations. Derivation of the quality standards shown is based
on the following assumptions:
1. A sandy loam to clay loam textured soil with favorable
drainage characteristics, not exhibiting a high
water table.
2. A semiarid climate.
3. Surface or sprinkler irrigation methods with a leaching
fraction of about 15 percent.
4. Pull production of all crops if quality parameters
uniformly fall into the "no problem" range. Where
limits are exceeded, careful selection of crop type
and management may still allow for high productivity.
Many soils in the Renton study area fail to meet the first
criterion and the climate does not fall in the semiarid category.
The assessment made in this report makes allowance for these
factors.
The quality of wastewater to be produced by the treatment
plants can only be estimated at this time. The high quality
water supplies generally available in the Pacific Northwest and
the lack of any significant industrial impact in the satellite
plant areas, however, suggest the generation of a wastewater of
low mineral concentration. The facilities plan projects a
total dissolved solids concentration of about 250 mg/1 which
is of extremely high quality for irrigation. It is also expected
that sodium, chloride, boron and the sodium adsorption ratio
will be in a non-problem range with respect to irrigation reuse.
The stored effluent would be diluted by incident rainfall to
further improve its chemical characteristics. Assuming that
such a high quality effluent is attained it should constitute
an excellent Irrigation water source.
Migration Pathways for Pollutants. A properly designed
and operated land application system should not create any
environmental pollution hazard in the Renton study area. In
general, the major water pollutants of concern would consist
of nitrogen and dissolved solids. Most of the applied nitrogen
should be taken up by the irrigated crop although a portion
would inevitably flow beyond the crop's root zone. The denitrifi-
catior. process would dissipate some of this load, especially
under saturated subsoil conditions. Also, storage in the soil
column could slow the movement of the applied nitrogen load to
the groundwater body. Under unfavorable soil and geologic
conditions (Everett soils overlying recessional outwash deposits
for example) a significant portion of the applied nitrogen
could reach the underlying water table in a short time period.
Total dissolved salt and other conservative constituent loadings
would also eventually reach the groundwater body
D- 40
-------
Deep percolation discharges frorr. a land application site
would not necessarily result in severe contamination of ground-
water supplies if adequate care were exercised in site selection
and in the design and operation of these facilities. Recent
improvements in both the level of knowledge of pollutant move-
ment and in irrigation technology offer management practices
which allow for a high degree of purification of the applied
e ffluent.
Waste Loads to Groundwater. Development of detailed data
on expected waste loads to groundwater is not feasible in the
absence of effluent quality information. However, assuming
that the applied effluent will contain 25 mg/1 of inorganic
nitrogen compounds and 250 mg/1 of total dissolved solids, the
annual applied nitrogen and salt load at a unit water applica-
tion rate of 1.5 acre-feet per acre per year would be about 100
and 1,000 lbs. per acre, respectively. Since the irrigated
pasture would require at lease 100 lbs. per acre per year of
applied nitrogen fertilizer for good growth, it is probable
that only a small part of the nitrogen contained in the efflu-
ent would percolate below the root zone (perhaps 30 percent);
all of the applied TDS will eventually percolate below the
root- zone and reach the groundwater body. However, the
resultant loading may be too small to have any appreciable
effect on the quality of the larger aquifers.
Non-sewered Areas
A large proportion of the study area residents relies on
on-site wastewater treatment and disposal systems. While precise
data are not available, estimates of the numbers of such
systems in King County range from 50,000 to 100,000 and center
arcund 80.000. According to METRO (Technical Heme. £1), 50,COO
to 75,000 on-site systems are believed to be currently operative
within the study area. This number suggests that as rr.ar.y as
¦iO to 65 percent of all sing-le family homes rely on stich waste-
water treatment and disposal systems. It is estimated that as
many as 75 percent of these systems are less than 15 years old.
On-site systems technology continues to represent a favored
alternative in new home construction in non-sewered areas as
evidenced by an increase in the number of permit applications for
septic tank installation in King County from 2,194 in 1975 to
3,807 in 1978. According to the County Health Department, approxi-
mately 90 percent of such applications receive initial approval.
Most or the remaining applications are also eventually approved
through the appeal process. Boundaries of the near-term seivered
and non-sewered areas are shown on Figure 3-1.
Virtually all on-site systems in the Renton study area con-
sist of individual septic tanks and drain-fields. While there
has been more recent interest in alternative technologies,
such as community septic tanks, their present use is oxtremely
D-41
-------
limited. Existing regulatory requirements regarding alternative
on-site technologies, in fact, tend to discourage their use
despite their significant potential for solving rural sewage
disposal problems in King County. This is in part due to the
County's concern with long-tern mar.agenent responsibilities for
such systems.
Information on the spatial distribution and density of
septic tanks in the study area is presently unavailable, and
represents one of the most urgent information needs for compre-
hensive wastewater facilities planning. The development of
"triggering mechanisms'' for sewer service and other long-term
planning functions cannot be successfully achieved until this
data base has been compiled. While most on-site systems occur
in the outlying rural portions of the study area, a significant
number of septic tank systems are still believed to exist within
sewer service areas. These systems will most probably be of
limited longevity, and connections to sewer service will be made
gradually as the systems become inoperative. The primary focus
of the EIS with respect to on-site systems will, therefore, be
in the non-sewered areas where the systems are viewed as a
long-term solution to wastewater treatment and disposal.
EPA, in conjunction with METRO, is presently conducting a
study to locate individual septic tanks which are failing. It
is hoped that this study will also provide more data on the
distribution of septic tanks and causes of their failure.
Because this program is directed only at failing systems, addi-
tional investigation still will be needed to obtain comprehensive
data on the location and clustering pattern of septic tanks.
Until these data become available the assessment of on-site
related impacts can only be made on a general regional scale.
Wastewater Characteristics. The chemical and biological
characteristics of domestic wastewater vary little from place
to place and are a function of influent water quality. When
only the incremental change in constituent concentrations over
those in the fresh water supplies is considered the range of
variations further diminishes. Wastewater treatment by septic
tanks provides the equivalent of primary sewage treatment.
Additional purification is achieved as effluent passes through
unsaturated soil below the absorption bed. The degree of reno-
vation obtained is, however, highly dependent upon the depth
of effluent discharge, the characteristics of the underlying
soil matrix, and the depth of unsaturated soil separating the
drain field from the water table. Both physical-chemical and
biological processes may reduce pollutant levels during unsatu-
rated flow. Because the biologically active zone of soil
rarely extends below a depth of 3 to 4 feet, release of effluent
at lower depths greatly decreases the opportunity for treatment
by plant uptake or microbial interactions. Maximum benefit of
root zone renovation processes is achieved by the use of shallow
drain fields, such as with evapotranspiration systems.
D-42
-------
Table 3-4 shows representative concentrations of nitrogen
and phosphorus present in domestic septic tank effluent, as
sampled prior to release into the drain field or absorption
bed. The data, derived from a number of different studies,
show that ammonia is the primary nitrogen species present,
ranging in concentration from 14 to 60 mg/1 as nitrogen. Total
phosphorus is typically present at concentrations less than
20 mg/1. Data on the concentration of total dissolved solids
(TDS) is generally absent from analyses of septic tank effluent.
Estimates of per capita generation of total salts range from
30 to 60 grams per day (Winneberger, 1978). At wastewater pro-
duction rates typical for King County this would result in an
incremental increase of 120 to 240 mg/1 in the effluent, as
compared to the fresh water supply. In addition to mineral
constituents, high levels of viral and bacterial organisms are
normally associated with septic tank effluent.
Local Soil and Groundwater Conditions. Soil and groundwater
conditions essentially determine the degree of effluent renova-
tion achieved and the consequent water quality impacts resulting
from the discharge of wastewater from well maintained on-site
disposal systems. For this reason careful evaluation of site
conditions is necessary prior to design and construction of the
unit. According to the Soil Conservation Service over 90 percent
of the land in King County is dominated by soils which have
severe limitations with respect to septic tank drainfield
installation. The rating system utilized by the SCS in making
this interpretation is reproduced in Table 2-9. Within the
Renton study area most limitations result from either inadequate
soil depth over consolidated glacial till, the presence of a
seasonally high water table, or flooding. Both conventional
failure (i.e., surfacing of effluent) and "pollution failure"
(inadequate renovation and discharge to groundwater) may result
from poorly sited, designed or maintained systems under such
restrictive conditions.
Surficial geology of the study area (Figure 2-2) is dominated
by Vashon outwash and Vashon till deposits. Limited areas of
exposed bedrock, alluvium, and Osceola mudflow deposits are
also interspersed among the Vashon formations. Cross-sectional
maps of the area (Figure 2-3) show that, in general, local water-
bearing deposits are of shallow depth and in some parts consist
solely of Vashon till. Significant water-bearing deposits also
exist below the surficial formations and consist mainly of Vashon
advance outwash and Salmon Springs Drift. These deeper aquifers
typically are overlain by about 50 to 100 feet of Vashon till
with a low permeability. On-site waste disposal systems can
potentially result in contamination of both shallow and deep
aquifers although contamination of shallow aquifers is of more
immediate concern. The extent of any degradation will depend
D-4 3
-------
Table 3-4. Representative Data on Chemical and Bacterial
Characteristics of Septic Tank Effluent
Study
Locat ion
Chemiea1
Characteristics, mg/1
NH3-N
Organic N
NO3-N
Total N
Total P
Reference
Minnesota
60
.
0.1
20
a
Minnesota
25
10
0.15
35
20
a
Wisconsin
34
10
0. 24
44
7.4
a
Wisconsin
14
16
0. 09
30
5.4
a
New York
86
-
0.09
-
70
a
Minnesota
25
10
0
35
20
a
Wisconsin
34
9
0.4
47
-
a
Ohio
40
4.5
0.4
45
13
a
Wisconsin
31
-
0.4
45
13
b
Mean Value
39
10
0. 18
40
21
S tandard
Deviation
21
3.5
0.13
6.6
20 .6
Bacteriological Characteristics, MPN/100 mis
Reference
Total
Fecal
Fecal
Coli form
Coli form
Streptococci
2.3 x 106
1.6 x 10s
1.1 x 10s
c
3.7 x 10^
2.5 x 101
1.0 x 102
d
—
5.0 x lO*
4.0 x 103
b
aDudley et al., 1974
bliPA, 1978
('Vir;ir;ij;ii;iv:in , 1976
iiouma, et yJ . , JU7J
-------
mainly on the areal density of on-site disposal systems. In
areas underlain by Vashon till and other less permeable deposits
groundwater pollution, if any, will be mainly limited to shallow
wells drawing water from this formation. It is improbable that
recharge from drain fields would have any appreciable impact on
the quality of water pumped from deeper underlying aquifers under
these conditions. On the other hand, where outwash and alluvial
deposits of high permeability occur, wastewater discharged to the
drainfields can easily reach shallow domestic wells. Also,
these permeable formations may serve as important recharge sources
for deeper and more significant aquifers. Therefore, any con-
taminant reaching these shallow aquifers would eventually enter
the main water bodies in the deeper aquifers.
Despite widespread limiting soil conditions, individual
septic tanks and other on-site methods of sewage treatment and
disposal can be implemented in the study area. Recent interest
in on-site wastewater management has generated considerable
information on both the operation of treatment/disposal methods
and the site factors which control wastewater renovation and
pollutant movement once effluent is discharged to the ground.
The key to successful on-site management under adverse site
conditions is the combination of appropriate system design
(possibly including site modifications), professional construc-
tion, and regular maintenance. On a community or subdi\rision
scale the above factors, combined with knowledge of the carrying
capacity of local groundwater bodies, should allow an accurate
assessment of water quality impacts to be made. The results
of such assessments should be used both to establish allowable
area-wide development densities and to evaluate the acceptability
of individual proposed projects.
Migration Pathways for Pollutants. The movement of pollu-
tants within soils and groundwater is a complex process which is
controlled, to a large extent, bj- site specific conditions. In
a general sense, however, such migration may be qualitatively
modeled for various assumed site conditions. The following
discussion is intended to provide a conceptual description of
the manner by which such pollutant movement may take place. The
influence of key site characteristics on pollutant movement is
also discussed.
The most common soil in the Renton area is the Alderwood
series, which covers over half of the land surface. Characteris-
tics of this soil were described in Chapter 2. The soil overlies
consolidated glacial till at a depth of 20 to 40 inches. In
many cases the upper portion of this till is only weakly con-
solidated, and may be penetrated by individual domestic wells.
Figure 3-2 shows the probable path of movement of septic tank
effluent and schematically depicts the impact it may have on
D-45
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D
Ch
TOPSOIL ZONE
PERCHED WATER TABLE
MORE PERMEABLE
VASHON TILL
LESS PERMEABLE
VASHON TILL
WATER BEARIN6
RECESSIONAL OUTWASH
DEPOSITS
CONTAMINATED
STREAM
^ X I ^ / V
a ¦¦*. a - o ... a
-: O.d: /\ P :':0
' o • O ' • ;« ; •
•:••• O - . 'D: : ¦ o
¦ O
0
0--
'a
o
.6.: a;
¦o
¦:a-
. ,0 O ,;-o :o
¦ . P ¦ . . * ¦ Q . O - ' *
'l/:. .0 ;• o j
¦ o.
- o
d'V.
0 .
o';D:°
O:
RELATIVE
N CONCENTRATION
FIGURE 3-2. SCHEMATIC FLOW PATH FOR EFFLUENT FROM A SEPTIC
TANK DRAINFIELD INSTALLED OVER A PERCHED WATER TABLE
¦J
-------
local groundwater quality. Recharge of the septic tank effluent
into Vashon till could result in the area-wide contamination
of water pumped from shallow domestic wells only if the volume
of such recharge exceeds the carrying capacity of the shallow
groundwater body. Contamination of individual wells could occur
more easily due to site specific conditions which may have little
or no relationship to the density of septic tanks in any given
area. For on-site disposal systems constructed on Alderwood
soil series over Vashon till or other formations of low perme-
ability the potential for standard failure is significantly
higher than the risk for grouadwater pollution failure.
A second common situation in the study area occurs where
drain fields are installed on the permeable Everett soil. This
soil has developed on pockets of coarse textured and unconsoli-
dated glacial outwash material. Conventional failure of septic
tank drain fields should not be very common in these areas.
On the other hand, groundwater pollution potential is signifi-
cantly higher under these conditions both because of the poor
renovating capability of the soil mantle and the existence
of highly permeable subsurface formations. Everett soils have
a low cation exchange capacity and a high percentage of sand
and gravel. Both of these characteristics are nonconducive to
the adequate treatment of septic tank effluent. Wastewater
percolating below drainfields installed in these soils would
probably contain a higher concentration of nitrate, biochemical
oxygen demand, viruses, bacteria, and perhaps suspended solids
than similar effluent from finer textured soils. Also, this
poorly treated effluent can readily percolate to the water table
in the underlying permeable deposits. Whether any significant
degradation of groundwater quality results under these conditions
depends to a large extent on the number and density of on-site
disposal systems, the recharge rate of uncontaminated waters,
and the depth from which groundwater is pumped for municipal
and domestic purposes. Figure 3-3 depicts a highly simplified
sketch of potential migration pathways of drainfield effluents
for permeable soil and subsoil conditions. This conceptual
pathway is of some significance in understanding the effect of
drainfields on nearby shallow and intermediate depth wells.
Data on nitrogen, dissolved salts and other effluent consti-
tuent loadings, as well as hydrogeologic information, are needed
to evaluate the pollution potential of alternative development
levels on an area-wide basis.
Figure 3-3 indicates that pollution potential is slightly
lower for wells drawing water from greater depth below the water
table. This is based on the premise that any pollutant reaching
the well would be diluted with a larger volume of freshwater
when the well pumps from a lower depth in the aquifer. Wells
that are only perforated in deeper underlying aquifers may not
be affected by any contaminants reaching the shallower water
bodies.
D-47
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^rrr
till
LEACHATE
UNSATURATED
PERMEABLE ZONE
RELATIVE
N CONCENTRATION
LESS
AFFECTED
WELL '
W.1TfR TABLE
POTENTIALLY
CONTAMINATED
WELL
•ZONE
OF
Ml XING
GROUNDWATER
°'BECr'M oTT"""
0F now
IMPERMEABLE LAYER
FIGURE 3-3. SCHEMATIC FLOW PATH FOR EFFLUENT FROM A SEPTIC TANK
DRAINFIELD INSTALLED OVER A PERMEABLE FORMATION
-------
Where drain fields are situated on the Puget, Seattle,
Buckley, or other similar soils having a groundwater table with-
in two feet of the soil surface a situation similar to that
shown in Figure 3-2 develops. Due to the lack of a significant
aerated zone, however, most of the dissolved nitrogen may reach
the water table in the form of ammonia. If this nitrogen com-
pound enters the drinking water supplies of local residents
in large amounts, it could create some public health problems.
In addition, the presence of ammonia would signal the potential
for contamination with bacteria, viruses and other constituents
of domestic sewage.
Waste Load Emissions. The potential contribution of nitro-
gen and other pollutants to groundwater resulting from the
subsurface discharge of septic tank effluent can be estimated
on the basis of per capita waste production and assumed septic
tank drain field treatment efficiencies. The local and regional
impacts of such emissions on water quality are addressed in
Chapter 4 of this appendix.
Nitrogen is the contaminant of primary concern and will be
used as an example of the method by which unit loadings are
derived. Table 3-5 summarizes the sequence of events with
respect to nitrogen assuming a reasonably well designed and
maintained septic tank system. Daily per capita generation of
nitrogen ranges from about 12 to 23 grams. Within the septic
tank approximately one-third of this nitrogen is either given
off in gaseous form or is retained in the tank as septage.
Thus, between 8 and 15.4 gms of nitrogen per capita per day could
be potentially discharged through the drain field system. Upon
entry into the soil absorption system the degree of subsequent
nitrogen removal depends upon a number of site specific factors
including the depth of unsaturated soil overlying bedrock or a
water table, the physical and biological characteristics of the
soil material and the depth at which discharge occurs . Addi-
tional factors such as the presence or absence of vegetation,
or the construction of a driveway over the leach field, r.ay also
have a pronounced impact on. the rate and level of nitrogen
removal. In order to account for the varying site conditions
which may exist in the study area, Table 3-5 includes three
assumed levels of nitrogen loss during passage through the soil
system. The 5 percent loss rate is intended to represent the
situation where the drain field occurs on coarse textured,
gravelly material with no water table present within about 5
feet from the surface. The Everett soil provides an example of
this situation. An intermediate nitrogen loss of 20 percent
could be expected where fine textured material of higher chemical
and biological activity occurs, such as on the Kitsap or Alderwood
soil. The highest degree of nitrogen loss could occur where an
unsaturated layer conducive to nitrification overlies a saturated,
fine textured layer conducive to denitrification. This situation
is associated with Earlmont and other similar soils.
D-4 9
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Table 3-5. Estimated Range in Daily Per Capita Total Nitrogen Emissions Resulting
From On-Site Wastewater Treatment and Disposal, gms per day
Est imated
Level
G ro s s
Emiss ion
Septic Tank
Losses1
Potential
Soil Absorption
Losses'3
Net
Emission0
Resultant
Concentrat ion
nig /1
0.4
7 .6
31
1 ow
12
4
1.6
6 .4
26
3.2
4 .8
20
0.8
14 .6
59
high
23
7 .6
3.1
12.3
50
6.2
9.2
37
aAssumes 1/3 of total nitrogen is lost through volatilization or is retained in septage.
^Soil absorption losses represent plant or microbial nitrogen utilization and the
ni tri i'icat ion-den i tri.fi eat i on cycle under various soil conditions. The three values
correspond to losses oi 5, 20 and 40 percent, respectively.
^jRepresen ts the estimated potential contribution to groundwater.
For an assumed wastewater generation of 65 gallons per capita per day.
-------
Total salts and phosphorus unit emissions can be estima-
ted more easily because of the conservative nature of these
constituents. Typically, septic tank effluent contains
approximately 20 mg/1 of total phosphorus and 150 to 250 mg/1
of dissolved salts over that present in the fresh water supply.
These figures correspond to daily per capita generation rates
of 4.9 gms of phosphorus and 37 to 61 gms of total salts.
Phosphorus is often considered to be relatively immobile in
fine textured soils, but is known to migrate under conditions
of saturated flow. Total salt concentration is largely
unaffected by passage of effluent through the soil absorption
system.
Low and high estimates of net nitrogen, phosphorus, and
total salt emissions to groundwater are presented in Table 3-6.
D- 51
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Table 3-6. Estimated Range of Nitrogen, Phosphorus and
Total Dissolved Solids Emissions to Groundwater
Resulting from On-Site Wastewater Disposal
Groundwater
Contribution
Pollutant
Low estimate
High estimate
Nitrogen
gms/capita/day
kg/household/yra
4 .8
4 . 7
14 .6
14 .4
Phosphorus
gms/capita/day
kg/household/yra
2 . 5
2 .46
4 . 9
4 .8
Total Dissolved Solids
gms/capita/day
kg/household/yra
37
36
61
60
aBased on an assumed density of 2.70 persons per household
D-5 2
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CHAPTER 4
EVALUATION OF IMPACT OF LAND APPLICATION
AND ON-SITE DISPOSAL PRACTICES
In this chapter a brief discussion is presented on the
impact of lane application alternatives and on-site disposal
practices on soils, crops and groundwater resources. These
impacts are discussed separately for sewered and non-sewered
areas.
Sewered Areas
In the projected sewered areas six land application satel-
lite treatment facilities are proposed to be constructed under
Alternative C: Decentralized Treatment. As indicated in
Chapter 3, no specific sites have been chosen for these satel-
lite treatment plants. Therefore, the discussion of environmental
impacts of these facilities is of necessity very general.
Major Contaminants of Concern. Existing water supplies in
the Renton study area are of excellent chemical quality, and the
wastewaters expected to be produced in the service area of
the proposed satellite treatment plants will be predominantly
of domestic nature. Due to these factors the effluent from
these plants is not expected to contain significant concentrations
of toxic or hazardous elements. The major contaminants of
concern will consist of inorganic nitrogen compounds and poten-
tially dissolved phosphorus compounds and pathogenic bacteria.
Heavy metals, boron, PCBs, and chlorinated hydrocarbons are
not expected to pose any problems in non-industrialized areas.
Assimilative Capacity of Local Soils. Most soils in the
Renton study area have either moderate or severe limitations
for reclamation reuse of treated wastewater (Table 2-7). The
most common limitations include shallow depth, excessively
slow or rapid permeabilities and the presence of a high water
table. In addition, slope is a major constraint to site selec-
tion for any irrigation operation. The degree of wastewater
renovation achieved by irrigation reuse, particularly with
respect to nutrient removal, is dependent upon the crop produced
and the texture and depth of the soil mantle. Many soils,
particularly those developed on glacial till, have medium tex-
tures with a high percentage of gravels and cobbles. These
coarse fragments decrease the biologically active soil volume
and therefore reduce the capability of the soil to assimilate
nutrients and biodegradable materials.
D-53
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Despite these limitations effluents from the satellite
plants are expected to be of excellent chemical quality for
crop irrigation purposes and no adverse impact on local soils
is expected under properly managed land application operations
Impacts of Effluent Reuse on Crops. It is expected that
a pasture crop would be used at the proposed land application
sites. As stated previously the effluents are not expected to
contain any elements which may preclude their use for irrigation
of forage crops. It is anticipated that effluent from the
satellite plants will contain about 50 to 70 lbs of nitrogen
per acre-ft. Varying amounts of other plant nutrients will
also be present in these effluents. Application of the efflu-
ent would probably supply most of the nutrient requirements of
an irrigated pasture crop.
No adverse impacts are anticipated on the quality and food
value of a forage crop grown through the use of the proposed
satellite treatment plant effluents.
Impact on Groundwater Resources. In this project, nitrate
would be the major constituent of concern with regard to ground-
water pollution potential. Due to the small size of the proposed
land application facilities and because most of these facilities
will be located on Alderwood soils overlying Vashon till, no
significant adverse impacts on groundwater quality are anticipated.
In order to prevent any contamination of domestic water supply
wells, it would be advisable to select a site that is not in
the vicinity and upgradient from such wells. This is especially
important for any site located on Everett soils which are under-
lain by recessional outwash or other highly permeable formations.
Bacterial or viral contamination of shallow domestic wells would
also be of concern under these conditions.
Nonsewered Areas
Major Contaminants of Concern. The contaminants of concern
with respect to domestic cn-site disposal systems consist of
those elements that can degrade the quality of surface or ground-
water resources thereby creating direct or indirect health
hazards to human beings relying on such sources of supply. In
this context these contaminants consist of nitrogen compounds
and pathogenic bacteria or viruses. If effluent from on-site
systems enters surface water bodies other elements such as
phosphorus may also create water quality degradation problems.
Industrial on-site disposal systems, if any, must be evaluated
on a case-by-case basis and are riot included in this discussion.
Analysis of Septic Tank Failure Data. Individual septic
tank/soil absorption systems operate at a high failure rate
in the Renton study area. The King County Health Department
estimates that between 5 and 10 percent of such systems may
D-5 4
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be experiencing failure at any one time. This situation
results from the often unfavorable site conditions, inadequate
design of the system, poor quality construction, and lack of
regular maintenance. Two major social causes may also contri-
bute significantly to these problems. First, the traditional
view towards on-site systems is that they are temporary solu-
tions for the waste disposal problem and will soon be replaced
by conventional sewage collection systems and modern wastewater
treatment facilities. Thus, until recently, there was little
motivation to spend more than the minimum amount of resources
in design and construction of on-site units. Secondly, because
septic tanks are of low visibility they are often ignored by
the home owner, who may not even be aware of the septic tank
and drain field locations. Regular maintenance is also often
the item of lowest priority on a home owner's budget.
A small survey of home loan certification documents in
King County indicated the following as common reasons for
septic tank failures (METRO, 1980):
construction of driveways, garages, patios, decks
or other structures over the drain field
diversion of surface water runoff to the drain
field area
compaction of the drain field by parking cars over
the field or pasturing of animals on the field
irregular or nonexistent septage pumping and provision
of other maintenance
In addition, when no reserve drainfield area is available, repair
of a failing system becomes extremely difficult. New regulations
of the King County Health Department require a reserve drain
field area of either 50 or 100 percent in size, depending upon
the system's location.
Becuase of the high incidence of septic tank failure, EPA
and METRO are cooperating in a study to identify and locate
failing systems so that the causative agent can be determined.
This study is presently in a stage of field testing and the
results should be available by the fall of 1980. A survey
conducted in conjunction with this program indicated the fol-
lowing results:
more than half of the 132 respondents indicated that
they had never received or read any literature on
operation and maintenance of septic tanks
septic system failures were considered a common
neighborhood problem by 22 percent of the
respondents
D-5 5
-------
a majority of the respondents favored routine inspec-
tion of their septic tank system
one third of the respondents, who had experienced
septic system failure, indicated that they had not
done any repair work on their drain field system
winter flooding or ponding was noted by 16 percent
of the respondents, indicating that a significant
number of the systems have been installed on
marginal sites
In the above paragraphs, the conventional meaning of septic
tank failure is used. In this context, failure refers to the
surfacing of effluent due to a clogged, overloaded, or other-
wise malfunctioning drain field. Due to che intensive interest
in water quality during the 1970's a second type of failure is
now recognized. This type of failure occurs where inadequately
treated effluent reaches groundwater bodies. So-called ground-
water failure may result from drain field installation on
excessively permeable material offering inadequate biochemical
renovation capability, or where effluent is discharged directly
into a shallow water table, again receiving inadequate treatment
due to the saturated conditions. Phosphorus, bacteria and viruses
are known to migrate over long distances under conditions of
saturated flow. Groundwater failure of an individual septic
tank system can impact the quality of water pumped from a shallow
down-gradient well. The extent of such impact would depend on
the distance between the site and the well and on hydraulic
conditions in the local aquifer.
On a broader scale, groundwater failure can seriously
pollute a regional aquifer if a large number of systems are
installed on excessively sandy or gravelly material. This
type of hazard results from the system design and site selec-
tion, and is relatively unaffected by regular maintenance.
Because it is extremely difficult to locate, document or
evaluate groundwater failure, it has only been in recent years
that regulatory agencies have begun to recognize it as a pollu-
tion hazard. Few if any regulations are designed to avoid the
p ro b1em.
Treatment Capability of Local Soils. Most of the soils in
the Renton study area have moderate to severe limitations for
use as septic tank leach fields. In particular the Alderwood
and Beausite soil series which cover most of the nonsewered
areas have severe limitations due to shallow depth and an
extremely slow permeability in the subsoil. The Everett soil
series has moderate limitations due to the extremely high
permeability of the entire soil profile (Table 2-7). Additional
D- 56
-------
data on soil limitation rating for septic tank leach fields are
presented in Table 2-9. These data indicate that the Alderwood
soil series also has moderate limitations due to seasonal high
groundwater level and drainage conditions.
Potential Pollutant Loadings to Groundwater Aquifers.
Accurate estimates of pollutant loadings to groundwater aquifers
cannot be developed at this time due to the lack of data on dis-
tribution pattern and density of on-site disposal systems in
nonsewered portions of the study area. Development of projected
loadings is also complicated by the same factors. It is gener-
ally agreed that there are 65,000 septic tanks currently in use
in the study area. If it is assumed that each septic tank
system serves an average household with 2.7 persons, the follow-
ing data on total annual wastewater flow and nitrogen emission
in the study area can be calculated:
Annual effluent discharge = 13,000 ac-ft
Estimated nitrogen concentration = 40 mg/l
Annual nitrogen load = 700 tons
Development of area-wide loading data may lead to an
exaggerated perception of groundwater quality impacts. In
reality on-site systems may be widely scattered and not all of
the effluent discharged from these systems reaches the ground-
water body. More importantly the loading from the on-site
systems is diluted by natural recharge and by mixing with large
volumes of high quality groundwater.
On a local area basis, however, emissions from even a few
on-site disposal systems could be a major concern for protecting
the quality of existing water supplies. Thousands of shallow
domestic wells are in use in the Renton study area. Unfortu-
nately, no data are available on the chemical characteristics
of water pumped from these wells. Implementation of a moritoring
program aimed at shallow domestic wells, especially in areas
with a high concentration of septic tanks, would be advisable.
On a general basis it appears reasonable that under optimal
conditions, shallow wells drilled in Vashon till would be less
in danger of pollution from on-site disposal system because
the risk of "groundwater failure" is small for such systems.
If drain fields are installed at high densities, or if inadequate
distance is allowed between drain fields and water supply wells,
groundwater contamination could result even in the Vashon till.
For wells constructed in recessional outwash and other highly
permeable deposits the risk of contamination from on-site dis-
posal systems increases significantly even though no evidence
of surface failure of septic tank drain fields can be detected.
D- 57
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CHAPTER 5
MITIGATION MEASURES
A brief discussion on appropriate mitigation measures for
proposed land application and on-site disposal systems in the
Renton study area is presented in this chapter.
Sewered Areas
The discussion of mitigation measures for sewered areas
centers around the proposed satellite land application systems
for Lake Sunrise, Sahalee, Pine Lake, Lake Desire, Pipe Lake
and Timberlane service areas. As discussed in Chapter 3 the
estimated irrigated acreage of 1,164 acres presented in the
draft facilities plan appears to be too low and from 25 to 50
percent more land would be needed for proper disposal of efflu-
ent produced in these communities. No major adverse environmental
impacts are expected to result from properly designed and
operated land application facilities at any of these sites.
The following precautions should be taken to avoid the creation
of adverse impacts.
1. Effluent application rates should not exceed crop
evapotranspiration demand plus 25 percent. Adherence
to this provision is important for sites located
both on the Alderwood and Everett soil series. On
Alderwood soils excess water application can result
in poor crop growth, waterlogging, build-up of a
shallow water table, and runoff from the irrigated
area. On Everett soils none of the above conditions
may develop but the risk of contaminating nearby
shallow domestic wells would increase significantly
under a high effluent application regime.
2. Land application sites should be located a safe dis-
tance downwind from nearby residences. Also adequate
buffer strips should be allowed along the periphery
of the sites, especially if the boundaries adjoin
public roads or private property.
3. An adequate distance should separate any land appli-
cation site from domestic and municipal water supply
wells. Also, any well drilled on the site should be
protected from contamination by proper sealing of
the casing to an adequate depth and by preventing
direct flow of effluent into the well. A buffer
strip 50 feet in diameter should be provided around
any well located on the effluent irrigation site.
Land application sites should preferably be located
down gradient from nearby domestic and municipal water
supply wells,
D- 59
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Non-sewered Areas
The mitigation measures discussed in this section pertain
to adverse impacts created by the failure of on-site disposal
systems both in the context of malfunctioning drainfields and
where groundwater pollution hazards may be created by systems
that show no outward signs of failure. The technical recom-
mendations developed by METRO, which are included in the draft
facilities plan (METRO, 1980), have been included in these
mitigation measures. Institutional aspects of wastewater
management in non-sewered areas have not been addressed in
detail, because they fall beyond the scope of this study.
1. An adequate data base should be developed on alter-
native technologies, environmental carrying capacity
of drainage basins or hydrologic units, and on the
impact of existing systems on surface and groundwater
resources. In the absence of such data, decision
making would be difficult and would be speculative
at best.
Significant information on existing and new technolo-
gies has been developed in recent years. The draft
facilities plan contains a comprehensive summary
of available on-site disposal technologies. Site
specific data on the impact of failing on-site
disposal systems on surface and groundwater resources
in the Renton study area are lacking as is any
information on the carrying capacity of hydrologic
or drainage units.
2. Currently a program is being carried out by EPA and
METRO to identify failing septic tanks by infra-red
aerial photography. The results of this program
should provide data on locations and number of
failing systems. Once such data are available a
plan should be devised for correction of the problems
causing the failure of these systems.
No universally applicable solutions can be offered
for solving the problem of failing on-site systems
because the causes of failure are mostly site
specific. For existing systems a regular program of
inspection and enforcement should provide some mea-
sure of relief. Emphasis should also be placed on
proper selection, design, construction and mainte-
nance of new on-site systems. These steps will be
greatly aided by providing training programs for
technical staff of appropriate County agencies,
aimed at familiarizing them with new-on-site disposal
technologies, as well as new approaches to solving
D-6Q
-------
the problems associated with traditional disposal
methods. Also, close cooperation between resource
management, planning, and public works agencies will
be needed to ensure the development of sound zoning
plans and design, construction, operation, and
maintenance regulations for on-site disposal systems.
Table 5-1 contains general data on alternative solu-
tions for potential problems posed by study area
soils when used for on-site disposal purposes.
4. Development of septic-tank maintenance districts has
proven successful in other parts of the country in
preventing frequent failure of septic tanks. The
use of this approach, or an equivalent area-wide
management agency, should be explored in the Renton
study area.
5. The use of promising alternative on-site disposal
technologies by developers should be encouraged.
Caution, however, should be exercised to prevent
the creation of larger problems in the future as may
be the case when untried alternative systems are
used in large-scale development projects. It is
advisable to gain operating data on new technologies
on small-scale pilot projects, prior to allowing
large-scale applications.
6. The use of water conserving devices should be en-
couraged in all non-sewered areas and should be
required in areas with severe septic tank system
failure problems.
7. A review of the established procedures on regulation,
inspection, enforcement and public education in the
area of on-site disposal systems in each county would
be desirable. King County has recently completed
such a study (Cyre, 1980). Recommendations made in
the King County study are summarized below:
a. The Seattle/King County Health Department should
undertake a study to identify areas with serious
existing on-site disposal problems and areas with
a high potential for such problems.
b. Appropriate legislation should be developed to
enable the Health Department to designate on-
site wastewater management zones. In these
zones, special emphasis would be given to the
design, construction, maintenance and rehabili-
tation of on-site systems.
D-6 1
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Table 5-1. Septic Tank Siting Problems and Alternative
Solutions for Renton Study Area Soils
Type of Problem
Alternative Solution
Applicable Soil Series
Shallow depth
Flooding
Slow permeability
Rapid permeability
Excessive slope
Seasonal higl\ water
table
All urobleras
mound or other built-up
system, ripping of hardpan
or til J
divert stortrs waters and
other runoff
ripping of subsoil, and
amendfTiiiTits
Mound system
relocate or fill
improve site drainage,
mound-type systems
use community systems
fthere the drain field is
situated in the most favor-
able arfiii available
Alderwood, Beausite
Earljnont, Oridia> Puget,
Snohomish, Vfoodinviile
Alderwood, Kitsap, Beausite
Everett, Indianola
soils on slope >5%
Buckley, Earlmont, Oridia,
Paget, Seattle, Snohomish,
Woodinville, Alderwood
-------
c. The county should facilitate the use of community
on-site systems and encourage private sector
participation in carrying out maintenance and
inspection functions for all systems.
d. The Health Department should develop the required
administrative apparatus, data management
system, and a public education program for proper
implementation of the recommended programs.
The emphasis in both the METRO and the King County plans is
on solving the problems created by poorly functioning or failing
on-site disposal systems, in the context of traditionally
accepted definition of septic tank failure. While development
of such a program is an important first step in dealing with the
problems of on-site waste disposal, attention should be directed
to the overall environmental impacts of such systems, even in
areas where apparent system failures, such as surfacing of waste-
water may not have been observed. In the context of this
objective, it is recommended that the following additional
measures are undertaken to determine groundwater quality impacts
of on-site disposal systems, and evaluate the carrying capacity
of various hydrologic or drainage units:
a. Monitoring of selected shallow domestic water
supply wells in areas of the Alderwood soil
series on Vashon till deposit. These wells
should be selected in subareas with low, medium,
and high densities of on-site disposal systems.
Each well should be sampled during the spring
and fall of each year. Samples can be analyzed
in the field for EC, NO3 and possibly SO4-, using
portable kits. Water samples from any well
showing high levels of any of these constituents
should be sent to the laboratory for analysis
of nitrate, chloride, ammonium, sulfate, pH, EC,
COD, fecal coliform and fecal streptococci.
Alternatively, samples from all monitored wells
would be sent to the laboratory for analysis
of the listed parameters.
b. A similar groundwater monitoring program should
be carried out in areas of the Alderwood soil
series on alluvial deposits and Everett soil
series on recessional outwash deposits for
zones of low, medium, and high septic tank
densities.
D-63
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c. If the results of the shallow domestic well
monitoring programs indicate the occurrence
of groundwater contamination the density of
the monitoring network should be increased
and wells of medium and high depth should
also be included in the sampling program.
d. Results of the monitoring program should be
used to identify areas of potential ground-
water contamination in the Renton study
area.
e. Data on groundwater carrying capacity of
hydrologic units or drainage basins should
be developed prior to establishing allowable
development density levels in non-sewered
areas. The carrying capacity can be deter-
mined on the basis of geologic, hydrologic,
and aquifer hydraulic conditions. This
index should supersede other criteria used in
establishing allowable development densities,
when a long term risk of groundwater pollution
is indicated
D-6 4
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References
1. Ayers, R. S., and W. D. Westcot, Water Quality for
Agriculture, Food and Agriculture Organization, Irrigation
and Drainage Paper No. 29, 1976.
2. Bouma, J., et al., An Experimental Mound System for
Disposal of Septic Tank Effluent in Shallow Soils over
Creviced Rock, In: Proc. of an International Conference
on Land for "Waste Management, Ottawa, Can., October 1973.
3. Brown and Caldwell, Jones and Jones, Wastewater Management
Study, Lake Washington/Green River Basins, Preliminary
Plan, April 1980.
4. Cyre , Hector and Ann C. Skutt, On-site Wastewater Manage-
ment for King County, Washington, April, 1980.
5. Dudley, J. G. and D. A. Stephenson, Nutrient Enrichment
of Groundwater From Septic Tank Disposal Systems, Upper
Great Lakes Regional Commission, November 1973.
6. Eddy, P. A., Quaternary Geology and Groundwater Resources
of San Juan County, Washington, in Russell, R. H., ed.,
Geology and Water Resources of the San Juan Islands,
San Juan County, Washington, Washington Dept. of Ecology,
Water Supply Bulletin No. 46, 1975.
7. Jenny, H., Factors of Soil Formation: A System of Quanti-
tative Pedology, McGraw-Hill Company, New York, 1941.
8. Liesch, B. A., C. E. Price, and K. L. Walters, Geology and
Groundwater Resources of Northwestern King County, Washing-
ton, Washington State Division of Water Resources, Water
Supply Bulletin No. 20, 1963.
9. Lockwood Corporation, Land Treatment of Wastewaters, 1973.
10. Luzier, J. E., Geology and Groundwater Resources of
Sourhwestern King County, Washington, Washington State
Department of Water Resources, Water Supply Bulletin No.
28, 1969.
11. Metro, Wastewater Management Study, Lake Washington/Green
River Basins, Technical Memorandum No. 1, Existing Waste-
water Facilities and Characteristics, November, 1979.
12. Metro, Wastewater Management Study, Lake Washington/Green
River Basins, Technical Memorandum No. 2, Study Area
Characteristics, 1980.
D-6 5
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13
14
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25
iMu 11 ineaux, D. R., H. H. Waldron, and R. Meyer, Strati-
graphy and Chronology of Late Interglacial and Early
Vashon Glacial Time in the Seattle Area, Washington,
U. S. Geological Survey Bulletin, 1194.0, 1965.
Newcomb, R. C., Groundwater Resources of Snohomish County,
Washington, U. S. Geological Survey, Water Supoly Paper
1135, 1952.
Puget Sound Council of Governments, Agricultural Land Use
in the Central Puget Sound Region, 3rd Draft, May 1974.
Soil Science Society of America, Glossary of Soil Science
Terms, May 1970.
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Management of
Small Waste Flows, EPA 600/2-78-173, 1978.
USDA - Soil Conservation Service, Land Capability Classi-
fication, Agriculture Handbook No. 210, January, 1973.
USDA - Soil Conservation Service, Soil Survey of the King
County Area, Washington, November, 1973.
USDA - Soil Conservation Service, Soil Survey of the Pierce
County Area, Washington, February, 19/9.
USDA - Soil Conservation Service, Soil Survey of Snohomish
County, Washington, August 1947.
USDA - Soil Conservation Service, miscellaneous soils
interpretations, 1969.
Viraraghavan, T., and R. G. Warnock, Groundwater Pollu-
tion from Septic Tank Tile Fields, Water, Air and Soil
Pollution 5:281, 1976.
Walters, K. L. and G. E. Kimmel, Groundwater Occurrence
and Stratigraphy of unconsolidated deposits, Central
Pierce County, Washington, Washington State Department
of Water Resources, Water Supply Bulletin No. 22, 1968,
Williams, R. C., Water Resources of King County, Washington,
U. S. Geological Survey, Water Supply Paper 1852, 1968.
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