Cooperative Extension Service, Colorado State University, Lowell H. Watts, Director
AN ANALYSIS OF
NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION
IN THE
ROCKY MOUNTAIN-PRAIRIE REGION
PREPARED BY
JOSEPH T. NEWLIN
AND
DR. ROBERT C. WARD
SUBMITTED TO
REGION VIII ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
DENVER, COLORADO
FEBRUARY 15, 1974
THIS WORK WAS SUPPORTED BY FUNDS PROVIDED BY THE
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY AND
WAS PERFORMED UNDER THE JOINT AUSPICES OF THE
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENTOF AGRICULTURE EXTENSION
SERVICE AND THE UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
AGENCY UNDER THE DIRECT SUPERVISION OF THE
COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE OF COLORADO STATE
UNIVERSITY, FORT COLLINS, COLORADO.
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AN ANALYSIS OF NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION
IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN-PRAIRIE REGION
PART I
CES Project No. 31-4040-2050
Prepared by
Joseph T. Newlin &
and
Dr. Robert C. Ward
Submitted To
Region VIII Environmental Protection Agency
Denver, Colorado
February 15, 1974
This work was supported by funds provided by the
United States Environmental Protection Agency and
was performed under the joint auspices of the
United States Department of Agriculture Extension
Service and the United States Environmental
Protection Agency under the direct supervision
of the Cooperative Extension Service of Colorado
State University, Fort Collins, Colorado.
Cooperative Extension Service
Colorado State University
Lowell H. Watts, Director
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
PREFACE 1
REPORT SUMMARY 8
IRRIGATION RETURN FLOWS 12
References . 27
Irrigation Return Flows Control Technology 29
References 43
'Conclusions and Recommendations 45
RANGE & WATERSHED MA>' CEMENT 49
Colorado 79
Wyoming 88
Montana 103
Utah 115
/ South Dakota . 137
North Dakota 153
Range & Watershed Control Technology 165
Conclusions and Recommendations 179
References 187
LOGGING & FORESTRY 188
Logging & Forestry Management Technology 202
Conclusions and Recommendations 247
References 251
RURAL-DOMESTIC WASTES 253
References 259
Individual Home Sewage Disposal Technology 260
Conclusions and Recommendations 270
References .......... 272
LIVESTOCK & WASTE DISPOSAL 274
Livestock & Waste Disposal Technology 294
References 308
Conclusions and Recommendations . _ 310
PESTICIDES .317
Pesticides Control Technology 337
Conclusions and Recommendations 355^
References 363
FERTILIZERS ' " 364
References 395
Fertilizer Control Technology 397
Conclusions and Recommendations 416
References 421
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ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTINUED
PAGE
LAND DISPOSAL 424
References 429
Land Disposal Control Technology 430
Conclusions and Recommendations 445
References 446
ADDENDUM: IMPACT OF OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT i
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NO,
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2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
i3
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
iii
TABLES
PAGE
Irrigated acreage by states for Region VIII 13
Irrigated acreages by river basins partially in Region VIII 13
Long-term projections of irrigated acreages in river basins 14
Status and extent of saline and sodic areas in Region VIII 14
Estimated costs of salinity control projects 19
Projected salinity in Lower Colorado River with and without proposed
salinity control projects. 20
Arkansas main stem stream characterization data. 22
South Platte main stem stream characterization data. 24
Evaluation and range of effectiveness on water uses of technological
alternatives 41A
Percent of area in sediment yield rate classes, Upper Colorado
Region, 1965. 52
Suspended sediment discharge, Upper Colorado Region, 1965 53
Summary of potential watershed projects, Upper Colorado Region 59
Summary table of watershed management problems etc.
Grazed site to natural site factors for bacteria indicator groups
used in 1965 65
Sediment yield at available sampling stations-Missouri River Basin 70
Area and status of land within grazing districts, 1972. 74
Permitted use of grazing district lands, 1967-1971. 74
Summary of permitted use of grazing district lands, 1971. 75
Grazing permits in force on grazing district lands, 1971. 75
Permitted livestock, on grazing district lands, 1971. 76
Animal unit months of permitted use of grazing district lands, 1971. 76
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NO
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
iv
AGE
77
77
77
78
78
78
87
88
89
89
89
90
93
94
96
100
102
110
110
127
128
129
TABLES
CONTINUED
Estimated use of Taylor Grazing Act grazing lease lands, 1971.
Grazing leases in force 1971.
Soil and watershed conservation program accomplishments, 1972.
Range improvement program accomplishments, 1972.
Private range improvements constructed on public lands, 1972.
Total conservation and improvement accomplishments, 1972.
Summary of Reservoir sedimentation surveys (Colorado)
Land use acres for Wyoming
Land use comparison for Wyoming
Land use capability classes for Wyoming
Irrigated and dry pasture, range, forest etc. for Wyoming
Conservation treatment needs for rotated cropland for Wyoming
Conservation treatment needs for pasture lands for Wyoming
Conservation treatment needs for rangeland, Wyoming
Conservation treatment needs for grazed forest land, Wyoming
Inventory of watersheds less than 400 sq. miles in area with
the kinds of problems needing project action
Inventory of potentially feasible watersheds less than 400 sq.
miles in area with kinds and extent of problems needing project
action
Distribution of inventory forest lands by land capability class
Degree of severity of problems in forest lands (Montana)
Inventory of Watershed Problems, 1967. (Utah)
Inventory of Watershed Problems, 1967.
Watershed projects inventory
Watershed projects inventory, 1967.
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NO.
45A
45B
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
TABLES
CONTINUED
PAGE
Summary tabulations of total and feasible watersheds, 1967. 131
Inventory of Watershed Projects , 1967 132
Watersheds Projects Inventory 135
Summary tabulations of total and feasible watersheds 136
Conservation Treatment Needs (North Dakota) 155
Land use acres in inventory, 1958 and 1967 161
Irrigated and dry pasture, range, forest etc. by land capability 162
classes, 1967.
Conservation treatment needs-cropland in tillage rotation, 1967 162
Conservation treatment needs-other cropland & total cropland,1967 163
Conservation treatment needs-pasture, 1967 163
Conservation treatment needs-range, 1967 163
Inventory of watersheds less than 400 sq. miles with kinds & 164
extent of problems needing project action
Inventory of potentiall feasible watersheds less than 400 sq. miles 164
with kinds & extent of problems needing project action.
Management & land treatment measures recommended for reduction 171
of erosion and sediment yields
Factors affecting sediment yield in Pacific Southwest 174
Evaluation of measures for sediment control 178
Area of commercial forest land by type of ownership & subregion 198
Projected timber products output from all sources 201
Estimated number of acres of logging slash treated and remaining 226
for FY 1973 by forest
Summary of operations - Timber Operator 227
Number of timber sales as of July 1, 1973.
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vi
TABLES
CONTINUED
NO. PAGE
65 Acres cut over by timber types yearly average 229
66 Summary by forest of permanent type roads constructed by 229
Timber Purchaser
67 Tons of residue produced per acre 230
68 Grand Mesa-Uncompahgre-Gunnison National Forests,Delta,Colorado 231
69 Average residue production on timber sales by species 232
70 Comparison of septic and aerobic tank performance 266
71 Number of cattle on farms (thousands) 275
72 Cattle and calves on feed in Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region(thous) 276
73 Number of cattle feedlots and fed cattle marketed by size of 277
feedlot capacity
74 Cattle and calves cn farms in Colorado by districts 279
75 Cattle and calves on feed, Dec. 1971 279
76 Number of hogs on farms (thousands) 281
77 Number of hogs on farms by district in Colorado Jan 1, 1968 and 281
Jan. 1, 1971
78 Number of stock sheep on farms (thousands) 282
79 Number of stock sheep on farms by district in Colorado 282
80 Number of sheep and lambs on feed for slaughter market by areas, 282
Colorado
81 Number of cows and heifers 2 years old and over kept for milk 284
82 Number of cows and heifers over 2 years old kept for milk by 284
districts in Colorado
83 Percentage distribution of dairy herds and cows by size of herd 284
84 Hens and pullets.of layi.ig age on, farms 286
85 Number of turkeys on farms, Jan. 1, 1969 and Jan 1, 1971 286
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NO.
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
rAul
288
288
298
324
326
327
328
332
333
336
339
366
367
367
368
371
379
381
381
383
384
TABLES
CONTINUED
Waste characteristics for a 900-pound steer
Characteristics of beef cattle wastes and sewage sludge
Fox Creek near Strong City, Kansas. Water Quality Parameters
in Milligrams per Liter.
End-of-process technology classification
Pesticides Statistics Region VIII - Fiscal Year 1972
Results of synoptic survey for pesticides in surface waters
Pesticide occurrences by FWQA Region-
Top 10 locations at which highest levels were observed each year
Organochlorine insecticide residues in fish
Organochlorine insecticide residues in fish-mean values
Pesticides used in crops and on livestock and poultry
Drift pattern in relation to particle size,pesticides
Region VIII Agricultural statistics 1969
Region VIII Fertilizer Consumption
Region VIII harvested acres and pounds of fertilizer per acre
Plant nutrients per harvested acre in continental United States
Nutrient concentrations in Upper Colorado Region Streams
Estimates for nutrient inputs to surface waters for river
basin drainages
Soil nitrate nitrogen distribution in the 0-3 ft. depth prior
to planting sugarbeets
Soil nitrate nitrogen distribution in 0-3 depth following beans,
corn, and sugarbeets
Deviation of predicted nitrate nitrogen based on analysis of 0-1
ft. from that found by analysis of the entire 0-3 ft. depth
Comparative Summary of field plots, 1973
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NO.
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
viii
TABLES
CONTINUED
PAGE
Use of fertilizer before and after C-BT water on survey farms 388
Fertilization practices on survey farms before and after C-BT water 388
Colorado fertilizer sales by grades and materials 390 .
Fertilizer materials 392
Advantage of timing N applications 404
Methods of application of phosphorus and potassium for corn 408
Total n-itrient content of runoff and sediment from five systems 410
on plots
Suggested nutrient levels for minimizing pollution 413
Municipalities using land application and population served by 425
states, Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region
Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region Sites 425
Distribution of Sites by land use 426
Years sites placed in service 426
Summary of sludge processing by states for the Rocky-Mountain 427
Prairie Region
Effluent pretreatment for on land disposal sites in the Rocky- 431
Mountain-Prairie Region
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2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
ix
FIGURES
PAGE
EPA Region VIII 2
Proposed salinity control projects in the Colorado River Basin 17
Present sediment yield rates, Upper Colorado Region 51
Generalized past-present and projected sediment yields 55
Watershed treatment, Upper Colorado Region 60
Fecal coliform/fecal streptoccocus ratios for heavily grazed 65
Station 8 cnrapr -d to values for the main stem stations
Means for bacterial groups in Time Period 1, 1965, at individual 65
sampling sites on watershed
Means for bacterial groups in Timber Period II, 1965, at individual 65
sampling sites on watershed.
Subbasin Boundaries 67
Land and water ownership in subbasins 68
Sediment yield in subbasins 69
Land use and inventory acreages, Colorado (1967) 80
Sediment yield map, Colorado 86
Soil and water conservation districts, Wyoming 99
Trends in land use for Montana 104
Montana Land - 1967 105
Inventoried land use, Montana 106
Treatment needs Forest and Woodland, Montana 112
Water area and land ownership distribution in Utah 116
Percent of county land area in inventory - Utah 1967 117
Use of inventory acreage in Utah - 1958 and 1967 119
Percent of county land area in inventory, Utah 1967 120
Total pasture and rangeland
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NO,
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25
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27
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29
30
31
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33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
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x
PAGE
123
124
138
141
142
152
154
160
206
345
346
347
348
349
373
374
385
386
394
FIGURES
CONTINUED
Total forest land
Conservation needs watershed map, Utah
Inventory and non-inventory acres of South Dakota 1967
Use of inventory acreage in 1958 and 1967
South Dakota land resource areas
South Dakota watershed project needs
Land use comparisons, South Dakota
Watershed project inventory, North Dakota
Live Skyline with mechanical carriage
Types of control measures and extent of utilization.Wyoming
Types of control measures and extent of utilization, Colorado
Types of control measures and extent of utilization, North Dakota
Types of control measures and extent of utilization, South Dakota
Types of control measures and extent of utilization, Utah
Normal annual precipitation, Upper Colorado Region
Average annual total precipitation, Missouri River Basin States
Kern Sugar Beets-Yield versus N application
Kern Sugar Beets-Yield versus N application
Northeastern Colorado, showing the locations where cores were taken
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1
AN ANALYSIS OF NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION
IN THE
ROCKY MOUNTAIN-PRAIRIE REGION
Preface
The purpose of this report is to provide a description of the identified
non-point sources of pollution within the six-state area of Colorado, Utah,
Wyoming, Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota which comprises Region VIII
(Figure 1) under the jurisdiction of the Environmental Protection Agency's
Denver office. Due to time constraints and limited staff available to the
preparation of the report, much of the research deals with the State of
Colorado. However, wherever data could be gathered and analyzed relative to
non-point source problems of similar kind and nature within the other five
Region VIII states, such information has been included in the report.
The areas of concern which have been investigated and reported upon include:
Irrigation Return Flows (on-farm management for salinity control)
Range and Watershed Management
Logging and Forestry (erosion, slashburning, etc.)
t Rural-Domestic Wastes (septic tanks)
Livestock and Waste Disposal
Pesticides and Fertilizers
Land Disposal (sludge and municipal sewage)
Surface and Groundwater Problems (as appropriate)
The description of the identified non-point source pollution problem areas
as well as the description of available technological and managerial practices
1
presently in use, identification of areas of needed additional research, and
needs for improved mechanisms for information transferral make up the first
portion of the report.
The second portion of the report provides recommendations for a staged
program for transferring the known solutions for managerial and technological
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EPA REGION VIII
MONTANA
WYOMING
north
DAKOTA
SOUTH
DAKOTA
UTAH
COLORADO
Figure 1
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3
pollution control to concerned individuals and groups throughout the existing
Cooperative Extension system.
As many readers of this report are aware, the Federal Water Pollution Con-
trol Act Amendments of 1972 became law during the final months of 1972. The
objective of the Act is to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and bio-
logical integrity of the Nation's waters. Its National goals are: (1) to obtain
an interim goal of water quality by July 1 of 1983 which will provide for the
protection and propagation of fish, shellfish, and wildlife and for recreation
in and on the water, and (2) the elimination of discharge of pollutants into
navigable waters by 1985. Navigable waters are defined as "Waters of the United
States, including the territorial seas." Pollutants include, among other items,
such various materials as "...heat, wrecked or discarded equipment, rock, sand,
and cellar dirt, and industrial, municipal, and agricultural wastes discharged
into water."
There are several sections of the Bill which are of particular interest to
those concerned with non-point source pollution control. An important one of
these is Section 101(b) where it states that the Policy of Congress is to recog-
nize, preserve and protect primary responsibilities and rights of states to pre-
vent, reduce, and eliminate pollution and to plan the development and use of
water and land resources. This philosophy is sprinkled throughout the Act where
Congress has given the states primary responsibility or the option of accepting
the primary responsibility for pollution control programs. In addition, the
states, local governments, and often times, industries, have been given strong
advisory roles in developing the pollution control programs. However, at the
same time Congress maintained the ultimate responsibility for the control pro-
grams should the states fail to meet their responsibilities.
Congress has given the Administrator of the Environmental Portection Agency
the responsibility to administer this Act (Section 102(a)). He is directed to
prepare and develop comprehensive National programs for preventing, reducing, or
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4
eliminating the pollution of navigable waters and groundwaters, after careful
investigation and in cooperation with other Federal agencies, State Water Pol-
lution Control agencies, interstate agencies, municipalities, and industries
involved.
Also, the Administrator shall encourage cooperative activities by the state
and the enactment of improved and, so far as practicable, uniform state laws
relating to the prevention, reduction and elimination of pollution (Section 103(a)).
Research
In carrying out his responsibilities for establishing National programs for
the prevention, reduction, and elimination of pollution, the Administrator is
required, among other things, to: in cooperation with other Federal, state and
local agencies, conduct and promote coordination and acceleration of research,
investigations, experiments, demonstrations, and studies related to the causes,
effects, extent, prevention, reduction, and elimination of pollution. Render
technical services to appropriate agencies in carrying out these programs and
establish advisory committees composed of recognized experts to assist in the
examination and evaluation of research progress and proposals and to avoid dup-
lication of research (Section 104(a)).
To meet the provisions just discussed, the Administrator is authorized,
again among other things, to: (1) develop effective and practical processes,
methods and prototype devices for control and elimination of pollution (Section
104(b) (7)); (2) collect and disseminate, in cooperation with Federal, state,
and other pollution control agencies, basic data on chemical, physical and bio-
logical effects of varying water qualities and the information related to pol-
lution and its control (Section 104(b) (6)): and (3) cooperate with other Federal
Departments and Agencies, other public and private agencies, institutions, organ-
izations, industries involved, and individuals, in the preparation and conduct
of the research and studies on the causes, effects, extent, prevention, reduc-
tion and elimination of pollution.
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PlannIng
To accomplish the objectives of the Bill within the required schedule,
numerous deadlines must be met. For example, with regard to non-point sources
of various kinds, Section 208 gives the Administrator only 90 days after the
effective date of the Act (October 18, 1972) to publish guidelines for identifying
areas which, as a result of urban-industrial concentrations or other factors,
have substantial water quality control problems. The Governor of each state then
has 60 days following the publication of the guidelines to identify these areas
and 120 days after such identification to assign the boundaries and designate a
8ingle representative organization capable of developing effective area-wide
waste treatment management plans for such an area. Within one year after the
designation by the Governor, this organization is to have in operation a con-
tinuing area-wide water treatment management planning process, applicable to
all wastes generated in the areas involved. The waste treatment management plans
and practices shall provide for the application of the "best practicable" waste
treatment technology ...and to the extent practicable, waste treatment manage-
ment shall be on an area-wide basis and provide control or treatment of all point
and non-point sources of pollution, including in place or accumulated pollution
sources (Section 102). Any plan under such process shall include, but not be
limited to, processes to: (1) identify, if appropriate, agriculturally and
silviculturally related non-point sources of pollution, mine and construction-
related, and the related non-point sources of pollution, and (2) set forth pro-
cedures and methods to control to the extent feasible, such sources (Section
208(b) (2)). The plan shall be certified by the Governor of the State, or his
designee, and submitted to the Administrator of EPA for his approval.
Section 304 is closely related to Section 208. It required the Administrator
within one year of the effective date of the Act, and from time to time thereafter,
to publish and issue to the appropriate Federal agencies, the States, water pol-
lution control agencies, and other designated agencies mentioned before, infor-
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¦ mation including guidelines for identifying and evaluating the nature and extent
of non-point sources of pollutants and processes, procedures, and methods for
effecting control of pollution from agricultural and silvicultural activities,
mining activities and construction activities. Consultation with appropriate
Federal and State agencies and other interested persons is required during the
development of these guidelines. The information disseminated in accordance with
the requirements of Section 304 of the Act will be used by the states in develop-
ing their area-wide management plans required under Section 208.
Section 303(e) of the Act, requiring the States to establish a continuing
planning process, provides for state-wide river basin planning. The States will
analyze each stream in the state, determine whether or not each stream segment
will meet applicable water quality standards, and if not, plan for a coordinated
approach that will lead to the meeting of standards. If point source controls,
as spelled out by the Act, will not lead to a meeting of the standards, then
feasible non-point controls should be considered.
Another pertinent section of the Act is 305(e) which requires each state
to prepare and submit to the Administrator by January 1, 1975 and bring up to
date each year thereafter a description of the nature and extent of non-point
sources of pollutants, and recommendations as to the programs which must be
undertaken to control each category of such sources, including an estimate of
costs of implementing such programs. These state reports together with an
analysis will be submitted to Congress by the Administrator on or before October 1,
1975 and annually thereafter.
Summation
Effective control of non-point source pollution can be fully achieved only
by vigorous and aggressive action by all levels of government with the complete
cooperation and support of concerned members of the community.
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7
There is a definite need to make people in communities aware of how these
non-point source pollution processes can effect conditions around them. In this
same vein, it is important to make people aware that their activities can con-
tribute to these problems and that they should be willing to assist in responsible
prevention and control of harmful practices-
Local organizations and their officials have to acknowledge their share of
the responsibility. State and Federal Governments can provide broad guidelines,
planning assistance and guidance, and some financial assistance for local areas.
The principle tasks of developing proper management techniques, establishing
adequate implementation procedures, and requiring effective enforcement methods
must fall upon state and local officials and within the context of Federal law
as provided. The empetus to adopt effective control measures must be provided
by concerned and informed members of the state or community involved.
Federal lands and their administering agencies, too, must recognize and plan
for the needed control and abatement of non-point pollution problems. Federal
lands and activities, because of their influence and importance to resource and
environmental management in Region VIII, must be an integral part of any long-
term non-point pollution control program.
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8
REPORT SUMMARY
General Conclusions
Ideally, this nation's water resources should be of pristine quality-
unaltered by any intrusion of nature or man. Unfortunately, this is not
now, nor never has been the case. Alterations to our nation's water resources
are the result of the combined impact of natural and man-influenced processes.
Natural processes, by their very nature, are diffuse and nondiscrete and are not
readily susceptible to treatment. Man's contribution to water quality degradation
, «
comes from both direct and indirect sources. The former, we call "point sources",
the latter, "non-point" sources. The point sources are amenable to isolation
and treatment. Whether or not non-point sources are as amenable to treatment
and can be dealt with as effectively as point sources will be ascertained in
the future.
Non-point sources for which man can be held partially responsible include
mining; urban and rural construction; agriculture; storm runoffs; recreational
activity-especially in non-metropolitan areas; and land disposal of municipally
treated wastes. It will be difficult to reach water quality goals that have
been established for this country if these and other non-point pollution causes
are left unchecked. The 1972 Water Pollution Control Act amendments, as was
discussed in the introduction to this report, are directed to this end. They
specifically state that non-point sources of pollution from all causes are to
be characterized and plans for their demise formulated.
This study has undertaken to synthesize much of the presently available
knowledge that characterizes sources of non-point pollution within the Region
VIII EPA States. During the time frame permitted and with the limited funding
available., it was not possible to specifically quantify the degrees or intensity
of each major source within the six Region VIII Stages, nor to specifically
identify geographically where each source is located.
This report attempts to provide descriptions of identified sources of
non-point pollution, and identify major geographic concentrations and potential
pollution problems based on existing data. The report also tries to identify
technological and managerial practices, currently available, that appear to
be adequate from a control standpoint. Part II of the report provides recommendations
for a staged program for transferring knowledge of existing solutions for pollution
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9
control to individuals or groups that contribute, directly or indirectly, to
the problems.
Readers of this report can readily conclude that, in terms of Region VIII
alone, the contributions are substantial when considered on an aggregate basis.
There are, within the study area, literally thousands of individuals whose
actions, in some way, affect water quality. In reality, there are very few
inhabitants of the region who are not contributors. To provide the educational
experiences to offset these problems and lessen them to a meaningful degree
will require a sizeable commitment in terms of financial and human resources.
Governmental agencies focusing in on these problems will be required to provide
considerable financial surnort to on-going informational and educational efforts,
Including control methodology dissemination and technology transfer, to get the
job done.
Need for Broad-Based Educational Attack
Throughout the report references have been made relative to needs for
additional research and technology transfer mechanisms. It has been suggested
in Part II of this report that existing and well established informational
systems can be immediately utilized to accomplish part of this task.
In the report "Intergovernmental Uses of Federal R&D Centers and
Laboratories" prepared and issued by the Council of State Governments and
funded by the National Science Foundations, it has been emphasized that the
"spectrum of problem-related capabilities of the laboratories covers trans-
portation, water quality standards, radiation, environmental biology,
occupational health, mineral conservation, marine science, air pollution,
weather modification, land use, wildlife management, coastal protection, pesticides,
energy resources, solid waste management, water supply management, soil
conservation, and so on." The list is indicative rather than exhaustive. Much
of the knowledge produced by these laboratories is underutilized in terms of
the problem solving information they possess. This vast data bank represents
a technical assistance to state and local officials concerned with managing,
legislating resources, and implementing policies and programs under conditions of
uncertainty. However, there are very few well established mechanisms system-
matically transferring this reservoir of knowledge to users for implementation
of non-point source control programs. Add to this the tremendous amounts of
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JO
research data that are available through EPA's National Environmental
Research Centers and at universities and private institutions around the
country, partly funded by the Environmental Protection Agency, and you
begin to gain some perspective of the vast amounts of pollution control
technology that exists.
One of the purposes of the NSF technology transfer study and report
was to suggest workable approaches for the optimum utilization of tech-
nological resources for assisting state governments in treating domestic
problems. In reference to the utilization of established informational
transfer systems it said: "ALTHOUGH THE EFFECTIVENESS OF THE AGRICULTURAL
EXTENSION SERVICE HAS BEEN EVIDENT FOR DECADES, NO CONSIDERATION IS BEING
GIVEN TO EXPLORING AN EXPANSION OF THIS PROVEN STRATEGY FOR TECHNOLOGY
TRANSFER." Since the report was published, however, the National Science
Foundation has been exploring the possibility of testing three state
Extension systems - Colorado, Tennessee, and Oklahoma, for this very
purpose.
It has become increasingly apparent to those engaged in research and
development of pollution control technology that the breakdown occurs
at the user leve. There is an urgent need for more direct informational
efforts, facilitated with appropriate levels of funding, that will reach
to the user leve. It follows, then, that there is also a need to facilitate
the user's awareness of, and access to, the available technology and a need
to provide the technical assistance that will asist the user in applying
that technology to solve specific problems.
This report acknowledges the fact that, in some instances, controls
will be necessary. The need for controls can be rationalized in terms
of the beneficial outcomes that will result. However, a great deal of educa-
tional groundwork must be laid to facilitate the acceptance of necessary controls
and, if need be, regulations. The writers of this report are convinced that
if these educational efforts are allowed to happen, those affected by controls
and regulations will gain a deeper understanding of existing and potential
environmental problems and, if provided, useful knowledge of the improved
methodologies and control practices available to them. Of prime consideration
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must be the economics of installing improved management practices and the
¦l
cost benefits that will accrue. It will be difficult to gain user
acceptance of new and untried (on their part) control technology if these
cost benefits cannot be cited.
In their report "Research Needs for Irrigation Return Flow Quality
Control" (EPA 1973) Dr. James P. Law and Mr. Gaylord V. Skogerboe include
this statement: "Local acceptance of proposed control measures will
require demonstration projects and an extensive educational program to
demonstrate local, regional, and interstate benefits to be gained."
Part II of this report will describe proposed action steps to conduct
an educational piogram designed to create a high level of awareness in
relation to non-point pollution problems and related control technology.
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12
IRRIGATION RETURN FLOWS
Irrigation of agricultural crops involves applying water to the field in
such a manner as to insure a salt balance—salt in equals salt out. Much of
this water evaporates or transpires through the plants leaving a more concen-
trated water to return to the stream. Also in many areas of the west the water
picks up additional salts as it passes through the soil. Because of the con-
sumptive use of water in the irrigation process there is less water in the
stream from which it was directed thereby causing a concentration of salt in
the stream. This salt concentration effect is a major factor in Western salin-
ity problems.
Since irrigation return flows constitute a large portion of the flow of
many streams in the Western U.S., increasing importance is being placed on the
ways and means of better managing irrigation water use as a way to control ex-
cessive salt build-up that is occurring in these streams. The major geographic
areas of concern in the Rocky Mountain-Prairie region are in the Arkansas, Rio
Grande, and Colorado River Basins and of these three, the problems of salt build-
up (and its economic consequences) are probably greatest in the Colorado River
Basin simply due to the size of the river and the population and foreign country
affected.
Irrigated Areas
The irrigated acreages for the six states in Region VIII of EPA are given
in Table 1 for the years 1968 and 1969 (Skogerboe and Law, 1971). . Table 2
contains the irrigated land for 1959 and 1969 by river basin (Skogerboe and
Law, 1971). Projections of irrigated acreages are given in Table 3 by river
basin (Pavelis, 1967). Although only portions of most of the basins are in
Region VIII, the table does indicate increasing irrigated acreages in all basins.
From 1969 to 2000 irrigated acreages in the Upper Colorado Basin, which lies
almost entirely in Region VIII, are projected to increase by 26.5%. The Upper
Colorado Region State-Federal Inter-Agency Group (1971) identifies with large
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Table i.
Irrigated acreage by states for Region VIII of the Envioromental
Protection Agency (Skogerboe and Law, 1971).
Irrigated Irrigated Percent
State Acreage Acreage Increase or
1968 1969 Decrease
Montana 3,200,000 3,200,000 0
Colorado 3,280,000 3,310,000 +1
North Dakota 89,100 89,100 0
South Dakota 414,000 414,000 0
Utah 1,348,624 1,348,624 0
n;-.aing 1,608,500 1,642,500 +2
Table 2.
Irrigated acreages by river basins partially in Region VIII of
the Environmental Protection Agency (Skogerboe and Law, 1971).
1959
1969
Acres
Acres
1,000
1,000
Missouri Basin
5,802
6,985
Arkansas-White-Red
2,806
5,357
Rio Grande
1,638
2,020
Upper Colorado
1,361
1,700
Great Basin
1,426
2,240
Souris-Red-Rainy
9
20
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14
Table 3,
Long-term projections of irrigated acreages in the river basins
partially contained in Region VIII of the Environmental Protection
Agency (Pavelis, 1967).
1980
2000
2020
1,000
1,000
1,000
Basin
Acres
Acres
Acres
Missouri
8,050
8,950
9,600
Arkansas-White-Red
5,600
6,400
6,690
Rio Grande
2,050
2,180
2,200
Upper Colorado
1,900
2,150
2,250
Great Basin
2,340
2,510
2,570
Sour* s-Red-Rainy
90
230
250
Table 4.
Status and extent of saline and sodic areas in the six states of
Region VIII of the Environmental Protection Agency as of 1960
(Skogerboe and Law, 1971).
State
Area Reported
Total 1
Acreage
Salt-free
Acres
7.
Saline--
classes
¦all
%
Colorado
Statewide
2,811,532
1,829,704
65.1
981,828
34.9
Montana
4 areas
1,242,728
1,045,057
84.1
197,671
15.9
North Dakota
6 areas
2,636,5002
1,819,870
69.0
816,630
31.0
South Dakota
Statewide
1,697,974
501,708
29.5
1,196,266
70.5
Utah
7 areas
1,390,222
877,440
61.1
512,782
36.9
Wyoming
Statewide
1,261,132
981,429
77.8
279,703
22.2
1 2
Irrigable Arable
-------
15
maps irrigated land and potentially irrigated land, discusses adequacy of water
supplies, and projects future conditions.
As mentioned earlier, manv western soils also add salts to irrigation water
as it passes through the profile. Table 4 shows the extent of these saline
and sodic areas in the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region. From Table 4 it can be
seen that Colorado, Utah, and South Dakota have more than a third of their soils
affected by highly saline conditions—South Dakota is well above a third. Not
only do these soils ad^ salt to return flows, but crop production is reduced on
one-fourth of the irrigated acres due to saline conditions. In the entire West,
salinity is a problem on half of the irrigated acreage.
The National Academy of Sciences (1966) projected a net increase of 5% in
the amount of water diverted for irrigation from 1954 to 2000, while the irrigated
acreage in this time span is expected to double. This imolies an increase in the
efficiency of irrigation water use. In fact, this same study projects that in
1980, the Colorado P-iver Basin, due to this increasing efficiency, will divert
2,172,000 acre-feet less than it did in 1957; whereas, if the efficiency were
not increased, the diversions would increase 73,000 acre-feet. By 2000, the study
indicates the Colorado River Basin, due to increasing efficiency, will divert
2,482,000 acre-feet less than it did in 1957; whereas, if the efficiency were
not increased the diversions would increase 446,000 acre-feet. Thus increasing
irrigation efficiencies will result in a net decrease of water diverted.
As noted earlier, when water is diverted for irrigation, the return flow
quality is degraded. As the process is repeated at various points downstream,-
the water's quality degrades more and more. If the amount of pollutants contained
in the return flows is small in comparison to the volume of flow in the river,
the downstream users would probably not be greatly affected. However, if the
return flows contain a large volume of pollutants in relation to the flow, the
downstream users are adversly affected. As the water resources of the river are
developed the water quality may be so poor that many downstream uses are not
-------
16
possible. EPA currently utilizes a program to calculate exact dollar dis-benefits
accruing to downstream users in the Colorado River Basin based on salinity in-
creases below Lake Mead.
In the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region, several river basins are experiencing
high utilization of their water resources resulting in the above described sit-
uation. The lower Colorado River water users (particularly in Mexico, Imperial
Valley and Coachella Valley) are experiencing difficulties in using Colorado
River water due to the high salt concentrations. Recently completed and planned
water resource development projects in the Colorado River Basin will only tend
to increase the salinity problem. The Rio Grande River Basin is also experiencing
a rapid development of the water available creating water quality problems.
¦The same is true for the Arkansas Valley in Colorado.
Existing technology is not adequate to predict the quality of irrigation
return flows. Consequently, it is very difficult to make accurate projections
on the effect a new project would have on the quality of water in a river basin.
Also as attempts are made to manage water quality in a river basin, the need for
more difinitive information on irrigation return flows becomes crucial.
Specific Conditions
Within the Environmental Protection Agency's Region VIII there are a number
of areas where irrigation return flows are a problem. In the Upper Colorado
River Basin there are twelve irrigated areas which contribute to the salinity
problem of the river and five major natural sources of salinity. These areas
are identified in Figure 2 and are described in detail in Colorado River Board -
of California (1970). All sources result in a mean annual salt tonnage of roughly
8 million reaching Hoover Dam (Skogerboe and Law, 1971).
The Colorado River Board of California (1970) has identified projects which,
if constructed, would substantially reduce the salt load in the Colorado River.
The salt sources subject to control are identified in Figure 2 while the average
annual costs, including capital, operation and maintenance costs, are summarized
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17
T
\„ E
\
\
\
! Ashley Creek
•9
Price River
A I U T \ vy*
i Son Rafael
River
[Dirty Devil
River
Glenwood Springs
Roaring Fork River
R A D 0
Lower Gunnison
La VerKin
Springs
^CURECANTI DAMS .
Uncompahgre River
\
\N
HOOVEk DAM1
\ :
CALIFORN IA
c°lOD
LOS AN6ELESN
oJ£j<
IMPERIAL
AUEftlCAN\ L\\DAM
SAN DIEGO {• " CAHAl\ jj)
* I
a
O SALT LOAD REDUCTION PROJECT
IRRIGATION IMPROVEMENTS
Blue
Springs
PHOENIX
Figure 2- Proposed salinity control projects in the Colorado
River Basin (Skogerboe and Law, 1971)
-------
18
in Table 5 (Skogerboe and Law, 1971). Completion of the listed projects would
result in a projected removal of 2.8 million tons of salt annually from the
Colorado River and its tributaries upstream from Hoover Dam. This amounts to
25% of the total annual projected salt load of 11.4 million tons at Hoover Dam
in the year 2000. As a result of these projects there would be 22,000 acre-
feet of brine to be disposed of annually. Approximately 79% of the salt reduction
would be achieved from sources in the Upper Basin (Region VIII),
Projected salinity to be expected at Hoover Dam and other points along the
river is given in Table 6 for the years .1980, 2000, and 2030. The values are
given for both conditions, with and without the projects. It is assumed half
the projects would be completed by 1980 with the remainder completed by 2000.
The Bureau of Reclamation (1972) has proposed a program to improve water quality
conditions"in the Colorado. Maletic (1972) describes the purpose and goals of
the Bureau's program.
From the above information and references it is possible to get an overview
of the impact the various irrigated areas are having on the salinity problem in
the Colorado River Basin. Also the projections give an indication of what can
be expected in the future. The energy development (coal and oil shale) may
radically alter this picture.
Turning to the Rio Grande, it is noted that only a very small area of the
basin lies in Colorado and, thus, Region VIII. However, of the water that leaves
the Upper Basin of the Rio Grande, 50% comes from Colorado's San Luis Valley.
The flow leaving Colorado amounts to an average of 445,000 acre-feet per year -
(Clark, 1972). The northern half of the valley is a closed basin, thus the
water generated or used in this area does not reach the Rio Grande and is not
a part of the above figure. The total dissolved solids in the Rio Grande as it
leaves Colorado averages 250 ppm (Ward, 1973). Thus, much of the salinity prob-
lem in the Rio Grande, except for that associated with stream-flow depletion,
begins outside of Region VIII.
-------
19
Table 5. Estimated costs of salinity control projects (Skogerboe and Law, 1971)
Project
Salt
Removed
(Thousands
Tons/Year)
Annual
Project
Costs a
(Thousands
Dollars)
Unit
Cost
(Dollars/
Ton/Year)
Irrigation Improvements
Grand Valley
Lower Gunnison River
Price River
Uncompahgre River
Big Sandy Creek
Roaring Fork River
Upper Colorado River
Henrys Fork River
Dirty Devil
Duchesne River
San Rafael River
Ashley Creek
Subtotal
Stream Diversion
Paradox Valley
Impoundment and Evaporation
La Verkin Springs
Desalination
Glenwood and Dotsero Springs
Blue Springs
Totals
Weighted Average Unit Cost
310
330
90
320
40
50
80
40
40
270
70
40
1,680
180
80
370-
500
2,810
3,100
3,600
1,000
4,000
490
880
1,400
710
710
5,700
1,400
800
23,790
700
600
5,000
16.000
46,100
5.00
5.40
5.70
6.30
6.30
8.50
8.90
8.90
8.90
10.40
10.50
11.60
3.^0
7.50
13.50
32.00
12,30
Annual project costs include amortized construction, operation and maintenance
costs.
The unit costs only include costs allocated to salinity control.
Annual project costs for irrigation improvements incorporate all costs, inclu-
ding those allocated to the irrigation function. Costs allocated to salinity
control projects were estimated to be one-half of total annual project costs.
-------
Table 6. Projected salinity in the Lower Colorado River with and without proposed salinity control
projects.3 (In Parts per Million)
Station Average
(Along Colorado River) 1963-67 1980 2000 2030
Without
With
Without
With
Without
With
Projects
Prolects
Projects
Projects
Projects
Projects
Below Hoover Dam
730
830
790
1,050
790
1,090
810
At Parker Dam
740
860
820
1,110
830
1,150
840
At Palo Verde Dam
b
910
860
1,190
890
1,230
910
At Imperial Dam
850
1,070
990
1,340
1,010
1,390
1,030
At Northerly Interna-
tional Boundary
1,300C
1,350
1,290
d
d
d
d
Q
Based on Upper Basin depletions as projected by the Colorado River Board for 1980 and the U.S.B.R. for
subsequent years.
^Record not available.
c
Source: International Boundary and Water Commission.
^Not estimated.
-------
21
In the San Luis Valley there are 444,921 irrigated acres using 825,905
acre-feet per year according to the 1969 Census of Agriculture. This compares
to a total of 2,020,000 acres for the whole basin.
There is a quantity problem in the Rio Grande as the water resources are
approaching full development in downstream sections. The San Luis Valley has
confined and unconfined aquifers containing at least 2 billion acre-feet of
water in storage. Mineral concentrations in the shallow groundwater of the
closed basin range to nearly 14,000 mg/1. The unconfined aquifer is mainly
irrigation water and leakage from the distribution system (Clark, 1972). Any
attempts to use the groundwater to increase flows must be carefully evaluated
in light of the above facts.
As with the Rio Grande, the headwaters for the Arkansas form in Colorado;
however, unlike the Rio Grande, the Arkansas water is highly saline as it leaves
Colorado and Region VIII. The last sampling point of the Arkansas as it leaves
Colorado averages 3700 mg/1 of TDS with a standard deviation of 640. This creates
serious problems with attempts to use the water for any purpose. Table 7 sum-
marizes the water quality conditions of the Arkansas in Colorado and indicates
that as the water flows through the agricultural areas of the valley, it picks
up a large amount of salt. The data was taken from Colorado Water Pollution
Control Division (WPCD) records and covers through mid-1971. The river also
loses much of its volume passing through the irrigated areas, thus concen-
trating the salt.
The economy of the Arkansas Valley is largely based on irrigated agricul-
ture with the major municipal uses of water occurring at the juncture of the
plains and foothills at Pueblo. It can be noted in Table 7 that the consumptive
use of the water mainly occurs past the urban areas. Due to the economy being
so heavily based on irrigated agriculture, the problem of salinity control is
compounded.
The Upper Missouri River Basin contains numerous examples of irrigation
return flow problems as the previously presented statistics show. The problems,
-------
Table 7. Arkansas Main Stem Stream Characterization Data
Sta
No
Location
DO
(mg/1)
BOD
(mg/1)
PH
TDA
(mg/1)
L
Flow (cfs)
M1
S D2
S S
M
S D
M
S D
S S ,
M
S D
S S
M
IP5
Holly
7.5
1.9
5.0
2.0
0.8
8.0
0.5
6.5-8.5
3700
640
Agric
233
2S6
Lamar
8.2
2.0
3.0
1.8
0.8
7.9
0.3
5.9-9.0
3500
1300
Agric
224
3S
Las Animas
7.9
2.1
3.0
2.1
1.0
7.9
0.3
5.9-9.0
2500
1000
Agric
214
4P
La Junta
7.4
1.9
3.0
6.5
5.6
8.0
0.4
5.9-9.0
1300
360
Agric
251
5P
Nepesta
6.4
1.7
3.0
6.1
2.4
7.9
0.4
5.9-9.0
650
220
Agric
683
6S
Pueblo
7.6
1.1
5.0
1.8
1.0
8.1
0.4
6.5-8.5
480
220
<500
707
7S
Canon City
8.0
2.4
5.0
1.5
0.7
8.1
0.4
6.5-8.5
. 180
58
<500
718
8S
Salida
8.1
2.1
6.0
1.6
0.5
7.9
0.4
6.5-8.5
130
34
<500
626
9S
Leadville
7.9
1.3
6.0
2.6
2.8
7.6
0.7
6.5-8.5
120
34
<500
70.8
^Mean
2
Standard Deviation
3
• Stream Standard
L
USGS Data, Surface Water Records
^WPCD Station Number, with P Indicating Primary Station Designation
^WPCD Station Number, with S Indicating Secondary Station Designation
-------
23
however, are not readily apparent for two reasons. First, the water supplies
in the basin are fairly plentiful and this tends to mask quality degradation.
Secondly, there is a real lack of documented studies in the basin regarding
irrigation return flow quality. The present knowledge is due primarily to
irrigation system failures (situations where excessive sodic conditions make
land reclamation economically unfeasible) or recent investigations undertaken
to expand irrigated agriculture in the area (Skogerboe and Law, 1971).
In Region VIII's portion of the Missouri River Basin, the South Platte
River presents one of the more critical areas as far as water quality is con-
cerned. The river's flow has been extensively developed in all areas with
agriculture using a large portion of the water. Table 8 contains data indica-
ting the extensiveness of the quality problem in the South Platte. The TDS of
1438 mg/1 at Julesburg displays the salinity problem and the flow readings in-
dicate where the water is used along the river. The return flows cause the
flow to increase as it leaves Colorado. The return flows below Denver are pri-
marily municipal and industrial while those further downstream are due mainly
to agriculture. An Environmental Protection Agency (1972) study indicates the
above is true, but concentrates mainly on the effects of municipal and industrial
waste sources on South Platte quality.
As for other areas in Region VIII's Missouri River Basin where irrigation
return flows are documented, Wyoming has had a number of examples of irrigation
project failures or near failures. The Riverton Project is an example where
sodic conditions now make land reclamation economically unfeasible for many
farms. Skogerboe and Law (1971) state that much of this problem could have been
alleviated if canals had been lined, on-the-farm water management practices in-
stituted, and drains constructed at the initiation of the project. A large
extension role would be involved in implementing such measures. Projected large-
scale energy development in the Missouri River Basin and associated water
consumptions may drastically effect this situation in the near future.
-------
Table 8. South Platte Main Stem Stream Characterization Data.
DO (mg/1) BOD (mg/1) pH TDS (mg/1) . Flow (cfs)
Location —: : —
MSDSS MSD MSD SS M SDSS M
20
Julesburg
7.7
1.7
4.0
4.2
3.4
8.1
0.4
6. 0t-9 .0
1438
282
<500
458
21
Balzac
8.2
2.0
4.0
3.5
2.3
8.1
0.5
6.0-9.0
1287
296
<500
359
22
Kersey
6.6
1.8
4.0
9.6
4.9
7.9
0.4
6.0-9.0
1045
290
<500
130
23
Henderson
5.2
1.6
4.0
13.8
9.4
7.7
0.4
6.0-9.0
584
221
<500
328
24
Littleton
9.2
0.3
6.0
2.2
0.7
7.7
0.2
6.5-8.5
218
54
<500
217
25
South Platte
9.8
1.7
6.0
1.9
0.2
7.6
0.2
6.5-8.5
126
47
<500
474
-------
25
In North and South Dakota there is much irrigation development underway on
lands that are underlain by soils high in natural salts (for example, the Garrison
i
Diversion Unit in North Dakota). Due to low permeability, drainage will be re-
quired for successful operation of the irrigation project. As their projects
are completed, irrigation return flows will increasingly cause water quality
problem. Madden (1969) discusses several factors which must be considered in
irrigating South Dakota soils while Fine (1972) and Bloodworth (1972) discuss
salinity problems in the northern and southern plains, respectively.
The Snake River has its head waters in Western Wyoming; however, there is
little irrigation occurring there nor is there much irrigable land (Skogerboe
and Law, 1971). For this reason, the Snake River problems are not discussed
in this Region VIII report.
In the Great Basin, Region VIII has two basic areas of concern for irriga-
tion return flows. The Bear River flows from its headwaters in northeastern Utah
through small portions of Wyoming and Idaho and terminates in the Great Salt
Lake in Utah. Irrigation along the upstream lands creates the return flows
utilized again for irrigation downstream. The water quality is degraded with
periods of low flow finding the water limited in its usefulness. The Sevier
River in Utah experiences water qualtiy problems from irrigation return flows
(40-50% of diverted water is irrigation return flows). The Sevier River is
located in southwestern Utah and agricultural use of the Sevier River accounts
for approximately 25% of Utah's irrigated acreage. Water in the river is com-
pletely utilized for irrigation—no water reaches Sevier Lake, the natural end
of the river (Walker and Walker, 1972). For this reason, water quality in
lower reaches creates problems for users.
Water Quality Problems
As noted in the introduction, the water quality problems associated with
irrigation return flows result from: (1) the concentrating effect of the plants
using the water, and (2) the leaching of additional pollutants from the soil.
The return flows carry the concentrated salts and other pollutants to the streams.
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26
Exactly what are.the water quality problems associated with irrigation re-
turn flows? One of the major problems (and the one receiving most attention)
is the increased salinity. This characteristic of return flows has been dis-
cussed earlier in citing the impact of irrigation on water quality. However,
salinity or salt load tends to be a catch-all term which excludes the impact
of other pollutants.
Law and Skogerboe (1972) discuss the nutrients, sediment and soil erosion,
and pesticides associated with irrigation return flows. With most nutrients
there is a strong relationship between water use efficiency and fertilizer use
efficiency. Nitrogen is a good example in that considerable nitrate may be in
return flows from irrigated land. This is especially true if the levels of
applied nitrogen exceeds the crop requirement and leaching is necessary to
control salinity in the root zone (Peterson, Bishop and Law, 1970).
With phosphorus, most of the fertilizer compounds are absorbed to soil
particles and little downward movement occurs. Thus phosphorus builds up in
the upper soil layer and is carried to the streams by erosion of soil particles.
As a result, erosion control provides a means of controlling phosphorus pollu-
tion of surface waters. Also erosion control provides a means of controlling
the sediment load imposed on streams by irrigation return flows. Surface re-
turn flows may carry large sediment loads; however, evaluation of the exact
amount depends upon the soil type.
The use of pesticides on irrigated fields and along irrigation canals and
open drains presents an opportunity for the chemicals to enter the return flows.
Given this opportunity exists, along with nutrient and sediment problems, con-
trol of irrigation return flows must consider more than only salinity. The
problems of nutrients and biocides are discussed elsewhere in the report.
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27
REFERENCES
Ayars, J. E. 1972. Drainage of irrigated lands in Grand Valley. Unpublished
M.S. Thesis, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Colorado State
University, Fort Collins, Colorado. December
Baer, T. J., Jr. 1972 Grand Valley Salinity Control Demonstration Project. Pro-
ceedings of National Conference on Managing Irrigated Agriculture to Improve
Water Quality, May 16-18.
Bower, C. A. 1966. Irrigation salinity and the world food problem. Presented
before a joint meeting of the Crop Science Society of America and Soil
Science Society of America, August 22, Stillwater, Oklahoma.
Bureau of IUcl«~^_ion. _J72. Colorado River water quality improvement program.
February~
Donnan, W. W. and C. E. Houston. 1967. Drainage related to irrigation management.
In Irrigation of Agricultural Lands, ASA Monograph No. 11, Madison, Wis.
Jensen, M. E., C. H. Robb, and E. C. Franzoy. 1970. Scheduling irrigation using
climate-crop-soil data. Journal of the Irrigation and Drainage Division,
ASCE, Vol 96 (IRl): 25-38, March.
Jensen, M. E. 1969. Scheduling irrigation with computers. Journal of Soil and
Water Conservation, Vol. 24(5): 193-195, Sept.-Oct.
Jensen, M. E., L. R. Swarner, and J. T. Phelan. 1967. Imporving irrigation ef-
ficiencies. In Irrigation of Agricultural Lands, ASA Monograph No. 11,
Madison, Wis.
Law, J. P., Jr., G. V. Skogerboe, and J. D. Nenit. 1972. The need for implemen-
ting irrigation return flow quality control. Proceedings of National Con-
ference on Managing Irrigated Agriculture to Improve Water Quality, May 16-18.
Law, J. P., Jr., C. E. Viers, J. Vincent, L. Hyatt, A. G. Hornsby, and G. V.
Skogerboe. 1972. Irrigation return flow quality control technology. Draft
report of Salinity Control Study, Environmental Protection Agency, Region
VIII, Denver, Colorado.
Madden, J. M. 1969. Effects of marginal quality irrigation water on the accumu-
lation of salts and alkali in South Dakota soils. Completion Report for
OWRR Project No. A-011-SDAK, November.
Maletic, J. T. 1973. Progress of investigations—an overview of salinity control
planning in the Colorado River Basin. Presented at the 15th Annual Western
Resources Conference, Boulder, Colorado, July 9-11.
Robins, J. S. 1967. Reducing irrigation requirements. In Irrigation of Agricul-
tural Lands, ASA Monograph No. 11, Madison, Wisconsin.
Skogerboe, G. V., G. E. Radosevich, and E. C. Vlachos. 1973. Consolidation of
irrigation systems. Completion Report Series No. 52, Environmental Resources
Center, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, June.
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'28
Skogerboe, G. V., V. T. Sahni, and W. R. Walker. 1972. Selected irrigation
return flow quality abstracts 1968-69 — first annual issue. EPA-R2-72-094,
October.
Skogerboe, G. V. and W. R. Walker. 1972. Evaluation of canal lining for salinity
control in Grand Valley. EPA-R2-72-047. October.
Utah State University Foundation. 1969. Characteristics and pollution problems
of irrigation return flow. EPA (FWQA), Robers S. Kerr Water Research Center,
Ada, Oklahoma.
VanSchilfgaarde, J. 1973. Implications of increasing field irrigation efficiency.
Presented at the 15th Annual Western Resources Conference, Boulder, Colorado,
July 9-11.
Upper Colorado Region State-Federal Inter-Agency Group (1971).
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29
IRRIGATION RETURN FLOW CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
Irrigation has been practiced in some form since the earliest recorded
history of agriculture. The irrigation practices that have been developed over
the years have been passed down more as an art than a science. For example,
water management on the farm has been based more on protection of water rights
than on sound technology. The water requirements of the crop come second to the
conveneince of the operator, and the legal structure within which he operates,
as to the amount and time of irrigation.
Economic considerations also play a major role in the efficiency of irriga-
tion. The scarcity and/or high cost of water results in high irrigation effic-
iencies and vice versa. Jensen, Swarner, and Phelan (1967) note that farm
management involves balancing the immediate cost of water against the higher
labor and investment costs required to use it more "efficiently. Oftentimes
the costs of inefficient water use are not recognized immediately but may be
reflected in reduced yields due to nutrient losses or increased salinity, or
in extra drainage facilities needed to control rising water tables. Also
inefficiency of water use occurs when excess quantities of water are substituted
for labor costs or time savings (Law, et.al, 1972).
The technology to be described herein relates to the ways and means by
which irrigation practices may be improved and, consequently, the pollution
from return flows reduced. The irrigation system can be subdivided into three
major subsystems: (1) the water delivery system; (2) the farm; and (3) the
water removal system (Law, Skogerboe, and Denit, 1972). The water delivery
system can be broken into two additional components: (1) the transport of water
and pollutants from the headwaters of the watershed to the cross-section along
the river where water is diverted to irrigate croplands, and (2) the transport
of water and pollutants from the river diversion works to the individual farm.
The water is normally delivered to the highest point on the farm and leaves the
farm at the lowest point. Also within the farm subsystem the water moves ver-
tically from the ground surface to the bottom of the root zone. The. water re-
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30
moval can be one of two ways: (1) surface runoff at the lower end of the farm
or (2) water moving below the root zone.
In most cases, the quality control problems associated with irrigation return
flows are minimized by utilizing efficient water delivery and farm subsystems.
By minimizing the surface runoff volumes, problems associated with sediments, phos-
phates, and pesticides can be reduced. By controlling deep percolation losses from
irrigated lands, the salinity problem can be minimized in areas where salt pickup
occurs.
Law, et.al (1972) have prepared a concise and thorough review of the existing
technology associated with irrigation return flows. The following is taken from
their report.
Water Delivery System
The importation of high quality water from adjacent river basins,
weather modification to increase precipitation and runoff from the water-
sheds, bypassing mineralized springs, evaporation reduction from water
surfaces, and phreatophyte eradication are some of the available measures
for improving the quality of water diverted from a river. Consequently,
they play a role in the management of the irrigation return flow system.
More feasible approaches may be found in the control of losses from
storage and conveyance systems.
Canal and lateral lining. Many unlined irrigation canals traverse long
distances between the diversion point and the farm land. Seepage losses
may be considerable, resulting in low water conveyance efficiencies.
Canal lining has traditionally been employed to prevent seepage and the
economics of lining have been justified primarily on the basis of ex-
tending the usefulness of water at a particular location. The possi-
bility that water seeping from canals may greatly increase the total
contribution of dissolved solids to receiving waters has only recently
been given serious attention. Bower (1966) showed that average seasonal
canal losses varied from 13% of the diversion on the Uncompahgre Project,
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31
Colorado, to 48% of the diversions on the Carlsbad Project, New Mexico. If
we assume a very conservative estimate that 20% of the total water diverted
for irrigation in the United States is lost by canal seepage, the loss to
the intended users would be 24 million acre-feet per year. This quantitv
of water would either contribute an additional dilution effect to the bene-
fit of downstream users, or it would irrigate eight million additional acres,
using three acre-feet per acre.
If soils along the canals are high in residual salts, the salt pickup
contribution from this source could easily exceed that leached from the
irrigated land to maintain a salt balance. The time required to leach
these residual salts would depend upon the quantity of seepage and the
quantity of salts. In addition to the quantity of water saved, the salt
from this source could be largely eliminated by canal lining. The value of
improved water qualtiy is another benefit to be claimed in the economic
justification of canal lining.
Closed conduit water transportation systems. Evaporation losses from canals
commonly amount to a few percent of the diverted water. The installation of
a closed conduit (pipeline) conveyance system has the advantage of minimizing
both seepage and evaporation losses. Either lined open channels or closed
conduits will reduce evapotranspiration losses due to phreatophytes and other
non-economic vetetation along canals. The closed conduit system uses less
land and provides for better water control than a canal svstem. Water
quality improvement may very well prove to be the greatest economic justifi-
cation for closed conduit systems because of minimal seepage losses and
considerable flexibility in water control.
Improved flow control and measurement. A key.element that must be provided
in the water delivery system is flow measurement. The amount of water passing
key points in the irrigation delivery system must be known in order to pro-
vide water control and attain a high degree of water use efficiency. Many
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32
present day systems employ no flow measuring devices, and, in some cases,
the individual fanner operates his own turnout facility with no close con-
trol of the amount diverted to the farm. In addition, constant flow rates
must be maintained at. each turnout from the water delivery system into the
farm subsystem to maximuze achievable irrigation efficiencies. Thus, auto-
matic water controls may be required for many open channel and closed con-
duit conveyance systems. Obtaining the necessary flow control and measure-
ment for achieving high efficiencies of water use would require the rehabil-
itation of many irrigation systems.
Only a few of the irrigated valleys are operated as a single management
unit. In many valleys, several irrigation companies exist, with each company
responsible for water delivery to a portion of the valley. In many cases,
separate institutions exist to handle the water removal (drainage system).
Numerous examples could be cited where 20-30 irrigation companies operate
in a single valley. In order to develoD effective irrigation return flow
quality control programs, the quality degradation resulting from the entire
irrigated valley must be ascertained. Then alternatives for controlling
irrigation return flow must be developed, which will be primarily valley-
wide alternatives. Thus, there is a real need to work with a group repre-
senting the agricultural interests of the entire valley. The consolidation
1
of the separate irrigation companies into a single entity would have many
advantages to local interests in improving agricultural development In the
area, as well as providing a single entity for more effectively bringing '
about imporved water management programs to reduce quality degradation in
receiving streams due ro Irrigation return flow (Skogerboe, Radosevich,
and Vlachos, 1973).
On-rTbje^arm Water Management
The most significant improvements fjx controlling irrigation return
flow quality will potentially come from improved on-the-farm water manage-
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33
ment. This will be particularly true for areas containing large quantities
of natural pollutants, such as salts, in the soil profile. In such situa-
tions, the key is to minimize the subsurface return flow, thereby minimizing
the quantity of pickup. Irrigation practices on the farm are the primary
source of present return flow quality problems. Besides improvments at the
source, other improvements can be accomplished in the water removal system.
Due to the nature of irrigated agriculture, whereby salts must be leached
from the root zone, an optimum solution will, in most cases, require im-
provements in on-the-farm- water management. Numerous technological and
institutional concepts could be utilized to accomplish improved water
quantity and quality management. Some of the technological possibilities
are cited immediately below.
Cultural practices. When the soils to be irrigated are tight (low infiltra-
tion rate and low permeability), and the water supply delivered to the farm
is highly saline, cultural practices become extremely significant if crops
pre to be grown successfully. Under these conditions, the management alter-
natives become: (a) use more salt tolerant plants (whichare usually lower
in cash value); (b) use special soil tillage practices (which cost more);
(c) leach in the off-season; (d) leach the field one year and plant a crop
the next year; (e) prepare the seed-bed more carefully; or (f) control the
timing and amount of water being applied. Usually, these problems must be
faced in the lower regions of a river basin, where the accumulative effects
of upstream water quality degradation, along with having finer soils resulting
from river deposition, create difficult management conditions.
In general, the deeper water is stored in the soil, the more slowly it
will be removed by evapotranspiration. Soil structure, texture and stratifi-
cation are the principal properties that control distribution of water stor-
age in the soil. In extreme cases, deep tillage may be required to disrupt
slowly permeable layers and permit greater water storage capacity as well as
-------
deeper root penetration. At the same time, excessive or unnecessary tillage
can be detrimental to stored soil water, increasing evaporative losses when
the crop needs it most. Cultural practices can play a major role in overall
farm water management.
Fertilizers. There is a strong relationship between water use efficiency and
fertilizer use efficiency. Applying excessive quantities of water to the crop-
lands results in leaching of fertilizer materials below the root zone, where they
are unavailable for plant growth. One real potential for improving nitrogen
use efficiency over some present management practices would be the use of slow-
release fertilizers. There is still a need for improved technology for slow-
release fertilizers to match nitrogen release with nitrogen needs by various
plants. If penalties for nitrogen discharge were imposed, slow-release fertil-
izers would be predominant in areas where nitrogen problems occurred. The use
of slow-release fertilizers also has the advantage that by a proper match between
nitrogen release and nitrogen needs by plants, only one fertilizer application
would be required per season, rather than two, on vegetable crops. When applying
fertilizer to crops which are not very salt tolerant, it then becomes necessary
to limit the amount of fertilizer being applied. Another solution to this prob-
lem would be the application of fertilizer in small amounts with the irrigation
water throughout the growing season, essentially spoon-feeding to meet crop require-
ments. Continual application of nitrogen fertilizer may impair ripening of
certain crops.
Water control. In order to attain high irrigation application efficiencies,
positive control cf the timing and amount of water being delivered to the farm
is required. The irrigator must be able to control the water supply as it moves
across the farm. The water delivery rate must be subject to regulation as well
as the quantity applied at any given irrigation. Reducing seepage losses from
farm ditches, preventing tailwater losses, improving water distribution over the
field, and reducing unnecessary deep percolation losses are probably the most
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35
significant areas for improvement (Robins, 1967). Related to distribution system
losses is water use by non-economic vegetation in or adjacent to farm ditches.
Such plants not only extract water directly from the supply, but also from the
soil under and adjacent to the ditch. This extraneous vegetation retards flow
in the ditch and increases seepage and evaporative losses, and in extreme cases,
may cause water waste by overflowing or breaking the ditchbank. Reduction of
these losses is essential to water control on the farm. It should be noted, how-
ever, that this vegetation may also be beneficial—windbreaks, shade, wildlife,
asthetics.
Irrigation scheduling. One of the more interesting areas of water management
control presently being explored is that of optimum irrigation scheduling.
The purpose of irrigation scheduling is to advise a farmer when to irrigate and
how much water should be used (Jensen, 1969 and Jensen, Robb, and Franzoy, 1970).
Primarily, a farmer relies on visual indications of crop response to decide when
to irrigate, or he may have to irrigate on a fixed water rotation system. Ir-
rigation scheduling is geared towards taking soil moisture measurements, along
with computing potential consumptive use for the crops being grown, to determine
when to irrigate and the quantity of water to be applied. As an example, in the
Twin Falls-Burley area of Idaho, there were no acres of land being studied for
irrigation scheduling in 1969, whereas 10,000 acres were under irrigation scheduling
in 1970, and 40,000 acres are under the irrigation scheduling program during 1971.
It is anticipated that this acreage will increase to at least 100,000 acres
during 1972, and hopefully the acreage will include all of the area in a few
years time.
The reason for the success of the program is that measurements are being
made by irrigation district personnel or commercial firms, which are then
supplying the needed information to the farmers. This has saved the farmer the
effort of going out and making these same measurements himself and then having
to make decisions regarding the timing and quantity of irrigation water to be
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36
applied. Because of the^busy schedule of the farmer, and the difficulty he might
"l
have in the initial interpretation of the data, the problem of irrigation schedulin]
has met with little success in the past. The efforts in Idaho look very promising
/
and the farmers are claiming a significant benefit from irrigation scheduling.
Yields have been increased due to the fact that water was applied when needed
rather than after the crops were stressed. In most cases to date, there has
been very little reduction in water use, although it would seem likely that a
vB
decrease in watet use would occur with time'as the farmer gains mo^ knowledge
of what is actually occurring in the soil profile. Another benefit to the farmer
from this program is that he can anticipate the dates when irrigation is to be
¦accomplished. This allows him to schedule irrigation along with the other duties
that must be performed on the farm and relieves him af the responsibility of
deciding exactly when is the best time to irrigate. The Bureau of Reclamation
(1972) has proposed irrigation scheduling for the Colorado River Basin which
affects the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region.
Application methods. The effect of methods of application on the quality and
quantity of return flow has not received detailed study. Conventional surface
methods are most commonly used because of their low initial cost, while sprinkler
methods are used because of their adaptability to a wide range of field and
surface conditions arid possibilities for reduced labor costs. In most areas,
there is a real need to "tune-up" the existing irrigation systems, thereby attain-
ing the highest practicable irrigation application efficiency that can be achieved
with these systems. New and unique approaches to application methods need to be
found. Two that appear to offer promise in the control of both quantity and
quality of return flows are subsurface application and di^ip or "trickle" methods.
With subsurface irrigation, water can be applied to the crop in small amounts
and at frequent intervals so that evaporation and resultant increase in salt
concentration are reduced. The average water content of the soil can be main-
tained below fi«eld capacity (at points of moisture application, the water content
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37
is above field capacity), so that some precipitation,can be stored in the soil.
Comparable crop yields have been produced with as much as 40 to 50 percent less
water than is required with furrow irrigation. Application rates can be closely
controlled and the methods can be readily automated.
The drip irrigation technique has been developed in Israel and received
enthusiastic interest among many researchers throughout the arid regions of the
world. The major advantages include increased crop yield, reduced salinity damage,
and short§ned growing season and earlier harvest. The method involves the slow
release of water on the surface near the base of the plants. Evaporation losses
are greatly reduced and moisture release is confined to the area of the plant
root system. Salts will accumulate in certain portions of the root zone during
the growing season, which must eventually be leached. Some very different, but
little understood, salt problems may result from this system.
Tailwater recovery and reuse. One excellent technique for managing irrigation
return flows would be the use of a pumpback system for tailwater control. Such
a system would increase irrigation efficiency and minimize pesticides, phosphorus,
and heavy metals returning to the return flow system. This would also serve as
a self-policing system since the farmer would be more prone to be careful about
harmful pollutants being placed on the land or in the water.
The pumpback system can be highly advantageous for controlling sediment.
Rather than allowing the water and sediment from surface irrigation return flow
to be transported to the next farm, or back to the river, the surface return flow
may be collected and recirculated. A tailwater pit for collection and storage
will also serve as a sediment trap, where must of the suspended material will
be deposited. Thus improved irrigation practices would likely result in order
to minimize the quantity of water and sediment leaving, the cropland. Enforceable
regulations may be required to effectively control tailwater losses.
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38
Water Removal System
The water removal sub-system consists of removing surface runoff from
agricultural lands (if not captured and pumped back on the farm) and receiving
deep percolation losses from irrigation. The surface runoff, or tailwater, from
one farm may become all or part of the water supply for an adjacent farm, may
flow back into the water delivery system st some downstream location, or may be
transported back to the river via an open drain, either natural or man-made.
Drainage and salinity control. Waterlogging and salinity pose a serious threat
to many irrigated areas. Any expansion upslope from existing irrigated lands
becomes a direct threat to the waterlogging of downslope areas (Donnan and
Houston, 1967). For example, many of the fertile lands in the San Joaquin Valley
of California are now threatened by upslope irrigation development, and some
areas in the Yuma Valley of Arizona have been rendered unproductive by irrigation
development on the Yuma Mesa. Equally dangerous threats exist from the salt
balance problem of these areas. Recirculation of water by pumping or reuse of
return flows results in a buildup of salinity. Concomitant with increased salinity
are corresponding increases in the leaching requirement and drainage needs.
Irrigation development, including impoundment, conveyance, and application, upset
the natural hydrologic cycle of an area. Recognition and solution of drainage
and salinity problems in such areas requires an intensive application of control
measures based on sound scientific knowledge.
For deep percolation losses, there are a few possibilities for managing the
effect of water quality degradation upon receiving streams. In certain special
situations, an impermeable barrier placed a short distance below the root zone
would be effective in preventing moisture movement deeper into the soil profile
or subsurface strata which might contain large amounts of natural salts. Thus,
the deep percolation losses could be collected and diverted to the surface water
removal system without being unnecessarily degraded by subsurface salinity.
Tile drainage is a very effective means for removing the less saline waters
in the upper portions of the groundwater reservoir, thereby reducing the mass of
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39
salts returning to the river. By using tile drainage, salts are allowed to
accumulate below the drains. This is particularly true for soils high in natural
salts. Tile drainage will not completely remove all of the water moving below
the root zone unless the water table is lowered below the natural groundwater
outlet. Usually, some water will still move through the groundwater reservoir
and return to the surface river, but the quantity of such groundwater return
flows can be reduced considerably by tile drainage. The quality degradation to
receiving streams from tile drainage outflow can be minimized by treating the
outflow. This points out another advantage of tile drainage. Tile drains allow
the collection of subsurface return flows into a master drainage system for
ease of control and treatment.
Water Treatment and Control Measures
Before surface return flows reach the receiving stream, there are essentially
three alternatives for preventing or minimizing the quantity of pollutants dis-
charged into the river. First, a bypass channel could be constructed to some
location where the flows can be discharged without returning to the river.
Second, return flows can be stored in shallow storage reservoirs and allow the
water to evaporate, leaving behind the pollutants. Seepage must be controlled
in bypass channels or storage reservoirs; otherwise the groundwater may become
contaminated. This second alternative has the disadvantage that pollutants are
being collected, rather than discharged to the river, which may eventually create
a real disposal problem.
The third alternative for minimizing the quality degradation in the receiving
stream would be to treat the return flow. The third alternative is the course of
action most often practiced today for disposal of waste waters, particularly
those from municipal and industrial sources. Most wastewater treatment methods
require a more complex technology to be effective. This makes them more .difficult
to implement. One significant difference occurs in the characteristics of munici-
pal and industrial waste waters and those discharged from irrigated farm lands.
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40
Municipal and industrial wastewaters occur at point sources. Here, the water is
concentrated at specific locations, is easily collected, and is generally amenable
to treatment processes because of its degradable nature, or if of a toxic nature
is generally a small flow rate.
Irrigation return flow waters, on the other hand, are not easily collected
at specific locations. The diffuse nature of deep percolating flows makes their
collection difficult. Further, the non-degradable nature of the wastes and high
flow rates make treatment more difficult and expensive. One additional factor
of consideration is the fact that most methods for treatment of irrigation return
flows require some loss of water which could be used for additional flow dilution.
Several treatment measures could be used for irrigation return flows.
Desalination processes could be used to restore the water supply to a desired
quality level, but methods for disposing of brine wastes must be considered. If
the problem is to remove nitrates, then the results of the research program at
Firebaugh, California conducted by the Environmental Protection Agency, U.S.
Bureau of Reclamation, and California Department of Water Resources could be
used. In these studies, both algae stripping and bacterial denitrification
proved to be the lease costly nitrate removal methods.
Evaluation of Technology and Alternatives
To provide insight to the importance of the various technological alter-
natives it is necessary that some form of effectiveness evaluation be made.
The evaluation is restricted to the physical improvements that can be technically
accomplished within irrigation systems. The most feasible and economic technolo-
gical alternatives will vary from area to area. However, utilizing knowledge and
experience obtained from the analysis of numerous irrigation systems in the
Western U.S, it is possible to discuss the change in water quantity and quality
that could be accomplished with different physical improvements. This analysis
of possible change is structured in a similar manner to the foregoing discussion
in terms of the three sub-elements comprising the irrigation system; the technolo-
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41
glcal alternatives under each subsystem are evaluated relative to their potential
effect on water use. The range of effectiveness of the various technologies in
terms of net water saved, salt load reduction decrease in sediments and associated
pollutants returning to the river is quantified in Table 9. In addition, a
subjective evaluation is also made of these technologies which portrays the
effectiveness, level of use, and state of the art of the different technologies.
The term "net water saved" as used in Table 9 is defined to mean the physical
saving of water as a percentage of the total water in the irrigation system that
accures from a reduction in evapotranspiration. This savings occurs by reduced
water surface evaporation, evapotranspiration by phreatophytes, and soil evapo-
ration. The rest of the irrigation water remains in the system with only the
place and time of use affected. The salt load reduction values in Table 9 are
given in terms of the percentage reduction in salt pick-up. Salt load pick-up in
the Western U.S. varies considerably, ranging from about h ton/irrigated acre
around Twin Falls, Idaho to 5-8 tons/irrigated acre in the Upper Colorado River
Basin. The reduction of phosphates is assumed to be directly proportional to
a decrease in sediment loads. The same is true of pesticides, although some
pesticides are taken into solution and carried by the water. The nitrogen trans-
formations that occur are extremely complex. Consequently, no evaluation was
made for nitrogen; but in general, nitrate reductions would be similar in mag-
nitude to those of the decrease in salt pick-up.
A wide range of values in the percentage salt load reduction may occur for
the irrigation scheduling and tail water recovery and reuse technologies (Table 9).
This range depends on whether the water delivered to the farm remains the same or
is reduced. A reduction in diversions would be the logical course of action
followed at the farm level.
The method of water application (i.e., flood, sprinkler, trickle, etc.) have
a significant affect on water saved and reduction in salt loads. This type of
water quality control measure is of a preventative nature. An approach of this
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TADLE 9
EVALUATION ATO RAXCE OF EFFECTIVENESS Of VATCH WES OF TEOWOLOCICAL ALTERNATIVES
Fhoaphata ond
rcitlcl<3«
reduction,
ferccntnrc
TmHmIosjp or
Practice
Jfat Vatar
Saved,
Percentage
Salt Lcfad
P.cdueeleft,
Percentile
SoiilMnt
Load
Reduction,
Pcreentuffo
Statu# of
Teei>wolorv
Larel of Paa
HelflKw C»>(
WATER DCLIVZOT SYSTEM
Canal and lotoral lining
Cloned conduit water
transportation ayatama
Improved flow ptcasuranent
and control
0-5
2-10
1-25
1-25
0-15
0-5
0-5
0-5
<-25)*-5
<-25)*-S
0-5
Avallabla
Avallob la
Avallabla
nodorata
vary lew
lov
¦odtratt-blsh
bljh
lew
on far:i wattin ma:;acc:il:it
Cultural (.jetlcta
Application, Dodiodn
Irrigation Scheduling
Tailwatcr recovery and rauaa
WAITS IUi:iOVAL SYSTEM
Improved drainage
vate
Dosalin.it Ion
Irmoundncnt and evaporation
Nutrient removal
(-2)»-2
2-30
1-10
<-2)«-(-*>«
2-15
(-2)»-<-15)«
<-2)»-(-25)«
(-2)»-(-8J*
(-20)*-10
15-50
0-30
(-20)*-20
2-10
io->no
10->100
5-15
0-100
10-no
0-15
19-100
0-5
10-M0
10-109
25-75
0-80
10-30
0-15
0-S0
0-5
10-33
111-100
20-80"
Itescarch-
Avallolilc
A va 11 ab 1 c
Aval lable
Available
Avallohlo
Avallable
Availabia
nlot
low to sodarata
lew
lew
1cm
lai to moderate
none
none
none
low
•oderace-tilsh
, larj
¦oJe rata
¦odtrite-hiih
very high
high
aodarata-hlgh
* Indicates negative percentage
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42
kind limits the water application rate.
The variation is salt load reduction values for cultural practices is
determined primarily by the depth of soil tillage. Deep tillage practices save
water but increase salt loads. Minimum tillage practices have the opposite effects.
The desalting and impoundment and evaporation treatment measures indicated
in Table 9 have a potential salt load reduction that exceeds 100%. Collection
and treatment of all irrigation return flows would remove not only the salt pickup
from the irrigated lands but the s;alts contained in the water originally diverted
from the rivers. Iv the case of the desalination technology alternative the
percentage salt load reduction is dependent upon the capacity of the treatment
plant in relation to the total flows within the irrigated system.
Summary and Recommendations
The irrigation return flow control technology is currently reaching the
point where implementation is possible. However, the economics and social factors
have not been adequately evaluated to support the implementation of this technology.
It is at this point that a very strong extension effort will be needed to assist
implementation.
Within the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region several irrigation return flow
control demonstration projects have brought the technology up to this implemen-
tation phase. EPA, USDA, and the Bureau of Reclamation all have demonstration
programs in the Grand Valley of Colorado. Utah State University has a demonstration
project at Vernal, Utah. There is an additional need for pilot demonstration
programs in the Region to assist with the technology transfer. These technology
demonstrations would greatly assist an Extension program of the type described
in the second volume of th_i report.
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A3
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
SUMMARY OF MANAGERIAL PRACTICES AND RESEARCH NEEDS
Salt concentration in source waters can be decreased by a variety of
methods that have been or can be developed. Diversion of water with high
salt concentrations to less critical areas as well as plugging or water
treatment can reduce the severity of the problem. Management of flows from
reservoirs can be utilized for mixing and diluting water from various sources
to obtain irrigation water of suitable quality.
Evaporation from reservoirs and evapotranspiration from canals and water-
sheds can be reduced by various means. This reduction increases the available
water supply but not the total salt. The result is a lower salt concentration
in the water. Opportunities also exist for increasing water yields through
scientific management practices on source watersheds. Such increases can
serve to dilute salt concentrations in Irrigation water.
Improved irrigation-management practices can reduce the excessive amounts
of water used. This decreases the salt burden in the water and provides a
more favorable salt balance during the growing season. For example, improve-
ment of irrigation practices gives better control of the amount of the
irrigation water that is passed through the soil and leaching requirements
can be more efficiently met. Improvement of drainage also reduces the salt
concentrations in the soil. These two practices, while reducing or pre-
venting a buildup of the salt in the soil, paradoxically increase the salt
content of the return flow to the basic water supply. Studies of methods
to reduce evapotranspiration from irrigated fields also offer promise of
reducing consumptive use of water and hence the accumulation of salt.
Return flows inevitably have a much higher concentration of salts than
the irrigation water. If these are returned to the stream, salt concen-
trations in the stream are increased. Diversion of return flows can keep
the salts out of the streams, but it also reduces the amount of water
downstream that is available for other uses. Additional methods of treatment
are needed to remove salts from irrigation water.
Although emphasis should be placed on preventing the degradation of soil
and water by excessive concentrations of salts or minerals, this approach is
not always feasible. Increased plant tolerance to salinity, alkalinity, or
metals may be a logical alternative. Much remains to be learned about the ,
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44
mechanism of damage to plants from inorganic salts and minerals. Breeding
for' tolerance will reduce this damage and will be more efficient when the
mechanism of the damage is better understood.
The following areas encompass the major approaches useful in reducing
pollution caused by inorganic salts and minerals.
1. Decreasing salt concentration of the irrigation supply source
The Department of Agriculture has both research and action programs
underway to increase water yields through reduction of evapotranspiration
and the more effective capture of precipitation.
Research also is underway on the control of seepage and evaporation
from reservoirs and on management of waters of varying quality by practices
such as mixing to keep the salt concentration in the most favorable balance
during the irrigation season.
Extension programs to increase public awareness of the problems and
potential solutions are underway in the 11 Western States.
The Department of the Interior, by virtue of various congressional acts,
has responsibility to plan and develop supplemental water supplies to
increase the quality of the resultant water supply system.
The Clean Water Restoration Act of 1966 gives USDI the responsibility
for establishing water-quality standards for all water uses, including
agricultural requirements. As such, USDI provides both direct technical
assistance and comprehensive regional planning to effect the best quality
of available water resources. It also provides impoundment and distri-
bution" resources to augment local supplies for irrigation waters and to
enhance the quality of these water supplies. In addition, it has an extensive
program for the removal of salts from supply waters that are applicable
to agricultural uses.
2. Improving irrigation and drainage practices to minimize
the effects of salts and minerals on soils and return-
water quality
Department of Agriculture action programs include assistance to soil
conservation districts to increase water-use efficiency by proper irrigation
design and operation. Practices such as levelling and changing the length
of irrigation runs are commonly needed to reduce salt concentration in the
rooting zone and to reduce excessive water application. Over-irrigation
-------
commonly is the result of poorly designed distribution systems and improper
irrigation practices.
Extension education is underway in the fields of agronomy, horticulture,
and agricultural engineering to acquaint the public with the problems and
methods for oeeting them. Loans are made to finance drainage and improve
irrigation systems.
USDA also conducts research on practices to increase water-use efficiency
and minimize salt accumulation. It has research programs underway to study
the effects of salinity on the soils, leaching requirements, effects of heavy
metals and trace elements, critical water-use periods during plant devel-
opment and fruiting, nutrient requirements under irrigation, water intake and
transmission qualities of soils, indicators of when to apply water, automation
of water application, irrigation scheduling, drainage materials and system
design criteria, plant aeration requirements, methods to prevent tile clogging
by mineral oxides and sediment, and methods to improve water flow to and into
tile systems.
The Department of the Interior has an intensive, program to develop
optimal irrigation practices for those regimes that are supplied through the
Bureau of Reclamation's programs.
3. Treating or disposing of salts and minerals in return flows
The Department of Agriculture considers its-authority adequate for
research in this field but Inadequate for action programs.
Research is needed on the use of salt sinks where salty water is impounded
and evaporated by solar energy, on injection systems for disposal of highly
concentrated salt water into underground cavaties where ground water would not
be contaminated (areas from which crude oil has been pumped, coal mined, etc.),
and on open or closed conduit systems for conveyance to inland salt sinks or
to the ocean.
The only action program underway is a field evaluation of current programs
of other agencies.
Under proposed authority, USDA woul
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46
Deep-well injection of brine-laden waters is standard practice in oil
production and is used extensively for the disposal of noxious industrial
plant effluents. These methods are also applicable to the disposal of
treated agricultural effluents. The problems associated with deep-well
disposal are part of an overall program in USDI.
4. Improving plant tolerance and utilization of salts and minerals
The Department of Agriculture has research underway on the tolerance and
physiological reactions of plants to salinity, the breeding of plants for both
salt tolerance and redr ^d transpiration, the use of grafting techniques to
provide salt-tolerant fruit crops, and the determination of toxicity levels
and nutritional needs of the plant for specific ions. Closely related is
research on the relation of salinity to condition and transport of water and
ions in soils and plants.
-------
47
REFERENCES
Bloodworth, M. E. 1972. Salinity problems and management .associated with irri-
gation--southern plains. Prodeedings of a Seminar on Control of Agriculture
Related Pollution in the Great Plains, July 24-25, Lincoln, Neb., Great
Plains Agricultural Council.
Bureau of Reclamation. 1972. Colorado River water quality improvement program.
February.
Clark, J. W. 1972. Salinity problems in the Rio Grande basin. Proceedings of
National Conference on Managing Irrigated Agriculture to Improve Water
Quality, Graphics Management Corporation, Washington, D.C.
Colorado River Board of California. 1970. Need for controlling salinity of the
Colorado River. Report submitted by the staff of the Colorado River Board
of California to the members of the board, Sacramento, Calif., August.
Environmental Protection Agency. 1972. Report on water quality investigations
in the South Platte River Basin, Colorado, 1971-72. Region VIII, Denver,
Colorado, June.
Fine, L. 0. 1972. Salinity problems and management associated with irrigation—
northern plains. Proceedings of a Seminar on Control of Agriculture-Related
Pollution in the Great Plains, July 24-25, Lincoln, Neb., Great Plains
Agricultural Council.
Law, J. P., Jr., and G. V. Skogerboe. 1972. Potential for controlling quality
of irrigation return flows. Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 1,
No. 2, April-June.
Madden, John M. 1969. Effects of marginal quality irrigation water on the
accumulation of salts and alkali in South Dakota soils. OWRR Completion
Report No. A-011-SDAK, November.
National Academy of Sciences - National Research Council, Committee on Pollution.
1966. Waste management and control. Publication 1400, Report submitted to
the Federal council for Science and Technology, Washington, D.C.
Maletic, John T. 1972. Progress of investigations--an overview of salinity con-
trol planning in1 the Colorado River Basin. Paper presented before the
Colorado River Water Users Association, Las Vegas, Nev., Nov. 27-28.
Pavelis, G. A. 1967. Regional irrigation trends and projective growth functions.
Draft report by Water Resources Branch, Natural Resource Economics Division,
Economic Research Service, USDA, Washington, D.C., December.
Peterson, H. B., A. A. Bishop, and J. P. Law, Jr. 1970. Problems of pollution
of irrigation waters in arid regions. In Water Quality Management Problem
in Arid Regions, edited by J. P. Law and J. L. Witherow, FWQA, WPCRS No.
13030*DYY, June.
Skogerboe, G. V., and J. P. Law, Jr. 1971. Research needs for irrigation return
flow quality control# Environmental Protection Agency, Water Pollution
Control Research Service No. 13030 - 11/71, November
-------
48
Upper Colorado Region State-Federal Inter-Agency Group. 1971. Upper Colorado
Region Comprehensive Framework Study, Appendix X, Irrigation and Drainage.
Pacific Southwest Inter-Agency Committee, Water Resources Council, June.
Walker, W. R. and W. R. Walker. 1972. Surviving with salinity in the lower
Sevier River Basin. Proceedings of National Conference on Managing Irri-
gated Agriculture to Improve Water Quality, Graphics Management Corpora-
tion, Washington, D.C.
Ward, R. C.1973. Data acquisition systems in water quality management. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Socioeconomic Environmental Studies Series,
EPA-R5-73-014, May.
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49
RANGE AND WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
Erosion and Sedimentation
Geologically speaking, erosion and sedimentation are naturally occurring
processes. Vegetative cover protects soil. However, in lands where vegetation
is laking due to lack of moisture or other factors impeding fertility, the land
is susceptible to wide-scale erosion by heavy rains. Wherever activities result
in removing vegetative cover, i.e. soil tilling, overgrazing, crop harvesting,
vegetation burning, construction and mining activities, the forces of wind and
water take over acting to loosen and transport the exposed soil particles.
Sheet, rill, and gully erosion are all common consequences of poor soil
management. Many times, these consequences are felt "downstream" of where the
source problems occur resulting in excessive sedimentation of reservoirs and
streams, drainage blockages, stream turbidity and the transportation of fertil-
izers and pestidices into waterways.
Factors affecting soil erosion in the Region VIII area are varied and com-
plex. In arid areas wind erosion and lack of rainfall are major contributors.
Where precipitation is high, in the Dakotas, parts of Utah, Montana, and Wyoming,
and northeastern Colorado, sudden downfalls of rain of high intensity can be
more damaging on inadequate groundcover than similar rainfals where the ground is
protected. Land use, conservation tillage, and similar conservation measures are
subject to management controls and decisions.
Region VIII Range and Watershed Conservation Needs
Range and watershed management problems shall be reviewed for Region VIII
s
in two parts; one part concerning those areas that lie within the Upper Colorado
Region which takes in large areas of Colorado, Wyoming and Utah, the other part
will concern those areas that lie within the Missouri River Basin which includes
Montana, Wyoming, South Dakota, more than half the land area of North Dakota,
and the central and northeastern part of Colorado.
In providi.ij an overview of the watershed management practices and concerns
related to so vast a region as the Region VIII states one must be cognizent
-------
50
that only a general description can be provided within the limitations of this
report. Much of the information that will be put forth here is to be found in
greater detail in the appendices dealing this this subject area in both the
Upper Colorado Region Comprehensive Framework Study and the Missouri River Basin
Comprehensive Framework Study, as well as the individual Conservation Needs
Inventories published by each of the six Region VIII States.
A review of these inventories, all published in 1970, shows approximately
97% of privately owned, non-federal rural land within EPA Region VIII having
soil limitations or conservation problems. Soil erosion was a limitation on more
than 50% of all the inventoried land. On cropland alone, erosion was a dominant
limitation on 55%. These percentages are based on all the S & E subclasses
totaled for the six Region VIII States.
Although PL 566 projects were widely applied for treatment and control of
soil conservation and erosiom-problems, they were not utilized exclusively. Other
projects and programs were, necessary and, in several areas, employed. Projects
under RC & D, REAP-type polling agreements, and group enterprises by major ir-
rigation companies played an important role. The reader of this report will find
several references to the PL 566 projects since the bulk of the data are synthe-
sized from the Soil Conservation Inventories which were compiled under the leader-
ship of the Soil Conservation Service in each of the six Region VIII states.
Current Watershed Conditions and Problems in the Upper Colorado Region
The map of present sediment yield rates released June, 1971 (Fig. 3) shows
the general location of sediemtn yield classes within the Upper Colorado region
and is only reliable for broad planning purposes. The sediment yield values shown
include both natural and man-induced the capability of streams to transport sediment.
The five classes of sediment yield are:
Yield class 1 More than 3.0 acre-feet per square mile per year
Yield class 2 1.0 - 3.0 acre-feet per square mile per year
Yield class 3 0.5 - 1.0 acre-feet per square mile per year
Yield class 4 0.2-0.5 acre-feet per square, nile per year
Yield class 5 Less than 0.2 acre-feet per square mile per year
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51
GPO Ill-Ui
-------
The map also shows actual suspended sediment discharged by streams at
several measuring points (stream sediment stations shown by arrows). Suspended
sediment is shown as an average annual yield rate in acre-feet per square mile
of drainage area above that measuring point. The suspended sediment rates
represent an integration of yield rates from the many diverse areas within
that drainage area. Table 10 shows state areas in yield rate classes.
Table 10. Percent of area in sediment yield rate classes,
Upper Colorado Region, 1965.
State
I
Class
: 1
2
3
4
5
Colorado
*
2
12
39
47
Utah
*
16
58
18
8
Wyoming
*
*
4
64
32
* The data does not permit delineation of the area in this class.
The Upper Colorado River drainage basin embraces 109,580 square miles of
land. This excludes the 3,916 square mile Great Divide closed basin which is
included in the Upper Colorado Region for this study. The average annual
sediment yield (years 1914-195 7 adjusted to 1957 condition) of this basin at
"Lee Ferry", its discharge point, was .58 acre-feet per square mile per year.
See Table 11 for suspended sediment discharge at selected stations for various
periods. This yield has historically varied considerably from year to year,
but on the basis of period averages it is apparent that a significant change
in the average rate occurred in the early 1940's. At Lee's Ferry on the
Colorado, for the years 1930-42 average yield was .77 acre-feet per square
mile per year. The apparent low rate for the period 1953-62 was due largely
to low precipitation for most of the period and partly to deposition in the
many recently constructed sediment catchment basins and other structures.
The reduction from the 1930-42 period to the 1943-52 period was the result of
changes in the factors which affect sediemtn yield. Specifically, vegetal
-------
Table H --Suspended sediment discharge, Upper Colorado Region, 1965
Average annual
: Drainage :
Runoff :
Suspended
sediment
Station
area :
No.
Tons :
Acre-feet
number
River and location
: Sq. Ml. :
Period
vrs.
(Acre-feet) :
(Tons)
Sq. Ml. :
Sq. Ml.
Tributaries of St. Louis Creek, Colo.
1950 - 52
_
y
36
0.02
9-0580
Colorado River near Kreranllng, Colo.
2,360
A
-
150,000
64
.04
9-0725
Colorado River at Glenwood Springs, Colo.
4,560
A
1,738,000
486,000
107
.07
9-0850
Roaring Fork at Glenwood Springs, Colo.
1,460
A
980,200
287,000
197
.12
9-1295
Iron Creek near Cravford, Colo.
67
1948-52
5
12,200
16,400
245
.15
9-1525
Gunnison River near Grand Junction, Colo.
7,928
A
1,884,000
2,067,000
260
.16
9-1665
Dolores River at Dolores, Colo.
556
A
356,400
119,000
214
,13
9-1800
Dolores River near Cisco, Utah
4,580
1951-62
12
506,400
2,254,000
492
.30
9-1805
Colorado River near Cloco, Utah
24,100
1930-42
13
5,156,000
19.270,000
800
.50
1943-52
10
5,726,000
10,300,000
427
.27
1953-62
10
4,789,000
9,020,000
375
.24
9-1885
Green River at Warren Bridge near Daniel, Wyo.
468
A
-
391,200
19,000
41
.03
9-2165
Green River at Green River, Wyoming
7,670
A
-
1,305,000
625,000
82
.05
1951-63
13
1,186,000
413,000
2/
54
.03
9-2510
Yampa River near Maybell, Colo.
3,410
1951-57
7
1,057,000
366,000
107
.06
9-2600
Little Snake River near Lily, Colo.
3,730
1959-64
6
295,000
1,297,000
348
.21
9-2610
Green River near Jensen, Utah
25,400
1951-62
12
3,027,000
7,405,000
3/
292
.18
9-3070
Green River near Ouray, Utah
35,500
1951-62
12
3,984,000
12,620,000
U
355
.22
9-3150
Green River at Green River, Utah
40,600
1930-42
13
3,654,000 •
24,580,000
605
.37
1943-62
20
4,244,000
16,920,000
417
.26
1951-62
12
4,005,000
15,790,000
389
.24
9-3285
San Rafael River near Green River, Utah
1,690
1949-58
10
111,200
1,480,000
876
.54
9-3335
Dirty Devil River near Hlte, Utah
4,360
1949-58
10
85,100
5,600,000
y
1,280
.78
9-3395
Escalante River near Escalante, Utah
1,770
1951-55
5
61,700
1,757,000
993
.61
9-3555
San Juan River near Archuleta, N. M.
3,260
1955-61
7
891,000
2,273,000
5/
698
.35
9-3565
San Juan River near Blanco, N. M.
3,560
1949-54
6
799,400
1,796,000
504
9-3645
Animas River at Farmington, N. M.
1,360
1952-61
10
572,200
919,000
676
.42
9-3665
La Plata River at State line
331
A
-
27,900
28,000
85
.05
9-3680
San Juan River at Shlprock, N. M.
12,900
1952-61
10
1,448,000
10,510,000
5/
816
.51
9-3715
McElmo Creek near Cortez, Colo.
233
A
-
38,800
141,000
605
.37
9-3795
San Juan River near Bluff, Utah
23,000
1930-42
13
1,972,000
46,340,000
2,010
1.24
1943-52
10
1,666,000
19,090,000
830
.52
1953-62
10
1,492,000
16,200,000
704
.45
9-3800
Colorado River at Lees Ferry, Ariz.
107,900
1930-42
13
11,330,000
133,700,000
1,240
.77
1943-52
10
12,500,000
80,000,000
6/
742
.45
1953-62
10
9,980,000
56,320,000
522
.32
9-3820
Farla River at Leea Ferry, Ariz.
1,570
1948-65
IB
17,790
3,536,000
2,250
1.41
A/ Estimated for water years 1914-57, adjusted to 1957 conditions; USGS Professional Paper 441.
1/ Data frota U. S. Forest Service as reported In USGS Professional Paper 441.
2f Fontenelle Dam closed in August 1963.
2/ Flaming Gorge Dam closed November 1, 1962.
4/ Partly estimated,
5/ Navajo Dam closed June 27, 1962.
6/ Glen Canyon Dam closed March 13, 1963.
Ln
LO
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54
cover improved and land use and management favored reduction of erosion.
'Similar reductions are apparent at all points in the region for which long-term
sediment records are available indicating that the changes in controlling fac-
tors have been general throughout the region.
Of the total average annual sediment yield at Lee Ferry for the years
1914-1957 about 20% was derived from the Main Stem Subregion, 27% was derived
from the Green River Subregion and 53% was derived from the San Juan-Colorado
Subregion (38% from the San Jaun drainage alone). Current records as of 1962
indicate thac these approximate percentages are applicable at least through
1962. Actual delivery of sediment to Lee Ferry was reduced considerably sub-
sequent to 1962 with the completion of several major reservoirs.
Sediment Yield Problem
The past, present, and projected sediment yeild situation is shown in
Fig. 4 on the following page. The sketch of past yields represents the gener-
alized conditions which prevailed at the time watershed management programs and
certain land use controls were initiated. This did not occur simultaneously
throughout the region. It began around the turn of the century and spread to
most ownerships over the next 30 to 35 years.
The areas presently yielding 1.0 to 3.0 ac.ft./sq.mi./year are generally
closely associated with easily erodible marine shales such as the Mancos shale.
Although they are in near critical condition they could be improved under careful
management if they have some soil cover and moderate slopes. However, they
have the potential to deteriorate severely under poor management.
The forested high country is generally the lowest sediment yield class.
On the other hand, it does have a potential for sediment production as high
as 1.0 to 3.0 ac.ft//sq.mi/year. This indicates that continued careful manage-
ment on these lands is mandatory. These high forest lands can be further im-
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55
Generalized Past Present and Projected Sediment Yields
^' ' UPPER COLORADO REGION
PAST
YIELDS
PRESENT YIELDS
M965)
YIELD RATE-
in acre feet
per square mile
per year
1.0-3.0
0.5 - I.O
0.2 -0.5
<0.2 I I
PROJECTED
YIELDS
FIGURE 4
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56
proved to produce even less sediment than at present although they are already
one of the lowest yeilding areas.
Much land which is presently rated 0.2 to 0.5 ac.ft./sq.mi./year, shows
little potential for reduced sediment yield rates. Yields could increase con-
siderably under conditions of uncontrolled use such as occurred prior to the
implementation of management.
The land which is presently yielding 0.5 to 1.0 ac.ft./sq.mi./year are
primarily in the marine shale and sandstone areas of Utah and the extreme
western edge of Colorado. They exhibit a considerable potential for improve-
ment to rates of perhaps 0.2 to 0.5 ac.ft/sq.mi./year. Likewise, they show
a high potential for deterioration under conditions of uncontrolled use as
indicated by past yields. From a broad perspective this land generally appears
to be responsive to improved management.
Yields exceeding 3.0 ac.ft./sq.mi./year are known to exist within the
region, but the small size and scattered locations of these areas precluded
their specific delineation on the maps. Project planning can reflect and must
give detailed consideration to these problem areas and take advantage of
opportunities for improvement of their condition.
Flood and Sediment on Forest and Rangeland
Flodo and sediment damage is a problem on approximately 173,000 acres of
forest and rangeland within the region. About 41% of the affected acreage is
in the Green River Subregion, 45% in the San Juan-Colorado Subregion, and the
remaining 14% is in the Upper Main Stem Subregion. Flash floods which are
fairly common are a hazard to man, beast, and property. Major flood damage is
reflected in losses of highway improvements, fences, livestock, wildlife habitat
and recreation facilities. There is also a significant loss of forage production
on flooded sites and a reduction in storage capacity and life of stockwater
ponds and reservoirs due to sedimentation.
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57
Flood and Sediment on Cultivated and Pasture Land
Flood and sediment damage is a problem on 348,000 acres of cultivated and
pasture land in the region. Approximately 42% of the affected area is in the
Green River Subregion, 40% in the Upper Main Stem, and the remaining 18% is in
the San Juan-Colorado Subregion.
Upstream watersheds are subject to high intensity thunderstorms. Precip-
itation from these storms sometimes falls at rates greatly exceeding the infil-
tration capacity of the soils and there is surface runoff. Damages result from
floodwater and sediment when this type of storm occurs on drainages above
irrigated land. Storms during the harvesting period may damage harvested crops
and the deposited sediment and debris reduces land productivity. Irrigation
distribution systems are often damaged or filled with sediment. Other fixed
improvements such as fences, buildings and roads are subject to damage. Flood-
ing of this type is typical in the watersheds where detailed studies led to
works of improvement under the Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act.
Other Damages: Fire on Forest and Rangeland
Fire damage is an annual problem on approximately 27,000 acres of forest
and rangeland. About 63% of the acreage is in the Green River Subregion, 26%
in the Upper Main Stem, and the remaining 11% is in the San Juan-Colorado Sub-
region.
The problem of fire on forest and rangeland centers on two unique factors --
(1) the low value per acre of typical vegetation on these lands and (2) their
remoteness. Forest fires destroy timber and produce a devastated landscape,
while rangeland fires do not usually alter the landscape appearance as notice-
ably. There is need for public education on the real costs of fires, not only
in aesthetic damage and lost livestock forage and wildlife habitat, but also
in the costs of erosion and sediment production following the fires.
With increasing numbers of persons using the federal land there has been
a corresponding increase in the number of fires started. Fewer acres are
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58
actually burned than previously, however, due to improved fire fighting capa-
bility. The remoteness of many fires and the lack of roads to them sometimes
causes long delays in reaching the scene. Federal agencies are attempting to
achieve a maximum delay time of 60 minutes to any fire. This can be achieved
by road construction and increased use of air facilities.
The actual costs of fires are a combination of presuppression, suppression
and rehabilitation costs, plus resource losses. The result of this complexity
is that there is difficulty in developing an economic evaluation system
applicable to fire costs. An adequately financed basic research and development
program designed to produce reliable economic evaluation is needed to permit
appraisal of opportunities to lower acreage burned and reduce dollars of damage.
Forest and rangeland damaged by fire need emergency treatment to reduce
flood and erosion damage in and below the watershed after denudation by fire.
The sudden and complete denudation of large areas by fire poses a particularly
serious threat to watershed and downstream values. Where fire consumes both
the plant cover and the litter, the soil is wholly unprotected. Infiltration
is decreased, overland flow occurs, and the erosion is accelerated. Damage
from floods and sediment deposition may occur both locally and downstream, but
this damage can be reduced by emergency land treatment.
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59
Location of Watershed Treatment
The watershed treatment map on the following page illustrates the watershed
problem areas which have been treated by 1965. It also shows areas with current
problems that will require treatment by 2020. Federal lands shown include those
areas that have problems including erosion, flood, and sediment deposition. The
means for treating these problems have already been discussed in other sections.
The area shown for private land includes completed watersheds which have
problems of erosion, floodings, sediment or water shortages somewhere within the
drainage. The following tabulation is a summary of the potential watershed pro-
jects by subregions. The following tabulation also shows estimates of numbers of
watersheds within which problems may be solved by kinds of watershed project
action.
Table 12. Summary of potential watershed projects,
Upper Colorado Region.
Status and Kinds of
Potential Projects -
:Green
:River
:Subregion
:Upper
:Main Stem
:Subregion
:San Juan-
: Colorado
: Subregion
:Total
:Region
Applications for planning
received
6
7
7
20
Flood control potential
project
7
7
2
16
Agricultural water management
potential projects
42
21
26
89
Total potential projects
49
28
28
105
A summary of watershed management needs and projected costs appear in
Table 13.
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LEG!
Existing Watershed Treolment Areas 1965
Projected Watershed Treatment Areos 1965-2020
SUBRCGIONS
1 G'tan ftiw«r
2 Uoo«f Mun Stem
3 S«n Ju»n - Color jdO
FIGUKE 5.
WATERSHED TREATMENT
'-I 'HH-.TH . ~I_
•lO '•> too _ 12\ ISO "ILtl
UPPER COLORADO REGION
COM PRE H ENS IVK FRAMEWORK STUDY
ur titr i err ior
6»0 111 . l»1
-------
Table 13.—Summary table of vatershed management problems, treatment needs, and cost projected to 2020, Framework Plan,
Upper Colorado Region
Watershed Problems
Land Category
: Area
: Affected
:(1.000 Ac.)
Treatment
Ki nds
Amounts
: Cost
: (1,000 Dollars)
: Install. : Acc. 0M&R
Erosion Sediment & Runoff
Control
111,991 5,897
Erosion
Forest and Range
29,119
Tree and Shrub planting
2,744
ac.
Cultivated &
Stabilization
208,104
ac.
Pasture
1,075
Detention Dams
2,128
no.
Urban
183
Check £> Drop Structures
67,174
no.
Other
103
Diversion Dams
3,993
no.
Subtotal
o
QC
o
m
Water Spreading
383,685
ac.
'
Grade Stabilizing Structures
1,244
no.
Floodways
42,700
ft.
Flood and
Forest and Range
69
Debris Sediment Basin
3,298
no.
Sediment
Cultivated &
Brush and Weed Control
2,587,831
ac.
Pasture
348
Watershed Tillage
643,133
ac.
Urban
12
Seeding
1,110,268
ac.
Other
-
Gully Control
4,364
ml.
Subtotal
429
Sheet Erosion Control
332,600
ac.
Dikes
467
no.
Streambank and Lakeshore
Total
30,909
Stabilization
1,189
ml.
Water Yield Improvement
15,046 752
Water Shortage
Vegetation Type Conversion
831,562
ac.
Total
127,037
6,649
Note: Watershed treatment amounts to 78,300 water control facilities, land treatment on 5,268,400 acres, and gully and
streambank stabilization of 5,550 miles. Improvement practices primarily for increased production which also provide
protection are outlined In Appendix VI, Land Resources and Use. Watershed land treatment in Appendix X, Flood Control,
Includes the above acreage and an acreage directly affected by water control facilities.
-------
62
Human Use and Animal Grazing Impact on Mountain Watersheds
As an illustration of land use impact on water quality in mountain water-
sheds, a chief source of domestic water supplies, we refer the reader to a
study completed in 1965 on Mountain Watersheds in the Colorado Front Range.
The primary objective of the study was to assess water quality characteristics
at varying natural flow regimes under conditions of limited land use.
Grazing-Irrigation Impact: Pennock-Little Beaver Creeks
The combined impact of grazing and irrigation of a mountain meadow on
water quality was observed by comparing a pair of similar sub-watersheds from
the study area--one with approximately the lower half grazed and irrigated by
surface spreading in summer (Pennock Creek), the other essentially "natucal"
(Little Beaver).
A comparison of suspended sediment for the two streams did not show higher
values for the grazed drainage, i.e., the analyses of sediment (or turbidity)
did not detect the land use impact. Despite no significant sediment differences
between the two streams, all three bacteria groups clearly defined the grazing-
irrigation impact in 1965; nearly every observation showed higher coliform
counts on the grazed catchment than on the ungrazed. The much drier year of
1964 did not show such distinct differences between watersheds in coliform
counts. Measurements for the other bacteria groups—fecal coliforms and fecal
streptococci—were not in use in 1964.
In addition to a distinct coliform count difference between the grazed
and ungrazed drainages, the fecal coliform.(FC) and fecal streptococci (FS)
counts also emphasized the land use pattern. The moving mean values of FC
and FS bacteria show consistently higher values on the grazed (Pennock) creek
as opposed to the ungrazed stream (Little Beaver). The bacteria concentrations
of all three groups attained higher values in July and August, a period of low
flows and warmer water temperatures when grazing and irrigation probably had
the largest effect.
-------
63
The ratio of fecal coliforms to fecal streptococci (FC/FS) ranged from
less-than-1 to A.5 on the natural catchment but less than 1 to a maximum of
44 on the grazed-irrigated watershed. The average 1965 FC/FS ratios were
1.3 for the natural as opposed to 7.6 for the grazed watershed, neglecting
samples where either FC or FS was zero.
The "ability to detect cattle pollution" is evaluated for each indicator
group—coliforms, FC, and FS--as well as for the FC/FS ratio, by comparing
yearly means of each bacteria group for the grazed as opposed to the ungrazed
catchments. This grazed-to-natural comparison or "impacted: natural" factor
is presented in Table 14. The fecal coliform (FC) group shows the highest
value or greatest sensitivity to this type of pollution; for the FC group the
grazed watershed's mean is 16.1 times greater than the ungrazed. The high
sensitivity of the FC group increases the "rating" of the FC/FS indicator as
well (FC being the numerator), as shown in Table 14. The coliforms rate some-
what less sensitive, while the FS group is ranked least perceptive as a pol-
lution detector.
The irrigation-grazing impact appears once more in Figure 6, where
FC/FS ratios from the grazed and irrigated Pennock Creek drainage are compared
again--this time to ratios from sites along the main stem of the Little South
Fork (Stations 1, 3, 4, 10, and 11, averaged). Grazing above the main stem
stations was less intensive in relation to flow volumes. A definite rise of
FC/FS values appeared on Pennock during the June-July "flushing" period of peak
flows, while the main stem values remained much lower, actual levels of FC/FS
reached 22.0 on Pennock, only 5.4 on the main stem. As flows receded, FC/FS
ratios for Pennock decreased, but still remained twice as high as values for
the main stem stations.
Areas above Stations 8, 4, 3, and 1 were grazed most heavily, while on
areas above Stations 10 and 11 grazing was less common, and Stations 2, 15,
-------
64
and 17 had little or no grazing effect by cattle. The relationship of FC to
*1
FS counts bears resemblance to the grazing intensity patterns, with heavily
grazed stations generally showing higher FC/FS ratios.
In the time period means of Figures 7 and 8 , a distinct difference is
seen for the fecal coliform counts in regard to the location of a sampling sta-
tion respective to intensity of land use impact. In both time periods, higher
elevation stations such as 17, 15, 10, and 11 were clearly lower in FC bacteria
concentrations than Pennock Creek (8) or the main stem stations below Pennock
(1, 3, and 4). This pattern was also exhibited by FS counts in TP II, but not
distinctly in TP I. The lower concentrations at the higher elevations evidently
was due to the lack of grazing in the hilly areas.
-------
65
TABLE44- -Grazed site to natural site factors
t 1 1 i ¦ ¦
AM J JAS ON
1965
Figure 6- --Fecal coliform/fecal streptococcus ratios for
. heavily grazed Station 8 (Pennock) compared
to values for the main stem stations. Main
stpm ratios ire an average for Stations 1, 3,
4, 10. and 11.
1 , 1 1 Tin* Ptrnd I 1965
m»i«»
rure 0--Meanj for bacterial groups la Time Period II 1969, at individual aampling iltea on
w*t«rsh«d.
-------
66
Sediment Yields in the Missouri River Basin
The Missouri River Basin covers a very large and diverse area varying
from flat, essentially non-draining land to high mountains; from highly
erodible soils to rock; and from subhumid to serai-arid climate. Region VIII
states located within the basin area are Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, North
Dakota, and South Dakota. Detailed data concerning range and watershed
management within the basin is to be found in the Missouri River Basin
Comprehensive Framework Study. Within the diversities of the Basin, there
are areas of localized characteristics, thus it is not possible to develop
simple formulae.nor an overall relationship for sediment yields within this
basin. Sediment yields, representing all sediment carried by the streams,
in tons per square mile per year, range from near zero in streams draining
the mountainous areas to 10,000 or more in streams entrenched in the more
erodible soils of the central basin area.
Figure 9 shows the areas included within the subbasin boundaries.
Figure 10 shows land and water ownership by subbasin.
-------
67
FIGURE 9
SUBBASIN BOUNDARIES
+?
-------
68
FIGURE 10
LAND AND WATER OWNERSHIP
Montana
FEDERAL
PERCENT OF BASIN TOTAL
SUBBASINS
1 Upper Missouri 5 "Piatte-Niobrara
2 Yellowstone 6 ^tiilSle !lissouri
3 Western Dakota 7 Kansas
4 Eastern Dakota 8 Lower Missouri
There are 176 million acres of public and private grazing land in the
Missouri River Basin.
-------
69
We have pointed out the difficulty in developing simple formulae in an
effort to determine sediment yields within the basin. Data are available for
selected areas based on suspended sediment sampling, reservoir sedimentation
surveys, physiographic and geologic information, soils, topography, climate,
runoff, vegetation, land use, upland erosion, channel erosion, and sediment
transport and delivery. This information has served as a basis for estimating
the average annual sediment yield in tons per square mile applicable to drain-
ages in excess of 100 r uare miles. Figure 11 shows the probable ranges of
average annual sediment yield for the various areas within the Missouri River
Basin.
FIGURE 11
SEDIMENT YIELD
^'i
-------
70
Sediment yield at all available sediment sampling stations through-
out the Missouri Basin are listed in the following table.
Table 15- SUSPENDED SEDIMENT DISCHARGE
Average Annual Sediment
Period
Standard
uses
Drainage Area
of
Years
Period of
Period
Tons
Station
Gross
Contributing
Record
of
Record
1948-1963 .
Per
Number
Subbasin and Location
Sq. Mi.
Sq. Mi.
Years
Record
Tons
Tons Sq. Mi.
Upper Missouri Subbasin
0185
Beaverhead River al Blaine, Mont.
3,619
1963-64
2
33.600
9
0255
Big Hole River near Melrose. Mont.
2.476
1957,
5
26,900
11
61-64
0265
Jefferson River near Twin Bridges, Mont.
1958-59
7.632
1961-62
4
93,700
12
0545
Missouri River at Toston, Mont.
14,669
1950-53
4.
396,000
27
0711
Little Prickly Ptur Cr. at Sieben Ranch
near Wolf Cr., Mont
270
1963
1
1,420
5.3 1
0713
Little Prickly Pear Creek at Wolf
Creek, Mont.
381
.1963
1
2,690
7.11
0995
Marias River near Shelby. Mont.
3.242
1950-51
2
1.000.0002
3102
1080
Teton River near Dutton. Mont.
1.308
1955-57
3
92.1002
.70-
1150
Missouri River at Power Plant Ferry. Mont.
13.0003
1949-51
1958-63
9
5.829.000
448
1276
Musselshell River near Mosby. Mont.
5,941
1949-50
43I.0002
1963-65
3
732
1740
Willow Creek near Glasgow. Mont.
538
1954-63
10
892,000
1,660
1745
Milk River at Nashua. Mont.
18.3003
1949-58
1961-63
12
1,505,000
82
1770
Missouri River at Wolf Point, Mont
24.734"
1949-63
15
3,995,000
162
1855
Missouri River at Culbertson, Mont.
34.0004
1948-51
1959-63
9
5,354,000
207
1 Yields for 1964-65 were much higher, bui were affected by highway construction.
2 Yield affected by diversions to offstream reservoir(s).
3 Approximate.
^ Drainage Area below Fort Peck Reservoir.
5 At Snowden, Mont, in 1948 and 1949.
Yellowstone Subbasin
Butcher Creek near Luther. Mont
9
1960-62
3
1 20'
13
Butcher Creek near Roscoe, Mont.
1960-62
3
1,100'
44
Butcher Creek near Fishtail. Mont.
1960-62
3
1,900'
58
2043
Butcher Creek near Absarokce, Mont.
39.6
1960-62
3
3,000'
76
2077
North Fork Bluewater Creek, near
Bridger, Mont.
7.5
1961-63
3
250'
34
2078'
Bluewater Creek near Bridger, Mont.
27 5
1960-63
4
2.300'
84
2078.5
Bluewater Creek at Sanford Ranch near
Bridger, Mont.
43.9
1961-63
3
5.000'
115
2078.7
Bluewater Creek near Fromberg, Mont.
46.6
1961-63
3
6,500'
140
2079
Bluewater Creek at Fromberg, Mont
53.2
1960-63
4
20,000'
380
2280
Wind River at Riverton, Wyo.
2,309
1949-56
8
448,000
470,000
204 '
2350
Beaver Creek near Arapaho, Wyo.
354
1951-53
3
124,000
130,000'°
367'°
2355
Little Wind River near Riverton, Wyo.
1,904
1949-53
1956
6
244,000
220,000
116
2360
Kirby Draw near Riverton. Wyo.
182
1951-53
3
4,500
25
2390
Muskrat Creek near Shoshoni, Wyo.
733
1950-58
1960-63
13
194,000
160,000
220
2445
Fivemilc Creek near Pavillion, Wyo.
118
1949-58
1961-63
13
34.0002
37,0002
314 2
1 Computed on basis of twice weekly samples.
2 Not representative of natural yield because of development of upMreum controls. Estimated delivery of 70,000 tons per year, or
600 tons per square mile per year prior to control and 6,000 tons per year, or SO tons per square mile per year under present condi
tions.
Approximate.
-------
71
Tablel5(Continued)
Average
Annual Sediment
uses
Drainage Area
Period
of
Years
Period of
Standard
Period
Tons
Station
Number
Subbasin and Location
Gross
Sq. Mi.
Contributing
Sq. Mi.
Record
Years
of
Record
Record
Tons
1948-1963
Tons
Per
Sq. Mi.
Yellowstc
2500
ne Subbasin (Continued)
Fivemile Creek near Riverton, Wyo.
356
1950-58
1960-63
13
660.0003
660,0003
2530
Fivemile Creek near Slioshoni, Wyo.
418
1949-63
15
1,080.0004
1.100.0004
4010
2555
Poison Creek near Shoshoni, Wyo.
500
1949-53
1956
6
13.900
20,000'°
2570
Badwater Creek near Bonneville, Wyo.
808
1948-53
1955-63
15
239,000
227,000
281
2575
Muddy Creek near Pnvillion. Wyo.
267
1949-53
1*55-58
1961-63
12
150.000s
140,000
524s
2580
Muddy Creek near Shoshoni. Wyo.
332
1949-63
15
286.0006
300.0006
.2585
Dry Cottonwood Creek near
Bonneville, Wyo.
165
1951-53
3
94,000
570
2595
Bighorn River at Thermopolis, Wyo.
8,020
3197
1947-51
1952
5
1
4,700,000
239.000
580
750
2670
2685
Gooseberry Creek at Neiber. Wyo.
Fifteen Mile Creek near Worland, Wyo.
361
518
1952
1951-63
1
13
271,000
583,000
600.000
750
1.160
2690
Bighorn River near Manderson, Wyo.
11.020
3.3197
1947-51
1952-53
1956
5
3
7,560,000
1.730.000
695
500
2765
2780
2795
Greybull River at Mecteetsc, Wyo.
Dry Creek at Greybull. Wyo.
Bighorn River at Kane, Wyo.
681
433
15,846
8.145 7
1955-56
1952-53
1947-51
1952-63
2
2
5
12
162,000
97,000
10.680.000
4,020,000
4,300.000s
238
224
674
528
2855
Sage Creek near Lovell, Wyo.
381
1951-53
3
200.000
525
2862
2947
Shoshone Rivet at Kane, Wyo.
Bighorn River at Bighorn, Mont.
2.989
22.885
15.184 7
1960-63
1948-51
1952-54
4
4
1.543.0009
11.100,000
5169
485
1956-58
10
5.300.000
5.700.000
375
1960-63
7810
343
3085
3090
Tongue River at Miles City, Mont.
Yellowstone River at Miles City, Mont.
5.379
48,253
1947-51
1949-51
5
3
568,000
16,583,000
420,000
3095
Middle Fork Powder River above
Kaycee. Wyo.
450
1949-53
5
53,000
60,000'°
13310
3125
Powder River near Kaycee, Wyo.
980
1950-53
4
214,000
240,00010
24S10
3130
3135
South Fork Powder River near
Kaycee, Wyo.
Powder River at Sussex, Wyo.
1.150
3,090
1951-53
1950-53
3
4
1,115.000
2,690,000
1,800,00010
3.500,000l°
175,00010
5,500,000
1.56010
1,13 010
18010
910
3165
3170
Crazy Woman Creek near Arvada, Wyo.
Powder River at Arvada, Wyo.
956
6,050
1950-53
1947-57
4
11
150,000
4,850.000
3240
3265
Clear Creek near Arvada, Wyo.
Powder River near Locate, Mont.
1.110
13,189
1950-53
1950-53
4
4
120.000
5.000.000
150.000'°
7,000,000
13510
53010
3295
Yellowstone River near Sidney, Mont.
69,103
1938-63
26
27.380,000
20.982,000
304
' Not representative of natural yield because of irrigation return flow. Estimated 200.000 T/yr. under present conditions.
^ Not representative of natural yield because of irrigation return flow. Estimated 2S0.000 T/yr. under present conditions.
S Not representative of natural yield because of development of upstream controls. Estimated delivery of 60,000 tons per year or 225
tons per square mile per year under present conditions.
® Not representative of natural yield because of irrigation return flow.
7 Contributing area below Boysen Reservoir.
8 Estimated yield for standard period under conditions of upstream control as of I 963.
9 Not representative of natural yield owing to storage in Buffalo Bill Reservoir and irrigation developments.
10 Approximate.
-------
72
Tablel5(Continued)
Average Annual Sediment
Period
Standard
USGS
Drainage Area
of
Years
Period of
Period
Tons
Station
Gross
Contributing
Record
of
Record
1948-1963
Per
Number
Subbasin and Location
Sq. Mi.
Sq. Mi.
Years
Record
Tons
Tons
Sq. Mi.
Western C
akota Subbasin
3340
Little Missouri River near Alzada, Mont.
904
1949-51
3
130,000
150,000'
165'
3355
Little Missouri River at Marmarth, N. D.
4,570
1953-54
2
1,460,000
1,800,000'
395'
3360
Little Missouri River at Medora, N. D.
6,190
1946-51
6
3,620,000
3,000,000'
485'
3370
Little Missouri River near
Watford City, N. D.
8.490
1948-63
16
5,850,000
5,850,000
689
3395
Knife River near Golden Valley, N. D.
1,230
1947-49
3
151,000
100,000'
811
3405
Knife River at HL^en, N. D.
2,350
194 8-63
:(,
150,000
150,000
64
3430
Heart River near S. Heart, N. D.
315
1947-51
5
26,300
17,000'
54'
3455
Heart River near Richardton. N. D.
1,240
1947-52
6
324,000
200,000'
238'
3490
Heart River at Mandan. N. D.
1,600s
1950-54
5
1,020,000
673
1955-63
9
559,000
350
3510
Cannonball River near New Leipzig, N D.
1.140
1947-50
4
336,000
'200,000'
175'
3525
Cedar Creek near Pretty Rock, N. D.
1,340
1947-49
3
49,100
45,000'
341
3540
Cannonball River at Breien, N. D.
4,100
1949-51
1960-63
7
625,000
456,000
113
3550
N. Fork Grand River, Haley, N. D.
509
1962-63
2
9,530
29,010
57
3575
Grand River at Shadehill, S. D.
3,120
1946-50
5
605,000
... 2
3580
Grand River at Wakpala, S. D.
2,390
1951
7
451.0006
920,000
384
1958-63
3590
Moreau River at Bixby, S. D.
1,570
1949-51
3
476,000
2001
3595
Moreau River near Faith, S. D.
2,660
1947-49
3
649.000
450,000'
200'
3605
Moreau River, Whitehorse, S. D.
5,2234
1948-51
10
2,651,000
3,140,000
606
4,880
1958-63
3860
Lance Creek at Spencer, Wyo.
2,070
1951-54
4
830.000
800,000'
385'
3940
Beaver Creek near Newcastle, Wyo.
1,320
1950-57
8
139,000
200,000
150
4000
Hat Creek near Edgemont, S. D
1,044
1951-54
4
112.000
100'
4005
Cheyenne River near Hot Springs, S. D.
8,710
1946-63
18
1.707,000
1.662,000
191
4015
Cheyenne River below Angostura
,
Dam, S. D.
1952-53
9,1003
1955-63
1 1
1,230
4265
Belle Fourche River below Moorcroft,
Wyo.
1,730
1950-51
*>
43,000
60'
4370
Belle Fourche River near Sturgis, S. D.
5,870
1956-58
3
653,000
200'
4395
Cheyenne River, Eagle Butte, S. D.
24,500
1948-51
10
7,952,000
7,772,000
317
1958-63
4415
Bad River, Fort Pierre. S. D.
3.107
1948-63
16
4,225,000
4,225,000
1.350
4460
White River near Ogala, S. D.
2,200
1947-52
6
267,000
190,000
86
4470
White River near Kadoka, S. D.
5,000
1950-S4
5
7,463,000
7,500,000
1,500
4505
So. Fk. White River below White
River, S. D.
1951-54
1,570
1956-58
7
204,000
190,000
120
4520
White River, Oacoma, S. D.
10,200
1940-63
23
13,000,000
12,000.0Q0
1,177
4535
Ponca Creek at Anoka, Nebr.
410
1951-52
2
200,000
150,000'
370'
' Approximate;available data are insufficient to permit a reliable estimate of yield.
2 Shadehill Reservoir closed June 30, 19S0. Natural yield for period 1948-63 probably did not exceed 350,000 tons per year.
3 Outflow from reservoir.
4 At Promise, S. D. prior to 1959.
' Below Heart Butte Dam.
® Additional record by Corps of Engineers.
' Subsequent to storage in Shadehill Reservoir.
-------
73
Table]. Continued)
Average Annual Sediment
uses
Drainage Area
Period
of
Years
Period of
Standard
Period
Tons
Station
Number
Subbasin and Location
Gross
Sq. Mi.
Contributing
Sq. Mi.
Record
Years
of
Record
Record
Tons
1948-1963
Tons
Per
Sq. Mi.
6379.1
Rock Cr. at Atlantic City, Wyo.
21.3
1958-63
6
1.5603
6430
Bates Cr. near Alcova, Wyo.
393
1957-58
1951-53
2
100,200
6435
No. Platte River near Goose Egg. Wyo.
10,745
1957-58
5
314.2004
6450
No. Platte River below Casper, Wyo.
11,733
1948-52
5
527.0004
6500
No. Platte River near Douglas, Wyo
13,180
1948-52
5
699.0004
6540
No. Platte River near Cassa, Wyo.
14,621
1948-53
6
919.0004
6560
6700
No. Platte Rivet below Guernsey Res., Wyo.
Laramie River near Uva. Wyo.
15,021
3,818
1948-53
1953-57
6
5
57.4004
14.9004
7100
So. Platte R. at Littleton, Colo.
3,069
1942-48
7
384,0007
125
7120
Cherry Cr. near Franktown, Colo.
169
1942-45
1947-48
6
39.1007
231
7125
Cherry Cr. near Melvm. Colo.
360
1942-48
7
260.0007
722
7180
Clear Cr. below Idaho Springs, Colo.
264
1953-55
3
33.000
7185
No. Clear Cr. near Blackhawk, Colo
55.8
1953-55
3
2,300
7205
So. Platte R. near Henderson, Colo.
4,713
1942-44
1946-18
6
1.129.0007
299
7570
So. Platte R. at Sublette, Colo.
12,170
1944-48
5
729.0007
60
7580
Kiowa Cr. at Elbert, Colo.
28.6
1957-64
8
740
7581
West Kiowa Cr. at Elbert, Colo.
35.9
1963-64
2 ¦
800
7582
Kiowa Cr. at Kiowa, Colo.
11 1
1957-64
8
1,710
7590
Bijou Cr. near Wiegins, Colo.
1,314
1951-55
5
953,000
7595
So. Platte R. at Fort Morgan, Colo.
14,810
1944-48
5
l,827,0007
124
7600
So. Platte R at Balzac, Colo.
16.852
1942-48
7
1.328.0007
79
1 Stream flow unusually low in this period.
2 Yield affected by storage in Box Butte Reservoir and by large noncontribu ting areas.
3 Affected by storage in Rock Creek Reservoir, and by mining operations, since October 1961.
4 Sediment discharge greatly affected by storage and diversions.
® Total sediment load about 500,000 tons per year, (285 T/Y/Sq. Mi.).
® Partly estimated.
7 Records considered poor to fair.
39
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74
TABLE 10 —Artu and statu* of land within orating districts, 1971
suu
Ltndi admin if tered by the Bureau of Land Maoopnieiit
Vaeant
public
lands
Reserved lands
LU
Other
Other Federal Isnda
from which
Fees to
BLM
Fe^a to
otbfr
agencies
Non-Federal lands
administered
Under
the
Pierce
Act
By other
agree-
ment
Total
lands administered by other owners
Federal
lands
Private,
State, ete.
lands
Total
Grand total
Arisona
California,.
Montana..
Nevada...
New Mexico
Orrtfon
iuk
yomint
Total.
Acre*
9.873.762
2,226.850
6,896.738
11,090,937
4.974,963
43.484.354
11.092.087
12.fi7S.2IR
20,l:l3.:iiUi
10.897.269
Aerea
Acre*
37.072
866,362
,
426.773
36,017
1,856.498
72,768
323,728
1.869,482
43,583
3,167
966,614
224,603
276.8fi6
81 .542
107.312
18.487
1 ,878,766
3,266.621
A ere*
789,956
,130.097
182.043
366,392
724.202
,273.959
650,066
10,716
,738.842
177.045
Aeret
289.598
840
369,688
68,451
1.660
6K.H38
44,305
50 ,303
298.171
2,360
1.368
Acr*»
69 i 9 i 3
45.440
499.599
34,499
1,453,673
397
I .082,719
1,399,896
A ertt
11,866,740
3,843.633
8.017.576
12,723,102
7,715,180
47.182.427
12.201,H66
13.901.809
25.222.050
14.630.474
132,245,671
!,343,128
10,001,112
6,943,318
1,181,854
3,728
4,676,186
Acret
1,990,389
19,104
41.155
514.779
249,776
2,249,713
2,767.654
243,553
3L3,342
92.095
167,294,847
8.631,660
Act**
6,037,699
2,824,470
8,907.315
9,489,099
23.66rt.079
6 923,667
7, t>21.21X
5,990,086
13.017.861
7 .896.575
91.373,969
Acres
7,027,988
2,843,574
8,948.470
10,003,878
23,915,855
9.173,380
10.3H8.M72
6,233.039
13.381,20J
7.9«X.h70
99,905,629
Acre9
16.884,728
6,687.207
16.966.046
22,726.980
31 ,631 .0.15
46,;ir>5.K07
22.ftUO.72H
20.13S.44H
38.M1.I.25J
22, til 9.144
257.200.376
Table 17—Permitted use of grazing district lands, calendar years, 1967-71
State
A. Animal unita
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
Arisona
161,816
137.365
108,756
95,050
81,971
California
93.062
80.672
86,188
78,442
71,607
336,455
392,147
327,030
389,215
329,953
391.727
332,564
399,945
329.666
411.881
-Montana
Nevada
359,362
368,443
363,008
349,807
367,832
434,252
445.823
447.640
432,224
413,400
New Mexico
317,039
343.644
295,698
285.347
247.257
Oregon ..........
IJtan..
JYyQhilng
217,817
213,179
214.317
201,279
201,899
322,489
319,310
311,639
299,394
246,883
469,316
476,415
493,623
437,701
483,636
Total
3.093,764
3,100,996
3,042.449
2.911,763
2,866,932
B. Animal unit montha
Arisona
711.128
723,273
644.285
693,236
617,337
California.
249.515
236,859
225,462
199,580
t67,422
643,797
670,487
637,055
623,809
630,164
1.174.903
1,181,544
1,172,028
1.187,359
1,180,740
1,266,942
1,258,217
1.250,837
1,229,851
1,237.306
2,155,676
2,158,483
2,108,171
2,098,351
2.005,366
New Mexico
1.738,421
1,807,746
1,639,176
1.631.962
1,343.082
Oregon
Utah
916,408
1,273.286
899,242
1,238,493
888,662
1,201,244
879.889
1,171,789
911.469
933,092
' Wyoumg.....
1.605,630
1,490,680
1,470,786
1,864,709
1,360,617
Total
11.364,606
11,666,024
11.237.706
10,980,636
10.286.674
-------
Table 18 —Summary of permitted vet (does no/ include nonute permit* or etchange-
o/-um permtle) of grazing district 1cndt, calendar year 1971
75
Art ton*...
California.
State
Number of operators
Nevada..
•Jevad
New Mexico.
Oregon.
Wyoming.
ToUl operator*.
Arizona...
California.
Colorado . .
'KKKo
Number of livestock
sfevada.
New Mexico.
Oregon
yorolng.
Total llveatock.
Arisona...
California.
Anlmal-aalt-month* of on
da ho.
Mnntan*--- •
Nevada....,
New Mexico.
Orei
¦9.
regoi
tab.
yomlng.
Total aolfiiai-ijaltx&onthj of uao.
Cattle and
Sheep and
ToUl
horses
goat*
Svnbtr
Number
Number
603
7
610
266
46
312
1.268
822
1.680
1,801
261
2.062
2.435
248
2.683
761
107
868
1,409
318
1,727
837
18
856
1.477
423
1.900
909
416
1,324
11,666
2.155
13.811
79.202
13.845
9.1,047
48.716
114,469
163.176
238,310
4f»«i,2H2
694,r>»2
306.146
633.67H
H3H.H24
827.970
199,310
627,2M0
349.737
818.316
66M.0S3
209.137
ltfO.600
399.787
194.308
37.956
232.263
126.303
602.900
729,203
2H6.218
987.098
1.273,311
2.166,047
8.464.438
6.619.485
612.833
4.604
617,337
142,929
24.493
167,422
43B.947
191.217
630,164
931.233
249.607
1.180,740
1,110.IBS
127.118
1.237,306
1.728.244
277.111
2.006,366
1,128,719
214.363
1.343,082
K97.7S6
13.724
911,469
620,629
412.6G3
933,092
823,887
637,230
1,860,617
8,284,744
1,061,880
10,288,674
Tabu. 1^—Grating permits tn force on grating district lands, calendar year 1971
8UU
Permit*
Total
CattJe and
boraea
Sheep and
goat*
Reftlar permit*
Arizona ....................
Number
498
283
1.162
1,761
2,412
749
1.290
833
1.434
867
Number
8
84
249
219
289
96
164
U
870
222
Number
601
297
1,401
1,980
2,661
844
1,454
844
1,804
1,079
California................... . . ... .
Colorado . ...
Idaho _ ... .
Montana .
Nevjaa ....... ......... ....
-
ToUl regular permit*
11,249
1,606
12,866
Frea oae permit*
Arizona....................... . .....
1
1
1
1
1
1
Calilornla.................................. ....... ..
Colorado f
Ida no..... ................
Montana ....
rJevada.
4
118
4
263
. 160
Oregon
Ur*h ...
2
2
2
2
r^ramine- •
124
160
274
Croulng permit*
Arteona.............. ........ ...... .......
4
2
105
40
23
8
6
4
41
60
4
12
T8
32
9
12
4
7
68
193
8
14
178
. 72
82
20
10
11
94
248
Colorado
llrTs
Wycmlflg
288
899
682
Exchange of aae permit*
8
16
66
812
479
78
8
841
238
117
8
18
72
868
498
88
8
847
866
167
2
17
41
14
6
6
6
128
60
Colorado.
Utah
1,642
11.188
268
1,423
1.910
11,781
-------
Tablp 20-Permitted livestock (by typet of permit) on grazing district lands, calendar
year 1971
State
Cattle and
bones
Sheep and
goats
Arltona...
California.
Colorado..
Idaho
onlnna..
Regular permit* (active ue)
Nevada. . _ _
New Mexico.
-fe-
^Vyomii
yyomirg.
Total regular permits (active use).
Arltona
California.
Colorado..
Idaho_....
notBQft. .
Regular permits (nonoae)
-B
evada.
New Mexico.
Ore
yoming.
Arizona
California.
Total regular permits (rtonuse)..
Free use permits
New Mexico.
Orvgon .
Wyoming
Number
78.745
48,713
205,627
290.300
315,215
347.318
203.801
192.789
120.326
246.585
Number
7,495
95.369
363,864
474,698
189,350
300.728
173.107
27.405
536.837
562.894
2.061,419
12.123
13,907
29.794
16,029
2.809
72.165
28.432
27,748
29.825
42,139
275.022
2,731 ,727
1.210
68.653
100,030
44.244
2.380
138.406
17.209
2.700
157.504
205.860
738.196
Total free use permits.
Croeslng permits
Arizona .....
California...........................
New Mexico.
Ores on
Total croealng permits.
27
943
7.073
996
455
*32]682
14,846
12.765
2.392
4.393
1.519
6,970
87,621
7.073
6.350
19,100
92.428
58.98(1
9,960
17,588
10,420
10,650
66,063
424.199
Exchange of «ae permits
Alisons ...........................................
California
New Mexico
Oregon...............................................
Vrorola
112.633
161
2,624
4.392
16.600
9,491
13,614
86
26,017
8,896
10.643
716,638
3,500
8,571
66,225
2,341
7,105
120
6,060
66,104
63,984
Total adai^a of 1
Graad Total.
t pormita.
93.424
102,010
Z.M2.493
4.894,644
Table 21—Animal unit montMe (bp type of permits) of permitted use of grating
district lands, calendar year 1971
State
Arizona...
California.
Colorado,.
iauoo.
Regular permits (active ue)
Montana....
Nevada..
New Mexico.
Oregon
Utah
nr
yoming.
Total regular permits (active uae).
. . Regular permits (aoaoae)
Arizona ... _ ..........
California .III"....'.'.'."....".'..
Colorado.....
Idaho.
Montana _...
Nevada
New Mnlco.
Oregon.
Utah _
TVy
yyomin^.
Arizona
California.
Xaioiada..
Idaho
Total regular permit* (nonuse)..
Free uae permits
tana.
Cattle and
horses
AUATi
512,785
142,920
438,174
929,683
1,109.488
1.727.847
1,121.406
897,643
519.471
820,682
Sheep and
goats
8.220,099
94,967
30,927
66.352
104.611
14,725
471.746
212.074
113.982
162.441
88,537
1,350.262
Mevad
New Mexico.
Oregon ...
M
x
-V^ming.
178
7.002
Total free uae permit*.
Arltona
California....
Colorado
Idaho
Montana
Nevada
New Mexico.
Oregon
yuh...
Wyoming....
Crossing and trailing permits
Total crowing and trailing permits..
Exchange of Dee permits
Aritona
California....
Colorado
Idaho.::
New Mexico,
goo......
Oregoi
Utah.
Wyoming.
Total exchange of use permit*.
Grand total.................
7.290
24
768
1,650
700
219
311
92
1,019
2,672
AUM't
4,102
22.810
189.811
246.595
124.685
274,371
202,606
13.447
408.613
618,623
Total
AC/AT*
2,005.663
944
21.729
43,839
122,467
1.429
169,836
46.043
460
147.640
342.801
516.887
165.730
627,985
1.176,278
1.234,173
2,002,218
1,324.012
911.090
928.084
1,339,305
896.088
11,687
11,687
7,865
1.924
4,988
4.922
67,024
72,984
40,142
726
103,686
86,730
88,383
860,609
9,945,616
402
1,683
1,406
2,912
2.433
2,740
170
277
3,950
18,607
34.680
8.600
8,571
68,225
2,341
7,105
120
6,060
66,104
63,984
202,010
8,149,928
10,226,762
95,911
52.656
100.191
226.978
16.154
641,682
257.117
114,442
809,981
431,338
2,246.350
24
9
6
178
18.689
39
33
18,877
426
1,683
2,174
4,462
8,133
2,959
481
369
4,969
21,279
41,936
1.924
8.488
13,493
118,249
75,326
47,247
846
108,746
100.834
92,367
662,619
18,096,443
a>
-------
77
TABLE 2 2—Estimated use of Taylor Grating Act grazing lease land), calendar year
1971
Operators
Cattle and
horses .
Sbeep and
goats
EitimaUsi
actual uae
Estimated
capacity
available
Ariso&a
California.
dorado,.
Kansas...
Montana.
Nebraska.
broak
Nevada
New Mexico.
Notlhjjiakotg.
Oklahoma
Oregon:
O&C landa
Public landa l.
South Dakota
wyszamirrr.....
Total.
Numb tr
600
600
600
800
1,200
100
900
100
Numbtr
18,400
60.000
97,200
61,600
1.600
802.400
10,000
3,600
21,600
8.000
Sumbtr
600
140,400
236,6Q0
140,600
ieaTooo"
100
29]600
6,000
200
1,000
300
1.800
10,300
67,400
10,300
490.300
2,300
21.600
24,900
887.600
AUM't
161.400
174,400
63.700
66.900
100
196,200
1,600
34,900
262.400
10,200
300
26,300
108,500
71,500
637,900
8,000
1,167,600
1,661,900
1,826,200
AUM't
180,100
216,300
76,000
69.300
100
199,300
1,500
61,600
282.600
11,000
300
26,300
101,200
71,500
701.800
1,986,900
1 Iadudea Washing* - - data.
TABLE 23—Grazing leases in force, calendar year 1971
State
Number
Acre*
Annual rental
Alaska i...
Arizona
California.
prado..
Kansas........
Miytpna,-
Nebraska ...
Nevada
New Mexico
J)akota.
Oklahoma.
Oregon:
O&C landa *.
Public landa..
i pakota
IbullL
Wyotc
yorcung..
32
496
669
563
672
6
1,282
61
19
881
99
6
181
1,062
361
1,969
1,610,870
1,488,216
4,090,812
467,161
293.419
640
1,179.849
3,849
2.365.236
1,390,930
63,707
648
449,643
845,692
294,966
3,313,907
Total gracing leaaea.
8,318
17,739,643
$8,777 18
102,936 46
118,801.68
39,935.79
34,336 26
21.62
116,281 88
806.34
22,920.94
166,668.92
6,496.64
238.67
22,440.47
66,115 84
46,788.00
306.913 34
1,048,368.83
* Authority for the issuance of graalng leases in Alaaka is found in the act of Mar. 4, 1927 (44 Stat.
1462),
* Issued pursuant to the authority contained in the act of Aug. 28, 1937 (60 Stat. 874).
Norm.—All leases shown ia this table except those in Alaska and on the O&C landa In Oregon, were
Issued pursuant to the authority contained in sec. 16, act of June 28, 1934 (48 Stat. 1269).
Table 24—aiM' watershed conservation program accomplishments, 197t
Practice
Soil Subluxation A Improvement
Brush Control
Seeding
Other Soil Stabilization ...
Water Management
Detention and Diversions
Do
Do
Dikes ...
Pipelines
Reservoirs...
Do
Do
Springs
Water Catchment* ....
Do (storage).
Supplemental Water Facilities.
Wells
Do (Ave. Depth)
Program Facilities
Cattleguards.
Fencing......
Traila
Unit of
measurement
Acres..
do.
.do.
Cu. Yda.
Number..
Acre Ft..
Cu. Yds..
Milea
Cu. Yda_.
Number,.
Acre Ft._
Number..
do
Gallons. _
Number..
Feet.
.do.
Number..
Milea....
do...
Ariiona
1,986
86,669
7
590
26
6,950
1
3
1
50,000
9
6
46
Cali-
fornia
Colorado
686
100
3,180
T876
1
1
1
24
3,866
3,668
168,673
23
2.400
2
2
31
3
193,000
6
2
767
Idaho
60,647
60,900
1
16
32
13,259
6
16
22
14
3
1,124
15
189
Mon-
tana *
1,876
181
220
6
302,592
72
669
7
3
76,000
12
4
2,718
Nevada
200
13,691
189
50
6,000
3
6
12
16
6
2,736
13
223
New
Mexico
Oregon 1
27
71,362
18
63
16
2
1,066
4
76
8,296
23,044
8,384
38
60,114
16
26
36
2
60,000
56
6
1,280
5
96
Utah
Wyo-
ming
266
100
60,903
2
203
64
36,614
9
43
17
12
276,417
55
249
3
12
13
86
4
9
8,976
12
66
1 Indludea South Dakota.
* lad odea Washington*
-------
78
TABLU 25—RanV* improvement ¦program accomplishments, 1972
Practic*
Unit of
measurement
Arizona
Cali-
fornia
Colorado
Ida bo
Mon-
tana 1
Nevada
New
Mexico
Oregon *
Utah
Total
Soil Stabilisation & Improvement
Brash Control. .....................
Seeding.
Acre'
Water Management
Pipelines .
Reservoirs..
Do
Do
Springs
Water Catchment*
Do (storage)
Supplemental Water Facilities..
Wells
Do (Ave. depth)
Program Facllltlea
Cattleguards
Exclosures and Corrals.
Fencing..............
TraUs
Miles
Co. Yds..
Number..
Acre Ft..
Number..
do
Gallons..
Number..
do
Feet
16
12.425
2
4
I
28,000
14
3
987
Number.
do..,
Miles. ...
do..
42
43,780
13
29
11
3
141,000
1
122
320
160
36
165.774
37
396
17
4,760
37
.816
1
2
19
4,416
67
.374
2
13
825
404
32
58,334
21
39
8
300
37
48.741
30
62
6
30
93,968
21
69
16
8
6
1.122
14
8
.644
66
1
600
9
4
1,100
16
4,750
t Includes South Dakota.
* Includes Washington.
6,400
5,784
220
427,212
127
604
114
4
169,000
117
41
10,275
100
1
430
7
Table 26 —Private range improvements constructed on public lands, 197t
Practice
Unit of
measurement
Arizona
Cali-
fornia
Colorado
Idaho
Man*
tana *
Nevada
New
Mexico
Oregon *
Utah
Wyo-
ming
Total
Soil Stabilisation ft Improvement
Brush Control ....
Acee
25
1,110
1,136
220
82
396.346
193
247
15
1
900
2
20
10,617
16
4
127
19
flaedtng. ..............................
30
200
74
61,500
17
37
2
Water Management
Pipelines
6
13.900
9
4
1
12,210
7
20
2
1
40,534
14
60
2
Reservoirs.............................
Cu. Yds
213,077
124
74
4
6,840
7
14
1
48.286
16
38
1
Do
Do
Springs
3
Water Catchments.....................
1
900
1
Do (storage)....
Gallons
Supplemental Water Facilities
Number
1
1
360
2
Wells
3
870
2
3
481
2
1
J 00
2
2
2,987
2
6
2.390
8
4
3,339
2
Do (Ave. depth)
Feet
Program Facilities
Cattleguards
Exdonira and Corrals .......
4
26
6
TraUs...... ...........
13
1
41
1 hdita South Dakota.
¦ lodttdes Washington.
Table 27—Total conservation and improvement accomplishments, 1972
Practice
Unit of
measurement
Arizona
Cali-
fornia
Colorado
Idaho
Mon-
tana 1
Nevada
New
Mexico
Oregon
Utah
Wyo-
ming
Total
Soil Stabilization ft Improvement
Brush Control .......
Seediog....
Other SoQ Stabilisation
Water Management
Detention and Diversions.
Do
Do
Dikes
Pipelines................
Reservoirs.. .....
Do
Do
Springs
Water Catchments..
Do (storage)
Supple mental Water Facilities.... .....
Weils
Do (Ave. depth).
Pragram Facilities
Cattlegusrda.
Fencing......
Trails
Acres..
.....do.
.....do..
1,985
Cu. Yds.
Number.
Acre Ft.,
Cu. Yds.
Miles
Cu. Yds.
Number.
Acre Ft.
Number.
.....do..
Gallons..
Number.
do..
Feet
86,669
7
590
48
322.285
12
11
Number.
Miles
.....do...
2
78,000
23
6
1,837
706
25
3.865
3,558
100
6
1
.180
1
.875
1
1
4
1
900
1
3
36
168,673
24
259,257
139
103
42
6
334,000
7
7
1,360
8
118
23
50,868
3.146
181
220
200
18,351
189
4,416
9,120
23,448
665
100
60.900
1
16
37
25,469
13
66
67
17
4
1,324
30
193
11
498,900
123
1,025
26
3
76,000
12
13
€.827
26
113
87
10,816
4
8
33
158
142,236
37
113
2
29
13
4,280
40
314
2
71
9
4,046
16
103
8.334
70
108.448
36
63
47
2
60.000
70
8
1.680
16
149
2
60,903
2
203
91
92,196
46
119
23
42
418,670
91
346
19
21
4
.100
19
136
10
10
29
17,082
27
168
17,008
99.969
3,967
198,672
16
810
180.087
569
1,880,151
502
1.845
253
14
537,900
261
93
39,636
195
1,421
37
1 Indudes Sleuth Dakota.
i Includes Washington
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79
COLORADO
Introduction
The 1967 Conservation Needs Inventory includes 42,406,000 acres of non-
federal land or about 64% of the total land area of the State. Most of the
excluded land is administered by Federal agencies which have previously made
studies of the land's conservation needs. Urban and built-up areas of 10
acres or more and all water areas also are excluded. The inventory acreage
consists of 11,786,000 acres of cropland, 22,6^4,000 acres of pasture and range,
6,964,000 acres of forest and woodland and 1,012,000 acres of other land.
(Figure 12.)
Major changes in land use as shown in the inventory since 1958 are:
1. Increases of about 433,000 acres in irrigated cropland. The increase in
irrigated acreage is primarily from the development of wells and sprinkler
irrigation from the underground water resource in eastern Colorado. The.
conversion to irrigated land has been on previously non-irrigated cropland
and range.
2. Non-irrigated cropland has decreased about 644,000 acres because of in-
creased irrigation and the conversion of cropland to pasture and range
under the Soil Bank program and the Great Plains Conservation Program.
3. There was a net increase in range of about 433,000 acres even though
some rangeland was converted to irrigated cropland.
4. Forest and woodland showed a decrease of 824,000 acres. This is mostly
because a different method was used in the 1967 inventory for estimating
forest and woodland acreage. However, records for each county since 1962
indicate that some of the' brushy lands classed as woodland are now in
other uses including range, recreation, urban and suburban tracts.
5. Other land and urban land increased about 557,000 acres as a result of
industrial expansion, housing and other facilities for a continuously
increasing population at the expense of all previous land use.
Fifty-two percent of the cropland acres in the 1967 Inventory are estimated
to be needing treatment. The 1958 Inventory estimated treatment needs of 69%.
Forty-seven percent of the pasture and range needs treatment according to the
present Inventory compared with an estimate of 73% in 1958. On all forest and
woodland, the estimated acreage needing treatment amounts to 19%. However, 73X
of the grazed woodland needs management practices to improve forage cover.
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80
FIGURE 12
LAND USE AND INVENTORY ACREAGES
COLORADO (1967)
1000's of Acres
1.5% Urban 1,031
.5% Water 52
¦4.5% Irrigated Cropland 3,083
L1.0% Irrigated Pasture 663
1.0% Nonirrigated
Pasture 690
1.5% Other 1,012
Inventory Acreage 42,406
-------
81
LAND RESOURCE AREAS
Colorado contains all or parts of 15 nationally recognized land resource
areas. These are Central Desertic Basins, Mountains, and Plateaus; Colorado
and Green Rivers Plateaus; San Juan River Valley Mesas and Plateaus; Wasatch
and Uinta Mountains; Southern Rocky Mountains, Southern Rocky Mountain Alpine
Meadows and Rockland; Southern Rocky Mountain Foothills; San Luis Valley;
High Intermountain Valleys; Central High Plains; Irrigated Upper Platte River
Valley; Upper Arkansas Valley Rolling Plains; Pecos-Canadian Plains and Valleys;
Central High Tableland; and Southern High Plains. However, grouping of the
15 resource areas into four permits a more easily understood discussion of the
conservation needs of the State. The four areas of consideration are:
1. A grouping of Central High Plains; Irrigated Upper Platte River Valley;
Pecos-Canadian Plains and Valleys; and Southern High Plains groups the
lands of the eastern Colorado plains that receive more than 13 inches mean
annual precipitation. About 60% of the area is suitable for cultivation.
Agriculture is based on dry crop farming, irrigated cropping, and grazing
or rangelands. Soils are dominantly deep and loamy and on slopes of less
than 6%. They are neutral to mildly alkaline in reaction and are moderate
to high in plant nutrients. The semi-arid climate with major fluctuations
in annual precipitation lead to most of the agricultural and conservation
problems of the area.
2. The Upper Arkansas Valley Rolling Plains Resource Area, also on the eastern
Colorado plains is distinctive because of its low (less than 13") mean
annual precipitation. In general, the only lands successfully cropped are
those that are irrigated. Dry cropping is marginal and is of minor extent
except in parts of Prowers and Kiowa Counties. Agriculture of the area
is based on grazing of the extensive rangelands and cropping of the irrigated
valley land. Soils are dominantly loamy, but many are shallow and most
are light-colored and low in organic matter. The low and erratic precipi-
tation of the area accompanied with severe dust storms in many years is
the primary agricultural and conservation problem of the area.
3. Grouping of land resource areas. Southern Rocky Mountain Alpine Meadows
and Rockland; Wasatch and Uinta Mountains; Southern Rocky Mountains; Southern
Rocky Mountain Foothills; San Luis Valley; and High Intermountain Valleys
group the foothill, mountain, and intermountain valley lands of the State.
Agriculture of this part of the State is based on cropping and haying of
the irrigated valley lands and the grazing of the range and grazable wood-
lands of the adjacent slopes, mesas and mountains. Major parts of the
area are federal lands managed by the U.S. Forest Service, the U.S. Bureau
of Land Management, and the National Park Service, and these federal lands
are excluded from the inventory. Soils of most of the area are steep and
rocky; however, the irrigated valley lands are dominantly gently sloping
loamy soils that are underlain with gravel and cobble at depths of 20 to
-------
82
AO inches. Elevations range from about 5,500 to over 14,000 feet, and
the climate is cool to cold. A short growing season for crops, the manage-
ment and proper use of irrigation water, and the proper grazing use of the
steep range areas are the major agricultural and conservation problems
of the area.
4. Combining Central Desertic Basins, Mountains and Plateaus; Colorado and
Green Rivers Plateaus; and San Juan River Vallay Mesas and Plateaus, land
resource groups, the desertic basins, valleys, mesas, plateaus and moun-
tains of the western slope of the State. Except for areas along the major
streams that are irrigated, this group is uses primarily for grazing of
sheep and cattle. Successful cropping is not possible without irrigation.
Irrigated lands produce a variety of crops, including fruits. More than
half the rangelands are federally-owned and are not a part of this inven-
tory. Irrisated lands are comprised mainly of gently sloping deep and
medium depth loamy soils that are moderately saline. Range areas are
mainly comprized of sloping and steep, shallow and medium depth soils
underlain by sandstone and shale.. Management of irrigation water and
the prevention and reduction of excess salinity are the major agricultural
and conservation problems of the irrigated areas. Management of live-
stock to prevent over-grazing is the prime problem of the range area.
Once the grasses and forbes of this desertic area are damaged they are
very slow to recover.
CONSERVATION TREATMENT NEEDS
Rangeland - Colorado landowners manage and adequately treat 11,311,768
acres of rangeland. This is well over half the total rangeland; Rangeland
needing treatment amounts to 9,931,476 acres or approximately 47% of the total.
Proper grazing management, which will maintain adequate cover for soil
protection and maintain or improve the quantity and quality of desirable vege-
tation, is the most urgent conservation need on range. This represents three-
fourths of the rangeland needing treatment. This kind of range is presently
vegetated but has been damaged due to lack of grazing management.
Rangeland needing (1) an adapted type of mechanical treatment or (2)
brush control makes up a little more than one out of every eight acres of range-
land needing treatment. Sagebrush, greasewood rabbitbrush, oak, pinyon, or
juniper interfere with grazing use, erosion control, water conservation, and
forage production on 1,321,392 acres. It should be noted, however, that the
removal of shrub from public lands affects deer populations as well as small
game. Whatever benefits are to be derived from such management practices must
be weighed against the resultant consequences to wildlife. This is a controversial
-------
83
Issue on private land as well. The Federal/private land ownership pattern
often share similar control programs.
A little less than 10% of the rangeland needing treatment will require
the reestablishment of vegetative cover for soil protection and forage produc-
tion. This will necessitate planting adapted species and protection until they
are fully established. Some range needing reestablishment of cover will re-
quire a combination of brush control and reseeding.
Forest and Woodland - There are 6,963,501 acres in woodland, of which
2,696,875 are commercial species and 4,266,626 non-commercial woodland. If
the commercial forest area is to be fully developed, 269,703 acres would re-
quire supplemental extablishment or reestablishment and 1,029,282 acres would
require timber stand improvement for improved production. Approximately 14,000
acres of non-commercial forest are in' need of stand establishment or reestablish-
ment as woodland. Eighty-one percent of the forests and woodland is adequately
treated.
A total of 5,126,202 acres, or 74% of the forest and woodland is grazed.
Fifty-one percent of the grazed woodland needs management practices to improve
forage production, 22% is in need of grazing reduction or elimination and 27%
is adequately treated.
Other Land - About 300,000 acres of other land are in need of conservation
treatment to prevent erosion. Because much of this acreage is in such exposed
usses such as roads, ditches, waste, barren, or mineral lands, it is probably
the most difficult area to treat.
-------
84
WATERSHED PROJECT NEEDS
Almost 1.5 million acres in the Colorado watershed inventory are subject
to floodwater and sediment damages (Table 14). The inventory also shows that
local people need some type of project action to solve problems on 1.3 million
acres of agricultural and 23,000 acres of urban area subject to floodwater and
sediment damages, and 8.4 million acres of erosion damage. Of the almost 500
watersheds under 250,000 acres in size in the inventory, 406 indicated a need
for assistance in recreational developments, 310 have water quality problems,
and 227 have rural water supply problems.
A total of 164 watersheds need some type of project action covering 327o
of the Colorado inventory acreage. These watersheds collectively show flood-
water and sediment damages to 672,000 acres of agricultural and 18,000 acres
of urban land and erosion damage on over 3 million acres (Table 15). An
accurate estimate of the potential feasibility of these watershed areas for
PL 566 projects could only be made after an exhaustive study of the treatment
and structural costs and benefits. Past experience indicates that less than
10% of these watersheds can be expected to become authorized PL 566 projects.
Therefore, it is very important that all other available programs should be
used to the fullest extent to solve or reduce damages in these watersheds.
-------
85
The Soil Conservation Service has just recently completed an intensive
study of sediment yields for each county in Colorado. The accompanying map (Fig. 13)
presented here is a compilation of that data into one comprehensive state sedi-
ment yield map. The dark, lined areas indicate high yield, the lightly dotted
areas, low yield. The SCS attributes many of the sediment yield problems
evident in the state to man's influence on the environment. Though intensive
investigation might produce specific cause and effect situations, it is diffi-
cult with existing data to pin-point with unassailable accuracy where man
contributes more to the problem than nature.
Tables 27 and 28 show summary of reservoir sedimentation surveys.
Tables 29, 30, and 31 show suspended sediment and salt load discharges by
region and subregion.
-------
WYOMING
yiGlT'E 13
NEBRASKA
Sedtmenf yield it defined os the emounf of sediment frontported by water from source oreas into local drainage systems The quantities shown ore annual averages over
o fa*rly long period, such as 25 years or more and are derived from the following sources (I) reservoir- surveys by SCS.USGS.ond USCE;(2) suspended sed'ment lood
me c sure menu bv US GS, USRRnndU^^P#,nd(3^*"*'*nateS'',"*'1irnan4 * ' 1 rrvad qpro ^
-------
87
Table 28. SUMMARY ©F RESERVOIR SEDIMENTATION SURVEYS
BY REGION AMD SUBREAGION FOR THE STATE OF COLORADO
3 i
:Original:
Reser-
Average
Annual
"Drainage
: Storage:
voir
Sediment
: Capacity
Reservoir Stream
:: Area
:Capacity:
Age
Deposit
: Loss
:: (sq. mi.)
:(ac.ft.) :
(Yrs.)
(ac.ft/sq.mi
) : (percent)
. -j-ssouri Region
South Platte (1019)
Lake Cheesman
1,766
79,064
31
.02
.05
Englewood
9.40
1,282
20
.36
.26
Evergreen
106
—
34
.08
—
Castlewood
167
3,834
43
.10
.43
Willow Creek W-I
7.60
387.0
4
1.63
3.21
Kenwood
387
9,802
3
.30
1.19
Round Butte
11.7
831
60
.07
.09
Slab Canyon CCC
3.15
311.4
30
.25
.25
Coalbank Creek CB-1
27.0
2,147
9
.05
.06
Kiowa Creek K-79
3.20
129.5
10
.24
.59
Kiowa Creek J-33
1.07
42.5
9
.05
.13
Kiowa Creek B-9
.65
49.4
9
.09
.11
Kiowa Creek Q-51
.56
32.3
9
.42
.74
Kiowa Creek R-3
2.92
147.6
10
.32
.64
Reichelt Stock Pond
.72
22.1
7
.28
.92
epublican (1025)
, Wray W-6
1.70
204.3
12
.38
.32
rkansas-White-Red Region
' Upper Arkansas (1102)
Teller
78.8
4,005
29
.68
1.33
Cucharas
608
38,274
27
.93
1.47
Hardesty
13.48
563
60
.05
.11
Brown Reservoir No. 1
74.6
758
39
.23
2.16
Fishers Peak FPC-1
1.14
346.3
7
1.61
.53
Muddy Creek
154
16,918
20
.54
.48
Horse Creek
52
36,203
39
.24
.03
John Martin
13,915
701,755
26
.175
.45
Big Sandy S-l
5.4
326
3
1.48
2.48
_pper Colorado Region
.. Gunnison (1404)
Roatcap Wash RW-1
11.6
829.6
6
.28
.39
Colorado Main Stem (1405)
CCC Reservoir No. 6
1.75
16.73
23
.85
Badger Detention (14)
1.53
201.52
5
1.62
East Basin (11)
.089
5.34
6
1.61
Lower Hanks (1-B)
.084
19.80
16
1.78
Lower Oil Well (3-A)
.059
12.92
17
3.05
Middle Basin (12)
.092
16.93
6
3.30
North Basin (3-B)
.048
8.10
17
2.50
Prairie Dog (4-A)
.022
3.05
17
4.05
Southeast (13)
.484
27.25
6
1.87
Upper Hanks (1-A)
.066
8.30
16
2.72
West Twin
.148
6.30
16
3.04
Windy Point (4-B)
.019
ICO
4.52
o j, c
16
1 c
2.63
n •> >
8.89
1.23
2.63
.76
1.39
1.79
1.48
2.95
3.32
2.16
7.14
1.11
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88
WYOMING
Introduction
Although Wyoming's population has not grown as it has in most states in
recent years, projections point to an increased population in the next decade.
A growing population will place a greater emphasis and demand on natural re-
sources of soil and water for the requirements of everyday living. An inven-
tory of these resources and an analysis of needs was made between 1958 and 1960.
This inventory of needs was updated between 1966 and 1968 and published in
printed form in 1970. A review of this inventory follows. For specific de-
tails one should consult the Wyoming Conservation Needs Inventory (1970).
Development of energy resources in Wyoming, coal, uranium, oil shale, will
probably change this situation to a great extent. It will have much potential
effect on land use and erosion problems.
Table 29 UNO USE ACRES
Wyoming
NON-INVENTORY
Federal
Urban and
SmalI Water
Noncropland
Bu i1t-up
Areas
Total
29,206,871
762,342
184,010
30,153,223
INVENTORY
Cropland " —————————
Irrigated Dry Pasture Range Forest Other Total
1,932,211 1,111,612 320,240 27,009,363 1,554,421 224,905 32,152,752
-------
89
Table 30 LAND USE COMPARISON
Wyoming
Land Use 1958 1967
Federal Noncropland
Urban and Bu i1t-up
Small Water Areas
Total Non-Inventory
Crop 1 and
Pasture
Range
Forest
Other
Total Inventory
29,104,740
29,206,871
239,620
762,342
91 ,195
184,010
29,435,555
30,153,223
2,493,900
3,043,823
467,400
320,240
28,170,900
27,009,363
1,585,820
1 ,554,421
152,400
224,905
32,870,420
32,152,752
Table 31 LAND USE CAPABILITY CLASSES
Wyoming
IRRIGATED
Cap.
Class
Crop 1 and
Pasture
Range
Forest
Other
Total
1
99,986
99,986
11
379,983
379,983
111
870,662
2,478
873,140
IV
304,920
304,920
V
112,899
112,899
VI
121,161
121,161
VI1
41,874
41,874
VI11
726
726
Total
1,932,211
2,478
1,934,689
Wyoming
Table 32 IRRIGATED AND DRY
Cap.
Class
Crop 1 and
Pasture
Range
Forest
Other
Total
1
100,818
--
—
--
1,258
102,076
11
432,413
7,235
23,381
1 ,104
10,780
474,913
III
1,415,614
68,701
1,275,768
26,735
42,153
2,828,971
IV
685,301
76,963
3,411,105
66,117
31,846
4,271 ,332
V
112,931
2,049
53,253
5,839
2,351
176,423
VI
235,527
72,614
11,100,253
486,889
62,815
11,958,098
VI1
60,490
90,832
8,549,978
525,701
53,545
9,280,546
VI11
729
1 ,846
2,595,625
442,036
20,157
3,060,393
Total
3,043,823
320,240
27,009,363
1,554,421
224,905
32,152,752
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90
Cropland
The inventory shows a total of 3,043,823 acres of cropland in Wyoming.
828,078 acres are adequately treated which represents 27.3% of the rotated
cropland.
Rotated cropland totaling 2,209,111 acres is in need of conservation treat-
ment to protect and improve the land. 254,117 acres are in need of annual cover
crops, crop residues, or other annual recurring measures; 27,521 acres are in
need of sod in the rotation; 29,134 acres are in need of contouring; 276,444
acres are in need of stripcropping, diversions, and terraces to treat and pro-
tect the land in addition to measures that may be used to supplement these
practices; 72,027 acres need a change in land use to perennial vegetation; 200
acres need an adequate drainage system to remove excess surface or internal
water; 126,372 acres of irrigated cropland need improved cultural or management
measures; 608,000 acres need improved irrigation systems; and 815,296 acres
need proper irrigation water management. (Table 33)
Table 3^ CONSERVATION TREATMENT NEEDS FOR ROTATED CROPLAND
Treatment
Acres
Percent
Treatment adequate (irrigated
and dry)
828,078
27.3
Residue and annual cover
254,117
8.4
Sod in rotation
27,521
0.9
Contouri ng
29,134
0.9
Stripcropping, terracing, and
d i vers ions
276,444
9.1
Permanent cover
72,027
2.4
Drainage
200
—
Cultural management practices
only on
i rr i
gated land
126,372
4.2
Improved systems on irrigated
1 and
608,000
20.0
Water management on irrigated
1 and
815,296
26.8
Total
3,037,189
Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is the dominant limitation on 1,443,870 acres. Treatment is
adequate on 428,210 acres, but the other 1,015,660 acres need conservation
treatments that will control erosion and improve these soils.
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91
Soils vary in their susceptibility to erosion and to the amount of loss
that can be tolerated. Soil factors such as textrue, permeability, infiltration
rate, and soil slope influence the susceptibility to erosion. Soil loss tol-
erance is influenced by soil depth and the number and arrangement of contrasting
horizons.
This land is nearly level to steep and the erosion hazard is slight to
severe. In most dry farming areas cultivation is generally limited to 0 to
10 percent slopes. Irrigated row crops are best suited to 0 to 2 percent
slopes, but 3 to 6 percent slopes can be used if adequate conservation measures
are used. Slopes of 6 to 10 percent are best suited to close-growing crops
when irrigated. Ten to 15 percent slopes can be used for irrigated hay and
pasture.
In many parts of Wyoming high wind velocities are common and with erosion
is a serious problem on cultivated land and overgrazed rangeland.
Wind stripcropping and stubble mulch are the principal conservation prac-
tices used on dry cropland to control wind erosion. Ridges left by deep furrow
drills aid in the control of wind erosion on the sandier soils.
In the irrigated areas wind erosion is a problem on most soils but is most
prevalent on sandy soils left bare by row crops which produce little or no
residue. Rough tillage on bare land, maximum use of crop residues, close-growing
crops, and alternate strips of row crops with high residue-producing crops are
important conservation practices for control of wind erosion on irrigated land.
In many parts of the State short durations of intense rainfall results in
serious erosion problems on cultivated or unprotected land. Improperly designed
irrigation systems and careless irrigation methods are responsible for much of
the water erosion on irrigated land. Conservation practices such as good
irrigation water management, coutour furrows, bench leveling, close-growing crops,
and sod-forming crops in the rotation are useful in the control of water erosion
on irrigated land.
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92
To control water erosion on dry cropland conservation practices such as
terraces, contour stripcropping, and maximum utilization of crop residues can
be used.
Rangeland can be protected from both wind and water erosion by maintaining
a good grass cover. This requires good range management to prevent over-grazing
and reseeding of native range when needed.
Excess \lztz~
Excess water caused by permanent and fluctuating water tables is a domi-
nant problem on 405,142 acres. Some of these water tables are natural, but
some are caused by poor irrigation water management and seepage from irrigation
canals and ditches. Flooding is a minor cause of excess water in Wyoming.
Treatment is adequate on 62,530 acres, but the other 243,612 acres need treat-
ment to improve the land.
This land is nearly level to gently sloping and is moderately well to
very poorly drained. It is used for grazing, and production of native hay.
/
Alfalfa is grown on the better drained areas. Erosion is a minor problem but
can be serious if the vegetation is destroyed and the soil left bare.
In some areas drainage is feasible, but the value of the forage or crop
that can be grown after the soil is drained should be considered in developing
a drainage system. Proper irrigation water management and lining canals and
ditches would help to decrease this problem.
-------
Pasture
The Inventory shows a total of 320,240 acres of pasture in Wyoming. Of
all the pasture, 7,235 acres are class II land; 68,701 acres are class III
land; 76,963 acres are class IV land; 2,049 acres are class V land; 72,614
acres are class VI land; 90,832' acres are class VII land; and 1,846 acres are
class VIII land.
The conservation needs on pasture land related to establishment and main-
tenance of cover are expressed as follows: 74,331 acres are adequately treated;
1,846 acres are not feasible to treat; 195,012 acres need protection only; 19,898
acres need improvement only; 18,433 acres need brush control and improvement;
6,815 acres need reestablishment of vegatative cover; and 3,905 acres need re-
establishment of vegetative cover with brush control (Table 34)
Table 34
CONSERVATION TREATMENT NEEDS FOR PASTURE LAND
Treatment
Acres
Percent
Adequate
74,331
23.2
Not feasible
1,846
0.6
Protection only
195,012
60.9
Improvement only
19,898
6.2
Brush control
18,433
5.8
Re-establishment of vegetative cover
6,815
2.1
Re-establish with brush control
3,905
1 .2
Total
320,240
Range
The inventory shows a total of 27,009,363 acres of rangeland in Wyoming..
Of all the range, 23,381 acres are class II land; 1,275,768 acres are class
III land; 3,411,105 acres are class IV land; 53,253 acres are class V land;
11,100,253 acres are class VI land; 8,439,978 acres are class VII land; and
2,595,625 acres are class VIII land.
The conservation needs on rangeland related to establishment and mainten-
ance of cover are expressed as follows: 4,697,117 acres are adequately treated;
-------
94
1,703,103 acres are not feasible* to treat; 3,328 acres need a change in land use
to trees; 13,300,125 acres need protection only; 2,088,582 acres need improve-
ment only; 4,916,095 acres need brush control and improvement; 170,236 acres
need reestablishment of the vegetative cover, and 130,717 acres need reestablish-
ment of the vegetative cover with brush control.
Table 35 CONSERVATION TREATMENT NEEDS FOR RftNOF.T.ANT)
Treatment
Acres
Percent
Adequate
4,697,177
17.4
Not feasible
1 ,703,103
6.3
Change in use
3,328
—
Protection only
13,300,125
49.3
Improvement only
2,088,582
7.7
Brush control
4,916,095
18.2
Re-establishment of vegetative cover
170,236
0.6
Re-establish with brush control
130,717
0.5
Total
27,009,363
*Land "Not Feasible" to treat generally falls within the 7 or 8 land
classification. These are lands called "shallow stony" or "shallow
shale", on 40° or more slope than produce high runoff. To treat them
would not enhance their productivity in an economic sense.
Protection
The pasture or range is in an overgrazed contition, but the desired vege-
tation is still present. Only livestock management and distribution is needed
to enable it to recover and reseed naturally.
Improvement
The forage cover on pasture and range is inadequate but can be improved or
restored by applying recommended management practices and following recommended
grazing systems. The desired vegetation is present but is so thin and in such
poor condition that it needs an application of minerals, weed control, and
mechanical measures to obtain a satisfactory stand.
-------
95
Brush Control
Encroachment of woody and noxious plants on pasture and range has destroyed
or threatens the grass cover. It can be Improved by chemical or mechanical
measures.
Reestablishment of Vegetative Cover
The pasture or range is in such poor condition it needs complete re-
establishment. The desired type of vegetation is missing and must be re-
established with protection from grazing damage until it is established.
Forest and Woodland
A very high percentage of the forest and woodland acreage in Wyoming is
Federally-owned. Since the acreage of privately-owned forest is small and
scattered in most counties, it was apparent that the sample areas did not
supply a very realistic figure for forest and woodland acres. In this report
privately-owned forest and woodland acreages supplied by the Rocky Mountain
Forest Experiment Station forest survey were used.
In this Inventory every acre of woodland in Wyoming has been classified as
either commercial or noncommercial, and conservation needs have been estimated
separately for each category.
Almost 30% (460,164 acres) of the total Inventory acreage of forest land
is considered to be noncommercial. Treatment is neither needed nor justifiable
on much of this land, either because it is devoted to watershed, wildlife, or
recreational uses, or because the site is too poor to be either planted or re-
planted (where previous plantings have failed) in order to provide adequate
surface cover; and there are 32,545 acres on which domestic livestock are causing
damage detrimental to conservation interests. The cattle must be excluded in •
order to permit the regeneration of the forest.
Over 49% of the total area of-commercial forest land is now sufficiently
well managed. These 539,276 acres of woodland require only protection and
good management to keep them productive. This is not true, however, of 167,142
-------
96
acres of tree-covered land which is producing below its potential because of
inadequate stocking. The woodlands in this category should either be planted
or be treated to encourage natural regeneration of the forest.
Damage from grazing by domestic livestock is considered to be a conserva-
tion problem on 83,485 acres of forest land. Grazing in woodlands can damage
trees and their roots by trampling, compact the soil, and destroy small trees
and other ground cover. As a result, the growth rate and quality of the timber
are reduced, rainfall nercolation is decreased, runoff and soil erosion are in-
/
creased, and future timber crops are destroyed. On much of the area in this
category the conservation need is to exclude livestock, allowing a natural
return to productivity, but on areas which have been heavily grazed for long
periods of time, more positive surface renovation measures must be taken. Often
the quality of the existing timber is poor; and because of surface soil compac-
tion, unaided natural regeneration is either very slow to develop, very sparse,
or both.
TABLE 36
CONSERVATION TREATMENT NEEDS FOR GRAZED FOREST LAND
Treatment Acres Percent
Adequate 788,772 57.9
Needs to improve forage 491,034 36.0
Reduction or elimination of grazing 83,485 6.1
Total 1,363,291
Watershed Project Needs
Wyoming contains 372 watersheds of 250,000 acres or less. Tributaries to
three of the major river basins in the United States — Colorado, Columbia, and
Missouri — have their source in Wyoming. Land areas, when delineated as water-
-------
97
sheds, become base units for solving soil and water conservation problems in an
effective manner. Within these units or watersheds the conservation and devel-
opment of water and related land resources and the economic growth of communities
are interrelated.
The basic reference used for delineating the major and principal drainage
areas and subbasins was the "Atlas of River Basins of the United States" prepared
by the Soil Conservation Service in 1963. Each subbasin was further divided
into smaller watersheds through the use of U.S.G.S. topographic maps.
Important needs in small watersheds are the protection from floodwater
damage and the development of agricultural and nonagricultural water resources.
The needs are defined in the following sections of the report.
FLOOD PREVENTION
Floodwater and Sediments (Agricultural and Urban) - Flood damage to agri-
cultural and urban areas is not a major problem in Wyoming. Flow in the major
streams is controlled by a series of irrigation water storage reservoirs. About
one percent (642,800 acres) of the total land area is subject to floodwater and
sediment damage.
Sediment deposits of silt, sand, and gravel can cause as much damage as
the associated floodwater. Although limited to smaller streams, such damage
can be quite severe, expecially in urban areas.
Erosion damage in this Inventory is in terms of acres of land which have
been damaged by gully and roadbank erosion. Some 520,000 acres of land are
included in this category.
AGRICULTURAL WATER MANAGEMENT
Only the needs which cannot be met by individual action were included.
Drainage
Drainage needs reflect those areas that have a drainage problem. Only
those needs that cannot be met by individual farm drainage systems are included.
Some 70,100 acres need treatment.
-------
98
Water Quality Management
Water for all purposes needs to be protected from pollution because, as
the population increases, the need for a greater volume of good quality water
increases. Water quality improvement is needed in 81 watersheds.
To determine the needs and problems of the 372 watersheds, a review of
the areas in each county was made, interviews were made with Federal and State
agency representatives3 soil and water conservation district supervisors, and
residents of each watershed. All information was checked and verified by area
firld SCS Engineers through observations. While the estimates are based on a
broad reconnai"sance-'- e survey, the Inventory is considered to be reasonably
reliable and indicates the location, type, and relative magnitude of problems and need
flood prevention and other watershed problems all require a combination of
private and public action to reduce losses effectively. Local people through
their soil and water conservation districts and county and city governments have
solved a number of these and similar problems, but aid from State or Federal
agencies is frequently needed to alleviate problems on watersheds. Public
Law 566, the Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act, as amended, makes
it possible to reduce these damages through a cooperative program between the
Soil Conservation Service and a local sponsoring group. Recently, the resource
conservation and development effort of USDA has been added as a means of
assisting group action toward solving watershed-type problems.
RESUME OF WATERSHED ACTIVITIES
Of the 372 watersheds identified in the Inventory, 108 have been selected
for an early action program. Of these early action projects, applications have
been received and approved for 40.
Preliminary investigations have been completed on 32 of these projects,
and 18 projects have been approved for planning. There are 11 projects author-
ized for operations, of which five projects are complete.
Figure 14 shows Wyoming soil and water conservation districts and RC&D Projects.
Tables 41, and 42 list Wyoming watersheds less than 400 square miles in area
and the kinds and extent of problems needing action.
-------
FIGURE 14
K*L< I'J »t» ooo
-------
100
Table 37
INVENTORY OF WATERSHEDS LESS THAN 400 SQUAAE MILES IN AREA WITH THE KINDS AND EXTENT OF PROBLEMS NEEDING PROJECT ACTION
KINO ANb EXTENT 6' PftofeLEHf
MAJOR DRAINAGE AREA,
PRINCIPAL DRAINAGE
BASIN. SUBBASINS
TOTAL
WATERSHEDS
DELINEATED
TOTAL AREA
WITH
FLOODWATEfi
ANO
SEDIMENT
DAftAGEi/
FLOOO PREVENT
ON
AGP
WATEP
1 CULTURAL
MANAGEMENT
NONAGRICULTURAL WATER MANAGEMENT
FLOOOWATER ANO
SEDIMENT DAMAGE
EROSION
DAMAGE
drain-
age
IRRIGA-
TION
RURAL
WATER
SUPPLY
MUNICIPAL
OR INDUS-
TRIAL
WATER
SUPPLY
RECREA-
TIONAL
DEVELOP-
MENT
fish AND
WILDLIFE
DEVELOP-
MENT
WATER
QUAL1TY
MANAGE-
MENT
AGRICULTURAL!URBAN
NUMBER
1 ,000
1 ,000
1 .000
1 .000
1 ,000
1 .000
1 .000
NUM8ER
NUMBER
NUMBER
NUMBER
NUMBER
ACRES
ACRES
ACRES
ACRES
ACRES
ACRES
ACRES
Colorado River
Green River
5
29
7.466.8
38.3
14.2
2.0
223.4
2 2
210.6
—
..
10
11
12
New Fork River
5A
5
835.3
—
--
--
--
2.4
47.6
—
1
...
Big Sandy Creek
S8
4
715.8
0.5
--
--
--
..
25.5
..
1
2
__
Little Sandy Creek
SBI
3
477.9
—
--
—
0 2
—
1 .2
..
1
I
Blacks Fork
5C
10
1.679.0
21 .1
10.7
0.9
55.5
—
56.0
2
4
4
5
Muddy Creek
SC
4
6I0.S
6.0
--
—
7.0
~
7.0
1
Vermi1ion River
SD
2
321 .1
3.0
--
—
--
__
..
..
••
..
Little Snake Rtver
SEI
6
957.6
3.5
—
--
—
C. 7
18.2
..
1
3
3
3
Muddy Creek
5EIA
4
602.4
5.6
--
—
2.5
..
4.7
2
3
3
2
Colorado River Drainage Area
Total
67
13.666.4
78.0
24.9
2.9
2B8.6
5.3
370.8
6
22
25
27
Great Basin
Great Sa1t Lake
Bear River
IA
1 .108.9
25.9
14.9
--
98.3
4.6
64.2
-
i
4
5
1
Columbia River
Snake River
14
14
2,039.8
8.3
4.2
—
.8
5.5
46.9
1
2
2
Gros Ventre River
I4A
471 .7
3.7
1 .5
—
—
23.0
1
Salt River
I4B
6
439.1
9.3
7.2
—
.5
—
48 .3
...
..
1
Henrys Fork
14C
192.2
1 .3
—
--
--
..
...
..
..
Teton River
I4C1
44.2
—
--
—
—
0.6
3.5
1
mm
..
Colunbia River Drainage Area
Total
24
3,187.0
22.6
12.9
--
3.3
6.1
121 .7
--
2
1
3
3
Missouri River
Jet 1crson River
Madison R¦ver
IF
IS7.4
—
-•
—
--
—
..
».
...
Yellowstonc R < ver
14
7
1 .551 .8
3.1
--
—
--
..
..
•„
..
1
Clark Fork
I4C
6
1.093.3
5.8
0.8
—
—
..
30.4
Big Horn River
14E
28
4,394.1
61 .5
29.0
0.2
12.5
5.9
67.3
3
1
4
4
8
1
Wind Ri ver
I4EI
12
1.780.7
35 1
7.1
0.3
30.1
7.0
49.1
1
3
3
Popo Agie River
I4E1A
7
1,191.5
19.2
9.0
0.3
0.1
0.3
30.9
1
2
1
1
Muskrat Creek
)4E2
3
520.6
6.9
--
—
--
..
__
8adwatcr Creek
I4E3
4
569.9
6.3
--
--
—
..
2 .4
2
__
I
Nowood Creek
I4E4
7
1.317.6
12.2
5.9
—
24.0
0.2
17.0
1
1
2
I
GrcybuII River
14E5
4
764.9
19.5
3.6
—
0.1
26.5
53.5
1
I
I
Shoshone River
I4E6
0
1,398.7
1 ! .0
3.8
--
2.4
4.2
34.6
4
3
2
2
N. Fork Shoshone River
I4E6A
478.6
3.0
0.8
--
--
--
..
Little Big Horn Ri ver
I4E7
2
279.3
0.9
0.2
—
--
2.8
6.0
...
2
2
|
Tongue River
14G
B
1.120.7
1 1 .0
3.6
0.4
—
0.1
40.2
...
2
2
Powder River
I4H
13
2,253.4
24.4
7.3
—
6.0
..
1 1 .0
2
I
I
8
S . Fork Powder River
I4H1
S
830.2
4.8
0.8
—
—
..
1 .0
1
Mid. Fork Povder River
I4H2
3
664.8
9.1
0.1
—
0.1
..
12.2
2
Crazy Woman Creek
14H3
3
601 .7
21 .0
0.5
—
--
..
13.0
2
Clear Creek
14H4
4
773.S
15.4
3.7
0.5
—
0.2
14.6
2
__
Li ttle Powder River
I4HS
4
849.9
10.1
2.1
—
--
"
0.2
—
-
-
4
Missouri River
Yellowstone River Drainage Area
Subtotal
130
22,435.2
280.3
78.3
.7
75.3
47.2
383.4
16
16
18
14
28
Missouri River
Little Missouri River
16
3
396.9
7.3
2.6
—
"
. "
2.5
-
-
..
-
3
Missouri River
Cheyenne River
24
1
226.1
0.9
0.9
—
8.0
..
3.2
1
__
|
S. Fork Cheyenne River
24A
1
1.879.7
10.7
4.2
--
3.0
..
6.6
1
...
5
Lancc Creek
246
6
1 .288.5
7.0
3.8
0.7
13.4
..
5.9
4
mm
Beaver Creek
24C
4
781 .6
13.7
7.8
0.2
1 .6
..
4.2
1
3
3
2
Hat Creek
240
1
144.3
2.3
2 3
--
5.0
2.8
1
Belle Fourche River
24E
(2
2,1(7.1
35.3
13.2
.0
0.3
..
4.7
1
3
$
2
Redwater Creek
24EI
3
317.7
1 .6
0.5
—
--
1.0
I
2
2
Missouri River
Cheyenne River Drainage Area
Subtotal
38
6,755.0
71 .5
32.7
.9
31.3
--
28.4
7
2
7
13
18
Missouri River
Niobrara River
28
2
280.5
1 .2
I .1
--
0.4
..
0.5
J/Includes acres other Chan those needing project action.
-------
101
Table37 (continued)
M HO AND EXTENT OF PROBLEMS*
MAJOR DRAINAGE AREA,
PRINCIPAL DRAINAGE
BASIN. SUBBASINS
TOTAL
WATERSHEDS
DELINEATED
TOTAL AREA
WITH
FL00DWATER
AND
SEDIMENT
damage'-^
FLOOD
PREVENT
ON
AGRICULTUPAL
WATER MANAGEMENT
NONAGRlCULTURAL WATER MANAGEMENT
FLOODWATER AND
SEDIMENT DAMAGE
EROSION
DAMAGE
DRAIN-
AGE
1 PR 1GA-
T 1 ON
RURAL
WATER
SU°PLY
MUNICIPAL
OR INDUS-
TRIAL
WATER
SUPPLY
RECREA-
TIONAL
DEVELOP-
MENT
FISH AND
wildlife
develop-
ment
WATER
OUALITY
MANAGE-
MENT
agriculturalIurban
NUMBER
1 ,000
1 ,000
1 .000
I ,000
1 .000
1 ,000
1 .000
NUMBER
NUMBER
number
number
number
ACRES
ACRES
ACRES
ACRES
ACRES
ACRES
ACRES
Missouri River
North Platte River
3SA
50
7.057.8
52.1
43.7
0.8
16.4
3.7
121 1
7
—
1 7
29
5
Medicine Bow River
35AI
S
836.9
2.9
2.9
--
.0
--
30.1
1
--
1
1
--
Little Medicine Bow Riv.
35A1A
3
644.0
1 .0
1 .0
—
—
--
5 9
--
--
2
--
Sweetwater River
35A2
1 1
1 ,807.1
29.1
0.1
--
—
--
9.9
--
1
--
3
--
Laramie River
3SA3
16
2,741 .9
35.2
29.0
0.7
2.9
1 .6
125.4
1
--
7
13
1
Horse Creek
3SA4
6
992.6
14.9
1 .3
--
—
29.5
..
..
I
1
--
Cache LaPoudre Riter
35B4
3
1 78.0
1.1
0.3
--
--
--
3.4
--
--
--
--
Crow Creek
3585
2
375.1
5.5
3.1
0.2
--
0.5
3.1
--
1
2
2
--
Lodgepole Creek
35B7
4
638.2
14.6
7.7
0.1
2.5
1 .2
5.2
--
—
"
--
--
Missouri Rtver
North Platte River Drainage Area
*
Subtotal
100
15,273.6
156.4
99.1
1.8
22.8
7.0
333.6
9
2
28
50
6
Missouri River
Total
274
45,298.6
516.4
, 213.8
5.4
129.8
54.2
748.4
32
20
S3
77
55
Wyoming State No. 52
Total
372
63,260.9
642.8
266.5
8.3
520.0
70.1
1,305.1
33
31
60
1 10
81
-------
102
Table 38
INVENTORY OF POTENTIALLY FEASIBLE WATERSHEDS LESS THAN 400 SQUARE MILES IN AREA
WITH THE KINDS AND EXTENT OF PROBLEMS NEEDING PROJECT ACTION
MAJOR ORAINAGE AREA,
PRINCIPAL DRAINAGE
BASIN. SUBBASINS
WATERSHEOS
FEASIBLE
FOR PROJECT
ACTION
FLOOD PREVENTION
FLOODVATER ANO
SEDIMENT oamage
agricultural urban
erosion
damage
rJNO^DCXTENT OF PROBLEMS
agr i cultural
water MANAGEMENT
IRR I 1 PN
RURAL
WATER
SUPPLY
NONAGRI CULTURAL WATER MANAGEMENT
NUN) C l P>»L
OR INDuS-
TR I .\l
UATER
RECREA-
TIONAL
DEVELOP-
MENT
FISH AND
WILDLIFE
DEVELOP-
MENT
WATER
QUALITY
MANAGE-
MENT
NUMBER
1 .000
1 ,000
1 000
1 ,000
I .000
1 000
NUMBER
NUMBER
NUMBER
NUMBER
NUMBER
ACRES
ACRES
ACRES
ACRES
ACRES
ACRES
Colorado River
Green River
5
3
1 ,580.1
--
109 6'
0 2
W».6
__
--
2
3
3
New Fork R i ver
5A
4
735.3
..
—
2 4
40.6
1
Bl acks Fork
5C
4
794.8
10.7
0 9
33.3
..
50.0
1
2
2
2
3
Verrm 1 ton Rccr
50
1
160.4
...
Colorado River-Green River
Total
17
3,270.6
10.7
0.9
142.9
2.6
243 2
1
2
4
6
6
Great Basin
Great Salt Lake
Bear River and Total
1A
4
664.7
9.5
"
50.0
4.1
60.4
"
2
4
4
1
Cotumbta River
Snake River
14
4
484.3
4.2
0.1
1 .8
5.5
'44.3
1
2
I
Salt River
MB
6
439.2
7.2
..
1 .5
48.3
I
Columbia River-Snake River
Total
10
923.5
1 1 .4
0.1
3 3
5 5
92 6
-
--
2
3
Missouri River-Yellowstone River
Clark Fork
14C
2
38S.9
0.8
21 .4
..
__
B i g Horn Rivc r
146
10
1,690.0
10.6
0.2
5.5
0.3
32 . 1
1
1
3
3
3
Wi nd River
I4EI
5
739.0
6.6
0.2
30.0
2 .0
42.3
__
1
2
2
I
Popo Agie River
I4EIA
4
709.2
9.0
0 3
0.1
--
26.7
2
1
I
Badwater Creek
I4E3
1
137.9
—
...
i 4
«...
No wood Creek
I4E4
5
1 .010.9
5.3
..
24,0
0 I
17.0
1
1
2
I
1
GreybuII River
I4ES
3
559.2
3.0
..
0.1
26.5
53.:
1
1
I
I
Shoshone River
I4E6
3
64> .3
2.9
--
2. I
1 .9
2C 2
1
2
2
I
Little Big Horn River
14E7
)
193.4
—
--
--
__
1 ?
1
j
1
Tongue River
mg
4
557.9
2.5
0.4
--
C.I
13.2
1
1
Crazy Woman Creek
I4H3
1
243.0
0.5
--
__
4.5
1
Clear Creek
I4H4
3
546.4
3.4
0.5
0.2
1? J
2
Missourt River-
Yellowstone River
Total
42
7 419.1
4 1.6
1 .6
62.1
31 .2
4
1 1
13
9
3
Missouri River
Ltttle Missouri River Total
16
2
319.1
I 6
—
-
.t
. -
--
--
2
Missouri River-Chevennc River
Lance Creek
24B
2
374.9
1 .0
—
10.1
2.5
1
__
2
Beaver Creek
24C ¦
2
383.0
1 .9
0.2
1 .6
3 o
__
__
2
2
2
Belle Fourche River
24E
3
410,2
2 .1
0.3
3.2
__
2
3
j
Redwater Creek
24EI
1
20b.0
0.4
--
..
..
0.1*
|
I
Missouri River-
Cheycnne River
Total
a
1 ,373.1
5.4
0.2
12.0
—
9.4
1
-
5
6
6
Missouri River-Platte River
North Platte River
35A
12
1,669.5
16.2
0 2
2.0
2.0
51.0
1
6
10
1
Laramie River
35A3
4
737.9
9.8
0.1
1 .0
..
1 .5
1
2
4
Horse Creek
35A4
3
556.9
4.3
__
__
19.0
__
__
1
J
Crow Creek
35B5
1
176.4
1 .0
0.2
__
1.7
j
1
I
Lodgepole Creek
3SB7
2
41 7.4
6.7
0.1
2 0
1 .2
5.2
__
Missouri River-
Platte River
Total
22
3,558.1
38.0
0.6
5.0
3.2
98 4
2
1
10
16
1
Missouri River
Total '
74
12,669.4
89.6
2.4
79. 1
34.4
348.2
7
12
28
31
17
Wyoroi ng State 52
Tota 1
105
17,528.2
121 .2
3.4
275 .3
46.6
744.4
8
16 '
36
43'
27
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103
MONTANA
Introduction
The following discussion of conservation needs in relation to range and
watershed management is based upon data furnished by the 1970 Conservation Needs
Inventory.
Since the initial Conservation Needs Inventory for Montana in 1958, several
changes have occurred (Figure 15):
a) Land area was reduced slightly as a result of water development
b) Inventoried acreages changed as a result of changes in Federal Owner-
ship, urban development and water areas
c) Land use changes—namely cropland, range, and woodland—are partly due
to change in difinition of native grasses cut for hay
d) Land area was reduced as a result of increased mining operations in the
eastern Montana coal fields.
Treatment needs for soil and water resources in a given watershed includes
all lands.
During the next decade, acreage in pasture and range in Montana is expected
to decrease slightly, with the shift being to cropland. An increase in 6,000
acres is expected between now and 1980. This acreage increase will come primarily
from range and pasture lands that are suitable for farming. Irrigated cropland
in Montana is expected to reach 2.2 million acres by 1980.
Land and Water Area
The 1967 Conservation Needs Inventory shows that Montana has a total land
area of 93,089,323 acres, which is 34,144 acres less than the acreage shown in
the 1958 inventory. This reduction in land area resulted from the construction
of reservoirs larger than 40 acres in size and now classed as inland water areas.
These large inland waters comprise 1,016,544 acres. The total land area for
each of the fifty-six counties was taken from the 1964 Agricultural Census. About
30% of the land area in the State was excluded from the inventory (Figure 16).
Non-Inventory Acreage
The total non-inventory acreage amounts to 27,571,145 acres, of which 96%
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104
TRENDS IN LAND USE
FOR MONTANA
Figure 15
Land Use Change 1958-1967
Predicted Change 1958-1975
1967-1980
-entory Acreage
¦Pasture and Range
-Cropland
-Woodland
0 - —
1958
—1—
1967
-1—
1975
1980
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105
MONTANA LAND-1967
Figure 16
TOTAL ACREAGE
93,089,323
NON INVENTORY ACREAGE
27,571,145
TOTAL ACREAGE
jf^64^94l^894
1958
1967
65,518,178
FEDERAL
1958
1967
26,569,755
URBAN
1958
1967
800,858
8 17,940
WATER
1958
1967
166,720
183,450
n—
10
-T-
20
~i—
30
40
—i—
50
-i—
60
MILLIONS OF ACRES
—l
70
-------
INVENTORIED LAND USE
Figure 17
64,941,894
ACRES
65,518,178
ACRES
PASTURE a RANGE
1956
1967
43,142,486
43,005,287
CROPLAND
1958
1967
14,426,223
14,988,775
WOODLAND
1958
1967
6,796,198
7,003,910
OTHER
1958
1967
576,987
520,206
~i
10
I
20
—i—
30
—r~
40
—i
50
MILLIONS OF ACRES
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107
is in Federal ownership and comprises 26,569,755 acres. The total non-inventory
acreage decreased by 620,490 acres during the period 1958 to 1967. The decrease
is due to the sale of isolated tracts of Federal lands to private owners and
some Federal lands were inundated by water. (Figure 16)
The urban and built-up areas have increased by 17,082 acres since the 1958
study and now total 817,940 acres. This includes all cities, towns and built-
up areas of more than 10 acres in size. Industrial sites (except for strip
mine and borrow areas^ railroad yards, airports, cemeteries, golf courses,
primary and secondary roads and railroads are considered as built-up areas.
Small water areas have increased by 16,730 acres since the 1958 inventory
and now total 183,450 acres. These small water areas are 2 to 40 acres in
size and include ponds, lakes and reservoirs, as well as small streams
that are less than 660 feet wide. The increased water area is due in part to
the inclusion of small streams passing through private lands that were omitted
in the previous inventory and the construction of a number of small reservoirs.
Inventory Acreage
The inventory acreage for Montana comprises 65,518,178 acres or about 70%
of the State. This is an increase of 576,284 acres from the 1958 inventory,
most of which came from the sale of isolated tracts in Federal ownership, the
inclusion of Indian lands within reservation boundaries, and cropland in Federal
ownership under lease. Land use within the inventory acreage consists of:
Cropland 14,988,775 acres or 22 percent
Range & Pasture 43,005,287 acres or 66 percent
Woodland 7,003,910 acres or 11 percent
Other land* 520,206 acres or 1 percent (See Figure 17)
* Other land includes farmsteads, private roads,
feedlots, ditch banks, rural non-farm resi-
dences, mine wastes, borrow pits and investment
tracts.
Treatment Needs for Range and Pasture Land
The conservation treatment needs for range and pasture land were expanded
from the random sample used to identify the kind of soil, land use and treatment.
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108
The data were reviewed and adjusted by county committees to reflect their best
estimates of conditions in each of the fifty-six counties. The 1967 study
shows 17,233,932 acres (427<,) of the rangeland in Montana is in good to excellent
condition and is adequately treated based on the ecological aspects of the site.
This is an increase of more than 6 million acres over the 1975 projected esti-
mates given in the 1958 study.
The amount of tame pastureland adequately treated is 638,424 acres (3870)
of the total pasturelana, which far exceeds the 1975 projected estimate of
493,000 acres given in the 1958 study.
The treatment needs for pasture and range to reduce soil loss and protect
the forage resource from deterioration are identified in terms of systems of
management needed to meet the problem. These are identified in terms of
decreasing severity in order to improve and protect the forage resource.
Protection only is needed to improve the plant cover on 16,462,904 acres
of rangeland, and 367,884 acres of pastureland. Here the forage is in an
overgrazed condition but can be corrected by livestock management and/or the
installation of watering facilities to improve grazing distribution. With
proper management, the vegetation will recover and reseed naturally.
Improvement only is needed on 2,977,728 acres of range and 542,234 acres
of pasture. Under dryland conditions, the forage cover is inadequate but can
be improved or restored by applying recommended management practices and
following grazing systems to protect the resource. Some of the desired types
of vegetation are present but the stand is so thin that natural revegetation
needs additional management to provide a satisfactory cover. Mechanical
measures and weed control are often needed to obtain a satisfactory recovery
of the stand.
Brush and weed control are needed on 2,560,078 acres of range and 18,525
acres of pasture. Where the encroachment of woody and some less desirable
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109
plants threatens the destruction of grass cover, there is usually more than 15%
coverage by weight of the total plant cover. This acreage represents less than
25% of the total range resource in the State having 5% or more of Big Sagebrush
invasion. Brush control measures, along with proper livestock management, are
needed to provide a better balance of forage needed for both domestic and wild-
life use.
Reestablishment of vegetative cover (without brush control) is needed on
427,203 acres of rcinge and 114,974 acres of pasLure. Under these conditions,
the plant cover is thin and of such poor quality that it needs complete re-
establishment. Following reestablishment, protection' and proper management are
essential.
Reestablishment with brush control is needed on 96,457 acres of range and
2,571 acres of pasture. Prior to reestablishment, brush control is needed to
prevent competition to the new seedlings. Protection and proper use are essen-
tial to the success of the new seeding.
Change in land use to trees is recommended on 707 acres of range and 214
acres of pasture. Here a combination of trees, shrubs and grass is needed to
protect the soil resource and provide the kind of cover needed to protect the
land from erosion.
Land treatment is not feasible on 1,659,897 acres of range and 673 acres
of pasture. Nearly 8570 of this kind of land is in Class VIII and consists
primarily of shale and rock outcrops with some river wash.
Forest and Woodland
The 1967 inventory acreage of woodland for Montana is 7,003,910 acres, of
which 87% is commercial forest. This acreage represents an increase of 207,712
acres over the 1958 study. The Forest Service Experiment Station provided the
basic data for the timber resource study on private and State owned lands in
Montana. In a few eastern counties where the timber resources are not extensive,
some adjustments in acreage were made to account for a known acreage of woodland.
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110
forest lands that are poorly stocked provide a grazing resource on nearly two
thirds of the woodland area. This dual use is important to both the timber and
livestock industry as well as its influence on the water regime and recreation
potential of woodland areas.
The following table shows the distribution of inventory commercial and non-
commercial forest lands (both grazed and not grazed) by land capability class.
The subclass shows the dominant problem associated with each use.
Table 39
Commercial Forest Noncommercial Forest
Grazed
Not Grazed
Grazed
Not Grazed
Total
Class I
0
0
0
0
0
Class II
44,163
7,497
3,752
406
55,818
Class III
173,117
10,051
36,047
914
220,129
Class IV
343,928
103,656
24,131
13,099
484,814
Class V
7,109
2,317
23,267
6,980
39,673
Class VI
2,017,274
1,179,295
320,996
47,223
3,564,788
Class VII
1,179,356
1,043,718
197,089
57,155
2,477,318
Class VIII
6,095
7,380
68,795
79,100
161,370
Total
3,771,042
2,353,914
674,077
204,877
7,003,910
The subclass letters of e, w, s and c relate to the dominant kind of prob-
lem in each of the land capability Classes II through VIII. The degree of
severity increases with each land class.
Table 40
Kind of Problem Commercial Noncommercial Total
e - erosion 4,786,947 443,922 5,230,869
w - wetness 85,108 66,181 151,289
s - soil 1,075,853 342,991 1,148,844
c - climate 177,048 25,860 202,908
6,124,056 878,954 7,003,910
Sloping lands and sandy soils are the dominant factors affecting the erosion
potential on 757» of the woodland area. Forest lands that are properly managed
and protected have little soil loss.
Excess water is the dominant problem on 1% of the woodland acreage. Much
of the forest having this problem occurs on the flood plains along perennial
streams where the tree cover affords excellent protection against streambank
and sheet erosion that may occur during flood stage.
-------
Ill
Unfavorable soil conditions such as excessive amounts of stone, limited
soil depth and clay textures are the dominant problems on 21% of the woodland
acreage. Slopes are not generally excessive except for some Class VIII land,
where rock or shale outcrops are dominant problems.
Climate is limiting on some forest lands in terms of low annual precipi-
tation and short growing season. Soils classified as having only a climatic
limitation are of high quality and are not subject to erosion under proper
management. About 3% of the woodland area has climate as the major limitation.
Treatment Needs of Forest Lands
The conservation treatment needs for the inventoried acreage of forest
lands (grazed and not grazed) were based on estimates in terms of the conser-
vation problem associated with the development and management of the forest and
forage resource. The needs were expanded from the random sample data and ad-
justed by each county committee to reflect their best estimates. The 1967 study
shows 1,894,268 acres (31%) of the commercial forest are adequately treated, and
853,164 acres (97%) of the noncommercial woodland are adequately treated or not
feasible to treat from the standpoint of timber production. Based on the 1958
study, the adequately treated acreage is 80,100 acres below the projected esti-
mate for 1975. Over 2 million acres (55%) of the grazed commercial woodland
and 315,502 acres (47%) of the grazed noncommercial woodland are adequately
treated for grazing purposes, which is a dual use of the more lightly stocked
stands of timber.
The treatment needs for the inventoried acreage of woodland for both the
grazed and non-grazed portion of commercial and noncommercial forest do not
consider protection from fire, insects and disease since these treatments
apply to all categories of woodland.
Grazed Woodland Needing Treatment
Conservation treatment to improve forage for grazing is needed on 1,370,623
acres (31%) of the forest land being grazed. Treatment can be accomplished by
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112
TREATMENT NEEDS
FOREST AND WOODLAND
Figure 18
COMMERCIAL
6,124,956 Acres
NON
COMMERCIAL
878,954 Acres
GRAZED
PORTION
3,771,041 Acres
REDUCTION OF
GRAZING
638,699
IMPROVED
FORAGE -
1,082,282
ADEQUATE
2,050,060"
28%
55%
25,790
ESTABLISHMENT
AND
RE-ENFORCEMENT
617,944
TIMBER STAND
IMPROVEMENT
3,612,744
ADEOUATELY
TREATED
OR
NOT FEASIBLE
TO TREAT
853,164
¦ 1,894,268
REDUCTION OF
GRAZING
70,234
IMPROVED
FORAGE
288,341
.ADEQUATE
315,502
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113
applying the same management type practices needed for rangeland. Some reduc-
tion of timber and brush may be desirable on noncommercial stands but seeding
to grass is generally not required. Nearly 288,341 acres (42%) of the non-
commercial forest and 1,082,282 acres (28%) of the commercial forest lands
could improve the grazing resource with proper livestock management and yet
maintain or even improve the timber resource.
Reduction or the elimination of grazing is needed on 708,928 acres (16%)
of the forest land being grazed. It is desirable co reduce or eliminate grazing
from all forested areas requiring establishment or reinforcement of timber
stands to protect new seedlings. There should be a minimum disturbance of crit-
ical areas needing maximum cover to protect the soil resource from erosion.
Watershed Project Needs
Land and water areas in Montana's 672 watersheds comprise 93,679,263 acres
in delineated areas consisting of 250,000 acres or less. Each of the delineated
watersheds includes all the surface area of the drainage basin regardless of
ownership and becomes the base unit for land treatment needed in solving soil
and water problems. This acreage does not represent all the land and water
area in the State, since portions of watersheds joining other states may have
been excluded, particularly if the majority of land in a given watershed lies
outside thestate. The conservation measures and development needs of the soil
and water resources for a given watershed are major factors in the economic
growth of the State.
The basic reference used for delineating the major and principal drainage
areas and sub-basins was the "Atlas of River Basins of the United States" pre-
pared by the Soil Conservation Service in 1963. Each sub-basin was further
sub-divided into waterhseds of 250,000 acres or less with the use of topographic
maps prepared by the U.S. Geological Survey. In 1954, the Watershed Protection
and Flood Prevention Act PL-566 was enacted by Congress to provide local
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114
organization with federal assistance in the development of feasible projects.
FL-566 makes it possible to plan and apply many conservation measures
needed for flood prevention, improved water management, recreation and other
agricultural related uses that cannot be planned and financed as efficiently
under other programs. As of June 1, 1970, there have been 57 applications
approved for planning in Montana out of 240 feasible watersheds. Construction
has been completed on four watersheds and is underway on four others.
Feasible Watersheds
In the 240 feasible watersheds covering 33,239,271 acres (35%) of the land
and water area, there is a need for protection from flood water and sediment
damage to both agricultural and urban land. There are 400,695 acres of agri-
cultural land with a flood problem, of which 189,021 acres (47%) need project
action. Urban lands having a flood problem comprise 7,890 acres with project
action for flood prevention needed on 6,938 acres (87%). Erosion damage from
floodwaters occurs on 125,981 acres and there has been severe damage to 22,474
acres which need project action.
Agricultural water management needs which cannot be met by individual
action include 238,932 acres with a drainage problem, of which 174,498 acres
need project action. There are 1,274,902 acres of irrigated land needing im-
provement and 860,834 acres need project action. There are at least seven
communities with a rural water supply inadequate to meet the present needs.
The need for non-agricultural water management in the 240 feasible water-
sheds exists on:
a. 45 municipal and industrial units
b. 166 recreational developments
c. 151 fish and wildlife developments
d. 83 water quality control areas
Most of these needs can be fulfilled under Public Law 566.
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115
UTAH
Introduction
The urban and built-up area has increased since 1958 in Utah. Since that
time, when the initial conservation needs inventory was made, cities have grown
appreciably and major changes have occurred in the state's highway system. This
expansion has taken place at the expense of cropland which has decreased by more
than 64,000 acres since 1958. The changes in the area of pasture range, forest,
and other land mainly resulted from redefining the forest. Future changes are
likely to occur as a result of the projected oil shale development activities.
The present inventory of needs covers two major types of estimates: (1)
current data on land use and conservation treatment needs by land class and sub-
class on non-federal rural land; and (2) inventory of watershed project needs for
the total acreage of the state regardless of ownership.
The 1967 conservation needs inventory shows that Utah has a total land and
i
water area of 54,346,240 acres. This is total acreage which includes 1,624,690
acres for all reservoirs and lakes with more than 40 surface acres. The water
area increases of Lake Powell, Flaming Gorge and other new reservoirs were offset
by surface area decreases of Great Salt Lake and Sevier Lake. The inventory covers
16,879,884 acres of private, state, and Indian lands. The remaining area consists
of 35,397,274 acres of federal land, 430,014 acres of urban and built-up area and
1,639,068 acres for water areas 2 to 40 acres in size. (Figure 20)
The inventory acreage consists of 2,155,186 acres of cropland of which
1,348,627 are irrigated, 322,407 acres of nonirrigated pasture, 8,705,116 acres
or rangeland, 4,665,227 acres of forest, and 1,031,948 acres of other land. In
1967 there were 124,000 acres of cropland than has been idle for 3 7ears or longer.
(Figure 21)
The inventory shows that 79% of the irrigated lands still need treatment
to attain full use of the water and soil resources. 59% of the nonirrigated
cropland area stixl needs treatment which will make better use of the soil and
conserve more of the rainfall for crop use. The conservation job remaining on
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116
1967
Percent
Water area
larger than
2 acres
1,639,068
3.0
Federal
noncrop-
land
35,397,274
65.1
State, Indian,
private lands
16,879,884
31.1
Urban and
built-up
430,014
0.8
Figure 19. Water area and land ownership distribution in Utah —
Total area 54,346,240 acres
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117
Beaver ~1
Box Elder 1 i
Cache 1
Carbon 1
Daggett l
Davis ¦ - ¦ i
Duchesne —1
Emery |
Garfield i
^ranc* I
Iron 1
Juab 1 1 11 ¦ |
Kane —i
Millard —f
Morgan
Piute
Rich
Salt Lake
San Juan
Sanpete ~i
Sevier >
Summit ¦¦ |
Tooele |
Uintah —I
Utah I
Wasatch >
Washington r
Wayne —|
Weber ¦ ¦¦ ¦
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent
Figure20 • Percent of county land area in inventory - Utah 1967
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118
10-
7-
58
67
Cfi
Z 6-
o
CO
u-i
° 5-
67
A-
58
3-
2-
58
67
58
67
67
58
1958
1967
Cropland
2,219,000
2,155,186
Pasture
range
9,171,900
9,037,523
Forest
3,292,200
4,665,227
Other
land
2,213,100
1,031,948
Urban and
built-up
260,322
430,014
Figure 21. Use of inventory acreage in Utah — 1958 and 1967
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119
58
67
67
58
58
67
58
67
67
58
1958
1967
Cropland
2,219,000
2,155,186
Pasture
range
9,171,900
9,037,523
Forest
3,292,200
4,665,227
Other
land
2,213,100
1,031,948
Urban and
built-up
260,322
430,014
Figure 21 Use of inventory acreage in Utah — 1958 and 1967
5
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120
Beaver 1
Box Elder t
Cache i
Carbon 1
Daggett i
Davis I
Duchesne 1
Emery 1
Garfield i
Grand i
Iron , I
Juab I
Kane ~i
Millard —f
Morgan i
Piute —i
Rich \
Salt Lake —}
San Juan 1
Sanpete I
Sevier ->
Summit i
Tooele |
Uintah a
Utah \
Wasatch »
Washington —i
Wayne —|
Weber i
0 20 40 60 80 100
Percent
Figure 22 Percent of county land area in inventory - Utah 1967
6
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121
the nonirrigated pasture and rangeland of the state is a big one.. Estimates in
this inventory indicate 81% of the pasture and range needs treatment. Manage-
ment of the present plant cover on pasture and range is the major treatment
needed. Most of the need for seeding the brush controlled areas exists on
the spring-fall forage production rangelands. It is estimated that 40% of the
commercial forests in the state needs forestry improvement practices. In the
noncommercial forest areas, which includes pinyon-juniper, the major emphasis
is placed on forage improvement to provide soil protection and improve the
grazing resource. Conservation treatment including reduction or elimination
of grazing, and forage improvement is needed on three-fourths of the grazed
forest area. Other land in the inventory includes strip mines, nonfarm resi-
dential areas, farmsteads, feedlots and other areas not used for agricultural
production. The inventory indicated that 25% of this other land needs conser-
vation improvement.
Pasture and Range
More than 67 percent of the pasture and rangeland in the state needs
some type of treatment. There are 322,000 acres of nonirrigated pasture.
About 50 percent of the pasture acreage needs protection from overgrazing.
Brush control, improvement, and re-establishment are needed on 34 percent
of the pasture land.
Half of the total rangeland needs protection from overgrazing. Brush .
control and improvement are needed on about 25 percent. Re-establishment
and re-establishment with brush control are needed on '6 percent of the range.
19%
52%
12%
10%
.42L
Treatment adequate; 1,718,402 acres
Change in land use (not shown): 7,597 acres
Protection only; 4,600,072 acres
Improvement only; 1,108,019 acres
Brush control and improvement; 931,229 acres
Re-establishment of vegetative cover; 272,988 acres
Re-establishment with brush control; 389,216 acres
Figure 23. Total pasture and rangeland; 9,027,523 acres
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122
WATERSHED NEEDS
The watershed projects inventory identifies 116 watersheds as economically
and physically feasible for treatment in relation to (1) seriousness of the prob-
lem and (2) affected areas downstream, out of 221 watersheds in the state. The
feasible watersheds cover an area of 15.6 million acres or about 30% of the state
land area. The Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act (Public Law 566)
was enacted in 1954. Through PL-566, six watersheds have been completed. The
needed structures and land treatment are being applied on another six watersheds.
Plans outlining structural and land treatment needs have been developed for four
additional watersheds.
The 1967 Watershed Projects Inventory drew heavily on experience gained
through several years of operation under the PL-566 Watershed Protection and
Flood Prevention Porgram. The watershed inventory covered all land in Utah,
private and public. Public Law 566 was used as the base to establish the needs
that can best be met through joint action of local groups, state, and federal
agencies.
The state was divided into 221 project-size watersheds for evaluation pur-
poses. Of the 221 watersheds, 116 are economically and physically feasible for
project action. There are significant erosion and productivity problems present
in the other 105 watersheds, but present development and benefits do not qualify
them for project action.
Problems
About 2.8 billion acres of agricultural and urban lands are damaged by flood
water and sediment. Project-type action is feasible on about 1,000,000 acres.
Frequent flooding is caused by localized high-intensity summer storms. Damage
also is caused by snowmelt floods when unusual climatic and hydrologic conditions
exist. Many of Utah's urban areas are extablished along streams and on alluvial
fans which are subject to flood damage. Because of this pattern, some struc-
tural treatment is essential to reduce future damage. Additional zoning laws
also may be needed to prevent greater intensification of damages as new urban
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123
Forest Land
The inventory shows that about 94 percent of the forest acreage is
grazed by domestic livestock. Forage improvement is needed on 53 percent
of the area and reduction or elimination of grazing on 19 percent.
Treatment adequate for grazing; 1,236,458 acres
Needs forage improvement for grazing; 2,293,638 acres
Needs reduction or elimination of grazing; 823,087 acres
Figure 24. Total grazed commercial and noncommercial forest; 4,353,183 acres
Commercial forest
Noncommercial forest
61%
9%
31%
Treatment adequate;
615,505 acres
Establishment and
reinforcement; 79,811 acres
Timber stand improvementj
329,480 acres
91%
9%
Treatment adequate;
3,316,410 acres
Establishment and
reinforcement; 324,021 acres
Figure 24 • Total forest land; 4,665,227 acres
-------
-ie wourihtd
projVCl
Clattifi«d as potentially feasible «a»er*hed
by adjoimg *tott
Kltff
V Yp~'
-------
125
and suburban areas are developed.
Significant erosion occurs on 21.2 million acres of land in the state
with about 33% of this acreage in the feasible watersheds. Soil loss reduces
the productive capacity of the eroding area, pollutes the water and creates
other problems as sediment is redeposited downstream.
The single most important problem of agricultural water management is
irregular water supply. Lack of storage, inefficient water distribution
systems, and inefficient irrigation contribute to the problem. In addition,
drainage is needed in some watersheds to dispose of excess water.
The need for additional municipal and industrial water was found in
37 watersheds. Additional rural water supply developments, including water
for livestock and on-farm use, are needed in 106 watersheds.
Recreation problems were identified on 169 watersheds. This reflects
a further need for private and public recreational facilities.
Fish and wildlife problems were identified on all watersheds. These
include the need for additional fish and wildlife development, improved fish
and wildlife habitat, and habitat management to meet the needs of an expanding
population.
Sediment produced from erosion contributes to poor water quality in 157
of the watersheds. Pesticides, insecticides, fertilizers, and feedlots also
contribute to the water quality problem.
In the following tables the state is divided into three major drainage
areas (example below, line 1), Colorado River, Columbia River, and Great Basin.
These are in turn divided into principal drainage basins (line 2), which are
considered as second^ordetiestreams within a drainage area. The secondorder
streams are further broken down into third and fourth order streams (lines 3
and 4). The second order streams are identified as basins and the third order
as subbasins with Arabic numerals and lower case letters.
-------
126
1. Colorado River Area
2. Green River (5)
3. Duchesne River (5f)
4. Strawberry River (5fl)
There are four entry items in the tables:
Watershed with problems (1)
Needs project action (2)
Feasible watershed with problems (3)
-Suitable for'^project action (4)
These items are repeated by the numbers for ease of typing and for
ready perception in following the tables.
-------
A 1 WATERSHED PCOJErTi INVENTORY - 19f.7
INVENTORY CP U*TFHSHFOS ISCIXDIHO tHE MSf'S JQjf> EXTt'»T Of j"^V.r
PRINCIPAL DRAINAGE
BASIN
t
VAlEaSHEOs
FLOOIUATER A>D
su&iAsrss
SCDl^tHT
DAKM'.E
i
. EROjtiM
. DKAIV-
lRHirjk-
:
AGRICUL-
• POUGE
: ACff.
TION
TURAL
. URRA.H
i
HO. : A'RtS
ACRES
: A!. ItS
: ACRLS
: AlrlF. j
ACRf S
State of Utah Suraary
U.icrrth«d wLch prob
(1)
221 54265100
2710016
707U
2K'6.'292
4961*5
15S02SS
K*i-da pro] i,-cton (2)
4966:19
61020
I076K.2
mn:>
ft nlblf US wl:h prub (1)
lib 15610115
910714
69 l'J5
'3199 14
43J232
l 17744;
Saleable (or pru{ act loo (4)
739Gd«>
62105
5062190
249300
112 1325
CRSVT BASIS AREA
Creat Salt Lake BasLn
Cr«ic Sale Lake I
Watershed with prob (1)
18
120095*2 1315000
4590
2552988
22330
72036
Needs action (2>
273600
4205
730633
16200
40770
Feasible WS with prob (3i
9
1339 778
70900
31*50
731)3)
202 30
51316
Suitable for proj airlon
(4)
49:00
3830
495633
15200
37070
Bdar Rivar la
(I)
13
1867175
83188
2950
644698
139-»:0
268165
cj)
50288
2650
160480
7 8500
L74455
en
10
1)89060
77688
2950
436691
134500
207165
w
44988
2650
1514B0
78400
173455
Bear Like lal
(I)
1
178626
500
0
60130
2700
6500
(2)
200
0
*000
0
5000
(3)
1
178626
500
0
60130
2700
6500
(*)
200
0
5000
0
5000
Third Order la Sutanary
(1)
14
2045*01
83688
2950
704828
142620
274665
(2)
504BS
2650
165480
78500
179455
(3)
11
1567686
78188
2930
496821
137:00
211665
(4)
45188
2650
156480
78400
178455
U»b»r River lb
(1)
10
1469963
60217
49 50
1047935
59530
160443
<2)
57767
4750
673369
53400
1091)0
<3>
B
12 80681
57917
4850
842643
59450
153693
(*)
56467
4650
643369
53400
103030
Jordan Elver 1c
(1)
16
1947324
226845
40205
929427
76206
206690
(2)
181730
38203
728227
52650
161840
(3)
14
1723434
224545
40205
614327
76206
206390
(4)
181430
38205
663127
52650
161450
Prove River lcl
(I)
3
468323
44831
8200
293636
14700
48211
(2)
33831
8200
81876
7600
45942
(3)
3
460323
44831
8200
293636
14700
482 11
(*)
33831
8200
81876
7600
45942
Third Order 1c Susnary
(1)
19
241J647
271676
48405
1223063
90906
254901
<2)
2J5561
44405
81010)
60250
207/82
(3)
17
2191757
269376
48405
1107963
90006
254601
(4)
215261
44405
745003
60250
207482
Greet Salt Lake BasLa Suaaary
(1)
61
17940993 1730*51
60(395
5528814
315906
767045
(2)
59/416
56010
2404565
208350
537137
(3)
45
6379902
476381
60055
3228760
3077A6
67)275
(*)
366116
55 S 3 5
2040485
20/250
531037
Si-jviec Lake BaJlo
Setter Lake Basin 2
(1)
1
1145273
235000
0
275000
0
400
(2)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0>
0
0
(*> ,
0
0
Sevier liver 2a
(1)
25
3664360
404798
3545
1432676
78996
24«040
(2)
224648
3545
360529
10100
19 7014
(D
17
22 10j95
255538
3545
69&I.I49
78996
2413JO
(4)
224648
3545
360529
10100
107014
Case Pork Sevier River
2al
(1)
5
792670
4;io
0
348263
3680
15140
<2)
50
0
7B6 70
0
0
(3)
1
78670
50
0
786 70
0
0
(6)
50
0
786 70
0
0
So Fork Sevier River 2.
2
(1)
5
721000
3230
0
331500
1200
2 1.760
(2)
2930
0
318000
200
19600
(3)
4
650500
2230
0
301500
1200
205P0
<*)
1930
0
288000
200
18400
San Pitch River 2*3
(1)
4
429050
2/41(1
2500
203180
2OS0D
/' Lfl90
(2)
12950
40?
74240
10'On
tpooo
(3)
4
449050
27400
2500
20)1 **0
?o;oo
71 MO
<<0
12950
400
74240
10100
'.K'HJO
Thlcd Order 2a S-i-eury
(I)
39
5607(1 HO
419ajfl
604 5
2)156 19
10437f.
isao-io
(2)
240576
39.5
8114)9
iuiOC
11
(1)
26
3368615
:855b*
6045
1281399
lOuc, s»r>
11)790
(4)
219170
3*45
801439
20400
26)«.l4
t m ff pr^a^Lis
uath r'^NACfc^r i
rup.u.
uaTlk
SIKPLT
•ft-cc-
irAt OR
iMy.'i-
tKUL
w\rm
?ur?LY
RKPiA-: ti>n h
uosu.
DEVEL-
OPMENT
: UlLD-
: UFE
: DrvEL-
i OPMLSf
. WATtR
: QLALirr
j ttA.SAC.S-
. Hint
11
11
35
33
tfi'UhR
M
UTOlR : M.-BER r MM3.-R
169
9*
14
9
to
9
11
9
10
8
17
16
s:
41
16
11
205
U5
16
9
12
10
X)
11
10
8
1)
14
IS
17
57
45
24
1/
157
96
21697
1*471
12
8
12
10
1063
891
1748
369*
1)
11
13
U
31
42
U
10
38
31
3786
3736
2223
2100
5032
5017
971
971
6C03
5988
13075
12715
19
15
30
26
2396
2259
107
5
2 SO
245
6J(S
6)3
3167
-------
£
128
TA&LB "WATERSHED PROJECTS INVnTORY - He?
I*VESTnRY OF UATERSUEQS t'ici bDlNC THE Fl^CS AM) SKTEST Of P303U"S "SfOCSO 4.SO fTASlblX P'R PdOIECT ACTIO1*
J
I
ttAJ^K DRAINAGE AREA I
PRINCIPAL DRAINAGE 8AS IN : WATERSHEDS
SvBftASKfS I
j
K I'O A.NT EXTENT Or VROdLEMS
FLOOD PH'-VENTIOH
ACHIPATUJAL WAllR MA.NaCEML«T- NoNVCR[CULTURAL WATEk MA.NAGEMfc.NT
F1.000VATER AND
SEDIMENT DArtACE
;
EROSION
DAMAGE
DRAIN-
AGE
IRRIGA-
TION
: WSiL- : RtfRtA-. rii.4 4
: I TAJ. OR : IICAL ; WILD-
: iKIiti- • DFVEL- : LIFE
RURAL • TRIAL « OPMLNT ; DEVrl-
WATE'K : WATFR ¦ : : OPttNT
SI »PI Y . «.UP!'LY •
WATER
QUAt I TV : rAIClS
MANAGE- : [\
UENT * Wi
AGRICUL- :
TL'RAL : l'»B4S
i NO. ; ACRES
ACRLS : ACRES
ACRES
ACRES
ACRE* . MJMttE* . MJKbtrt : M-.HBtR : Nl M3£R
StftJEft ' VJ^ER
f.PCAT BASIN AREA
9«av»r Rlvar 2b
Wntrriihad with prob (I) 7 1453644 108330 3<-9 569766 500 364)0
Na«J- proj action (2) 65)0 3*0 310041 0 19485
FoaslbU US with prob (3) 2 444859 7130 3s0 281IA6 500 33070
Suitable for proj action (4) 6230 340 247041 0 18045
304
277
Cedar Vallvy 2bI
. (1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
694988
212359
18000
18000
13000
15000
174690
17 46BO
101000
101000
18200
16700
13000
15000
211
154
lacalanca Daaarc 2b2
(1)
(2>
(3)
(4)
5 1456902
3 317672
7150
6950
4fl00
4800
259225
146725
87150
87150
22150
69S0
690u
6600
279
64
Third Ordar 2b Swraary
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
18 3605434
7 974790
133480
31480
26930
26930
349
340
340
340
1003671
631446
469336
435191
50O
0
500
0
76780
43115
54B/0
3)845
11
5
15
7
795
520
Svvtar Laka Butn Suonary
(1)
<2)
(3)
(4)
58 10357787
33 4343405
809318
272050
312498
265606
6194
4285
6385
4285
3594290
1462885
1750735
12 366 30
104876
20400
101196
20400
435210
307749
388S60
303259
38
24
54
33
4217
3687
Gr»ae Basin Araa Suroary
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
119 26298780
78 10723307
2538899
869474
788879
631724
67289
60295
66 UO
59820
9133104
3867470
4979495
3277115
420782
228730
408982
227650
1197275
845086
1061935
834296
22
20
90
65
;u
>8
17292
16402
COI'JMaiA KlVtR AREA
Raft Rlvar 14g
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
COLORADO RIVER AREA
Colorado Rlvar Main Scan 0
120
0
6500
0
100
0
1900
0
(1)
7
4934957
1(00
UOO
1824017
1000
4100
111
(2)
400
1200
2*000
1000
800
2
1
3
5
2
13)
1
94247
600
1200
45000
1000
1300
50
(4)
400
1200
20000
1000
too
1
1
1
1
Dl-ty Davii Rlvar 6
(I)
9
2823898
6650
0
1886112
2140
27126
314
(2)
J250
0
695818
1840
25330 .
1
9
9
8
(3)
3
454823
1800
0
218765
1500
2)600
256
(4)
1700
0
160900
1500
2 3600
1
3
3
3
tacjlanca Rlvar 7
(1)
4
1306659
950
0
1159<*25
0
3870
. 76
(2)
950
0
284000
0
3*00
0
4
4
I
(3)
1
357769
950
0
2 R4000
0
3800
65
(4)
950
0
284000
0
3
0
3
3
I
Gr««*a Rlv«r Main Strn 5
<1>
14
4079044
21280
900
1277910
103S0
61760
?6A
(2)
16970
400
219000
5750
^2160
3
12
14
U
(3)
4
561122
13950
700
89500
9150
4 WOO
SA!
(4)
13233
700
59100
5750
4B900
I
3
4
4
Blacks Fork Rlvar 5c
(I)
2
152480
26000
0
10000
0
0
0
(2)
5900
0
5600
0
0
0
0
2
2
2
(3)
0
0
(4)
0
0
ifi hasna Rlvar 5f
to
B
1075838
5225
0
115800
13100
55460
353
(2)
4275
0
0430'J
6600
5:440
0
5
7
6
(3)
4
471574
4^00
0
46800
13000
52160
301
(4)
3450
0
25100
6500
49160
0
3
)
3
(1)
4
742604
670
0
184151
0
24U)
3s"
(2)
370
0
136151
0
2700
0
3
4
4
(3)
0
0
(4)
0
0
L'lnt^h Rlvar 5(2
(1)
5
6812J5
1050
20
50000
34500
71000
495
(2)
700
20
10(300
noon
A9x)00
4
0
5
S
5
(J)
4
545341
1050
20
45000
34500
71000
495
(4)
700
20
28000
14000
69000
4
0
4
4
4
-------
129
TABLE 43 WATERSHEDS PROJECTS INVENTORY
MAJOR DRAINAGE AREAS LAND AND
PRINCIPAL DRAINAGE BASINS SUBBASIN WATER AREA
SUBBASINS NUMBER (ACREAGE)
Colorado River Area
Colorado River Basin
Dirty Devil River
Escalante River
Green River Basin
Green River
Blacks Fork River
Duchesne Ri^er
Strawberry River
Uintah River
White River
Willow Creek
Price River
San Rafael River
Kanab Creek
Paria River
San Juan River Basin
San Juan River
Montezuma Creek
Chinle Creek
Virgin River Basin
Virgin River
Fort Pierce Wash
Columbia River Area
Snake River Basin
Raft River
Great Basin Area
Great Salt Lake Basin
Great Salt Lake
Bear River
Bear Lake
Weber River
Jordan River
Provo River
Sevier Lake Basin
Sevier Lake Basin
Sevier River
East Fork Sevier River
South Fork Sevier River
San Pitch River
Beaver River
Cedar Valley
Escalante Desert
UTAH TOTAL
25,873
397
(0)
4,934
957
(6)
2,823
898
(7)
1,30.6
659
11,035
477
(5)
4,079
044
(5c)
152
480
(5f)
1,075
838
(5fl)
742
604
(5f 2)
681
225
(5g)
928
922
(5h)
612
989
(5i)
1,218
783
C5J)
1,543
592
(11)
367
052
(9)
666
626
3,020
094
(8)
2,207
889
(8f)
752
384
(8g)
59
821
1,718
634
(14)
1,708
605
(14a)
10
029
92
923
92
923
(14g)
92
923
28,298
780
17,940
993
(1)
12,009
582
(la)
1,867
175
(lal)
178
626
(lb)
1,469
963
(lc)
1,947
324
(lcl)
468
323
10,357
787
(2)
1,145
273
(2a)
3,364
.360
(2al)
792
670
(2a2)
721
000
(2a3)
429
050
(2b)
1,453
644
(2bl)
694
888
(2b2)
1,456
902
54,265
100
-------
TXBLtAAuArEftSHfcO PWJtCT'i ISVrlNTO-W - 106/
INVFVTORT OF WATERSHEDS [NCLUDINr.
THE KINDS
a>d i. te».t
0? -'"OH.
C AS? FEA^lSLt FO«l FRoJKT Av T [OS
vi:,j
t*r:.
OF yfli^SLEI.
MAJOR imiNACE AREA
fioou
PREVF.'ITlOS
AcMCIjLi
"AL -U'R
•fA'.ACLWr:
VttA'.MCl'l Tl'P.SL
..VTER fU'
\.;f ni-vr
tf-MfC- RiCKEA
. FIbit L
. uxrti
PRINCIPAL DRAINACC BASH
watersheds
FIOOWATEH
AND
IPAI. OK : TlONAl
. WfLR-
: QUA! 1 ;¦>
UrtIS
SUlldVv&S
SEOIHFNT
D\MAt,E
[r:ni3- . pm.f-
: LIFE
. MV\ \( E -
!•,
FRUSfiVJ :
DRAIN-
IRR!0A-
: RuKAL
TRISL ; Op«hNr
OEVtl-
: fr M
WS
AGRICUL-
bArtA^r
AGE
: ri'Vi
. WATFH •
VATF*
• OP*C- \ I
TURAL
LR8A.S
: il'Pi'Li .
SIPHH :
.NO.
ACRES
Al.RES
ACKtS
ACRES ,
ACRES
ALATi
; MMdLR
: SUH81K
W. HAER
COLORAiV RIVER AREA
ThirJ Order 5f Sunmarjr
W»C"'c?i*n0
.
8J2
N«erU pfoj action (2)
5145
20
' 250^51
2U600
1241m.
9
0 13
16
15
F«a»lble Wl> with prgb (1)
8
1016917
3450
20
9LH00
47500
IMUO
794
Suitable for proj action (-)
4150
20
51300
205O0
1181^0
7
0 7
7
7
WhUe Rlv«r )ft
(I)
3
928922
1100
0
63»1U
40
<•50
)
(2)
ICOO
0
2881J1
0
0
1
2 2
1
1
(3)
0
0
(4)
0
0
UtI low Creak 5h
(1)
3
612989
1100
0
216000
100
3300
17
(2)
900
0
17000
0
3100
0
0 2
1
1
O)
0
0
(4)
0
0
Prlca Rlvtr 31
(1)
10
1218781
13320
840
78412'»
9100
32000
)52
(2)
33200
840
353200
7700
22800
3
5 10
10
8
(3)
7
631391
30920
690
405650
8900
2 3400
503
<*>
30900
680
321200
7700
10 two
3
3 7
7
6
San dlvir 5}
(1)
)
1543592
19750
100
1314291
5200
33500
314
<2)
19600
100
414400
5200
2 1000
4
0 4
3
4
(3)
4
665511
19750
100
456210
5200
33500
334
(*)
19600
10Q
414400
5 ZOO
21000
4
0 1
4
3
Creto Hivar Suesury
(1)
5;
11033477
109693
1860
4*26*47
72590
2o0910
253b
(2)
82915
1360
1572822
39250
2:i;20
23
10 4)
53
49
o>
2)
2894941
70070
1500
104)160
70/50
23i360
2221
<*)
67900
1000
850000
39150
2
41
<*>
1130
0
60400
0
3110
1
0 0
t
I
San Juan liwr 8
(1)
6
2207889
3392
200
114357
250
40i2
«
16 5
(2)
1800
0
99357
0
0
4
0 1
%
«
(3)
0
0
(4)
0
0
MonCi'Sutfta Crsa't 8t
(0
4
7)2184
609>)
15
175951
0
2 "»'H0
4S2
u>
5420
15
0
21U0
4
1 1
1
1
(3)
1
209867
4203
I j
15V»',H
0
2i;:o
U7
(4)
4H5
n
110 746
i)
2 in.">
1
I I
1
1
Chlnlt Cre*k 8*
(U
1
59821
:o
0
*000
3
20
C)
0
n
0
0
0
(1
0 (1
0
ft
(3)
n
0
CO
0
0
San Ju4fi R Ivor 8 Suin.iry
(U
ii
3020094
9502
213
69f>A0 1
0
1 uo
H
1 6
A
/
(3)
i
20986 7
420b
IS
isms
0
:u^o
! .7
(i)
41J1S
15
1 J«W46
0
2 1020
I
I 1
1
1
Virgin Rlvor 14
CD
u
170864*1)
37770
50
9195W
0
25202
W
(2)
2 7.'00
50 '
2S2000
0
5
2 9
10
Q
(1)
4
618737
29/70
50
3W5W
0
:i c.:9
44)
(4>
27700
50
252'MO
0
2-hJ9
2
4
4
4
Fori Plc;r»e Wash 14a
U>
1
10029
1?00
0
10029
0
! J 00
5
(2>
1>U0
o 1
I04»2^
n
i.'OO
0
0 1
1
1
(1)
1
10029
Uno
0
tOQ
0
i:oi
5
<4>
WOO
0
10029
0
i:oo
0
0 t
:
1
Virplr Klvrr |4 Su.Ti.iry
-
1718*74
j.r>/n
•,,*>
V29jR*
0
*« i»
C>
•990.J
SO
2r»:n2'4
0
j • ^
5
10
ii
["
ni
5
6ZH76IS
50
ir» *
*v>»»o
0
• a ¦ t
2
5
5
CoUt.iJj ?lv»>r \re4 H>»r*ary
101
25*7 119/
l/i»S9 7
14/S
i:n»6 78
:s«jkj
U1"»
(2)
k'71h)
2725
i>cao7j
4?0<»0
W* ' jo
91
»')
n>
iH
AAft/jWl*
11145*
iVi'j
: >;o: n
; i,'5o
Hi 'J<*
l.'v*
(i)
IU''165
2 Hi
17*507)
4lhV)
m i:::
2*
9 U
*)
-------
-_lBLE',ja£ — Ti ww*. iILon^1 OFv iu*AL Knv FEA'oi.£>l»E IVAi'&RSu&Ub (19b/^
WATERSHED PROJECT PROBLEMS
TOTAL WATERSHEDS
FEASIBLE WATERSHEDS
ACRES
with ;
PROBLEMS |
NEED
PROJECT
ACTION
ACRES
WITH
PROBLEMS
NEED
PROJECT
ACTION
Number of watersheds
221
¦
116
Area - acres
54,265,100
15,610,115
Floodwater-sediment damage
Agriculture
2,710,016
996,639
900,734
739,089
Urban
70,714
63,020
69,305
62,185
Erosion damage
21,262,282
7,076,142
7,319,934
5,062,190
Drainage
496,865
270,840
482,232
269,300
Cropland
220,593
218,951
Pasture
267,615
254,727
Irrigation
1,560,255
1,153,325
1,377,664
1,123,825
Rural water"supply
106
115
80
36
Municipal and industrial
37
184
29
87
Recreation
169
52
99
17
Fish and wildlife
205
16
115
1
Water quality control
157
64
96
20
-------
Table 45 B
132
pUATfBSMtO HUJfCTS - l?67
HvKSTOUT 0* WVItftSHKDS I^CL'JDIM; T'i r {•_.•>) A.'Q FT TL'-T (" H.'S.g'S 'f'n'.C ffASiSLC fCt PVJtCT AITtfW
f ic/.o
piEvf.tn.v. >
L -»r£A «l\.\
MAJOR DRAlNAUZ AlU
PRINCIPAL DRAINAC4 MSI*
VA
E35HEDS t
FLOW-UEH
A.'»"*
SUIIASlifS
SEDLHivr 0a."U',E
r i.'j' i • ¦
Man-
IRM.'A-
ACRlCb'L- :
0K.-.ACL
age :
IlLA
T1RAV.
U?*AN
ACHlS
ACHLS
Awrfrs
AClii j
ACU*
StKl of Utah Suayry
W«c«rah«d with prote (1)
221
34263100
2710016
707|fc
21262281
496«*3
15602)5
)U«da proj acttoa (2)
996619
64C2J
70761-2
:703«o
1133)23
Uiilbli US with pttib (3)
U6
13410113
9007 34
6*)03
7)1*9)4
*82232
1)77664
Suicabl* for proj act ton (4)
73908*
6216)
)0«:i90
269)00
112)823
C*EAT UStH ARFA
Cr«t Salt Lab.* B««la
Craat Salt Lak* 1
Vatar»S«
3023d
2630
163480
7 d 300
1 74433
(3)
10
1389060
77693
2950
4)6691
134)00
20716)
(4)
44963
2630
1)1480
78400
1734)3
B«ar Uk« U1
(1)
1
178626
300
0
601)0
2700
6500
(2)
200
0
)000
0
3000
(3)
1
178626
300
0
60130
2700
6300
(4)
200
0
5000
0
3000
Third Order la Suaury
(1)
14
2043001
8)688
2910
704828
142620
27466)
(2)
304*8
26SO
165490
78500
17943)
OJ
n
1367686
78183
2930
49)821
137200
213*63
(A)
4318B
2650
156480
78400
1784)3
V«b«r Mvar lb
(1)
10
1469963
60217
4930
10479J5
39350
16044)
(2)
37767
4750
6/6)69
5340Q
109 3)0
(3)
a
1280681
37917
4830
892*41
394)0
15)693
(4)
36467
4630
64})b9
3)400
1030)0
Jordan Itlvar le
(1)
16
1947314
226843
40203
929427
76106
206690
(2)
1817)0
3820)
72822 7
326)0
161840
())
14
172)434
224)43
40203
814)2/
76206
206)90
(4)
181430
38203
66)127
32650
161430
Provo llvtr lei
(1)
3
468323
448)1
8200
29)6 36
14 700
48211
(2)
33831
8200
81876
7600
4)942
<3)
3
468)23
448)1
8200
29)6)6
14700
4321 1
(4)
338J1
8200
818 76
7600
4)942
Third Order lc Sunary
(1)
19
2413647
271676
49403
122)06)
90906
254901
(2)
211561
44405
SiOlO)
60250
207782
(3)
17
2191737
269)76
4J-.05
1107963
90906
23460:
(4)
213261
44403
74)90)
602)0
20743J
Ccaat Salt Lak* Eaalo Suuury
(1)
61
179*099)
1730)91
60873
)):s?ia
315906
(2)
397416
36010
2-OCS85
208350
3 3 7))7
(3)
43
6)79902
476381
6005)
3228760
107 f16
6M27S
(4)
364116
)))))
2040btf)
2072)0
5310)7
9«vl*r Lak* 34* In
9«vlar Lake Baa In 2
(1)
1
1143271
233000
0
27)000
0
400
(2)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
(3)
0
0
(4)
0
0
Sat Ur llvir 2a
(1)
23
3664360
404798
3343
1432676
7S996
24^040
(2)
224648
3)43
360529
10100
19 7014
(3)
17
2210)93
23386a
3j4)
6950-4
78996
241320
(4)
224648
354)
360529
10100
19 7014
last Fork Savlar Rlv«r 2.»l
(1)
3
792670
4410
0
348263
3680
15)40
(2)
30
0
78670
0
0
(3)
1
71670
30
0
78670
0
0
(4)
30
0
78o/0
0
0
So Fork StvUr liver 2a2
U>
3
721000
3230
0
3)1)00
1200
21780
(2)
29)0
0
313000
200
moo
(3)
4
630300
22)0
0
)01500
1200
20'90
<4)
1930
0
288000
200
184C0
Saa Pitch River 2a]
(1)
4
4290)0
27400
2)00
20)180
23)00
71890
(2)
12950
400
74:^0
10130
46^:0
<3)
4
429030
27400
2300
20) 130
20500
71s >0
(4)
12950
400
7-.240
10100
it.100
Third OrJ«r 2a Suv^rjr
(1)
39
36070&0
439838
60*. 5
2)1)619
104)76
3>?0)0
(2)
240)78
3941
81UH
20400
26«6v4
(J)
26
3368613
285)68
6043
1241)99
100696
33)790
(4)
219378
3943
801-)9
20400
2614U
? v.' J
¦ t'lS
S V. \(/» IiLl
-UL
: «n;c- : Hi !>«*-: F-irf 4 . wua'
• IfAL 0' s T10\4L : VCLO- ; Q'J *Lirj : fMLHi
: . MV£l« ; U»t : «*ASAC.£- : !H
RL>A!/ : Th^W. : Or^VT : DI\£t.- i KS«tT
. UtUX • CpyWT {
: us
SI PP1T
VP'LT
: Hl'lltA : Kl^alR : M-'ftBSH j Nli-Otl
104
SO
J7
29
12
9
19
I*
13
13
1*9
•9
203
115
U
8
10
6
IX
9
10
I
14
U
I?
16
32
41
16
11
16
9
12
10
13
U
10
6
13
14
u
17
37
43
24
17
21697
19471
12
8
12
10
11
11
10
a
13
12
10
13
31
42
1)
10
106]
991
3748
3698
18
)8
3746
37)6
22 23
2100
30)2
3017
971
971
6003
39*8
13&7)
12713
17
19
31
26
2396
2259
lO
^ 3
280
26)
614
6)8
)Wl
)167
-------
Table 45 Continued
•ate*ssfo »*o;ccts - 1967
v :v
•• ^ r, :
r.- .fi>' i"
Tl-Tior HL'VE T!0'«
„ ?.\L VA.TLK
vv\ *
CUVv'S>'.
KAJ3K DPUISACE ARIA
i
i
^; c -
• KIZS.i*- 4
W v?t A
r*isciPAi drainage
8AS IK : WATERSHEDS
rLOOD'JATtl AND
I»AL 02
: TlfNAL
: WILD-
OCAllTY
tajws
S'JBBASIKS
SEDIMENT 0A.HACE
r»XiS«
: deve:.-
: LIFE
MANAGE-
IS
l
: EROSION
1 DlAlS-
: J911CA-
: CL'llAi
T*IAL
s Or-'CNT
« DCITL-
PB»I
US
-«
ACSIO.L- : . DAMAGE
: ACE
: TICS*
: UA7E?
WA* Zk
: CPHT\T
r.FAL : l ? 3 *> •
S. TL^- :
<• °'-l\
: HO. : ACRXS
ACR£S • ACRL* ACRES
• ACRES
: aCc_".5
: JO'it" :
S-^ER
• So.rar*
: .\XnSbR
.SL-HSfa
V.'^ER
CACAT BASIN AREA
6eavtr Rlvar ?t
Vat«r»h*d vlch prob (1)
Need* pre] action (2)
r««ilblt WS with prob (3)
Suitable for praj icttoa (4)
Cadar Vallay 2bt
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
lieiluta Datart 2b?
(1)
(2)
O)
(4)
Third Order 2b Susaary
(1)
(2)
(1)
<4)
Stvter Laka Baatn Suwary
(1)
(2)
(3)
<*)
Great Ratio Area Susnary
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
7 1433644
2 444839
*94606
212239
3 U36902
1 117*71
16 3603434
7 974790
36 10337767
33 4343403
119 28198790
76 10723307
106330
6510
7130
4230
16000
16000
13000
13000
7130
6930
4600
4600
1JJ460
31460
269 JO
26910
603)18
272038
312498
•63606
2338899
669474
7 88A 79
631724
J49
340
340
340
349
)40
340
340
619..
428$
6383
4283
67289
60293
66440
39870
369766
319041
281136
247041
174680
174660
101000
101000
239223
146723
67 150
67130
1003671
631446
449336
433191
3394290
14428S3
1710735
12 16630
9123104
3867470
4979493
32 77113
300
0
300
0
300
0
300
0
IC4876
20400
10119b
20400
420762
228750
403982
227630
36430
19483
33070
16043
16200
16700
13000
13000
27150
6950
6600
6900
76760
<3133
34670
19643
435230
307749
368660
303259
1197273
6.5086
10619 35
634296
23
19
38
32
22
20
11
3
39
24
90
63
13
7
34
33
111
76
26
21
77
63
306
277
210
134
279
69
793
320
4217
3667
17292
16402
COLUMBIA HIVER AREA
lift liver 14|
(1)
1
92923
120
0
6300
100
1900
(2)
0
0
0
0
0
(3)
0
(4)
0
0
COLORADO RIVEI AREA
Colorado Mver Halo Steal 0
(1)
7
4934937
1600
1200
1824017
10O0
4100
(2)
400
1200
2q000
1000
600
(3)
1
94247
600
1200
45000
1000
1300
(4)
400
1200
20000
1000
800
Dirty Devil liver 6
(I)
9
26.M89S
6)30
0
1MRIU
214Q
27126
(2)
3J50
0
(.*3618
1940
23330
(3)
3
43*823
1600
0
2l«:t5
1500
23600
(4)
1700
ft
160900
1500
2)600
(1)
4
1306639
9*9
0
0
3870
(2)
9 SO
0
2840P0
0
3M0
(3)
3
357769
950
0
2849(10
0
3000
(4)
930
0
234000
0
3HU
Green River H* lr Strn 3
(1)
14
4079044
21280
900
12779 10
105*0
61760
C)
1*970
400
219000
3/50
3:io0
(3)
4
361L22
13*33
700
69300
9150
4S<>00
(4)
1)230
200
59100
3 750
46?ftO
Black* Tork River 3c
<1>
2
132480
26000
0
10009
0
0
(2)
3900
0
5600
0
0
(3)
0
0
(4)
0
Duchesne River 3f
(1)
1073638
3223
0
135100
13100
35460
(2)
4273
0
84 30'J
efcOO
32460
(3>
4
411374
44C0
0
46800
I300C
52 toO
(4)
ji:o
0
2SV)0
6500
49160
Strawberry Rlv*r 3fl
(I)
4
742604
670
0
141131
0
1*40
(2)
370
0
136131
0
2700
(3)
0
0
(4)
0
Dlntab River 5(2
<1>
3
661225
1050
20
50000
3h3CMJ
71000
(2)
700
20
30 ")00
16Q00
mooo
(3)
4
343343
1030
20
&5000
343C0
7 WOO
(4)
700
20
2CW 0
14000
69300
12
3
14
4
14
4
113
90
314
2*6
76
65
748
388
333
301
493
493
71
-------
Table 45 Continued
I WATERED FttJLCTS f«VENTORY - 19*>7
sle rm projf:t actih^
134
*.imi *•::> evtfst p«">dif*
1 I
flood Firvs^rio:.
-A.'-AC:
S N U V 1
Jl UR\L
-\r
\-LvcST
KAJ0P DRAtSACR AALA
1 t
MLMC-
9ly.ds.A-
: F.^it 4
¦JA1Z1
FIWC1PU DRAINAGE
8A5 LI t WATERSHEDS
FLOODGATES AND
! J
I PAL OR t
TI0NAL
: UILO-
: QUALITY
ffAWS
SUBaAStN*
: I
sEoitf.vr o*M»ce
ISDUS- t
DEVEL-
] LIFE
: KKNACE-
H
t i
EP0S10M
: DRAIN-
XI91CA- : til SAL
TRIAL
OPMENT
: DIVEL-
: yZM
WS
J t
AC^tCUL- :
0 mi
: ACC
TllW • LAI ER •
WATER :
: 0??5NT
TL'fLVL . l'R*Oi
. SLP»'.V :
SIPPLY •
l HO. : ACPti t
ACHES : AC-lfS
ACkEi
: ACrfES
AC*E> • NL^BtU :
Nusaia :
r.'JttER
: Ni'^aca
; MHJCH
NUfBER
oolomoo iivei area
Third Ordar If Junaqr
Uacarahed wtch prob (1)
llaada proj aetioi (2)
Faajlbla WS with prob (3)
Sulcabla (or pro] acdon (4)
UMu llvar 5g
(1)
(2)
(!)
(t>
Wlllou Cc«V 5h
(I)
(J)
(J)
<»>
hlci RLv«r 31
(1)
(2)
O)
(4)
Ju liful Rlv«r )J
(1)
(2)
(5)
(4)
Craaa llvar Sumac?
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
luab Craak 11
(1)
(2)
(1)
(4)
(1)
(2)
(1)
<4)
Sao Juan tivaf 0
<1>
(2)
(1)
(4)
NoaUiubi Craak 0f
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Qilala Craak 6g
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Saa Juan llvar 0 Stonary
CD
(2)
(3)
(4)
flrgla Rlvar 14
(1)
(2)
O)
(4)
Fere Flare* Waah 14a
(I>
(2)
(3)
(4)
Vlrgls llvar 14 Swnary
<1)
(2)
(1)
(4)
Colorado liver Araa Sufoary
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
7499M7
1016917
112909
1210701
631391
134)392
063311
11033477
2094941
167032
179163
4666ZA
670)0
732 J04
209067
1020094
209067
1700603
616717
10029
10029
1718614
3 6*0766
694)
534)
)4)0
41)0
1)00
1000
1100
900
11120
13200
10920
10900
19750
19600
19 7 50
19600
109693
63913
70070
67900
400
400
200
20Q
1110
1110
11)0
1110
1192
1000
6090
1420
4203
4103
20
Q
9502
72:0
4203
4103
17770
27700
29770
27700
1200
1200
1200
1200
38970
: mo
10900
29900
:o
20
20
20
040
040
6S0
630
100
100
100
100
1060
1160
1300
1000
100
100
100
100
200
0
13
I)
13
IS
213
13
13
13
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
.101 2.307)397
10 4006000
170*97
"iiuftV
11W33
1073b)
1423
2723
:«65
2)6)
349951
2 304)1
9IRCO
53300
634171
200171
216000
17000
704)24
JS9!00
(.0)430
32)200
1)1.291
Ui<-00
1)6210
414400
4S26647
1)72822
104)160
8)0000
140067
14000
16 7)80
8000
6)9996
60400
60400
60*00
3140)7
99337
37)9)1
1922*6
13)940
139746
6000
0
696000
29160)
13)948
139746
9193)7
2)2000
3)73)7
232000
10029
10029
10029
10029
929)86
2A2029
16 7386
262029
1:112070
):036>2
2140-39
17B307)
47600
20*i 00
4 7)00
203HO
40
0
100
0
9100
7 700
MOO
7700
3200
)200
3200
32Q0
72)90
)9:)0
70/30
191)0
2)3
0
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0
73963
42090
7 32)0
416)0
129)00
12«160
12)160
115160
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0
1000
1100
12000
22fif>0
28800
20800
3)300
21000
33)00
21U00
260810
27)420
234)60
208860
2790
2 790
2490
2490
3030
3130
1110
1110
4042
0
23090
23140
21220
21020
20
0
29132
21140
21220
21020
28202
24629
24629
24629
1200
1200
1200
1200
29402
23829
23029
23029
361000
•" SOU? 39
31)729
:99)29
2)
10
47
20
1)
9
13 16
? 7
10
3
70"
14
10
6
11
3
91"
17
13
7
082
796
3 10 10 0
3 7 7 6
4 3 4
3 4)
10 43 SI 49
4 20 22 20
1 1 1
1 1 I
0 0 2 1
0 0 11
10
3
79
11
332
301
3)4
134
2316
2221
31
19
49
41
402
14 7
637
1*7
300
44)
391
430
4389
12o9
72
-------
TABLE 4S WATERSHEDS PROJECTS INVENTORY
MAJOR DRAINAGE AREAS LAND AND
PRINCIPAL DRAINAGE BASINS SUBBASIN WATER AREA
SUBBASINS NUMBER (ACREAGE)
Colorado River Area
Colorado River Basin
Dirty Devil River
Escalante River
Green River Basin
Green River
Blacks Fork River
Duchesne River
Strawberry River
Uintah River
White River
Willow Creek
Price River
San Rafael River
Kanab Creek
Paria River
San Juan River Basin
San Juan River
Montezuma Creek
Chinle Creek
Virgin River Basin
Virgin River
Fort Pierce Wash
Columbia River Area
Snake River Basin
Raft River
Great Basin Area
Great Salt Lake Basin
Great Salt Lake
Bear River
Bear Lake
Weber River
Jordan River
Provo River
Sevier Lake Basin
Sevier Lake Basin
Sevier River
East Fork Sevier River
South Fork Sevier River
San Pitch River
Beaver River
Cedar Valley
Escalante Desert
UTAH TOTAL
25,873
397
(0)
4,934
957
(6)
2,823
898
(7)
1,306
659
11,035
477
(5)
4,079
044
(5c)
152
480
(5f)
1,075
838
(5fl)
742
604
(5f2)
681
225
(5g)
928
922
(5h)
612
989
(5i)
1,218
783
(5j)
1,543
592
(11)
367
052
(9)
666
626
3,020
094
(8)
2,207
889
(8f)
752
384
(8g)
59
821
1,718
634
(14)
1,708
605
(14a)
10
029
92
923
92
923
(14g)
92
923
28,298
780
17,940
993
(1)
12,009
582
(la)
1,867
175
(lal) .
178
626
(lb)
1,469
963
(lc)
-1,947
324
(lcl)
468
323
10,357
787
(2)
1,145
273
(2a)
3,364
360
(2al)
792
670
(2a2)
721
000
(2a3)
429
050
(2b)
1,453
644
(2bl)
694
888
(2b2)
1,456
902
54,265
100
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TABLE 47 SUMMARY TABULATIONS OF TOTAL AND FEASIBLE WATERSHEDS (1967)
WATERSHED PROJECT PROBLEMS
TOTAL WATERSHEDS
FEASIBLE WATERSHEDS
ACRES
WITH
PROBLEMS
NEED
PROJECT
ACTION
ACRES
WITH
PROBLEMS
NEED
PROJECT
ACTION
Number of watersheds
221
116
Area - acres
54,265,100
15,610,115
Floodwater-sediment damage
Agriculture
2,710,016
996,639
900,734
739,089
Urban
70,714
63,020
69,305
62,185
Erosion damage
21,262,282
7,076,142
7,319,934
5,062,190
Drainage
496,865
270,840
482,232
269,300
Cropland
220,593
218,951
Pasture
267,615
' 254,727
Irrigation
1,560,255
1,153,325
1,377,664
1,123,825
Rural water supply
106
115
80
36
Municipal and industrial
37
184
29
87
Recreation
169
52
99
17
Fish and wildlife
205
16
115
1
Water quality control
157
64
96
20
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137
SOUTH DAKOTA
Introduction
In preparation of the South Dakota Conservation Needs Inventory, the affect
of various environmental factors, and the potential uses of land and water re-
sources for different purposes, were given consideration in estimating feasible
land use and conservation treatment needs.
The advance in production technology and increases in yields of farm
products has been very evident in the last decide. This advance is expected
to continue at a similar rate to 1980. In South Dakota there will continue to
be an export of the farm products to other areas. The demand-supply situation
will mean that average prices will stay close to the 1961-65 average. The
continued increase in production cost of farm products, with prices remaining
at the average levels noted above, will create a tendency for more intensive
use of the land and water resources. It is also expected that there will be
some shift from range to cropland use on the better soils in western counties
of the state. The landowners, generally, are concerned about highly damaging
practices brought about by this intensive use. Therefore, they have adopted
a conservation concept which will, with acceleration of needed treatment, pro-
vide protection to the basic resources.
The amount of additional land required for recreational use during the
next decade is not expected to significantly reduce the acreages now in crop-
land or pasture and range. Most of the expected increase of about 17,000 acres
would come on land presently in woodland or grasslands adjacent to water areas.
Inventory and Non-Inventory
The 1976 Conservation Needs Inventory lists a total land area of 48,611,904.
The land area as reported in the 1960 Census of Agriculture for each county was
used as the basic land area for the county. The land areas given in the 1960
Census were adjusted to the 1964 Census data to exclude areas inundated since
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138
1959 by the construction of new lakes and reservoirs of 40 acres, or more, in
size. Most of this adjustment occurred in counties adjacent to Oahe and Fort
Randall (Lake Francis Case) Reservoirs. It does not include lands flooded by
the Big Bend Reservoir (Lake Sharpe).
The total land area consists of two principal parts, namely, inventory and
non-inventory acres. These are further broken down into several principal
categories, or uses, as shown in Figure 26.
INVENTORY AND NON-INVENTORY ACRES OF SOUTH DAKOTA 1967
-------
139
From 1958 to 1967 there have been changes in inventory and non-inventory
acres which are of special interest. Federal land has increased by 172,979
acres. Water areas of over 2 acres and less than 40 acres in size have accounted
for a reduction of 28,167 acres in land area. Urbanization has taken 43,366
acres out of inventory and mainly out of agricultural use. The total of these,
244,512 acres, represents the increase in non-inventory since 1958. There has
also been a reduction of 270,288 acres in land area due, primarily, to an in-
crease in water areas larger than 40 acres. Most of this, according to United
States Census figures, is the result of the impoundments on the Missouri River.
Land Use
The changes in use of inventory acres from 1958 to 1967 are illustrated
in Figure 27.
The Inventory shows an increase of about 1.5 million acres in cropland
since 1958. This is accounted for, in part, by the inclusion of wild hay as
cropland in this inventory as contrasted to acres in range and pasture in
the 1958 Inventory.
A review of counties shows that the cropland increase from 1958 to 1967
is most significant in the Central and West River area because of the inclusion
of wild hay as cropland and the breaking up of some grassland on the better
soils. The increase in cropland is primarily reflected in a reduction of
pasture and range.
The Inventory shows 170,666 acres of irrigated cropland in the state. This
is based on figures from 41 counties having about 200, or more, acres irrigated.
Most of this acreage is accounted for in several of the West River counties
where the Belle Fourche and Angostura Irrigation Projects are located. The
central and southeastern parts of the state show quite an increase in irrigation
during the past ten years.
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140
There has been a reduction from 26,699,134 acres of pasture and range in
1958 to '24,124,545 acres in 1967. This is due, primarily, to the changes noted
under cropland. However, in some counties, notably Shannon and Washabaugh, with
a large acreage of barren badlands reported as range in the 1958 Inventory, much
of this was shifted to "Other" land in the 1967 Inventory as it was considered
to more appropriately fall into this use.
The Inventory shows 705,379 acres of forest land. This is commercial,
consisting of 5b2,477 acres and non-commercial, 142,902 acres. Most of the
commercial forest is found in the Black Hills Area. The area of forest land,
by counties, in the state is based on information provided by the United States
Forest Service.
There 986,525 acres of "Other" land in this Inventory as contrasted to
566,175 acres in 1958. It varies quite widely by counties. Those having a
significant amount in relationship to the 1958 Inventory were those where specific
shifts were made as noted under pasture and range, or some other factor. This
latter group Included several counties where the State of South Dakota has made
purchases of land for the purpose of retaining wetland areas for wildlife pur-
poses .
Land Treatment
The Conservation Treatment Needs portion of the Inventory indicates that
on all cropland, 47.4 percent, or nearly nine million acres, are adequately
treated. The principal needs still to be accomplished on the dry cropland are
for the more intensive treatments. These are: Sod in rotation, strip cropping,
terracing, and diversions.
On the irrigated cropland, about 29,COO acres are adequately treated.
Treatments needed are for cultural management practices, improvement of the
systems, and for tfater management.
-------
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
141
1968
1967
.¦i 'ii i
1967
1958
PASTURE
& RANGE
FOREST
USE
OTHER
CROPLAND
Figure 27.
USE OF INVENTORY ACREAGE IN 1958 AND 1967
-------
Figure 28 SOUTH DAKOTA
LAND RESOURCE AREAS
r-o
Scale 0 10 ZO 30 *0 SO Miles
ALBERS EQUAL AREA PROJECTION
SOURCE: Sollg Memorandum 5C5*49, Notional
Resource Map, January, 1963.
53
Dark Brown Glaciated Plain
61
Black Hills Footslopes
1
54
Rolling Soft Shale Plain
62
.Black Hills
97
55
Black Glaciated Plains
63
Rolling Pierre Shale Plains
56
Red River Valley of the North
64
Mixed Sandy and Silty Tableland
H-*
¦C-
58
Northern Rolling High Plains
65
Nebraska Sand Hills
KJ
60
Pierre Shale Plains and Badlands
66
102
Dakota-Nebraska Eroded TaDleiand
Loess, Till, and Sandy Prairies
10- 12-70
5.L-28.582
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143
The Pasture and Range Inventory shows that about 38 percent is adequately
treated. Protection is needed on over 12 million acres and improvement only is
needed on 1.6 million acres.
On the Forest land, about 55 percent is still in need of treatment. The
greatest treatment need is for timber stand improvement on about 300,000 acres.
There are about 631,500 acres of forest land grazed and 287,801 acres of this
shows a need for reduction or elimination of grazing as a major treatment.
On Other land, only 266,393 acres, or 27 percent, shows a need for treat-
ment. This is due, in part, to the fact that the conservation treatment applied
on the adjacent lands will provide needed protection to the Other land area.
Also, some areas in the Badlands are considered not feasible to treat.
Major Land Resource Areas
A land resource area is a geographic area of land characterized by a par-
ticular combination or pattern of soils (including slope and erosion), climate,
water resources, land use, and types of farming. The map and descriptions give
us in brief form data on soil and resources. Similar soils in a land resource
area have similar interpretations of capability and treatment needs.
A map of such scale is used in general planning between counties or state-
wide, but it omits many details of great local significance.
Loess, Till, and Sandy Prairies (102) the largest resource area in South
Dakota, is located along the eastern portion and comprises about 18 percent of
the state. Ground water of fair to good quality is available along outwash
areas and streams, but is scarce in glacial till areas. Many permanent and
intermittent lakes and ponds are important sources of water for livestock and
recreation.
Seventy-five to 90 percent of the soils are used for cropland. Wheat and
other small grains are the major crops in the north with corn, soybeans, and
small grains grown in the southern part. Water and wind erosion control practices
are needed on sloping or sandy areas.
-------
144
The soils in this land resource area are well adapted to cropland or grass-
land. They have none to moderate limitations for building sites, urban develop-
ment and recreation development.
Dark Brown Glaciated Plain (53) is located in the central portion of the
state east of the Missouri River, and comprises about 10 percent of the state.
Groundwater of fair to good quality is available in some of the glacial drift
area, glacial outwash areas and streams. Irrigation water is available from
the Oahe Reservoir of the Missouri River. Irrigation is expected to develop
rapidly on the suitable soils adjacent to the Reservoir.
The percentage of cropland in the various counties in this land resource
area ranges from about 40 to 65 percent. Wheat, oats, and flax are the major
crops along with corn, silage, and alfalfa hay. Because rainfall is low and
erratic, conservation of moisture is essential. Moisture conservation practices,
along with wind erosion control, is needed on all cropland areas and water ero-
sion control on sloping areas. Fertility maintenance is necessary to maintain
adequate yields.
The soils in this land resource area are mostly well adapted to cropland
or grassland. They have only slight to moderate limitations for building sites,
urban development, and recreation development.
Rolling Soft Shale Plain (54) is west of the Missouri River adjacent to
the North Dakota-South Dakota boundary, and it makes up about 7 percent of the
state.
Nearly all the land is in farms and ranches. Less than one-fourth of the
land is used for cropland. The principal crops grown are spring wheat, oats,
feed grains, and hay. Rangeland is i.he piincipal land use. The principal lim-
iting factor to agriculture in this land resource area is the lack of moisture.
Farming methods that make the most efficient use of moisture are required. Wind
erosion is a serious hazard on sandy areas in cropland. Moisture conservation
practices, fertility maintenance, and wind erosion control practices are needed
-------
145
management practices. The more gentle slopes of the sandy and loamy soils have
moderate to severe limitations of urban development or building sites while
the steep slopes and thin claypan soils have severe limitations.
Black Glaciated Plains (55) occupy the east central portion and comprise
about 16 percent of the state. Groundwater of fair to good quality is available
along glacial outwash areas and streams, but the water from aquifers in the
glacial drift is often highly mineralized. The soils are used almost entirely
for dryland agriculture with a few scattered irrigation systems. It is expected
that irrigation will rapidly develop with a delivery system of irrigation
waters from the Oahe Reservoir. The percentage of cropland in the various counties
of this areairanges from about 25 to 50 percent. Spring wheat and other small
grains are the principal crops in yie north while corn, sorghum, and winter
wheat are grown mostly in the southern portion. Moisture conservation practices
along with wind and water erosion control are the most important management
needs. Some of the saline or clayey soils will affect the choice of crops.
The soils in this land resource area are generally well suited to cropland
or grassland. The silty and loamy soils have only slight to moderate limitations
for building sites and urban development.
Red River Valley of the North (56) is mostly in North Dakota and Minnesota
and occupies less than one percent of South Dakota in the northeast corner of
the state. Ground water of fair to good quality is available.
Most of the soils are used for cropland. Spring wheat, flax and other
small grains are the principal crops. Wind erosion control practices are needed
on cropland.
The soils in this land resource area are well adapted to cropland or grass-
land. They have none to moderate limitations for building sites, urban develop-
ment, and recreation development.
Northern Rolling High Plains (58) in the northwester portion make up about
seven percent of the state. Groundwater is not available except
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146
in local sandy or gravelly areas and alluvium along drainageways. Water for
livestock is stored in small reservoirs.
The land use is almost entirely for rangeland except locally on deep
loamy soils. Some small grains and alfalfa are grown on these areas. The low
rainfall and undesirable soil characteristics result in limited agricultural
production. Barren, salty spots are common in the claypan soils. Good manage-
ment practices of moisture conservation are necessary to maintain cover so water
erosion and ' n are kept under control.
Most of these soils have severe to very severe limitations for building
sites, recreation or urban uses. The impermeable subsoils and substratum
severely limits the use for septic tank disposal fields. Minor areas of deep,
sandy and loamy soils developing in alluvium along drainageways and sandy up-
land areas have only slight to moderate limitations for these uses.
Pierre Shale Plains and Badlands (60) comprise about nine percent of the
state. Ground water is not available except in local areas of sandy or gravelly
soils. Small reservoirs and a few artesian wells provide most of the water
for livestock.
I
The land is used mostly for rangeland, but some of the gentler slopes are
cultivated for production of small grains, alfalfa, and sorghum. The physical
nature of these soils is such that water erosion and sedimentation are severe
hazards. Low rainfall is the limiting factor for yields of grasses and cropland.
Moisture conservation practices are necessary. The soils have severe to moderate
limitations for recreational purposes, camp sites, roads or urban development.
The drainageways dissecting the soil areas give only slight or moderate
limitations for wildlife habitat. The rugged landscape of the badlands area
furnishes a favorite tourist attraction as well as a panorama of geologic history.
Soils and topography in the badlands have severe limitations for agricultural
use, building sites, or urban development.
-------
147
Black Hills Footslopes (61) land resource area makes up about five percent
of the state. Artesian water is available in part of this area from underlying
limestone beds that furnish good quality water. Streamflow provides water for
livestock, while reservoirs on a few of the major rivers provide water for
irrigation.
The major part of this land resource area is under private ownership and
is used principally for rangeland. Part is owned by the state and federal
government and is used for recreational purposes. Wooded areas occur on north
facing slopes and in many of the deep ravines. Water erosion and sedimentation
are severe hazards on these soils. Rangeland management is essential for water
erosion control and stabilization of gullies.
The steep slopes and shallow soils have severe to moderate limitations
for building sites or urban development. However, much of the area is scenic
and has desirable features for use for recreational facilities and wildlife
habitat.
Black Hills (62) area makes up about two percent of the state. The natural
springs and streams in the narrow stream valleys furnish water for livestock
and recreational purposes.
Much of -this resource area is owned by the state and federal government
and is a part of the Black Hills National Forest. The rugged topography and
geologic variation has resulted in this being an established park and recreation
area. Management is necessary to prevent water erosion and sedimentation, and
to maintain woodland cover.
Rolling Pierre Shale Plains (63) is located in the central part of the state
west of the Missouri River and comprises about 18 percent of the state. Ground
water is scarce and of poor quality except in some local sandy and gravelly
areas. Water for livestock is stored in farm ponds and small reservoirs. The
percent of cropland in the various counties ranges from about 50 percent in Tripp
-------
148
County to about 15 percent in counties to the north. The principal crops grown
are winter wheat and milo. Water erosion and sedimentation are severe hazards
on cropland. The land use is mostly rangeland and moisture conservation practices
are necessary.
The soils have severe to moderate limitations for recreational purposes,
campsites, roads, or urban development.
Mixed, Sandy and Silty Tableland (64) is in the south-central part of the
state and makes up about four percent of the state. Ground water is scarce and
of poor quality in most of the area; locally, sands and gravels yield moderate
to large amounts of good water.
About 75 percent of the land is used for rangeland. The principal dryland
crops grown are oats, winter wheat, barley and alfalfa. Water erosion and sed-
imentation are severe hazards on cropland. Wind erosion is also a significant
hazard on cropland and rangeland if an adequate vegetative cover is not main-
tained. Moisture conservation is essential for dryland farming in this re-
source area.
The deep, silty upland soils only have slight to moderate limitations for
urban and recreational development. The steeper areas have moderate to severe
limitations for most uses.
Nebraska Sandhills (65) in the southwestern part of the state adjoining
Nebraska makes up less than one percent of the state. Groundwater is abundant
and of good quality to meet domestic requirements and part of the livestock and
other needs. Wind erosion is the principal problem of the area on both the
rangeland and on the small amount of cropland. The loose, sandy,
soils are not suited for building sites or urban development.
Dakota-Nebraska Eroded Tableland (66) is located in south-central South
Dakota and comprises about two percent of the state. Groundwater is scarce
and of poor quality except along the southern fringe where an abundance of
-------
149
groundwater is available in the very sandy soils.
About 75 percent of the soils are used for rangeland. On the cropland,
winter wheat, other small grains, and sorghums are the principal crops. Wind
erosion is a severe hazard on cropland. Poor waterholding capacity and low
rainfall make these soils droughty. Rangeland needs management for moisture
conservation, wind erosion control, and fertility maintenance.
These soils have slight to moderate limitations for rangeland and wild-
life. Th»y o-^H-iate *- severe limitations for urban, recreation, and camping
areas.
-------
150
Watershed Inventory - Problems and Needs
The Watershed Project Needs Inventory provides data for the number and
acreage of all watersheds delineated. This data indicates that there were 449
such watersheds. Of these, 205 indicated project feasibility.
Figure 30 provides diagrammed information for the watersheds as to
project feasibility and the kinds and extent of problems requiring project action.
Significant watershed problems often exist which cannot be solved adequately
or in a timely manner with assistance available to local people or other federal
programs but which can be solved or alleviated by assistance authorized under
the Watershed and Flood Prevention Act (PL 566). These watershed problems are
considered to be those which affect and require action for their solution by
groups of landowners, communities, and the general public through cooperation
of local, state, and federal governments.
Si-nificant watershed problems are those which require installation of
such measures as floodwater retarding structures, levees, floodways, irrigation
and drainage improvements, recreation or fish and wildlife development, municipal
and industrial water supply, other water management measures, and those for
stabilization, and revegetation of critical runoff and sediment producing areas.
Four hundred and forty-nine watersheds covereing 49,662,392 acres were
evaluated. This acreage is greater than that given for the total land area of
the state because parts of several watersheds evaluated crossed into adjacent
states and , this area is also included In the total watershed inventory acreage.
The potential feasibility of each watershed for project development has been
estimated giving consideration to both physical and economic conditions.
The watershed project inventory shows there are 205 feasible watershed
projects covering 23,008,941 acres. Floodwater and sediment damages are
problems needing project action on 1,232,764 acres of agricultural land and
1,515 acres of u"ban land. Erosion damages needing project action cover 301,472
acres.
-------
151
The inventory further shows that agricultural water management to remove
excess water from the surface or subsurface by project action is needed on
484,380 acres. Project action is also needed on 285,145 acres of arable land
to conserve and utilize irrigation water for the economic production of crops
now being grown on these lands.
Rural water supply development is needed in 89 of these watersheds; municipal
and industrial water in 64; recreation in 214; fish and wildlife developments
in 198; and water quality control in 135.
-------
152
*0*51
,N FEASIBLE *,4
TFBo..
*&'4S} M
¦a£*ES IM WATERSHEOLtJ**^
Figure 29
SOUTH DAKOTA WATERSHED PROJECT NEEDS
-------
153
NORTH DAKOTA
Introduction
The 1967 Conservation Needs Inventory shows that North Dakota has a total
land area of 44,442,136 acres after excluding large lakes and rivers. From this
total was subtracted 1,572,869 acres of federal land; 1,083,019 acres of urban
and built-up land; and 199,621 acres of small streams and ponds to arrive at an
inventory acreage of 41,586,617 acres. The inventory acreage consists of 27,501,537
acres of cropland, 12,517,430 acres of pasture and range; 649,497 acres of forest
land; and 918,153 acres of other land.
Trends affecting land use since the 1958 inventory:
1. The inventoried acreage was reduced 248,583 acres. The most significant
change in the non-inventoried acreage was the increase in federal land for
water storage and wildlife purposes. The Oahe project - one example -
added considerable water storage in North Dakota. Urban and built-up areas
also contributed to the acreage reduction.
2. The trend to larger farms, with more mechanization and a greater level
of agricultural efficiency, influences the management of the soil, water,
plant, and wildlife resources, the number of farms has declined from
54,928 in 1958 to 45,000 in January 1968.
3. Cropland increased by 1,151,137 acres with most of the acreage coming
from pasture and range.
4. Pasture and range was reduced by converting 1,704,570 acres to cropland,
other land, and to non-inventory acreage.
5. Woodlands of North Dakota, occurring mainly along major streams in the
Tuttle and Pembina Mountains and in the Badlands, were reduced 29,803 acres.
They consist principally of hardwoods and are not used extensively for
commercial purposes. Clearing for water impoundments, irrigation develop-
ment areas along the Missouri, and conversion to pasture or cropland in the
Turtle and Pembina Mountains continues to reduce the acreage.
-------
154
6. The study shows that 46.4% of the cropland and 48.8% of the pasture aid
range is adequately protected from erosion, denoting that the land is used
within its capabilities and that the conservation practices essential to
its protection and improvement are applied.
7. North -Dakota contains 336 watersheds of 250,000 acres or less. Fifty-
seven watersheds comprising 8,668,080 acres need project treatment. An
estimated 1,087,090 acres of agricultural and urban areas need flood
protection.
Land Use
Figure 30 summarizes the non-inventory and inventory acreages for the state
and county by land area for 1958 and 1967. The state inventory and its compar-
isons with 1958 are shown below.
Figure 30
LAND USE COMPARISONS
1958
1967
-------
155
The County Needs Committees, under the supervision of the State Committee,
were responsible for determining land use and conservation treatment needs
estimates for their county. The estimates of land use are summarized in Table
Land use estimates are based on soil surveys provided by the Soil Conservation
Service and other information provided by the Forest Service, and data*available
from other federal and state agencies.
Land Capability Classes
A soil survey map shows the location of different kinds of soil on the land-
scape. The land capability classification is one of a number of interpretative
groupings made primarily for agricultural purposes. It facilitates planning soil
and water conservation. The lands suitable for cultivation are placed in Classes
I to IV, according to their potentialities and limitations for sustained produc-
tion of the common cultivated crops. Soils not suited for cultivation are placed
in Classes V to VIII, according to their potentialities and limitations for
production of permanent vegetation and according to their risks of soil damage
if mismanaged. Class VIII land is not capable of producing useful vegetation.
The soil map information is intended to meet the needs of users with widely
different interests and therefore contains considerable detail to show soil
differences.
\ri .- ; £he ~ tab££¦ shown below groups all eight land classes into four land uses
accounting for all of the Inventory acres.
Table 48- Und Pasture and
Class Total Cropland Range Forestland Other Land
I 25,139 25,139
II 21,728,867 18,362,265 2,750,702 206,218 401,682
III 9,575,679 6,664,710 2,443,787 134,938 332,244
IV 2,203,409 1,077,844 1,038.743 57,394 29,428
V 191,315 48,230 100,212 1,505 41,368
VI 6,458,622 1,284,426 4,885,991 208,575 79,630
VII 1,296,289 38,341 1,212,297 39,900 5,751
VIII 107.297 582 77,698 967 28.050
41,586,617 27,501,537 12,517,430 649,497 918,153
-r-
Conservation Treatment Needs
Conservation needs for cropland, pasture and range, forest land, and other
land were determined by inventorying those acres having conservation problems
-------
156
and those needing treatment.
The problems on cropland and other land are related primarily to the con-
servation of the soil resource; therefore, land capability units, singly or in
groups, were the basis for these estimates. The problems on pasture, range and
forest land are related to the conservation of the plant cover as well as the
conservation of the soil resource. The treatment estimates for these land uses
were based on actual condition of the vegetative cover and were made with no
direct reference tc land capability units.
The other land was inventoried and treatment needs determined for that
acreage needing conservation treatment. Approximately 657» of this land needs
no treatment and was shown as such. The other land included both land in farms
and land not in farms. Treatment was evaluated on the present condition of land
that is economically and physically feasible to treat.
Cropland
The inventory shows a total of 27,501,537 acres of cropland in North Dakota,
of which 43,171 acres are being irrigated. Of the total cropland, Table 48
shows 208,625 acres as temporarily idle, with 39,527 acres having been idle for
more than three years. Federal programs provided an additional 1,657,671 acres
of grass, legumes or small grains"that were neither harvested or pastured. The'
sampling procedure did not record any acreage for orchards, vineyards and bush
fruit because the acreage used for these purposes is small.
Land Adequately Treated - There are 12,748,563 acres of cropland adequately
treated, representing 46.4% of the land under tillage rotation. This land has
adequate management and sufficient conservation practices presently installed
for erosion control and maintenance of soil condition.
Land Needing Treatment - The acreage figure under tillage rotation indicates
14,752,974 acres of cropland need conservation treatment to protect and improve
the land. Table 51 shows that 6,821,235 acres need only improved residue manage-
ment and annual cover crops; 1,833,581 acres need sod crops in rotation; 810,821
-------
157
acres should be contoured; 3,681,419 acres should be farmed with intensive
treatments such as stripcropping, terraces, and diversions; 740,728 acres need
to be shifted to permanent cover; 1,432,727 acres need improved drainage sys-
tems to permit a better choice of crops and optimum yields on existing cropland;
24,822 acres need improved soil and crop management practices under irrigation;
8,371 acres need improved irrigation systems; and 9,683 acres need improved
irrigation water management.
Pasture ana Range
Of the 12,517,430 acres of pasture and range land, 48.87« are adequately
treated for maintenance of cover and soil protection.
Conservation treatments are needed on 6,111,025 acres. For example: 3,647,242
acres need protection only from overuse; 1,810,140 acres need treatment to im-
prove plant vigor and production; 431,260 acres require control of brush which
has invaded the grassland; and 222,383 acres need reestablishment of vegetative
cover. Proper grazing of pasture and range is the practice most needed to assure
desired vegetative cover.
Forest
The conservation needs for commercial and non-commercial forest land were
estimated in acres needing treatment. Total forest land, excluding windbreaks,
is 649,497 acres, of which 535,352 acres are adequately treated. Establishment
and reinforcement of commercial and non-commercial forests is needed on 20,046
acres; timber stand improvement is necessary on 85,099 acres.
The conservation needs inventory also evaluated multiple use of the forest
land for livestock grazing. Of the 237,954 acres used for both forest and
grazing, 47,109 acres need reduction or elimination of grazing, and 55,323 acres
need selective cutting and brush removal to protect the stand of trees and allow
managed grazing. The remaining grazed forest land of 135,522 acres is adequately
treated.
-------
158
Otiier Land
The conservation needs inventory of other land includes farmsteads, farm
roads, small unused knolls and grass areas, non-farm residences and similar
areas. This area of North Dakota encompasses some 918,153 acres of which 700,380
acres are now adequately treated. The treatment needs reports that 217,773
acres need soil protection and prevention of damage to adjacent land.
Watershed Project Needs
Most of the soil and water conservation needs discussed in this inventory
can be solved by either individual effort or by small groups with limited resources.
However, many resource problems are of a magnitude that exceed local resources
and need to be approached by many local and federal agencies. Water resource
related problems of the state consist primarily of flood prevention, agriculture
water management, irrigation, municipal or industrial water supply, fish, wild-
life and recreation. Such problems require action of local units of government
such as soil conservation districts, counties, municipalities, and park boards.
Assistance from state and federal agencies may also be needed.
Public Law 566, the Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention Act, as amended,
provides local people with the-possibility of solving many of the soil and water
conservation needs that cannot be met under other programs of assistance to
agriculture or through federal public works projects on major rivers planned
and constructed by such agencies as the Corps of Engineers or Bureau of Reclama-
tion. The Department of Agriculture administers this law which provides a means
by which local organizations can apply for and obtain assistance in the planning
and installation of works of improvement for flood prevention and the conserva-
tion, development, utilization, and disposal of water in watershed areas not ex-
ceeding 250,000 acres in size.
-------
159
The watershed inventory gives the nature and scope of the water management
problems that can be met by project action, such as those authorized by Public
Law 566. It does not give an evaluation of the economic feasibility of the
projects.
There are 336 watersheds in North Dakota containing 250,000 acres or less.
Of all the watersheds studies in the state, 57 embracing 8,668,080 acres were
found to be potentially feasible for project treatment. Flood control, agricul-
tural water manager.ent, fish, wildlife, and recreation are shown as primary
needs and will require group project action.
Table 55 reports the total watersheds delineated in the state. Many
watersheds cross state lines. By agreement and based upon location of watershed
problems state responsibility was assigned. It is for this reason that the
acreage for total watersheds, although including all land irrespective of owner-
ship does not reconcile with other state totals.
Flood Prevention
Project action for flood prevention is needed on 1,086,480 acres of agricul-
tural land and 610 acres of urban land. Erosion damage within the feasible water-
sheds affects 1,620 acres of land that has been severely damaged by gullying.
Agricultural Water Management
Only the needs which cannot be met by individual action were included in
the inventory and shown in Table 56 . Drainage includes 706,480 cropland acres
not adequately drained and for which project action is required to provide out-
lets. Irrigation includes 15,290 acres shown for which water supply systems,
distribution systems, or both are inadequate. Rural water supply was inventoried
as the number of inadequate water supply systems from either surface or ground
water to meet present and future domestic needs, including fire protection,
requiring group or community developments.
-------
160
Nonagrlcultural Water Management
The number of municipal or industrial water supplies in the state
were determined to be inadequate for present and estimated future needs and
can be met by impoundment of surface runoff, This estimate was made by the
county needs committees.
Recreation, fish, wildlife, and water quality management estimates were
reported in number needed to improve each need or increase the recreational
facility or fi„I; ^.ad w- _ilife population and needed water quality to serve
these purposes within a watershed.
Figure 31 WATERSHED PROJECT INVENTORY
NORTH DAKOTA
MISSOURI RIVER BASIN — 190 watersheds less than 400 square miles; 15 feasible for project action.
-------
OiL
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1958
1967
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-------
162
Table 50
IRRIGATE!) AMD DRY PASTURE AND RANGE.FUREST ANJ OTHER LAND ACRES BY IANO CAPABILITY CLASSES - 1967
STATE SGrtTh OAKUTA
LAND
PASTURE
AND RANGE
FOREST
OTHER
LANl>
TOTAL
CURABILITY
CQHMCR-
NON-COM
Ncr
LANu
CLASS
PASTURc
RANGfc
TOTAL
COMMER-
NON-CDH-
TOTAL
C1AL
MtRCIAL
TOTAL
IN
IN
IuTAL
t N IN-
SUB-CLASS
CIAL
MERC1AL
GRAZED
GRAZED
GRAZED
FAKHS
FAHHS
VENTORY
1
C
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
251 >9
2E
364570
1352110
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2026
14966
17wl4
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13521661
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1392492
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985837
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14261
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6466
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3539359
3652978
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101782
203029
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7t
10572
669793
880365
10610
27169
37779
6440
11181
17*21
1920
2 /3
2198
9300*7
8E
3000
66 309
69309
0
967
967
0
517
517
0
10944
1 i944*
813^7
2m
94896
206172
381068
745©
4020
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2152
788
2940
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t>m
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itf
62348
331068
393416
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17192
31939
1164
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11 73
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2343
5965
8328
a
0
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609
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609
45545
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15617
76544
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522
983
1505
130
300
430
41,958
4 1 's/
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6M
293
2479
2772
0
0
0
0
0
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u
0
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0
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0
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0
0
0
0
0
17106
0
17106
171C6
2S
3730
13553
17283
8486
4229
12715
0
2711
2711
3997
0
3997
190545
3S
71512
285886
357398
1358
1882
3240
9
67
76
24336
16o2
t j998
19266a7
4S
434
44144
44578
0
0
0
0
0
0
068
C
B6tt
82912
5S
3199
4852
8051
0
0
0
0
0
u
0
w
0
92 90
6S
96 329
1133912
1230241
2372
3174
5546
12C8
1524
2732
185*7
62s»2
26619
16C74 Sw
7S
13306
318626
331932
691
1430
2121
465
1422
1807
3136
417
3553
365)592
6S
C
6Jd9
8369
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8804
2C
16145C
482221
643671
47895
57167
105062
3534
36029
>9563
77650
12099
¦*9949
569o86w
3C
2509
10001
12510
0
1U0
100
0
100
100
2w91
0
2091
74696
ToTAL
1441418
11076012
12517430
339501
309916
649497
79034
15*920
237954
852247
65**0fe
91^153
4156o6lJ
Table
51
CONSERVATION
TREATK£NT
NEEDS - CROPLAND IN
TILLAGE ROTATION (ACftiS) - 1967
LANC
TRLATMcNT
NON-1RRIGAT£0 CHOPLAJiO
IRRiGfcTtO
;a?a61iity
AOEOUATE
RESIDUE
SOO IN
CONTOUR-
STRIP
PERMANENT
JIUINAGE
CULTURAL
CLASS
(IRRIGATED
A NO
R0TAT1UN
ING ONLY
CROPPING
COVER
najugemeni
SU3-CLASS
AND HON-
ANNUAL
TERRACING
PRACTICES
IRRIGATtOI
COVER
OIVCRSICMS
ONLY
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
16778
2c
5501491
3823633
341803
322447
1219175
4400
258476
3434
3E
1683665
550516
428075
301571
1471684
5531
69wL
36 3
4t
358741
74123
70541
55599
426804
13165
1753
926
6c
257698
13341
40478
2678
15257
402106
1514
0
7c
6635
0
2159
0
0
1561
0
0
8c
167
0
0
0
0
0
G
0
2*
573373
200894
84974
0
90989
3475
899541
10
3k
334452
55931
26138
715
6229
. 5778
169313
1525
4m
17737
653
0
C
0
0
18018
0
5to
24307
7642
0
0
0
42
15000
0
6ta
1588
0
0
0
0
2000
0
3
2S
66282
27050
10821
7544
40585
0
1275
1550
3S
746649
450086
103698
44047
172307
1712
22909
126
4S
22367
6243
6608
0
892
1356
0
0
5S
1239
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6S
200477
S816
25793
3233
17304
287068
433
0
7S
13870
0
2959
0
0
11157
0
0
2C
2902829
1584467
39534
72539
216282
1377
35594
ISO
3C
34996
20640
0
444
3911
0
0
0
TOTAL
12748563
682X235
1183581
610821
3681419
74C728
1412727
24882
iTATE
sCRTh
DAKOTA
CRGPLANu
TuT AL
IM^HuVcU
taATER
TlLLAOc
SYS 11*S
PiNAGc-
ROTATlus
MENT
5724
<637
25149
5o5
1628
11477452
20-
100
4450o26
3a4
221
1--22S7
C
0
73 3 j 72
c
0
10 35s
r.
0
U7
6
4
105326b
911
432
6C1424
c
C
3o4ob
G
C.
46991
w
0
3563
394
2Go
1557*7
53 *
31
I54lo la
0
0
37466
J
0
'1239
0
0
'540124
0
0
27986
132
4224
4857128
0
0
59995
8371
9683
27462010
-------
163
Table
52
CONSERVATION TREATMENT NEEDS - OTHER CROPLAND ANO TOTAL CROPIANO (ACRES) - 1967
STATE uGRTH DAKOTA
(.ANO
CAPABILITY
a ASS
SUBCLASS
ORCHARDS. VINEYAROS* AND BUSH FRUIT
TOTAL
TREATMENT
ADEQUATE
TREATMENT
NEtOED
KINO OF
TREATMENT
CODE
total
OPEN LANO ANO FORMERLY CROPPED
TREATMENT
AULQUATE
TREATMENT
NEEUEO
KINO UF
TREATMENT
COOc
tutal
CROPLAND
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
2*139
2E
0
0
0
4970
5109
1461
6
11484022
3E
0
0
0
6229
2610
3419
5 4 2
44366S5
4E
0
0
0
1713
1713
0
1003970
6E
0
0
0
2922
0
2922
5
735994
7E
0
0
0
0
0
0
1C355
8E
0
0
0
0
0
0
167
2U
0
0
0
10247
3*2 J
6624
6
1863515
3W
0
0
0
4405
2916
1489
6
605629
4N
0
0
0
0
0
0
36408
5W
0
0
0
0
0
0
46991
6U
0
0
0
0
0
0
3566
2S
0
0
0
643
0
643
2
156550
3S
0
0
0
413
413
0
1542031
4S
0
0
0
0
0
0
37466
5S
0
0
0
0
0
0
1239
6S
0
0
0
4720
661
3859
5
544844
7S
0
0
0
0
0
0
27986
8S
c
0
0
415
0
415
5
415
2C
o
0
0
1030
430
420
6
4656178
3C
0
0
0
0
0
0
59995
TOTAL
O
0
0
39527
17*75
21632
27501537
Table 53
CONSERVATION TREATMENT NEEDS - PASTURE (ACRES) - 1967
SIATE NORTH OAROTA
TREATMENT NEEOS
capability
TOTAL
TREATMENT
NO
CHANCE
total
PROTEC-
IMPROVE-
BRUSH
TOTAL
REESTA6-
riEE STAB-
total
CLASS
AOEOUATE TREATMENT
IN LANO
NEEDING
TION
MENT
CONTROL
NEEDING
LISHMfcNT
L1SHHENT
NEEDING
SUBCLASS
FEASIBLE
USE TREATMENT
ONLY
ONLY 4
kMO IN-
IMPRUVt-
OF VcGE fA—
HITH ft* REfcSTAB-
MOVEMENT
MtNT
T IVfc COVER
CLNTRGL L1SHMEM
2E4E
766*62
316656
0
0
467603
236022
256176
0
394200
73405
0
734C5
2M4U
159587
65651
0
0
73936
31430
26754
0
58164
15752
r
15752
2S4S
75676
34473
0
0
41203
17023
22205
0
39226
1975
C
1975
2C4C
163959
59595
0
0
104364
40671
56126
0
96799
7565
C
7*65
5E8E
127191
50925
626
0
75636
32234
27527
0
59741
15677
0
15877
5waw
1591U
11976
0
0
3934
2777
293
0
3070
864
.0
664
5Sa$
112834
56430
619
0
53785
25296
21692
0
46990
6795
0
6795
TUTAL
1441418
619706
1247
0
620465
267455
410777
0
696232
122233
0
122233
Table 54
STATE NORTH OAROTA
CONSERVATION
TREATMENT
NEEDS - RANGE (ACHES) - 1967
LANO
TREATMENT NEEOS
capability
TOTAL
TREATMENT NO
CMANSE
TOTAL
PROTECT*
IMPROVE-
BRUSH
TOTAL
REESTA6-
f.ELSTAB-
TUIAL
CLASS
AOEOUATE
TREATMENT
IN LANO
NEEDING
T ION
MENT
CONTROL
NEEOING
L1SHMENT
L1SHMtNT
NEEUlNG
SUBCLASS
FEASIBLE
USE
TREATMENT
ONLY
ONLY
AND IM-
IMPROVE- OF VfcGETA- «1TH 0a
AEESTAfr-
PROVEMENT
NENT
TIVL COVER CONTROL
LISHMcNI
2E4E
3596719
1537269
4736
0
2054694
926245
626141
250522
200 J JO 8
*1686
C
51686
2M4W
623225
395572
435
0
227216
121517
77016
16436
216973
7565
2660
IUJ4I*
2S4S
343563
151215
443
0
191925
129606
40502
16914
169224
2701
0
2701
2C4C
492222
237063
1254
0
253905
142043
66236
20916
251197
2708
0
2708
5E8E
4475461
2396687
201677
0
1876697
1478716
279272
91496
1849486
26702
709
27411
5H8*
79023
52777
542
0
25704
20630
4141
433
25204
500
. 0
500
5S8S
1465779
737372
66190
0
660217
336726
64053
32537
655316
4899
0
4d99
TOTAL
11076012
5507975
277477
0
5290560
3359767
1399363
431260
5190410
96761
3389
lOulSO
-------
164
Table 55
Inventory of watersheds less than 1*00 square miles In area with the kinds and eitent of problems needing project action
Kind nrd ei
tent of probleas
Major drainage area.
Flood prevention
Acricjl'-ural wjiter mnna«eaient
Nonajiri cultural
water nanattemert
Total
Total
Munic-
Recrea-
Fish fc
Water
priocipe-]. drainage
watersheds
area w/
Floodwater
ipal
tional
wild-
qual-
basin.
delineated
floodvater
and
or
devei-
life
ity
subbaaio*
& sediment
sedieent damage
indus-
upneut
devel-
manage-
damage 1J
Rural
trial
opment
ment
Agricul-
Erosion
Dra 1 n-
lrri*a-
water
water
tural
Urban
damage
W
ti o-i
Bupply
•jppiy
1,000
1,000
1,600
1,000
1,000
: ,000
1,000
So
acres
acres
acres
acres
acres
acres
acres
No.
No.
No
No
\o.
Missouri River Drainage Area
Apple Creek
5
9*11.51
2.93
_
_
_
_
5
5
Beaver Creek
5
616.90
17.71
17.39
0.02
_
_
.
5
5
Cannonb&ll River
18
1.593.29
37.31
17.31
1 0.03
O.bO
_
2.00
3
1
18
18
2
Cedar Creek
12
1.11*3.99
35.08
35.08
_
_
2.00
.
_
.
12
12
_
Grand River
b
509.7k
19.1*1
19.^1
_
-
-
b
b
_
Heart River
21
2.13k.37
51.76
>*3.71
0.06
0.90
0.20
0.30
2
2
21
21
3
James River
16
2.1J92.25
13.59
13-59
_
.
_
-
.
16
16
-
Pipestem Creek
3
1>93.8T
2.99
2.99
_
_
.
_
3
• 3
Elm River
3
510.5"*
I*.80
U. 20
_
_
0.20
0.20
.
3
3
-
Noncontributing Area
1
958.37
_
.
_
_
_
-
-
1
1
-
Knife River
20
1,600.1)6
25.38
20.98
_
, O.bO
-
6.00
1
3
16
16
-
Little Muddy Creek
3
503.65
_
_
_
3
3
-
Little Missouri River
22
3,029-89
67.92
31.09
.
0.02
-
3.07
3
-
21
22
2
Box Elder Creek
1
2ko.30
3.03
0.87
_
-
-
1
-
-
Bearer Creek
2
206.53
7.75
7.55
.
.
•
.*
-
2
2
-
Missouri River
50
5,01*8.82
71-76
51.63
0.01
, 1.20
_
6
_
50
50
1
Boncontrlbuting Area
1
3,201.78
.
. '
_
-
-
1
1
-
Yellowstone River
3
227.0l<
15.12
15.12
_
0.20
.
17.80
2
-
-
-
-
Subtotal
1?0
25.U69.30
376.5fc*
280.92
0.12
1.92
3.60
29.37
'IT
6
L82
182
0
Red River of the Hortb
Drainage Area
Boi a-de-Sioux River
2
65.59
2.16
2.16
_
_
_
_
.
2
2
-
Forest River
b
666.13
111* .71
lib.71
_
0.b2
67.30
.
.
-
b
b
-
Goose River
6
692.95
19.50
_
•
_
_
_
_
-
6
6
-
Park River
b
623.67
171.38
171.38
O.bO
_
k7 .65
.
_
1
b
b
-
Pembina River
10
1,12k.37
69-tO
69.^0
_
_
1*8.33
.
_
1
10
10
-
Red River of the Sorth
19
1,798.52
257.10
2U6.il
0.02
0.50
189.90
-
-
-
19
19
-
Sheyenne River
?3
3,579.90
13-50
10.00
.
_
31.:o
-
-
-
23
23
-
Devils LaXe
12
2,330.36
130.10
130.10
0.01
111.63
-
1
12
12
-
Maple River
5
999.50
12b.00
12b.00
_
-
ika.oo
-
.
-
5
5
-
Souris River
29
2,676.k2
59.67
5»».17
0.07
-
23.60
_
•
-
27
27
-
Des Lacs River
10
59k.67
.
-
_
_
-
-
10
10
-
Willow Creek
7
1,123.80
5b.3b
52.3«»
_
3b. 20
_
.
-
7
7
-
Little Deep Creek
5
966.71
.00
-
.
.
-
.
-
-
5
5
-
Noncontributing Area
1
888.71
_
_
_
_
_
.
1
1
-
Wild Rice Creek
0
1.216.20
1.1.Ill
36.5b
_
0.20
*6 .50
0.12
-
9
9
2
Subtotal
iU
19.3-r ."'0
1.061* oo
i.oio.9:
0.50
1.12
77tt 21
0.12
_
3
lbl
Ibb
2
Sorth Dakota State Total
kk .816.30
l.kko.5i
0.62
l.OU
781.91
29.b?
?- .
326
326
10
1/ Includes areas other than those needing project actloa.
Table 56
- Inventory of potentially feasible watersheds less than UCO square ailea in area with the kinds and extent of problems needing project action
Kind and extent of Drcbl
ema
Flood prevention
Agricultural water
sAnMeaent
lonajcricuitural water oanageaent
Major drainage area.
Watersheds
Wun i j —
Recrea-
Fish k
Water
principal drainage
feasible
Floodwater
ipa;
tlonal
wild-
qual-
basin,
for
and
or,
devel-
life
ity
subbasins
project
sediment dflange
Indus-
opoent
devel-
manage-
action
Rurml
trial
opment
Dent
Agricul-
Erosion
Drain-
Irriga-
water
water
tural
Urban
dajaaxe
axe
tion
suPSly
supp
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
1.000
1.000
Bo
acres
acres
acres
acres
acres
acres
*0.
lo.
No.
Bo.
No.
Missouri River
Drainage Area
Beaver Creek
1
22.75
0.16
0.01
-
-
-
«•
-
1
1
-
Cannonball River
2.90
-
0.03
-
-
-
1
-
1
1
1
Cedar Creek
1
116.bO
20.00
-
-
-
-
-
1
1
"
Heart River
3
233.93
19.96
0.06
0.50
-
0.30
2
3
3
2
Jaoes River
1
107.09
5.72
_
-
_
-
-
1
1
-
Pipesten Creek
1
189.38
-
-
-
-
-
-
1
1
-
Knife River
1
161.21
2.16
-
-
-
-
-
1
1
Little Missouri River
1
220.61
3.2b
-
-
-
3.07
-
1
1
1
Missouri River
3
360.bb
16.52
0.01
-
.
-
2
-
3
3
1
Yellowstone
2
180.52
13-02
-
0.20
-
11.60
1
-
-
'
Subtotal
1?
1.595.23
80.73
0.11
0.70
_
15.17
b
2
13
13
5
Red River of the Horth
Drainage Area
Bois-de-Sioux River
1
30.22
2.16
-
-
-
-
-
1
1
•
Forest River
b
666.13
lib.71
.
0.b2
67.30
-
-
-
k
b
-
Park River
b
623.67
171.38
0. bO
•
b7.65
-
-
1
k
b
-
Pembina River
2
b3b.71
67.20
-
-
b7 30
-
-
1
2
2
-
Red River of the Iforth
8
1,320.10
2k6.11
0.02
0.50
187.70
-
-
-
8
8
-
Sheyenne River
1
166.2b
10.00
-
-
22.90
-
-
-
1
1
'
Devils Lake
7
1.W6.75
130.10
0.01
-
111.63
-
-
1
7
7
~
Maple River
5
999-50
12k.00
-
-
iba.oo
-
-
-
5
5
"
Souris River
b
388.28
5k. 16
0.07
-
23.60
-
-
-
3
3
"
Willow Creek
• 3
629.92
52.3k
-
-
3b.20
-
-
-
3
3
~
Wild Rice Creek
3
327.33
33.5k
-
-
16.20
0.12
-
"
3
3
2
Subtotal 1*2 7.072.6S 1.005.70 0.50 0.92 706.b8 0.12 - 3
Borth Dakota State Total S7 8.668.08 1.086.b8 0.6l 1.62 7Q6.b8 15.29 b 2i I—
1/ Each delineated watershed was appraised by experienced planners as to potential physical and econonic feasibility for development# A watershed
was considered potentially feasible if it vao eotiaated tnat potential benefits would be equal to or greater than estioated coets for flood
prevention or agricultural water management.
-------
165
RANGE AND WATERSHED CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
SELECTION AND EVALUATION OF MEASURES FOR REDUCTION OF
EROSION AND SEDIMENT YIELD IN THE REGION VIII STATES
Introduction
The following material is intended to provide guidance in the selection and
evaluation of measures for erosion and sediment reduction in Region VIII. The
recommendations are for broad planning purposes only and not for specific projects
where detailed evaluations would be required.
The evaluation of treatment needs considered in this report are for purposes
of erosion and sediment reduction without regard to other benefits that may or may
not be gained by the improvements. While it is true that several purposes are
frequently achieved by the same treatment, priorities of need and opportunities
for success in treatment may not coincide for the alternative purposes. The
highest priority for sediment control is, of course," the application of erosion
control measures to the major sources. However, in the case of some grazing lands,
treatment of low contributing or non-contributing sediment source areas having
the potential for increased forage production may be of benefit in reducing the
stress exerted on adjacent high sediment contributing areas.
For purposes of identifying erosion and sediment sources, reference is made
to the report of the Water Management Subcommittee, PSIAC, titled "Factors Affecting
Sediment Yield in the Pacific Southwest Area". When the erosion and sediment
source areas have been determined, erosion sites are broadly classified as to
whether they are the uplands or channels. In the former instance the measures
that are applicable are easily identified as "management" and "land treatment" -
and the latter is "structural measures" and associated vegetative controls.
Management measures include proper uses of the land and related resources to
minimize erosion and sediment yield. Land treatment measures usually include
the purpose of holding the soil in place by whatever means, including a reduction
in rainfall impact and runoff, and by increasing the resistance of the soil.
The general purposes of structural measures are to retard erosion at the site,
-------
166
(head cutting, bank cutting, degradation) and to provide a trap for sediment
moving into the reach from upstream.
RANGE AND WATERSHED CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
The following list of measures and their definitions include most of those
now being used in many of the Region VIII states.
Measures for Range and Forest
Brush Control - Eradication of pinyon-juniper, sage, and other brush, and
replacement with more desirable vegetation.
Contour Furrowing and Trenching - Making furrows and/or trenches on the con-
tour at intervals varying with the precipitation, slope, soil and cover.
Contour Terracing - Development of water storage capacity along the contour
by excavation and placement of soil as an embankment along the downstream side.
Intervals vary with the precipitation, slope and soil.
Critical Area Planting -Stabilizing severely eroded areas by establishing
vegetative cover.
Fire Prevention and Suppression - Employment of a variety of measures for
the control and prevention of fires on range and forest land, including personnel,
roads, trails, fire breaks, water facilities, aircraft and other equipment.
Livestock Exclusion - Excluding livestock from any area where grazing is
harmful or otherwise undesirable.
Pitting - Making shallow pits or basins of suitable capacity and distribu-
tion to retain water and increase infiltration.
Proper Grazing Use - Grazing at an intensity which will maintain adequate
cover for soil and maintain or improve the quantity and the quality of desirable
vegetation.
Range Seeding - Establishing adapted plants by seeding.
Rotation - Deferred Grazing - Grazing under a system where one or more graz-
ing units are rested at planned intervals throughout the growing season of key
plants. Generally no unit is grazed at the same time in successive years.
-------
167
Tree and Shrub Planting - Planting tree or shrub seedlings or cuttings to
establish desirable cover.
Trespass Control - To prevent unauthorized uses detrimental to the land.
Measures for Cultivated Land
Chiseling and Subsoiling - Loosening the soil, without inversion and with a
minimum of mixing of the surface soil, to shatter restrictive layers below the
normal plow depth that inhibit water movement or root development.
Contour Farming - Conducting farming operations on sloping cultivated land
in such a way that plowing, land preparation, planting and cultivating are done
on the contour.
Contour Terracing - Development of water storage capacity along the contour
by excavation and placement of soil as an embankment along the downstream side.
Intervals vary with the precipitation and slope.
Cover and Green Manure Crop - A crop of close-growing grasses, legumes, or
small grain used primarily for seasonal protection and for soil -improvement.
Critical Area Planting - Stabilizing severely eroded areas by establishing
vegetative cover.
Crop Residue and Mulching - Utilizing and managing crop residues for soil
protection on a year round basis or when critical erosion periods usually occur.
Field Diversion - An interception channel near the contour to carry runoff
to a waterway, Intervals vary with the precipitation, slope and cropping.
Grassed Waterway or Outlet - A natural or constructed waterway or outlet
shaped or graded and establishment of suitable vegetation as needed for the safe
disposal of runoff.
Proper Cropping and Use - The use of close growing crops on erodible land.
Strip Cropping - Growing crops in a systematic arrangement of strips or bands
across the general slope or on the contour to reduce water erosion. Strips approx-
imately at right angles to the prevailing winds to reduce wind erosion.
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168
Structural Measures
The following list of measures and their definitions include most of those
now being used in the Region VIII states.
Channel Lining - Protection of the channel bottom and banks with concrete
or riprap.
Debris Basins - Storage for sediment provided by a dam with spillway above
channel grade; by excavation below grade, or both. Water retention is not an
intended function cf the structure.
Diversions and Dikes - Devices used to divert water away from eroding areas.
Drop Structures - Concrete, masonry, sheet piling or earth structures placed
in eroded channels below the top of the bank to control grade, prevent further
erosion and provide sediment storage.
Jacks and Jetties - Projections built in the stream channel to divert cur-
rents away from a vulnerable bank.
Reservoirs - To provide for permanent storage of sediment and either tem-
porary or permanent water storage.
Revetments - Materials placed on the stream bank to protect it from erosion
by stream flow.
Sills - Structures of rock, masonry, rails, etc., placed at channel grade
to prevent stream downcutting.
Disturbed Area Protection - This measure may include any of the above treat-
ments and structures. In addition, it often includes stablizing steep slopes,
lining road ditches, etc.
Applicability of Management and Land Treatment Measures for Erosion and Sediment
Control
The soils, climate, topographic and other factors which tend to create the
most severe erosion and sediment problems also increase the difficulty of control.
Similarly, many measures are usually more successful under conditions of low or
moderate erosion and sediment yield than they are under high yield. The broad
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169
trends in the principal factors affecting erosion indicate the reasons for this.
Vegetative measures are dependent on favorable moisture conditions and proper
grazing control Although there are some notable exceptions, the more humid sec-
tions usually show less sediment yield than more arid sections, as more favorable
moisture furnished greater support to vegetation. Similarly, the mechanical treat-
ment measures which require disturbing, molding, or reshaping the soil are most
successful where the soils have properties which inherently make them resistant
to erosion. The other factors operate in much the same way and in an interdependent
fashion. As the slope increases, for instance, problems of establishing and
maintaining vegetation, applying mechanical treatment and obtaining proper
grazing use also increase.
The measures that are used for erosion and sediment control in Region VIII
may be classified by purpose into, several groups: (1) to intercept and/or
conserve moisture; (2) to increase infiltration capacity; (3) to reduce or
eliminate stress on existing cover; (4) to preserve existing cover regarded as
adequate or in the process of becoming adequate with time; (5) to increase the
protection of the soil by a change in the type as well as density of vegetation.
1. In this group are such measures as contour furrowing, contour ter-
racing, diversions, pitting, and chiseling or subsoiling. Contour
terracing is frequently used in semi-arid and sub-humid climatic en-
vironments under high hazard site conditions and low to moderate soil
hazard. The measure has been most useful and effective in breaking
up gully patterns on steep slopes. Field diversions are used in serai-
arid and sub-humid environments on sites having high to moderate soil
hazards and moderate to low topographic hazard. In order to maintain
an effective capacity on cultivated land, vegetative strips for inter-
ception of sediment are needed on moderate slopes above the diversions.
Furrowing and pitting are being tested under arid and semi-arid con-
ditions with soils ranging from low to high erosion and sediment yield
potential and topographic sites in the low to moderate topographic
hazard. Their success in arid climates with high and moderate hazard
soil conditions has not yet been established.
2. Crop residue use and stubble mulching are widely used under a variety
of soil, topographic site and climatic conditions. They are effective
for erosion control as a soil binder and for increased infiltration
capacity, particularly in semi-arid and sub-humid climatic environments
and under moderate and high topographic and soil hazards. Contour fur-
rowing, trenching, chiseling and subsoiling aid indirectly in improving
or increasing total infiltration into the soil.
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170
3. Measures to reduce or eliminate stress on existing cover are used under
all site, soil and climatic conditions. Proper grazing use, rotation-
deferred grazing, exclusion, trespass control and other management prac-
tices have the effect of increasing the density of cover or reducing
eroding runoff by improvement of the soil infiltration capacity. Under
arid conditions, vegetative cover improvement by range (grazing) manage-
ment alone usually does not have sufficient impact on existing conditions
to reduce erosion significantly unless a slight or moderate change in
cover is critical to a site. However, livestock exclusion under arid or
semi-arid climatic environments and high soil erosion potential has shown
a substantial reduction in soil loss. Where plant density under observed
conditions has not noticeably increased, it is presumed that reductions
in soil loss are due to absence of continued compaction due to trampling.
4. Measures which are for preservation of existing adequate cover or cover
which will become adequate with time include those for fire suppression,
proper grazing use, and trespass control. These measures are used in a
variety of copographic, site, soil and climatic conditions. They are
most effective under semi-arid to sub-humid climatic environments and
high hazard soil and topographic conditions. They are usually measures
of low priority under arid and humid climatic environment with gentle to
moderate slopes and low to moderate hazard soil conditions.
5. Revegetation is one of the most widely applied land treatment measures.
It usually consists of seeding adapted grasses where natural cover has
deteriorated, such as where juniper and pinyon pine occuDy or have
encroached upon soils suitable for grasses. In the latter instance
eradication precedes revegation. Fine textured soils which may be in
the high erosion potential classification are more favorable for this
purpose since they retain moisture in the shallow root zone. Greater
ground cover density is achieved by replacing brush and small trees
with grasses. In arid and semi-arid areas seeding nas in some cases
been effective on low hazard topographic sites. Its effectiveness for
reducing erosion on high hazard sites in these climatic environments
has not been established. It is recommended for sub-humid and humid
climatic environments, high and moderate hazard site conditions and
moderate hazard soils, particularly where quick cover protection is
needed following a brush or forest fire.
. Table 57 lists some of the more specific management and treatment measures
for erosion and sediment control under various site conditions. Climatic
environments are listed first, being the key to the success or effectiveness
of vegetation which is intimately related to all land treatment measures.
Structural Measures for Erosion and Sediment Control
Structural measures have met with more uniform effectiveness than land
treatment measures. Achievement of the purpose for which they were designed
is not dependent upon nature. Their design, construction and maintenance have
a variable flexibility to meet demands of the local situation.
-------
TABLE 57- MANAGEMENT AND LAND TREATMENT MEASURES RECOMMENDED FOR REDUCTION
OF EROSION AND SEDIMENT YIELD UNDER VARIOUS SITE CONDITIONS
Cli
matic
Environ®
pent
Soils *
Upland
Slope Topography
Semi-
Sub-
Fine
Medium
Coc rse
Measures
Arid
Arid
Humid
Humid
Textured
Textured
Text ured
Steep
Moderate
Gentle
A
B
C
D
Forest and Ranee Lands
Brush control
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Contour furrowing and
trenching
X
X
C
B
X
X
Contour terracing
X
X
X
X
X
X
Critical area planting
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Fire prevention and
suppression
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Livestock exclusion
X
X
,X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Proper grazing use -
trespass control
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Range seeding
X
X
C
B
X
X
Rotation-deferred grazing
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Tree and shrub planting
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Cultivated Land
Chiseling and subsoiling
X
X
X
X
X
Contour farming
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Contour terracing
X
X
X
C-D
X
X
X
Critical area planting
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Crop residue and mulching
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Field diversion
X
X
X
X
X
X
Proper cropping and use
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Strip cropping
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
* Mechanical treatments are not applicable on shallow soils.
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172
The structural measures as defined are primarily intended for use where
channel erosion and sedimentation are the major problems. Debris basins are
constructed to prevent sediment, usually coarse textured, from entering a down-
stream reach where damages may occur because of its accumulation. The degree
of control over the sediment problem depends upon the available capacity rela-
tive to the sediment yield and on the stability of the channel downstream. The
latter must be able to resist scour where the erosion potential is renewed by
debriis retention.
Reservoirs usually provide storage capacity for sediment likely to enter
the reservoir during the project life in addition to the capacity needed for the
design flood. Sediment storage is a secondary purpose unless the damsite' is
chosen so as to reduce stress on a downstream eroding channel. In the Pacific
Southwest (including Wyoming, Utah and Colorado) where valley trenching
in fine grained alluvium is common, erosion and sediment transport is frequently
limited only by the magnitude of the discharge. Reduction of discharge by con-
trolled release above an extended reach of valley trenching can have a substantial
influence on channel erosion and sediment yield.
Drop structures are widely used in dissected alluvial channels and mountain
channels to prevent continued unraveling of the bottoms and sides. They are also
used near or at a headcut to prevent its further movement. Chutes and drop
inlets are used for the same purpose. Drop structures are frequently used in
a series. Scour below structures can most effectively be controlled by approp-
riate spacing in the series. Isolated drop structures in a reach with extensive
erosion are not very effective except to control the problem at the specific site.
Channel lining is used to protect the bed and/or banks when it has been
determined that excessive erosion will occur without this protection. This
measure is usually effective in preventing erosion to the level of the flood
frequency for which it is designed.
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173
Sills have little impact on sedimentation except to prevent additional sedi-
•1
ment from being derived from channel degradation. Their single purpose is to
prevent further degradation or a new cycle of erosion.
Jacks are used roughly parallel to and in front of the bank to direct the
flow to a specific width and direction and to furnish protection to the bank. In
some instances deposition behind a series of jacks provides a coating to the bank
and encouragement to the development of levees.
Jetties, usually projecting at an angle into the streamflow, are intended
to protect only a local segment of the bank. The artificial change in direction
of flow may tend to create a similar problem at another place unless it is part
of an integrated plan.
Revetments protect the specific site where the installation is made. They
are most appropriately used when adjacent banks are stable, such as in a vulner-
able bend or where the revetments will provide a comprehensive treatment of all
banks in the reach.
Structural measures for erosion and sediment control should be evaluated
individually on the basis of purpose, site suitability and on the projected
benefits as related to costs.
Evaluation of Management and Land Treatment Measures
Recommendations pertaining to erosion and sediment control may be very broad
or very specific. Some of the more specific measures have been defined above.
They may need to be combined or modified to match the scope of the recommenda-
tions. In Table 57 are given some of the management and land treatment treasures
considered favorable for application on land with site conditions listed.
In estimating the probable effect of individual'or groups of measures on
r
erosion for any one delineated area, the following steps are recommended: (1)
identify the major source or cause of sediment; i.e., land use, upland erosion,
channel erosion, by referring to columns G, H, and I in Table 58 on "Factors
Influencing Sediment Yield in the Pacific Southwest"; (2) from the aforementioned
-------
Table 58
174
FACTORS AFFECTING SEDIMENT YIELD IN THE PACIFIC SOUTHWEST
Scdlaenc Yield
CHANNEL EROSION 4
High
(10)*
a. Marine shales
and related mud-
stones and sllt-
stones.
(10)
a. Fine textured;
easily dispersed;
saline-alkaline;
high shrlnk-swell
characteristics.
b. Single grain silts
and fine sands
(10)
a. Storms of several
days' duration
with short periods
of Intense rain-
fall.
b. Frequent Intense
convectlve storms
c. Freeze-thaw
occurrence
(10)
a. High peak flow9
per unit area
b. Large volume of
flow per unit
area
(20)
a. Steep upland slopes
(in excess of 30Z)
High relief; little
or no floodplsln
development
(10)
Cround cover does
not exceed 20X
a. Vegetation sparse;
little or no
litter
b. No rock in surface
soil
(10)
a. More than 50%
cultivated
b. Almost all of
area intensively
grazed
c. All of area re-
cently burned
(25)
a. More than 501 of
the area char-
acterized by rill
and gully or
landslide erosion
(25)
a. Eroding banks con-
tinuously or at
frequent Interval®
with large depths and
long flow duration
b. Active headcuta and
degradation in trib-
utary channels
**
Moderate
(5)
a. Rocks of medium
hardness
b. Moderately
weathered
c. Moderately frac-
tured
(5)
a. Medium textured
soil
b. Occasional rock
fragments
c. Caliche layers
(5)
a. Storms of moder-
ate duration and
Intensity
b. Infrequent con-
vectlve storms
(5)
a. Moderate peak
flows
b. Moderate volume
of flow per unit
area
(10)
a. Moderate upland
slopes (less than
20Z)
b. Moderate fan or
floodplaln develop-
ment
(0)
Cover not exceed-
ing 401
a. Noticeable litter
b. Tf trees present
understory not
well developed
(0)
a. Lees than 252
cultivated
b. 502 or less re-
cently logged
c. Less than 50Z in-
tensively grazed
d. Ordinary road and
other construetion
(10)
a. About 25Z of the
area character-
ized by rill and
gully or land-
slide erosion
b. Wind erosion with
deposition In
stream channels
(10)
a. Moderate flow depths,
medium flow duration
with occasionally
eroding banks or bed
«*
LOW
(0)
a. Massive, hard
formations
(0)
a. High percentage
of rock fragments
b. Aggregated clays
c. High In organic
(Batter
(0)
a. Humid climate with
rainfall of low
Intensity
b. Precipitation in
form of snow
c. Arid climate, low
intensity storms
d. *»rid clitoate; rare
convectlve storms
(0)
a. Low peak flows
per unit area
b. Low volume of
runoff per unit
area
c. Rare runoff
events
(0)
a. Gentle upland
slopes (less than
51)
b. Extensive alluvial
plains
(-10)
a. Area completely
protected by veg-
etation, rock
fragments, litter
Little opportunity
for rainfall to
reach erodible
material
(-10)
a. No cultivation
b. No recenc logging
c. Low intensity
grazing
(0)
a. No apparent signs
of erosion
(0) j
a. Wide shallow channels I
with flat gradlenra, 1
short flow duration
b. Channels In massive
rock, large boulders
or well vegeiatud ¦
c. Artificially controlled'
channe1b
J
THE NUMBERS IN SPECIFIC BOXES INDICATE VALUES TO BE ASSIGNED APPROPRIATE CHARACTER I ST 1CS.
THE SMALL LETTERS •, b, c, REFER TO INDEPENDENT CHARACTERISTICS TO UHICH FULL VALUE 1AY BE ASSIGNED.
IF EXPERIENCE SO INDICATES, INTERPOLATION BETWEEN THE 3 SEDIMENT YIELD LEVELS MAY BE MADE.
-------
175
table, extract the topographic and soils characteristics listed in columns E and
B for upland erosion areas; (3) determine the climatic environments for the area
on the broad basis of arid, semi-arid, sub-humid, and humid. If the treatments
listed in Table 58 are checked as appropriate for each of the variables of climate,
soils and topography for the area considered, the treatment would likely reduce
erosion in the area.
Those areas which may be identified geographically as "cliffs" or "badlands"
should not be considered suitable for land treatment measures. All areas are
affected by geologic erosion, the amount depending upon the geologic, topographic,
and climatic conditions peculiar to the site. This is a "background" rate of
erosion unaffected by man's level of use either directly or indirectly. High
geologic erosion sites are characterized by an arid environment and/or by periods
of exceptionally heavy rainfall and runoff.Detached or easily dispersed soils on
very steep slopes in an unfavorable climate furnish an unstable medium for veg -
tative growth. In humid or subhumid areas landslides and land slips may be the
characteristic expression of geologic erosion, although land use can be a con-
tributing or even major cause.
Management measures applied alone are termed an extensive treatment. When
these are combined with land treatment measures, they are termed intensive treat-
ment. (See Table 58). Whether or not extensive and intensive measures are rec-
commended depends on treatments indicated as appropriate in Table 58 and on other
possible limiting factors, including economics.
Evaluation of Structural Measures
The scope and method of evaluating structural measures is similar to that
for treatment of the land in that off-site and on-site benefits may accrue by>
application of some of the measures. For example, prevention of continued bank
erosion by a stabilization structure can reduce the sediment yield as well as
prevent the loss of more land along the bank. On the other hand, land treatment
measures usually apply to broad areas whereas structural measures for the purposes
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176
herein described are placed in stream systems where specific sites may be involved.
Evalustion is thus more on a specific site basis.
Debris basins are designed for specific purposes. These may include preven-
tion of land destruction or deterioration by overwash, reduction of cleanup costs ,
prevention of channel aggradation, and resulting overbank flooding. A reduction
in sediment yield based on debris basin construction is justified only when coarse
sediment is the major constituent.
Detention or mulit-purpose reservoirs retain all sizes of sediment behind
the structure and sediment yield downstream is dependent on the trap efficiency
of the reservoir. Reservoirs may be placed above a valley trench to reduce stress
on the eroding channel by a reduction in flood peaks. However, long duration low
flow releases may render a channel more vulnerable to erosion. Such a condition
can exist when fine, lightly cemented or cohesive soils lose their resistance to
erosion with the extended wetting.
A system of drop structures and bank revetments can reduce sediment yield
when channel erosion is a major source. However, it is unlikely that one or a
small number of measures installed in channels will result in a substantial reduc-
tion unless a particularly favorable situation occurs. This might include a
drop structure located to stop a headcut from trenching an extensive valley.
Evaluation of Land Treatment and/or Structural Measures
Considered here are the potential off-site benefits from treatment under
high or moderate yield potential for both Upland Erosion and Channel Erosion and
Sediment Transport, Columns H and I in Table 58 "Factors Affecting Sediment Yield".
When both are in the high classification, treatment of uplands but not channels
is less likely to result in a significant reduction in total yield. The reason
is that material is readily available in the channel and the stream may become
loaded to capacity from this source without regard to contributions from hill slopes.
Measures applied to one of the other combinations of upland and channel
erosion conditions should have a greater impact on sediment yield with the
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177
possible exception of the treatment of high channel erosion but not that on the
upland. The topography, cover and precipitation patterns determine to a large
degree what sediment load the upland eroding areas furnish when the flow reaches
the channel.
Procedure for Evaluating Effect of Application of Measures on Erosion and Sediment
Yield
Table 59 presents numerical values for estimating the effect of measures on
sediment yield. As in Table 58, climatic environment is subdivided into four
types to facilitate classification in accord with more or less favorable vege-
tative response to varying moisture conditions.
The factors which can be affected by treatment are Ground Cover, Land Use,
Upland Erosion and Channel Erosion. Table 59 reflects changes in the numerical
ratings in Table 58 "Factors Affecting Sediment Yield in the Pacific Southwest".
Based on the treatment to be applied, the new rating uses the same numbers as
given on the chart for factors A through E and new values in accord with Table59
for columns F through I.
-------
TABLE 59 - EVALUATION OF MEASURES
Sediment Climatic
Yield Environ-
Levels
High
ment
F.
GROUND COVER
LAND USE
H. UPLAND EROSION
I. CHANNEL EROSION &
SEDIMENT TRANSPORT
Extensive Intensive Extensive Intensive Extensive Intensive Extensive Intensive
Treatment Treatment Treatment Treatment Treatment Treatment Treatment Treatment
Arid
Semi-arid
Sub-humid
Humid
8
5
0
-5
5
0
-5
-10
8
5
0
-5
5
0
-5
-10
20
15
10
5
15
10
5
0
20
Moderate
Arid
Semi-arid
Sub-humid
Humid
0
I
-3
-5
-7
7 3
-5
-7
-10
0
-3
-5
-7
-3
-5
-7
-10
10
7
5
3
7
5
3
0
00
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179
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
SUMMARY OF MANAGERIAL PRACTICES AND RESEARCH NEEDS
Stabilization of the sediment source by proper*land management and
erosion control measures is the most direct and usually the most satis-
factory approach in dealing with most sediment problems. Such erosion
control practices conserve land and vegetation resources and at the same
time reduce sediment yield. Where the sediment is derived from sheet and
rill erosion on agricultural, forest, or range lands, certain agronomic
and forest and range management practices as well as mechanical and
structural measures effectively reduce sediment yields. For instance,
changing cultivated fields from row crops to small grain may reduce the
soil loss due to sheet erosion 60 to 90 percent, depending on cover con-
ditions, soils, and seasonal distribution of rainfall.
Rotating crops to include meadow in the cropping sequence may reduce
the soil loss from fields 75 percent. Such practices as mulching, strip-
cropping, and contour cultivation have been shown to be highly effective in
reducing soil erosion on farmland. Graded cropland terraces may reduce
erosion on fields 75 percent and in combination with crop rotations, mulching,
minimum tillage, etc., can further reduce soil loss from cultivated fields.
Converting cropland to good grassland, pasture, or woodland can reduce
soil erosion 90 percent or more.
The control of streambank and streambed erosion usually requires
emphasis on structural measures. Grade stabilization structures, riprap
on streambanks, installing jacks to induce deposition, and sloping and
vegetating eroding banks are among the measures to be considered.
There is ample evidence to support using such structures to reduce
sediment yields. Agronomic and supporting mechanical field practices have
reduced the amount of sediment reaching reservoirs by amounts ranging from
28 to 73 percent. Good conservation practices on cultivated watersheds
have reduced sediment yields almost 90 percent. The protection of existing
«
forest and range lands by these measures has reduced sediment yields as much
as 90 percent. Streambank-protection work on Buffalo Creek, New York,
reduced sediment delivery to Buffalo Harbor,during flood flows, 40 percent.
It is anticipated that the sediment yields from logging operations in the
Middle Fork Eel River, California, will be reduced about 80 percent with
proper planning and management
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180
Grazing management practices that restrict livestock use to the carrying
capacity of range or pasture reduce water erosion and sedimentation. Some
of these practices are:
1. Rotation grazing permits intensive use of fields or portions
of fields on an alternating basis. The nonuse period
encourages vegetation recovery and renewed vigor prior to the
return to livestock use.
2. Water supply dispersal provides better distribution of live-
stock use, reduces overuse or overgrazing in the vicinity of
water supplies, and reduces erosion hazard.
3. Seasonal grazing that is compatible with the most productive
period for the particular vegetation permits recovery and
reseeding.
4. Range revegetation and pasture improvement increase the density,
vigor, and desirable composition of the vegetative cover, thereby
reducing runoff and erosion.
5. The dispersal and occasional relocation of salt, mineral, and
feed supplement sites avoids concentrated overuse of these
areas.
6. Ponds in pastures conserve water while providing water for
livestock.
Benefits accrue from the control of sediment pollution in many ways.
They include (1) reduction in the cost of removing sediment from channels,
harbors, and reservoirs; (2) reduction in the cost of treating water for
municipal and industrial uses; (3) reductions in maintenance costs associ-
ated with power production, water distribution systems, and highways; (4)
reductions in damage to wildlife habitat; (5) prevention of damage to
flood plains; and (6) enhancement of recreational facilities. Corollary
to the reduction of damage caused by sediment, effective control maintains
the productivity of the soil resource and prevents the loss of land.
Research Needs
Research studies are needed. Sources of sediment and dissolved solids
which enter the stream system due to mans' activities are not fully docu-
mented. In many instances, it is difficult to differentiate between man-
related, and geologic or natural problems. Source areas should be located
and identified as to the cause and effects of problems such as: improper
land use, inadequate treatment measures, and poor management. More defin-
itive information is needed on the dissolved solid pollution factor.
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181
The present practice of tabulating information from measured sources and
assessing the remaining„ unaccounted for, portion of the load to irrigated
lands is too general, and may be inaccurate. Movement of sediment out of
the region has been curtailed by reservoirs; however, the in-basin movement
of sediment needs to be controlled. Improved vegetal cover conditions and
land use and management reduce sediment, but detailed information as to the
effects of measures and practices is needed for effective planning.
The Federal programs for erosion and sedimentation research, including
the cost tTiereof, are un&er continuing review, together with other aspects
of water resources research, by the Committee on Water Resources Research
(COWRR) of wlie r^Jertii -ouncil for Science and Technology. This committee
has developed and is updating long-range programs for research in this
area. A work group assigned to substantive review of efforts, plans, and
goals for research in the general field of surface water hydrology
(SURHY Work Group), in reporting to COWRR in June 1967, confirmed the need
for increased emphasis on erosion and sedimentation research and presented
detailed recommendations £hat should be consulted.
The following areas should receive principal research emphasis.
Research to develop new and improved technology essential to program effec-
tiveness must be considered in connection with each action program.
1. Minimizing soil erosion and curbing sediment delivery from
agricultural, range, and forest lands
Existing legislation authorizes the Department of Agriculture to
provide technical assistance to farmers, ranchers, and other private land-
owners to achieve erosion control and also to provide forest management
and fire control programs- Existing legislation also authorizes cost-
sharing (principally on an annual basis through the Agricultural Conservation
Program) and payments for diversion of cropland acreage to conserving
uses of the land, ,
Contractual arrangements are authorized under several USDA programs,
including the Great Plains Conservation Program, the Appalachian Land
Stabilization and Conservation Program, the Cropland Converstion Program,
and the Cropland Adjustment Program, to achieve erosion control and other
conservation benefits. The Department of Agriculture anticipates pro-
posing similar arrangements under the Soil Conservation and Domestic
Allotment Act as amended. Existing and proposed legislation constitute
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a satisfactory basis for working with owners and operators of private
lauds in establishing those erosion control measures that can be justified
on the basis of returns to the owners and operators.
Existing loan programs within USDA make funds available to individuals
and associations to aid in the establishment of soil and water conservation
practices. With additional funds, these programs could be expanded.
Existing legislation for effective erosion control on public lands as
well as on Indian lands is generally adequate. The lack of adequate
programs in erosion control on these lands stems from the need for in-
creased funding to conduct needed programs.
It must be recognized, however, that many critical sediment source
areas, on both privately owned lands and certain public lands, such as land-
slides, badly eroding logging roads and hillsides, and deep gullies, are
not treated because onsite benefits are insufficient to justify costs. Most
of such critical source areas should be stabilized or brought under control
to reduce sedimentation that may adversely affect downstream water users.
Numerous offsite benefits derive from such work reduction of sediment
damage to lands both adjacent and far removed and to the aquatic habitat;
preservation of stream-channel flow capacity and reservoir storage capacity;
reduction in turbidity and in pollution of water in streams and lakes; main-
tenance of attractive water-based recreation opportunity. Under existing
legislative authority the necessary work is not possible for every situation
requiring it. Additional legislation or funds, or both, are required to
cover the cost of such measures over and above the amounts that can be
justified on the basis of onsite returns.
Controlling Sediment in Stream Channel Systems
Unlike the treatment of many erosion problems that can be done by indi-
vidual landowners, the control of streambank erosion requires consideration
of an entire stream or major reach involving many landowners and communities.
The vegetative and structural measures that have been devloped have wide
application in solving stream erosion problems. Adequate legislative
authority or funding, or both, are needed to attack the problem on an esti-
mated 3,000,000 miles of streambank.
Channel erosion within the rangeland watersheds of public and Indian
lands can be controlled to a substantial degree through watershed treatment.
The authority to condcut the programs needed on these lands is considered
adequate but the rates of investment must be accelerated to accomplish them.
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The USDA Agricultural Conservation Program includes a streambank-
stabilization practice for which cost-sharing assistance for voluntary per-
formance would be available to most farms and ranches (including Indian
lands and farms owned by State or local governments).either by individual
farms or through multiple-farm pooling agreements. Assistance is not
available under this program to a nonfarmer and usually not for federally
owned land. Nor is it available to an organization such as drainage districts,
etc., which are essential for equitable financing and required maintenance,
that assesses landowners for these purposes, collects taxes (or if uncol-
lected establishes a lien against the land), and pays for the work with
these func"?.
Soil and moisture conservation funds are available to a number of
Federal agencies to prevent erosion of Government-owned lands and to control
eroding streambanks that endanger Federal property. Additionally, the
Department of the Interior performs certain streambank stabilization and
related sediment control work under specific authorizations of Congress.
Limited amounts of streambank stabilization work can be done under
provisions of the USDA-administered Watershed Protection and Flood
Prevention Act, PL-566, which requires that the entire watershed of a
stream be brought into the plan.
Department of Defense projectsdesigned for other purposes, contribute
significant incidental benefits in preventing or controlling sediments
already being transported by streams or in reducing erosion of riverbanks
and riverbeds. Thus, Department of Defense and Department of the Interior
reservoirs for flood control, hydropower, recreation, and other purposes
also serve as highly effective sediment traps and, by controlling and
reducing peak flows, also reduce stream erosion and sediment transport.
In some upstream reservoirs, incremental storage capacity is provided
beyond that required for the effective operation of those reservoirs over
their designed economic or technological life, as a means of reducing
sedimentation of downstream reservoirs, locks and dams, or channels.
Along certain reaches of the Mississippi, Missouri, Arkansas, Red, Sacramento,
Willamette, and other rivers, bank stabilization is an integral component
of specifically authorized Department of Defense flood control or navigation
projects or project-systems and is provided as a means of stabilizing
channel dimensions and alignments or to protect levees and floodwalls.
^Refers to Civil Works Program of the Corps of Engineers.
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Under its "Emergency Bank Protection" program authorized by Section 14
of the 1946 Flood Control Act, the Department of Defense constructs works
to protect endangered highways, highway bridge approaches, and other essential
or important public works, such as municipal water supply systems and
sewage disposal plants, which are threatened by flood-caused bank erosion.
A Section 14 project must be complete in itself and must not require
additional work for effective operation. Each project must be economically
justified, and the maximum Federal expenditure per project is $50,000. The
local sponsoring agency must agree to provide, without cost to the United
States, all lands, easements, and rights-of-way, and all required alter-
ations and relocations of utility facilities; to hold and save the United
States free from damages; to maintain the project after completion; to
assume all project coats in excess of the Federal cost limit of $50,000;
and to provide a cash contribution in proportion to any special benefits
to on public property.
In accordance with Section 120 of the River and Harbor Act of 1968,
the Corps of Engineers is conducting a study of the nature and scope of
damages resulting from streambank erosion throughout the United States,
with a view toward determining the need for and the feasibility of a
coordinated program of streambank protection, in the interest of reducing
damages from the deposition of sediment in reservoirs and waterways, the
destruction of channels and adjacent lands, and other adverse effects of
streambank erosion. The report on this study is to include recommendations
on an appropriate division of responsibility between Federal and non-
Federal interests.
Executive Order 11288 of July 2, 1966, provides for broad responsi-
bilities and authorities in every phase of water-quality management. This
authority extends to the activity regardless of the form of improvement,
ie., sediment. The heads of agencies are held responsible for sediment
pollution caused by all operations of the Federal Government, such as
water-resource projects and operations under Federal loans, grants, or
contracts.
Under the Water Quality Act of 1965 and the Clean Water Restoration
Act of 1966, the Department of the Interior has responsibility for . . .
"developing and demonstrating. . . : Practicable means of treating . . .
waterborne wastes to remove physical, chemical, and biological pollutants
in order to restore and maintain the maximum amount of th£ Nation's
water ai a quality suitable for repeated use." Abatement of pollution is
implemented through grants and contracts to individuals, industries,
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local communities, municipalities, etc., in which a particular project may
receive support of as much as 75 percent of the total investment.
Water Quality Impact Research Needs
The water requirements of our expanding population will continue to
increase substantially in future years. Rangelands are of vital importance
as a source of much . of the water that is and will be needed for domestic,
industrial, and agricultural use. To help meet these needs, specific
information is urgently needed relative to: (1) the legal aspects and
relative economic benefits of on-site versus off-site water use; (2) the
relative benefits of practices which reduce sedimentation but also
decrease total water yields; (3) the effects on runoff and water quality
of converting brushlands to herbaceous cover; (4) the effects of con-
verting woody riparian vegetation to herbaceous cover on water quality and
yields, on food and habitat for aquatic life, and on stream bank stab-
ilization; and (5) the effects of recreational use of range watersheds
on the hydrologic cycle.
Improved Range Management Practices
With continuing research contributing to the existing organized body
of knowledge known as Range Science, improved management practices will
continue to evolve. Range Science is much younger than crop science and
is more a synthesis of other disciplines. It has emerged from the
biological sciences and from mathematics, physics, chemistry, and the
social sciences. Other fields of study - such as meteorology, entomolgy,
hydrology, animal science, forestry, agronomy, economics, etc. have and
can contribute substantially to better range management principles. These
disciplines must be encouraged to play a role in this development process.
They can and should be coordinated through strengthened linkages fostered
by increased educational and research activity.
Educational Needs
Since range management is a relatively new discipline, there must be
recognition and appreciation for the need to provide continuing education,
widely diversified, of trained rapgemen. This continuing education should
center on sound ecological principles applicable to range management needs,
with emphasis on the Interrelationships of the climate-soil-plant^animal
complex. Range management personnel, then, should be continually trained
in these essential principals of proper range management.
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The kind of educational foundation is important. It must provide the
necessary preparation for further specialization in any of the several major
rangeland uses. Decision-makers in the management of rangelands must of
necessity work closely with specialists in other disciplines such as wild-
life management, forestry, animal science, agronomy, hydrology, or recre-
ation.
A broad-based environmental educational program for the Region VIII
area could provide the mechanism to address these kinds of specific
educational, technology transferral needs.
This delivery mechanism could be patterned after the existing educa-
tional framework of the Cooperative Extension Service. The Extension system
is based on the enhancement of professionalism. Professionalism in Extension
is manifested by a sense of responsibility that stimulates the indivdual
to strive for greater technical competence and to perform, within the limits
a
of one's competence, at a superior level. Recognizing that the improvement
of one's competency is an individual responsibility, a well designed and
executed educational effort must encourage and provide for the development
of opportunities for such individual improvement by means of seminars,
workshops, publications and other media, and technical assistance in the
field.
In this respect, consideration for the establishment of a "Regional
Public Information and Pollution Control Technology Transfer Network within
Region VIII is strongly recommended. (See Part II of this report)
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REFERENCES
Branson, F. A., G. F. Gifford, and J. R. Owen. 1972. Rangeland hydrology. Society
for Range Management. Range Science Series, No. 1. October.
Colorado Game, Fish and Parks Division. 1971. Water pollution studies. Job Progress
Report, Federal Aid Project F-33-R-6. July.
Environmental Protection Agency. 1972. Soil and water conservation district's role
in sediment control. Proceedings of Sediment Control Conference at Helena,
Montana. December 15.
Environmental Protection Agency. 1973. Methods and practices for controlling water
pollution from agriculture nonpoint sources. Washington, D.C. September.
Kunkel, S. h., ana J. R. Meiman. 1967. Water quality of mountain watersheds.
Hydrology Papers, No. '21. Colorado State University. June.
Kunkle, S. H., and J. R. Meiman. 1968. Sampling bacteria in a mountain stream.
Hydrology Papers. No. 28. Colorado State University. March.
Missouri Basin Inter-agency Committee. 1969. Comprehensive framework study,
Missouri River Basin. Volume 6. June.
United States Department of the Interior. 1972. Public land statistics. Bureau
of Land Management.
Upper Colorado Region State/Federal Inter-agency Group. 1971. Upper Colorado
Region comprehensive framework study. Appendix VIII - Watershed Management.
June.
USDA. 1967. Soil and water conservation needs inventory; Montana.
USDA. 1969.Conservation needs inventory: Colorado. Soil Conservation Service.
December.
USDA. 1970. Conservation needs inventory: Wyo. Soil Conservation Service. June.
USDA. 1970. Conservation needs inventory: North Dakota. Soil Conservation Service.
July.
USDA. 1970. Conservation needs inventory: South Dakota. Soil Conservation Service.
August.
USDA. 1970. Conservation needs inventory: Utah. Soil Conservation Service.October.
Pacific South west Inter-Agency Committee. 1968. Factors affecting sediment yield
and measures for the reduction of erosion and sediment yield. Report of the
Water Management Subcommittee. October.
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LOGGING AND FORESTRY
In our discussion of non-point source related problems stemming from current
practices within the area of logging and forestry management and operations we
will concentrate on the report "Forest Management in Wyoming." This report deals
extensively with the wide range of problems occurring within the U.S. Forest Service
Region 2 which includes the states of Colorado, Wyoming, and South Dakota. Simi-
lar problems occur within the other Region VIII EPA states and can be viewed
accordingly.
Major contributing factors to' non-point source pollution within the logging
industry include (a) clearcutting, (b) road-building, (c) residue, and (d) nutrients.
Clearcutting
Clearcutting, the harvesting method that has been used almost exclusively
in lodgepole pine, and frequently in Englemann spruce, is the overwhelming focal
point of concern about forest management within Region VIII. In the Wyoming
investigation, almost without exception, the size of clearcuts in Colorado, Wyo-
ming, and South Dakota were protested. Forest personnel as well as loggers agreed
that many cuts had been entirely too large and were opposed to extensive openings
created by some of the older timber sales.
Another common criticism was the real, potential, and suspected damage that
clearcuts were doing to watersheds, wildlife habitats, recreational opportunities
and scenic values.
The report emphasized that clearcutting methods would have to be modified
if the environment were to be protected. One of the major fears expressed was
that clearcutting was causing increased spring peak runoffs resulting in serious
streambank erosion, thus reducing the quality of water.
Strong evidence exists that streamflow response is proportional to change
in forest cover. For example, 3970 of the lodgepole pine timber was clearcut frum
a 7.4 acre watershed in Colorado that normally yielded 12 area-inches of runoff.
As a result, annual streamflow was increased approximately 7.5 area inches from
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the area of timber cut, an amount equivalent to 3 area inches from the entire
watershed. Although the Wyoming report noted "negligible" erosion and sediment
production, whether this were entirely true would depend on one's definition of
"negligible." It would seem that any increase in streamflow would cause an ero-
sion and sediment production increase. A number of such occurances within any
given forest area would most likely have adverse effects on water quality in
the area.
On the otl.cr hanJ, che report concluded that "it is quite possible that
spring snowmelt runoff from small tributary drainages that are a few hundred
acres or less and are clearcut over substantial areas, could have been increased
sufficiently to cause local scouring and streambank erosion."
Cutting Close to Streams and Ponds
Although cutting too close to ponds and streams was viewed more an
aesthetic problem rather than a water quality problem, several examples of this
practice were cited in the report. The report stated that the felling of trees
per se does not affect water quality. On the other hand, it did emphasize that
skidding of logs did result in increased sedimentation.
In several instances, the investigators encountered potential for damage
to streamflow quality in the•form of* logging residues clogging stream channels.
The example given was in Jules Bowl in the Shoshone National Forest. The report
recommended research to determine the kinds and sizes of areas and proportions
of watersheds that could be safely clearcut at one time without creating damages
on streamflow quantity, quality, or timing and the nature and magnitude of on-
site changes in nutrient content and stream eutrophication that may result from
soil and vegetation disturbances.
Road Construction
Research and experience in many places have shown that none of man's activities
in forests contribute more to poor water quality in streams than roads, especially
roads that are located too close to streams, built on too steep a grado. and those
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inadequately drained. The report confirms that roads are the greatest man-caused
source of stream sedimentation in the forests.
The possibility of disturbance of the ecological balance in forests increases
with road use. The balance is extremely delicate in some areas, and failure to
recognize the allowable limits of disturbance has led to serious resource manage-
ment problems. Road construction is one of the most severe disturbances that
man can impose upon the forest. Roads expose raw mineral soil to erosion and
alter the contours of uie landscape. Management practices that minimize the
undesirable environmental effects of roads are essential.
Watershed
It has been charged that road planning and construction on Region VIII Forests
have been faulty, causing accelerated soil erosion, increased sedimentation in
stream channels, and damaged fisheries. Experience and research in a number of
places - from Great Smoky Mountains of North Carolina, the Appalachians of West
Virginia, the Wiite Mountains of New Hampshire and through the Rockv Mountains
of Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, and Montana to the Sierra Nevada of California and
the Cascades of Oregon and Washington - confirm that roads are the main cause
of reduced water quality in forested watersheds (Packer, 1967). Much of this
same research also shows that well-designed roads located away from water courses
and provided with proper-drainage need not cause damage to the quality of stream-
flow. There is evidence that a high degree of quality control can be obtained
in road construction. Perhaps the best examples in this respect are the Antelope
Mountain and Enos Creek roads on the Teton and Shoshone National Forests, respectively.
These roads were designed, located, and built with the greatest regard for water-
shed and esthetic considerations.
Observations strongly support research conclusions as to the importance of
specific road design and construction criteria. In each of these Forests there
are unstabilized road cuts and fills, poorly installed culverts, and sections
of roads having improperly spaced drainage facilities. Of special importance are
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the many miles of temporary ruads ori which soil is being eroded because logging
activities continued so far into the fall or winter that surface drainage facil-
ities could not be installed in the frozen earth. These rather frequent occur-
rences of soil erosion and sediment movement from roads toward streams are reason
for serious concern. Damage to watersheds and water quality from these sources
has not yet been great, but there is urgent need to develop better quality con-
trol in roadbuilding and maintenance.
There arc ^ral stances of road construction on unstable areas, threat-
ening serious watershed damage. A review of the conditions on five of these Wyoming
areas illustrates several problems.
Leads Creek -- Part of the main haul road was built through soil derived
from glacial silt, which is highly susceptible to accelerated sheet and gully
erosion. Excessively wide stretches of this road coupled with inadequately
spaced surface drainage and a few plugged culverts, have allowed sediment-laden
runoff from the road to enter Leads Creek in several places.
Three Forks Creek -- The upper portion of the main haul road traversed ex-
tremely steep slopes. Here again, an excessively wide road was built, resulting
in high vertical cut banks that are now collapsing, and overly steep fill slopes
that are sloughing away.
Cabin Creek -- Portions of the main haul road were built across obviously
unstable slopes ("slump topography") and potential landslip areas. As a result
one entire section of road, several hundred feet long, has actually slipped down
the hill into the drainage bottom, creating a new source of sediment during high
water periods.
Poison Creek -- Portions of some of the temporary roads are on locations
that do not allow good surface drainage. Overland flow down these road surfaces
has concentrated to the point where large rills and small gullies have been
eroded in the roadbed. Sediment from these eroding surfaces can be expected to
degrade nearby streams.
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Brooks Lake (Jules Bowl) -- Roads were constructed on relatively stable
soils derived from variegated clay stone, shale, and sandstone, and from coarse
glacial till. Some of the temporary roads were built at grades of more than
12% and some were excessively wide. Many of the fine soil fractions have already
washed off these roads, leaving a rocky erosion pavement in places. Some poorly
constructed cross-drains have broken through, permitting surface runoff to con-
centrate sufficiently to wash soil downslope. Fortunately, since most of the
roads are far removed from Brooks Lake Creek, there is small probability that
sediment will reach this live stream. Part of the Brooks Lake timber sale area
is located on slump topography showing mass instability, expecially when the soil
mantle becomes saturated. In several places large amounts of logging residue,
some from road construction, were left in small tributary stream channels, there-
by slowing the normal drainage of water out of small basins and permitting the
soil mantle to become locally saturated continuously. There is already evidence
of increased mass soil slumping as a result of this.
These mistakes in road location and construction are not isolated instances
\
and they are cause for concern for several reasons. First, the knowledge neces-
sary to prevent them was available but not used. Second, they cannot be dismissed
on the grounds that "we are no longer doing it this way." Some of the cited roads
were built during the past 5 years. There is still not enough quality control
of road construction for watershed protection.
An associated problem with roads in forest and range areas is that in too
many instances off-road vehicles have used them as"jumping-off" routes into other
areas. 'This use creates "roads" where none were intended and can lead to many of
the same problems as caused by roads actually planned.
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EFFECT OF FOREST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES ON NUTRIENT LOSSES
Many questions concerning forest management practices revolve around nutrient
losses resulting from timber cuts that tend to upset the balance of the forest
ecosystem.
We must ask ourselves to what extent modern logging practices rob the land
of needed nutrients. Will continued logging without regard for this aspect lead
to loss of nutrients that are needed to assure future regrowth of forests?
Several studies have been conducted over the past decade. In a report pre-
pared for the Hearings of the Subcommittee on Public Lands, Committee on Interior
and Insular Affairs, United States Senate on the Management of Public Lands (Church
Hearings), April-May, 1971, the U.S. Forest Service concluded: "On the basis of
currently available information, we find no drastic or irreversible depletion of
forest soil nutrient reserve caused by timber removal. Nutrient overflows are
small compared to the total nutrient reserve in the soil.
"Centuries of experience in Japan and Germany show no site degradation from
repeated even-aged cropping of forests, where proper management was used. Agri-
cultural experience also indicates the ability of managed soils to maintain crop
productivity and to be improved if depleted of nutrients and organic matter.
"Although not all timber types and soil conditions have been studied, about
15 Forest Service experimental watershed studies and perhaps 20 other studies of
nutrient outflow are rapidly accumulating data for the evaluation of multidiscip-
linary research teams."
The report issued for the Church Hearings was based on studies conducted at
Hubbard Experimental Forest, New Hampshire; White Mountain National Forest, New
Hampshire; Fernow Experimental Forest, West Virginia; Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory,
North Carolina; H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest, Oregon; Alsea River Watershed,
Oregon; Cedar River Watershed, Washington; Blackfoot-Clearwater Drainage, Montana;
Flathead National Forest, Montana; and Truckee River, Nevada.
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Bleckfoot-Clearwater Drainage, Montana
Water quality and seasonal fluctuation of water quality were surveyed at
30 sites in the Blackfoot-Clearwater Drainage of Montana (Weisel and Newell, 1970).
The researchers noted that, in comparison with other waters in the United States,
the streams studied were relatively unaltered by man's activities and were of
outstanding purity. The highest nitrate-Nitrogen level recorded was 0.16 ppm.
Flathead National Forest, Montana
The quality of surface runoff water from logged and unlogged units was mea-
sured by DeByle (1971), on the Miller Creek Block in the Flathead National Forest,
Montana. On the logged units, slash was lopped in place and burned. Despite
the drastic burning treatment, annual nutrient losses in surface runoff in pounds
per acre were not large:
Unlogged, Unburned Logged and Burned
Potassium 3.AO 2.70
Calcium 0.60 1.60
Magnesium 0.60 Q..40
Sodium 3.10 1.70
Phosphorus 0.04 0.02
Total Dissolved Solids 24.00 21.00
The greatest loss by weight of any one element was 3.4 pounds per acre of
potassium from the unlogged plot.
The Forest Service report cited above contained a reference to the fact that
only very long-term research will show the complete nutrient regime in managed
forest lands.
It is difficult to find quantitative information in ample amounts for Region
VIII in terms of studies of nutrient losses related to forest management practices.
There is no question that this is an area in need of greater study and more in-
depth analysis by researchers.
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FEDERAL LANDS - MISSOURI RIVER BASIN
National Forest System - The National Forest System in the basin is comprised
of all or parts of 18 national forests, eight national grasslands, and two Land
Utilization Project areas totaling 19.4 million acres. These lands are admin-
istered by the Forest Service of the Department of Agriculture.
Timber from the national forests is harvested under term timber sale con-
tracts by private logging and milling enterprises. Rangelands are used by ranchers
for livestock grazing under paid permits. Most of the grazing permits are 10-
year term permits to assure continued stability to the agricultural economy
dependent upon this resource.
The Forest Service in 1924 designated specific areas as wilderness areas
within the national forests. The initial 1.6 million acres of the National Wil-
derness Preservation System created in 1964 are in nine national forests wilder-
nesses, previously classified as Wilderness and Wild Areas. Another 900 thousand
acres of the national forests, set aside in seven Primitive Areas, are being
studied for possible inclusion in the Wilderness System. The wildernesses are
an integral part of multiple use in the national forests. In management of these
units, emphasis is placed on keeping and restoring the natural conditions. Mechan-
ized equipment is not permitted, except in cases of emergency involving lives or
property; trees are not cut; and roads and all developments except foot and horse
trails are prohibited. Fishing, hunting, camping, hiking, and grazing of domestic
livestock are permitted.
Public Domain—The Bureau of Land Management manages the remaining public domain
lands and resources, the basic administrative units being the eleven districts
within the basin.
Within the Missouri Basin there are 18.5 million acres of public domain,
located principally in Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, and the Western Dakotas. The
basic Federal management objective for these lands is to achieve their maximum
use, consistent rith conservation, and with development of the productive capacity
of the renewable resources.
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The traditional concept of the public lands as a grazing resource only is
gradually being broadened. In the Missouri Basin these lands support 1,200,000
cattle and twice that number of sheep. Over 190,000 big game animals graze the
lands, utilizing forage reserved for their use. Approximately 26,000,000 board
feet of sawtiraber are cut annually. There are an estimated 1,440,000 annual
recreation visits to the public domain. This includes those by sportsmen who
harvest some 17,000 antelope, 27,000 deer, 53,000 upland game birds, and substan-
tial numbers of other game and fish. Mineral products are extracted in quantity,
particularly oil and gas; 37.5 percent of the revenue derived is returned to the
state of origin, 52,5 percent to the Federal Reclamation Fund, and 10.0 percent
to the United States Treasury. Public land watersheds contribute importantly
to main-stem flows, and their vast acreages are being recognized for their con-
tributions to the "open space" philosophy.
Public domain lands are managed by a decentralized organization with major
responsibility delegated to its field representatives. Framework policies ex-
pressed by Congress are carried out to stabilize the livestock 'industry; conserve
soil and other natural resources; to utilize and.protect timber, mineral, and
other resources; encourage such multiple uses as recreation and fish and wildlife
utilization; and to make the lands available for urban occupancy.and industrial
development. Land classification is underway on a basinwide scale to designate
areas adapted to continued Federal retention and-management, for use and preserva-
tion of their public values, and to identify those needed in special local gov-
ernment programs and those best suited for private ownership.
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FOREST RESOURCES - MISSOURI RIVER BASIN
The forests of the Missouri Basin are concentrated largely in two major
geographic areas: (1) in the Ozark Plateaus in the Lower Missouri Subbasin and
adjacent areas in the southern portion of the basin; and (2) in the Rocky Moun-
tains and Black Hills of the Upper Missouri, Yellowstone, Platte-Niobrara and
Western Dakota subbasins.
The 22 million acres of forest in the western portion of the Missouri Basin
comprise 73% of all its forest lands and represent 65% of the production from
commercial forests. A large proportion of these forest lands is federally owned.
In the western portion of the basin, trees seldom grow at less than 4,000 feet
above sea level, except along river bottoms. A big proportion of the forests at
low elevations consists of low-quality stands of juniper and ponderosa pine
which are classed as noncommercial forests. The commercial forests are located
at somewhat higher elevations and consist mostly of lodgepole pine, Douglas fir,
Englemann spruce, and ponderosa pine. They occur along the eastern slopes of
the Continental Divide and on a number of mountain ranges to the east. At still
higher elevations there are additional noncommercial areas of rugged sites with
scrubby trees—largely subalpine fir, white bark pine, and Englemann spruce.
FOREST REOUSRCES - UPPER COLORADO RIVER BASIN
Lumber for home construction is the major forest product of the Upper Colorado
River Basin Region and most of it is exported to other parts of the country. The
railroad, mining, electric-power, farm and ranch industries continue to be major
users of lumber and wood products in the Region. New uses for timber are being
developed and exploited by the wood manufacturing industries.
Statistical Highlights
Twenty-four million acres, or 33%, of the Region is forested, of which 9.4
million acres are classed as commercial (Table 60)
Of the commercial forest area 82% is in public ownership (primarily national
forests), and is composed mainly of softwood sawtimber types.
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Table 60. - Area of commercial forest land by type of ownership and subregion,
Upper Colorado Region, 1965
Subregion
Type of ownership Green Upper Main San Juan-
River Stem Colorado Region
-------- Thousand acres ------------
Federal:
National forest 1,971 3,315 1,483 6,769
Bureau of Land
Management 311 150 32 493
Indian 57 75 197 329
Other 2/ U
Total 2,339 3,540 1,712 7,591
State and county 53 35 46 134
Farmer 408 790 204 1,402
Other private 17 100 173 19 292
All ownership 2,900 4,538 1,981 9,419
1/ Forest industry has been combined with other private to avoid disclosure of
holdings of an individual owner.
2/ Less than 0.5 thousand acres.
The inventory includes 57 billion board feet of sawtimber. The average saw-
timber volume on commercial forest land is 6,034 board feet per acre.
Englemann spruce is the leading species with 33% of the growing stock volume
and 43% of the sawtimber.
Current net annual growth amounts to less than 1% of inventory and averages
15 cubic feet per acre. Intensive management could increase the average net growth
several times. Timber removals (mainly commercial harvests) in 1966 amounted to
53 million cubic feet. Saw logs accounted for 79% of the cubic volume of products,
veneer logs 11%, pulpwood 1%, and miscellaneous products 9%. This represented
only 0.36% of growing stock inventory as compared with a rate of 0.86% for the
Rocky Mountain States.
Forest lands of the Upper Colorado Region have many values—recreation, forage
for domestic livestock and wildlife, timber, and water. Use of forests for some
of these values, particularly forage, has been heavy for many years. Recreation
use has mounted extremely rapidly since World War II. Timber utilization has
been relatively light, although it has continued to rise.
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Projected Growth in Timber Harvests *
For the Region as a whole current (1965) annual removals of growing .stock
are about 38% of the current net annual growth. Annual growing stock removals
are projected to equal growth by 1983, rising to 120% of growth by about 2012.
Subsequently, although removals and growth both continue to rise, the difference
becomes less and eventually (sometime after the end of the projection period)
they should be about equal. Sawtimber removals are now (1965) about 72% of growth
and projections indicate they will pass growth before 1970 and rise to 1937, of
growth in 2020. They probably will decline quite rapidly after 2020. Generally
similar situations exist in each subregion although there are variations in
extent and rapidity of change. Removals are currently (1965) less than growth in
all subregions except in the case of sawtimber in the San Juan-Colorado where
they are about in balance. (Upper Colorado Region Comprehensive Framework.Study).
There are a number of reasons that growing stock removals are projected at
a higher level than growth over most of the projection period. The key is the
situation with respect to National Forest timberlands. These lands, which com-
prise 72% of the Region's commercial area and 82% of the growing stock volume,
support predominantly old growth timber. Trees in these stands are growing very
slowly and many are dying from diseases and insects. Even many of the stands of
poletimber size are more than 100 years old and are putting on very little growth
because of overcrowding and stagnation. The objective of management is to cut
over these stands fairly rapidly—if possible within at least 50 years—and con-
vert the area to more vigorous young stands. There will, therefore, be a fairly
heavy supply of timber available until the end of the conversion period. It is
doubtful if regeneration on cutover stands and the growth response to cultural
treatment in young stands will be rapid enough to bring growth up to the level
of removals until a decade or so after the end of the projection period.
In contrast to projected increases for growth and removals, inventory will
decreasa—particularly sawtimber. Much of this reduction will result from the'
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fairly rapid conversion of sawtimber stands to young growth. However, thinning
and other management practices to promote better growth will be influential.
Timber Products
The total output of timber products for the Region is projected as rising
\
from 47.8 million cubic feet in 1965 to 340 million in 2020—more than 7 times
the 1965 output (Table 61). This projection is based on the present commercial
forest acreage and will be reduced if this acreage decreases.
Projected increases in output for individual subregions are not expected
to parallel the increase mentioned above for the Region (Table 61 ). The biggest
increases are seen for the Upper Main Stem where 2020 output is 8 times that of
1965, and the Green River where it is 7.8 times. The San Juan-Colorado which
presently is cutting a higher percentage of inventory than either of the other
subregions, is projected to produce 5.5 times the 1965 output by 2020.
Substantial differences occur among products in projected trends. Sawlog
output was projected to rise until about 2010 in all subregions and then start
to decline. Veneer log output increases throughout the projection period but
less rapidly in later years; the output in 2020 is slightly more than 9 times
that of 1965. Pulpwood shows the greatest increase in all subregions, and for
the Region as a whole 2020 production amounts to nearly 290 times the amount in
1965. Of the increase of 142 million cubic feet of pulpwood, 46% will come from
the Upper Main Stem. Although output of other industrial wood in 2020 is projected
at 5 times the amount in 1965, the increase comprises only 6% of the total increase
for all timber products. The projection of plant by-products includes some pro-
vision for manufacture of particle board and/or other fiber products.
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Table61 Projected timber products output from all sources, for regional
interpretation of OBE-ERS projections, by subregion, Upper Colorado
Region, 1965, 1980, 2000 and 2020 1/
Subretd on
Green
Upper Main
Sail Juan-
Product and vear
River
Stem
Co lorado
Region
- - - - -
Thousand
cubic feet - -
- - -
Saw logs:
1965
11,507
13,068
13,299
37,874
25,300
32,200
29,600
87,100
2000
37,100
51,700
43,700
132,500
2020
34,800
52,800
41,200
128,800
Veneer log3 5
1965
3,241
1,764
5,005
1980
2,800
6,400
8,500
17,700
2000
5,700
14,200
12,000
31,900
2020
9,200
21,200
15,600
46,000
Pulpwood:
Roundwood:
1965
12
12
1980
14,800
21,800
2,300
38,900
2000
28,400
35,900
6,800
71,100
2020
38,200
45,800
12,700
96,700
Plant by-products;
1965
482
482
1980
3,700
5,200
5,300
14,200
2000
8,200
13,100
11,100
32,400
2020
11,500
. 19,600
15,000
46,100
Total pulpwood'
1965
494
494
1980
18,500
27,000
7,600
53,100
2000
36,600
49,000
17,900
103,500
2020
49,700
65,400
27,700
142,800
All other industrial
wood products: 2/
1965
1,347
2,375
754
4,476
1980
3,600
6,900
2,000
12,500
2000
5,000
10,400
2,500
17,900
2020
6.000
13.500
2,900
22.400
To,tal output:
1965
12,854
19,178
15,817
47,849
1980
50,200
72,500
47,700
170,400
2000
84,400
125,300
76,100
285,800
2020
99,700
152,900
87,400
340.000
.1/ All roundwood sources (all lands) plus pulpwood as a plant by-product.
2/ Includes: excelsior bolts, chemical wood, poles, piling, mine timbers,
posts, box bolts, match stock and a miscellaneous assortment of items.
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LOGGING AND FORESTRY MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGY
A Review of Pollution Control Methods
Sediment Control
Erosion and the generation of sediment result from a combination of several
factors. Sediment control is most effective when all factors are systematically
accounted for in a control strategy. The individual control measures, together
with points of control are as follows:
Harvest system selection: Harvest systems range from very selective cutting
to clearcutting. With selective methods the forest, is disturbed periodically,
perhaps several times during the normal lifetime of the tree species. Selective
logging methods are likely to generate low yields of sediment at frequent inter-
vals. In contrast, the impact of clearcut is confined to one continuous period
of 2-5 years. Intensive management during this period is necessary if sediment
pollution is to be kept minimal. The clearcut system provides for a long period
(the major years of growth) of time in which pollutional outputs usually are
small. However, the clearcut system may not be the best vehicle for inten-
sive timber production.
Logging system selection: Logging systems—tractor, high-lead, skyline,
balloon, helicopter, or combinations—vary substantially in physical impact on
the forest and In potential for erosion and sediment production. They also vary
substantially in cost and in suitability for forest types and terrains.
Logging road construction: Logging roads are major sources of erosion and
sediment. Minimization of pollution from roads can be gained by careful plan-
ning of the layout construction and use of roads, including the after-harvest use.
Control by reforestation: Stands of trees should be propagated in harvested
areas, mismanaged areas, and areas devastated by disease, fire and other
natural causes.
Effective reforestation is considered to be the most important remedial and
control measure. The methods employed to propagate new stands of trees range
from essentially unmanaged natural regeneration to hand planting of nursery stock.
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203
Grazing control: Domestic animals can benefit the forest and help to
minimize erosion. Improper or excessive grazing will promote erosion.
Engineering structures: Erosion control structures to manage water, pre-
vent erosion or trap sediment can be built into the forest system.
Establishment of grass and legume stands: Logging-road banks, unused and
abandoned road surfaces, fire lanes, and harvested areas may be seeded to grasses
or other vegetative cover to stabilize soils. The grass cover is usually tem-
porary, but may a nanent part of the forest management system.
Control of nutrients: Nutrient elements are a natural part of forest eco-
systems. Control of pollution from natural sources consists of erosion and run-
off control. Added nutrients, from fertilization and fire retardants, are con-
trolled by careful planning of applications to obtain maximum effect and to
avoid direct contamination of surface water.
Control of pesticides: Several approaches to control pollution from pesti-
cides can be employed. These are:
Rigorous management of aerial application to protect nontarget areas including
bodies of water, and maximize effectiveness.
Application from the ground on specific targets, including direct injection
into infected or weed trees.
Scheduling of applications for maximized effectiveness and minimum dispersal
to nontarget areas.
Avoidance of highly persistent, bioaccumulated pesticides.
Minimum use of prophylactic applications.
Increased use of cultural and mechanical methods to control pests and weeds.
No spray, with complete dependence on natural prey-predator relationships
in combination with cultural and mechanical control.
Thermal pollution: Control of thermal pollution requires policy planning
followed by planned retention of forest areas needed to achieve thermal pollu-
tion goals.
Implementation of control methods: The practical worth of a control method
hinges on effective implementation. Implementation requires development of
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204
policy and standards, adoption of regulations and enforcement procedures as
necessary, definition of organizational/institutional functions, and selection/
training of qualified implementation engineers at the field level.
Advanced Logging Methods
The application of advanced logging methods is taking the form of skyline
cables, balloon, and helicopter logging. These methods represent distinct
possibilities in lessening the amount of environmental disturbance related to
conventional methods.
In the Rocky Mountain region, the higher elevation atmosphere tends to
discourage the use of the helicopter or balloon methods. However, skyline
cables are being utili2ed on Roaring Fork and in the San Juan National Forest.
The method is being applied successfully and a rapid growth in skyline logging
is anticipated.
Two skyline logging sites are located on the Roaring Fork in Colorado.
One has been in operation for a short while;the other has been operating for
about 18 months. The equipment used is a 600-foot cable system that hoists logs
up steep slopes. Loggers cut 2 to 3 acre patches on the hillsides leaving
mostly the young growth.
In addition to skyline logging, the Forest Service is requiring industry
to do a better job of cleaning up debris left by logging. A tree that is cut
and found to be rotted or unusable in some way can no longer be left in the forest
but must be taken to a central landing point.
The San Juan National Forest is the largest and most productive of Colorado's
forests. It contains the largest potential wilderness area— the 440,000 acre
Weminuche.
Its two million acres rivals the Alps for spectacular scenery. The forest
produces nearly a fourth of all the timber produced in national forests in
Colorado, parts of Wyoming, and South Dakota. Forest officials say it is their
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205
belief the 10% harvest increase ordered by the present Administration won't
damage other resources or the sustained yield capability of the San Juan
National Forest.
More Acres Required
however, problems can result from the lessening of full-scale clearcutting
operations. More acres must be logged by partial cutting to get the same board-
footage of timber as was available by clearcutting. In the San Juans, this
could mean some areas now roadless must be brought into production.
Skyline, balloon, and helicopter logging are methods adaptable to remote
areas, steep slopes, and unstable soils where road building creates excessive
erosion from landslides and exposed cuts and fills. When operated skillfully,
skyline cable logging does not produce skid trails because the entire log is
lifted in transport. Francis Herman (1960) reported that skyline cable logging
required only one-tenth the road construction needed for conventional logging
methods such as tractor and high-lead systems. Skyline cable logging can be
adapted for clearcutting as well as select cutting methods of harvesting.
-------
FIGURE 3?
ii> V-rMV xay^iXgu?
¦GUY LINES
Jz'M.
^isrr^P Li
^ MOBILE LJ ,l* ._Jl-
YARDER " -
«r<~
t Wr
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¦ir -«#4 —x&,
VL, \ I ^ ^ / o'"" I—
V' ,1-C. ^-7^/ ' ST
V5»r y U ^ f ^
i&?\
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207
Research Needs
The following research needs were cited in a recent silvicultural pollution
control study published by the Midwest Research Institute.
Forest monitoring for water quality: Improved pollution monitoring systems
should be devised including sampling methodology, analysis techniques, instru-
mentation, and regional interpretation of the data.
Adaptation and use of available technology: A major effort should be made
in each silvicultural region of the U.S. to demonstrate the applicability of
current adapted technology during the timber harvest operation, under timber
sale contract terms; and that improved, more accurate monitoring techniques be
developed to achieve a more satisfactory basis for developing standards to relate
the impact of individual timber sale operations to surface water quality.
Sediment control: A major applied research effort should be initiated
followed by extensive demonstration and education programs to foster rational
and practical procedures for reducing soil sediment by erosion from silvicul-
tural activities, particularly during periods of harvest and reforestation.
Aerial logging: Emphasis should be put on systems for regional aerial
logging to develop more cost effective ways to harvest timber now unavailable
because of terrain, or to harvest areas where sediment by erosion would be
difficult to control if standard haul roads and logging procedures were used.
Advanced reforestation methods: A multidisciplinary team should conduct
an in-depth study of reforestation methods in order to conceptualize, and pre-
sent for research study, systemized, preferably automated reforestation systems.
Concepts such as plnnting seedlings from helicopters should be considered within
the framework of a large nursery-reforestation complex designed to meet the
needs of a large area.
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208
Regional studies should be conducted to determine the differences in the
costs of various types of forestry equipment and their effectiveness in
minimizing pollution. These studies should examine the effectiveness in terms
of the cost/unit of pollution control achieved.
Long-range regional impact of control measures: Pollution problems
should be examined on a national basis, where applicable controls can be ¦
designed to meet pollution problems on a wide scale. When a problem is
clearly regional in nature—because of forest types, soils, dominant ownership
of commercial timber, regional economy, etc. — then a regional solution
should be developed.
Incentives for pollution control: Additional research should be
directed toward identifying the types of incentives that would be most
effective in minimizing various nonpoint pollution problems.
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209
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY WITHIN REGION VIII
In reviewing existing management practices and current technology relative
to forestry and logging operations in Region VIII, we draw the readers attention
i
to the report "Forest Management in Wyoming - Timber Harvest and the Environment
of the Teton, Bridger, Shoshone, and Boghorn National Forests, 1971." This report
was prepared by a multidiscipline study team made up of six forest service scientists
selected for their experience in both research and administrative aspects of man-
aging and protecting National Forest resources. The report was prompted because
of the high intensity of public concern in respect to clearcutting and general
timber cutting practices.
What is significant is the many recommendations that generated as a result
of the study team's intensive investigations. These recommendations have since
been cited by foresters in Regions 1 and 4, as well as those in Region 2, where
the study was made, as applicable in terms of meaningful guidelines to be studied
and adopted. These three U.S. Forest regions (#1, #2, ?^4) take in the EPA Region
VIII states and many of the 'Wyoming recommendations have been accepted by the
Region VIII foresters.
The recommendations generally call for better use of existing knowledge and
for additional research, improved resource inventories, more comprehensive plan-
ning, improved public communications and involvement, and, in general, more ef-
fective effort and better balances in timber-related management activities.
In reading over the recommendations one must keep in mind that there are a _
number of similarities within and between each of the forests in the Region VIII
area, but there are also wide variations. Often, management situations vary markedly
with such factors as land capability, environmental protection requirements, and
forest stand conditions. These and other factors must be kept in mind when weighing
the appropriateness of the land management decisions for each locality.
A review team evaluated each of the recommendations and responded by citing
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210
action already underway or to be taken. The following are representative of the
responses. Only those judged relative to this report are reprinted here. Reading
over the responses may help the reader gain an overview of some of the present
management practices currently in operation throughout Region VIII.
Response to Recommendations
Recommendation. Timber sale plans should include sllvicultural prescrip-
tions by qualified silviculturists and specific Instructions for timber
harvest; long-term evaluation of the effects of the prescription should
be mandatory.
VJe cgrcc. T..c jun^ ; standards call for preparation of sllvicultural
prescriptions that treat various items, including those noted in the
recommendations. However, it is apparent that the standards are not
being adequately met. We will take needed action to improve performance
through training, more in-depth inspection and, where needed, assign-
ment of personnel better qualified to accomplish the sllvicultural work.
Evaluation of long-term effects of treatments specified in the prescrip-
tions will be required.
Recommendation.
In Lodgepole Pine
The Forests should continue to use clearcutting where it is a
sound sllvicultural harvesting method and in harmony with manage-
ment objectives for the unit of land.
Alternatives to clearcutting, such as seed-tree and shelterwood
cutting and overstory removal, should be used where such methods
are consistent with the ecological requirements and protection of
the species or appropriate to other uses of the forest land.
Thinning and sanitation salvage should be used independently or
in combination with clearcutting where economically feasible.
We concur. Since clearcutting is an important tool in even-aged forest
management and because it fits the silvlcal and ecological requirements
of lodgepole pine, it will continue to be a method of cutting that
species where such practice is in harmony with management objectives
of the area.
Some additional research is needed on alternative sllvicultural systems
for lodgepole pine, such as the regeneration and the economic aspects
of partial harvests, the management and control of dwarf mistletoe in
partially cut stands, better harvesting practices to protect new or
advanced reproduction and blowndown susceptibility of lodgepole sites.
Each ecological situation requires special consideration in determining
appropriate sllvicultural practices to be used. Opportunities exist
for nudging lodgepole pine stands by sllvicultural systems other
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than clearcuttlng. Some lodgepole pine stands have been open-grown,
managed by design under other silvicultural systems. They were cut
bver in the "tie-hack" era to such an extent that subalpine fir,
Engelmann spruce, or Douglas-fir have become well established as an
understory. In such stands, it is often possible to remove the over-
story lodgepole pine trees and develop the understory of other species
as the next crop. Other stands were cut on a selection system to
create better conditions in recreation areas or for special products
such as corral poles. Also, in other situations there are opportunities
to use seed-tree and shelterwood management systems. Prompt removal
of residual trees following establishment of regeneration is usually
essential to reduce the spread, to young reproduction, of dwarf mistletoe
or other diseases which infect most old stands. Both Regions have
directed the Forest Supervisors to evaluate their use of clearcuttlng
as a method of harvesting and regenerating lodgepole pine, and to use
alternative rssthods to clearcuttlng where such methods are consistent
with Eumageoent objectives and the ecological requirements of the
species.
A system of using small clearcuts to serve as wildlife openings and
provide diversity in the landscape, as well as yarding areas for
selection or sanitation and salvage logging or commercial thinning
in the surrounding area, has some application. Forest Supervisors
are being directed to try various ways of combining clearcuttlng,
selection cutting, sanitation cutting, or salvage and thinning.
Recommendation. The present limitation on clearcuttlng in the Engelmann
spruce-subalplne fir type should be continued until satisfactory regenera-
tion practices have been developed.
We agree. However, research needs to be strengthened to accelerate
development of methods for quick regeneration of existing understocked
clearcuts to provide for greater flexibility in management of the spruce
stands In the future.
Recommendation. The Forests should consider using a light selection
cutting or "pussyfoot logging" on low-yield sites.
We accept the recommendation. However, this does not infer that all of
the low-yield sites will be harvested. Management on these sites will
be based primarily on improving the stands for benefits other than con-
tinuous timber production.
Recommendation. The Experiment Stations should vigorously carry out
research to classify and define plant habitats and their ecological
potential for both lodgepole pine and Engelmann spruce-subalplne fir
forest types in Wyoming.
Much practical knowledge exists. In addition, research has partially
developed an ecosystem classification for much of the forested lands
in western Wyoming. This study was centered largely in the Wind River
Range, but is generally applicable to the majority of the lodgepole
pine and Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir types throughout the State.
We encourage additional ecological research by the Forest Service
Experiment Station and others.
-------
Recommendation. Forest Service Research and Administration should
speed up action to develop systems for analyzing the true costs and
benefits of forest management alternatives.
We agree that better systems for analyzing both the tangible and
Intangible costs, benefits, and adverse impacts or consequences of
forest management alternatives would be extremely helpful in arriving
at decisions. The developing field of model simulation and sensitivity
analysis suggested in the report, as It can be applied, should help to
make substantial progress. Research to develop raodels of Forest
responses to management in economic, as well as biological terms,
should be aggressively pursued.
Recommendation. Clearcut size limits must be determined by the resource
values to be considered and by the specific characteristics of the
harvest area.
We concur. Factors currently used to determine the size of cutting units
Include soil characteristics, forest stand conditions, land forms in-
volving slope and aspect, esthetic, silvicultural, and wildlife habitat
requirements, a6 well as access and logging capabilities. At the present
time, the four Forests have a 35-acre maximum size limit on clearcuts for
new sales.
Recommendation. More and better use should be made of the knowledge
specialists in soils, hydrology, and related areas can furnish in
planning timber management operations.
We will intensify our efforts to have the Forest Supervisors make
better use of specialists, from all levels of the Foyest Service, as
well as from other sources. When the expertise desired is not avail-
able on the National Forest, we expect the Forest Supervisor to arrange
for It through detail of qualified people, consultation, or other
methods.
Recommendation. Timber sale contract requirements providing for
protection of live stream channels from unnecessary disturbance and
from clogging with logging residue should be strongly enforced.
We agree. Strong action will be taken to insure that the Forest
Supervisors achieve contract compliance. Emphasis is being given
to this in the training of sale officers and inspectors.
Recommendation. Research should determine (a) the kinds and sizes of
areas and proportions of watersheds that can be safely clearcut at one
time without creating damaging changes to streamflow, quantity, quality,
or timing; and (b) the nature and magnitude of changes in onsite
nutrient content and of eutrophication of streams that may result
from soil and vegetation disturbances that attend timber harvesting.
We concur that additional Information should be obtained on these sub-
jects as well as other facets of wlldland management. Information now
available indicates that watershed values will not be adversely affected
by clearcutting.
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213
Recommendation. Transportation plans should indicate the purpose of
every proposed road—whether permanent or temporary, the disposition
of each temporary road, and the maximum level of road construction
needed to attain management objectives.
The current transportation plan consists of a listing and mapping of
facilities, needed for all forms of transportation, that are to be
retained on a permanent basis and generally kept open to public use.
It also shows the purpose for each listed road and the planned level
of construction. Generally speaking, the level of construction has
been based on limited Information. In the future, we will insist
that the Forest Supervisors base it on a thorough analysis of all
available pertinent data.
We believe that it Is not feasible to identify all temporary roads,
theirar*** level of construction in transportation
plans. For those temporary roads constructed in connection with timber
harvest, these elements will be shown in timber sale project plans and
logging plans. However, since roads have such an effect on management
and use of National Forest lands, a section will be added to the trans-
portation and other applicable plans which will explain how temporary
roads will be managed in keeping with the intent of this recommendation.
Recommendation. The transportation plan should be clear and logical,
and presented in a form easily understandable to the public, and should
specify drainages that will be exempt from any road construction or
managed with temporary roads only.
We concur that transportation plans need to be readily understandable
by the public and will take action to overcome present deficiencies.
Multiple use plans contain.management decisions on how various areas
of land will be managed, including areas from which road construction
will be excluded. Transportation plans are based on these decisions.
The place to look for decisions on drainages where roads will not be
constructed or how temporary roads will be managed is in the multiple
use plans. These plans are available for public inspection at the
District Rangers' offices.
Recommendation. The temporary roads still open should be carefully
evaluated; those classified as temporary should be closed and all
others reconstructed as required for maintenance as part of the per-
manent road system.
We concur. Appropriate action will be taken.
Reconaagndation. In road layout and design, the relation between the
road and the landscape should be clearly established so as to avoid a
result suggesting single use.
We concur. The four Forest Supervisors currently require inter-
disciplinary review of road location and design prior to construction
80 as to assure a transportation system that will serve the needed
uses and values of the area. This will be continued and strengthened,
if needed.
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214
Recommendation. The quality of design, location, and construction of
roads, especially temporary ones, must be greatly improved to avoid
unnecessary damage to soil and water.
We concur. The Forest Supervisors are now requiring and will continue
to require interdisciplinary review of all permanent road locations
and designs prior to construction. More intensive on-the-ground
planning of and administration of temporary road construction will be
required. In addition, we will have the Forest Supervisors give much
greater emphasis to the supervision of both permanent and temporary
road construction.
Recommendation. Existing specifications that temporary roads should be
maintained for adequate drainage before winter should be scrupulously
observed.
We concur and will review our instructions that cover this specific
item. We will give this our personal attention to assure that the
Forest Supervisors gain compliance from timber purchasers.
Recomnendatlon. Much greater use should be made of geologists,
hydrologists, and soil scientists in planning and constructing
roads.
We concur and the Forest Supervisors will be instructed to proceed
accordingly.
Recoiaaendation. Forest Service Research, National Forest Administration,
and the timber industry should jointly explore possibilities.for using
more of the wood left after logging, and for treating the remaining
residue to facilitate natural and artificial regeneration and reduce
the unfavorable visual lapact.
We agree. A study to explore possibilities for using lodgepole pine
logging residues is now underway in Wyoming. This is a cooperative
study between National Forest administration, the Intermountain Forest
and Range Experiment Station, the Forest Products Laboratory, and U.S.
Plywood-Champion Papers Inc. Study components will include the following:
1. Characterization and inventory of logging residues.
2. Analysis of utilization and marketing opportunities for solid
wood and reconstituted wood products derived from presently
unutilized residues.
3. Design and test of. systems for moving residues.
4. Regeneration problem appraisal in conjunction with ecological
habitat typing.
5. Appraisal of logging and residue disposition on the environment,
Including social and nontlmber biological impacts.
6. Analysis of the costs and benefits. This study should be
followed by expanded research to provide a comprehensive
answer to the Forest residue problem.
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215
Action has continuously been underway to implement it. In 1970 the
Forest Service adopted "Framework for the Future"—a set of objectives
and policy guides developed and published to set forth the broad direction
to be followed.
Within this context, a Forest Service "Environmental Program for the
Future" is being developed. Development of goals for managing National
Forest lands in Wyoming are a part of this Program. The process includes
assembling more complete inventory information about land capabilities,
social and economic needs, and people's desires; an interdisciplinary
planning approach; formulating and evaluating land management alternatives;
and selection of alternatives that will achieve optimum benefits for
the American people. Throughout all planning stages the recommendations
and viewpoints of the public will be solicited and Included in the decision-
making process.
Recommendation. Resource inventories should be completed for all major
resources.
We recognize that a more adequate information base is needed to improve
multiple use planning. People trained in a variety of skills .are needed
to accomplish this.
The two Regions employ a considerable number of different kinds of
specialists. These specialists are accumulating resource and environmental
data on &rea3 where there is a priority need for information. This is a
continuing job, since resource conditions are dynamic, and resource
inventories will be developed as needed in accord with available funding.
However, better inventory methods are needed to permit the frequent
repeat inventories needed for flexible management, planning, and
closely controlled execution.
Recommendation. The Forests and Regions should strive toward a balance
of resource skills in the Forest staff.
We concur. This is a continuing Forest Service objective. There is
presently a Servicewide effort to obtain a balanced program which
involves both adequate financing and personnel. Studies are also under-
way to realign administrative units to provide a better balance in
resource skills. Public interest and concern, expressed to elected
representatives, is needed to support their efforts to obtain adequate
funding and manpower for the quality forest management job which the
public desires.
Recomnendation. More effective use should be made of existing Information
bV the forester, who should search the literature for usable ideas,
and (b) the researcher, who should work more closely with the forester
in pytting new methods into practice.
Action will be taken to insure that existing information and information
currently being developed are used effectively.
Recommendation. Periodic evaluation of the results of management
activities should be an Integral part of the land management job.
We concur. Evaluation of past practices is one of the best ways to
improve future courses of action. We will require documentation of
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216
events and subsequent evaluation on all projects which have signifi-
cant impact on the l&nd or resources. Compliance with this requirement
will be emphasized through our internal inspection procedures. In
addition, Forest Supervisors are expected to periodically present
their evaluation of management activities to the public.
Recommendation. The Forest Service should strengthen the current
research effort in Wyoming and should explore ways of using abilities
outside the Service to develop needed information without delay.
The need for strengthening the Forest Service research program has been
discussed elsewhere in this response. Cooperative programs and studies
are in progress on the four Forests with groups such as the Wyoming Game
and Fish Commission, University o^ Wyoming, and Smithsonian Institution.
An expanded effort will be made to utilize any available talents outside
of the Service.
Recotanendation. No industrial harvest should be undertaken unless ade-
quate funds and manpower are available to do a complete, professional
We agree with the intent of the recommendation. It is in accord with
direction that quality will not be sacrificed for quantity.
Recommendation. Tenure and transfer policies should assure that quality
land management is not itself sacrificed to provide land managers with
the training and experience they need to achieve quality management.
We are unable at this time to identify instances where tenure of personnel,
either short or long, contributed to resource problems associated with
timber management. We believe forest officers are better qualified to
carry oyt complex management responsibilities when exposed to a variety
of situations to give them experience with a wide range of Forest Service
activities and responsibilities. We will strive to place well-qualified
people in land management positions and provide sufficient training and
tenure to assure quality management.
Recommendation. Forest Service internal inspection procedures should be
reviewed to determine why questionable practices were not detected before
they provoked public criticism.
A careful analysis will be made of our inspection and controls system.
Appropriate action will be taken to correct any deficiencies found.
Recommendation. The Forests and Regions should evaluate timber harvest
areas that have drawn repeated public criticism and begin major reha-
bilitation programs where necessary to improve the visual image and
protect other resource values.
We concur, subject to other resource consi'derations. Action to rehabil-
itate areas which have drawn criticism from the public has been underway
in recent years. Such work will continue.
Recommendation. The Regions and Forests should strive for an underlying
consistency in policy through good planning, but should preserve the
flexibility needed to insure that management practices are appropriate
to site conditio:.,;.
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217
The principles expressed are sound. We believe that the Regions and
the Forest Supervisors have made substantial progress in accomplishing
the intent of the recocmendation.
Comparison of current guidelines for timber harvesting methods, timber
sale contract requirements, and road standards show that the differences
are minor. We intend that practices appropriate for each management
situation be applied regardless of Region or National Forest.
Recommendation. The Forest Service should seek statutory authority to
modify contracts to protect environmental values.
We are advised that the Comptroller General has very recently ruled that
environmental values, including intangible ones, can be considered in
determining whether modification of a timber sale contract is advantageous
to the Government. The Chief of the Forest Service is presently revising
Instructions covering modifications, to incorporate the intent of this
ruling. When implemented, these instructions will likely permit solving
the kinds of problems discussed in the report without the need for additional
statutory authority.
Recommendation. The Forests should make every effort to Involve the
public in the planning process by (a) identifying appropriate land
laanaReisent alternatives through listening to people and giving them
forest resource Information and (b) assessing public opinion as to
choice of altamatives.
We concur. Within the last several years, public involvement has
played a more important part in developing management decisions for
important land areas on each of the four National Forests. We pledge
ourselves to continue and expand this effort.
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218
Recommendation. The Forest Service should establish exploratory studies
to determine the effects of logging residue management on water quality.
We concur. A principal objective of National Forest management is to
protect water quality and to maintain and, where possible, improve
productivity of the soil. More biological information about the many
aspects of forest land management, related to nutrient cycling and
sediment production, is needed. Though not enough is being done, the
matter has not been and is not being ignored. A number of studies are
completed and about 35 others relating to nutrient cycling in forest
ecosystems are underway in 18 states. Most of the research is being
rdone.in the West. Commonly, the work is being done cooperatively by
universities and Federal agencies, including the Forest Service. As
previously noted, the cooperative logging residue treatment study being
conducted on the Teton National Forest will provide additional information
on nutrient cycling.
Observations in Wyoming by scientists employed in the Rocky Mountain and
Intermountain Stations' of the Forest Service support those reported by the
study team - "...considering the smaller amount of residue and the
generally heavy growth of forbs and grasses on Wyoming clearcuts, pollu-
tion by chemical nutrients does not appear to be a significant threat."
However, in recognition of the relative vulnerability of thin soils on
steep slopes to nutrient depletion following clearcutting and burning,
clearcutting is being confined to sites with deeper soils and to slopes
of about 40 percent or less.
Water quality is currently being monitored at a few locations on the
Forests. Plans exist to extend this program as funds and personnel
become available.
Recommendation. The Forests should secure timely meteorological informa-
tion, and require that logging residues be burned during periods when
burning is least likely to affect air quality adversely.
We will meet air quality standards. Three of the four Forests currently
use meteorological information. Action will be taken to make it avail-
able to the Forest Supervisor of the Teton National Forest as well.
Recommendation. The Forests should eliminate the backlog of untreated
residue as socn as possible.
We concur, and the Forest Supervisors are working toward this objective.
However, there are some untreated areas where stands of young trees have
become established. Where this is the case and stocking is satisfactory,
it would be unwise to treat the residue for esthetic improvement when
such activity would destroy the young trees and necessitate planting.
The esthetic problem, in such cases, will be largely overcome as young
trees emerge above the logging residue and green up the areas.
Recomaendation. The Regions and Forests must better define resource
management and environmental protection goals for the Forest and refine
and update multiple use plans to include decisions that meet these goals.
This recommendation relates to the Forest Service mission of managing
the. National Foresto to help meet people's present and future demands
for goods and services. We agree with the intent of the recommendation.
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219
Non-Timber Producing Alternatives
Multiple use activities and resources provided by our national forests can
be optimized from carefully designed and executed forest cuttings
clearcutting. Examples of such improvements are covered in various sections above
and are not reiterated here. Whether for increasing water yield, enhancing wild-
life habitat, providing more pleasing and variable forest landscapes, improving
browsing and grazing conditions or creating new recreational opportunities, all
are influenced by andt*- benefit from wisely planned cuttings. Any planned tim-
ber harvest whether by clearcutting or by other means, must be designed to fit
into a well designed multiple use management plan.
Logging Residue Problems
Current general practice is to use large bulldozers to place the mass of
logging debris remaining on the ground following logging of clearcut units into
individual piles of long, continuous windrows to be burned when burning condi-
tions are satisfactory. Depending on the degree to which the piling or windrowing
of the material was done and the completeness of the burning operation, the
subsequent appearance and condition of the area varies considerably. In some
instances, it may be a tangle of unsightly, half-burned, charred logs, limbs,
and tops. In other situations, it may be fairly clean, except for the conspicuous
charred stumps in blackened spots or windrows.
The physical appearance of the area is only one consideration, however.
Current practices of timber harvest and treatment of the logging residue cause:
(1) wood that is technologically suitable for use being burned or left to decay;
(2) possible environmental and ecological problems relating to nutrient cycling,
regeneration, and erosion hazards; (3) increased fire hazards while debris remains
on the ground; and (4) air pollution from the burning of residue.
A Study to Alleviate the Problem
Concern for these environmental and ecological problems of residue accumu-
lation and for the utilization of more of the wood fiber was confined neither to
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220
the land managing agency nor to those criticizing timber harvesting practices.
The timber industry itself was extremely interested in the possibility of solving
some of the problems by making economic use of the residue. Leading in this
direction was U.S. Plywood-Champ ion Papers, Inc., a major producer of lodgepole
pine wood products in the Rocky Mountain area. Their concern culminated in a
joint study with the U.S. Forest Service of potential economic use of lodgepole
pine logging residues. Testing of harvesting methods and utilization practices
that would accomplish a higher degree of utilization and would be compatible with
ecological, environmental, and economic objectives of management of timber
resources on public lands is a basic part of the study.
Scientists, technicians, and managers within the Forest Products Laboratory,
the Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, and the Intermountain
Region of the Forest Service joined with professional personnel of U.S. Plywood-
Champion Papers, Inc. for a study of complete tree and residue utilization of
an overmature lodgepole pine forest within the Teton National Forest in Wyoming
near the Continental Divide.
Study Objectives
The primary purpose of the study is to test the possibilities of utilization
of logging residues. This will involve quantifying the nature and amounts of
residues left on the site following conventional logging, how these residues can
most efficiently be moved from the logging site, and if the conversion of resi-
dues into products is economically feasible. Studies of how this effects the
cutting area will be closely related. Removal of logging residues, including
the process used in such removal, will change the conditions for regeneration.
It will radically reduce the need for slash disposal by burning. It will also
have some effect on the protection or enhancement of esthetics, air quality,
water quality, wildlife habitat, and other forest values and uses.
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221
Studies have been initiated to provide answers to six basic questions:
1. What is the nature and amount of residues now left on a site following
logging, including live and dead wood, standing and down trunk wood, and branches
and needles?
2. What products can be manufactured from this material, by categories of
mixes and residues?
3. How can these residues be moved most efficiently from the forest to the
wood-using plant?
4. To what extent will regeneration problems be changed by removal of
residue?
5. To what extent will the removal and utilization of residues, and the
process used in such removal, protect or enhance forest values, including es-
thetics, air quality, water quality, and wildlife habitat? To what extent will
residue removal alleviate the need for slash disposal by burning?
6. Is the conversion of residues into products economically feasible?
Does this conversion as part of the total system have suitable cost-benefit
ratio?
Some Preliminary Results
The problems of residue disposal and utilization associated with timber
harvesting are not simple. They are generally linked with ecological, environ-
mental, and economic factors pertaining to the management of the timber resource
and to coordination complexities related to other resource uses and values.
As such, identification and evaluation of a number of alternatives are essential;
however, the alternatives do not lend themselves to easy differentiation. Many
values are affected and, as this study illustrates, andwers to "what are the con-
sequences?" and "what is the optimum solution?" of ten take a long time to assess.
This study will not solve all of the problems. Even though the methods used
in the study may provide some of the answers, namely, land management alternatives
and information on harvesting techniques, a major unresolved problem is one of
adequate markpts. The apparent gain in total fiber yield is a technological one;
the economic feasibility of capturing it is another matter. Will consumers learn
to accept more products processed from fiber as substitutes for the more scarce
products made from solid woods? In the interest of forest conservation, will
people be willing to use a slightly lower quality of paper for much of their
Daoer needs?
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222
The results of this study, while useful in comparable situations, cannot be
reliably evaluated and applied to other situations. There are a multitude of
forest land conditions, some quite different from the" lodgepole pine areas of
the Rocky Mountains, and different methods may be needed.
The timber harvest and data collection portion of this study was completed
in October 1971. Additional observations and analyses of on-site effects of the
overall chipping treatment are expected to continue for some time.
As yet, it is too early to give definitive answers to the many questions
that the study was designed to answer. However, preliminary observations pro-
vide the following indications as to the efficiency and overall practicability
of "near-complete" utilization in lodgepole pine timber harvest operations in
the Rocky Mounta ins:
1. On the type of area treated in this study, it appears that the yield
of wood fiber in timber harvest operations can be increased by at least one-third
if logging residues can be utilized.
2. Performance of special equipment used in this study indicates their
effectiveness and efficiency in "near-complete" utilization operations.
3. Costs of skidding \*hole trees to landings appear to be no greater than
costs of skidding only the merchantable portions.
4. Visual evaluation of the areas where utilization was "near-complete"
indicates that such utilization practices will tend to reduce some regeneration
costs.
5. The scattered amount of material remaining on the ground following "near-
complete" utilization appears to be insufficient to constitute a potential fire
hazard or to require additional disposal.
6. Overall, the practice of "near-complete" utilization indicates signif-
icant environmental benefits in the way of protection of esthetic values, reduced
air pollution (through elimination of residue burning), and perhaps a shorter
period of time between harvest of one crop of trees and establishment of a new
crop.
Until cost data are completed and dollar and non-dollar benefits are more
accurately assessed, an accurate appraisal of the environmental benefits and the
technical and economic feasibility of complete residue removal cannot be made.
At the present stage of the study, however, complete removal appears to offer
some important advantages over current timber harvest methods and practices.
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223
U.S. FOREST SERVICE ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (Public Law 91-190) sets forth
a policy of Congress "to create and maintain conditions under which man and nature
can exist in productive harmony and fulfill the social, economic, and other re-
quirements of present and future generations . . . ."
The Forest Service sees as its mission the need to meet present and future
demands for'goods and services from the Nation's forests and related resources.
Briefly, the Forest Service recognizes three main responsibilities.
1. To develop, manage, and protect the National Forest System. These pub-
lic lands include 187 million acres in 154 National Forests, 19 National Grass-
lands, and other areas located in 44 states and Puerto Rico. Resources on all
of these units are managed directly by the Forest Service.
2. To conduct basic and applied research in forestry and related fields.
This work is conducted at 80 locations throughout the United States, often in
cooperation with university and other research agencies.
3. To cooperate in programs designed to improve the protection, management,
and use of forest lands and resources in State and private ownership through
technical and financial assistance to State forestry organizations and other
cooperators.
In 1970, the Forest Service published a "Framework for the Future." This
set of policy statements and guidleines indicated the broad direction to be
followed by the Department of Agriculture. In that context, a Forest Service
Environmental Program for the Future was developed. The program defined goals
to improve environmental management and to increase the flow of goods and services
and other benefits from forests and related lands. High quality in management
practices and improved balance among the various Forest Service programs was
emphasized.
In 1960, the Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act (16 U.S.C. 528-531) officially
made water, wildlife, recreation, range, and timber resources co-equal in manage-
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224
ment importance. Today, wild and scenic rivers, hiking routes, endangered species
of wildlife and plant life, and the visual appearance of landscapes concern the
resource manager as much as timber supplies and other "commodity" needs.
Some phases of the timber harvesting process are causing public concern and
reaction in certain situations. For example, even-aged management requires at
some stage a final harvest cut that sometimes includes clearcutting, a system
which removes all the timber at one time. These concentrated harvest cuts on
designated areas are one stage in a series of actions necessary to assure re-
generation of a vigorous and healthy forest in certain timber types. Certain
species and stand conditions may require this kind of silvicultural treatment if the
forest is to be reestablished and remain productive. Some of the public object
to the alleged "visual blemish" resulting from this method of timber harvesting.
Others object to the road or transportation systems or to the possible impacts
of certain methods of timber harvesting on wildlife.
Responding to the public demand for additional information about specific
timber harvesting practices in identified areas, the Chief in 1970 ordered an
internal nationwide review of timber management practices in the National Forest
System. A multidiscipline team of staff experts published its findings in March
1971. The report, "National Forest Management in a Quality Environment--Timber
Productivity," highlighted problem situations and developed a pattern for respon-
sive actions.
The guidelines that resulted and the planned and ongoing Forest Service
actions which respond to those guidelines are:
1. Allowable harvest levels
a. Allowable harvest on Federal forest lands should be reviewsd and ad-
justed periodically to assure that the lands on which they are based are
available and suitable for timber production under these guidelines.
b. Increases in allowable harvests based on intensified management
practices such as reforestation, thinning, tree improvement and the like
should be made only upon demonstration that such practices justify increased
allowable harvests, and there is assurance that such practices are satis-
factorily funded for continuation to completion.
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225
If planned intensive measures are inadequately funded and thus cannot
be accomplished on schedule, allowable harvests should be reduced accordingly.
2. Harvesting limitations
Clearcutting should not be used as a cutting method on Federal land
areas where:
a. Soil, slope or other watershed conditions are fragile and subject
to major injury.
b. There is no assurance that the area can be adequately restocked
within five years after harvest.
c. Apathetic ilues outweigh other considerations.
d. The method is preferred only because it will give the greatest
dollar return or the greatest unit output.
3. Clearcutting should be used only where:
a. It is determined to be silviculturally essential to accomplish
the relevant forest management objectives.
b. The size of clearcut blocks, patches or strips are kept at the
minimum necessary to accomplish silvicultural and other multiple-use
forest management objectives.
c. A miltidisciplinary review has first been made of the potential
environmental, biological, aesthetic,.engineering and economic impacts on
each sale area.
d. Clearcut blocks, patches or strips are, in all cases, shaped and
blended as much as possible with the natural terrain.
4. Timber sale contracts
Federal timber sale contracts should contain requirements to assure
that all possible measures are taken to minimize or avoid adverse environ-
mental impacts of timber harvesting, even if such measures result in lower
net returns to the Treasury.
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226
LOGGING AND FORESTRY
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY PRESENTLY EMPLOYED IN REGION VIII
The foregoing was a general overview of the various types of control tech-
nology presently existent and, in some measure, being utilized throughout the
U.S. Forest Service system including the Region VIII states. More specifically
we are able to provide some information on control measures presently being
employed by the operators within the Region VIII area.
U.S. FOREST SERVICE REGION 2 (WYOMING, COLORADO SOUTH DAKOTA)
Erosion Control Measures Being Employed
Erosion control measures consist of constructing "water bars" and grass
seeding on skid trails and temporary roads. Page 231 shows examples of erosion
prevention and control measures required in all timber sale contracts.
Residue treatment activity, where located, how extensive, amount of treatment
on annual basis, amount of residue backlogged (not treated) on an annual basis.
By residue treatment activity, we mean the logging and road construction
slash created from timber harvesting operations. The treatment areas are loca-
ted on all National Forests. Region 2 was unable to give any specific location
on individual forests, but slash treatment is being done on most timber harves-
ting areas. Maximum utilization of material from the woods is a standard require-
ment. The reamining logging slash is treated by several different methods, such
as (1) Dozer Bunch and Burn, (2) Hand Pile and Burn, (3) Prescribed Burn, (4)
Lop and Scatter, and in some cases no treatment is necessary. How extensive is
the treatment: Depends on several things—volume cut per acre, timber tfypes
etc. , An estimate of the number of acres of logging slash treated and remaining
for FY 1973 by forest follows in Table 62:
Table 62
National Forest
Acres treated
FY 1973
Acres of carryover
(backlog)
from FY 1973
Arapahoe
Bighorn
260
800
70
400
400
Black Hills
Grand Mesa-Unc.-Gunnison
Medicine Bow
Nebraska
21,700
1,500
3,500
0
1,800
100
0
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227
(continued)
National Forest
Acres Treated
FY 1973
Acres of carryover
(backlog)
from FY 1973
Pike
Rio Grande
Roosevelt
Routt
Pike-San Isabel
San Juan
Shoshone
White River
Combined with San Isabel NF
300
2,700
5,000
1,500
400
300
200
100
300
350
250
300
100
150
Total
38,160
4,320
Present forestry operations, harvesting underway in terms of location, size of cut,
and duration.
Forestry operations or timber harvesting are being conducted in some manner
on all 15 National Forests in the Region. For this report we will consider each
National Forest as a "harvest area". Table 63 presents a "Summary of Operations."
This is a summary of the approximate number of timber operators on each National
Forest. This of course will vary from time to time-and an individual operator
could be operating on more than one timber sale at any given time.
In regard to "location, size of cut, and duration," we are able to provide
the information by National Forest. The U.S. Forest Service was unable to break
this information down any further. Reference is made to Table 64 "Timber Cut
and Sold" record. This Fiscal Year information is broken down by forest and
State for 1973. The length of a timber sale, of course, depends on many factors;
but normally runs from 2 to 4 years.
Table 63
SUMMARY OF OPERATIONS - Timber Operator
Forest
Approximate Number
of Timber Operators
Arapahoe
Bighorn
Black Hills
Grand Mesa-Unc.
Gunnison
Medicine Bow
Nebraska
Pike
Rio Grande
Roosevelt
Routt
San Isabel
4
5
15
8
4
7
1
5
2
6
3
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228
Table 64. Number of
Timber Sales
as of July 1, 1973
Sale Classes
Kind or Size Wyoming
South Dakota
Colorado
Region '2
Convertible Prod
to $300
316
132
1,240
1,689
$301 to $2,000
12
34
39
85
$2,001 to 2,000 M
12
5
31=
48
2,001 M to 5,000 M
5
3
13
21
5,001 M to 15,000 M
1
6
5
12
15,000 M and over
1
1
Total Convertible
Products
346
181
1,328
1,856
Non-Convertible
Products
164
27
3,217
3,620
Grand Totals
510
208
4,545
5,476
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229
Table 64 (continued)
Forest
San Juan
Shoshone
White River
Approximate Number
of Timber Operators
9
5
4
Table 65
Acres Cut Over by Timber Types
Yearly Average (FY 1968-1972)
Lodgepole Douglas Ponderosa
Forest
Spruce Fir
Pine
Fir
Pine
Total
Arapahoe
500
1,000
_
1,500
Bighorn
360
1,500
50
-
1,910
Black Hills
145
-
-
23,400
23,545
Grand Mesa-Unc'.
800
-
-
5,200
6,000
Gunnison
1,000
175
20
10
1,205
Medicine Bow
780
2,400
-
230
3,410
Nebraska
-
-
-
-
-
Pike
360
100
5
870
1,335
Rio Grande
2,300
50
250
130
2,730
Roosevelt
200
670
-
-
1,250
Routt
1,300
1,500
-
-
2,800
San Isabel
200
100
200
730
1,230
San Juan
4,400
-
1,000
10,000
15,400
Shoshone
180
1,200
40
-
1,420
White River
860
375
40
-
1,275
Total
13,385
9,070
1,605
40,950
65,010
Table 65 shows the yearly average (FY1968-1972) of acres cut over by timber
types within specific forests.
Miles of road construction in each harvest area, type of road (temporary or
permanent), type of surfacing, standard, grade, etc.
Following is a summary by forest of permanent type roads constructed by
Timber Purchaser in FY 1973.
Miles
Miles
66
Permanent.
Permanent
Forest
Reconstruction
Construction
Total
Arapahoe
3.1
0
3.1
Bighorn
0
0
0
Black Hills - S.D.
9.3
13.0
22.3
Wyo.
1.1
4.7
5.8
Grand Mesa-Unc.
0
0
0
Gunnsion
0
0.7
0.7
Medicine Bow
8.7
1.6
10.3
Nebraska
0
0
0
Pike
0
0
0
Rio Grande
7.0'
20.6
27.6
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Table 66 (continued)
Permanent Permanent
Forest Reconstruction Construction Total
Roosevelt 0 0 0
Routt 13.7 14.5 28.2
San Isabel 0 0 0
San Juan 53.1 12.1 65.2
Shoshone 0 0 0
White River 0 3.0 3.0
Total 96.0 70.2 166.2
There are no firm figures in the Division of Timber Management on the number
of miles of temporary road constructed; however, based upon past history, approx-
imately 3 miles of temporary road are constructed for every mile of permanent
road constructed or reconstructed.
The temporary road surfacing is all natural surface. Permanent road surface
is either natural or rock gravel surface. Approximately 70% of the permanent
road constructed is rock gravel surfaced. A permanent road standard is based
upon anticipated daily traffic 20 years hence, gnd•therefore, varies greatly. Most
roads now are being constructed for single lane traffic with a running surface
of 14 feet. The maximum sustained grade is normally 8% and averages 5%.
Residue production, location and tons per acre.
The residue produced on National forests is primarily from timber harvesting
operations. A survey made this past year gives a good indication of tons of
residue produced per acre by size class and species. Following is a result of
the survey.
Table 67 Tons of Residue Produced Per Acre
Size Class/Species Ponderosa Pine Lodgepole Pine Spruce-Fir
Material Less than 1"
Range - tons/acre
2.5 to 10.0
1.5 to 5.0
5.0 to 6.0
Average - tons/acre
6.0
3.0
5.5
Material 1" to 3"
Range - tons/acre
2.5 to 11.0
3.0 to 24.0
3.0 to 7.5
Average - tons/acre
7.0
7.0
5.0
Material 3" & larger
Range - tons/acre
1.5 to 18.0
5.0 to 39.0
32.5 to 85.0
Average - tons/acre
7.0
20.0
50.0
Total
Range
7.0 to 28.0
17.0 to 51.0
45.0 to 98.0
Average
21.0
35.0
60.0
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Table 68
Grand Mesa-Uncompahgre-Gunnison National Forests
Delta, Colorado 231
Erosion MBF
Surfacing
Standard—
Control—'
Slash S
lecies
Vol.
1.
Native
SL-10
Seed 30 A. of landings
and spur roads
Pile 6 burn 180 A.
ES
TF
10,463
2,198
2.
Native
SL-12
Seed 15 A.
Pile & burn 109 A.
ES
TF
PP
10,607
1,193
2,700
3-
Gravel
SL-12
Seed 16 A. spur roads
Pile 5 chip 264 A.
PP
4,397
4.
-
-
-
-
\spen
800
5.
-
-
-
Scatter on 30 A.
spur roads
ES
3,860
6.
Gravel
SN-12
-
Treat 74.4 A.
PP-DF
8,800
7.
Gravel
SN-12
Seed 2.9 A. spur roads
Pile 5 burn 20 A.
PP
1,970
8.
-
-
-
-
PP
2,500
9.
Native
SL-14
Seed 20 A. spur roads
-
PP
8,603
10.
-
-
Waterbar 5 miles roads
and trails
Pile f, burn 3 A.
ES
350
11.
Native
SL-12
34 hours cat work
Pile G burn 30 A.
ES
LP
2,000
150
12.
-
-
Seed 35 A.
Scatter on spur road
35 A.
ES
4,400
13.
Native
SL-12
121 waterbars
Pile & bum 20 A.
ES-TF
Aspen
4,460
488
14.
-
-
53 waterbars,seed 6 A.
Pile 5 burn 20 A.
ES
995
15.
-
-
-
-
Aspen
1,400
16.
Native
SL-12
32 hours cat work
Pile § burn 16 A.
ES
1,200
17.
Native
U-2
16 hours cat work
Pile 5 burn 10 A.
ES
TF
375
96
2/ Sl-10 - Single lane with light traffic - 10 ft. wide
SN-12 - Single lane with normal traffic - 12 ft. wide.
3/ Actually each sale has a certain amount of waterbar .rofck done on spur roads
and in some cases on skid trails, although we do not have a record of the
amount of such work to be done on all sales.
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Slash Treatment
Most of the slash is treated by lopping and scattering or burning. Only a
small portion of the lopping and scattering job is shown in the information above
since most of it is not listed in the slash disposal plan for the timber sale,
but is a contract item performed by the timber purchaser as a part of normal
felling and bucking procedures. During the past year on a forest-wide basis,
97 acres of slash were piled and burned and 1510 acres were lopped and scattered.
This left a backlog of approximately 240 acres of slash to be piled and/or burned.
Average residue production on timber sales by species is as follows:
ES-TF 50 tons per acre.
LP 48 tons per acre.
PP 20 tons per acre.
Table 69
Acres to
Miles of 1/ Miles of
Location
1. T45N, RSW; T45N, R6W;
709
6/28/65 9/30/74
14
3.3
T46N, R6W
2. T49N, R13W; T48N, R13W
2870
6/28/65 12/31/73
23,3
4.3
3. T48N, R14W
1660
.4/23/71 3/31/74
12
7.4
4. T49N, R15W; T49N, R 16W
80
6/29/73 12/31/74
-
•
5. T44N, R1W
1155
6/29/71 6/30/74.
12
-
6. T49N, R14W; T50N. R14W
2265
9/18/64 9/30/74
16.4
12.5
7. T43N, R13W
665
5/28/70 1/18/74
4
2.4
8. T45N, R12W; T46N, R12W;
1770
5/21/62 12/31/73
8.4
-
T46N, R13W
9. T47N, R13W, T47N, R14W
2334
11/20/59 6/22/74
30
11.4
T48N, R14W
10. T51N, R3W; T51N, R2W
25
9/7/72 12/31/73
-
•
11. T14S, R83W, 6th P.M.
236
1/18/71 12/31/73
5
.9
12. T44N, R1E; T45N, R1E
2501
9/14/72 12/31/75
8
13. T46N,5 T47N, Rll 5 12W
274
12/29/69 8/18/74
7
5.6
14. T50N, R5W
362
12/12/72 12/31/74
6
_
15. T49N, R6W
189
9/28/70 3/31/74
1
16. T13S, R83W; 6th P.M.
216
10/20/69 3/31/74
3
.7
17. T50N, R3W
75
9/26/73 9/30/74
1
3.0
1/ All temporary road has a native surface.
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233
SAN JUAN NATIONAL FOREST, COLORADO
Location - Harvested timber throughout the National Forest occurs in the
Ponderosa pine, Douglas fir, White fir and Spruce fir Zones. Approximately 5%
is harvested with cable systems and the remainder is tractor logged. Sales areas
are available at the Forest Headquarters.
The average annual cut over the past five years has been about 79,000 MBF
per year.
The operating seasons are normally June 15 - October 31 in the Spruce fir
Zones and all months except March and April in the Ponderosa pine Zones.
Road Construction
Road construction varies greatly with topography, logging systems, soils,
timber types, and other factors. A broad guideline is one mile of temporary
road per 1,000 MBF harvested. Permanent roads may or may not be in place for a
particular sale area. Here again, a broad guideline would be one mile of permanent
road per 2,000 MBF harvested. On the average, timber sale purchasers construct
about 80 miles of permanent road per year. Almost all of the permanent roads
are gravel surfaced. Temporary roads usually are not surfaced but may receive
spot rocking, if needed. Standards and grades vary. 'Most of the permanent roads
have a 12 foot running surface with intervisible turnouts, and are designed for
15 mile an hour traffic.
Permanent roads are designated as U-2 roads. These are single use roads
of varying standards. In a timber sale area, these roads are constructed, then used
and closed after the harvest is completed. >They can be reopened and used again
when timber needs to again be harvested in this area, probably another 10 years.
Erosion Control
All timber sale contracts require erosion control measures. They include
drainage dips in temporary roads and skid trails and grass seeding in areas where
drainage dips will not control accelerated erosion.
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Slashburning
All of the timber sales now require that all slash, or residue, be
manipulated so that it lies within two feet of the ground. A complete cleanup
job in immediate foreground areas is done along permanent roads. This is
usually accomplished by piling and burning. Some areas have a large amount of
defective timber that is unmerchantable. This material is taken to open areas
and piled and burned. All debris from permanent road construction is disposed of
by piling and burning or burying.
Presently the yearly accumulation of a slash is treated currently or
within two years after it has accumulated. There is a backlog of approximately
3,000 acres that will be treated for esthetic purposes when additional funding
and manpower is available.
Residue Production
A study is presently underway, Nationwide, to determine this residue
production in tons per acre. Estimates are that residue production is about
two to three tons per acre.
U.S. FOREST SERVICE REGION 1 - (MONTANA, NORTH DAKOTA)
In U.S. Forest Service Region 1, the control of activities as they
relate to timber harvesting is through the design of activity. The envorcement
is through the contract for the various activities being performed. The design
of projects is through a multi-discipline planning approach by specialists in
their chosen field who work within the framework and policies guide. By using
this approach, land capability determines the level of resource development
and the intensity of management.
The "B" division of the timber sale contract provides the basis for assuring
that the design criteria are attained. Where more specific instructions are
deemed necessary, Division VcV clauses are made up to elaborate on the broad
basic "B" division of the contract.
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235
B6.6 Erosion Prevention and Control. Purchaser's Operations shall be conducted
reasonably to minimise soil erosion. Equipment shall not be operated when ground
conditions are such that excessive damage will result. The kinds and intensity
of erosion control work done by Purchaser shall be adjusted to ground and weather
conditions and the need for controlling runoff. Erosion control work shall be
kept current immediately preceding expected seasonal periods of precipitation
or runoff.
B6.61 Meadow Protection. Reasonable care shall be taken to avoid damage
to the cover, soil, and water in meadows. Vehicular or skidding equipment shall
not be used on meadows except where roads, landings and tractor roads are approved
under B5.1 and B6.422. Unless other-wise agreed, trees felled into meadows shall
be removed by endlining, and resulting logging slash shall be removed, where
necessary to protect cover, soil and water.
B6.62 Temporary Roads. As necessary to attain stabilization of roadbed and
fill sloped of Temporary Roads, Purchaser shall employ such measures as outsloping,
drainage dips and water-spreading ditches.
After a Temporary Road has served Purchaser's purpose, Purchaser shall give
notice to Forest Service and shall remove bridges and culverts, eliminate ditches,
outslope roadbed, remove ruts and berms, effectively block the road to normal
vehicular traffic where feasible under existing terrain conditions and build
cross ditches and water bars as staked or otherwise marked on the ground by
Forest Service. When bridges and culverts are removed, associated fills shall
also be removed to the extent necessary to permit normal maximum flow of water.
B6.63 Landings. After landings have served Purchaser's purpose, Purchaser
shall ditch or slope them to permit water to drain or spread. Unless agreed
otherwise, cut and fill banks around landings shall be sloped to remove over-
hangs and otherwise minimize erosion.
B6.64 Skid Trails and Fire Lines. Purchaser shall construct cross ditches
and water-spreading ditches on tractor roads and skid trails, where staked or
otherwise marked on the ground by Forest Service. Forest Service shall designate
cross ditching on Purchaser-built fire lines prior to or during construction.
By agreement, Purchaser may use other comparable erosion control measures, such
as backblading skid trails, in lieu of cross ditching.
B6.65 Current Operating Areas. Where logging or road construction is in
progress but not completed, unless agreed otherwise, Purchaser shall, before
operations cease annually, remove all temporary log culverts and construct
temporary cross drains, drainage ditches, dips, berms, culverts or other
facilities needed to control erosion.
Such protection shall be provided, prior to end of a Noraal Operating Season,
for all disturbed, unprotected ground which is not to be disturbed,further prior
to end of operations each year, including roads and associated fills, tractors
roads, skid trails and fire lines. When weather permits operations after Normal
Operating Season, Purchaser shall keep such work on any additional disturbed
areas as up-to-date as practicable.
B6.66 Erosion-Control Structure Maintenance. During the period of this
contract, Purchaser shall provide maintenance of soil erosion control structures
constructed by Purchaser until they become stabilized, but not for more than one
year after their construction. Forest Service agrees to perform such structure
maintenance under B4.225, if requested by Pruchaser, subject to agreement on
rates. Purchaser'shall not be responsible for repair of such structures damaged
by other National Forest users whose activities are not a part of Purchaser's
Operations.
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230
Sediment Control
The control of sediment sources is primarily through the design of activities
in the area. There are normally several different prescriptions on a given sale
area depending on elevation, aspect, hydrology, slope, soil and ground cover.
With the above condition and the silvicultural prescription the logging method
and the necessary erosion abatement measures pertaining to logging, road construc-
tion, etc., are incorporated into the sale contract. These measures include
seeding, barriers, ditching, and outsloping.
Yarding Control
Considering the physiographic items listed above along with the silvicultural
prescription the method of yarding is determined. Yarding is an integral and
inseparable part of the transportation planning. The yarding may be a cable or
tractor ground lead system. It could also be a skyline or aerial system. More
specifically, the yarding system will require either uphill or downhill yarding;
specify whether the logs may touch the ground or be flown completely free of the
ground. The size and number of spur roads and landings are also incorporated
into the design of the yarding system.
Where compaction, scarification and erosion are a problem, yarding may be
required only when the ground is frozen, or the yarding may proceed only if the
soil moisture is less than a given percent. Another means of control is to
specify the maximum ground pressure which can be exerted by the yarder. On very
sensitive areas, skylines or aerial yarding systems may be required. The size,
number, location and grade of skid trails are also specified where warranted.
Road Control
All of the major roads and portions of the secondary road system where ad-
ditional control measures are needed, specify the design criteria and the construc-
tion specifications. Some of the items included in addition to the normal construc-
tion staking are complete disposal of road slash, layer compaction, mulching,
hydro-beading, sediment control for bridge and culvert installation, bin wall,
rip-rap, rubble, and dustcoating.
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237
Only a small percentage of roads are obliterated following harvest. These
are minimal roads of low standard, which have only a single purpose of removing
timber. An example of this is a temporary road which terminates at a landing in
a clearcut. These type roads are not needed in a continuing basis for future
management. Therefore, the topography is placed in as near a natural condition
as possible so as to facilitate the natural overland flow of water. In the
event the road is needed for future management, it would be built as a specified
road with higher standards, included as part of the transportation system, and
laid to rest following logging; meaning that use would be deferred for a period
of 5, 10, or 15 years. This is accomplished by controlling traffic and making
it as maintenance-free as possible by judicious outsloping, placement of water
barriers and assuring that drainage facilities are functioning properly.
Reforestation Methods
The reforestation method for the area is determined prior to harvesting.
Depending on the maturity of the stand, its condition, species composition, and
the other related items like disease, size, steepness of slope, amount of residue,
ground cover and habitat type the silvicultural treatment is prescribed, of which
reforestation is a part. Should the prescription call for a regeneration harvest,
the reforestation plan may call for natural regeneration, or natural regeneration
aided by scarification, and/or the reduction of competitive vegetation. When
planting is deemed necessary, the species planted is dictated by the habitat type
and the planting stock is chosen from a seed source within the local habitat type
zone.
In some areas reforestation is successfully accomplished by mechanical means
of scarification, scalping and terracing. However, this method limits the area
where equipment can work. Sensitive soils, steepness of slope and rock restrict
the operable area even more. Where equipment cannot operate, fire is used. Under
controlled conditions it returns nutrients to the soil, reduces competition until
trees can compete, reduces the potential fire danger and prepares a seed bed.
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238
Watershed Harvests
The drainage is mapped by a hydrologist and by means of measuring the annual
precipitation, elevation and aspect, the water yield is calculated for the existing
vegetation. From this the acres of harvesting by silvicultural prescriptions
can be determined. As a general guide, streamflow increases are allowed to exceed
10 percent of the normal flow. Depending on the vegetative cover, geology and
and soil in the area, the limit may be less. A recovery period is also calculated
/
for the vegetation which restocks the harvested area.
Grazing Control
To control grazing on cut and fill slopes and other fragile areas, non-pal-
atable vegetation is planted. If grazing is considered to be a general problem
in the area, temporary control may be attained by drift fences, fencing off water
holes, transporting water and salt to other adjacent areas, adjusting permits
by season and number of animal unit months.
Chemicals
Where chemicals and the like are utilized, their use and application are
carried out in.strict conformance *.?ith the Federal Environmental Pesticide Control
Act of 1972.
Water Quality Control
All cutting practices in the water influence zone are governed by the stream
itself. This area is noted on both the sale area map and in the contract. The
streams are also designated for protection on sale area maps. The prescription
for the water influence zone is determined by a forester and fisheries biologist
after considering the latitude, the direction of flow where harvesting will take
place, the depth, width and temperature of the stream, the type of fish and
aquatic life present along with the height and species composition of the timber
stand and other associated vegetative streamside cover.
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239
Other Controls
Other items which may be considered relevant to a non-point source pollution
analysis is the initiation of new utilization standards. The object is to utilize
more of the total green and dead wood fiber from designated trees. New mechanical
means of spot sight preparation and brush disposal are being looked into for
practicability. A key constraint is that they are limited to the more moderate,
operable ground.
Not. only are provisions made to keep bark out of the stream channels and
ditches of a timber sale area, but also all foreign material which may be introduced
whether it is green or dead.
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240
U.S. FOREST SERVICE REGION 4 (UTAH-WESTERN WYOMING)
Control of Sediment Sources
Sediment sources are controlled on all disturbed areas by some form of
erosion control work which might be revegetation or the construction of
mechanical structures. Specific control measures for meadows are required
which include the protection of the soil and grass cover. Vehicular or skid-
ding equipment is not permitted in meadows, except where specific roads or
landings are designed and approved.
Control by Harvest System Design
Varying types of harvest systems are utilized for each sale, dependent on
the slope, the stability of the soil, and the type of silvicultural system in-
volved. The harvest system is a requirement of the timber sale contract and is
specifically stated on the sale area map for each cutting unit, such as tractor
logging, cable logging, balloon or helicopter logging. The harvest system is
integrally tied to the silvicultural prescription for each specific area.
Control by Skidding and Compaction
Skidding and compaction is controlled by the location and approval of skid
trails and the harvest system utilized.
Improved Road Design and Construction
The Intermountain Area is improving the quality of road construction work
associated with timber sale logging operations in the following manner:
a. Increasing efforts to decrease construction impacts by degrading horizon-
tal and vertical alignment and reduced templates. This, in turn, reduces,
clearing width, size of cuts and fills, length of channel diversion into
culverts, and visual impacts generally because of reduced overall disturbance.
b. Increasing emphasis on construction Inspection. This is being accomplished
in a variety of ways, such as district assignment..of engineers, implementation
of a construction imspection certification program, and direct assignment of
engineers to supervise or Inspect timber sale road construction.
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241
c. Providing replacement of surfacing material depleted by the" timber
haul operations, as a result of the timber sale contract.
d. Exercising control over the extent and locations of temporary roads and
enforcing closure and obliteration of such roads before leaving the sale area.
Reforestation System Selection
Basically this is determined by age, structure, composition, and health of
the stand involved, and other silvical and regenerative requirements of the
species at the point in question. For example, lodgepole pine with serotinous
cones requires different treatment than those uith nonserotinous cones, yet the
characteristics may vary from one to the other in a short distance.
Unfortunately, current pressures, some valid and others strongly emotional,
are coloring regeneration prescriptions so that the best treatment is not always
utilized. The impact will be felt many years from now.
Treatment of Watersheds
The timber sale contract requires that live stream courses within each sale
area be protected by keeping them clear of all logging debris. No logs can be
skidded across live stream channels unless they are totally suspended by a
cable system. Any crossing of a live stream must provide a structure which
allows the unobstructed flow of water and such structures can only be placed at
designated crossings.
Reforestation Without Burning
Here again, prescriptions are based on fuel volumes present, silvical and
regenerative requirements of the species involved, and fire management needs.
According to the Annual Slash Reports, many acres of slash in Utah receive only
partial disposal.
Again, various pressures are coloring prescriptions. The most notable
of these is the esthetic appeal. The degree of cleanup of forest fuels required
to satisfy esthetic demands often creates biologically adverse conditions which
delay regeneration and retard growth of new established seedlings. However,
aesthetics are a valid use and shouldn't be ignored.
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242
On the other hand, many stands, particularly in the lodgepole pine and
spruce forests are so decadent, or so decimated by insect attacks that disposing
of the volume of unutilizable material by any method is a problem. Some areas
exist where use of roller choppers literally pave the forest floor with wood.
Broadcasting burning creates-a condition where excellent survival and growth
can be obtained from properly planted seedlings in the burned area.
This treatment has fallen into disfavor for esthetic reasons.
Grazing Control
Forest Service policy in this Region is to insure that every clearcut area
is promptly regenerated (within five years) either naturally or by planting.
Once a decision is made to plant, every effort is made to eliminate the range
use on the area that would destroy this investment.
Livestock damage may or may not be significant to tree survival when stocking
is above an acceptable level. When stocking is below minimum, mortality by
grazing is intolerable. Where stocking is more than adequate, grazing may be
beneficial if it does not cause significant growth losses or mechanical damage
which results in tree deformity. Therefore, the policy is that regenerated
areas in need of protection within range allotments will be closed to grazing use.
Control of Bark Segments in Water
Actual control of bark segments in stream courses has not become a necessity,
since the timber sale contracts prohibit felling trees in stream courses. If
one does inadvertently fall in a stream course, it must be removed by endlining.
Obliteration of Roads Following Cuts
The present manual instructions, as well as all timber sale contracts, require
the purchaser to "obliterate" which generally means to "put to bed" all temporary
roads constructed in conjunction with the sale. Sections of roads existing at
the time of the sale that are replaced with specified roads are also required to
be obliterated by the purchaser as a part of that required road construction.
Those sections of roads which are not replaced by any of the required roads
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243
will not be- "obliterated" unless the operator requests to use the road as
a temporary road. In that event, he would be required to do the obliteration
work.
Control of Pesticides Application
About the only foreseen use of pesticides related to logging is for the
suppression or prevention of bark beetles in slash. In the past, pesticides
have been used to reduce spruce beetle infestation in spruce logging slash, and
ips beetles in pine slash. Neither of these have been used to any extent in
the past y-nrs, '.though some ips control has been done. There are
attempts to keep bettle populations at a low level through management practices,
rather than through the use of pesticides.
Control of Fertilizer Application
None used in Utah or western Wyoming.
Control of Fire Retardents
None used in area in question related to logging.
Control of Thermal Pollution (Cuts Near Streams)
In the design of the timber sales, cutting along streams is either
prohibited or carefully calculated to maintain or improve water temperatures
for the maintenance of fish habitat. This control is accomplished prior to
the sales award' through careful layout with assistance from a fisheries biologist.
Skyline logging has been in use in this Region for over ten years. Cable
or aerial (helicopter or balloon) logging is used in sales where minimal impact
on the land is necessary, such as on steep slopes and/or fragile soils.
Approximately 20 million board feet was harvested in the Region by cable systems
in fiscal year 1972. It's anticipated this volume will increase as logging
moves into the steeper ground, but probably will not exceed 25 million board feet
per annum. Additional volumes will need to be harvested by helicopter or balloon.
In fiscal year 1972, 6.3 million board feet was harvested by balloon. These
projections are not firm and could vary considerably with intensive soil surveys
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244
and new equipment development.
There has been one balloon sale in the Region and three helicopter sales
in areas which could not be harvested by conventional logging methods.
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245
Actions Now Under Way to More Directly Recognize Environmental Problems
Steps are being taken now to improve National Forest administration. Some
of those pertinent to timber management and related activities are:
1. A major effort is under way to cfevelop a Servicewide multifunctional program-
planning process--including public involvement. Many disciplines and points
of view are being brought together, especially at the planning stage. The
purpose is to overcome functional or single-interest approaches to resource
iMnagement planning. The team approach should reduce the possibility of
overlooking any significant ecological or environmental considerations.
2. An inter-disciplinary approach to planning and management will require
more experts of many kinds. The Service now employs people representing
more than 80 different professions. Even this range is not adequate for
the "Environmental Decade" in either range or numbers. The Service is
moving as rapidly as possible to round out the disciplines and increase
the number of experts needed on the Forest Service team. From 1965 to
1970 the total number of permanent full-time employees rose only 6%; and
the number of foresters dropped 370. But, there were dramatic increases
In the number of "environmental" professionals employed. For example, the
number of landscape architects increased from 109 to 161; soil scientists
from 84 to 124; geologists from 10 to 32; plant physiologists from 21 to
37; hydrologists from 4 to 74; fish and wildlife biologists from 14 to 107;
and entomologists from 139 to 157. Similar changes are projected for the
next 5-year period. In addition, other professions, such as those represen-
ting the social sciences, are becoming parts of planning teams and managerial
groups.
(One of the major failings cited in the Bitterroot report was the lack of
guidelines available in the area of silvicultural management practices. A
recommendation was put forth for the necessity to train certified silvicul-
turalists and subsequently a program was implemented at the University of
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246
Idaho. Just this past year the first group of trained, certified silvicul-
turists have been graduated. This program is looked upon as a major advance
forward in fostering sound silviculture management practices.
Studies are under way to examine ways to reorganize National Forests to
assure a multi-discipline team approach to resource management. Selected
National Forests are now being restructured to test various organizational
patterns designed to promote coordination in meeting environmental needs.
For example, new staff groupings are being oriented toward planning, resource
management, engineering, and administration rather than toward the traditional
functional fields of timber management, recreation, fire control, and so on.
A start has been made to re-define the mission of timber nanagement functions,
to strengthen multiple-use aspects, and to reflect emerging concerns for
environmental quality. This is expected to lead to departures from past
concepts that tended to limit silviculture and other timber-related activities
to the conventional aspects of timber production. Clearly, timber-management
activities need to be "designed" to enhance multiple-use rather than to be
"modified" for that purpose as in the past.
The Forest Service has engaged three Universities to help develop a National
Forest transportation planning system and to train people to use it. This
system will provide guidelines for determining road standards, as well as
the-optimum road network for forest-resource development and use. Many
analytical tools have been developed and will be evaluated. Pilot testing
of the system will be done as soon as possible.
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247
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary of Managerial Practices and Research Needs
Over the years, research, equipment development, and experience have gen-
erated much capacity to handle forest residues. Both government and private
forest managers are using present knowledge in varying ways to clean up or utilize
residue, and most of their efforts are effective. More can be done. Some of
what's being done can be altered to enhance the quality of total environment
more effectively.
One Js tc ^duce the amount of residues produced and to protect against
losses to which they contribute. For example, improved fire protection would make
it possible to "live with" debris left on land without the present risks of large
and damaging fires.
Although the point of diminishing returns is not clearly established, studies
have shown that increased fire protection is a prudent inventment. The most prom-
ising measures to reduce the incidence of large, damaging fires are to (1) strengthen
initial attack forces, (2) establish fuelbreaks, (3) convert flammable forest
types to less flammable species, and (4) prevent fires from starting. These
measures reduce the need for disposing of natural debris by burning and decrease
the need for treating man-caused debris. Progress in protection will require
more emphasis on selected parts of the program where cost-benefit studies show
the payoff to be substantial.
A second efficient course for handling woods waste is to use more of it.
Greater demand for raw wood and better prices have made it economically pos-
sible to take a far greater percentage of the wood material out of the forest than
formerly. As the demand for wood grows, there have been many cases of relogging
the forest two, three, and even more times to take out material not economical
the first time. Some prelogging utilization of special products is also done.
Less desirable timber trees plus tops, limbs, and pieces of logs are being used
for pulp chips, fuelwood, mulch, posts and other products.
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248
In addition, forest residues can be reduced through better utilization of
logging debris and diseased and fire-killed timber. Steady progress has been made
in the past. But to continue progress in some areas new markets will have to be
developed, i.e., pinyon-juniper forests now cleared and burned to improve range in
the Intermountain West might be partially used for attractive lathe-turned wood
products.
Another great opportunity to reduce forest residue and improve utilization is
through operations where all usable forest products on the land being worked are
removed to martceL in a *.ully integrated operation.
Currently, opportunities for alternatives to burning residues are limited
primarily to (1) chipping of debris in selected areas and (2) in some climatic
zones lopping off and scattering slash and getting it near the ground where it
will rot faster. Equipment is needed that will do a better and cheaper mastication
of logging waste and that would keep it on the area but materially lessen the fire
hazard. Such material would improve the soil and reduce erosion if left in place.
So far, burning is the most universal method used to dispose of forest resi-
dues. It is fairly economical. It frequently stops disease and kills pests.
It reduces forest fuels and thereby minimizes the likelihood of destructive wild-
fires. Under many ecological conditions it promotes desirable forest regeneration.
In some forests fire isi necessary to get any regeneration at all. Combustion products
are, however, cast into the atmosphere. Only recently has smoke from burning
forest residue been recognized as an atmospheric pollutant. Even though its toxic
qualities are unproved, forest managers and agencies are seeking methods and times
of burning so that smoke disperses widely into the atmosphere.
Fire-control specialists are becoming more expert at applying fire of the
intensity needed to reduce residue, to create ideal forest-regeneration conditions,
and to conduct burns without harming soil nutrients or leading to soil erosion.
Some residue burning is keyed to detract as little as possible from natural beauty
and to minimize pollution from burning and the threat of wildfire. There is much
to be gained from expanding these current pilot burning techniques to broader areas.
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The following areas require emphasis in meeting the problem of pollution
by forestry and logging operations.
1. Minimizing production of undesirable forest wastes
Forest residue caused by forest fires will be reduced by a strong action and
research program to reduce the area burned. Action programs in the Department
are directed to preventing as many fires as possible, discovering fires promptly,
and taking fast aggressive action to control them at small size. Stronger ground
and air forces are needed and will be applied as funds become available. Fuels
need to be made less flammable with modification and breaks. Research is directed
to new equipment and techniques to do these things better and more efficiently.
The Department of the Interior interest lies in keeping residues in forests under
its jurisdiction to a minimum in regard to forest fires and for public recreation.
2. Improving utilization of forest residues
The Department of Agriculture's programs in forest areas are directed to more
fully utilizing trees and other growth for useful purposes. Pulp operations are
taking much smaller material than formerly. Prelogging and postlogging operations
are taking out material formerly left in the forest that added to the fire hazard.
New equipment and techniques are under development to increase this utilization.
Further progress in this area will reduce residue accumulation and the need for
burning. Progress continues in developing equipment and procedures for utilizing
forest residues as mulch. This contributes to the control of wind and water erosion.
The Department of the Interior has no program in this area.
3. Treating or removing hazardous or excessive forest residues in the
environment
The Department of Agriculture is developing improved techniques and planning
additional research on procedures for doing a more efficient job of burning and
at the same time reducing air pollution from smoke.
The problem of pollution from forest residues is being studied by the Department
of the Interior to determine the effects on water quality.
4. Assisting local areas in developing guidelines and control programs
to govern the disposal of forest residues
Cooperative forest programs of the Department of Agriculture in fire control
and timber management assist local jurisdictions with slash burning. The coop-
erative management program assists local timber operators to better utilize their
timber, which means less residue left in the woods. The USDA plans to continue
its emphasis on assisting and encouraging local areas to adopt improved procedures
for residue disposal or utilization as such procedures are developed.
The Department of the Interior has no program in this area.
5. Improvement of road construction control methods to lessen the
environmentally harmful effects of roads
The quality of design, location, and construction of roads, especially temporary
ones is steadily being improved as a result of the USDA's heightened awareness of
this problem. Research efforts should continue in this respect and much greater
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use should be made of geologists, hydrologists and soil scientists in future
planning and construction. Research should also continue with respect to advanced
logging methods, i.e., balloon, skyline, and helicopter logging, and their
feasibility in helping to reduce the pressure on road construction.
Educational Needs
Future land management decisions related to logging and forestry operations
should be more firmly based on knowledge that allows for reasonable prediction of
the outcome of management actions. A more unified approach to common problems
and effective utilization of educational and technology transfer tools could
serve to.strengthen and improve management planning that would lessen the extent
of non-point source pollution.
Good planning requires adequate information, well qualified personnel, ar
strong administrative support. Within this framework a more comprehensive st1
ture for considering the capability, and vulnerability, of all resources can i- -
enhanced.
Too often management errors result frotn ill-defined objectives. Adeqi..-.
consideration of total environmental values is often neglected..
The goal of better balance in forest resource management is attainab¦-
requires effective participation of specialists in soils, hydrology, wilcj ,
landscape design, silviculture, engineering, and outdoor recreation. M.i?-
use plans require an interdesciplinary approach. Plans must be based <¦ , - •
sociological, economic, and resource data, and to this end, planners ' i;
trators should increase their efforts to seek the counsel of other ag
/
institutions, research groups, and interested citizen organization a; J.nt
r
A mechanism for the enhancement of this type of educational and infp-vc ioi.a'1
i
approach is needed. An environmental education network similar to - ' nc t.: > .•
in the second part of this report could fulfill this mission.
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REFERENCES
Daubenmlre, R. and J. B. Daubenmire. Forest Vegetation of
Eastern Washington and Northern Idaho. Washington
Agricultural Experiment Station Technical Bulletin 60, (1968).
Lotan, J. E. Cone Serotiny of Lodgepole Pine near West
Yellowstone, Montana, Forest Science, 13, 1 (1967).
Tackle, D. Regnerating Lodgepole Pine in Central Montana
Following Clearcutting, Intermountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station, Research Note 17 (1964).
Lotan, J. E. and Allen K. Dahlgreen, Hand Preparation of Seedbeds
Timrw«s Seeding of Lodgepole Pine in Wyoming, Inter-
Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Research Note
148 (1971).
Intermountain Region Reforestation Handbook, United States
Department of Agriculture Forest Service.
Forest Service Manual, ch. 2130, United Sates Department of
Agriculture Forest Service.
Forest Land Uses and Stream Environment, A Symposium, Oregon State
University, James T. Krygier, James D. Hall. Continuing Education
Publications, University of Oregon, Corvallis, Oregon.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, 1971. Forest
Management in Wyoming. Wyoming forest stddy team.
Dils, Robert E., 1971. Clearcutting inthe Forests of the Rocky
Mountains, Prepared for Council-on Environment Quality
Executive Office of the President. July.
Wood, Nancy, 1971. Clearcut: A Conservationist Views America's
Timber Industry. American West, November.
Nelson, Thomas C. 1972. Clearcutting Duplicates Nature's Wat
to New Forests. Reprint from Volume 17, Number 4 of
•the Student Lawyer Journal, January.
Pass, Aaron, 1971. Is the Answer Clearcut? Reprinted by permission
from Georgia Game and Fish Commission in Virginia Wildlife
December.
U.S. Forest Service, 1972. National Forsts in a Quality Environment
USDA Action Plan, August.
-------
Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, 1972.
An Analysis of Forestry Issues in the First Session of
the 92nd Congress. April.
Krygier, J. T., G. W. Brown, and P. C. Klingemann, 1971. Studies
on effects of watershed practices on streams. February.
U.S. Forest Service, 1971. Timber Management for a Quality
Environment., National Forest Management Practices. May.
American Forest Institute. The Effects of Cleacut Harvesting
on Forest Soils.
Herman, Francis R., "A Test of Skyline Cable Logging on Steep
Slopes—A Progress Report," USDA Forest Service Station
Paper No. 53 , October 1960, 17 pages.
DeByle, Norbert V. , 1971. Quality of surface water—Miller Creek
Block, Flathead National Forest, Montana, USDA Forest Service.
Weisel, G. F., and R. L. Newell. 1970. Quality and seasonal fluc-
t tuation of headwater streams in western Montana. Montana
Forestry and Conservation Exp. Sta. Bulletin 38.
Upper Colorado Region Comprehensive Framwork Study. 1971. Upper
Colorado Region. Appendix IV. Economic base and projections.
Upper Colorado Region State-Federal Inter-Agency Group. Jund.
Missouri River Basin Comprehensive Framwork Study. 1971. Missouri
River Basin. Volume 5. Present and future needs. Missouri
Basin Inter-Agemcy Committee, December.
U.S. Forest Service Region 1 (Montana, North Dakota). Federal Building,
Missoula, Montana. Personal Communication.
U.S. Forest Service Region 2 (Wyoming, Colorado, South Dakota). Federal
Center, Denver, Colorado Personal Communication.
U.S. Forest Service Region 4 (Utah, Wyoming). Interraountain Region Head-
quarters, Ogden, Utah. Personal Communication.
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INDIVIDUAL HOME SEWAGE DISPOSAL
Individual home sewage disposal is the terminology currently being used on
reports that deal with septic tanks, small aeration systems, evapotranspiration
designs, etc. Simply using the words "septic tank" as a synonym for rural-
domestic waste disposal is no longer valid due to the.large number of alterna-
4
tive means of disposal that have appeared in recent years. In the early 1900*s,
there was a large amount of interest in developing better designs for "septic
tanks" but since World War II there has been little additional research on the
ways and means of disposing of sewage from a home not connected to a central
system. The emphasis during this time was to connect all houses to central
systems and as the population concentrated in large cities, this seemed feasible.
A problem has resulted, however, in this strategy as will now be discussed.
Current Situation
As more and more of the United States' population moved into metropolitan
areas, two things happened. First, the people became more affluent and second,
they lost many of the amenities associated with a more rural life style. As a
result, many urbanites purchased land in areas of less population density with
pleasing natural surroundings and built a second home. • In this way they were
able to recapture some of their lost amenities and their affluence permitted
them to "purchase" their heeded privacy, recreation, pastoral setting, etc.
As the number of these second homes Increased, the number of houses with
individual disposal system increased and there was an increasing demand for
equipment or designs for handling waste from the houses. This was due to two
things. First, the homes were, and still are, usually built with large distances
separating them (thus preventing a central system) and second, many of the houses
were, and still are, buiit where the septic tank cannot be installed due to bed-
rock near the surface or too tight or very loose soils. (For a detailed descrip-
tionof the actual pollution problem due to the septic tanks, refer to Allen and
Morrison, 1973.) Privacy and lower population densities demand large distances
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between houses and a Location where ideal disposal is not possible. In the
Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region obtaining desirable amenities usually means
locating in the mountains.
To meet the increasing demand for individual home sewage disposal (since the
septic tank is generally not acceptable in the mountains), many entrepreneurs
entered the field each with an alternative that was, and in many cases still is,
"better than all the others," to use an implied advertising phrase. Many of
these units have been, »nd are still being sold. Many of the units are com-
plicated, depend upon a continuous power source and source of waste, and require
considerable maintenance.
As second (and rural) home owners began to purchase these units or install
septic tanks, inadequate design and failures were numerous, resulting in contam-
ination of surface and groundwaters. Much of this contaminated water was serving
as fresh water supplies for either the home itself or someone either down slope
or down stream.
These problems brought health and water pollution control personnel into
action. However, the rules and regulations (or guidelines) under which they
operated only included septic tanks and privies. The county and state regula-
tors had no basis for correcting the problem. Little, if any, unbiased technical
information was available on the many concepts being sold to "treat" individual
home sewage.
The increasing need for individual home sewage disposal systems suddenly
reversed a trend of many years. The lack of any research or development on
individual home sewage disposal systems since World War II left everyone asking
questions about these new units. Do they work?
All the available information at the time discussed only septic tanks and
privies and since these alternatives are generally unacceptable in the mountain
setting, few guidelines were available. No studies had been performed on these
new concepts; no regulations at any level of government were available; no con-
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trol was available.
As a result of the above described chain of events, the current situation
is one of chaos in the control of individual home sewage disposal systems. For
example, on July 24, 1972, a court decision threw out Colorado's existing regu-
lations with respect to home sewage disposal saying that they were in desperate
need of rewriting. The current state of technology makes it diffucult to write
effective regulations that permit much flexibility. New, more comprehensive
regulations have been written for Colorado and are now being implemented.
Magnitude of Problem
Data does not exist to describe the extent and magnitude of this problem
specifically within the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region. In 1967 the U.S. Public
Health Service estimated that approximately 25% of the new homes were using
individual home sewage disposal systems of some type. Today approximately 70%
of the United States' population is served by a central system. Of the 30% that
have individual systems, 15 to 17 million systems are septic tanks and cesspools
and 5 to 10 million homes have privies or direct discharge into streams. The
estimated number of individual aerobic systems in the United States is less than
50,000 (Ferraro, 1972).
In the past, individual systems were installed as a temporary measure until
it was economically or politically feasible to construct a central system. This
is still the case with homes being built beyond a central system, but still with-
in eventual reach of a city or town. However, second homes are built with in-
dividual sewage disposal systems as a permanent installation and USDA predicts
that by 1980 "about 180,000 city families a year will be buying second homes in
the country." This is an 80% increase over the trend of today.
Looking at septic tanks and their reliability, Clayton (1972) presented
findings that state for almost 6,000 septic tanks analyzed, there was a 92%
survival rate. The data was collected on systems installed from 1952-1972. The
areas where the data was collected (Virginia) has a conservative design sriteria
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and a strict inspection program of new installations. The high survival rate
indicates that if the septic system is designed and installed properly few prob-
lems will result. From this, it may be concluded that in the Prairie areas,
if individual home sewage disposal systems are properly designed and installed
there should be,few pollution problems. Without more specific data no more can
be stated. The MITRE report (Goldstein, et al., 1972), in fact, states that the
use of more individual systems would result in a large savings to the U.S. in
solving the water pollution problem. The reader is referred to the report for
more details on the economics.
It should be noted at this point that many reports discuss the problems
of home sewage disposal system failures and just the opposite conclusion to the
above could be made with data from another report. This contradictory data is
discussed in the technological discussion in Part II
The reasons it is concluded that individual disposal systems, if properly
designed, installed and maintained, would operate successfully in the Priaire
Region is the fact that there is often plenty of soil for leachfield placement.
Due to a usual lack of soil in the Rocky Mountain area, the same conclusion may
not be made. In the mountains, many systems have been installed over the years
and problems abound due to a lack of proper treatment of wastewater. The waste-
water passes through the fissures in the rock and receives little or no treat-
ment in the process. (An Environmental Protection Agency (1970) study indicated
that "the numerous individual subsurface disposal systems serving homes and
businesses along the shores of Grand Lake, Shadow Mountain Lake, and Lake Granby
was one of the major pollution problems in the area. The water quality in the
lakes was being adversely affected.") It has been noted, however, that this
has nothing to do with lack of soil and rock fissures—more a problem of proximity
to the lake.
Another study (Millon, 1970) of fresh water wells at Red Feather Lakes,
Colorado, indicated 62% fail to meet public health drinking water standards due
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to excessive coliforms. The problem again was attributed to the wastewater from
surrounding spetic tanks reaching the freshwater wells untreated due to the lack
of filtration.
The U.S. Geological Survey has an ongoing project in the mountainous part
of Jefferson County, Colorado^ in which the ground and surface water is being
inspected. Hofstra (1973) reports that the 300-square mile area has been checked
for bacteria and four chemical constituents by collecting about 800 samples,
of ground water and a few stream and spring samples. About 80% of the homes in
the area have individual wells and septic tanks. There are a few communities
supplied with well fields; part of the area has piped surface water and only
Evergreen, Hiwan Hills, Kettredge, and Kings Valley near Schaffers Crossing
have sewage collection.
The basic data collected so far indicates an average specific conductance
of groundwater of about 300 micromohs. The quality of virgin groundwater is
very good. However, data show that 4 to 5 percent of the groundwater tested
has nitrate nitrogen accumulations in excess of the 1962 U.S. Public Health
drinking water standard of 10 milligrams N per liter. Also, 20% of the samples
had total coliform bacteria counts above the Jefferson County Health Department
standard of one colony per 100 milliliters and occasional samples contained
fecal coliform colonies.
There are indications that about 50% of the groundwater tested has under-
gone some chemical degradation using nitrate, potassium, and chloride as indica-
tors. Chemical degradation is most common in old communities with small lots.
Bacterial contamination is more common in shallow wells associated with
alluvial sediments, but bacteria are found in every geologic setting.
Most wells are drilled to intersect fractures in metamorphic and granitic
rocks beneath areas where the soil is often thin and highly permeable. Decomposed
rock with abundant fractures commonly underlies the soil layers with fracturing
decreasing with depth. The fracture aquifer has very low storage capacity, but
is usually replenished by recharge of precipitation. Also, consumptive use of
water is small when septic tanks and leach fields are utilized.
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A similar study currently underway by the Geology Department at Colorado
State University has arrived at the same general conclusions as the USGS. This
study, however, covers a larger geographic area.
Numerous other examples of problems in the mountains with individual dis-
posal systesm can be found in the proceedings of a workshop on the subject held
at Colorado State University (Ward, 1972). It is probably due to these problems
with septic tanks in the mountains that has brought so many new systems onto the
market. The vault has been proposed as the one fail-safe solution given that
there is so little on tnese newer individual home sewage disposal systems. How-
ever, home-owners will go to great lengths not to use the vault to avoid paying
the frequent pumping costs ($40/cleaning). This brings up another constraint
of the solution, economics and social factors which marginal affluence bring
into play.
In summary, and primarily based on Ward (1972), the problem of individual
home sewage disposal in the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region can be described as
follows:
1. Inadequate designs and insufficient alternatives of individual home
sewage disposal for mountainous areas are resulting in pollution of
ground and surface waters in local situations.
2. Existing institutions have difficulty in regulating individual systems.
3. Land use controls could be made sufficiently strong, and second homes
and individual disposal systems could be regulated or banned where
they cannot be operated properly.
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REFERENCES
Allen, M. J. and S. M. Morrison. 1973. Bacterial movement through fractured
rock. Groundwater, Vol. 11(2); March-April.
Clayton, J. W. 1972. An analysis of septic tank failure data in Fairfax County
for 1952 to 1972. Paper presented at the 24th Annual Convention and Expo-
sition of the National Water Well Association at Atlanta, Georgia, Dec. 13.
Environmental Protection Agency. 1970. Water quality conditions in Grand Lake,
Shadow Mountain Lake, Lake Granby. Water Quality Office, Pacific Southwest
Region, San Francisco, California, December.
Farraro, Paul. 1972. Federal position on home sewage disposal in Colorado. In
proceedings of a workshop on Home Sewage Disposal in Colorado held at
Colorado Scate University, June 14.
Goldstein, S. N., V. D. Wenk, M. C. Fowler, and S. S. Poh. 1972. A study of
selected economic and environmental aspects of individual home wastewater
treatment systems. MITRE Report No. M72-45, Washington Operations, March.
Millon, Eric R. 1970. Water pollution, Red Feather Lakes Area, Colorado.
Unpublished Master's theses, Geology Department Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado.
U.S. Department of Commerce. 1970. Detailed housing characteristics—U.S.
Housing Census. No. HC(l)-Bl, U.S. Summary.
Ward, R. C., Editor. 1972. Proceedings, Workshop on Home Sewage Disposal in
Colorado. Special Report No. 4, Environmental Resource Center, Colorado
State University, Fort Collins, Colorado.
Hofstra, W. E. 1973. Personal Communication, August 9.
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INDIVIDUAL HOME SEWAGE DISPOSAL TECHNOLOGY
The major goal of individual home sewage disposal systems is to dispose of
the waste water from the home in such a manner as not to cause a health hazard,
nuisance, or water pollution. The technology available for the treatment and
disposal of this waste water is quite varied; however, the septic tank, an
anaerobic system, is the most commonly used (Bailey, et. al., 1969). In addition
to the anaerobic systems, there are aerobic systems, special systems (coming
from the space research), evapotranspiration systems and storage and haulaway.
Each of these technologies will be discussed following a quantification of the
wastewater characteristics.
Pelczar and Reid (1965) indicate that on the average, domestic sewage con-
sists of 99.9% water (weight), 0.02 to 0.03 percent suspended solids, and other
soluble organic and inorganic substances. Goldstein, et al (1972) notes, however,
that sewage from individual homes is a complex commodity. It consists of all
manner of liquids and solids that go down drains or that are flushed down toi-
lets. The composition of sewage varies from day to day, from hour to hour and
from house to house.
Laak (1971) indicates that the volume of the sewage can be broken down as
follows:
Laundry 10%
Kitchen 10%
Bathtub/shower/handwash 40%
Toilets 40%
Similar data which may be more applicable to the R.ocky Mountain-Prairie Region
is currently being assembled at the University of Colorado under the direction -
of Dr. Ed Bennett.
With permanent residences the flow rates should be relatively stable permit-
ting the design of an "adequate" home sewage disposal system. However, if the
home is a second or seasonal home, the waste water flow rates are not stable and,
therefore, present problems in designing an "adequate" system. Toby (1972)
performed a survey of seasonal home use patterns and found that 6% of those
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261
surveyed used the home less than 30 days per year; 27% used their homes between
31 and 70 days per year; 19%,71-90 days; 207», 91-120 days; and 28%, 121 days per
year or more. The frequency and type of use can have a large influence on the
design of a home sewage disposal system for a second home.
Anaerobic Treatment
Anaerobic treatment of individual home sewage revolves around the septic
tank. Within the tank, anerobic biological processes (the breakdown of organic
wastes takes place wit' bacteria which function in the absence of oxygen) results
in the liquification of solid organic matter. Also as a result, volatile acids
are produced from the liquified solids and dissolved organic solids. Methane,
carbon dioxide, and small quantities of other gases are released during the
anaerobic breakdown of the wastes. Small quantities of settled sludge accumulate
under normal operating conditions and must be removed periodically. Storage for
this sludge must be provided in the design of the anaerobic treatment system.
The septic tank itself consists simply of a container in which wastes are
accumulated and digested under anaerobic conditions. Capacity and hydraulic
design are the most important factors influencing septic tank performance. The
capacity is important to all quiescent conditions and sufficient time for sedi-
mentation. The capacity must be sufficient to dilute chemicals which are harm-
ful to digestion and absorb surge flows from laundry and bathing without dis-
charging digesting solids. Hydraulic design determines storage efficiency and
the extent of short circuiting. This in turn determines the percentage of
capacity that is effectively used (Bailey, et. al, 1969).
The septic tank itself is usually constructed of precast concrete and comes
in many different configurations. Steel, brick, tile, plastic and other materials
are also used. The sewage itself contains the bacteria which catalyze the
anaerobic decomposition of the solids. A septic tank system has no moving' parts
and the only maintenance involves removal of the sludge. The design size deter-
mines frequency of sludge removal required for sludge accumulation depends upon
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number of people, types of waste, etc. No hard and fast rule can apply to all
situations. The best practice is to regularly check the sludge accumulation
(Bailey, et. al, 1969). For more specific details of septic tank design, refer
to U.S. Department of H.E.W., Manual of Septic-Tank Practice, Hansen (1970),
or to Salvato (1958).
A septic tank does not purify the sewage, eliminate odors, or destroy all
solid matter. The most important function of septic treatment is the liqui-
fication, or solids breakdown, rather than BOD removal. Typical performance
data for the septic tank will vary with the individual installation, but removals
of 80 to 85 percent suspended solids and 90 to 95 percent settleable solids can
be achieved under normal operating conditions (Engineering Science, 1970)
Bailey, ec. ax (l9treport, for the septic tank, BOD removal of 50%; COD,
48.4%; suspended solids, 73%; and volatile solids, 39.6%. They also report on
a variation of the traditional septic tank system that contains two significant
changes. The system requires that the wash waters be separated from the sanitary
and kitchen wastes. The latter are handled in an upper compartment for a longer
period of anaerobic digestion. This arrangement permits the sanitary wastes to
receive more concentrated treatment while the bactericidal effects of some deter-
gents and other chemicals are avoided. The wash waters are conducted to a lower
chamber where they are mixed with the upper compartment effluent and, thus,
undergo a somewhat shorter period of treatment. The final effluent of this septic
tank variation is considered to be better than that of a normal septic tank and,
consequently, can be used on poorer soils.
The major advantages of the anaerobic treatment systems are their simplicity
and low maintenance costs. The reliability of the convential septic tank is
reflected in its wide use and acceptance. The new system, to indicate its accep-
tability, has recently been approved by the Federal Housing Administration
(Bailey, et. al, 1969).
Aerobic Treatment
There are now many types of aerobic treatment systems on the market for
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individual homes. Aerobic systems basically consist of a compartmented tank
containing an aeration section and a settling section. The purpose of the aeration
section is to increase oxidation while at the same time minimizing net produc-
tion of sludge. In the settling section, gravity is used to separate solids from
the effluent and then return it to the aeration tank. This is accomplished either
by gravity or mechanical means. Engineering Science (1970) illustrate the basic
features of an aeration unit. They refer to it as an "extended aeration" system.
Most aerobic systems are designed for continuous flow with a few operating
on a batch basis to avoid flow surges in the aeration section. In the aeration
section, the raw sewage is mixed with the oxygen in the air for relatively long
periods of time. Since the system is aerobic, the bacteria in the sewage utilize
the organic materials for growth which produces a flocculent bacterial sludge.
This bacterial sludge rapidly absorbs nutrients from influent sewage. It is
this bacterial matter that settles out in the settling chamber.
Engineering Science (1970) indicates that the effluent of an aerobic system
is generally better than that of an anerobic system. Equipment manufacturers
claim treatment comparable to municipal secondary treatment. This amounts to
approximately 907» BOD reduction and 807» reduction of suspended solids. Data
collected by several county health departments in Colorado shows that the units
seldom perform in the field at advertised efficiencies.
The National Sanitation Foundation (1970) has established a standard for
the performancet ofaerobic systems which demonstrates and measures what a plant
can do under simulated on-lot conditions. This provides the public with unbiased
data.
Russelmann (1972) notes that the Standard calls for an effluent quality
having maximum limits for 5-day BOD and suspended solids. Two classifications
are used, merely to indicate the performance level which may be expected. A
Class I plant can produce an effluent BOD of 20 mg/liter at least 90% of the
time. Also a Class I plant effluent must be relatively free of color, odor,
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oily film and foam. A Class II plant is one which can produce an effluent within
60 mg/liter BOD and 100 mg/liter suspended solids.
Thomas, et.al (1960) notes that a major advantage of the aerobic system is
that its effluent, when compared to a septic tank effluent, is less likely to
clog a soil absorption system. Winneberger, et. al (1960) list the disadvantages
of the aerobic system as: (1) higher operating costs, (2) greater susceptibility
to shock loadings of concentrated wastes and to harmful chemicals, and (3)
variations in effluent quality due to such treatmert upsets.
The following quote from Bailey, et.al (1970) describes very well the
situation that exists in the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region with respect to the
marketing of individual aerobic treatment systems.
"In the survey of individual treatment units as many manufacturers as
possible were contacted. According to one manufacturer, the individual
home treatment market has been in a constant state of flux. He reported
that there had been twenty-five entries into the home waste treatment
field since 1955 and that of these only fourteen were still in business.
Eight of these fourteen had entered the market in the last three years. These
figures indicate that there is a great interest in and a need for an
individual treatment system to serve certain areas, but also that many
of the treatment systems marketed have been unacceptable and probably
have created a poor public opinion of the industry."
In addition to the above described common aerobic system there is another
type of system called the biological filter. Here the sewage is distributed
over filters which support biological growth on a solid media. This media is
usually an impervious material, although coal, wood bark, and synthetic materials
have been used. The design of the media bed is selected to optimize both the
surface area for the biological film and the hydraulic characteristics of the
filter. Also some provision is usually made for intermittent housing of the
filter and for storage of sewage solids.
Effluent from a biological filter is usually dark in color but odorless.
Colifora^counts are high and occasional unloading of the biological growth
causes additional suspended solids and odor problems. Engineering Science (1970)
presents additional details regarding this small "trickling filter" concept.
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Some of the aerobic systems, extended aeration or trickling filter, utilize
i
chemical treatment to disinfect the effluent. Others also use sand filtration
to treat effluents before surface disposal. For a comprehensive review of all
aspects of aerobic treatment systems, refer to National Academy of Science (1958).
The following discussion of aerobic treatment systems taken from Bailey,
et. al (1969) again very well summarizes the situation in Colorado, specifically,
and the Rocky Mountain area in general, where surface discharge has been pro-
posed as a way to avoid the high cost of drainfield construction in the rocky
subsoil.
"High costs are a major problem with the aerobic treatment systems and
discharging the effluent to surface drainage rather than to subsurface soil
absorption system has been suggested as a means of cost reduction. Some of the
treatment units do consistantly produce an effluent suitable for surface drain-
age. However, other units obviously have not met acceptable standards and in
many areas surface disposal of aerobic effluent is not legally permitted. The
reluctance of public officials to permit surface disposal is easily'understood.
Even for treatment units consistently producing a good effluent it takes only
one malfunction to release contaminated water which could endanger the health
of the community. Health officials do not have specific criteria at this time
to evaluate the many different types of treatment units, their expected perfor-
mance, or the maintenance problems that might be encountered; and rather than
permit the development of a possible health hazard, a common reaction has been
to prohibit all surface discharges from individual treatment units. Also,
health officials realize that they could not adequately police the number of
surface discharges that could occur. The quality of effluents discharged to
storm drains, the most convenient disposal method, would be even more difficult
to monitor.
Sludge disposal is also a problem with aerobic systems. When the extended
aeration system was first proposed it was believed by many that all organic
material would be eventually oxidized to gasious products and water. However,
just as in the septic tank some organic materials resist digestion, as do nearly
all the inorganic solids, so that there is a gradual build up of solids which
must be removed to prevent the periodic discharge of slugs of sludge particles
in the effluent. As with anaerobic systems the rate of accumulation depends on
the system design and operation. Thus regular inspection is a necessity.
The further growth of the market for individual home aerobic systems thus
seems dependent on the inclusion of adequate safeguards against unattended mal-
functions through better instrumentation, better service contracts, and greater co-
operation among the homeowners, the equipment manufacturers, and the public
officials. The information supplied by the manufacturers indicates that they
are attempting to achieve this goal. No completely satisfactory system has yet
been proposed, but many advancements have been made and surface discharge is
gaining acceptance in more areas as yystem improvements and safeguards are supplied.
Eac*1 treatir-^t system has features which make it more suitable for certain
applications and each situation will demand a careful examination of specific re-
quirements before a particular treatment unit can be chosen."
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266
Anaerobic versus Aerobic Systems
Goldstein, et. al (1972) note that based upon presently available technical
data, it is not at all clear which type of system is inherently superior in re-
moving suspended solids and reducing the oxygen demand of household wastes.
Winneberger, et. al(1960) indicated that there was not significant difference
I
between septic and aerobic tank performance as regards to removal of biologically
or chemically oxygen demanding constituents of waste waters. The data is presented
in Table 70.
Table 70 Winneberger, et. al (1960) Comparison of septic and aerobic tank
performance.
Aerobic Tank Septic Tank
Parameter Effluent Effluent
Mean Std. Dev. Mean Std. Dev.
BOD mg/1 81.0 25.9 73.7 10.8
COD mg/1 143.5 39.1 152.0 29.2
SS mg/1 75.4 — 50.6
It was noted that the septic tank was significantly more stable in its performance--
pulse loads were bandied better in the septic tank.
Bernhart (1964) found results that were quite different. His field inves-
tigations indicated superior aerobic tank performance regards the removal of
both oxygen demanding substances and suspended solids. He also stated that aerobic
systems were more effective at reducing coliform bacteria.
Schad (1971) reports that BOD reductions of 75-90 percent and TSS reductions
cf.75-90 percent can be expected in aerobic systems, while reductions of 30-50
percent for both BOD and TSS can be expected in septic tanks.
Goldstein, et.al (1972) notes these divergent and opposing evaluations with
regard to aerobic and anaerobic systems, even among highly respected and trained
experts, and indicates that the validity and comparability of performance data
may be strongly influenced by peculiarities of design, installation, and usage
patterns of individual units. This type of observation is especially important
for the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region where many second homes operate under con-
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267
ditions that can hardly be classed as ideal from a waste water treatment point
'1
of view. From long stretches of no use to a sudden weekend of extensive use,
the waste water treatment systems is expected to operate properly. Also the
extreme temperatures of mountain winter homes adds additional constraints on
efficient operation. However, it is the soil absorption system that is probably
of major concern in mountainous areas.
Soil Absorption
Goldstein, et. al (1972) note that the soil absorption system which lies
downstream of the septic or aerobic tank is the most fragile and most expensive
part of the individual home waste treatment system. They also classify effluent
disposal as occurring three ways: (1) down through the soil and possibly into
groundwater, (2) laterally through the soil or groundwater aquifer, and (3) u£
by ponding in impervious soil until it erupts through the surface, or by diffu-
sion and evaporation from soil or by being taken up into and evaporated by plants.
Thus proper operation of "a soil absorption system occurs when the water goes
up, across, or down and leaves the immediate zone of the soil system with accep-
table values of its physical, chemical, and biological characteristics such that
when more effluent is added the soil will be able to adequately dispose of it.
Goldstein, et. al (1972) also note that the mechanisms by which the soil
absorption system works are far from being completely understood even though
there are currently many volumes on the subject. As a result the total picture
is very complex and understood only in an elementary fashion.
A soil absorption system may be a long narrow trench, a wide shallow bed, -
a deep pit, or a combination. It is usually underground, but may be a mound
above the surface. The tank effluent is piped to the absorption area where it
passes through a perforated pipe or is dumped directly into the bed. ihe
effluent seeps from the pipes into the soil across the soil-water interface.
It is at this interface that a majority of the problems with seepage beds
begins (Goldstein, et. al, 1972).
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268
The clogging of soil absorption systems appears to be mainly due to the
accumulation of suspended matter in the effluent, bacterial cells, and microbial
activity products which eventually build up in the system to the point where
pores in the soil are blocked. The rates of production of these clogging mater-
ials is critical to the life of the absorption system. Goldstein et. al (1972)
notes that clogging occurs under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions but most
sever clogging occurs when oxygen is absent or present in only very low concen-
trations. They include in their report a very good thirty page summary of the
clogging mechanisms which will not be repeated here due to the length involved.
McGauhey and Winneberber (1965) also present a discussion on preventing failures
of soil absorption systems.
Given that soil systems if not designed, installed and maintained properly,
can fail, there has been considerable interest generated in effluent disposal
systems not dependent upon the soil.
Effluent Disposal Other Than Through Soil Absorption
One means of avoiding utilizing the soil for effluent disposal is to use
the process of evapotranspiration. This is ordinarily accomplished by sealing a
trench or a wide shallow area, backfilling with soil, and planting grass or
shrubs to expediate the evaporation process. Bernhart (1973) and Engineering
Science (1971) both present the details of this effluent disposal process.
Engineering Science (1971) concluded that if a wastewater system used only
evapotranspiration for volume reduction, the area required in the bed would
range from a low of 890 square feet to a high of 10,371 square feet over the
United States. Average rates of waste water production were assumed. They
also noted that use of evapotranspiration will be effective only if the water
table is at least 5 to 6 feet below the surface. Toxicity may become a problem
if"boron and TDS in the water supply are in excess of 1 and 2,000 mg/1. A
combination of evapotranspiration and percolation is thought to offer the best
approach to the disposal of wastewater emanating from a single household.
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269
Other means to circumvent the soil absorption system for dispoasl are orig-
inating for the space program and research work on advanced municipal waste
treatment practices. Solar distillation is the only advanced waste treatment
process considered feasible at the current time for individual home sewage dis-
posal. Engineering Science (1970) presents a discussion of the merits and econ-
omics of the system.
Hendel (1962) presents a discussion of the various processes of waste water
recovery that have been considered for space travel. These include osmosis,
electrodialysis, electrolysis, crystallization, sublimation, extraction, hydra-
tion, distillation, and closed ecological systems. However Engineering Science
(1970) notes that from a cost standpoint, none of the space water recovery sys-
tems are practical in a household disposal scheme.
Closed toilet systems have been proposed as a means of eliminating dis-
charges from this source. Several of these systems are commercially available,
but Bailey, et. al (1969) reports the results of a survey which indicates that
most people object to this type of system. They object to the initial expense
and have a fear that unsanitary conditions would develop. Engineering Science
(1970) presents a discussion of the various technologies utilized in these systems.
Along this same line, partial reuse of wastewater for toilet flushing has
been proposed as a way to reduce waste water volume requiring disposal. Bailey,
et. al (1969) report on many other ways to reduce volume of wastewater; however,
this still does not eliminate the need for treatment and disposal.
Total evaporation is another alternative for disposal without a soil ab- „
sorption system; however, it has also been shown, as was solar distillation, to
be a high consumer of energy or required large land areas. Research work currently
underway at Colorado State University is evaluating this concept for high eleva-
tions. The work, under the direction of John C. Ward in Civil Engineering,
Colorado State University may yield results applicable to the mountainous areas
of the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region.
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270
One last alternative to a soil absorption system is the simple storage and
haulaway concept. Normally this involves installing a vault which must be pumped
when it is full. The cost of pumping and haulaway is quite variable; however,
Engineering Science (1970) notes a cost of $7.00 per 1000 gallons to haul fresh
water to a California city in 1960. Taking this cost as a minimum baseline, it
would cost a homeowner $84.00 monthly to transport 400 gallons per day of sewage
flow. Of course on a second home this cost could be reduced, but still may be
more than most people are willing to pay.
Summary
From the foregoing review of the current technology available for individual
home sewage disposal, it is obvious no one way or technique can be recommended.
There are many diverse opinions on the various technologies with additional
technologies being added to the list. Dispite the problems with septic tanks
and soil absorption previously reviewed, they have functioned for many years
without significant failure in communities all over the U.S. This observation
has led Goldstein, et. al (1972) to conclude that individual domestic waste
treatment systems can indeed be designed for trouble-free operation and thus
constitute a technically feasible alternative to central systems. The problem
arises due to the fact that the design of an individual waste treatment system
must necessarily include considerable art along with the somewhat vague scientific
principles. The problem currently appears to have no solution and little effort
is being devoted to obtaining one. It would appear that more research is needed
in the area of developing sound scientific principles upon which the design
could be based or there needs to be institutions to regulate individual home
sewage disposal to the point where no systems would be installed unless there
were a "good" chance that the system would operate properly.
In either case the extension effort for education of the public is essential,
especially in the mountainous resort areas where the public is purchasing land
and homes with little knowledge concerning the waste water disposal problem.
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271
EPA believes that land use regulation is just as important as technological
solutions, and, as a result, the current extension activities in rural land use
planning may play as large a role in solving the problem as an extension effort
in the technological area.
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272
REFERENCES
Bailey, J. R., R. J. Benoit, J. L. Dodson, J. M. Robb, and H. Wallman. 1969.
A study of flow reduction and treatment of waste water from households.
FWQA, Water Pollution Control Research Series No. 11050FKE, Dec.
Bernhart, A. P. 1964. Waste water units for individual buildings and houses.
Engineering Journal (Canada), July.
Bernhardt, A. P. 1973. Evapotranspiration systems. In Proceedings of the Ohio
Home Sewage Disposal Conference, January 29-31, Columbus, Ohio.
Engineering Science. 1970. A research study on household sewage disposal units
not dependent on water absorption in the soil. NAHB Research Foundation,
Inc., Rockville, Maryland.
Engineering Science. 1971. Research study on sewage disposal through evapotrans-
piration of plants.
Goldstein, S. N., V. D. Wenk, M. C. Fowler, and S. S. Poh. 1972. A study of
selected economic and environmental aspects of individual home wastewater
treatment systems. Mitre Corporation, Report No. M72-45, March.
Hansen, R. H. 1970. Spetic tank sewage disposal systems. Cooperative Extension
Service, Bulletin No. 390-A, February.
Hendel, F. J. 1962. Recovery of water during space missions. ARS Journal, Dec.
Laak, R. 1971. Design factors for seepage beds. Proceedings of a Conference on
Sewage Treatment in Small Towns and Rural Areas, Dartmouth College, Hanover,
New Hampshire, March 3.
McGauhey, P. H. and J. H. Winneberger. 1965. A study of preventing failure of
spetictank percolation systesm. Final report, SERL Report No. 65-17,
Sanitary Engineering Research Laboratory, University of California,
Berkeley, October.
National Academy of Sciences. 1958. Report on individual household aerobic
sewage treatment systems. National Research Council, Report No. 586,
February.
National Sanitation Foundation. 1970. Individual aerobic wastewater treatment
plants. Standard No. 40, Ann Arbor, Michigan, November.
Pelczar, M. J. and R. D. Reid. 1965. Microbiology. 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York.
Russelmann, H. B. 1972. The National Sanitation Foundation Program. Prodeedings
of the Workshop on Home Sewage Disposal in Colorado held at Fort Collins
on June 14, Environmental Resources Center Information Series No. 4.
Salvato, J. A., Jr. 1958. Environmental Sanitation. Wiley, New York.
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273
Schad, T. 0. 1971. Sewage treatment in rural areas of Vermont. Bachelor of
Engineering Project Report (thesis), Dartmouth College, Hanover, New
Hampshire, June.
Thomas, H. A., Jr., J. B. Coulter, T. W. Bendixen, and A. B. Edwards. 1960.
Technology and economics of household sewage disposal systems. JWPCF,
Vol 32(2), Feb.
Tobey, D. M. 1972. Seasonal home residents in five Maine communities. Life
Sciences and Agriculture Experiment Station,.University of Maine at Orono,
Bulletin 700, December.
Winneberger, J. H.,L. Francis, S. A. Klein, and P. H. McGauhey. 1960. A study
of methods of preventing failure of septic tank percolation fields, fourth
annual report. Sanitary Engineering Research Laboratory, University of
California, Berkeley, August.
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274
LIVESTOCK WASTE DISPOSAL
The livestock industry in the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region consists of
various types of animals raised under different forms of farming operations
ranging from a few sheep per acre to cattle feedlots with 150,000 head. The
variability of. livestock animals, type of operation, size of operation, and
location makes it difficult to definitely state the exact magnitude of the
waste disposal problem and its impact on the environment. However, by utilizing
data on farm size and r-rent inventories on feedlots, dairies, swine operations,
etc., it will be possible to make inferences concerning the existing and pre-
dicted situation for livestock waste disposal in the Rocky Mountain-Prairie
Region.
Livestock Production
The Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region contains most types of livestock pro-
duction with certain typ«es being more prevalent than others. The region con-
tained 13.3% of the nation's cattle on farms as of January 1, 1973, 4.7% of the
nation's hogs on farms, 33.67. of the stock sheep as of 1971, 4.5% of the dairy
cows as of 1970, and 3.1% of the hens and pullets of laying age as of 1971.
Each of these categories of livestock will now be discussed in terms of their
distribution within the region.
Cattle production occurs in all states in the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region.
The breakdown of total cattle on farms for the region is shown in Table So .
From this table it can be seen that 28% of the cattle on farms in the region
are located in South Dakota, 23% in North Dakota, 10% in Wyoming and 57o in Utah.
Since the magnitude of the livestock waste problem is related primarily to
concentration of animals in production units (feedlots), simply looking at
total numbers does;not tell the entire story. Animals not in a feedlot are
normally under pasture or range situations where their density is such that'
plant growth is not inhibited, but actually enhanced as the nutrients are re-
cycled. Under these pasture or range conditions, no pollutional source is
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1 275
generally identifiable (Hamilton Standard, 1973). If over grazing does occur,
a pollutional source in the form of sediments may occur, however.
The USDA (1973) reports on selected states where cattle are fed. The number
of cattle on feed varies over the year and are reported by quarters. However,
for purposes of this report, a semi-annual tabulation of cattle on feed (in
feedlots) is presented in Table . 72„ The figures indicate that 11.9% of the
fed cattle and calves in the 39 states concerned, were located in the Rocky
Mountain-Prairie Region on January 1, 1972. The cattle in the first 4 states
(North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana and Colorado) were located on a total of
11,401 feedlots of all sizes (total cattle for the states noted is 3,184,000).
The breakdown as to number of feedlots within each size range and cattle marketed
is given for the four states in Table 73 . No data was available for Wyoming
and Utah.
The data in Table 73 indicate that for 1972, there were 335 feedlots in
the four states with 1,000 head or more and they accounted for 77.2% of the
total cattle on feed. In 1971 this figure was 73.5% in 374 lots. In 1972 in
lots of 16,000 head or more, 34.2% of the fed cattle are accounted for. This
percentage was located in 16 feedlots.
Table 71 Number of cattle on farms (thousands). (USDA, 1971, and USDA,
1973.)
Jan. 1. 1969
Jan. 1, 1971
Jan. 1,
North Dakota
2,025
2,190
2,435
South Dakota
4,366
4,498
4,496
Montana
2,984
3,104
3,197
Wyoming
1,447
1,461
1,565
Colorado
3,119
3,516
3,756
Utah
785
840
840
Total for Region
14,726
15,609
16,289
Total for U.S.
109,885
114,568
121,990
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276
Table 72
Cattle arid cal
ves on feed In the
Rocky Mountain-
Prair ie Region
(thousands) .
(USDA, 1973.)
State
Jan. 1, 1971
July 1, 1971
Jan. 1, 1972
July 1. 1972
North Dakota
45
39
52
45
South Dakota
339
281
363
275
Montana
130
100
165
130
Colorado
bt»8
879
983
1020
Wyoming
35
37
—
Utah
68
55
39 State Total
12,770
13,876
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Table 73
Number of cattle feedlots and fed cattle marketed by size of feedlot capacity. (USDA, 1973.)
State
and
Year
Under
Lots
1,000
Cattle
Mktd.
.,000-
Lots
1,999
Cattle
Mktd.
2,000-
Lots
3,999
Cattle
MVrd.
4,000-7,999
Lota Cattle
Mktd.
a.nnn-is.QM
Lots Cattle
Mlttrt.
LOUS
-31, <>19
Cattle
MV rA
32,000 & over
Lots Cattle
Mktd.
Total
L000 and over
Lots Cattle
Mktd.
Total
all feed lots
Lots Cattle
MVtH.
1971
No.
1000
head
No.
1000
head
No.
1000
head
No.
1000
head
1000
No. head
No.
1000 ^
head
1000
No. head
No.
1000
head
No.
1000
head
North Dakota
983
58
10
11
7*
11*
17
22
1,000
80
South Dakota
9049
ABO
33
46
13
28
5*
48*
51
122
9,100
602
Montana
387
35
46
18
22
50
18*
132*
86
200
473
235
Colorado
622
240
101
135
48
155
32
269
20 302
16
1050
217
1911
839
2,151
1972
North Dakota
1082
60
14
13
4*
12*
18
25
1,100
85
South Dakota
9046
454
39
31
8
15
4
16
3 45
54
107
9,100
561
Montana
317
26
36
31
17
33
14
86
5* 71*
72
221
389
247
Colorado
621
183
67
118
49
163
36
299
23 439
11
360
5 729
191
2108
812
2,291
* Lots and marketings from larger size groups are included to avoid disclosing individual operations.
N3
»
I
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278
In 1967 there were 1,127 cattle feedlots in Colorado with 850 having less
than 500 head and 28 having greater than 5,000 head capacity (Loehr, 1972). In
1972, Colorado had 34 lots with more than 8,000 head and 621 with less than
1,000 head. As this trend toward larger lots continues, the percentage of
cattle on larger lots will increase. With feedlots becoming fewer and larger,
the situation can be likened to people moving to cities-- fewer cities but
larger cities with large environmental problems. Likewise the large feedlots
will present a large pC--=ntial for environmental problems.
The above information on cattle production delineates the location of
cattle production within the region. Of course within each state in the region
there can be a further breakdown allowing the delineation of feedlot location
with respect to the streams involved. This is beyond the scope of this report;
however, data is available to break the location of feedlots down by region
(river basin) for Colorado as a means of indicating how this could be done for
other states.
The data used to do this breakdown for Colorado is taken mainly from "dis-
trict" data. The districts do not follow river basin boundaries, but are fairly
close except between the South Platte and Republican Basins (treated as one dis-
trict) and the Arkansas River Basin. Some numbers attributed to being outside
the Arkansas Valley are actually in the Valley. Within Colorado there were
3,516,000 head of cattle and calves on farms in 1971. Of this total 4% were
located in the San Luis Valley, 17% in the Arkansas Valley, 19% in the Colorado
River Basin, and 60% in the South Platte and Republican River Basins. The
actual figures for 1968 and 1971 are presented in Table 72.
As for the distribution of cattle on feed, the vast majority (87%) in
Colorado are located in the South Platte and Republican River Basins (eastern
plains excluding the Arkansas Valley). The Western Slope contained 1% and the
Arkansas Valley contained 12%; Table 73 contains the cattle and calves on feed
by regions in Colorado.
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279
Table
Cattle and calves on farms in Colorado by districts (roughly "
river ba9ins), Jan. 1, 1968 and 1971 (Colorado Crop and Livestock
Reporting Service, 1972).
1968 1971
San Luis Valley 125,400 154,000
Arkansas Valley 493,700 597,000
Colorado River Basin 640,100 657,000
South Platte and 1,800,800 2,108,000
Republican Rivet Basins
Plo. ; excluding
Arkansas Valley)
State Total 3,060,000 3,516,000
Table 7$
Cattle and calves on feed, Dec. 1971. (Colorado Crop and Livestock
Reporting Service, 1972.)
Arkansas Valley 116,200
Western Slope 11,100
South Platte and Republican 831,700
River Basins
Total
959,000
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280
Turning to the hog situation in the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region, it is
noted that South Dakota contains 64% of the region's total of 2,895,000 in 1972.
Table 76 contains the figures for all states in the region. North Dakota con-
tains 13%, Colorado 11%, Montana 8%, Wyoming 2%, and Utah 1%. Hogs are generally
raised in lots that may be called "feedlots"; however, the numbers are not as
large as for cattle. Consequently there is little data on the number or size
of hog "feedlots".
Looking specifically at Colorado (see Table 77 ) it is noted that as with
cattle, most (64%) of the hogs are in the central and northern plains of the
state. The San Luis Valley has 8%, the Arkansas Valley 177,, and the Colorado
River Basin, 10%.
Both Tables 76 and 77 reflect the changing nature of number of hogs versus
time. This is a reflection, to a large extent, of the fluctuating market con-
ditions that prevail in the hog industry.
In 1971 the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region contained 5,694,000 stock sheep
of which 29% were in Wyoming, 18%, in Montana, 17%, in South Dakota, 17% in Utah,
13% in Colorado and 5% in North Dakota. The figures are presented in Table 78
Again sheep are fed in lots, but no data is readily available for the region as
to number of lots or number of sheep on feed.
For Colorado the distribution of stock sheep numbers among the river basins
is given in Table 79 . From this it can be seen that for 1971, 17% are in the
San Luis Valley, 3% in the Arkansas Valley, 71% in the Colorado River Basin, and
9% in the South Platte and Republican River Basins. Table80 contains a break-
down of the sheep on feed in Colorado. The designation of regions was not clear
in the reference of this table; therefore, the change of notation. It can be
seen that as of 1972, most (84%) of the fed sheep in the state are in the north-
eastern portion, while 10% are in the Arkansas Valley, and 7% are on the western
slope. This, more so than with cattle or hogs, indicates that the feeding in
lots is done where the grain is located—on the irrigated plains of the state.
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281
Table
Number of hogs on farms
(thousands).
(USDA, 1971 and USDA, 1973)
•
Jan. 1, 1969
Jan. 1, 1971 Dec.
1. 1972
North Dakota
321
425
368
South Dakota
1,860
2,009
1,860
Montana
177
221
240
Wyoming
29
38
55
Colorado
246
352
330
Utah
*6
59
42
Total for Region
2,689
3,104
2,895
Total for United States
60,632
67,540
61,502
Table J77
Number of hogs on farms by district (River Ba3ins) in Colorado
Jan. 1, 1968 and Jan. 1, 1971. (Colorado Crop and Livestock
Reporting Service, 1972.)
1968
1971
San Luis Valley
13,500
29,200
Arkansas Valley
33,500
60,000
Colorado River Basin
24,000
36,800
South Platte and Republican 136,000
River Basins
226,000
State Total
207,000
352,000
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Table \ 78
Number of Stock sheep on farms (thousands). (USDA, 1971).
State Jan. 1, 1969 Jan. 1, 1971
North Dakota 309 291
South Dakota 1,052 990
Montana 1,130 1,042
Wyoming 1,766 1,644
Colorado 856 749
Utah 988 978
Total for Region 6,101 6,694
Total for United States 18,332 16,937
Table , 79
Number of stock sheep on farms by district (river basin) in
Colorado, Jan. 1, 1968 and Jan. 1, 1971. (Colorado Crop and
Livestock Reporting Service, 1972.)
1968 1971
San Luis Valley 152,000 130,000
Arkansas Valley 33,000 24,000
Colorado River Basin 614,000 528,000
South Platte and Republican 85,000 67,000
River Basins
Total 884,000 749,000
Table gQ
Number of sheep and lambs on feed for slaughter market by areas,
Colorado, January 1, 1962, 1963, and 1972. (Colorado Crop and
Livestock Reporting Service, 1972)
1962 1967 1972
Arkansas Valley 112,000 101,000 46,000
Western Slope (Colorado 48,000 21,000 23,000
and Rio Grande River
Basins)
Northeastern Colorado 410,000 388,000 371,000
Total 570,000 510,000 440,000
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283
This is especially clear with sheep since so many of the total numbers of stock
sheep are located elsewhere in the state.
Also it should be noted that total numbers of sheep are declining. This
reflects again the market situation. The demand is increasing for beef and
pork, but not lamb.
Dairying in the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region involved a total of 623,000
cows in 1970. No one state contains a large percentage of dairy cows since
dairying is not a large agricultural industry in the region (see Table 81 ).
North and South Dakota contain 26% and 327o of the region's dairy cows, respec-
tively, primarily due to their location near the dairying center of the nation.
The other states contain numbers somewhat proportional to their populations.
In Colorado the dairy cow distribution among areas of the state also follows
population trends (see Table 82 ). The South Platte-and Republican River Basins
contain 72% of the state's dairy cows, the Colorado River Basin contains 167»,
the Arkansas Valley 107o, and the San Luis Valley 27». As with sheep, total dairy
cow numbers are declining as are the total number of dairies. However, the
average size of the dairy is increasing. A look at some national statistics will
show this.
The trend of dairy herd size and number of cows in relation to number of
herds is shown in Table 83 . This data indicates that herds with less than 30
cows will become relatively unimportant in 1980 representing only 12% of the
herds and 47„ of the cows. It can also be noted that in 1980, dairy farms with
50 or more cows will include more than 1/2 of the herds and 3/4 of the cows
(Hoglund, 1973). These figures indicate general trends that can be expected in
the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region.
The location of dairies in the region, due to market considerations, can
generally be expected to center around population concentrations. Since the
region contains little dairy production for cheese, the above observation can
be made.
-------
Table 81
Number of cows and heifers
2 years old and over
kept for i
(thousands). (USDA,1971.)
State
Jan. 1, 1969
Jan. 1, !
North Dakota
168
163
South Dakota
214
200
Montana
49
47
Wyoming
20
19
Colorado
110
112
Utah
82
82
Tot?! f,,r
643
623
Total for United States
14,152
13,838
Table g2
Number of cows and heifers over 2 years old kept for railk by
districts (river basins) in Colorado, Jan. 1, 1968 and Jan. 1,
1971. (Colorado Crop and Livestock Reporting Service, 1972)
,1968
1971
San Luis Valley
1,900
2,000
Arkansas Valley
10,600
9,500
Colorado Fiver Basin
17,800
15,600
South Platte and Republican
78,700
73,900
River Basins
Total
109,000
101,000
Table .83
Percentage distribution of Dairy herds and cows by size of herd,
1960, 1970, and 1980, U.S. (Hoglund, 1973)
Cows per
Percent of
Herds
Percent of
Covjs
Farm
1960
1970
1980
1960
1970
1980
10-29
76
54
12
58
33
4
.30-49
17
30
36
24
30
21
50-99
5
13
36
12
25
34
Over 100
2
3
16
6
12
38
Totals
100
100
100
100
100
100
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285
In 1971 the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region contained 3.1% of the nation's
hens and pullets of laying age. The distributions among states is shown in
Table 84 . South Dakota contained 49% of the region's total in 1971 while all
other states except Wyoming contained approximately 13% each. Wyoming contained
2%.
There is no breakdown of broiler production for the Rocky Mountain-Prairie
Region since the industry is so small that to do so would disclose individual
operations. The entire western U.S. contains 4.17o of the broiler industry with
Washington, Oregon, and California containing 4.07o. This leaves 0.17o for the
remaining western states.
With respect to turkeys, Montana and Wyoming contain too few to declare
numbers. The remainder of the states contain 3.2% of the nation's production.
In 1971, Utah contained 507> of the region's total number of turkeys, Colorado
34%, North Dakota 10% and South Dakota 6% (see Table 85 )•
The production figures that have been presented in the preceeding pages
Indicate the numbers of livestock involved and give some indication of the
distribution of the animal waste problem in the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region.
Although livestock waste may present a sizeable non-point source of environmental
degradation, there are other aspects of the situation which cannot be overlooked.
The impact of livestock production on Colorado's agricultural industry is quite
large. In 1964, the source of Colorado cash farm income in percentage of total
was 507» for cattle and calves, 15% for other livestock and products, 5% for
wheat, 227o for all other crops, and 87. in government payments. As with irriga--
tion return flows, the livestock waste problem is made quite complex since it is
tied so closely with the economy of many people in the region.
Waste Characteristics
Waste characteristics of livestock varies considerably depending upon the
type of animal, facility used, and diet. However, for a given type of animal
l
respectable ranges can be established. The Hamilton Standard (1973) report
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286
Table 84
Hens and pullets of laying age on farms, Jan. 1, 1969 and Jan. 1,
1971 (thousands). (USDA, 1971)
1969
1971
North Dakota
1,281
1,214
South Dakota
5,023
5,096
Montana
1,099
1,162
Wyoming
201
189
Colorado
1,529
1,606
Utah
1,276
1,188
Total for Region
10,409
10,455
Total for United States
316,177
333,079
Table 85
Number of turkeys on farms, Jan. 1, 1969 and Jan. 1, 1971 (thousands)
(USDA, 1971)
1969 1971
North Dakota 23. 25
South Dakota 20 14
Montana
Wyoming
Colorado 69 83
Utah 92 120
Total for Region (4 States) 204 242
Total for United States 6,604 7/462
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287
presents a comprehensive summary of livestock waste <^iaracteristics. Rather
than repeat the voluminous waste characteristics here, the interested reader
is referred to the Hamilton Standard (1973) report.
Due to size and numbers, cattle produce the largest volume of waste in the
Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region. Because of this, cattle waste characteristics
will be briefly reviewed with two tables.
Loehr and Agnew (1967) determined the waste production of a 900-pound
Steer as shown in Table 86 . They also compared the characteristics of beef
cattle wastes to sewage sludge in order to relate the manure to a waste more
familiar to sanitary engineers (see Table 87 ).
Pollution Potential
Pollution from a livestock feeding operation can be generally classified
as either originating from the manure disposal operation or from runoff. Gen-
erally, a waste management system operator at the feeding operation to remove
the wastes from the lot and provide for ultimate disposal. Also another waste
management system collects the runoff from the lot and provides for ultimate
disposal.
Over the years, the runoff problem has attracted the major concern as
reflected in the specific nature of the regulations governing the situation.
/
Quantification of the runoff problem is difficult since each feeding operation
presents a considerably different pollution potential picture. As a result it
is not possible to predict the general effects of feeding operations on the
quality of a stream without performing a detailed field survey. Some detailed
surveys have been reported and they give an indication as to what can happen.
Smith and Miner (1964) noted the slug effect that occurs on a stream's
water quality from runoff after a storm passes over a cattle feedlot. The
results of Smith and Miner's work is shown in Table 88 # They found the runoff
4
to be high in ammonia, the stream consequently," was highly polluted with ammonia,
and the ammonia associated with the runoff tended to be detectable before the
-------
Table 86
Wnste charasteristics for a 900-pound steer (Loehr and Agnev, 1967).
Wet Manure
per day in
pounds
Dry Manure
per day in
pounds
Moisture
content in
X
BOD5
in
mg./kilo
COD
in
mg./kilo
Volatile
solids, in
lbs/steer/day
Coliform
count/gram
Fecal
coliform
Fecal
s trep
A3 feces
17 urine
60
9
85
10,000
to
20,000
(one to two lb.
per steer per
day)
80,000
to 1
130,000
(9 lb. per
steer per
day)
7
230,000
(6 billion
per steer
per- day)
less than
.05
Table 87
Characteristics of beef cattle wastes and sewage sludge (Loehr and Agnew, 1967).
_ Source
Percentage
of Dry
Solids
COD/
Total
Solids
COD/
Volatile
Solids
5-Day j
BOD/
Total
Solids
5-Day
BOD/
Volatile
Sol ids
COD/
5-Day
BOD
Percentage
Volatility
PH
Beef Cattle
Feedlot
Wastes3
25-30
0.96
1.15
0.24
0.28
4.00
80-90
4.7-5.8
Topeka, Kans.
Primary
Sewage
Sludge*1
3-5
1.27
1.66
0.44
0.64
2.60
75
6.5-7.2
^Except where noted, the results are in milligrams/milligram.
Except where noted, the results are in milligrams/liter.
NJ
oo
oo
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Table '88
Fox Creek near Strong City, Kansas, November, 1962, Water Quality
Parameters in Milligrams per Liter. (Smith and Miner, 1964.)
Time, in hours
DO
BOD5
COD
CI
NH3
Average Dry Weather
8.4
.2
29
11
0.06
After Rainfall
13
7.2
8
37
19
12.00
20
0.8
90
283
50
5.30
26
5.9
22
63
35
46
6.8
5
40
31
0.44
69
4.2
7
43
26
0.02
117
6.2
3
22
25
0.08
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290
other parameters. They also measured high bacterial counts in the feedlot run-
off and noted a decrease in the ratio of fecal coliform to fecal streptococci
when the feedlot runoff was present in the stream.
Miner, et. al (1966) have shown that the quantity of pollutants washed
from a cattle feedlot during a rainstorm is a function of temperature, rainfall
rate, and moisture content of the accumulated waste before rainfall. They also
found that two weeks after cleaning, that feedlots reach their maximum pollu-
Cional potential.
Returning to the regulation of runoff and waste removal, it may be possible
to get a handle on the magnitude of the pollution potential of livestock feeding
operations. Since the greatest pollution potential revolves around the con-
centrated feeding operations, most regulations deal with the feedlot. Feedlots
are generally required to register or be licensed by the state if their operation
is above a given size. Most states either suggest or require that diversion
structures be built around the feedlot so as to minimize runoff pollution. The
water is generally diverted to a holding basin or pond from which it is later
removed to a field. The design criteria for the ponds differs in different
states. Some base the size on the 5-year 48-hour storm or a 10-year 24-hour
storm while others utilize a 25-year 24-hour storm. Also, the ponds have to
be pumped within a certain length of time after the storm; the exact time varies
with the different states.
The actual disposal of the manure can be accomplished in several different
ways and most states simply indicate in their regulations that the waste manage-
ment system must be adequate. Being designed by a registered professional engi-
neer satisfies this requirement in many states.
If it can be assumed that a feedlot that meets the above standards or regu-
lations will not pollute or can be defined as such, then it will be possible to
estimate the pollutional load of feedlots on the waters of a state by determining
the number of lots not meeting regulations. Current estimates place this figure
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291
at approximately 10% for cattle. It has been estimated that perhaps 5 to 10%
of the waste from a cattle feedlot actually enters surface and ground waters
(Rademacher, 1970). Utilizing a 7.5% figure, the 10% of cattle with no waste
management, and noting that in 1971 there were 830 feedlots in Colorado con-
taining 959,000 head, it can be calculated that 215,775 tons of wet manure enter
Colorado waters each day. This has a population equivalent of 72,625. To get'
f
these figures, it is assumed that all the cattle are characterized as in Table 95
and that the wastes from one steer equals that of 10 people (estimates range
from three to sixteen). Referring back to Table 91 indicates that, again, the
largest problem in Colorado is in the South Platte River Basin. Here the pop-
ulation equivalent is 62,278. Of course the above assumptions are ballpark
figures at best, but to obtain more accurate estimates would require detailed
field surveys. This is due to the large number of waste management systems
utilized and the fact that little date is available to measure the effectiveness
of the systems.
There are many procedures for livestock waste management and, obviously,
some are better than others. However, nowhere in the literature is there an
attempt made to quantify the effectiveness of waste management alternatives.
The economics are compared, but not the "value" received for the cost. As a
result it is not possible to indicate what effect the different waste management
alternatives currently utilized are having upon the water quality in a state or
river basin. Thus, it is assumed that if a feedlot has a runoff facility, its
waste management program meets state regulations and no pollution occurs.
Butchbaker, et. al (1971) indicates an ordering of waste management systems
according to pollution control and another ordering according to economics. The
orderings are almost exactly opposite—the most economical is the worst as far as
pollution control is concerned. Without knowing how effective one alternative is
versus other alternatives, it is. not possible to determine the optimum waste
management system for given conditions and priorities.
-------
REFERENCES
Robbins, J. W. D., D. H. Howelis, and G. J. Kriz. 1971. Role
of Animal Wastes in Agricultural Land Runoff. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Water Pollution Control
Research Series 13020 DGX 08/71.
Wells, D. M., R. C. Albin, W. Brub, E. A. Coleman, and G. F.
Meenaghan. 1971. Characteristics of Wastes from South-
western Cattle Feedlots. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Water Pollution Control Research Series 13040
DEM 01/71.
Burchbaker, A. F., J. E. Garton, G. W. A. Mahoney, and H; D.
raiae. I-.l. Evaluation of Beef Cattle Feedlot Waste
Management Alternatives. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Water Pollution Control Research Series 13040 FXG
11/71.
Rademacher, John M. 1970. Federal Water Quality Guidelines.
Talk presented at the Midwestern Animal Waste Management
Conference, Des Moines, Iowa, November 10.
Loehr, R. C. and R. W. Agnew. 1967. Cattle wastes-pollution and
potential treatment. Journal of the Sanitary Engineering
Division, ASCE, Vol. 93, No. SA4, p. 55-72, August.
Smith, S. M. and J. R. Miner, 1964. Stream Pollution from Feed-
lot Runoff. Transactions, 14th Annual Conference on
Sanitary Engineering, University of Kansas, Lawrence,
Kansas, pp. 18-25.
Miner, J. R., R. I. Lipper, L. R. Fina, and J. W. Funk. 1966.
Cattle Feedlot Runoff and Its Nature and Variation. Journal
of the Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 38, pp. 1582-91.
Hamilton Standard. 1973. Draft--development document for effluent
limitations guidelines and standards of performance, feed-
lot industry. Prepared by Hamilton Standard Division of
United Aircraft Corporation for U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Contract No. 68-01-0595, June.
United States Department of Agriculture, 1971. Agricultural
Statistics 1971. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washing-
ton, D.C.
United States Department of Agriculture. 1973. Livestock and
Meat Statistics. Economic Research Service, USDA, Statistical
Bulletin Noi 522, July.
Colorado Crop and Livestock Reporting Service. 1972. Colorado
Agricultural Statistics. Colorado Deoartment of Asricnihirp
Bulletin 1-72, July.
-------
Loehr, R. C., "Animal Waste Management--Problems and Guidelines
for Solutions" Journal of Environmental Quality 1, 1, 71
(1972).
Hoglund, 0. R. 1973. The economic outlook for the dairy industry.
Proceedings, National Dairy Housing Conference, February
6-8, 1973, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan.
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294
LIVESTOCK AND WASTE DISPOSAL TECHNOLOGY
The confinement of large numbers of animals for feeding purposes has pro-
duced one of the most complex and perplexing problems ever faced by engineers,
planners, and developers not to mention the livestock feeder hemself. The
problem revolves around solid waste disposal, water pollution and air pollution.
Considerable literature is available describing the characteristics of
animal wastes and the alternatives available for its recycling, treatment, or
disposal. ?.°2=T'!''ng T.;: e characteristics there is a considerable range of values
given. The data depends upon the literature one reads which in turn probably
depends upon the type of feed, amount of bulk, and other items the animals are
receiving. A brief review of the waste characteristics was presented in Part I
of this report.
In this portion of the report, the types of control devices or remedial
measures which can be used effectively to prevent the wastes from entering and
polluting surface and ground waters are reviewed. In summary, the detention
pond is the primary type of facility for cattle feedlots. For other types of
feeding operations a variety of "lagoon" systems are used. Anaerobic lagoons,
faculative lagoons, aerated lagoon, aerobic lagoons, the oxidation ditch, and
holding pits are the major ones. Other technology receives a lot of attention,
but is not that prominently applied. Economics dictates much of this (O'Brien
and Filipi, 1969).
Johnson, et.al(1973) and David, et.al (1973) discuss in detail the economics
associated with controlling runoff arising from feedlot operations. Johnson,
et. al (1973) assume that beef feedlot operations with runo'ff problems will use
a three component runoff control system to eliminate surface water pollution
problems associated with production facilities. This system will generally
consist of a diversion terrace, settling basin, and retention pond with as-
sociated pump-irrigation equipment. The economics of this situation results in
a cost of $43.43 per head for runoff control on lots of 1,000 head or less in
-------
295
capacity, the comparable figure is $2.50. As a result of the figures, invest-
ment and cost economics will accure to large-size beef feedlot operations.
For the western U.S. the above ;chno logical solution is probably fairly
accurate. The President's Water Pollution Control Advisory Board (1972) con-
cluded that in areas of low rainfall control measures for feedlots can be rea-
sonably simple to design and install when' compared to controls required of
municipal and industrial pollution sources. The Board indicated that this is
possible through the use of techniques such as Interceptor ditching, lagoons,
land and terracing disposal.
Before presenting the available technology another topic needs mentioning.
Beyond the characteristic of the waste itself, several studies have evaluated
the quality of the runoff from a feedlot. Kreis, Scalf, and McNabb (1972)
found that 50% of the rainfall events produced measurable runoff from the feed-
pens in a beef feedlot. A four to ten inch manure mantle on the feedpen surface
was found to present runoff from 0.2 to 0.3 inch rainfalls depending on inten-
sity and antecedent moisture conditions. The total runoff from the feedpens
was equivalent to 39% of the total rainfall during the study period. Direct
runoff from the feedpens contained pollutant concentrations in the form of
oxygen demand, solids, and nutrients that were generally an order of magnitude
greater than concentrations typical of untreated municipal sewage.
Swanson (1972) also reports on the characteristics of feedlot runoff. He
indicates, among other conclusions, that runoff may not be expected from rain-
fall of 0.5 inch or less unless rainfall has occurred within the previous three
days. He also concludes that feedlot runoff control facilities should be de-
signed for periods of maximum and probably high intensity precipitation accompan-
ied by minimum evaporation. Ordinarily, however, he indicates it should not be
necessary to design such structures for the maximum possible precipitation.
Design for storm.return periods of 10 years should be adequate for most livestock
runoff control facilities.
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296
Feedlot Definition
In addition to the above brief comments on waste characterizations and
economics, before discussing livestock waste disposal, the "feedlot" needs to
be defined. Hamilton Standard (1973) indicates that animals are grown in both
feedlot and non-feedlot situations. They define a feedlot as generally having
two conditions: (1) a high concentration of animals held in a small area for
extended periods of time for one of the following purposes:
p. Prodi- -.ion of meat
b. Production of milk
c. Production of eggs
d. Production of breeding stock
e. Stabling for horseraces
and (2) the transporation of specially prepared feeds to the animals for con-
sumption. Hamilton Standard (1973) also describes each animal industry and its
particular feedlot situation. Their breakdown includes beef cattle, dairy cattle,
swine, chickens (broilers and layers), sheep, turkeys, ducks, and horses. As
noted in Part I, beef cattle are of most concern in the Rocky Mountain-Prairie
Region; however, there is production of the other types of livestock in the Region.
Waste Management Technology
Livestock waste management can be divided into two basic categories: (1)
management of the waste on the lot and (2) treatment or disposal of the waste
or runoff from the lot. Hamilton Standard (1973) refers to this breakdown as
in-process technology and end-of-process technology, respectively. Butchbaker,
et.al, (1971) discuss waste management alternatives in terms of waste handling,
waste treatment, and ultimate disposal. Shuyler, et. al (1973) discuss technology
for beef feedlot waste management in terms of site selection, runoff wastes, solid
wastes, and liquid wastes with technical means of treatment and disposal of each
waste listed* Loehr (1968) presents a technology review associated mainly with
treatment and disposal. For this discussion the on-lot and off-lot breakdown
will be used.
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297
On-Lot Technology
On-lot waste management technology revolves around the design and operation
of the feedlot and the effect these have on the environment. Hamilton Standard
(1973) lists feed formulation and utilization, water utilization, bedding and
litter utilization, site selection, pen design, housekeeping (cleaning and stock-
piling of manure) , and selection of method of production as factors which are
directly concerned with what is happening on the feedlot itself and, consequently,
indirectly effect the w^-te materials leaving the feedlot. Butchbaker, et. al
(1971) indicate that the following factors affect the removal of waste from the
surface of a feedlot:
1. moisture content
2. animal density
3. length of time from previous cleaning
4. amount of rainfall and intensity
5. slope of the feedlot surface
6. size of the pens
7. feedlot capacity
8. hauling requirements and ultimate disposal
9. temperature
10. evaporation rate
11. wind
12. solar radiation
13. soil type.
Butchbaker, et. al then describe in detail the technology currently available
for solids removal and liquid waste removal. These basically revolve around
scraping solid waste and flushing liquid wastes, respectively.
Off-Lot Technology
Off-lot technology is of major concern in this report since it is here
that runoff control and manure treatment and/or disposal technology will be
discussed. Hamilton Standard (19.73) has prepared an excellent, summary of this
type of technology referred to as "end-of-process" technology in their report.
This summary is shown in Table 89 . Level I under Status indicates that the
technology currently available while level II refers to the best available'
technology economically achievable.
This general technology breakdown (applicable to all "feedlot" animals)
-------
TABLE 89 - END-OF-PROCESS TECHNOLOGY CLASSIFICATION
(Hamilton Standard, 1973)
TECHNOLOGY
APPLICATION
FUNCTTOIv
STATUS
TYPE OF PROCESS
Manure
Runoff
Contain-
ment
Complete
Treatment
Partial
Treatment
Level I
Level II
Experi-
mental
Biological
Physical-
Chemical
Land Utilization
X
X
X
>
X
Cor post and Sell
X
X
>
X
Dehydration (Sell or Feed)
X
X
X (Sell)
X (Feed)
• X
Conversion to Industrial Products
X
X
X
X
Aerobic SOP Production
X
X
X
X
Aerobic Yeast Production
X
X
X
X
Anaerobic- SCP Production .
X
•
X
X
X
Feed Reevele
X
X
X
X
Oxidation Ditch (Spread or Feed)
X
X
X
(Spread)
X
(Feed)
X
Activated Sludire
X
x
'
X
i x
Wast el nee
X
X
X
I x
Anaerobic Fuel Gas
X
X
X 1 X
Flv Larvae Production
X
x I
X X
Biochemical Recycle
X
X
X
X
Conversion to Oil
X
X
X
X
Gasification
X
X
X
X
Pyrolvsis
X
X
X
X
Incineration
X
X
X
X
Ilvdrolysis
X
X
X
X
Chemical Extraction
X
X
X
X
Runoff Control
X
X
X
BLWRS
X
X
X
X
La coons for Treatment
X
X
X
X
X
E v p.Dora tiov,
X
X
X
X
X
Trickling Kilters
X
X
X
X
Sprav Runoff
X
X
X
X
Rotating Pioloirical Contactor
X
X
X
X
Wnti;r Hvf:ciiiths
X
x
X
X
Alyae
X
X
X
X
t-J
^C>
X>
-------
299
will serve as an outline for briefly describing the waste management technology.
Hamilton Standard (1973) has more detailed descriptions while Butchbaker (1971)
contain considerable detail on beef feedlot waste management alternatives. Other
specific references mentioned earlier also describe the technology.
Land Utilization
This centuries-old practice simply involves returning the waste to the land.
Of course the manner in which it is returned dictates the usefulness of the waste
for crop growth or whether a site is simply being used as a disposal area (high
rates of application). The waste can be spread in solid or liquid form either
on or below the surface.
Spreading on the surface creates problems with odors, flies, and runoff.
As a result subsurface injection is gaining in popularity. Smith and Gold (1972)
describe their research at Colorado State University concerning subsurface in-
jection of wastes. They inject at 3 to 6 inches and in the Rocky Mountain-Prairie
Region with high evaporation rates, this insures rapid evaporation from the
soil. This particular technology needs additional evaluation of environmental
effects and then technology transfer will be necessary. Studies are currently
underway to help determine some of the environmental affects, but very little
technology transfer has occurred.
Land utilization (particularly surface spreading) is the most popular and
economical means of ultimate disposal in the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region.
Compo st ing
Composting of animal wastes involves spreading the collected manure in
windrows three to four feet high or deporting it in -tubs or bins. The resulting
humus can then be sold; however, there is a relatively limited market. As a
result composting has limited use as a means for animal waste management.
Dehydration
The drying of animal wastes is a currently practiced technology which has
a final product that is sold as fertilizer (primarily for gardens). The process
-------
is expensive and requires a ratrket that can support the process. Recent attempts
have been made to refeed the dried wastes; however, this is only experimental
at the present time.
Conversion to Industrial Products
Manure has been processed (pyrolyzed) to create basic products in the manu-
facture of ceramic tile, a styrofoam like product, or brick. Pilot plants are
currently testing the concept and looking for markets that will support the pro-
cess. If these n*lot c dies are successful, the possibility of establishing
plants to utilize manure from many separate feedlots becomes real. This, however
would require an extensive extension effort.
Aerobic Production of Single Cell Protein
Selected thermophilic bacteria are used to treat animal waste and produce
a colony of proteinaceous single cell microorganisms. The process has reached
the demonstration phase but has encountered difficulties. The process results
in little or no pollutional discharge and produces a valuable product (protein).
Aerobic Production of Yeast
This process is in a preliminary laboratory stage of development which
utilizes many stages for processing. If proven successful in the lab, much
engineering refinement will be necessary to make the system practical.
Anaerobic Production of Single Cell Protein
Rather than using an aerobic process as before, this process uses anaerobic
fermentation to create a proteinaceous feed ingredient. Methane is also produced
Development of the process is in the laboratory stage and still has several un-
answered questions regarding the final product and the process.
Eeed Recycle Process
The Feed Recycle Process is a proprietary process which separates nondiges-
tible portions of the waste from the digestible protions by physical-chemical
means. Protein recovery is 897o. The process is currently in a pilot plant phase
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301
Oxidation Ditch
Quoting from Hamilton Standard (1973), "The oxidation ditch is made up of
two principle parts, a continuous open channel ditch, usually shaped like a race
track, and an aeration rotor that circulates the ditch contents and supplies
oxygen. The oxidation ditch is a modified form of the activated sludge process
and may be classed as an extended aeration type of treatment."
This technology is commercially used with slotted floor animal confinement
operations and has a relatively high rate of electrical power consumption. The
system also needs regular maintenance and good management to operate effectively.
Activated Sludge
These processes are normally defined as bacterial digestion in an aerated
tank. Most of the programs utilizing this technology are in a demonstration
phase. Hamilton Standard (1973) contains a thorough review of these existing
demonstration projects.
The processes are relatively complex, but have two advantages of greatly
reducing land spreading and of being able to operate in winter. However, power
and operating costs are high. Some forms of activated sludge treatment are ready
for commercial development, thus the need for technology transfer.
Wastelage
This term describes the process of using 1/3 to 1/2 of the waste from a
confined feeding operation, mixed with corn and corn silage, as a silage for
feed. The concept is available for use, but FDA approval has not been received.
The manure and corn ingredients are ensiled for ten days prior to feeding.'
The process is relatively simple, but care is needed to maintain consistent
wastelage quality. The application of this technology is limited to ruminants
on hard surfaced or slotted floors.
Anaerobic Production of Fuel Gas
The production of synthetic natural gas (SNG) by anaerobic fermentation of
animal wastes is currently in an advanced laboratory phase. Attempts to estab-
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302
lish a demonstration plant have met with various economic constraints. It
is hoped one will be available within a year to 18 months.
Large concentrations of animals will be necessary to justify the economics
of a plant of this nature. Also, remaining sludge has to be disposed of.
Reduction with Fly Larvae
This process which utilized manure as a growth substrate for fly pupae which
in turn are used as a high protein feed supplement is currently in an experimental
stage. Laboratory tests are encouraging; however, the economics and actual feed
utilization are untested. Also a residual waste exists.
Biochemical Recycle Process
This proprietary process, designed for flushed dairy waste, produces bedding
materials, fertilizer, and water from the liquid manure. Due to the proprietory
nature of the process, not much is actually known. A full-scale demonstration
is now being developed.
Conversion to Oil
This concept has high operating costs and results in a low quality ( and
*
value) oil. As a result this experimental process does not look economically
attractive at this time.
Gasification
Quoting Hamilton Standard (1973) , "Manure is partially oxidized in the
presence of steam to forma synthetic gas that can be used as an intermediate
in ammonia production by conventional manufacturing plants. The ammonia plants
would produce fertilizer. A thorough economic evaluation has not been made to
date."
The process is in an early, laboratory stage, has a moderate product value,'
has a high power requirement and requires a high concentration of animals.
Pyrolysis
Here the wastes are heated, in the absence of oxygen, to a high temperature.
The products are gases (hydrogen, methane, water, carbon monoxide, and ethylene),
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liquor (oil) and an ash. The ash must be disposed of and air pollution Is a
problem. The product value Is low and the process has been declared uneconomical.
Current work is experimental.
Incineratlon
Due to problems that have plagued other waste incineration, animal waste
incineration also appears to be not justified.
Hydrolysis and Chemical Treatment
This process carri~™ the concept of refeeding beycnd simply drying the
wastes. Hydrolysis makes the treated wastes more digestible; however, it can-
not currently compete economically with drying. Work on the process is exper-
imental.
Chemical Extraction
Chemical extraction removes the undigested food from the wastes through a
chemical process that is proprietary. The undigested food can then be recycled
as feed. The process has been described by one expert as being neither chemically
nor economically feasible. To be useful the waste would need to contain a large
amount of undigested feed as opposed to large amounts of undigested roughage.
This limits the process to animals with low roughage diets.
Runoff Control
Runoff control, due to the high pollution potential, is a critical tech-
nology. The variation of conditions from one feedlot to the next make it
difficult to establish one form of runoff control for all feedlots. Hamilton
Standard (1973) notes four reasons for this wide variation:
1. The runoff from feedlots is diffuse in nature and is difficult to
treat with standard methods.
2. The waste flow is caused by unpredictable rainfall or snowmelt.
3. The wastes themselves are extremely variable in quality.
4. The raw wastes vary widely in characteristics.
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Shuylfer^,et. al (1973) contains a complete description of runoff carried wastes.
The first stage of runoff control is collection and transportation of the
wastes as they leave the pens. These transport systems may be either a channel
which is designed to remove the solids and liquid or a channel which removes the
liquid, but due to slope, allows the solids to be settled out.
The next stage usually consists of some form of a settling basin. Shuyler,
et. al, (1973) present a commonly used design which consists of a shallow basin
bounded on the down slope side by the retention pond dyke. Runoff drains from
the pens and/or collection ditch through the settling basin, through a small
culvert or standpipe with inlets at multiple levels, and into the storage pond.
From the storage ponds the runoff is disposed of most often by irrigation.
This final step has been discussed under land utilization. Other systems of
treatment and/or disposal include lagoons of all types, evaporation, etc. Miner
(1971) presents a detailed description of the various lagoons used to treat
runoff waste water.
Given that runoff control at a feedlot is a readily available technology,
the implementation comes next. Within Colorado this data is required as a part
of the county zoning, thus making it difficult to obtain. State permits are
being developed, but are not a good source of data. Current data that is
available at the state level (Pugsley, 1973}, was compiled in 1972 and indicates
that of the 900,000 head of cattle on feedlots that ship cattle to slaughter,
250,000 head had some form of runoff control and another 100,000 head has plans
under consideration. It is estimated that another 100,000 head are now having
plans considered. It is also estimated that another 150,000 head are in feed-
lots that were designed such that no runoff control is needed beyond what is
part of the original construction. This leaves 300,000 head in Colorado without
any runoff control facilities or any plans for them. It is this segment of the
industry that an extension program could benefit.
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Barriered Landscape Water Renovation Systems
The BLWRS Is an experimental disposal system which utilizes a modified soil
plot for treating and eventually disposing of the water through evaporation or
percolation. The concept is experimental, but ready for demonstration. It can
handle only sprayable wastes and is restricted by soil and climatic conditions.
Lagoons for Waste Treatment
Lagoons are a popular biological treatment of waste water and/or manure.
Hamilton Standard (1973) notes that "They work well when properly designed and
used, but they do not provide total treatment. Lagoon water is usually used for
cropland irrigation, but it is sometimes given further treatment (e.g. chlorina-
tion) and discharged to a natural waterway.... Sludge must gsnerally be re-
moved every few years. Ambient temperature influences design and function.
Economics often favor anaerobic rather than aerobic lagoons although odor con-
trol requires close attention."
Lagoons, as noted under runoff control, normally serve as a retention basin
or storage pond prior to disposal on land. When used with runoff control, the
slugs of wastewater tend to upset the balance needed for efficient treatment,
thus the need for an ultimate disposal method. If lagoons are to be used for
treatment, the waste water or runoff needs to be metered into the pond.
Evaporation
This process of ultimate disposal of the liquid waste ( the solids must be
disposed of in another manner) can be successful where the annual evaporation
exceeds annual precipitation by a reasonable margin. Evaporation is normally
an alternative to disposing of liquid wastes on land. The evaporation pond
design must be large enough to handle the volume of wastes. This may require
a large area.
The process is applicable to the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region if it is
not desirable to use the water to grow crops.
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Trickling Filter
This old concept of treating municipal water has been tested in the lab-
~
oratory on animal wastes. There have been no large scale demonstrations; there-
fore, the system is experimental from an aninal waste treatment standpoint.
Spray Runoff
This experimental technology involves spraying waste water on a grass covered
slope and collecting the runoff at the bottom. Microorganisms on the grass and
soil act on n«Huf~ 3 in the water. The process is used where spray irriga-
tion is not practical and it is limited by weather and condition of wastewater--
it must be sprayable. Data available on the demonstrations using this concept
is limited and unconfirmed (Hamilton Standard, 1973).
Rotating Biological Contractor
Work on this experimental process has been discontinued due to relatively
poor efficiencies and high cost. The concept involved using rotating discs with
an aerobic film to treat the waste water.
Water Hyacinths
Water hyacints are placed in a series of lagoons downstream from an anaerobic
lagoon to serve as partial treatment for the anaerobic lagoons effluent. The
concept is in the early stages of development and is not currently being studied
further.
Algae
As above, algae can tee grown in a supernatant as a means of using photo-
synthetic reclamation of tfoe animal wastes as a method of waste disposal. The
harvested algae can be treated and then used as a feed additive. The effluent
for the algae growing pond can be used to flush down the animal wastes. The
closed loop operation poses some problems with salt buildup and the photosynthetic
process depends upon the environment of the pond. Studies are currently under-
way on an experimental basis to solve some of the problems
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Management/Institutions
Control of feedlot waste normally involves the technology described above
in conjunction with some form of management which may be voluntary or enforced
through regulations established by various levels of government.
At the federal level, the Environmental Protection Agency has established
a national permit system which requires feedlots above a specified size to apply
for a permit. In order to obtain the permit the feedlot must demonstrate ade-
quate control over its environmental factors. Not only does this involve applica-
tion or implementation of technology, but also the assurance that proper manage-
ment practices will be adhered to.
At the state level, more regulations are being established to control feed-
lot pollution. The state regulations are closely tied to local zoning laws
which control land use and, thus, activities on the land.
Summary
The current development of laws and regulations controlling feedlot pollu-
tion is in a constant state of change. The result is an unstable situation within
which feedlot operators find it difficult to operate. This uncertainty stems
from two basic sources: (1) changing requirements of the regulations, and (2)
not receiving complete and accurate information. It is with this second point
that the Extension Service could render a vital role.
The technology transfer of feedlot pollution control techniques has occurred
at meetings between EPA and large feedlot operators, but there has been little of
this filtering down to the grass roots lands of the countryside. Here only rumors
prevail. Also there is a need to provide "insight" into the technology so the
feedlot operators know what they need and how it should be managed. Thus it
appears that much more than simply a "technology transfer" conveyor is needed.
This need is discussed in detail in Volume 2 of the report.
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REFERENCES
Butchbaker, A. F., J. E. Garton, G. W. A. Mahoney, and M. D. Paine. 1971.
Evaluation of beef cattle feedlot waste management alternatives. En-
vironmental Protection Agency, Water Pollution Control Research Series
No. 13040FXG, November.
David, M. L., R. E. Seltzer, and W. D. Eickhoff. 1973. Economic analysis of
proposed effluent guidelines-feedlots industry. EPA-230/1-73-008, August.
Hamilton Standard. 1973. Development document for effluent limitations guide-
lines and standards of permormance - feedlot industry. United Aircraft
Corporation, Windsor Locks, Connecticut.
Johnson, J. B., G. A. IV is, J. R. Martin, and C. K. Ge2. 1973. Economic
impacts of controlling runoff arising from fed beef production facilities.
Economic Research Service, USDA.
Kreis, R. D., M. R. Scalf, and J. F. McNabb. 1972. Characteristics of rainfall
runoff from a beef cattle feedlot. EPA-R2-72-061, September.
Loehr, R. C. 1968. Pollution implications of animal wastes - a forward oriented
review. Environmental Protection Agency, Water Pollution Control Research
Series No. 13040, July.
Miner, J. R. 1971. Farm animal - waste management. North Central Regional
Publication 206, May.
Miner, J. R., D. Bundy, and G. Christenbury. 1972. Bibliography of Livestock
Waste Management. EPA- R2-72-101, December.
Ngoddy, P. 0. 1971. Closed system waste management for livestock. Environmental
Protection Agency, Water Pollution Control Research Series No. 13040 DKP,
June
O'Brien, Terry and T. A. Filipi. 1969. Control devices for animal feedlot run-
off. Proceedings of Animal Waste Management Conference, FWPCA, Missouri
Basin Region, Kansas City, Missouri, February.
President's Water Pollution Control Advisory Board. 1972. The relationship
between animal wastes and water quality. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, D.C.
Pugsley, E. B. 1973. Personal communication. November 6.
Shuyler, L. R., D. M. Farmer, R. D. Kreis, and M. E. Hula. 1973. Environment
protecting concepts-ef beef cattle:feedlot waste:management. National
Environmental Research Center, EPA, Corvallis, Oregon, July.
Smith, J. L. and R. Gold. 1972. Development of a subsurface injector for total
recycling of sewage sludge. Experiment Station Report No. PR 72-42,
Colorado State University, November.
Swanson, N. P. 1972. Hydrology and characteristics of feedlot runoff. Proceedings
of a Seminar on Control of Agriculture-Related Pollution in the Great
, PlaiiiJ, Wate^r.esource Comm., Great Plains Ag. Council. July 24-25, Lincoln,
Nebraska.
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Wells, D. M. 1971. Characteristics of wastes from southwestern cattle feedlots.
Environmental Protection Agency, Water Pollution Control Research Series
No. 13040 DEM, January.
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eOEKCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
SUMMARY OF MMIAGERIAL PRACTICES AND RESEARCH NEEDS
There are many possibilities for improved management and reclamation of
animal wastes. Treatmerc.it and handling methods must be developed to conform
with the avrious; water-aisd-air-quality standards developed by the States
and
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Efforts must be intensified to insure compliance with existing zoning
regulations and to introduce more stringent zoning requirements to provide
, ^
buffer zones around urban areas. These actions must be designed to protect
both the public and the animal industry.
Animal waste managements must be integrated and coordinated with the
total national pollution abatement plan (National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System). The importance of pollution control in the total management concept
of the animal feeding industry must be recognized now and integrated into
planning and operations. Long-range control demands more effective, complete,
and economic waste management to meet pollution problems of the future.
Intensified research and development is needed in all phases of animal-waste
management, including characteristics of manures, removal from animal quarters,
runoff, storage, transport, treatment, ultimate disposal, and economic
evaluation to insure improvement of invironmental quality with minimum dis-
ruption of current production-efficienty levels.
The following areas are indicative of needed research and action programs
for controlling animal wastes.
1. Minimizing pollution by improved use of existing
technology as well as bv developing new and improved
animal-management methods and facility design.
The Department of Agriculture is performing research to identify the
characteristics of animal wastes and the nature of pollution arising from
livestock operations. Research has been initiated, with emphasis on
cattle and poultry operations, to develop improved techniques and facility
designs to handle and dispose of wastes in a manner that will reduce air
and water pollution.
USDA action programs are directed toward (1) educational programs that
recommend designs and management techniques that will alleviate pollution
through use of current knowledge; (2) technical assistance within soil
conservation districts and through extension specialists; and (3) loans to
individuals and associations or groups of farmers who need to improve their
facilities—improving animal-waste handling facilities would qualify. USDA
envisages expansion in all types of activities and considers incentive
payments particularly necessary in this area.
The Department of Health, Education, and Welfare is currently collab-
orating in a study being carried on by the State of New Jersey which includes
consideration of the enforcement of criteria directed toward the better
application of known technology. It is anticipated that the
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criteria and standards developed by the study will form the basis for
enforceable regulations on a statewide basis.
The primary function of DHEW in this area will be to develop manuals,,
guides, and criteria for use and application by solid-waste program
administrators in dealing with the off-farm problems of animal solid wastes,
particularly in tjiose situations where interfaces exist between large
feedlots and urban environments. Technical assistance supported by organized
training programs will be provided to interested control and health agencies.
The Department of the Interior has research and demonstration programs
to develope improved techniques and facility designs to handle animal wastes
in a manner that permits discharges that meet existing water-quality
standards. In addition, it has a large program of research development and
demonstration in the broad area of industrial pollution control and abatement.
Under these programs, the Department is investigating various means for
modifying the source, quantity, and quality characteristics and to develop
means for prevention, control, and treatment of the animal wastes. USDI feels
that existing legislation is adequate but that increased funds are necessary
to implement the program.
2. Minimizing pollution by improved use of existing
technology as well as by developing new and improved
waste treatment and disposal methods
The Department of Agriculture's research program is directed toward
methods of treating and disposing of animal wastes through a variety of
techniques such as lagoons, oxidation ditches, and application to
cropland. Additional research will be performed, including the investi-
v
gation of other methods of disposal and of the capacity of cropland to
accept animal wastes without damage to crops and land.
USDA action programs are generally in the form of educational and
technical assistance provided directly to individual or groups of live-
stock producers in rural communities. Loan assistance for treatment and
disposal systems is currently available for groups of farmers or assoc-
iations. Cooperative and watershed organizations are expected to be
utilized in the development of loan, grant, and research participation
reimbursement programs for use in developing needed treatment and disposal
systems.
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The Environmental Protection Agency is supporting research
on new methods of disposal of animal wastes on land, such as injection,
composting studies to produce a product that can be disposed of more readily,
lagooning, and incineration. While it is not anticipated that economically
profitable methods will evolve in the near future, a substantive saving in
costs of disposal may be possible.
The results of these and other research and studies will permit DHEW to
establish standards of disposal and to set up a technical assistance program
to State and local authorities to accelerate application of the standards.
It is anticipated that demonstration grants (under the Solid Waste Act) and
loan of personnel will be made in support of this program. The Department
proposes keying this program to the need of large-scale producers such as
feedlot operators and poultry producers.
The primary thrust of the program in the Department of the Interior is
to utilize existing technology and develop new or improved treatment and
disposal methods. The Department supplies direct technical aid to help
resolve the water-pollution problems from feedlot operations and has a
program of intramural and extramural research, development and demonstration
of numerous unit processes and systems to minimize pollution from animal-
feedlot operations. Section 6 (b) of the Water Quality Restoration Act of
1966 provides for grant support up to 70 percent of total project costs to
institutions, industries, and individuals with a maximum support level of
$1,000,000. The existing extramural program involves the development and
demonstration of improved techniques for controlling and treating liquid wastes
from concentrated animal feeding operations. Included in this effort are
lagoons, oxidation ditches, chemical treatment, activated sludge, biological
dentrification, ultra filtration, and other concepts from the Advanced
Waste Treatment program being adapted for application to animal-waste
treatment.
3. Minimizing pollution by improved use of existing
technology as well as by developing new and improved
methods for converting wastes to useful products
The Department of Agriculture has conducted research on techniques and
uses of animal wastes for profit or at least on offsetting disposal costs
for several years. The conversion of poultry feathers into a protein feed
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is a classic example. Research for both on-farm and off-farm uses and
processes is expected to continue. Action programs in this area of emphasis
are primarily in the form of technical assistance in the construction of
processing plants. As new developments arise, educational and technical
assistance programs will probably be handled with work in other areas of
emphasis.
Research in the development of useful products is being supported by the
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Examples of research includ
conversion of animal wastes to animal feed, soil conditioners, or fertilizer
carriers, and extraction of protein for use as food supplement. The
potential for reuse or recycling of these wastes is also studied. As
indicated previously, the objective at this point is a profit. Demonstration
grants will constitute the basic support mechanism of DHEW in the translation
of the laboratory and pilot plant findings into full-scale operations. A
technical assistance program to State and local agencies and private
entrepreneurs will be established.
The Department of the Interior, in its efforts to dispose of treatment
plant sludges, has as part of some of its projects the conversion of waste
material into useful products or energy sources.
4. Minimizing pollution through (a) assisting in the
establishment and enforcement of standards, and (b)
providing criteria for land use planning
The Department of Agriculture research in this area is currently addressed
toward land use planning, as a basis for developing criteria that are
realistic in terms of the capability of the producer to meet them and in
proper balance with other forms of pollution control. Research is needed
to develop sound plans and implementation techniques for accomplishing
protective zoning for agricultural production.
USDA action programs are currently very limited; they consist primarily
of educational programs to help rural communities and rural areas develop
plans and legislation for rural development and planning in which pollution
comtrol is one of the considerations. Expansion of this activity as well as
a grant program for planning and implementation of standards and rural zoning
is considered necessary. USDA has no authority for establishing or enforcing
standards in this area.
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The Environmental Protection Agency program is predicated on the fact
that the basic responsibility for enforcement actions must reside with the
State and, particularly* ithe local authorities. Support could probably be
best developed through tke mechanism of program support grants, but such grants
are not authorized in the present Solid Waste Act. Eventually, the regulation
and enforcement must be assumed by the local authorities as a part of their
regularly constituted activities. Efforts in this direction are incorporated
as a regular element in tihe EPA program in dealing with State and local
authorities. Manpower needs would require an expanded cadre of trained
personnel. Current traiuMig activities of the Solid Waste Program will
help to meet this need. Pollution Control Programs must be based on reasonable
and adequate criteria and standards which will evolve over the coming years.
The problems of land use planning have been given little consideration
as they relate to installations producing animal wastes. Land use planners
must be supplied with criteria which,if met»will permit the location of
agricultural production centers in the vicinity of urban areas and the labor
aupply. The development $nd use of the appropriate criteria as planned by
EPA would provide the tool for progress and enlist the support and coop-
eration of the planners.
Water-quality standards adopted by all 50 States and approved by the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency include plans fos implementation for inter-state
streams, lakes, and coastal waters. With few exceptions these standards
deal effectively with municipal and industrial wastes and their effect
on water quality.. However^ with regard to agricultural waste in general,
many difficulties have been encountered in developing appropriate and
workable standards. Additional technical information is needed on the
characteristics of runoff and on the effectiveness of the numerous treatment
concepts being considered to implement the existing standard requirements.
Educational Needs
Educational and techmiology transfer needs in relation to control of
animal wastes are many ami varied. Colorado State University and other land
grant universities throughout Region VIII have, for many years, been engaged
in animal wastes control roasearch and related informational dissemination
programs. However, due ta> the nature and extent of these problems and the
hundreds of thousands of individual livestock producers involved, control
technology dissemination in this field must remain vigorous and, ideally,-
should be intensified.
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In view of the recently adopted National Pollution Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES), these many thousands of individual operators who fall within
"l
the range of NPDES regulatory standards will require a great deal of new,
and additional information concerning the ways and means for compliance. Much
of this information should concern itself with the economics of compliance
and, in many instances, the beneficial outcomes that can result.
An intra-state, and inter-state, informational and technology transfer
delivery system such as that proposed by the Colorado Cooperative Extension
Service in Part II of this report could help fulfill such a need.
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PESTICIDES
Introduction
In 1828, Friedrich Wohler achieved the first synthesis of an organic
compound; that is, he produced urea from ammonium cyanate. Hundreds of
thousands of organic chemicals have since been synthesized: many with
powerful physiological action.
The organic chemicals under discussion are insecticides, herbicides,
fungicides, nematocides, rodenticides, growth regulators, defoliants, and
miscellaneous industrial by-products that may impair quality of air, water,
and soils. Proper use of many of these chemicals has made tremendous
contributions to human convenience (controlling insects), human health
(controlling disease-carrying pests), and human welfare (greatly augmenting
needed food production).
Just as ordinary aspirin may be misused and cause human deaths each
year, the kinds of chemicals aforementioned may be misused. Agricultural
endeavor may suffer from unwise, inadvertent, or careless use of these
organic chemicals.
Effects of Pesticide Utilization
Each year for nearly 20 years, thousands of pounds of persistent organ-
ochlorine pesticides have been applied to outdoor areas in many countfies.
These compounds may last for a very long time in the environment, and be
carried by wind, water, and animals to places far distant from where they
are used. As a result, most living organisms now contain organochlorine residues.
Any segment of the ecosystem - marshland, pond, forest, or field, often
receives various amounts and kinds of pesticides at irregular intervals. The
different animals absorb, detoxify, store, and excrete pesticides at different
rates. Different degrees of magnification of pesticide residues by living
organisms in an environment are the practical result of many interactions
that are far more complex than just the magnification of chemical residues
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up the food chain. These magnifications may be millions of times from water
to1 mud or only a few times from food to first consumer.
Direct mortality of wild animals as an aftermath of recommended pesticide
treatments has been recorded in the literature of numerous countires.
However, accidents and carelessness also accompany pesticide use on a percentage
basis and are a part of the problem. More subtle effects on the size and
species composition of populations are more difficult to perceive in time to
effect remedies. The possibility of ecological effects being mediated through
changes in physiology and behavior has received attention and has resulted in
some disquieting findings. These include discovery of the role of organ-
ochlorines in stimulating the breakdown of hormones or in acting directly
as estrogens, their involvement in embryonic and early post-embryonic toxicity,
interferences with antibody formation, effects on behavior, and interactions
with stress such as nutritional deficiencies or food deprivation. Delayed
mortality long after dosage ceased has shown the serious effects of storage
of organochlorines in wild fowl. DDT has been suggested as the"indirect
cause of failing reproduction and population decline of certain predatory
bicds due to a reduction of egg-shell thickness.
The impact of these new components of the environment has appeared in
the form of death, reproductive impairment, disruption of species balance,
and behavioral alteration, but the overall effects on the environment have
not been determined.
Insecticides
Along with their many benefits to agriculture, insecticides can adversely
affect agriculture in many ways. "Wastes in Relation to Agriculture" reports:
The application of insecticides to protect cotton led to drift that destroyed
the beneficial insect complex in citrus groves, necessitating the use of
insecticides to control certain pests of citrus that were ordinarily controlled
by beneficial insects.
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"The use of malathion to control and eradicate a cereal, foraye or
forest insect pest has destroyed honey bees and other insects necessary
for crop pollination.
-The application of persistent insecticides to potato lands has led to
residues in sugarbeets grown in the same soil the following year, for which
there are no tolerances.
-Residues may occur on agricultural commodities as a result of accidental
contamination, inadvertent use, or even recommended use of pesticides. Losses
from condemnation may be serious. Congress authorized an appropriation of
$10 million to reimburse cranberry growers following confiscation of certain
lots of cranberries found to contain illegal residues of a herbicide. This
herbicide had been applied by some growers at the wrong time of the growing
season in spite of warnings from recognized authorities. Dairymen whose
milk was confiscated because of pesticide residues were compensated in the
amount of $350,000.
-Pish in farm ponds have been killed because of the drainage of insec-
ticide wastes from nearby lands into these ponds following heavy rains.
-Pesticides such as heptachlor and aldrin formerly were applied on
rangelands to control grasshoppers, but their use was discontinued.
Residues of these pesticides in meat of beef animals are not permitted.
Such uses • are no longer registered.
-The use of heptachlor in the past for the control of alfalfa weevil has
led to soil contamination, and through translocation or external contamination
of the hay during harvest has caused nonpermitted residues in milk of dairy
cows consuming such hay. This use is no longer registered or recommended.
-The application of persistent insecticides, such as dieldrin for the
eradication of the Japanese beetle, led to low-level but significant residues
in livestock grazing in the eradication area.
"The careless disposition of insecticide and insecticide containers has
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caused injury to livestock through contamination of drinking water and feed.
Improper use of insecticides and so-called empty containers have caused
injuries, and in a few cases even death, to farmers and farm labor applying
the materials, and has created hazards to workers in the treated fields.
Herbicides
Use of selective herbicides has made a tremendous contribution to
agricultural and forestry production. But these chemicals can be misused or
used without Droper - ecautions. The adverse effects arising from the use
of these chemicals fall predominantly on agriculture and forestry.
Spray drift and vapors from aerial and ground applications of her-
bicides for the control of weeds and brush on non-agricultural lands, such
as utility rights-of-way, roadsides, railroads, ditchbanks, and industrial
and aquatic sites, often cause damage to nontarget crops--flowers, ornamen-
tals, and trees. The volatile ester formulations of the phenoxy herbicides
cause the greatest number of damage claims, but other herbicides also may
cause damage.
Drift from aerial application of a herbicide on a crop such as rice
may seriously damage a sensitive crop such as cotton, even miles away. In
years past, there were serious incidents of this sort, but adherence to care-
ful field application procedures has largely eliminated this source of
damage. In addition, many States now control the application of herbicides
by aircraft.
A herbicide may be carefully tested under certain environmental condi-
tions for a specific crop and deemed to be completely safe; but under a
changed environment, identical use on the same crop may cause serious damage.
For example, prometryne was found to be completely safe for use as a selective
herbicide on potato fields at many locations in the Northern States. However,
in the San Joaquin Valley of California, residual effects caused serious
damage to potatoes in the spring of 1966.
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Herbicide wastes from sprayer-loading areas and storage areas, improper
disposal of empty containers, and excess herbicides may damage nearby crops.
Herbicide wastes may enter drainage and irrigation ditches and cause damage
far removed from the source of contamination.
Fungicides, Rodenticides, Industrial Chemicals.
Occasional incidents occur wherein careless handling or misuse of these
substances cause damage to agriculture or forestry, but adverse effects from
these entities are much less than those experienced from insecticides and
herbicides.
Seriousness of the Problem
The presence of residues in agricultural commodities, resulting from
accidental contamination or inadvertent use of pesticides could constitute
significant economic as well as health problems. Small quantities of potatoes,
sugarbeet pulp, and soybean oil have been seized because of pesticide residues.
Such events can adversely affect consumer acceptance and consumption of
agricultural products once these incidents are brought to public attention.
The economic impact from the loss of honey bees and other beneficial
insects, due to pesticides, has not been determined. In areas highly
dependent on pollinating insects the losses could be substantial.
The economic losses incurred by damages from herbicide vapors and spray
drift are unknown. However, the litigation and damage claims were sufficiently
serious during the past 20 years to cause passage of laws and establishment
of regulations in 45 states which authorize certain restrictions on the use
of herbicides.
Damages to agriculture have occurred from use of pesticides. Whitten
(1966) has provided a penetrating review of the evidence concerning adverse
effects from using pesticides. Mistakes have been made. Decisions and
recommendations have in the past proceeded from inadequate information. We
must exercise every caution.
-------
322
One must consider all the evidence relating to the use of these chemicals.
Their assistance in man's eternal fight against insects, diseases, and
weeds contributes immeasurably to the welfare of man. However, where misuse
of agricultural chemicals occur, harmful effects upon fish, wildlife, and
human beings result. As this chapter has indicated, there are numerous
documented incidents where damages have occured. More recently, through
enlightened management practices, damage to the environment is being
lessened. This is to be commended and encouraged.
-------
323
Pesticide Utilization in Region VIII
Within the Region VIII states, Colorado shows a marked increase in acreages
treated with agricultural chemicals especially on weeds and grass in crops. In
this catagory Colorado treated 593,279 acres in 1964 and in 1969 almost doubled
the treated acreage to 973,747. Likewise in treatment of insects and disease
in crops Colorado jumped from 363,074 acres in 1964 to 832,920 acres in 1969.
By contrast North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana and Wyoming cut their treated
acreage for insects and disease to about one-half during the same time period.
However, these same str"=s along with Utah increased treatment of acreage in
weeds and brush for pasture by about 507= while Colombo shows a decline in this
category of about 20.-(Table 9D)
Nationally, North Dakota was the only Region VIII state that ranked among
leaders in any^sptecific category. This was in acreage treated for weed control
in crops other than hay as' reported by The Pesticide Review 1972.
Use of chlorinated hydrocarbons has decl '.ned in recent years in the Region
VIII states. Other short term toxins are used or permitted for use by several
agencies to control plant and insect pests.
Weed control personnel use 2-4-D (2-4-Dichlorophenoxyacetate acid) primarily
to control weed growth on over 21 million acres within the Region.
Mosquito control districts use organic phosphates and pyrethrins to control
insect larvae. Baytex, lethane, ma lathion, and pyrethrins are also utilized to
control larvae and adult mosquitoes.
The U.S. Forest Service has ceased to spray the forests to control Insect
infestations, however, the Forest Service can, and does, spray for insect con-
trol under certain conditions. In Colorado, spraying is done on a localized
basis and generally in cooperation with the State.
Data showing the quantities of pesticides utilized by all consumers within
Region VIII, including private, industrial, and home consumption is difficult
to come by.
-------
Pesticides Statistics Region VIII - Fiscal Year 1972
Pesticides Consumed
Acreages treated with insecticides, herbicides, fungicides and other chemicals
Table 90
State
North Dakota
South Dakota
Utah
Montana
Wyoming
Colorado
Weeds and Grass in Crops-1969
-1964
6,817,702
6,814,780
3,129,915
3,325,021
109,007
110,367
2,903,493
3,898,445
183,418
112,502
973,747
593,279
Weeds and Brush in Pasture-1969
-1964
62,978
14,091
119,298
48,284
11,353
10,252
86,872
66,636
79,178
48,571
47,672
56,645
Insects and Disease in Crops-1969
-1964
587,486
950,673
527,336
861,564
129,532
125,288
322,754
927,174
59,268
135,244
832,920
363,074
Source: U.S. Agricultural Census, 1969.
ro
p-
-------
325
DDT residues continued their general decline in Region VIII following
the national trend. They were down more than 28% from 1970 to 1971 and amounted
V
to less than one-fourth the disappearance during the peak of 1959.
-------
326
Pesticides in Water - Region VIII
In June 1968, the Federal Water Quality Administration conducted the first
spring survey of chlorinated hydrocarbon residues in surface waters of the
conterminous United States. Dieldrin and DDT (and its congeners) were the
residues most frequently detected. The maximum concentrations found never
exceeded permissible FWQA limits in relation to human intake directly from a domestic
watef supply. However, they have often exceeded the environmental limit of
O.050 ug/l?fer ^^-onraic: id by the Federal Committee on Water Criteria (Pesticide
Monitoring Journal Vol. 4 No. 2, September 1970).
Region VIII States
Table 91 . Results of synoptic survey for pesticides in surface waters, June 1968.
Concentration in na/urea i
"J lOCtTKM
Dmnt
Bhmin
DDT
DDE
DDD
Likmnb
BHC
| MISSOURI BASIN REGION
1 Miuouri River
I ft. Louii. Mo.
Kansas City. Kanj.
Omaha, N'cbr.
Yankton, S. Dale.
Bitmarck, N. Dak.
Sc. Joseph, Mo.
Monti Pljtte River
Henry, Nebr.
Put It River
PUttsmouth, Nebr.
Sooth Platte River
Julesburg, Colo.
Yellowstone River
Sidney, Mont,
lainy River
Kaudette, Minn,
tod River (North)
Grand Forks, N.Dak.
Emecton, Manitoba
Kansas River
Lawrence, Kam.
8lf Horn River
Hardui, Mont.
si 1 1 1 1 1 § 1 1 1 II 1 1
•0J3
.037
.008
—
—
.003
I
.027
South "Central Region
__ |
Rio Grande River
Alamosa, Colo,
—
j .029
—
—
—
Southwest Region
Colorado River
Loma, Colo.
Green River
Dutch John, Utah.
!
1
1
1
1
!
1
l
—
—
—
—
-------
327
Table 92 . Pesticide occurrences by FWQA Region, 1964-68.
Pesticide
Missouri Basirf'
Southwest **
Dieldrin
25
13
Endr in
13
5
"DDT
18
10
DDE
6
5
DDD
10
4
Aldrin
0
1
Heptachlor
4
2
Heptachlor epoxide
6
2
Lindane
2
0
BHC
3
2
Chlordane
0
1
Total
87
45
No. of Samples
70
65
* Includes Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota
** Includes Colorado and Utah
-------
Table 93 Top 10 Locations at which highest levels were observed each year 1964-1968. (Region VIII only).
Location uG/1.
Location uG/1.
Location uG/1.
Location |uG/l.
Location |uG/l.
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
ENDRIN"
Big Horn Riv.
Hardin, MT
Red Riv., No.
Grand Forks,
ND
Yellowstone R.
1 Sidney, MT
0.026
0.023
0.021
Rio Grande R.
Alamosa, CO
0.014
S. Platte R.
Julesburg, CO
0.063
i DDT
Red River
Grand Forks
ND
0.072
Rio Grande R.
Alamosa, CO
Red River
Grand Forks
ND
S. Platte R.
Julesburg, CO
0.149
0.034
0.023
Red River
Grand Forks
ND
0.054
¦
Missouri R.
Yankton, SD
Rio Grande R.
Alamosa, CO
0.053
0.029
DDE
S. Platte R.
Julesburg; CO
0.009
Yellowstone R.i
Sidney, ME |0.002
r
i
!
i
BHC
"
!
i I
S. Platte R. |
Julesburg, CO |0.022
(
1
- - i-
-------
329
Organochlorine Insecticide Residues in Agricultural Soils of Colorado
An exploratory study of organochlorine chlorine's presence and persistance
in soils of Colorado conducted by the Agricultural Experiment Station of Colorado
State University in the summer of 1967 and analyzed in 1968. (Reported in EPA's
Pesticides Monitoring Journal, Vol. 5, No. 3, December 1971.) DDT was detected
in 27 of the 50 soils sampled and ranged in concentrations from 0.06 to 41.10 ppm.
Aldrin and/or dieldrin residues were detected in 14 of 50 samples, ranging from
less than 0.02 to 0.91 ppm. Heptachlor and/or its epoxide were found in 11 of
the soils sampled at concentrations of less than 0.02 to 0.07 ppm. Garama-chlor-
dane was found in 8 of these 50 samples at concentrations of less than 0.02 to
0.05 ppm. Other materials detected in the 50 soil samples analyzed were: lin-
dane, in 8 samples, dicofol in 7, endrin in 2, endosulfan in 1, tetradifon in 1,
and toxaphene in 1. Residues of organochlorine insecticides were not detected
in nine of the samples analyzed.
Although the study was somewhat exploratory in nature, the results may serve
as an indication of the general occurance and persistance of organochlorine in-
secticides in agricultural soils of Colorado.
Residues of DDT were detected in all of the major agricultural areas of
Colorado (54%.of the soils sampled). Low levels of aldrin and/or dieldrin were
detected in 287» of the samples studied. Heptachlor and its epoxide were found
in 22% of the samples. The other insecticides all were found at lower frequencies.
These results indicate that significant amounts of DDT residues persist in
the soils where they have been applied frequently. Overall, the residue levels
of the organochlorine insecticides in the Colorado agricultural soils sampled
generally were lower than those reported in other parts of the United States
and Canada, the study reported.
Other Findings Relative to Region VIII
Tourangear (1969) reported eggs of ospreys on Flathead Lake, Montana con-
tained up to 135 ppm of DDT.
-------
330
Mussehl and Finley (1967) reported up to 280 ppm of DDT contained in fat
tissue of blue grouse samples from Montana.
Pillmore and Finely (1963) cittup to 43 ppm of DDT in Montana and Colorado
mule deer samples studied.
Jewell (1967) also reported DDT, Dieldrin and Endrin residues in fat tissues
of Colorado deer samples studied in 1966.
Greenwood, et.al. (1967) studied samples of mule deer, white-tail deer,
pronghorns, and elk in South Dakota and found 0.2 average DDT residue and
traces of Dieldrin residues.
Pesticide and Herbicide Usage in Region VIII
Use of chlorinated hydrocarbons has declined in recent years in the Region
VIII states. Other short-term toxins are used or permitted for use by several
agencies to control plant and insect pests.
Weed control personnel use 2-4-D (2-4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) predom-
inantly to control weed growth on over 21 million acres in Region VIII.
Region VIII mosquito control districts have used organic phosphates and
pyrethins to control insect larvae during 1972-73. Baytex (0,0-Dimethyl 0-
(4-Methyl + hlO)-m-folyl) phosphorothioate), Lethane - 384 (B-Butoxy-B^-thiocyano
diethyl ether), Malathion (0,0-Dimethyl phosphoro dithioate of diethylmercapto-
succinate) and Pyrethrins were utilized to control mosquito larvae and adult
mosquitoes.
The U.S. Forest Service has ceased to spray the forests to control insect
infestations, however, the Forest Service can, under certain conditions, spray
for insect control.
Individual use of herbicides and insecticides has not been assessed but is
believed limited to organic phosphates and 2-4-D.
The U.S. Geological Survey (1970) reported no measured chlorinated hydro-
carbons (.00 micrograms per liter) for the three forks of the Flathead River.
-------
331
Gaufin (2.972) believes that if chlorinated hydrocarbons are to be found
within the aquatic ecosystem, the area of concentration and accumulation would
be in bottom sediments and not in the water itself. According to Sonstellie
(1972) certain drainages that were sprayed long ago have not shown complete
recovery as evidenced by the present lack of certain Plecoptera (stone flies)
which were previously to be found in the streams.
There is ample opinion that the use of chlorinated hydrocarbons should be
totally banned from use. Organic phosphates used by mosquito control personnel
and crop growers, in general, are reported co have only short-term toxic effects.
Baytex is reported to hydrolize in a few weeks (Chemgro Corp. 1967). However,
this pesticide is reported toxic to certain aquatic organisms of contrations
of 5 ppm or less (Kemp, Abrams and Overbeck, 1971). Malathion has reported
half life on the soil of 4 days (American Cyanamid Co., 1971). This pesticide
has been reported toxic to Rainbow trout fry at concentrations of 1.0 ppm
(Kemp, Abrams, and Overbeck, 1971). Diazinon (o,o-diethyl 0-(2 isopropyl-
4 methyl-6 pyrimdinyl) phosphorothioate), the pesticide most ccframonly used
in orchards, is reported to have no residual effects (Giegy Chem. Corp., 1967).
This chemical is reported toxic to Rainbow trout at concentrations of less than
0.2 ppm and toxic to certain zooplankton at concentrations of less than 1 ppb
(Kemp, Abrams" and Overbeck, 1971). While long term effects of these chemicals
are not known, it is quite apparent that these chemicals must be applied properly
and carefully to prevent contamination of water supplies. Aerial spraying, then,
could contribute to pesticide residue occurances in certain drainage areas of
Region VIII.
Residues in Fish in Region VIII
Pesticide data related to Region VIII states in terms of fish, wildlife,
and estuaries were reported in the June 1971 Pesticides Monitoring Journal
(EPA June 1971 Vol.5 No.l).
The fish monitoring program was conducted by the Bureau of Fish and Wild-
-------
332
life in 1967 and 1969. Included among the 50 nationwide monitoring stations
were the states of Colorado, Montana, Utah, Wyoming, and North Dakota.
A total of 147 composite fish samples were drawn from the 50 stations in
the fall of 1969. Most of the composites consisted of five fish. Results of
the residue analysis are shown in Table 94 for those samples collected within
the Region VIII states.
Table 94. Organochlorine insecticide residues in fish, fall 1969.
Pesticide Monitoring Journal, 1971.
ComcnoN Data
SnnoK Numbe*
No.
Avexage
P
E
h
an Location
Srenrs
or
Fish
Length
(Incies)
Wt.
17.6
1.6
0.3
1.4
7 0S
14.0
5.03
r-t ml
000
' ]
.02
.02
.03
.01
.02
•W
.06
.07
.12
.01
.01
.01
.01
.0:
.01
<•10
.18
.22
#»
Missouri Rjver
Great Falls,
Mont.
Redhorce (sucker)
Goldeyv
J
3
16.9
12.9
2.0
0J
7.88
12.5
.03
.29
.03
.28
.02
34
.08
.91
.01
.02
.02
.08
.25
2.35
Green River
Vernal,
Utah
Cirp
Flannelmouth
tucker
Black bullhead
5
3
3
lli)
19.2
3.4
0.9
2.6
0.2
2.50
1.97
1.51
.04
.13
.03
IB
.02
.07
.19
.01
.19
.60
.06
u>i
.01
.01
.02
J3
2.14
.15
"" #14"
Utah Lata
Proro,
Uuk
Carp
Black bullhead
While bass
J
3
J
17.0
9.«
10.2
2.1
0.3
0.3
1.51
6.15
2.17
*
.10
.04
.1)
ill
.03
M
.04
.03
.21
.22
.12
.43
.02
.03
.02
.01
Xtl
ill
.29
21
1.04
OtOAMOCHLOtlNB InSECTKlDtS (PPM)1
The major conclusions drawn from this study are that DDT and dieldrin
occurred in almost all fish samples examined. Residue levels of these insec-
ticides remained high at some stations in 1969. Organochlorine insecticides
were present in few samples and at generally lower levels than in previous
years, according to the report.
Residues in Wildlife
Organochlorine residues occur in alnuist all birds analyzed in studies that
have included samples from Region VIII states. Residues in western birds and -
fish have been studied extensively (Hunt, 1964; Keith and Hunt, 1966). Samples
studied generally contained DDT, DDD, DDE, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, toxa-
phene, benzene hexachloride, and chlordane. Usually several kinds of pesticides
are found in a single sample.
Eggs of cormorants nesting on interior lakes of North Dakota contained
11 ppm of organochlorine residues, primarily DDT and its metabolites but in-
-------
333
Table 95 . Organochlorine insecticide residues in fish—mean values 1968
and 1969 samples. Pesticide Monitoring Journal, 1971.
STATION NUMHX AMD LOCATION
DDT and Mbtaiolitbs (PPM)>
Dkuun (PPM)1
Paul
Fall
Srtmo
Fall
Faia
Snmo
1969
1968 •
1968 1
1969
1968'
1968*
MISSISSIPPI RIVER SYSTEM
ns
326
Sit
tna
if30
£31
r32
#33
Kanawha River
Ohio River
Cumberland River
Illinois River
Mississippi River (Iowa)
Arkansas River (Ark.)
Arkansas River (OUa.)
While River
Missouri River (Nebr.)
Missouri River (N. Dak.)
Missouri River (Moot.)
.43
125
.93
1.88
.24
1.83
2t
1JS
.69
.08
JO
1J2
1.87
1.23
.83
.72
5.86
M
3.89
.62
.19
26
.27
1.17
.44
.46
.44
1.99
.17
2-31
.44
.31
.06
.02
M
.02
J»
.01
JOS
m
M
.04
.01
.01
.03
joa
j03
Jl
xa
.03
m
JOS
.12
.os
in
m
.03
SB
.18
.01
21
M
.17
.13
.01
j02
HUDSO
N BAY DRArN
rAGE
#34
Red River (North)
.44
1.35
J3
S)l
sn
20
COLORADO RIVER SYSTEM
£35
#3<
Green River
Colorado River '
.28
.41
.08
.11
21
25
.01
.01
.00
SJ0
.02
.02
INT
ERIOR BASIN
i
Tract ee Hw
Utah Lak*
Jl
26
.14
.71
J3
.01
m
so
JOl
sn
JO
eluding also about 0.2 ppm of dieldrin; some also contained traces of hep-
tachlor epoxide (U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife).
Pheasants and sharp-tailed grouse of South Dakota have been analyzed for
the presence of nine chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides residues, DDT, DDD,
DDE, endrin, lindane, heptachlor, heptachlor epoxide, aldrin, dieldrin. Eight
of these residues were detected in the samples. Endrin was not found at levels
above 0.05 ppm. Heptachlor and aldrin were found at low levels in a few of the
birds. The combined levels of DDT, DDD, and DDE averaged 0.27 ppm in grouse
and 0.37 ppm in pheasants. Lindane was not detected above 0.01 ppm in approx-
imately 75% of the grouse and pheasants, and the remainder of the birds had
residues below 0.2 ppm. Dieldrin was found in greater concentration in grouse
(0.17 ppm versus 0.08 ppm), and heptachlor epoxide levels were higher in the
pheasants (0.06 ppm versus 0.02 ppm).
The average amount of all chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides found in
the fat of grouse and pheasants in this study was 0.05 ppm.
-------
334
Many surveys of insecticide residues in birds have been done in areas
associated with either recent or heavy application of insecticides or in areas
where it was suspected that the insecticides were damaging to the birds. The
results of these studies would indicate higher levels than if the birds were
randomly sampled from a large area. Mussehl and Finley (1967) analyzed the fat
of 26 blue grouse (Dendragapus obscurua) collected from an area in western Mon-
tana which had been sprayed with 0.5 lb of DDT per acre. Levels of DDT and its
metabolites in these birds ranged from 1.5 to 280 ppm. Grouse survival and
productivity were not shown to be significantly affected by these residue levels.
Pesticides - Low Priority Problem
All indications currently are that pesticides contribute relatively little
to non-point source pollution problems within the EPA Region VIII states compared
with other sources. None of the states report any serious residue levels detec-
table in water sampling during the past two to three years.
Water quality monitoring data supplied by the U.S. Geological Survey also
corroborates these conclusions.
One factor in the relatively low levels of pesticide residues in ground
and surface waters has been the rather swift dissappearance of long-term, highly
toxic DDT and DDT-related products. With the switch-over to less harmful,
short-term orgariochlorine pesticides detectable residues have been decreasing
accordingly.
Another contributing factor is that Region VIII states are relatively low
:onsumers of pesticides generally. Total treated croplands rank low in compar-
ison with such states as Texas, Illinois, Iowa, and Minnesota. Only North Dakota
3hows high acreage treatment for weed control in pastures at 6,817,000 acres
:or 1969 (Table 96 >
A check of the Food and Drug Administration's Market Basket Sampling¦data
ilso reveals very low, in fact almost non-existent, levels of pesticide residues
Ln consumer food products tested in recent months within the six Region VIII
-------
335
states according to reports from the various State Departments of Health.
The general conclusions that might be drawn from the data examined relative
to pesticide usage within Region VIII are that (a) Region VIII is a low-use
region, (b) evidences of high pesticide residue levels are quire rare, most
instances going back in years to the period prior to the banning of long-term,
persistant chemicals, and (c) pesticides today rank relatively low as a contrib-
utor to non-point source pollution in the Rocky Mountain-Prairie States Region.
-------
Table 96.
u<
Ml foaltayi Hmm ImW m« *» * »l»«H ky ftotw, ktM M*M| IS<#
lt«t*
AUiua
Uute
Arl toot
California
Colorado
wuwctlcat
XfcUarara
Florid*
Georgia
B***U
Jdabo
ZXIIdjIi
InlliM
Iow%
Iiuu
Kootucky
Loai«lao«
Ikl r>e
Miry luj
tou»achu»*tt«
tteu>e«ot*
M»al««lppt
Ml tMurl
H-intana
BebraaVa
B«rada
iw Ha-Bp^hlra
In Jersey
fa* Itexlcct
ftew Tori
OorU» Carolina
i^r'1 i-i.-:»
Ot'io
Oklahoaa
Orecoo
PennaylwUa
fetode Ulani
South Carolln*
South Dakota
Veniiuiisefl
Texa*
Utah
Voraoot
Virginia
VaebiogLoo
W«»t VlifltU
W1aconulo
Wyoad r\&
ToUl
iBMQt ea»tyol
B»y
iun
17,099
*2,160
18,671
379,961
85,553
1.531
11,21
8,205
5
52.180
12.957
52.717
36,**5
Ifc.Toa
**,226
22,*03
9<»
16,564
1,171
81,715
18,182
9,283
S9.09I.
56,000
3:1,862
63,351
55*
">,937
31,53*
125,171
7,653
30,078
1*0,536
85,017
36,358
1*5,*90
39
6,7*1
*7,358
1*,21B
122,901
95,7*9
7,*80
21,705
32,355
5,582
18,56*
36,76o
2.18-5,223
DolUrf
60,527
363,911
51,7*6
2,*97,600
2*0,780
7,013
3,601
*o.*59
*7,691
2,310
187,080
156.011
201,338
163,52*
113,03*
187,86*
78,730
*,31*
-1,309
5,751
270,695
81,623
35,601
133,323
11*,667
12*,29*
100,7*3
1,331
19,932
130,050
*"*,737
*2,555
39,072
*92,3*0
235,281
137,*27
*86,033
3(2
23,030
88,231
61,610
385.72*
200,987
26.589,
78,650
155,079
19,571
81,805
86,736
8,627,706
Otter crop*
*£W
589,131
3*2
510,1*9
1,588,95*
3,062,*20
710,656
26,039
*9,387
1,257,*52
9*0,229
51,521
381,281
*,522,800
1,290,0**
3,996.196
1,*17,715
230,399
1,969,*2*
157,185
128,369
3*,575
*5*,271
1,108,935
1,*59,9**
1,199,368
98,517
2,363,660
25,765
7,272
120,773
215,956
335,*06
828,331
337,67*
35*,556
602,239
223.197
217,126
7,655
71*,757
*59,700
3*8,79*
*,233,*53
26,681
11,099
272,1**
*21,89*
21,813
769,906
16,112
39,B8l,566
Dollore
5,870,230
*,26*
U,62*,808
8,570,162
63,116,309
2,***,718
623,109
**0,899
23,*76,181
13,0*0,670
Y$,V&
2,930,122
12, T*1,3*7
3,90*, 01.5
12,1123,088
3,633,706
2,032,913
8,1*8,3*6
1,335,7n0
807,60*
888,696
5,363,172
3,533,67*
15,673,280
*,070,535
175,776
6, *83,571
291,062
168,962
2,510,*6i
l,*ll,*3f
7,173,*"W
9,0*5,ie2
8>*,777
3,1137.622
2,029.**6
3,73*.313
3,050,381
175,623
8,2*6,*5*
99*,025
l,8l6,e*>
22,029,166
223,691
1)3,*18
3,031,166
8,203,*09
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3,438,076
63,87*
296,971,125
Umtoek
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Dollars
*31,308
1,372
167,210
*35,231
1,23>,875
609,032
*8,759
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683,637
e23,103
33, ">31
3W, 152
1,259,*78
676,055
2,318,931
1,162,565
673,891
399,161
77,667
131.397
52,352
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*53,180
1,135,728
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1,388,*91
53,072
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521,877
369,365
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823,586
230,030
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581,827
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121.557
81,311
313,193
252,551
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212,726
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26,781
21,571
27,987
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52,802
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18,878
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26,169
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1,379
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8
*1,382
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12,125
85,191
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15,297
329
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1,267,111
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235,363
295,836
185,890
*,737,335
*25,333
52,153
17,003
1,213,890
692,651
962,968
159,063
2*7,237
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161,777
55,739
38,762
1&3.027
6,616
27,618
51,199
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100,091
106,398
95,911
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155,15*
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155,322
113,379
136,250
509,831
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169,620
2,797
575,V/,
398,631
*,863
57,773
132,076
17,331,850
rwgo* 0spiral
t£Oi
*7,677
1
35,93*
*1,9*9
577/125
36,711
8,208
7,578
819,**5
101,533
6,369
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93,300
59,257
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*9.979
9,366
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167,033
97,611
61,81*
*2,760
168,237
50,751
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*,3*1
50,015
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39,9*3
219,73*
79,73*
3*,2.U
111,623
TO,931
2,299
36,169
20,278
16,925
2*0,092
7,102
3,750
55,952
98,919
15,551
69,928
6,396
*, >88,036
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305,528
11,797,236
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291,11*
82,*65
13,679,300
l,*9*,6l3
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*96,693
750,227
670,728
362,675
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115,8*2
212,6*2
851,129
381,308
295,552
3,176,602
*62.325
317,701
**5,067
197, *88
163,683
8,058
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1,056,5*8
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2,693,976
752,1*3
306,581
1,093,5*9
223,973
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58,3*7
*69,2*5
29,769
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360
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55,282
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271
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:6,51a
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62,978
19,812
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116,729
10,132
32
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722
121,526
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157,851
153,189
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116,921
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*,631
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2,087
33,015
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3,072
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t 768,518
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31,567
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53.922
153,755
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*,152
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. 8'2.*76
237,883
937,727
9,222,5*9
1,330,896
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589,217
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35,252
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6,502,201
2,077,779
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159,007
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*,*32.2*9
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16,502,920
18,530.175
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18,388,110
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8,622,263
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501,187
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*36,207
9,336,936
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*,*23.38*
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65,358
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3,992,920
*,368,*33
20,600,066
288,776
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9,258,390
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ru«t (j.roii»u«*
or
. rnnflrtl«
4SB1
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202,612
601,089
630,*83
11,283
1,677
3,3*5
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201,812
28,386
56,732
68,525
31,755
72,02*
31.10*
28,975
20*,63*
65,0*7
*,563
3,287
3*,790
96,331
775,586
113,632
18,571
3*,190
13,01*
1,2*9
5,000
8,596
38,530
125,378
1*5,6o5
22,270
*7,693
31,911
2*,733
577
161,50*
28,860
61,*55
l,*o*,J*l
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2,120
23,117
79,780
6,18*
)8.1*3
2,76*
5,780,991
ftollnrj
565,763
1,068,89}
1,822,132
3.661,756
57,5*3
10.951
10,097
183,505
1,017,019
80,518
J?3,5*3
3*5,753
180,113
309,138
95,326
*29.159
715,708
30*,907
31,993
35,325
287,135
3*6,651
2.55*,518
**3,830
*0,561
87,7*6
50,873
13,359
61,755
3*. *27
217,*5*
1,19*.335
255,393
1*0,629
153.977
200,290
196,*93
2,09*
6*1,213
50,757
255,26*
3,518,>95
22,9*7
1*,^8*
233,2*1
600,9*6
33,830
155,599
8,339
23,095,5*5
"1969 Cmiw of Aftrlcultura*.
Pesticide Review, USDA, 1972
ON
-------
337
PESTICIDE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
This chapter discusses methods that can be used to reduce the quantity of
pesticides moving into the aquatic environment. There are several approaches:
(1) reduce the movement of pesticides into water by controlling erosion and
minimizing wind drift, (2) reduce the quantity of pesticides used by applying
minimum amounts needed to control the pests or by substituting non-chemical
methods of pest control, and (3) substitute biodegradable for persistent pest-
icides to the extent pcsible. A more detailed analysis of problems related to
pesticides in the aquatic environment as well as a comprehensive review of con-
trol methods and alternatives may be found in the EPA Publication: Pesticides
in the Aquatic Environment, April 1972.
Pathways and Control Methods
Agricultural pesticides enter the Region VIII's waterways by several means:
(1) erosion, (2) runoff water, (3) escape of pesticides during application, (4)
volatilization and redeposition of pesticides, and (5) accidents and incorrect
container disposal. An obvious but fundamental means of reducing potential
water pollution from pesticides is correct usage. It is essential that users
follow recommended application techniques and not exceed prescribed dosages for
specific pest problems. Methods of controlling pollution from various sources
are discussed below.
Eros ion
The major route of pesticides to thfe waterways is via erosion.
Because of the tight binding characteristics of pesticide,
residues to soil particles, it is suggested that the general
pollution of waters by pesticides occurs through the trans-
port of soil particles to which the residues are attached.
Suspended plant particles or leachates from crop residue also carry pesticides
to waterways. Since most pesticides adhere readily to soil, any cropping pattern
or practice that is likely to cause erosion is also likely to foster entry of
pesticide .uateri-Os into lakes and streams. Limiting the use of pesticides on
-------
338
erosion-prone soil will reduce Che pollution potential. Water and wind erosion
'i
control measures are also highly recommended.
Nonpersistent pesticides pose only short-term problems from erosion or run-
off. Persistent pesticides are a more serious threat to waterways from water
and wind erosion. However, the threat of polluting waterways is reduced by
practices that minimize soil erosion.
Pesticide persistence depends primarily on the structure and properties of
the compound, and to a lesser degree on location in or on the soil and soil par-
ticles. There is wide variation in persistence among different pesticides.
For example, the highly toxic phosphate insecticides are relatively nonpersistent
in soils. In contrast, some of the chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides may
persist A to 5 years under normal rates of application. The longer a pesticide
reamins in the soil, the more likely it is to move from target sites to nontarget
areas by water or wind erosion.
Runoff
Pesticides also enter waterways through surface runoff and groundwater
supplies. As a group, pesticides have low solubility in water, but small amounts
are transported in solution. Herbicides are generally more water soluble than
insecticides, and a few are freely soluble. Frequently, a choice can be made
between two chemicals of varying degrees of solubility. It is easier to prevent
runoff of pesticides in arid regions, where crops are irrigated and application
of water can be controlled.
Application Methods
The amount of pesticides entering lakes and streams is influenced by the
method of application and the solubility and volatility of pesticides. Pesticides
incorporated into the soil, rather than left on the surface of soil or plants,
are less subject to movement by runoff waters and to evaporation.
Pesticides are applied in liquid form as a spray or in solid form as a dust
or granule. Present methods of application are imperfect in that some of the
-------
339
pesticide reaches nontarget organisms. The major reasons are lateral displace-
ment (i.e., wind drift) and volatilization of the water carrier and the pesticide.
In each case, the pesticide material may enter open bodies of water directly,
or after fallout and washout from nontarget areas.
Dusted and sprayed pesticides are subject to considerable drift. Drift is
related to particle size, wind speed, climatological inversion, and height of
pesticide emission. In certain circumstances, such as application on dense
foliage, where the underside of the leaves must be treated, a certain amount of
drift is needed to provide complete coverage. However, such drift may result
in the movement of pesticides into neighboring fields and open bodies of water.
Drifting can be reduced by spraying and dusting when wind and other weather
conditions are suitable.
Research shows the potential of engineering techniques that will produce
particles of more uniform sizes and thus reduce the number of small particles
that are apt to drift. Various emulsifiers and oils can be added to the spray
to Increase droplet size and thereby reduce drift. The table on the following
page shows the relationship between drift and particle size.
Of the various forms of pesticides used, granules drift the least. Their
value in certain above-ground uses is limited, however, because they do not
provide as complete physical coverage as a spray or dust.
Table 97. Drift Pattern in Relation to Particle Size
Particle Type
Drop Diameter
•
: Drift!'
•
Microns
Meters
Feet
Aircraft spray:
Coarse
400
2.6
8.5
Medium
150
6.7
22
Fine
100
15
48
Air carrier sprays
50
54
178
Fine sprays and dusts
20
338
1,109
Usual dusts and aerosols
10
1,352
4,436
Aerosols
2
33,795
110,880
1/ Distance a particle would be carried by a 4.8 km/h (3 mph) vind while
falling 3 meters (10 feet).
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340
Volatilization
For certain pesticides, volatilization can be a significant means of intro-
ducing pollutants into the environment. This applies to volatilization after
application, as well as to evaporation between nozzle and ground during applica-
tion. Small spray droplets result in high rates of evaporation of the water
carrier. This leaves small particles of dry pesticides to drift into nontarget
areas. Amine stearates and other additives can be used to decrease the evapora-
tion and drift DOtenti'-', thus reducing pollution from pesticides.
Container Disposal
Pesticides can enter the envrionment through careless or improper disposal
t
of containers and unused materials. If these items are deposited or buried near
waterways, the groundwater may become polluted. If they are burned, pollution
may result through washout or fallout. Section 19 of the Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act as amended in 1972 (Public Law 92-516) directs
the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency to issue procedures
and regulations governing the disposal of pesticide containers. Implementing
regulations were published on May 23, 1973 (40 CRF, Part 165). Further dissem-
ination of these regulations, and continuing education on the problems on incor-
rect disposal and on the dangers of accidental poisoning, can be expected to
reduce pollution from these sources.
Llvest6ck Peat Costrol
Insecticides used to control livestock pests are applied by various means,
such as feed additives, backrubbers, sprays, pour-ons, liquid dips, or barn fumi-
gations. pesticide exposure to the environment is minimal with correct use.
Barring dumping or accidental spillage, the potential for environmental pollu-
tion from this source is minimal.
Farm Woodlots
Pesticides are not used extensively on farm woodlots. Because of the rela-
tively small size of tracts, aerial application is seldom used. Herbicides are
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341
perhaps the most frequently used pesticide on farm woodlots. They are selectively
applied, frequently on stumps or at the base of trees. In the case of many
pests, losses can be reduced through good farm woodlot management.
Control techniques are specific to each disease. Some examples are the
timely removal of infected trees, pruning of infected parts, and elimination
of alternate plant hosts in the case of rusts. Careful logging practices mini-
mize n&chanical injuries to trees. Injuries may serve as entry points for fungi.
Alternatives tc Chemical Pesticide Use
Non-chemical methods of pest control can reduce the use of pesticides and
thus their entry into the environment. However, for the foreseeable future,
there will be a continuing need for pesticides in combination with these methods.
Non-chemical methods of pest control, biological or
cultural, will be used and recommended whenever such
methods are economically feasible and effective for
the control or elimination of pests. When non-chemical
control methods are not tenable, integrated control
systems utilizing both chemical and non-chemical
techniques will be used, and recommended in the interest
of maximum effectiveness and safety. 1
Cultural Practices
A number of cultural practices can partly substitute for pesticides to
prevent or reduce crop damage from insects, nematodes, weeds, and diseases.
These practices include changes in methods of cultivating and harvesting crops
that make the environment less hospitable to pests. Cultural practices are most
successful if applied at a vulnerable stage in the pest's life cycle. Examples
are the removal of crop debris to eliminate host sites, and adjustments in
planting schedules to minimize pest influence on the crop. Tobacco stalks re-
maining after harvest support,large numbers of tobacco hornworms, budworms,
diseases, and several nematodes. Destruction or removal of the stalks immediately
after harvest aids in controlling these pests.
Mechanical weed control is a generally accepted farm management practice.
Such measures as row cultivation, proper seedbed preparation, and mowing of weeds
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342
on uncropped land reduce the production of weed seeds. Herbicides can then be
applied at lower levels than under conservation tillage methods. Conservation
tillage may increase certain disease and insect problems which could require
increased use of the pesticides. A higher level of pesticide use under these
conditions may not Increase water pollution, however. A reduction in tillage
means a reduction in soil erosion, a major source of pesticide movement and
water pollution.
Biological Control
Natural enemies can be a major factor in controlling pests. A substantial
number of devastating and extensive pest problems have been resolved by intro-
ducing or conserving natural pest enemies. Some examples are the control of
Klamath weed in the Pacific Northwest, alligator weed in Florida, Comstock mealy-
bug on apples in the Eastern United States, purple scale on citrus in Texas and
Florida, citrophilus mealybug on citrus in California, alfalfa weevil in mid-
Atlantic States, Rhodesgrass scale in Florida and Texas, European pine sawfly
and Eurpoean wheat stem sawfly in the East, larch casebearer in the Northeast,
and satin moth in New^England and the Pacific Northwest. But, in general, the
augmentation of natural populations of insect enemies with programmed releases
of mass-reared specimens is still largely in the research stage.
The conservation of natural enemies is receiving considerable attention in
the United States. This approach is currently fostered by a federally assisted
program of 39 pest management projects in 29 states, and the program is expanding
each year. Commodities involved include tobacco, cotton, alfalfa, field corn,
grain sorghum, fresh market and processing corn, peppers, beans, potatoes, apples,
citrus, and pears.
Boll weevils are controlled on several million hectares of cotton by means
of cultural methods and fall insecticide applications, in order to dealy spraying
in the spring. In this way, natural enemies of other insect pests will not be
destroyed by early spraying for boll weevils.
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343
At the present time, biological methods of controlling diseases, nematodes,
and most weeds do not appear reliable.
Insect Sterilization
The use of sexual sterility is one of the most selective and environmentally
acceptable methods of suppressing insect populations. Although the development
of this approach has not received significant support from the private sector,
it is operational in four instances: (1) the management of screwworm populations
in the Sourhwc*-*.^ ur* d States and Northern Mexico, (2) protection of Calif-
ornia citrus by release of sterila Mexican Fruit fly pupae in Northwestern
Mexico, (3) the protection of 364,372 hectares (900,000 acres) of cotton in the
San Joaquin Valley (California) from incipient populations of the pink bollworm,
and (4) the suppression of pink bollworm on wild cotton in the Florida keys.
The method was recently employed against the boll weevil in an areawide test
in Mississippi, and holds potential when integrated with other techniques for
eliminating this pest from the United States.
Insect Toxins and Pathogens
Over 363,636 kilograms of the toxin of Bacillus thuringiensis were marketed
in 1972 in the United States for the control of caterpillars on lettuce, cole
crops, tobacco, and ornamentals. With improved efficiency of the toxin and a
reliable and adequate supply, the toxin could be marketed for wide use in con-
trolling pests on cotton, forests, and other large-volume crops. A number of
insect viruses are also being developed. For example, the Heliothis virus was
recently registered for control of bollworms on cotton. However, the virus is
not yet sufficiently persistent.
Insect Attractants
Various insect attractants have been developed to aid in insect control.
International airports, harbors, and other ports of entry into the United States
are ringed with light and other traps to attract various foreign species of in-
sect pests. These devices are valuable in attracting alien insects, and have
-------
344
reduced the need for scheduled insecticide spraying for these pests. In orchards,
sex attractants are being used in traps to determine pest levels and the need
for pesticide application. In pilot tests, a sex attractant is being applied
to the forest canopy in gelatine microcapsules in an attempt to prevent male
gypsy moths from locating females. This same approach is being developed for
the codling moth and other major moth species. Commercial use of these methods
awaits further development.
Resistant Crop Varieties
Use of plant varieties that are resistant to diseases, insects, and nema-
todes is one means of solving pest problems in an economical and relatively
desirable manner. Many crops could not be profitably grown in numerous locations
except for the use of insect resistant varieties. These crops include alfalfa,
corn, cotton, tobacco, small grains, clovers, and grasses. Soybeans, wheat, and
sugar crops would not be commercially profitable in the United States except for
the use of disease and nematode resistant varieties. The use of-resistant
varieties has been the only practical method found to suppress a large number
of disease and insect pests of wheat, corn, barley, oats, grain sorghum, and
rice. Many tolerant varieties of crops are available. Absolute resistance to
pests is rare. However, even the modest resistance can greatly reduce the need
for pesticides. Resistant varieties are not available and cannot be foreseen
for all pests that attack major crops in the United States.
Crop Rotation
For centuries, farmers have used crop rotation to control pests. Rotations
can be designed to partially reduce populations of a wide variety of diseases,
insects, and nematodes. They are most effective in controlling pests on
cultivated annual crops in areas of mixed agriculture.
-------
345
A Review of Control Measures by States
Data was solicited from individual Region VIII states concerning present
control practices and procedures. Each of the states responding Indicated an
anticipated increase in the use of pesticides although no specific figures were
cited.
Wyoming
Expects an increase in pesticide consumption to continue. In relation to
agricultural operations the following areas of the state were cited as heavy
consumers of pesticides: Southeastern, Northwestern, and Central.
During 1973 pesticides were utilized in the following areas in mosquito
control programs (non-emergency): Laramie, Lovell, Greybull, Glenrock, Cody,
Cheyenne, Buffalo, Casper, Kemmerer, Newcastle, Powell, Sheridan, Worland, Ookeville.
Applications of pesticides directly to water in control of insects, trash
fish, and aquatic plants occured at the Glendo Reservoir (Trash fish), Ocean
Lake (Trash fish) and very possibly other unspecified areas.'
Types of control measures and extent of utilization appears in the follow-
ing figure:
Figure 33,
I Improved Management/Application Procedures
! Hot Air and/or Hot Water Treatments
*
i Light Traps
*
I Use of Resistant Varieties of Crops
*
Biological (parasites, predators, pathogens)
><
Integrated Control (combinations of above)
Pest Detection and Geographic Location
I Other (please describe)
-------
346
COLORADO
Colorado looks toward an increase in pesticide consumption. The following
areas were cited as heavy users of pesticides in relation to agricultural operations
Northeast - Weld, Larimer, Morgan, and Logan Counties
Arkansas Valley - Otero, Bent, and Prowers Counties
San Luis Valley - Del Norte, Alamosa, Costilla Counties
Tri-River Area - Me9a, Delta, and Montrose Counties
Colorado reports no emergency mosquito control programs during 1973 in which
pesticides were used. However, there have been occasions where pesticides have
been applied for the control of mosquito larvae within mosquito control districts.
The years for these applications were not reported.
Some pesticide applications have been made in irrigation practices for the
control of water weeds and, on occasion, pesticides are utilized by the State
Fish and Game Department for the control of trash fish.
Types of control measures and extent of utilization presently employed are
shown in the following figure:
Figure 34
JJ'
&T
&
*
** J
ST
y
I Improved Management/Application Procedures
!
»
X
! Hot Air and/or Hot Water Treatments
!
i
X
i Light Traps
i
!
X
Use of Resistant Varieties of Crops
i
!
X
•Biological (parasites, predators, pathogens)
X
jIntegrated Control (combinations of above)
X
i
jPest Detection and Geographic Location
Other (please describe)
JLJ-
-------
347
NORTH DAKOTA
Reports an increased usage of herbicides and expects the trend to continue.
Herbicides used extensively in wild oat control programs.
The greatest usage of pesticides is reported to be in the eastern regions
of the state. Crops receiving pesticide controls are potatoes and vegetables
in the Red River Valley.
There were no emergency mosquito control programs during 1973.
Pesticides are utilized for mosquito larvae control in the Fargo area of
south eastern North Dakota, and in the northwest in the Williston area.
Types of control measures and extent of present utilization appear in the
following figure:
Figure 35
Improved Management/Application Procedures
Hot Air and/or Hot Water Treatments
Light Traps
Use of Resistant Varieties of Crops
Biological (parasites, predators, pathogens)
Integrated Control (combinations of above)
Pest Detection and Geographic Location
Other (please describe)
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348 v
SOUTH DAKOTA
South Dakota reports no increase in the utilization of pesticides for the
years 1970, 1971, and 1972. They do not anticipate any sizeable increase in use.
The heaviest use of pesticides is reported for the corn production area in
the southeastern portion of the state.
There were no emergency mosquito control programs during 1973.
The State Fish and Game utilized pesticides in control of trash fish when
necessary in an iegiou.> of the state.
Types of control measures and extent of present utilization is shown in
the following figure:
Figure 36
A,* fe,
& /i? vV
.6*
Improved Management/Application Procedures
' y
y
Hot Air and/or Hot Water Treatments
| Light Traps
j Use of Resistant Varieties of Crops
>
jBiological (parasites, predators, pathogens)
i
i
i
xA
jIntegrated Control (combinations of above)
J Pest Detection and Geographic Location
Other (please describe)
MONTANA
No report.
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349
UTAH
Utah notes a slight increase in p esticide consumption generally and expects
the trend to continue. Areas of greatest use are reported to be along the front
range of the Wasatch Mountains, i.e. Box Elder, Weber, Davis, Salt Lake and Utah
Counties as well as Millard County.
No significant emergency mosquito control programs were in effect for 1973.
On a relatively minor scale emergency treatment applications can be listed for
Moab, and Huntington, Utah.
There are several mosquito abatement districts which apply pesticides directly
to water for the control of mosquitoes. The major use is reported for Box Elder,
Weber, Davis, Salt Lake and Utah Counties.
Types of presently employed control measures and extent of utilization appear
in the following figure:
Figure 37
¦J £
o s?
. O -K
Improved Management/Application Procedures
! Hot Air and/or Hot Water Treatments
I Light: Traps
Use of Resistant Varieties of Crops
Biological (parasites, predators, pathogens)
| Integrated Control (combinations of above)
j Pest Detection and Geographic Location
x very limited
Oth er (please describe)
Most of the organized moscuito abatement districts, including the
Utah county program, are using pest management techniques . .
such as water inanageaent, Ga^busia, etc.
Some of the connercial fruit growers are using an integrated
mite control program developed by the Exf)eriment Station.
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350
THE FEDERAL ENVIRONMENTAL PESTICIDE CONTROL ACT OF 1972
The Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act (FEPCA) of 1972 became law
on October 21, 1972, revising the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and
Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) of 1947.
Some sections of the new act became effective immediately, while others have
deadlines for later enforcement, pending the establishment of regulations and
development of Federal standards to guide States in implementing the legisla-
tion. All or che ptuvisions of the new act must be in effect by October 1976.
Before registration may be granted for a pesticide product, the manufacturer
is required to provide scientific evidence that the product, when used as
directed, will (1) effectively control the pest(s) listed on the label,
(2) not injure humans, crops, livestock, wildlife, or damage the total
environment, and (3) not result in illegal residues in food or feed.
Background.--The FIFRA was administered by USDA until the authority was trans-
ferred to the EPA when it was established in December 1970. The administering
Agency has authority to cancel a pesticide registration when the registered
use of the product is in violation of the act or poses a serious hazard to
humans or their environment. The registrant is entitled to appeal the can-
cellation notice through a process that can include public hearings and
scientific advisory committees.
Suspension of a pesticide registration, unlike cancellation, halts interstate
shipments immediately and is reserved for those products that present an
inminent hazard.
The pesticide amendment to the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act is a law
closely related to the FIFRA and FEPCA. It provides protection to consumers
from harmful pesticide residues in food. The amendment requires that, where
necessary to protect the public health, a tolerance or legal limit be estab-
lished for any residues that might remain in or on a harvested food or feed
crop as a result of the application of a chemical for pest control. Toler-
ances are based on chemical and toxicological data showing that the residues
are safe for consumption.
The authority to establish tolerance levels was transferred from the Food and
Drug Administration (FDA) of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
to EPA in December 1970. The enforcement of tolerances remains the responsi-
bility of the FDA.
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351
Provisions of the New Law.--Some of the provisions of the 1972 act are:
')
* The use of any registered pesticide in a manner inconsistent with
labeling instructions is prohibited, effective immediately. Civil
and criminal penalties for misuse of pesticides are provided.
* Knowing violations of the act by farmers or other private applica-
tors can result in fines of up to $1,000 or 30 days imprisonment,
or both, upon criminal conviction. Second and subsequent offenses
are subject to civil fines of up to $1,000 as well.
* Any registrant, commercial applicator, wholesaler, dealer, retailer,
or other distributor, who knowingly violates the law, is liable to a
criminal fine of up to $25,000 or one year in prison, or both, and
to civil penalties of up to $5,000 for each offense.
* Pesticides must be classified for general use or restricted use by
October 1976.
* The States will certify pesticide applicators for use of restricted
pesticides. The act allows 4 years for development of certification
programs. Federal standards for certification must be set forth by
October 1973, and the States must submit their certification programs
based on these standards by 1975. The State programs must be approved
within 1 year of submission.
* The Administrator of EPA may issue orders stopping the sale, use, or
removal of any product when it appears that the product is in viola-
tion of the act or the registration has been suspended and finally
cancelled. Products in violation of the act may also be seized.
* Pesticide manufacturing plants must be registered by October 1973.
* EPA is required to develop procedures and regulations for the storage
and disposal of pesticide containers. They must accept, at convenient
locations for disposal, pesticides which have had registrations sus-
pended and then cancelled.
* The Agency is authorized to issue experimental use permits, conduct
research on pesticides and alternatives, and monitor pesticide use
and presence in the environment.
* The owners of certain pesticides whose registrations are suspended
and finally cancelled are entitled to indemnification.
* States are authorized to issue limited registrations for pesticides
intended for special local needs.
* States may impose more stringent regulations on pesticides than the
Federal Government, except for packaging and labeling.
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352
* The views of the Secretary of Agriculture are required to be
solicited before the publishing of regulations under the act.
* Federal registration of all pesticide products, whether they are
shipped in interstate or intrastate commerce, is required under
the new act.
The reader is encouraged to consult the closest regional office of the EPA
for further information and details on the provisions and regulations of
the FIFRA, as amended by the FEPCA of 1972.
Recent EPA Actions.--Cancellation proceedings were initiated under the FIFRA
against aldrin, DDT, dieldrin, and mirex. After extensive public hearings,
nearly all remaining registered uses of DDT were cancelled in June 1972, the
order to become effective December 31, 1972. This decision was based on
potential future hazards to man and his environment.
The use of mirex against the imported fire ant in the southeastern United
States has been limited, primarily because of the hazard to aquatic life.
Cancellation of the use of 2,4,5-T on food crops has been continued, pending
the outcome of a public hearing on possible risk of injury resulting from
its application.
In June 1972, cancellation of most of the major registered uses of aldrin
and dieldrin on corn, fruit, and for seed treatments was continued pending
the conclusions of a public hearing and a final decision by EPA on possible
use restrictions.
Suspension and cancellation notices for mercury-bearing pesticides were issued.
Used heavily by industry, mercury builds up in the food chain and persists in
the environment.
All interstate shipments of pesticides registered for use in the control of
predatory animals were halted. This action was taken following the discovery
that their use was destroying valuable wildlife resources, including some
endangered species.
Several statutes governing pesticides and environmental matters including
FIFRA, as amended, and the administrative procedure provisions in Title 5 of
the U.S. Code enable individuals or companies to avail themselves of judicial
review assuring complete compliance with the provisions of FEPCA. As of the
time of publication of this document, several legal actions involving recent
EPA decisions are pending before the court.
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353
EPA.REQUIRES PESTICIDE FACILITIES TO REGISTER
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency recently issued regulations re-
quiring pesticide producing establishments for the first time to register with
the Agency and submit annual reports on production, distribution, and sales.
The purpose of the regulations is to identify all pesticide producers and
make available information necessary for effective enforcement of the Federal
pesticides law.
Previous incidents, involving fish kills and ether forms of environmental
contamination, have demonstrated the need for prompt location of producers and
prior knowledge of the types of chemicals each plant produces.
Pesticide producers in both interstate and intrastate commerce, foreign
producers exporting to the U.S., and producers operating under an EPA experi-
mental use permit will be required to register. This applies to producers in-
volved in any aspect of the production process including manufacturing, proces-
sing, preparing, propagating, compounding, custom blending and repackaging,
except under emergency conditions.
Persons producing pesticides currently registered with EPA have been mailed
application forms by the Agency. Other producers can-obtain the >forms from EPA
headquarters in Washington, D.C., or from the Agency's ten regional offices.
Applications for registration must be submitted to EPA's regional offices.
All producers were urged to apply as soon as possible.
After receiving an application, EPA issues an establishment registration
number to each pesticide producing plant. Within a designated time thereafter,
the number must be displayed on each of the pesticide containers released for
shipment by the plant.
Companies with more than one production site must file a single applica-
tion from company headquarters. This form identifies each production establish-
ment.
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354
Thirty days after notification of registration by EPA, interstate and
foreign producers must submit a report to the Agency on the types and amounts
of pesticides currently being produced, the types and amounts produced last
year, and last year's sales or distribution volumes. Forms for this report
will be provided producers -along with their notification of registration. In
subsequent years, this report will be due from all producers, including intra-
state producers, on February 1.
The pesticide establishment registration and reporting requirements are
called for in Section 7 of the 1972 Amendments to the Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) administered by EPA. Producers failing
to comply with the requirements are subject to civil or criminal penalties
under the Act.
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355
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
SUMMARY OF MANAGERIAL PRACTICES AND RESEARCH NEEDS
Improved knowledge of the fate of pesticides in the environment will be
useful in resolving the controversies surrounding the use of these chemicals.
The extent to which a pesticide represents a significant pollutant is
measured by the impact of the particular chemical on all components of the
environment. An extensive effort is underway to determine the effects of
specific pesticides on the environment, particularly with regard to man and
beneficial organisms, algae, insects, fish, wildlife, etc. A systems approach
is desirable because of the interactions between pesticides and other
environmental contaminants and because there is movement of pesticides and
their degradation products between soil, air, and water.
The nature and extent of pesticides in the environment is being deter-
mined by several monitoring programs of the EPA. These programs and results
are published periodically in the Pesticide Monitoring Journal, published by
EPA.
Federal agencies, universities, and industry also have been conducting
research on the chemical changes that take place in organic pesticides in
the environment and on the toxcity of the intermediate and end products.
In some cases a metabolite has been shown to be significantly more toxic
than the original pesticide. On the other hand, most end products are
less toxic. A better understanding of the rate and manner of such degrad-
ation under different environmental conditions would provide a useful basis
for determining the conditions under which specific chemical should be used.
There also are opportunities for reducing the quanitity of hazardous
pesticides that are introduced into the environment.
The development of integrated contol programs involving the combined use
of chemical, cultural, physical, and biological methods has progressed to the
point where area pest-suppression programs appear feasible for several
economically important insects. These programs have progressed through labor-'
atory and limited field evaluations. In some cases, large-scale (thousands
of acres) field applications of this technique are required. Further devel-
opment of integrated control programs would greatly reduce the use of chemical
pesticides.
Other opportunities to reduce the amount of hazardous pesticides intro-
duced into the environment inclutfe application of chemicals only when required ;
substitution of less dangerous, readily degraded materials; and such
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356
approaches as improved erosion control to prevent the movement of pesticides
from land to water.
Probably significant amounts of pesticides are transported in air from
their place of application as a result of drift during application and by
volatilization following treatment. This movement may be the principal
method of dispersion over wide areas. Continued research may result in
development of the means to prevent its occurrence.
Research Needs
The following areas warrant major attention.
1. F.valnating the nature, extent, significance, and
impact of pesticides in the ficusy3tem
In the Department of Agriculture, research is being directed toward the
study of the biology, ecology, life history, physiology, morphology, taxonomy,
nutrition, metabolism, habits, and behavior of target and non-target organisms.
The effect of pesticides on field populations, including measurement of
immediate mortality, long-term effects on reproduction and survival, and the
effects of species composition and density are also encompassed in present
research efforts.
Information gained from these studies assists in determining the nature,
extent, significance, and impact of pesticides in the ecosystem.'
USDA participates in the National Monitoring Program of the Environmental
Protection Agency. Extensive long-range programs of soil monitoring are
planned and limited parts of these programs are underway. Spot checking in
suspected trouble spots will be continued. In addition, application of
pesticides to forests and rangeland is monitored to determine the impact of
these programs on the environment. These monitoring programs are a built-in
part of the pest-control activities of the U.S. Agriculture Department.
USDA also conducts a pesticide-monitoring program in federally inspected
meat-packing plants.
The Environmental Protection Agency has programs underway to—
Study medically and biochemically groups of people who are in
contact with pesticides and other chemicals over a period of
years to determine what effects chronic and acute exposure may
have on the health, of these people.
Maintain current inform. on on the pesticide-use patterns
in study areas to include changes In types of products, new
compounds, and in amounts used and methods of application
Continue monitoring of pesticide residues and their products
in human tissues of the general population
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357
Continue assisting State health departments in the
maintenance of epidemiological and biochemical
competence in diagnosis of pesticde effects upon man.
Develop and improve methods for direct measurement of
exposure of agricultural products, agricultural personnel,
and other workers to pesticides, and an assessment of
this exposure for potential toxicological problems.
Present investigations encompass programs of toxicology and chemistry
of chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphate, insecticides, crabamates and
herbicides, in order to ascertain the public health hazards associated with
their use.
Pharmacologic studies are directed toward investigation of the physio-
logical and biochemical mechanisms involved in the transportation, detox-
ification, and metabolism of pesticides. Particular emphasis is applied to
the effects of low-level long-term exposure. Included will be studies of
the mode of transport, binding factors, metabolism in human as well as
experimental animals, correlation of blood and brain levels of pesticides
to illness or other effects of pesticide ingestion. .
Long-term chronic toxicity studies in animals with emphasis on terato-
genic defects are underway. Relationship of the dosage that produces an
effect in animals will be considered with respect to possible exposure of man.
The long-term goal of these studies is to find a more adequate way to
measure hazards to public health rather than to observe gross symptoms such
as death.
Chemical research on pesticide residues in foods emphasizes (1) estab-
lishing the chemical identity of the residue, including significant conversion
products; (2) developing, improving, and validating methodology for measuring
the amount of such residue; and (3) occasional checking on the validity of
data submitted in petitions.
Biological research emphasizes (1) studying physiological effects and
metabolism of pesticides in biological systems, including the metabolic fate
of the compounds, their biochemical reactions, the nature of the metabolic
pathways, and an evaluation of their effects in terms of toxic action;
(2) performing toxicity studies of pesticides as a method for determing safe
tolerance levels; and (3) developing data on the direct effect of pesticides
on man.
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Surveillance and monitoring programs are established and maintained
to 'determine the extent, trends, and significance of pesticide contamination
of the national food supply. In part, these programs support the National
Pesticides Monitoring Program and are in collaboration with other agencies—
Federal, State, and international—concerned with the use of pesticides and
the effects of such use.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has primary responsibility for inves-
tigation of the effects of pesticides, both acute and chronic, on fish and
wildlife and their associated environments and also on water quality. It
investigates the pathways traveled by pesticide residues from application
to uptake to evaluate their possible behavioral and physiological effects
on birds, mammals, fish, and shellfish, as well as the food chains of which
they are a part, and water. In-house and grant-supported research and
monitoring programs are conducted, using selected species as indicators for
determining the degree of contamination and for devising safeguards that
may be necessary. The Agency is cooperating with the Federal Committee
on Pest Control in the National Pesticide Monitoring Program to the extent
that its study of pesticide residues blankets continental United States and
is concerned with fish, shellfish, wildlife, and water quality.
2. Reducing the amount of hazardous pesticides in the environment
The major emphasis of the Department of Agriculture pesticide programs
is in this direction. These programs encompass—
A. Developing and using less hazardous alternate chemical controls.
B. Developing and using better methods of application that require less
material or that place the needed toxic material more accurately.
For example, pesticides are applied in forest only when meteorological
conditions are right. Helicopters are used for applications near
streams.
C. Developing and using nonpesticidal means such as (1) resistant crops,
(2) parasites or predators, (3) self-destruction techniques (sterilization,
breaking of diapause, etc.), (4) improved cultural practices and
combinations of these and other procedures.
D. Developing and carrying out a comprehensive information and education
program to encourage the safe use of pesticides for protection of the
user, the consumer of food and fiber products, as well as for the
protection of fish, wildlife, soil, air, and water from pesticide
pollution.
Results to date indicate strongly that integrated control programs
involving certain combinations of chemical control plus self-destruction
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techniques and improved cultural practices may, if applied to a wide area,
drastically reduce the amount of chemicals required and eventually reduce
the dependence on chemicals. These programs also provide attractive econ-
omical considerations.
There has been much publicity about the screw worm control program in
the Southwest in which USDA participates. Plans are developing for extending
the control area well south into Mexico. In this manner the length of the
treated barrier will be considerably shortened with a consequent increase
in control and a decrease in cost. A large-scale integrated control program
is being established for the pink bollworm in the Southwest. The Department
is considering large-scale field evaluations of other integrated programs
for pest control. For example, a large-scale program to control the codling
*
moth in apples appears to be feasible. The development and installation of
such programs will be rather costly.
One approach to major integrated control programs could be the cooperative
development of facilities and programs. USDA would cooperate with the
particular agricultural segment involved, such as local growers association
or a national organization that has close local affiliations. Under such a
program the research and action agencies of the Department could develop
the field program, train the necessary local people, and eventually turn
the program over to the segment of the industry involved while continuing
to provide necessary technical assistance. This is an example of how field
evaluation of large-scale programs might be undertaken.
The Environmental Protection Agency has a primary policy to minimize
the amount of pesticides sanctioned for use. Tolerances in foods are
established at safe levels no higher than that required in the production of
food even though a higher level may be safe.
The Department of the Interior is interested in minimizing the use of
herbicides in irrigation-water conveyance systems. Programs include studies
to determine the minimum amount of herbicides that can be applied in water
conveyances to control noxious-vegetation growth. In addition, studies are
being conducted to determine the persistence of herbicides and pesticdes
following various rates of application.
3. Treating, controlling, or removing pesticides from
soil, air, and receiving waters
The monitoring programs of the Department of Agriculture have indicated
tha pesticde residues are present in soil, air, and water. The major portion
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360
of the Department programs have been devoted to monitoring of soil. This
information coupled with information obtained during research aimed at more
basic knowledge of pesticides aids in developing means of treating, controlling,
or removing pesticides from the environment. To date limited progress has
been made in treatment or removal of pesticide residues from air, soil, and
water. Progress has been made in control materials for more persistent pest-
icides. As technology progresses and greater emphasis is placed on environ-
mental quality, it is anticipated that the time will come when educational
programs and significant technical and financial assistance are directed
toward such work.
In-depth training schools are conducted for applicators, dealers,
producers, professional leaders, and key consumer and user groups as a part
of the USDA effort under this heading.
The Environmental Protection Agency's monitoring activities for
pesticides in air may be considered as the necessary preliminary work for
evaluating the impact of pesticide contamination of air on man's health.
Available information is scanty and inadequate for this purpose. The scope
and severity of the problem should be better defined before any action program
is undertaken. Additional work is needed to define acute and long-term
effects and the contribution of particulates and of other contaminants in air
to the impact.
The Department of the Interior has major responsibility for the treat-
ment, control, and removal of pesticides from the aquatic environment. The
development of treatment methods for ameliorating and removing pesticides
in water is extremely difficult. Several approaches are being actively pursued.
4. Disposing of pesticide wastes, including used pesticide
containers, in a manner least detrimental to the environment.
Efforts are being made by the Department of Agriculture to obtain a
valid estimate of the number and sizes of "empty" pesticide containers and .
the amount of pesticide wastes that exist. Present programs in this area of
emphasis are modestly funded. The major program consists of contract research
to determine the combustion temperatures and products of a series of repre-
sentative pesticides. Another part of this contract deals with the design of
a low-cost incinerator for the destruction of pesticides.
The planned USDA programs consist of additional work, probably by contract
to develop similar information on other pesticides. Once a suitable design is
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developed for an incinerator and a demonstration model is constructed, tested,
and proved, attention will be given to assisting in the construction and
utilization of units at suitable locations.
The Department of Health, Education, and Welfare has responsibility for
surveying methods currently used for the disposal of such wastes in the
respective States. This preliminary information will aid definition of the
scope of the problem and aid in the optimal location of future action programs.
The Department of the Interior has no program in this area.
5. Assisting State regulatory agencies in the establishment
of uniform effective pesticide regulatory programs
The Department of Agriculture has assisted the Council of State
Governments in developing uniform regulations in the form of a model law.
This model law will be revised as needed. The Department will assist in
this program.
USDA has cooperated with the State departments of agriculture in enforc-
ing pesticide regulations. The Department does not enforce any State reg-
ulations but does participate in the exchange of information regarding enforc-
ment activities within each State. Though the greatest effort may be completed,
thses programs will continue
The Environmental Protection Agency promotes the adoption of uniform
pesticide-residue legislation by the States; maintains an information system
to the States whereby pesticide-residue tolerances, reports of seizures,
prosecutions, and injunctions, and pesticide action-level guides, etc., are
transmitted regularly to the States; transmits and maintains a pesticide
Analytical Manual for State regulatory analysis; answers inquiries from State
officials concerning pesticde-residue problems; and on request offers technical
assistance to the States in planning and developing State pesticide-residue
programs. A partnership pesticide program with the States is now under con-
sideration. This would permit the States to accept primary responsibility
in the surveillance of pesticide residues at the grower level. Achieving
full implementation of such a program will depend on FDA's obtaining author-
ity to grant financial assistance to the States.
State and local chemists and other health personnel from throughout the
country are trained in the lates techniques of chemical analysis and pesticides
technology
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362
On request, State laws pertaining to labeling and safe use of pesticides
(protection of applicators, condition of equipment, delivery of desired
amounts and concentrations, and education of applicators on hazards of com-
pounds) are reviewed as part of the State Pesticide Projects and by the
Training and Consultation Unit. This work is usally performed in connection
with the State Health Department. In addition, a guideline law has been
developed to serve as a uniform basis in evaluating State laws regulating
professional applicators.
The Department of the Interior insures that proposed uses of new pesti-
cide formulations will ^resent the minimum hazard to fish and wildlife
resources. The establishment of water-quality standards reflecting results
of the research and development programs in this area are also of concern to
the Department.
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REFERENCES
Cooperative Extension Service. 1973. Insect control: strategies for the future.
Environmental Series No. 4. Ohio State University. August.
Department of Agriculture. 1969. Control of agriculture-related pollution. Report
to the President. January.
Environmental Protection Agency.1971. Pesticides monitoring journal. Volume 5,
No. 3. December.
Environmental Protection Agency. 1972. Pesticides in the aquatic environment.
Office of Water Programs. April.
Environmental Protection Agency. 1973. Methods and practices for controlling
water pollution from agricultural non-point sources. Washington, D.C.
September.
Minter, P. C. 1965. Bench marks in the Colorado state agricultural chemical
program. Cooperative Extension Service, Colorado State University. October.
Stickel, L. F. 1968. Organochlorine pesticides in the environment. Department of
the Interior Special Scientific Report—Wildlife No. 119. October.
USDA. 1972. The pesticide review. ASCS. June.
Wadleigh, C. H. 1968. Wastes in relation to agriculture and forestry. USDA
Miscellaneous Publication No. 1065. March.
Whitten, Jaimie L. That We May Live. 251 pp. Princeton, New Jersey
USDA, 1968. Wastes in Relation to Agriculture. Pub. No. 1065.
Greenwood, et. al, 1967. Insecticide Residues in Big Game Mammals of South Dakota.
Journal of Wildlife Management 31(2): 288-292.
Jewell, S. R. 1967. Pesticide Residue Concentrations in Mule Deer, Colorado
Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, Technical Paper No. 8. 11 p.
Mussehl, T. W., and R. B. Finley, Jr. 1967. Residue of DDT in Forest Grouse
Following Spruce Budworm Spraying. Journal of Wildlife Management 31(2):
270-287.
Pillmore, R. and R. B. Finley, Jr. 1963. Residues in Game Animals.North American
Wildlife Conference Transactions. 28:409-422.
Gaufin, Arden. 1972. Personal Communication. Professor of Zoology, University
of Utah.
Sonstellie, Lawrence C. 1967. Water Quality of the Flathead River. Unpublished
Master's Thesis, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana.
Tourangeau, Phil. 1969. Flathead Lake Pesticide Study. Unpublished paper.
University of Montana. 4 pp.
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FERTILIZERS
Agricultural Statistics - Region VIII
The Rocky Mountain-Prairie States Region (Colorado, Utah, North Dakota,
South Dakota, Montana, Wyoming) represents a total land mass of 367,268,000
acres. According to the 1969 U.S. Agricultural Census, slightly more than 2/3,
or approximately 67%, of this total land area is classified as land-in-farms
(all owned or leased land other than forest Service or BLM managed. Includes
cropland and grazing lands.) Operating farms within the Region total 166,981.
This represents a decrease in operating farms of about 16% from the previous census
of 1965 when a. little more than 200,000 operating farms were reported. This
decline is attributed to consolidation of some farming operations or the sale of
farmland for industrial amd residential development (Table 98)
During the five-year jperiod 1965-1969, there was an 8,551,406 acre decline
of total land in farms in. the Region. However, the average farm size in the
region increased from 1,161.6 acres to 1,647.4 acres.
Of the total farm acreage reported, 45,722,375 acres was in cropland with
7,496,420 acres classified as irrigated cropland. Over the years harvested
cropland has declined staadily from an all time high reached in 1950. During
the past three decades harvested cropland has declined nearly 50% within the
region. This phenomenon can be attributed in part to the increased use of com-
mercial fertilizer accounting for more productivity from less acreage.
The rapid expansion of fertilizer technology within the region has resulted,
over the years, in higher crop yields per acre farmed as well as lower unit costs
for food. This fact coupled with lower fertilizer costs has helped to improve the
economic position of the farmer as well as increase farm productivity. At least
1/3 of the total crop yield in the region is attributable to the use of chemical
fertilizers. However, there is suspicion that the increased use of fertilizers
has resulted in an increase of adverse effects upon water quality especially in
those areas where, through leaching and runoff, portions of the applied chemical
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365
fertilizers enter ground and surface water supplies.
- n
Fertilizer Consumption Statistics
Total fertilizer consumption for the Region VIII states for FY 1972 was
A,347,890 tons (USDA Statistical Reporting Service, May 1973). This represents
mearly a 14% increase over the total fertilizer consumption of 1,192,200 tons
for the year 1969 (Table 99 ).
It is interesting to note that during the period 1963 - 1970 there has been
esd significant change in the number of harvested acres of cropland within Region
V3ETI. However, fertilizer consumption during the same period has jumped from
asi average of 13 pounds per acre in 1963 to 35.5 poinds*per acre in 1972. Fer-
tilizer consumption during the period has nearly tripled. The six EPA Region
VIII states combined show the lowest fertilizer application rates of any EPA
Region in the contigious United States (Table 101)
Although no definitive studies have been conducted within the Region VIII
sC-ates linking commercial fertilizers directly with contaminated water supplies,
studies conducted elsewhere tend to incriminate nitrate from fertilizer as a
contributor to water quality problems (Johnston et al., 1965; Doneen, 1968).
A survey by Nettles in 1970 showed that 30% of the private wells tested in Chick-
asaw County, Iowa, contained enough nitrate-nitrogen or coliform bacteria to be
lalbeled unsafe by U.S. Public Health standards. The report pointed an accusing
fiaiger at the residue of agricultural chemicals and suggested the need for setting
standards in the use of agricultural chemicals to reduce environmental water
pollution.
A similar survey conducted in 1967 by Keller and Smith that centered on
analysis of 6,000 rural water supplies concluded there was some evidence of
nitrogen infiltration from heavy annual application of nitrogen fertilizer.
However, in this study, animal wastes were cited as a major source of contami-
nation (see chapter on cattle feedlots). None of the reservoirs sampled showed
increases in nitrate due to fertilization.
-------
REGION VIII AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS 1969
Table 98 gtates)
State
North Dakota
South Dakota
Utah /
Wycming
Montana
Colorado
Total Land Area (acres)
. 44,335,000
48,611,000
52,541,000
62,212,000
93,158,000
66,411,000
Total Farmland (Acres)
43,117,831
45,584,164
11,312,951
35, '76,374
62,918,247
36,697,132
Land Not in Farms (Acres)
1,217,000
3,027,000
41,228,000
26,736,000
30,240,000
29,714,000
Z Not in Farms
2.7
6.2
78.5
43.0
32.5
44.7
Total Number of Farms
46,381
45,726
13,045
8,838
24,951
27,950
Increase/Decrease 1964-1969
-2,455
-3,977
-2,714
-200
-2,069
-1,848
Average Farm Size (acres)
929.6
874.7
867.2
4,014.1
2,521.7
1,313.9
Increase/Decrease Total Acres
in Farms 1964-1969
+400,471
+16,901
-2,915,513
-1,576,258
-2,915,513
-1,561,494
Total Croplands (acres)
29,458,878
19,837,884
1,945,000
2,788,000
16,109,000
10,773,000
Harvested Cropland (acres)
17,174,891
12,634,488
1,024,475
1,685,597
7,937,203
5,265,721
Irrigated Land (acres)
63,238
148,341
1,025,014
1,523,422
1,841,421
2,894,984
Land Area - 367,268,000 acres
Farmland - 235,106,699 acres
Not Farms - 132,162,000 acres
7. Not Farms - 34.67.
Number of Farms - 166,981
Decrease 1964 to 1969 - 13,263 farms
Region VIII Agricultural Statistics
(combined 6-state size . 1674-4 acres
Decrease in Acreage - 8,551,406 acres
Croplands - 80,871,762 acres
Harvested - 45,722,375 acres
Irrigated - 7,496,420 acres
u>
On
On
Croplands as % of total area - 22%
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367
Table 99 . Region VIII Fertilizer Consumption, FY 1969 vs. FY 1972.
USDA Crop Reporting Board, Statistical Reporting Service, May 1973.
Total Tons Consumed
State
FY 1969
FY 1972
Colorado
251,200
309,551
Wyoming
77,300
79,821
Utah
87,700
109,429
Montana
171,600
203,000
North Dak?t2
344,700
341,595
South Dakota
259.700
304,494
Total Region VIII
1,192,200
1,347,890
Although the rate of increase nationally has been declining, four of the
Region VIII states reported increased consumption for FY 1972 over FY 1971 (Montana,
Utah, Wyoming, Colorado). Two reported decreased consumption during the same
period (North Dakota, South Dakota).
Table 100 . Region VIII Harvested Acres and Pounds of Fertilizer per Harvested Acre,
1963-1970. Fertilizer Summary Data 1973, TVA National Fertilizer
Development Center.
State Harvested Crop Acreage Fertilizer Lbs/Acre
-1963
1970
1963
1970
Colorado
5*365,000
6,215,000
24
42
Wyoming
1,785,000
1,831,000
12
32
Montana
8,138,000
8,206,000
7
21
Utah
1*021,000
1,060,000
29
75
North Dakota
17,788,000
17,327,000
9
21
South Dakota
14,225,000
14,430,000
_5
19
Total •
48,522,000
49,069,000
14.3
35
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368
Table 101
State
1970
Plant Nutrients Atn>lied Per Harvested Acre
In the Continental United States
AppilP(1Lbs/Acre
State
Arrn^ Lbs/Acre
Alabama
Arizona
Arkansas
California
COLORADO
Connecticut
Delaware
Florida
Georgia
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
MONTANA
270
230
66
185
42
209
169
776
298
84
151
168
136
70
163
123
222
176
228
150
83
114
116
21
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
NORTH DAKOTA
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
SOUTH DAKOTA
Tennessee
Texas
UTAH
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
WYOMING
83
23
89
261
82
103
245
21
154
73
109
115
396
210
19
134
108
75
71
186
95
69
95
32
-------
369
Disposal of sewage and industrial wastes have been pinpointed in other
studies as contributors to the nitrate problem (Navone, et al., 1963). This
factor further complicates any attempt to positively identify farm fertilizers
as the chief source of nitrate concentrations in surface and ground waters.
Natural Sources of Nitrogen
Presence of nitrate nitrogen in ground water is a natural phenomenon.
Over 30 years ago, the U.S. Geological survey showed natural nitrate accumu-
lation in certain areas to be quite abundant. In fact, nitrate accumulations
were found in soils of geological formations in all of the 11 western states
and many of the states entering into the Appalachia region. Studies in Colorado
dating back to the turn of the century indicate tremendous accumulations of
nitrate on the Colorado Plains before man ever appeared on the scene. For in-
stance it is common knowledge that the Mancos shale formations along the western
slope of Colorado are high in natural nitrates. There are also indications of
high natural nitrate concentrations in the Arkansas River Basin. Gardner (1934)
and Headden (1921) showed high concentrations of nitrate in Colorado soils in
some areas long before the introduction of commercial fertilizers in the state.
Effects of Nutrient Losses
Little or no attention has been given to the problems of nutrient loss
from agricultural fertilizers on a strictly regional basis for Region VIII. The
Missouri River Basin Comprehensive Framework report makes little mention of the
problems related to fertilizer utilization practices even though a considerable
amount of the land area within the Basin is farmland.
According to the study, "...large volumes of ground water in North and South
Dakota and parts of Montana and Colorado have dissolved solids generally exceeding
1,000 ppm, although there are also good quality waters found in these areas as
well. While not meeting ideal standards, poor quality ground waters often are
utilized for municipal, domestic, and other purposes, in lieu of alternative
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370
supplies that are much more costly to develop. The vast size of the basin and
the range that exists in the parameters of water quality make it impractical to
detail all available data concerning quality in ground waters of the Missouri
Basin."
The Upper Colorado Region Comprehensive Framework study which includes parts
of Colorado, Utah, and Wyoming has this to say about nutrient problems within
the area:
"Bense populations of algae are present in some stream reaches, indicating
that municipal and industrial effluents and irrigation return flows entering the
streams are rich in nutrients. Nutrient data collected at Water Pollution
Surveillance System Stations are presented in Table . It is difficult to
appraise such data because of the many factors contributing to excessive plant
production. Further, no specific limitations on nutrients were set as part of
the water-quality criteria of the states. Investigation of eutrophication prob-
lems in areas outside of the Region has led to identification of limiting quan-
tities of various forms of nitrogen and phosphorus, above which excessive fertil-
ity occurs. However, what may be critical in one instance may not be under
different conditions elsewhere.
"Because the amount of phosphorus present in a form available for plant
growth is constantly changing, the National Committee on Water Quality Criteria
recommends controlling the total amount of phosphorus present in streams. As a
guideline, the Committee recommends an upper limit of 0.1 mg/1 for rivers with
only 0.05 mg/1 permitted where streams enter lakes or reservoirs. Data shown
in the table indicate the presence of total phosphorus in amounts above these
recommended maximums. In addition, the amounts of nitrogen (particularly NO^
and NH^) to total phosphorus should not be radically changed by the addition
of materials.
' n i
"Quiescent reservoir waters are more susceptible to excessive plant growths
than are rapidly flowing streams. Limited data collected at Lake Powell show
average total phosphates ranging from 0.7 to 0.35 mg/1 from 1964 to 1967. Annual
averages appeared to be decreasing with time. Peak concentrations occur during
winter months with lowest values present in spring and summer, reflecting con-
sumption of nutrients by aquatic plants during the warmer months. Phosphate
concentrations decrease going downstream in the reservoir, also Indicating use
by plants. Total organic nitrogen in Lake Powell averaged between 0.24 and 0.35
mg/1 each year from 1964 to 1967.
"Water quality problems due to high levels of nutrients have been reported
im Grand Lake, Shadow Mountain Reservoir and Lake Granby in the Upper Main Stem
Subregion. Domestic wastewaters have been cited as the principal source of
nutrient loads reaching the lakes.
"Nitrate concentrations in Flaming Gorge Reservoir in late 1964 reached 0.6
mg/1; summer lows were 0.2 mg/1. Phosphate averaged from 0.15 mg/1 to 0.55 mg/1
during 1964-1965. Oxygen deficiencies resulting from high algae concentrations
were cited as a probable reason for a fish kill in Flaming Gorge Reservoir in late
1963. Otherwise, excessive production of water plants has not "been reported as
interfering with beneficial uses of the impoundments of the Upper Colorado Region."
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371
Table 102 Nutrient Concentrations in
Upper Colorado Region Streams
Total Dissolved Total
Ammonia Phosphorus Phosphorus Soluble
Nitrogen (wet method (wet method Phosphate
(mg/1 as N) mg/1 as P) mg/1 as P) (mg/1)
Green River at Dutch John,
Utah
~Min.
Mean
Max.
No. of samples
Period of Record
0.01
0,02
0.09
23
1 64-168
0.01
0.01
0.02
26
'64-'68
0.00
0.003
0.20
103
162-164
Colorado River at Loma,
Colorado
Min. 0.00 0.01
Mean 1.36 0.20
Max. 9.50 1.00'
No. of samples 164 28
Period of Record '60-'66 '64-'68
0.01
0.02
0.15
25
• 64-'68
0.00
0.34
5.00
163
'6i-'67
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372
. Rainfall, Runoff, and Water Quality
There is no doubt that precipitation rates have a direct influence on
fertilizer leaching and runoff. Nitrates are leached into the soil and
eventually reach ground waters and other subsurface water supplies. Phos-
phates cling to soil particles and are generally transported via sediment
into surface waters. Wadleigh (1968) reported that more than 50 million
tons of primary nutrients are lost from U.S. agricultural and forested lands
each year by virtue of sediment delivery.
In the Upper Colorado Region a broad range of climatic, and hence stream-
flow, conditions exist. Annual precipitation varies from over 60 inches in
high-elevation headwater areas to less than six inches in desert areas of the
southwestern portion of the Region, while temperatures vary inversely. (Figure 38)
In the Missouri River Basin Region annual precipitation varies from
over 40 inches in parts of the Rocky Mountain and southeastern parts of
the basin, to as low as 6 to 12 inches immediately east of the Rocky
Mountains. Complicating the annual variations, there is a wide variation
in the monthly pattern of precipitation throughout the Region. Figure 3S
illustrates the average annual total precipitation in the Basin.
Land runoff and sediment transportation of nutrients play key roles in
affecting water quality in most areas of the region. Bairry Commoner (1968)
estimated nitrogen fertilizer losses to be about 15% of total nitrogen
fertilizer consumption. Taking 1971 as an example, total tonnage of
fertilizer consumed within the Region VIII area amounted to 1,298,396 tons.
Using Commoner's formula 195,000 tons of nitrogen fertilizer materials were
lost to the environment as potential pollutants during the period. Commoner's
formula is a valid one and generally accepted as applicable in all areas of
the country.
-------
Figure 38
373
Figure
NORMAL. ANNUAL PRECIPITATION
by Iptti (to Urate
b|IM !(•([ Ira mi<
MW fc* c.t.t.i.
UPPER COLORADO REGION
COMPREHENSIVE FRAMEWORK STUDY
GP0 85J 764
-------
374
Figure 39 average annual total precipitation
Missouri River Basin States
-------
375
Impact of Chemical Fertilizers
The chemical composition of commercial fertilizers consists principally
of nitrogen (N) , phosphorus (P2O5) » anc* potassium (KjO) . These constituents
are vital to good plant growth and high yield production. Present concerns
on the impact of fertilizer on water quality within Region VIII focus upon
nitrogen and phosphorus. The impact of potassium has thus far been minimal
and no great concern over this nutrient as a potential pollution hazard has
been exprc^c:^ All hree nutrients are normal constituents of fertile soil*
Nitrogen
Of major concern is the possible entry of excessive amounts of nitrogen
into surface and ground water supplies resulting in excessive nitrification
of lakes and streams and contamination of public drinking water supplies.
Whether or not sufficient data exists to prove or disprove nitrogen and
phosphorus from agricultural activity is causing any great alteration of
surface and ground water supplies is a subject of continuing debate among
many experts. According to Vietz (Bioscience Vol.21, No.10)..."although
nitrate N from river water is of interest in relation to water quality stan-
dards, such analysis cannot be used alone to draw conclusions about fertilizer
contribution of N, not even of nitrate to surface or subsurface drainage."
On the other hand, Dr. Barry Commoner, in a 1968 address to the American
Association of Agricultural Scientists in Dallas, cited an Illinois State
Water Survey on the Missouri River that reported high nitrate levels and
attributed them to farm use of fertilizers.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus is needed for plants to grow. It is a major component of
the most widely used chemical fertilizer mixes and it is a major nutrient
controlling the fertility of natural waters. Increases in phosphorus
accumulations contribute to excessive growth of aquatic plants and blue-
-------
3 76
green algae with serious consequences as shown in studies by Sawyer (1947)
and Verduin ('64, '67, '68, '69). The growth of algae and other aquatic
plants is limited by phosphorus accumulations below 0.01 ppm, but concen-
trations of 0.05 ppm or higher may produce an excessive growth.
Phosphorus fertilizer is much less mobile in the soil since it is
absorbed by soil particles. However, since phosphorus tends to be concen-
I
trated in the surface soil, it is susceptible to loss by erosion. Available
evidence indicates that little fertilizer phosphorus leaks through the soil
as inorganic phosphorus in solution but it can wash off as phosphorus
absorbed on sediment. Thus, phosphorus additions to water bodies from farm
lands are almost entirely associated with erosion. Phosphorus loss by this
means is presently receiving considerable attention because of its influence
upon the quality of our surface water supplies.
The hazard of phosphorus use on soils appears to pose fewer unanswered
questions. Agricultural land, even woodland, contributes phosphorus to
surface waters by erosion of soil, runoff of animal wastes, and leaching of
phosphorus out of dead or burned vegetation. Phosphorus fertilizers can
contribute to the enrichment of sediment, dung, and vegetation; but if
phosphorus is needed to produce more vegetative cover and erosion is reduced,
then phosphorus fertilization can reduce the amount of phosphorus carred on
sediment. Water-soluble phosphates, such as superphosphate, are so quickly
and tenaciously held to soil clays that there is little or no enrichment of
the solution phase of the runoff. Lysimeter studies of leaching and analysis
of tile effluents show that the losses and concentrations of phosphorus in
the drainage are extremely low because of the soil's capacity to absorb
phosphate (Taylor, 1967; Stanford et al., 1970). Leaching of phosphorus
applied to organic soils may be greater because the phosphorus is less
readily held and can move as soluble organic phosphate.
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377
Biggar and Corey state, "Precipitation from the atmosphere (or by
irrigation) is disposed of by 1) surface runoff; 2) ground water runoff
(Interflow); 3) deep percolation; 4) storage; and 5) evaporation and
transpiration. The first three of these can, and do, contribute to
eutrophication by providing pathways fo nutrient movement to lakes and
streams."
When nutrients percolate to the ground water, their movement to lakes
and streams is dependent on ground water movement. Vet mixing of soil
solutes with ground water and their subsequent movements are extremely
complex and variable depending on the substrate and other factors.
Biggar and Corey summarize: "Therefore, it is not safe to assume that
nutrients derived from percolating waters will be diluted by the entire
ground water mass prior to discharge into a lake."
Biggar and Corey state, "Runoff waters usually contain very little
soluble inorganic nitrogen. In fact, the nitrate contents of runoff
waters are usually lower than the average nitrate content of rain water.
The first rain that falls sweeps most of the nitrate from the air and
carries it into the soil."
"The relative concentrations of soluble phosphorus in surface runoff
and soil percolates are the reverse of the nitrogen system. If phosphorus
fertilizers were applied to the soil surface . . . the concentration of
phosphorus in the runoff water might range up to a few tenths of a
milligram per liter. In the water that percolates through the soil, the
soluble phosphorus concentration is usually very low because the phosphorus
precipitates in the subsoil. Therefore, most of the soluble phosphorus
should reach the waterways via surface runoff."
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378
"Nitrate is completely soluble in the soil solution and moves with it.
Thus the soil percolates generally contain more nitrate than do surface waters.
This nitrate eventually reaches the waterways unless the water emerges in a
marsh, where it may be absorbed by the vegetation or reduced to gaseous nitrogen."
The movements of nitrates and' phosphorus through the soil has been studied
by numerous investigators, all in apparent agreement. Scalf, et al. (1968),
found that the nitrate ion does not readily absorb but moves freely through
aquifers, and there appears to be little denitrification occurring in saturated
soils. Parizek, et al. (1967), found that phosphorus concentrations were
reduced 997. during passage of sewage effluent through only one foot of soil.
Biggar and Corey cite Bertrand (1966) as having determined that in the
great plains area, with an average of 20 inches of precipitation, about 18.8
inches are lost by evaporation and transpiration, 1 inch as surface runoff
and 0.2 inches as percolate.
To calculate nutrient loss to surface runoff and ground waters is
difficult at best. Lipraan and Conybeare (1936) estimated nutrient loss in
soils to erosion and leaching and found an average (and remarkably high)
value of 52.0 pounds per acre per year of nitrogen and 12.17 pounds per acre
per year of.phosphorus lost to surface and ground waters. More recently
Sawyer (1947) estimated the average loss of 6 pounds per acre per year of
nitrogen and 0.62 pounds per acre per year of phosphorus to certain lakes
in Wisconsin. Erickson and Ellis (1971) found that an average value for
nitrogen and phosphorus losses from fertilized, non-irrigated farm lands of
clay-loam soils to be about 10 and 0.1 pounds per acre per year, respectively.
These farms applied about 140 poinds of fertilizer per acre per year. These
investigators also estimated the amount of nitrogen fixed from the atmosphere
to be 20 pounds per acre per year.
Irrigation greatly increases the amount of percolate and nutrient leeching.
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379
Cylvester and Seabloom (1962) determined nutrient loss on irrigated lands in
the Yakima Basin of Washington. Thirty-three pounds of nitrogen and 1.0 pound
of phosphorus were estimated to be leached from an acre of irrigated, fertilized
farm land to surface waters. These were the most conservative estimates.
Assuming all irrigated lands in the Rocky Mountain-Prairie states region
to be fertilized, then estimates for nutrient inputs to surface waters can
be calculated for the river basin drainages (Table 103).
Table 103
North Dakota South Dakota Utah Montana Colorado
Fertilized Acres . 7,855,000 3,473,000 297,000 3,019,000 1,518,000
Nitrogen Loss 259,215,000 114,609,000 9,801,000 99,627,000 50,094,000
lb/yr
Phosphorus Loss 7,855,000 3,473,000 297,000 3,019,000 1,518,000
lb/yr
Nitrates in Soils
Two recent reports (Ludwick, Ruess, and Giles, 1973) based on studies
conducted by the CSU Experiment Station point strongly to the fact that consid-
erable nitrogen is being carried over between cropping seasons in many fields.
All districts samples averaged more than 100 pounds NO^-N/A in the 3-foot
sampled depth (Table 10<$ . Fields in the Greeley District contained much
higher levels than any of the other districts, averaging 290 pounds NO2-N.
Such a level is already excessive for sugarbeet production without the
application of any additional nitrogen fertilizer.
High NO-j-N levels have likely resulted from a gradual accumulation over
numerous years from applications of commercial nitrogen fertilizer and/or
manure at rates somewhat above annual crop requirements. Considering the
availability of feedlot manure in the Greeley district, it could be assumed
that manuring has played a major role in this buildup. From the sugarbeet
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380
industry's standpoint, applications of excessive nitrogen are especially
costly. Recent research data by the authors indicate that an accumulation
of 100 pounds profile NO^-N, in excess of that required by the crop for
maximum root production, decreases actual percentage sucrose 0.857.
The relationshop of cropping history to NO-j-N levels is presented in
Table 105. . Considering the relatively heavy fertilization of corn compared
to pinto beans, it might be expected that levels would be much higher
for thosn fi-1'1- fcl" tfing corn. This, however, was not the case. Nitrate
levels (distribution and total) are almost identical. Those fields following
sugarbeets were considerably lower, averaging a total of 97 pounds per acre
NO3-N in the 3-foot depth compared to approximately 160 pounds per acre for
the others. However, 97 pounds per acre N0^-N carry-over still indicates
available nitrogen levels were above optimum for the previous beet crop.
The purpose of sampling these fields by 1-foot increments was to
evaluate the distribution of NO^-N within the soil profile (0-3 ft.) and
thereby determine the reliability of predicting profile nitrates based on
analyzing only the surface 1-foot of soil. Overall, close to 507. of the
NO-j-N was in the surface samples. The range encountered between factory
districts was 427. for Eaton to 527. for Fort Morgan. The second and third
foot depths contained progressively lesser amounts, with the exception of
Ovid where the third foot averaged slightly higher in NO3-N than the second.
In all districts the third foot averaged somewhat over 20% of the
which in the case of the Greeley district represents 69 pounds per acre
at this depth.
Good statistical relationships exist between the amount of NO^-N contained
in the 0-1 foot sampling depth compared to that in the 0-2 feet (r^-0.89)
and 0-3 feet (r^=0.80) depths. This is partly due to the fact that the 0-1
foot measurement is also a component of the two deeper depths in the compar-
ison and that close to 50% of the soil's NO3-N is found in the surface foot.
-------
381
Table 104
Soil nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N) distribution in the 0-3 ft. depth
prior to planting sugarbeets.
Soil
depth
feet
Factory district
0-1'
1-2
2-3
Total
lbs/A-ft.
lbs/A-3 ft.
Brighton (22) *
68
50
35
153
Eaton (26)
83
64
48
195
Ft. Morgan (82)
65
33
28
126
Greeley (22)
131
90
69
290
Kemp (50)
72
802
152
Longmont (26)
90
52
A5
187
Loveland (20)
62
42
30
134
Ovid (24)
59
29
31
119
Sterling (48)
66
37
28
138
All districts (320)
74
45
36
155
1No. of fields.
^Pounds in 1-3 ft. depth.
Table 105
Soil nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N) distribution in 0-3 ft. depth
following beans, corn, and sugarbeets.
Previous crop
0-1
1-2
2-3
Total
Beans (65)*
lbs/A-ft.
lbs/A
76
47
37
160
Corn (147)
77
48
38
163
Sugarbeets (26)
51
26
20
97
1-No. of fields.
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382
Nevertheless, predictability is good and lends credence to the concept
that NO^-N analysis of surface samples gives fairly reliable information for
formulating a nitrogen fertilizer recommendation. This is not to say that
deep sampling should not be encouraged. Although overall relationships are
good, there are individual fields which deviate greatly from the above
discussed patterns (Table 106). in this study the prediction of NO^-N
content of the 3-foot soil depth, based on analyzing only the surface foot,
was within bO pounds of the true value for 827. of the fields and within 100
pounds for 977.. Prediction for 10 fields (37.) was in error by more than
100 pounds, and for nine of these it was an underestimate of the true soil
content. An underestimate results from a NO^-N accumulation in the lower-
soil depths not reflected by-analysis of the surface foot. Such accumulations
can significantly reduce sugar content and post nitrate pollution hazards.
A contributing factor to excessive use of fertilizers could quite
possibly be that modern equipment makes it easier to spread and easier to
haul large quantities. This observation was made in an interview with
Dr. John Reuss, Associate Professor of Agronomy, CSU.
Dr. Reuss discussed a recent comparative analysis of residual nitrates
in field plots in Colorado that were to go into sugarbeet production. These
plots were selected by random sample method and were not biased by controlled
selection methods (Table 107).
The high ratings possibly resulted from residual nitrates due to
previous heavy applications of manure. Where plots were located near feed-
lots this seemed to be the pattern. Common practice seems to be to get rid
of the manure and consequently very heavy applications are made in nearby
fields. The addition, subsequently, of commercial fertilizer applications
tends to compound the situation.
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383
Table 1T)6
Deviation of predicted nitrate nitrogen (NO-j-N) based on analysis
of 0-1 ft. from that found by analysis of the entire 0-3 ft. depth.*
Deviation
Cumulative
N03-N,
No. of
Percent
deviation,
lbs/A
fields
of fields
percent
0-25
178
55.6
55.6
25-50
85
26.6
82.2
50-75
34
10.6
92.8
75-100
13
4.1
96.9
100-125
5
1.6
98.5
125-150
4
1.2
99.7
150-175
1
0.3
100.0
**(0-3 ft.)" 3-77 + 1.91X(0-1 ft.)
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384
Table
Comparative Summary of Field Plots
^07 Colorado
- 1973
>ite
No.
Cooperator
Location
Factory
District
lbs N03
0-5
- N
Profile
Ft
1
Pratt
Burlington
Kemp
597.6
622.1
6'
9
Agron. Farm
Ft. Collins
Loveland
332.1
367.0
6'
2
Brooks
Eaton
Eaton
258.5
293.4
7'
3
Leffler
Eaton
Eaton
238.7
262.4
7'
8
Amen
Longmont
Longmont
241.6
254.2
6'
6
Peterson
Lucrene
Greeley
169.2
203.4
7f
14
Worley
Holyoke
Sterling
153.7
174.9
7'
15
Crosentlno
Ft. Lupton
Brighton
91.1
93.3
6'
7
Alberts
Ft. Lupton
Brighton
82.8
83.2
6'
10
Dunn
Kersey
Greeley
50.7
74.4
7'
13
Poitz
Yuma
Ft. Morgan
31.0
33.?
7'
5
Peppier
Longmont
Longmont
26.0
33.9
6'
4
Morlta
Pierce
Eaton
19.9
19.9
5'
11
Bishop
Burlington
Kemp
16.7
16,7
5'
12
Penny
Burlington
Kemp
7.0
7.0
5'
-------
385
Until a relatively few years ago, commercial fertilizer application in
Colorado was below recommended rates. However, after educational efforts were
initiated to inform farmers of this situation, more fertilizer was applied.
Many began over-applying fertilizers, however.
Nitrogen pollution potential increases greatly as the application rate
of nitrogen exceeds the true crop need for near maximum yield. At rates of
N needed to produce near maximum yield measured pollution is relatively low.
Many good field trial results showing yield data are available. The Kern
Sugar beet and Kern Potatoes figures (California Agriculture Extension Service
publication Soil and Water Summer 1973 - No. 18) illustrate this point. These
figures were drawn from data developed by a group from the Agricultural Extension
and Experimental Station investigations of nitrogen losses below crops by means
of suction probes placed in a below-the-root system of potatoes and sugarbeets
(Figures AO & 41)
Figure 40
-------
386
Figure412
lb. N per acre
Very few data, though, are available where actual pollution potential has
been measured. Hopefully, if the above nitrogen-yield-pollution potential
relationship holds, fertilization guidelines as presently used will protect
water quality of drainage waters moving to underground water supplies.
Influence of Suppliers
There is considerable concern among Region VIII agronomists as to the
degree of influence exercised by suppliers of commercial fertilizers over
the user. It has been noted that many farm soil samples are collected by
the suppliers' representatives and presented for analysis to selected labs.
Labs dependent upon the repeated business of the fertilizer manufacturer are
suspected in some instances to Kave provided analysis recommending fertilizer
use rates in excess of what is actually needed.
Another factor is that soil analysis labs are not required to be registered.
There is no certification process regulating the labs and hence little control
over the quality of the analysis being made.
-------
387
Water Supply Impact on Fertilizer Consumption
In 1965 a study conducted by R. L. Anderson and L. M. Hartman at
Colorado State University focused on changes in crop selection, yields,
water application, and fertilizer application practices as induced by
increased water supply resulting from the completion of the Colorado
Big Thompson Project. Heavier fertilizer applications on crops became
general in the area during the period when* supplemental water was intro-
duced on the farms surveyed (150 farms made up ~"he sample).
It is hazardous to say what proportion of increased fertilization was
due to supplemental water and what proportion was due to changing practices
which were general throughout the area.
Changes in Fertilizer Use
Before
Item C-BT
Farms using (7.) 42
Average Acres fertilized 53.1
Fertilizer applied per acre
available N and P20^)
Sugarbeets (lbs/acre) 78.4
Corn (lbs/acre) 43.8
Dry beans (lbs/acre) 33.0
Alfalfa (lbs/acre) 55.2
Barley (lbs/acre) 37.8
Wheat ¦ (lbs/acre)
The farmers surveyed made substantial changes in fertilizer use during
the period of adjustment of more irrigation water. Before the Project 427.
of the farmers were using some fertilizer; by the early 1960's, 917. were
using fertilizer. Average acres fertilized increased from 53 acres per farm
to 88.5 acres.
Notable changes occured in fertilizer practices on a number of specific
crops. Less than 107. of the farmers raising barley and alfalfa were usin6
commercial fertilizers early in the 1950's, but 307. were using it during the
1959-1961 period.
After
C-BT
91
88.5
144.2
85.5
61.5
73.6
39.4
71.5
Change
49
35.4
65.8
41.7
28.5
18.4
1.6
71.5
-------
388
Table 108
Use of fertilizer before and after C-BT water on survey farms, NCWCD,
Colorado, 1951-1953 and 1959-1961.
Farms wlnf fertilizer
1
•
o
3
C-BT water
After C-BT water
not using
farHMmr
Avg.
crop i craft
Avg.
no. crops
Avg.
crop acres
Avg.
no. crops
no.
percent
no.
percent
no. percent
Are* 1
A reu 11
Ari'j 111
Area IV
9
26
22
it
31
53
50
21
38.9
55.1
58.4
46.3
1.4
1.6
1.9
1.5
26
46
42
23
90
94
95
82
111.8
89.0
81.6
73.8
2.5
2.4
2.4
1.6
3 10
3 6
2 5
5 19
lOl AL
<>.1
42
53.1
1.7
137
91
88.5
2.3
13 9
Table 103
Fertilization practices on 150 survey farms before and after C-BT water,
NCWCD, Colorado, 1951-1953 and 1959-1961.
Percent of farms
Average
Available
ii
Available phosphate
Average fertMsor
fertilizing
acres
fertilized
per
acre
P*r
acre
P*i-
acre
Crop
Before After
Before
After
Before
After
Before
After
Before
After
|»ercent
acres
]M»undi
•
Itarlty
9
311
39.9
35.1
7.1
24.7
30.7
14.7
37.8
39.4
Alfiitlu
li
31
22.2
32.4
13.8
55.2
59.8
55.2
73.6
Corn
19
69
31.5
46.4
28.0
53.7
15.8
32.5
43.8
86.2
IU'uii*
•
21
KM)
34.2
33.0
26.3
35.2
33.0
61.5
SuR.ir-
Im-cu
• 46
79
34.0
35.7
22.4
50.3
55.9
92.1
78.3
142.4
Wl ic.it
28
47.0
33.4
38.1
71.5
I'.lsltllC
25
51 ,li
68.8
42.2
III 0
O.i is
9
15
30.0
13.7
42.9
26.6
61.8
62.4
104.7
89.0
I'olaloc*
25
60
15.0
18.3
60.5
72.5
30.0
136.8
90.5
209.3
I'rai
13
40.0
....
66.0
22.5
88.5
.Oniom
100
100
10.0
18.5
66.0
57.6
92.0
107.8
158.0
165.4
*0ne farm.
The number of farmers fertilizing corn increased to 697. from the previous
197.. The proportion of the farmers fertilizing sugarbeets increased from
46% to 79% between the two periods.
Farmers fertilized 3.6 times as many acres during the 1959-1961 period
than before the C-BT water was available. In addition to fertilizing more
acres, the farmers interviewed were using heavier applications of fertilizer
per acre.
Average nitrogen applications rose from 7 pounds per acre to 24 pounds
on barley, from 28 to 53 pounds on corn, and from 22 to 50 pounds on sugar-
beets .
-------
389
Impact on Air and Water
It is almost impossible to pinpoint with any degree of accuracy the
impact on air or water of commercial fertilizer applications in any of the
Region VIII states. Since a variety of crops are produced (Table 109),
fertilizer mixes in various combinations are applied depending upon crop,
soil conditions, availability of water, and the experience and knowledge of
the farmer. In Colorado alone, more than 200 combinations of mixes are
purchased and applied annually ranging from grade 0-35-0-20 to 34-3-7 (TableHO J.
How much of these materials and/or fertilizer components end up in water
supplies, soil residuals, or are lost through sediment runoffs or other means
to the environment has never been fully determined nor is it likely to be
in the very near future.
One could speculate that where corn and sugarbeets are the predominant
crop in Colorado (Northeast and East Central regions) that higher risks of
fertilizer pollution exists. But one would have to look very closely at
irrigation rates, sediment runoff problems, soils types and so on to support
with any vigor this hypothesis.
As Viets points out (Fertilizer Technology and Use, 1971) "only N and P
are receiving much attention as being of pollution significance. Although
other elements contained in fertilizers have occasionally been low enough in
water to limit activity of photosynthetic organisms, the cases are rare.
Micronutrients added in fertilizers may be toxic if they get into water, but
only two, Mo and B, have sufficient mobility in soil to have much significance.
In relation to N and P, 129 cores representing non-irrigated fields in
native grass, cultivated non-irrigated fields, irrigated fields in alfalfa,
and corrals were obtained from mortheastern Colorado during the period of
April 26 through the week of August 8, 1966 (Stewart, Viets, Hutchinson-,
Kemper, Clark, Fairborn, and Strauch, 1967).
This study found that usually small accumulations were contained in
-------
390
Table 110
COLORADO FERTILIZER SALES BY GRADES AND MATERIALS
Cowpilod by the Feed and Fertilleer Section, Colorado Department of Agriculture, Denver,
Colorado, from tonnage reports submitted by manufacturers.
GRAPH TONS ' GRADE TONS
7-1-71
1-1-72
7-1-71
7-1-71
1-1-72
7-1-71
12-31-71
6-30-72
6-30-72
12-31-71
6-30-72
6-30-7
0-35-0-20 -
29
4
33
9-6-3 —
65
188
253
1-0-0
19
31
50
9-18-9 —
30
30
1-1-1
32
1,763
1,795
9-27-9 —
26
14
14
1-11-0
1
9
10
9-30-0 —
26
3-18-0
92
92
9-46-15 —
2
2
3-18-18 —
4
4
10-4-4 —
24
24
4-0-0
161
161
10-4-6 —
11
11
4-8-8
1
2
3
IO-4-7 —
25
25
ij-10~10 —
5
26
31
10-5-5 —
14
143
157
4-12-12 —
1
5
6
10-6-4 —
142
?40
882
4-1301 —
35
22
57
IO-7-4 —
3
12
15
4-13.17 —
1
1
10-8-? —
4
4
5-1-1
2
2
10-10-5 —
6
120
126.
5-9-7
1
1
10-10-10 -
18
15
33
5-10-5 -—
1
1
10-12-6 —
2
5
7
5-10-10 —
14
14
10-12-8 —
1
1
5-10-15 ---
3
6
9
10-16-8 —
6
2
8
5-15-0 -—
4
4
10-20-20 -
7
9
16
5-15-5 -—
1
2
3
10-30-10 -
50
21
71
5-15-10 —
56
47
103
10-33-0 —
54 "
62
116
5-15-15 —
30
30
IO-34-O —
2,767
7,682
10,449
5-20-10 —
5
5
10-50-0 —
61
61
5-35-7 -—
62
204
266
10-52-17 -
t
8
8
5-35*10 —
2
2
11-2-2
'
9
9
6-4-0
350
350
H-4-7
30
30
6-6-6
-
3
3
11-5-6 —
325
289
614
-6-6-8
1
1
2
11-8-8 —
24
24
6-9-5
3
4
7
11-15-20 -
1
1
2
6-10-4
1.307
131
1,438
11-27-0 —
**5
^5
6-10-6
1 -
1
11-37-0 —
84
i.iy»
1,218
6-10-8
9
9
11-48-0 —
75
6-12-6
2
2
12-0-0 —
291
337
628
6-18-6
1
1
12-4-4 —
19
67
86
6-24-24 —
2
2
12-4-8 —
73
73
7-6-19 -—
2
2
12-6-6 —
3
9
12
7-9-5
1
1
2
12-8-4 —
5
1
6
7-21-7
436
928
1,364
12-10-0 —
48
48
7-28-14 —
1
1
2
12-10-4 —
7
7
8-0-0
351
1,008
1.359
12-12-4 —
3
^5
48
8-8-8
16
19
35
12-12-12 -
134
134
u-12-4
3
10
13
12-16*4 —
11
11
>8-14-6
1
1
12-16-14 -
6
6
8-24-8
100
553
653
12-24-12 -
609
655
8-25-5
161
59
220
12-31-14 -
1
1
2
8-32-4
5
5
13-13-13 -
7
7
-------
391
Table 110 (Continued)
GRADE ¦ TONS
7-1-71
1-1-72
7-1-7!
12-31-71
6-30-72
6-30-7
13-34-10 —
7
54
61
13-52-0 —
283
283
1/1-0-0
25
25
14-3-3
3
9
12
14-4-6
1
1
14-14-14 ~
7
7
14-26-0 —
46
14-28-7 —
9
70
79
15-O-0
2
159
161
15-5-O -—
23
23
15-5-5
2
67
69
15-6-4
5
30
35
15-7-3 -—
11
11
15-10-5 —
3
97
100
15-10-8 —
8
8
15-15-15 —
13
15
28
15-18-0 —
40
40
15-20-0 —
185
185
15-22-0
70
70
15-25-10 —
3
3
15-30-0
8
8
I5-3O-15 -
117
117
15-39-9 —
43
43
15.42-6 —
5
6
11
16-4-8
27
27
16-8-4
1
1
2
16-8-8
5
74
79
16-8-10 —
4
4
16-10-4 —
219
219
16-IO-5 —
7
7
16-11-3 —
2
2
16-11-13 —
6
6
16-16-8 —
207
66
273
16-20-0 —
246
4,400
4,646
16-20-4 —
10
10
16-2.0-6 —
306
110
416
16-21-5 —
9
36
^5
16-48-0 —
1,478
1,922
3,*K)0
17-0-0
38
3
41
17-3.4
5
5
17-5-5 -—
1
17
18
17-IO-5 —
10
10
17-11-15 —
2
2
17-12-4 —
11
59
70
17-43-0 —
53
53
18-3-3 -—
7
22
29
I8-3-5 -—
3
2
5
18-4-4
12
12
18-4-5
2
34
36
18-8-10 —
23
23
I8-10-3 —
80
80
18-10-5 —
15
15
GRADE
TONS
7-1-71
1-1-72
7-1-71
12-31-71
6-30-72
6-30-7
I8-10-7 —
2
2
18-18-0 —
2
1^5
147
18-20-4 —
20
20
18-24-6 —
28
91
119
18-24-8 —
8
8
18-24-16 -
2
2
18-25-0 —
160
160
18-36-6 —
56
56
18-46-0 —
11,772
48,776
60,548
20-0-0 —
16
1
17
20-3-3 —
2
1
3
20-4-8
3
25
28
20-5-5 —
502
1.073
1,575
20-6-6 —
40
141
181
20-10-5 —
623
1.697
2,320
20-10-10 -
29
18
47
20-20-10 -
85
272
357
20-20-20 -
3
4
7
20-30-10 -
4
11
15
21-4-4
16
114
130
21-6-0 —
5
5
21-6-11 —
6
6
12
22-4-4 —
49
277
326
22-5-5 —
269
688
957
22-6-3 —
2
2
22-7-14 —
76
76
22-10-10 -
10
28
38
22-12-4 —
22
22
22-20-10 -
1
1
23-7-7 •
8
8
23-18-6 —
1
1
2
23-19-17 -
8
24
32
24-5-3 —
5
3
8
24-8-0 —
56
56
24-8-12 —
2
2
24-12-0 —
5
5
25-5-3 —
174
530
704
25-5-5 —
22
37
59
25-5-20 —
2
1
3
25-7-7 —
6
6
25-10-5 "
2
2
25-10-10 -
1
6
7
25-15-10 -
18
16
18
25-25-0 —
16
27-6-5 —
1
7
8
27-14-0 —
106
158
264
30-0-0
3
18
21
30-3-10 —
11
12
23
30-5-3 —
10
5
15
3O-10-O —
87
646
733
30-10-10 -
7
7
30-35-0 —
5
5
-------
392
Table 110 (Continued)
GRADS TONS
7-1-71
12-31-71
1-1-72
6-30-72
7-1-71
6-30-72
32-0-8 —
2
1
3
32-5-3 —
9
4
13
3/4-3-7 —
10
10
Miucellaneou
8 469
697
1,166
TOTAL MIXED
23,870
81,801
105,671
Table 111
MATERIALS TONS
7-1-71 1-1-72 7-1-71
12-31-71 6-30-72 6-30-72
Anhydrous Ammonia
Aqua Ammonia
Ammonium Nitrate
Ammonium Sulfate
Nitrogen Solutions
Urea A Urea Forms
Superphosphates
Diammonium Phosphate
Ammonium Phosphate
Phosphoric Acid
Nitrogen Phosphates
Triple Superphosphates
Muriate of Potash
Sulphate of Potash
Sulphate of Potash-Magnesia
Gypsum
Sulfur
Zinc Sulphate
Iron Sulphate
Manganese Sulphate
Sewage Sludgo
Calcium Nitrate
Calcium Sulphate
Ammonium Thiosulphate
Bone Heal —
Blood Meal
Miscellaneous Materials
TOTAL STRAIGHT MATERIALS —
21,180
157
10,670
3.75^
12,639
775
202
167
167
7
122
3,884
1,637
570
359
16
279
844
46
155
66
1,576
2it5
60,217
32,762
2,928
21,639
29,279
13,979
2,946
8,052
4,725
7,825
2,576
939
21
1,472
1.^59
103
306
352
2,815
1,568
16
5
JlA22
137.266
53,9^2
3,085
32,309
33,033
26,618
3,721
8,254
167
167
13
122
8,609
9,^2
3.146
1,298
37
1.751
2,303
149
306
507
2,881
1.576
1.568
16
5
2,4.18
197,483
GRAND TOTAL MIXED FERTILIZERS
AND MATERIALS
84,087
219.067
303.15^
-------
393
non-irrigated fields indicating some leaching of nitrate. This even though
rainfall averages only about 15 inches per year. The native grass fields
did not show, as a rule, nitrate accumulation in the profile. Significant
quantities of nitrates were found in most cores taken from irrigated fields
being cropped with row crops or cereal grains. On the other hand, cores
obtained from irrigated alfalfa fields generally contained none (less than
0.5 ppm) or insignificant amounts of nitrate.
(The same report made reference to the increased consumption of fertilizers.
"Use of commercial fertilizers, mainly on irrigated lands, has been steadily
increasing. In Colorado as a whole, commercial fertilizer nitrogen sales on
an elemental basis have increased almost five-fold in the last decade -- from
7,041 tons in 1965 to 38,682 tons in 1964. In six counties in Northeastern
Colorado, constituting about half the area studied, commercial fertilizer
nitrogen use in five years almost doubled from 9,216 tons in 1959 to 17,009
tons in 1964. There is no evidence of general excessive use.") Figure 42
shows where core samples were taken.
-------
394
JULESBERG
:<;ure 42-.f:ortlieastern Colorado, showing the locations (Noa. I to 19) where cores were taken.
-------
395
REFERENCES
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Viets, F. G., Jr. Water quality in relation to farm use of fertilizer. BIOSCIENCE
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Viets, F. G., Jr. 1971 Fertilizer use in relation to surface and ground water
pollution. ARS, USDA. Fort Collins, Colorado.
Viets, Frank G., Jr. 1970. Soil use and water quality—a look into the guture.
Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry. Volume 18, pp. 789-792.
Viets, Frank G., Jr., and R. H. Hageman. 1971. Factors affecting the accumulation
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Wadleigh, C. H. 1968. Wastes in relation to agriculture and forestry. U.S. Dept.
of Agriculture, Miscellaneous Publication No. 1065, p. 112.
Ludwick, A. E., J. 0. Reuss, and J. F. Giles. 1973. Distribution of soil nitrates
in Eastern Colorado fields prior to planting sugarbeets. Colorado State
University Experiment Station Progress Report No. 40. June.
Reuss, J. 0., A. E. Ludwick, and J. G. Giles. 1973. Prediction of nitrogen fertil-
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Davan, D. F., Jr., R. L. Anderson, and L. M. Hartman. 1962. Agricultural charac-
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irrigation area of Northeastern Colorado. ERS-USDA Technical Bulletin 78.
Stewart, B. A., F. G. Viets, Jr., G. L. Hutchinson, W. D. Kemper, F. E. Clark,
M. L. Fairbourn, and F. Strauch. 1967. Distribution of Nitrates and other
water pollutants under fields and corrals in the middle South Platte Valley
of Colorado. USDA Agricultural Research Service, December.
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Colorado Department of Agriculture. 1972. Colorado Agricultural Statistics.
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USDA, Economic Research Service, Natural Resource Economics Division. 1973.
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U.S. Department of the Interior. 1970. Geological Survey. Water resources data
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the state of Colorado and with other agencies.
Seastedt, T. R., and John F. Tibbs. 1973. Land use and water quality in the Flat-
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-------
396
Missouri Basin Inter-Agency Committee. 1971. The Missouri River Basin Comprehensive
Framework Study. December.
Environmental Protection Agency. 1973. Development and management needs of the
Flathead River drainage. Flathead River Basin Study.
Gardner, W. R. 1965. Movement of nitrogen in soil. In Soil Nitrogen, pp. 550-572.
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Headden, W. P. The fixation of nitrogen in some Colorado Soils. Colorado State
Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 160 (1910).
Stanford, G. and A. W. Taylor. 1970. Fertilizer use and water quality. ARS 41-168.
USDA 19 pp.
Biggar, J. W. and R. B. Corey. 1969. Agricultural drainage and eutrophication:
causes, consequences, correction. National Academy of Sciences, Washington,
D.C. p. 404-445.
Commoner, Barry. 1968. "Natural unbalanced." Scientist and Citizen, 10: 1 (January
1968), pp. 9-19. A summary of recent changes in the nitrogen cycle and
their effects on nitrate levels in the environment.
Doneen, L. D. 1968. Effects of soil salinity and nitrates on tile drainage in
San Joaauin Valley, California. Water Sci. and Eng. Paper 4002. Sacramento.
Johnston, W. R. , F. Ittihadieh, M. Daum, and A. F. Pillsbury. 1965. Nitrogen and
phosphorus in tile drainage effluent. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 29: 287-289.
Keller, W. D. , and Smith, Geroge E. 1967. Ground water contamination by dissolved
nitrate. Geol. Soc. Am. Spec. Papers 90: 48-59.
Navone, R., Harmon, J. A., and Voyles, C. F. 1963. Nitrogen content of ground
water in southern California. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 55(5): 615-618.
Nettles, Charlie. 1970. Thirty percent of wells flunk in water test. Des Moines
Sunday Register. Section F. July 19, 1970.
Sawyer, C. N.- 1947. Fertilization of lakes by agricultural drainage. J. New
Engl. Water Works Assoc. 61: 109-127.
Verduin, J. 1964. Changes in western Lake Erie during the period 1948-1962.
Verhandl. Intern. Ver. Limnol. 15: 639-44.
Verduin, J. 1967. Eutrophication and agriculture in the United States. In Agri-
culture and the quality of our environment, ed. Nyle C. Brady, pp. 163-72.
Norwood, Mass.: Plimpton Press.
Verduin, J. 1968. Reservoir management probelms created by increased phosphorus
levels of surface waters. Am. Fish, Soc. Symp., pp. 200-206. Athens, Ga:
University of Georgia Press.
Verduin, J. 1969. Man's influence on Lake Erie. Ohio J. Sci. 69: 65-70.
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FERTILIZER CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
Currently Recommended Technology and Managerial Practices for Reducing
Pollution from the Use of Fertilizers
Alternatives available for controlling pollution and for reducing
environmental destruction caused by fertilizer use are not plentiful.
Those that are available relate closely to plant physiological aspects in
crop production and improvement in fertilizers application. They include
slow-release fertilizers, timing of fertilizer application, levels of
fertilizer use related to crop requirements, and improved methods of
application.
Slow-Release Fertilizer
There is growing interest in the utilization of slow-release fertilizers
as a means of minimizing some of the adverse effects on the environmental
quality resulting from repeated applications of commercial fertilizers,
especially nitrogen fertilizer. The feasibility of this approach has been
demonstrated through laboratory, greenhouse and experimental studies.
Slow-release fertilizers are developed primarily to increase the
efficiency of nutrients used by plants. In terms of plant physiology and
crop quality, efficiency can be defined as nutrient recovery and economics
of use. Allison (1966) reported that only 50-60 percent of nitrogen fertil-
izer applied to soil is recovered by crop plants, according to the results
of long-term field and lysimeter studies. While reported values for crop
uptake of fertilizer phosphorus and potassium during a single season generally
vary between 5-25 and 40-70 percent, respectively, factors contributing to
these incomplete recoveries are a result of rapid dissolution of the applied
fertilizer, and thereby, release of the nutrient at high concentration. From
the viewpoint of plant physiology, slow-release fertilizers ideally should
supply nutrient to the soil solution at a rate and a concentration which allow
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398
the growing plant to maintain maximum expression of its genetic capability.
Thus, the development of fertilizer having slow release of nutrients will
enable more complete utilization of nutrients by plants.
Several advantages, from the viewpoint of improving fertilizer nutrient
recovery by crop plants, are cited for slow-release fertilizers. They are
(a) reduction of nutrient loss through leaching and runoff, (b) reduction of
chemical and biological reactions in soil which cause fertilizer nutrient to
remain in un^vailab1 form to plant, and (c) reduction of rapid nitrification
and nitrogen loss through ammonia volatilization and denitrification (Hauck
and Koshino, 1971). Clearly, if plant use of nutrient can be improved by
accurate control of nutrient supply, then control of release is desirable.
Most of slow-release fertilizers are designed to delay or reduce the
rate of nutrient delivery to the soil solution. There are four types of
slow-release materials: (1) water-soluble materials containing plant-
available forms of nutrients where dissolution is controlled by a physical
barrier, e.g, by a coating; (2) materials>of limited water solubility which
during their chemical and/or microbial decomposition release nutrients in
plant-available form, e.g. the ureaforms; (3) materials of limited water
solubility and plant-available forms, e.g. metal ammonium phosphate; and
(4) soluble or relatively water-soluble materials which gradually decompose,
thereby releasing their nutrients, e.g. guanylurea salts. The rates of
release for all types of materials can be further modified through use of
chemical additives, such as nitrification inhibitors, which affect micro-
bial activity.
Many experiments, both laboratory and greenhouse, have demonstrated that
nitrification inhibitors, under certain conditions, can reduce nitrogen loss
and increase crop yields. This has also been demonstrated in field experiments.
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399
Alexander (1965) listed many inhibitors and summarized the literature
on their use. Turner and Goring (1966) examined the value of N-SERVE in
relation to N fertilization of cotton, sweet corn, spinach, sugarbeets, sugar
cane, and rice. They also provided information on formulation, storage, and
application of fertilizers amended with nitrification inhibitor. They con-
cluded that yield and nitrogen content of several crops could be increased
by the use of nitrification inhibitor. Chemical inhibitors to delay oxida-
tion of ammo.iia to nitrates and nitrites was suggested by Black (1968). In
general, the inhibitors appeared to be more effective at temperatures below
21°C and much less effective at temperatures up to 32°C. Studies by Huber
and associates (1969) in Idaho and Janssen and Wiese (1969) in Nebraska sup-
port these conclusions.
Slow-release fertilizers are still receiving research emphasis. They
are generally experimental fertilizers from which fertilizing agents are released
slowly over a period of time. They are not produced as fertilizers on a
commercial scale. A product patented by the Archer Daniels Midland Co.
(license now held by Sierra Chemical Co.) is the only coated nitrogen
fertilizer know to be produced commercially. However, the use of this
fertilizer has been limited to nonfarm use such as ornamentals and in turf
grass formulation. Sulfur-coated urea currently is the slow-release nitrogen
product of this type being tested most extensively. Some interest in the
coated phosphorus, potassium, and mixed fertilizers has been also developed.
Products tested include those coated with sulfur studies by Mamaril (1964);
urea-formaldehyde by Smith (1964); asphalt by Hall and Baker (1967); and
calcium carbonate, calcium sulicate, Portland cement, or rock phosphate by
Raupach (1968). No difficulty is expected in the development of coated,
mixed fertilizers except for mixes high in ammonium nitrate content and
particles with highly irregular contours.
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400
Few studies have beea reported for the use of slow-release fertilizer
materials in vegetable production. Usually, intensive vegetable production
requires that large amounts of fertilizer be applied to insure adequate
levels of nutrient at all growth stages. However, vegetable crops have
been used as test crops. For example, Heilman and associates (1966) reported
cabbage for evaluating resin-coated ammonium nitrate; Dilz and Steggerda
(1962) indicated spinach for testing oxamide.
Thr.ro ij ^rowi.._ interest in finding efficient and economical slow-
V
release nutrient sources for use in forests, forest nurseries, fruit trees,
and other tree crops. White (1965) showed that soluble salts encapsulated
in polyethylene can safely be placed in direct contact with pine and spruce
seedling roots. Usage of such capsules makes possible slow-release fertil-
izer for periods 1 to 6 years, depending on the physical and chemical
characteristics of the capsule.
Dahnke and associates (1963) reported that in the greenhouse experiment,
more nitrogen fertilizer was recovered by corn forage from "coated" than
from"uncoated"ammonium sulfate, but yield from both materials were similar.
However, one application of sulfur-coated urea produced as much grain as
three applications of uncoated urea. Lunt (1968) also reported that under
leaching conditions the use of sulfur-coated urea obtained substantially higher
yields and more nitrogen was taken up than from uncoated urea.
Slow-release fertilizers, mainly nitrogen, have been on the market for
some time in the U.S. Slow-release fertilizers are used almost entirely on
ornamentals and in turf-grass formulation. They are produced in small amounts
commercially, but are only a very small fraction of an estimated 3.3 million
tons of soluble fertilizer produced for nonfarm use. Approximately..50,000
tons of ureaform are produced on the market yearly. Small amounts of
Isobutylidene Diurea (IBDU) have been included in fertilizer for use on
golf greens for 6 years in the U.S. and this fertilizer material is now
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401
produced commercially as a slow-release fertilizer for use on home lawns. The
potential for increased use of slow-release materials for nonfarm purposes
is expected. However, the practicability and economy of large-scale use on
U.S. farms are still in question.
Current costs of slow-release fertilizers can be considered high.
Estimated cost of producing the fertilizer is 25 to 50 percent higher per
unit of slow-release fertilizers than the uncoated version. However, the
real costs of slow-release fertilizers cannot- be obtained solely from production
costs. They must be obtained by considering factors such as improved crop
quality, labor savings, and convience of using, among others. These factors
are much more difficult to evaluate in an economic sense although the amount
of literature about slow-release fertilizers is growing, little information
is available on the large-scale use of such fertilizers in practical agricul-
ture due to high cost of production, hence none has been able to show that
the benefits would equal the added cost. Thus, it is too early to evaluate
slow-release fertilizers on the basis of a cost-benefit ratio at present
stage of development of slow-release fertilizers. But, this may well change
in the years ahead. Breakthroughs in mass production of slow-release
fertilizers can be anticipated that will both lower their production cost
and improve their effectiveness through changes in the technology of
fertilizer production. Effects of changes in technology of fertilizer
production will bring users to the point where adequate returns can be
demonstrated in wider segments of U.S. agriculture to offset the additional
production cost. This likelihood is exaggerated when one considers that
modern farming will eventually become more sophisticated and that labor
cost will continue to increase.
Timing of Application
Recent research indicated that leaching nitrates below the rooting zones
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of planes can and does occur in soil. It also points out that leaching
nitrates below the rooting zone of plants may be more prevalent on sandy
soils under irrigation than oh heavier textured soils during summer when
evapotranspiration is greater than precipitation. In late fall (or under
fallow) and early spring when soils are not frozen, movement of nitrates
downward within the soil profile occurs, and some may eventually reach under-
ground water supplies and hence contribute potential pollution. Therefore,
better knowledge about fertilizer distributions to crops at different times
during the year would be useful to minimize losses of nitrogen and moderate
potential pollution. To achieve this end, nitrogen should be kept to a
minimum during the colder months of the year or in the absence of a crop,
and fertilizer nitrogen should be added in amounts which allow for, but do
not greatly exceed, the amounts needed for efficient crop production. Our
present advanced technology can be utilized to make more effective utilization
of fertilizer in crop production. Thus, timing and placement of fertilizers
must be adjusted to maximize efficiency of utilization of crops, on the one
hand, and to minimize potential pollution by leaching and erosion, on the other hand.
In general, farmers want to handle a minimum of fertilizer at or near
planting time, hence., part of the seasonal requirement of low mobility
nutrients may be applied prior to plowing or soil preparation. Fertilization
is one job that can be partially completed before spring planting for many
crops and soils. This will lead to an important saving in time and labor.
Since nitrogen fertilizer in the nitrate form moves freely in the soil,
it requires more careful management to assure an available supply throughout
the entire growing season. As nitrogen fertilizer is the first limiting
nutrient and the required rate is greatest for many of our important crops,
timing and placement must be adjusted qo as to achieve a maximum efficiency
of utilization of fertilizer by the crop.
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403
A study of leaching losses of nitrogen made by Brown (1965) concluded
that leaching losses increase with increasing rates of nitrogen application.
As farmers continue to increase the use of nitrogen fertilizers, the question
arises as to the comparative value of fall, spring and summer fertilization
of corn with nitrogen and the associated environmental danger. The pollution
potential from nitrogen fertilization must be carefully considered, since it
is subject to loss through several mechanisms. If the nitrogen is in the
nitrate form considerable leaching may result. In addition, wet conditions
cause appreciable nitrogen loss through denitrification.
A study of the movement of nitrate nitrogen in soil profiles made by
Olsen and associates (1969) indicated that more leaching of nitrate nitrogen
occured between fall and spring than during the growing season and more under
fallow than cropped conditions.
In reviewing the timing of fertilizer applications, Viets (1971) reported
that fall application of ammbnial fertilizers should be avoided until the
soil has cooled below 45°F at the 4-inch depth in order to slow the nitrifica-
tion rate. Nitrogen fertilizer application in the fall should be avoided in
view of the potential pollution hazard.
Voss (1972) reported research on the timing of fertilizer applications
in Iowa and Illinois. He concluded that: (1) time of nitrogen applications
does not appear critical in most of Iowa; (2) areas with wet soils in the
spring may show an advantage for preplant or sidedress applications according
to Illinois data. He recommended that choice of time and method of nitrogen
fertilizer application and materials should be amanagement decision within
a producer's corn production system. Available labor for each individual
related to size of operation, crop sequence, tillage practices, soils, pest
problems, average and expected weather conditions, etc., should be taken into
consideration and the practices of fertilization fit into his crop production
system.
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404
Morris and Jackson (1959),. Doll (1962) , Laughlin (1903) , and Welch
and associates (1966) have reported lower yields of crops other than corn,
when nitrogen fertilizer was applied in the fall than when it was applied
in the spring.
Generally, both phosphorus and potassium can be applied preplant in
the fall or whenever soil'conditions permit, providing erosion losses are
avoided by soil incorporation or use of crop residues and cover crops.
Some caution is advised for potassium on deep sandy soils where leaching
of potassium may occur.
A large part of phosphorus and potassium and frequently some nitrogen
fertilizers are usually applied just prior to .tilling or plowing the soil
for the crop to be grown. This operation may be started shortly before
planting or as much as 6-montbs prior in the case of plowing the land in
the fall. These applications are frequently supplemented with small amounts
of fertilizers placed in or near the row at the time of planting in order
to furnish a source of readily available nutrients for the young seedlings
during the early part of the season.
On coarse-textured soils in Minnesota, Dr. J. M. MacGregor (1973)
indicated the advantage of timing the nitrogen fertilizer applications to
when the crop has a demand for it as shown in Table 112<
Table 112. Advantage of Timing N Applications.
Total N Lb n/A per Corn
applied Dates application yield
Lb/A bu/A
0 -- 43
100 applied at planting (5/11) 100 92
100 applied at planting 25 154
(5/11, 6/11, 7/11, 8/11)
200 5/11 - at planting 200 158
200 5/11, 5/26, 6/11, b/26, 7/11, 25 192
7/26, 8/11 and 8/26
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405
More intensive management of our pasture programs will have a positive
influence on fertilizer consumption. Fertilization can be an economical
way to increase grouping rates and thereby increase herd size. Most pasture
plants need nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Grasses are big users of
nitrogen and yields will be low if this nutrient is inadequate. A study of
better pasture with fertilization by Schaller and Voss (1970) indicated that
the best time to apply nitrogen fertilizers on pastures is influenced mainly
by the growth pattern of the grass, and to a lesser degree, by the need for
pasture and convenience of application. They pointed out the following
findings of the study: (1) for cool season grasses, namely, blue grass and
tall grasses, adequate nitrogen must be available during two periods of best
growth, from May to about mid-July and from mid-July through August, for top
grass yields; (2) when you increase grass production by fertilization, you
must be prepared to use the forage about the time it is produced; (3) the
best time to make a single nitrogen application at a moderate rate would be
early spring before major growth starts, but fertilizer could be lost if the
snow melts rapidly and runoff occurs; (4) single application also can be made
in early August or late fall before the ground freezes (early August applica-
tion will boost fall growth and provide some carryover to spring, however,
late fall application will boost growth the following spring); and (5) for
a "high rate-split application program," the first application of 80 pounds
of nitrogen on blue grasses or 120 pounds on tall grass should be made in
early August so as to stimulate fall growth and boost grass vigor for a
fast start the. following spring. The second application should be made about
early June.
Most studies indicate that with certain precautions phosphorus and
potassium can be applied in the fall with very little, if any, loss of
nutrients.
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Improved Methods of Application
Methods of fertilizer placement, processes in nutrient uptake by plants,
effects of placement on soil and on soil-plant relations, effects of temper-
ature on nutrient uptake, and placement in relation to root distribution and
moisture should be reviewed carefully to improve effective use of chemical
fertilizers. Thus the technological improvement of fertilizer application
will improve utilization of fertilizer and thereby minimize pollution potential.
In an analysis of new trends in fertilizing corn, Barber (19fc9) asserted
that application methods of fertilizer for corn should be re-evaluated due
to radical changes in corn fertilization. The following points were raised
in his study. In the northern Corn Belt, where farmers are applying 150-200
lbs. N/acre per year for corn, the fertilizer can be applied any time between
late fall and a month after planting. Nitrogen fertilizer should be applied
6-10 inches deep to avoid loss.
The biggest changes have occured in the application of phosphorus
fertilizer. In one study 50 lb P20^/acre with application 2 inches to the
side and below the seed gave a 10-bushel increase. The same amount broadcast;
and plowed under gave a 14-bushel, increase. The increased yield occured
because the phosphorus in the row was only available during the first 4 weeks,
while most of the plant's need for phosphorus occurs in the remainder of the
growing season. Only low rates of application, such as 10-50 lb. P^O^/acre,
should be applied near the row at planting time.
Theoretically, phosphorus fertilizers should not be applied very far in
advance of seeding the-crop. Since soluble phosphorus changes to-less- -
available forms in the soil, the effectiveness declines with time between
application and the time the crop needs it.
Regarding the methods of application for potassium fertilizer, it can be
applied as a band or broadcast with about equal efficiency. It may be
broadcast in fall, winter, or spring and can be applied once every two years
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but it should be applied as a plowdown instead of disked into the surface.
Fertilizer nitorgen and crop rotation in relation to movement of nitrate
nitrogen through soil profiles were studied by Olsen and associates (1970).
Results indicate: (1) total amount of NO-j-N in the soil profiles was
directly related to the rate of nitrogen application and to the frequency of
corn in rotation; (2) more leaching of NO^-N generally occured between fall
and spring samplings than during the growing season: and (3) the most effective
methods indicated for limiting the amounts of NO^-N passing through the soil
profile to the water table include: (a) limiting rates of nitrogen fertilizer
to approximately that required by the crop, (b) reducing the acreage and
frequency of corn or other crops that receive fertilizer nitrogen in the
rotation, and (c) maintaining a crop cover on the land as much of the time as
is feasible.
Anhydrous ammonia and ammonia solution are agronomically equivalent to
other nitrogen fertilizer sources but must be applied according to the following
rules formulated by Pionke and Walsh (1968) in order to minimize chances of
crop damage and ammonia loss.
1. Anhydrous ammonia and ammonia solution must be applied below soil
surface to minimize physical loss of ammonia. Apply anhydrous ammonia at
least 6 inches deep under most conditions and at least 8 to 10 inches deep in
dry loam, silt loam or clay loam soil. Apply ammonia solution 2 to 4 inches
deep. Do not, under any conditions, apply either anhydrous ammonia or
ammonia solution to dry sandy soil.
2. Do not apply anhydrous ammonia or ammonia solution to stony or wet,
heavy-textured soil or soil with unbroken corn stalk residue at the surface.
Such conditions prevent proper closure of the application slit and allow
substantial ammonia loss. With sidedress applications under these conditions,
plant damage almost always occurs.
3. To avoid leaching loss, do not make a preplant application of
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408
nitrogen fertilizer to sandy or sandy loam soil in fall or spring. To avoid
denitrification loss, do not apply nitrogen fertilizer on poorly-drained or
periodically flooded soil in fall.
Limit fall application of anhydrous ammonia and ammonia solution to moderately
well-drained to well-drained loam, silt loam or clay loam soil at temperatures
below 50 degrees. In a normal year, soil reaches this temperature after late
October in southern South Dakota and all of Wyoming and in mid-October in northern
South Dakota, North Dakota, and Montana.
4. In spring, incorrect preplant application of anhydrous ammonia may later
damage germinating plants. To minimize this hazard, apply it 5 inches below the
planting depth of the seed.
5. All except extremely dry soil can be tilled 1 to 2 days after anhydrous
ammonia or ammonia solution application without substantial ammonia loss.
6. When anhydrous ammonia or ammonia solution is applied in spring, plant
at right angles to the direction of fertilizer application.
Research work has shown the advantage of plowing down both phosphorus and
potash for crops to minimize environmental pollution when water runoff occurs.
Research work on a soil low in phosphorus and very low to low in potassium is
shown below in Table 113.
Table 113. Methods of application of phosphorus and potassium for corn.
Method of
Fertilizer applied application Com yield
Tuva K0° bu/A
0 0 55
60 0 disked in 53
plowed down 55
60 80 disked in 103
plowed down 113
Research in North Dakota has shown that row or starter fertilizer often
produced very profitable responses even though fair amounts have been broad-
cast and plowed down.
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409
Stewart and associates (1968) observed that little nitrate was present
under alfalfa fields and grasslands to depths of 20 feet. Where the water
table is within this depth, some nitrate may even be removed from the water
table.
Erosion losses of nitrogen are mostly associated with the selective
removal of organic nitrogen compounds in the erosion debris. Therefore, to
minimize losses of nitrogen and reduce potential water pollution, erosion
control practices should be included in soil management. According to
Amemiya (1970), practices for erosion control are designed to do one or more
of the following: (1) reduce runoff velocity, (2) dissipate raindrop impact
forces, (3) reduce quantity of runoff, and (4) manipulate soils to enhance
the resistance to erosion. The important relationship between soil erosion
and tillage methods has been reported by many investigators.
The importance of fertilizers and a sod-based rotation in reducing
erosion losses from £lay pan soils in Missouri was observed by Whitaker (1961).
He found that erosion from corn in a sod-based rotation was only 607„ of that
from continuous corn.
Sod crops and crop residues left on soil surfaces during non-cropping
seasons can also reduce erosion as will minimum tillage.
Timmons and fellow researchers (1968) conducted a definitive study on
the loss of crop nutrients through runoff in Minnesota. They found that the
loss of both total nitrogen and total phosphorus was much greater on southern
Minnesota land in cultivated fallow or continuous corn than land in a three-
year rotation containing a hay crop. Their data illustrates widely accepted
fact that the high loss of nutrients in solution in runoff from alfalfa was
in the corn-oats-alfalfa rotation. They also found that this high nutrient
loss occurred in the spring runoff of snowmelt water that leaches nitrogen
and phosphorus from the frozen alfalfa plants. This discovery suggests that
concentration of soluble nutrients, particularly phosphorus, may be high in
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410
spring runoff from land in grass or legumes, even though soil losses are
minimal. Holt and associates (1970) discussed this possibility in detail.
A study on loss of phosphorus by erosion of a Hartsells fine sandy loam
on two- to four-percent slopes in Alabama was reported by Ensminger (1952).
He found that unfertilized plots in a crop-cotton rotation lost 43 pounds
Table 114. Total nutrient
plots 23.9 mile
1967.
content of runoff
s long on Barnes
and sediment
loam with 67.
from five systems on
slope, during 1966 and
Cropping
Total
N
To tal
P
Treatments
Runoff
Sediment
Runoff
Sediment
Kg/ha
per year
Fallow
2.27
62.6"
0.06
0.34
Corn - continuous
0.35
12.7
0.07
0.11
Corn - rotation
0.81
4.1
0.07
0.04
Oats - rotation
0.22
5.2
0.01
0.03
Alfalfa - rotation
3.33
0.2
0.22
0.00
Rotation average
1.46
3.1
0.10
0.02
Source: Timmons et al., 1968.
of phosphorus, while nine plots fertilized with phosphorus from various mater-
ials over the1 16-year study period had an average loss of 172 pounds. He
further observed that in a similar rotation with winter legumes following
cotton, phosphorus losses for comparable treatments were 25 and 147 pounds.
Brage and associates (1951) reported that a long rotation of root
crops, grain and 1 to 3 years in hay increased the amounts of carbon and
nitrogen in the soil, but did not increase yields.
Levels of Fertilizers Used Related to Crop Requirements
There is general feeling that chemical fertilizers can be applied so
that potential pollution is no problem, provided erosion can be controlled.
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411
To minimize movement of nutrients by runoff water, fertilizer must be in-
corporated into the soil during or soon after application. Adjustment of
application rates to plant needs may be required to prevent unused fertilizer
from being leached into groundwater and tiles. Nitrogen fertilizer recommen-
dations suggested by Fenster and associates (1969) are based on the nitrogen
requirement of, a crop for maximum efficient production, efficiency, of utili-
zation of nitrogen fertilizers used, and nitrogen-supplying capability of
the soil «ia i-o'eaf f nitrogen from the organic nitrogen pool. A number
of recent research projects are attempting to determine what constitutes an
acceptable application rate for fertilizer that will both sustain crop pro-
duction and minimize environmental pollution. Therefore, the environmental
quality factor will have to be brought into the formulation of responsible
recommendations.
Many studies have been done in obtaining valuable information helpful
in assessing the amount of nitrogen fertilizer required in a particular sit-
uation. A new and promising approach to this problem has been suggested by
Stanford and associates (1965) and Stanford (1966). They pointed out that
in the case of crops like sugarcane, potatoes, or malting barley where
surplus nitrogen reduces quality, it should be the minimum requirement for
maximum production of a product of acceptable quality. They found that over-
application of nitrogen fertilizer to sugarcane in Hawaii caused sugar losses.
A study done in Missouri by Smith (1968) recommended that application
rates.be limited to maximum yield requirements. This would be approximately
100 pounds of nitrogen per acre, unless nitrates were being leached into
groundwater supplies.
Stout and Burau (1967) reported that when irrigation waters from surface
wells containing nitrates are used, cropland management recommendations can
be developed to include the amounts of nitrogen which will be supplied with
the irrigation waters.
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412
One of the nitrogen recommendations suggested by Fenster and associates
(1969) is based on the efficiency of utilization of nitrogen fertilizer used.
Cook (1969) suggested that use efficiency of nitrogen, which averaged less
than 50%, must be increased in the years ahead through reduction in loss of
nitrogen by leaching. He also indicates that promising research was underway
in the following areas: (1) the control of ammonia oxidation and other reac-
tions in soils, (2) the decomposition of urea, (3) higher analysis and more
readily available compounds of phosphorus reacted with ammonia, (4) pelleting
of fertilizers to control solubility rates and with Che seed for immediate
utilization, and (5) agronomic control by plant analysis with subsequent and
immediate application of fertilizer if needed by aerial top-dressings or
perhaps in irrigation waters. It should be noted that different soils, cli-
mates, and cropping systems would have to be given individual research
attention.
According to Iowa crop rotation data, one year of a good alfalfa stand
has provided enough nitrogen for first-year corn to maintain a five-year
average of 120 bushels per acre. Some other data suggests that a good alfalfa
stand of more than one year may provide up to 130 pounds equivalent of nitrogen
fertilizer to first-year corn. Nitrogen fertilizer response data for contin-
uous corn systems, conducted on experimental farms in and next to Iowa, show
the effect of weather and soils. These data furnish a basis for checking
and adjusting current nitrogen application rate suggestions and for under-
standing factors affecting response of corn to nitrogen fertilizer.
Suggested fertilizer needs for present orop production practices made
by Duncan (1970) are shown in Table 115. The range in the suggested rates
takes into account soil differences and, to a lesser extent, anticipated yields.
These levels of nutrients from commercial fertilizers, manure, crop residues,
etc. should be adequate for most farms on all except very low fertility soils.
Increasing these nutrient levels will not necessarily increase crop yields
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413
Table 113. Suggested Nutrient Levels for Minimizing Pollution, Pounds/Acre.
Crop
N
P2°5
i
k2o
Corn for Grain
120-160
40-U0
10-80
Soybeans
0
20-M)
0-40
Oats
20-60
10-40
0-20
Alfalfa Hay
0
40-80
40-110
Tall Grass
20-160
10-43
10-40
Source: Voss, 19 71.
and may create additional pollution potential. Recent research at raidwestern
universities reveals that fertilizer rates for different crops on silt loam
soils indicated in Table 115 do not pose a significant pollution potential
for groundwater, nor an enrichment problem in surface vaters when they are
properly used.
A rule of thumb for application rates on continuous corn to produce
profitable yields and still be environmentally safe, would be one pound of
nitrogen fertilizer for each bushel of yield potential or productivity on
specific soils. Barnes (1972) presented evidence to support this approach.
To determine fertilizer application rates, it is important to know that
all three elements, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, are in the right
proportions. A proper balance between the amount of available nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium is needed for best plant growth. Fertilizers that
contain the right mixture of elements can be bought to fit soil needs. Soil
tests can be used to indicate what fertilizers are needed. However, soil
tests do not include methods or timing of fertilizer application. Neither
does it indicate the form of a nutrient that may be most desirable to apply.
This information must be obtained with field studies in addition to correlation
studies to determine critical levels of nutrients.
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414
On most soils in the central part of the U.S., the level of available
phosphorus, as measured by soil tests, gradually rises under such a system,
particularly if the initial level is low. When soil tests are high, rates
of fertilizer should be cut back so that proper levels are maintained. Low
rates are generally used when capital is limited, and the aim is to obtain
maximum returns per dollar spent for fertilizer.
Schaller and Voss (1970) conducted research on better pastures with
fertilization. Rega-'ing rates of nitrogen application, their suggestions
range from 60 to 240 pounds of nitrogen per acre, depending on factors such
as the need for forage, grass variety, the thickness of sand, kind of
grazing management, and moisture supply. They concluded that (1) uO to 120
pounds of nitrogen fertilizer per acre is considered a moderate rate and should
be applied as a single application; (2) additional nitrogen up to double the
above rate can be used, but as a split application: (3) the higher fertiliza-
tion rates should be considered if you need forage, are practicing some type
of rotation grazing, and if the moisture supply looks favorable; and (4)
applying high annual rates of nitrogen in at least two applications is safer,
allows better use of the nitrogen fertilizer and more total yield for the
year.
Suggested annual phosphorus and potassium application rates for Kentucky
bluegrass and the tallgrasses are based on soil test levels. If a soil test
is not available, use the very low or low test values at least the first year
of application. Then test your soil and adjust accordingly. In any case,
soil should be tested every three to four years. You may find phosphorus
and potassium levels will increase after a few years of fertilization, and
the annual rates can then be reduced. Rates for the tall grasses are 10 to
20 pounds per acre higher than bluegrass because the tallgrasses yield more.
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415
Suggested annual application rates for phosphorus and potassium "for
legume-grass pastures are shown in Table 122, Phosphorus rates are the same
for legume-grass pastures as for tallgrasses. But the potassium rates are
ten pounds higher at each soil test level for the legume grasses. This
is because legume grasses require more potassium than tallgrasses.
The economic phase is concerned with how to minimize the unit cost of
the crop produced by the proper selection of nutrients that are needed by
the crcp cr. _"h, spc- ic soil on which it is to be grown. Cate and Vectori
(1968) reported that many of the commercial farmers arourig the world invest
about 10 to li> percent of their gross income in fertilizer and lime. Either
applying a nutrient not needed or omitting a nutrient that is needed results
in increasing the unit cost of the crop produced. Cate (19o9) indicated
that the optimum rate of fertilizer application would be that which results
in the minimum unit cost of the product. When the price of the product is
high and the demand is great, then the rate of application may be extended
beyond that giving the minimum unit cost.
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416
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
SUMMARY OF MANAGERIAL PRACTICES AND RESEARCH NEEDS
Programs are required that maximize fertilization benefits and minimize
environmental pollution, particularly in localities where nutrient con-
tamination may be excessive.
Control of excess nutrients arising from fertilizer application rests
ultimately on a better understanding of the movemant and ultimate fate of
these materials. Data obtained from monitoring nutrient concentrations in
distinctive and important agricultural areas and forests could be used
to assess the relative importance of the fertilizer contribution to the
nutrient problem. Clarification of nutrient transportation and deposition
mechanisms may furnish new leads to control.
Additional information on the potential danger of excess nitrogen
accumulation in food plants, water, soil, and air would provide an assessment
of the emphasis that should be placed in each area. Better knowledge of
the fate of liquid-ammonia applications along with nitrogen contamination of
the environment resulting from fertilizer distribution at different times
during the year also would be useful.
Existing technology can be utilized to make more effective use of fertil-
izer in crop production. The improvement and application of information on
predicting nutrient content and availability in soils to determine the need
for supplemental fertilizer application and on crop and fertilization
management programs that minimize the release of nutrients to receiving waters
could result in meaningful reductions in nutrient contamination of the
environment.
There are also opportunities to treat or remove plant nutrients from
surface or subsurface water. Progress has been made in developing techniques
for removing trace elements from sewage and industrial wastes. The diffuse
sources of nutrients from agricultural operations makes the application of
these techniques more difficult, but there are situations where water
treatment or removal may be appropriate, for example, in irrigation return
flows.
Improved knowledge of the effect of nutrients on the growth of algae and
noxious water plants could lead to control through maintaining nutrient content
of the water below growth-promoting levels. Methods might be-developed for
rendering nutrients unavailable for plant growth in receiving waters^. Means
might be developed for preventing the release of nitrogen and phosphorus
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417
from sediments. Biological and chemical control of algae and other water
weeds may be feasible under some conditions. Microorganisms (plant disease),
insects, snails, higher animals, and herbicides might be used to prevent
excessive growth of water plants.
In recognizing that control of water plants may not always be feasible,
opportunities for their utilization as food or feed or other useful products
should be pursued. Even if successful methods are developed for eliminating
nutrients from receiving waters, present concentrations and attendant plant
growth will persist for considerable periods of time. This is further
justification for efforts in this area.
The fcl.1r,'Jr,~ are", merit principal attention in combatting the excess
nutrients problem.
1. Behavior and fate of applied nitrogen, phosphorus, and other nutrients
In the Department of Agriculture, most of the research on the behavior
and fate of applied nutrients has been directed toward determining the most
effective use of fertilizer applications. Studies have included experiments
on (a) yield response of crops to increasing rates of fertilization; (b) cor1-
relations of yield response or nutrient uptake with soil analyses as a basis
for developing reliable soil testing methods to aid in predicting optimum
fertilization levels; (c) time and frequency of fertilizer application to
define means of obtaining the most efficient use of applied nutrients; and
(d) determining sources of nutrients most appropriate for different soil
areas, crops and management systems. Associated laboratory investigations
have revealed some of the fundamental relations between chemical properties
of soils and behavior of applied nutrients under different climatic situations.
One of the least understood aspects of nitrogen fertilizer behavior
concerns the part of applied nitrogen that is lost to the atmosphere in
gaseous forms, e.g., as elemental nitrogen gas or gaseous oxides of nitrogen.
The extent to which gaseous losses occur under field conditions, owing to
chemical or biological mechanisms operating in the soil, and the significance
of such losses in alleviating nitrogen pollution of ground water are unknown.
Clarification of this problem may provide avenues for (a) improving
fertilizer-use efficiency and (b) controlling or manipulating gaseous losses
to- minimize opportunities for ground-water contamination.
The Environmental Protection Agency has directed efforts to determine
the impact plant nutrients have on drinking water supply and public health.
Information and technology are being generated by—
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418
(a) Epidemiological studies of water quality and disease
(b) Studies of the behavior and control of contaminants in
surface waters
(c) Investigation of health parameters applicable to reclaimed
waste waters
Another study involving surveillance of drinking-water quality includes
many quality constituents that are contributed by agricultural pollution.
Because of the deleterious effects of nutrients on water quality, the
Department of the Interior has an extensive in-house and extramural program
to determine the fate, behavior, and availability of the numerous forms
of nutrients in receiving waters. The Department also has extensive programs
to determine "chc effects on food-chain productivity, which in turn affects
fish productivity, and on the fate of nutrients resulting from irrigation
practices.
2. Minimizing runoff and percolation of nutrients by using
them more effectively
Existing authorizations are adequate for the Department of Agriculture
to conduct research and action programs in this area. Information on
nutrient runoff in relation to soil type, slope, crop management, and storm
characteristics has been derived from small-plot field installations. More
recently, larger scale watershed studies have begun to include measurements
of nutrient losses as an incidental part of the more detailed studies of
soil and water movements occurring within the watershed. Information on
downward percolation of nutrients, particularly nitrate nitrogen, is being
obtained from vertical profile samplings under fertilized fields and feedlots.
With increasing use of fertilizers, the opportunities for nutrient
losses and the probability that such losses will occur also increase. More
information is needed about the behavior of nutrients in soils under high
fertilization for action effective in minimizing losses with various systems
of farm and forest management involving different levels of fertilizer use.
The Department of the Interior has programs in irrigation practices,
concerned with their effect on uptake or runoff of plant nutrients.
3. Controlling, treating or removing excess plant nutrients from .
surface or subsurface drainage to maintain the desired quality
of receiving waters
Research and action programs in the Department of Agriculture largely
have involved development and establishment of systems for controlling entry
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419
of contaminated waters into lakes and other bodies of water, e.g., terracing,
diversion ditches, grass waterways, and ponds. Existing authority has been
adequate for these programs.
In the future, increasing emphasis may be given to developing means of
reducing the nutrient concentration in drainage water before its release
into the receiving body. Use of the nutrient-absorption properties of soil
itself or of synthetic ion exchangers has undergone extensive research.
Long-term projections might even envision application of desalinization
methods involving low-cost power. USDA envisions that additional author-
ization would be required for providing financial assistance to put into
action sci; zf sch- s for nutrient removal or water treatment that
might evolve from concerted research efforts in this area.
The Environmental Protection Agency in its activity to
assure the Nation safe drinking water standards maintains a continuing
surveillance of drinking-water quality. Many of the quality constituents
are contributed by agricultural pollution, including plant nutreints.
Closely associated with this effort is research and development activity
to determine the behavior and means of controlling contaminants in surface
waters.
Because of its mandate to insure the quality of receiving waters, the
Department of the Interior has extensive programs to minimize and remove
significant amounts of nutrients released to these streams, rivers, etc.
Advantage is being taken of the large program in preventing and abating
nutrient contributions from municipal and other industrial sources for
application to problems associated with irrigation.
4. Effects of nutrients on algae and noxious water plants
The limited current efforts in research by the Department of Agriculture
in this area are directed toward determining nutrient requirements of these
organisms. The Department anticipates that expanded research on algae would
be coordinated with studies on the nutrient composition of water in relation
to sources of such nutrients. Involved, for example, is the question of the
limiting or critical phosphorus concentrations for algal growth and the role
fcf sediment-borne phosphorus in supplying this element. Action and research
phases relating to control of algal growth would be concerned with (a) sup-
pressing algal growth in water potentially capable of supporting noxious levels
and (b) keeping nutrient concentration below the levels considered to be
critical for growth.
The Department of the Interior is concerned with the deleterious effect
of algal growths and aquatic weeds on water quality as well as in the operation
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420
of vater-resource developments. In order to determine and develop,
realistic water-quality standards for nutrient concentrations in receiving
waters, it is necessary that the Department determine the temporal
quality-quantity relationships of the nutrient-algae regime. Accordingly,
a large part of the in-house program and a significant part of the extra-
mural research is included in this area.
5. Use of harvested algae and other water plants
One method that has been suggested for lowering the nutrient content of
water involves growing algae to consume nutrients, followed by harvesting the
algae or other water plants. Such an approach is worthy of further study,
provided economic means of utilizing the harvested product can be devised.
Some research is underway in the Department of Agriculture on using algae
as an animal feed supplement. Further research is needed to evaluate the
intrinsic value of algae in animal nutrition in relation to their biochemical
components and to determine in feeding trials their value as a supplement to
low-protein feeds. Harvesting and processing methods for algae also will
require research and development.
The Department of the Interior considers the extraction of algae from
the water cycle as one of many water-treatment methods for nutrient removal.
In-house and extramural projects are directed toward developing process
systems to effectively implement this concept. As in other treatment
processes, the solid residue, inithis case the algae, must be either digested
or converted to useful products. Research in this area indicates the
latter approach could be economically justified.
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421
REFERENCES
Alexander, M. 1965. Nitrification. In soil nitrogen, ed. W.V. Bartholomew and
F. E. Clark* pp. 3©7-43. Madison, Wisconsin: Am. Soc. Agron.
Allison, F. E. 1966. Tfe-e fate of nitrogen applied to soils. Advan. Agron. 18:
219-258.
Amemiya, Minaru. 1970. Land and water management for minimizing sediment. In
Ted L. Willrich an«S Geroge E. Smith (ed.), Agricultural practices and water
quality, pp. 35-45,. The Iowa State University Press.
Barber, S. A.. 1969. New .trends in fertilizing corn. Hoard's Dairyman 114 (2): 69, 107.
Barnes, Dean. Nitrate movement in the soil. EC-713d. Iowa State University Extension
Service, Arzs, I a, 24th Annual Fertilizer and Ag. Chemical Dealers Conference,
Des Moines, Iowa, January 11-12, 1972.
Black, C. A. 1968. SoiX-iplant relationships. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley.
Brage, B. L., M. J. Thompson, and A. C. Caldwell. 1951. The long time effect of
rotation length on the yield and chemical constituents of the soil. Proc.
Soil Sci. Soc. Ainer, (1950) 15: 262-264.
Brown, M. A. 1965. Leaching losses of nitrogen. Tennessee Valley Authority, Soil
and Fertilizer Research Branch, TEch. Report T65-1. Muscle Shoals, Ala.
Cate, R. B., Jr. 1969. Minimization of unit costs as a basis for making fertility
recommendations. ISTP Pirelim. Rep. No. 3, N.C. State Agr. Exp. Sta.
1
Catej R. B., Jr., and Leandro Vettori. 1968. Economic returns from fertilizer use
based on soil test information. ISTP Prelim. Rep. No. 1, N.C. State Agr.
Exp. Sta.
Cook. G. W. 1969. Fertilizers in 2000 A.D. Intern. Superphosphate and Compound
Manufacturers Asso., Bull. 53, pp. 1-13.
Dahnke, W. C., 0. J. Attoc, L. E. Engelbert, and M. D. groskopp. 1963. Controlling
release of fertilizer constituents by means of coating and capsules. Agron.
J. 55: 242-244.
Dilz, K., and J.J. Steggerda. 1962. Nitrogen availability of oxamide and ammonium
nitrate limestone. J. Agr. Food Chem. 10: 338-340.
Doll, E. C. 1962. Effects of fall-applied nitrogen fertilizer and winter rainfall
on yield of wheat. Agron. J. 54: 471-476.
Duncan, E. R. Food production for an expanding population—environmental quality
consideration. In Environmental Health and Pollution Control, pp. 6-9.
Cooperative Extension Service Pm-486 (Rev.), Iowa State University, Ames,
Iowa, Proceedings of Public Forums, December 1970.
Ensminger, L. E. 1952. Loss of phosphorus by erosion. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc.
16: 338-342.
Fenster, W. E., Overdahl3 D. J., and Grava, J. 1969. Guide to computer programmed
soil test recommendations in Minnesota. Minn. Agr. Ext. Serv. Special Report 1.
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422
Hall, J. K., and D. E. Baker. 1967. An evaluation of asphalt coatings on phosphorus
fertilizers. Agron. J. 59: 503-505.
Hauck, R. D. and Masayoshi Koshino. 1971. "Slow-release and amended fertilizers."
In R. A. Olson, T. J. Army, J. J. Hanway, and V. J. Kilmer (eds.), Fertilizer
Technology and Use (second edition), Madison, Wisconsin: Soil Science Society
of America, pp. 455-494.
Heilman, M. D., J. R. Thomas, and L. N. Namken. 1966. Reduction nitrogen losses
under irrigation by coated fertilizer granules. Agron. J. 58: 77-80.
Holt, R. F., D. R. Timmons, and J. J. Latterell. 1970. Accumulation of phpsphates
in water. J. Agr. Food Chem. 18: 781-784.
Huber, D. M., Murray, G. A., and Crane, J. M. 1969. Inhibition of nitrification—
a deterrp^t to p-* ate nitrogen loss and potential water pollution. Soil Sci.
Soc. Am. Proc.
Janssen, K. A., and Wiese, R. A. 3969. The influence of 2-chloro-6-(Trichloronethyl)
pyridine with anhydrous ammonia on corn yield, N-uptake, and conversion of
ammonium to nitrate. M.S. thesis, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska.
Laughlin, W. M. 1963. Bromegrass response to rate and source of nitrogen applied
in fall and spring in Alaska. Agr. J. 55: 60-62.
Lunt, 0. R. 1968. Modified sulfur coated granular urea for controlled nutrient
release. Int. Congr. Soil Sci., Trans. 9th (Adelaide, Aust.) 3: 377-383.
Mamaril, C. P. 1964. Evaluation of coated and uncoated ammonium nitrate-phosphate
as sources of nitrogen and phosphorus for corn. Diss. Avstr. 25(2): 739-740;
and F. W. Smith, 1965. Coated fertilizer. I. Philippine Agr. 49: 114-124.
Morris, H. D., and J. E. Jackson. 1959. Source and time of application of nitrogen
for rye forage. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 23: 305-307.
Olsen, R. J., Hensler, R. F. , Attoe, 01 J., Witzel, S. A. 1969. Effect of fertilizer
nitrogen, crop rotation and other factors on amounts and movement of nitrate
nitrogen through soil profiles. Agron. Abstr. Am. Soc. Agron., 61st Annual
Meeting, p. 104.
Pionke, H. B., and L. M. Walsh. Applying anhydrous ammonia and ammonia solution
fertilizers. Fact Sheet 14. Cooperative Extension Programs, University
Extension, The University of Wisconsin, June, 1968.
Raupach, M. 1968. Nutrient release from coated fertilizer pellets. Int. Cong.
Soil Sci., Trans. 9th (Adelaide, Aust.) 2: 755-763.
Schaller, F. W. and R. D. Voss. 1970. "Better pastures with fertilization"
Iowa Farm Science, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 3-5, September 1970.
Smith, J. A. 1964. Mixed Fertilizer coated with multi-layer ureaform. U.S. Pat.
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Smith, G. E. April 9, 1968. In water pollution as related to agriculture", pp.
13-27. Joint Seminar, University if Missouri and Missouri Water Pollution
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423
Stanford, G., A. S. Ayres and M. Doi. 1965. Mineralizable soil nitrogen in relation
, to fertilizer needs of sugarcane in Hawaii. Soil Sci. 99: 132-137.
Stanford, G. 1966. Nitrogen requirements of crops for maximum yield. In agricultural
anhydrous ammonia technology and use. Am. Soc. Agron., Madison, Wis. pp. 237-72.
Stout, P. R., and R. G. Burau. 1967. The extent and significanbe of fertilizer
buildup in soils as revealed by vertical distribution of nitrogenous matter
between soils and underlying water reservoirs, pp. 283-310. In N.C. Brady
(ed.) Agriculture and the quality of our environment. Amer. Assoc. Advan.
Sci. Publ. 85, Washington, D.C.
Timmons, D. R., Burwell, R. E., and Holt, R. F. 1968. Loss of crop nutrients
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Turner, G. 0., snd Goring, C. A. I. 1966. N-serve, a status report. Down.Earth
22: 19-25.
Viets, Frank G.., Jr. 1971. Water quality in relation to farm use of fertilizers.
Bio Science.
Viets, Frank G., Jr. Management strategies for fertilizer use. Agricultural
Research Service, USDA, Fort Collins, Colorado.
Voss, R. E. "Common sense guidelines in fertilizer recommendations." In Cooperative
Extension Service, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa. "Crop production
considerations for 1972." Cooperative Extension Service, EC692e, Iowa State
University, Ames, Iowa, November 1971.
Welch, L. E., P. E. Johnson, J. W. Pendleton, and L. H. Miller. 1966. Efficiency
of fall versus spring-applied nitrogen for winter wheat. Agron. J. 58: 271-74.
White, D. P. 1965. Survival, growth, and nutrient uptake by spruce and pine seed-
lings as affected by slow-release fertilizer materials, p.47-63. In Forest-
soil relationships in North America, 2nd North American Forest Soils Conf.,
Oregon State University, Corvallis, 1963.
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LAND DISPOSAL: SLUDGE AND MUNICIPAL SEWAGE
Rapid population increases in the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region combined
/
with an increasing rise in living standards results in a very large increasing
rate of waste generation. This fact, combined with the "no pollutant discharge"
concept of the seventies is causing many local civic servants and wastewater
tr&atment managers to consider land disposal as a viable alternative.
The July, 1973 edition of the Water Pollution Control Federation Journal contained
a special feature on this renewed interest in land disposal presenting both pros
and cons.
As for utilization of land for wastewater disposal, the concept is quite
old, dating back well over 100 years. In the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region the
concept has been employed in several communities for a number of years. Hutchins
(1939) reported on 113 communities in the western U.S. which were using sewage
for irrigation purposes in 1935. Most of these communities were in California
and Texas. Those listed in the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region were Greeley, Colo-
rado; Anaconda, Helena, and While Sulphur Springs, Montana; Brigham, Richfield,
Salt Lake City, and St. George, Utah; and Cheyenne, Wyoming. Rapid City, South
Dakota; Denver, Colorado; and Ogden, Utah were irrigating with sewage diverted
from public stream channels.
Thomas (1973) in reviewing Hutchins (1939) and Hutchins (1972) statistics
notes that most of the localities listed by Hutchins in 1935 also appear in the
1972 survey. This situation indicates that a substantial number of southwestern
coEsminities have practiced irrigation of crops with wastewater continuously for
more than 37 years (Thomas, 1973).
Magnitude of Land Disposal
A more recent statistical review by Jenkins (1970) shows that the total
nuisber of wastewater treatment systems applying effluent to land is increasing
in the U.S. In 1940 there were 304 systems applying wastewater to land while
in 1972 there were 571 systems. The population served increased from 0.9 million
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425
Co 6.6 million.
Looking specifically at the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region, Tablell6 presents
Jenkins1 results. This indicates that Colorado and Wyoming currently contain the
majority of land disposal of wastewater.
Table ,116 • Municipalities Using Land Application and Population Served by
States, Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region, 1968 (Jenkins, 1970).
State
Number
Population Served
Colorado
10
165,250
Montana
4
2,550
North Dakota
5
3,325
South Dakota
--
--
Utah
1
100
Wyoming
5
15,895
Thomas (1973) notes that the data reported in the surveys may be surfeit
since the method of reporting differs from survey to survey. Also a discrepancy
appears to exist in Utah since there is only one system listed while in 1935
there were 5. If Hutchins1 (1972) data is accurate in stating that a substantial
number of communities have operated on land disposal for 37 years, some systems
were apparently overlooked by Jenkins. Thomas (1973) indicates this is the case.
A very recent survey of land application of wastewater effluents in the
Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region by Dean (1973) is very enlightening. Dean was pri-
marily interested in sites utilizing spray irrigation or overland flow or ridge
and furrow irrigation. The survey included s ix industrial and 37 municipal sites.
The breakdown of the total number of sites per state is given in Table -'117 with
the systems categorized as operating, under construction, planned, or seriously
being considered.
Table /ll7. Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region Sites (Dean, 1973).
Under Plans Serious
State Operating' Construction & Specs Consideration Total
Colorado 10 2 8 3 23
Utah 4 2 — — 6
Montana 2 2 12 7
Wyoming 1111 4
Morth Dakota 1 — -- 1 2
£Jouth Dakota 1 -- __ 1
Total 19 T~ 10 T ~43
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426
This 1973 data indicates some of those listed by Jenkins (1970) in his 1968 survey
have discontinued operations. Tables 118and 119 contain Dean's (1973) description
of land use of the sites and year each site was placed, or planned to be, in op-
eration, respectively.
Table 118 . Distribution of Sites by Land Use. (Dean, 1973)
Golf 14 Landscaping 5
Crops Pasture 4
Hay and Grass 6 Forest 1
Alfalfa 2 Undecided 4
Natural Vc2c"-ticr 7
Table 119. . Years Sites Placed in Service (Dean, 1973).
Date No. of Sites Date No. of Sites
1951 1 1970 2
1958 1 1971 1
1959 1 1972 2
1960 1 1973 7
1964 2 1974 10
1967 1 Future 12
1969 2
Dean (1973) noted from his survey that the most common (18 responses) reason
given for choosing land application of secondary effluents was that the water
was already owned by the user and that it was suitable for a secondary use such
as golf course irrigation. The second most common (15 responses) reason was to
avoid direct discharge to a stream. Of the 43 sites surveyed, five reported some
problem with odors. Algae became a problem in some lakes on golf courses.
The average area of a disposal site in the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region where
the effluent is used for irrigation was listed by Dean (1973) as: (1) Golf -
107 acres, (2) Crop/Pasture - 92 acres, (3) Recreational area - 516 acres, and
(4) other - 30 acres. Ten of the areas had a sandy loam soil type, six had a
sandy soil, four a loam, three a clayey loam, and one a clay soil. The others
were not known. A solid set irrigation system below ground was by far the most
popular irrigation system (25 areas). Three areas used an above ground solid
set system; three had a portable system; two had a movable boom; and two had over-
land flow. The irrigation rates were quite variable.
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427
With respect to sludge disposal, Jenkins1 (1970) statistics presents some
interesting results. For the U.S., sludge drying beds were reported for 6,046
plants or about half the total 12,565 plants. Nearly 4,500 plants reported not
having dewatering or other organized drying methods. The breakdown for the Rocky
Mountain-Prairie Region is shown in Table 120 • Of the 1,177 plants processing
sludge, 634 or 5470 have no sludge dewatering or other organized drying methods.
The statistics do not say what these plants do with their sludge.
Table 1.20 . Summary of Sludge Processing by States for the Rocky Mountain-
Prairie Region, 1968 (Jenkins, 1970),
Sta tcs
Sludge Processing - No.
of plants with-
-
Septic
Imho ff
S tage
Separa te
Sludge
Mech.
Tanks
Tanks
Difies tion
Diges tion
Beds
Lap,oons
Dewateri t\£
Misc .
None
Coi orado
13
19
14
42
73
1
1
7
124
Montana
9
5
9
9
19
2
2
101
North Dakota
9
20
1
1
14
--
--
2
195
South Dakota
43
5
13
48
5
4
4
127
Utah
11
7
15
23
39
1
3
1
22
WyoioLng
9
6
2
7
11
• •
11
3
65
Totals
51
100
46
95
204
9
21
17
634
The editors of Wastes Engineering (1962) performed a survey of consulting
engineers and State Pollution Control Agencies and found that disposal of liquid
digested sewage sludge to open land is very common among smaller waste treatment
plants. Burd (1968) states that liquid sludge disposal will continue to be pop-
ular at small plants because it offers many advantages. MacLaren (1961) consid-
ered land disposal of liquid sewage sludge to be applicable to all plants serving
less than 50,000 persons. From this it is possible to assume that most of the
smaller plants in the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region currently use land for ulti-
mate disposal of sewage sludge. This is definitely the case for Northeastern
Colorado (Schuyler, 1973).
For the larger municipalities or urban areas, the resources available offer
additional opportunities for disposal of sludge. Denver burned its sludge until
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428
air pollution problems prevented this. Denver is now returning their sludge
to the land. Colorado Springs puts some of their wastewater on parks and
golf courses. Bauer (1961) presented engineering design data and operating
results of the effluent reuse at the Air Force Academy.
Beyond the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region, two studies are gaining
renewed interest in light of the current thought about using land for sewage
disposal. These are the Chicago work with on-land disposal of sewage sludge
and the Muskegan County., Michigan work with using wastewater to irrigate
land. Dalton and Murphy (1973) discuss the Chicago work while Egeland (1973)
reviews the Michigan efforts. Each of these projects has earned favorable
comments tic'.
This (based on existing information) very briefly describes the on-land
disposal of municipal sludge and wastewater operations in the Rocky Mountain-
Prairie Region. An excellent description of how wastewater sludge is
utilized on land is presented by the Water Pollution Control Federation (1971).
Rather than repeat the description here, the reader is referred to this
publication.
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REFERENCES
Bauer, J. H. 1961. Air Force Academy sewage treatment plant designed for effluent
reuse. Public Works Vol. 92 (6): 120-122.
Burd, R. S. 1968. A study of sludge handling and disposal. U.S. Department of the
Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Water Pollution
Control Research Series, Publication WP-20-4, May.
Dalton, F. E., and R. R» Murphy. 1973. Land disposal IV: reclamation and recycle.
Water Pollution Control Federation Journal, Vol. 45 (7): 1489-1507, July.
Dean, Roger. 1973. A survey of land application of wastewater effluents in the
Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region. Paper presented at the Symposium on Land
Treatment of Secondary Effluent, Nov. 8 & 9, Univ. of Colorado, Boulder.
Egeland, D. R. 1973. Land disposal I: a giant step backward. Water Pollution
Control Federation Journal, Vol. 45 (7): 1465-1475, July.
Hinesly, T. D., 0. C. Braids, and J. E. Molina, 1971. Agricultural benefits and
environmental changes resulting from the use of digested sewage sludge on
field crops. U.S. EPA report No. SW-30d.
Hutchins, W. A. 1939. Sewage irrigation as practiced in the western states. USDA
Technical Bulletin No. 675, March.
Hutchins, W. A. 1972. Municipal waste facilities in the United States. EPA Open
File, March.
Jenkins, K. H. 1970. Municipal waste facilities in the Unites States. Federal
Water Quality Administration Publication No. CWT-6.
MacLaren, J. W. 1961. Evaluation of sludge treatment and disposal. Canadian
Municipal Utilities, pp. 23-33, 51-59, May.
Muskegon County Board and Department of Public Works. 1970. Engineering feasibility
demonstration studv for Muskegon County, Michigan, wastewater treatment-irri-
gation system. Federal Water Quality Administration, Water Pollution Control
Research Series No. 11010FMY 10/70, September.
Schuyler, Ronald G. 1973. Personal Communication, August 29.
Thomas, Richard E. 1973. Land disposal II: an overview of treatment methods.
Water Pollution Control Federation Journal. Vol. 45 (7): 1476-1484, July.
Wastes Engineering - Editors. 1962. Survey of design trends and developments
for small sewage treatment plants in past decade. Wastes Engineering,
pp. 520-523, October.
Water Pollution Control Federation. 1971. Utilization of municipal wastewater
sludge. WPCF Manual of Practice No. 2.
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ON-LAND DISPOSAL TECHNOLOGY: SLUDGE AND MUNICIPAL SEWAGE
On-land disposal of municipal sewage or sludge can occur on the surface,
in the upper few inches of the soil, or it can be "buried". Sewage disposal,
as surveyed by Dean (1973), almost always occurs on the surface either through
spray irrigation or overland flow or ridge and furrow irrigation. Septic tank
systems of land disposal are below the surface. Sludge disposal is currently
associated with all the above techniques, with no one technology having been
proven better tuau the others. Here, as with sewage effluent disposal on land,
a debate rages as to which is the better technology. The technologies will be
briefly reviewed here and the debate left to the references (Egeland, 1973;
Thomas, 1973; Davis, 1973; and Dalton and Murphy, 1973). For additional references,
Law (1968) presents an annotated bibliography on agricultural utilization of
sewage effluent and sludge; Whetstone (1965) has an annotated bibliography on
reuse of effluents; and Ramsey, et. al (1972) presents selected references on
soil systems for municipal effluents.
Wastewater Effluent Disposal
On-land disposal of wastewater effluents normally involves some form of pre-
treatment. This pretreatment can take many forms as was noted by Dean (1973).
In his survey of on-land effluent disposal in the Rocky Mountain-Prairie Region
he found eleven different types of pretreatment. These are listed in Table 121 .
The actual on-land disposal can also occur in many ways. "Land disposal"
historically has meant disposal; however, today the emphasis seems to be on
treatment and/or reuse. As a result the process of applying wastewater effluents
to land has been given many new (and confusing) names. Thomas (1973) recognizes
this problem and proposes three catetories of on land disposal:
1. Infiltration - a type of system usually designed to prevent surface run-
off. It is characterized by high loading rates (up to 90 m/yr) and up
to 99% of the wastewater being added to the groundwater is recharge.
2. Crop iri-i<>ation - a type of system vhich may or may not control surface
runoff. It is characterized by low loading rates (15 to 215 m/yr), loss
¦ of water by evapotranspiration, and also recharge to the groundwater.
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Table 121 . Effluent Pretreatment for On Land Disposal Sites in the Rocky
Mountain-Prairie Region.
NUMBER OF SITES PRETREATMENT
5 Activated sludge with polishing pond and
chlorination
1 Activated sludge with filters and chlorina-
tion
1 Activated sludge with tertiary treatment
and chlorination
5 Extended aeration with polishing pond and
aeration
3 Extended aeration and chlorination
10 2 cell aerated lagoon with chlorination
3 2 cell- aerated lagoon with polishing pond
and chlorination
3 Trickling filter with polishing pond and
chlorination
1 Trickling filter with chlorination
5 Screening only (industrial)
1 Septic tank with chlorination
5 To be determined
In general, the two forms of water utilization are comparable in mag-
nitude.
3. Spray-runoff - a type of system which is designed to return 50% or more
of the applied wastewater as direct surface runoff. It is characterized
by intermediate loading rates (2 to 7 m/yr), variable evapotranspiration
losses, and site locations which have impermeable soils.
In using categories such as this, Thomas (1973) notes that such systems as
recharge basins, septic tank absorption fields, spray disposal, and ridge and
furrow basins can be grouped under the infiltration category; spcay irrigation,
flood irrigation, and living filter systems are crop irrigation schemes; and all
overland flow systems can foe grouped in the spray-runoff category. He also notes
that the septic tank/soil absorption systems apply more wastewater to the land
than any other method. This subject is discussed elsewhere in the report.
-------
Thomas (1973) ranks on land disposal of industrial wastewater as the second
largest applicator. Blosser and Caron (1965), Philipp (1971) and Parsons (1968)
are cited as three examples of successful industrial applications of paper mill
wastewater to land. It is also noted that there are approximately 300 operating
industrial systems in the United States today. Rose, et. al (1971) laments the
fact that given all this experience and expertise, there exists no compendium on
land treatment of industrial wastewater. They foresee the need to utilize this
experience in preparing a report which could delineate procedures for evaluating
engineering factors, limitations on use of land treatment, operational capabilities,
and costs. Also they note that while much experience has been gained in the de-
sign of land treatment systems, little information exists of the effects on soil
properties, animal and plant life, and groundwater. Thomas (1973) makes the
following comment relative to the existing situation with industrial wastewater:
"There is considerable information available about designing systems
to achieve desired objectives at specific sites, but the scattered bits
of information have not been assembled into compendiums for generalized
use."
Land treatment of ntuslcipal wastewater effluents has many of the same prob-
lems mentioned above for industrial effluents. Thomas (1973) reviews many of the
existing applications of municipal effluents on land. Two recent projects have
begun to answer some of the questions relative to possible effects. The work
by Pennsylvania State University at University Park (Parizek, 1967) has been
looking at effluent application rates which promote plant growth while minimizing
nitrates in the groundwater. Work at Muskegon, Michigan, likewise illustrated
how groundwater buildup of nitrates could be controlled with proper crop produc-
tion. During the winter the wastewater is stored (Muskegon County Board, 1970,
and Bauer Engineering, 1971). Other studies such as those by Merrill, et. al
(1967) and Bouwer, et.al (1972) are also contributing to an understanding of the
effects of on-land disposal of effluents.
Dean (1973), after presenting the results of his survey, presents some points
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for consideration which tie in quite well with the above described situation.
He notes:
"Proper effluent application rates are site specific as to soil type,
topography and annual precipitation. Numerical guidelines can either
be too conservative or too liberal for a specific site and also run
the risk of becoming an unquestioned design parameter whose use can
lead to inadequate design."
and that,
"Design review and approval by a team of qualified soils engineer,
hydrologist, geologist and agronomist could bp required to insure
proper design."
given the existing state-of-the-art for on-iand treatment/disposal of effluents,
these points do warrant careful consideration.
Sludge Disposal
Sludge is a concentrated form of the wastes carried to a wastewater treat-
ment plant. Whereas on-land effluent disposal involves applying all the wastes
and water to the land, sludge disposal on land involves only the wastes. The
cleaned water is returned directly to the stream. These wastes (sludge) have
varying characteristics and concentrations depending upon where they are removed
from the wastewater treatment process. Some treatment plants remove the sludge
(primary sludge) from the process and dispose of it without further treatment.
However, most plants promote separate anaerobic sludge digestion in one or two
stages. There may or may not be ¦«ssy prior thickening. In the past the sludge
was air dried following digestion and either bnried or spread on land. More
recently there has been a trend toward sludge thickening or concentration followed
by burial, heat drying or incineration (Water Pollution Control Federation, 1971).
However, environmental, energy and economic problems (up to 407» of the cost of
a primary.treatment plant may be for sludge handling) have forced many treatment
plants to seek alternative methods to recycle and utilize sludge.
Total recycle of sewage sludge and other organic wastes by spreading on land
has received renewed attention in recent years (Anon, 1967; Anon, 1971; Dalton
and Murphy, 1973; Dalton, Stein and Lynam, 1968; Ewing and Dick, 1970; Hinesley,
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1971; Hinesley, Braids, and Molina, 1971; Hinesley and Sosewitz, 1969; Law, 1968;
Lunt, 1959; Nusbaum and Cook, 1960), The projects conducted by San Diego (Nusbaum
and Cook, 1960) and Chicago (Dalton and Murphy, 1973) offer excellent examples
of how sewage sludges can be used beneficially. The Chicago project has encoun-
tered considerable public resistance due to odor problems and was stopped recently
by revocation of permits (This information is based on an article authored by
Casey Bukro which appeared in the Chicago Tribune on June 24, 1973.) The partic-
ular situation points out the need for solving the engineering problems associ-
ated with on-land disposal prior to or at least concurrent with demonstration
of the utilization of sludge in a recycle program. Further, psycological and
political problems are often encountered when sludges are transported to communi-
ties outside of or at some distance from the generating community. A preferable
solution would be to devise techniques for on-land disposal of sludges which are
ecologically acceptable, economical, minimize energy consumption, and utilize
as much of the material as possible within the community served by the treatment
operation.
The proportionate costs of solids handling and disposal with reference to
the total cost of wastewater treatment has been well documented in the sanitary
engineering literature (Levin, 1968). Dalton et al. (1968) reported that the cost
of solids disposal in Chicago was 46% of the annual operating and maintenance
budget. City officials at Boulder, Colorado, (Smith, et al. 1973) estimate this
cost at approximately 30% of the budget; however, the present cost for disposal
is approximately $50 per dry ton.
Potentially large savings resulting from land application of wastewater
sludges have been reported in the literature. Burd (1968), in an extensive review
of sludge treatment and disposal costs, reported that costs (1968) for a land
disposal system used for soil conditioning were $15/dry ton, while those for land-
filling dewatered sludge average $25/dry ton, or 67% more. The cost of sludge
disposal is unique for each particular treatment plant system, with factors such
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435
as type of system, site location, transport distance, local land costs and operating
costs all affecting total costs. Although the case for land disposal becomes more
convincing with increasing population served and transport distance to the disposal
site, Riddell and Cormack (1966) concluded that on-land disposal was also justi-
fied for smaller communities. Troemper (1968) reported that the net cost of
digested sludge disposal at the Springfield (Illinois) Sanitary District was in
the range of $2.50 per ton of dry solids. It is also interesting to note that
cost crop yinX*" -*9re ' \anced for solids loading rates ranging from 36 to 206
dry tons per acre per year.
The actual sludge utilization procedures vary considerably. Composting (the
mixing of sludge with other solid wastes in an aerobic situation) has been studied
recently and proposed as a means of decomposing organic solid wastes to a stable
humus-like material. The Water Pollution Control Federation (1971) states that
the objectives of all processes are the same: (a) to provide optimum particle
size, pore space, moisture, and other conditions conducive to aerobic decomposition;
(b) to mix, reaerate, readjust moisture, and gradually reduce particle size of
the sludge during active composting; and (c) to cure or mature the product to
prevent nuisances and health problems. They also classify composting systems
into three types:
1. Open windrow, pile, or bin composting with turning;
2. Composting in ventilated cells with intermittent disturbance; and
3. Composting in mechanical units with continuous mixing and positive
aeration.
Direct application of sludge to land may occur with dry or wet sludge. The
sludge, when applied on land, serves more as a soil conditioner than as a fertil-
izer, although there is anywhere from 2.06 to 5.96 percent nitrogen in sludge.
In general, sludge is considered to have the same fertilizer value as manure
(Water Pollution Control Federation, 1971).
Dry application of sludge has been the major means of on-land disposal in
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the, past. Following drying, the sludge Is removed and utilized in a great variety
of ways. At Pueblo, Colorado, sludge cake with 257« solids is sold at $6.00/cu.yd.
It is shredded and loaded on customer's trucks. Demand exceeds supply (Anon, 1965).
Other areas bag the dried sludge and sell it as a soil conditioner. Others simply
pile it on the land or spread it near the treatment plant.
Recently the direct application of wet or liquid sludge is gaining in accep-
tance. The main reasons for this are elimination of expensive drying beds, lower
cost of sludge handling, and avoidance of many odo?- problems (Water Pollution
Control Federation, 1971). The previously mentioned San Diego and Chicago oper-
ations operate with wet sludge.
The actual procedures for spreading liquid sludge on land include spraying
-r'
and spreading with trucks. There are problems with surface spreading, however.
Surface spreading of organic wastes can result in a serious deterioration in the
quality of runoff waters (Bernard, et al., 1971; EPA, 1971). Further, surface
application near populated areas often results in problems of aesthetics and
various forms of nuisance pollution, such as odors and flies. Because of these
problems, future use of surface spreading appears to be limited to situations
where conditions can be carefully controlled.
To avoid many of the problems associated with surface spreading and to gain
more control over the disposal operation, subsurface injection of sludge has been
gaining in popularity. The City of Boulder, Colorado, is now utilizing the con-
cept of subsurface injection and indications are that the system shows great promise.
The comparative economics for a 100,000 population disposal capacity indicate
an approximate 30% reduction in solids handling costs when compared to the present
disposal system. Additionally, many of the aesthetic and environmental problems
associated with the present system could be eliminated, a natural resource would
be conserved, the potential soil conditioning value could be significant, and
the amount of energy required for sewage treatment could be reduced.
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The actual procedures and equipment for subsurface injection vary consider-
ably. Several firms manufacture subsurface injectors for disposing of liquid
manure. Tests with several of these machines have not given satisfactory results
except at low rates of application because of difficulties in covering the mat-
erial. These injectors are, without exception, mounted on portable tanks. This
configuration limits the operative efficiency because of the time required to
fill the tank and move to the disposal site. In addition, mobility problems
often restrict operation of these systems to nearly ideal conditions.
Reed (1972) developed subsurface disposal machines referred to as Plow-
Furrow-Cover and Sub-Sod-Injection. The Plow-Furrow-Cover equipment consists
of single 16" mounted moldboard plow and a transport tank. Material is deposited
in the furrow immediately in front of the plow and is thereby covered as the
plow opens the next furrow. The disadvantages of this method are:
1. It is not always desirable or possible to plow when it is necessary to
dispose of wastes.
2. In loose soils, material seeps into the open furrow causing traction
problems.
3. A transport tank is towed by the tractor to supply manure to the machine.
This limits the efficiency of the system and could result in problems
due to poor mobility of the tank.
Kolega et al. (1971) used the Plow-Furrow-Cover method to dispose of septic tank
pumpings. Fedlman and Hore (1971) increased the disposal capacity of the P-F-C
method through use of a larger plow and tanks which spread material on the ground
ahead of the plow. Reddell et al. (1971 and 1972) utilized deep plowing (30-36
inches deep), trenching, and disc plowing in variations of the P-F-C techniques.
Similar techniques have been described by other authors (Anon, 1973; Dodson and
Stone, 1962; Law, 1960). However, in some instances, the sludges used were chem-
ically and/or mechanically dewatered to approximately 207o solids and placed in
trenches. This type of disposal should be classified as landfill since the sludge
is not incorporated in the soil and it remains as placed for many years without
further decomposition (Babbitt, 1958),
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The Sub-Sod-Injector consists of two plow shares welded together to form a
wide sweep. This machine works well in heavy soil where the turf will flow around
the large injection tube and fall into its original position. In loose soil or
light sod, soil does not flow around the large tube leaving an open trench and
exposing waste material to the air. Machines are manufactured which are similar
to the SSI, but use two or more small injector sweeps. Bartlett and Marriott
(1971) described the development of a sweep injector similar to several commer-
cially available models. In all of these machines., waste materials are deposited
directly behind the shank of the injector which increases the possibility of
leaving material exposed on the soil surface and does not provide thorough mixing
of injected material with soil.
A very important aspect of on-land disposal relates to the hygienic factors.
Bacteria originating from application of organic wastes are generally filtered
out by the soil through a depth of approximately 2-5 feet (McCoy, 1969; Murphy
et al., 1973; Robeck, 1972; and Wengel and Kolaga, 1972). Law (1968) concluded
that sewage sludge could be used on agricultural land provided adequate controls
were exercised to prevent bacterial contamination of crops. Rudolphs et al.,
(1950) described conditions under which raw fruits and vegetables grown in infec-
ted soils can become contaminated with pathogenic bacteria. Survival of viruses
in soils has apparently received less study. Meyer et al., (1971) reported that
certain treatments reduced infectivity of specific types of animal viruses.
Robeck (1972) reported that polio virus was removed by on-land disposal techniques.
The need to control runoff waters from land receiving surface application
of manure has been discussed by several authors (Barker, 1972; Bernard, et al.,
1971; Cropsey and VanVolk, 1972; and Sewell, 1972). In addition, surface appli-
cations often result in various forms of nuisance pollution (odors, flies, etc.)
and public relations problems. Most of these problems can be eliminated by sub-
surface ir.jectici". :>r deep burial (Babbitt, 1958; Bartlett and Marriott, 1971;
Feldman and Hore, 1971; Manges, et al., 1972; Reddell, et al., 1971; Smith and
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Gold, 1972; and Smith, et al., 1973), however, other problems discussed later
may result from deep plowing.
Applications of organic wastes on land can accentuate the salinity of soil,
runoff, and deep percolating waters. Salinity has been discussed by Viets (1971)
from the standpoint of feedlots. Bartlett and Marriott (1971) reported signif-
icant increases in salt concentrations at depth up to 4 feet for manure appli-
cation rates up to 75 tons per acre per year. Similar results have been reported
elsewhere (Mangos, et al.,1972; Mathers and Stewari., 1971; Travis, et al., 1971;
and Wells, et al., 1970).
These reports also indicate that yield of agricultural crops decreases with
increasing salinity. However, Manges, et al. (1972) reported that pre-irrigating
corn planted on manure treated plots improved germination. Reddell et al. (1972)
found that yields increased one year after heavy applications of manure were deep
plowed. Deep plowing may be useful in controlling salinity of surface soils;
however, it may also increase groundwater contamination and result in mummification.
The most serious problem resulting from heavy applications of organic wastes
to the land may be nitrate pollution. Wengel and Kolega (1972) reported that
applications of poultry manure in excess of 30 tons of dry matter per acre pro-
duced unacceptable concentrations of nitrate in the groundwater. Silage corn
produced on test plots receiving heavy applications was found to contain nitrate
levels which could be toxic to ruminent animals. Bartlett and Marriott (1971)
also reported high levels of nitrates in grasses produced on heavily loaded test
plots. Reddell et al., (1972) reported excessive nitrate levels in forage sorghum
the first year after application of manure; however, nitrate levels were acceptable
the second year. Nitrate pollution from feedlots, fertilizer applications, and
sewage sludge disposal have also been described in other literature (Hinesley,
et al., 1971; Law, 1968; Stewart, et al., 1967; and Viets, 1971).
Swanson et al. (1973) reported that beef feedlot runoff effluent could be
applied to various perennial forage crops at rates up to 90 inches per year with-
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out detrimental salt or nutrient accumulations in the soil. Chemical analysis
of the crops revealed no undesirable build-up of toxic elements. Nienaber et al.
(1972) reported that a minimum of one-half acre of disposal area per acre of feed-
lot was required for disposal of runoff with impairing crop growth. Booram et al.
(1973) concluded that the buildup of nitrogen and phosphorus would limit permis-
sable anaerobic lagoon effluent application rates. Salt and/or heavy metal build-
up was not a problem due to the normally high rainfall on the teat site.
Uptake of toxic elements by plants from soils treated with organic wastes
may increase with either increasing application rates and/or increasing concen-
tration of the toxic elements in the waste material (Anon, 1973; Davies, 1972;
and Spotswood and Raymer, 1973). In fact, Murphy et al.(1973) reported a decrease
in concentration of five heavy metals in drainage water after application of
wastewater solids. This decrease was attributed to an increase in the soil pH
caused by application of wastewater solids and resulting vegetative growth.
The application of large quantities of sludge to land may cause changes in
soil tilth and structure which indirectly affect the quantity and quality of deep
percolation water. These changes in the soil may produce the following effects:
1. Alteration of the water infiltration rate and water holding capacity
of the soil.
2. Alteration of the rate of movement of soil water in response to evapo-
ration potential as described by Corey and Kemper (1968).
Changes in quality of deep percolation water due to the application of sludge
may result from the following:
1. Transport of contaminants from the sludge itself.
2. Changes in the mobility of fertilizer chemicals.
3. Changes in the capacity of the water to act as a solvent.
In cases where land and/or transportation costs are excessive and heavy
applications of sludge are necessary, control of deep percolating waters will
be required. Some means of treating the. material to control contaminants and
to stabilize the various salts would be desirable; however, the development of
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a suitable treatment does not appear feasible at present.
A subsurface (tile) drainage system would be effective for controlling
deep percolation water. The water collected by the drainage system would be
only a small portion of the total quantity of liquid applied to the soil and
could be evaporated or recycled. Troemper (1968) discussed the use of a sub-
surface drainage system in an on-land sewage sludge disposal system. The expense
of installing a drainage system would be justified provided the land area required
and/or trar.cpo;. .:.ion .—its for disposal of a given quantity of sludge could be
sufficiently reduced.
Current research at Colorado State University has resulted in the development
of a subsurface injector for sewage sludge which eliminates many of the problems
previously discussed (Smith, et al., 1973 and Smith and Gold, 1972). The unique
feature of the machine is that material is discharged uniformly and at shallow
depths under the wings of wide sweeps while the tilling action of the sweeps
mixes it with soil. Experience gained in current CSU sewage disposal research
has indicated that this procedure is desirable for the following reasons:
1. Thorough mixing produces a large interface area between the material
and soil. Because of the capillary attraction of the soil, water moves
into the soil and the injected material dries rapidly. The soil then
dries, primarily by movement of water to the soil surface. This de-
creases the possibility of groundwater contamination and permits in-
jections at greater frequency.
2. The material is maintained in an aerobic environment thus eliminating
the possibility of mummification.
3. Less tractor draw&ar power is required to pull the injector through
the soil thereby reducing disposal costs.
The injectors can be operated at depths ranging from 3 inches to 10 inches.
Sewage sludge having 57« solids is fully covered at an operating depth of 3 to 5
inches with 200 gpm discharge and ground speed within the range from h to 1 mph
(22,000 to 22,000 gal/acre). The maximum total loading of sludge achieved .to
date is 280,000 gal/acre of 45 dry tons/acre of 3.8% solid material in nine
applications over a two mouth period. The maximum rate of injection achieved
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to^date in a single application was 86,000 gal/acre of liquid (1.8% solids)
hog manure. All treated plots show improved crop growth compared to control
plots.
The experimental machine has been used with sewage sludge having a solids
content up to 10%. However, 5-67„ solids is considered optimum because of
difficulties in pumping thicker material through the machine and because lower
solids contents significantly increase the volume of liquid that must be handled.
The most significant result achieved to date is the fact that an injector
can be used to achieve high loading rates at low costs. Sludge from the Fort
Collins, Colorado No. 2 plant was injected at the CSU Agronomy Farm on a con-
tinuous basis from August 15 to December 1, 1972. The soil at the disposal
site is 40% clay and the total disposal area included approximately one-half
acre. This site was adequate for the entire output of the treatment plant
(15,000 gal./wk.). No environmental nuisances were noted at the test site.
The optimum rate of application per pass depends upon the soil type,
the particular machine, depth of injection and average weather conditions. It
should be noted that the optimum application rate must be considered on the basis
of a continuing operation over a period of time. Deep and/or heavy injections
dry slowly and may result in a lower total application rate.
On the basis of results obtained thus far, a conservative estimate of the
disposal capacity of most soils would be in excess of two acre-feet per year.
This represents an average of one injection every 17 days and a loading rate of
approximately 130/dry tons per acre of 5% solid material. While this application
rate is greater than that which will permit good crop growth except for some
grasses, the cost of disposal should be considerably less because of lower land
costs and lower sludge distribution costs. In addition, it is possible that a
recycle benefit could be obtained by stripping injected soils for use as top
soil, fertilizer or as a conditioner for other soils.
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A pre-production prototype injector has been designed cooperatively by
CSU and International Harvester Co. This machine is currently being operated
by the Hampton-Roads Sanitation District near Williamsburg, Vd, to dispose of
municipal sewage sludge. Sludge is pumped at 400-500 gpm through rigid irriga-
tion pipe to a 660 foot, 4 1/8" ID flexible hose which is pulled by the injector.
A 90 hp (International Model 996) hydrostatic drive tractor provides adequate
power to pull the injector and hose. The hydrostatic drive permits use of full
engine power at cnv operating speed and thus thp. tractor is ideally suited to
this operation. Normal operating speed of the injector is between 3/4 to 1 mph
and the application rate is approximately 29,000 gallons per acre per pass.
Machines similar to the IH prototype are now being tested at Boulder and
Fort Collins, Colorado. The Boulder machine is approximately the same size as
the IH prototype and the Fort Collins machine is smaller, having a capacity of
approximately 300 gpm at 1 mph forward speed. The latter machine will be used
by the City of Fort Collins for sludge disposal and by CSU for continued research
at the CSU Agronomy Farm. Tentative plans call for the installation of two
additional machines in Texas and New Hampshire.
The injection machine currently being used at Williamsburg, Virginia and
Boulder, Colorado, cover a width of approximately 8 feet. Depending upon forward
speed, these machines can Inject at rates up to 1000 gpm. With a forward speed
of less than 1 mph, approximately 500 gpm is required. Correct sizing and selec-
tion of the equipment will permit this system to be utilized by virtually any
disposal operation or cooperative of sewage treatment plants. By proper positioning
of the hose, approximately 40 acres can be injected at a given location.
Disposal sites for the injector can be prepared in advance and/or reserved
for use during wet and cold weather. The injector system has relatively light
draft force requirements and can be operated in moderately wet conditions by
equipping the propelling vehicle with floatation tires or wide tracks. For
more severe weather conditions, land can be thoroughly dried by repeated tillage
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operations and then covered with plastic, sawdust, straw or similar mulch. The
objective is to dry the soil thoroughly, keep it dry, and thus prevent freezing.
Prepared areas are suitable for at least one wet or cold weather injection pass.
Obviously, the maximum possible rate of injection per pass should be used to
minimize the required land area.
A sodded or grassy area could also be reserved for utilization during ex-
tremely wet conditions. The injector can be used in sod without serious dis-
turbance of the s"rfar<^ Generally, sod flows around the shank of the sweep and
falls into its original position. For this type of operation, the injector should
be equipped with wide sweeps, and the number of sweeps should be reduced because
of the increased draft force. However, these modifications can be made quickly
and with minimal expense on the current machine.
Several states are now considering or have pending legislation which will
prohibit spreading of waste materials on frozen ground. The intent of this
legislation is to prevent pollution of streams caused by melting and runoff of
winter precipitation prior to the time the ground thaws. Because of this delay,
the total quantity of material spread in a given drainage area determines the
pollution potential rather than the actual application rate in tons per acre.
Elimination of on-land disposal during cold weather plus the need to pro-
vide for emergencies will require that most operating disposal systems include
adequate storage facilities. Systems for storing organic wastes and the necessary
management procedures are reasonably well defined (Agricultural Engineers Digest,
1966) and will require no further developmental work. Odor control is not usually
a problem if material is retained in a covered pit except when agitating or
emptying the contents. Since the primary use of storage will be during cold
weather, the odor problem should be further reduced. However, control of pH,
odor counteractants and masking agents, or various cultures could be used for
odor control if needed.
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Smnmary
As noted earlier, much controversy surrounds the technology of on-land
disposal of both sewage effluent and sludge. Also much uncertainty exists
relative to the effects of the practices upon the environment, human health,
etc. However, much research and demonstration of practices and techniques
are now underway. As the results of this work become available it is imper-
ative that the information is distributed to the individuals in charge of waste-
water treatment. This will necessarily involve an extension program which is
in tune with the current controversies and is able to utilize the research
results to answer the many questions now being asked.
Also as new factors of on-land disposal come into focus (such as the
energy situation), an active and efficient extension program would serve to
identify problems and guide research activities toward obtaining solutions.
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THE IMPACT OF OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT
With the impact of the energy crisis a relatively recent shift in national
priorities has occured. In his State of the Union message of January, 1974,
the President emphasized that this nation could no longer rely on foreign
oil suppliers to fulfill the bulk of this country's domestic fuel needs. Instead,
he called for an acceleration of the development of existing energy resources
and a step-up of research and exploration to discover new ones within our own
borders. Included among these existing resources for immediate development are
the vast oil shale deposits of northwestern Colorado, southwestern Wyoming,
and northeastern Utah. Undoubtedly, this raises deep concern for additional
potential non-point sources of pollution within the Region VIII states.
Present estimates place the potential yield of oil shale resources some-
where near 26 trillion barrels of oil. Projections are that it will require at least
20 to 25 years to harvest this abundant supply. To accomplish this, vast amounts
of men, machinery, and natural resources will be utilized. Existing towns are
projected to quadruple in size, new towns are being proposed, extensive trans-
portation networks must be planned and developed, thousands of units of new
housing will have to be built, new recreational areas will have to be created,
and support services of all types must be established. What all this means is
that, with the anticipated intense land use that is to occur, the problems of
non-point source pollution that inevitably accompany these kinds of activities
will most assuredly be compounded.
At this juncture no one can positively forecast what kinds of non-point
pollution problems are likely to occur or their intensity. Hopefully, the
kinds of development that takes place will take cognizence of the potential
pollution dangers inherent in these kinds of activities and will plan accordingly.
Here might be an ideal situation for technology transfer agents to be involved
in the planning from the outset. Certainly, programs should be inaugurated
as early as possible to offset any possibility of overlooking crucial consider-
ations that must be taken during initial planning phases if non-point source
pollution problems are to be kept to a minimum in the Region.
These huge tracts of shale land estimated to hold twice as much recover-
able oil as the Arab-dominated mid-East, cover II million acres in the three-
state Region.
The area is called the Green River formation. It has 7,000 foot mountain
plateaus in the eastern part which generally get enough rainfall and snow runoff
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to support thousands of cattle and sheep herds. Further west the land drops
off and becomes more desert-like, with a few irrigated farms straddling the
streams.
Only about 35 families live in the 1,300 square miles atop the rich oil
shale, many of them on century-old cattle spreads dotting the open space.
There are no real urban areas. Vegetation is scattered. The temperature of
the dry air reaches 100 degrees or more in the summertime, and as low as AO
below in the winter. But, is considered by many to be exceptionally rich
in environmental resources.
The region had no electricity until the late 1930's and there were no
paved roads unti^ the 'AO's and '50's. This is the sare area where a 5,000
acre tract brought a bid of $210 million for oil shale mining rights. Additional
tracts in the tri-state area are to be leased the coming months.
Several years ago, when the government offered oil shale leases in the
region, the offer had to be cancelled because bids barely exceeded a half million
dollars. The energy crisis and the Arab oil embargo, however, have changed
all this.
Environmental Problems
Federal officials have cautioned that the billions of barrels of oil locked
within the Green River formation probably can't be mined quick enough to relieve
the present crisis. In a 3,200 page environmental impact statement, the
Department of Interior says that just the start-up of such a proto-type proposal
could alter large sections of the region for 100 years or more. According to
the statement, air and water quality could suffer, wildlife may be killed or
chased away, the land might be scarred forever by strip mining and the human
population will probably quadruple overnight.
One of the major concerns will be what to do with the shale once the oil is
extracted. The debris expands as it is processed and there would be more "shale"
at the end than there was in the beginning. What impact this would make in terms
of non-point source pollution is strictly conjecture at this point.
In addition to the area to be mined directly, the government estimates an
additional 5,000 to 10,000 acres will be needed to provide for utility corridors,
roads, and urban expansion. The transformation of these lands from their
present natural state to other uses is bound to contribute to the intensity of
non-point source pollution in the region.
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The Department of Interior has also projected a need for as much as
189,000 acre feet of water a year for mining operations and processing. This
high water use could further increase the problems of salinity in the waters
flowing to Arizona and California, the report indicates.
What remains to be seen is whether or not careful planning and emerging
technology can serve to minimize the pollution potential. Emphasis will have
to be placed on a sophisticated program of technology transfer and control
methodology dissemination via a well-financed delivery system. In this context,
then, a "new frontier" emerges—the challenge of applying enlightened management
practices to all aspects of shale oil development and related activity. A unique
opportunity looms to demonstrate that this new energy resource can be mined with
minimum disruption to the natural environment. The challenge is mind-boggling
and the costs will be astronomical. But, nevertheless, the challenge is there.
ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY CONTROL—RELATED TO ENERGY RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT
The responsibility for various aspects of environmental regulation within
the Region VIII shale oil states has traditionally been vested in a number of
separate state agencies: health, air pollution, water, public utilities. Three
of the four states tjave moved toward coordination of such activities, either
through staff or line organizations as follows:
Colorado: Coordinator of Environmental Problems established in
1971, though it was not funded after the first year
(Colo. Rev. Stat. §132-1-9) (1963) (1971 Supp.)
Montana: An Environmental Quality Council, with the strongest
legislation to support it, is mandated by the
Environmental Policy Act (Rev. Codes of Montant,
§69-6501) (1947) (1971 Supp.)
Wyoming: A Department of Environmental Quality with
responsibility for air, water, land reclamation and
solid waste disposal established by the Environmental
Quality Act (Syom. Stat. §35.501.1 to 35.502.56)
(1957) (1973 cum supp.)
In Utah, studies toward a Department of Environmental Control (HB 35), and a
Committee to study resource depletion and future energy sources was deferred
In Committee.
In addition to this environmental quality legislation, legislation regarding
strip mining and reclamation was put before several legislatures. Where the
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previous enactments on this subject were less restrictive than older laws of
the1eastern states, there was significant tightening up and new enactments in
the western states recently. Some actions of special interest are:
Montana: Establishes bond with permit application, as level
of $200 - @2,500 per acre and requires annual
renewal of permit. Sets forth many specific legis-
lative regulations and requires written consent of
proposed work, from surface owner. Surface owner
has action for contamination, diminution or
interruption of water supply due to mining operation
(Rev. Codes of Montana §50-1034-to 1057) (1947) 1973 Supp.)
Wyoming: No permit may be granted without written consent
to surface owner and bond to cover damages. Other
provisions to protect surface owner (Wyom. Stat.
835.502.20 to 502.41) (1957) (1973 Supp.)
Colorado legislation in 1973 relieved mining operators of reclamation responsi-
bility under certain conditions (§92-36-1, et_. seq.). A relatively weak Mined
Land Reclamation Act in Utah (SB 12) failed to pass. Additional legislation in
Montana requiring strip mining operators to return reclaimed land to persons
giving easement (to retain agricultural uses ) failed to pass (SB 382). A bill
to require reclamation only on public lands was deferred in Committee in Montana
(SB 387).
PLANNING CONCERNS
In addition to the planning aspects related to environmental quality or
land use, specific energy-focused planning groups have been set up in several
of the states:
Colorado: An Energy Task Force was set up by the Governor in
Spring, 1973. It is reported to have about 50 members,
with government and industry well represented.
Montana:.' An Energy Advisory Council has been established, under
the leadership of the Governor, & SJU 24.
In Utah, SJ Res. 21, creating a committee to conduct a study of all energy
resources was deferred in Committee.
In Colorado, HB 1414 establishing an Energy Commission failed to pass as
did SB 205 to establish a Long Range Coordinator. An energy coordinator
has been recently appointed by the Governor, however.
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Also concerned directly with energy planning was a proposed termination
or moratorium on strip mining that failed to pass in Montana (HB 391 and 492^_
and a severance tax increase in that state which did pass (HB 509). An
attempt to increase this tax in Wyoming failed (HB 152).
In reviewing a summary of the above state actions, it should be noted that
socio-cultural impacts, except for taxation, have not been specifically
addressed. Although all states in the region region except Colorado exDerienced
a net outmigration of population in the period 1960-1970, the migration
implications, the cultural changes and the "boom and bust" potential of energy
resource development are not specifically addressed as yet.
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