TOXIC SUBSTANCE STORAGE TANK CONTAINMENT
ASSURANCE AND SAFETY PROGRAM
GUIDE AND PROCEDURES MANUAL
MARYLAND DEPARTMENT OF
HEALTH AND MENTAL HYGIENE
STATE OF MARYLAND
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND MENTAL HYGIENE
OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAMS
SCIENCE AND HEALTH ADVISORY GROUP
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M0489/0333
TOXIC SUBSTANCE STORAGE TANK CONTAINMENT
ASSURANCE AND SAFETY PROGRAM:
GUIDE AND PROCEDURES MANUAL
PREPARED UNDER
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
GRANT NUMBER CS807904010
AUTHORIZED BY SECTION 28 OF THE
TOXIC SUBSTANCES CONTROL ACT
STATE OF MARYLAND
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND MENTAL HYGIENE
OFFICE OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROGRAMS
SCIENCE AND HEALTH ADVISORY GROUP
201 WEST PRESTON STREET
BALTIMORE, MARYLAND 21201
BY:
Ecology and Environment, Inc.
Buffalo, New York
and
Whitman, Requardt and Associates
Baltimore, Maryland
FOR:
SEPTEMBER 1983
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the State of Maryland Department
of Health and Mental Hygiene, Office of Environmental Programs, and
approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the contents
necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Department of Health
and Mental Hygiene, or the United States Environmental Protection
Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products consti-
tute endorsement or recommendation for use.
Because hazardous materials vary widely in their characteristics
and in the manner in which they should be stored, the material con-
tained within this Manual can serve only as a guide. It is the
responsibility of the storage facility owner to seek the assistance of
appropriately qualified professionals with the necessary skills to
design a storage system which can be used safely, and which provides
the necessary measures for public and environmental protection.
i i
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Development of this document was accomplished with the assistance
of an advisory committee representing the following State of Maryland
agencies:
ซ Department of Health
and Mental Hygiene
Office of Environmental
Programs
- Air Management Adminis-
tration
- Waste Management Admin-
istration
- Science and Health
Advisory Group
Department of Public Safety
and Correctional Services
State Fire Marshall's Office
Department of Natural
Resources
Water Resources Adminis-
tration
Department of Licensing
and Regulation
Maryland Occupational
Safety and Health
Administration
also,
Maryland Casualty Company,
Baltimore
We also wish to express our appreciation for the guidance and
direction provided throughout this project by Mr. K.K. Wu, Toxics
Integration Coordinator, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Region III, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
i i i
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
1. INTRODUCTION 1-1
1.1 BACKGROUND 1-1
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF CONTAINMENT ASSURANCE PROGRAM 1-1
1.3 SCOPE AND APPLICATION 1-2
2. CHEMICAL COMPATIBILITY 2-1
2.1 INTRODUCTION 2-1
2.2 CHEMICAL COMPATIBILITY MATRIX 2-1
2.3 CHEMICAL/MATERIAL COMPATIBILITY MATRIX 2-4
BIBLIOGRAPHY 2-9
3. STORAGE SYSTEM DESIGN ELEMENTS 3-1
3.1 TYPES OF STORAGE TANKS 3-1
3.1.1 Atmospheric Tanks 3-1
3.1.2 Low-Pressure Tanks 3-3
3.1.3 High-Pressure Tanks 3-3
3.1.4 Selection of Tank Type 3-6
3.2 TANK MATERIALS 3-8
3.3 SPECIFIC TANK APPLICATIONS 3-9
3.3.1 Underground Tanks 3-9
3.3.2 Cryogenic Tanks 3-10
3.3.3 Heated Tanks 3-10
3.4 TANK DESIGN CRITERIA 3-11
3.4.1 Wall Thickness Design 3-12
3.4.2 Foundations 3-19
3.4.3 Supports 3-19
v
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Table of Contents (Cont.)
Section Page
3.5 VALVE SELECTION 3-23
3.6 TANK VENTING AND CONTROL OF VAPOR EMISSIONS 3-25
3.6.1 Normal Vents 3-26
3.6.2 Emergency Vents 3-28
3.6.3 Vapor Emissions Control Schemes 3-28
3.7 SITING CONSIDERATIONS 3-35
3.8 SPILL CONTAINMENT AND CONTROL SYSTEMS .: 3-38
3.8.1 Types of Containment 3-45
3.8.2 Material Selection 3-47
3.8.3 Design Capacity 3-48
3.8.4 Drainage Collection 3-50
3.9 IGNITION SAFEGUARD 3-50
3.9.1 Ignition Control 3-53
3.9.2 Fire and Leak Control 3-56
3.9.3 Fire Extinguishing and Control 3-57
3.10 FAIL-SAFE AND WARNING DEVICES 3-57
BIBLIOGRAPHY 3-61
4. CORROSION CONTROL 4-1
4.1 TYPES OF CORROSION 4-1
4.2 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING CORROSION 4-10
4.3 CORROSION CONTROL METHODS 4-13
4.3.1 Protective Liners 4-13
4.3.2 Protective Coatings 4-17
4.3.3 Cathodic Protection 4-19
4.3.4 Anodic Protection 4-21
4.3.5 Inhibitors 4-23
4.3.6 Compressive Stress Induction 4-23
4.3.7 Strikeplates 4-23
4.4 ESTABLISHING A CORROSION CONTROL PROGRAM 4-26
BIBLIOGRAPHY 4-27
vi
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Table of Contents (Cont.)
Section Page
5. TANK INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE 5-1
5.1 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING 5-1
5.1.1 Test Methods 5-1
5.1.2 Quality Control 5-4
5.2 INSPECTION PROCEDURES 5-4
5.2.1 Aboveground Tanks 5-4
5.2.2 Underground Tanks .. 5-11
5.2.3 Reinforced Plastic (RP) Tanks 5-18
5.2.4 Tank Liners *5-18
5.2.5 Valves 5-19
5.2.6 Tank Appurtenances 5-19
5.2.7 Foundations 5-27
5.2.8 Cathodic and Anodic Protection Systems .... 5-29
5.3 FREQUENCY OF INSPECTION 5-29
5.4 INSPECTION CHECKLISTS . 5-32
5.5 RATIONALE FOR CORRECTIVE ACTION 5-32
5.6 TANK CLEANING GUIDELINES 5-42
5.7 TANK CLOSURE 5-44
BIBLIOGRAPHY 5-45
6. PERSONNEL HEALTH, SAFETY, AND TRAINING 6-1
6.1 INTRODUCTION 6-1
6.2 HEALTH HAZARDS 6-2
6.2.1 Skin Disease 6-2
6.2.2 Respiratory Damage and Disease 6-3
6.3 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT 6-5
6.3.1 Body and Hand Protection 6-6
6.3.2 Respiratory Protection 6-10
6.4 ACTIVITIES IN HAZARDOUS AREAS 6-14
6.5 FIRST AID AND MEDICAL SURVEILLANCE 6-17
6.6 TRAINING 6-21
BIBLIOGRAPHY 6-23
vii
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Table of Contents (Cont.)
Section Page
7. SPILL CONTROL AND PREVENTION 7-1
7.1 LAND POLLUTION CONTROL 7-1
7.1.1 Containment Techniques 7-2
7.1.2 Removal and Treatment Techniques 7-4
7.1.3 Disposal Techniques 7-7
7.2 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL 7-8
7.2.1 Local Meteorology 7-8
7.2.2 Air Emissions Control 7-8
7.2.3 Vapor Emission Treatment 7-9
7.3 SURFACE WATER POLLUTION CONTROL 7-9
7.3.1 Control Equipment 7-10
7.3.2 Containment Equipment 7-10
7.3.3 Removal Equipment 7-15
7.4 SPILL PREVENTION, CONTROL, AND COUNTERMEASURE
PLANS 7-26
7.4.1 Spill History and Prediction 7-27
7.4.2 Secondary Containment 7-27
7.4.3 Facility Drainage 7-27
7.4.4 Tanks 7-27
7.4.5 Facility Transfer Operations 7-27
7.4.6 Inspection and Maintenance 7-28
7.4.7 Security 7-28
7.4.8 Personnel Training 7-28
7.4.9 Other Considerations 7-28
7.5 EMERGENCY CONTINGENCY PLANS 7-29
7.5.1 Emergency Equipment 7-29
7.5.2 Sources of Assistance 7-29
7.5.3 Emergency Procedures 7-30
7.5.4 Emergency Data Sheets 7-32
BIBLIOGRAPHY 7-37
vi i i
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Table of Contents (Cont.)
Appendix Page
A LIST OF CHEMICAL REPRESENTATIVES BY CLASS A-l
B CHEMICAL CLASS COMPATIBILITY MATRIX B-l
C CHEMICAL/MATERIAL COMPATIBILITY MATRIX C-l
D HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE COUNTERMEASURE MATRIX D-l
ix
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
2-1 List of Chemical Classes 2-2
2-2 List of Chemical Representatives by Class 2-5
3-1 Storage Tank Type for Liquid Chemicals, 25*C (77ฐF) .... 3-7
3-2 Existing Structural Guidelines 3-13
3-3 Gallon Capacity Per Foot of Height or Length in
Cylindrical Tanks 3-15
3-4 Vertical Steel Tank Minimum Wall Thicknesses 3-16
3-5 Horizontal Steel Tank Minimum Wall Thicknesses 3-17
3-6 Reinforced Plastic Tank Minimal Graduated Wall
Thickness 3-18
3-7 Approximate Bearing Capacities 3-20
3-8 Requirements for Thermal Venting Capacity 3-27
3-9 Total Rate of Emergency Venting Required for Fire
Exposure Versus Wetted Surface Area (Nonrefrigerated
Aboveground Tanks) 3-29
3-10 Examples of Recoverable Chemicals 3-32
3-11 Evacuation Table for Selected Chemicals 3-37
3-12 Location of Outside, Aboveground Liquid Chemical
Storage Tanks 3-39
3-13 Reference Table for Use With Table 3-12 3-42
3-14 Location of Aboveground Tanks Storing
Class III B Liquids 3-43
3-15 Fire Protection Techniques for Storage of Selected
Hazardous Materials 3-54
xi
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List of Tables (Cont.)
Table Page
3-16 Selected Methods of Extinguishing Chemical Fires 3-58
3-17 Common Chemicals Detectable With Thermal Conduc-
tivity Sensors 3-60
4-1 Metal Failure Frequency Over a Two-Year Period 4-3
4-2 Environments Causing Stress Corrosion 4-6
4-3 Galvanic Series of Metals and Alloys 4-8
4-4 Corrosion Control Methods 4-14
4-5 Comparative Re*sistances of Typical Coatings 4-18
4-6 Typical Inhibitors and the Corrosion Environment i
in Which They are Effective 4-24
5-1 Application of Non-Destructive Testing Methods 5-2
5-2 Non-Destructive Test Methods 5-5
5-3 Typical Aboveground Tank System - Areas of Concern 5-12
5-4 Minimum Inspection Tasks and Frequencies 5-30
6-1 Chemical Resistance of Protective Clothing Materials ... 6-7
6-2 Selection of Respirators 6-12
6-3 Optimal Respirator Protection Factors 6-15
6-4 Uses of General Purpose Decontamination Solutions 6-18
7-1 Typical K and F Values for Determining Extent of
Contamination . 7-3
7-2 Visual Appearance of Various Quantities of Oil on
Water 7-11
7-3 Boom Angles for Flow Velocities Greater Than 1.3
Knots 7-14
7-4 Properties of Sorbent Materials 7-24
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure Page
3-1 Typical Atmospheric Storage Tanks 3-2
3-2. Typical Low-Pressure Storage Tanks 3-4
3-3 Typical High-Pressure Storage Tanks 3-5
3-4 Foundation Schematic for Outdoor Tanks 3-21
3-5 Illustrative Ring Wall Foundation 3-22
3-6 Assessment of Vertical and Horizontal Tank Supports ... 3-24
3-7 Vapor Recovery Unit (Using Refrigeration) 3-31
3-8 Flexible Diaphragm Tank (Integral Unit) 3-33
3-9 Lifter Roof Storage Tank (Wet Seal) 3-34
3-10 Safe Separation Distances from Spills of Common
Liquid Industrial FuelsFire Threat 3-44
3-11 Spill Containment and Control Flow 3-46
3-12 Illustrative Method for Determining Containment
Area Size 3-49
3-13 Typical Earthen Dikes 3-51
3-14 Tank Lot Grading for Spill Control *. 3-52
4-1 Corrosion Due to Improper Inlet Nozzle Placement 4-2
4-2 Stress Corrosion Cracking 4-5
4-3 Interior Galvanic Corrosion Due to Coupling
Copper and Steel Pipe 4-7
4-4 Oxygen Concentration Cell with Rust on Tank Wall 4-9
xiii
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List of Illustrations (Cont.)
Figure Page
4-5 Impingement Attack 4-11
4-6 Differential Environment Underground 4-12
4-7 Cathodic Protection by the Sacrificial Anode Method ... 4-20
4-8 Cathodic Protection by the Impressed Current Method ... 4-22
5-1 Areas of Concern in Typical Aboveground Vertical
Tank System 5-13
5-2 Areas of Concern in Typical Horizontal Tank System .... 5-14
5-3 Leak Testing Log .*.. 5-17
5-4 Critical Areas of Gate Valve 5-20
5-5 Critical Areas of Globe Valve 5-21
5-6 Critical Areas of Diaphragm Valve 5-22
5-7 Critical Areas of Butterfly Valve 5-23
5-8 Critical Areas of Safety (Pressure Relief) Valve 5-24
5-9 Types and Critical Areas of Check Valves 5-25
5-10 Critical Areas of Ball Valve 5-26
5-11 Areas of Concern in a Typical Tank Foundation 5-28
5-12 Daily Inspection Checklist 5-33
5-13 Weekly Inspection Checklist 5-34
5-14 Monthly Tank Inspection Log 5-36
5-15 Thickness Testing Log 5-37
5-16 Graphical Calculation of Replacement Date for
Tanks and Valves 5-40
5-17 Illustrative Matrix for Determining Corrective
Action Priorities 5-41
6-1 Maximum Layout of Personnel Decontamination Station ... 6-19
7-1 Cross-Section of Interceptor Trench Containment
and Collection System for Floating Contaminants 7-5
xiv
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List of Illustrations (Cont.)
Figure Page
7-2 Schematic of Deep Groundwater Recovery Well for
Floating Contaminants 7-6
7-3 Cross-Section of a Typical Boom, Showing Major
Parts 7-12
7-4 Schematic of Typical Boom Anchoring System 7-13
7-5 Schematic of Typical Underflow Dam 7-16
7-6 Cross-Section of Typical Floating Weir Skimming
Unit 7-17
7-7 Illustration of Floating Suction Skimming Unit 7-18
7-8 Cross-Section of Typical Oleophilic Drum Skimmer 7-20
7-9 Schematic of Inclined Plane Belt Skimmer 7-21
7-10 Schematic of Oleophilic Belt Skimmer 7-22
7-11 Schematic of Oleophilic Rope Skimmer 7-23
7-12 Emergency Phone Numbers Form 7-31
7-13 Emergency Data Sheet Form 7-33
xv
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
Hazardous substances are those chemical and petroleum products
which exhibit characteristics of toxicity, ignitability, flammability,
reactivity, and corrosivity. Depending on their quantities, concen-
trations, and physical and chemical characteristics, these substances
may pose substantial present or future hazards to human health or the
environment if improperly treated, stored, transported, or disposed
of. Accidental spills or releases of hazardous substances can result
in contamination of groundwater and surface water, exposure of popula-
tions to toxic or carcinogenic chemicals, destruction of property,
severe financial liabilities, and adverse corporate publicity. There-
fore, rigorous requirements are necessary for the management and con-
trol of hazardous substances.
The United States Coast Guard (USCG) reported in recent years
that up to 27% of all reported spill incidents in the United States,
including spills of oil and hazardous substances, occurred from facil-
ities not related to transportation. This amounts to more than 3,200
incidents a year. The majority of all spill incidents are caused by
equipment failures (40%) or human error (18%). Many of these spills
could have been prevented by the appropriate application of mainten-
ance, testing, and inspection procedures.
Structural failures of storage tanks, resulting in releases of
toxic substances to the environment, occur because of inadequate
design, or because of improper or infrequent maintenance of the tanks,
valves, or transfer lines. Many accidental releases of substances
occur during transfer operations, and adequate secondary containment
measures often are not provided. Once released to the immediate envi-
ronment, chemicals may be transported through surface water systems or
may leach into groundwater where control and recovery are more diffi-
cult. Airborne vapor clouds also may present significant problems.
1.2 OBJECTIVES OF CONTAINMENT ASSURANCE PROGRAM
In order to reduce the occurrence of toxic substance releases
from storage facilities, standards for design, maintenance, and oper-
ation of new facilities should be evaluated to determine if they are
adequate. Older facilities should also be examined. If they do not
meet current standards, they should be secured by the implementation
of appropriate corrective measures. These measures constitute a
1-1
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Hazardous Substance Containment Assurance and Safety Program. The
objectives of such a program should include:
Utilization of appropriate criteria for storage tank design
and maintenance, based on the most recent chemical, technical,
and structural standards;
Standardization of preventive maintenance and inspection
schedules for hazardous substance storage tanks;
Training of management, maintenance, and inspection personnel
in sound practices for hazardous substance control; and
Providing guidelines for developing a hazardous substance
spill prevention program, including recommendations for emer-
gency action and secondary containment.
This Guide and Procedures Manual will provide the basic guidelines
upon which a containment assurance and safety program may be based.
These include guidelines for maintenance, inspection, and emergency
procedures, as well as references to the appropriate standards and
codes with which storage tanks should be in compliance.
1.3 SCOPE AND APPLICATION
This manual is intended to provide the basic information needed
to reduce the likelihood of a hazardous materials storage system fail-
ure. It provides information in the form of guidelines for chemical
compatibility, tank design and installation, corrosion control, main-
tenance and inspection, personnel safety and training, and spill pre-
vention and contingency planning. Although the manual primarily
addresses potential problems with hazardous liquids, issues concerning
gases and vapors are also discussed. Solid materials, as a class, are
not addressed in this manual. Because it is intended to provide
guidelines, the manual's scope is necessarily limited to discussion of
general applications. Wherever more detailed information may be
required for specific circumstances, the user is referred to the most
appropriate reference sources. These sources often include technical
standards and codes. Because the codes are updated frequently, the
user should have the most recent edition. In those cases where a
regulatory code cites a technical code by date, the technical code
referred to should not be older than the one referenced in the regula-
tion.
Section 2 of the Guide and Procedures Manual identifies the major
chemical classes and provides a summary matrix of reactions that may
occur among them. The section also provides a comprehensive listing
of compatibility of specific chemicals and the major materials used in
construction of storage tanks and appurtenances. These data will
enable inspection personnel to more readily identify undesirable stor-
age practices and institute appropriate mitigative measures. Section
3 presents design and installation considerations. These include
guidelines for tank selection, ventilation, flammability protection,
and spill control. Because corrosion is a major problem with regard
1-2
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to storage tanks, corrosion control guidelines are discussed sepa-
rately in Section 4. Tank maintenance and inspection guidelines are
given in Section 5. These include discussions of testing and inspec-
tion procedures for specific types of tanks and appurtenances, recom-
mendations on inspection frequency, and criteria for determining the
need for corrective action. Safety assurance in toxic substance stor-
age systems is also dependent upon knowledgeable operators. Section 6
of the manual presents elements of a personnel training program cover-
ing the safe operation of hazardous material storage systems. The
section contains guidelines for safety precautions to be exercised by
storage site personnel, selection of protective and monitoring equip-
ment, and a training schedule to meet occupational health and safety
standards. To further reduce the possibility of an accidental spill,
Section 7 gives the basic elements of Spill Prevention, Control, and
Countermeasure (SPCC) plans. The SPCC plans are designed to:
Insure rapid and accurate detection of emergency situations;
Provide methods and procedures to minimize environmental
impacts;
t Provide methods and procedures to facilitate efficient re-
covery and removal of spilled material; and
Provide safety measures for response personnel.
This Guide and Procedures Manual is intended to provide a mechan-
ism for the development of hazardous substance containment assurance
programs by industrial managers, city planners, and permitting agen-
cies. It is intended to be a practical tool for both private industry
and public regulatory agencies in establishing workable standards and
guidelines for toxic substance storage. Its implementation will help
solve the long-term problems associated with the containment of haz-
ardous materials.
1-3
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SECTION 2
CHEMICAL COMPATIBILITY
2.1 INTRODUCTION
A critical issue in the safe handling of hazardous chemicals is
their compatibility with other chemicals or materials with which they
may come in contact. The combination of two or more incompatible
chemicals may have one or more of the following consequences:
Heat generation,
Fire,
Explosion,
Innocuous gas generation,
Toxic gas generation,
Flammable gas generation,
Uncontrolled polymerization, or
Solubilization of toxic substances.
In addition to the possible consequences listed above, many con-
struction materials may undergo corrosion, loss of structural integ-
rity, or total destruction when in contact with certain chemicals or a
combination of chemicals. Therefore, care must be exercised to avoid
the inadvertent mixture of incompatible chemicals and materials. This
includes such measures as properly cleaning a previously used tank
before filling it with a different chemical, selecting tank and appur-
tenance materials that are resistant to the chemicals stored, and
avoiding storage of incompatible chemicals in proximity with one
another.
2.2 CHEMICAL COMPATIBILITY MATRIX
A chemical compatibility matrix has been devised to provide a
means for determining the likely consequences of combining chemicals
from two classes. Classes of .chemicals are listed in Table 2-1. Each
class consists of chemical compounds of similar molecular structure
(classes 1-31) or similar reactivity characteristics (classes 32-38).
An extensive listing of chemical compounds by chemical class is pro-
vided in Appendix A.
One would expect that chemicals of similar structure would be of
the same class and would undergo similar chemical compatibility reac-
tions. Therefore, the class of a chemical not identified in Appendix
A can be determined by locating a listed compound of similar molecular
structure. For example, the chemical class of diethyl phthalate can
be determined by locating on the list dimethyl phthalate, which has a
2-1
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Table 2-1
LIST OF CHEMICAL CLASSES
Chemical Class Number Class Name
1
Acids, mineral, non-oxidizing
2
Acids, mineral, oxidizing
3
Acids, organic
4
Alcohols and glycols
5
Aldehydes
6
Pmides
7
Amines, aliphatic and aromatic
8
Azo compounds, diazo compounds, and
hydrazines
9
Carbamates
10
Caustics
11
Cyanides
12
Di thiocarbamates
13
Esters
14
Ethers
15
Fluorides, inorganic
16
Hydrocarbons, aromatic
17
Halogenated organics
18
Isocyanates
19
Ketones
20
Msrcaptans and other organic sulfides
21
Metal compounds, inorganic
22
Nitrides
23
Nitrites
24
Nitro compounds
25
Hydrocarbons, aliphatic, unsaturated
26
Hydrocarbons, aliphatic, saturated
27
Peroxides and hydroperoxides, organic
28
Phenols and cresols
29
Organophosphates, phosphothioates,
and phosphodithioates
30
Sulfides, inorganic
31
Epoxides
32
Combustible and flammable materials
33
Explosives
34
Polymerizable compounds
35
Okidizing agents, strong
36
Reducing agents, strong
37
Vfater and mixtures containing water
38
Water reactive substances
Sources Hatayama, et al., 1980.
2-2
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chemically similar structure. It must be noted, however, that this is
a generally broad method of chemical classification, and that more
specific chemical identification should be obtained from such standard
reference sources as:
The Merck Index (Merck 1980),
Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials (Sax 1979), or
Chemical data retrieval services such as CHEMTREC or OHMTADS.
If these sources are inadequate in a specific case, the manufacturer
should be contacted.
Once the classes of two chemicals are determined, the matrix in
Appendix B may be used to determine the likely reactions resulting
from combining the chemicals. It is recognized that numerous vari-
ables such as concentration, temperature, and pressure will influence
the degree and type of chemical reactions. It is important to note,
therefore, that the matrix assumes the chemicals to be of 100% concen-
tration at standard temperature (25ฐC) and pressure (760 mm Hg). For
conditions that vary from these standards, the user is advised to con-
sult the reference sources identified above. The matrix may also be
used to determine the compatibility of hazardous wastes if the wastes
can be categorized by chemical classes listed in Table 2-1.
The procedure for using the chemical compatibility matrix (Appen-
dix B) is as follows:
1. Determine the chemical classes to which two chemicals belong,
as listed in Table 2-1 and Appendix A.
2. Locate the chemical class with the higher number on the left
side of the Appendix B chart.
3. Follow that row to the right until it intercepts the column
with the lower number.
4. The abbreviation at the point of intersection (explained in
the matrix legend) indicates the likely reaction.
5. If the point of intersection is blank, the classes are con-
sidered generally compatible. Two or more abbreviations
indicate a series of expected reactions in the order in which
they would be expected.
As an example, consider determining the compatibility of toluene
diisocyanate and nitric acid. From Table 2-1 and Appendix A it is
determined that these compounds are in Class 18 (Isocyanates) and
Class 2 (Oxidizing Mineral Acids), respectively. Since 18 is the
higher number, locate Class 18 on the left side of the matrix and
follow that row to the right until it intersects the column for Class
2. The abbreviations "H," "F," and "GT" appear at the point of inter-
section. Consulting the legend, it is determined that the primary
consequences of mixing these two classes of chemicals would be heat
generation (H). Secondary consequences resulting from the generation
of heat would be fire (F) and generation of toxic gases (GT).
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2.3 CHEMICAL/MATERIAL COMPATIBILITY MATRIX
The appropriateness of construction materials for storage tanks
and appurtenances is determined on the basis of a variety of objective
and subjective factors. Of primary importance is the degree to which
the material is resistant to the chemicals to be stored in the tank.
Appendix C is a matrix of compatibility between specific chemi-
cals and a variety of the most commonly used storage tank and appur-
tenance construction materials. Because corrosion rates vary signif-
icantly among chemicals within the same chemical class, the matrix
addresses compatibility for specific chemical and material combina-
tions. Table 2-2 is a summary listing of representative chemicals
from Appendix A which are specifically listed in the Chemical/Material
Compatibility Matrix (Appendix C). These chemicals were chosen
because they are commonly encountered in the chemical industry and are
functionally representative of the respective chemical classes to
which they belong. The list includes most of the top 50 chemicals
produced in the United States.
Because corrosion rates are dependent on such factors as concen-
tration, temperature, and humidity, the matrix attempts to identify
only the general suitability of a chemical/material combination over a
broad range of conditions. Therefore, use of the Appendix C matrix
should be limited to a preliminary screening for selection of appro-
priate materials for a given chemical application. The matrix will
also be of value to inspection personnel as a tool for identifying
chemical/material gross incompatibilities in existing facilities. For
information regarding applicability and corrosion rates under specific
conditions, the user is advised to obtain further guidance from quali-
fied design and corrosion engineers, chemical manufacturers, tank
fabricators, and standard reference sources (Mellan 1976; Rabold 1951;
Staniar 1959; and Cotz 1973).
The materials listed along the horizontal axis of the matrix are
those most commonly used in the construction of tanks, valves, appur-
tenances, and liners. The steels, irons, and aluminums listed in the
first seven places are the materials most often used for tank con-
struction. Nickel, monel, inconel, and hastalloys are frequently used
in valve and appurtenance applications. Wood and concrete may be used
for storage containers or for other applications such as secondary
containment or support structures. The remaining materials listed are
generally used as tank or valve liners.
To use the Appendix C chemical/material compatibility matrix,
find the chemical of interest in the vertical axis. Then follow the
row to the right until it intersects the column for the material of
interest. The symbol at the point of intersection should be inter-
preted as follows:
+ = The chemical/material combination is generally suitable
under most conditions.
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Table 2-2
LIST OF CHEMICAL REPRESENTATIVES BY CLASS
Class 1 Acids, Mineral. Non-Oxidizing
Boric Acid
Chlorosulfonic Acid
Hydriodic Acid
Hydrobromic Acid
Hydrochloric Acid
Hydrocyanic Acid
Hydrofluoric Acid
Hydroidic Acid
Phosphoric Acid
Class 2 Acids, Mineral Oxidizing
Chloric Acid
Chromic Acid
Nitric Acid
Oleum
Perchloric Acid
Sulfuric Acid
Sulfur Trioxide
Class 3 Acids, Organic (All Isomers)
Acetic Acid
Benzoic Acid
Formic Acid
Lactic Acid
Maleic Acid
Oleic acid
Salycilic Acid
Phthalic Acid
Class ft Alcohols and Glycols (All
Isomers)
Allyl Alcohol
Chloroethanol
Cyclohexanol
Ethanol
Ethylene Chlorohydrin
Ethylene Glycol
Ethylene Glyocol Monomethyl Ether
Glycerin
Methanol
Monoethanol Amine
. Class 5 Aldehydes (All Isomers)
Acetaldehyde
Formaldehyde
Furfural
Class 6 Amides (All Isomers)
Acetamide
Diethylamide
Dimethylformamide
Class 7 Amines^ Aliphatic and
Aromatic (All Isomers)
Aminoethanol
Aniline
Diethylamine
Diamine
Ethylenend iamine
Methylamine
Monoethylanolamine
Pyridine
Class 8 A20 Compounds, Diazo Com-
pounds, and Hydrazines
Dimethyl Hydrazine
Hydrazine
Class 10 Caustics
Ammonia
Ammonium Hydroxide
Calcium Hydroxide
Sodium Carbonate
Sodium Hydroxide
Sodium Hypochlorite
Class 11 Cyanides
Hydrocyanic Acid
Potassium Cyanide
Sodium Cyanide
Group 13 Esters (All Isomers)
Butyl Acetate
Ethyl Acetate
Methyl Acrylate
Methyl Formate
Dimethyl Phthalate
Propiolaetone
Class 14 Ethers (All Isomers)
Dichloroethyl Ether
Dioxane
Ethylene Glycol Monomethyl Ether
Furan
Tetrahydrofuran
Class 15 Fluorides, Inorganic
Aluminum Fluoride
Ammonium Fluoride
Fluorosilicic Acid
Fluosilic Acid
Hydrofluorosilicic Acid
Source: Hatayama, et al., 1980.
-------
Table 2-2 (Cont.)
Class 16 Hydrocarbons, Aromatic (All Isomers)
Benzene
Cumene
Ethyl Benzene
Naphthalene
Styrene
Toluene
Xylene
Class 17 Haloqenated Orqanics (All Isomers)
Aldrin
Benzyl Chloride
Carbon Tetrachloride
Chloroacetone
Chlorobenzene
Chlorocresol
Chloroethanol
Chloroform
Dichloroacetone
Dichloroethylether
Dichloromethane (Methylene Dichloride)
Epichlorohydrin
Ethylene Chlorohydrin
Ethylene Dichloride
Freons
Methylchloride
Pentachlorophenol
T etrachloroethane
Trichloroethylene
Class 18 Isocyanates (All Isomers)
Class 19 Ketones (All Isomers)
Acetone
Acetophenone
Cyclohexanone
Dichloroacetone
Dimethyl ketone
Methyl Ethyl Ketone
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone
Quinone (Benzoquinone)
Class 20 Mercaptans and Other Organic Sulfides
(All Isomers)
Carbon Disulfide
Ethyl Mercaptan
Class 21 Metal Compounds, Inorganic
Aluminum Sulfate
Chromic Acid
Silver Nitrate
Tetraethyl Lead
Zinc Chloride
Class 23 Nitriles (All Isomers)
Acrylonitrile
Class 24 Nitro Compounds (All Isomers)
Nitrobenzene
Nitrophenol
Nitropropane
Nitrotoluene
Picric Acid
Class 25 Hydrocarbons. Aliphatic.
Unsaturated
(All Isomers)
Butadiene
Styrene
Class 26 Hydrocarbons, Aliphatic,
Saturated
Butane
Cyclohexane
Class 27 Peroxides and Hydro-
peroxides Organic (All
Isomers)
Benzoyl Peroxide
Hydrogen Peroxide
Chlorocresol
Coal Tar
Cresol
Creosote
Clasa 28 Phenols, Cresols
Hydroquinone
Nitrophenol
Phenol
Picric Acid
Resorcinol
Class 29 Orqanophosphates,
Phosphothioates, and
Phosphodithioates
Malathion
Parathion
Class 31 Epoxides
Epichlorohydrin
Class 32 Combustible and Flam-
mable Materials,
Miscellaneous
Diesel Oil
Gasoline
Kerosene
Naphtha
Turpentine
Class 33 Explosives
Benzoyl Peroxide
Picric Acid
Class 34 Polymerizable Compounds
Acrylonitrile
Butadiene
Methyl Aerylate
Styrene
2-6
-------
Table 2-2 (Cont.)
Class 35 Oxidizing Agents, Strong
Chloric Acid
Chromic Acid
Silver Nitrate
Sodium Hypochlorite
Sulfur Trioxide
Class 36 Reducing Agents, Strong
Diamine
Hydrazine
Class 37 Water and Mixtures Containing Water
Aqueous solutions and mixtures
Water
Class 38 Water-Reactive Substances
Acetic Anhydride
Hydrobromic Acid
Sulfuric Acid
Sulfur Trioxide
2-7
-------
c = The chemical/material combination is conditionally suit-
able, depending upon such factors as temperature, concen-
tration, presence of trace contaminants, degree of agita-
tion, method of material fabrication, etc. More specific
data should be obtained from the reference sources cited,
to determine suitability under specific conditions.
= The chemical/material combination is generally unsuitable
under most conditions.
N = Data are insufficient to determine suitability in general.
Refer to appropriate references for more specific data.
Selection of the optimum material for a given application is fre-
quently based on economic considerations. However, factors such as
the following should also be considered:
Is the rate of corrosion, even between compatible elements,
slow enough that the desired service life is attainable?
For valves, is the material (particularly liner material) able
to withstand pressure changes that might occur during opera-
tion?
For tanks and valves, does the material possess adequate
strength characteristics for the design?
Is an acceptable bond achievable between tank material and
1i ner?
If a liner material is compatible with the chemical to be
stored, what degree of permeability would preclude its use?
In view of such considerations, and understanding that the Appen-
dix C matrix is a summary listing of general compatibility of various
chemicals and materials, it can be used as a preliminary materials
selection guide. Final selection of materials for specific applica-
tions should be made after consulting appropriate professional and
technical references.
2-8
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bretherick, L., 1980, Handbook of Reactive Chemical Hazards, CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL.
British Value Manufacturers Association, 1966, Values for the Control
of Fluids, Pergamon Press, Elmsford, NY.
Cotz, V., 1972, Plant Engineers Manual and Guide, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Evaus, V., 1961, The Corrosion and Oxidation of Metals, St. Martins
Press, New York, NY.
, 1968, The Corrosion and Oxidation of Metals - First Sup-
plementary Volume, St. Martins Press, New York, NY.
Hatayama, H.K., J.J. Chen, E.R. deVera, R.D. Stephens, and D.L. Storm,
1980, A Method for Determining the Compatibility of Hazardous
Wastes, United States Environmental Protection Agency, EPA-600/
2-80-076, Washington, D.C.
Hepner, I., ed., 1962, Materials of Construction for Chemical Plant,
Leonard Hill Ltd., London.
Hutchinson, J., 1976, ISA Handbook of Control Values, Second Edition,
Instrument Society of America, Triangle Park, NC.
Marshall, W., 1981, Construction Materials for Chemical Process Indus-
tries, Chemical Engineering, No. 368, New York, NY.
Meidl, H., 1976, Flammable Hazardous Materials, Glencoe Press, New
York, NY.
Mellan, I., 1976, Corrosion Resistant Materials Handbook, Noyes Data
Corporation, Park Ridge, NJ.
Modern Plastic Handbook, 1981, McGraw-Hill Publications, New York,
NY.
National Association of Corrosive Engineers (NACE), 1954, Corrosion
Data Survey for Metals, Houston, TX.
, 1976, Corrosion Data Survey for Non-Metals, Houston, TX.
, 1980, Corrosion Engineer's Reference Book, R.S. Treseder,
ed., Houston, TX.
2-9
-------
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), 1981, Hazardous Chemical
Reactions, National Fire Code, Section 419M, Volume 14, Boston,
W.
, 1981, Code for Explosive Materials, National Fire Code,
Section 495, Volume 4, Boston, MA.
, 1981, Identification of Fire Hazards of Materials,
National Fire Code, Section 704, Volume 11, Boston, MA.
, 1981, Classification of Flammable and Combustible Liquids,
National Fire Code, Section 321, Volume 3, Boston, MA.
-, 1981, Code for Flammable and Combustible Liquids, National
Fire Code, Section 30, Volume 3, Boston, MA.
, 1981, Fire Hazard Properties of Flammable Liquids, Gases,
and Volatile Solids, National Fire Code, Section 325M, Volume 13,
Boston, MA.
Pechner, D. and I. Bernstein, 1977, Handbook of Stainless Steel,
McGraw-Hill Publications, New York, NY.
Perry, R., and C. Chilton, 1973, Chemical Engineer's Handbook, McGraw-
Hill Publications, New York, NY.
Rabald, E., 1968, Corrosion Guide, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Com-
pany, New York, NY.
Shreir, L., 1976, Corrosion Volumes One and Two, Newnes-Butterworth
Publishing Company, Woburn, MA.
Staniar, W., 1959, Plant Engineering Handbook, McGraw-Hill Publica-
tions, New York, NY.
United States Department of Transportation, 1978, CHRIS Hazardous
Chemical Data, Washington, D.C.
, 1980, CHRIS Hazardous Chemical Data - Changes Two,
Washington, D7TT!
, 1981, CHRIS Hazardous Chemical Data - Changes Three,
Washington, DTTTI
2-10
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SECTION 3
STORAGE SYSTEM DESIGN ELEMENTS
3.1 TYPES OF STORAGE TANKS
A general means of classifying storage tanks is by the internal
vapor pressure they are designed to sustain. This method of classifi-
cation transcends the more specific issues of material type and indi-
vidual applications, such as underground installation, which are dis-
cussed in more detail in Sections 3.2 and 3.3, respectively.
Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted on the walls of a closed
tank by the vapor contained in the head space above the stored liquid.
Due to differences in volatility, vapor pressures vary with tempera-
ture. As the temperature of a liquid in a closed tank increases, so
will vapor pressure. Volatile chemicals that exhibit relatively high
vapor pressures require tanks designed to accommodate those pressures
in addition to the static pressures induced by the tank contents.
The vapor pressure criterion yields three categories of tanks:
atmospheric tanks, low-pressure tanks, and high-pressure tanks. These
three categories are discussed below.
3.1.1 Atmospheric Tanks
Atmospheric tanks are routinely encountered in various industrial
settings. The operating pressure is approximately that of atmospheric
pressure. Atmospheric tanks are protected by pressure vacuum vents
which maintain the pressure difference between the vapor space and
the ambient atmosphere at less than a few ounces per square inch.
Some typical atmospheric tanks are shown in Figure 3-1. Types of
atmospheric tanks include the following:
Coned Roof Tanks may be field-erected to dimensions up to 300
feet in diameter and 64 feet in height. Internal structural support
members are frequently employed.
Umbrella Roof and Dome Roof Tanks are variations on the coned
roof which employ spherically curved, self-supporting roof plates.
They are usually no larger than 60 feet in diameter.
Floating Roof Tanks use a vapor proof seal, floated on the stored
liquid and held snug against the tank wall by springs on weights.
They are used to eliminate or constantly maintain the vapor space
above a stored liquid, and thus minimize filling and vapor expansion
losses to the atmosphere.
3-1
-------
UMBRELLA-ROOF TANK
CONE-ROOF TANK
ฆi'.jr-i
PAN-TYPE FLOATING-ROOF TANK
DOU8LE-DECK FLOATING-ROOF TANK
SOURCE: API, 1981
Figure 3-1 TYPICAL ATMOSPHERIC STORAGE TANKS
3-2
-------
Fixed Roof - Interior Floater are fixed roof tanks equipped with
an interior pan floating roof. They are used when it is desirable to
minimize filling and vapor expansion losses, but in climates where
snow or rain loads would damage ordinary unprotected floating roofs.
Breather-Roof Tanks employ a flat-roof consisting of a flexible
steel membrane capable of expanding and contracting within narrow
1imits.
Balloon-Roof Tanks are a variation on breather roof tanks, but
are capable of greater volume changes.
Vapor-Dome Roof Tanks have a fixed dome in which a flexible
interior membrane is free to expand and contract to accommodate large
volume changes.
Cylindrical Tanks are used in the vertical or horizontal position
to store small volumes of liquids.
3.1.2 Low-Pressure Tanks
Low-pressure tanks are used where the operating pressure ranges
from 0.5 pounds per square inch gage (psig) to 15 psig. Pressure
relief devices, such as valves or rupture disks, are used to prevent a
build-up of pressure beyond the specified safe limit. Some typical
low-pressure tanks are shown in Figure 3-2. Types of low-pressure
tanks include:
Hemispheroidal, Spheroidal, and Noded Spheriodal Tanks, used for
volatile chemicals above 5 psig but less than 15 psig. Tfiey are
equipped with relief valves to prevent the internal pressure from
exceeding the design maximum.
Cylindrical Shell Tanks with coned, domed, or hemispheroidal
roofs are used when internal pressures are less than 5 psig but
greater than 0.5 psig.
3.1.3 High-Pressure Tanks
High-pressure tanks are used where the operating pressure exceeds
15 psig. Some typical high-pressure tanks are shown in Figure 3-3.
Types of high-pressure tanks include:
Pressure Bullet Tanks, horizontal cylindrical steel tanks
designed to withstand pressures up to 250 psig. Pressure bullets are
primarily used for the storage of compressed gases. Capacity is
generally limited to less than 2,000 barrels (bbl).
Spherical Pressure Vessels are used for ambient temperature
storage of high vapor pressure materials. In such applications the
tank requires shop construction. Field construction is possible for
applications where the product vapor pressure is in the 75-psig range
for a capacity of up to 50,000 bbl.
3-3
-------
Elevation Section
PLAIN
Elevation Section
NOOED
HEMISPHEROIDAL TANKS
High Liquid
Level
Elevation
Section
NOOED
SPHEROIDAL TANK
SOURCE: API. 1981.
Figure 3-2 TYPICAL LOW PRESSURE STORAGE TANKS
-------
SPHERICAL PRESSURE VESSEL
PRESSURE BULLET STORAGE TANK
SOURCE: Higdon, 1976.
Figure 3-3 TYPICAL HIGH-PRESSURE STORAGE TANKS
3-5
-------
3.1.4 Selection of Tank Type
By knowing the vapor pressure of a chemical at a given tempera-
ture it is possible to specify an appropriate tank type. For example,
at 25ฐC (77*F), pentane exhibits a vapor pressure of nearly 10 psig.
A low-pressure tank, which can accommodate pressures ranging from 0.5
psig to 15 psig, is thus suitable in this case. Butane, roughly 35
psig at this temperature, requires a high-pressure tank.
Low-pressure tanks are desirable for volatile chemicals with
vapor pressures of less than 15 psig. By keeping vapors confined in a
fixed volume, low-pressure tanks keep more of the chemical in the
liquid state. By using vapor control devices (Section 3.9) on low-
pressure tanks, vapors of a potentially hazardous nature are prevented
from venting to the atmosphere. In practice, atmospheric tanks may be
utilized for storage of low-volatility chemicals. However, for addi-
tional control over vapors, the use of low-pressure tanks is recom-
mended. As previously discussed, high-pressure tanks are required for
volatile chemicals with vapor pressures greater than 15 psig.
Table 3-1 gives the recommended tank type for specific chemicals.
Selection is based solely on vapor pressure at a single standard tem-
perature, 25ฐC (77ฐF). In actual conditions, temperatures may vary
considerably, however. Furthermore, the table does not consider the
use of vapor control techniques to limit actual operating pressures,
the excessive pressures occurring during filling and emptying opera-
tions, the implications of cryogenic or heated storage, or other
process-specific applications. The table should therefore be used
only as a guideline for "red flagging" volatile chemicals which war-
rant pressure storage considerations. Complete vapor pressure data
for listed chemicals can be found in such sources as the Chemical
Engineer's Handbook (Perry and Chilton 1973).
Selection of the most appropriate storage system for a given
application is dependent upon a multiplicity of factors. The tank
type must be able to withstand operating pressures that will occur.
Equally important is the selection of construction materials compati-
ble with the stored materials. Guidelines for material selection may
be found in Sections 2.3 and 3.2 an Appendix C of this manual, as
well as in the references cited in those places. Also important are
technical considerations such as tank wall strength and adequacy of
foundations and supports. These matters are discussed in Section 3.4.
Guidelines for these technical considerations, including valves, ven-
tilation, spill containment, ignition control, and fail-safe devices,
are given in the remainder of this chapter. However, ultimate selec-
tion of a storage system is dependent upon a number of facility-
specific factors, including space available, environmental conditions,
economic considerations, desired operating life, etc. For these
reasons, determination of the most appropriate storage system should
be the responsibility of an engineer familiar with all aspects of the
proposed faci1ity.
3-6
-------
Table 3-1
STORAGE
TANK TYPE FOR
LIQUID CHEMICALS, 25ฐC (77ฐF)
Tank
Tank
Chemical
Type
Chemical
Type
Acetaldehyde
H
Ethylene diamine
A
Acetamide
A
Ethylene dichloride
L
Acetic acid
A
Ethylene glycol
A
Acetone
L
Ethylene glycol monoethyl ether
A
Acetonitrile
L
Formic acid
L
Acetophenone
A
Freons
H
Aerolein
L
Furfural
A
Acrylonitrile
L
Gasoline
A
Allyl alcohol
L
Glycerine
A
Ammonia
H
Hydrocyanic acid
L
Benzene
L
Ispoprene
L
Benzoic acid
A
Methyl acrylate
L
Butane
H
Methyl amine
H
Carbon disulfide'
L
Methylchloride
H
Carbon tetrachloride
L
Methyl ethyl ketone
L
Chlorobenzene
L
Methyl formate
L
Chloroethanol
A
Naphtha
A
Chloroform
L
Nitrobenzene
A
Chloropicrin
L
Nitrophenol
A
Chlorosulfonic acid
A
Nitrotoluene
A
Cumeme
A
Pentane
L
Cyclohexane
L
Petroleum oil
A
Cyclohexanane
A
Propane
H
Dichloromethane
L
Pyridine
A
Diesel oil
A
Styrene
A
Diethyl ether
L
Sulfuric acid
A
Dimethylformamide
A
Sulfur trioxide
L
Dimethyl pthalate
A
Tetrachloroethane
A
Dioxane
L
Tetrathydro furan
L
Epichlorohydrin
A
Toluene
A
Ethanol
L
T richloroethylene
L
Ethyl acetate
L
Xylene
A
Ethyl benzene
A
Key: A = Atmospheric,
less than 0
.5 psig
L = Low Pressure,
less than 15 psig but
greater than 0.5 psig
H = High Pressure
:, greater than 15 psig
Source: Ecology and Environment,
1982.
3-7
-------
3.2 TANK MATERIALS
As discussed in Section 2.3, it is of primary importance that the
material from which a tank is constructed is compatible with the chem-
icals to be stored within it. Appendix C may be consulted as a guide
for determining the general suitability of a variety of chemical and
material combinations. Once suitable materials for chemical contain-
ment are determined, the inherent strength and economic cost of the
materials ultimately determine the material to be used. The general
service characteristics and applications of the more common tank con-
struction materials are detailed below.
Mild (Carbon) Steel Tanks. Mild steel is widely used as a tank
material due to its strength, durability, ease of fabrication, and
relatively low cost. With proper corrosion control techniques, the
integrity of a mild steel tank can be enhanced to make it resistant to
severe internal and external conditions. For applications which would
otherwise be considered incompatible, such as use with dilute sulfuric
acid, the mild steel tank can be lined with a variety of resistant
materials. Mild steel is appropriate for underground as well as
aboveground service. The Steel Tank Institute has developed corrosion
control devices and strategies that mitigate previous severe drawbacks
of steel tanks.
Reinforced Plastic (RP). Because of their superior chemical
resistance, tanks constructed of reinforced plastics, such as fiber-
glass, have increasingly replaced metallic tanks in particularly
severe service applications. Due to their lower strength, however,
they are generally limited to use in situations where the operating
pressure is close to atmospheric. They should not be used for cryo-
genic or high temperature applications.
Cylindrical shell RP tanks are predominantly shop fabricated to
specification and limited by transportation considerations to 12 feet
in diameter and 24 feet in height. Field construction, allowing
greater size, is possible. Rectangular RP tanks are extremely sus-
ceptible to failure from excessive wall stress, wall deflection, or
corner stress. They are difficult to design properly, and usually
require considerable horizontal and vertical stiffening.
Stainless Steel. Stainless steel offers superior resistance to
chlorinated organics and some acids, as compared to mild steel.
iStainless steel is also suitable for very high and low temperature
applications. While the cost of stainless steel as a material is
high, this may be offset somewhat by the material's high strength.
Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys. Welded aluminum tanks are suitable
for use with concentrated nitric acid and sulfuric acid, as well as
most organic acids. They should be avoided for use with strong caus-
tic solutions. Aluminum is well suited to low temperature applica-
tions. Aluminum alloys also offer good mechanical properties, but a
generally lower corrosion resistance.
Other Alloys. Many of the more exotic metal alloys (e.g., monel,
hastalloy, inconel, etc.) offer excellent corrosion resistance and
3-8
-------
strength, but at considerably higher cost. For this reason they are
frequently employed in valve applications to meet the demands imposed
by excessive pressure and wear.
Concrete. Reinforced concrete is occasionally encountered in
atmospheric applications. Its primary drawbacks are high cost, poor
chemical resistance, and susceptibility to seepage problems. These
can be partially countered by the use of impermeable, resistant
liners. An additional drawback is the potential for corrosion of the
internal support material, which is usually steel.
3.3 SPECIFIC TANK APPLICATIONS
Atmospheric, low-pressure, and high-pressure tanks can be uti-
lized in a variety of ways to meet specific service requirements.
Several of these are detailed below.
3.3.1 Underground Tanks
Underground tanks are generally used for the storage of small or
intermediate volumes (1,000 to 20,000 gallons) of gasoline, fuel oils,
or a variety of chemicals. They should be constructed from steel with
fiberglass or cathodic protection, or from reinforced plastic. Their
characteristics and weaknesses are further discussed in Section
5.2.2.
Underground steel tanks require special installation considera-
tions to insure adequate support and stability, as well as to minimize
corrosion. Although installation criteria should be determined on a
facility-specific basis, the following criteria are offered as guide-
lines. The excavation for underground tanks should extend at least
one foot in all directions from the in-place tank profile. The base
of the excavation should be laid with a backfill bed of at least 12
inches of non-corrosive material such as pea gravel, sand, or No. 8
crushed stone. To minimize corrosion, the surrounding soil should
have a resistivity of at least 10,000 OHM-per-cm. In soils with a
lower resistivity, cathodic protection should be employed, or rein-
forced plastic tanks should be selected. (Note: Many states require
cathodic protection of underground steel tanks, even in situations
where soil resistivity may exceed 10,000 OHM-per-cm. The user of this
manual is advised to consult and comply with all rules and regulations
governing underground tank installation applicable within a specific
state or local jurisdiction.) The backfill should extend to at least
12 inches above the top of the buried tank. At a minimum, the tank
must be covered by at least two feet of earth, or one foot of earth
and four inches of concrete or asphalt pad extending one foot beyond
the tank perimeter. If the surface will be subjected to traffic, this
depth should be increased to at least three feet of earth, or 18
inches of earth and eight inches of concrete. In all cases, installa-
tion should be determined on an individual basis, and should be con-
sistent with any applicable manufacturer's directions. Additional
guidelines are contained in NFPA 30, Flammable and Combustible Liquids
Code.
3-9
-------
Horizontal tanks designed for atmospheric service can be used in
underground applications and have several desirable features. The
safety of underground tanks against accidental damage is greatly
enhanced, while the need for diking is eliminated. This advantage,
however, may be offset in severe applications, where underground con-
tainment in the form of clay, concrete, or plastic liners may be
needed. Tank burial has a temperature moderating effect that will
prevent solidification of contents in some cases, and reduce vapor
generation. Structural support problems encountered with horizontal
aboveground tanks are eliminated by the uniform support achieved with
underground installations. A savings in ground space or building
space is also an advantage.
A major drawback to underground tanks is that, due to their inac-
cessibility, structural or corrosion problems are not readily appar-
ent. This is discussed further in Section 5.2.2.
3.3.2 Cryogenic Tanks
Cryogenic tanks are generally used to maintain hydrocarbon gases,
such as liquefied natural gas (LNG) or liquid propane (LPG). They are
designed according to Section VIII of the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code.
Most cryogenic tanks have vacuum-jacketed insulation, although
insulation can be accomplished in other ways. An insulating blanket
may be applied to the exterior of a single-wall tank, or a layer of
insulating material such as perlite may be contained between the walls
of a double-wall tank. The inside tank must meet the temperature and
pressure requirements, while the outside wall acts only as a contain-
ment wall. Thus, the inside tank is generally constructed of nickel
or aluminum alloy, copper, or 304 stainless steel, and the outside
tank is constructed of ordinary carbon steel. Adequate maintenance of
the tank insulation is essential, and all joints should be vacuum
tight. Piping between the two walls of a vacuum-insulated tank should
be long and flexible, and is usually copper tubing. Valving should be
of the extended stem type. Further, electrically heated foundations
are frequently employed to reduce the impact of frost heaves on the
tank.
Appendix Q of API Standard 620, which is specifically applic-
able to liquefied hydrocarbon gases, can provide guidelines for low-
temperature service to -270ฐF.
3.3.3 Heated Tanks
Heated tanks are frequently used to maintain the desired vis-
cosity of petroleum-derived asphalt products and crude oils, to
prevent phase change of the product, and for other applications. Heat
is applied through the use of steam lines, plate coils, or heat
exchangers, etc. Mixing of tank contents may be necessary to maintain
uniform temperatures, and may be achieved by installation of mechani-
cal mixers and pumps.
3-10
-------
Temperatures in a heated storage tank should be monitored to pre-
vent the contents from undergoing a thermal phase change. If the
temperature is not monitored and it rises to a point above the recom-
mended temperature range for the product, evaporation could occur and
the resulting pressure increase could lead to an explosion. Simi-
larly, if the temperature drops and solidification occurs, product
expansion could result in the storage tank bursting.
Where insulation is applied to the exterior of a tank, it must be
adequately protected from the elements and properly maintained. Ade-
quate pressure-relieving capacity is also required. Conventional
design criteria apply up to temperatures of 200ฐF, with additional
considerations in effect at higher temperatures (see Appendix M of API
standard 650). Open-top tanks and floating-roof tanks are not suit-
able for heated service.
3.4 TANK DESIGN CRITERIA
Proper design of a storage system involves the consideration of
numerous physical and chemical criteria. These include:
Compatibility of the tank material with the material to be
stored;
Specific gravity of the liquid to be stored;
Desired volumetric capacity of the tank;
External loads on the tank, such as wind loads;
Use of required and optional appurtenances;
Proper preparation of the tank installation area;
Static pressure induced by the tank contents; and
o Service pressure of the tank.
Each of these criteria shou.ld be defined prior to tank design and
given appropriate attention during the design process.
A liquid's specific gravity is a major consideration during the
structural design process because it is the determining factor in cal-
culating the tank shell and foundation stresses. For these reasons, a
tank designed for a liquid of a given specific gravity should not be
used indiscriminately for liquids of greater specific gravity. In
cases where it is necessary to store a heavier liquid than the tank
was designed for, calculations should be performed to determine a
fill height that would prevent stresses in excess of those for which
the tank was originally intended. As discussed in Section 3.1, the
structural design must also account for the vapor pressures induced by
the tank contents.
It is important to note that underground tanks should be designed
to be able to bear all external loads to which they may be subjected.
3-11
-------
Due consideration should be given to traffic loads if the surface
under which the tank is installed is subjected to traffic.
Various guidelines for the design of different types of storage
tanks have been promulgated by independent trade organizations and
professional societies. While such guidelines are not legally or
technically binding, they provide the reasonable standards and speci-
fications for proper design. They should not take the place of sound
engineering reasoning in specific situations that require additional-
design considerations. A listing of these guidelines is contained in
Table 3-2.
3.4.1 Mall Thickness Design
Although the desired volumetric or length capacity of a storage
tank is a function of its diameter and height (vertical tanks) or
length (horizontal tanks), the required wall thickness of a liquid
storage tank is calculated from the liquid's specific gravity, the
desired tank capacity and dimensions, and internal head space pres-
sure. In general, the heavier a liquid or larger the diameter of the
tank, the greater the wall thickness that will be required for struc-
tural stability. Table 3-3 illustrates volume changes brought about
by changes in tank diameter.
Minimum wall thickness for steel or other metallic vertical tanks
is generally set at 3/16 inch, although 1/4 inch is usually more
desirable. Minimum thicknesses for atmospheric and low-pressure steel
tanks, which are vertical and cylindrical, are contained in Table 3-4.
These values are exclusive of any corrosion allowance specified in the
appropriate design standards.
For above- and below-ground tanks, recommended wall thicknesses
are listed in Table 3-5. It is also recommended that the length of a
horizontal tank not exceed six times its diameter.
Thickness may also be variable with height along the sides of a
vertical tank, with the lower cross sections requiring greater thick-
ness than the upper. This approach to design is referred to as gradu-
ated wall thickness, and is frequently employed in shop-fabricated,
reinforced plastic tanks. Table 3-6 outlines recommended minimum
thicknesses for graduated wall, reinforced plastic tanks. A safety
factor of 10 is built into these recommendations. A liquid specific
gravity of 1.2 is assumed.
In addition to structural considerations in calculating wall
thickness, it is necessary to provide additional thickness in applica-
tions where corrosion is suspected or possible. A corrosion allowance
should be established based upon the rate of corrosion, if known, and
the desired service life of the tank. When the rate of corrosion is
unknown or is variable in magnitude and extent, a minimum corrosion
allowance thickness should be applied. This is discussed further in
Section 5.5.
3-12
-------
Table 3-2
EXISTING STRUCTURAL GUIDELINES
Promulgating
Tank Type Existing Guidelines Organization Comment
High Pressure Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code American Society of
Mechanical Engineers
Section VIII, Divisions 1 and 2 345 E. 47th Street
New York, NY 10017
Section X, fiberglass rein- 212/705-7722
forced plastic pressure
vessels
Low Pressure
Atmospheric
Standard 620, recommended
rules for design of large,
welded, low-pressure storage
tanks
Standard 650, welded steel
for oil storage
Standard 12A, oil storage
tanks with riveted shells
American Petroleum Institute
201 L Street, NW
Washington, DC 20057
202/457-7000
API
API
Applicable to non-
petroleum as well as
petroleum storage tanks
Sections VIII and X of
the ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code
also apply
Applicable to non-
petroleum as well as
petroleun storage tanks
Standard 12B, bolted pro- API
duction tanks
Standard 120, large welded API
production tanks
Standard 12E, wooden pro- API
duction tanks
Standard 12F, small welded API
production tanks
-------
Table 3-2 (Cont.)
Tank Type
Existing Guidelines
Promulgating
Organization
Comment
Atmospheric (Cont.) Standard for welded aluminum-
alloy storage tanks, ANSI
B96.1 - 1981
Standard steel tanks,
D100-67
Steel underground tanks for
flammable and combustible
liquids, UL 58
Steel above-ground tanks for
flammable and combustible
liquids
American National Standards
Institute, Inc.
1430 Broadway
New York, NY 10018
American Water Works
Association
6666 W. Quincy Ave.
Denver, CO 80234
303/794-7711
Underwriters Laboratory
333 Pfingsten Rd.
Northbrook, IL 60062
312/272-8800
Same as above
Adaptable to storage
tanks of chemicals as
well as water
Source: Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1982.
-------
Table 3-3
GALLON CAPACITY PER FOOT OF HEIGHT OR LENGTH IN CYLINDRICAL TANKS
Diameter Gallons per Feet
(feet) of Height (Length)
5.0 146.88
5.5 177.72
6.0 211.51
6.5 248.23
7.0 287.88
7.5 330.48
8.0 376.01
8.5 424.48
9.0 475.89
9.5 530.24
10.0 587.52
10.5 647.74
11.0 710.90
11.5 776.99
12.0 846.03
12.5 918.00
13.0 992 . 91
13.5 1070.8
14.0 1151.5
14.5 1235.3
15.0 1321.9
15.5 1411.5
16.0 1504.1
16.5 1599.5
17.0 1697.9
17.5 1799.3
18.0 1903.6
18.5 2010.8
19.0 2120.9
19.5 2234.0
20.0 2350.1
20.5 2469.1
21.0 2591.0
21.5 2715.8
22.0 2843.6
22.5 2974.3
23.0 3108.0
23.5 3244.6
24.0 3384.1
24.5 3526.6
25.0 3672.0
25.5 3820.3
26.0 3971.6
26.5 4125.9
27.0 4283.0
27.5 4443.1
28.0 4606.2
28.5 4772.1
29.0 4941.0
29.5 5112.9
30.0 5287.7
30.5 5465.4
Source: Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1983.
3-15
-------
Table 3-4
VERTICAL STEEL TANK
MINIMUM WALL THICKNESSES*
Tank Thickness
Diameter (feet) (inches)
Smaller than 50 3/16
50 to 120, Excl. 1/4
120 to 200, Incl. 5/16
Over 200 3/8
Exclusive of any corrosion allowance or varia-
tions in liquid density of tank contents.
Source: API, 1978.
3-16
-------
Table 3-5
HORIZONTAL STEEL TANK
MINIMUM WALL THICKNESSES*
Thickness of Steel Underground Tanks
Manufacturers'
Standard or
Nominal
Thickness
Capacity
Maximun
Diameter
Galvanized
Sheet
Uncoated
Galvanized
U.S. Gallons
dn'
Inches
in
Gage * No.
Inches
mm
Inches
mm
Up to 285
Up to 1,078
42
1.07
14
0.075
1.91
0.079
2.01
286 to 560
1,082 to 2,120
48
1.22
12
0.105
2.67
0.108
2.74
561 to 1,100
2,124 to 4,164
64
1.63
10
0.135
3.43
0.138
3.51
1,101 to 4,000
4,168 to 15,142
84
2.13
7
0.179
4.55
4,001 to 12,000
15,145 to 45,425
126
3.20
1/4 inch
0.250
6.35
12,001 to 20,000
45,429 to 75,708
144
3.66
5/16 inch
0.312
7.92
20,001 to 50,000
75,712 to 189,270
144
3.66
3/8 inch
0.375
9.53
Source: Underwriters Laboratory, Inc., 1976.
Thickness of Steel Aboveqround Tanks
Maximum
Minimum Metal
Thickness
, Inches (mm)
Capacity U.S.
Diameter,
Gallons
Inches
(kl)
(m)
Carbon
Steel
Stainless Steel
550 or less (2.13)
48
(1.22)
0.093
(2.36)
0.071
(1.80)
551 to 1,100 (2.14 to 4.26)
64
(1.63)
0.123
(3.12)
0.086
(2.18)
1,101 to 9,000 (4.27 to 34.87)
76
(1.93)
0.167
(4.24)
0.115
(2.92)
1,101 to 35,000 (4.27 to 135.63)
144
(3.66)
0.240
(6.10)
0.158
(4.01)
35,001 to 50,000 (135.64 to 193.77)
144
(3.66)
0.365
(9.27)
0.240
(6.10)
Source: Underwriters Laboratory, Inc., 1981.
-------
Table 3-6
REINFORCED PLASTIC TANK
MINIMAL GRADUATED WALL THICKNESSES*
Minimum Wall Thickness (inches) for Tanks of Diameter:
Distance From
Top of Tank
(feet)
2
( feet)
2 1/2
(feet)
3
(feet)
3 1/2
(feet)
4
( feet)
4 1/2
(feet)
5
( feet)
5 1/2
( feet)
6
( feet)
7
(feet)
8
( feet)
9
(feet)
10
( feet)
11
(feet)
12
( feet)
2
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
4
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
6
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
1/4
1/4
1/4
8
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
5/16
10
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
5/16
5/16
5/16
12
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
5/16
5/16
5/16
3/8
14
3/16
3/16
3/16
3/16
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
5/16
5/16
5/16
5/16
3/8
3/8
16
3/16
3/16
3/16
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
5/16
5/16
3/8
3/8
3/8
7/16
18
3/16
3/16
3/16
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
5/16
5/16
5/16
3/8
3/8
3/8
7/16
1/2
20
3/16
3/16
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
5/16
5/16
5/16
3/8
3/8
3/8
7/16
1/2
1/2
22
3/16
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
5/16
5/16
5/16
5/16
3/8
3/8
7/16
1/2
1/2
9/16
24
3/16
1/4
1/4
1/4
1/4
5/16
5/16
5/16
3/8
3/8
7/16
1/2
1/2
9/16
5/8
~Exclusive of any corrosion allowance or variations in liquid density of tank contents.
Source: Mallinson, 1969.
-------
3.4.2 Foundations
Proper foundation design and construction should accomplish two
goals:
1. Provide uniform and adequate support to the full weight of
the tank and its contents; and
2. Avoid creation of localized sites susceptible to corrosion.
Large tanks resting directly on the ground should be underlain by
a minimum of four inches of oil-treated sand or other pervious, well
graded soil to provide flexible, continuous support across the entire
bottom plate as well as to promote drainage away from the underside of
the bottom plate. The sub-grade should be free of surface pockets of
loam or organics-containing topsoil, and should be of adequate
strength to support the weight of the tank when full. Approximate
tank load can be calculated (neglecting the contribution of the
structural material itself) by multiplying the density of the liquid
(pounds per cubic foot) by the height of the tank (feet). This value
should not exceed the bearing capacity of the local soil. The approx-
imate bearing capacities of common soil types are given in Table 3-7.
The actual bearing capacity of the supporting soils should be deter-
mined by a proper soils investigatton.
A schematic of a good tank foundation for large outside tanks is
provided in Figure 3-4. The foundation sealer and adequate drainage
grading are important to prevent the accumulation of precipitation
around the tank foundation and to minimize moisture under the tank.
For large tanks with high shells, a foundation ringwall may be
required. A ringwall serves to better distribute the tank load and
creates a more uniform soil-loading condition. This is especially
desirable when the bearing capacity of the underlying soil alone is
marginally acceptable. A cross-sectional view of a ringwall founda-
tion is contained in Figure 3-5. Complete specifications for such
foundations are contained in API 650.
Foundations for underground tanks should be designed to support
the tank and its contents plus any superimposed loads. Consideration
should be given to uplift forces if the tank is located in an area
with a high groundwater table or subject to flooding. If the tank is
subject to uplift, holddown straps should be provided to resist the
uplift forces.
3.4.3 Supports
Smaller tanks resting on structural supports are subject to the
same requirements as earth-supported tanks. For adequate support,
horizontal cylindrical tanks should rest on saddles that make contact
on at least 120" of their circumference. To minimize potential point
sources of corrosion, the ends and edges of these saddles should be
angled to allow drainage of precipitation or spillage away from the
tank surface. Contact should ideally consist of a metal reinforcing
wear plate hermetically sealed to the tank and a metal saddle, which
3-19
-------
Table 3-7
APPROXIMATE BEARING CAPACITIES
Soil Type Tons/Square Foot
Soft clay 1
Dry fine sand 2
Dry fine sand with clay 3
Coarse sand 3
Dry hard clay 3.5
Gravel 4
Rock 10 to 40
Source: Perry and Chilton, 1973.
3-20
-------
SOURCE: Staniar, 1959.
Figure 3-4 FOUNDATION SCHEMATIC FOR OUTDOOR TANKS
3-21
-------
Shell
SOURCE: Staniar, 1959.
Figure 3-5 ILLUSTRATIVE RING WALL FOUNDATION
3-22
-------
in turn rests on a concrete pier. Alternatively, although less desir-
ably, the plate may be sealed to the tank and rest directly on a con-
crete saddle. In no instances should the wear plate consist of decom-
posable material such as tar-saturated felt paper, as this provides a
moist surface to encourage corrosion.
Similarly, the supports for mounted vertical tanks should be con-
tinuously sealed along all points of contact and tapered away from ex-
posed surfaces. Figure 3-6 illustrates these points. The undersides
of vertical tanks should receive good air circulation and be acces-
sible for visual inspection and routine maintenance.
3.5 VALVE SELECTION
Selection of a specific valve to be used in conjunction with a
liquid storage tank should be based on that liquid's viscosity and
corrosivity, as well as its temperature and velocity. The expected
service pressure is used to select the appropriate valve class, as
established by ANSI, Standard B34. An additional consideration is
whether the valve will be used for merely isolating the flow (open and
close), or for the more demanding task of regulating the velocity or
rate of flow.
The choice of valve material should be based on the aforemen-
tioned temperature and pressure considerations, as well as the corro-
sive properties of the liquid being handled. The most common metallic
materials include cast iron, bronze, nickel alloys, steel, stainless
steel, aluminum, and titanium. Cast iron and bronze are generally
used for applications up to 260ฐC, with carbon steel and the alloy
steels used at higher temperatures. Nickel steels are used in appli-
cation down to -57ฐC. Chemically resistant valve liners include butyl
rubber, neoprene, polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and glass.
Reference can be made to Appendix C to determine the general compati-
bility of a specific liquid with a material; however, final selection
should be based on the expert advice of a reputable valve manufacturer
and the design engineer.
Minimum thickness requirements for valve bodies has been estab-
lished by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI; Standard
B16.5.) The recommended thickness is set at 1.5 times the thickness
that would be calculated for a simple cylinder with a maximum allowa-
ble stress of 7,000 pounds per square inch (psi), and subjected to an
internal pressure equal to the expected maximum on-line service pres-
sure. The safety factor of 1.5 compensates for unquantifiable effects
of internal turbulence and stress concentrations. Minimum thicknesses
are further discussed in Section 5.5.
The applications and limitations of the major valve types are
listed below.
Gate Valves. Gate valves should be used to isolate flow through
a 1 in"e^ They are not suitable for use as a flow regulator or throt-
tling device. In cases where they must be so used, they should be
replaced with a more suitable alternative such as a globe valve.
3-23
-------
A
/
77777777
POOR
777777777
BETTER
VERTICAL SUPPORTS
77777777
BEST
Felt paper
wear plate
Cbneretft
ii)}))) nil
POOR
Hermetically
seeled wear
plate
777777777777
BETTER
HORIZONTAL SUPPORTS
Wear plate
hermetically
sealed to
tank and
saddle
BEST
SOURCE: Staniar, 1959
Figure 3-6 ASSESSMENT OF VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TANK SUPPORTS
3-24
-------
Globe Valves. Globe valves are well suited for throttling or
flow-regulating applications. They are usually installed with the
stems in a vertical position. This position, however does not allow
complete drainage from the valve, which may be of concern in corrosive
applications. The pressure drop across the globe valve is greater
than other valve types.
Diaphragm Valves. Diaphragm valves are well suited to regulating
service, but are limited to pressures of 50 psi. They are also ideal
under corrosive or reactive conditions, since various synthetic liners
and diaphragms are available. They should not be used in the presence
of a vacuum, as this may cause separation of the diaphragm from the
housing.
Butterfly Valves. Butterfly valves are also well-suited to regu-
lating service and isolating service. They are usually used in low-
pressure service for coarse flow control, but are available for use at
higher pressures.
Safety (Pressure Relief) Valves. Safety, or pressure relief,
valves should be required of all atmospheric, low-pressure, and high-
pressure tanks to insure that the safe pressure for that tank is not
exceeded. Such valves are used to quickly vent the vapors in the head
space of a tank and should not come in contact with the liquid frac-
tion itself. They should be installed in such a way that they release
to a point.of safe discharge.
Check (Back Flow) Valves. Check valves are used to prevent the
reversal of flow through a pipe, or back into a tank, for example
from a discharge line. Swing check valves are used in horizontal
lines; lift check valves are used in vertical lines where the flow is
upward; globe check valves are used in horizontal lines; angle check
valves are used where a vertical line with upward flow turns hori-
zontal; and tilting-disk check valves are used in horizontal lines or
vertical lines where the flow is upward. The tilting-disk variety
generally provides the fastest closing action. Globe and angle check
valves normally incorporate an integral dashpot above the disk to slow
the motion of the disk and reduce wear. Check valves in general are
more likely to leak at low pressure than other valve types, since it
is high pressure that insures their tight closing seal.
Ball Valves. Ball valves are used for regulating service, and
are available for high- or low-pressure applications. However, they
are limited to use with temperatures and fluids which the valve seats
will resist. Ball valve seats are available in a variety of mate-
rials, including Teflon, polyethylene, nylon, Monel, hastalloy, and
stainless steel.
Critical areas of these valves are treated in Section 5.2.5.
3.6 TANK VENTING AND CONTROL OF VAPOR EMISSIONS
Venting or vapor emission considerations apply in one form or
another to all liquid storage tanks. The application of vents and
vapor emission control devices depends on tank size and construction,
3-25
-------
liquid vapor pressure, and filling and emptying rates. In general,
tank vents and vapor emission controls are required to compensate for
the following conditions:
Air intake during tank emptying;
Vapor exhaust which occurs during tank filling;
Expansion and contraction of the vapor space due to tempera-
ture fluctuations (breathing losses);
Normal evaporation of the liquid; and
r Emergency situations, such as fires.
Inadequate venting systems can result in tank failure due to excessive
pressure or vacuum buildup.
3.6.1 Normal Vents
Normal vents apply to atmospheric and low-pressure tanks which
are not constructed to handle excessive pressure or vacuum build-up.
High-pressure tanks require emergency vents only. Capacity require-
ments for 'normal vents are specified in terms of cubic feet of free
air per hour (CFH) for each 100 barrels (4,200 gallons) per hour of
maximum emptying or filling rate. API Standard 2000 (Venting Atmos-
pheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks) specifies venting capacities of
560 CFH for tank emptying, 600 CFH for tank filling, and additional
capacities based on the liquid flash point and the tank size for
thermal inbreathing and outbreathing. These additional specifications
are given in Table 3-8. For example, a 126,000-galIon tank would
require 560 CFH vent capacity for emptying; 600 CFH for filling; 3,000
CFH for thermal inbreathing; and either 1,800 CFH or 3,000 CFH for
thermal outbreathing, depending on the vapor flash point. The vent
capacities are additive; that is, the venting specified for filling
and emptying is not sufficient to handle thermal breathing, even if
the vent capacity for filling and emptying is higher than that for
thermal breathing.
Venting under normal operating conditions can be achieved with
open vents, pressure vacuum (PV) valves, pressure relief valves, and
pilot-operated relief valves, and each is generally designed for
specific services. Open vents without a flame arresting device, such
as a metal screen, should only be used for liquids with flash points
above 100'F or for tanks with capacities less than 2,500 gallons.
Pressure vacuum valves are designed for atmospheric storage tanks
containing low-boiling liquids such as petroleum liquids. According
to the API Guide for Inspection of Refinery Equipment, pressure relief
valves are used chiefly in liquid storage, and generally should not be
used in conjunction with gas or vapor service. Rupture discs and
resilient valve seats are often used in conjunction with pressure
relief valves in the storage of corrosive, viscous, and polymerizable
liquids which can damage the valve. Pilot-operated valves are gen-
erally applied where the relief pressure is near the operating pres-
sure and for low-pressure storage tanks. They should not be used in
3-26
-------
Table 3-8
REQUIREMENTS FOR THERMAL VENTING CAPACITY-
Thermal Venting Capacity
Tank Capacity (cubic feet of free air per hour)
Gallons
Inbreathing
(Vacuum)
Outbreathing
(Pressure)
Flash Point >
100ฐF (37.78T)
Flash Point <
100ฐF (37.78 ฐC)
2,500
60
40
60
4,200
100
60
100
21,000
500
300
500
42,000
1,000
600
1,000
84,000
2,000
1,200
2,000
126,000
3,000
1,800
3,000
168,000
4,000
2,400
4,000
210,000
5,000
3,000
5,000
420,000
10,000
6,000
10,000
630,000
15,000
9,000
15,000
840,000
20,000
12,000
20,000
1,050,000
24,000
15,000
24,000
1,260,000
28,000
17,000
28,000
1,470,000
31,000
19,000
31,000
1,680,000
34,000
21,000
34,000
1,890,000
37,000
23,000
37,000
2,100,000
40,000
24,000
40,000
2,520,000
44,000
27,000
44,000
2,940,000
48,000
29,000
48,000
3,360,000
52,000
31,000
52,000
3,780,000
56,000
34,000
56,000
4,200,000
60,000
36,000
60,000
5,040,000
68,000
41,000
68,000
5,880,000
75,000
45,000
75,000
6,720,000
82,000
50,000
82,000
7,560,000
90,000
54,000
90,000
Source: API, 1982.
3-27
-------
conjunction with viscous liquids or with liquids whose vapors can
polymerize. Vapors emitted during transfer operations may occur as
strong emissions from the transfer lines or transport vehicle, or they
may arise due to vapor expansion within the tank being filled. Trans-
fer lines may be equipped with vapor recovery systems which reroute
vapors back to the transport tank. Expanding vapors within the stor-
age tank may be best controlled if the tank is equipped with a float-
ing roof. Otherwise, the vapors may be routed from the tank to carbon
adsorption units, thermal and catalytic incinerators, or refrigerated
condensors. Control of vapor emissions is further discussed in
Section 3.6.3.
3.6.2 Emergency Vents
Emergency vents are designed to safeguard against the potential
rapid evaporation of the stored liquid. The most common cause of such
emergencies is exposure of a tank to fire. One common safeguard is to
design the tank so that the weld at the roof-to-shell attachment will
fail preferentially to welds which could cause the liquid contents of
the tank to be discharged if they failed. For tanks without weak
roof-to-shell attachments, larger or additional normal vents, and gage
hatches or manhole covers which open at designated pressures, can be
used for emergency venting. The additional venting capacities
required for fire exposure are given as a function of wetted tank
surface area in Table 3-9.
Safety-relief valves are designed primarily for use in flammable
or toxic materials service. They are often connected to a piping
system which reroutes the discharge to an appropriate remote discharge
point or to a control device such as a recovery unit, flare, or carbon
adsorption bed.
3.6.3 Vapor Emissions Control Schemes
Four basic tank design schemes can be used to control volatile
chemical emissions which can contribute to health and environmental
problems. These tank categories are fixed roof, floating roof, varia-
ble vapor space, and pressure tanks. The selection of the appropriate
scheme is basically a function of vapor pressure and tank size.
Federal and state agencies have developed regulations based on vapor
pressure which designate control categories for tanks greater than
40,000 gallons. In general, vapor emission control is not required on
tanks of less than 40,000 gallons capacity.
Fixed roof tanks offer the minimum acceptable control of vapor
emissions from volatile chemicals. Pressure vacuum (PV) vents are
standard accessories on fixed roof tanks and are designed to allow
pressure variance over a range of only -0.03 psig to +0.03 psig.
Vapor loss occurs whenever these limits are surpassed. Fixed roof
tanks are most applicable for storing slightly to moderately volatile
chemicals in quantities less than 40,000 gallons.
Fixed roof tanks can provide complete control of vapor emissions
if equipped with a vapor recovery system. Vapor recovery systems
function by collecting the vapors, usually in a manifold attached to
3-28
-------
Table 3-9
TOTAL RATE OF EMERGENCY VENTING REQUIRED FOR
FIRE EXPOSURE VERSUS WETTED SURFACE AREA
(NONREFRIGERATED ABOVEGROUfO TANKS)
Venting Requirement Venting Requirement
Wetted Area (cubic feet of free Wetted Area (cubic feet of free
(square feet) air per hour) (square feet) air per hour)
20
21,100
350
288,000
30
31,600
400
312,000
40
42,100
500
354,000
50
52,700
600
392,000
60
63,200
700
428,000
70
73,700
800
462,000
80
84,200
900
493,000
90
94,800
1,000
524,000
100
105,000
1,200
557,000
120
126,000
1,400
587,000
140
147,000
1,600
614,000
160
168,000
1,800
639,000
180
190,000
2,000
662,000
200
211,000
2,400
704,000
250
239,000
2,800
742,000
300
265,000
>2,800
742,000
Source: API, 1982.
3-29
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more than one tank, and recovering them through vapor/liquid absorp-
tion, compression, refrigeration or vapor/solid adsorption. Recovered
vapors can also be incinerated, or otherwise destroyed. A schematic
diagram of a typical vapor recovery unit is given in Figure 3-7.
Table 3-10 lists several examples of chemicals whose vapors are com-
monly recovered.
Floating roof tanks provide greater vapor emissions control than
fixed roof tanks with no vapor recovery. The greatest potential vapor
- loss from floating roof tanks is from improper fitting of the seal and
the shoe to the shell. Additional vapor loss can occur as the roof
descends and residual liquid on the tank wall evaporates. In cases
where a floating roof is installed inside a fixed roof tank, venting
of the space between the floating and fixed roofs is required to pre-
vent the formation of explosive mixtures. Floating roof tanks or the
equivalent offer the minimum acceptable control of vapor emissions for
liquids having vapor pressures between 1.5 pounds per square inch
absolute (psia) and 11.0 psia and stored in quantities greater than
40,000 gallons.
Variable vapor space tanks provide an expanding and contracting
vapor space, thus allowing pressure changes in the tank without the
need for narrow-range PV vents. They are commonly used in conjunction
with more than one tank. The two most common variable vapor space
systems are those employing flexible diaphragms and those with lifter
roofs. Flexible diaphragms are installed in gasholder units which are
either mounted directly on a tank (see Figure 3-8) or located separ-
ately and attached to several tanks. A typical lifter roof tank is
shown in Figure 3-9. Both types of variable vapor space tanks would
be equivalent to a floating roof tank. Variable vapor space tanks are
most often used when tank throughput is low because, while breathing
losses are virtually eliminated, filling and emptying losses are simi-
lar to those in a fixed roof tank.
Pressure tanks provide the greatest degree of control of vapor
emissions. For fluids with vapor pressures greater than 11.0 psia and
in tanks of 40,000 gallons capacity or higher, pressure tanks or the
equivalent are the only acceptable means of reducing vapor losses.
Vapor recovery units are generally considered equivalent to pressure
tanks.
Regardless of the type of emission control scheme selected, the
facility operator must insure compliance with applicable regulations
governing the release of toxic vapors. Where the laws specify the
use of a particular technology, alternate technologies may be employed
provided that the operation can demonstrate the emissions will be
equal to or less than emissions which meet the local requirements.
Typical controls which may be demonstrated as equivalent to specified
tank and roof types are: carbon adsorbers, thermal and catalytic
incinerators, and refrigerated condensors. Both carbon adsorbers and
condensors allow recovery of volatile organic compounds. Thermal and
catalytic incinerators destroy them. If incinerators are used, their
emissions must comply with the regulations also.
3-30
-------
Pressurization.
Air Intake
Discharge from Unit
Main
Condensing"
Coil
Stripping Coil
-Liquid Meter
Pump
iฃ
nm
\
1
i
t
I
*
i
i
t
t
I
T
i
t
i
Air
Vapor U.
Inlet w
Defrost
Fluid*
Liquid
Product
Only when solvent is
immiscible with water.
1 Condensed Product
and Water
"'~ii
CONDENSER AIR
!L y ik
Low T emperature
Refrigeration
System
May not be required on some
models.
Tt
SOURCE: Edwards Engineering Corp.
Figure 3-7 VAPOR RECOVERY UNIT (USING REFRIGERATION)
3-31
-------
Table 3-10
EXAMPLES OF RECOVERABLE CHEMICALS
Ketones
Acetone
Methyl ethyl ketone (MEK)
Methyl isobutyl Ketone
Cyclohexanone
Aromatics
Benzene
Toluene
Xylene
Naphthalene
Alcohols
Methanol
Ethanal
Isopropanol
Monomers
Vinyl acetate
Acrylic acid
Acrylonitrite
Ethers
Ethyl ether
Tetr ahydro furon
Dioxane
Hydrocarbons
Hexane
Cyclohexane
Heptane
Mineral spirits
Chlorinated hydrocarbons
Methylene chloride-
Methyl chloroform
Pe rchloroethylene
Esters
Vinyl acetate
Ethyl acetate
Isopropyl acetate
Source: Edwards Engineering Corp., 1982.
3-32
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Pressure
Vacuum Vents
URCE: United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1977.
Figure 3-8 FLEXIBLE DIAPHRAGM TANK (INTEGRAL UNIT)
3-33
-------
SOURCE: United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1977.
Figure 3-9 LIFTER ROOF STORAGE TANK (WET SEAL)
3-34
-------
3.7 SITING CONSIDERATIONS
Constraints on the siting of storage tanks or tank farm facili-
ties arise primarily from the flammability or combustibility of the
stored liquids. Toxicity of vapors released in the event of a spill
is also of concern in tank siting, but numerous factors specific to
the individual chemical storage situation preclude generalized siting
guidelines based on toxicity alone. To predict the optimum site,
relevant physical, chemical, statistical, and meteorological data
should be incorporated into mathematical models specific to the pro-
posed location.
Analysis of the data generated constitutes a hazard and risk
analysis of the proposed facility.
Several steps are necessary to perform a hazard and risk
assessment during the planning stage of a hazardous materials storage
facility. In broad terms, these steps are:
Identification of the types and causes of potentially haz-
ardous accidents;
Evaluation of the probability of such accidents occurring at
the site; and
Prediction of the consequences of each accident "scenario" on
people and property, particularly off-site.
Each of these steps involves the use of statistical or mathematical
models to produce quantitative answers.
The first step, identification, is often aided by a method known
as fault tree analysis. This method begins with a hypothetical haz-
ardous condition or accidental release, and proceeds systematically to
identify those material, equipment, or human faults which singly or in
combination could cause the accident. The logical relationships
between the possible causes can then be summarized in a fault tree
diagram, permitting identification of reasonable combinations of
failures which may lead to a significant hazard.
Step two, evaluation of probabilities, require the collection of
failure rate data for each basic fault identified by the fault tree
analysis. Such data include hardware component failure rates, mate-
rial strength information, and historical accident records. By com-
bining these data with the logical events depicted in the fault tree,
the probability of the accident can be calculated. Unfortunately, it
is often difficult to obtain accurate historical accident statistics,
especially involving the particular factors specific to the facility
under evaluation. Therefore, probabilities may have to be estimated
on the basis of facilities or events similar to the one under study.
Further discussion of this may be found in Napadensky and Bodle, 1973.
The third step is to predict the possible consequences of
credible accident scenarios. The magnitude of the consequences is
3-35
-------
determined by factoring into the analysis such variables as: the
properties of the hazardous material; the quantity released; meteoro-
logical and topographic conditions; extent of downwind dispersion;
number and effect of potential ignition sources; etc. Prediction of
consequences is necessary for two reasons:
To establish safe separation distances or "buffer zones"
around the facility; and
To estimate the extent of population and property at risk for
comparison with other known and accepted risks.
The possible consequence of greatest importance in siting hazardous
materials storage facilities is the release of toxic and flammable gas
or vapor clouds.
The prediction of vapor cloud dispersion can be performed on a
hand calculator using Gaussian Point Source Model and Pasquil1-Gifford
disperion coefficients. These are described fully in Turner's Work-
book of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates, 1970, and can be applied to
models of area sources. Dispersion zones calculated in this manner
for many toxic and flammable chemicals are presented in the United
States Department of Transportation Emergency Action Guide for
Selected Hazardous Materials, and are shown in Table 3-11.
Thermal radiation hazards resulting from an ignited vapor cloud
can be modeled using the United States Coast Guard Vulnerability
Model. A thermal dose probit analysis can be incorporated into the
Coast Guard Vulnerability Model to calculate expected numbers of human
burn injuries and fatalities. Thermal radiation hazards from pooled
fires, such as in the case of liquids spilled in a diked area, can be
modeled using the American Gas Association (AGA) computer model devel-
oped as part of AGA Project IS-3-1 on LNG Safety Research.
If cloud detonation is of concern, two major effects, air blast
overpressure and flying fragments, must be analyzed. Air blast
effects are modeled using a "TNT equivalent" approach. This is illus-
trated in Burgess and Zabetakis' 1973 analysis of a major propane
pipeline explosion. Modeling of flying fragments is usually not
attempted.
Finally, in order to estimate risk to the population from a haz-
ardous vapor cloud, it is necessary to analyze the surrounding popula-
tion density in each direction, the presence of ignition sources
related to population; and the probability of ignition or toxic
effects at each point in the cloud's downwind path.
The estimated risk of property damage can be determined by exam-
ining aerial photos or site area maps to locate structures within the
calculated hazard radius. This radius can be multiplied by the pro-
bability of occurrence of a particular accident scenario and by the
estimated value of the property in question. This will result in an
estimate of potential property damage liability.
3-36
-------
Table 3-11
EVACUATION TABLE FOR SELECTED CHEMICALS
Chemical
Oistance to Evacuate
From Immediate
Danger Area
*For Maximum Safety,
Downwind Evacuation
Area Should be:
Acrolein
760 yards
5 miles x 3 miles
Ammonia
90 yards
2,112 feet x 1,584 feet
Chlorine
340 yards
2 miles x 1 1/2 miles
Hydrogen chloride
260 yards
1 1/2 miles x 1 mile
Hydrogen cyanide
130 yards
3,696 feet x 2,112 feet
Hydrogen sulfide
160 yards
1 mile x 1/2 mile
Methyl bromide
50 yards
1,056 feet x 528 feet
Phosgene
820 yards
5 miles x 3 miles
Sulfur trioxide
387 yards
2 miles x 1 mile
"Assuming spill size of 800 square feet, and prevailing wind speed of
6 to 12 mph.
Sources United States Department of Transportation, 1978.
3-37
-------
As suggested by the above procedures, modeling and hazard analy-
sis are highly sophisticated procedures which are extremely sensitive
to the quality of data utilized, and require knowledgeable interpreta-
tion. For these reasons, such analysis should be referred to indi-
viduals or organizations familiar with the modeling of situations
similar to those to be studied. If modeling or risk analysis is not
feasible, siting guidelines based on flammability (such as those of
the National Fire Protection Association [NFPA] or the United States
Department of Housing and Urban Development [HUD]) are suggested as
mini mums.
NFPA has established siting guidelines for tank storage of sev-
eral classes of flammable and combustible liquids (NFPA 30): stable
liquids at operating pressures of 2.5 psig or less, stable liquids at
operating pressures greater than 2.5 psig, boil-over liquids, unstable
liquids, and Class III B liquids. The specific guidelines are a func-
tion of tank capacity (see Tables 3-12 through 3-14).
Additional guidance comes from HUD, "Safety Considerations in
Siting Housing Projects," 1975, in the form of recommended separation
distances between housing developments and storage tanks of liquid
industrial fuels and chemicals. These distances consider the threat
posed by liquid releases of flammable liquids in terms of the
potential for:
Thermal radiation from a fire causing failure of an adjacent
tank and ignition of its contents, and
Ignition and burning of distant combustible structures or
objects.
The distances are a function of the potential spill diameter (D),
which in the case of a circular dike is equal to the dike diameter.
In the case of a rectangular tank:
4 x Area of Dike (ft^)
Hydraulic ~ Perimeter of Dike
Figure 3-10 contains the HUD safe separation distances for people and
cellulosic combustible materials, such as wood.
NFPA also specifies that the minimum in-farm spacing is three
feet or 1/6 the sum of the diameters of the two tanks, whichever is
greater. If one tank is less than one-half the diameter of the other,
then the minimum spacing will be one-half the diameter of the smaller
tank.
3.8 SPILL CONTAINMENT AND CONTROL SYSTEMS
Spill containment and control systems refer to actual or planned
methodologies for preventing product spilled from storage tanks
(primary containment) from adversely impacting human health and the
3-38
-------
Table 3-12
LOCATION OF OUTSIDE, ABOVEGROUND LIQUID CHEMICAL STORAGE TANKS
Liquid Type
Type of Tank
Protection
Minimum Distance in Feet
from Property Line Which
is or can be Built Upon
Including the Opposite Side
of a Public Way and Shall be
no Less than 5 Feet
Minimum Distance in
Feet from Nearest
Side of Any Public
Way or from Nearest
Important Building
on the Same Prop-
erty and Shall be
not Less than 5
Feet
Stable Liquids
(operating pres-
sure 2.5 psig or
Floating Roof
Protection for
exposures
1/2 times diameter of tank
1/6 times diameter
of tank
leBs)
None
Diameter of tank but need not
exceed 175 feet
1/6 times diameter
of tank
Vertical with
Weak Roof to
Shell Seam
Approved foam
or inerting
system on tanks
not exceeding
150 feet in
diameter
1/2 times diameter of tank
1/6 times diameter
of tank
Protection for
exposures
Diameter of tank
1/3 times diameter
of tank
None
2 times diameter of tank but
need not exceed 350 feet
Horizontal and
Vertical with
Emergency Relief
Venting to Limit
Pressures to
2.5 psig
Approved inerting
system on the tank or
approved foam system
on vertical tanks
1/2 times Table 3-12
1/2 times
Table 3-12
Protection for exposures
Table 3-12
Table 3-12
None
2 times Table 3-12
Table 3-12
-------
Table 3-12 (Cont.)
Liquid Type
Type of Tank
Protection
Minimum Distance in Feet
from Property Line Which
is or can be Built Upon
Including the Opposite Side
of a Public Way and Shall be
no Less than 5 Feet
Minimum Distance in
Feet from Nearest
Side of Any Public
Way or from Nearest
Important Building
on the Same Prop-
erty and Shall be
not Less than 5
Feet
Stable Liquids
(operating pressure
greater than
2.5 psig)
Any Type
Protection for exposures 1 1/2 times Table 3-12 but shall not
be less than 25 feet
None
1 1/2 times Table 3-12, but shall not
be less than 50 feet
1 1/2 times Table
3-12 but shall not
be less than 25
feet
Boil-Over Liquida
(those liquids with
potential to be
expelled from a
tank during a fire)
Floating Roof
Protection for exposures 1/2 times diameter of tank
None
Diameter of tank
1/6 times diameter
of tank
1/6 times diameter
of tank
Fixed Roof
Approved foam or
inerting system
Diameter of tank
1/3 times diameter
of tank
Protection for exposures 2 times diameter of tank 2/3 times diameter
of tank
None 4 times diameter of tank but need not 2/3 times diameter
exceed 350 feet * of tank
-------
Table 3-12 (Cont.)
Liquid Type
Type of Tank
Protection
Minimum Distance in Feet
from Property Line Which
is or can be Built Upon
Including the Opposite Side
of a Public Way and Shall be
no Less than 5 Feet
Minimum Distance in
Feet from Nearest
Side of Any Public
Way or from Nearest
Important Building
on the Same Prop-
erty and Shall be
not Less than 5
Feet
Unstable Liquids
(those which will
vigorously poly-
merize, decompose,
condense, or react
under conditions of
shock, pressure, or
temperature)
Horizontal and
Vertical Tanks with
Emergency Relief
Venting to Permit
Pressure Not in
Excess of 2.5 psig
Tank protected with any
one of the following:
approved water spray,
approved inerting,
approved insultation
and refrigeration,
approved barricade
Table 3-12 but not less than
25 feet
Protection for exposures 2 1/2 times Table 3-12 but not less
than 50 feet
Not less than 25
Not less than 50
feet
None
5 times Table 3-12 but not less than
100 feet
Not less than 100
feet
Horizontal and
Vertical Tanks with
Emergency Relief
Venting to Permit
Pressure Over 2.5
psig
Tank protected with any 2 times Table 3-12 but not less than
one of the following: 50 feet
approved water spray,
approved inerting,
approved insulation and
refrigeration, approved
barricade
Not less than 50
feet
Protection for exposures 4 times Table 3-12 but not less than
100 feet
Not less than 100
feet
None
8 times Table 3-12 but not less than
150 feet
Not less than 150
feet
Source: NFPA 30.
-------
Table 3-13
REFERENCE TABLE FOR
USE WITH TABLE 3-12
Capacity Tank
(Gallons)
Minimum Distance in
Feet from Property Line
Which Is or Can Be Built
Upon, Including the
Opposite Side of a Public
Way
Minimum Distance in
Feet from Nearest Side of
Any Public Way or from
Nearest Important
Building on the Same
Property
275 or less 5 5
276 to 750 10 5
751 to 12,000 15 5
12,001 to 30,000 20 5
30,001 to 50,000 30 10
50,001 to 100,000 50 15
100,001 to 500,000 80 25
500,001 to 1,000,000 100 35
1,000,001 to 2,000,000 135 45
2,000,001 to 3,000,000 165 55
3,000,001 or more 175 60
Source: NFPA 30.
3-42
-------
Table 3-14
LOCATION OF AB0VEGR0UND TANKS
CLASS III B LIQUIDS
STORING
Capacity
(Gallons)
Minimum Distance in
Feet from Property Line
Which Is or Can Be Built
Upon, Including the
Opposite Side of a Public
Way
Minimum Distance in
Feet from Nearest Side of
Any Public Way or from
Nearest Important
Building on the Same
Property
12,000 or less
5
5
12,001 to 30,000
10
5
30,001 to 50,000
10
10
50,001 to 100,000
15
10
100,001 or more
15
15
Sources NFPA 30.
3-43
-------
Potential Diameter of Spill (Ft)
SOURCE: United States Department of Housing and Urban Development, 197S.
Figure 3-10 SAFE SEPARATION DISTANCES FROM SPILLS OF COMMON
LIQUID INDUSTRIAL FUELS-FIRE THREAT
3-44
-------
environment. Physical systems to contain the spread of spilled
product are considered preferable to "contingency" plans, in that they
are preventive rather than reactive in nature. Every effort should be
made to ensure that hazardous substances are not allowed to run off
the facility property, whether by surface drainage, or in sewer sys-
tems or groundwater.
Attention to certain design considerations can assist in achiev-
ing more effective drainage and spill controls:
Drainage lines should be laid out so that areas of relatively
frequent, yet light product spillage, e.g. loading racks or
pump and equipment areas, may drain by gravity to an oil-water
separator;
0 A positive contingency control plan should be provided for
areas of rare, yet potentially heavy, product spillage, e.g.,
the tank farm area, with provision for drainage to treatment
facilities at a later time;
Controlled drainage of storm runoff from driveway and other
areas subject to oil contamination should be provided via a
sewer or other conveyance network to the separator;
Retention or diversion of potential spills and leaks from
piping and equipment systems should be provided for in such a
manner that they can be cleaned up within a localized area;
and
Pure product flows (i.e., equipment drain down, blow-offs,
flushing) should be segregated from other drainage and runoff,
and directed to collection tanks to alleviate excessive
separator loading.
The flowchart in Figure 3-11 indicates the necessary elements in a
spill containment and control system.
3.8.1 Types of Containment
An analysis of bulk plants reveals the following causes of spills
in order of significance:
Overfilling of tanks;
Leaking tanks, pipes, pumps, and other equipment; and
Spills during tank truck or tank car loading and unloading
and marine transfers.
Development of appropriate spill containment measures should include
review of potentially susceptible areas. Contaminated waters from
outside areas should be prevented from entering facility property,
where feasible. This may be accomplished by providing low berms,
curbs on paved areas, interceptor ditches on open land, or diversion
of natural drainage. All ditches, sewers, and natural slopes where
3-45
-------
SOURCE: PACE, 1980.
Figure 3-11 SPILL CONTAINMENT AND CONTROL FLOW
3-46
-------
product may escape with runoff leaving the property should be checked.
This should include a review of a topographic survey made of the site
and surrounding area as well as a physical inspection of the location.
Such means as necessary to insure against any product runoff from a
major break or spill should be provided.
Upon review of the potential spill sources, the appropriate con-
tainment, collection, conveyance, and retention measures may be
selected. The containment system is an arrangement of impervious
surfaces (concrete, asphalt, membrane, etc.) surrounded by curbs, gut-
ters, dikes, etc. The purpose is to prevent any flow from leaving the
immediate area. The collection system is a series of components that
collect pure product and potential chemical-bearing flow. These may
be collection troughs, drainage pans, funnels, catch basins, etc.
The conveyance network is a system of pipes, channels, sewers,
culverts, etc., necessary to transport flow from the collection points
to slop tanks, retention areas, treatment facilities, or outfall,
dependent upon flow characteristics. The conveyance network will col-
lect similar types of flow from different areas and route the flows to
a common destination. Care must be taken that the conveyance network
is constructed of suitably resistant materials.
If a large flow volume occurs at a facility, retention facilities
may be needed. A retention facility may be a pond, lagoon, dike area,
or storm pump. The purpose of the retention facility is to tempor-
arily store potential chemical-bearing flow to allow a controlled rate
of input into the treatment facilities.
Spills can be more effectively controlled at loading and unload-
ing areas by providing impervious surfaces to the loading and unload-
ing areas. An impervious surface would typically be provided with a
peripheral border or other means to trap all spills or rain within its
confines and route the liquid to treatment areas. Sufficient capacity
should be provided to contain or hold back the contingency spill
volume.
3.8.2 Material Selection
Material employed in the construction of dikes or retaining walls
should be compatible with the material being stored. For example, the
use of concrete blocks, which are frequently used to construct retain-
ing walls, should be avoided in the presence of hydrochloric, hydro-
fluoric, muriatic, nitric, sulfuric, and sulfurous acid, as well as
nitrates and sulfates of ammonia.
Materials useful for spill containment and collection surfaces
include natural permeable and impermeable soils, synthetic membrane
liners, soil additives, cement, and asphalt. Choice of the appro-
priate surface material is dependent upon the following considera-
tions.
The degree of impermeability required;
The extent of longevity or weather resistance required;
The compatibility with the material being stored.
3-47
-------
Some of the commonly used containment surface materials and their
applications are as follows:
Natural permeable soils, generally used only for cover protec-
tion of impermeable surfaces and as clay or membrane liners.
e Natural clays, conmonly used as a relatively inexpensive
impermeable surface where minor leaching of the stored sub-
stance is not critical.
Treated bentonite clays provide low degrees of permeability at
moderate cost.
Synthetic membrane liners provide high degrees of impermeabil-
ity and chemical resistance, but require extensive surface
preparation.
Asphalt is widely used for containment of aqueous solutions,
but may be inadequate for some hydrocarbons.
Concrete is a durable, but somewhat permeable, surface mate-
rial.
3.8.3 Design Capacity
The capacity of a diked area or retention pond should be suffi-
cient to contain the entire volume of the largest tank feeding that
area or pond, plus a minimum allowance of 10% to accommodate accumu-
lated precipitation or other water. Depending on tank volume, addi-
tional freeboard may be required to contain the surge and waves
resulting from a sudden, rapid tank failure. The capacity of a diked
area is calculated by multiplying the surface area within the dike
(less the "floorspace" area physically occupied by tanks) by the
height of the dike or wall. This is illustrated in Figure 3-12.
Example of Calculation of Required Capacity
a For Figure 3-12, determine height of walled area (h), so that
the capacity (C) is adequate. The desired capacity is the
volume of the largest tank, 20,000 gallons, plus 10%.
C = 20,000 + (.1) (20,000)
= 22,000 gal
= (22,000 gal) (.1337 ft3/gal)
= 2,942 ft3
The available surface area (A) is the walled area less the
cross sectional area (nr2) of the two vertical tanks (the
two horizontal tanks are elevated on saddle supports which do
not appreciably reduce the available surface area.)
A = (75 x 30) - 2 (n) (10/2)2
= 2,093 ft3
3-48
-------
Tank
Supports
I x
L
I I I 1
~r
30'
75'
CONTAINMENT AREA PLAN VIEW
Tank
Supports
CONTAINMENT AREA ELEVATION
SOURCE: Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1983.
Figure 3-12 ILLUSTRATIVE METHOD FOR DETERMING CONTAIMENT
AREA CAPACITY (NOT TO SCALE)
3-49
-------
The available surface area (A) is the walled area less the
cross sectional area (nr2) of the two vertical tanks (the
two horizontal tanks are elevated on saddle supports which do
not appreciably reduce the available surface area.)
A = (75 x 30] - 2 (n) (10/2)2
= 2,093 ft3
The required height (h) equals the required capacity (C)
divided by the available area (A).
h = C/A = 2942 ft3/2093 ft3
= 1.4 ft
= 17 in
Although technically the cross sectional area of a vertical tank that
fails does not reduce the available surface area, the practice of
including all such tanks in the calculation provides an additional
margin of safety in the computed capacity.
In the case of retention ponds, the required capacity should
equal the volume of the largest tank that could potentially drain into
it, plus a 10% freeboard allowance. Typical earthen dike construction
is illustrated in Figures 3-13 and 3-14.
3.8.4 Drainage Collection
Diked areas and retention ponds should be equipped with release
valves to permit the drainage of accumulated precipitation or runoff
from these areas. These valves should be of the manual, open and
close variety, not flapper models or automated systems. The valves
should be chained and locked in the closed position when not in use.
In this way, unwarranted discharges of contained product can be
avoided. Legitimate releases of accumulated rainwater should be mon-
itored to insure that this effluent is not contaminated with product,
and should be included in a regular maintenance schedule. Fill or
drain pipes should not protrude through a man-made wall or earthen
berm. This would provide a mechanism by which a liquid could breach
the structure, and so should be avoided.
Drainage from facilities which store "lighter than water" prod-
ucts should be gravity-fed to a separator. The separator should be
pumped out on a regular basis to prevent overflow. Likewise, drainage
from chemical storage areas that is suspected of being contaminated
should be treated by appropriate technology.
3.9 IGNITION SAFEGUARD
Hazardous materials storage tanks are subject to many potential
sources of ignition. These include open flames, lightning, smoking,
cutting and welding, hot surfaces, friction, sparks, spontaneous igni-
tion, chemical reaction, and radiant heat. Safeguards are imperative
in situations where flammable vapor-air mixtures could be ignited.
3-50
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Allow 12" Freeboard
2'-0" Min.
nxnmnmnssns
Impervious Floor-^
2-0"
Mln.
^-Impervious core must intarsaet
impervious horizontal layer to
prevent leakage under dike.
CLAY CORE
2'-0"
Allow 12" Freeboard
Design
Earth Cover
Pervious Soil
Impervious clay blanket to be
-continnous wth of keyed into im-
pervious floor.
CLAY BLANKET
Alow 12" Freeboard
Design
Manufactured Membrane
MANUFACTURED MEMBRANE
Typical anchor trench min. 12" x
12" with boulder or log weight
backfilled in trench
SOURCE: PACE, 1980.
Figure 3-13 TYPICAL EARTHEN DIKES
3-51
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SOURCE: PACE, 1980.
Figure 3-14 TANK LOT GRADING FOR SPILL CONTROL
3-52
-------
The extent of fire protection shall be determined by an evalua-
tion based upon sound fire protection engineering principles, analysis
of local conditions, hazards within the facility, and exposure to or
from other property. The evaluation should determine, as a minimum:
The type, quantity, and location of equipment necessary for
the detection and control of fires, leaks, and spills;
The methods necessary for protection of equipment and struc-
tures from the effects of fire exposure;
Fire protection water systems;
Fire extinguishing and control equipment;
The equipment and processes to be incorporated within an Emer-
gency Shutdown System (ESS), including an analysis of subsys-
tems, if any, and the need for depressuring specific vessels
or equipment during a fire;
The type and location of sensors necessary to initiate auto-
matic operation of the ESS or its subsystems;
The availability and duties of individual plant personnel and
the availability of external response personnel during an
emergency; and
The protective equipment and special training needed by the
individual plant personnel for their respective emergency
duties.
Table 3-15 provides information on various techniques which can
be used to prevent fires associated with the storage of selected haz-
ardous materials.
3.9.1 Ignition Control
Under normal conditions, static, electrical, or mechanical sparks
are the most likely sources of ignition of stored flammable and com-
bustible materials. Electrical sparks can be prevented by using
intrinsically safe electrical equipment in the vicinity of storage
tanks. Guidelines for safe electrified equipment are detailed in NFPA
70: National Electrical Code. Prevention of mechanical sparks can be
achieved by avoiding intermittent metal-to-metal contact and other
spark-causing situations. Static sparks can result as liquid moves
around in a tank and accumulates static charge. To minimize the pos-
sibility of static ignition, the following safeguards should be imple-
mented:
"Splash-filling" of tanks or other strenuous agitation of con-
tents should be avoided. The discharge from a fill hose into
a tank should be close to the bottom of the tank.
o The velocity of the incoming stream should be limited to
1 m/sec. to minimize the agitation of tank contents and sub-
sequent build-up of charge.
3-53
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Table 3-15
FIRE PROTECTION TECHNIQUES FOR STORAGE OF
SELECTED HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
Chemical
Fire Prevention
Cyanides
Avoid physical damage; insulate from acids
Chromic acid
Separate from oxidizable materials; avoid storage
on wooden surfaces; remove spills
Hydrofluoric acid
Corrodes many materials except lead, wax, poly-
ethylene, and platinum; store in vented area
Hydrochloric acid
Separate from oxidizable materials; store in cool,
vented area; avoid contact with common metals
Nitric acid
Separate from metallic powders, carbides, hydrogen
sulfide, turpentine, organic acids, and oxidizable
materials; avoid direct sunlight
Sulfuric acid
Avoid nitrates, powdered metals, chlorates, and
other oxidizable materials
Acetic acid
Avoid oxidizable and combustible materials; keep
above freezing point
Ferric chloride
Protect against physical damage; store in cool,
vented area
Ammonium persulfate
Keep away from strong oxidizers like chlorates,
nitrates, and nitrites
Caustics
Store in dry place; avoid moisture; separate from
ignitable materials
Ammonia
Store in cool, vented area; avoid combustible
materials; avoid chlorine, bromine, iodine, acids
Alkaline wastes
Store in cool, vented area; avoid flammable mate-
rials
Mercury
Store in cool, vented area away from combustibles
Tetraethyl lead and lead
oxide mixed
Store in cool, vented area; avoid strong oxidiz-
ing agents; store in sprinklered area
Lead compounds and oxides
Store in cool, dry place; avoid storage on wood
floors; avoid combustibles
Zinc compounds
Store in cool, dry, vented area; avoid strong
acids and alkalies
Sodiun compounds
Store away from combustibles; avoid high tempera-
tures
Aluminum, phosphorus
compounds, and sulphur
compounds
Keep dry; insulate from acids, caustics, and
chlorinated hydrocarbons; avoid combustible mate-
rials
Source; Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1982.
3-54
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Ungrounded objects should be eliminated.
Spark promoters within a tank, such as protruding metal sur-
faces or floating objects, should be eliminated.
On RP tanks, all metallic objects should be bonded together
and grounded.
Tank fill nozzles should be electrically grounded to the tank
during tank loading.
Ignition due to a direct lightning strike is not preventable.
The possibility of ignition from lightning can be minimized, however,
by providing for the dissipation of charge, through adequate ground-
ing. Tanks with fixed metallic roofs and horizontal tanks are gen-
erally adequately protected, since all metallic components are in con-
tact with each other. In other situations the following should be
considered:
Non-conducting roofs should be provided with a metal covering
that is in contact with the conductive shell, lightning rods,
conducting masts, or overhead ground wires.
Metallic shunts (straps) should be provided between metallic
floating roofs and the metallic shell to overcome the insulat-
ing effect of the rubber seal between the two.
The propagation of open flames into or out of a tank can be pre-
vented with the use of conservation valves or flame arrestors. On a
facility-wide basis, flame propagation can be reduced by maintaining
adequate supplies of firefighting materials. Water spray, foams,
inert gases, and dry chemicals are all used for firefighting. Appro-
priate firefighting materials for common hazardous chemicals are
specified in the NFPA Fire Protection Guide on Hazardous Materials.
The possibility of ignition due to radiant heat can be minimized
by painting storage tanks that are to contain flammable and combusti-
ble materials with reflective paints. Aluminum-based paints are com-
monly used for this application. Reflective paints are also used to
some extent to control vapor emissions.
The ignition hazards of cutting and welding operations are most
easily eliminated by only performing such hot work after vapor-space
testing has clearly shown that flammable vapor/air mixtures do not
exist in or near the work area. Additionally, cigarette smoking
should be permitted only in designated and properly posted areas.
Vehicles, small engines, and other mobile equipment, which are not
rated as "intrinsically safe" or "explosion-proof" should be prohibi-
ted near flammable material storage or impounding areas, except when
specifically authorized and supervised.
Additional information on ignition safeguards and fire prevention
related to chemical storage can be found in the following codes:
3-55
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NFPA 77, Recommended Practice on Static Electricity;
NFPA 78, Lightning Protection Code;
API-RP2003, Protection Against Ignitions Arising out of
Static, Lightning, and Stray Currents;
NFPA 70, National Electrical Code;
NFPA Fire Protection Guide on Hazardous Materials; and
NFPA 30 Flammable Liquids Code.
3.9.2 Fire and Leak Control
Areas such as enclosed buildings which have a potential for flam-
mable gas concentrations, should be appropriately monitored.
Continuously monitored temperature sensors or flammable gas
detection systems should be provided to sound an alarm at the plant
site and at a continuously attended location, if the plant site itself
is not continuously attended. To provide an adequate margin of safety
in flammable gas detection systems, it is recommended that the alarm
be set to sound at not more than 25 percent of the lower flammable
limit of the gas or vapor being monitored.
Fire detectors should be installed to sound an alarm at the plant
site, and at a continuously attended location if the plant site itself
is not continuously attended. In addition, fire detectors may acti-
vate appropriate portions of the ESS.
The appropriate detection systems should be designed, installed,
and maintained in accordance with the following applicable NFPA stan-
dards:
0
0
No. 72A, Installation, Maintenance, and Use of Local Protec-
tive Signaling Systems;
No. 72B, Installation, Maintenance, and Use of Auxiliary Pro-
tective Signaling Systems;
No. 72C, Installation, Maintenance, and Use of Remote Station
Protective Signaling Systems;
No. 72D, Installation, Maintenance, and Use of Proprietary
Protective Signaling Systems;
No. 72E, Automatic Fire Detectors; and
No. 1221, Installation, Maintenance, and Use of Public Fire
Service Communications.
3-56
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3.9.3 Fire Extinguishing and Control
Portable fire extinguishers suitable for the material stored
should be available at strategic locations within a hazardous mate-
rials storage facility and on tank vehicles. These extinguishers
should be provided and maintained in accordance with NFPA Standard No.
10 (Portable Fire Extinguishers). Fixed fire extinguishers and other
fire control systems also may be appropriate. If provided, such sys-
tems shall be designed, installed, and maintained in accordance with
the following applicable NFPA standards:
No. 11, Foam Extinguishing Systems;
No. 11A, High Expansion Foam Systems;
No. 11B, Synthetic Foam and Combined Agent Systems;
No. 12, Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing Systems;
No. 12A, Halogenated Fire Extinguishing Agent SystemsHalon
1301;
No. 12B, Halogenated Extinguishing Agent SystemsHalon 1211;
No. 16, Installation of Foam-Water Sprinkler Systems and Foam-
Water Spray Systems; and
No. 17, Dry Chemical Extinguishing Systems.
Selected methods for extinguishing specific chemical fires are
described in Table 3-16. Further guidance may be obtained from NFPA.
Standard Number 10, and NFPA Publication 325M, Fire Hazard Properties
of Flammable Liquids, Gases, and Volatile Solids (also found in Fire
Protection Guide on Hazardous Materials).
3.10 FAIL-SAFE AND WARNING DEVICES
Accidental spills of hazardous substances can occur for a number
of reasons. These may include spills during product transfer, over-
flow during filling operations, and leakage or rupture of tanks or
appurtenances because of corrosion vapor build-up or other circum-
stances. Spills due to such causes can be prevented, or their effects
minimized, through application of appropriate sensing and warning
devices. Such devices may activate shut-off or diversion mechanisms,
or may simply provide audible or visual alarms of adverse circum-
stances. The devices can be classified as level detectors, leak mon-
itors, and gas detectors.
Level Detection devices are the main component of overfill pre-
vent iorTsystems^ TFTey use level sensors and gauges to detect liquid
levels in the tank, and activate alarms to warn of potential overfill
situations. These may be linked to electronic or mechanical devices
to shut down filling operations or divert flow to emergency overflow
tanks. Types of level detection devices are:
3-57
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Table 3-16
SELECTED METHODS OF EXTINGUISHING CHEMICAL FIRES
Chemical
Extinguishing Methods
Cyanides
Chromic acid
Hydrofluoric acid
Hydrochloric acid
Nitric acid
Sulfuric acid
Acetic acid
Ferric chloride
Ammonium persulfate
Caustics
Ammonia
Alkaline wastes
Mercury
Tetraethyl lead and lead
oxide mixed
Lead compounds and oxides
Zinc compounds
Sodium compounds
Aluminum, phosphorus
compounds, and sulphur
compounds
Use water; do not use COj extinguishers; avoid
toxic fumes
Use water; caution should be exercised against
possibility of stream explosion
Use water; neutralize with soda ash or lime; if
water is ineffective, use "alcohol foam"
Use water; neutralize with soda ash or slaked lime
Use a water spray; neutralize with soda ash or
lime
Use large amounts of water; reaction may occur;
neutralize with ash or lime; sand or gravel also
will help
Use water spray, dry chemical, "alcohol foam," or
carbon dioxide
Use water
Use water spray or water flooding; avoid toxic
fumes
Flood with water; avoid spattering or splashing
Stop flow of material; use water to keep container
cool; avoid fumes
Use water; neutralize with dilute acid (acetic) if
necessary
Use water; avoid toxic mercury vapor
Fight fires from explosion-restraint location; use
water, dry chemical, foam, or carbon dioxide
Use flooding amounts of water
Smother with suitable dry powder
Use water, dry powder; neutralize with appropriate
chemical, if necessary
Do not use water; smother with suitable dry
powder
Source: Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1982.
3-58
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Float-actuated devices,
Displacement systems,
Electrical capacitance sensors,
0 Optical sensors,
Ultrasonic sensors,
Thermal conductivity sensors, and
Pressure sensors.
Leak detection devices are used to sense product losses from
pressure piping systems or to monitor leaks onto the ground surface or
into the groundwater from either underground and aboveground tasks.
Leak detection devices include pressure piping leak detectors, elec-
trical resistivity sensors, interstitial fluid or pressure sensors for
double-walled tanks, and thermal conductivity sensors.
-Leak detection devices can be placed within a diked area to
quickly reveal the first occurrence of a spill. For underground
tanks, sensors can be placed within slotted groundwater monitoring
wells situated close to the storage area in a downgradient direction.
Spilled material that has saturated the soil and entered the ground-
water table will be readily detected. However, the variety of chemi-
cals that can be detected in this manner may be limited by specific
physical or chemical properties. Table 3-17 lists chemicals detect-
able with thermal conductivity-type sensors. Equipment manufacturers
should be contacted directly for information on specific applications.
Gas detectors can be used to monitor a wide variety of flammable,
nonflammable, and toxic gases and vapors. These devices are available
as permanent installations, or as portable instruments for tracking
the source, direction, and intensity of a gas or vapor leak. They may
also be used to activate audible or visual alarm systems, ventilation
equipment, or process interruption equipment.
Combustible gas detectors can be used to detect conditions which
present an explosive hazard as a result of the release of any flam-
mable or combustible gases, or vapors from flammable or combustible
liquids. Other detectors are available for specific gases, such as
carbon monoxide or hydrogen sulfide. Infrared analyzers are par-
ticularly useful in identifying single compounds that are infrared-
active. These would include carbon dioxide, halogenated hydrocarbons,
and most other hydrocarbons.
At unattended hazardous materials storage facilities, the appro-
priate sensing and warning devices should be connected to an alarm
circuit. This circuit should transmit the alarm to a continuously
attended facility to indicate any symptoms of trouble such as abnormal
temperatures, pressure increases, level changes, etc.
3-59
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Table 3-17
COMMCM CHEMICALS OETECTABLE WITH THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY SENSORS
Acetaldehyde
Ethylene Glycol Monobutyl Ether
Allyl Alcohol
Gasoline
Aniline
Glycerine
Benzene
Isoprene
Benzyl Chloride
Kerosene
Butyl Acetate
Methanol
Carbon Disulfide
Methyl Isobutyl Ketone
Carbon Tetrachloride
Monoethanolamine
Chlorobenzene
Naphtha
Chloroform
Nitrobenzene
Cresol
Nitropropane
Cumene
Nitrotoluene
Cyclohexane
Phenol
Cyclohexanone
Polychlorinated Biphenyls
Cyclohexanol
Styrene
Dichloromethane
Tetrachloroethane
Diethylamine
Tetrachloroethylene
Epichlorohydrin
Tetrachloromethane
Ethanol
Toluene
Ethyl Acetate
T richloroethylene
Ethyl Benzene
Vinylidene Chloride
Ethylene Glycol
Xylene
Source: Mallory Components Group, 1982.
3-60
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Higdori, A., E. Ohlsen, W. Stiles, J. Weese, and W. Riley, 1976,
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3-65
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SECTION 4
CORROSION CONTROL
Corrosion is the process by which materials deteriorate to a more
stable, natural state. Corrosion more than any other cause results in
tank failures. Therefore, hazardous materials containment assurance
programs should include adequate corrosion prevention measures.
An example of corrosion failure is depicted in Figure 4-1.- In
this situation, a tank inlet nozzle installed too close to the tank
sidewall caused sulfuric acid to be sprayed on the tank wall at high
velocity, which caused corrosion and erosion of the tank wall, and
eventually the failure of the wall.
The position of inlet nozzles is only one isolated consideration
which pertains to corrosion control. Other factors which must be
considered include the compatibility of the storage tank with the
materials being stored (see Section 2.3); environmental factors which
may contribute to corrosion; selection of the most appropriate corro-
sion reduction methods; and use of tank maintenance and inspection
methods which will not contribute to corrosion. Corrosion prevention
requirements are determined by such factors as the desired lifetime of
the tank, the conditions anticipated, and the desired purity of the
product in the tank.
4.1 TYPES OF CORROSION
Corrosion appears in many forms. Recognizing which types of cor-
rosion may occur in a given situation is an important step in corro-
sion prevention. The rest of this section lists and briefly describes
the most common types of corrosion. Table 4-1 gives the percent fre-
quency of occurrence of these types.
Uniform corrosion is a form of corrosion resulting in uniform
deterioration across a metal surface. The uniform oxidation of a sur-
face, such as rusting, is a common example of uniform corrosion.
Intergranular corrosion occurs when corrosion-promoting impuri-
ties have precipitated between the metal grains or crystals during
fabrication. More serious than loss of metal is the general loss of
strength and ductility associated with intergranular corrosion. Die-
cast zinc aluminum alloys are particularly susceptible.
Pitting corrosion is localized corrosion which appears as pits or
depressions in a metal surface. It commonly occurs when aluminium or
4-1
-------
SOURCE: Shields and Dessert, 1981.
Figure 4-1 CORROSION DUE TO IMPROPER INLET
NOZZLE PLACEMENT
4-2
-------
Table 4-1
METAL FAILURE FREQUENCY OVER A TWO-YEAR PERIOD
(56.9% Corrosion and 43.1% Mechanical)*
Corrosion Failurest Percent (.%)
Uniform corrosion 31.5
Stress corrosion cracking,
Corrosion fatigue 23.4
Pitting corrosion 15.7
Intergranular corrosion 10.2
Corrosion-erosion,
Cavitation damage, 9.0
Fretting corrosion
High temperature corrosion 2.3
Weld corrosion 2.3
Thermogalvanic corrosion 2.3
Crevice corrosion 1.8
Selective attack 1.1
Hydrogen damage 0.5
The percentages can vary considerably in other
industrial locations or environments.
Source: Pludek, 1977.
4-3
-------
stainless steel surfaces are exposed to aqueous solutions containing
chlorides. If uncorrected, pitting corrosion can lead to stress-
corrosion cracking or corrosion fatigue.
Stress-corrosion cracking (Figure 4-2) is a form of corrosion in
which external or internal residual stresses acting continuously in a
corrosive environment cause cracks in the metal. Internal stress can
result during metal cooling and from cold work such as pounding or
bending. Aluminum alloys containing copper or magnesium and stainless
steel, especially in high temperature steam service where steel pipes
are wrapped in insulation or are in contact with chloride-containing
solutions, are particularly susceptible to stress-corrosion cracking.
Table 4-2 lists environments which cause stress-corrosion in various
metals.
Corrosion fatigue arises when a metal is subjected'to periodic
stresses. The stress resistance of the material is gradually reduced
as corrosion progresses. Corrosion fatigue occurs when metal oxide
films which occur naturally on the surface of the metal are ruptured
at a greater rate than new oxide films are formed. The rupture points
become anodic, corroding preferentially and forming pits which can
eventually lead to cracks in and ultimate failure of the metal.
Galvanic corrosion (Figure 4-3) occurs when dissimilar metals are
in electrochemical contact through an electrolyte. Galvanic corrosion
most commonly occurs when metal appurtenances are used on metal tanks.
Table 4-3 shows an arrangement of common metals in the galvanic
series. Anodic metals as a general rule are more easily corroded than
noble or cathodic metals. Also as a general rule, the further apart
two metals are in the series, the worse the threat of galvanic corro-
sion. The severity of galvanic corrosion is also determined by area
relationships. The worst case occurs when a large area of a cathodic
or noble metal is in contact with a small area of an anodic metal.
For example, corrosion would be more likely if steel bolts were used
on a copper tank than if copper bolts were used on a steel tank.
Thermoqalvanic corrosion is a form of galvanic corrosion caused
by a thermal gradient in a single piece of metal. Non-uniform heating
causes different parts of the metal to have different electrochemical
potentials, thus creating a galvanic cell conducive to corrosion.
Crevice corrosion is a problem because the intensity of corrosion
is usually more severe in crevices between adjacent surfaces of either
the same or different materials (one of them metal) than on surfaces.
The increased corrosion rate is the result of a corrosion cell created
by oxygen deficiency, acidity changes, ion buildup, or inhibitor
depletion occurring in the crevice.
Oxygen-concentration cells (Figure 4-4) are localized areas of
corrosion which are caused by differences in oxygen concentration.
Areas of lower oxygen concentration, such as under gaskets or under
solid residues on metal surfaces, are attacked. Oxygen-concentration
cell corrosion can also be a form of crevice corrosion.
4-4
-------
Stress corrosion
SOURCE: Pludek, 1977.
Figure 4-2 STRESS CORROSION CRACKING
4-F -
-------
Table 4-2
ENVIRONMENTS CAUSING STRESS CORROSION
Material
Environment
Aluniniun
Copper
Aluminium bronzes
Austenitic stainless steels
Ferritic stainless steels
Carbon and low alloy steels
High strength alloy steels
(yield strength 200 psi plus)
Magnesium
Lead
Nickel
Monel
Inconel
Titanium
Water and steam; NaCl, including sea atmos-
pheres and waters; air; water vapour
Tropical atmospheres; mercury; HgNO^; bro-
mides; ammonia; ammoniated organics
Water and steam; H2SO4; caustics
Chlorides, including FeClo* FeCl-j, NaCl;
sea environments; H2S0^; fluorides; con-
densing steam frcm chloride waters
Chlorides, including NaCl; fluorides; bro-
mides; iodides; caustics; nitrates; water;
steam
HC1; caustics; nitrates; HNO3; HCN; molten
zinc and Na-Pb alloys; H2S; H2SO4-HNO3;
H2SO4; seawater
Sea and industrial environments
NaCl, including sea environments; water and
steam; caustics; ^0*; rural and coastal
atmosphere; distilled water
Lead acetate solutions
Bromides; caustics; H2SO4
Fused caustic soda; hydrochloric and hydro-
fluoric acids
Caustics soda solutions; high purity water
with few ppm oxygen
Sea environments; NaCl in environments 288ฐC
(550ฐF); mercury; molten cadmium; silver and
AgCl; methanols with halides; fuming red
HNOj; 1^0^; chlorinated or fluorinated
hydrocarbons
Sources Pludek, 1977.
4-6
-------
Steal Pipe
Copper Pipe
Coupling
SOURCE: Department of the Navy, 1964.
Figure 4-3 INTERIOR GALVANIC CORROSION DUE TO COUPLING
COPPER AND STEEL PIPE
4-7
-------
Table 4-3
GALVANIC SERIES OF METALS AND ALLOYS
Corroded End (Anodic, or Least Noble)
Magnesium
Magnesium alloys
Zinc
Galvanized steel or galvanized wrought iron
Aluminum 6053
Aluminum 3003
Alulminum 2024
Aluminum
Ale lad
Cadmium
Mild steel
Wrought Iron
Cast iron
Ni-Resist
13% chromium stainless (active)
50-50 lead-tin solder
18-6 stainless type 304 (active)
18-8-3 stainless type 316 (active)
Lead
Tin
Muntz metal
Naval brass
Nickel (active)
Inconel (active)
Yellow brass
Admiralty brass
Aluminum bronze
Red brass
Copper
Silicon bronze
70-30 cupronickel
Nickel (passive)
Inconel (passive)
Monel
18-8 stainless type 304 (passive)
18-8-3 stainless type 316 (passive)
Silver
Graphite
Gold
Platinum
Protected end (Cathodic, or Most Noble)
Source: Perry and Chilton, 1973.
4-8
-------
Liquid
SOURCE: Department of the Navy, 1964.
Figure 4-4 OXYGEN CONCENTRATION CELL WITH RUST ON TANK WALL
-------
Erosion is caused by the combination of corrosion and abrasion or
friction when moving fluids are in contact with a metal surface.
Abrasion occurs when the fluid contains suspended solids. In general,
deterioration of metal is more severe with moving fluids than with
stationary fluids.
Cavitation erosion is accelerated erosion occurring in agitated
fluids when vacuum bubbles caused by the agitation collapse on the
metal surface. The mechanical force of the collapsing bubbles can
destroy protective oxide films and result in severe localized pitting
before new oxide films can form.
Impingement attack (Figure 4-5) is localized corrosion/erosion
due to turbulent flow of liquids. It is especially severe at conduit
entrances and bends in pipes.
Mechanical corrosion is deterioration caused by repeated mechani-
cal impingement on a metal surface. A common example is corrosion of
tank bottoms at points where measuring sticks used for lsvel gauging
repeatedly strike the inside metal surface. This type of mechanical
corrosion is remedied by installation of strike plates at the bottom
of the tank so that uniform corrosion patterns will not be distrubed.
Fretting corrosion is caused by friction between metal surfaces.
It usually occurs under heavy loads and only slight metal movement,
such as that induced by high frequency vibrations. Frictional heat
causes oxidation of the metal, and the metal oxides which are formed
are removed by the friction itself. This exposes a fresh metal sur-
face, which in turn is oxidized and rubbed off.
Hydrogen embrittlement refers to the general decrease in strength
and ductility of a metal which occurs when hydrogen is absorbed into
the metal. In some cases, the hydrogen can react with impurities in
the metal, such as carbon in carbon steel. Sources of hydrogen are
cleaning processes, pickling and other treatment processes, and weld-
ing.
Stray current corrosion occurs when a direct current deviates
from its intended path and passes through a conducting metal by way of
an electrolyte. Corrosion generally occurs at the point where the
current leaves the metal. Common sources of stray current are under-
ground cables, or DC machinery.
Pifferential environment cells (Figure 4-6) are corrosion cells
which are established at the interface between two different media in
contact with the same piece of metal. Corrosion of this type can
occur at air-water interfaces or at interfaces between different soil
types.
4.2 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AFFECTING CORROSION
The characteristics of the soil, water, or air surrounding a tank
or pipeline have an important effect on the type and degree of corro-
sion which will occur in a given situation. While often there is no
4-10
-------
Corrosion Film
Figure 4-5 IMPINGEMENT ATTACK
4-11
-------
Cathode Area Anode Area Cathode Area
Topsoil
Topsoil
\
Cori
ij'lilii'li!'!!!'!'!
.li'1,!1, illililil'ii'
i s i1111'11
111111111 'i
1 ' i i I I 1 1 1,1
1111111111
1 1 1 1 1 1 'I't'i!
Ii'i'i'i'i'i'i 1 1 1
lading AreaL
'i'l1!1!1!'!1!1!1
1. * ฆ 111. ฆ ' * i
Aerated Soil
Oxygen Available
11111111
11111111 r
, i i i i'i'i'i'i
*. i.1. J, Pip* i
,, i,111,11 i i1
ijij1 i ' i 1 1 1
111111111
1 i!> i 1 1 1 1 1
l^i'l1!1!1!'!'!
, 1111111111 I 1 I I I I I I
i111111' i' i' i11111111111111' i1111
l,l"'i i i i 1 1 i ! 1 1 ' ' 1 i
11111111111111
i1!1!1 i!i! 111] i!i! i'
Poor Or No Aeration
SOURCE: Department of the Navy, 1964.
Figure 4-6 DIFFERENTIAL ENVIRONMENT UNDERGROUND
4-12
-------
practical way to alter these conditions, recognizing the general
characteristics of the surrounding environment provides a basis for
selecting an appropriate corrosion control system.
Soil characteristics which promote corrosion include non-uniform
composition, poor aeration (e.g., as in clay), high or low pH, high
organic content, anaerobic bacteria, low or non-uniform resistivity,
and high moisture content. '
Aqueous environments are generally more corrosive with high tem-
peratures, high dissolved oxygen content, agitation, highly alkaline
or acid pollution, and low resistivity.
The corrosivity of atmospheric environments is typically in-
creased with increased humidity, increased temperature, and pollution.
'4.3 CORROSION CONTROL METHODS
Corrosion control can range from the common sense practice of
avoiding obviously corrosive conditions, such as galvanic couples or
chemical/material incompatability, to recognized control systems such
as cathodic protection. The most common corrosion control systems are
corrosion inhibitors in stored liquids, cathodic or anodic protection,
linings, and coatings. As the terms are used here, linings refer to
protection to tank and pipe interior surfaces, while coatings refer to
exterior surface protection. In general, thin (less than 10 mils)
brush- or spray-applied protection is adequate for tank and pipe
exteriors, but not for interiors, which are exposed to the full effect
of corrosive materials. Linings generally must be on the order of 100
mils or greater. Two or more control methods are often combined to
insure maximum protection. Table 4-4 lists the common forms of corro-
sion and general methods for controlling them.
Before specific corrosion control methods are applied, a general
understanding of corrosion potential under certain circumstances is
essential. Taking this potential into account during equipment and
facility design and installation can significantly reduce incidences
of corrosion.
4.3.1 Protective Liners
A chemically resistant tank can often be achieved economically by
the use of a protective lining in a relatively inexpensive base metal
tank. Ferrous metal tanks are commonly used in this application. The
selection of the lining material depends mainly on the chemical to be
stored, the storage temperature, and the extent and type of abrasion
to which the lining will be exposed. If possible, field performance
and ease of application should also be reviewed before a particular
lining material is chosen. Using Appendix C, chemical compatibility,
the prime consideration in lining selection, can be checked for many
common lining materials.
Common lining materials are epoxy resins, furane resins, phenolic
resins, polyethylene, PVC, saran, rubber, glass, ceramic, and
4-13
-------
Table 4-4
CORROSION CONTROL METHODS
Type of Corrosion
Control Methods
Uniform Corrosion
Inhibitors
-
Protective coating
Anodic protection
Intergranular Corrosion
Avoiding temperatures that can cause contaminant
precipitation during heat treatment or welding
Pitting Corrosion
Protective coating
Allowing for corrosion in wall thickness
Stress-Corrosion
Cracking
Reducing residual or applied stresses
Redistributing stresses
Avoiding misalignment of sections joined by bolts,
rivets, or welds
Materials of similar expansion coefficients in
one structure
Protective coating
Cathodic protection
Corrosion Fatigue
Minimizing cyclic stresses and vibrations
Reinforcing critical areas
Redistributing stresses
Avoiding rapid changes in load, temperature, or
pressure
Inducing compressive stresses through peening,
swagging, rolling, vapor blasting, chain tumbling,
etc.
Galvanic Corrosion
ป
Avoiding galvanic couples
*
Completely insulating dissimilar metals
(Paint alone is insufficient)
Using filler rods of same chemical composition as
metal surface during welding
Avoiding unfavorable area relationships
Using replaceable parts of the anodic (attacked)
metal
Cathodic protection
Inhibitors
4-14
-------
Table 4-4 (Cont.)
Type of Corrosion
Control Methods
Thermogalvanic Corrosion
Avoiding non-uniform heating and cooling
Maintaining uniform coating or insulation thickness
Crevice Corrosion;
Concentration Cells
'
ฆ
Minimizing sharp corners and other stagnant areas
Minimizing crevices to a minimum, especially in
heat transfer areas and in aqueous environments
containing inorganic solutions or dissolved oxygen
Enveloping or sealing crevices
Protective coating
Removing dirt and mill-scale during cleaning and
surface preparation
Welded butt joints with continuous welds instead
of bolts or rivets
Inhibitors
Erosion;
Impingement Attack
Decreasing fluid stream velocity to approach
laminar flow
Minimizing abrupt changes in flow direction
Streamlining flow where possible
Installing replaceable impingement plates at
critical points in flowlines
Filters and steam traps to remove suspended
solids and water vapor
Protective coating
Cathodic protection
Cavitation Damage
Maintaining pressure above liquid vapor pressure
Minimizing hydrodynamic pressure differences
ฆ
Protective coating
Cathodic protection
Injecting or generating larger bubbles
Fretting Corrosion
Installing barriers which allow for slip between
metals
Increasing load to stop motion, but not above load
capacity
ฆ
Porous protective coating
ป
Lubricant
4-15
-------
Table 4-4 (Cont.)
Type of Corrosion
Control Methods
Hydrogen Embrittlement
Low-hydrogen welding electrodes
Avoiding incorrect pickling, surface preparation,
and treatment methods
Inducing compressive stresses
ฆ
Baking metal at 200-300ฐF to remove hydrogen
Impervious coating such as rubber or plastic
Stray-current
Corrosion
Providing good insulation on electrical cables and
components
Grounding exposed components of electrical
equipment
Draining off stray currents with another conduct-
ing material
Electrically bonding metallic structures
Cathodic protection
Differential-environment
Cells
Underlaying and backfill underground pipelines and
tanks with the same material
a
Avoiding partially buried structures
Protective coating
0
Cathodic protection
Source: Adapted from Pludek, 1977.
4-16
-------
concrete. Inorganic zinc coatings are applied mainly in the storage
of organic solvents, aromatics, ketones, hydrocarbons, and water.
The use of a lining material imposes certain restrictions on tank
construction. In general, lined metal tanks should be of welded
construction, and any buttwelds, welding clusters, or other metal
protrusions should be ground smooth prior to lining. Filler welds
should be used on corners, and all angles should have radii of at
least 1/4 inch. Surface preparation is also very important. Lined
surfaces should be white metal blasted in accordance with Steel Struc-
ture Painting Council (SSPC) Specification SP-5, or National Asso-
ciation of Corrosion Engineers Specification 1. The prepared surface
should ultimately be free of weld spaths, pits, grease, dirt, and
rust, and should not be painted or galvanized before being lined. The
lining material should be applied as soon as possible after blasting.
Linings can be applied in several ways. When applied in sheets,
as are most rubber linings, an appropriate adhesive is brushed or
sprayed on the surface, and the lining laid down and rolled on by
hand. It is essential when applying sheets th^t no air pockets remain
under the lining. Air pockets are most likely to remain at corners
and seams, and thus it is common to press the lining at these points
with hot iron tools to make thorough contact. Linings can also be
applied by dipping the metal into a bath of lining material and
re-dipping until the desired thickness is attained. Dipping is useful
for lining odd-shaped structures, but the usefulness is limited by the
difficulty of obtaining a uniform thickness of the liner material.
Glass, plastic, and ceramics are sometimes applied in powder form and
then heated to fuse the lining material to the metal. Concrete lin-
ings are applied by centrifugal casting, trowelling, and spraying.
Thick concrete linings are generally reinforced with wire mesh.
Some lining materials such as glass, ceramic, and concrete are of
limited usefulness because of their sensitivity to mechanical damage
and thermal shock. Thus, handling of lined equipment is the most
common source of damage to the linings. Another disadvantage of
concrete linings is that the wire mesh used as reinforcement is also
subject to corrosion. Once they are in place, lined tanks should
always be spark-tested, as discussed in Section 5.2.4
4.3.2 Protective Coatings
Corrosion of tank exteriors can be controlled by the use of
resistant construction materials and paints. The required degree of
control depends mainly on atmospheric and use conditions to which the
tank is exposed. Most paints, for instance, do not provide adequate
protection of underground tanks and pipelines that are not otherwise
protected. The SSPC specification designates four classes of Standard
Corrosive Environments, ranging from highly humid, industrial condi-
tions with harsh chemical and weather exposure, to dry rural condi-
tions with no chemical exposure. Table 4-5 lists the most common
paints and their relative resistances to major chemical groups,
weather, abrasion, and heat. This table should be used only for gen-
eral information on the various coatings. More detailed information
should be obtained from paint manufacturers.
V
4-17
-------
Table 4-5
COMPARATIVE RESISTANCES OF TYPICAL COATINGS
Coating Type
Acid
Alkali
Salts
Solvents
Water
Oxidation
Sunlight and
Water
Stress
Abrasion
Heat
Acrylic 8 8 9
Alkyd 6 6 8
Asphalt 10 7 10
Chlorinated Rubber 10 10 10
Epoxy 10 9 10
5
4
2
3
8
8
8
10
10
10
9
3
2
9
6
10
10
7
7
9
?
5
5
7
3
10
6
3
7
6
8
8
4
5
9
Furan 10 10 10
Inorganic (metallic) 115
Latex 2 16
Neoprene 10 10 10
Oil Base 116
10
10
1
4
2
10
5
2
10
7
2
10
1
6
1
8
10
10
8
10
1
?
?
10
4
5
10
6
10
4
9
10
5
10
7
Phenolic
Saran
Urethanes
Vinyl
10
10
9
10
2
8
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
5
9
5
10
10
10
10
7
10
9
10
9
7
8
10
2
7
?
8
5
7
10
7
10
7
8
7
Scale: 1 = Nonresiatant
10 = Extremely resistant
? = Insufficient data
Sources: NACE, 1975, and Staniar, 1959.
-------
The most important step in exterior surface coating is surface
preparation. The three major types of surface preparation, in
increasing order of achievable surface quality, are hand-tool clean-
ing, power-tool cleaning, and sand blasting. In general, surface
preparation requirements for maintenance painting are not as stringent
as those for initial painting, unless complete repainting is being
performed. The SSPC specifications can be consulted for detailed
guidelines.
In some cases, especially with steel, the surface to be painted
is given a chemical conversion coating as a primer. The chemical
conversion coating is a solution, such as a phosphate, which forms
crystals that bond to the metal. Such coatings should not be used
without a further coating, however.
The two main methods of applying protective coatings are brushing
and spraying. Most coatings are designed for spray application,
because spraying is generally neater, more uniform, and faster than
brushing. However, first coats are often brush-applied because better
surface-wetting can be achieved by brushing, and because air pockets
can form if first coats are spray-applied. The most important
requirements for the application of coating are that the coat be
evenly applied and that it be applied as soon as possible after sur-
face preparation. For instance, painting schedules should be arranged
so that no prepared surface will go uncoated overnight.
The initial maintenance of a new paint system should occur within
the first six months, so that inadequacies can be rectified before
serious damage takes place. Subsequent maintenance painting should
follow a planned program, so that major painting jobs do not all occur
at the same time. Five-year plans are commonly used for maintenance
painting, although the specific program for a facility will depend on
its size, the paint system used, the environmental conditions, house-
keeping practices, and other considerations.
4.3.3 Cathodic Protection
Cathodic protection is used to eliminate corrosion cells on a
metal surface by means of an externally applied current which opposes
the corrosion potential of the protected metal. It has wide applica-
tion for aboveground and underground tanks and pipelines containing a
wide range of chemicals, and it is particularly important in that it
is usually the only practicable means for halting corrosion already in
progress. The two established means of providing cathodic protection
are the sacrificial anode method and the impressed current method.
Sacrificial anodes are magnesium, zinc, or aluminum electrodes
which are electrically connected to the protected metal in an elec-
trolytic environment. Typical installations are shown in Figure 4-7.
Systems employing sacrificial anodes are designed so that the sacrifi-
cial anode is more anodic than the entire protected structure and will
thus corrode preferentially. The main limitation of this method is
that the current which is established through the presence of the
sacrificed anodes is sometimes not strong enough to provide adequate
4-19
-------
Pips (Cathode)
Zinc or Magnesium
Anode with prepar-
ed backfill.
Magnesium ribbon
(Anode)
Anode
EXTERNAL PROTECTION
Anode
4-
Magnesium rod
(Anode)
Tank Corroding
Tank Protected
INTERNAL PROTECTION
SOURCE: Department of the Navy, 1964.
Figure 4-7 CATHODIC PROTECTION BY THE SACRIFICIAL
ANODE METHOD
4-20
-------
protection, especially in highly resistive electrolytic media. For
this reason, sacrificial anodes are most often used in conjunction
with relatively small installations, for localized protection of "hot
spots" on a structure, and with well-coated structures which do not
require as great a current for protection as bare or poorly coated
metal. Sacrificial anodes are also preferred in locations where the
electrical equipment required for the impressed-current method poses a
hazard.
The impressed current method requires an external source of
direct current which is transmitted to the electrolyte (i.e., soil or
liquid tank contents) through anodes made of graphite, carbon, scrap
iron or steel, aluminum, platinum, or silicon cast iron. An example
of an impressed-current arrangement is given in Figure 4-8. Because
one installation of an impressed-current system can protect a large
metal surface area, this method is typically used for large systems,
for bare or poorly coated surfaces, or when the electrolyte is'highly
resistive. The main drawbacks are the potential for stray currents,
which can induce electrolytic corrosion on structures near the one
being protected, and overprotection, which can lead to hydrogen attack
of the protected metal as hydrogen accumulates on the surface.
The current output requirement of the anodes in either method is
a function of the current density required at the metal surface, the
metal surface area, the resistivity of the electrolyte, the size and
type of the anodes, the spacing of the anodes, and the distance
between the anode and the surface. Current requirements become espe-
cially complicated in close-packed storage systems in which current
interference can hamper cathodic protection. The determination of
these factors requires a certain amount of testing and calculations
before a protection system is selected. Procedures can be found in
NAVDOCKS M0-306 and in many other references dealing with corrosion.
The use of cathodic protection requires adequate electrical
bonding or insulation of protected structures. Bonding of adjacent
sections of a protected structure through the use of low-resistance
straps or cables is necessary to insure that the impressed current is
applied to all areas requiring protection. Conversely, the protected
structure should be electrically isolated from adjacent structures and
appurtenances through the use of insulated joints, flanges, and
dielectric bushings. Electrical isolation prevents the impressed
current from overreaching its intended range.
Maintenance requirements for cathodic protection systems depend
on the specific type of protection. Sacrificial anodes generally are
designed to last up to 20 years, while impressed current systems
should be checked every four to six years. The electrical equipment
associated with the impressed-current method requires routine main-
tenance throughout the lifetime of the system.
4.3.4 Anodic Protection
Anodic protection is similar to cathodic protection, but with
anodic protection the protected metal (usually iron or steel) is made
4-21
-------
Graphite
Anode
SOURCE: Department of the Navy, 1964.
Figure 4-8 CATHODIC PROTECTION BY THE IMPRESSED CURRENT
METHOD
4-22
-------
anodic instead of cathodic. The impressed current in this case
increases the passivity of the metal beyond the level associated with
normal oxide film formation.
The most common application of anodic protection is in sulfuric
acid storage in steel tanks, although it is also applicable with phos-
phoric and other acids, some alkali solutions, and some salt solu-
tions, such as sodium sulfate and sodium nitrate. In general, how-
ever, anodic protection is much less common than cathodic protection.
Anodic protection of steel and iron is limited by the presence of
chloride or other halide ions, although anodic protection can be used
to protect titanium against corrosion by hydrochloric acid. Anodic
protection does not work with metals such as zinc, magnesium, copper,
and copper alloys, because they do not become sufficiently passive
when anodically polarized.
4.3.5 '-Inhibitors
Corrosion on the inside of a storage tank can sometimes be con-
trolled by adding a corrosion inhibitor to the stored liquid. Typical
inhibitors are chromates, phosphates, silicates, organic sulfides, and
amines. Selection of the appropriate inhibitor in a particular situa-
tion is dependent on the material being protected, the stored liquid,
and the storage conditions. Table 4-6 lists some common inhibitors
and their usual applications. It is essential that the correct con-
centration of the inhibitor be used. Concentrations that are too
small can increase corrosion, resulting in extensive pitting in severe
cases. The correct minimum concentration is difficult to determine
because it is dependent on surface quality of the tank or appurte-
nances, the nature of the corrosive liquid, and other factors. Too
much inhibitor is also undesirable. Once the correct concentration is
established, it should be checked continually, because the inhibitor
can disappear through absorption, chemical degradation, decomposition,
precipitation, or evaporation. The use of inhibitors generally neces-
sitates agitation of the liquid, and this can be an additional limit-
ing factor.
4.3.6 Compressive Stress Induction
Compressive stress can be induced to combat corrosion fatigue and
stress corrosion cracking. Susceptible materials such as steel and
aluminum can be strengthened by treating the surface by shot peening,
chain tumbling, vapor blasting, or an equivalent method.
4.3.7 Strikeplates
Strikeplates are sheets of metal placed inside a tank to prevent
mechanical corrosion of tank bottoms due to repeated mechanical
impingement, such as of measuring sticks on metal surfaces. Strike-
plates must be placed carefully to prevent other forms of corrosion,
such as those discussed in Section 4-1.
4-23
-------
Table 4-6
TYPICAL INHIBITORS AND THE CORROSION ENVIRONMENT
IN WHICH THEY ARE EFFECTIVE
Inhibitor
Concentration
Inhibitor (percent by weight)
Environment
Metals to be Protected
Benzanilide
0.2
Lubricants
Cd-Ni: Co-Pbb bearings
Borax
2-3
Alcohol ant i- freeze
Car cooling systems
Calgon
small
Water
Steel
Dioctyl ester of sulpho-
succinic acid
0.05
Refined petroleum
Pipelines
Disodium hydrogen
phosphate
0.5
Citric acid
Steel
Erythritol
small
k2so4
Mild steel
Ethylaniline
0.5
HC solutions
Ferrous metals
Formaldehyde
small
Oil wells
Oil-well equipment
Mercaptobenzthiazole
1
HC solutions
Iron and steel
Morpholine
0.2
Water
Heat exchangers
Oleic acid
small
Polyhydric alcohol
Iron
Phenyl acridine
0.5
H2SO4 solutions
Iron
Potassium dichrornate
0.05-0.2
Tap water
Iron-brass
Potassium dihydrogen
Phosphate + sodium nitrate
small +
5 percent
Seawater
Steel
Potassium permanganate
0.1
NaOH solutions
Aluminum
Pyridine +
phenylhydrazine
0.5 +
0.5
HC solutions
Ferrous metals
Quinoline ethiodide
0.1
h2so4
Steel
Rosin amine-ethylene oxide
0.2
HC solutions
Mild steel
Sodium benzoate
0.5
NaCl solutions
Mild steel
Sodilot carbonate
small
Condensate
Iron
Sodium chromate
0.07
CaCl^ brine
cooling water
Copper-brass rectifiers
Sodium dichromate
0.025
Water
Air conditioning
Sodium dichromate +
sodium nitrate
0.1 +
0.05
Water
Heat exchangers
4-24
-------
Table 4-6 (Cont.)
Inhibitor
Inhibitor
Concentration
(percent by weight)
i Environment
Metals to be Protected
Sodium hexametaphosphate
0.002
Water
(about pH 6)
Lead
Sodium metaphosphate
Small
Ammonia
Mild steel
Sodium nitrite
0.005
Water
Mild steel
Sodium orthophosphate
1
Water (pH 7.25)
Iron
Sodium silicate
Small
Seawater
Zn; Zn-Al alloys
Te tr amethylammonium
oxide
0.5
Aqueous solutions
of organic solvents
Iron and steel
Thiourea
Acids
Iron and steel
Sources Uhlig, 1971.
4-25
-------
4.4 ESTABLISHING A CORROSION CONTROL PROGRAM
The implementation of the anti-corrosion measures mentioned in
this section should be incorporated in a corrosion control program.
Such a program should include:
Identification of the material of construction of all storage
tanks and other equipment involved;
Identification of construction methods used for equipment
involved;
Determination of potential corrosion-related failures and
associated hazards;
Compilation of historical data on corrosion-related failures;
Compilation of atmospheric data which could affect corrosion;
Compilation of soil data related to underground corrosion;
Determination of appropriate preventive measures for each
piece of equipment;
Identification of experts for consultation on corrosion prob-
lems; and
0 Keeping comprehensive maintenance records.
4-26
-------
BIBLIOGRAPHY
American Institute of Chemical Engineers, et al., 1975, Managing
Corrosion Problems with Plastics, National" Association of Cor-
rosion Engineers, Houston, TX.
Department of the Navy, 1964, Corrosion Prevention and Control,
NAVDOCKS M0-306, Washington, D.C.
Edeleanu, C., 1978, Safety in Process Plant in Relation to Corrosion,
Chemistry and Industry, 17:649-651.
Evaus, V., 1961, The Corrosion and Oxidation of Metals, St. Martins
Press, New York, NY.
, 1968, The Corrosion and Oxidation of Metals: First Sup-
plement, St. Martins Press, New York, NY.
Fitzgerald, J.H., and A.L. Claes, 1976, Fundamentals of Underground
Corrosion Control, Technical Publishing, New York, NY.
Hepner, I., ed., 1962, Materials of Construction for Chemical Plant,
Leonard Hill Ltd., London.
McDonnell, C., 1979, Erosion/Corrosion of Plant Machinery in Fluid
Flow Conditions, Anti-Corrosion Methods and Materials, 26(10):
5-6, 15.
Mellan, I., 1976, Corrosion Resistant Materials Handbook, Noyes Data
Corporation, Park Ridge, NJ.
Menke, J., 1981, Ten Commandments of Material Deterioration, Materials
Performance, 120(4):21-23.
Morris, D., 1980, Plastic Linings - Specifying for Performance, Corro-
sion Prevention and Control, 27(6):19-20.
NACE, 1954, Corrosion Data Survey for Metals, National Association of
Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX.
, 1975, Process Industries Corrosion, National Association
of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX.
, 1976, Corrosion Data Survey for Non-Metals, National
Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX.
4-27
-------
, 1980, Corrosion Engineer's Reference Book, R.S. Teseder,
ed., National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, TX.
Perry, R., and C. Chilton, 1973, Chemical Engineer's Handbook, McGraw-
Hill Publications, New York, NY. 1
Pludek, V.R., 1977, Design and Corrosion Control, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, NY.
Rabald, E., 1968, Corrosion Guide, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Com-
pany, New York, NY.
Schields, E., and W.J. Dessert, 1981, Learning A Lesson From a Sul-
furic Acid Tank Failure, Pollution Engineering, 13(12):39-40.
Shreir, L., 1976, Corrosion, Volumes I and II, Newnes-Butterworth
Publishing Company, Woburn, MA.
Staniar, William, 1959, Plant Engineering Handbook, McGraw-Hill Publi-
cations, New York, TTT
Whlig, H.H., 1971, Corrosion and Corrosion Control, John Wiley and
Sons, New York, NY.
Wilson, C.L., and J.A. Oates, 1968, Corrosion and the Maintenance
Engineer, Hart Publishing Company.
4-28
-------
SECTION 5
TANK INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE
The goals of an appropriate inspection and maintenance program
for chemical storage tanks are:
To minimize the probability of accidental releases of hazard-
ous materials;
To reduce the risks of fire and exposure resulting from such
releases;
To maintain safe working conditions in and around the storage
area; and
To permit early detection of potential trouble spots and
implement corrective action.
To accomplish these goals an inspection program must be implemented
which is able to identify excessive corrosion or erosion, structural
fatigue or cracking of metals, deterioration of non-metallic liners
and appurtenances, cracking or weakening of welds and joints, and
leakage from valves or piping. Special attention should be paid to
likely trouble spots, which include bottom-to-shell connections;
valve, nozzle, and manhole connections; welded seams; rivet holes; and
welded brackets.
5.1 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
Numerous methods of non-destructive testing are available to
accomplish a variety of inspection goals, such as leak detection, wall
thickness measurement, or checking liner integrity. Most of these
methods are applicable to aboveground tanks and to underground tanks
prior to installation. A discussion of some of the major methods and
their limitations follows. Standards for these methods may be found
in Section V of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Table 5-1
lists the types of imperfections detectable by the various methods.
Test methods for specific types of storage tanks and equipment are
discussed in Section 5.2.
5.1.1 Test Methods
Radiographic Testing - Radiographic testing employs the use of
X-rays, nuclear radiation, or both to detect subsurface dis-
continuities in solid materials, and to present their images
5-1
-------
Table 5-1
APPLICATION OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE TEST METHODS
Test Type
Type of
Imperfection
Detected
Visual
Random
Radiographic
100%
Radiography
Ultrasonic
Wet
Magnetic
Particle
Dry
Magnetic
Part icle
Liquid
Penetrant
Hydrostatic
Eddy
Current
Spark
Testing
VALVE
Cracks
X
X
Strength
X
TANK
Cracks or surface
discontinuties
X
X
X
X
X
X
Subsurface dis-
continuties
X
X
X
X
Thinning
X
X
Strength
X
WELDS
Crack
X
X
X
X
Incomplete
penetration
X
X
X
Porosity
X
Slag inclusions
X
SOURCE: Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1982.
-------
on a recording medium (film), known as a radiograph. Any
flaws detected by the test will appear as darkened areas, in
the shape of the flaw, against the uniformly lighter back-
ground of the intact area.
Ultrasonic Testing - Ultrasonic testing detects subsurface
discontinuities from the interruptions they cause in pulse or
resonant vibrations transmitted through the material. The
ultrasonic waves are transmitted through the metal until they
reach a reflecting surface, which returns the waves. The time
interval required for the waves to complete this "round trip"
indicates the metal thickness. This testing method can be
used on metal in a range of thicknesses from a fraction of an
inch to several feet.
Wet Magnetic Particle Testing - Magnetic particle inspection
is used to detect surface cracks or flaws. Fine magnetic
particles are applied to a magnetized surface and are
attracted to regions of magnetic nonuniformity associated with*--
such cracks or discontinuities. Indicative patterns arise
which can be observed visually. The wet method is adaptable
to irregular, relatively small surface areas, and is thus
ideal for valves.
Dry Magnetic Particle Method - The dry particle method is
similar in principle to the wet method. It is more sensitive
than the wet method in the detection of near-surface discon-
tinuities, but less sensitive in detecting fine surface dis-
continuities. The associated equipment is portable and well-
suited to field work, and is more applicable to large surface
areas, such as tank shells, than the wet method.
Liquid (Dye) Penetrant Testing - The dye penetrant method
involves applying to a surface a liquid which will seep into
any surface cracks or discontinuities through capillary
action. After the surface is wiped dry, a developer is
applied which becomes tainted by the original liquid as it
seeps out of the cracks, thus delineating the cracks or dis-
continuities. The method is used effectively on nonporous
metallic materials, both ferrous and nonferrous, and on non-
porous, nonmmetallic materials such as ceramics, plastics, and
glass.
Hydrostatic Testing - The hydrostatic test can reveal gross
flaws, inadequate design, and flange leaks. It is most valua-
ble as a test on new tanks before they are put into service,
and certification of such should be requested of the manufac-
turer by purchasers of new tanks. A simple standpipe test is
useful for determining gross tank leakage. The more sensitive
Kent-Moore test compensates for changes in temperature, pres-
sure, and viscosity, and can detect leaks as small as 0.05
gal/hr.
Eddy Current Test - Eddy currents are electrical currents
induced within the body of a conductor when that conductor
5-3
-------
moves through a nonuniform magnetic field or is in a region
where there is a change in magnetic flux. In the eddy current
test, a test coil is brought close to a conducting specimen.
Changes of impedance of the test coil indicate the eddy cur-
rents induced by the coil, thereby indicating defects within
the specimen. The method is effective for spot checks of
surface and subsurface cracks, wall thickness, and coating
thickness.
Spark Testing - High voltage, low current electrical spark
tests are performed by passing the electrode over a noncon-
ducting material, such as a tank lining or coating. The other
end of the circuit is attached to the conductive tank wall.
Any "holidays" (defects) in the lining will cause an electri-
cal arc to pass through at the point of the defect. Care must
be taken not to exceed the dielectric, or damage to the lining
may result.
5.1.2 Quality Control
Wherever possible, it is desirable to enhance quality control by
optimizing the test procedure by checking against available refer-
ences. For example, the radiographic test makes use of standard pene-
trameters to obtain evidence on a radiograph that the technique used
was satisfactory. A desired level of test quality or sensitivity is
established, and then tested by confirming that penetrameter openings
of known size are reproducible on the radiograph. These penetrameters
are not intended for use in estimating the size of discontinuities
detected, but rather for quality optimization. Similarly, discon-
tinuities detected in ferrous castings by the dry particle method
may be compared to reference photographs contained in "ASTM Refer-
ence Photographs E125, for Magnetic Particle Indications on Ferrous
Castings."
Detailed specifications and procedures to insure quality control
for all nondestructive tests are contained in the referenced ASME
standards.
Table 5-2 provides a listing of nondestructive tests including
those discussed in Section 5.1.1. The table summarizes the types of
defects or measurements determined by the tests, their applications,
as well as their advantages and limitations. Although the table pro-
vides guidelines for determining the effectiveness of the tests, qual-
ified operators and conformance with manufacturers' specifications and
the appropriate ASME and ASTM standards are necessary to achieve opti-
mal results.
5.2 INSPECTION PROCEDURES
5.2.1 Aboveground Tanks
The extent of inspection procedures for aboveground tanks depends
on whether the tank is out of service or in service. Inspection of
in-service tanks will necessarily be restricted to exterior surfaces
and appurtenances. Gross leakage will be readily evident, but closer
5-4
-------
Table 5-2
NON-DESTRUCTIVE TEST METHODS
Method
Measures or Detects:
Applications
Advantages
Limitations
Acoustic emission
Crack initiation and
growth rate
Internal cracking in
welds during cooling
Boiling or cavitation
Friction or wear
Plastic deformation
Pressure vessels
Stressed structures
Remote and continuous
surveillance
Permanent record
Dynamic (rather than static)
detection of cracks
Portable
Triangulation techniques to
locate flaws
Transducers must be placed in con-
tact with surface of part to be
tested
Highly ductile materials yield low
amplitude emissions
Part must be stressed or operating
Test system noise needs to be
filtered out
Acoustic-impact
(tapping)
Debonded areas or
delaminations in metal
or non-metal composites
or laminates
Loose rivets or
fasteners
Crushed core
Brazed or adhesive-
bonded structures
Bolted or riveted
assemblies
Composite structures
Honeycomb assemblies
Portable
Easy to operate
May be automated
Permanent record or posi-
tive meter readout
No couplant required
Part geometry and mass influences
test results
Impactor and probe must be reposi-
tioned to fit geometry of part
Reference standards required
Pulser impact rate is critical for
repeatability
-------
Table 5-2 (Cont.)
Method
Measures or Detects:
Applications
Advantages
Limitations
Eddy current
(200 Hz to 6 MHz)
L71
I
Electric current
Surface and subsurface
cracks and seams
Alloy content
Heat treatment varia-
tions
Wall thickness, coating
thickness
Crack depth
Conductivity
Permeability
Cracks
Crack depth
Resistivity
Wall thickness
Corrosion-induced
wal1 thinning
Tubing
"Spot checks" on all
types of surfaces
Proximity gage
Metal detector
Metal sorting
Measure conductivity
Metallic materials
Electrically conduc-
tive materials
No special operator skills
required
High speed, low cost
,
Automation possible for
symmetrical parts
Permanent record capability
for symmetrical parts
No couplant or probe con-
tact required
Access to only one surface
required
Battery or DC source
Portable
Conductive materials
Shallow depth of penetration (thin
walls only;
Masked or false indications caused
by sensitivity to variations such as
part geometry, lift-off
Reference standards required
Permeability variations
Edge effect
Surface contamination
Good surface contact required
Difficult to automate
Electrode spacing
Reference standards required
-------
fable 5-2 (Cont.)
Method
Measures or Detects:
Applications
Advantages
Limitations
Fluoroscopy
(Cine-fluorography)
(Kine-fluorography)
Level of fill in
containers
Foreign objects
Internal components
Density variations
Voids, thickness
Spacing or position
Particles in liquid
flow
High-brightness images
Real-time viewing image
Presence of cavitation magnification
Operation of valves
and switches
Permanent record
Moving subject can be
observed
Costly equipment
Lack of geometric sharpness
Thick specimens
Speed of event to be studied
Viewing area
'ji
i
Holiday detector
High voltage
(spark)
Inegrity of coatings
or linings
Detects holidays in
coatings of thickness
>15 mils
Portable
Easy to operate
Possible damage if dielectric
strength exceeded
Holiday detector
Low voltage
Integrity of coatings
Detects holidays in
coatings of thickness
<20 mils
Portable
Easy to operate
Requires contact with substrate
Leak testing
Leaks
Helium, Ammonia,
Smoke, Water, Air
Bubbles, Radioactive
gas, Halogens
Joints
Welded, Brazed,
Adhesive-bonded
Sealed assemblies
Pressure or vacuum
chambers
High sensitivity to
extremely small, tight
separations not detectable
by other ND1 methods
Sensitivity related to
method selected
Accessibility to both surfaces of
part required
Smeared metal or contaminants may
prevent detection
Cost related to sensitivity
Fuel or gas tanks
-------
Table 5-2 (Cont.)
M?t hod
Measures or Detects:
Applicat ions
Adv ant ages
Limit at ions
Magnet Ic part ic1e
Surface and slightly Ferromagnetic mate- Advantage over penetrant is
subsurface defects; rials; bar, forgings, that it indicates subsur-
eracks, seams, porosity, weldments, extrusions, face defects, particularly
inclusions
Permeability variations
Extremely sensitive for
locating small tight
cracks
etc.
inclusions
Relatively fast and low
cost
May be portable
Alignment of magnetic field is
critical
Demagnetization of parts required
after tests
Parts must be cleaned before and
after inspection
Masking by surface coatings
Magnetic field
en
i
CD
Cracks
Wall thickness
Nonmagnet ic coat ing
thickness on steel
Ferromagnetic mate-
rials
Inspection of coat-
ings on steel
Wall thickness of
nonmagnet ic
mater ials
Measurement of magnetic
material properties
.
May be automated
Easily detects magnetic
objects in nonmagnetic
material
Portable
Permeability
Reference standards required
Edge-effect
Probe lift-off
Loss of accuracy on curved surfaces
-------
Table 5-2 (Cont.)
Method
Measures or Detects:
Applications
Advant ages
Limit at ions
Microwave
(300 MHz-300-Ghz)
Cracks, holes, deboned
areas, etc., in non-
metallic parts
Changes in composition
degree of cure, moisture
content
Thickness measurement
Reinforced plastics
Between radio waves and
and infrared in the elec-
tromagnetic spectrum
Portable
Contact with part sur-
face not normally
required
Can be aut omat ed
Will not penetrate metals
Reference standards required
Horn to part spacing critical
Par t geomet r y
Wave interference
Vibrat ion
Penet rants
(j, (Dye or fluorescent)
i
o
Defects open to sur-
face of parts; (cracks,
porosity, seams, laps,
etc.)
Thr ough-wa11 1eaks
All parts with nonab-
sorbing surfaces
forgings, weldments,
castings, etc.)
Low cost
Portable
Indications may be further
examined visually
Surface films, such as coatings,
scale, and smeared metal may pre-
vent detection of defects
Parts must be cleaned before and
after inspection
Results easily interpreted Defect must be open to surface
Bleed-out from porous surfaces can
mask indicat ions of defects
-------
Table 5-2 (Cont.)
Method
Measures or Detects:
Applications
Advantages
Limitations
Radiography
(X-rays-film)
en
i
Ultrasonic
(0.1-25MHz)
Internal defects and
variations; porosity;
inclusions; cracks;
lack of fusion; geometry
variations; corrosion
thinning
Density variations
Thickness, gap and
position
Misassembly
Misalignment
Internal defects and
variations; cracks,
lack of fusion, poros-
ity, inclusions, delami-
nations, lack of bond,
texturing
Thickness
Castings
Electrical assemblies
Weldments
Small, thin, complex
wrought products
Nonmetallics
Composites
Wrought metals
Welds
Brazed joints
Permanent records; film
Adjustable energy levels
(5 kv-25 mev)
High sensitivity to density
changes
No couplant required
Geometry variations do not
affect direction of X-ray
beam
Most sensitive to cracks
Test results known im-
mediately
Automating and permanent
Adhesive-bonded joints record capability
Nonmetallics
In-service parts
Portable ซ*
High penetration capability
High initial costs
Orientation of linear defects in
part may not be favorable
Radiation hazard
Depth of defect not indicated
Sensitivity decreases with increase
in scattered radiation
Couplant required
Small, thin, complex parts may be
difficult to check
Reference standards required
Trained operators for manual inspec-
tion
Special probes
Source: NACE, 1980.
-------
visual inspection is required to detect deteriorating areas before
they develop into serious problems. This can be accomplished by care-
ful picking and scraping of suspected spots to locate surface cor-
rosion. Rust scale should be removed wherever detected.
Figures 5-1 and 5-2 illustrate specific areas of concern that
should be addressed during the visual inspection of aboveground tanks.
Table 5-3 provides a legend explaining details noted in Figure 5-1.
Visual detection of suspected cracks in the tank shell or welds should
be followed by a more detailed assessment. The tank should immedi-
ately be taken out of service, and the entire area surrounding the
crack sandblasted. The extent of the crack can then be determined
using the magnetic particle method (for metallic tanks) or the dye
penetrant method. If the magnetic particle method is employed on a
tank that is in service, the magnetic field should be energized with a
magnet rather than direct current. Repair, as necessary, should be
undertaken immediately.
When a tank is out of service-, wall thickness measurements should
be taken to establish and monitor the rate of internal shell corro-
sion. Obvious pitting can be measured with hand calipers, but overall
thickness measurement is typically performed using ultrasonic tech-
niques. Ultrasonic readings should be taken at several intervals
along the height of the tank to compensate for the varying height of
stored liquid in the tank. Readings obtained from the outside of the
tank should be compared with readings taken from inside the tank to
insure consistency and accuracy.
5.2.2 Underground Tanks
After proper siting and tank type selection, the next step in
insuring the integrity of underground tanks is to employ the proper
installation procedures, such as those discussed in Section 3.3.1.
Unless underground tanks are installed in a vault, external inspec-
tions of the tanks are not feasible except by unearthing the tank.
Internal inspection may be possible if the tank is equipped with a
manhole. Leak detection is the primary way problems are identified.
NFPA Bulletin No. 329, "Recommended Practice for Handling Under-
ground Leakage of Flammable and Combustible Liquids," provides cri-
teria for so-called "final testing" of underground storage tanks. The
bulletin states that "the test will conclusively determine whether or
not an underground storage and liquid handling system is leaking. Any
testing devices used for the final test shall be capable of detecting
leaks as small as .05 gallons in one hour, adjusted for variables "
(Note: Proposed new terminology in a draft NFPA #329 will change this
definition to "Precision Testing").
Air testing of buried tanks, once a common practice, is not
recommended. Not only is it an extremely unreliable method of
detecting existing leaks, particularly those below the liquid level,
but it can worsen leaks or create leaks that did not previously exist.
There is also a serious danger of causing tank rupture. Air testing
is an acceptable method of leak detection only when it is used as a
5-11
-------
Table 5-3
TYPICAL ABOVEGROUND TANK SYSTEM - AREAS OF CONCERN
Item Requirement
A Tank fill valve should be in the closed position and
locked when not in use.
B The gate valve used for emptying the diked containment
area should be of the hand-operated variety only and
should be closed and locked at all times.
C All valves should be inspected for signs of leakage or
deterioration.
D, E Inlet and outlet piping, as well as tank flanges
should be checked for leakage and to insure that ade-
quate support is provided
F, G Automated fill control and discharge control equipment
should be checked to see that it is operating pro-
perly.
H The tank shell surface should be visually inspected
for areas of rust, or other deterioration. Particular
attention should be paid to peeling area, welds and
seams.
I The ground surface inside the diked area should be
checked for obvious signs of leakage or spillage.
J The liquid level sensing device should be checked to
insure that there is adequate freeboard.
K External stairways and walkways should be checked to
insure that they are unobstructed and sound.
L The oil/water seperator should be checked for adequate
feeeboard and to insure that it is operating properly.
Source: Ecology and Environment, Inc., 19B3
5-12
-------
Figure 5-1 AREAS OF CONCERN IN TYPICAL ABOVEGROUND VERTICAL
TANK SYSTEM (See Table 5-3 for legend)
-------
LZL
Check tank ends for hairline
cracks or deformation result-
ing from excessive end deflec-
tion.
Check for localized corrosion
where wear plate or saddle
contacts tank.
Check saddle, supports for de-
terioration or buckling.
Check for localized corrosion
on tank shell at all connections
such as manways, etc.\.
sL
Check liquid-level gage for
proper operation and adequate
freeboard.
A
Check for corrosion and hair-
line cracks at all welds and
seats.
Check yalves for leakage.
Check for hairline cracks at
middle of tank resulting from
horizontal buckling.
Check integrity of contain-
'ment dikes.
SOURCE: Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1983.
rigure 5-2 AREAS OF CONCERN IN TYPICAL HORIZONTAL TANK SYSTEM
5-14
-------
check test on empty tanks prior to installation, where all joints,
seams, and welds can be soaped and observed for the presence of air
bubbles.
Acceptable test methods for underground tanks fall into at least
three generic categories: hydrostatic tests, liquid-level measurement
tests, and sonic tests. The commonly used hydrostatic test involves
adding a standpipe extension to the fillpipe of a full underground
tank", thereby creating a hydrostatic head on the contents of the tank.
This added head must be kept small to avoid excessive overpressuring
of the tank. Changes in the liquid level in the standpipe magnify
volumetric changes in the tank itself, and thus the rate of change
reflects "in-leaks" or "out-leaks" in the tank. A problem arises in
that the liquid level is also affected by volumetric changes resulting
from the thermal expansion or contraction of the product, as well as
tank-end deflection caused by the slight standpipe overpressuring.
An accurate result is thus best obtained by techniques which compen-
sate for these factors. The Heath Petro-tite Tank and Line Testing
System (Kent-Moore test) is one technique which accomplishes this,
while detecting leaks as small as the requisite NFPA criteria of .05
gal/hr.
Liquid-level measurement techniques involve such principles as
buoyant force or manometer pressure differentials. The merits of
these techniques must be assessed on a case-by-case basis, giving
particular attention to the technique's consistency with NFPA require-
ments, and its ability to compensate for thermal expansion and con-
traction. Among the liquid-level measurement techniques are the
0-tube manometer test, the Arco HTC Storage Tank Leak Tester, laser
beam leak detection, and the Sunmark Leak Lokator. Each of these
tests is based on different principles and has its own distinct advan-
tages.
The J-tube manometer test utilizes a manometer-type instrument
composed of a narrow-diameter J-tube indicator attached to a large-
diameter reservoir tube. When placed in an underground tank, any
change in the tank level will cause a corresponding displacement of
fluid in the indicator tube. Over a sufficient time period, the test
can detect level changes as small as 0.02 inches. However, product
temperature changes as low as 1ฐF can negate the results, and it can-
not detect leaks above the product level in the tank.
The Arco HTC Storage Tank Leak Tester uses a float positioned at
a calculated depth, and a light-sensing detector attached to a support
rod. The amount of liquid in the detector light path changes in pro-
portion to changes in liquid volume in the tank. This in turn changes
the amount of light seen by the detector's photocell, which causes a
corresponding voltage change. The recorded voltage changes are then
used to calculate the liquid volume change. The test detects leaks
less than 0.05 gal/hr, but requires frequent recalibration during the
test. Additionally, the test is limited to tanks which are approxi-
mately 75% ful1.
5-15
-------
The Sunmark Leak Lokator consists of a sensor suspended from an
analytical balance and partially submerged in the tank liquid. Filled
with the same liquid as the tank, the sensor's buoyancy changes as the
tank liquid level changes. The test is sensitive to 0.03 gai/hr, com-
pensates for temperature and pressure, and can distinguish between
tank or piping leaks.
The sonic measurement technique is based upon the principle that
when the headspace pressure within the tank is reduced by an amount
slightly in excess of the equivalent head of fuel in the tank, air
will be drawn in through any leak, with the attendant formation of
bubbles on the interior tank wall. As these bubbles detach from the
wall they emit a distinct sound that is readily distinguishable from
background noise. This technique is thus unaffected by temperature or
volumetric changes within the tank. On the other hand, the technique
detects only the existence of a leak and not the rate of leakage. It
has yet to receive widespread acceptance, and is currently only appli->
cable to gasoline.
A format for documenting leak test results is shown in Figure
5-3. Although the specific information to be recorded will vary with
the type of test used, the format illustrates the type of data that
should be recorded.
An indirect means of underground tank inspection is to maintain
inventory control records for individual tanks. Thorough records of
transfer of product to and from a tank will reveal losses resulting
from unseen leaks.
Monitoring wells are appropriate means of leak detection at
facilities storing large volumes of product underground. The wells
are usually installed to detect the presence or investigate the move-
ment of liquid or gas in the ground. As such, they may be qualitative
in nature, using contaminant sensing devices to determine presence or
absence of contaminants, or they may be quantitative, requiring
periodic sample collection and analysis. Wells may be used to detect
vapors in unsaturated, permeable soils, or they may be used to detect
or determine the movement of leaked substances in the groundwater.
Placement of qualitative wells should be at those locations most
likely to provide an early indication of leakage. Quantitative
groundwater monitoring well placement should be such that at least
one well is situated hydrologically upgradient of the underground
tanks, and at least two wells are situated downgradient. In this man-
ner a comparison can be made of groundwater quality upgradient and
downgradient of the storage facilities. The wells may be placed such
that monitoring at several depths is provided. Leaks can be detected
by monitoring groundwater samples for the compounds that are in stor-
age. Monitoring frequency should be quarterly, at a minimum, but more
frequently if there is a suspicion that leakage is occurring.
5-16
-------
en
I
I*
LEAK TESTING LOG
FACILITY OWNER: CAPACITYJ
ADDRESS* VOLUME IN TANK:
TANKt PRODUCT ADDED TO FILL TESTER:
CONTENTS: TOTAL QUANTITY IN TANKi
Time
Deacript ion
of Procedures
Volume
or Level
Change in
Volume or Level
Temperatur e
Change
Net Volume Change
This Reading
Cumulative
Teat Results/Certifications
Signature of Tester
Organization: _____
Address:
SOURCE: Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1983.
Figure 5-3 LEAK TESTING LOG
-------
5.2.3 Reinforced Plastic (RP) Tanks
Aboveground RP tanks should be visually inspected for flexural
cracks after delivery as well as during service. Structural failure
resulting from overpressuring will be manifested by interior longitud-
inal cracking in horizontal tanks and by vertical cracking in vertical
tanks. Suspected cracks or other surface discontinuities should be
further investigated using the dye penetrant method.
Some attention should be given to the interior laminate for signs
of decomposition resulting from chemical attack. If accessible,
attention should also be focused on dish tank heads or ends, nozzles,
and gussets, all of which are potential weak points on RP tanks.
New tanks, underground as well as aboveground, should be hydro-
statically tested prior to installation. If possible, purchasers of
RP tanks should require verification of hydrostatic integrity from the
manufacturer prior to delivery.
Underground RP tanks may be subjected to the leak detection
methods discussed in Section 5.2.2.
5.2.4 Tank Liners
Inspection of tank liners should commence during the installation
process. The new liner should be of even thickness and texture, and
applied in such a manner that a complete bond is assured. It is espe-
cially critical that equipment, particularly ladders, used to apply a
liner not introduce punctures or "pinholes" to the fresh surfaces.
Adequate cushioning should be used to cover all sharp or blunt objects
placed on the liner surface during installation or inspection activi-
ties.
Once a liner is placed in service, inspections should be made
during the scheduled "down" times for a tank. The minimum inspection
frequency for liners is annually, with semiannual or quarterly checks
recommended under particularly corrosive conditions.
For any liner, bulging, blistering, and spalling are signs of
possible leakage. Lead liners, which are often used over steel for
very corrosive materials, should be lightly scraped with a knife or
other hand tool to remove the thin dark outer layer of lead oxide.
Cracks or other defects will manifest themselves as contrasts to the
bright lead thus revealed.
Nickel, monel, alloy steel, or other metal liners should be visu-
ally checked for cracks in the joints or seams. Suspect areas can be
further checked by the dye penetrant method. Note that the maqnetic-
particle method cannot be used if the liner material is non-magnetic.
In the case of rubber, glass, organic, or inorganic liners, holes
will be readily evidenced by blistering or bulging around them.
Visual inspection should be followed up by a spark test which involves
passing a high-voltage, low-current electrode over the nonconductive
5-18
-------
lining, with the other end of the circuit attached to the steel of the
tank. An electrical arc will form between the electrode and the steel
tank through any holes in the lining. This test should only be
performed in well ventilated tanks free of flammable or combustible
vapors. This test is described in more detail in Chapter IV of API's
"Guide for Inspection of Refinery Equipment"." The main limitation of
spark testing is the potential damage to lining materials if the
applied voltage is too high. Careful attention to spark testing
equipment specifications and manufacturers' restrictions should
prevent this possibility.
Concrete liners should be visually inspected for rust spots as
evidence of cracks and leaks. Light hammer tapping will reveal any
loss of bond between concrete and shell through the difference in
sound from bonded areas.
5.2.5 Valves
Frequent visual inspections should be made of all valves asso-
ciated with liquid storage tanks. Attention should be focused on the
valve connections and packing glands. The first attempt at stopping a
leak would be to tighten the valve flange bolts or packing gland.
Threaded valve connections should be checked for corrosion and for
stripped or crossed threads.
While a storage tank is out of service, valves should be dis-
mantled to examine previously inaccessible internal parts. Body
thickness measurements should be taken with calipers, especially if
there is evidence of corrosion. Valve bodies should also be checked
for internal cracking.
All seating surfaces should be checked for smoothness and
snug fit. The bottom seats of gate valves should be checked for
deterioration resulting from turbulence. The diaphragm in diaphragm
valves should be checked for its integrity and replaced as necessary.
Valve lining material should also be inspected for excessive wear or
points of corrosion.
After a valve is reassembled it should be pneumatically or hydro-
statically tested. If the pneumatic method is chosen, a soapy solu-
tion should be applied around the stem and seating surfaces to detect
leaks.
Specific critical areas of concern for common valve types are
illustrated in Figures 5-4 through 5-10.
5.2.5 Tank Appurtenances
All tank appurtenances and support systems should be visually
checked to insure their integrity and that they are functioning pro-
perly. Included should be:
Stairways and walkways - Check for structural stabilty and for
missing treads, rungs, handrails, etc.
5-19
-------
Stem Check threads for stripping
or deterioration.
Packing Gland and Packing - Check
for leakage and replace as necessary.
Bonnet Bolts - Check for tightness.
Valve Body Check for excessive
wall thinning, pitting, or cracking.
Check ball for smoothness and
snug fit against valve body.
Valve Seats Check for snug fit
when gate is closed.
SOURCE: British Valve Manufacturers Association, 1966.
Figure 5-4 CRITICAL AREAS OF GATE VALVE
5-20
-------
Packing Material - Cheek for leak-
age and replace as necessary.
Valve Body Check internal sur-
faces for corrosion from prolong-
eontact with undrained liquid.
Valve Seat - Check for misalign-
ment and excessive wear or de-
terioration.
SOURCE: Perry and Chilton, 1973.
Figure 5-5 CRITICAL AREAS OF GLOBE VALVE
5-21
-------
Spindle Check for leakage. Leak-
age will indicate poor seating or
failure of diaphragm.
Flange
leakage.
Check for tightness and
Flexible Diaphragm Check for
cracks or deterioration. Replace as
necessary. Use compatible material
only.
Valve Body - Measure for excessive
thinning, pitting or cracking.
SOURCE: British Valve Manufacturers Association, 1966.
Figure 5-6 CRITICAL AREAS OF DIAPHRAGM VALVE
5-22
-------
Packing Gland and Packing Re-
place as necessary to prevent leak-
age.
Flange - Check bolts for tightness.
Butterfly - Check for snug fit against
valve body when in closed position.
Valve Body - measure for excessive
wall thinning, pitting or cracking.
SOURCE: British Valve Manufacturers Association, 1966.
Figure 5-7 CRITICAL AREAS OF BUTTERFLY VALVE
5-23
-------
Hold-Down Bolts Check for tight-
ness and integrity.
Spring - Check for corrosion and
excessive wear.
Valve Head ฆ Valve should be re-
moved from service and tested for
calibration annually.
Flanges ฆ Check bolts for tightness.
SOURCE: . British Valve Manufacturers Association, 1966.
Figure 5-8 CRITICAL AREAS OF SAFETY
(PRESSURE RELIEF) VALVE
5-24
-------
Check dashpot for
wear and deteriora-
tion.
Check valve seat for a
smooth fit and exces-
sive wear.
GLOBE CHECK VALVE
Check integrity of
dashpot springs, if ap-
plicable.
Check valve bodies
for excessive wear and
deterioration.
Check dashpot for
wear and deteriora-
tion.
Check valve seat for a
smooth fit and exces-
sive wear.
Check integrity of
dashpot springs, if ap-
plicable.
Check valve bodies
for excessive wear and
deterioration.
ANGLE CHECK VALVE
Check valve seat for a
smooth fit and exces-
sive wear.
Check insert bodies
for deterioration, and
replace as necessary.
SWING CHECK VALVES
Check valve bodies
for excessive wear and
deterioration.
Check valve seat for a
smooth fit and exces-
sive wear.
LIFT CHECK VALVES
Check valve bodies
for excessive wear and
deterioration.
SOURCE: Perry and Chilton, 1973.
Figure 5-9 TYPES AND CRITICAL AREAS OF CHECK VALVES
5-25
-------
priata.
SOURCE: Perry and Chilton, 1973.
Figure 5-10 CRITICAL AREAS OF BALL VALVE
5-26
-------
Flame arrestors - These should be opened at intervals to
inspect for cleanliness and corrosion. Remove any clogged
debris.
o Dikes and Berms - Check for excessive erosion of earthen
structures and general deterioration of man-made materials.
Measurements should be taken and compared to original design
dimensions.
Ground Connection - Check visually for corrosion at point of
contact with ground and at the mechanical connection to tank.
The resistance of the ground should be less than 25 ohms.
Pressure Vacuum Vents - Check to see that they are not plugged
and that all moving parts are free.
Liquid Level Gaging Equipment - Check for corrosion or cracks
and to insure that no liquid is present in the mechanism.
Floating Roof Water Drains - Check for any breakage or block-
age to avoid ponding and collapse. Roof-to-shell seals should
be inspected visually for their integrity.
Electrical devices - Check for frayed or bare wires and con-
nections, proper circuit protection, and accumulation of flam-
mable debris. Electrical devices near flammable material
should be approved for use in a flammable materials environ-
ment.
All pipe connections should be inspected visually, especially at
ground level, for corrosion or distortion. Pipe supports should be
checked for structural stability. Ultrasonic readings can be taken to
check for thickness reduction from corrosion or pitting.
5.2.7 Foundations
Foundation ringwalls and concrete base curbing should be in-
spected visual ly for evidence of general deterioration. Cracks or
decay should be repaired immediately both for structural integrity and
to prevent precipitation or other liquids from accumulating under the
tank. Foundation settlement should be checked against a known refer-
ence point, using a surveyor's level.
General support structures, such as piers, columns, legs, and
stands, should be checked visually for their integrity, as well as
with calipers to detect excessive corrosion. Anchor bolts should be
checked for their integrity and tightness by striking them with a ham-
mer or similar instrument. Distortion of anchor bolts or columns is
an indicator of excessive settling. The welds along the angle iron at
the intersection of the shell and tank botom should also be inspected.
Figure 5-11 illustrates specific areas of concern for the inspection
of foundations.
In the case of aboveground tanks resting directly on a soil
foundation, it is usually impossible to visually detect leaks in the
5-27
-------
Tank
Tank Shell Check for rust spots,
pitting, hairline cracks.
Welds - Check for hairline cracks,
uniformity.
>
Hold-Down
Connection
/^jSuiidatipi* '
".O " "ฆ -ฐ.'i I*
o* * o> , <
R ivets. Bolts - Check for rust, de-
terioration, and hairline cracks
emanating from holes.
7/16"
Foundation - Check for crumbl-
ing, deterioration, seepage.
SOURCE: Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1983.
Figure 5-11 AREAS OF CONCERN IN A TYPICAL TANK FOUNDATION
5-28
-------
tank bottom plate. One mechanical method would be to place a tem-
porary clay dam or seal (if one does not already exist) around the
base of the tank and inject air underneath the tank at a pressure
equal to no more than three inches of water. Leaks will evidence
themselves as air bubbles when a soap solution is applied to the
interior tank bottom. An alternative method is to soap suspected
areas of the tank bottom and then apply a gasketed vacuum box. As a
vacuum is drawn within the box, leaks will, again, evidence themselves
as air bubbles. The vacuum box technique can be applied to any tank
surface.
5.2.8 Cathodic and Anodic Protection Systems
Storage systems equipped with cathodic or anodic corrosion con-
trols require periodic inspection of those controls if they are to
provide the long-term protection desired. For galvanic anode systems,
there should be at least annual measurements of tank-to-soil potential
and anode output. Items to check in all galvanic systems include
broken wires, broken or shorted insulators, or loss of coatings. Im-
pressed current electrode systems require inspection to detect poten-
tial failure due to power interruption, malfunction of rectifiers,
deterioriation of anodes, and broken wires. Rectifier output should
be monitored monthly with a voltage or amperage indicator, and
adjusted as needed. Tank-to-soil potential measurements should be
made at least annually to determine if rectifier adjustments are
needed to maintain adequate corrosion protection.
5.3 FREQUENCY OF INSPECTION
The intervals at which various inspection tasks should be per-
formed is largely site-specific. No two storage situations are
exactly alike, and it is because of the dissimilarities that it is
difficult to set rigid inspection frequencies. The frequencies should
be set on a case-by-case basis, considering:
The chemical nature of the material being stored;
Known or expected corrosion rates;
The corrosion allowance inherent in the tank wall thickness;
Previously observed conditions; and
Tank location.
Many external components of a storage system can be easily and
routinely inspected through visual observations or simple mechanical
checks. These general elements are listed in Table 5-4 as daily or
weekly tasks. Despite the routine nature of these checks, a conscien-
tious program of external inspection should be adequate to detect pre-
liminary corrosion, leaks, excessive settlement, and improper func-
tioning of vents, pressure-relief valves, gaging devices, and other
appurtenances.
A more thorough inspection of external tank surfaces, welds,
rivets, and foundations should be undertaken on a monthly basis. Upon
close inspection special attention should be paid to the critical
areas discussed and illustrated in Section 5.2.
5-29
-------
Table 5-4
MINIMUM INSPECTION TASKS AND FREQUENCIES
Frequency Task
Daily Visually check valve stems and flanges for leakage
Visually check piping for misalignment, bending, or
leakage with particular attention to tees, couplings,
elbows, and connections
Inspect ground surface around vertical and horizontal
tanks for signs of leakage
Check discharge and fill control equipment before
product is transferred to insure that it is
functioning properly
Check liquid level in the tank before product is added
to insure adequate capacity
Check gate valve frcm diked area to insure that it is
closed and locked
Check walkways and stairways for obstructions
Check and record inventory of tank contents
Weekly Check liquid level gaging equipment to insure that it
is functioning properly
Check roof drains for obstructions
Check vents and pressure-relief devices for
obstructions
Check grounding lines and connections for integrity
Check stairways for damaged rungs or handrails
Check containment dike or berm for integrity
Does oil/water separator or equivalent require
pumping
Check separator discharge for clarity
Does diked area require drainage
Check fire extinguishing equipment
Monthly Inspect all exterior tank surfaces, welds,
rivets/bolts, foundation
Check impressed current rectifiers
Inventory all spill control and other emergency
response equipment
Quarterly Non-destructive thickness testing of piping and valves
-------
Table 5-4 (Cont.)
Frequency
Task
Semi-Annually
(at scheduled
down-time)
Thickness testing for shell walls
Inspection of liners
Leak testing of foundation
Leak testing of underground tanks assembly
Annually Test structural stability of support structures for
(at scheduled elevated tanks and test pressure relief valves for
down-time) calibration
Measure tank-to-soil potential
Source: Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1983.
5-31
-------
The most detailed inspection tasks are those which require dis-
ruption of service, access to the interior of the tank, or disassembly
of components. Necessarily, these tasks are undertaken on a less fre-
quent basis, such as quarterly, semi-annually, or annually, as out-
lined in Table 5-4. These types of tasks generally require the use of
the nondestructive test methodologies detailed in Section 5.1.
5.4 INSPECTION CHECKLISTS
The inspection process should be somewhat structured at least to
the extent that there are minimum inspection tasks (outlined in Sec-
tion 5.3). The use of formal checklists, logs, and report forms will
insure thorough and complete attention to all required inspection
tasks, as well as provide a hard-copy record of conditions which could
warrant corrective or maintenance activities. In this manner, recur-
ring or developing problems would be readily identified and remedied.
Sample inspection checklists are illustrated in Figures 5-12
through 5-14. The daily inspection checklist should be used to record
the routine yet important observations that should be made on a day-
to-day basis. The weekly checklist should cover those areas that
ordinarily receive less frequent attention but are fundamental to the
safe operation of a tank or tank system. The monthly inspection log
should yield a more detailed assessment of the structural integrity of
the tank, and should form the basis for any required corrective
action. It should be stressed that individual checklists must be
developed on a facility-by-facility basis to adequately address the
range of conditions encountered in the field.
The thickness testing log (Figure 5-15) provides a means for
tracking shell, valve, or piping wall deterioration. The results of
non-destructive thickness testing performed as part of the schedule
outlined in Section 5.3, or on an as-needed basis, should be recorded
in this log. This log may be used to develop the graphical techniques
outlined in Section 5.5, Criteria For Correction Action. Note that
the last column in the log provides for the computation of safe load-
ing parameters for the tank in the event that wall-thinning has appre-
ciably reduced the strength of the tank.
All completed forms should be kept in an ongoing file for each
tank. This file may correspond with the SPCC records recommended in
Section 7.
These logs and checklists should be modified to correspond to
individual tank characteristics or conditions.
5.5 RATIONALE FOR CORRECTIVE ACTION
As discussed in Section 3.7, one of the purposes of a hazards and
risk analysis of a proposed hazardous materials storage facility is
the early determination of corrective design actions that will elimi-
nate or minimize the identified critical hazards. By extension, the
logical principles of hazard or risk analysis may be applied to deter-
mine appropriate corrective actions, thereby placing the greatest
priority on correcting those hazards identified as having the greatest
5-32
-------
Daily Inspection Checklist
TANK # PAGE OF .
LOCATION INSPECTED BY
FILL LEVEL DATE
CONTENTS
Inspection
Tank
Accept-
able
Unaccept-
able
(Specify)
Recommended Corrective
Action
Referred
To
Is fill valve locked
and closed?
Is dike gate valve
locked and closed?
Condition of
valve #
ป
Condition of
inlet piping
Condition of
outlet piping
fill control
equipment
functioning?
Discharge control
equipment
functioning?
Visual check of
tank shell integrity
Evidence of
leakage on ground?
Ia there adequate
freeboard in tank
Are stairways
and walkwaya
unobstructed
SOURCE: Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1983.
Figure 5-12 DAILY INSPECTION CHECKLIST
5-33
-------
WEEKLY INSPECTION CHECKLIST
TANK # MCE Of
LOCATION INSPECTED BY
TILL LEVEL WTE
CONTENTS
Item
Accept-
able
Unaccept-
able
(specify)
Recommended Corrective
Action
Referred
To
Is liquid level
gaging equipment
operating properly?
Is emergency shut-
down system func-
tioning properly?
Are roof vents
clear?
Are roof draina
clear?
Are pressure relief
devices free of
obetruction?
Are stairways and
hsndrails in good
condition?
Is containment
dike/berm intact?
Ooes diked area
require damage?
Is there adequate
freeboard in oil-
water separator
Is fire extinguish-
ing equipment in
place and func-
tioning properly?
Leak detection
equipment func-
tioning properly?
SOURCE: Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1983.
Figure 5-13 WEEKLY INSPECTION CHECKLIST
5-34
-------
Item
Accept-
able
Unaccept-
able
(specify)
Recommended Corrective
Action
Referred
To
Check ignition
safeguardsr
Isolated metal
objects and
fill nozzels
grounded?
Absence of spark
promoters from
tank interior?
Inlet flow rate
sufficiently
limited?
Ground con-
nections secure?
Metallic shunts
intact?
SOURCE:
Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1983.
Figure 5-13 WEEKLY INSPECTION CHECKLIST (Cont.)
5-35
-------
MONTHLY TANK INSPECTION LOG
TANK I LOCATIONS FILL LEVELt
CONTENTS: INSPECTED BY* DAIEt PAGE OF
Item
Observations
Recommendations for
Corrective Action
Tank shell and roof
-Discoloration or flaking
of coating
-Localized corrosion
-Structural damage
-Development of hairline cracks
-Bulging or csvitation
-Deterioration at joints and
connections
Welds
-Localized corrosion
-Separatin or distortion
of welded components
-Development of hsirline cracks
Rivets/bolts
-Localized corrosion
-Loosened components
-Hissing
F oundations/supports
-Cracking or deterioration
of concrete ringwall
or support
-Uneven settlement
-Slippage of tank
from foundation or support
-Buckling of saddle
or vertical supports
-Loosened anchor bolts
SOURCE: Ecology and Environment, inc., 1983.
Figure 5-14 MONTHLY TANK INSPECTION LOG
-------
cn
i
CO
THICKNESS TESTING LOG
TANK # LOCATION! CONTENTSi
Date of
Inspect ion
fill
Level
Thickness, Inches
Tank Certified
for Continued
Service at
Liquid Height h =
Liquid Gravity G =
h1
h2
hj
H
*5
*6
*7
hfl
Roof f
Roof 2
Bottoaj
8otton2
Valve|
Valve2
Valve}
Inlet
Piping
Outlet
Piping
SOURCE: Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1983.
Figure 5-15 THICKNESS TESTING LOG
-------
potential for loss of life, personal injury, environmental damage, or
property damage. Conversely, those items identified as having no or
minimal hazard potential are given lower priorities. Therefore,
establishing priorities for corrective action is based largely on an
assessment of the potential consequences arising from failure to cor-
rect an identified defect.
The potential consequences of equipment failure are numerous.
The possibilities include, but are not limited to, any one or combina-
tion of the following:
Loss of life;
Loss of property;
t Loss of natural resources;
Loss or adulteration of product;
Fire and/or explosion;
Toxic vapor release; and
Widescale evacuation of populations.
The extent of hazard posed by any facility will be specific to that
facility. Therefore, it is not possible to provide specific recom-
mendations regarding critical failure points, etc. Such details are
covered by the design and material specifications used in tank or
facility construction, and are illustrated throughout Chapters 3 and 5
of this manual. However, the factors a facility operator must con-
sider in developing maintenance and repair priorities include:
Age of the facility;
Materials used in construction;
Physical/chemical/toxicological properties of the stored mate-
rial;
Quantity of material stored;
ง Operation of warning or control devices;
Geologic/hydrologic/topographic properties of the site;
Design tolerances and specifications;
Size and proximity of adjacent population;
Value of the stored materials and facility; and
Consequences of storage system failure.
The inspection schedules and critical areas described throughout this
chapter illustrate how the above factors may be incorporated into a
routine maintenance and inspection program. However, these serve as
illustrative guidelines only. The facility operator should develop a
maintenance and inspection program specific to the condition and needs
of the individual facility.
5-38
-------
The overall objectives of any maintenance and inspection program
are to prevent loss of stored material and avert the consequences
thereof. Therefore, in any situation it is advisable that corrective
action be undertaken at the earliest detection of problems. For exam-
ple, cracks, discontinuities, corrosion or rust spots, inoperative
vents or other equipment, leaky valves, or eroding berms all warrant
immediate repair.
In the case of gradual wall thinning of tanks or valves, the
point at which repair or replacement is required is determined by the
minimum thickness needed to insure structural integrity. For steel
tanks this is generally one-quarter inch or loss of 20% of the origi-
nal wall thickness. For valves, the minimum thickness is calculated
according to ANSI standard B34. Graphs should be used to predict,
based on historical thickness measurements, the point at which the
safe minimum thickness would be reached. Replacement should take
place before this point. An example of the technique is illustrated
in Figure 5-16.
Tank or valve liners should be replaced when it is no longer
feasible to repair them. Valve diaphragms are readily removable and
should be replaced as needed.
The above criteria for repair and replacement should be used as
guidelines only. Specific criteria must be based on the specifica-
tions of the materials actually used and on conditions at the facil-
ity. However, priorities for repair and replacement may be estab-
lished on the basis of a logical analysis of:
The defects identified;
The potential consequences of product loss; and
The costs, practicality, and effectiveness of the repair.
Figure 5-17 illustrates a logical scheme for establishing corrective
action priorities. The scheme is a matrix comparing categories of
defects, in decreasing order of severity, with a similar range of
consequences. The categories of defects are:
Actual loss of primary containment, which may be caused by
tank wall failure, leakage, spills, etc;
Imminent loss of primary containment, indicated by cracks,
excessive corrosion, wall thinning, etc;
Potential loss of primary containment, indicated by such con-
ditions as loose fittings, inoperable gaging or warning
devices, visible corrosion, etc; and
Inadequate secondary containment, indicated by such conditions
as insufficient freeboard, accumulation of rainwater, breached
diking, etc.
5-39
-------
Measured wall thickness
(.250")
1/4"
JAN 1970 J.
1971..
1972 _
1973..
1974. _
1975..
1976..
1977..
1978..
(.375")
3/8"
(.500")
1/2"
Start-up
ป/
ฎ / 7/16"
/
/
/*
Semi-Annual
thickness
testing
results
"Best-Fit"
Curve
. Anticipated
replacement
date
SOURCE: Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1982.
Figure 5-16 GRAPHICAL CALCULATION OF REPLACEMENT DATE FOR
TANKS AND VALVES
5-40
-------
CONSEQUENCES:
ACTUAL LOSS OF
PRIMARY CONTAINMENT
IMMINENT LOSS
OF PRIMARY
CONTAINMENT
POTENTIAL
LOSS OF PRIMARY
CONTAINMENT
INADEQUATE
SECONDARY
CONTAINMENT
EXTENSIVE DANGER TO
LIFE, HEALTH, PROPERTY
REMOVE FROM SERVICE
UNTIL DEFECTS
CORRECTED
POTENTIAL DANGER TO
LIFE, HEALTH, PROPERTY
REMOVE FROM SERVICE
OR REPAIR IMMEDIATELY
WHILE FACILITY
IN OPERATION
LIMITED PROPERTY
DAMAGE ONLY
REPAIR DURING
NEXT SCHEDULED
MAINTENANCE
ESTHETIC DAMAGE
ONLY
REPAIR WITHIN REASONABLE
PERIOD, IN ACCORDANCE
WITH APPLICABLE
REGULATIONS
SOURCE: Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1083.
Figure 5-17 ILLUSTRATIVE MATRIX FOR DETERMINING CORRECTIVE
ACTION PRIORITIES
-------
Categories of consequences may be described as:
Extensive danger to life, health, or property, as in a gas
release or fire;
Potential danger to life, health, or property;
Limited property damage to facility; and
Esthetic damage.
By matching the defects and consequences in order of severity, one may
determine the priorities for corrective action. In this example,
these priorities are:
Removing tank from service until defects are corrected;
Immediate repair while facility remains in operation;
ง Repair during next scheduled maintenance period;
Repair when manpower and resources permit, within an allotted
time period.
The scheme and categories presented in Figure 5-17 are not intended to
be all-inclusive, or fully descriptive of the types of defects or
consequences that may occur. Nor should it imply that certain classes
of defects require only limited corrective action. However, it illus-
trates a systematic method for analyzing defects in terms of the con-
sequences they may cause, and serves as a guide to plant operators for
developing their own repair priorities.
5.6 TANK CLEANING GUIDELINES
Tank cleaning can be extremely dangerous if not performed care-
fully. Improper removal of even small volumes of solid, liquid or
gaseous residues of hazardous chemicals can cause explosions and
worker asphyxiation or poisoning. In general, the most important con-
sideration is that the tank cleaning method be compatible with the
chemical stored and the tank material, and it is therefore essential
that cleaning procedures be well thought out and planned in advance.
Proper procedures and equipment are necessary.' This should
include maintaining an adequate air supply or respiratory protective
equipment for personnel; protective clothing, such as chemical-
resistant clothing, rubber boots, gloves, and goggles, and face
shields or eye protective equipment; preparation of emergency escape
and rescue plans for personnel; appropriate cleaning equipment, which
may include steam nozzles, sandblasting equipment, and agitators;
safety belts, safety lines and ladders; air monitoring equipment such
as combustible gas indicators and oxygen indicators; and first aid. .
All tank cleaning equipment should be electrically bonded to tank
shells during use, and all lighting and electrical equipment used
inside or near the tanks should be intrinsically safe or grounded to
prevent sparks.
5-42
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In cleaning tanks, the first step is to drain the tank and lines
of their contents. This should utilize equipment suitable for tempor-
ary storage of the material, and should be performed with the same
degree of attention to chemical compatibility, personnel safety, and
ignition safeguards as during normal tank transfer operations. When
all liquid and solid contents have been removed, vapors must be purged
from the tank. All product lines, steam smothering lines and other
lines should be disconnected and blanked prior to purging vapors.
Vapor removal can be achieved by steaming, ventilating with air or an
inert gas, or displacing with water. However, it is extremely impor-
tant to employ a method which is compatible with the chemical which
was stored. For instance, steaming should not be used on tanks that
held water-reactive chemicals, and air should not be used to purge a
tank when it could cause the internal vapors to become combustible.
In addition, vapors should be removed in a manner that does not pose a
respiratory or other threat. A combustible gas and oxygen meter
should be used as necessary to determine that a tank has been purged
of flammable vapors, or that there is an adequate oxygen supply.
Combination instruments which measure both parameters simultaneously
are available and are recommended for use.
For tank cleaning with entry, no work should be performed inside
the tank unless it has been determined that a safe atmosphere exists
in the tank. In general, oxygen content should be greater than 19.5%
and no greater than 20.9%, and the combustible gas indicator should
read less than 10% of the lower explosive limit (LEL) for the material
in question. (Note: acceptable LEL levels may vary in different
regulatory jurisdictions. Check applicable regulations to determine
acceptable maximum levels.) Oxygen and combustible gas readings
should be taken at frequent intervals while work is being performed in
the tank. If the atmosphere in the tank is not safe, the workers con-
ducting the tank cleaning should try to ventilate the tank and remove
the hazard. If efforts to ventilate the tank are unsuccessful, self-
contained breathing apparatus or other appropriate respiratory protec-
tion should be made available to and used by persons entering the
tank.
Tank cleaning without entry is most easily achieved using steam.
Steaming should last at least ten minutes to insure that the entire
surface of the tank has been heated to near the boiling point of
water. Following steam treatment, the tank should be washed with hot
water and allowed to overflow to remove any solid debris. However,
whenever a tank is overflowed, care must be taken to avoid any contam-
ination of off-site water sources. If steaming does not sufficiently
clean the tank, a chemical cleaning solution can be introduced into
the tank. When hot solutions are used, they should be maintained at
170"F to 190#F. Cold solutions can be used in severe cases, but as
with any chemical solution, these should only be used after it has
been determined that they are compatible with the tank material. For
example, if cleaned with caustic solution, aluminum- and zinc-coated
tanks can generate hydrogen. Chunks of solid material which cannot be
removed chemically can be removed by tumbling a chain inside the tank
when flammability is not a danger. Following cleaning, all tanks
should be tested with a combustible gas indicator before any welding,
cutting, burning, or other spark-producing operation is performed.
5-43
-------
Additional guidelines on tank cleaning can be obtained from chem-
ical suppliers; cleaning contractors; API Standard RP2015, "Cleaning
Petroleum Storage Tanks"; and NFPA Standard No. 327, "Cleaning and
Safeguarding Small Tanks and Containers."
5.7 TANK CLOSURE
Proper attention must be paid to the permanent or temporary clo-
sure of hazardous materials storage tanks for many reasons. These
include prevention of spills or leaks of any remaining contents; mini-
mizing or eliminating the possibility of residual vapor explosion or
fire; prevention of accidents or illegal access to the tank; and
insuring the appropriate reuse of the tank.
Temporary closure is generally applicable to structurally sound
tanks intended to be put back into service within two years, or sched-
uled for permanent closure within 90 days. Closure is effected by
removing all the contents of a tank and filling it with water and cor-
rosion inhibitor. If the tank was used to store flammable materials,
sufficient product could remain in the tank to provide a saturated
vapor space. All fill and draw-off lines should be capped with con-
crete, and all vent lines should be left open.
Permanent closure may be accomplished by either abandonment in
place or by removal. Abandonment in place is used whenever the age
and salvage value of the tank does not justify removal costs, and when
future use of the site would not be affected. The tank should then be
completely emptied of all liquids and sludges, and all vapors should
be removed. The tank should be thoroughly cleaned and filled with an
inert solid such as sand, gravel, or concrete. All lines to and from
the tank, and any access points should be capped. Aboveground tanks
should be securely anchored in place. Tank removal is preferable to
abandonment for tanks with sufficient salvage value, or if future uses
of the site so require. As with abandoned tanks, all liquid, solid,
and vapor contents should be removed, and the tank thoroughly cleaned.
All connections to the tank should be removed and temporarily plugged
while the tank is transported from the site. If the tank is to be
reused, care should be taken to properly clean and prepare it for its
future use. The tank should not be used for storage of a chemical not
compatible with the previous contents, nor should a chemical storage
tank be reused to store food products for human consumption. If the
tank is to be disposed of, it should be dismantled or otherwise ren-
dered unusable.
5-44
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
American Concrete Institute, 1976, ACI Manual of Concrete Practices -
Parts 1, 2, and 3, Detroit, MI.
American Petroleum Institute (API), 1973, Guide for Inspection of
Refinery Equipment, Chapter II - Conditions Causing Deterioration
or Failures, Second Edition, American Petroleum institute Pub-
lishers, Washington, D.C.
, 1976, Guide for Inspection of Refinery Equipment, Chapter
VI - Pressure, Vessels, Third Edition, American Petroleum Insti-
tute Publishers, Washington, D.C.
, 1975, Guide for Inspection of Refinery Equipment - Chapter
XII - Foundations, Structures and Buildings, Second Edition,
American Petroleum Institute Publishers, Washington, D.C.
, 1981, Guide for Inspection of Refinery Equipment - Chapter
XIII - Stmospheric and Low-Pressure Storage Tanks, American
Petroleum Institute Publishers, Washington, D.C.
, 1974, Guide for Inspection of Refinery Equipment - Chapter
XVI - Pressure Relieving Devices, Second Edition, American
Petroleum Institute Publishers, Washington, D.C.
, 1970, Guide for Follow-up Inspection of Interior Tank
Coatings, American Petroleum Institute Publishers, Washington,
Dt:
, 1976, Cleaning Petroleum Storage Tanks, API Publication
2015, Second Edition, American Petroleum Institute Publishers,
Washington, D.C.
, 1981, Recommended Practice of Abandonment or Removal of
Used Underground Service Station Tanks, API Bulletin 1604, Ameri-
can Petroleum Institute Publishers, Washington, D.C.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1971, Secion V - Nonde-
structive Examination ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code,
McGraw-Hill Publications, New York, NY.
American Water Works Association, 1953, Inspecting and Repairing Steel
Water Tanks, Standpipes, Resevoirs and Elevated Tanks for Water
Storage, AWWA standard D1Q1, American Water Works Association,
Denver, CO.
5-45
-------
Arney, H., 1978, Safe Entry and Cleaning of Storage Tanks and Vessels,
National Petroleum Refiners Association, Technical Paper MC-7804.
British Valve Manufacturers Association, 1966, Valves For The Control
of Fluids, Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Fitzgerald, J.H., "Corrosion Control for Buried Service Station
Tanks," Paper No. 52, The International Corrosion Forum Devoted
Exclusively to the Protection and Performance of Materials, April
14-18, 1975, Toronto, Canada, National Association of Corrosion
Engineers, Publications Department, 1440 South Creek, Houston,
TX, 77084.
Mahhotra V., 1976, Testing Hardened Concrete: Nondestructive Methods,
American Concrete Institute, Detroit, MI.
Maryland Department of Natural Resources, Water Resources Administra-
tion, 1981, Maryland State Spill Contingency Plan, Fourth Edi-
tion, Annapolis, MD.
National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE), 1980, Corrosion
Engineers Reference Book, National Association of Corrosion Engi-
neers, Houston, TX.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), Water Resources Admini-
stration, 1981, Underground Leakage of Flammable and Combustible
Liquids, National Fire Code, Section 329, Volume 13, National
Fire Protection Association, Boston, MA.
, 1975, Cleaning Small Tanks and Containers, National Fire
Code, Section 327, Volume 3, National Fire Protection Associa-
tion, Boston, MA.
, 1981, Farm Storage of Flammable and Combustible Liquids,
National Fire Code, Section 395, Volume 3, National Fire Protec-
tion Association, Boston, MA.
, 1981, Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, National
Fire Code, Section 30, Volume 3, National Fire Protection Associ-
ation, Boston, MA.
, 1981, Pesticides in Portable Containers, National Fire
Code, Section 43D, Volume 3, National Fire Protection Associa-
tion, Boston, MA.
Perry, R., and C. Chilton, 1973, Chemical Engineer's Handbook,
McGraw-Hill Publications, New York, NY
5-46
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SECTION 6
PERSONNEL HEALTH, SAFETY, AND TRAINING
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Two basic types of hazards to personnel exist in the workplace:
safety hazards and health hazards. Safety hazards are those which can
cause bodily injury, such as through a fall, an electric shock, or a
cut. Health hazards are those which can cause illness or biologic
damage, such as through exposure to toxic materials, including carcin-
ogens or physical agents.
These hazards can be controlled by one or more of the following
means:
Elimination of the hazard by substituting a less hazardous
material or process, by isolating the hazard so that workers
are not exposed to it, or by removing the hazard altogether;
Engineering control of the hazard by guarding equipment, by
using mechanical means to reduce contaminant exposures to
permissible limits, by altering equipment design or operation,
or by using less hazardous methods or processes;
Administrative control of the hazard by arranging work sched-
ules or process times to reduce exposure, by training employ-
ees in safe work practices, and by administrative procedures
and oversight designed to identify and abate hazards; or
Use of personal protective equipment in cases where control of
a hazard is not feasible or adequate by any of the first three
methods, in emergency situations, or as a normal precautionary
measure.
By the very nature of hazardous substance storage, hazard elimi-
nation will not be a realistic form of control. Engineering control,
for example, by means of the technical guidelines provided by this
manual, can be effective in reducing the risks associated with storage
of hazardous chemicals. However, the degree of effectiveness is
dependent upon rigorous implementation of administrative and personal
protective controls. These include the proper selection and applica-
tion of personal protective equipment, observance of safety precau-
tions, and thorough training.
6-1
-------
Standards arid guidelines for minimizing hazards to personnel are
addressed in Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) regulations 29
CFR 1910 and 29 CFR 1926. The OSHA standards provide enforceable reg-
ulations intended to insure safe work environments. It is extremely
important that the user of this manual determine the existence of and
comply with state and local regulations which may supersede OSHA regu-
lations. The standards are based on research from a variety of organ-
izations. A sample listing of organizations which develop recommenda-
tions relevant to health and safety in hazardous materials environ-
ments includes: the National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health (NIOSH), the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), and
the American Council of Governmental and Industrial Hygienists
(ACGIH). These organizations publish recommendations covering a wide
variety of health and safety issues, which generally are more fre-
quently updated than the OSHA standards. Therefore, although they are
not enforceable unless specifically cited by OSHA, the recommendations
of these organizations should be used to supplement the OSHA standards
in order to establish the most effective health and safety practices.
6.2 HEALTH HAZARDS
Health hazards result from exposure to certain contaminants or
physical stresses that can cause illness or biologic damage. They may
be chemical or physical in nature. Benzene, for example, is a chemi-
cal hazard, whereas excessive noise exposure is a physical hazard.
At present, the OSHA standards contain regulations governing
employee exposure to chemical and physical hazards. Exposure to these
hazards can have a variety of adverse effects on the human system.
These include, but are not limited to, skin disease, respiratory
damage, and sensory damage.
Factors that determine the degree of hazard are the concentration
of the contaminant in the environment, and the length of time workers
are exposed to the contaminant. Permissible exposure limits and stan-
dards can be found in the OSHA regulations (29 CFR 1910), NIOSH cri-
teria documents, and the ACGIH Threshold Limit Values booklet.
The major health hazards associated with hazardous substance
storage systems are those resulting from skin and respiratory expo-
sure. These hazards, their causes, the best methods of control, and
applicable control standards are discussed in the following sections.
6.2.1 Skin Disease
Occupational dermatitis is the most frequently encountered job-
related disease. One out of every four workers is exposed to some
form of skin irritant, and about one percent of those exposed develop
skin disorders. Occupational dermatitis may be caused by primary
irritants, allergic sensitizers, mechanical trauma, plant poisons, and
biologic agents.
Primary irritants affect anyone who comes into direct skin
contact with them. They produce skin irritation at the point
6-2
-------
of contact. Many solvents, lubricants, acids, and caustics
are common primary irritants.
Allergic sensitizers can, after a period of time, cause an
allergic-type skin irritation in susceptible people. Typical
sensitizers include epoxy resin hardeners and coal tar deriva-
tives.
Mechanical trauma is skin irritation resulting from friction,
pressure, or other mechanical means.
Plant toxins include poison ivy and poison oak, which produce
irritations of the skin.
Biologic agents include those bacteria, fungi, and parasites
which attack the skin and produce irritation.
Skin cancer is in a category by itself. It may be occupationally
caused by worker contact with known or suspected carcinogenic agents,
or it may be caused by excessive exposure to ultraviolet or ionizing
radiation.
The OSHA standards contain no sections, devoted specifically to
skin disease. The general standards for workplace sanitation in Sub-
part J of 29 CFR 1910 are primarily concerned with control of infec-
tious diseases, but may be of benefit in reducing skin exposures.
Further guidance may be obtained from the permissible concentrations
for various workplace contaminants listed in Tables Z-l, Z-2, and Z-3
of the Air Contaminants section in Subpart Z. Those substances fol-
lowed by the word "skin" can be absorbed through the skin. Standards
for many specific toxic and hazardous substances are addressed in Sub-
part Z, as well as in the ACGIH Threshold Limit Values booklet, and
the NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards.
Local exhaust ventilation is a good method for controlling most
air contaminants, including those aerosols that are harmful to the
skin. Further guidance on ventilation may be obtained from ANSI stan-
dards Z9.1 and Z9.2, and from the ACGIH Industrial Ventilation Manual.
However, the best methods for controlling direct skin exposure are
through the use of protective clothing, as described in Section 6.3.1
of this manual.
6.2.2 Respiratory Damage and Disease
Permissible concentrations listed by NIOSH, ACGIH, and OSHA gen-
erally are levels of contaminants to which nearly all workers may be
exposed day after day without developing significant adverse effects.
If the permissible concentrations for air contaminants are regularly
exceeded, workers may experience such effects as respiratory damage or
disease, systemic disorders, chronic or irreversible tissue changes,
or narcosis of sufficient degree to impair physical ability.
Air contaminants that affect health may be either particulate or
gaseous in nature. Dusts and fumes are particulates. Dusts are tiny
solid particles suspended in the atmosphere. Fumes are tiny particles
6-3
-------
resulting from condensation of volatilzed metal, such as iron or lead.
Gaseous contaminants may be true gases (such as carbon monoxide) or
they may be vapors of substances that are liquid at normal tempera-
tures.
The effect caused by particulate and gaseous contaminants may be
acute or chronic. An acute effect occurs when the concentration of
contaminant is so great that some system within the body is completely
overwhelmed and can no longer perform its vital function. A chronic
effect is one that results from exposure to lower contaminant concen-
trations over long time periods. Such exposure could ultimately lead
to disability or death.
The permissible concentrations for air contaminants should be
strictly adhered to. Exposure of employees to contaminant concentra-
tions greater than those allowed by the standards may be harmful to
employee health. Therefore, the workplace air should be monitored
regularly to assure that contaminant concentrations are well within
the permissible limits. Workplace monitoring for air contaminants
should be done by trained, qualified personnel who know how to use the
measuring instruments and how to interpret the values obtained from
sampling the air. The air monitoring program should be developed and
supervised by a Certified Industrial Hygienist. Because sampling
protocols vary by the type of hazard to be measured and by the objec-
tives of the sampling program (i.e., personal exposure, ambient
levels, etc.), specific guidance should be obtained from such sources
as:
NIOSH's Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards;
ง NIOSH's The Industrial Environment-Its Evaluation and Control;
and
Patty's Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology.
When deciding on abatement measures, each type of exposure must
be considered separately. Some controls, as stated in the standards,
are mandatory, while others must be adapted to the situation at hand.
Any abatement measures used, including the use of personal protective
equipment, must be approved by an industrial hygienist or comparably
qualified person.
The following OSHA standards (29 CFR 1910) are applicable to con-
trol of respiratory hazards at hazardous materials storage facilities:
t Subpart I covers respirators for particular hazards, including
regulations for adequate fit, maintenance, and proper use;
Subpart Q provides regulations for respiratory protection
during welding, cutting, and brazing operations; and
Subpart Z specifies the permissible concentrations for a wide
range of air contaminants. It also explains how exposures
must be calculated and the kinds of abatement measures that
must be undertaken.
6-4
-------
Other standards which should be considered and which may provide
applicable guidance, though not regulatory in nature, include:
ANSI Z88.2-Practices for Respiratory Protection;
ANSI Z9.1-Safety Code for Ventilation and Operation of Open
Surface Tanks;
ANSI Z9.2-Fundamentals Governing the Design and Operation of
Local Exhaust Systems;
NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards: And
ACGIH Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and
Physical Agents in the Workroom Environment.
6.3 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
Personal protective equipment must be worn by hazardous substance
storage facility personnel to prevent injuries from a variety of haz-
ards, such as contact with hot or corrosive liquids, inhalation of
toxic gases or fumes, heavy materials or equipment accidents, or
injuries with objects. Protection against electrical shock .must be
provided if conditions warrant. Additional safety devices are
required for workers in high places or over water.
The general regulations for personal protective equipment are
found in 29 CFR 1910.132. These requirements state that protective
equipment, respiratory devices, and protective shields and barriers,
shall be provided, used, and maintained in a sanitary and reliable
condition wherever necessary because of physical, chemical, or mechan-
ical hazards capable of causing injury or impairment in the function
of any part of the body through absorption, inhalation, or physical
contact. All personal protective equipment shall be of a design and
construction appropriate to the work to be performed.
In some situations which require the use of personal protective
equipment, workers may resist using the equipment because it is uncom-
fortable or viewed as an inconvenience. Supervisors are responsible
for ensuring that workers use the prescribed equipment in an appropri-
ate manner.
Procedures that may help to gain worker acceptance of personal
protective equipment include:
An educational program pointing out the necessity for and
benefits of such equipment;
c Appropriate rules to influence worker acceptance; and
Selection of equipment that provides adequate protection with
minimal interference with normal work procedures.
6-5
-------
It is also the supervisor's responsibility to make sure that all
personal protective equipment is periodically checked and properly
maintained.
Because the major health and safety hazards associated with
hazardous substances are due to skin and respiratory exposure,
standards for protection in these areas will be discussed in the
sections to follow. The user is referred to the appropriate OSHA (20
CFR 1910.133, .135, and .136) and ANSI (Z41.1, Z87.1, and Z89.1) stan-
dards for face, head, and foot protection.
6.3.1 Body and Hand Protection
At present there are no specific OSHA or ANSI standards for body
and hand protection. However, the general requirements of OSHA Stan-
dard 1910.132 state that personal protective equipment must be pro-
vided where conditions warrant.
Many types of specialized clothing are available to provide pro-
tection against a variety of hazards. In general, the design, con-
struction, and material used should provide appropriate protection for
the hazard involved. The manufacturer often provides guidelines
regarding appropriate usage.
Materials used for body and hand protection differ, depending on
the type of protection needed.
Leather protects against heat, hot metal splashes, and infra-
red and ultraviolet radiant energy;
Asbestos and wool are used for heat protection at higher tem-
peratures;
Aluminized clothing is used at extremely high temperatures to
reflect much of the radiant heat;
Padded clothing and hard fiber or metal shields protect
against bruises, cuts, and blows.
Impervious clothing is required for protection against dusts,
vapors, moisture, and corrosive liquids. Such garments run
the gamut from sheet plastic bibs to total body suits with an
air supply.
Impervious materials include natural rubber, synthetic rubber, neo-
prene, vinyl, polypropylene, and polyethylene film. Natural rubber is
not suitable for use with oils, greases, and many organic solvents and
chemicals. Table 6-1 lists a selection of impervious materials and
indicates the level of protection they provide against a variety of
chemicals. The data in the table are based solely on manufacturers'
information, with no guarantee of their accuracy of reliability. It
is recommended that the manufacturers be contacted for verification
before selecting materials for specific applications. Factors to be
considered include: chemical composition of the materials to be
encountered, the degree of concentration, temperature conditions,
6-6
-------
Table 6-1
CHEMICAL RESISTANCE OF PROTECTIVE CLOTHING MATERIALS
Neo-
prene
PVC
Paracril/
PVC
Polyur-
ethane
Chlorinated
Polyethy-
lene
Butyl
Rubber
Natural
Rubber
Nitrile
Vitron
PVA
Acetaldehyde
C
C
A
C
I
A
A
C
U
U
Acetic Acid
A
C
A
C
A
C
A
A
U
U
Acetone
A
C
U
C
A
C
A
C
U
U
Acrylonitrile
A
C
A
A
A
c
C
C
I
I
Ammonium Hydroxide
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
U
Amyl Acetate
C
C
A
C
C
C
C
C
U
A
Aniline
C
C
A
A
A
C
C
C
C
C
Benzaldehyde
C
C
A
C
C
A
C
C
U
A
Benzene
C
U
C
A
C
U
U
C
C
A
Benzyl Alcohol
A
C
A
C
A
A
A
A
I
1
Benzyl Chloride
C
C
A
C
U
C
C
C
C
I
Butyl Acetate
C
C
A
C
A
C
C
C
U
A
Butyl Alcohol
A
A
A
C
A
A
A
A
I
C
Carbolic Acid
C
C
A
A
A
C
A
C
A
C
Carbon Disulfide
C
C
A
C
C
U
C
C
I
A
Carbon Tetrachloride
C
C
A
C
C
U
C
A
A
A
Chloroacetone
C
U
C
C
U
C
C
C
I
I
Chloroform
C
C
A
C
U
U
C
C
A
A
A=Acceptable
U=Uhacceptable
CrConditlonally Acceptable
I=Insufficient Data
Note: This table is provided as a guide only. The user is advised to contact the protective clothing manufacturer
regarding the specific applicability and limitations of a material under proposed conditions of use.
-------
Table 6-1 (Cont.)
Neo-
prene
PVC
Paracril/
PVC
Polyur-
ethane
Chlorinated
Polyethy-
lene
Butyl
Rubber
Natural
Rubber
Nitrile
Vitron
PVA
Coal Tar Products
C
C
A
A
C
C
C
C
I
I
Cyclohexane
C
C
U
A
A
U
C
A
A
I
Diacetone Alcohol
A
A
A
C
A
A
A
A
I
I
Dibutyl Phthalate
C
C
A
C
C
A
C
A
A
A
Ethanol
A
A
A
C
I
A
A
A
A
U
Ethyl Ether
C
C
A
C
A
C
C
A
U
A
Ethylene Glycol
A
A
A
C
A
A
A
A
A
C
Formaldehyde
C
A
A
C
A
C
A
A
A
U
Formic Acid
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
C
U
U
Furfural
A
C
A
C
A
A
A
C
U
C
Gasoline
A
C
A
A
A
U
C
A
A
A
Glycerine
A
A
A
C
A
A
A
A
A
A
Hydrobromic Acid
A
A
A
C
A
A
I
I
I
I
Hydrochloric Acid
A
A
A
U
A
A
A
A
A
U
Hydrofluoric Acid
C
C
C
U
A
A
A
A
A
U
Hydrogen Peroxide
A
A
A
A
A
C
A
A
C
U
Hydrogen Sulfide
A
A
A
U
A
A
I
I
A
I
Isopropyl Alcohol
A
A
A
C
A
A
A
A
A
U
Kerosene
A
C
A
A
A
U
C
A
A
A
Lactic Acid
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
C
Linseed Oil
A
A
A
C
A
C
C
A
A
A
A=Acceptable
U=Unacceptable
(^Conditionally Acceptable
I=Insufficient Data
Note: This table is provided as a guide only. The user is advised to contact the protective clothing manufacturer
regarding the specific applicability and limitations of a material under proposed conditions of use.
-------
Table 6-1 (Cont.)
Neo-
prene
PVC
Paracril/
PVC
Polyur-
ethane
Chlorinated
Polyethy-
lene
Butyl
Rubber
Natural
Rubber
Nitrile
Vitron
PVA
Malic Acid
A
A
A
C
I
U
I
I
1
1
Methyl Acetate
A
C
C
C
A
A
C
C
I
I
Methanol
A
A
A
C
A
A
A
A
C
U
Methyl Ethyl Ketone
C
U
C
C
C
A
A
U
U
C
Nitric Acid
C
C
A
U
C
C
C
C
A
U
Nitrobenzene
C
C
A
C
C
U
C
C
A
I
Oleic Acid
A
A
A
C
A
A
C
A
A
A
Perchloroethylene
C
U
A
C
C
U
U
A
A
A
Phosphoric Acid
A
A
A
C
A
A
A
A
A
U
Pine Oil
A
A
A
C
A
U
C
A
I
I
Potassium Hydroxide
A
A
A
C
A
A
A
A
C
U
Sodium Hydroxide
A
C
A
C
A
C
A
A
C
U
Sulfuric Acid
C
C
A
U
C
C
C
C
C
U
Tannic Acid
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
U
Toluene
C
U
A
A
C
U
C
C
A
A
Trichloroethylene
C
C
A
C
C
U
C
C
A
A
Triethanolamine
A
A
A
C
A
A
A
A
U
A
Turpent ine
C
C
A
C
A
U
C
A
A
A
A=Acceptable
Uzlinaccept able
(^Conditionally Acceptable
I=Insufficient Data
Source: Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1982, from manufacturers' data.
Note: This table is provided as a guide only. The user is advised to contact the protective clothing manufacturer
regarding the specific applicability and limitations of a material under proposed conditions of use.
-------
abrasive effects of the materials being handled, and the length of
time users will be in contact with the material.
Gloves, hand leathers, and arm protectors are available for
protection against heat, chemicals, abrasions, and slippery surfaces.
Hand leathers may be more comfortable than gloves for heavy materials
handling but should not be used around moving machinery. Gloves
should be snug but comfortable and extend above the wrist so that no
gap is left between glove and coat or shirt sleeve.
Clothing available for use around specific hazards includes the
following:
High visibility clothing for use where visibility is im-
portant;
Disposable clothing for use where chemical contamination is a
problem; and
Non-conductive clothing for use during bare-hand work on high
voltage conductors.
Protective clothing must be of good quality and well-constructed.
Clothing fasteners must prevent gaps during body movement, and must be
designed so that the wearer can remove the garment rapidly and easily.
Clothing used around hot liquids, molten metals, acids, and caustics
must not have turned-up cuffs or other projections. Pockets should
have flaps that fasten shut.
6.3.2 Respiratory Protection
According to OSHA standards, the primary means of control-
ling respiratory hazards shall be the prevention of atmospheric
contamination. This shall be accomplished, as far as feasible, by
accepted engineering control measures, such as enclosure or confine-
ment of the operation, general and local ventilation, and use of the
least toxic materials. When effective engineering controls are not
feasible, or while they are being instituted, appropriate respiratory
protection must be used.
According to OSHA General Requirements for Respiratory Protec-
tion (29 CFR 1910.134), the employer is responsible for establishing
and maintaining a respiratory protective program. Elements of a
minimally acceptable program include the following:
t Written standard operating procedures governing the selection
and use of respirators shall be established;
Respirators shall be selected on the basis of hazards to which
the worker is exposed.
The user shall be instructed and trained in the proper use of
respirators and their limitations.
6-10
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t Where practical, respirators should be assigned to individual
workers for their exclusive use.
Respirators shall be regularly cleaned and disinfected.
0 Respirators shall be stored in a convenient, clean, and sani-
tary location.
Respirators used routinely shall be inspected during cleaning,
and defective parts replaced. Those for emergency use should
be thoroughly inspected after each use, and at least once a
month.
Appropriate surveillance of work area conditions and appropri-
ate records on degree of employee exposure or stress shall be
maintained.
There shall be a regular inspection and evaluation to deter-
mine the program's continued effectiveness.
Persons should not be assigned to tasks requiring the use of
respirators unless it has been determined that they are physi-
cally able to use the equipment and perform the work.
Approved or accepted respirators should be used when they are
available.
Selection of respirators should be made in accordance with the
standards in ANSI Z88.2. Proper respirator selection will require
consideration of the following factors:
Nature of the hazard;
Characteristics of the hazardous operation or process;
Location of the hazardous area with respect to safe breathing
areas;
Time period for which respiratory protection may be needed;
Activity of the workers in the hazardous area;
Physical characteristics, capabilities, and limitations of
various respirator types; and
Respirator fit and protection factors.
Table 6-2 provides guidelines for respirator selection on the
basis of the hazard to be encountered. Detailed selection criteria
are found in ANSI Z88.2-1980. Additional guidance for permissible
exposure limits, air monitoring procedures, and appropriate respirator
types is found in the NIOSH Pocket Guide.
Air-supplied respirators are required in oxygen-deficient
(less than 19.5% oxygen) atmospheres, and may also be used where
6-11
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Table 6-2
SELECTION OF RESPIRATORS
Hazard
Respirator (see note)
~ygen deficiency, immediately
dangerous to life and health.
Oxygen deficiency, not immediately
dangerous to life and health.
Gas and vapor contaminants immedi-
ately dangerous to life and health.
Gas and vapor contaminants not
immediately dangerous to life and
health.
Particulate contaminants immediately
dangerous to life and health.
Particulate contaminants not im-
mediately dangerous to life and
health.
Combination gas, vapor, and par-
ticulate contaminants immediately
dangerous to life and health.
Combination gas, vapor, and
particulate contaminants not
immediately dangerous to life and
health.
Air-line, continuous-flow, pressure-demand type
with escape provisions. Air-line, continuous-
flow helmet, hood, or suit, with escape pro-
visions. Self-contained breathing apparatus
(pressure-demand tyoe, or positive-pressure,
closed-circuit type).
Self-contained breathing apparatus. Hose mask
with blower. Combination air-line respirator
with auxiliary self-contained air supply.
Self-contained breathing apparatus (pressure-
demand-type, open-circuit, or positive-pressure
closed circuit).
Powered air-purifying, full facepiece respirator
with chemical cannister (if escape provisions
are provided). Self-rescue mouthpiece respira-
tor (for escape only). Combination air-line
respirator with auxiliary self-contained air
supply.
Air-line respirator.
Hose mask with or without blower.
Air-purifying respirator with chemical car-
tridge.
Self-contained breathing apparatus (pressure-
demand-type open-circuit, or positive-pressure,
closed-circuit).
Air-purifying, full facepiece respirator with
appropriate filter (if escape provisions are
provided).
Combination air-line respirator with auxiliary
self-contained air supply.
Air-purifying, respirator with particulate filter
pad or cartridge.
Air-line respirator.
Air-line, continuous flow helmet, hood or suit.
Hose mask with or without blower.
Self-contained breathing apparatus (pressure-
demand-type open-circuit, or positive-pressure,
closed-circuit).
Air-purifying, full-facepiece respirator with
chemical cannister and appropriate filter (if
escape provisions are provided).
Combination air-line respirator with auxiliary
self-contained air supply.
Air-line respirator.
Hose mask with or without blower.
Air-purifying respirator with chemical cartridge
and appropriate filter.
Note: For the purpose of this table, "immediately dangerous to life and health" is
defined as any atmosphere that poses an immediate hazard to life, or produces
immediate, irreversible debilitating effects on health. Consult ANSI Z88.2-1980
for further definition and clarification of respirator selection criteria.
Source: 29 CFR 1926.103 and ANSI Z88.2 - 1980.
6-12
-------
concentrations of toxic gases or vapors exceed the permissible concen-
tration. Such respirators include self-contained breathing appara-
tuses (SCBA) or air-line respirators which supply air to individuals
from a central source. If the atmosphere is determined to be immedi-
ately dangerous to life and health (IDLH), the air supply must be of
the continuous-flow type, with escape provisions, or it may be a
pressure-demand or positive-pressure, closed-circuit SCBA (see Table
6-2 and ANSI Z88.2-1980).
Air-purifying respirators are used to remove gaseous and particu-
late contaminants. They do not protect against oxygen deficiency,
and must only be used in atmospheres with more than 19.5% oxygen.
Further limitations of air-purifying respirators require that they
be used only to protect against known contaminants with adequate
warning properties; that the appropriate filters, cartridges, or can-
nisters be in place; that the user be appropriately fit-tested; that
contaminant levels be continously monitored; and that the contaminant
levels do not exceed the capabilities of the respirator. Air-
purifying respirators generally are not acceptable for use in IDLH
atmospheres, unless they are of the powered type and have appropriate
escape provisions (see Table 6-2 and ANSI Z88.2-1980). Types of air-
purifying respirators include particulate-removing, vapor- and gas-
removing, and combination particulate- and vapor- and gas-removing
respirators.
Particulate removing respirators are used to remove low concen-
trations of particles by drawing air through a filter. As the contam-
inant is deposited on the filter, the filtration efficiency increases,
but resistance to air flow also increases. In higher particulate con-
centrations, the filters may become clogged and make breathing diffi-
cult.
Vapor- and gas-removing respirators consist of a half- or full-
mask facepiece equipped with cartridge(s) or cannister(s) to remove a
single vapor or gas, a single class of vapors or gases, or a combina-
tion of two or more classes of vapors or gases. These cartridges and
cannisters are filled with activated charcoal or some other material
that will adsorb gases and vapors. The respirators lose effective-
ness when the sorbents become saturated. Because no single sorbent
will remove all types of gaseous contaminants, the cannister must be
chosen to fit the specific need. Vapor- and gas-removing cartridges
and cannisters are often combined with particulate-removing filters to
provide additional protection. Auxiliary self-contained supplies of
respirable air can be used in addition to an air-purifying respirator
to provide means of escape in the event of emergency.
For safe use of any respirator, the user must be properly trained
in its selection, use, and maintenance. Every respirator wearer shall
receive instructions in how to wear the respirator and how to deter-
mine if it fits properly. Respirators shall not be worn when condi-
tions prevent a good face seal. Such conditions include:
Facial hair;
Protruding skull cap;
Eyeglass temple pieces; and
e Absence of one or both dentures.
6-13
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Respirator fit may be determined by exposing the wearer to an
irritant smoke or odorous vapor. The wearer is then instructed to
perform a series of movements to simulate work activity, and an obser-
vation is made to determine if the irritant or odor is detected. The
fit test may be performed qualitatively or quantitatively. In the
qualitative test, the adequacy of fit is determined by the wearer's
detection of (or reaction to) test smoke or vapor. In a quantitative
test, instrumentation is used to measure the test atmosphere and the
air inside the respirator to determine the extent of penetration of
the test agent into the respirator. Records should be maintained of
fit test results. Under optimal conditions, with an acceptable face-
piece fit, protection factors such as those in Table 6-3 can be
achieved. The protection factor is the ratio of concentration of con-
taminant in the ambient atmosphere to that inside the facepiece under
conditions of use.
In order to insure continued effectiveness of the respirators,
they must be regularly inspected, cleaned, disinfected, repaired, and
properly stored. Inspection should include checking tightness of
connections and the condition of the facepiece, headbands, valves,
connecting tube, and cannisters. Records should be kept of inspec-
tion dates and findings. Routinely used respirators should be
cleaned and disinfected after each use in accordance with the manu-
facturer's directions. Any necessary repairs should be performed only
by experienced persons using parts designed for the respirator. After
inspection, cleaning, and any necessary repair, the respirator should
be stored so that the facepiece and exhalation valve will rest in a
normal position, and should be protected against dust, sunlight, heat,
extreme cold, excessive moisture, or damaging chemicals. Respirator
users should always refer to the manufacturer's instructions and ANSI
Z88.2 for specific guidance on operation and maintenance procedures,
including respirator testing, air supply selection and testing, and
cleaning.
6.4 ACTIVITIES IN HAZARDOUS AREAS
Work in areas of flammable liquids and vapors and in confined
spaces requires additional caution on the part of the employee. In
those where ignitable vapors may be expected, no metal cutting, braz-
ing, or welding should be performed unless the area is monitored and
found to be free of ignitable vapor concentrations. Care should be
taken in these areas to see that metal equipment, such as tanks and
transfer pipes, are adequately grounded and bonded before operating
the equipment or transferring any flammable materials. Non-sparking
tools and intrinsically safe electrical equipment should be used when-
ever possible. Smoking should be prohibited except in designated safe
areas.
Work in confined spaces poses risks of inadequate ventilation or
oxygen supply, accumulation of toxic or combustible materials, or
entrapment. Confined spaces generally have limited means of access,
or are so enclosed that inadequate dilution ventilation can occur.
Examples of confined spaces include, but are not limited to: storage
6-14
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Table 6-3
OPTIMAL RESPIRATORY PROTECTION FACTORS
Type Respirator Protection Factor
I. Air purifying:
A. Particulate removing
Single-use, dust 5
Quarter mask, dust 5
Half mask, dust 10
Half or quarter mask, high efficiency 10
Half or quarter mask, fume 10
Full facepiece, high efficiency 50
Powered, high efficiency, all enclosures 1,000
Powered, dust or fume, all enclosures
B. Gas and vapor removing 10
Half mask 50
Full facepiece
II. Atmosphere supplying:
A. Supplied air
Demand, half mask 10
Demand, full facepiece 50
Hose mask without blower, full facepiece 50
Pressure demand, half mask 1,000
Pressure demand, full facepiece 2,000
Hose mask with blower, full facepiece 50
Continuous flow, half mask 1,000
Continuous flow, full facepiece 2,000
Continuous flow, hood, helmet, or suit 2,000
B. Self contained breathing apparatus (SCBA)
Open circuit, demand, full facepiece 50
Open circuit, pressure demand full facepiece 10,000
Closed circuit, oxygen tank-type, full facepiece 50
Source: Clayton and Clayton, 1978.
6-15
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tanks, tank cars, bins, silos, manholes, tunnels, pipelines, ovens,
and other similar structures.
Before entry into confined spaces, all lines containing harmful
agents entering the space should be physically disconnected or
blocked. Any fixed mechanical or electrical equipment should be dis-
connected. The atmosphere within the space should be tested for oxy-
gen level, explosive gas, and if there is reason to suspect their
presence, for air contaminants in excess of permissible exposure
limits. If the tests indicate the area is unsafe (having less than
19.5% oxygen, greater than 10% lower explosive limit of an explosive
gas, or an excessive contaminant level), the area must be ventilated
until safe levels are achieved. If safe levels are not achieved,
entry may be made only by using a self-contained or supplied-air
breathing apparatus. A person may not remain in the confined space
when the primary air supply is depleted or being replaced. Moreover,
no one should enter the confined space unless there is provision for*
constant audible and visual communication, and adequate rescue proce-
dures have been outlined. Employees working both inside and outside
the confined space should be adequately trained in rescue, first aid,
and cardio-pulmonary resuscitation procedures. It is recommended that
a continuous supply of air be provided to the confined space while
work is being performed, particularly if toxic or combustible gases
were originaly present, if organic solvents are being used, or if
open-flame torches are in use. In the event of an emergency, persons
attempting rescue must wear appropriate respiratory protection.
For work in hazardous areas, special attention must be paid to
the development and documentation of emergency contingency planning.
These plans should address such details as levels of personal protec-
tion required, identification of emergency resources, and delineation
of safety or evacuation zones.
Levels of protection and safety zones are determined by appro-
priate air monitoring data and expected air dispersion patterns.
These patterns may be calculated by methods such as described in Sec-
tion 3.7, and will provide indications of expected contaminant concen-
trations at various distances from the site. In lieu of air disper-
sion modeling, the zones may be determined by determining wind direc-
tion and speed and safety zones, based on such sources as the DOT
Emergency Action Guide. In all cases, access to the site should be
from the upwind side, with appropriate air monitoring equipment, such
as oxygen detectors, explosive vapor detectors, and toxic gas detec-
tors. In general, atmospheres containing less than 19.5% oxygen by
volume at sea level are considered to be "oxygen deficient" and
require use of an air supply. Explosive gas levels measured in excess
of 10% of the lower flammability limit (LFL) dictate caution; in
excess of 40%, evacuation is recommended. (Note: Action levels based
upon the measured percentage of LFL may be varied under specific cir-
cumstances, upon consideration of such factors as the known nature of
the hazard, emergency preparedness, extent of threat to life and
property, nature of tasks to be performed within the hazardous area,
and applicable regulations). Selection of the appropriate respirator
can be made in accordance with guidelines such as are given in Table
6-2, the NIOSH Pocket Guide, and ANSI Z88.2-1980.
6-16
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For persons working in contact with hazardous materials, appro-
priate contamination reduction measures must be employed. These
include use of disposable protective clothing and thorough decontami-
nation before leaving the site. Decontamination areas should be
located upwind of the facility, and access should be limited to per-
sons entering the site and those assisting with decontamination.
In general, decontamination consists of rinsing personnel and
equipment with copious amounts of water and washing with a detergent
solution. If specific contaminants are known, then a specific deter-
gent or solvent can be used as a decontaminant.
Decontamination solutions should be designed to react with and
neutralize the contaminants which may be encountered. In many cases,
it may be necessary to use a solution effective for a variety of con-
taminants. Several types of general purpose decontamination solutions
which can be prepared from easily obtained materials are:
Type A - A solution containing 5% sodium carbonate and 5%
trisodium phosphate;
Type B - A solution containing 10% calcium hypochlorite;
Type C - A solution containing 5% trisodium phosphate (may
also be used as a general purpose rinse); and
Type D - A dilute solution of hydrochloric acid.
Recommended applications of these solutions are shown in Table 6-4.
In practice, decontamination is a stepwise process moving from
the highest potential contamination area to the lowest. The sequence
for decontamination in a "worst-case" situation is illustrated in
Figure 6-1. In this case a "hot line" distinguishes an area assumed
to be contaminated from a contamination reduction area (or exclusion
zone), and another line distinguishes the contamination reduction zone
from the safe (non-exclusion) area; initial washing and rinsing is
performed on the contaminated side of the "hot line," and subsequent
washing and equipment removal is performed in the contamination reduc-
tion (exclusion) area. No individuals should leave the site without
undergoing thorough decontamination. This should be performed only by
persons stationed in the contamination reduction area, and these per-
sons should wear protective clothing and equipment appropriate to the
hazards they may encounter during the decontamination process.
6.5 FIRST AID AND MEDICAL SURVEILLANCE
In the event of an accident at a hazardous materials facility,
inadequate first aid facilities or lack of trained personnel may
result in deaths and permanent disabilities. Improper rescue and
transport of an injured person may result in further injury. Costs to
the facility may be high in terms of medical care, insurance, and lost
earnings.
6-17
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Table 6-4
USES OF GENERAL PURPOSE DECONTAMINATION SOLUTIONS
Type of Hazard Suspected
Solution
Type
Solution
1.
Inorganic acids, metal processing wastes.
A
To 10 gallons of water, add four
pounds of sodium carbonate (soda
lime) and four pounds of trisod-
ium phosphate. Stir until evenly
mixed.
2.
Heavy metals: mercury, lead, cadmium, etc.
A
To 10 gallons of water, add four
pounds of sodium carbonate (soda
lime) and four pounds of trisod-
ium phosphate. Stir until evenly
mixed.
3.
Pesticides, fungicides, chlorinated phenols,
dioxins, and PCBs.
B
To 10 gallons of water, add eight
pounds of calcium hypochlorite.
Stir with wooden or plastic
stirrer until evenly mixed.
4.
Cyanides, ammonia, and other non-acidic
inorganic wastes.
B
To 10 gallons of water, add eight
pounds of calcium hypochlorite.
Stir with wooden or plastic
stirrer until evenly mixed.
5.
Solvents and organic compounds, such as
trichloroethylene, chloroform, and toluene.
C
(or A)
To 10 gallons of water, add four
pounds of trisodium phosphate.
Stir until evenly mixed.
6.
PBBs and PCBs.
C
(or A)
To 10 gallons of water, add four
pounds of trisodium phosphate.
Stir until evenly mixed.
7.
Oily, greasy unspecified wastes.
C
To 10 gallons of water, add four
pounds of trisodium phosphate.
Stir until evenly mixed.
8.
Inorganic bases, alkali, and caustic waste.
D
To 10 gallons of water, add one
pint of concentrated hydrochloric
acid. Sir with a wooden or plas-
tic stirrer.
Source: Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1982.
6-18
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SOURCE: Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1983.
Figure 6-1 MAXIMUM LAYOUT OF PERSONNEL DECONTAMINATION STATION
-------
The OSHA standards (29 CFR 1910.151) for medical and first aid
services/facilities are brief but important. They are as follows:
The employer must insure that medical personnel are readily
available for advice and consultation;
o In the absence of an infirmary, clinic, or nearby hospital for
treatment, at least one person trained in first aid must be
available. All first aid facilities and supplies must be
approved by the establishment's consulting physician;
Where the eyes or body of any person may be exposed to injuri-
ous corrosive materials, suitable facilities must be provided
in the work area for quick drenching or flushing of the eyes
or body in emergencies.
Although the OSHA standards for the construction industry are not
directly applicable to storage facilities, these regulations are worth
noting as guide!ines. The construction standards for medical and
first aid are similar to those in 29 CFR 1910.151, but a bit more
detailed. These regulations are as follows:
The person(s) available at the work site to render first aid
must have a valid first aid training certificate from the U.S.
Bureau of Mines, the Red Cross, or the equivalent;
First aid supplies approved by the consulting physician must
be easily accessible. The first aid kit must be weatherproof
with .individual sealed packages for each type of item;
The contents of the kit must be checked by the employer to
make sure depleted items are replaced before the kit is taken
out on any job;
t Proper equipment must be provided for transporting injured
persons to a doctor or hospital. If this kind of transporta-
tion cannot be provided, then a communication system for con-
tacting an ambulance must be established; and
The telephone numbers of physicians, hospitals, and an ambu-
lance must be conspicuously posted.
These standards constitute the basic elements of a first aid
program. Such a program should address basic first aid procedures,
but should also emphasize the particular hazards at each facility. It
is appropriate that, as part of the first aid program, a safety plan
be prepared for each maintenance job. The plan should outline such
items as: specific first aid procedures for the hazards expected to
be encountered; addresses, maps, and direction to the nearest emer-
gency facilities; names and phone numbers of trained medical emergency
response personnel; and pertinent medical information (allergies,
etc.) about on-site personnel which may be of benefit to attending
medical care providers.
6-20
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The first aid program should be part of an overall medical sur-
veillance program. Persons working routinely with hazardous materials
should be provided with pre-employment physical examinations to deter-
mine their basic fitness for performing the job, as well as to provide
baseline data on systemic functions which may be affected by job con-
ditions. Depending upon the frequency and extent of hazardous mate-
rials exposure, follow-up examinations should be provided on at least
an annual basis. In the event of an accidental exposure, immediate
examinations are warranted. The medical surveillance program should
be directed by a physician specializing in occupational medicine.
The day-to-day administration of the first aid and medical sur-
veillance program may be charged to a Facility Safety Coordinator.
This person should be an industrial hygienist or someone with equiva-
lent training and experience. This person would have such responsibi-
lities as:
Maintaining an on-going first aid and safety procedures train-
ing program;
Providing technical expertise in health and safety matters;
Overseeing the facility's compliance with health and safety
standards;
Preparing and/or reviewing job-related safety plans; and
Serving as the point of reference for all health and safety
conflicts at the facility.
6.6 .TRAINING
Experienced, well trained people are essential for successful
implementation of a containment assurance and safety program. Train-
ing sessions must be held on a regular basis because duties of main-
tenance and inspection personnel may change, new equipment may be
acquired, and containment assurance techniques may be modified as more
experience is gained. The supervisors of inspection, maintenance, and
emergency personnel, under the direction of the Facility Safety Coor-
dinator, should be responsible for providing the continued training.
The objective of the containment assurance and safety program is
to reduce the likelihood of an accidental release of hazardous sub-
stances, and, in the event of a spill, to effect a safe, quick, and
efficient clean-up with minimal adverse effect on people or the envi-
ronment. The purpose of the training program is to prepare storage
site personnel to achieve this objective. The training program should
consist of monthly or quarterly meetings which can include classroom
exercises, field training, and response drills. The specific goals of
the training program are to teach the response team members to:
Use monitoring and protective equipment correctly;
Identify potential trouble spots;
Implement the containment assurance and safety program; and
Critically review and upgrade the program.
6-21
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Most of the training should be oriented toward drills and demon-
strations rather than formal classroom instruction. However, certain
aspects of the training can be covered efficiently in group training
classes. Training sessions should be held regularly, perhaps for a
few hours each month, and large-scale exercises should be held once or
twice each year. Classroom instruction may include the following:
Discussion of new ideas, equipment problems, and results of
field exercises;
Movies on new equipment and its use, spill cleanup operations,
and drills;
Status reports on equipment and inventory of supplies;
Reviews of the emergency contingency plan and responsibilities
of individual members; and
First aid procedures.
Training is time-consuming and expensive. Like any other ex-
penditure, it must be justified by the overall program. Whenever pos-
sible, consideration should be given to holding joint sessions with
other plants in the area, especially in exercises involving implemen-
tation of a large-scale emergency contingency plan.
6-22
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
American Conference on Governmental and Industrial Hygienists, 1974,
Industrial Ventilation-A Manual of Recommended Practice, 13th
ed., Cincinnati, OH.
, 1982, TLVs: Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Sub-
stances and Physical Agents in the Workroom Environment, Cincin-
nati, OH.
American National Standards Institute, 1980, Practices for Respiratory'
Protection, New York, NY.
Brief, R.S., 1975, Basic Industrial Hygiene, American Industrial
Hygiene Associatin, Akron, OH.
Clayton, G.D., and Clayton, F.E., 1978, Patty's Industrial Hygiene and
Toxicology, Vol. I, 3rd ed., John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY.
Cralley, L.J., and Cralley, L.V., 1979, Patty's Industrial Hygiene and
Toxicology, Vol. Ill, John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY.
Maryland Department cf Licensing and Regulations, Division of Labor
and Industry, 1978, Maryland Occupational Safety and Health
Standard for Confined Spaces, Baltimore, MP.
United States Department of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health
Administration, 1981, OSHA Safety and Health Standards, General
Industry (29 CFR 1910), OSHA 2206, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, DC.
, 1979, OSHA Safety and Health Standards, Construction (29
CFR 1926/1910), OSHA 2207, United States Government Printing
Office, Washington, DC.
United States Department of Health and Human Services, 1980, NIOSH/
OSHA Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards 78-120, United StaTei
Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
, 1976, A Guide to Industrial Respiratory Protection, NIOSH
publication 76-189, United States Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC.
, 1973, The Industrial Environment-Its Evaluation and Con-
troI, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, UC.
6-23
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SECTION 7
SPILL CONTROL AND PREVENTION
A pollution event usually consists of an unforeseen occurrence in
which a hazardous material is released to the environment. Control of
such an event consists of timely and effective response to the spill.
Although spills on land, in the air, and in water require different
types of response, certain responses are required for any type of
spill. To maximize the response team's effectiveness, contingency
plans for facility emergencies should be developed and available prior
to occurrence of an emergency. Many types of hazardous material
spills must be reported promptly to regulatory agencies. There are
different reporting requirements which are dependent upon the type of
material, volume of material spilled, and location of the spill.
These various reporting requirements should be determined by each
facility as part of its emergency contingency planning prior to any
emergency.
Upon initial notification of a pollution event, response person-
nel should determine if the source of the spill has been eliminated.
Operating personnel at the source are usually most knowledgeable about
the cause of the spill and are on haiid to take the first steps toward
source elimination. Early elimination of the source, whether by
diverting a pipeline flow, closing a valve, draining a tank, or any
other method, limits the amount of material spilled, and thus the
ultimate environmental damage, the cost and effort required for
cleanup, and the cost in terms of loss of the spilled material.
At the same time, response personnel must consider the threat to
the local human population, and countermeasures must be considered
for their welfare. Especially in a hazardous materials storage
complex, the danger of a fire or explosion is always a concern. The
hazard to the human population must be eliminated even before con-
sidering environmental responses. Use of fluorocarbon-water foams to
suppress volatilization may be advisable and is just one example of a
technique to reduce risk of fire, explosion, or toxic gas spread.
7.1 LAND POLLUTION CONTROL
For spills on land, prompt confinement and removal must be per-
formed to prevent migration of spilled material to surface or ground-
water. Groundwater may act as a conduit to other areas, or may be a
source of drinking water.
With some knowledge of the local soil properties, response per-
sonnel can determine the extent of contamination from a spill, whether
7-1
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groundwater has been contaminated, and the spread of material in the
groundwater system. First, the maximum depth of penetration for chem
ical products, must be determined. The following equation may be
applied:
Where 0 * maximum penetration depth, in m
If the calculated value for D is greater than the known depth to
groundwater, the material has probably penetrated to and spread on the
surface of the groundwater. The extent of the spread can be deter-
mined by another equation*
Where S = maximum spread of material, in m2
F = thickness of chemical layer on groundwater surface, in
mm
V - volume of material entering the ground, in m3
A = area over which material is spilled, in m?
d = depth to groundwater, in m
Typical values for K and F for some oil products are given in
Table 7-1.
7.1.1 Containment Techniques
Upon elimination of the source of a spill, or if manpower per-
mits, concurrently, response personnel should begin containment opera-
tions. Although spilled liquids do not migrate on land rapidly, they
do seek the lowest areas. For this reason storm drains or other con-
duits should be blocked as soon as possible to prevent surface water
discharges.
Containment measures on land surfaces can vary depending on the
amount and type of material spilled, the land gradient, and other fac-
tors. If such materials are readily at hand, sorbent booms containing
straw or synthetic sorbent can be placed around a spill area. Sand
bags can also be used to temporarily hold back spilled material. More
sophisticated means of containment include anti-wetting agents to
V ป volume of material entering the ground, in m3
A = area over which material is spilled, in m2
K = a constant based on soil retention capacity and viscos-
ity.
K = a constant based on soil retention capacity and viscos-
ity.
7-2
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Table 7-1
TYPICAL K AND F VALUES FOR DETERMINING
EXTENT OF GROUND CONTAMINATION
K
F (mm)
Soil Type
Gasoline
Kerosene
Light
Fuel Oil
Coarse gravel
400
200
100
5
Gravel to coarse sand
250
125
62
8
Coarse to medium sand
130
66
33
12
Medium to fine sand
80
40
20
20
Fine sand to silt
50
25
12
40
Note: Values given are for relatively light oil products; heavier materials,
such as #6 fuel oil or heavy crude oil, are less likely to migrate in the
ground due to their greater viscosity.
Source: Texas A & M, 1978.
7-3
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minimize ground percolation and arrest surface flow; gelling agents,
which immobilize the spill by solidification; and imbiber beads, which
selectively absorb a wide variety of organic liquids, while allowing
water to pass through.
If these readily deployable materials are not on hand, immediate
containment must be effected by constructing earthen dikes or berms.
For small spills in unpaved areas, personnel can construct berms using
hand tools. For larger areas, earthmoving equipment would be more
efficient. A backhoe or trench digger can throw up a low berm (30 to
40 cm in height) around a spill area, at the same time creating a
shallow trench for collection of spilled materials. On asphalt sur-
faces, a trench digger or tractor with ripper attachment can be used
for berm construction. On concrete paved surfaces, it is more expedi-
ent to bring in sorbent booms or sandbags than to rip up the concrete
surface.
If spilled material reaches groundwater, containment efforts must
be directed toward excavation of an interceptor trench (see Figure
7-1) downgradient of the spill site. Such a ditch can be excavated by
a backhoe, if groundwater depth is shallow, or by a clamshell bucket
and crane, if the depth is greater than two or three meters. If the
water table is too deep for installation of interceptors, pumping
wells to locally depress the water table and limit contaminant migra-
tion can be installed (see Figure 7-2).
7.1.2 Removal and Treatment Techniques
Removal of spilled materials should be initiated as soon as con-
tainment is effected, in order to minimize the amount of contaminated
soil and other materials which would also have to be removed. In some
instances, the specific removal and treatment technique will require
prior approval or concurrence of a regulatory agency. In all cases,
health and safety considerations to cleanup personnel and the public
must always be addressed when selecting a removal and treatment tech-
nique. Health and safety considerations are often regulated, and the
appropriate regulation must be consulted for specific requirements.
Health and safety is further discussed in Section 6 of this manual.
The following paragraphs provide examples of removal and treatment
techniques for certain situations. These techniques and individual
situations are subject to applicable regulations and agency policies.
Field response organizations must secure authorization from the
appropriate regulatory body prior to initiation of response activi-
ties.
For spills on non-porous surfaces, such as concrete or asphalt,
accumulations of material can be vacuumed into holding tanks. Smaller
quantities can be blotted with sorbent pads. If elimination of all
residues is desired, any material not blotted can be blasted with a
high-pressure water hose, and the residue picked up from the water
with sorbent pads.
For spills on unpaved surfaces, such as soil or sandy areas, re-
moval of the spilled material from the surface is not possible. In
7-4
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SOURCE: Texas ASM, 1978
Figure 7-1 CROSS-SECTION OF INTERCEPTOR TRENCH CONTAINMENT
AND COLLECTION SYSTEM FOR FLOATING CONTAMINANTS
7-5
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GROUNDWATER-
DISCHARGE
SPILLED MATERIAL>
PUMP TO SEPARATOR
: FORMER WATERTABLE
Wx x^x-'^CONE OFxฃ
:X;X;: DEPRESSION;
SOURCE: Texas A&M, 1978
Figure 7-2 SCHEMATIC OF DEEP GROUNDWATER RECOVERY WELL FOR
FLOATING CONTAMINANTS
7-6
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such spills, excavation of the contaminated medium is necessary.
Excavation can best be performed by front-end loaders or scrapers,
with the contaminated soil then being carried away by dump trucks.
For small spills, hand-shoveling can be used to remove the
contaminated soils.
In some areas, access for heavy equipment may be extremely lim-
ited, and yet the material may be too extensive for manual removal.
In such situations, microbiological agents may be applied to the spill
area. These agents generally consist of a bacteria adapted to feed on
the material and a starter culture medium. Water may have to be
treated with the bacterial agents.
In some cases, hazardous materials are best treated on the spill
site. Inorganic acids can be neutralized by the addition of lime,
and inorganic bases by the addition of dilute acetic acid, and then
discharged into a wastewater treatment facility. Hypochlorites and
other strong oxidizers can be reduced with sodium sulfite and dis-
charged to a wastewater treatment plant. Sodium sulfide can be used
to precipitate heavy metals from spilled fluids.
Treatment of organic hazardous materials at the site of a spill
is a more complex problem. Specialized process equipment must be
brought to the spill site. Portable carbon filters, wet air oxidation
apparatus, or chemical fixation units could be prepared in advance.
Appendix D contains chemical treatment information regarding many spe-
cific chemicals.
Removal of spilled material from groundwater often involves the
use of separators and holding tanks. Skimming devices and pumping
systems specially designed and constructed for the materials being
handled should be utilized whenever possible. When this equipment is
not available, the contaminated groundwater can be pumped into col-
lection trenches or pools equipped with an impermeable liner or bar-
rier. Vacuum equipment, such as a surface skimmer or pump and hose,
may then be used to separate material in the trench or pool. In some
cases, material from the trench or pool could be pumped into a gravity
separator erected on-site. Water from the separator can be discharged
to a wastewater treatment plant. The oil or chemical fraction could
then be drained for proper recycling or disposal.
There are a variety of other removal systems for spills reaching
groundwater. Location and shape of the trench and separation mechan-
isms on-site should conform to the requirements of the particular
spill event. Spills of materials denser than water or miscible with
water require a deeper trench and a different separation or treatment
process. Some situations may warrant construction of wells rather
than trenches, and considerable pumping from the wells. The possibil-
ities are numerous and require case-by-case evaluation by response and
regulatory personnel.
7.1.3 Disposal Techniques
Materials contaminated with oil or hazardous chemicals should
be disposed of only in treatment or disposal facilities that are
7-7
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designed and permitted by applicable regulatory agencies to handle
such materials. Particular care should be taken that all wastes
generated by cleanup of a hazardous material spill be disposed of in
accordance with all applicable state or federal hazardous waste regu-
1 at i on s.
In most instances, the particular method of treatment and dis-
posal of spill debris must be determined on an individual basis.
References on the techniques available can be found in the bibliog-
raphy. Facility contingency plans (Section 7.5) and careful preplan-
ning should include identification of hazardous waste transporters,
disposers, and cleanup companies that would be available in the event
of an emergency.
7.2 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
Oil or hazardous material pollution situations affecting the air
mostly occur in terms of releases of hazardous vapors. Such emissions
may range anywhere from a chronic, low-concentration leak from a vapor
trap, to a widespread expanding vapor cloud. These situations must be
handled on a case-by-case basis. However, general methodologies can
be presented for consideration.
7.2.1 Local Meteorology
Pathways of distribution of vapor releases are determined by
local meteorological conditions. These conditions vary, even on a
day-to-day basis, such that meteorological information must be deter-
mined for the vapor release before proper response activities can be
identified. Such information can be obtained from existing local air-
monitoring stations.
The most significant local factor to consider in hazardous vapor
releases is wind conditions. Atmospheric stability, which is influ-
enced by wind speed, is also of considerable concern in the distribu-
tion of vapor releases.
7.2.2 Air Emissions Control
Upon notification of a discharge, the initial response should be
directed toward eliminating the source of the discharge. Due to the
hazardous nature of vapor discharges to the atmosphere, response per-
sonnel may have to wear protective equipment. Because of toxic, cor-
rosive, or reactive vapors, personnel may also have to use an alterna-
tive air supply and protective, or even isolating, garments for opera-
tions near the source of the emission. Operating personnel can
usually verify the nature of the material. The quantity of materials
released can be estimated and the toxicity of the materials can be
learned.
Personnel charged with eliminating vapor discharge sources should
have available to then a variety of plugs and patches to stop tank,
transfer line, and pipeline leaks. Such devices should include
expandable rubber and polyethylene plugs of various sizes for round
7-8
-------
holes or those that could be rounded, and patch materials, such as
aluminum plates, heavy rubber mats, bands, and other holding devices
for tears and other odd-shaped ruptures.
If the emission source cannot be eliminated, it must be con-
trolled. For containers of liquefied flammable gas in or near a fire,
the possibility of a Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion (BLEVE)
exists. Containers of such materials must be kept cool, usually by
spraying them with a continuous stream of water or a heat-absorbing
foam. Less volatile materials escaping as fumes or mists may be
knocked down with a water spray or firefighting foams. Water contain-
ing fume or mist products should be collected and treated as a land
pollution situation, as outlined in Section 7.1.
Other techniques for control of air emissions include the use of
vents to divert a vapor to a holding icontainer and then to a treatment
facility. A pipe vent can be installed on a tank or pipeline. For
vapors denser than air, a trench vent may have to be dug with a back-
hoe or trench-digger, and the vapor can then be treated or stored
below ground level.
In some situations it may be necessary to place an emergency
structure around and over the emission source. For small, isolated
problems, such as leaking drums, this technique is easily applied
using overpack drums. Some situations may require incorporating miti-
gation measures into the design.
7.2.3 Vapor Emission Treatment
Once vapor emissions are under control, available measures to
treat the vapors should be used. For tanks located at an industrial
facility, it may be possible to collect and route controlled vapor
leaks to the plant's air pollution control equipment. Collected
organic vapors can be routed to the appropriate liquefaction or vapor
recovery system. Acid gases can be fed to a scrubber or precipitator
with the operation's exhaust gases. Other treatment techniques such
as water sprays, foam blankets, and cryogenic techniques can be used
to control vapor emissions. In some cases, normal atmospheric dis-
persion must be relied on for returning the air to a safe, breathable
level. In confined areas or in very localized situations, blower fans
may assist in dispersing air contaminants.
For more chronic air pollution problems, such as waste disposal
sites, extraordinary gas treatment, such as vapor phase adsorption or
thermal oxidation, may be required.
7.3 SURFACE WATER POLLUTION CONTROL
The materials available for control of water pollution events,
and their applications, vary considerably. Most control equipment and
applications are for oils and chemicals that behave like oils, i.e.,
that are relatively insoluble in water and are less dense than water,
and so float. Appendix D refers to appropriate land and water spill
control and cleanup techniques that should be used for a wide variety
of specific chemicals.
7-9
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Containment of spills must be prompt. In open water, even a
small spill may spread out to affect a large area, which would require
extensive cleanup. Table 7-2, from the United States National Oil and
Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan, describes the visual
appearance of various quantities of oil on water.
In addition to the typa and approximate quantity of material
spilled, response personnel must consider the spill location, wind
speed and direction, and tide and current speed and direction, in
order to select the proper response materials and techniques.
7.3.1 Control Equipment
Control equipment consists of materials used for containment of a
spill, such as booms, air compressors, or hoses and pumps, coupled
with removal equipment, such as skimmers, sorbents, dredges, or earth-
moving equipment. In certain situations, chemicals can be used in
lieu of control equipment.
7.3.2 Containment Equipment
Booms are the primary devices used for containment, either in
open water or along shorelines. Although there is a wide variety of
boom designs, the basic containment boom (see Figure 7-3) contains the
following properties or components: enough buoyancy to keep the boom
above the surface and prevent the spilled material from slopping over
the boom; a skirt to collect the material and prevent it from drifting
under the boom; weight to maintain proper orientation to the accumu-
lated material; and points of attachment, for extending the boom by
attaching additional sections and for tethering the boom to an anchor
float (see Figure 7-4).
Application of booms to spill situations requires personnel
trained in their use and limitations. Booms are limited to use in
currents less than 1.3 knots. At velocities greater than 1.3 knots,
oily material is entrained under the skirt. In order to reduce cur-
rent velocity with respect to the boom to 1.3 knots, the boom must be
deployed at an angle to the direction of the current. Given the cur-
rent velocity, using Table 7-3, response personnel can deploy a boom
at the proper angle. A boom deployment of about 70ฐ is the maximum
angle recommended.
Boom configurations vary with the situation. In open water a
boom can be used to encircle an oily material and confine it for
removal. Along shorelines, booms can be angled, depending on water
and wind velocities, to channel a spill to collection points or away
from sensitive areas.
Booms used in sea areas and where strong wind-driven currents
occur should be of the heavy-duty type. Such booms usually have a
freeboard of 18 inches and a draft of 24 inches. For shallow water
nearshore areas, booms with 6- to 10-inch freeboards and up to 12-inch
drafts are more useful, since they can be brought closer to shore and
still retain their effectiveness.
7-10
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Table 7-2
VISUAL APPEARANCE OF VARIOUS QUANTITIES OF OIL ON WATER
Gallons of
Oil Per
Standard Term Square Mile Appearance
Barely visible 25
Silvery 50
Slightly colored 100
Brightly colored 200
Dull 700
Dark 1,300 "
Barely visible under most favorable
light conditions.
Visible as a silvery sheen on surface
water.
First trace of color may be observed.
Bright bands of color are visible.
Colors begin to tum dull brown.
Colors turn a much darker -brown.
Note: 1. The terms used to describe an oil film, which is a slick thinner
than 0.0001 inch, are given below (Council on Environmental
Quality 1979).
2. Each 1-inch thickness of oil equals 5.6 gallons per square yard,
or 17,000,000 gallons per square mile.
Source: USEPA 40 CFR 112.
7-11
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SOURCE: Texas ASM, 1978
Figure 7-3 CROSS-SECTION OF A TYPICAL BOOM,
SHOWING MAJOR PARTS
7-12
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FLOAT WATER SURFACE
SOURCE: Texas AfiiM, 1978
Figure 7-4 SCHEMATIC OF TYPICAL BOOM ANCHORING SYSTEM
7-13
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Table 7-3
BOOM ANGLES FOR FLOW VELOCITIES
GREATER THAN 1.3 KNOTS
Velocity Velocity Angle to Reduce Velocity
in Knots in m/sec to 1.3 Knots
1.5
0.76
30
1.6
0.81
35
1.7
0.86
40
1.8
0.93
45'
2.0
1.02
50
2.3
1.15
55
2.6
1.32
60
3.1
1.56
65
3.8
1.93
70
Source: Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1982.
7-14
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Sorbent booms are another type. They consist of sorbent mate-
rial, usually synthetic, stuffed inside elongated plastic mesh bags.
Having no skirts, they have negligible draft and thus function best as
polishing devices downstream or downcurrent of the primary containment
booms. They are suitable for containment when necessary.
Underflow dams are commonly used in small streams to contain
materials that float on the water surface (see Figure 7-5). Underflow
dams are commonly used in small streams. These dams consist of dikes
with angled pipes or outlet structures through them that release water
from the bottom of the stream. This allows clean water to be dis-
charged, while surface contaminants are retained behind the dam.
Another containment technique, restricted to calm water, consists
of perforated pipe or hose through which air is forced from an onshore
compressor. The pipe is laid on the channel bottom, and the curtain
of rising bubbles from the pipe creates a double vortex movement in
the water, separating the waters on either side.
For substances that are heavier than water or miscible with
water, there are few viable containment techniques. In many in-
stances, removal or treatment methods are used, rather than con-
tainment.
For materials that are heavier than water, overflow dikes con-
structed of earth or other materials can be used for containment. For
materials that are miscible with water, filter fences, stream diver-
sion systems, or damming the total stream flow can be utilized.
7.3.3 Removal Equipment
Boom containment is best used as a temporary holding operation.
Without prompt removal of material, entrainment and shifting winds and
tides will allow collected material to drift away from the boom.
Thus, equipment for the removal of spilled product should be deployed
as soon as possible.
Skimmers or vacuum equipment are most commonly used for removal
of significant concentrations of spilled materials. Skimmers work on
one of several principles: gravity, suction, or adhesion.
Gravity skimmers basically consist of a float unit with an over-
flow weir which is adjusted to ride at the water surface, so that
floating material passes over the weir into a reservoir (see Figure
7-6). From the reservoir the material is pumped away for treatment or
disposal. Advancing weirs and double advancing weirs, which allow
release of collected water from the reservoir, are variations of the
basic floating weir. Weirs are very mobile and easily deployed, but
with any wave action easily lose their efficiency. They are best used
in calm, debris-free waters such as channels and boomed ship berths.
Suction skimmers vacuum the spilled material from the water
either by means of one or more broad, floating vacuum heads (see
Figure 7-7), or by creating a water vortex, which pulls surface
7-15
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SPILLED MATERIAL
SOURCE: Texas A&M, 1978
Figure 7-5 SCHEMATIC OF TYPICAL UNDERFLOW DAM
7-16
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SOURCE: Texas ASM, 1978
Figure 7-6 CROSS-SECTION OF TYPICAL FLOATING WEIR SKIMMING UNIT.
7-17
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SUCTION HOSE TO SEPARATOR
WATER SURFACE
CONTAMINANT'
INTAKE
SOURCE: Texas A&M, 1978
Figure 7-7 ILLUSTRATION OF FLOATING SUCTION SKIMMING UNIT
7-18
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material down into a whirlpool. Vacuum hoses then carry the material
to holding tanks for recycling or disposal. Suction skimmers can have
many types of vacuum pumps, including rotary gear, rotary vane, cen-
trifugal, cloverleaf, and internal gear pumps. Such pumps can be
coupled to a thick-walled vacuum hose for applications to a wide
variety of situations. Suction devices can be compact, yet have a
high capacity. Floating head units can be used in very shallow water,
but currents must be fairly slow (less than 0.6 knots) to prevent the
units from planing over the water surface. Suction units work well in
inshore areas where booms are used to confine the spilled materials.
Adhesion equipment includes both rotating drum (see Figure 7-8)
or nonporous collecting belt devices and oleophilic ropes and belts.
The nonporous belts pull product under the water and cause it to
surface in a collection well (see Figure 7-9). The oleophilic belts
and ropes adsorb product, after which it is squeezed off rollers into
a collection container (see Figures 7-10 and 7-11). The adhesion
units are highly efficient, especially in rough water or where
floating debris is present. While the oleophilic materials work best
with medium-viscosity oily materials, the nonporous belts are capable
of handling a wide range of viscosities, including lightweight
materials. Since these units are somewhat large and require trained
personnel close at hand, they are best suited for operation on the bow
of a recovery boat. Such arrangements are useful for open sea or open
harbor situations.
While skimmers or vacuum equipment are best suited for initial
removal of accumulations from a water surface, sorbent materials are
often necessary for a final cleanup. Sorbents are also useful in
situations where booms and skimmers are difficult to operate, such as
under wharves or in areas with much debris. Some properties of sor-
bents are described in Table 7-4. Use of loose sorbents should be
avoided for large spills, as retrieval of them is manpower-intensive.
Sorbent booms are useful in the protection or isolation of sensitive
areas or areas difficult to clean up, as well as for normal contain-
ment. For substances which are heavier than water or miscible with
water, dredges and filter fences can be utilized. There is a wide
variety of dredges which can be used to remove materials from the
bottom of waterways for subsequent disposal and treatment. A wide
variety of filter media can be used to filter water-miscible contami-
nants from a flowing waterway or water column. The use of dredges and
filter fences should be determined on a case-by-case basis, with con-
siderable care and judgement exercised in order not to create a
greater problem than already exists. In many cases of spills of mate-
rials that are heavier than or miscible with water, there is little
that can be done to remove the contaminants.
Other removal materials may be required for cleanup of contami-
nated shorelines. Steam-cleaning equipment can be used on bulkheads
and pilings if sorbent booms are used to trap spilled materials.
High- or low-pressure water spray equipment can be used to displace
materials from some shorelines, such as sand beaches. Otherwise,
heavy equipment, such as bulldozers, scrapers, or backhoes, may be
required, with the contaminated materials removed for subsequent
treatment and disposal.
7-19
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FIXED WIPER
ROTATING DISK
COLLECTION TROUGH
SPILLED
MATERIAL
SOURCE: Texas A&MI, 1978
Figure 7-8 CROSS-SECTION OF TYPICAL OLEOPHILIC DRUM SKIMMER
7-20
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SOURCE: Texas A&M, 1978
Figure 7-9 SCHEMATIC OF INCLINED PLANE BELT SKIMMER
7-21
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POLLUTANT COLLECTION
POLLUTANT FLOW
POLLUTANT
PICKUP
SOURCE: Texas A&M, 1978
Figure 7-10 SCHEMATIC OF OLEOPHILIC BELT SKIMMER.
7-22
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SQUEEGEE
ROLLERS
SOURCE: Texas A&M, 1978
Figure 7-11 SCHEMATIC OF OLEOPHILIC ROPE
SKIMMER
7-23
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Table 7-4
PROPERTIES OF SORBENT MATERIAL
Type
Advantages
Disadvantages
Natural
Sorbents
Non-toxic, biodegradeable
Soak up both organics and water;
will sink when saturated
Recovery of large amounts of sorbent
is a labor-intensive operation
Trapped product may drain off
sorbent material
Inorganic or
Mineral-Based
Sorbents
Relatively inexpensive
Synthetic Exceptionally high recov-
Sorbents ery efficiences
Some materials can be re-
used after oil removal
Very light materials; difficult to
distribute when windy
Non-biodegradable
Oust may cause respiratory
irritations
Can be abrasive to recovery
equipment
Expensive
^Non-biodegradeable
Easily spread
Example
Capacity
Peat moss
Straw
Milled corn cobs
Wood cellulose fiber
In general, absorb 3 to 6
times their weight
Milled cottonseed
fiber
Perlite
Vermiculite
Volcanic ash
In general, absorb 4 to 8
times their weight
Polyurethane
Urea formaldehyde
Polyethylene
Polypropylene
Variable, but higher than non-
synthetic solvents, typically
about 20 to 25 times their own
weit^it
-------
Table 7-4 (Cont.)
Type
Advantages
Disadvantages
Example
Capacity
Easily recovered
Available in many forms
(e.g., rolls, sheets, booms)
Synthetic
Foam
Sorbents
Most efficient sorbents
available
Efficiency independent of
viscosity
Can be produced on-site
by mixing two liquids
Saturated slabs may tear during
recovery
Polyurethane foam
Variable, but higher than non-
synthetic solvents, typically
about 20 to 25 times their own
weight
,-!o Sources Handbook for Oil Spill Protection Cleanup Priorities, 1981, Versor, Inc.
-------
Although physical removal measures are usually preferable, chemi-
cal and biological agents for spill control are available and are also
used. These include burning agents, sinking agents, biological cul-
tures, collecting agents, and dispersants. Appendix D identifies
appropriate treatment and removal methods for an extensive list of
chemicals.
In all removal instances, the specific situation at hand must be
evaluated and action taken that is often innovative and unique to the
given situation. Experienced and competent response personnel must be
imaginative and resourceful to effectively handle a spill within
limited time and resources constraints.
7.4 SPILL PREVENTION, CONTROL, AND COUNTERMEASURE PLANS
Spills of oil and hazardous substances and their effects can be
minimized with proper implementation of a Spill Prevention, Control,
and Countermeasure (SPCC) Plan. An SPCC plan provides a comprehensive
system of spill prevention which includes requirements for secondary
containment, inspection and maintenance, facility drainage, facility
transfer operations, facility security, and other aspects of a facil-
ity which are related to spills, and personnel training. An Emergency
Contingency Plan which delineates procedures to be taken in the event
of an uncontained spill or other emergency should be used in conjunc-
tion with an SPCC plan. Such a program not only protects human and
environmental health but also protects a facility from the huge finan-
cial repercussions which almost always accompany emergency clean-up
operations.
The initial stage of SPCC program development involves writing a
plan with the aid of a Professional Engineer. Once the plan is writ-
ten, it should be present at the facility at all times. A proper SPCC
plan must include:
The name, type, location, and start-up date of the facility to
which it applies;
Identification of the facility owner/operator and the person
responsible for spill prevention at the facility;
Management approval, usually indicated by signature;
The name and certification of the Professional Engineer who
prepared the plan;
Spill history and prediction of potential spills; and
Descriptions of secondary containment, drainage, storage
tanks, transfer operations, inspection and maintenance pro-
cedures, security, and personnel training at the facility.
SPCC plans should always be kept up-to-date. Management re-
views must be conducted at least every three years. The plan must be
reviewed and, if necessary, amended and recertified whenever the
7-26
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facility is modified. Additional guidance on SPCC planning can be
found in API Bulletin D16, and EPA regulation 40 CFR Part 112. These
guidelines refer specifically to oils but are applicable to hazardous
materials as well.
7.4.1 Spill History and Prediction
A facility which has experienced a spill must include in the plan
a description of the spill which identifies the chemical and amount
spilled; the location, date, and time of the spill; any water source
affected; the related damages and costs to the facility; the cause of
the spill; and action taken to prevent recurrence.
All SPCC plans must include an analysis of the facility which
indicates the magnitude of spill potential. Sources should be identi-
fied as to the chemical and amount stored, and a prediction of the
direction of spill flow should be included.
7.4.2 Secondary Containment
A description of the facility's secondary containment scheme
must be included in every plan. Guidelines for adequate secondary
containment have been discussed in Sections 3.8, 7.1, 7.2, and 7.3 of
this manual.
7.4.3 Facility Drainage
Every plan must include a description of drainage systems em-
ployed at the facility. Secondary containment areas which require
drainage should contain valves with manual open and close design.
These areas should be drained off-site only after the drainage water
has been analyzed. If drainage is to an in-plant treatment facility,
that facility should be designed to handle any chemical which the
drainage might contain. Plant drainage from undiked areas should
flow to a collection point or there should be a diversion system that
can return the drainage to the facility in the event of a spill.
7.4.4 Tanks
The plan must confirm that tank contents are compatible with the
tank construction material and that tanks and tank supports are of
sound design. There should be some means of preventing overfilling of
tanks, such as a liquid level indicator, high level alarm, or pump
cut-off device. Underground tanks and pipelines should have adequate
corrosion protection, and the method employed should be described in
the SPCC plan.
7.4.5 Facility Transfer Operations
Every plan should insure that pipe supports are of adequate
strength and design and that aboveground pipelines are protected from
vehicular traffic. Pipelines not in service must be capped or blank-
flanged. Potential leak spots, such as at valves or joints, can be
protected with drip pans or some other method.
7-27
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For transfer operations conducted between sunset and sunrise, a
minimum lighting intensity of five foot-candles should be provided for
the transfer connection points, and all work areas should have a mini-
mum lighting intensity of one foot-candle.
7.4.6 Inspection and Maintenance
All tanks, tank supports, pipelines and secondary containment
structures must be inspected regularly for integrity. Tanks should be
inspected daily for loss of product and integrity-tested at least once
every five years. Integrity testing can be done visually, with
hydrostatic testing, or by some other non-destructive method. All
inspection methods and schedules must be described in the plan. In-
spection and maintenance records dating back at least three years must
be kept at the facility. Inspection and maintenance procedures are
discussed in Chapter 5 of this manual.
7.4.7 Security
Because of the hazardous nature of the materials that will be
stored, all plans must include facility security. The temporary stor-
age area must be designed to prevent the unauthorized entry of per-
sons, vehicles, or animals. This may involve the construction of
fences, walls, or an impassable ditch around the area. Warning signs
should also be posted around the perimeter of any storage area. These
signs should be large enough to be easily read from a distance of at
least 25 feet and should include an international symbol to warn of
danger, as well as warnings (in English and any other language appro-
priate to the area) to unauthorized persons to keep out of the area.
All entrance gates should be locked when the facility is unattended.
All valves and pump controls should be locked when not in use. Ade-
quate lighting of the facility must be provided.
7.4.8 Personnel Training
Appropriate facility personnel should be familiar with the SPCC
plan. Spill prevention meetings should be held at least once per year
to train or retrain personnel. Guidelines for personnel training are
presented in Section 6.
7.4.9 Other Considerations
Many facilities have features that require special consideration
in SPCC planning. For instance, the nature of the chemicals stored
may be such that, in the event of a spill, an open drainage collection
basin such as a pond or lagoon could cause an immediate threat to
facility employees from vapor exposure. In such a situation, a closed
system would be required. Special considerations are required when
incompatible chemicals are stored at the same facility. For example,
secondary containment should be constructed such that tanks of incom-
patible materials are isolated from each other. Location of a facil-
ity can strongly influence SPCC planning, as in the case of facilities
situated in floodplains. Management commitment to spill prevention
and thoughtful SPCC planning in general should insure that special
considerations are adequately addressed in an SPCC plan.
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7.5 EMERGENCY CONTINGENCY PLANS
The quicker a chemical spill or other emergency is attended to,
the smaller the threat to human and environmental health, and the less
costly the remedial action. Facilities can insure prompt emergency
response by preparing a comprehensive Emergency Contingency Plan that
contains information on emergency equipment, procedures, and sources
of assistance.
The following general requirements should be included in contingency
planning:
All plans should be regularly reviewed and, if necessary,
amended;
Appropriate personnel should be familiarized with the plan at
least annually;
Amendments are required whenever the facility permit is
revised, if the plan fails in an emergency, or if there is a
change in key personnel;
An inventory of emergency equipment is required in the plan;
Sources of assistance should be identified; and
Emergency procedures must be described in detail.
Additional guidelines on contingency planning can be found in EPA
regulations 40 CFR, Parts 264, 265, and 300. A comprehensive emer-
gency control program can best be achieved by developing an Emergency
Contingency Plan in conjunction with an SPCC plan.
7.5.1 Emergency Equipment
An inventory of equipment for fire control, spill control, and
decontamination should be included in the plan. This list should
indicate the location and general capabilities of each piece of equip-
ment. Some key pieces of equipment are booms, sorbent materials,
detoxifying materials, firefighting equipment,' alarm systems, and
emergency telephones. Alarms, telephones, or other communication
devices should be so located that they can be easily reached in an
emergency. All emergency equipment should be regularly tested and
inspected, and appropriate records should be maintained. In addition,
an adequate water supply should always be maintained for use in con-
junction with emergency equipment.
7.5.2 Sources of Assistance
Various agencies which should be contacted in the event of an
emergency should be identified in the plan. The list of assistance
sources should include, at a minimum, local police, fire departments,
hospitals, spill contractors, and state and local emergency response
teams. Identification of these agencies should provide at least the
facility name and phone number. In addition to being listed, these
7-29
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agencies should be given copies of the contingency plan as soon as it
is completed and should be kept up-to-date on changes in the plan.
Other telephone numbers which should be listed are those for the
National Response Center, the nearest U.S. Coast Guard Station, and
the EPA's local On-Scene Coordinator. An emergency phone numbers form
is provided in Figure 7-12.
Key personnel within the spill response organization should be
explicitly identified as to their emergency roles. This may be done
internally or through a convenient spill contractor. The idea is to
organize a spill control team as expeditiously as possible. The plan
should include a section on manpower that could be assigned in an
emergency.
7.5.3 Emergency Procedures
Every facility should designate one person and several alternates
to assume emergency coordination responsibilities. These people
should be listed, in a ranked order in the piarl, and one of these
people should always be at the facility or on call. Procedures which
the emergency coordinator must oversee should follow a logical se-
quence. They should include, but not be limited to, the following:
1. Activate alarms or other communication system to alert facil-
ity personnel;
2. Organize the in-house response team or notify the local spill
contractor;
3. Notify appropriate state and local agencies (which should
already have copies of the contingency plan);
4. Characterize the emergency with respect to the source, the
amount of released material, and the hazards created;
5. If evacuation is warranted, initiate evacuation procedures
(if evacuation involves surrounding areas, outside authori-
ties may be needed to assist);
6. If areas outside the facility are affected, notify the
National Response Center or the local On-Scene Coordinator;
7. Take all reasonable measures to keep the spill or fire from
spreading;
8. If the facility must halt operations, monitor tanks and pipes
for leaks, pressure build-up, gas generation, and ruptures;
9. Provide for treating, storing, or disposing of contaminated
soil, water, or other material;
10. Notify state and local officials when the facility is cleaned
up and ready to resume operations; and
11. Record the time, date, and details of the emergency.
7-30
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EMERGENCY PHONE NUMBERS
1.
In-house Emergency Response Coordinator and Alternates
A. Name: Telephone:
Address:
B. Name: Telephone:
Address:
C. Name: Telephone:
Address:
2.
U.S. Coast Guard:
Local Phone:
3.
National Response Center: (800) 424-8802
4.
EPA On-scene Coordinator:
5.
State Emergency Government:
6.
Local Emerqency Government:
7.
Hospital/Health Treatment: A.
B.
C.
8.
Police: A.
B.
C.
9.
Sheriff:
10.
Fire Oepartment:
11.
Spill Clean-up Contractors:
A.
8.
12.
Other:
SOURCE: Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1983.
Figure 7-12 EMERGENCY PHONE NUMBERS FORM
7-31
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Emergency procedures will vary according to when the spill
occurs. Appropriate actions can be derived by examining all possible
situations. The following factors should be considered:
Flow conditions in nearby watercourses;
Time of spill: how fast can emergency procedures be initiated
during normal working hours, at night, on a weekend?
What sensitive environmental areas might be threatened in each
situation?
7.5.4 Emergency Data Sheets
Emergency Data Sheets should be completed for every chemical
stored. These sheets should include tank and chemical identification
information and a brief summary of health effects, fire protection
methods, hazardous properties, storage requirements, environmental
protection requirements, personnel' protection requirements, and any
other information about the chemical which would be important in the
event of a spill. An Emergency Data Sheet form is provided in Figure
7-13.
7-32
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Facility
EMERGENCY DATA SHEET
Telephone
Address
1. Tank Identification
A. Tank Number
8. Location
2. Chemical Identification
A. Name
Synonyms
B. Molecular Formula
C. Molecular Weight
D. Boiling Point
E. Oensity
F. US DOT Classification
G. US DOT I.D. Number
CAS I.D. Number
References:
NIOSH Registry of Toxic Effects p.
CRC Handbook of Chemistry p.
49 CFR 100-199
Hazardous Materials Emergency Response Guidebook, US DOT
3. Health Effects
A. Acute
B. Chronic
SOURCE: Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1983.
Figure 7-13 EMERGENCY DATA SHEET FORM
7-33
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C. Toxicity
D. Route of Exposure
Eye Ingestion
Lung Skin
E. First Aid
F. Medical Monitoring
References:
Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, NIOSH/OSHA
ACGIH TLV Handbook, Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials,
Sax.
4. Fire Protection
ฆA. Prevention Technique
B. Extinguishing Agents
C. Combustion Products
References:
Fire Protection Guide on Hazardous Materials, NFPA
Hazardous Materials, US DOT
5. Hazardous Properties
A. Major Chemical Incompatibilities
References:
CHRIS, Condensed Guide to Chemical Hazards, USCG
Merck Index
SOURCE:
Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1983.
Figure 7-13 EMERGENCY DATA SHEET FORM (Cont.)
7-34
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6. Methods of Storage
A. Primary
B. Second Containment
C. Storage Hazards
References:
Fire Protection Guide on Hazardous Materials, NFPA
7. Environmental Protection
A. For Material in Fire:
B. For Material not in Fire:
References:
CHRIS, Condensed Guide to Chemical Hazards, USCG
Hazardous Materials, Emergency Response Guidebook
Fire Protection Guide on Hazardous Materials, NFPA
Chemtrec, (800) 424-9300
8. Personal Protection
SOURCE: Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1983.
Figure 7-13 EMERGENCY DATA SHEET FORM (Cont.)
7-35
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References:
Fire Protection Guide on Hazardous Materials, NFPA
CHRIS, Condensed Guide to Chemical Hazards, USCG
Hazardous Materials Emergency Response Guidebook, US DOT
Bests' Safety Directory
9. Other Information
SOURCE: Ecology and Environment, Inc., 1983.
Figure 7-13 EMERGENCY DATA SHEET FORM (Cont.)
7-36
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
American Institute of Plant Engineers, Spill Prevention and Control:
An Overview for Industrial Plants, International Plant Engineer-
ing Proceedings; Anaheim, California, paper 12-B.
American Petroleum Institute, 1978, Waste Oil Roundup, API Publication
1587, American Petroleum Institute Publishers, Washington, D.C.
, 1977, Recommended Practice for Bulk Liquid Stock Control
at Retail Outlets, API Publication 1621, American Petroleum
institute Publishers, Washington, D.C.
, 1971, Recommended Good Practice for Bulk Liquid - Loss
Control in Terminals and Depots, API Bulletin 1623, American
Petroleum Institute Publishers, Washington, D.C.
American Insurance Association, 1976, Fire Prevention Code.
Berry, R.E., 1980, First Response Procedures for Hazardous Materials,
Pollution Engineering, October 1980: 37-41.
Control of Hazardous Material Spills, 1978, Proceedings of National
Conference on Control of Hazardous Materials Spills, Information
Transfer Inc., Rockville, MD.
, 1980, Proceedings of National Conference on Control of
Hazardous Materials Spills, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN.
Fawcett, H., and W. Wood, 1965, Safety and Accident Prevention in
Chemical Operations, Wiley-Interscience, New York, NY.
Goodier, J.L. et al., 1971, Spill Prevention Techniques for Hazardous
PollutingTuEstances, USEPA.
Maryland Department of Health and Mental Hygiene, Maryland Code of
Regulations Title 10, Subtitle 51, Disposal of Designated Haz-
ardous Substances!
, Subtitle 18, Air Pollution Regulations.
Maryland Department of Natural Resources, Code of Maryland Regulations
- 08:05:04:07 - Prevention of Oil Pollution.
Maryland State Fire Commission, Code of Maryland Regulations, Title
12, Subtitle 03, Chapter 01, Fire Prevention Code.1
7-37
-------
McKinnon, G., ed., 1979, Industrial Fire Hazards Handbook, National
Fire Protection Association, Boston, MA.
National Fire Protection Association, 1978, Fire Protection Guide on
Hazardou s Materials, National Fire Protection Association,
Boston, MA.
, 1982, National Fire Codes 30, 43A, 77, and 329, National
Fire Protection Association, Boston, MA.
Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Waste Management Branch, 1978,
Guidelines for Environment Protection Measures at Chemical Stor-
age Facilities.
Petroleum Association for Conservation of the Canadian Environment,
1980, Bulk Plant Guidelines for Oil Spill Prevention and Control,
Pace Report No. 80-3.
Scott, R., 1979, Toxic Chemical and Explosives Facilities: Safety and
Engineering Design, 1979, ASC Symposium 96, American Chemical
Society, Washington, O.C.
Sittig, Marshall, 1974, Oil Spill Prevention and Removal Handbook,
Noyes Data Corportion, Park Ridge, NJ.
Texas A & M Research Foundation, 1978, Oil Spill Control Course
Handbook, Texas Engineering Extension Service, College Station,
D.J. DeRenzo, ed., 1978, Unit Operations for Treatment of Hazardous
Industrial Wastes, Noyes Data Corporation, Park Kidge, NJ.
United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1980, Standards
Applicable to Owners and Operators of Hazardous Waste Treatment,
Storage and Disposal Facilities Under RCRA, Subtitle C, Section
3004; General and Interim Standards for Tanks; Interim Status"
Standards for Chemical, Physical, and Biological Treatment,
Washington, u.c.
, Oil Pollution Prevention, 40 CFR Part 112, Washington,
7-38
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APPENDIX A
LIST OF CHEMICAL REPRESENTATIVES BY CLASS
A-l
-------
Class 1 Acids, Mineral, Non-Oxidizing
Boric acid*
Chlorosulfonic acid*
Difluorophosphoric acid
Disulfuric acid
Fluoroboric acid
Fluorosulfonic acid
Fluosilicic acid
Hexafluorophosphoric acid
Hydriodic acid*
Hydrobromic acid*
Hydrochloric acid*
Hydrocyanic acid*
Hydrofluoric acid*
Monofluorophosphoric acid
Permonosulfuric acid
Phosphoric acid*
Selenous acid
Class 2 Acids, Mineral, Oxidizing
Bromic acid
Chloric acid*
Chromic acid*
Hypochlorous acid
Nitric acid*
Nitrohydrochloric acid
Oleum*
Perbromic acid
Perchloric acid*
Perchlorous acid
Periodic acid
Sulfuric acid*
Sulfur trioxide*
Class 3 Acids, Organic (All Isomers)
Acetic acid*
Acrylic acid
Adipic acid
Benzoic acid*
Butyric acid
Capric acid
Caproic acid
Caprylic acid
Chloromethylphenoxyacetic acid
Cyanoacetic acid
Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid
Endothal
Fluoracetic acid
Formic acid*
Fumaric acid
Glycolic acid
Hydroxydibromobenzoic acid
Lactic acid*
Maleic acid*
Monochloroacetic acid
Oleic acid*
Oxalic acid
Peracetic acid
Phenoxyacetic acid*
Phthalic acid*
Propionic acid
Salycilic acid^
Succinic acid
Trichlorophenoxyacetic acid
Trinitrobenzoic acid
Toluic acid
Valeric acid
Class 4 Alcohols and Glycols (All Isomers)
Acetone cyanohydrin
Allyl alcohol*
Aminoethanol
Amyl alcohol
Benzyl alcohol
Butanediol
Butyl alcohol
Butyl cellosolve*
Chloroethanol*
Crotyl alcohol
Cyclohexanol*
Cyclopentanol
Decanol
Diacetone alcohol
Oichloropropanol
Diethanol amine
Diisopropanolamine
Ethanol*
Ethoxyethanol
Ethylene chlorohydrin*
Ethylene cyanohydrin
Ethylene glycol*
Ethylene glycol monomethyl ether*
Glycerin*
Heptanol
Hexanol
Isobutanol
Isopropanol
Mercaptoethanol
Methanol*
Monoethanol amine*
Monoisopropanol amine
Nonanol
Octanol
Propanol
Propylene glycol
~Representative chemical found in compatibility matrices.
A-2
-------
Propylene glycol monomethyl ether
Triethanolamine
Class 5 Aldehydes (All Isomers)
Acetaldehyde*
Acrolein*
Benzaldehyde
Butyraldehyde
Chloral hydrate
Chlorac8t aldehyde
Crotonaldehyde
Formaldehyde*
Furfural*
Glutaraldehyde
Heptanal
Hexanal
Nonanal
Octanal
Propionaldehyde
Tolualdehyde
llrea formaldehyde
Valeraldehyde
Class 6 Amides (All Isomers)
Acetamide*
Benzadox
Bromobenzoyl acetanilide
Butyramide
Carbetamide
Diethylamide*
Diethyltoluamide
Dimethylformamide*
Dimefox
Diphenamide
Fluroacetanilide
Formamide
Propionamide
Schradan
Tris-O-aziridinyl) phosphine oxide
Wepsyn* 155
Valeramide
Class 7 Amines, Aliphatic and Aromatic
(All Isomers)
Aminodiphenyl
Aminoethanol*
Aminoethanolamine
Aminophenol
Aminopropionitrile
Amy 1 amine
Aminothiazole
Aniline*
Benzidine
Benzylamine
Butylamine
Chlorotoluidine
Crimidine
Cupriethylenediamine
Cyclohexylamine
Diamine*
Dichlorobenzidine
Diethanolamine
Diethylamine*
Diethylenetriamine
Diisopropanolamine
Dimethylamine
Dimethylaminoazobenzene
Diphenylamine
Diphenylamine chloroarsine
Dipicrylamine
Dipropylamine
Ethylamine
Ethylenendiamine*
Ehtyleneimine
Hexamethylenediamine
Hexamethylenetetraamine
Hexylamine
Isopropylamine
Methylamine*
N-Methyl aniline
4,4-Methylene bis(2-chloroaniline)
Methyl ethyl pyridine
Monoethanolamine*
Monoisopropano1amine
Morpholine
Naphthylamine
Nitroaniline*
Nitrogen mustard
Nitrosodimethylamine
Pentylamine
Phenylene diamine
Picramide
Picridine
Piperidine
Propylamine
Propyleneimine
Pyridine*
T etramethylenediamine
Toluidine
Triethanolamine
Triethylamine
Triethylenetetraamine
Trimethylamine
Tripropylamine
A-3
-------
Class 8 Azo Compounds, Diazo Compounds,
and Hydrazines (All Isomers)
Aluminum tetraazidoborate
Aminothiazole
Azidocarbonyl guanidine
Azido-s-triazole
a.a'-Azodiisobutyronitrile
Benzene diazonium chloride
Benzotriazole
t-Butyl azidoformate
Chloroazodin
Chloroberizotriazole
Diazodinitrophenol
Oiazidoethane
Dimethylamino azobenzene
Dimethyl hydrazine*
Oinitrophenyl hydrazine
Guanyl nitrosoaminoguanylidine hydrazine
Hydrazine*
Hydrazine azide
Methyl hydrazine
Mercaptobenzothiazole
Phenyl hydrazine hydrochloride
Tetrazene
Class 9 Carbamates
Aldicarb
Bassa*
Baygon*
Butacarb
Bux*
Carbaryl
Carbanolate
Dioxacarb
Dowco* 139
Formetanate hydrochloride
Furadan*
Hopcide*
N-Isopropylmethylcarbamate
Landrin*
Matacil*
Meobal
Mesurol*
Methomyl
Mipcin*
Mobam*
Oxamyl
Pirimicarb
Promecarb
T ranid*
T sumacide*
Ammonium hydroxide*
Barium hydroxide
Barium oxide
Beryllium hydroxide
Cadmium amide
Calcium hydroxide*
Calcium oxide*
Lithium amide
Lithium hydroxide
Potassium aluminate
Potassium butoxide
Potassium hydroxide
Sodium aluminate
Sodiun amide
Sodium carbonate*
Sodium hydroxide*
Sodium hypochlorite
Sodium methylate
Sodium oxide .
Class 11 Cyanides
Cadmium cyanide
Copper cyanide
Cyanogen bromide
Hydrocyanic acid*
Lead cyanide
Mercuric cyanide
Mercuric oxycyanide
Nickel cyanide
Potassiun cyanide*
Silver cyanide
Sodium cyanide*
Zinc cyanide
Class 12 Dithiocarbamates
CDEC
Dithane* M-45
Ferbam
Maneb
Metham
Nab am
Niacide*
Polyram-cobi*
Selenium diethyl dithiocarbamate
Thiram
Zinc salts of dimethyl dithiocarbamic acid
Zineb
Ziram
Group 13 Esters (All Isomers)
Allyl chlorocarbonate
Class 10 Caustics Amyl acetate
Butyl acetate*
Ammonia* Butyl acrylate
A-4
-------
Butyl benzyl phthalate
Butyl Formate
Dibutyl phthalate
Diethylene glycol monobutyl ether acetate
Ethyl acetate*
Ethyl butyrate ^
Ethyl chloroformate
Ethyl formate
2-Ethyl hexylacrylate
Ethyl propionate
Glycol dlacetate
Isobutyl acetate
Isobutyl acrylate
Isodecyl acrylate
Isopropyl acetate
Medinoterb acetate .
Methyl acetate
Methyl acrylate
Methyl amyl acetate
Methyl butyrate
Methyl chloroformate
Methyl formate*
Methyl methacrylate
Methyl proprionate
Methyl valerate
Propiolactone*
Propyl acetate
Propyl formate
Vinyl acetate
Dimethyl phthalate*
Class 14 Ethers (All Isomers)
Anisole
Butyl cellosolve*
Bromodimethoxyaniline
Dibutyl ether
Dichloroethyl ether*
Diethyl ether*
Dimethyl ether
Dimethyl formal
Dioxane*
Diphenyl oxide
Ethoxyethanol
Ethylene glycol monomethyl ether*
Furan*
Glycol ether
Isopropyl ether
Methyl butyl ether
Methyl chloromethyl ether
Methyl ethyl ether
Polyglycol ether
Propyl ether
Propylene glycol monomethyl ether
TCDD
Tetrachloropropyl ether
Tetrahydrofuran*
Trinitroanisole
Vinyl ethyl ether
Vinyl isopropyl ether
Class 15 Fluorides, Inorganic
Aluminum fluoride*
Ammonium bifluoride
Ammonium fluoride*
Barium fluoride
Beryllium fluoride
Cadmium fluoride
Calcium fluoride
Cesiun fluoride
Chromic fluoride
Fluoroboric acid
Fluosilicic acid*
Fluorosilicic acid*
Hexafluorophosphoric acid
Hydrofluoric acid*
Hydrofluorosilicic acid*
Magnesium fluoride
Potassium fluoride
Selenium fluoride
Silicon tetrafluoride
Sodium fluoride
Sulfur pentafluoride
Tellurium hexafluoride
Zinc fluoroborate
Class 16 Hydrocarbons, Aromatic (All
Isomers;
Acenaphthene
Anthracene
Benz-a-pyrene
Benzene*
n-Butyl benzene
Chrysene
Cumene*
Cymene
Decyl benzene
Diethyl benzene
Diphenyl
Diphenyl acetylene
Diphenyl ethane
A-5
-------
Diphenyl ethylene
Diphenyl methane
Dodecyl benzene
Dowtherm
Durene
Ethyl benzene*
Fluoranthrene
Fluorene
Hemimellitene
Hexamethyl benzene
Indene
Isodurene
Hesitylene
Methyl naphthalene
Naphthalene*
Pentamethyl benzene
Phenanthrene
Phenyl acetylene
Propyl benzene
Pseudocumene
Styrene*
Tetraphenyl ethylene
Toluene*
Stilbene
T riphenylethylene
T riphenylmethane
Xylene*
Class 17 Haloqenated Orqanics
(All Isomers)
Acetyl bromide
Acetyl chloride
Aldrin*
Allyl bromide
Allyl chloride
Allyl chlorocarbonate
Amyl chloride
Benzal bromide
Benzal chloride
Benzotribromide
Benzotrichloride
Benzyl bromide
Benzyl chloride*
Benzyl chlorocarbonate
Bromoacetylene
Bromobenzyl trifluoride
Bromoform
Bromophenol
Bromopropyne
Bromotrichloromethane
Bromotrifluoromethane
Bromoxynil
Butyl fluoride
Carbon tetrachloride*
Carbon tetrafluoride
Carbon tetraiodide
Chloral hydrate
Chlordane
Chloracetaldehyde
Chloroacetic acid
Chloroacetone*
Chloroacetophenone
Chloroacrylonitrile
Chloranil (tetrachloroquinone)
Chloroazodin
Chlorobenzene*
Chlorobenzotriazole
Chlorobenzoyl peroxide
Chlorobenzylidene malononitrile
Chlorobutyronitrile
Chlorocresol*
Chlorodinitrotoluene
Chloroethanol*
Chloroethylenimime
Chloroform*
Chlorohydrin
Chloromethyl methyl ether
Chloromethyl phenoxyacetic acid
Chloronitroaniline
Chlorophenol
Chlorophenyl isocyanate
Chloropicrin*
Chlorothion
Chlorotoluidine
CMME
Crotyl bromide
Crotyl chloride (1-chloro-2-butene)
DOD
DDT
DDVP
Dibromochloropropane
Dichloroacetone*
Dichlorobenzene
Dichlorobenzidine
Dichloroethane
Dichloroethylene
Dichloroethyl ether*
Dichloromethane (methylene dichloride)*
Dichlorophenol
Dichlorophenoxy acetic acid
Dichloropropane
Dichloropropanol
Dichloropropylene
Dieldrin
Diethyl chloro vinyl phosphate
Dichlorophene
Dinitrochlorobenzene
A-S
-------
Endosulfan
Endrin
Epichlorohydrirr*
Ethyl chloroformate
Ethylene chlorohydrin*
Ethylene dibromide
Ethylene dichloride*
Fluoroacetanilide
Freons*
Heptachlor
Hexachlorobenzene
Hydroxydibromobenzoic acid
Isopropyl chloride
a-Isopropyl methyl phosphoryl fluoride
Lindane
Methyl bromide
Methylchloride*
Methyl chloroform
Methyl chloroformate
Methyl ethyl chloride
Methyl iodide
Monochloroacetone
Nit rochlorobenzene
Nitrogen mustard
Pentachlorophenol*
Perchloroethylene
Perchloromethylmercaptan
Picryl chloride
Polybrominated biphenyls
Polychlorinated biphenyls
Polychlorinated triphenyls
Propargyl bromide
Propargyl chloride
TCDD
T etrachloroethane*
Tetrachlorophenol
Tetrachloropropyl ether
Trichloroethane
T richloroethylene*
Trichlorophenoxyacetic acid
T richloropropane
Trifluoroethane
Vinyl chloride
Vinylidene chloride (1,1-dichloroethylene)
Class 18 Isocyanates (All Isomers)
Chlorophenyl isocyanate
Diphenylmethane diisocyanate
Methyl isocyanate
Methylene diisocyanate
Polyphenyl polymethylisocyanate
Toluene diisocyanate*
Class 19 Ketones (All Isomers)
Acetone*
Acetophenone*
Acetyl acetone*
Benzophenone
Bromobenzoyl acetanilide
Chloroacetophenone
Coumafuryl
Coumatetralyl
Cyclohexanone*
Diacetone alcohol
Diacetyl
Dichloroacetone*
Diethyl ketone
Dimethyl ketone*
Diisobutyl ketone
Heptanone
Hydroxyacetophenone
Isophorone
Mesityl oxide
Methyl t-butyl ketone
Methyl ethyl ketone*
Methyl isobutyl ketone*
Methyl isopropenyl ketone
Methyl n-propyl ketone
Methyl vinyl ketone
Monochloroacetone
Nonanone
Octanone
Pentanone
Quinone (Benzoquinone)*
Class 20 Mercaptans and Other Organic
Sulfides (All Isomers)
Aldicarb
Amyl mercaptan
Butyl mercaptan
Carbon disulfide*
Dimethyl sulfide
Endosulfan
Ethyl mercaptan*
Mercaptobenzothiazole
Mercaptoethanol
Methomyl
Methyl mercaptan
-------
Naphthyl mercaptan
Perchloromethyl mercaptan
Phospholan
Polysulfide polymer
Propyl mercaptan
Sulfur mustard
Tetrasul
Thionazin
Class 21 Metal Compounds, Inorganic
Aluminum fluoride*
Aluminum sulfate*
Ammonium arsenate
Ammonium dichromate
Ammonium hexanitrocobaltate
Ammonium molybdate
Ammoniun nitridoosmate
Ammonium permanganate
Ammonium tetrachromate
Ammonium tetraperoxychromate
Ammonium trichromate
Antimony
Antimony nitride
Antimony oxychloride
Antimony pentachloride
Antimony pentafluoride
Antimony pentasulfide
Antimony perchlorate
Antimony potassium tartrate
Antimony sulfate
Antimony tribromide
Antimony trichloride
Antimony triiodide
Antimony trifluoride
Antimony trioxide
Antimony trisulfide
Antimony trivinyl
Arsenic
Arsenic pentaselenide
Arsenic pentoxide
Arsenic pentasulfide
Arsenic sulfide
Arsenic tribromide
Arsenic trichloride
Arsenic trifluoride
Arsenic triiodide
Arsenic trisulfide
Arsines
Barium
Barium azide
Barium carbide
Bariun chlorate
Barium chloride
Bariun chromate
Barium fluoride
Barium fluosilicate
Barium hydride
Bariun hydroxide
Barium hypophosphide
Barium iodate
Barium iodide
Bariun nitrate
Barium oxide
Bariun perchlorate
Barium permanganate
Bariun peroxide
Barium phosphate
Bariun stearate
Barium sulfide
Barium sulfite
Beryllium
Beryllium-copper alloy
Beryllium fluoride
Beryllium hydride
Beryllium hydroxide
Beryllium oxide
Beryllium tetradhydroborate
Bismuth
Bismuth chromate
Bismuthic acid
Bismuth nitride
Bismuth pentafluoride
Bismuth pentoxide
Bismuth sulfide
Bismuth tribromide
Bismuth trichloride
Bismuth triiodide
Bismuth trioxide
Borane
Bordeaux arsenites
Boron arsenotribromide
Boron bromodiodide
Boron dibromoiodide
Boron nitride
Boron phosphide
Boron triazide
Boron tribromide
Boron triiodide
Born trisulfide
Boron trichloride
Boron trifluoride
Cacodylic acid
Cadmium
Cadmium acetylide
A-8
-------
Cadmium amide
Cadmium azide
Cadmium bromide
Cadmium chlorate
Cadmium chloride
Cadmium cyanide
Cadmium Fluoride
Cadmium hexamine chlorate
Cadmium hexamine perchlorate
Cadmium iodide
Cadmium nitrate
Cadmium nitride
Cadmium oxide
Cadmium phosphate
Cadmium sulfide
Cadmium trihydrazine chlorate
Cadmium trihydrazine perchlorate
Calcium arsenate
Calcium arsenite
Chromic acid*
Chromic chloride
Chromic fluoride
Chromic oxide
Chromic sulfate
Chromiun
Chromium sulfide
Chromium trioxide
Chromyl chloride
Cobalt
Cobaltous bromide
Cobaltous chloride
Cobaltous nitrate
Cobaltous sulfate
Cobaltous resinate
Copper
Copper acetoarsenite
Copper acetylide
Copper arsenate
Copper arsenite
Copper chloride
Copper chlorotetrazole
Copper cyanide
Copper nitrate
Copper nitride
Copper sulfate
Copper sulfide
Cupriethylene diamine
Cyanochloropentane
Diethyl zinc
Oiisopropyl beryllium
Diphenylamine chloroarsine
Ethyl dichloroarsine
Ethylene chromic oxide
Ferric arsenate
Ferrous arsenate
Hydrogen selenide
Indium
Lead
Lead acetate
Lead arsenate
Lead arsenite
Lead azide
Lead carbonate
Lead chlorite
Lead cyanide
Lead dinitroresordinate
Lead monoinitroresorcinate
Lead nitrate
Lead oxide
Lead styphnate
Lead sulfide
Lewisite
London purple
Magnesium arsenate
Magnesium arsenite
Manganese
Manganese acetate
Manganese arsenate
Manganese bromide
Manganese chloride
Manganese methylcyclopentadienyl tricarbonyl
Manganese nitrate
Manganese sulfide
Mercuric acetate
Mercuric arranonium chloride
Mercuric benzoate
Mercuric bromide
Mercuric chloride
Mercuric cyanide
Mercuric iodide
Mercuric nitrate
Mercuric oleate
Mercuric oxide
Mercuric oxycyanide
Mercuric potassium iodide
Mercuric salicylate
Mercuric subsulfate
Mercuric sulfate
Mercuric sulfide
Mercuric thiocyanide
Mercurol
Mercurous bromide
Mercurous gluconate
Mercurous iodide
A-9
-------
Mercurous nitrate
Mercurous oxide
Mercurous sulfate
Mercury
Mercury fulminate
Methoxyethylmercuric chloride
Methyl dichloroarsine
Molybdenum
Molybdenum sulfide
Molybdenum trioxide
Molybdic acid
Nickel
Nickel acetate
Nickel antimonide
Nickel arsenate
Nickel arsenite
Nickel carbonyl
Nickel chloride
Nickel cyanide
Nickel nitrate
Nickel selenide
Nickel subsulfide
Nickel sulfate
Osmium
Osmium amine nitrate
Osmium amine perchlorate
Phenyl dichloroarsine
Potassium arsenate
Potassium arsenite
Potassium dichromate
Potassium permanganate
Selenium
Selenium f.luoride
Selenium diethyl dithiocarbamate
Selenous acid
Silver acetylide
Silver azide
Silver cyanide
Silver nitrate*
Silver nitride
Silver styphnate
Silver sulfide
Silver tetrazene
Sodium arsenate
Sodium arsenite
Sodium cacodylate
Sodium chromate
Sodium dichromate
Sodium molybdate
Sodium permanganate
Sodium selenate
Stannic chloride
Stannic sulfide
Strontium arsenate
Strontium monosulfide
Strontium nitrate
Strontium peroxide
Strontium tetrasulfide
Tellurium hexafluoride
Tetraethyl lead*
Tetramethyl lead
Tetraselenium tetranitride
Thallium
Thallium nitride
Thallium sulfide
Thallous sulfate
Thorium
Titanium
Titanium sulfate
Titanium sesquisulfide
Titanium tetrachloride
Titanium sulfide
Tricadmium dinitride
Tricesium nitride
Triethyl arsine
Triethyl bismuthine
Triethyl stibine
Trilead dinitride
Trimercury dinitride
Trimethyl arsine
Trimethyl bismuthine
Trimethyl stibine
Tripropyl stibine
Trisilyl arsine
Trithorium tetranitride
Trivinyl stibine
Tungstic acid
Uranium sulfide
Uranyl nitrate
Vanadic acid anhydride
Vanadium oxytrichloride
Vanadium tetroxide
Vanadium trichloride
Vanadyl sulfate
Zinc
Zinc acetylide
Zinc ammonium nitrate
Zinc arsenate
Zinc arsenite
Zinc chloride*
Zinc cyanide
Zinc fluoborate
A-10
-------
Zinc nitrate
Zinc permanganate
Zinc peroxide
Zinc phosphide
Zinc salts of dimethyldithio carbamic acid
Zinc sulfate
Zinc sulfide
Zirconium
Zirconium chloride
Zirconium picramate
Class 22 Nitrides
Antimony nitride
Bismuth nitride
Boron nitride
Copper nitride
Oisulfur dinitride
Lithium nitride
Potassium nitride
Silver nitride
Sodium nitride
Tetraselenium tetranitride
Tetrasulfur tetranitride
Thallium nitride
Tricadmium dinitride
Tricalcium dinitride
Tricesiun nitride
Trilead dinitride
Trimercury dinitride
Trithorium tetranitride
Class 23 Nitriles (All Isomers)
Acetone cyanohydrin
Acetonitrile*
Acrylonitrile*
Adiponitrile
Aminopropionitrile
Amyl cyanide
a,a-Azodiisobutyronitrile
Benzonitrile
Bromoxynil
Butyronitrile
Chloroacrylonitrile
Chlorobenzylidene malononitrile
Chlorobutyronitrile
Cyanoacetic acid
Cyanochloropentane
Cyanogen
Ethylene cyanohydrin
Glycolonitrile
Phenyl acetonitrile
Phenyl valerylnitrile
Propionitrile
Surecide*
Tetramethyl succinonitrile
Tranid*
Vinyl cyanide
Class 2ft Nitro Compounds (All Isomers)
Acetyl nitrate
Chlorodinitroluene
Chloronitroani1ine
Chloropicrin
Collodion
Diazodinitrophenol
Diethylene glycol dinitrate
Dinitrobenzene
Dinitrochlorobenzene
Dinitrocresol
Dinitrophenol
Dinitrophenyl hydrazine
Oinitrotoluene
Oinoseb
Dipentaerythritol hexanitrate
Dipicryl amine
Ethyl nitrate
Ethyl nitrite
Glycol dinitrate
Glycol monolactate trinitrate
Guanidine nitrate
Lead dinitroresorcinate
Lead mononitroresorcinate
Lead styphnate
Mannitol hexanitrate
Medinoterb acetate
Nitroaniline*
Nitrobenzene*
Nitrobiphenyl
Nitrocellulose
Nitrochlorobenzene
Nitroglycerin
Nitrophenol*
Nitropropane*
N-Nitrosodimethylamine
Nitrosoguanidine
Nitrostarch
Nitrotoluene*
Nitroxylene
Pentaerythritol tetranitrate
Picramide
Picric acid*
Picryl chloride
A-11
-------
Polyvinyl nitrate
Potassium dinitrobenzfuroxan
RDX
Silver styphnate
Sodium picramate
Tet r an i t r omet h ane
Trinitroanisole
Trinitrobenzene
Trinitrobenzoic acid
Tiinit r onapht halene
Trinitroresorcinol
Trinitrotoluene
Urea nitrate
Class 25 Hydrocarbons, Aliphatic,
Unsaturated (All Isomers)
Acetylene
Allene
Amylene
Butadiene*
Butene
Cyclopentene
Decene
Dicyclopent adiene
Diisobutylene
Dimethyl acetylene
Dimethyl butyne
Dipentene
Dodecene
Ethyl acetylene
Ethylene
Heptene
Hexene
Hexyne
Isobutylene
lsooctene
Isoprene*
Isopropyl acetylene
Methyl acetylene
Methyl butene
M?thyl butyne
Methyl styrene
Nonene
Octadecyne
Oct ene
Pent ene
Pentyne
Polybutene
Polypropylene
Propylene
Styrene*
Tet radecene
Tridecene
Undecene
Vinyl toluene
Class 26 Hydrocarbons, Aliphatic, Saturated
But ane*
Cycloheptane
Cyclohexane*
Cyclopentane
Cyclopropane
Decalin
Decane
Ethane
Hept ane
Hexane
Isobutane
Isohexane
lsooctane
lsopent ane
Nbt hane
Nfethyl cyclohexane
Neohexane
Nonane
Octane
Pent ane
Propane
Class 27 Peroxides and Hydroperoxides,
Organic (All Isomers)
Acetyl benzoyl peroxide
Acetyl peroxide
Benzoyl peroxide*
Butyl hydroperoxide
Butyl peroxide
Butyl peroxyacetate
Butyl peroxybenzoate
Butyl peroxypivalate
Caprylyl peroxide
Chlorobenzoyl peroxide
Cumene hydroperoxide
Cyclohexanone peroxide
Dicumyl peroxide
Diisopropylbenzene hydroperoxide
Diisopropyl peroxydicarbonate
Dimethylhexane dihydroperoxide
Hydrogen peroxide*
Isopropyl percarbonate
Lauroyl peroxide
Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide
Peracetic acid
Succinic acid peroxide
A-12
-------
Class 28 Phenols. Cresols (All Isomers)
Amino phenol
Bromophenol
Bromoxynil
Carbacrol
Carbolic oil
Catecol
Chlorocresol*
Chlorophenol
Coal tar*
Cresol*
Creosote*
Cyclohexyl phenol
Dichlorophenol
Dinitrocresol
Dinitrophenol
Dinoseb
Eugenol
Guaiacol
Hydroquinone*
Hydroxyacetophenone
Hydroxydiphenol
Hydroxyhydroquinone
Isoeugenol
Naphthol
Nitrophenol*
Nonyl phenol
Pentachlorophenol
Phenol*
O-Phenyl phenol
Phloroglucinol
Picric acid*
Pyrogallol
Resorcinol*
Saligenin
Sodium pentachlorophenate
Sodium phenolsulfonate
Tetrachlorophenol
Thymol*
Trichlorophenol
Trinitroresorcinol
DDVP
Demeton
Oemeton-s-methyl sulfoxid
Diazinon*
Diethyl chlorovinyl phosphate
Dimethyldithiophosphoric acid
Dimefox
Dioxathion
Disulfoton
Dy fonate*
Endothion
EPN
Ethion*
Fensulfothion
Guthion*
Hexaethyl tetraphosphate
Malathion*
Mecarbam
Methyl parathion
Mevinphos
Mocap*
a-Isopropyl methylphosphoryl fluoride
Paraoxon
Parathion*
Phorate
Phosphamidon
Phospholan
Potas an
Prothoate
Shradan
Sulfotepp
Supracide*
Shradan
Sulfotepp
Supracide*
Surecide*
Tetraethyl dithionopyrophosphate
Tetraethyl pyrophosphate
Thionazin
Tris-(t-aziridinyl) phosphine oxide
VX
Wepsyn* 155
Class 29 Orqanophosphates, Phospho-
thioates, and Phosphodithioates
Abate*
Azinphos ethyl
Azodrin*
Bidrin*
Bomyl*
Chlorfenvinphos
Chlorothion*
Class 30 Sulfides, Inorganic
Ammonium sulfide
Antimony pentasulfide
Antimony trisulfide
Arsenic pentasulfide
Arsenic sulfide
Arsenic trisulfide
Barium sulfide
Beryllium sulfide
Bismuth sulfide
Coroxon*
A-13
-------
Bismuth trisulfide
Boron trisulfide
Cadmium sulfide
Calcium sulfide
Cerium trisulfide
Cesium sulfide
Chromium sulfide
Copper sulfide
Ferric sulfide
Ferrous sulfide
Germanium sulfide
Gold sulfide
Hydrogen sulfide
Lead sulfide
Lithium sulfide
Magnesium sulfide
Manganese sulfide
Mercuric sulfide
Molybdenum sulfide
Nickel subsulfide
Phosphorous heptasulfide
Phosphorous pentasulfide
Phosphorous sesquisulfide
Phosphorous trisulfide
Potassiun sulfide
Silver sulfide
Sodium sulfide
Stannic sulfide
Strontium monosulfide
Strontium tetrasulfide
Thallium sulfide
Titanium sesquisulfide
Titanium sulfide
Uranium sulfide
Zinc sulfide
Class 31 Epoxides
Butyl glycidyl ether
t-Butyl-3-phenyl oxazirane
Cresol glycidyl ether
Diglycidyl ether
Epichlorohydrin*
Epoxybutane
Epoxybutene
Epoxyethylbenzene
Ethylene oxide
Glycidol
Phenyl glycidyl ether
Propylene oxide
Class 32 Combustible and Flammable
Materials, Miscellaneous
Alkyl resins
Asphalt
Bakelite*
Buna-N*
Bunker fule oil
Camphor oil
Carbon, activated, spent
Cellulose
Coal oil
Diesel oil*
Dynes thinner
Gas oil, cracked
Gasoline*
Grease
Isotactic propylene
J-100
Jet oil
Kerosene*
Lacquer thinner
Methyl acetone
Mineral spirits
Naphtha*
Oil of bergamot
Orris root
Paper
Petroleum naphtha
Petroleum oil*
Polyamide resin
Polyester resin
Polyethylene
Polymeric oil
Polypropylene
Polystyrene
Polysulfide polymer
Polyurethane
Polyvinyl acetate
Polyvinyl chloride
Re fuse
Resins
Sodium polysulfide
Stoddard solvent
Sulfur (elemental)
Synthetic rubber
Tall oil
Tallow
Tar
Turpentine*
Unisolve
Waxes
Wood
A-14
-------
Class 33 Explosives
Acetyl azide
Acetyl nitrate
Ammonium azide
Ammonium chlorate
Ammonium hexanitrocobaltate
Ammonium nitrate
Ammonium nitrite
Ammonium periodate
Ammonium permanganate
Ammonium picrate
Ammonium tetraperoxychromate
Azidocarbonyl guanidine
Barium azide
Benzene diazonium chloride
Benzotriazole
Benzoyl peroxide*
Bismuth nitride
Boron triazide
Bromine azide
Butanetriol trinitrate
t-Butyl hypochlorite
Cadmium azide
Cadmium haxamine chlorate
Cadmium hexamine perchlorate
Cadmium nitrate
Cadmium nitride
Cadmium trihydrazine chlorate
Calcium nitrate
Cesiun azide
Chlorine azide
Chlorine dioxide
Chlorine fluoroxide
Chlorine trioxide
Chloroacetylene
Chloropicrin
Copper acetylide
Cyanuric triazide
Diazidoethane
Diazodinitrophenol
Diethylene glycol dinitrate
Dipentaerithritol hexanitrate
Dipicryl amine
Disulfur dinitride
Ethyl nitrate
Ethyl nitrite
Fluorine azide
Glycol dinitrate
Glycol monolactate trinitrate
Gold fulminate
Guanyl nitrosaminoguanylidene hydrazine
HMX
Hydrazine azide
Hydrazoic acid
Lead azide
Lead dinitroresorcinate
Lead mononitroresorcinate
Lead styphnate
Mannitol hexanitrate
Mercuric oxycyanide
Mercury fulminate
Nitrocarbonitrate
Nitrocellulose
Nitroglycerin
Nitrosoguanidine
Nitrostarch
Pentaerythritol tetranitrate
Picramide
Picric acid*
Picryl chloride
Polyvinyl nitrate
Potassium dinitrobenzfuroxan
Potassium nitrate
RDX
Silver acetylide
Silver azide
Silver nitride
Silver styphnate
Silver tetrazene
Smokeless powder
Sodium azide
Sodium picramate
Tetranitromethane
Tetraselenium tetranitride
Tetrasulfur tetranitride
Tetrazene
Thallium nitride
Trilead dinitride
Trimercury dinitride
T rinitrobenzene
Trinitrobenzoic acid
T rinitronaphthalene
Trinitroresorcinol
Trinitrotoluene
Urea nitrate
Vinyl azide .
Zinc peroxide
Class 3ft Polymerizable Compounds
Acrolein
Acrylic acid
Acrylonitrile*
Butadiene*
n-Butyl acrylate
Ethyl acrylate
Ethylene oxide
Ethylenimirie
2-Ethylhexyl acrylate
Isobutyl acrylate
Isoprene
A-15
-------
Methyl acrylate*
Methyl methacrylate
2-Methyl styrene
Propylene oxide
Styrene*
Vinyl acetate
Vinyl chloride
Viyl cyanide
Vinylidene chloride
Vinyl toluene
Class 35 Oxidizing Agents, Strong
Ammonium chlorate
Ammonium dichromate
Ammoniim nitridoosmate
Ammonium perchlorate
Ammonium periodate
Ammonium permanganate
Ammonium persulfate
Ammonium tetrachromate
Ammonium tetraperoxychromate
Ammonium trichromate
Antimony perchlorate
Barium bromate
Barium chlorate
Barium iodate
Barium nitrate
Barium perchlorate
Barium permanganate
Barium peroxide
Bromic acid
Bromine
Bromine monoFluoride
Bromine pentafluoride
Bromine trifluoride
t-Butyl hypochlorite
Cadmium chlorate
Cadmium nitrate
Calcium bromate
Calcium chlorate
Calcium chlorite
Calcium hypochlorite
Calcium iodate
Calcium nitrate
Calcium perchromate
Calcium permanganate
Calcium peroxide
Chloric acid*
Chlorine
Chlorine dioxide
Chlorine . fluoroxide
Chlorine monofluoride
Chlorine monoxide
Chlorine pentafluoride
Chlorine trifluoride
Chlorine trioxide
Chromic acid*
Chromyl chloride
Cobaltous nitrate
Copper nitrate
Dichloroamine
Dichloroisocyanuric acid
Ethylene chromic oxide
Fluorine
Fluorine monoxide
Guanidine nitrate
Hydrogen peroxide
Iodine pentoxide
Lead chlorite
Lead nitrate
Lithium hypochlorite
Lithium peroxide
Magnesium chlorate
Magnesium nitrate
Magnesium perchlorate
Magnesium peroxide
Manganese nitrate
Mercuric nitrate
Mercurous nitrate
Nickel nitrate
Nitrogen dioxide
Osmiun amine nitrate
Osmium amine perchlorate
Oxygen difluoride
Perchloryl fluoride
Phosphorus oxybromide
Phosphorus oxychloride
Potassium bromate
Potassium dichloroisocyanurate
Potassium dichromate
Potassium nitrate
Potassium perchlorate
Potassium permanganate
Potassium peroxide
Silver nitrate*
Sodiun bromate
Sodium carbonate peroxide
Sodium chlorate
Sodium chlorite
Sodium dichloroisocyanurate
Sodium dichromate
Sodium hypochlorite*
Sodium nitrate
Sodium nitrite
Sodium perchlorate
Sodium permanganate
Sodium peroxide
Strontium nitrate
Strontium peroxide
Sulfur trioxide*
A-15
-------
Trichloroisocyanuric acid
Uranyl nitrate
Urea nitrate
Zinc ammonium nitrate
Zinc nitrate
Zinc permanganate
Zinc peroxide
Zirconium picramate
Class 36 Reducing Agents, Strong
Aluminum borohydride
Aluminum carbide
Aluminum hydride
Aluminum hypophosphide
Ammonium hypophosphide
Ammonium sulfide
Antimony pentasulfide
Antimony trisulfide
Arsenic sulfide
Arsenic trisulfide
Arsine
Barium carbide
Barium hydride
Barium hypophosphide
Barium sulfide
Benzyl silane
Benzyl sodium
Beryllium hydride
Beryllium sulfide
Beryllium tetrahydroborate
Bismuth sulfide
Boron arsenotribromide
Boron trisulfide
Bromodiborane
Bromosilane
Butyl dichloroborane
n-Butyl lithium
Cadmium acetylide
Cadmium sulfide
Calcium
Calcium carbide
Calcium hexammoniate
Calcium hydride
Calcium hypophosphide
Calcium sulfide
Cerium hydride
Cerium trisulfide
Cerous phosphide
Cesium carbide
Cesium hexahydroaluminate
Cesium hydride
Cesium sulfide
Chlorodiborane
Chlorodiisobutyl aluminum
Chlorodimethylamie diborane
Chlorodipropyl borane
Chlorosilane
Chromium sulfide
Copper acetylide
Copper sulfide
Diamine*
Diborane
Diethyl aluminum chloride
Diethyl zinc
Diisopropyl beryllium
Dimethyl magnesium
Ferrous sulfide
Germanium sulfide
Gold acetylide
Gold sulfide
Hexaborane
Hydrazine*
Hydrogen selenide
Hydrogen sulfide
Hydroxyl amine
Lead sulfide
Lithium aluminum hydride
Lithium hydride
Lithium sulfide
Magnesium sulfide
Manganese sulfide
Mercuric sulfide
Methyl aluminum sesguibromide
Methyl aluminum sesguichloride
Methyl magnesiun bromide
Methyl magnesium chloride
Methyl magnesium iodide
Molybdenum sulfide
Nickel subsulfide
Pentaborane
Phosphine
Phosphonium iodide
Phosphorus (red amorphous)
Phosphorus (white or yellow)
Phosphorus heptasulfide
Phosphorus pentasulfide
Phosphorus sesguisulfide
Phosphorus trisulfide
Potassium hydride
Potassium sulfide
Silver acetylide
Silver sulfide
Sodium
Sodium aluminate
Sodium aluminum hydride
Sodium hydride
Sodium hyposulfite
Sodium sulfide
Stannic sulfide
Strontium monosulfide
Strontium tetrasulfide
A-17
-------
Tetraborane
Thallium sulfide
Titanium sesquisulfide
Titanium sulfide
Triethyl aluminum
Triethyl stibine
Triisobutyl aluminum
Trimethyl aluminum
Trimethyl stibine
Tri-n-butyl borane
Trioctyl aluminum
Uranium sulfide
Zinc acetylide
Zinc sulfide
Class 37 Water and Mixtures
Containing Water
Aqueous solutions and mixtures
Water
Class 38 Water Reactive Substances
Acetic anhydride*
Acetyl bromide
Acetyl chloride
Alkyl aluminum chloride
Allyl tirchlorosilane
Aluminum aninoborohydride
Aluminum borohydride
Aluminum bromide
Aluminum chloride
Aluminum fluoride
Aluminum hydophosphide
Aluminum phosphide
Aluminum tetrahydroborate
Amyl trichlorosilane
Anisoyl chloride
Antimony tribromide
Antimony trichloride
Antimony trifluoride
Antimony triiodide
Antimony trivinyl
Arsenic tribromide
Arsenic trichloride
Arsenic triiodide
Barium
Barium carbide
Barium oxide
Barium sulfide
Benzene phosphorus dichloride
Benzoyl chloride
Benzyl silane
Benzyl sodium
Beryllium hydride
Beryllium tetrahydroborate
Bismuth pentafluoride
Borane
Boron bromodiiodide
Boron dibromoiodide
Boron phosphide
Boron tribromide
Boron trichloride
Boron trifluoride
Boron triiodide
Bromine mono fluoride
Bromine pentafluoride
Bromine trifluoride
Bromo diethylaluminum
n-Butyl lithium
n-Butyl trichlorosilane
Cadmium acetylide
Cadmium amide
Calcium
Calcium carbide
Caldium hydride
Calcium oxide
Calcium phosphide
Cesium amide
Cesiun hydride
Cesium phosphide
Chlorine dioxide
Chlorine monofluoride
Chlorine pentafluoride
Chlorine trifluoride
Chloroacetyl chloride
Chlorodiisobutyl aluminum
Chlorophenyl isocyanate
Chromyl chloride
Copper acetylide
Cyclohexenyl trichlorosilane
Cyclohexyl trichlorosilane
Decaborane
Diborane
Diethyl aluminum chloride
Diethyl dichlorosilane
Diethyl zinc
Diisopropyl beryllium
Dimethyl dichlorosilane
Dimethyl magnesium
Diphenyl dichlorosilane
Diphenylmethane diisocyanate
Disulfuryl chloride
Dodecyl trichlorosilane
Ethyl dichloroarsine
Ethyl dichlorosilane
Ethyl trichlorosilane
Fluorine
Fluorine monoxide
A-18
-------
Fluorosulfonic acid
Gold acetylide
Hexadecyl trichlorosilane
Hexyl trichlorosilane
Hydrobromic acid*
Iodine monochloride
Lithiun
Lithium aluminum hydride
Lithium amide
Lithium ferrosilicon
Lithium hydride
Lithium peroxide
Lithium silicon
Methyl aluminum sesquibromide
Methyl aluminum sesquichloride
Methyl dichlorosilane
Methylene diisocyanate
Methyl isocyanate
Methyl trichlorosilane
Methyl magnesium bromide
Methyl magnesium chloride
Methyl magnesium iodide
Nickel antimonide
Nonyl tirchlorosilane
Octadecyl trichlorosilane
Octyl trichlorosilane
Phenyl trichlorosilane
Phosphonium iodide
Phosphoric anhydride
Phosphorus oxychloride
Phosphorus pentasulfide
Phosphorus trisulfide
Phosphorus (amorphous red)
Phosphorus oxybromide
Phosphorus oxychloride
Phosphorus pentachloride
Phosphorus sesquisulfide
Phosphorus tribromide
Phosphorus trichloride
Polyphenyl polymethyl isocyanate
Potassium
Potassium hydride
Potassium oxide
Potassium peroxide
Propyl trichlorosilane
Pyrosulfuryl chloride
Silicon tetrachloride
Silver acetylide
Sodium
Sodium aluminum hydride
Sodiun amide
Sodium hydride
Sodiun methylate
Sodium oxide
Sodium peroxide
Sodium-potassium alloy
Stannic chloride
SulFonyl fluoride
Sulfuric acid (70S)*
Sulfur chloride
Sulfur pentafluoride
Sulfur trioxide*
Sulfuryl chloride
Thiocarbonyl chloride
Thionyl chloride
Thiophosphoryl chloride
Titanium tetrachloride
Toluene diisocyanate
Trichlorosilane
Triethyl aluminum
Triisobutyl aluminum
Trimethyl aluminum
Tri-n-butyl aluminum
Tri-n-butyl borane
Trioctyl aluminum
Trichloroborane
Triethyl arsine
Triethyl stibine
Trimethyl arsine
Trimethyl stibine
Tripropyl stibine
Trisilyl arsine
Trivinyl stibine
Vanadium trichloride
Vinyl trichlorosilane
Zinc acetylide
Zinc phosphide
Zinc peroxide
A-19
-------
APPENDIX B
CHEMICAL CLASS COMPATIBILITY MATRIX
B-l
-------
APPENDIX B
CHEMICAL CLASS COMPATIBILITY MATRIX
Cluaa
Number
9
~w
v-
ซ
if
ซ
~uT
__
' 18;
"TjT
"lo"
~iT~
~W-
"W.
T8
Qiemical Uuos
Acids, Mineral, Ntm-oxidmiMj
Acids, Mineral, Uxidi/ing
Acida, Qrijunic
Alcohols and Glycols
Aldetiydea
Amines* Aliphatic and Aromatic
Azo Compounds, Oia/o Compounds, and Hydrazines
Carbureuteu
Caustics
Cyanides
Dilhiocarbamateu
Fluuridea, Inorganic
Hydrocarbons, Ai-uwat ic
Hulogenated Orgunica
Isocyanates
Ketones
Murcsptaiis and Other Organic Sulfiea
fklal Confounds, Inorganic
Nitrides
Nitrites
Nitro Compounds, Organic
Hydrocarbons, AliphatIc, Unsaturated
Hydrocarbons, Aliphatic, Saturated
Peroxides and Hydroperoxides, Organic
Phenols und Creaola
Orgunophosphstes, Phosphothioutes, Phosphodithioates
Sul fidea, Inonjunic
Cpo*idea
Cotdiustibla and flammable Materials, Miscellaneous
Explosives
Polyuterizsble Compuunds
Oxidizing Agents, Strung
Reducing Agents, Strong
Water and Mixtures Containing Water
Water Reactive Substances
"o
'fc
"c
v
'fcl
"cf,
LCI
-01
-01
CI
ฆor
V
"g
'V
Reactivity Code
"ci
"cr
"c
't
%
Lfil
io
11
"q
1C1
CI
It
_CI
-Jtl
%
15
14
1ซ
H
f
G
GT
Cf
E
P
S
U
17
IB
LSI
1ป
to
ฆV
Lei
21
~V:
W.
ti
SL
'CI
"Gf
15"
n
"ci
Hp
_ci
28
V
29
LEGEND
Consequences
Heat general ion
firฎ
Innocuous and non-flammable gas general
Toxic gas generation
Flammable gas generation
Explosion
Violent polymerization
Solubilization of toxic substances
May be hazardous but unknown
30
rCI
n
n
33
14
3S
IT
EXTREMELY REACTIVEI
00 NO? MIX WITH ANY CHEMICAL OR WASTE MATERIAL I
EXTREMELY REACTIVE!
. *
:3;
41'
.ฎ'C
9 i:.
10 | 11
12
1?
15
17
18
19
20
21
22 | 23
24
25
26 | 27
28
29
30
31 | 32
33
3?
Source* llutuyaoia, el al_., A Method fur Detormiiiinq the Compatibility of Hatardwm Waste, U.S EPA, 19BI).
-------
APPENDIX C
CHEMICAL/MATERIALS COMPATIBILITY MATRIX
Sources:
Mellan, I., Corrosion Resistant Materials Handbook, Noyes Data Cor-
poration, 1976.
Perry, R. and C. Chilton, Chemical Engineer's Handbook, McGraw-Hill,
1973.
Rabald, E., Corrosion Guide, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company,
1968.
Shreir, L., Corrosion, Volumes 1 and 2, Newnes Publishing Company,
1976.
Staniar, W., Plant Engineering Handbook, McGraw-Hill, 1959.
C-l
-------
APPENDIX C
CHEMICAL/MAIERIAL COHPAIIBILIIY HAIRIX
0
1
i\>
Material
(0
u
ft)
(A
0)
ftl
(A
X
o
g
ui
X
o
10 Cu)
ซ>
u-
r-
..
r
c
ฃ
6
u
a
u
o
S
i
H
z
tA
9
CD
O
u
o
a
o
(A
H
(A
ft)
(K
H
V)
<ฃ
Ol
CO
fti
ac
u
tm
M
%
ac
*
o
ft
s
c.
Chemical Name
Chemical
Class
01
ft
4>
a
>.
ซo
cn
in
<0
CJ
8
in
|
<
Nickel
1 .
Honel
C 2
So
C CD
o
$
X
A*
(A
ฃ
&
ซj
w
<0
X
K
O
a
Ld
3
3
10
CA
(0
u
g
S
c.
a.
PVC
>.
IS
CD
t-
a.
o
2
|
a>
<_>
Saran
si
>ป
o
o.
Cement
o
o
o
3E
Acetaldehyde
5
N
N
N
~
~
~
~
~
~
N
Acetamide
6
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
N
N
-
N
N
~
N
N
~
N
N
( 1 flK
3
__
~
~
~
+
C
~
+
+
~
C
~
C
~
~
~
~
~
~
Acetic acid {
/ ions
J
~
~
+
C
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
N
~
~
Acetic anhydride
38
*ฆ
ฆป
~
~
+
C
~
~
~
~
~
-
~
~
~
Acetone
19
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
*
~
+
-
~
-
"
N
N
Acetuphenone
19
+
~
~
t-
~
N
~
~
~
+
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
-
~
N
N
N
Acrylonitrile
23, 34
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
-
N
N
~
N
-
-
N
N
N
N
N
Aldr in
17
N
~
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
~
N
N
N
N
H
N
N
N
N
N
Ally alcohol
4
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
C
N
N
N
N
~
N
N
LEGEND
~ : Generally suitable
C = Conditionally suitable
=. General 1/ unsuitable
N = Insufficient data
-------
Material
V)
(0
U)
(0
X
3
u
'w
u.
ซ>
o
o
r-ป
c
*z
ซC
ฃ
<
5
g
3
(0
Q
-
-o
2?
u
CO
in
<0
ฃ
4)
<-*
t/>
5>
(0
ฃ
u
ฐ
c
H
jl
ac
ฃ
b
g
vo
M
o
1
ซฃ
o
o
o
ซ
u
l
Neoprene
ฃ
Chemical Name
Chemical
Class
in
ฆo
X.
K\
6>
ft
K\
0)
a
>.
C
ฆH
a
Si
Cast 1]
1
-H
in
ง
<
Nickel
*?
o
z
ss
Sg
Z ฎ
4)
w
a
X
0)
Mi
10
(D
z
4>
(A
8
z
X
s
ui
s
s
u
3
L.
Glass
i
ai
ฃ
0.
PVC
>s
3
0
Ceramic
Saran
X
o
o.
Cement
j
! Wood
Alumintm fluoride
21
C
N
N
N
C
N
+
N
N
N
N
N
+
N
+
~
~
~
+
~
Aluminum sulfate
21
--
--
C
~
-
~
-
C
C
C
~
~
ฆf
~
~
~
+
+
~
~
4-
+
~
~
Amino ethanol
7
~
~
~
N
N
N
+
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
~
~
N
N
~
~
N
N
N
*
N
Ammonia, aq.
10
~
~
+
+
*
+
~
*
+
~
~
*ฆ
~
-
~
~
~
N
N
AfaiQoniun fluor ide
15
--
~
~
N
N
N
N
N
~
~
N
~
~
~
N
Ammonium hydroxide
10
+
~
N
N
--
-
~
N
N
N
~
~
C
~
~
~
~
~
+
N
N
Aniline
7
c
+
~
ฆฅ
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
+
c
4-
N
~
N
N
Beer
~
~
~
~
N
+
N
+
N
N
N
N
~
~
~
~
~
+
N
N
~
N
N
Benzene
16
~
+
+
~
+
+
~-
~
~
~
~
~
c
~
~
N
Benzoic acid
3
-
~
~
-
+
~
~
+
~
~
~
+
~
~
~
~
*
+
ฅ
ฆf
-
N
Ben?oly peroxide
27, 33
N
N
~
N
-
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
+
~
N
N
N
N
Benzyl chloride
17
-
N
~
-
~
~
~
~
N
~
~
N
c
~
C
~
N
N
-
Boric acid
1
~
--
~
~
C
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
ฆฅ
~
~
~
~
~
N
LEGEND
+ - Generally suitable
C = Conditionally suitable
= Generally unsuitable
N s Insufficient data
-------
Material
Hutudiene
25, *4
~
~
~
N
N
N
~'
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N .
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
But ane
26
~
+
~
N
N
N
+
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
;N
N
~
N
-
N
N
~
N
N
Butyl acet ul e
13
~
+
~
~
~
~
~
~
+
~
~
c
-
*
N
Calciua hydroxide
10
+
~
~
~
-
c
~
~
~
+
~
~
~
C
-
~
~
~
N
N
Carbamide
N
N
N
N
N
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
+
~
N
N
~
~
N
N
N
N
N
Cut htm disulfide
20
N
C
+
~
~
~
+
4
N
N
~
N
-
+
c
~
ฆf
-
N
N
Carbon tetrachloride
17
-
c
~
+
~
c
~
~
+
+
~
ฆf
~
~
~
--
~
~
N
N
Carbonic acid
N
ฆ4-
~
+
N
~
c
"
N
ฆf
~
~
N
~
~
~
~
+
~
+
~
N
Chloric acid
2, 15
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
ฆ ~
N
N
Chloroacet one
17, 19
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
LEGEND
+ = frmeratly i>uitahle
f = Cnndit ional I y suitable
- Generally unsuitable
N = Insufficient data
-------
Material
^ ij n in z z odoocm a> u
(/> a> to <9 H oป a: 2
ซACU kA ซ->ซ>> >% K) x a
Snomo ง ^ oooa<\ o a
*- o> ซ- z 5 _ -h cr aj ฆ<* cc
Chemical -o oป
Chemical Name Class ฃ
. : z
Chlotuhenzene
17
N
N
N
C
~
N
Chlorocresol
17, 20
C
~
~
~
C
~
~
~
+
N
N
N
-
-
~
~
-
-
~
~
Chloruethanol
4. 17
~
~
~
N
N
N
~
H
N
N
N
H
N
+
N
~
--
N
N
H
N
N
Chloroform (dry)
17
+
~
~
~
f
~
~
~
~
+
~
~
~
~
C
~
-
~
-
-
N
N
Chlorosolfunic acid
1
-
N
C
*ฆ
"
~
C
~
~
~
~
~
t-
-
-
"
-
-
H
N
N
N
N
j 2 Ml
2, 21,
35
C
__
~
H
N
~
N
*
~
~
~
C
N
Chromic acid <
/ 80%
2, 21,
55
~
~
~
N
N
ฆf
N
--
ฅ
--
~
C
N
Creoaole
28
+
+
*
c
N
N
C
N
C
N
N
N
N
N
H
N
--
N
N
N
N
Cresol
2a
+
+
+
~
~
~
~
~
~
N
N
N
N
N
~
N
N
-
N
Cuutene
16
N
N
N
N
~
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
--
N
N
N
N
N
Cyclohexane
26
C
N
N
~
~
N
~
N
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
-
--
N
N
~
N
N
Cyclohexunone
19
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
LEGEND
+ = Generally suitable
C = Comfitimiully suitable
= Generally unsuitable
N = Insufficient data
-------
Material
(0
V)
(0
>.
CO
>s
3
(J
aป
4>
i
2,
o
-2
O
rป
m
'c
<
ฃ
<
s
c.
Chemical Name
Chemical
Class
"O
H
X
I
Oi
a
>%
09
4/1
8
t_)
8
in
|
X
Nicke!
?
5
X
:z
So
cซ
*2
3
X
a>
s
X
I
ta
a
X
O
a
bi
5
u
3
U.
Glass
i
o
ฃ
a.
PVC
>ป
u
3
M
i
i.
0ป
(J
Saren
0>
>>
o
o.
Cement
j
3
Cyclohexanol
4
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
+
N
4-
N
N
N
~
N
N
Diamine
8, 36
--
+
N
N
N
N
ฆf
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
N
N
~
N
N
N
N
N
Dichluruacetone
17, 19
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
H
N
N
H
H
N
N
H
N
Oichloroethyl ether
14, 17
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
H
U
N
N
H
N
Dichloromethane
17
~
N
C
N
N
N
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
N
H
N
N
N
N
Diesel oil
32
+
~
' ~
~
~
+
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
Diethylamide
6
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
H
N
N
N
N
Diethylamine
7
C
~
~
~
N
~
C
+
~
N
N
N
N
N
~
N
*
+
~
N
N
N
N
Dimethyl forinamide
6
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
-
N
N
-
~
N
N
N
N
N
Dimethyl hydrazine
a
N
N
N
N
N
N
+
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
-
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
Dimethyl ketone
19
+
~
~
N
N
N
+
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
~
~
N
~
N
N
N
N
N
Dimethyl phtlialate
13
N
N
N
N
N
N
+
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
in
N
N
N
~
-
N
N
-
N
N
Dioxuiui
14
+
~
N
N
N
N
C
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
+
N
N
N
N
-
Cpichlurohydrin
17, 31
*ฆ
+
N
N
N
+
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
+
~
N
--
-
N
N
N
N
N
Ethanol (water Tree)
4
+
~
~
~
+
~
ซ-
~
~
~
~
N
+
N
~
~
~
~
~
~
N
N
N
LEGEND
+ = Generally suitable
C = Coiuiit ioitaUy suitable
= Generally unsuitable
N = Intiufficient data
-------
Material
ซ to
01
S 3
Chemical Name
Chemical
Class
J cซ
Ethyl acetate
13
C
--
--
~
Ethyl benzene
16
N
N
+
N
N
N
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
~
N
N
N
N
N
Ethylene chtorohydrin
17
+
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
N
~
~
--
N
~
Ethylene diamine
7
N
N
N
N
N
C
N
H
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
f
~
N
N
N
N
N
Ethylene dichloride
17
~
~
~
~
N
~
C
+
~
C
+
N
N
~
C
~
+
N
N
Ethylene glycol
4
C
~
ฆf
~
C
ฆt
*
+
4
~
~
+
+
~
~
~
~
~
C
N
~
Ethylene glycol
monobutyl ether
4. M, "
N
~
~
N
N
~
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
~
N
+
~
N
N
N
N
N
Ethyl ether
H
C
N
C
N
N
N
c
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
H
N
N
Ethyl utercaptan
20
-
N
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
--
N
N
N
H
N
N
N
Fatty acids
-
~
~
~
-
f
~
~
~
+
f
~
~
~
~
C
~
~
--
~
ฅ
C
riuosilicic acid
1. 15
ฅ
N
C
N
N
N
N
~
N
C
+
+
N
N
C
N
N
LEGEND
+ : Generally suitable
C s Conditionally suitable
= Generally unsuitable
N = Insufficient data
-------
Material
(A
(A
3.
V
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S
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H
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**
-4J
Chemical Name
Chemical
Class
X}
H
X
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X
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Glass
c
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a.
PVC
>-.
ts
en
a
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(A
>.
o
a.
i
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Wood
Formaldehyde
*
N
C
~
c
~
C
~
~
~
~
~
*
~
~
~
~
~
~
+
+
+
+
N
N
Formic acid
}
~
~
~
-
~
C
~
+
~
~
~
~
~
~
C
~
~
~
~
~
N
N
Freuns
17
N
N
+
H
N
N
c
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
F uran
14
~
~
~
N
N
N
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
+
N
N
N
N
N
N
Fur fural
5
~
~
*
~
~
~
+
N
N
N
N
-
C
~
~
-
~
N
N
-
N
N
Gasoline
32
C
~
ฆฅ
~
N
N
Glycerine
4
~
~
~
*
~
~
~
~
~
C
~
~
N
N
~
~
~
~
c
~
~
+
-
N
Hydrazine
a, 36
~
~
~
N
ฆf
~
~
-
~
~
c
N
N
H
N
-
Hydriodic acid
t
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
-
N
--
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
Hydrobroinic acid
1, 3B
~
--
N
N
~
N
N
~
C
~
C
~
~
~
~
N
Hydrochloric acid
ll5K
{ 305
1
1
~
ฅ
N
N
~
N
N
N
N
~
~
C
C
~
~
~
~
~
C
C
+
~
~
~
~
~
N
N
N
N
Hydrocyanic acid
(concent rated)
1. 11
C
~
~
t
C
c
~
~
~
~
*
N
N
Hydrofluoric acid
j 20%
J 75S
If IS
If 15
~
f
~
~
N
N
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
--
~
+
C
~
~
+
~
N
N
Hydrofloorosi1icic
acid
15
N
C
+
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
~
N
~
~
~
N
N
H
N
N
LEGEND
+ = Generally suitable
C = CotxJitional 1 y suitable
: Generally unsuitable
N = Insufficient data
-------
Material
IA
to
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8
5
9
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Chemical Name
Dtetnical
Class
~a
H
01
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rf
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CO
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3
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Q.
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Sarar
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X
Hydrogen peroxide
27
C
C
C
C
~
C
C
+
N
~
N
N
C
C
~
+
~
~
N
+
c
..
Mydruqulnone
20
c
+
c
N
-
N
C
~
+
+
N
N
N
+
~
~
~
+
C
c
+
N
N
N
Ketoaene
>2
~
~
~
~
ฆf
+
~
~
~
+
~
+
~
4*
~
__
~
~
N
N
tact ic acid
J
--
c
c
~
-
*
c
c
C
~
~
~
+
~
~
~
c
~
~
~
~
+
N
Malat hion
29
~
N
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
14
U
N
N
H
Maleic acid
5
--
4-
~
' ~
~
C
N
N
N
~
N
N
~
~
~
N
~
+
U
+
N
H
Methanol
4
~
+
+
~
+
~
+
~
+
N
+
~
~
~
~
~
~
*
+
Methyl ucrylale
1), M
~
~
+
N
N
N
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
N
C
C
0
N
N
H
N
N
Methyl amine
7
~
~
+
N
+
N
c
C
C
~
N
N
N
N
+
~
~
*
~
~
N
+
N
Methyl chloride
17
c
c
c
~
ฅ
--
~
+
~
N
N
N
N
N
~
+
c
N
N
N
Methyl ethyl ketone
19
~
ฆf
~
N
N
N
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
*
~
N
N
--
~
N
Mglhyt (urinate
13
~
~
+
N
N
N
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
c
~
~
N
N
N
N
N
Methyl isuhutyl ketone
19
~
~
N
N
N
+
N
N
N
N
N
N
C
C
~
*
__
~
__
N
N
N
N
LEGEND
+ = Generally suitable
C = Cuiidit ional I y suitable
= Generally unsuitable
N = Insufficient data
-------
Material
Chemical Name
Chemical
Class
to
(A
<0
Ui
01
0)
H
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c
c
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m
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S
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8
c
s.
C
o
S
Q.
(0
S
-
ง
ul
o
VI
s
t>
t-
a
o
if
Hji me t ha< to 1 am i i te
4. 7
~
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
+
~
~
N
N
ฆฅ
~
N
N
N
N
' N
Naphtha (cual tar)
52
~
~
~
~
ซฆ
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
+
~
C
~
N
~
N
N
Naphthalene
16
N
N
N
~
~
N
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
N
~
N
N
( IOS
Nitric acid \
(ion%
2
2
+
C
+
C
~
+
~
~
C
~ .
C
N
~
C
~
~
+
~
ฆฅ
~
--
Nitrobenzene
24
~
~
~
+
~
+
+
+
~
+
~
~
+
C
C
~
C
~
~
N
N
Nitrophenol
24, 28
C
~
N
C
N
~
~
~
~
N
N
N
~
~
~
~
--
N
N
N
N
N
C
~
Nit roprupune
24
~
N
*
N
N
N
+
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
+
~
--
N
N
N
N
N
Nit rutoliiene
24
+
~
~
~
~
~
~
ฆf
~
ฆf
N
N
N
H
N
+
N
N
~
N
N
~
~
Oleic acid
3
c
~
~
~
C
~
~
~
*ฆ
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
+
-
--
~
Oleum
2
c
C
c
c
N
~
-
-
N
N
+
N
-
~
N
N
N
Oxalic ucid
3
-
C
c
-
~
c
+
*
~
+
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
N
Paruthion
29
N
~
~
N
N
N
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
+
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
Pent achlorophenol
17, 28
+
+
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
LEGEND
+ s Generally suitutUe
C = Camlit ionalI y suitable
= Generally unsuitable
N = Inuuf f icient data
-------
Material
Perchloric acid
2
N
N
N
+
~
C
N
C
N
N
N
C
-
-
Phenol
28
--
~
~
--
~
~
( 5U5
*
~
~
~
__
C
~
C
N
+
N
~
~
~
C
~
~
~
~
~
__
N
Phosphoric acid {
/ 106%
1
~
~
--
~
c
~
N
N
~
N
~
~
~
~
~
N
N
N
N
Phthalic acid
3
C
~
~
~
C
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
N
~
N
~
N
N
~
N
~
+
N
N
N
Phthalic anhydride
c
~
ฆ*
ฆf
C
~
~
~
~
+
~
~
N
~
N
~
N
N
~
N
~
ฆf
N
N
~
Picric acid
24, 28, 3J
~
*
~
--
~
~
~
~
N
N
+
-
~
N
--
~
-
~
N
N
Potassium cyanide
11
~
~
~
~
c
~
~
*ฆ
+
~
~
~
~
ซ-
~
C
-
~
~
~
~
+
~
~
N
Propiolactone
13
N
>
~
N
N
N
N
H
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
Pyridine
7
~
~
~
~
~
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
~
-
"
-
+
N
~
~
~
Quinone
19
N
N
N
N
N
+
N
N
N
N
~
N
~
~
~
Ketioicinol
28
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
LEGEND
ป = Generally suitable
C : Conditionally suitable
5 Generally unsuitable
N : Insufficient data
-------
Material
V)
in
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in
>>
D
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Chemical Name
Chemical
Class
Miid Stee
O
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a
>ฆ.
sQ
*\
At
p.
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in
fti
CO
u
(/)
Cast Iron
u
1
H
in
i
c
i
<
Nickel
ซj
o
X
Inconel
| (80 Ni; 1
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w
10
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X
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X
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X
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3
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ฃ
a.
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if
Ceramic
Saran
ฃ
41
>y
O
O.
Cement
Wood
Salycilic acid
3
c
~
~
~
C
~
c
~
~
+
N
tf
N
~
~
~
~
"
~
C
+
~
~
N
~
Silver nitrate
21, 35
__
*
*
*
~
--
--
--
H
H
Soap solutions
c
C
C
~
c
~
c
ซ
C
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
ฆf
~
~
N
~
N
N
Sodium carbunate
in
~
*
~
ฆ*
~
--
ฅ
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
C
N
Sodina chloride
~
c
c
~
c
c
~
+
C
~
~
~
+
~
~
~
~
~
ฆf
~
~
~
.~
~
Sodium cyanide
11
~
+
+
~
~
~
N
N
N
~
~
c
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
Sodiun hydroxide
10
+
~
~
~
-
--
+
+
~
~
N
+
~
~
c
-
+
~
~
--
__
~
+
H
Sodium hypochlorite
in, 55
-
"
--
C
--
--
c
c
c
~
~
-
C
-
-
~
4-
~
~
H
N
St yrene
16, 25, 34
N
N
c
N
N
N
+
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
*
N
N
~
N
N
Sulfuric acid (0 to 30%)
2, IB
c
~
C
"
-
+
~
~
~
~
~
-
~
~
~
~
~
~
N
N
Sulfuric acid (51K)
2, 58
-
--
-
~
-
~
4
*ฆ
~
~
~
>
~
~
~
N
N
Sulfuric acid (955)
2, 58
C
c
~
~
*
"
-
C
--
*ฆ
~
~
~
--
+
~
N
N
Sulfur trioxide (dry)
35, 38
~
ซ-
~
~
ฅ
"
N
N
N
~
N
~
N
~
~
4-
~
N
N
1 e t r ach 1 or oe t hai le
17
N
N
ฆf
N
H
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
~
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
letraethyl lead
21
N
N
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
-
N
N
N
~
N
N
LEGEND
+ s Generally suitable
C = Cumliliuially suitable
= General ly unsuitable
N s Insufficient data
-------
Material
let rutiydrofurun
14
N
N
~
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
N
N
N
N
' N
~
H
N
N
toluene
16
~
~
~
*ฆ
+
~
~
+
~
4
+
~
~
+
-
~
~
C
C
transformer uil
N
N
~
N
N
N
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
~
~
~
ซ
-
~
N
N
N
N
N
1r ichloroet hy1ene
17
--
-
ฅ
*
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
~
N
~
C
ซ
+
N
N
lurpentine
52
N
N
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
~
~
N
N
~
-
N
N
~
N
N
Urea
N
N
~
N
N
N
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
~
~
N
~
~
~
N
N
~
N
N
Xylene
16
~
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
M
N
N
-
-
~
~
N
-
N
N
-
N
Ziw: chloride
21
C
C
~
~
C
+
~
~
+
~
N
~
f
~
~
~
+
~
~
N
C
LEGEND
+ = Generally suitable
C = Gondiiional 1 y suitable
= Generally tmsuil able
N = Insufficient data
-------
APPENDIX D
HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE COUNTERMEASURE MATRIX
Source: Akers, C.K., R.J. Pilie, and J.G. Michalovic, 1976, Guide-
lines of the Use of Chemicals in Removing Hazardous Substance
Discharges, prepared under Contract No. 68-03-2093 Exhibit B
for National Environmental Research Center, Office of
Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Cincinnati, OH.
D-l
-------
Appendix D consists of matrix of countermeasures recommended for
treating hazardous substance spills. Chemicals are listed in alpha-
betical order in the first column. The second column identifies each
compound's EPA Toxicity Classification, based on LC50 toxic con-
centrations, as follows:
The third and fourth columns list, respectively, the density and phys-
ical form (solid or liquid) of the pure hazardous substance. The
physical/chemical properties of a chemical discharge (solubility, den-
sity, volatility, and ability to disperse in water) must be considered
in estimating its potential to harm the environment. Column five
identifies the P/C/D category, which takes into account physical/
chemical properties. The P/C/D categories are as follows:
IVF - Insoluble Volatile Floater
INF - Insoluble Non-volatile Floater
IS - Insoluble Sinker
SM - Soluble Mixer
P - Precipitator
SF - Soluble Floater
M - Miscible
SS - Soluble Sinker
The remaining columns of the matrix indicate which categories of
countermeasures are effective for controlling hazardous substances
discharged on the ground or into water.
Category
Toxicity Range
A
B
C
D
LC50 < 1 ppm
1 ppm < LC50 ฃ 10 ppm
10 ppm < LC50 < 100 ppm
100 ppm < LC50~< 500 ppm
D-2
-------
0
1
CO
MATERIAL
EPA
GATE
GORY
DENSITY
PHYSICAL
FORM
P/C/O
CATE
GORY
MASS TRANSFER MEDIA
NEUTRALIZING
AGENT
BIOLOGICAL
TREATMENT
AGENT
GELLING
AGENT
ABSORBING
AGENT
OXIDIZING
AGENT
DISPERSING
AGENT
ACTIVA-
TED
CARBON
CATIONIC
RESIN
ANIONIC
RESIN
ACIO
BASE
PRECIPI-
TATING
AGENT
ACETALDEHYOE
C
0.783
L
M
e
ACETIC ACIO
C
1.049
L
M
ACETIC ANHYORIDE
C
1.00]
L
SF
ACETONE CYANOHYDRIN
C
0 90
L
SF
ACETYL BROMIDE
D
152
L
SS
ACETYL CHLORIDE
O
1.11
L
SS
ACROLEIN
A
0.839
L
SF
ACRYLONIT RILE
C
0 807
L
SF
ADIPONITRILE
D
095
L
SF
ALDRIN
A
165
IS
ALLYL ALCOHOL
B
0 854
L
M
ALLYL CHLORIDE
C
0.9
L
IVF
ALUMINUM FLUORIDE
D
2.68
S
P
ALUMINUM SULFATE
D
1.69
s
P
AMMONIA
C
060
L
SF
AMMONIUM ACETATE
o
1.073
S
SM
AMMONIUM BENZOATE
o
1.26
S
SS
AMMONIUM BICARBONATE
D
1.68
s
SS
AMMONIUM BICHROMATE
O
2 15
s
SS
AMMONIUM BIFLUORIOE
D
1.21
s
SS
AMMONIUM BISULFITE
D
-
s
SS
ft
AMMONIUM BROMIDE
D
2 43
S
SS
AMMONIUM CARBAMATE
0
_
s
SS
AMMONIUM CARBONATE
S
-
s
SM
AMMONIUM CHLORIDE
D
1.53
s
SS
AMMONIUM CHROMATE
D
1.91
s
SS
AMMONIUM CITRATE
D
-
s
SS
AMMONIUM FLUOBORATE
O
186
s
SS
AMMONIUM FLUORIDE
O
1.31
s
SM
'
AMMONIUM HYDROXIDE
C
0.9
S/L
M
AMMONIUM HYPOPIIOSPHITE
D
-
s
SS
AMMONIUM IOOIDE
O
2 56
s
SM
AMMONIUM NITRATE
D
1.66
s
SM
AMMONIUM OXALATE
D
1.60
s
SS
AMMONIUM PENTABORATE
O
-
s
SS
-
AMMONIUM PERSULFATE
D
1.98
s
SS
AMMONIUM SILICOFLUORIOE
C
2.01
s
SS
e
APPENDIX D: HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE/COUNTERMEASURE MATRIX
-------
0
1
4*
MATERIAL
EPA
CATE
GORY
DENSITY
PHYSICAL
FORM
P/C/O
CATE
GORY
MASS TRANSFER MEOIA
NEUTR
AG
ALIZlNG
ENT
PRECIPI-
TATING
AGENT
BIOLOGICAL
TREATMENT
AGENT
GELLING
AGENT
ABSORBING
AGENT
OXlOfZING
AGENT
OISPCRSING
AGENT
ACTIVA-
TED
CARBON
CATIONIC
RESIN
ANIONIC
RESIN
ACID
BASE
AMMONIUM SULFAMATE
D
-
S
SM
AMMONIUM SULFIDE
D
1.02
S
SS
AMMONIUM SULFITE
D
t.41
S
SS
AMMONIUM TARTRATE
D
1.61
S
SS
AMMONIUM THIOCYANATE
D
1.31
s
SM
AMMONIUM THIOSULFATE
D
-
s
SM
AMYL ACETATE
C
0 80
L
INF
ANILINE
C
1 022
L
SS
ANTIMONY PENTACHLORIOE
C
2.34
S
P
ANTIMONY PENTAFLUORIOE
C
2.99
S
P
ANTIMONY POTASSIUM
TARTRATE
c
2.6
S
P
ANTIMONY TRI8ROMIOE
C
4.14
s
P
ANTIMONY TRICHLORIDE
c
3.14
S
P
ANTIMONY TRIFLUORIDE
c
4.38
S
P
ANTIMONY TRIOXIOE
c
6.2
S
P
ARSENIC ACID
c
2 '2&
S
P
ARSENIC OISULFIOE
C
3.4
s
IS
ARSENIC PENTOX4DE
B
4.09
s
p
ARSENIC TRICHLORIOE
c
2.16
s
p
ARSENIC TRIOXIOE
B
389
s
p
ARSENIC TRISULFIDE
B
343
s
IS
BARIUM CYANIDE
A
-
s
SS
BENZENE
C
0.870
L
INF
BENZOIC ACID
O
1.266
s
SS
BENZONTRILE
c
1.01
L
SS
BENZOYL CHLORIDE
D
1.20
L
SS
BENZYL CHLORIDE
D
1.09
L
IS
BERYLLIUM CHLORIDE
D
ป.90
s
p
BERYLLIUM FLUORIDE
C
1.99
s
p
BERYLLIUM NITRATE
C
1 66
s
p
BUTYL ACETATE
c
0.89
L
SF
BUTYLAMINE
c
0.74
L
M
BUTYRIC ACID
D
1.00
L
M
m
CADMIUM ACETATE
A
2.01
S
SS
CADMIUM BROMIDE
A
6.19
s
p
CADMIUM CHLORIDE
A
4.05
s
p
CALCIUM ARSENATE
c
3.0
s
IS
APPENDIX D: HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE/COUNTERMEASURE MATRIX (Cont.)
-------
0
1
cn
MATERIAL
EPA
CATE
GORY
DENSITY
PHYSICAL
FORM
P/C/O
CATE
GORY
MASS TRANSFER MEDIA
NEUTfl
AC
ALIZING
ENT
PRECIPI-
TATING
AGENT
BIOLOGICAL
TREATMENT
AGENT
GELLING
AGENT
ABSORBING
AGENT
OXIDIZING
AGENT
DISPERSING
AGENT
ACTIVA-
TED
CARBON
CATIONIC
RESIN
ANIONIC
RESIN
ACIO
BASE
CALCIUM ARSENITE
C
-
S
ss
'
CALCIUM CARBIOE
D
22
S
P
CALCIUM CHROMATE
D
2.89
S
SS
CALCIUM CYANIDE
A
-
S
SS
CALCIUM DODECYLBENZENE-
SULFONATE
B
-
S
ss
CALCIUM HYDROXIDE
D
2 ฃ04
S
ss
.
CALCIUM HYPOCHLORITE
A
2 35
s
SM
CALCIUM OXIDE
D
3.40
s
SM
CAPTAN
A
1.6
s
SS
CARBAHYL
B
-
s
SS
CARBON DISULFIDE
C
1 26
L
SS
CHLOROANE
A
159
L
IS
CHLORINE
A
32
L
SF
CHLOHOBEN2ENE
B
1.1
L
IS
CHLOROFORM
a
1.6
UG
IS
CHLOROSULFONIC ACIO
c
1.8
L
ss
CHROMIC ACETATE
D
-
S
ss
CHROMIC ACID
D
2.7
L
SM
CHROMIC SULFATE
D
1.7
s
SS
CMflOMOUS CHLORIDE
D
2.87
s
IS
CHROMYLCHLORIDE
D
1.91
s
ss
COBALTOUS BROMIOE
C
247
s
p
COBALTOUS FLUORIDE
C
4 46
s
p
COBALTOUS FORMATE
C
2.13
s
p
COBALTOUS SUL FAMATE
c
-
s
p
COUMAPHOS
A
-
s
ss
CRESOL
B
1.0
s
ss
CUPRIC ACETATE
a
1.9
s
p
m
CUPRIC ACETOARSENITE
B
-
s
IS
m
CUPRIC CHLORIDE
a
3.39
s
p
CUPRIC FORMATE
a
1.83
s
p
CUPRIC GLYCINATE
a
-
s
p
CUPRIC LACTATE
B
s
p
CUPRIC NITRATE
a
2.32
s
p
CUPRIC OXALATE
B
-
s
IS
CUPRIC SU8ACETATE
a
1.9
s
p
APPENDIX D: HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE/COUNTERMEASURE MATRIX (Cont.)
-------
0
1
Or>
MATERIAL
EPA
CATE
CORY
DENSITY
PHYSICAL
FORM
P/C/D
CATE
GORY
MASS TRANSFER MEDIA
NEUTfl
AC
ALI2ING
ENT
PRECIPI-
TATING
AGENT
BIOLOGICAL
TREATMENT
AGENT
GELLING
AGENT
ABSORBING
AGENT
OXIDIZING
AGENT
DISPERSING
AGENT
ACTIVA-
TED
CARBON
CATION IC
RESIN
ANIONIC
RESIN
ACID
BASE
CUPRIC SULFATE
B
2 28
S
P
CUPRIC SULFATE
AMMONIATEO
B
-
S
P
CUPRIC TARTRATE
B
-
s
IS
CUPROUS BROMIDE
a
4.72
s
IS
CYANOGEN CHLORIDE
A
1.186
Q
ss
CVCLOIIEXANE
C
0.779
L
INF
2. 4 D ACIO
B
0.82
-
IS
2.4 O ESTERS
B
' -
-
IS
OALAPON
B
1.38
L
SS
DOT
A
-
S
IS
DIAZINON
A
1.116
L
IS
DICAMBA
C
-
S
SS
DlCMLOBCNiL
C
-
s
SS
OICHLONE
A
-
s
SS
m
OICHLORVOS
A
-
L
SS
OIELDHIN
A
175
s
SS
OlETHYLAMINE
C
071
L
SF
OlMETHYL AMINE
C
0.68
L
SF
m
OINITROBENZENE
C
1.54
L
SS
OINITROPHENOL
B
1.68
L
SS
OlOUAT
C
-
s
SS
DISULFOTON
A
1.14
L
SS
DIURON
B
-
S
SS
OODECYLBENZENESULFONtC
ACID
B
-
L
SS
DURSBAN
B
-
-
SS
ENDOSULFAN
A
_
S
SS
ENORIN
A
-
s
IS
ETHION
A
1.22
L
SS
*
ETHYLBENZENE
C
0 958
L
INF
ETHYLENEOIAMINE
C
0.96
L
SF
EDTA
D
-
S
IS
FERRIC AMMONIUM CITRATE
C
-
s
P
FERRIC AMMONIUM OXALATE
C
-
s
P
FERRIC CHLORIDE
c
2.89
s
P
FERRIC FLUORIOE
c
3.62
s
P
FERRIC NITRATE
c
1.68
s
P
FERRIC SULFATE
c
20
s
P
APPENDIX D: HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE/COUNTERMEASURE MATRIX (Cont.)
-------
0
1
-sj
MATERIAL
EPA
CATE
GORY
OENSITY
PHYSICAL
FORM
P/C/D
CATE
GORY
MASS TRANSFER MEDIA
NEUTRALIZING
AGENT
PRECIPI-
TATING
AGENT
BIOLOGICAL
TREATMENT
AGENT
GELLING
AGENT
ABSORBING
AGENT
OXIDIZING
AGENT
DISPERSING
AGENT
ACTIVA
TED
CARBON
CATION IC
RESIN
ANIONIC
RESIN
ACID
BASE
FERROUS AMMONIUM SULFATE
C
1.87
S
P
FERROUS CHLORIDE
C
1.93
S
P
FERROUS SULFATE
C
1.899
s
P
FORMALDEHYDE
C
0.815
L
M
FORMIC ACID
C
1.22
L
M
FUMARIC ACID
D
1.636
L
ss
FURFURAL
C
1.1S
L
ss
GUTHION
A
1 44
L
IS
HEPTACHLOR
A
1.58
IS
HYDROCHLORIC ACIO
O
1.00
L
ss
HYDROFLUORIC ACIO
D
1.16
L
M
HYOROGEN CYANIDE
A
0.70
L/G
M
HYDROXY LAMINE
D
1.23
SS
ISOPRENE
C
0.681
L
IVF
;
ISOPROPANOL AMINE OODECYL-
BENZENESULFONATE
B
090
L
SS
KELTHANE
C
-
-
IS
LEAD ACETATE
D
2 25
S
P
LEAO ARSENATE
D
7.8
s
IS
LEAD CHLORIDE
D
5.86
S
P
LEADFLUBORATE
D
-
s
P
LEAD FLUORIDE
C
8.2
S
IS
LEAD IODIDE
D
6.16
s
IS
LEAO NITRATE
O
4.63
s
p
LEAOSTERATE
D
1.4
s
p
LEAD SULFATE
D
6.2
s
IS
LEAO SULFIDE
C
7.1
s
IS
LEAD TETRAACETATE
D
223
s
p
LEAD THlOCYANATE
O
3.8
s
IS
LEAD THIOSULFATE
D
6.18
s
IS
LEAD TUNGSTATE
D
824
s
IS
LINDANE
A
1 87
s
ss
L ITHIUM BICHHOMATE
D
2.34
s
SM
LITHIUM CIIROMATE
D
-
s
SM
MALATHION
A
1.23
L
SS
MALEIC ACID
D
1.69
8
SS
MALEIC ANHYDRIDE
D
0.934
s
SF
APPENDIX D: HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE/COUNTERMEASURE MATRIX (Cont.)
-------
0
1
00
MATERIAL
EPA
CATE
GOBY
DENSITY
PHYSICAL
FORM
| MASS TRANSFER MEDIA
NEUTf
A(
IALI2ING
SENT
PRECIPI-
TATING
AGENT
BIOLOGICAL
TREATMENT
AGENT
GELLING
AGENT
ABSORBING
AGENT
OXIDIZING
AGENT
DISPERSING
AGENT
P/C/D BACTIVA
CATE B TED
GORY 1CARBON
CATIONIC
RESIN
ANIONIC
RESIN
ACID
BASE
MERCURIC ACETATE
A
3.26
S
P 1
MERCURIC CYANIDE
A
4 09
S
P
ซ
MERCURIC NITRATE
A
4.3
S
P
MERCURIC SULFATE
A
6.47
s
P
*
MERCURIC THIOCYANATE
A
-
s
IS
MERCUROUS NITRATE
A
4.7ft
s
P
METHOXYCHLOR
A
1.41
s
IS
METHYL MERCAPTAN
B
0.87
L/G
INF
METHYL METHACRYLATE
D
0.936
L
INF
METHYL PARATION
8
1358
L
IS
MEVINPHOS
A
-
L
M
MONOETHYL AMINE
C
1.01
-
M
MONOMETHYL AMINE
C
-
-
SF
NALED
A
-
S/L
IS
NAPTHALENE
B
1162
S
IS
NAPTHENIC ACID
A
1.4
s
SS
NICKEL AMMONIUM SULFATE
D
1.92
s
p
NICKEL CHLORIDE
D
3.55
s
p
NICKEL FORMATE
C
2.15
s
p
NICKEL HYOROXIOE
C
4.36
s
IS
NICKEL NITRATE
D
2.05
s
p
NICKEL SUFLATE
D
1.948
s
p
NITRIC ACIO
C
1.602
L
M
NITROBENZENE
D
1.19
L
SS
NITROGEN DIOXIDE
C
1.448
L/C
M
NITROPHENOL
e
1.4
L
SS
-
PARAFORMALDEHYDE
c
1.46
S
SS
PARATHION
A
1 26
L
IS
PENTACHLOROPHENOL
A
1.978
S
IS
PHENOL
a
1.071
S
SS
.
PHOSGENE
D
1.392
G/L
SS
PHOSPHORIC ACID
D
1.834
L
M
PHOSPHOROUS
A
1.8 * 2.7
S
IS
PHOSPHOROUS OXYCHLORIDE
D
1.67
L
SS
PHOSPHOROUS PENTASULFIDE
C
2.03
S
SS
PHOSPHOROUS TRICHLORIDE
O
1.674
S
SS
POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS
A
-
8
IS
APPENDIX D: HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE/COUNTERMEASURE MATRIX (Cont.)
-------
0
1
yo
MATERIAL
EPA
CATE
GORY
DENSITY
PHYSICAL
FORM
P/C/O
CATE-
GORY
MASS TRANSFER MEDIA
NEUTR
AC
ALIZING
ENT
BIOLOGICAL
TREATMENT
AGENT
GELLING
AGENT
ABSORBING
AGENT
OXIDIZING
AGENT
DISPERSING
AGENT
ACTIVA-
TED
CARBON
CATIONIC
RESIN
ANIONIC
RESIN
ACID
BASE
PRECIPI-
TATING
AGENT
POTASSIUM ARSENATE
C
2.87
S
P
POTASSIUM ARSENITE
C
-
S
P
POTASSIUM BICHROMATE
O
2 68
S
SS
POTASSIUM CHHOMATE
O
2 73
S
&s
POTASSIUM CYANIDE
A
1.82
S
SS
,
POTASSIUM HYOROXIDE
C
2 04
s
SM
POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE
B
2.7
S
SS
PROPRIONIC ACIO
D
0.993
L
M
PROPRIONIC ANHYDRIDE
D
1.013
L
M
PROPYL ALCOHOL
O
08
L
M
PYRETHRINS
C
-
L
SS
QUINOLINE
A
1 09
L
SS
RESORCINOL
0
1.27
s
SS
SELENIUM OXIOE
C
3.954
s
SS
SOOIUM
C
0.971
s
SS
SOOIUM ARSENATE
C
1.76
s
SS
SOOIUM ARSENITE
c
1.87
s
SS
m
SOOIUM BICHROMATE
0
262
s
SM
SOOIUM BIFLUORIDE
D
2 08
S
SS
SOOIUM BISULFITE
O
1.48
s
SS
SODIUM CHROMATE
O
1.483
s
SS
SOOIUM CYANIDE
A
1.48
s
SS
SOOIUM DODECYLBENZENE-
SULFONATE
B
-
s
SS
SODIUM FLUORIDE
D
2.78
s
SS
SOOIUM HYDROSULFIDE
O
s
SS
.
SOOIUM HYOROXIOE
C
2.13
L
SS
SODIUM HYPOCHLORITE
A
-
s
SM
SOOIUM METHYLATE
C
2.4
s
SS
SODIUM NITRITE
8
2.17
s
SS
SOOIUM PHOSPHATE
MONOBASIC
D
2.04
S
SS
SODIUM PHOSPHATE DIBASIC
0
2.06
s
SM
SODIUM PHOSPHATE TRIBASIC
D
1.6
s
SS
SODIUM SELENITE
C
1.63
s
SS
-
SODIUM SULFIDE
c
1.8S6
s
SS
STANNOUS FLUORIOE
D
2.79
s
SS
STRONTIUM CHROMATE | D
-
s
IS
APPENDIX D: HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE/COUNTERMEASURE MATRIX (Cont.)
-------
CD
I
I*
O
MATERIAL
EPA
CATE
GORY
DENSITY
PHYSICAL
FORM
p/c/o
CATE
GORY
MASS TRANSFER MEDIA
NEUTR
AG
ALIZING
ENT
PRECIPI-
TATING
AGENT
BIOLOGICAL
TREATMENT
AGENT
GELLING
AGENT
ABSORBING
AGENT
OXIDIZING
AGENT
DISPERSING
AGENT
ACTIVA-
TED
CARBON
CATIONtC
RESIN
ANIONIC
RESIN
ACID
BASE
STRYCHNINE
C
1.36
S
SS
ft
STYRENE
C
0.909
L
INF
ft
ft
ft
ft
SULFURIC ACID
C
1.034
L
M
ft
ft
ft
SULFUR MGNOCHLORIDE
O
1.G9
S
SS
ft
2.4,6 f ACID
A
-
S
IS
ft
2.4.6T ESTERS
A
-
s
IS
ft
TOE
A
-
s
IS
ft
TETRAETHYL LEAD
A
1.6S9
L
IS
ft
TETRAETHYL PYROPHOSPHATE
B
1.2
L
M
ft
TOLUENE
C
066
L
INF
ft
ft
ft
ft
TOXAPHENE
A
1.66
L
IS
ft
ft
TRICHLORFON
e
1.73
SS
ft
TRICHLOROPHENOL
A
1.1
L
IS
ft
ft
TRIETHANOLAMINE DODECYL-
BENZENESULFONATE
B
-
L
SS
ft
ft
TRIETHYL AMINE
c
1.13
L
SF
ft
ft
ft
ft
TRIMETHYL AMINE
c
066
L
SF
ft
ft
ft
ft
URANIUM PEROXIOE
D
2.6
s
IS
ft
ft
URANYL ACETATE
D
2.89
S
p
ft
ft
URANYL NITRATE
O
2 80
s
p
ft
ft
URANYL SULFATE
O
3.28
s
p
ft
ft
VANADIUM PENTOXIDE
c
3.36
s
p
ft
ft
VANADYL SUFATE
c
-
s
p
ft
ft
VINYL ACETATE
c
0.94
s
SF
ft
ft
ft
ft
XYLENE
c
086
L
INF
*
ft
ft
ft
XYLENOL
c
102
L
SS
ft
ft
2ECTRAN
c
-
-
SS
ft
ft
2INC ACETATE
c
1.735
s
P
ft
ft
ZINC AMMONIUM
CHLORIDE
c
1.80
s
P
ft
ft
ft
Zinc bichromate
c
-
s
P
ft
ft
ft
ZINC BORATE
c
3.64
s
P
ft
ft
ft
ZINC BROMIDE
c
4.22
s
P
ft
ft
ft
ft
ZINC CARBONATE 1
c
4.42
s
IS
ft
ft
ft
ZINC CHLORIDE
c
2.907
s
P
ft
ft
ft
ZINC CYANIDE
A
1.8S
s
IS
ft
ft
ft
ft
ft
ZINC FLUROOIE
c
4.84
s
P
ft
ft
ft
ft
ZINC FORMATE
c
2.21
s
P
ft
ft
ft
APPENDIX D: HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE/COUNTERMEASURE MATRIX (Cont.)
-------
0
1
MATERIAL
EPA
CATE
GORY
DENSITY
PHYSICAL
FORM
P/C/D
CATE
GORY
MASS TRANSFER MEDIA
NEUTRALIZING
AGENT
PRECIPI-
TATING
AGENT
BIOLOGICAL
TREATMENT
AGENT
GELLING
AGENT
ABSORBING
AGENT
OXIDIZING
AGENT
DISPERSING
AGENT
ACTIVA-
TED
CARBON
CATIONIC
RESIN
ANIONIC
RESIN
ACID
BASE
2INC HYDROSULFITE
C
-
S
P
2 INC NITRATE
c
2 07
S
P
ZINC PHENOLSULFONATE
C
-
S
P
ZINC PHOSPHIOE
c
4 55
s
IS
ZINC POTASSIUM CHROMATE
C
-
s
IS
ZINC SULICOFLUORIDE
c
2.1
s
p
ZINC SULFATE
c
3.64
s
p
ZINC SULFATE MONOHYORATE
c
3.28
s
p
ZIRCONIUM ACETATE
o
-
s
p
ZIRCONIUM NITRATE
D
-
s
p
ZIRCONIUM OXYCHLORIDE
O
-
s
p
ZIRCONIUM POTASSIUM
FLUORIDE
D
-
s
p
ZIRCONIUM SULFATE
D
3.22
s
p
ZIRCONIUM TETRACHLORIDE
D
2.6
s
p
APPENDIX D:
HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCE/COUNTERMEASURE MATRIX (Cont.)
------- |