INDUSTRIAL DISCHARGES TO SURFACE WATER
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1-1
1.0 INDUSTRIAL DISCHARGES TO SURFACE WATER
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The Industrial Discharges to Surface Water problem area addressed risks to the
environment, and human health and welfare, from all point source discharges, including all
NPDES (National Pollution Discharges Elimination System) permitted sources except
discharges from publicly and privately owned municipal waste water facilities. Industrial
sources vary in the types of pollutants they produce, and pollutants vary in their ecosystem,
health and welfare impacts.
Data associated with permitting requirements allow for a direct quantification of the number
and location of each regulated industrial waste discharger. However, unregulated, illegal
releases of industrial contaminants are not considered in this assessment, and their
importance is unknown.
In Region VIII there are 1437 industrial waste NPDES dischargers. Of these, 103 are
classified as major facilities and 1,334 are classified as minor facilities.
The distribution of major discharges including, municipal waste facilities, is shown in Figure
1.1. Industrial point sources in Region VIII are concentrated around populated and
industrialized areas including the Front Range of Colorado, the Great Basin-Salt Lake area
of Utah, and Casper, Wyoming.
Risks from industrial point sources result from the release of both conventional and
hazardous materials into surface waters. The NPDES permit system limits the amount and
concentrations of pollutants released. NPDES permits must contain effluent limits to satisfy
the appropriate receiving water quality standards. If the standards have not addressed the
appropriate pollutant(s) the permits may allow discharges at a level that will allow
ecosystem, welfare and human health effects.
Human health risks are associated with direct and indirect contact with polluted receiving
waters. Direct exposure to contaminated receiving waters occurs through drinking water and
via dermal contact and recreation. Indirect exposure to pollutants, derived from receiving
waters, may occur by ingestion of contaminated fish and waterfowl or by ingesting toxicants
in other food chains.
The magnitude of ecological risk associated with industrial discharges depends upon
pollutant type, concentration, and the amount of effluent versus the dilution by receiving
waters. Receiving waters with large flows and low background pollutant concentrations are
not as at risk from point source discharges as receiving waters with low flows and high
background pollutant concentrations.
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Welfare effects of industrial point source surface water contamination are associated with
consumer surplus losses and replacement and mitigation costs due to lost uses of aquatic
resources. Affected resource uses include: surface and groundwater drinking water supplies,
irrigation waters for agriculture and livestock, and water recreation uses.
Other welfare effects of industrial point source pollution are not necessarily associated
directly with aquatic resources. For example, nutrient enrichment and subsequent
eutrophication may be associated with a drop in riparian real estate values and cost of
illness measures associated with human health effects due to contaminated surface waters.
Risks are characterized by the number of NPDES permitted facilities, their size and industry
type, and the number of permit violations in the Region. Ecosystem impacts are quantified
as reported in State 319 and 305b reports as the number of miles of streams and acres of
lakes impacted by the "industrial point sources category" or specific pollutants.
12 SOURCES
Risks are associated with those industrial waste sources in which permits allow pollutant
releases that may cause impacts, because they are allowed by the receiving water quality
standards.
The numbers of Region VIII major and minor NPDES industrial waste water sources for
each SIC (Standard Industrial Code) class, are listed in Table 1-1.
The largest numbers of the 103 major permits in Region VIII are associated with various
mining industries (32), electrical power generation (15), petroleum industries (14), and sugar
beet processing (10). Other industries with more than one major facility in the Region are:
meat packing plants (3), national security facilities (2), softwood veneer mills (2), and steel
blast furnaces (2).
While there are over 100 different SIC classed facilities that require minor NPDES permits,
only a hand full of industrial activities dominate the 1334 minor point sources in Region
VIII. Crude petroleum industry facilities predominate with 669 permits. Next in number
are bituminous coal operations and water supply facilities, with 105 each. Metal mining
operations account for 95 minor permits, while fish hatchery minor permits number 48. The
other industries with greater than 10 minor permits include: construction sand and gravel
operations (25), electrical power facilities (23), "special trade companies" (18), beef cattle
feedlots (17), crop preparation services (11), and steam & air conditioning plants (11).
NPDES industrial dischargers are not randomly distributed across the Region (Figure 1.1)
and cumulative impacts may be associated with the density of facilities in a given drainage
basin.
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Table 1-1
Major and Minor NPDES Facilities
by SIC Code in Region VIII
Industry SIC Name
Major
Minor
TOTAL
TOTAL Region VIII
103
1334
1437
ELECTRICAL SERVICE
15
23
38
PETROLEUM REFININ
12
7
19
BEET SUGAR
10
1
11
URANIUM-RADIUM-V
9
9
18
BITUMINOUS COAL
8
105
113
GOLD ORES
8
63
71
COPPER ORES
4
1
5
FERROALLOY ORES
4
0
4
MEAT PACKING PLANT
3
4
7
LEAD AND ZINC ORE
3
3
6
SILVER ORES
2
4
6
NATIONAL SECURITY
2
1
3
SOFTWOOD VENEER
2
0
2
BLAST FURN/STEEL
2
0
2
CRUDE PETROLEUM
1
669
670
METAL ORES, NEC
1
14
15
RAILROADS, LINE
1
8
9
INDUSTRIAL INORG
1
3
4
MALT BEVERAGES
1
3
4
LAND, MIN, WILDL
1
3
4
FLUID MILK
1
3
4
CYCLIC CRUDES IN
1
2
3
PULP MILLS
1
1
2
GUIDED MISSILES
1
1
2
MECHANICAL RUBBER
1
1
2
REFUSE SYSTEMS
1
1
2
AIRPORTS
1
1
2
PRIMARY SMELTING
1
1
2
NONCLASSIFIABLE
1
0
1
PHOTOGRAPHIC EQU
1
0
1
MOTOR VEHICLE PA
1
0
1
PHOTOFINISHING LAB
1
0
1
TRANSFORMERS
1
0
1
WATER SUPPLY
0
105
105
FISH HATCHERIES
0
48
48
CONSTRUCTION SAN
0
25
25
SPECIAL TRADE CO
0
18
18
BEEF CATTLE FEED
0
17
17
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Table 1 -1 (cont.)
Major and Minor NPDES Facilities
by SIC Code in Region VIII
Industry SIC Name
Major
Minor
TOTAL
STEAM & AIR-COND
0
11
11
CROP PREP SERVICE
0
11
11
SANITARY SERVICE
0
9
9
CRUSHED AND BROKE
0
7
7
MUSEUMS AND ART
0
6
6
CHEESE, NATURAL
0
6
6
CHEMICALS &CHEM.
0
5
5
CEMENT, HYDRAULI.
0
5
5
ELEM.& SEC SCHOOL
0
5
5
OIL & FIELD
0
5
5
MISC NONMETAL MINE
0
4
4
INDUSTRIAL GASES
0
4
4
GEN. MEDICAL/SUR
0
4
4
INDUST. ORGANIC
0
3
3
HEAVY CONSTR.
0
3
3
NATURAL GAS LIQU
0
3
3
POTASH, SODA
0
3
3
HOTELS AND MOTEL
0
3
3
READY-MIXED CONCR
0
2
2
METAL MINING SERVIC
0
2
2
COMMERCIAL PHYSI
0
2
2
LOGGING CAMPS
0
2
2
CAR WASHES
0
2
2
NATURAL GAS TRAN
0
2
2
EATING PLACES
0
2
2
PROD OF PETROLIUM
0
2
2
BRIDGE, TUNNEL
0
2
2
PHOSPHATIC FERTI
0
2
2
GASOLINE SERVICE
0
2
2
ALKALIES AND CHL
0
2
2
H20,SEW,PIPE
0
2
2
SHEEP AND GOATS
0
2
2
COLLEGES, UNIV
0
2
2
PAVING MIXTURES
0
2
2
BOT&CAN SOFT DRINK
0
1
1
SPECIALTY CLEANING
0
1
1
INDUSTRIAL VALVE
0
1
1
FOOD CROPS GROWN
0
1
1
RELAYS AND INDUS
0
1
1
LIVESTOCK
0
1
1
MINERAL WOOL
0
1
1
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Table 1-1 (cont.)
Major and Minor NPDES Facilities
by SIC Code in Region VIII
Industry SIC Name
Major
Mino
TOTAL
VEG.OIL MILLS 0
FARM MACHINERY 0
BUSINESS SERVICE 0
CIVIC, SOCIAL 0
PETROLEUM BULK ST 0
GRAY IRON FOUNDR 0
GYPSUM PRODUCTS 0
ELECT. COMPUTERS 0
EXPLOSIVES 0
ANIMAL AND MARINE 0
BRICK AND STRUCT. 0
FLUID POWER VALV 0
FROZEN FRTS, FRT 0
PIPELINES, NEC 0
SKILLED NURSING 0
MARINAS 0
DIMENSION STONE 0
CHEM & FERT. MINE 0
STRUCTURAL STEEL 0
COAL MINING SERV 0
CONDENSED AND EV 0
GRAIN AND FIELD 0
GROCERY STORES 0
PORCELAIN ELECTR 0
LOCAL AND SUBURBA 0
PETROL & PET PROD 0
PLATING AND POLISH 0
NONCOMMERCIAL RE 0
SPACE PROPULSION 0
AMUSEMENT AND REC 0
PLSTC MAT./SYN R 0
FARMS 0
HWY & STREET CONST 0
GLASS CONTAINERS 0
RAILROAD SWTCHING 0
CANNED FRUITS VEG. 0
HOGS 0
ELEC &OTHER SERV. 0
PHARMACEUTICAL P 0
IRISH POTATOES 0
SPORTING & RECRE ' 0
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Table 1-1 (cont.)
Major and Minor NPDES Facilities
by SIC Code in Region VIII
Industry SIC Name
Major
Minor
TOTAL
PREP FEEDS
0
1
1
PSYCHIATIRC HOSP
0
1
1
GEN CONTRACT-RES
0
1
1
STEEL PIPE
0
1
1
MEDICAL LAB
0
1
1
POULTRY SLAUGHTER
0
1
1
STEEL FOUNDRIES
0
1
1
CLAY, CERAMIC
0
1
1
CONCRETE PROD EX
0
1
1
MANUFACTURED ICE
0
1
1
JUNIOR COLLEGES
0
1
1
AIR TRANSPORTATION
0
1
1
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1-8
River systems at high risk, all other factors being equal, are those with the greatest number
of dischargers facilities. For example, the Yellowstone and South Platte Rivers have many
more major industrial waste sites than other rivers in the Region.
However, the types of pollutants released, the volume of effluent verses the receiving water
volume, and background pollution burden are each important factors that prevent a credible
assessment of risks based only on the data in Table 1-1. The amount of non-compliance
may also be related to risk sources. The numbers of major and minor violations which
occurred between April, 1989 and April, 1990, in each of the major drainages in Region
VIII are listed in Table 1-2.
13 STRESSORS
Pollutant streams vary with different industrial effluents. Many industries are consistently
associated with specific pollutants. For example, hard rock mining activities produce heavy
metals, electrical power generation produces waste heat and thermal pollution, petroleum
industries are associated with toxic organics, oil and grease, and food processing facilities
produce biological oxygen demand. The pollutants associated with some industries are
harder to characterize, however, making generalizations difficult (Manahan, 1975).
The types of pollutants associated with Region VIII industrial discharges include, but are
not limited to the following:
POLLUTANT
MAJOR SOURCE
total suspended solids
mining, construction activities
biological oxygen demand (BOD) sugar beet plants, meat packing plants, feedlots,
and fish hatcheries
toxic organics
petroleum industries,
halogenated aliphatics
phenols and cresols
phthalate esters
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
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Table 1-2
Number of Major and Minor Industrial Discharge Facilities
by Drainage Basin in Region VIII
Drainage Basin
Major
Minor
Total
UNNAMED
1
13
15
COLORADO
GREEN RIVER
7
83
136
LOW COLORADO
0
0
3
SAN JUAN
3
20
66
UP COLORADO
8
55
171
GREAT BASIN
SALT LAKE
8
48
105
SEVIER R.
1
6
16
MISSOURI
BIG SIOUX R.
2
12
76
CEN MR, NIOBRARA
2
185
327
SPRING R.
3
42
174
JAMES R.
0
7
103
KANSAS R.
0
0
8
LOW MR, NIOBRARA
1
9
38
MR, NIOBRARA
0
36
38
NORTH PLATTE
3
134
164
SOUTH PLATTE
22
87
257
UP MR, MILK R.
4
64
115
YELLOWSTONE
17
411 *
497
PACIFIC NORTH
CLARK FORK
4
28
54
KOOTENAI R.
1
1
4
UPPER SNAKE R.
1
3
10
SM
ARKANSAS
0
3
3
UP ARKANSAS
6
36
105
UM
MINNESOTA R.
0
0
11
RED RIVER OF NOR
3
32
151
SOURIS R.
0
12
54
WG
UPPER RIO GRANDE
3
8
32
* 332 CRUDE PETROLEUM
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1-10
toxic inorganics
heavy metals: arsenic, hard rock and coal mining
beryllium, cadmium, chromium, operations
copper, lead, nickel, selenium,
zinc
mercury
ammonia
cyanides
chlorine
sulfide
pH
nutrients
nitrogen
(ammonium, nitrate, nitrite)
phosphorous
oil and grease
thermal
fish hatcheries
gold extraction
water treatment plants
organic decomposition of
sulfur compounds
acid mine drainage
fish hatcheries, plant and animal
production facilities
petroleum industries
electrical power facilities, steam and air
conditioning plants
1.4 ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE DISCHARGE TO SURFACE
WATERS
Effects of chronic high doses of individual pollutants on specific organisms are relatively well
known. On the other hand, effects to the community or ecosystem due to combinations of
pollutants at low doses are very uncertain.
Regardless of the kind of pollutant, a number of factors affect the severity of ecological
impacts from industrial waste discharges. Effects are greatest where receiving waters
provide the least dilution. Downstream cumulative effects are more likely where dischargers
are clustered along a water way. (Permitted pollution loads at specific facilities may not
consider the overall pollution burden of the receiving ecosystem.) Elevated temperatures
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associated with thermal pollution enhance the toxic effects of most inorganic and organic
pollutants.
Ecological impacts of industrial effluents on surface waters include, but are not limited to,
the following:
• aquatic toxicity;
• eutrophication of lakes and reservoirs;
• reduced species diversity; and
• reduced fisheries productivity.
Numerous organic and inorganic compounds and oxygen depletion have toxic effects on
aquatic biota. Direct toxicity can lead to community level effects such as reductions in
species diversity, and ecosystem effects such as reduced productivity.
Excessive concentrations of nutrients, nitrogen and phosphorous leads to eutrophication of
surface waters. Eutrophication is associated with reduced species diversity, and altered
ecosystem structure and function. Eutrophication is of greater concern in lakes, which have
longer water residence times, than in streams.
Excessive noxious plant growth can lead to impaired recreational use and poor aesthetic
appeal. Increased production and subsequent respiration can lead to oxygen deprivation in
stratified lakes especially during ice cover, and may enhance the frequency of "winter kill"
of fish populations.
Elevated levels of total suspended solids are associated with reduced light penetration and
increased sedimentation rates, subsequently autochthonous productivity may decline and
benthic habitats may be altered.
Numerous industrial effluents increase the biological oxygen demand (BOD) of the receiving
waters leading to oxygen depletion and well known biotic effects. Species intolerant of low
oxygen levels, such as saimonid fishes, stonefiles, and mayflies, become locally extinct and
are replaced by tolerant forms such as blood worms, and midges.
Waste heat from power generation facilities increases temperatures of receiving waters with
direct and indirect consequences. Some organisms have explicit temperature tolerances and
once exceeded are no longer viable. Indirect effects of temperature occurs through controls
on oxygen solubility and increased toxicities of many other pollutants at higher temperatures.
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1.5 DATA QUANTIFYING ECOSYSTEM EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE
DISCHARGE TO SURFACE WATERS
Potential ecosystem effects due to industrial waste discharge are related to the number of
discharge sites and the total resource at risk. Their are over 83 thousand miles of streams
and 6 million acres of lakes in Region VIII (Table 1-3). Impacts from industrial waste
discharge may occur to these surface waters at each of the 103 major and 1334 minor
NPDES facilities distributed across the Region.
If we assume that the loss of best use designation reported in the State 319 and 305b reports
is related to ecosystem impacts then the number of miles of streams and acres of lakes
impacted by the "industrial point sources category" or by specific pollutants is an indicator
of their ecosystem effects.
The miles of streams and acres of lakes in the Region impacted by industrial point sources
of water pollution are listed in Table 1-4. Fewer than 6,000 stream miles in Region VIII
are impacted by point source surface water pollution and fewer than 2,000 miles are
attributed to industrial point sources (Table 1-4). Streams with major impacts from
industrial point sources total 432 miles, with most of these impacts due to oil industry
activity in Wyoming (314 miles).
Over 200,000 lake acres are impacted by point sources in the Region, and less than half of
this lake area is impaired by industrial point sources (97,183 acres). Impacts on lakes from
industrial point sources were observed primarily in Utah (96,900 acres), and were classified
as major impacts (Table 1-4). In contrast, Wyoming listed no lakes as impaired by industrial
point sources.
/
Another indication of the extent of surface water pollution, some fraction of which is
attributable to industrial point sources, can be derived from the State 305b and 319 reports,
as the miles of streams and acres of lakes impacted by specific pollutants. However none
of the pollutants listed are exclusively found in industrial point sources.
Table 1-5 lists the miles of streams and acres of lakes impacted by various pollutants in
Region VIII. An unknown fraction of the impacts due to these specific pollutants are
attributable to industrial point sources.
In Region VIII industrial point source impacts are much less extensive than nonpoint
sources (see Problem 3) and are slightly less extensive than municipal point source impacts
(Problem 2).
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Table 1-3
Aquatic Resources at Risk
Miles of
Acres of
State
Stream
Lakes
Colorado
14,655
265,982
Montana
20,532
756,450
North Dakota
11,868
619,088
South Dakota
9,937
1,598,285
Utah
6,855
2,398,267
Wyoming
19,437
427,219
Region VIII
83,284
6,065,291
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Table 1-4
Aquatic Resources Exhibiting Major and Minor Impacts
from Industrial Point Source Pollution
Miles of River
Acres of Lake
State
Major
Minor
Total
Major
Minor
Total
Colorado 1988
Total Point Sources
320
1,139
1,459
262
7,172
7,434
Industrial
42
250
292
262
0
262
Montana 1990
Total Point Sources
46
1,416
1,462
0
5,100
5,100
Industrial
0
339
339
0
0
0
North Dakota 1990
Total Point Sources
37
804
840
0
2,701
2,701
Industrial
0
12
12
0
0
0
South Dakota 1988
Total Point Sources
22
43
65
1,953
0
1,953
Industrial
11
0
11
0
0
0
Utah 1990
Total Point Sources
130
1,018
1,148
194,484
42
194,526
Industrial
65
509
574
96,900
21
96,921
Wyoming 1988
Total Point Sources
321
399
720
0
0
0
Industrial (Oil)
314
399
713
0
0
0
Industrial (Others)
7
0
7
0
0
0
Region VIII
Total Point Sources
876
4,819
5,694
196,699
15,015
211,714
Industrial
432
1,509
1,941
97,162
21
97,183
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Table 1-5
Miles of Stream and Acres of Lake Impaired by Pollutant
Miles of Stream Impaired
North
South
Pollutant
Colorado Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Pesticides
275
275
Metals
1345
1141
1016
11
1908
7
5428
Ammonia
823
823
Chlorine
4
4
Other Inorganics
790
790
Nutrients
756
3178
7269
232
1747
13181
PH
163
656
758
1577
Siltation
2133
6769
4375
385
3303
16965
Organic Enrichment/DO
120
1184
204
2748
4256
Salinity/TDS/chlorides
1488
3032
1818
1333
891
8562
Thermal modification
1699
875
8
2582
Flow alterations
2746
414
401
3561
Other habitat alterations
1363
43
965
2371
Pathogens
53
510
2844
1185
1623
418
6633
Radiation
2
2
Oil and Grease
64
64
Taste and odor
Suspended solids
2563
1707
4270
Noxious aquatic plants
Filling and draining
Acres of Lake Impaired
North
South
Pollutant
Colorado Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Pesticides
0
Metals
3715
57598
32472
93785
Ammonia
131579
131579
Chlorine
0
Other Inorganics
0
Nutrients
22554
107664
581539
88046
134453
56950
991205
PH
5600
5600
Siltation
6278
350654
500930
67753
10905
89775
1026294
Organic Enrichment/DO
11411
574014
158
112547
54772
752902
Salinity/TDS/chlorides
590
27759
425981
11255
489
466074
Thermal modification
25226
46
2874
28146
Flow alterations
83522
56324
7868
12332
160046
Other habitat alterations
6848
6848
Pathogens
325
10743
11068
Radiation
0
Oil and Grease
0
Taste and odor
27
27
Suspended solids
44282
113911
952
108627
267772
Noxious aquatic plants
61018
86501
122932
270451
Filling and draining
353
353
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1-16
Risks from these different sources of surface water pollution can not be quantified and
compared based solely only on the miles or acres of streams impacted. While the extent of
industrial point source water pollution is far less than nonpoint sources, industrial emissions
occur in more populated areas where potential human interactions with pollutants are more
likely. In contrast, many nonpoint sources of surface water pollution are associated with
rural sparsely populated areas (ie. agricultural runoff or abandoned mines) where direct
interactions with humans are less likely. The type of pollutant released from industrial point
sources tends to be more toxic (metals, toxic organics) than the dominant form of nonpoint
pollutant (sediments).
1.6 HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTS DUE TO INDUSTRIAL WASTE DISCHARGES
For the States in Region VIII, the 305b reports document no specific human health effects
attributable directly to industrial point source water pollution. However, significant human
health effects due to two primary pathways, body contrast and drinking water contamination,
are considered unlikely.
1.7 WELFARE EFFECTS DUE TO INDUSTRIAL WASTE DISCHARGES
Many different types of welfare effects may be associated with the contamination of aquatic
ecosystems by industrial wastes in Region VIII. Typically addressed damage categories
include:
• Replacement or treatment of contaminated drinking water;
• Reduced suitability of surface water for agricultural uses;
• Declining riparian property values near eutrophied water bodies;
• Cost of illness due to ingesting contaminated waters;
• Loss of recreation opportunities; and,
• Loss of valued aquatic habitats
Existing data are not sufficient to allow, credible estimates of welfare damages due to or
associated with Industrial Point Sources in Region VIII. Even if credible economic damage
estimates were available for selected societal uses of surface waters damaged by industrial
point sources, these measures are at best partial approximations.
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1.8 ASSUMPTIONS
Quantification of the amount of industrial point source pollution described in this
assessment relies on the quality of the 319 and 305b State reports. These data have serious
reservations associated with their use in risk assessment. Using these data, we must assume:
1) Ecosystem effects are related to "impairment" from designated use categories.
Since a state can designate a use as "industrial" or contaminated, then chronic
pollution of such a designated use is not revealed as an impairment by definition.
Quantitative information is hard to derive from the State reports, as the same stream
reach can be listed as impaired by more than one activity and impaired from more
than one use designation.
2) State listings of the amount of impairment represent a reasonable estimate of the
actual amount of impairment.
However, only a fraction of each state's surface waters are evaluated subjectively and
even a smaller fraction is actually sampled and evaluated quantitatively.
These assumptions are important. While appearing to be quantitative data the impairment
data reported in the 319 and 305b reports should be interpreted with caution.
1.9 UNCERTAINTY
Effects of individual point source pollutants are certain. The cumulative impacts of several
pollutants are not well known. Tlie extent of impacts are not well known, either. Water
quality is not monitored in a statistically meaningful manner. Data presented here on the
extent of water quality impacts from industrial point source pollution are also uncertain.
The true extent of pollution impacts are unknown.
1.10 OMISSIONS
The detailed effects of specific pollutants on aquatic biota do not differ substantially
between sources of specific pollutants, therefore specific effects of each pollutant are fully
described in Problem 3, nonpoint source pollution.
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1.11 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING RISK ASSESSMENT-REDUCING
UNCERTAINTY
Statistically relevant water quality monitoring would allow for a more meaningful and less
uncertain assessment of the extent of industrial point source pollution in Region VIII. Data
on the amount of effluent, receiving water volume, and background concentrations for each
discharge site would be most useful. Knowledge of the long term effects of multiple
pollutants on stream and lake ecosystem structure and function would improve our ability
to predict ecological risks. Whole effluent toxicity studies are a minimal first step toward
evaluating complex interactive pollutant effects.
1.12 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Barnthouse, L. W., R.V. O'Neill, S.M. Bartell, and G.W. Suter, 1986. Population and
Ecosystem Theory in Ecological Risk Assessment, pp. 82-96. IN: Aquatic Toxicology and
Environmental Fate 9th Vol. T.M. Poston and R. Purdy (Eds.) American Society for Testing
and Materials. Philadelphia, PA.
Environmental Protection Agency. 1987. Comparative Ecological Risk. A Report of the
Ecological Risk Workgroup. USEPA, Office of Policy Analysis, Office of Policy, Planning
and Evaluation. Washington, D.C. 20460.
Manahan, S.E.. 1975. Environmental Chemistry 2nd ed. Willard Grant Press. Boston
Massachusetts. 532p.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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2-1
2.0 MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER DISCHARGES TO SURFACE WATER
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The Municipal Wastewater Discharges to Surface Water problem area covers risks to
ecosystems, and human health and welfare, from all publicly and privately owned NPDES
(National Pollution Discharges Elimination System) permitted wastewater treatment
facilities.
Point source pollution issues from municipal waste treatment discharges are similar to those
of industrial point source discharges. However, municipal waste effluents have some unique
properties. Municipal wastes combine wastes from numerous industries with domestic
sewage wastes and, in some cases, storm sewer overflows.
Permitting requirements allow for direct quantification of the number and location of each
municipal waste discharger. In Region VIII, there are 1298 municipal waste NPDES
dischargers. Of these, 189 are classified as major facilities, and 1109 are classified as minor
facilities.
The distribution of major dischargers including, industrial waste facilities, is shown in Figure
1-1. Point sources in Region VIII are aggregated around populated areas including; the
Front Range of Colorado, the Great Basin-Salt Lake area of Utah, and Casper, Wyoming.
Impacts are quantified as reported in State 319 and 305b reports as the number of miles of
streams and acres of lakes impacted by the "municipal point sources" category. Impacts
associated with specific pollutants were quantified in Problem 1.
2.2 SOURCES
Risks are associated with each municipal waste water source, as permits allow pollutant
releases that may cause impacts. Furthermore, permitted levels of pollutant release may be
exceeded by any facility at any time. During high runoff events CSOs may contribute to
municipal waste facilities and overwhelm facility capacities.
All municipal waste treatment facilities release suspended solids, nutrients, and BOD. The
presence and importance of other pollutants depends on the amount and kind of discharges
flowing through the facility, and the contribution and characteristics of combined sewer
overflows. Each source varies in the types of pollutants they produce and pollutants vary
in their environmental, health and welfare impacts.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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GeograpMc DisUW«on
Figure 2.1
of 7,000 Major Point Source Dischargers
. *
-------
2-3
There are 1,298 NPDES municipal waste generating facilities in Region VIII, of which 189
are classified as major and 1109 are classified as minor facilities. Waste generating facilities
are not randomly distributed across the Region (Figure 2-1) and cumulative impacts may
be associated with the density of facilities in a given drainage basin. The numbers of major
and minor municipal waste facilities in each major drainage basin in the Region are listed
in Table 2-1.
River systems at highest risk, all other factors being equal, are those with the greatest
number of waste facilities. For example, the South Platte River has the greatest number of
major municipal waste facilities. Since the Salt Lake basin is a closed drainage, the 23
major and 26 minor facilities should lead to significant cumulative effects. Other river
systems with numerous major and minor municipal waste facilities include: the Upper
Colorado and Arkansas Rivers, and the Niobrara River in the Central Missouri basin.
However, the types of pollutants released, the volume of effluent verses the receiving water
volume, and background pollution burden are all important factors that prevent a credible
assessment of risks based only data enumerating and locating municipal waste facilities.
23 STRESSORS
The types of pollutants associated with municipal discharges in Region VTII include:
total suspended solids
biological oxygen demand (BOD)
bacterial pathogens (fecal coliform)
ammonia
chlorine and chlorination products
nutrients
nitrogen
phosphorous
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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Table 2-1
Number of Major and Minor Municipal Discharge Facilities
by Drainage Basin in Region VIII
Municipal Waste NPDES
Drainage Basin
Major
Minor Total
UNNAMED
0
1
15
COLORADO
GREEN RIVER
7
39
136
LOW COLORADO
1
2
3
SAN JUAN
2
41
66
UP COLORADO
19
89
171
GREAT BASIN
SALT LAKE
23
26
105
SEVIER R.
1
8
16
MISSOURI
BIG SIOUX R.
5
57
76
CEN MR, NIOBRARA
14
126
327
SPRING R.
8
121
174
JAMES R.
5
91
103
KANSAS R.
0
8
8
LOW MR, NIOBRARA
3
25
38
MR, NIOBRARA
0
2
38
NORTH PLATTE
3
24
164
SOUTH PLATTE
36
112
257
UP MR, MILK R.
10
37
115
YELLOWSTONE
12
57
497
PACIFIC NORTH
CLARK FORK
9
13
54
KOOTENAI R.
1
1
4
UPPER SNAKE R.
0
6
10
SM
ARKANSAS
0
0
3
UP ARKANSAS
16
47
105
UM
MINNESOTA R.
2
9
11
RED RIVER OF NOR
9
107
151
SOURIS R.
1
41
54
WG
UPPER RIO GRANDE
2
19
32
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2-5
2.4 ECOSYSTEM EFFECTS OF MUNICIPAL WASTE DISCHARGE TO SURFACE
WATERS
Ecosystem effects of municipal waste discharges are, for the purposes of this analysis, similar
to those associated with industrial wastes for the pollutants listed above.
2.5 DATA QUANTIFYING ECOSYSTEM EFFECTS OF MUNICIPAL WASTE
DISCHARGE TO SURFACE WATERS
Potential ecosystem effects due to municipal waste discharges are related to the number of
discharge sites and total resources at risk. As documented in Problem 1, there are over 83
thousand miles of streams and 6 million acres of lakes in Region VIII. Impacts from
municipal waste discharge may occur to these surface waters at each of the 189 major and
1109 minor NPDES facilities distributed across the Region. The distribution of major
NPDES sites is not random but is clustered in areas of industrial development (Figure 2-1)
and varies between drainage basin (Table 2-1).
If we assume that the loss of best use designation reported in the State 319 and 305b reports
is related to ecosystem impacts then the number of miles of streams and acres of lakes
impacted by the "municipal point sources" category or by specific pollutants is a direct
measure of their environmental effects.
The miles of streams and acres of lakes in the Region impacted by municipal point sources
of water pollution are listed in Table 2-2 as compiled from the various State reports.
Fewer than 6,000 miles of streams in Region VIII are impacted by point source surface
water pollution and over half, 3,310 miles, are attributed to municipal point sources (Table
2-2). Streams with major impacts from municipal point sources total 443 miles, with the
majority of impacts occurring in the Colorado Front Range region (278 miles).
Over 200,000 acres of lakes are impacted by point sources of water pollution in the Region
and more than half of this lake area is impaired by municipal point sources (114,531 acres).
Impacts on lakes from municipal point sources were observed primarily in Utah (97,584
acres) and were classified as major impacts (Table 2-2).
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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Table 2-2
Aquatic Resources Exhibiting Major and Minor Impacts
from Municipal Point Source Pollution
State
Miles of River
Major Minor
Total
Acres of Lake
Major Minor
Total
Colorado 1988
Total Point Sources
Municipal
320
278
1,139
889
1,459
1,167
262
0
7,172
7,172
7,434
7,172
Montana 1990
Total Point Sources
Municipal
46
46
1,416
1,077
1,462
1,123
0
0
5,100
5,100
5,100
5,100
North Dakota 1990
Total Point Sources
Municipal
37
37
804
792
840
829
0
0
2,701
2,701
2,701
2,701
South Dakota 1988
Total Point Sources
Municipal
22
11
43
43
65
54
1,953
1,953
0
0
1,953
1,953
Utah 1990
Total Point Sources
Municipal
130
65
1,018
509
1,148
574
194,484
97,584
42
21
194,526
97,605
Wyoming 1988
Total Point Sources
Municipal
321
62
399
114
720
176
0
0
0
8,300
0
8,300
Region VIII
Total Point Sources
Municipal
876
444
4,819
3,310
5,694
3,754
196,699
99,537
15,015
14,994
211,714
114,531
-------
2-7
Another indication of the extent of surface water pollution, some fraction of which is
attributable to municipal point sources, can be derived from the State 305b and 319 reports
as the miles of streams and acres of lakes impacted by specific pollutants (See Problem 1).
However none of the pollutants listed are exclusively found in municipal point sources,
therefore, these data only serve as an index to the potential extent of surface water pollution
from all sources.
In Region VTII municipal point source impacts are much less extensive than nonpoint
sources (see Problem 3), and are larger than industrial point source impacts (Problem 1).
Risks from these different sources of surface water pollution can not be quantified and
compared based solely only on the miles or acres of streams impacted. While the extent of
municipal point source water pollution is far less than nonpoint sources, municipal emissions
occur in more populated areas where potential human interactions with pollutants are more
likely. In contrast, many nonpoint sources of surface water pollution are associated with
rural, sparsely populated areas (ie., agricultural runoff or abandoned mines) where direct
interactions with humans are less likely. The type of pollutant released from industrial point
sources tends to be more toxic (metals, toxic organics) than the dominant form of nonpoint
pollutant (sediments).
2.6 HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTS OF MUNICIPAL WASTE DISCHARGES
Available data do not allow credible quantitative estimates of human health effects
associated with this problem area. Likely exposure pathways include direct contact and
drinking water contamination. Neither are considered to pose significant health risks.
2.7 EFFECTS OF MUNICIPAL WASTE DISCHARGE TO SURFACE WATERS ON
WELFARE
Categories of welfare damages associated with contamination of surface waters by municipal
wastes are similar to those caused by industrial point sources. See Problem 1 for a listing
of the kinds of welfare damages associated with point source water pollution. Lack of data
prohibit a quantitative assessment of welfare damages associated with this problem area.
2.8 ASSUMPTIONS
This assessment of risks associated with municipal point sources of water pollution employs
the same assumptions regarding the use of State 319 and 305b reports as did the industrial
point source assessment (see Problem 1).
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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2-8
2.9 UNCERTAINTY
Effects of individual point source pollutants are certain. The cumulative impacts of several
pollutants is not well known. The extent of impacts are not well known either. Water
quality is not monitored in a statistically meaningful manner. The data presented here on
the extent of water quality impacts from municipal point source pollution is uncertain. True
extent of pollution impacts are unknown.
2.10 OMISSIONS
The detailed effects of specific pollutants on aquatic biota do not differ substantially
between sources of specific pollutants, therefore specific effects of each pollutant are fully
described in Problem 3, nonpoint source pollution.
2.11 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING RISK ASSESSMENT-REDUCING
UNCERTAINTY
Statistically relevant water quality monitoring would allow for a more meaningful and less
uncertain assessment of the extent of point source pollution in Region VIII. Data on the
amount of effluent, receiving water volume, and background concentrations for each
discharge site would be most useful. Knowledge of the long term effects of multiple
pollutants on stream and lake ecosystem structure and function would improve our ability
to predict ecological risks. Whole effluent toxicity studies are a minimal first step toward
evaluating complex interactive pollutant effects.
2.12 REFERENCES
Environmental Protection Agency. 1987. Comparative Ecological Risk. A Report of the
Ecological Risk Workgroup. U.S. EPA, Office of Policy Analysis, Office of Policy, Planning
and Evaluation. Washington, D.C. 20460.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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3-1
3.0 NONPOINT SOURCE DISCHARGES TO WATER
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Nonpoint source water pollution is defined as pollution not discharged through discrete
conveyances. Nonpoint pollution originates from large diffuse sources or more confined and
localized areas. The delivery mechanism is the primary parameter; nonpoint pollutants are
carried by some agent such as runoff, groundwater, or wind. Alternatively, these
contaminants enter waters due to proximity e.g. landslides from unstable slopes, or direct
animal access. Some sources of nonpoint pollution are not fully discussed in Section 3.0;
these have been identified as specific threats to be addressed separately in this risk
assessment. These nonpoint sources include mining waste sites, leaching from storage tanks,
RCRA hazardous waste and superfund sites, municipal and industrial solid waste sites,
accidental chemical releases, pesticides, and acid deposition.
The environmental risks from both point and nonpoint pollution are similar. Both types of
pollution are positively correlated with population growth and development pressure. The
prime population growth/development areas in Region VIII will experience the most serious
effects in terms of impacted waters.
This risk assessment uses literature to define and characterize the qualitative effects
associated with each nonpoint source activity (e.g. agriculture, resource extraction, etc.) and
each pollutant (e.g. sedimentation, metals, etc.) or stressor (e.g. canal leakage, dredging).
The individual State 319 and 305b reports from 1988 and 1989 are then used to quantify the
contribution of the nonpoint source activity and pollutant type to non-attainment of
designated beneficial uses in the Region.
3.2 DATA ON NONPOINT SOURCE EFFECTS
Impacts of nonpoint source water pollution vary depending upon the activity responsible for
the pollutant discharge and the quality and quantity of the receiving water. Specific sources
of nonpoint pollutants in Region VIII include agriculture, livestock grazing, resource
extraction (mining), silviculture, construction, (urban development), urban runoff,
hydromodifications (dam construction and operation, surface water withdrawal, flood control
activities, and irrigation projects). Miles of streams and acres of lakes impaired by various
nonpoint sources are listed in Table 3-1.
Stream impairment due to agricultural activities is 5-10 times more significant than the next
most important nonpoint source of pollution in Region VIII, followed by hydromodification,
resource extraction, construction, silviculture, urban runoff, and land disposal (Table 3-1).
"Other" activities include impairment, highway maintenance, in-place contaminants,
recreational activities, and atmospheric deposition.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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Table 3-1
Miles of Stream and Acres of Lake Impaired by Source Category - Region VIII
Miles of Stream Impaired
Source Category
Colorado Montana
North
Dakota
South
Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
817
574
624
2015
Nonpoint Sources
0
Agriculture
4709
11276
17874
4664
5868
7176
51566
Silviculture
43
748
112
161
495
1559
Construction
7
204
26
285
1965
2487
Urban Runoff
129
131
38
262
400
315
1275
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
1359
1605
255
62
293
731
4305
Land Disposal
301
26
115
76
518
Hydromodification
221
3116
4362
216
1572
9488
Other
118
732
4616
1224
1600
2686
10975
Source Unknown
10
18
114
142
Acres of Lake Impaired
Source Category
Colorado
Montana
North
Dakota
South
Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
3500
1897
221443
20509
247349
Nonpoint Sources
443
443
Agriculture
19816
395435
2011717
103386
272831
206950
3010135
Silviculture
41475
1004
42479
Construction
13625
10695
76442
100762
Urban Runoff
9451
16
10011
1434
20912
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
1955
4200
60
83
40720
47018
Land Disposal
325
42345
130
22003
64803
Hydromodification
1760
37930
57910
9577
119171
49536
275884
Other
78402
571768
2028
26921
104232
783350
Source Unknown
454
1991
2445
-------
3-3
Lake impairment from agricultural nonpoint sources is more than 10 times as important as
that from any other source. Potential pollutants include bacteria, nutrients (nitrogen and
phosphorus), sedimentation and siltation, pesticides and herbicides, salts, dissolved oxygen
and biological oxygen demand, temperature, and metal contamination.
The miles of streams and acres of lakes impaired by various pollutants are listed in Table
3-2.
Specific pollutants associated with nonpoint source pollution activities contribute to stream
and lake impairment. Stream impairment from siltation and nutrients (nitrogen and
phosphorus) is common. Following siltation and nutrients, the most important pollutants
are salinity, bacteria, and metals (Table 3-2).
Siltation and nutrients are the mosts common contributors to lake impairment, followed by.
organic enrichment, salinity, and noxious aquatic plants.
Data from the State reports breaking down miles of streams and acres of lakes impaired by
nonpoint source categories (and subcategories) are shown for the Region (Table 3-3) and
each State (Table 3-4). Impacts are ranked as slight, moderate, or high, and quantified by
use category in each State in Table 3-5. Table 3-6 shows miles of streams and acres of lakes
impacted in specific water use categories by each nonpoint source activity for the Region;
this information is further broken down by each State in Table 3-7.
The water use categories include aquatic fish and wildlife, warm water fishery, cold water
fishery, public water supply, agriculture and irrigation, livestock watering, industrial, and
recreation.
The State 309 and 305b reports are compiled such that more than one source category or
pollutant can impact the same stream or lake and affect multiple uses. Thus, the data
presented do not reflect the actual miles of streams or acres of lakes impacted by a single
activity.
The following description of the effects of different categories of activities contributing to
rjonpoint source water pollution based on The State of the Environment Report (State of
Washington, 1989), unless otherwise cited.
RCG/Hagler, Baitly, Inc.
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Table 3-2
Miles of Stream and Acres of Lake Impaired by Pollutant - Region VIII
Miles of Stream Impaired
North
South
Pollutant
Colorado
Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Pesticides
275
275
Metals
1345
1141
1016
11
1908
7
5428
Ammonia
823
823
Chlorine
4
4
Other Inorganics
790
790
Nutrients
756
3178
7269
232
1747
13181
pH
163
656
758
1577
Siltation
2133
6769
4375
385
3303
16965
Organic Enrichment/DO
120
1184
204
2748
4256
Salinity/TDS/chlorides
1488
3032
1818
1333
891
8562
Thermal modification
1699
875
8
2582
Flow alterations
2746
414
401
3561
Other habitat alterations
1363
43
965
2371
Pathogens
53
510
2844
1185
1623
418
6633
Radiation
2
2
Oil and Grease
64
64
Taste and odor
Suspended solids
2563
1707
4270
Noxious aquatic plants
Filling and draining
Acres of Lake Impaired
North
South
Pollutant
Colorado
Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Pesticides
0
Metals
3715
57598
32472
93785
Ammonia
131579
131579
Chlorine
0
Other Inorganics
0
Nutrients
22554
107664
581539
88046
134453
56950
991205
PH
5600
5600
Siltation
6278
350654
500930
67753
10905
89775
1026294
Organic Enrichment/DO
11411
574014
158
112547
54772
752902
Salinlty/TDS/chlortdea
590
27759
425981
11255
489
466074
Thermal modification
25226
46
2874
28146
Flow alterations
83522
56324
7868
12332
160046
Other habitat alterations
6848
6848
Pathogens
325
10743
11068
Radiation
0
Oil and Grease
0
Taste and odor
27
27
Suspended solids
44282
113911
952
108627
267772
Noxious aquatic plants
61018
86501
122932
270451
Filling and draining
353
353
-------
Table 3-3
Impact by Source Subcategory - Region VIII
Miles of Stream
Source Category
Subcategory
Slight
Moderate
High
Point Sources
0
0
0
Industrial
196
328
330
Municipal
17
825
297
Nonpoint Sources
0
0
0
Agriculture
7
1047
675
Non-irrigated crop prod.
2071
8987
3199
Irrigated crop prod.
2361
6637
2357
Pasture land
1513
6627
1397
Range land
2606
6119
3071
Feed lots
677
3768
393
Aquaculture
0
0
0
Animal holding areas
792
1516
352
Streambank erosion
563
2271
900
Silviculture
12
522
59
Harvesting, restoration
163
366
150
Forest management
52
93
23
Road construct/malnt.
25
201
183
Construction
0
55
0
Highway/road/bridge
1329
1923
1128
Land development
132
140
87
Urban Runoff
0
82
56
Storm sewers
10
226
21
Surface runoff
328
516
202
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
61
484
65
Surface mining
383
316
60
Subsurface mining
573
834
469
Placer mining
16
176
57
Dredge mining
0
84
48
Petroleum activities
470
371
484
Mill tailings
134
147
224
Mine tailings
6
20
37
Land Disposal
0
2
0
Wastewater
0
120
0
On-site wastewater treat.
81
276
73
Hydromodification
23
71
115
Channelization
495
1431
1580
Dredging
0
0
0
Dam construction
254
75
259
Flow regulation
122
1505
269
Bridge construction
0
0
0
Removal of riparian veg.
30
296
41
Streambank modification
1002
4380
2191
Other
0
50
0
Atmospheric deposition
0
27
0
Highway maintenance
18
108
48
In-place contaminants
0
427
18
Natural
2836
7054
2936
Recreational activities
0
0
0
Source Unknown
0
30
132
-------
Table 3-3(cont.)
Impact by Source Subcategory - Region VIII
Acres of Lake
Source Category
Subcategory
Slight
moderate
High
Point Sources
0
27
0
Industrial
0
0
0
Municipal
20509
20509
20970
Nonpoint Sources
0
0
443
Agriculture
327468
30854
82639
Non-Irrigated crop prod.
113713
592213
96568
Irrigated crop prod.
84568
479478
83995
Pasture land
113972
510751
20324
Range land
93424
106830
65922
Feed lots
112771
491793
28817
Aquaculture
0
0
0
Animal holding areas
919
71938
63346
Streambank erosion
0
1955
615
Silviculture
34775
31236
162
Harvesting, restoration
3350
0
0
Forest management
0
0
0
Road construct/malnt.
3350
410
0
Construction
13625
0
0
Highway/road/bridge
73205
80072
44399
Land development
25
25
0
Urban Runoff
0
0
0
Storm sewers
0
0
0
Surface runoff
3594
6065
2676
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
0
0
83
Surface mining
9480
9480
0
Subsurface mining
0
4055
0
Placer mining
0
2100
0
Dredge mining
0
0
0
Petroleum activities
31300
31300
13300
Mill tailings
0
0
0
Mine tailings
0
0
0
Land Disposal
7555
32830
0
Wastewater
0
0
0
On-site wastewater treat.
4870
9322
13881
Hydromodification
34580
34580
0
Channelization
0
897
897
Dredging
0
0
0
Dam construction
0
0
0
Flow regulation
31005
38773
25729
Bridge construction
0
80
0
Removal of riparian veg.
325
56919
56507
Streambank modification
12169
15116
15810
Other
0
55
55
Atmospheric deposition
1580
60
0
Highway maintenance
0
25
915
In-place contaminants
113095
566030
73021
Natural
143208
149780
67520
Recreational activities
0
30
58
Source Unknown
0
41
2404
-------
Table 3-4
Impact by Source Subcategory by State - Region VIII
Miles of Stream Impaired
Source Category
Subcategory
Colorado
Slight Moderate High
Montana
Slight Moderate High
North Dakota
Slight Moderate High
Point Sources
Industrial
Municipal
Nonpoint Sources
Agriculture
Non-irrigated crop prod.
Irrigated crop prod.
Pasture land
Range land
Feedlots
Aquaculture
Animal holding areas
Streambank erosion
7
176
464 685 370
563 572 460
486 700 384
888 102
1830 135
179 3576 508
67 2029 215
236 22
55 1454 241
1542 5512 2395
124 15
615 2633 222
699 3160 642
677 3078 387
699 570 255
Silviculture
Harvesting, restoration
Forest management
Road construct/maint.
43
12 522 59
100 20
72 20
Construction
Highway/road/bridge
Land development
7
29
175
Urban Runoff
Storm sewers
Surface runoff
36 93
45 45
38 5
38 5
38 38
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
Surface mining
Subsurface mining
Placer mining
Dredge mining
Petroleum activities
Mill tailings
Mine tailings
72
553 461 306
4 18
15
10
361 3
22
6 358 163
12 158 47
81 35
64
119 147 224
6 20 28
255 255
Land Disposal
Wastewater
On-site wastewater treat.
2
120
5 174 59
Hydromodification
Channelization
Dredging
Dam construction
Flow regulation
Bridge construction
Removal of riparian veg.
Streambank modification
1
17
50 153
48 45
119 207 119
75
1126 58
54
1382 56
291 933 1100
229 234
109
199
615 2342 1554
Other
Atmospheric deposition
Highway maintenance
In-place contaminants
Natural
Recreational activities
118
50
32
638 12
27
427
927 3525 656
Source Unknown
10
-------
Table 3-4 (cont.)
Impact by Source Subcategory by State - Region VIII
Miles of Stream Impaired
South Dakota
Wyoming
Source Category
Subcategory
Slight Moderate
High
Slight
Moderate
High
Point Sources
Industrial
11
11
196
317
319
Municipal
686
178
17
139
119
Nonpoint Sources
Agriculture
49
463
110
110
Non-irrigated crop prod.
941
462
529
529
207
Irrigated crop prod.
157
47
1718
2097
1418
Pasture land
685
831
1281
960
Range land
312
455
1344
2075
1514
Feedlots
690
6
Aquaculture
Animal holding areas
555
94
156
75
Streambank erosion
22
118
275
Silviculture
Harvesting, restoration
163
266
130
Forest management
52
93
23
Road construct/maint.
112
25
86
51
Construction
26
Highway/road/bridge
1329
1741
1128
Land development
132
140
87
Urban Runoff
37
11
Storm sewers
178
6
10
10
10
Surface runoff
47
47
292
300
112
Resource Extractyexplore/dev.
62
62
61
61
Surface mining
311
294
60
Subsurface mining
15
15
Placer mining
10
Dredge mining
3
13
Petroleum activities
215
307
229
Mill tailings
Mine tailings
Land Disposal
Wastewater
On-site wastewater treat.
26
76
76
14
Hydromodification
23
23
70
Channelization
85
290
361
Dredging
Dam construction
25
25
Flow regulation
122
253
211
Bridge construction
Removal of riparian veg.
30
43
41
Streambank modification
337
655
428
Other
Atmospheric deposition
Highway maintenance
37
11
18
39
37
* In-place contaminants
18
Natural
389
831
1909
2385
1437
Recreational activities
Source Unknown
18
20
114
-------
Table 3-4 (cont.)
Impact by Source Subcategory by State - Region VIII
Acres of Lake Impaired
Source Category
Subcategory
Colorado
Slight Moderate High
Montana
Slight Moderate High
North Dakota
Slight Moderate High
Point Sources
Industrial
Municipal
Nonpoint Sources
Agriculture
Non-irrigated crop prod.
Irrigated crop prod.
Pasture land
Range land
Feedlots
Aquaculture
Animal holding areas
Streambank erosion
2160 7430 6716
325 615
1955 615
327468 30246
11450 9750
7640 7650
7640 1423
113713 580763 86818
368231
112563 495567 12801
495 4360 1985
112771 491558 10557
919 71238 61046
Silviculture
Harvesting, restoration
Forest management
Road construct/maint.
34775 30800
3350
3350
Construction
Highway/road/bridge
Land development
13625
3655
Urban Runoff
Storm sewers
Surface runoff
2160 4631 2660
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
Surface mining
Subsurface mining
Placer mining
Dredge mining
Petroleum activities
Mill tailings
Mine tailings
1955
2100
2100
60 60
Land Disposal
Wastewater
On-site wastewater treat.
325
7555 32505
4870 920 150
130
Hydromodification
Channelization
Dredging
Dam construction
Flow regulation
Bridge construction
Removal of riparian veg.
Streambank modification
1760
34580 34580
3350
197 197
324 324
80
325 56919 56507
197 391
Other
Atmospheric deposition
Highway maintenance
In-ptace contaminants
Natural
Recreational activities
1520
48375 40274
55 55
60 60
113095 566030 73021
495 5575 3284
Source Unknown
-------
Table 3-4 (cont.)
Impact by Source Subcategory by State - Region VIII
Acres o( Lake Impaired
Source Category
Subcategory
South Dakota
Slight Moderate High
Wyoming
Slight Moderate High
Point Sources
Industrial
Municipal
27
1870
20509 20509 19100
Nonpoint Sources
443
Agriculture
Non-irrigated crop prod.
Irrigated crop prod.
Pasture land
Range land
Feedlots
Aquaculture
Animal holding areas
Streambank erosion
608 82639
35
35 99
235 18260
1600
82408 96177 69629
1409 7509 6100
92929 102110 63223
700 700
Silviculture
Harvesting, restoration
Forest management
Road construct/maint.
436 162
410
Construction
Highway/road/bridge
Land development
73205 76417 44399
25 25
Urban Runolf
Storm sewers
Surface runoff
16
1434 1434
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
Surface mining
Subsurface mining
Placer mining
Dredge mining
Petroleum activities
Mill tailings
Mine tailings
83
9420 9420
31300 31300 13300
Land Disposal
Wastewater
On-site wastewater treat.
8272 13731
Hydromodification
Channelization
Dredging
Dam construction
Flow regulation
Bridge construction
Removal of riparian veg.
Streambank modification
7868 1209
500
700 700
31005 30581 22436
8819 14919 14919
Other
Atmospheric deposition
Highway maintenance
In-place contaminants
Natural
Recreational activities
25 915
412 724
30 58
94338 103519 63512
Source Unknown
41 413
1991
-------
Table 3-5
Source Subcategory by State - Region VIII
Miles of Stream Impaired
Source Category
North
South
Subcategory Colorado
Montana
Dakota
Dakota Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
0
Industrial
11
462
473
Municipal
806
162
968
Nonpoint Sources
0
Agriculture
7
945
506
110
1568
Non-irrigated crop prod
176
1965
7036
1305
529
11011
Irrigated crop prod.
1480
4104
124
157
2321
8185
Pasture land
2264
2633
685
1572
7153
Range land
1517
3797
767
2214
8294
Feedlots
3078
690
3768
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
249
1206
555
156
2165
Streambank erosion
1530
1750
275
3554
Silviculture
536
536
Harvesting, restoration
120
291
411
Forest management
97
97
Road construct/maint.
43
92
107
242
Construction
29
26
55
Highway/road/bridge
7
175
1825
2007
Land development
140
140
Urban Runoff
45
37
82
Storm sewers
43
178
10
231
Surface runoff
129
43
38
47
305
562
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
364
62
61
487
Surface mining
72
22
314
408
Subsurface mining
1242
486
15
1743
Placer mining
21
205
10
236
Dredge mining
81
13
94
Petroleum activities
64
255
318
637
Mill tailings
15
336
351
Mine tailings
10
48
57
Land Disposal
2
2
Wastewater
120
120
On-site wastewater treat.
179
26
76
281
Hydromodification
48
70
118
Channelization
1
326
1162
388
1877
Dredging
0
Dam construction
75
234
25
334
Flow regulation
17
1184
109
323
1633
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
54
199
43
296
Streambank modificatio
203
1429
2659
723
5014
Other
50
50
Atmospheric deposition
27
27
Highway maintenance
32
37
39
108
In-place contaminants
427
18
445
Natural
118
650
4161
1169
2647
8745
Recreational activities
0
Source Unknown
10
18
114
142
-------
Table 3-5 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by State - Region VIII
Acres of Lake Impaired
North
South
Pollutant Colorado
Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
3500
27
3527
Industrial
99470
99470
Municipal
1870
121973
20509
144352
Nonpoint Sources
443
443
Agriculture
349882
83122
433004
Non-irrigated crop prod.
21200
580763
115943
717906
Irrigated crop prod.
16306
15290
368231
96207
496034
Pasture land
9063
495567
35
4268
7509
516442
Range land
940
4360
134
122364
102534
230332
Feedlots
491558
18495
10927
520980
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
71238
1600
700
73538
Streambank erosion
2570
19329
21899
Silviculture
34775
594
35369
Harvesting, restoration
3350
3350
Forest management
0
Road construct/maint.
3350
410
3760
Construction
13625
10695
24320
Highway/road/bridge
76417
76417
Land development
25
25
Urban Runoff
10011
10011
Storm sewers
0
Surface runoff
9451
16
1434
10901
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
83
83
Surface mining
60
9420
9480
Subsurface mining
1955
2100
4055
Placer mining
2100
2100
Dredge mining
0
Petroleum activities
31300
31300
Mill tailings
0
Mine tailings
0
Land Disposal
325
36405
36730
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
5940
130
22003
28073
Hydromodification
34580
119171
153751
Channelization
197
700
897
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Flow regulation
1760
324
9077
33917
45078
Bridge construction
80
80
Removal of riparian veg.
56919
56919
Streambank modification
3350
391
500
14919
19160
Other
55
480
535
Atmospheric deposition
1520
60
1580
Highway maintenance
940
940
In-place contaminants
566078
566078
Natural
76882
5575
1005
14373
104232
202067
Recreational activities
83
12068
12151
Source Unknown
454
1991
2445
-------
Table 3-6
Miles of Stream and Acres of Lake Impaired by Source Subcategory by Use Category - Region Vlll
Miles of Stream
Aquatic
Warm
Cold
Public
Agriculture
Source Category
Fish &
Water
Water
Water
&
Livestock
Idus-
Rec-
Subcategory
Wildlife
Fishery
Fishery
Supply
Irrigation
Watering
trial
reation
TOTAL
Point Sources
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Industrial
11
110
239
194
196
109
0
41
473
Municipal
628
795
67
244
862
806
0
902
968
Nonpoint Sources
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Agriculture
506
709
950
334
574
567
0
678
1568
Non-irrigated crop prod.
4450
5564
1050
3386
3857
2262
231
6460
11011
Irrigated crop prod.
438
3247
4662
3179
3439
1539
0
3861
8185
Pasture land
2201
3095
2549
1806
1782
1737
0
2378
7153
Range land
2218
2534
2597
1241
3064
767
209
4779
8294
Feedlots
1809
1929
0
207
931
690
209
2296
3768
Aquaculture
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Animal holding areas
624
810
306
604
7e9
563
0
1763
2165
Streambank erosion
0
1853
1655
2244
2517
1037
0
1886
3554
Silviculture
0
0
536
45
0
0
0
79
536
Harvesting, restoration
0
0
411
0
0
0
0
0
411
Forest management
0
0
67
0
0
0
0
30
97
Road construct/maint.
112
112
242
28
155
112
0
155
242
Construction
26
26
29
0
36
36
0
36
55
Highway/road/bridge
157
629
1349
209
408
0
0
76
2007
Land development
0
40
104
0
0
0
0
0
140
Urban Runoff
37
26
56
45
37
37
0
82
82
Storm sewers
178
178
43
0
178
178
0
188
231
Surface runoff
85
177
300
96
126
47
0
223
562
Resource Extract/explore/d
62
51
436
13
68
68
0
68
487
Surface mining
0
317
91
82
365
2
0
74
408
Subsurface mining
0
49
1636
1177
1216
156
0
1616
1743
Placer mining
0
0
236
22
21
3
0
68
236
Dredge mining
0
0
94
47
35
35
0
47
94
Petroleum activities
77
280
305
319
319
64
0
319
637
Mill tailings
0
0
351
188
88
73
0
300
351
Mine tailings
0
0
57
27
7
0
0
32
57
Land Disposal
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
2
2
Wastewater
0
0
120
0
0
0
0
0
120
On-site wastewater treat.
26
26
193
72
26
26
0
156
281
Hydromodification
0
0
118
68
0
0
0
45
118
Channelization
816
643
715
406
343
78
0
1052
1877
Dredging
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Dam construction
234
234
100
0
0
0
0
75
334
Flow regulation
109
683
955
574
152
57
0
871
1633
Bridge construction
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Removal of riparian veg.
199
0
97
199
0
0
0
0
296
Streambank modification
1892
2338
1717
1500
567
23
0
2208
5014
Other
0
0
50
0
0
0
0
0
50
Atmospheric deposition
27
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
27
Highway maintenance
. 37
26
62
0
37
37
0
37
108
In-place contaminants
217
18
0
322
18
18
0
123
445
Natural
2767
3000
2335
1355
2740
1260
231
4575
8745
Recreational activities
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Source Unknown
18
18
95
0
42
28
0
23
142
-------
Table 3-6(cont.)
Miles of Stream and Acres of Lake Impaired by Source Subcategory by Use Category - Region VIII
Acres of Lake
Aquatic
Warm
Cold
Public
Agriculture
Source Category
Fish &
Water
Water
Water
&
Livestock
Idus-
Rec-
Subcategory
Wildlife
Fishery
Fishery
Supply
Irrigation
Watering
trial
reation
TOTAL
Point Sources
27
0
3500
27
0
27
0
3527
3527
Industrial
98990
98000
1470
990
99470
99470
0
98480
99470
Municipal
110860
120775
23577
13973
121973
123843
0
111948
144352
Nonpoint Sources
443
443
0
350
0
443
0
443
443
Agriculture
83122
336303
56721
295605
25639
83122
0
380554
433004
Non-irrigated crop prod.
99098
156324
16262
32973
131453
131453
0
692695
717906
Irrigated crop prod.
0
34083
17613
10400
24186
7650
0
396327
496034
Pasture land
35
13728
94348
4268
5691
5726
0
508713
516442
Range land
99124
137977
14577
24209
123763
122498
0
115553
230332
Feedlots
18495
24007
103467
10927
23287
29422
0
520360
520980
Aquaculture
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Animal holding areas
1600
16347
0
0
0
1600
0
63380
73538
Streambank erosion
10000
10965
10934
10804
21899
19329
0
21549
21899
Silviculture
594
0
35369
53
0
594
0
1644
35369
Harvesting, restoration
0
0
3350
0
0
0
0
0
3350
Forest management
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Road construct/maint.
410
0
3760
32
0
410
0
410
3760
Construction
10000
10011
9509
5484
10695
10695
0
10695
24320
Highway/road/bridge
0
25797
66297
0
0
. 0
0
9505
76417
Land development
0
0
25
0
0
0
0
0
25
Urban Runoff
10000
10011
0
0
10011
10011
0
10011
10011
Storm sewers
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Surface runoff
16
2327
8574
7691
7691
16
0
9467
10901
Resource Extract/explore/d
83
83
0
0
0
83
0
83
83
Surface mining
0
9480
0
0
0
0
0
0
9480
Subsurface mining
0
0
4055
1955
1955
0
0
4055
4055
Placer mining
0
0
2100
0
0
0
0
2100
2100
Dredge mining
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Petroleum activities
0
13300
31300
0
0
0
0
0
31300
Mill tailings
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Mine tailings
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Land Disposal
0
0
36730
325
325
0
0
3980
36730
Wastewater
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
On-site wastewater treat.
22003
21729
6344
1503
1749
22003
0
23163
28073
Hydromodification
108000
119171
34580
11171
119171
119171
0
108266
15371
Channelization
0
897
0
0
0
0
0
0
897
Dredging
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Dam construction
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Flow regulation
9077
17612
26257
1209
0
9077
0
10837
45078
Bridge construction
0
80
0
0
0
0
0
0
80
Removal of riparian veg.
0
919
0
0
0
0
0
56919
56919
Streambank modification
500
6991
12169
0
0
500
0
694
19160
Other
0
55
480
0
480
480
0
2055
535
Atmospheric deposition
0
60
1520
0
0
0
0
0
1580
Highway maintenance
940
851
89
67t
0
940
o
940
940
In-place contaminants
108
27597
24146
0
0
0
0
553203
566078
Natural
2103
29060
108114
62667
14832
15378
0
76311
202067
Recreational activities
83
11
12140
12057
12068
12151
0
12151
12151
Source Unknown
454
454
1962
41
0
454
0
483
2445
-------
Table 3-7
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Aquatic Fish & Wildlife
Miles of Stream Impaired
Source Category
North
South
Subcategory Colorado Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
0
Industrial
11
11
Municipal
628
628
Nonpoint Sources
0
Agriculture
506
506
Non-irrigated crop prod.
3243
1127
80
4450
Irrigated crop prod.
124
157
157
438
Pasture land
1694
507
2201
Range land
1294
767
157
2218
Feedlots
1297
512
1809
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
248
377
624
Streambank erosion
0
Silviculture
0
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Road construct/malnt.
112
112
Construction
26
26
Highway/road/bridge
157
157
Land development
0
Urban Runoff
37
37
Storm sewers
178
178
Surface runoff
38
47
85
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
62
62
Surface mining
0
Subsurface mining
0
Placer mining
0
Dredge mining
0
Petroleum activities
77
77
Mill tailings
0
Mine tailings
0
Land Disposal
0
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
26
26
Hydromodification
0
Channelization
816
816
Dredging
0
Dam construction
234
234
Flow regulation
109
109
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
199
199
Streambank modification
1892
1892
Other
0
Atmospheric deposition
27
27
Highway maintenance
37
37
In-place contaminants
199
18
217
Natural
1441
1169
157
2767
Recreational activities
0
Source Unknown
18
18
-------
Table 3-7 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Warm Water Fisheries
Miles of Stream Impaired
Source Category
North
South
Subcategory Colorado
Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
0
Industrial
110
110
Municipal
795
795
Nonpofnt Sources
0
Agriculture
119
480
110
709
Non-irrigated crop prod.
176
1053
2719
1305
311
5564
Irrigated crop prod.
805
1728
109
157
449
3247
Pasture land
1019
1374
685
18
3095
Range land
650
836
767
281
2534
Feedlots
1239
690
1929
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
255
555
810
Streambank erosion
676
1067
110
1853
Silviculture
0
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Road construct/maint.
112
112
Construction
26
26
Highway/road/bridge
629
629
Land development
40
40
Urban Runoff
26
26
Storm sewers
178
178
Surface runoff
50
47
80
177
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
51
51
Surface mining
6
311
317
Subsurface mining
47
2
49
Placer mining
0
Dredge mining
0
Petroleum activities
255
25
280
Mill tailings
0
Mine tailings
0
Land Disposal
0
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
26
26
Hydromodification
0
Channelization
629
14
643
Dredging
0
Dam construction
234
234
Flow regulation
569
109
5
683
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
0
Streambank modification
144
494
1686
14
2338
Other
0
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
26
26
tn-place contaminants
18
18
Natural
118
1073
1160
649
3000
Recreational activities
0
Source Unknown
18
18
-------
Table 3-7 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Cold Water Fisheries
Miles of Stream
Source Category
North
South
Subcategory Colorado Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
0
Industrial
11
228
239
Municipal
11
56
67
Nonpoint Sources
0
Agriculture
7
807
26
110
950
Non-irrigated crop prod.
912
138
1050
Irrigated crop prod.
676
2376
1611
4662
Pasture land
1245
1305
2549
Range land
867
1730
2597
Feedlots
0
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
249
57
306
Streambank erosion
854
683
118
1655
Silviculture
536
536
Harvesting, restoration
120
291
411
Forest management
67
67
Road construct/malnt.
43
92
107
242
Construction
29
29
Highway/road/bridge
7
175
1167
1349
Land development
4
100
104
Urban Runoff
45
11
56
Storm sewers
43
43
Surface runoff
79
43
178
300
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
364
11
61
436
Surface mining
66
22
3
91
Subsurface mining
1137
484
15
1636
Placer mining
21
205
10
236
Dredge mining
81
13
94
Petroleum activities
64
241
305
Mill tailings
15
336
351
Mine tailings
10
48
57
Land Disposal
2
2
Wastewater
120
120
On-site wastewater treat.
179
14
193
Hydromodification
48
70
118
Channelization
1
326
388
715
Dredging
0
Dam construction
75
25
100
Flow regulation
17
615
323
955
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
54
43
97
Streambank modification
59
935
723
1717
Other
50
50
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
32
11
39
82
Irt-place contaminants '
0
Natural
650
9
1676
2335
Recreational activities
0
Source Unknown
95
95
-------
Table 3-7 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Public Water Supply
Miles of Stream
Source Category
North
South
Subcategory Colorado Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
0
Industrial
194
194
Municipal
178
66
244
Nonpoint Sources
0
Agriculture
7
217
110
334
Non-irrigated crop prod.
15
1616
1548
207
3386
Irrigated crop prod.
824
2227
128
3179
Pasture land
1346
115
207
138
1806
Range land
871
370
1241
Feediots
207
207
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
87
255
207
55
604
Streambank erosion
805
1172
267
2244
Silviculture
45
45
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Road construct/malnt.
28
28
Construction
0
Highway/road/bridge
7
69
133
209
Land development
0
Urban Runoff
45
45
Storm sewers
0
Surface runoff
78
18
96
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
13
13
Surface mining
60
22
82
Subsurface mining
831
346
1177
Placer mining
18
4
22
Dredge mining
47
47
Petroleum activities
64
255
319
Mill tailings
15
173
188
Mine tailings
5
22
27
Land Disposal
0
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
54
18
72
Hydromodification
45
23
68
Channelization
78
328
406
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Row regulation
16
558
574
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
199
199
Streambank modification
104
678
718
1500
Other
0
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
0
In-place contaminants
322
322
Natural
118
243
793
201
1355
Recreational activities
0
Source Unknown
0
-------
Table 3-7 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Irrigation and Agriculture
Miles of Stream
Source Category
North
South
Subcategory Colorado
Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
0
Industrial
11
185
196
Municipal
806
56
862
Nonpolnt Sources
0
Agriculture
7
61
506
574
Non-irrigated crop prod.
176
957
1197
1276
251
3857
Irrigated crop prod.
1390
1361
157
532
3439
Pasture land
1052
656
74
1782
Range land
1476
693
767
128
3064
Feedlots
269
661
931
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
8
255
526
789
Streambank erosion
1480
1037
2517
Silviculture
0
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Road construct/malnt.
43
112
155
Construction
10
26
36
Highway/road/bridge
7
401
408
Land development
0
Urban Runoff
37
37
Storm sewers
178
178
Surface runoff
79
47
126
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
6
62
68
Surface mining
72
2
291
365
Subsurface mining
1060
156
1216
Placer mining
18
3
21
Dredge mining
35
35
Petroleum activities
64
255
319
Mill tailings
15
73
88
Mine tailings
7
7
Land Disposal
0
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
26
26
Hydromodification
0
Channelization
1
78
264
343
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Flow regulation
17
57
78
152
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
0
Streambank modification
203
23
264
77
567
Other
0
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
37
37
In-place contaminants
18
18
Natural
118
957
1169
497
2740
Recreational activities
0
Source Unknown
10
18
14
42
-------
Table 3-7(cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Livestock Watering
Miles of Stream
Source Category
North
South
Subcategory Colorado
Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
0
Industrial
11
98
109
Municipal
806
806
Nonpoint Sources
0
Agriculture
61
506
567
Non-irrigated crop prod.
957
1305
2262
Irrigated crop prod.
1361
157
21
1539
Pasture land
1052
685
1737
Range land
767
767
Feedlots
690
690
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
8
555
563
Streambank erosion
1037
1037
Silviculture
0
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Road construct/maint.
112
112
Construction
10
26
36
Highway/road/bridge
0
Land development
0
Urban Runoff
37
37
Storm sewers
178
178
Surface runoff
47
47
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
6
62
68
Surface mining
2
2
Subsurface mining
156
156
Placer mining
3
3
Dredge mining
35
35
Petroleum activities
64
64
Mill tailings
73
73
Mine tailings
0
Land Disposal
0
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
26
26
Hydromodification
0
Channelization
78
78
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Flow regulation
57
57
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
0
Streambank modification
23
23
Other
0
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
37
37
In-place contaminants
18
18
Natural
1169
91
1260
Recreational activities
0
Source Unknown
10
18
28
-------
Table 3-7 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Industrial
Miles of Stream
Source Category
North South
Subcategory Colorado Montana
Dakota Dakota
Utah Wyoming TOTAL
Point Sources
0
Industrial
0
Municipal
0
Nonpoint Sources
0
Agriculture
0
Non-irrigated crop prod.
231
231
Irrigated crop prod.
0
Pasture land
0
Range land
209
209
Feedlots
209
209
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
0
Streambank erosion
0
Silviculture
0
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Road construct/malnt.
0
Construction
0
Highway/road/bridge
0
Land development
0
Urban Runoff
0
Storm sewers
0
Surface runoff
0
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
0
Surface mining
0
Subsurface mining
0
Placer mining
0
Dredge mining
0
Petroleum activities
0
Mill tailings
0
Mine tailings
0
Land Disposal
0
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
0
Hydromodification
0
Channelization
0
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Flow regulation
0
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
0
Streambank modification
0
Other
0
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
0
In-place contaminants
0
Natural
231
231
Recreational activities
0
Source Unknown
0
-------
Table 3-7 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Recreation
Miles of Stream
Source Category
North
South
Colorado
Montana
Dakota
Dakota Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
0
Industrial
11
30
41
Municipal
806
96
902
Nonpoint Sources
0
Agriculture
7
165
506
678
Non-irrigated crop prod
176
1007
3972
1305
5460
Irrigated crop prod.
1480
2000
124
157
100
3861
Pasture land
477
977
685
240
2378
Range land
1517
2438
767
57
4779
Feedlots
1605
690
2296
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
174
959
555
76
1763
Streambank erosion
1530
356
1886
Silviculture
79
79
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
30
30
Road construct/maint.
43
112
155
Construction
10
26
36
Highway/road/bridge
7
69
76
Land development
0
Urban Runoff
45
37
82
Storm sewers
178
10
188
Surface runoff
129
47
47
223
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
6
62
68
Surface mining
72
2
74
Subsurface mining
1242
375
1616
Placer mining
21
47
68
Dredge mining
47
47
Petroleum activities
64
255
319
Mill tailings
15
285
300
Mine tailings
10
23
32
Land Disposal
2
2
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
54
26
76
156
Hydromodification
45
45
Channelization
1
219
832
1052
Dredging
0
Dam construction
75
75
Flow regulation
17
689
109
56
871
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
0
Streambank modificatio
203
651
1354
2208
Other
0
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
37
37
In-place contaminants
105
18
123
Natural
118
463
2782
1169
44
4575
Recreational activities
0
Source Unknown
18
5
23
-------
Table 3-7 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Aquatic Fish & Wildlife
Acres of Lake Impaired
Source Category
North
South
Subcategory Colorado Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
27
27
Industrial
98990
98990
Municipal
1870
108990
110860
Nonpoint Sources
443
443
Agriculture
83122
83122
Non-irrigated crop prod.
108
98990
99098
Irrigated crop prod.
0
Pasture land
35
35
Range land
134
98990
99124
Feedlots
18495
18495
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
1600
1600
Streambank erosion
10000
10000
Silviculture
594
594
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Road construct/malnt.
410
410
Construction
10000
10000
Highway/road/bridge
0
Land development
0
Urban Runoff
10000
10000
Storm sewers
0
Surface runoff
16
16
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
83
83
Surface mining
0
Subsurface mining
0
Placer mining
0
Dredge mining
0
Petroleum activities
0
Mill tailings
0
Mine tailings
0
Land Disposal
0
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
22003
22003
Hydromodification
108000
108000
Channelization
0
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Flow regulation
9077
9077
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
0
Streambank modification
500
500
Other
0
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
940
940
In-place contaminants
108
108
Natural
108
1005
990
2103
Recreational activities
83
83
Source Unknown
454
454
-------
Table 3-7 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Warm Water Fisheries
Acres of Lake Impaired
Source Category
North
South
Subcategory Colorado Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
0
Industrial
98000
98000
Municipal
1870
118905
120775
N on point Sources
443
443
Agriculture
253599
82704
336303
Non-irrigated crop prod.
11360
35443
109521
156324
Irrigated crop prod. 13983
20100
34083
Pasture land
7593
35
6100
13728
Range land 615
2610
134
109521
25097
137977
Feedlots
5397
18260
350
24007
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
14047
1600
700
16347
Streambank erosion 615
10350
10965
Silviculture
0
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Road construe t/malnt.
0
Construction
10011
10011
Highway/road/bridge
25797
25797
Land development
0
Urban Runoff
10011
10011
Storm sewers
0
Surface runoff 2311
16
2327
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
83
83
Surface mining
60
9420
9480
Subsurface mining
0
Placer mining
0
Dredge mining
0
Petroleum activities
13300
13300
Mill tailings
0
Mine tailings
0
Land Disposal
0
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
130
21599
21729
Hydromodlfication
119171
119171
Channelization
197
700
897
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Flow regulation
324
7868
9420
17612
Bridge construction
80
80
Removal of riparian veg.
919
919
Streambank modification
391
500
6100
6991
Other
55
55
Atmospheric deposition
60
60
Highway maintenance
851
851
In-place contaminants
27597
27597
Natural
2634
713
616
25097
29060
Recreational activities
11
11
Source Unknown
454
454
-------
Table 3-7 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Cold Water Fisheries
Acres ot Lake Impaired
Source Category
North
South
Subcategory Colorado Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
3500
3500
Industrial
1470
1470
Municipal
3068
20509
23577
Nonpolnt Sources
0
Agriculture
56303
418
56721
Non-irrigated crop prod.
9840
6422
16262
Irrigated crop prod-
2323
15290
17613
Pasture land
903
4268
89177
94348
Range land
325
12843
1409
14577
Feedlots
235
10577
92655
103467
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
0
Streambank erosion
1955
8979
10934
Silviculture
34775
594
35369
Harvesting, restoration
3350
3350
Forest management
0
Road construct/malnt.
3350
410
3760
Construction
8825
684
9509
Highway/road/bridge
66297
66297
Land development
25
25
Urban Runoff
0
Storm sewers
0
Surface runoff
7140
1434
8574
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
0
Surface mining
0
Subsurface mining
1955
2100
4055
Placer mining
2100
2100
Dredge mining
0
Petroleum activities
31300
31300
Mill tailings
0
Mine tailings
0
Land Disposal
325
36405
36730
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
5940
404
6344
Hydromodification
34580
34580
Channelization
0
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Flow regulation
1760
24497
26257
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
0
Streambank modification
3350
8819
12169
Other
480
480
Atmospheric deposition
1520
1520
Highway maintenance
89
89
in-piace contaminants
24146
24146
Natural
293
13757
94064
108114
Recreational activities
83
12057
12140
Source Unknown
1962
1962
-------
Table 3-7 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Public Water Supply
Acres of Lake Impaired
Source Category
North
South
Subcategory Colorado
Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
27
27
Industrial
990
990
Municipal
13973
13973
Nonpoint Sources
350
350
Agriculture
293579
2026
295605
Non-irrigated crop prod.
15510
17463
32973
Irrigated crop prod.
2750
7650
10400
Pasture land
4268
4268
Range land
325
23884
24209
Feedlots
10927
10927
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
0
Streambank erosion
1955
8849
10804
Silviculture
53
53
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Road construct/malnt.
32
32
Construction
4800
684
5484
Highway/road/bridge
0
Land development
0
Urban Runoff
0
Storm sewers
. 0
Surface runoff
7691
7691
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
0
Surface mining
0
Subsurface mining
1955
1955
Placer mining
0
Dredge mining
0
Petroleum activities
0
Mill tailings
0
Mine tailings
0
Land Disposal
325
325
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
1503
1503
Hydromodiflcation
11171
11171
Channelization
0
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Flow regulation
1209
. 1209
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
0
Streambank modification
0
Other
0
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
671
671
In-place contaminants
0
Natural
47848
157
14373
289
62667
Recreational activities
12057
12057
Source Unknown
41
41
-------
Table 3-7 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Irrigation and Agriculture
Acres ot Lake Impaired
Source Category
North
South
Subcategory Colorado Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
0
Industrial
99470
99470
Municipal
121973
121973
Nonpoint Sources
0
Agriculture
25639
25639
Non-irrigated crop prod.
15510
115943
131453
Irrigated crop prod.
16306
7650
230
24186
Pasture land
1423
4268
5691
Range land
940
122364
459
123763
Feedlots
12360
10927
23287
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
0
Streambank erosion
2570
19329
21899
Silviculture
0
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Road construct/maint.
0
Construction
10695
10695
Highway/road/bridge
0
Land development
0
Urban Runoff
10011
10011
Storm sewers
0
Surface runoff
7691
7691
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
0
Surface mining
0
Subsurface mining
1955
1955
Placer mining
0
Dredge mining
0
Petroleum activities
0
Mill tailings
0
Mine tailings
0
Land Disposal
325
325
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
1749
1749
Hydromodlfication
119171
119171
Channelization
0
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Flow regulation
0
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
0
Streambank modification
0
Other
480
480
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
0
In-place contaminants
0
Natural
14373
459
14832
Recreational activities
12068
12068
Source Unknown
0
-------
Table 3-7 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Livestock Watering
Acres of Lake Impaired
Source Category
North
South
Subcategory Colorado Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
27
27
Industrial
99470
99470
Municipal
1870
121973
123843
Nonpolnt Sources
443
443
Agriculture
83122
83122
Non-irrigated crop prod.
15510
115943
131453
Irrigated crop prod.
7650
7650
Pasture land
1423
35
4268
5726
Range land
134
122364
122498
Feedlots
18495
10927
29422
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
1600
1600
Streambank erosion
19329
19329
Silviculture
594
594
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Road construct/malnt.
410
410
Construction
10695
10695
Highway/road/bridge
0
Land development
0
Urban Runoff
10011
10011
Storm sewers
0
Surface runoff
16
16
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
83
83
Surface mining
0
Subsurface mining
0
Placer mining
0
Dredge mining
0
Petroleum activities
0
Mill tailings
0
Mine tailings
0
Land Disposal
0
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
22003
22003
Hydromodification
119171
119171
Channelization
0
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Flow regulation
9077
9077
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
0
Streambank modification
500
500
Other
480
480
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
940
940
In-place contaminants
0
Natural
1005
14373
15378
Recreational activities
83
12068
12151
Source Unknown
454
454
-------
Table 3-7 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Industrial
Acres of Lake Impaired
Source Category North South
Subcategory Colorado Montana Dakota Dakota Utah Wyoming TOTAL
Point Sources
0
Industrial
0
Municipal
0
Nonpolnt Sources
0
Agriculture
0
Non-irrigated crop prod.
0
Irrigated crop prod.
0
Pasture land
0
Range land
0
Feedlots
0
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
0
Streambank erosion
0
Silviculture
0
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Road construct/malnt.
0
Construction
0
Highway/road/bridge
0
Land development
0
Urban Runotf
0
Storm sewers
0
Surface runoff
0
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
0
Surface mining
0
Subsurface mining
0
Placer mining
0
Dredge mining
0
Petroleum activities
0
Mill tailings
0
Mine tailings
0
Land Disposal
0
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
0
Hydromodification
0
Channelization
0
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Flow regulation
0
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
0
Streambank modification
0
Other
0
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
0
In-place contaminants
0
Natural
0
Recreational activities
0
Source Unknown
0
-------
Table 3-7 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Recreation
Acres of Lake Impaired
Source Category
North
South
Colorado
Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
3500
27
3527
Industrial
98480
98480
Municipal
1870
110078
111948
Nonpoint Sources
443
443
Agriculture
297432
83122
380554
Non-irrigated crop prod.
21050
567947
103698
692695
Irrigated crop prod.
16306
11790
368231
396327
Pasture land
9063
495347
35
4268
508713
Range land
940
4360
134
110119
115553
Feedlots
491288
18495
10577
520360
Aquaculture
0
.Animal holding areas
61780
1600
63380
Streambank erosion
2570
18979
21549
Silviculture
1050
594
1644
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Road construct/malnt.
410
410
Construction
10695
10695
Highway/road/bridge
9505
9505
Land development
0
Urban Runoff
10011
10011
Storm sewers
0
Surface runoff
9451
16
9467
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
83
83
Surface mining
0
Subsurface mining
1955
2100
4055
Placer mining
2100
2100
Dredge mining
0
Petroleum activities
0
Mill tailings
0
Mine tailings
0
Land Disposal
325
3655
3980
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
1030
130
22003
23163
Hydromodification
108266
108266
Channelization
0
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Flow regulation
1760
9077
10837
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
56919
56919
Streambank modification
194
500
694
Other
55
480
535
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
940
940
In-place contaminants
553203
553203
Natural
56744
5529
1005
13033
76311
Recreational activities
83
12068
12151
Source Unknown
454
29
483
-------
3-31
3.2.1 Effects of Agriculture and Grazing
Agricultural nonpoint discharges result from both crop and animal production. Pollution
from agricultural activities is highly variable, depending on both environmental factors, such
as precipitation and runoff, and land treatment practices such as row cropping and manure
management. A variety of specific pollutants including fecal bacteria, nutrients, sediment,
organic chemicals and pesticides, and salts are a consequence of the diverse agricultural
practices in Region VIII.
3.2.2 Effects of Crop Production
Crop production (irrigated, non-irrigated, and specialty crops) disturbs the soil and removes
vegetative cover. Poor tillage practices increase runoff and soil loss. Application of
fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides, concomitant with increased runoff introduces these
pollutants to surface and groundwater. Major water quality concerns related to crop
production are pesticides/herbicides, increased nutrients, sedimentation and turbidity.
In Region VIII about 20,000 miles of streams and 1.2 million acres of lakes are impacted
by crop production (Table 3-5). The intensity of impact is ranked moderate to high for most
impacted reaches (Table 3-3).
3.2.3 Effects of Animal Production
Intensive animal production activities affect pasture and range land, feedlots, animal holding
areas and streambank erosion. These activities can cause increased stream pollution in the
following ways: inadequate waste management systems in animal confinement areas,
increased runoff and erosion due to overgrazing of pasture lands, improper application of
manure to fields, and unlimited access of animals to streams where riparian vegetation and
streambanks may be damaged. Major concerns related to animal production include
bacteria (fecal coliform), sedimentation and turbidity, increased nutrient levels, salts,
ammonia, and habitat destruction due to shoreline vegetation removal and erosion.
In Region VIII animal production and grazing lands impact about 25,000 miles of streams
and 1.4 million acres of lakes (Table 3-5). Impacts are ranked as moderate to low for most
activities (Table 3-3).
3.2.4 Sources of Specific Pollutants
Agricultural practices result in a variety of endpoint effects due to specific pollutants. The
sources of the specific pollutants associated with agricultural practices and grazing are
described here.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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3-32
1. Bacteria- Major sources are animal operations and manure in fields. Riparian
areas are heavily used by grazing animals which add fecal bacteria to streams via
runoff and direct input. Nearly 6,000 miles of streams and 60,000 acres of lakes
in Region VIII are impacted by feedlots and animal holding areas (Table 3-5)
at moderate levels of intensity (Table 3-3).
2. Sedimentation/Siltation: Sediments are derived from soil erosion due to
agricultural and range land practices. We have estimated tons of soil loss by
water borne erosion per acre of surface water per year for each State and the
Region. We use data from the Soil Conservation Service National Resource
Inventory of non-federal lands. By this estimate over 450,000,000 tons of soil are
lost per year in the Region (Table 3-8). Figure 3-1 represents annual soil loss
due to water erosion per acre of surface water per year in each state and for
Region VIII. It is not surprising that siltation and sedimentation are major
nonpoint source pollution problems in the Region. (Table 3-2).
3. Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus): Major sources of nutrients include runoff
from fertilized fields, animal manure operations, and sedimentation. Tillage
practices on crop lands may enhance runoff and transport of sediment born
nutrients.
Poor tillage practices and cropping on steep slopes generate large soil losses with
subsequent sedimentation and siltation effects downstream. The removal of
vegetative cover from agricultural lands enhances soil loss and
sedimentation/siltation effects.
Livestock move and forage throughout a watershed but are most attracted to
riparian areas adjacent to streams and lakes, and use this part of the range more
heavily. Although riparian areas comprise only 1 to 2% of the watershed area,
up to 80% of forage is obtained there (Platts, 1985). Streambank erosion caused
by agricultural activities in Region VIII impaired over 3,000 miles of streams and
20,000 acres of lakes (Table 3-5) at moderate levels of intensity (Table 3-3).
Watersheds subject to intensive grazing suffer from increases in peak runoff and
erosion as well as decreased infiltration because of soil disturbance and
compaction. These changes decrease groundwater recharge and baseflow
(groundwater discharge to streams during the dry season). The most serious
effects occur in riparian areas where vegetation is overgrazed and trampled,
moist soils (compared to uplands) are severely compacted, and stream channels
are widened by trampling of stream banks, all leading to greatly increased
erosion.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
Table 3-8
Soil Erosion via Water
Non-Federal Rural Land (1,000 tons/yr)
State
Year
Cropland
Pasture
Range
Forest
Minor
TOTAL
Colorado
1982
24,387
502
53,112
16,469
36,416
131,742
1987
24,128
633
51,540
17,540
35,954
131,025
Change
259
(131)
1,573
(1,071)
462
717
Montana
1982
30,954
607
34,013
4,177
0
71,070
1987
33,973
634
29,415
4,202
161
71,150
Change
(3,019)
(27)
4,598
(25)
(161)
(81)
North Dakota
1982
51,375
510
9,879
132
265
61,584
1987
53,321
603
8,940
129
138
61,520
Change
(1,946)
(93)
939
3
127
65
South Dakota
1982
44,062
811
22,790
281
64,054
129,088
1987
40,984
706
19,937
283
62,188
124,329
Change
3,078
105
2,853
(2)
1,865
4,758
Utah
1982
1,835
49
20,316
13,223
1,392
37,274
1987
2,002
56
15,312
8,303
1,027
27,158
Change
(167)
(7)
5,004
4,920
365
10,116
Wyoming
1982
1,811
225
40,172
786
1,685
44,930
1987
1,653
278
34,819
1,279
610
38,489
Change
158
(53)
5,353
(493)
1,074
6,441
USA
1982
1,812,032
172,006
529,964
354,211
393,582
3,253,537
1987
1,606,797
168,967
482,022
315,524
317,539
2,817,637
Change
205,235
3,039
47,943
38,687
76,043
435,900
Region VIII
1982
154,424
2,704
180,283
35,068
103,811
475,688
1987
156,061
2,910
159,963
31,735
100,078
453,672
Change
(1,637)
(206)
20,320
3,333
3,733
22,016
Region VIII
1982
8.5
1.6
34.0
9.9
26.4
14.6
as % of US
1987
9.7
1.7
33.2
10.1
31.5
16.1
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SOIL LOSS FROM SHEET AND RILL ERROSION
PER ACRE OE TOTAL SURFACE WATER AREA
CROPLAND
PASTURE
RANGE
FOREST
MINOR
NON-FEDERAL RURAL LAND TYPE
CO MT V//A ND [W1 SD |\\1 UT \/A WY
TOTAL
-------
3-35
Approximately 140 million acres of the Region's non-federal lands are grazing
and pasture lands (NRI, 1987). Included in grazing lands are rangeland, native
pasture, meadows, and forests with herbaceous understory. The number of
domestic grazing animals can far exceed wildlife numbers and carrying capacity,
leading to serious ecosystem damage.
4. Salts: Major sources are from irrigation return flows, and runoff from agricultural
areas. Salinity results from the passage of irrigation water through the root zone
with subsequent salt leaching. Evapotranspiration of crop plants and evaporation
from irrigation canals and reservoirs also contribute to high salt concentrations
downstream.
Pesticides and Herbicides: Major sources include crop production (all types),
pasture, and range lands.
Dissolved oxygen (DO) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD): major sources
of BOD that can reduce DO levels are runoff from agricultural lands and direct
inputs of manure. Grazing activities can deposit manure directly into streams or
via runoff. Feedlots adjacent to streams are a particular hazard. High carbon
and nutrient levels from this manure stimulate bacterial growth which in turn
depletes DO.
Temperature: The lack of streamside shading due to intensive grazing of riparian
vegetation leads to increased water temperatures.
3.2.5 Effects of Best Management Practices
Nonpoint pollution from agricultural activities can be controlled and significantly reduced
by use of best management practices (BMPs). Examples of BMPs include contour farming,
nutrient and pesticide management systems, pasture management, runoff control, proper
irrigation strategies, limiting animal access to streams, and revegetating unstable stream
banks.
3.2.6 Effects of Hvdromodifications
The physical modification of waterways, or hydromodifications, includes channelization,
dredging, dam construction and operation, flow regulation, bridge construction, riparian
activities, and streambank modifications. Nearly 11,000 miles of streams and over 275,000
acres of lakes are listed as impaired by hydromodifications in Region VIII (Table 3-1), most
of which are moderately or severely impaired (Table 3-3).
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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3-36
State reports apparently vary in their accounting of hydromodification impacts. For
example, Colorado has only 221 miles and South Dakota has no miles listed as impaired by
hydromodifications, compared with over 3,000 miles listed for Montana and over 4,000 miles
listed in North Dakota (Table 3-1). It is possible that these differences (low values for
Colorado and South Dakota), reflect a lack of data, not a lack of impact.
3.2.7 Effects of Dam Construction and Operation
Dam construction and operation account for at least 2,000 miles of stream impairment and
45,000 acres of lake impairment in Region VIII (Table 3-5), with most impacts in the slight
and moderate range (Table 3-3).
Dams are generally of two types: "reservoir" dams which backup water in order to create
sufficient head drop at the generators, and "run-of-the-river" dams which backup very little
water.
Hydrologic Effects
Flow volume in streams is regulated by controlled release from reservoirs and is diminished
by seasonal diversions. Downstream from reservoirs water temperature is altered. The
upper strata of water in reservoirs are warmed during summer, while water at greater depths
stays colder. The water temperature downstream then depends on the level in the reservoir
from which water is released.
Reservoirs are characterized by slow-moving water, which is associated with changes in
water temperature, dissolved oxygen levels, turbidity, water chemistry, and aquatic habitat.
In deep reservoirs, thermal and chemical stratification occurs. Downstream effects can be
beneficial or adverse, depending on the downstream ecosystems and facility design. In
general, creation of a reservoir transforms an ecosystem dependent on moving water into
one dependent on still water. This results in substantial changes in the distribution,
abundance, and diversity of organisms and on the carrying capacity of the habitat.
Creation of a reservoir may flood valuable natural or cultural resources. These include
roads, utilities, buildings, sites of historic, cultural, archeological, or scientific interest;
productive farm or forest land; terrestrial, riparian, and stream-dependent habitat; free
flowing/whitewater streams, waterfalls, and associated recreation areas. Creation of a
reservoir may attract new shoreline development, thus introducing a wide range of secondary
environmental effects associated with such activities. New recreation opportunities can be
created that displace existing recreational activities associated with free-flowing streams and
natural environment; however, reservoir fluctuations may limit these later factors. The
scenic value of the site is usually altered and sometimes impaired.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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3-37
In deeper reservoir waters where photosynthesis (which releases oxygen) does not occur,
microbial respiration depletes oxygen. Oxygen levels are not recharged through diffusion
from the atmosphere, and oxygen levels stay low for much of the year. When surface
waters cool and turn over, oxygen is restored to the reservoir depths.
Sediment moving downstream is blocked at many dams in the Region. Bedload is
comprised of coarser materials that are too large to be suspended by turbulent action of the
water and which, instead, roll along the streambed. This portion obviously will not pass over
a spillway near the top of a dam. Finer sediment which is ordinarily suspended along free-
flowing streams will settle out of the slower moving water in reservoirs. Sediment
accumulates behind these dams, filling the reservoir and decreasing the water storage
capacity. While most dams in the Region were designed to allow sediment passage by
providing for water release at the base of the dams, sediment accumulation is an increasing
problem.
Sediment trapping by dams will change the character of sediments downstream of the dam.
Gravel supply from upstream areas may be reduced or cutoff. Downstream of the dam,
reduced sediment loads result in increased water velocity. Consequently, streambeds and
banks suffer erosion. Large amounts of material in the diversion structure pool accumulate
in streams with high sediment bedloads. Sufficient material may be collected that water
diversion is impaired, necessitating cleaning by dredging or sluicing. These activities may
affect water quality and must be scheduled to minimize effects on fish and downstream
water quality.
The operation of a reservoir hydroelectric project generally results in large fluctuations in
reservoir level. Fluctuations may be daily, seasonal, or both. Alteration in the natural flow
regime can be detrimental to downstream aquatic life forms and recreation. The channel
downstream may be degraded over time by the reduction in bed load transport.
Construction of dams or diversion structures presents considerable potential for adverse
environmental effects. Erosion and resultant sediment increases occur when clearing the
stream bank, blasting underlying bedrock, or during construction within the steam channel.
Clearing and revegetation for the project facilities, pipelines, transmission line right-of ways,
and access roads can impact wildlife in the area. Riparian and upland terrestrial habitat is
inundated by impounded waters and is permanently lost. Project operation can also
adversely effect the streams natural resources. The drawn down zone formed along
downstream banks by variations in water level is typically unattractive, biologically
unproductive,and subject to erosion. Downstream water quality may be affected by the
decay of flooded organic matter and the release of soil chemicals into the water.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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3-38
Sediment captured behind dams will alter streambed substrate downstream. For instance,
if the gravel is trapped behind the dam it must be replenished constantly to replace that
moved downstream by bedload transport.
Insufficient instream flows through a bypass section will affect fish and wildlife habitat, water
quality, recreation, scenic and aesthetic values, navigation, and other environmental values.
Decreased instream flows reduce fish habitat and aquatic productivity. In some cases,
barriers that were insignificant under natural flows can become impassible to migrating fish.
Table 3-9 summarizes the primary (hydrologic) and secondary ecological effects of dam
construction and operation.
3.2.8 Effects of Surface Water Withdrawal
Surface water withdrawal involves the diversion of water from streams. No data on the
extent of this considerable problem is available, as The State reports don't list this activity
as a specific subcategory of stream impairment. The effects of diversion of surface water
are widespread and well documented across the Region however. Once water is diverted,
it is difficult to return it to the stream. The extent of impact of surface water diversion on
instream resources is uncertain, however, some streams are unaffected by diversion,
especially in headwaters areas and National Parks and Wilderness Areas.
The largest volumes of water withdrawal are taken for municipal, irrigation, and
hydroelectric uses. Hydroelectric power generation in many cases diverts water for a
relatively short distance and then returns water to the stream channel. Irrigation return
flows may also recharge streams or aquifers. Small domestic water supply diversions which
use surface water for inside uses or outside watering of lawns and gardens are widespread
on streams and springs across the Region. Many streams have had relatively smaller
percentages of flow diverted, but still suffer impacts of diversion. The cumulative effects
of many small diversions can become significant.
Increased efficiency in water use, water conservation efforts, and unified uses of surface and
groundwater supplies will reverse or mitigate future impacts. Artificial recharge of aquifers
during high winter flows is a means of storing water which may also mitigate impacts of
surface water diversion during seasonal low flows. Improvements to low summer flows could
be made through better management practices in other areas: controlling the amount of
watershed that is developed or covered with asphalt; minimizing cattle grazing around
riparian areas to maintain riparian ecosystem integrity and improve stream flow; and looking
at impacts of watershed deforestation and number attendant low flow exacerbation in
silviculture and forest management.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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Table 3-9
Summary of the Ecological Effects of
Dam Construction and Operation
Source
Stressor
Ecological Effects
Dam Construction
and Operation
stream flow volume fluctuations
stream temperature alterations
sediment transport
dissolved oxygen depletion
bed-load/sediment transport
interruption
vortexing and entraining of air
at the penstock
loss of spawning and sediment
trapping behind dam
gravel deprivation downstream of
dam
increased bank erosion
reservoir creation
blocking aquatic organisms
fish mortality
fish mortality
adandromous fish
reduced water velocity,
low dissolved oxygen
turbidity, thermal and
chemical stratification,
flooding of natural and
cultural resources
expansion of aquatic
habitat, loss of upland
and riparian habitat,
creation of recreation
opportunities, loss of
anadromous fish spawning
opportunities
penstock, pipeline and canal leakage slope destabilization and
land slides decreasing
stream productivity
From: The State of Environment Report. State of Washington, October, 1989.
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3-40
Hydrologic Effects
Because of the minimal summer rainfall usually occurring in many areas of the Region,
naturally occurring low flows are found in many rivers and streams during summer and fall.
Diversions further reduce streamflow. Impacts are more significant on smaller streams as
a relatively greater amount of streamflow is lost more quickly from the channel. During
summer and fall low flow periods, groundwater recharge constitutes the base flow remaining
in many small streams.
As flow decreases, water temperature and velocity are altered, leading to changes in water
chemistry and physical properties, and dissolved oxygen availability. Reduced dilution of
permitted waste and non-point pollutant discharges could also result from flow diversion.
Recharge depending on stream flow may be affected, such as wetlands or groundwaters.
Seepage from irrigation canals and reservoirs and recharge of areas below irrigated areas
have led to formation of new wetland and riparian habitats.
Ecological Effects
The biological effects of reduced flows occur both at the aquatic and terrestrial levels. Fish
and fish habitat are affected through reductions in flow, cover, stream velocities and aquatic
production of food species, increased temperatures, crowding, competition for food, and
predation. These problems are particularly severe when stream flow is limited during the
low flow season. Where populations have already been stressed, further diversion causes
severe impact. Abundance of desirable species and overall species diversity are impacted
as well.
Wildlife that depend on given levels of instream flow during certain life-stages are affected
in several ways: decreased flow either eliminates habitat and food or increases competition
for these elements. Increased predation might also result.
Adverse affects to wetlands and other riparian habitats are likely following diversion of
stream flow. Decreased recharge to wetlands could lead to alterations in hydrology and
effects on animal and plant species. In streams, dewatering the stream could lead to changes
in shoreline vegetation.
Table 3-10 presents a summary of ecological risks associated with withdrawal of water from
streams.
As seasonal low flows are limiting to fish production in many areas, further flow reduction
can have an immediate impact on fish populations and productivity. Small and medium-
sized streams are particularly sensitive to flow reduction because of channel size and flow
distribution. The high productivity of small streams suffer disproportionately as a
consequence of decreased flows.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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Table 3-10
Summary of the Ecological Effects of
Surface Water Withdrawal
Source
Stressor
Ecological Effects
Surface Water
Withdrawal
decreased flow
velocity alterations
water chemistry changes
changes in availability of
dissolved oxygen
changes in biochemical
oxygen demand
reduced ability to dilute
permitted waste and non-point
pollution
reduced wetland and groundwater
recharge capacity
reduction in fish habitat
reduction in fish food
species
fish crowding increased
predation, competition for
food, reduction of instream
species diversity
elimination of wildlife
habitat, increased
competition for food in
wildlife population,
increased predation
From: The State of the Environment Report. State of Washington, October, 1989.
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3-42
The ecological effects of diversion may be reversed to some extent by augmenting low flows,
particularly in ares where storage and redistribution of high flows are possible. This would
allow the reconstruction of fish habitat. Some irreversible losses have occurred already
through loss of genetic stocks and endemic species. Nonetheless, restoration of flows could
lead to reestablishment of some species or increases in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems
biodiversity.
3.2.9 Effects of Flood Management and Construction Activities
Flood management activities include stream channel alterations (e.g. dikes and levees ),
dredging and filling, and bridging. Numerous other construction/human activities take place
in and around streams and lakes. Examples are docks, launch ramps, logging, bulkheads,
outfall structures, and conduit crossings. In Region VIII, approximately 1,900 miles of
streams and 150,000 acres of lakes have been impacted (Table 3-5); most affected water
falls in the moderate to high range (Table 3-3).
Hydrologic Effects
Stream channel alterations, in general, result in straightened, shorter channels with higher
bank gradients. This destroys existing pools and riffles. Flood control projects, in particular,
restrict channels to maintain a self-cleaning status, but eliminate the potential for the
streams to reestablish a satisfactory pool-riffle ratio with concomitant habitat loss.
Constraining a stream within dikes or levees often leads to aggradation (raising of the
grade) of the stream bed during floods. The result is less water storage capacity in the
channel which, in turn, leads to overbank flooding during smaller volume floods than before
levee construction.
The hydrologic effects of dredging and filling are nearly identical. Both reduce the shallow
water area and increase the proportion of deep water area. Removal or addition of
streambed materials causes continuous and excessive bedload movement, shifting of
substrate, and turbidity for long periods following the activity.
Bridges built with too little free space above the water can catch and accumulate flood
debris such as logs, stumps, and tree limbs which impede the flow, back up flood waters, and
cause more overbank flow. Improper bridge construction or culvert installation may cause
long term excessive erosion and heavy siltation.
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Poorly designed bridges and culverts increase stream velocity; channel scouring, turbidity
and bank erosion. Undersized culverts cause upstream flooding during high flows. Bridges
may also increase flow velocities by restricting the channel at higher flows.
Ecological Effects
Streambed mining, dredging, and filling reduce and degrade spawning and rearing habitat.
Mortality of fish eggs and insect larvae is generally high where shifting gravel conditions
occur. The loss of suitable gravel from bars creates crowded spawning conditions in
remaining areas. Large numbers of fry and fingerlings are invariably trapped and die in the
pits and pockets left by gravel excavations of riverbanks when rivers recede during low-flow
periods. Channel straightening destroys existing pool and riffle ratios essential to feeding,
spawning and rearing.
Channel diversions almost always adversely affect spawning or rearing habitat. Aquatic
habitat is completely destroyed downstream in the abandoned channel section. The new
channel cannot duplicate lost habitat for many years. A change in species composition
and/or reduced population sizes almost invariably occur. Stream reaches downstream of
the new channel suffer siltation, bank erosion, or channel scouring.
Riprap for bank protection eliminates streamside vegetation, thereby reducing insect
populations that serve as food for fish. Loss of shade plants increases water temperatures,
which is injurious to resident fish. Vegetation loss also affects wildlife using the riparian
zone for migration, feeding, and rearing. Riprap projects eliminate aquatic vegetation used
as a food source by animals such as beaver, muskrat, shorebirds, and waterfowl, and which
provide habitat for a variety of reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates.
Bank protection measures, dredging, and instream gravel moving decrease or eliminate
shallow water areas. Habitat is lost for small fish that feed in shallows. Fish dependent on
shallow water for escape are then subject to higher predation. Changes occur in species
composition and abundance of fish, benthic organisms, and vegetation. In turn, this affects
wildlife, such as waterfowl and mammals which use shallow areas for feeding. Construction
of bank protection devices, dredging and instream mining downstream increase turbidity,
siltation, and sedimentation that destroy spawning habitat and food supplies for many
aquatic organisms. Heavy sedimentation downstream ruins gravel substrate for egg-hatching
and initial fish development. In addition, dredging and gravel mining directly destroy
habitat and food sources. Severe siltation abrades fish gills, causing stress and respiration
problems, and clogs digestive tracts. Higher fish mortality and susceptibility to disease
result. Contaminated sediments disturbed or re-suspended by dredging may be harmful to
aquatic life.
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Culverts may increase flow velocity so much that the stream reach becomes impassable by
fish. Improper culvert placement may create a waterfall at the outlet, which is too high for
fish to jump over. Culverts which are too long can also block fish passage. When placed in
spawning habitat, culverts eliminate a portion of the habitat. Effects due to poor culvert
installation continue until installation is corrected, but then may last for several additional
years. Slotted weirs within culverts will stabilize stream velocities.
Increased stream velocity due to poor culvert or bridge design causes gravel scouring which
eliminates spawning habitat. As gravel is scoured from the streambed, spawning habitat is
eliminated. If velocity becomes excessive, fish migration can be reduced or eliminated.
Bridge approaches and abutments often extend into or to the water's edge. Many animals
use the shore areas as "transportation" corridors. This use is blocked by bridges and may be
eliminated by a number of closely spaced bridges. Effects on aquatic habitat may last for
several years after bridge construction. Spawning beds and fry and fingerling habitat can
be restored with appropriate mitigating measures. Streamside vegetation can be
reestablished to some degree.
Table 3-11 presents a summary of the ecological effects of construction and flood control
activities.
3.2.10Effects of Irrigation Activities
The irrigation activities considered here are distribution works (canals) and on-farm
practices (sprinkler, trickle, and furrow irrigation). Some fraction of the impairment
attributed to irrigated crop production stems from these activities (see Table 3-5). In
Region VIII, some 8,000 miles of streams and 500,000 acres of lake have been impaired
(Table 3-5); most of this impact falls in the moderate classification (Table 3-3).
Hydrologic Effects
Canal leakage recharges groundwater and augments water tables in formerly unsaturated
soils or rising water tables in unconfined aquifers. In some areas, this artificial recharge has
created a long-standing supply of groundwater.
In places the resulting water table rises to ground surface, creating wetlands in low-lying
areas and supplementing seasonal streamflow in natural drainage paths. An unknown
portion of the wetlands in the Region have been created in this fashion. Sometimes this
flooding affects developed areas not associated with farms.
Some excess water must be applied in order to prevent "salt" buildup in the soils. Ordinarily
the excess water infiltrates the soil and percolates to the water table. At times the soil
infiltration capacity is exceeded and the excess water runs off the field surface; this is most
likely to occur on land under furrow irrigation. Whether the excess irrigation water
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becomes groundwater recharge or surface runoff, most of the water (some is evaporated)
eventually returns to these sources and may contain undesirable levels of fertilizer nutrients,
pesticides, herbicides, salts and sediment.
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Table 3-11
Summary of the Ecological Effects of
Construction and Flood Control in Lakes,
Riparian Areas, and Floodplains
Source
Stressor
Ecological Effects
Stream Channel
Alterations (e.g.,
dikes, levees)
Dredging and
filling
decreased length and higher stream
gradient
decreased pool/riffle ratio
rising stream bed during floods,
causing overbank flooding
induced continuous excessive
bed-load movement, reduction of
shallow water area increased
proportion of deep water habitat,
induced shifting of substrate
increased turbidity
Bridging/Culverts debris trapping causing flooding
excessive erosion and heavy
siltation
degradation of spawning
and rearing habitat
fish egg and insect larvae
mortality
fish crowding, fish fry and
fingerling mortality
elimination of stream side
vegetation causing thermal
change, loss of wildlife,
increased predation
abrading of fish gills,
sedimentation of
spawning gravels
alteration in number and
diversity of species in the
water and benthos,
resuspension of
contaminated sediments
increased stream velocity
scouring of gravel
loss of fish spawning area,
interference with fish
passage
From: The State of the Environment Report. State of Washington, October, 1989.
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Ecological Effects
Irrigation development is a major contributor in reducing the quality of stream habitat in
the Region. This is due to unscreened diversions and relatively lower flows during the dry
season. The availability of irrigation water has reduced the size of dryland habitat
previously uncultivated. Return flow from irrigated fields results when water in excess of
plant requirements is applied. Return flow can create new fish and wildlife habitat through
the formation of new wetlands and streams. The ecological risks associated with irrigation
distribution works and on-farm practices are summarized in Table 3-12.
The instream and out of stream effects are totally reversible only if irrigation is
discontinued. The use of proper on-farm water management techniques as recommended
by the Soil Conservation Service, however, can eliminate most return flow from the surface
of an irrigated field. Return flow could be substantially reduced but not entirely eliminated
because of the need for leaching of salts. Some soils with extremely high percolation rates
should not be irrigated. Through best management practices such as irrigation scheduling
and proper application methods, farmers can reduce the undesirable ecological effects of
irrigation activities.
3.2.11 Effects of Resource Extraction
Resource extraction activities, especially activities related to processing or storing tailings
and wastestreams, can have a major effect on surface and groundwater quality. This problem
is a prominent concern in Region VIII and is discussed in a separate problem area, Problem
20, Mining Wastes. Many of the problems associated with mining are due to inactive or
abandoned sites.
In Region VIII, approximately 4,500 miles of streams have been impaired by resource
extraction activities, with Montana (1,600 miles) and Colorado (1,400 miles) impacted most
severely (Table 3-1). The bulk of the impact on streams has been moderate (Table 3-3).
The primary pollutants associated with resource extraction activities vary with the type of
mining operation and the associated geology. For example, coal mines and other mines
extracting sulfide ores are associated with acid mine drainage. Acid mine drainage results
from the oxidation of sulfide minerals to iron sulfate, and subsequent hydrolysis to sulfuric
acid. Low pH acid mine drainage puts numerous metals including copper, zinc and lead
into solution, resulting in heavy metal contamination of surface or groundwater. Stream
ecosystems with metal contaminated sediments derived from mining activities may never
fully recover with out expensive remediation which can also cause extensive physical
disturbances. The efficacy of stream restoration of stream restoration in Region VIII is
currently the focus of active research and debate. Many resource extraction practices
produce silt and sediment as water flows over disturbed surfaces.
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Table 3-12
Summary of the Ecological Effects of
Irrigation Distribution Works and
On-Farm Irrigation Practices
Source
Stressor
Ecological Effects
Canal Leakage
Return Flow (i.e.,
application of water
excess to plant
requirements)
groundwater recharge
creation of perched water tables,
rising water tables, increased
groundwater supply
wetlands creation flooding of land,
increased seasonal streamflow,
water table recharge, surface
water runoff
reduction of diyland habitat
creation offish and wildlife
reduction of fish runs in
the lower Columbia system
and low summer flows
due to diversion to canals
unintended transport of ag.
chemicals
From: The State of the Environment Report. State of Washington, October, 1989.
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Water passing through mine workings especially low pH acid mine drainage, roads, and spoil
banks leaches minerals. Minerals may include heavy metals, calcium, or magnesium
depending on local geology. Under some conditions, radiological contamination occurs
adjacent to uranium mines. Phosphate mines yield high levels of phosphorous as well as
fluorine and fluoride.
Stream impairment due to resource extraction is less than one tenth that of agricultural
impacts and about half as extensive as hydromodification and "other" impacts (Table 3-1),
however, the environmental consequences of non-attainment due to mining activities may
not be the same as non-attainment stemming from other activities.
Over 47,000 acres of lakes are impaired by resource extraction activities in Region VIII
(Table 3-1), with Wyoming lakes being most affected (over 40,000 acres; Table 3-5) and the
balance primarily due to effects in Montana (4,200) and Colorado (2,000; Table 3-5). Most
of the lake area affected is classified as moderately impaired (Table 3-3).
The miles or acres of aquatic ecosystem impairment due to specific resource extraction
activities by use category are summarized for Region VIII and by State in Tables 3-6 and
3-7.
As suggested in these tallies, mining activities most often impair cold water fisheries,
recreation and public water supplies. Impairment occurs primarily due to subsurface mining,
followed by petroleum activities, generic unspecified mining activities, surface mining, mill
tailings, placer mining, dredge mining, and mine tailings.
3.2.14 Effects of Silviculture
Typical logging and forest management practices have been linked to nonpoint pollution of
surface water. Road construction, maintenance and abandonment; site preparation (clearcut
and partial cut practices); removal of riparian vegetation; herbicide and pesticide spraying;
and debris management contribute to nonpoint pollution. Silviculture in Region VIII
impacts over 1,200 miles of streams and 42,000 acres of lakes (Table 3-5) at moderate levels
of intensity (Table 3-3). Effects may be cumulative and can occur offsite or downstream
from the forest practice. Cumulative effects, which are suspected in large logged
watersheds, are poorly understood, but are a major concern. Effects of nutrients leached
from forest lands after cutting and turbidity (solids) may have short-term impacts; whereas
modifications of habitat, temperature, hydrologic regime, and large organic debris may take
years to correct. Extensive streambed siltation with consequent impacts to the fisheries,
especially in lower gradient waterways, may never recover without remedial action. Removal
of riparian strips along water ways and the removal of natural organic debris dams can
dramatically affect the structure and function of stream ecosystems for decades.
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Altered sedimentation of streams is perhaps the largest single factor affecting water quality
practices. Increased sediment loads can alter spawning habitat and actually cause physical
damage to fish. Major sources include road construction, stream channel alterations, slope
destabilization, removal of organic debris dams and riparian vegetation, increased runoff due
to alteration of precipitation inputs, changes in precipitation interception and evaporation,
and soil compaction. Road construction activities tend to have greater of impact than the
other silvicultural activities (Table 3-3).
Logging and slash burning lead to increases in nutrient (especially nitrogen and
phosphorous) releases from the watershed. Major sources include nutrient overapplication
and subsequent loss down stream, soil loss and erosion, direct aerial application of
fertilizers, and fire suppression chemicals. Sensitive nutrient poor waters may be enriched,
leading to potentially significant changes in ecosystem structure and function.
3.2.13 Effects of Construction
Nonpoint discharges resulting from construction include highway/road/bridge construction
and maintenance, land development, vegetation removal, and aquatic construction activities
(dredging, channelization, and riparian modification). A variety of nonpoint concerns
including hydrocarbons, metals, contaminated particles, sedimentation and erosion, organic
chemicals, debris, nutrients, and habitat alteration result from the diverse construction
practices in Region VIII.
Construction activities in Region VIII impact about 2,000 miles of streams and 100,000 acres
of lakes (Table 3-5) at moderate levels of intensity (Table 3-3). Sediment loads and
turbidity are created at both the site of origin and of disposal (if aquatic) with consequent
ecological effects on aquatic biota.
Dredging and channelization displace subaquatic sediments, which are moved to new
locations in the aquatic environment or removed to a fill area. These activities impact
about 1,900 miles of streams and 900 acres of lakes in the Region (Table 3-5) at moderate
and high impact levels (Table 3-3). Runoff from roads and equipment used in construction
introduces metals, hydrocarbons, and other toxic substances to aquatic environments.
Runoff from fertilized roadside areas adds nutrients (primarily nitrogen and phosphorous)
to surface and groundwater. Pesticides and herbicides which have been used to treat
roadside areas also runoff and accumulate in surface and groundwater.
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3.2.14 Effects of Urban Construction
In Region VIII, some 3,000 miles of stream (Table 3-5) have been impacted, by urban
construction (Table 3-3), and approximately 21,000 acres of lakes (Table 3-5) have been
impacted; again, most of this acreage falls in the moderate rating (Table 3-3).
Hydrologic Effects
Increased peak flows along stream channels causes erosion and channel shifting.
Stormwater detention attempts to correct for the increased runoff and higher peaks flows
caused by development. Poor design may actually increase bedload movement and channel
erosion. This problem has only recently been recognized (Moglen and McCuen, 1988).
Ecological Effects
Home building along streams leads to removal of streambank vegetation which acts to
stabilize soils, serve as habitat cover for fish and filters runoff of fertilizers and soil.
Consequently, soils may erode and aquatic habitat and water quality are degraded. Mass
movements of clay and silt cause compaction of spawning gravel and suffocation of
embedded eggs. Field and stream bank erosion cause similar problems. Table 3-13
summarizes the effects of homebuilding as a nonpoint pollution source.
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Table 3-13
Summary of the Ecological Effects of
Detention Ponds and Homebuilding Along Streams
Source
Stressor
Ecological Effects
Storm water detention increased peak stream flows
Ponds and home-
building along streams
stream channel erosion
loss of riparian vegetation
increased bedload
movement and loss of
wildlife habitat
loss of cover for fish
loss of filtration for
fertilizers and oil
siltation of spawning
gravel
suffocation of fish eggs
Source: The State of the Environment Report. State of Washington, October, 1989.
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3.2.15 Effects of Urban Development
Urban development involves human activities and land uses that occur after rural land is
converted to urban, suburban, and industrial communities. Increased population densities
lead to higher densities of buildings and roads that make much of the area impervious or
impermeable to water infiltration. These impervious surfaces produce fundamental changes
in local hydrology and ecosystems. In Region VIII, almost 2,500 miles of stream have been
impaired by construction (Table 3-1); impacts of slight, moderate, and high ratings are fairly
uniformly distributed (Table 3-3). Over 100,000 acres of lakes have been affected (Table
3-1); most of this area has been designated as slightly or moderately impacted.
Hydrologic Effects
The hydrologic cycle is affected by man's activities more dramatically in urban areas than
in any other part of the land. Dunne and Leopold (1978) state: "There are four interrelated
but separable effects of land use changes on the hydrology of an area: changes in peak flow
characteristics, changes in total runoff, changes in quality of water, and changes in
hydrologic amenities. The hydrologic amenities are what might be called the appearance or
the impression which the river, its channel and its valleys, leaves with the observer. Of all
land use changes affecting the hydrology of an area, urbanization is by far the most forceful."
Hydrologic changes due to urban development may also occur in drainage patterns, erosion
and sediment movement, water demands, and shifts in the water balance between
evaporation, infiltration, recharge, and runoff.
Hydrologic problems develop in urban areas for a variety of reasons. The concentration
of population and industry is accompanied by rising water needs that soon exceed the
natural supply in the area. The increase in impervious surfaces reduces the infiltration of
rain water, reduces groundwater recharge, and greatly increases the volume and peak rates
of stormflow runoff (Canning, 1988). Increased volumes and peak flow rates of urban
stormwater runoff lead to enlargement of stream channels by scouring during the high flow
periods (Canning, 1988). Channel scouring destabilizes stream banks and eventually
undermines and removes protective vegetation that may not easily be re-established.
Extensive groundwater use and reduced recharge depletes ground-water storage, reducing
the base flows of streams and aggravate water quality problems as dilution is reduced.
Wastewater volumes grow, placing chemical burdens on rivers, lakes, and marine waters.
Increasing amounts and types of wastes, with a decrease in the space or number of suitable
places for disposal, complicates water quality protection.
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Ecological Effects
The ecological effects of hydrologic changes due to urban development occur primarily in
the riparian and aquatic ecosystems. Increased storm water runoff carries higher sediment
loads off the land and erodes the stream's channel. Thus, riparian and aquatic habitat is
degraded or destroyed by erosion and siltation.
Lowered baseflows resulting from decreased groundwater recharge have the same effect as
direct surface water withdrawal. Aquatic habitat is decreased by lowered flows, spawning
may be disrupted, and migrating fish may not be able to pass up or down stream.
The percentage of the total land area in the Region that is developed is about 1.4% or half
the National average (see Problem 22). Large urban populations are highly dependent on
outlying areas for water, because the water available in the urban area is never sufficient
and often is made unusable by urban pollution. Table 3-14 summarizes the ecological
effects of urban development.
3.2.16 Effects of Runoff
Runoff occurs when the precipitation rate exceeds the soil infiltration rate. Infiltration rates
are slowest when soils are very tight, saturated with water, frozen, or covered with
impervious surfaces. Water has the ability to dissolve pollutants and physically carry
contaminated particles and sediments into the environment. Therefore, runoff quality is
partially a function of adjacent land uses. Highway runoff can be contaminated with solids,
metals, and many organic compounds. Both water and sediments can be affected. Failed
septic systems can also contribute significantly to this problem.
In Region VIII urban runoff impacted less than 1,000 miles of streams and about 20,000
acres of lakes (Table 3-5) at moderate levels of intensity Table (3-3).
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Table 3-14
Summary of the Ecological Effects of Urban Development
Source
Stressor
Ecological Effects
Urban Development
(e.g., impervious
surface and population
growth)
changes in peak flows
changes in total runoff
changes in water quality
degradation of hydrologic amenities
alteration of drainage patterns
erosion and sediment movement
increased water demand
alteration in the balance between
evaporation, runoff infiltration and
recharge
degradation of
riparian habitat
increased waste
loads in surface and
groundwater
reduced baseflows in
streams due to
impaired infiltration
fish spawning
disruptions
From: The State of the Environment Report. State of Washington, October, 1989.
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3.2.17 Effects of Atmospheric Deposition
Atmospheric deposition has had little influence on water quality of Region VIII to date (see
Problem 15). North Dakota lists 27 miles of moderately impacted streams and 60 acres of
moderate and 60 acres of slightly impaired lakes due to atmospheric deposition (Tables 3-2
and 3-4). Montana lists one lake, 1,520 acres, as being slightly impacted by atmospheric
deposition (Tables 3-2 and 3-4).
3.3 NONPOINT SOURCE POLLUTANT EFFECTS
3.3.1 Effects of Sedimentation/Siltation
Effects due to sediments in streams and lakes stem from both siltation and suspension.
Together, these two processes have impacted approximately 20,000 miles of streams and 1.3
million acres of surface waters in Region VIII (Table 3-2). Impacts on lakes tend to be low
and stem primarily from reduced sunlight due to the suspended sediment in the water
column. Nutrient addition is a secondary effect. Impacts on streams and rivers are high,
typically the benthos is smothered and the habitat is changed.
Many of the problems associated with other ecological stressors are linked to sedimentation.
Sediments rich in organic material can alter the benthic community by changing levels of
dissolved oxygen (Wilber 1971). Agricultural soils rich in nutrients can cause eutrophication.
This problem is considered as nutrient effect. Sediments rich in toxic organic or inorganic
chemicals also can have adverse effects on aquatic ecosystems.
Species-Level Effects
Sedimentation adversely affects respiration in fish, feeding areas for aquatic organisms,
alters availability of invertebrate food for fish, limits growth of aquatic plants, increases
surface water temperature, and decreases oxygen supply.
Direct smothering is the main effect of sediments on benthic aquatic invertebrates. Two
studies have documented a decrease in benthic invertebrate populations by 60% and 71%
because of smothering in areas of sediment deposition (EPA, 1986).
The main effect of sediments on fish is reduced reproduction with consequent effects on
population size and species diversity. High egg mortalities occur when solids block gravel
spawning beds, presumably because silt attached to the eggs prevents sufficient gaseous
exchange between the embryo and the water. Moreover, some species of salmonids will not
spawn in such areas (EPA, 1986). In lakes, sediments deposited in shallow areas can cover
spawning areas or subject developing eggs to greater thermal stress, by effectively reducing
water depth.
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Ecosystem-Level Effects
The effects of excess sediment levels on aquatic ecosystems are well documented (Klein, et
aL, 1962, Wilber, 1971, NAS, 1972, EPA, 1986). Aquatic communities have adapted to the
natural composition and depth of sediments in the water bodies they inhabit. In flowing
water bodies, the nature of the benthic community depends to a large part on the size,
nature, and stability of the bed medium and the speed of the current over the bed (Klein,
et al., 1962). In rapid stretches with coarse-grained beds, benthic organisms are characterized
by adaptations that prevent them from being swept away by the current. Such adaptations
include mechanisms for attaching to or grasping stones (e.g. insect larvae), flattened bodies,
and behavioral mechanisms for seeking shelter from the full force of the current between
the stones. In sluggish stretches, the fine-grained silt and mud forming the bed favors
organisms that burrow or feed in sediments (e.g. worms, certain insect larvae, mussels,
snails, and flat worms). Hence, altering the natural composition and depth of sediment in
streams (and lakes) can completely alter the benthic community.
The most severe ecosystem-level effect of sediments is the permanent alteration of one type
of habitat to another. If sufficient sediments are added, a lake, pond, or slow-moving stream
can be converted into a wetland. Intermediate steps in this process could include significant
changes in the structure and function of aquatic communities.
Certain types of anthropogenic sediments can effectively eliminate benthic invertebrate
communities by making the stream or lake bed unstable and hence unsuitable as a medium
for attachment.
Fine sediments added to fast-moving streams can alter the species composition of the
benthic community from species associated with coarse-grained gravel or rock beds to those
associated with fine-grained silt or mud beds.
Threshold Criteria
According to readily available documents and materials, there are no regulations or criteria
that establish acceptable levels (depth) or rates of sedimentation in rivers, streams, or lakes.
In water bodies naturally devoid of fine-grained sediments (e.g., fast-moving streams,
oligotrophic lakes), the threshold for adverse effects on aquatic organisms is likely to be very
low.
Klein, et al. (1962) have suggested that any discharge of sediments that caused a change in
the physical nature of the stream bed would be expected to change the nature of the stream-
bed community. Ellis (referenced in Wilber, 1971) has suggested that the bottom of a
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natural body of water should not have an accumulation of silt more than 1/4 of an inch
(0.635 cm).
In water bodies naturally containing fine-grained sediments (e.g., slow moving streams or
eutrophic lakes), the threshold for adverse effects on aquatic organisms is likely to be high.
Adverse effects would be expected only when the sedimentation rate is high enough so that
benthic organisms cannot relocate upward before being smothered as the bed fills with
sediment.
Exposure-Response Relationships
There are few data in the literature relating sedimentation rates to aquatic ecosystem
effects. In most aquatic ecosystems, however, the exposure range between threshold and
maximum effect on invertebrates and fish reproduction is likely to be very small. Once the
stream or lake bed is covered with sediments deep enough to smother eggs or benthos, the
addition of more sediment will not have much additional effect. The rate at which sediments
change one ecosystem into another (e.g., a pond into a wetland) is likely to be directly
related to the sedimentation rate.
The panel of scientists convened by the Cornell Ecosystems Research Center (EPA, 1987)
was unable to estimate the reversibility of the effects of sedimentation (solid matter) on
aquatic ecosystems. Case studies suggest that biotic effects in swift-flowing streams can be
reversed within 1-10 years as the current flushes out the sediment deposits (Klein, et al.
1962). Biotic effects on water bodies with beds that naturally contain fine-grained sediments
also are likely to be rapidly reversible. Extreme effects (e.g., silting up of a pond) are
essentially irreversible, except by excavation.
Adverse effects from sediments are likely to be most severe in streams and lakes that
naturally have coarse-grained or rocky beds. Such beds are typically found in swift-flowing,
cold water streams and higher-elevation, oligotrophic lakes. Effects of sediments on fish
populations are likely to be most severe when sediments are deposited on spawning areas,
particularly those associated with coarse-grained stream beds and the shallower portions of
lakes. Adverse effects are probable when nutrients or toxic organic chemicals are carried
by sediments.
Siltation Effects
The effects of suspended solids on aquatic organisms and ecosystems are well known (e.g.
NAS, 1972, EPA, 1986). Increasing siltation decreases light transmission through water
which decreases primary productivity and obscures sources of food, habitat, hiding places,
and nesting sites.
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Species-Level Effects.
Inert suspended solids affect aquatic invertebrates by clogging of gills, and obstructing filter
feeding mechanisms which, result in depressed food intake and excretion. Fish suffer
through reduced growth rates, reduced resistance to disease, prevention of successful
development of eggs and larvae, modified natural movements and migration (particularly
among highly visual species), and death (at very high levels of suspended solids).
Ecosystem-Level Effects.
The most important effect of inert- suspended solids on ecosystems is the reduction of
primary productivity of the aquatic ecosystem as photosynthetic activity by aquatic plants is
decreased. In sufficiently deep receiving waters (e.g., lakes), increased turbidity/suspended
solids can alter the thermal stratification patterns and thus change the oxygen distribution,
and the composition of the biological communities.
Threshold Criteria
The National Academy of Sciences (NAS, 1972) has suggested a threshold criterion of 25
mg/1 TSS for the protection of aquatic life. EPA has suggested a threshold criterion for the
protection of aquatic life of no more than a 10% reduction in the depth of the normal
photosynthetic compensation point. Because the photosynthetic compensation point generally
is not determined routinely at most water quality monitoring stations (e.g., those reporting
to STORET), data for this measure probably are not readily available.
Exposure-Response Relationships
The National Academy of Sciences (1972) suggested that protection of normal structure and
function of aquatic communities is related to the maximum concentrations of suspended
solids (measured in TSS) in the following manner:
High level of protection 25 mg/1
Moderate protection 80 mg/1
Low level of protection 400 mg/1
Very low level of protection more than 400 mg/1
Although outright fish population mortality is generally not observed until TSS
concentrations exceed 20,000 mg/1, lowered reproduction in some species is likely to be
found at much lower concentrations (e.g., effects in largemouth bass (Micropterusl trout
(SalmonidesV and bluegills (Lepomis^ have been observed when TSS concentrations were
25-100mg/l (NAS, 1972).
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The panel of scientists convened by the Cornell Ecosystems Research Center (EPA, 1987)
designated the reversibility of the effects of suspended solids in aquatic ecosystems as 1-10
years.
3.32 Effects of Nutrients (Nitrogen and Phosphorus)
Nutrients, including ammonia, are listed as impairing 14,000 miles of streams and over 1
million acres of lakes in Region VIII (Table 3-2). Necessary at low concentrations by all
organisms, nutrients can cause algal blooms when present at higher levels and promote
unwanted plant growth. In lakes, ecosystem impacts can range from medium to high,
depending on the native nutrient status. Reversibility times range from 1 to 100 years to
correct depending on water residence times. Streams and rivers, on the other hand, have
low-to-medium ecological impacts from nutrient loading. One to 10 years are generally
sufficient for reversibility.
3.3.3 Effects of Salts
Salinity is an pollutant in Region VIII. Over 8,500 miles of streams and over 460,000 acres
of lakes are impacted by salinity (Table 3-2). Impact levels can be high for rivers and lakes.
Inorganic salts are leached from the soil, and usually enter surface waters through irrigation
return flows. Once soils are contaminated, the duration of the condition ranges from 1 to
100 years. The ecological effects of increased ionic strength are not well defined. The major
impact is associated with water reuse. High dissolved inorganic solids preclude irrigation
use and makes water undesirable for potable uses.
The salinity tolerance of aquatic animals varies considerably depending upon the range of
salinity normally encountered by the species. In general, the upper limit of what is
considered "fresh water" is 500 mg/liter (the 1958 "Venice System" value reported in Reid
and Wood (1976), Macan (1963), and Pennak (1953). The degree of salt loading required
to produce significant changes in species composition is extremely site-specific and difficult
predict.
Most salts do not accumulate in sediments. As a consequence, recovery of surface water can
begin soon after the source of salt contamination is eliminated. Nonetheless, the time
required for full recovery (in the absence of other stressors) would depend upon the extent
and degree of the contamination. Furthermore, impacted stream reaches that are flushed
by adjacent, uncontaminated sections recover more rapidly than isolated stream reaches.
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3.3.4 Effects of Bacteria (Pathogens)
In Region VIII pathogens are reported to impair over 6,500 miles of streams and 11,000
acres of lakes (Table 3-2). The level of impact for all waterbody types is considered to be
moderate and has a relatively short term effect (one year) if corrected. However, if high
loadings occur (i.e. sludge beds), longer term impacts may be seen (1 to 10 years).
3.3.5 Effects of Metals
Various metals and metal species produce different types of toxic effects. Data available
to evaluate the potential effects of various levels of sediment metal contamination on rooted
plants, benthic invertebrates, and fish are limited. There are few data available to relate fish
tissue residue levels of metals to possible adverse effects on the fish. Both active and
inactive mines, urban runoff, and irrigation return flows (selenium) are sources of metals
to surface and groundwaters in Region VIII. Metals are listed as impairing over 5,000 miles
of streams and 94,000 acres of lakes in Region VIII (Table 3-2). Lower pH has been
reported to increase the toxicity of some metals (e.g., chromium VI), there are few data
relating toxicity to pH for most metals. There also are few data concerning community and
ecosystem effects of metals; and such effects are likely to be very site-specific.
Species-Level-Effects
Effects of metal contamination on fish species include neurotoxicity, impaired reproduction,
reduced growth, damage to gill surfaces and impaired respiration, mortality, and other
effects such as cancers and degenerative diseases.
Ecosystem-Level Effects
The most important effects of aquatic metal contaminants are reduced primary and
secondary productivity, loss of top carnivores, changes in community composition, and
modification of nutrient cycling.
Effects of heavy metals in the environment depend on their concentrations and chemical
form(s). The chemical form(s) of metals are determined by complex suites of both abiotic
and biotic factors including pH, salinity, alkalinity, the presence of other metals and ligands,
dissolved oxygen, and the presence or absence of specific types of bacteria. Toxic compounds
like metals that are persistent and bioaccumulate can have serious adverse effects on species
at high trophic levels (e.g., trout) despite low environmental concentrations.
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Water quality standards for metals vary by State. Standards are defined as either an
absolute limit to the concentration of the chemical in any body of water or relative to a
specific body of water.
Table 3-14 lists the EPA acute and chronic Ambient Water Quality Criteria (AWQC) for
metals. These toxicity values indicate that iron, nickel, and zinc are unlikely to cause
problems except at high surface water concentrations. On the other hand, mercury,
cadmium, lead, and beryllium can produce adverse effects at low environmental
concentrations. Chromium VI and copper are also highly toxic, although they do not often
reach toxic concentrations in surface water.
Representative bioconcentration factors for aquatic invertebrates or fish are also listed in
Table 3-14. Chronic AWQC are designed to protect against bioaccumulation to levels that
would be toxic to fish. Mercury, lead, and cadmium have a high potential for
bioaccumulation to toxic levels in aquatic food chains.
The expert panel convened by the Cornell Ecosystems Research Center (EPA 1987) in the
National Comparative Risk Project estimated that decades or centuries would be required
for surface water bodies to recover from metal contamination. Metal contaminated
sediments will continue to contaminate biota, particularly benthic invertebrates and bottom
feeding fish. Animals exposed to heavy metals and that have developed significant body
burdens will remain contaminated for years or for life.
Because the natural "flushing" of some metals from sediments is a very slow process, metal-
contaminated sediments can produce adverse effects on aquatic life for decades or centuries
after the sources of contamination are eliminated. Recovery time for lakes and ponds is
longer than that for flowing surface waters (e.g., rivers and streams) because the "flushing"
process is slower (i.e., longer residence time).
The exposure of biota to multiple metals and consequent metals bioaccumulation are two
means by which metals can produce more severe effects than what might be expected from
laboratory toxicity tests alone. Other conditions that would alter the toxicity of metals to
aquatic life include methylation and pH. Certain bacteria are capable of transforming
inorganic metal compounds to methylated organic compounds, which are often more toxic
and are bioconcentrated by biota to a greater degree than are their inorganic precursors.
Bacterial methylation occurs with mercury, selenium, lead, tin, and arsenic. Low pH levels
release sediment-bound metals and increase their concentrations in the water column (EPA
1979). Thus, the presence of metals in acid mine drainage increases the exposure of aquatic
organisms to metals in the water column.
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WATER QUALITY CRITERIA TABLE
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Specific Considerations
Arsenic. The acute and chronic toxicity of arsenic depends upon its valence state (Table 3-
14). The chemistry of arsenic in water is particularly complex and the form present in
solution depends upon pH, organic content, suspended solids, and sediment concentrations
(EPA 1984a).
Beryllium. Beryllium has low aqueous solubility and can be found in high concentrations
adsorbed to particulate matter in turbid waters. Water hardness has a substantial effect on
the acute toxicity of beryllium (EPA 1980a).
Cadmium. The impact of cadmium on aquatic organisms depends upon its chemical form.
In well-oxygenated fresh waters low in organic carbon, free divalent cadmium will be the
predominant form while in turbid waters, dissolved organic material can bind a substantial
portion of the total cadmium. As water hardness decreases, the toxicity of cadmium
increases (EPA 1984b).
Chromium. Chromium exists in two oxidation states in aqueous systems, chromium III and
chromium VI. The hexavalent form of chromium is quite soluble and is not absorbed to any
significant degree by clays or hydrous metal oxides. Hexavalent chromium is a moderately
strong oxidizing agent and reacts with reducing materials to form trivalent chromium.
Trivalent III chromium reacts with aqueous hydroxide ions to form the insoluble chromium
hydroxide. Hexavalent chromium is substantially more toxic than the trivalent form. Water
hardness affects the toxicity of chromium III. Insufficient data were available to relate the
toxicity of chromium VI to water hardness, but the toxicity of chromium VI appears to
increase with decreasing pH (EPA 1984c).
Copper. The cupric ion, responsible for most of copper's toxic effects, is highly reactive,
forms moderate to strong complexes, and precipitates with many inorganic and organic
constituents of natural waters. Thus, in eutrophic waters, copper complexing predominates,
and most organic and inorganic copper complexes and precipitates appear to be much less
toxic than free cupric ion.
Iron. Iron is an essential trace element required by both plants and animals. High iron
loading in alkaline conditions can produce precipitates that coat the natural bottom of a
surface water body, smothering existing benthic flora and fauna and making the substrate
unsuitable for recolonization by the species originally present (EPA 1984d).
Lead. Lead toxicity to aquatic organisms increases as water hardness decreases (EPA
1986a).
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Manganese. Manganese does not occur naturally as an uncomplexed metal but is found in
various salts and minerals, frequently in association with iron compounds. Permanganates
have been reported to kill fish at concentrations of 2.2 to 4.1 mg/liter, but permanganates
are not persistent; they rapidly oxidize organic materials and are thereby reduced and
rendered less toxic (EPA 1986a).
Mercury. Mercury (II) can be methylated by both aerobic and anaerobic bacteria.
Methylmercury is more toxic than mercury (EPA 1984e).
Selenium. Selenium occurs naturally in surface water from the weathering of parent rock
material and exists in several forms. The inorganic selenites ( + 4) and selenates ( + 6) are
soluble. Because the ratios between the concentrations of selenium in water that are acutely
and chronically toxic to aquatic species are small (EPA 1980), surface water bodies with
high background levels of selenium would be particularly at risk if additional selenium
loading occurred (EPA 1980b).
Tin. Tin is not usually considered to pose a major problem as a heavy metal contaminant.
However, under reducing conditions, tin can be methylated, and alkyl tin compounds are
central nervous system toxins (WHO 1980).
Zinc. Zinc is an essential micronutrient, and organisms have evolved mechanisms for
accumulation of zinc from water and excretion of zinc, at least within limits of ambient zinc
concentrations. As water hardness decreases, zinc toxicity increases. Most zinc introduced
into aquatic environments is partitioned into sediments by sorption onto hydrous iron and
manganese oxides, clay minerals, and organic materials. As sediments change from a
reduced to an oxidized state, more zinc is mobilized and released in a soluble form (EPA
1987).
It is important to note that while much is known about the toxic effects of individual metals
on certain aquatic species, community and ecosystem level effects may occur at lower
concentrations than those specified in the standards. Furthermore, synergistic interactions
may affect the toxicity levels of various metals.
3.3.6 Dissolved Oxvpen (DO) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
Organic enrichment of surface waters causes a depletion of dissolved oxygen, DO, by
increased biochemical oxygen demand, BOD. Oxygen is depleted by respiration of aerobic
decomposers as they metabolize the added organic material. Impacts are high on lakes,
rivers, and streams and are due primarily to sedimentation and organic and nutrient loading.
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In Region VIII over 4,000 miles of streams and 753,000 acres of lakes are listed as impaired
by organic enrichment (Table 3-2).
Effects of DO on freshwater aquatic life have been studied for much of this century.
Ecological impacts of changes in DO associated with municipal wastes have been
documented well enough to be included in many textbooks. Models exist to relate source
loads of BOD to changes in DO in receiving waters, in some cases with extremely high
accuracy.
Species-Level Effects
Significant effects of decreased oxygen cause acute mortality of adults (asphyxiation),
increased susceptibility to disease, reduced growth and activity, and lowered reproduction
(usually due to mortality of eggs or early life stages).
Ecosystem-Level Effects
At its extreme, elimination of DO from receiving waters will cause the extermination of all
forms of life that require oxygen for respiration. Under conditions of severe reduction of
DO, there is a replacement of the normal complement of aquatic fauna and flora with
characteristic "pollution species" (e.g., certain types of bacteria, algae, fungi, and protozoans,
sludge worms (Tubificidae), and blood worms (Chironomid larvae). Fish usually are
eliminated completely, either due to mortality, or migration from the area.
Threshold Criteria
Criteria for DO are derived from estimates of reproductive impairment based primarily
upon growth data and information on temperature, disease, and pollutant stresses. National
criteria for ambient DO for the protection of freshwater aquatic life (EPA, 1986) are
presented in Table 3-15.
Average DO concentrations selected are values 0.5 mg/1 above values causing slight
reproductive impairment and represent values between those that cause no reproductive
impairment and those that cause slight reproductive impairment. Each criterion thus may
be viewed as an estimate of the threshold concentration below which detrimental effects are
not expected.
Criteria for coldwater fish are intended to apply to waters containing a population of one
or more species in the family Salmonidae or to waters containing other coldwater or
coolwater fish with sensitivities close to salmonids. Criteria for warmwater fish are intended
to protect early life stages of sensitive warmwater fish (e.g. channel catfish) and to protect
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other life stages of sensitive fish (e.g. largemouth bass). Criteria for early life stages are
intended to apply only where and when these stages occur.
Many states have more stringent DO standards for cooler waters, waters that contain either
salmonids, nonsalmonid coolwater fish, or the sensitive centrarchid, the smallmouth bass.
Criteria do not represent assured no observed effect levels. Criteria do represent DO
concentrations believed to protect the more sensitive populations of organisms against
potentially damaging impairment.
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Table 3-15
Water Quality Criteria for Ambient Dissolved Oxygen Concentration1
Coldwater Criteria Warmwater Criteria
Early Life Other Life Early Life Other Life
Stage23 Stages Stages3 Stages
30 Day Mean
NA4
6.5
NA
5.5
7 Day Mean
9.5 (6.5)
NA
6.0
NA
7 Day Mean
Minimus
NA
5.0
NA
4.0
1 Day
Minimus5,6
8.0 (5.0)
4.0
5.0
3.0
From EPA (1986).
These are water column concentrations recommended to achieve the required
intergravel dissolved oxygen concentrations shown in parentheses. The 3 mg/L
differential is discussed in the criteria document. For species that have early life
stages exposed directly to the water column, the figures in parentheses apply.
Includes all embryonic and larval stages and all juvenile forms to 30-days following
hatching.
NA (not applicable).
For highly manipulatable discharges, further restrictions apply (see page 37).
All minima should be considered as instantaneous concentrations to be achieved at
all times.
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DO concentrations in the criteria are intended to be protective at typically high seasonal
environmental temperatures for the appropriate taxonomic and life stage classification
categories. In receiving waters with marked daily cycles of DO (e.g., those with dense
populations of algae), several daily measurements may be required to characterize the
cycles.
Exposure-Response Relationships
The effects of various DO concentrations on early life stages of fish, adult fish, and their
invertebrate food are presented in Table 3-16 (EPA, 1986).
Numerous studies have documented the return of some natural fauna within months of
removing BOD loads, and a nearly-full complement of fauna within a year (Hynes 1974).
Recolonization depends partially on the mobility of the absent species. For example,
mollusks usually will require more time to return than fish. These data are consistent with
the designation of reversibility as 1-10 years by the panel of scientists convened by the
Cornell Ecosystems Research Center (EPA 1987).
3.3.7 Effects of Temperature. Thermal Pollution
Temperature effects are most common (and best studied) in the vicinity of power plants and
industrial facilities, although effects due to deforestation, stream channelization, and
impoundment of flowing water must be considered.
The effects of temperature on aquatic organisms have been reviewed comprehensively (e.g.,
Fry, 1967, FWPCA 1967), and annual literature reviews are published by the Water
Pollution Control Federation. Knowledge of the temperature tolerances of site specific
aquatic organisms is probably essential to evaluate the impacts of this stressor on specific
aquatic organisms in specific habitats. Over 2,500 miles of streams and 28,000 acres of lakes
are listed as impaired in Region VIII (Table 3-2).
The extent of damage to aquatic biota depends greatly on the rate of temperature change,
the duration of exposure, the magnitude of "natural" daily temperature cycles, and where the
ambient temperature lies in relation to the tolerance range of a given species.
Species-Level Effects
Important effects of thermal change on aquatic biota include increased metabolic rates,
increased respiration rates, altered behavior (e.g., feeding, migration), altered growth, and
decreased reproduction. Rapid changes in temperature are most stressful to organisms:
temperature acclimation requires several days, and ambient temperature and exposure time
are critical factors. Effects occurring during the spawning season probably have the greatest
influence on fish populations.
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Table 3-16
Dissolved Oxygen Concentrations (mg/1) Versus Level of Effect1
1. Salmonid Waters
a. Embryo and Larval Stages
No Production Impairment = 11 * (8)
Slight Production Impairment = 9 * (6)
Moderate Production Impairment = 8 * (5)
Severe Production Impairment = 7 * (4)
Limit to Avoid Acute Mortality = 6 * (3)
(* Note: These are water column concentrations recommended to achieve the required
intergravel dissolved oxygen concentrations shown in parentheses. The 3
mg/L difference is discussed in the criteria document.)
b. Other Life Stages
No Production Impairment = 8
Light Production Impairment = 6
Moderate Production Impairment = 5
Severe Production Impairment = 4
Limit to Avoid Acute Mortality = 3
2. Nonsalmonid Waters
a. Early Life Stages
No Production Impairment = 6.5
Slight Production Impairment = 5.5
Moderate Production Impairment = 5
Severe Production Impairment = 4.5
Limit to Avoid Acute Mortality = 4
b. Other Life Stages
No Production Impairment = 6
Slight Production Impairment = 5
Moderate Production Impairment = 4
Severe Production Impairment = 3.5
Limit to Avoid Acute Mortality = 3
3. Invertebrates
No Production Impairment = 8
Some Production Impairment = 5
Acute Mortality Limit = 4
From EPA (1986).
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Ecosystem-Level Effects
Thermal pollution has a variety of effects on aquatic ecosystems, including altered
phytoplankton communities:
Between 20°C - 25°C diatoms predominate, between 30°C - 35°C green algae
predominate, and above 35 °C blue-green algae predominate, with altered benthic
invertebrate communities, and changes from a coldwater to a warmwater fishery.
Threshold Criteria
EPA's Ambient Water Quality Criteria are helpful in developing a risk assessment for the
effects of increased temperature on fish populations. These criteria are described in some
detail here to assist in understanding the suggested hazard function.
EPA (1986) recommends upper limiting temperatures for a surface water body. These are
based on the important sensitive (fish) species and are designed to meet the following
requirements:
Maximum sustained temperatures that are consistent with maintaining desirable
levels of productivity.
Maximum levels of metabolic acclimation to warm temperatures that will permit
return to ambient winter temperatures should artificial sources of heat cease.
Time-dependent temperature limitations for survival of brief exposures to
temperature extremes.
Restricted temperature ranges for various states of reproduction, including (for fish)
gametogenesis, spawning migration, release of gametes, development of the embryo,
commencement of independent feeding and other activities by juveniles, and
temperatures required for metamorphosis, emergence, or other activities of lower
forms.
Thermal limits for diverse species compositions of aquatic communities, particularly
where reduction in diversity creates nuisance growths of certain organisms, or where
important food sources (food chains) are altered.
Thermal requirements of downstream aquatic life where upstream diminution of a
coldwater resource will adversely affect downstream temperature requirements.
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Exposure-Response Relationships
Adequate data on thermal tolerances are available for only a small percentage of aquatic
species, mainly fish; there is a serious paucity of data on the effects of thermal alteration
on communities of aquatic algae and invertebrates. Owing to the numerous factors that
affect temperature tolerances, the necessity for using data on site-specific aquatic organisms,
and the variability among bodies of surface water, it is not possible to derive a general
exposure-response relationship for this stressor, which should be obtained locally.
There is an interaction between toxic materials and temperature: organisms subjected to
stress from toxic materials generally are less tolerant of temperature extremes, and the
toxicity of toxic materials to fish generally increases with increased temperature.
Potential for Reversibility of Effect
The panel of scientists convened by the Cornell Ecosystems Research Center (EPA 1987)
designated reversibility as ranging from years to decades, but stressed the highly localized
nature of these effects.
3.3.7 Effects of Pesticides and Herbicides
The problem of pesticide and herbicide nonpoint source pollution is more wide spread than
indicated in Table 3-2 due to a lack of monitoring for these pollutants. Only Wyoming lists
pesticides as a pollutant stressor and only 275 miles of streams and no lake acres are listed
as impaired. Pesticides and herbicides are considered in a separate problem area.
The effects of pesticides and herbicides include decreased photosynthesis; lowered resistance
and increased susceptibility to other environmental stresses; lower reproductive success;
lowered respiration, growth, and development in aquatic species; reduced food supply;
habitat destruction; mortality of non-target organisms (including fish); and increased cancer
risks in fish and related organisms. Some indirect effects include threats to nearshore
aquatic dwelling animals (i.e. birds, muskrats), and creation of human health hazards from
consumption of contaminated fish and/or water. Impact levels for lakes, rivers and streams
are high and thus represent a concern as a potential threat to humans. Intensity and
duration of the ecological effects are functions of toxicity, persistence, fate-transport,
partitioning, and bioaccumulation of the chemical at hand. Reversibility can range from less
than 1 to 1000 years, depending on the above criteria for the chemical.
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3.4 LIMITATIONS
3.4.1Assumptions
The quantification of nonpoint source pollution attributed to each activity and stressor
described in this assessment relies on the quality of the 319 and 305b State reports. These
data have serious limitations associated with their use in a risk assessment. To use these
data as an indication of the extent of ecosystem damage we must assume:
1) Ecosystem effects are related to "impairment" from designated use categories.
Because a State can designate a use as "industrial" or contaminated, then chronic
pollution by such a designated use does not show up as an impairment, even though
the ecosystem is impaired. Quantitative information is hard to derive from the State
reports as the same stream reach can be listed as impaired by more than one
activity; furthermore, impairment may result from more than one use designation.
2) State listings of the amount of impairment represent an accurate estimate of the
actual amount of impairment.
Only a fraction of each State's surface water is evaluated subjectively and even a
smaller fraction is actually sampled and evaluated quantitatively.
These assumptions are critical and necessitate the use of extreme caution when interpreting
the apparently quantitative data in the 319 and 305b reports.
3.4.2 Uncertainty
Effects of individual nonpoint source pollutants are known with a fair degree of certainty.
The cumulative impacts of several pollutants is not well understood. The extent of multiple
impacts are not well documented either. Water quality is not monitored in a statistically
meaningful manner. The data presented here on the extent of water quality impacts from
nonpoint source pollution are highly uncertain. True extent of pollution impacts are
unknown.
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3.4.3 Recommendations for Improving Risk Assessment-Reducing Uncertainty
The use of statistically acceptable sampling in water quality monitoring would allow for
more meaningful and less uncertain assessment of the extent of nonpoint source pollution
in Region VIII.
3.4.4 Omissions
Several potentially important nonpoint sources of water pollution are not considered here
in detail. Sources addressed in detail elsewhere include: mining waste sites, leaching from
storage tanks, RCRA hazardous waste and superfund sites, municipal and industrial solid
waste sites, accidental chemical releases, pesticides, and acid deposition. Also variation in
reporting, e.g. hydromodification.
3.5.5 Bibliography
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1987. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Zinc.
Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-87-003. PB87-153581.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1986. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Nickel.
Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-86004.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1984a. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for
Arsenic. Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-84033. PB85-227445.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1984b. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for
Cadmium. Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-84032. PB85-227031.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1984c. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for
Chromium. Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-84029. PB85-227478.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1984d. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for
Copper. Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-84031.-
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1984e. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for
Mercury. Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-84026. PB85-227452.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1980a. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for
Beryllium. Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-80024. PB81-117350.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1980b. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for
Selenium. Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-80070. PB81-117814.
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Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1979. Water-Related Environmental Fate of 129
Priority Pollutants. Volume 1. Office of Water Planning and Standards. EPA-440/4-29-029a.
Canning, Douglas J. (1988) Urban Runoff water Quality: Effects and Management Options.
Shorelands Technical Advisory Paper No. 4, 2nd edition, Shorelands and Coastal Zone
Management Program, Washington Department of Ecology, Olympia, 71 p.
Dunne, Thomas and Leopold, Luna (1978) Water in Environmental Planning. W.H.
Freeman and Co., San Francisco, CA.
McPherson, M. B., chairman (1974) Hydrological Effects of Urbanization. Co-ordinating
Council of the International Hydrological Decade, Report of the Sub-group on the Effects
of Urbanization on the Hydrological Environment, The Unesco Press, Paris, 280 p.
Moglen, Glenn E. and McCuen, Richard H. (1988) Effects of Detention Basins On In-
stream Sediment Movement. Journal of Hydrology, V. 104, p. 129-139.
Platts, W. S. (1985) Riparian-stream Management. In National Range Conference
Proceedings. Opportunities for the Future. Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, Nov. 6-8,1985. U.S.
Department of Agriculture, p. 70-74.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1986. Quality Criteria for Water. Office of Water
Regulations and Standards, Washington, D.C. EPA 440/5-86-001.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1987. Unfinished Business: A Comparative
Assessment of Environmental Problems. Appendix III. Ecological Risk Workgroup, Office
of Policy, Planning, and Evaluation, Washington, D.C.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1984. Technical Guidance Manual for Performing
Waste Load Allocations. Office of Water Regulations and Standards, Monitoring and Data
Support Division, Washington, D.C. EPA-440/4-84-022.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1986. Quality Criteria for Water. Office of Water
Regulations and Standards, Washington, D.C. EPA 440/5-86-001.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1987. Unfinished Business: A Comparative
Assessment of Environmental Problems. Appendix III. Ecological Risk Workgroup, Office
of Policy, Planning, and Evaluation, Washington, D.C.
Hamilton, K. Pers. Comm. EPA Project Manager Utah and Montana nonpoint source,
Denver,CO.
Hynes, H.B.N. 1974. The Biology of Polluted Waters. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
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Klein, L., Jones, J.R.E., Hawkes, H.A., and Downing, A.L. 1962. River Pollution II. Causes
and Effects. London: Butterworths.
National Academy of Sciences (NAS). 1972. Water Quality Criteria 1972. U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
Wilber, C.G. 1971. The Biological Aspects of Water Pollution. Springfield, Illinois: Charles
C. Thomas, Publisher.
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration (FWPCA). 1976. Temperature and Aquatic
Life. Laboratory Investigations. No.6. Technical Advisory and Investigations Branch,
Cincinnati, OH.
Fry, F.E.J., 1967. Responses of vertebrate poikilotherms to temperature. In: A.H. Rose,
(ed.). Thermobiology. New York: Academic Press.
National Academy of Sciences (NAS). 1972. Water Quality Criteria 1972. U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
Guthrie, F.E., and Perry, J J. (eds.). 1980. Introduction to Environmental Toxicology.
Elsevier, New York.
Macan, T.T. 1963. Freshwater Ecology, 2nd Edition. John Wiley and Sons, N.Y.
Pennak, R.W. 1953. Fresh-Water Invertebrates of the United States. The Ronald Press
Company, N.J.
Reid, G.K., and Wood, R.D. 1976. Ecology of Inland Waters and Estuaries, 2nd Edition, D.
Van Nostrand Company, N.Y.
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4.0 PHYSICAL DEGRADATION OF WETLANDS AND AQUATIC
HABITATS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The physical degradation of Wetlands and Aquatic Habitats problem area covers the risks
to the environment and human welfare resulting from the destruction and damage of
wetlands. Wetland damage results from: channelization, dam construction, irrigation
systems, urban development, agricultural drainage, and dredge and fill activities. Human
health effects associated with this problem area were not estimated.
4.2 DATA AND ANALYSIS
This analysis focuses on the ecological and welfare effects associated with the destruction
and damage of wetlands, and damages from alterations in the quantity and flow patterns of
surface water bodies. These alterations include channelization, dams, construction, irrigation
systems, urban development, and dredge and fill activities (Cummins, 1990). However,
sufficient quantitative data to confidently document Region VIII's wetland resource base or
trends in that base do not currently exist (Elliot, 1990; Reetz, 1990; Fowler, 1990; and
Helbig, 1990).
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is conducting a nationwide inventory of wetlands, the
National Wetlands Inventory, that will expand on a partial survey conducted in the 1950s.
This survey, when completed, will provide statistically valid representations of wetlands in
Region VIII. Currently, acreage statistics are available for approximately 18 1:100,000 map
units in Region VIII. These are included as Appendix A of this Report. Unfortunately,
these data are not currently sufficient to estimate wetland area in the Region.
In lieu of adequate data, wetland area was estimated using best professional judgement and
the State 305b Reports. Wetland area estimates for North and South Dakota are based on
estimates provided by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Elliot, 1990), while estimates for
Wyoming, Montana, and Utah were based on the State 305b Reports. These estimates are
summarized in Table 4-1.
There is considerable uncertainty surrounding the wetland estimates contained in the State
305b reports, as there is little or no methodological discussion of their derivation. Indeed,
the South Dakota (1988) 305b report mistakenly attributes its wetland estimate to National
Wetland Inventory Survey data when it was based on personal opinion, see USDI (1984).
In addition, there is no clarification regarding the inclusion or exclusion of reservoirs, deep
water lakes and rivers as wetland acreage.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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Table 4-1
Estimated Wetland Acreage
Used in Risk Analysis
Total
Known
% of State
Estimated
% Annual
0.75 of
1.25 of
Square
Total
Wetland
Area as
Annual
Wetland
Wetland
Wetland
State
Miles
Acres
Acres
Wetland
Loss
Loss
Acres
Acres
Colorado
104,091
66,618,240
1,132,510
1.70%
0
849,383
1,415,638
Wyoming
97,809
62,597,760
940,000
1.50%
0
705,000
1,175,000
Montana
147,046
94,109,440
2,000,000
2.13%
0
1,500,000
2,500,000
Utah
84,899
54,335,360
1,000,000
1.84%
0
750,000
1,250,000
North Dakota
70,702
45,249,280
2,250,000
4.97%
20000
0.89%
1,687,500
2,812,500
South Dakota
77,116
49,354,240
1,350,000
2.74%
0
1,012,500
1,687,500
Colorado wetland acreage estimated by assuming that 1.7% of the state's area
is wetland. This assumption seemed consistent with the distribution of wetlands
in other Region VIII States.
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4-3
To estimate wetland acreage for the purpose of this report we assumed that "true values"
could be 25% smaller or greater than estimates provided by Elliot or the State 305b reports,
see Table 4-1. These values were used to specify a probability distribution used in a Monte
Carlo Simulation to estimate wetland loss in Region VIII.
We were unable to find any referenced or published estimate of wetland area in Colorado.
This was derived by evaluating the % of wetland area in the remaining Region VIII States
relative to total area, see Table 4-1. As a starting point, we assumed that 0.17% of
Colorado's area is in wetlands. This was considered a reasonable assumption by U.S. Fish
and Wildlife personnel responsible for the regional implementation of the National
Wetlands Inventory (Elliot, 1990).
Estimates of wetland loss were available only for North Dakota. These losses were
estimated to be 20,000 acres per year, or 0.88% per year. To estimate annual wetland loss
for the remainder of the States, we assumed that annual loss could be described using a
probability distribution with a minimum annual loss of 0.2%, a mean of 0.4%, and a
maximum of 0.8%. This assumption was discussed with Elliot (1990). The 0.8% upper
bound annual loss estimate was considered too high for the remaining states by Elliot due
to the high prairie pot hole drainage rates in North Dakota. On the other hand, 0.2% was
considered to be a lower bound of wetland loss across the Region. By selecting a mean
wetland loss of 0.4%, the distribution of loss values is skewed toward the lower bound
estimate.
Wetland loss estimates were made using a Monte Carlo analysis, the results of which are
summarized in Table 4-2. More detailed state results are presented individually in Tables
4-3 through 4-8 and Figures 4-1 through 4-6.
4.3 ASSUMPTIONS
These results assume that annual wetland loss can be, for the purposes of this Comparative
Risk Project, estimated using probability distributions describing total wetland area and
annual loss. North Dakota results are not included in these distributions, as U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service Data is considered more reliable than these probabilistic estimates.
4.4 WELFARE ANALYSIS
Economic damages to wetlands are interpreted and estimated according to the loss in the
economic value of the "service flows" the wetlands provide to individuals. The economic
concept is to reflect the loss on individual well-being arising from the change in the quality
of the services derived from the wetland.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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Table 4-2
Summary Estimate* ol Region VIII Wetland Loss
Statistics and Targets Across Output Range
(Values in Thousands)
Colorado
Mean « 5 28821
Std.Dev - 1.518042
5th Percentile - 2.905543
95th Percentile = 8.043561
Target Value:0
Prob. of Value >¦ Target: 100%
Wyoming
Mean >4.388161
Std.Dev - 1.264604
5th Percentile - 2.478282
95th Percentile - 6.6S5415
Target Value:0
Prob. of Value >« Target: 100%
Montana
Mean =• 9.332093
Std.Dev » 2.656258
5th Percentile « 5.407222
95th Percentile » 13.86604
Target Value:0
Prob. of Value >= Target: 100%
Utah
Mean «< 4.66129
Std.Dev - 1.324608
5th Percentile - 2.639189
95th Percentile - 6.963386
Target ValueO
Prob. of Value >» Target: 100%
North Dakota
Mean a 10.52616
Std.Dev - 3.107991
5th Percentile = 5.856411
95th Percentile » 16.37276
Target Value:0
Prob. of Value >« Target: 100%
South Dakota
Mean -6.311316
Std.Dev - 1.857227
5th Percentile - 3.646536
95th Percentile » 9.655909
Target Value:0
Prob. of Value >- Target: 100%
-------
Table 4-3
Annual Wyoming Wetland Lom
Expected/Mean Result - 4388.161
Maximum Result » 8377 97
Minimum Result <¦ 1915.505
Range ot Possible Results - 6462.465
Probability of Positive Result - 100%
Probability of Negative Result = o%
Standard Deviation o 1264.604
Skewness - .4477854
KurtOSlS - 2.835811
Variance - 1599223
ERRs Calculated ¦ 0
Values Filtered - 0
Simulations Executed « 1
Iterations - 500
Percentile Probabilities:
(Chance of Result <= Shown Value)
(Actual Values)
<» 1915.505-0%
<- 2478.282- 5%
<- 2849.568a 10%
<- 3075.434- 15%
<- 3260.837- 20%
<= 3441.545- 25%
<» 3602.39- 30%
<-3744.21-35%
<- 3922.307- 40%
<- 4059.402- 45%
<= 4244.906- 50%
<- 4477.783- 55%
<- 4666.84- 60%
<- 4863.317- 65%
<» 5014.778- 70%
<-5165.25- 75%
<- 5396.25- 80%
<- 5782.673- 85%
<-6019.231-90%
<-6695.414= 95%
<- 8377.97- 100%
Probabilities for Selected Values:
Probability of Result >0 - 100%
>-900 - 100%
>-1800 - 100%
>-2700 -92.2%
>-3600 - 70.4%
>-4500 -45%
>-5400 - 20%
>-6300 - 8%
>-7200 -2.2%
>-8100 - 4%
>-9000 - 0%
Probability of Result <-0 - 0%
@Function For This Output Distribution:
4381.357
-------
Table 4-4
Annual North Dakota Wetland Loss
Expected/Mean Result» 10526.16
Maximum Result = 20071.66
Minimum Result = 4048.671
Range of Possible Results = 16022.99
Probability of Positive Result = 100%
Probability of Negative Result - 0%
Standard Deviation = 3107.991
Skewness = .4467889
Kurtosis ¦ 2.764407
Variance - 9659609
ERRs Calculated = 0
Values Filtered - 0
Simulations Executed - 1
iterations = 500
Percentile Probabilities:
(Chance of Result <« Shown Value)
(Values in Thousands)
<= 4.0487 = 0%
<= 5.8564 = 5%
0 - 100%
>=2.25 = 100%
>-4.5 = 99.2%
>=6.75 -89.4%
>=9 = 66.2%
>=11.25 =37.6%
>-13.5 - 18%
>=15.75 =6.8%
>=18 =1.4%
>•20 25 = 0%
Probability of Result <=0 = 0%
©Function For This Output Distribution:
aaaBaaaaBBBBBaaaaBBBBBBSBBBa:
10517 6238771
-------
Table 4-5
Annual South Dakota Wetland Lom
Expected/Mean Result = 6311.315
Maximum Result - 11704.71
Minimum Result - 2717 910
Range ol Possible Results = 8986.791
Probability of Positive Result = 100%
Probability of Negative Result - 0%
Standard Deviation - 1857.227
Skewness - .4623601
Kurtows - 2.579345
Variance - 3449292
ERRs Calculated - 0
Values Filtered » 0
Simulations Executed » 1
Iterations - 500
Percentile Probabilities:
(Chance of Result <- Shown Value)
(Values in Thousands)
<-2.7179-0%
<- 3.6465 - 5%
<- 4 0995 = 10%
<-4.3941 = 15%
<= 4.5974 - 20%
<- 4.9304 - 25%
<=• 5.1249 - 30%
<3 5.3094 o 35%
<- 5.5333 a 40%
0 - 100%
>-1 5 - 100%
>-3 x 98.8%
>-4.5 -81.6%
>-6 - 50.8%
>-7.5 = 26.4%
>-9 - 10.4%
>-10.5 - 1.4%
>-12 -0%
Probability of Result <-0 - 0%
@Function For This Output Distribution:
6292.527
-------
Table 4-6
Annual Utah Wetland Loss
Expected/Mean Result - 4661.29
Maximum Result » 8888.122
Minimum Result = 2040.549
Range of Possible Results - 6847 573
Probability of Positive Result = 100%
Probability of Negative Result - 0%
Standard Deviation - 1324.608
Skewness - .4835615
Kurtosis - 2.95964
Variance »1754587
ERRs Calculated - 0
Values Filtered - 0
Simulations Executed » 1
Iterations - 500
Percentile Probabilities:
(Chance of Result <= Shown Value)
(Actual Values)
<=. 2040.548° 0%
<- 2639.189s 5%
<- 3063.935- 10%
<- 3305.827= 15%
<=3538.015- 20%
<-3702.281-25%
<- 3856.052= 30%
<- 4038.76- 35%
<= 4202.583= 40%
<= 4343.961 = 45%
<- 4476.375- 50%
<= 4684.093- 55%
<- 4878.99- 60%
<= 5047.575- 65%
<- 5270.259- 70%
<-5586.215- 75%
<- 5820.872- 80%
<- 6056.857- 85%
<- 6357.566= 90%
<= 6963.385- 95%
<- 8888.122= 100%
Probabilities for Selected Values:
Probability of Result >0 = 100%
>=900 - 100%
>-1800 - 100%
>-2700 - 94.6%
>=3600 - 79.2%
>-4500 -49.4%
>-5400 - 27.8%
>-6300 = 10.2%
>-7200 - 4.2%
>-8100 - 1%
>=9000 = 0%
Probability of Result <=0 - 0%
@Function For This Output Distribution:
4657.367
-------
Table 4-7
Annual Colorado Wetland Loss
Expected/Mean Result = 5288.209
Maximum Result« 9552.693
Minimum Result- 2119.25
Range ol Possible Results = 7433.443
Probability of Positive Result = 100%
Probability of Negative Result - o%
Standard Deviation = 1518.042
Skewness » .3564928
Kurt08is - 2.611075
Variance - 2304453
ERRs Calculated = 0
Values Filtered = 0
Simulations Executed =¦ 1
Iterations - 500
Percentile Probabilities:
(Chance of Result <= Shown Value)
(Actual Values)
assaaBiBasBaoaaaassssaaBac
<=2119.25= 0%
<=¦ 2905.543= 5%
0 ¦ 100%
>-1000 - 100%
>=2000 = 100%
>=3000 = 94%
>=4000 -79.4%
>-5000 = 54.4%
>=6000 = 31 2%
>=7000 - 15%
>•8000 -5 6%
>-9000 - 1%
>-10000 - 0%
Probability of Result <=0 = 0%
(^Function For This Output Distribution
BaaaasasaBaaaBBaasaaBasaaaaa
5281.0872856
-------
Table 4-8
Annual Montana Wetland Loss
Expected/Mean Result = 9332.003
Maximum Result ¦ 17564.13
Minimum Result - 3718.109
Range of Possible Results - 13846.02
Probability of Positive Result = 100%
Probability of Negative Result - 0%
Standard Deviation - 2650.258
Skewness - 340035
Kurtosis = 2.503426
Variance - 7055708
ERRs Calculated » 0
Values Filtered - 0
Simulations Executed - 1
Iterations - 500
Percentile Probabilities:
(Chance of Result <=¦ Shown Value)
(Values in Thousands)
<=3.7181 -0%
<» 5.4072 - 5%
<3 5.9509 = 10%
<» 6.3556 = 15%
<- 6.9235 - 20%
<- 7 3877 = 25%
<= 7.7507 » 30%
<•8.1081 = 35%
<= 8 4368 = 40%
<= 8.7446 = 45%
<= 9.1503 = 50%
<= 9.366 - 55%
<=> 9.6558 - 60%
<= 10 0893- 65%
<- 10 6908a 70%
<= 11.2483- 75%
<- 11.725 - 80%
<- 12.5305= 85%
<- 13.1398= 90%
<- 13.866-95%
<= 17.5641- 100%
Probabilities for Selected Values:
BMB88938S89S8S33aa30BS33S33l
Probability of Result >0 - 100%
>-2 »100%
>=4 - 99.8%
>«6 = 89.6%
>-8 = 66.6%
>-10 -36.2%
>-12 - 18.6%
>-14 -4.4%
>-16 - 8%
>=18 =0%
Probability of Result <-0 =0%
©Function For This Output Distribution:
9320.0470982
-------
Figure 4-1
North Dakota
Expected
Resuft=
10.52616
20%
16% -
525 7.5
9.75 12 1425 16J5 16.75
Values In Thousands (In Ceff L6)
-------
Figure 4-2
South Dakota
Expected
Result=
6311316
20%
16%
-------
Figure 4-3
Colorado
Expected
Result=
5266209
20%
<@)RfSK Simulation
Samplings Latin Hyper cube
AN \NTLND LOSS
UT rlafs=500
16%
12%
1250 2500 3750
5000 6250 7500 6750 10000
Actual Values (In Cell L2)
-------
Figure 4-4
Utah
Expected
Result=
466129
20%
16%
<8)R1SK Simulation
Sampllna= Latin Hyper cube
AN WTLND LOSS
UT r!als=500
12%
6%
4%
0%
0
1125 2250 3375 4500 5625 6750 7675 9000
Actual Values (In Ceff L5)
-------
Figure 4-5
Montana
Expected
Result-
9<332093
20%
<@)RfSK Simulation
Sampllna= Latin Hvper cube
AN WLND LOSS
#Trlals=500
16%
12%
7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5
Value&Jn thousands Oh Ceff L4)
-------
Figure 4-6
Wyoming
Expected
Result=
4360,161
20%-
16%
12%
6%
4%
0%
<@R1SK Simulation
AN WLND LOSS
Sampling** Latin Hypercube
#T rlals=500
0 1125 2250 3375 4500 5625 6750 7875 9000
Actual Values (In Cell L3)
-------
4-17
The economic concept of "service flows" encompasses the commodities, activities, or general
sense of well-being that individuals derive from a wetland of given quality. For example,
a clean and healthy wetland may provide water supply, regulation of floodwaters,
recreational opportunity, and aesthetic pleasure, among other services. These are the
services that the wetland provides to individuals -- services from which individuals derive
value and well-being.
There is a growing body of literature concerning wetland services and the valuation of those
services. Wetlands valuation studies have addressed the following wetland services:
• Water supply (groundwater recharge and discharge);
• Floodwater regulation;
• Timber harvest;
• Commercial harvest of fish and game;
• Visual, cultural, and educational opportunities;
• Recreational fishing and hunting;
• Erosion control;
• Water purification; and,
• Habitat provision.
This section addresses these wetland services, providing a brief review of the published
literature that estimates economic values deriving from them.
4.4.1 Water SuddIv Services
Wetland areas may provide support for water supply systems as the wetland affects
movement of water into and out of aquifer systems. However, there is considerable
uncertainty regarding the capacity of individual wetlands to function in support of water
supply systems, as the role that wetlands play in groundwater recharge is not clear.
According to Carter, et al. (1978), there is currently very little data suggesting that wetlands
perform significant groundwater recharge functions. Indeed, wetlands may function more
as important groundwater discharge rather than recharge areas (Adamus, 1983; Novitzki,
1978; Larson, 1978). Carter, et al. (1978) argued that many wetlands perform a groundwater
discharge function, and consequently are reliable predictors of potential water supply
sources.
Gupta and Foster (1972) estimated the value of Massachusetts wetland for water supply.
They compared the cost of providing additional community water from wells, which were
assumed to be recharged by wetlands, with the next most costly substitute means of
acquiring additional water. They reported that wetland groundwater recharge was
responsible for a cost savings of $0.0713 (1972 $) per 1,000 gallons of water used.
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4-18
Wharton (1970) estimated potential water supply damages associated with the destruction
of wetland areas in the Alcovy River of the Georgia Piedmont to equal $228,014. Tilton,
Kaldec, and Schwegler (1978) used damage estimates provided by Gupta and Foster (1978)
to compute wetland water supply values in Michigan.
4.4.2 Floodwater Regulation
Because of soil and topographic features, wetlands adjacent to waterbodies may hyrologically
function to retain high water flows. Landscape depressions have the capacity to store water,
thus providing flood control. Many depressions contain wetlands, and when not filled to
capacity perform flood control functions. There is widespread agreement that wetlands
associated with streams and rivers provide flood storage, slow flood waters, reduce flood
peaks, and increase the duration of water flow (Carter, et al. 1978; Verry and Boelter, 1978;
Clark and Clark, 1979; Larson, 1981; Zinna and Copeland, 1982).
According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (1984), wetland characteristics most often
associated with flood water control are:
• Size, the larger the wetland, the greater the capacity for flood storage and flood
water velocity reduction;
• Location in the drainage basin;
• Substrate texture; and
• Vegetation lifeform.
While possible for isolated wetlands to perform significant flood control services, effective
flood control more often results from the interrelationship of a series of wetlands within a
particular watershed. For example, flood peaks in Wisconsin were reduced by 60 to 80%
in watersheds with a 30% wetland or lake area, as compared to watersheds with no wetland
or lake area (Verry and Boelter, 1978).
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1971) estimated that property value damage due to
projected wetland loss and consequent flooding in the Charles River Basin in Massachusetts
would equal $647,000 annually. A projected loss of 40% of the wetlands in the Basin was
to predicted to increase flood damage by at least $3,193,000 annually. The Corps revised
the damage estimate to $2,022,000 annually in 1976. Thibodeau and Ostro (1981) use this
estimate for 30% reduction in wetland valley storage to calculate the total annual storage
value of Charles River wetlands at approximately $17 million per year for the 8,422 wetland
acres. The Corps determined that the most cost effective mechanism of controlling flooding
damage in the Basin was to protect existing wetlands.
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4-19
4.4.3 Timber Harvest
Johnson (1979) estimated the stumpage value, the market price of standing trees, per acre
for southern wetland forests to be $250. York, Dysart and Galan (1977) estimated stumpage
values in the Santee Swamp in South Carolina to range from $22.00 per million board feet
to $36.10 per million board feet. Barstow (1970) calculated the value of hardwoods in the
Obion-Forked Deer Basin, Tennessee, to be $2,087,700 for 218,900 acres of wetland area.
4.4.4 Commercial Harvest of Fish and Game
Wetlands provide habitat for fish and game, which can be commercially harvested providing
economically valued services to individuals.
Batie and Wilson (1978) valued Chesapeake Bay wetlands for oyster production on a county-
by-county basis. Using a 10 percent discount rate, they estimated the marginal value of
wetlands for oyster production to range from $11 to $1,414 per acre. Lynne, Conroy and
Pochasta (1981) estimated the marginal contribution of wetlands to the blue crab industry
in Florida to be approximately $3.00 per acre.
The contribution of Michigan's wetlands to the annual harvest of fur bearing animals was
estimated by Raphael and Jaworski as being $3.78 per wetland acre annually.
4.4.5 Visual. Cultural and Educational Opportunities
Wetland areas can provide aesthetic and cultural services to individuals, such as historical,
educational, aesthetic and research values.
Smardon (1978) noted that wetlands have a significant 'Visual-cultural' value, tied strongly
to both recreation and outdoor classes in natural history. He argued that from an
'ecological aesthetic' perspective, wetlands have "high visual and education values relative
to other portions of the environment." Smardon pointed out that small wetlands, those
under 20 acres, share high values in visual quality and educational opportunities with larger
wetlands. He also noted that urban settings serve to emphasize some wetland attributes.
Smardon's Visual-cultural' value is further expanded in Smardon and Fabos (1983).
Different components of this value are analyzed, such as contrast, diversity, size, and
wetland edge. Estimated value of the Visual-cultural' values of wetlands ranged from $700
per acre for low visual-cultural resource values alone, capitalized at 5.375%, to $64,000 per
acre for high visual, cultural, water supply, and flood control values capitalized at 7%.
Unfortunately, Smardon and Fabos did not separately estimate the component values of the
upper bound estimate.
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4-20
4.4.6 Recreational Hunting and Fishing
Wetlands provide a broad array of hunting and fishing experiences to individuals.
Economists have focused more attention on the value of these service flows than other
wetland services. However, the majority of the literature evaluating the value of these
experiences focuses on the value of waterfowl hunting or fishing.
Numerous valuation studies have used recreation expenditures as value proxys. For
example, Raphael and Jaworski (1979) estimated the economic value of wetland fishing and
hunting based on average annual expenditures. The annual per acre value attributable to
fishing was $286 and for hunting $31.23. Unfortunately, these values measure gross
recreation expenditures rather than the appropriate value measure, which is the willingness
to pay to hunt or fish at the wetland site.
Thibodeau and Ostro (1981) estimated recreation values for wetlands in the Charles River
Basin by summing user expenditures, lost pay, and marginal willingness to pay per user. The
present value of the wetlands for recreation purposes was estimated as $187.74 per acre per
year or a $3,130 discounted present value.
Gupta (1972) valued wetlands as wildlife and fisheries habitat by using the purchase price
of land. He estimated the public cost of producing wildlife benefits when based on the
average purchase price as being approximately $70 per acre.
Finally, Farber and Constanza (1987) estimated the average willingness to pay for recreation
in 650,000 acres of wetiand in Louisiana's coastal zone as being $111 per acre per year.
4.4.7 Shoreline Anchoring and Erosion Control
Vegetation significantly influences shoreline anchoring and erosion (Scoffin, 1970; Wayne,
1975; Allen, 1978; Carter, et al., 1978; Clark and Clark, 1979). Carter, et al., concluded that
wetland vegetation plays three principal roles in erosion control:
• Substrate stabilization and binding;
• Dissipation of wave and current energy; and
• Sediment trapping.
Carter, et al. suggest that the role played by vegetation in erosion control is the same for
coastal as it is for inland lakes and riverine habitats. However, there is not much data
regarding the relative erosion control efficiencies of different types of wetland plant
communities (Clark and Clark, 1979). Clark and Clark indicated that shoreline vegetation's
effectiveness in erosion control is a function of:
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• The particular plant species involved, eg., its flood tolerance and resistance to
undermining;
• Vegetated shoreline band width;
• The efficiency of the vegetation band in trapping sediment;
• Bank or shore sediment composition;
• Bank or shore slope; and
• The elevation of the toe of the bank with respect to the mean elevation of high
storm water.
On the other hand, Larson (1981) and Owens (1980) indicated that evidence of the role of
vegetation in shoreline stabilization and erosion control is lacking. Larson indicated that
experimental evidence suggesting wetland erosion control is insufficient. Owens selected a
case study area in Chesapeake Bay and examined historical erosion rates in two areas. He
concluded that wetlands erode at the same rate as fastlands when subjected to similar winds,
tides, currents, or storms, and thus that the value of these wetland areas for services related
to erosion control was zero.
4.4.9 Water Purification
There is substantial evidence that the presence of wetlands helps maintain ambient water
quality and that, within limits of their assimilative capacity, wetland areas may serve as
alternatives to conventional secondary and tertiary treatment plants or conventional acid
mine drainage remediation technologies. Recent research suggests that urban wetlands may
usefully reduce urban non-point source runoff pollution (Silverman, 1989) and bacteria and
viral concentrations (Scheuerman, et al., 1989).
Water quality changes as it passes through wetlands. These changes are primarily the result
of:
• Reduced velocity of flowing water as it enters and passes through wetlands;
• Decomposition of organic substances by micro-organisms;
• The metabolic activities of wetland flora and fauna; and
• Sediment trapping and binding of particles.
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Wastewater Treatment
Recently, there has been considerable interest in utilizing natural and/and or manmade
wetlands for the treatment of wastewater. Studies related to this function/service have
covered a variety of wetland types, for example, cypress domes, brackish marshes, freshwater
tidal marshes, freshwater inland marshes, and bogs, as well as a broad geographic range
(Kuenzler, 1989; Grant and Patrick, 1970; Banus, et al., 1975; DeJong, 1976; Ewel and
Odum, 1978; Fetter, et al., 1978; Craig, et al., 1980; and Thibodeau and Ostro, 1981).
Several reviews of the role of natural and artificial wetlands in wastewater treatment have
recently appeared, see Hammer (1989), Whigham (1982) and Sloey, et al. (1978).
Despite the many examples of successful wastewater treatment by wetlands, the exact nature
of the processes that contribute to water quality improvement are not well understood. Of
particular concern for natural and not artificial wetlands is the impact on the biota from the
introduction of waste materials into a wetland over an extended period of time.
Several studies have made estimates of the cost of replacing wastewater treatment functions
and have used the costs as a basis for ascribing values to wetlands.
Tilton (1978) assessed the value of freshwater marshes in nutrient assimilation and water
quality improvement, and found an annual return of $20,300 to $34,600. Gosselink, Odum
and Pope (1974) estimated water purification values based on the cost of building a
wastewater treatment facility for treating the waste capable of being assimilated by a
hypothetical one acre wetland. Water treatment values were estimated to be $2,500 per
year.
Acid Mine Drainage and Heavy Metal Pollutant Treatment
Numerous studies have been conducted addressing the fate of acid mine drainage and heavy
metals in wetlands, for a survey of selected research see Hammer (1989). These studies
have generally revealed that heavy metals and other toxic substances are either partially or
totally assimilated by wetlands. The processes are complex, and the variability in the
physical and biological characteristics of wetlands adds to the complexity. The long range
capability of natural or artificial wetlands to perform these assimilative services remains
largely unknown.
Wetland construction has been used extensively to treat acid drainage emanating from coal
mines and coal-fired steam plants (Brodie, et al., 1989). The economic benefits of wetland
construction versus prewetland acid mine drainage treatment expenditures varies
significantly and is a function of numerous site specific attributes. However, Brodie, et al.
reported that the TVA spent approximately $500,000 on chemical treatment, land
reclamation, and engineering attempts to mitigate acid mine discharge associated with
Impoundment 3 of its coal mine near Flat Rock, Alabama, even though noncomplying
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4-23
discharges were a chronic occurrence. During the period 1984-1986, annual treatment costs
associated with Impoundment 3 averaged $28,500. In 1986, TVA constructed a wetland at
the cost of $41,200, with annual operating and maintenance costs of less than $3,700.
Brodie, et al. report that the TVA experience demonstrates that artificial wetlands can be
an environmentally effective and cost-effective alternative to the conventional treatment of
coal mine acid drainage.
Drainage from abandoned gold/silver mines in the Rocky Mountains with characteristic high
metals concentrations and low pH discharges has continued to pose significant non-point
source pollution. Due to the predicted high costs associated with conventional chemical
treatment systems for these waters, the use of constructed wetlands as an alternative
remediation technology has been investigated at the Clear Creek/Central City Superfund
site (Morea, et al., 1989). Preliminary results indicate that wetland-based passive treatment
provides a viable and cost effective alternative to traditional treatment technology. More
detailed cost measures are currently not available.
4.4.10 Habitat Provision
Wetlands provide habitat for a wide variety of flora and fauna. Some animals are entirely
dependent on wetlands for food, protection from weather, and/or predators, resting areas,
reproductive materials or sites, molting grounds, and other life requisites. Other animal
species utilize wetlands for only part of their life functions. Some species spend their entire
life within a particular wetland; other species are resident only during a particular period
in their life cycle or during the year or travel from wetland to wetland. Some animals use
wetland habitat throughout their lives, but reside primarily in deepwater or upland habitats.
Wetlands also provide necessary habitat for many rate and endangered plant and animal
species. More than half the areas identified as critical habitat under provisions of the
Endangered Species Act involve wetland areas (Zinn and Copeland, 1982).
Factors important in determining the value of wetlands as animal habitat include:
• The structure and species diversity of the wetland vegetation;
• Surrounding land uses;
• Spatial patterns within and between wetlands;
• Vertical and horizontal zonation;
• Size; and
• Water chemistry.
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4-24
The importance of wetland habitats for nongame birds has been documented for riparian
habitats and for saltmarsh and estuarine habitats. There are few studies addressing inland
freshwater wetlands as habitat for nongame birds. The principal gamebird species relying
on wetlands for habitat are waterfowl. Wetland attributes affecting bird habitat include:
• Availability of cover;
• Freedom from disturbance;
• Availability of food;
• Availability of specialized habitat requirements; and
• Interspersion.
As noted in Fowler and Peters (1988), the prairie pothole wetlands located in North and
South Dakota are part of the most valuable inland marsh system providing waterfowl
production in North America. Prairie pothole wetlands originally covered 7 million acres
in North and South Dakota. Only approximately 3 million remain (Tiner, 1984 cited in
Fowler and Peters, 1988).
Prairie pothole wetland losses are principally caused by conversion for agriculture, water
resource development for irrigation and flood control, stream channelization, and highway
construction (Fowler and Peters, 1988).
4.4.11 Estimated Welfare Damages Associated with Region VIII Wetland Loss
The uncertainty associated with valuing wetland loss is considerable. However, for the
purposes of this study annual wetland losses were estimated based on a range of values
taken from the existing literature. We assume that per acre annual damages may range
from $360 to $2,000 dollars.
To estimate annual welfare damages we assumed that these damages could be represented
with a triangular probability distribution with a mean value of $1,000. Welfare damages are
summarized in Table 4-9, and range from a lower bound of approximately $7.13 million to
an upper bound of $14.7 billion. The estimated expected value of damages is approximately
$4.50 billion.
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Table 4-9
Estimated Annual Welfare Damages
Associated with Wetland Losses [1 ]
Upper Bound Damages
State
Minimum
Mean
Maximum
Colorado
$4,110,000
$10,600,000
$18,500,000
Wyoming
$3,610,000
$9,300,000
$16,200,000
Montana
$7,560,000
$19,500,000
$34,000,000
Utah
$3,830,000
$9,870,000
$17,200,000
North Dakota
$8,640,000
$22,300,000
$38,800,000
South Dakota
$5,040,000
$12,900,000
$22,600,000
TOTAL
$32,800,000
$84,500,000
$147,000,000
Mean (Expected Value) Damages
State
Minimum
Mean
Maximum
Colorado
$2,280,000
$5,870,000
$10,200,000
Wyoming
$1,890,000
$4,870,000
$8,490,000
Montana
$4,020,000
$10,400,000
$18,100,000
Utah
$2,010,000
$5,170,000
$9,020,000
North Dakota
$4,530,000
$11,700,000
$20,400,000
South Dakota
$2,720,000
$7,010,000
$12,200,000
TOTAL
$17,400,000
$45,000,000
$78,400,000
Lower Bound Damages
State
Minimum
Mean
Maximum
Colorado
$912,000
$2,350,000
$4,100,000
Wyoming
$825,000
$2,130,000
$3,710,000
Montana
$1,600,000
$4,130,000
$7,200,000
Utah
$8,780,000
$2,260,000
$3,950,000
North Dakota
$1,740,000
$4,490,000
$7,840,000
South Dakota
$1,170,000
$3,020,000
$5,260,000
TOTAL
$7,130,000
$18,400,000
$32,000,000
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4-26
4.5 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Adamus, P.R. 1983. "A method for wetland functional assessment," Vols. I and II. Report
Nos. FHWA-IP-82-23 and FHWA-82-24. Fed. Highway Adm., Office of Res. Environ. Div.
176 pp. and 134 pp.
Allen, H. 1978. "The role of wetland plants in erosion control of riparian shorelines." In:
P. Greenson, J.R. Clark, and J.E. Clark (eds.), Wetland Functions and Values: the State
of Our Understanding. Proc. Natl. symp. on wetlands. Am. Water Resour. Assoc.,
Minneapolis, MN, pp. 403-414.
Banus, M.D., I. Valiela, and J.M. Teal. 1975. "Lead, zinc, and cadmium budgets in
experimentally enriched marsh ecosystems." Estuarine and Coastal Marine Sci. 3:421-430.
Barstow, CJ. 1970. "Impact of channelization of wetland habitat in the Obion-Forked Deer
Basin Tennessee." Trans, of the North Am. Wildlife and Nat. Res. Conf. 36:362-375.
Batie, S.S. and J.R. Wilson. 1978. "Economic values attributable to Virginia's coastal
wetlands as inputs in oyster production." Southern J. Ag. Econ. 1:111-118.
Brodie, G.A., D.A. Hammer, and D.A. Tomljanovich. 1989. 'Treatment of acid drainage
with a constructed wetland at the Tennessee Valley Authority 950 Coal Mine." In: D.A.
Hammer (ed.), Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment-Municipal, Industrial, and
Agricultural. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI. pp. 201-209.
Carter, V., M.S. Bedinger, R.P. Novitzki, and W.O. Wilen. 1978. "Water resources and
wetlands." In: P. Greenson, J.R. Clark, and J.E. Clark (eds.), Wetland Functions and
Values: the State of Our Understanding. Proc. Natl. symp. on wetlands. Am. Water
Resour. Assoc., Minneapolis, MN, pp. 344-376.
Clark, J. and J. Clark (eds.). 1979. Scientist's report. Natl. Wetlands Tech. Council Rep.,
Washington, DC. 128 pp.
Craig, NJ., R.E. Turner, and J.W. Day, Jr. 1980. "Wetland losses and their consequences
in coastal Louisiana". J. Geomorph. N.M.. Suppl.Bd. 34:225-241.
DeJong, J. 1976. "The purification of wastewater with the aid of rush or reed ponds." In:
J. Tourbier and R.W. Pearson, Jr. (eds.). Biological Control of Water Pollution, Univ.
Penn. Press, Philadelphia, pp. 161-173.
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Ewel, K.C. and H.T. Odum. 1978. "Cypress domes: nature's testing treatment filer." In:
H.T. Odum and K.C. Ewel (eds.). Cypress Wetlands for Water Management, Recycling and
Conservation. 4th Annu. Rep. Rockefeller Found. Cent, for Wetlands, Univ. Fla.,
Gainsville. pp. 178-270.
Farber, S. and R. Constanza. 1987. "The economic value of wetland systems." J. Env.
Management 24:41-51.
Fetter, C.W., W.E. Sloey, and FJ. Spanger. 1978. "Biogeochemical studies of a polluted
Wisconsin marsh." J. Water Poll. Control Fed. 50:290-307.
Gosselink J.G., E.P. Odum, and R. M. Pope. 1974. "Value of the tidal Marsh Center for
wetland resources, Louisiana St. Univ., LA. LSU-SG-74-03.
Grant, R.R. and R. Patrick. 1970. 'Tinicum marsh as a water purifier." In: Two Studies
of Tinicum Marsh. The Conservation Foundation, Washington, DC, pp. 105-123.
Gupta, T.R. and J.H. Foster. 1973. "Valuation of visual-cultural benefits from freshwater
wetlands in Massachusetts." J. Northeastern Ag. Econ. Council 2(2):262-273.
Gupta, T.R. 1972. "Economic criteria for decisions on preservation and use of inland
wetlands in Massachusetts." J. Northeastern Ag. Econ. Council 1(1):202-219.
Hammer, D.A. (ed.). 1989. Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment-Municipal.
Industrial, and Agricultural. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI.
Johnson, R.L 1979. Timber harvests from Wetlands." In: P.E. Greeson, et al., (eds.).
American Water Resources Association, Minneapolis, MN, pp. 598-605.
Kuenzler, EJ. 1989. "Value of forested wetlands as filters for sediments and nutrients."
In: D.D. Hook and R. Lea (eds.). Proceedings of the symposium: the forested wetlands
of the Southern United States; July 12-14, Orlando, FL. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-50, Asheville,
NC, USDA Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station, pp.85-96.
Larson, J.S. (ed.)- 1978. "Models for assessment of freshwater wetlands. University of
Massachusetts, Amherst. Pub. 32. 91 pp.
Larson, J.S. 1981. "Wetland value assessment-state of the art". Natl. Wetlands Newsletter.
3(2):4-8.
Lynne, G.D., P. Conroy, and F. Prochasta. 1981. "Economic valuation of marsh areas to
marine production processes." J. of Env. Econ. and Manag. 8:175-186.
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Morea, S.C., R.L. Olsen, R.W. Chappell. 1989. "Assessment of a passive treatment system
for acid mine drainage at a Colorado Superfund site." In Press. Camp Dresser and McKee,
Denver, CO.
Owens, R. 1980. "Economic value of the use of Virginia's coastal wetlands as an erosion
control strategy." M.S. Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, VA.
Novitzki, R.P. 1987. "Hydrologic characteristics of Wisconsin's wetlands and their influence
on floods." In: P. Greenson, J.R. Clark, and J.E. Clark (eds.), Wetland Functions and
Values: the State of Our Understanding. Proc. Natl. symp. on wetlands. Am. Water
Resour. Assoc., Minneapolis, MN, pp. 377-388.
Raphael, C.N. and E. Jaworski. 1979. "Economic value of fish, wildlife, and recreation in
Michigan's coastal wetlands." Coastal Zone Management J. 5(3): 181-194.
Scheuerman, P.R., G. Bitton, and S. R. Farrah. 1989. "Fate of microbial indicators and
viruses in a forested wetland." In: D.A. Hammer (ed.), Constructed Wetlands for
Wastewater Treatment-Municipal, Industrial, and Agricultural. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea,
MI. pp. 657-663.
Scoffin, T.P. 1970. "The trapping and binding of subtidal carbonate sediments by marine
vegetation in Bimini Lagoon, Bahamas." J. Sedimentary Petrology. 40(l):249-273.
Shaw, S.P. and C.G. Fredine. 1956. "Wetlands of the United States; their extent and their
value to waterfowl and other wildlife." Circular 39, Fish and Wildlife Service, United States
Department of the Interior.
Silverman, G.S. 1989. "Development of an urban runoff treatment wetlands in Fremont,
California." In: D.A. Hammer (ed.), Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment-
Municipal, Industrial, and Agricultural. Lewis Publishers, Chelsea, MI. pp. 669-676.
Sloey, W.E., F.L. Spangler, and C.W. Fetter. 1978. "Management of freshwater wetlands
for nutrient assimilation." In: R.E. Good, D.F. Whigham, and R.L. Simpson (eds.).
Freshwater Wetlands: Ecological Processes and Management Potential. Academic Press,
NY.
Smardon, R.C. and J.G. Fabos. 1983. "Visual cultural sub-model." Models for Assessment
of Freshwater Wetlands. Publication No. 32, Water Resource Research Center, University
of Massachusetts, Amherst, pp. 35-51.
Thibodeau, F.R. and B.D. Ostro. 1981. "An economic analysis of wetland protection." L
Environ. Manage. 12:19-30.
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Tilton, D.L., R.H. Kadlec, and CJ. Richardson (eds.). 1976. Freshwater Wetlands and
Sewage Effluent Disposal. Proceedings of a National symposium, May 10-11, 1976. Univ.
Mich. Press, Ann Arbor.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1971. "Charles River Massachusetts, Main Report and
Attachments." New England Division, Waltham, MA.
Verry, E.S. and D.H. Boelter. 1978. "Peatland hydrology." Iq: P. Greenson, J.R. Clark,
and J.E. Clark (eds.), Wetland Functions and Values: the State of Our Understanding.
Proc. Natl. symp. on wetlands. Am. Water Resour. Assoc., Minneapolis, MN, pp. 389-402.
Wayne, CJ. 1975. "Sea and marsh grasses: their effect on wave energy and near-shore
transport. M.S. Thesis, Florida St. Univ. Tallahassee.
Wharton, C.H. 1970. "Southern river swamp--a multiple use environment." Georgia State
University Bureau of Business and Economic Research, University of Georgia, Athens.
Whigham, D.F. 1982. "Using freshwater wetlands for wastewater management in North
America." In: B. Gopal, R.E. Turner, R.G. Wetzl, and D.F. Whigham (eds.). Wetlands
Ecology and Management. Natl. Inst. Ecol. and Int. Sci. Publ., Jaipur, India.
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5-1
5.0 GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The Groundwater Contamination Problem Area analyses risks to the Region's groundwater
resources and provides an estimate of the relative contribution of the major contaminant
sources to human health, ecological, and welfare damages. The major sources of
contamination include waste disposal facilities (landfills, septic systems, land spreading),
mining, direct discharge to groundwater, (injection wells), storage facilities, spills and
agricultural chemical application. Risk is evaluated from two perspectives, residual and
potential impacts.
Since the Region VIII States' economies rely on numerous industrial and agricultural
activities, there is a wide variety contamination sources found in the Region. Region VIII
has approximately 3% of the U.S. population, of which 42% relies on groundwater for
potable water supplies (see Table 5-1). These data indicate that South Dakota has the
greatest percentage of its population dependent on groundwater and Colorado the least.
Although groundwater resources are, in general, of high quality numerous contamination
incidents and the number of potential contamination sources pose a chronic risk for
groundwater degradation and impacts. To illustrate the magnitude of the numbers of
potential and known contaminant sources a compilation of these sources is presented in
Table 5-2.
In addition, there is extensive land application of various pesticides and nitrate based
fertilizers in Region VIII. However, it has not been possible to quantify the quantity of
agricultural chemicals applied in Region VIII. The types of contaminants associated with
these sources include volatile organics, pesticides, heavy metals, inorganic salts and nutrients.
Groundwater contaminant sources affect every populated area in Region VIII. For most
contaminants sources, there appears to be a strong correlation between population density
and the number of sources in a given area. The notable exceptions are agricultural
chemicals, which are applied in rural areas and Superfund NPL sites which are just as likely
to be found in rural areas as urban and suburban areas. However, simply because a
contaminant source or potential source exists does not mean that exposure is occuring.
Acontaminant source must exist, the source must affect the groundwater, the contaminant(s)
must move with the groundwater media, the groundwater must serve as a drinking water
source, a water supply well must be subject to the contamination, and individuals must be
consuming or otherwise contacting the contaminated water for health effects to occur.
This distribution of contaminant sources exposes the majority of the 3,211,760 people
dependant on groundwater to potential degradation of their drinking water supplies.
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Table 5-1
Region VIII Groundwater Characaterization
Ground
Ground
Total SW
Total SW
Water
Water
and GW
and GW
% of Pop.
Population
with-
with-
withdrawals
withdrawals
served by
served by
drawals
drawals
per day
per year
ground
ground
per day
per year
State
(Mgal)
(Mgal)
water
Population
water
(Mgal)
(Mgal)
Colorado
16,000
5,840,000
15%
3,231,000
484,650
2,800
1,022,000
Montana
11,000
4,015,000
54%
826,000
446,040
200
73,000
North Dakota
1,000
365,000
62%
685,000
424,700
110
40,150
South Dakota
690
251,850
77%
708,000
545,160
330
120,450
Utah
4,300
1,569,500
63%
1,645,000
1,036,350
770
281,050
Wyoming
5,300
1,934,500
54%
509,000
274,860
540
197,100
Total
38,290
13,975,850
42%
7,604,000
3,211,760
4,750
1,733,750
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5-3
Table 5-2
Groundwater Contaminant Sources
Source
Number in Region VIII
CERCLA NPL
46
CERCLIS Total Sites
1,037
RCRA TSD
124
Generators
4,923
Transporters
655
Total Tanks
71,656
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5-4
Data for most potential contamination sources are presented in other problem areas. See,
for example, active and inactive hazardous waste sites, storage tanks, and drinking water.
5.2 HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTS
Groundwater is a source of drinking water for 42% of the residents of Region VIII. We
assume that contaminated groundwater can affect human health only when it impacts
drinking water supplies. However, it should be noted that contaminated groundwater can
also pose risk of human exposure via the consumption of farm crops that have been
irrigated by the contaminated groundwater and absorbed or adsorbed the contaminants. In
general, residual carcinogenic risks due to contaminated groundwater are minor for the
population at large, excepting lung cancers due to radon. There are three factors
responsible for this low incidence of excess cancers due to drinking water. They are:
• A small percent of public water supplies and an unknown percent of the private
water supplies are currently contaminated with carcinogens above the MCL level.
• Usually, it takes less than three years to install treatment systems or replace
wells for public water supplies, therefore the time of exposure is less than
lifetime.
• Individuals and communities use alternative water sources and other means of
mitigation.
It should be noted, however, that it is not possible to segregate cancers related to drinking
water from any other exposure route. It is possible to estimate the number of excess cancers
possibly resulting from an assumed or actual exposure and dose, but this is simply an
estimate.
However, there are subpopulations, namely small community water systems and residential
wells where the risks are greater due to longer exposure times and the potential for higher
concentrations of contaminants. This is due primarily the lack of resources to replace
contaminated water supplies, use of shallow wells and in the case of residential wells, the
lack of periodic monitoring which leads to longer term exposures to contamination. These
subpopulations may be significant as Table 5-3 demonstrates. It should be noted that Table
5-3 relates the overall population of potential risk , but for a variety of factors, only a
portion of this ppopulation would actually be at risk.
A more detailed discussion of the cancer and non-cancer risks can be found in the
aggregated Drinking Water Program area. Both the cancer and non-cancer residual risks
are not considered large due to the stringent standards and regulatory infrastructure. The
potential health risks are much greater provided no action was taken to mitigate and prevent
groundwater contamination.
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Table 5-3
Population at Risk (Groundwater) in Region VIII
State
<500
501-3300
3301-1000
>10001
Colorado
138,854
162,165
170,864
115,210
Montana
170,027
75,592
26,651
55,500
North Dakota
65,557
107,592
49,758
26,361
South Dakota
73,169
131,577
64,836
101,395
Utah
89,838
147,450
125,338
244,903
Wyoming
61,691
56,733
56,595
408,490
Indian Lands
14,867
15,763
8,200
0
Total Region VIII
614,003
696,872
502,242
951,859
Grand Total
2,764,976
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5-6
53 ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS
Groundwater can impact ecological systems via the discharge of contaminated groundwater
to surface water bodies and wetland areas. Groundwater may have a significant impact in
localized areas but is not likely the major contributor of nonpoint source contamination
region-wide.
Table 5-4 summarizes potential ecosystem damages that may be associated with
contaminated groundwater discharges to surface water near Region VIII NPL sites. This
Table was developed using the expert judgment of EPA staff. The column labelled 'TOX"
represents the potential toxicity of groundwater effluents associated with the site. The
column "ECO" represents a subjective appraisal of the potential magnitude of the ecological
risks at the site.
Remedial actions can also impact habitat. For sites with nearby wetlands, pump and treat
groundwater remediation efforts can lower water tables and adversely impact the Vegetation
in wetlands. In areas where this is a concern, the extraction well network and pumping
schedule should be designed to minimize impacts on wetlands.
5.4 WELFARE DAMAGES
Welfare damages associated with groundwater pollution may be estimated by summing
damages associated with Storage Tanks, Active and Inactive Hazardous Waste Sites, and
Aggregated Drinking Water. In addition to these damages, however, the Region faces
significant welfare damages due to the loss of option value associated with contaminated
groundwater in the future. In addition to use limitations imposed by the lack of
groundwater quality, groundwater quantity issues may also limit future economic well-being
in the Region. Unfortunately, the current lack of data estimating groundwater quality
severely constrains the estimation of welfare risks at this time.
5.5 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING THE ANALYSES
Assessment of risks associated with groundwater pollution in Region VIII is severely limited
by the lack of data. When this data becomes available, more credible analyses can be
performed.
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Table 5-4
Severity of Risk of Ecosystem Damage due to Groundwater at NPL Sites
Site Name
Location
State
TOX
ECO
Air Force Plant PJKS
Waterton
CO
M
L
Broderick Wood Products
Adams Co.
CO
L
L
California Gulch
Leadville
CO
H
H
Central City/Clear Creek
Central City
CO
H
M
Chemical Sales Co.
Commerce City
CO
M
L
Denver Radium
Denver
CO
L
L
Eagle Mine
Mlnturn/Redcliff
CO
H
M
Lincoln Park
Canon City
CO
Lowry Landfill
Arapahoe Co.
CO
M
L
Marshall Landfill
Boulder Co.
CO
M
M
Rocky Flats
Golden
CO
H
M
Rocky Mountain Arsenal
Adams Co.
CO
H
L
Sand Creek Industrial
Commerce City
CO
M
L
Smuggler Mountain
Pitkin Co.
CO
L
L
Union Carbide/Uravan Mill
Uravan
CO
M
L
Woodbury Chemical
Commerce City
CO
L
L
Anaconda Smelter
Anaconda
MT
M
H
East Helena Site
East Helena
MT
M
M
Idahoe Pole Co.
Bozeman
MT
L
M
Libby Ground Water
Libby
MT
L
M
Milltown Reservoir
Milltown
MT
M
M
Montana Pole
Butte
MT
L
L
Mount Industries
Columbus
MT
L
M
Silver Bow Cr/Butte Area
Silver Bow
MT
M
M
Arsenic Trioxide
Lidgerwood
ND
L
M
Mi not Landfill
Minot
ND
M
M
Ellenworth Air Force Base
Rapid City
SD
M
L
Whitewood Creek Tailings
Whitewood
SD
H
M
Williams Pipe Line Disposal
Sioux Falls
SD
H
H
Rill Air Force Base
Ogden
UT
M
L
Midvale Slag
Midvale
UT
L
M
Monticello Mill Tailings
Monticello
LO-
L
L
Monticeilo Properties
Monticello
UT
L
L
Ogden Defense Depot
Ogden
UT
M
L
Portland Cement Co.
Salt Lake City
LO-
M
M
Richardson Flat Tailings
Summit Co.
UT
L
M
Rose Park Sludge Pit
Salt Lake City
LO-
M
L
Sharon Steel Corp.
Midvale
UT
M
M
Tooele Army Depot
Tooele
LO-
M
L
Utah P&L/American Barrel
Salt Lake City
UT
Wasatch Chemical Co.
Salt Lake City
UT
M
M
Mystery Bridge/Highway 20
Evansville
WY
H
M
Union Pacific/Baxter
Laramie
WY
M
M
USAF, F.E. Warren AFB
Cheyenne
WY
H
M
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6-1
6.0 AGGREGATED PUBLIC AND PRIVATE DRINKING WATER SUPPLIES
6.1 INTRODUCTION
This risk assessment describes numerous factors influencing health risks associated with
drinking water in Region VIII. In addition, quantitative estimates of waterborne disease
based on National data are presented. Due to the paucity of data, quantitative welfare risk
estimates were prepared only for cancer cases associated with radon exposures.
While the risk of drinking water-related disease outbreaks may be regarded as unlikely in
most large public water systems of the Region, this threat remains in the smaller, less
technically competent communities and in the population of private users. Rural and
private water supply systems continue to present a significant risk for several reasons.
• Many small water supplies are not regulated under an enforceable well
construction code. As a result, systems are constructed that fail to provide even
minimal water supply protection (U.S. EPA Region V, 1990). Substandard well
construction allows contaminated surface water to enter the well; improper well
abandonment allows unfiltered surface water to enter the aquifer; septic tanks,
drainage fields and dry wells, and other disposal facilities are commonly sited
within the zone of influence of the water supply wells; small production wells are
commonly found to tap the upper portion of shallow aquifers where nitrate and
other surface contaminants have not yet attenuated; makeshift repairs, using
inadequate materials and procedures often result in pressure loss and the
infiltration of contaminants, allowing holding tanks to flow back into distribution
lines and threaten consumers when water pressures are restored. These are just
a few examples of threats presented by unenforceable well construction
regulations.
• The majority of small water supplies/suppliers are without benefit of a
competent, certified water supply operator (U.S. EPA Region V, 1990). All
drinking water facilities are subject to mechanical and construction failure.
Larger water utilities maintain a constant vigilance of all components, and are
prepared to handle common maintenance requirements. Smaller utilities, having
at least minimal safeguards such as proper well construction in place may lack
the incentive to provide such surveillance, and most of the smallest systems lack
financial capability. In these systems, problems representing even serious health
risks are usually discovered only through regulatory procedures considered
inadequate by most water supply experts.
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• As stated above, problems associated with public drinking water supplies are
identified through compliance monitoring programs being enforced by the State
agencies. Hundreds of violations occur each month, and the most significant of
the violations (i.e. those considered to present a more immediate health risk)
rarely remain unaddressed. The fact that States are addressing noncompliance
should not suggest that those violations considered to be relatively insignificant
should be ignored. Intermittent monitoring violations may present a small risk
of contamination being undetected within a single water system, but the sheer
number of violations occurring in unrelated systems is cause for concern. The
vast majority of these violations are for failure to monitor the water supply.
Essentially all of this non-compliance is due to ignorance of SDWA regulations.
The issue of non-compliance by small water systems is often side-stepped by
stating that such facilities serve only a minor portion of the population. This
statement is, for the most part, true but most non-community drinking water
supplies serve transient populations (travelers), which may potentially affect a
significant portion of an area's population. Other non-compliance water supplies
serve schools and other facilities that may provide most of the drinking water a
person potentially consumes during a 24-hour period.
The above discussions identify the most significant risks to public health by drinking water.
Additional risks can arise from inadequate response to these situations. Perhaps the most
visible threat is the increasingly common use of home water treatment devices. Many
consumers are aware of the findings of environmental groups, and the lack of timely and
effective State response to recognized situations serves to fuel public concern. Home water
treatment devices and bottled water are industries growing at rates unprecedented in the
past, far exceeding the development of appropriate health regulations. This situation now
threatens the basic support of public water supplies. Home treatment devices in particular
have an undeniable place in public health protection, but they are not without risk. In
almost every case, the risk presented by reliance upon a home treatment unit exceeds that
of a public water supply violation. Lack of consumer education encourages inappropriate
use of these devices, often leading to a false sense of security.
Currently, the U.S. EPA has promulgated regulations for 30 drinking water contaminants
that are expected to have adverse impacts on human health, and secondary regulations for
contaminants that affect drinking water aesthetics. In addition, EPA has established
monitoring requirements for other contaminants. Under the Safe Drinking Water Act
Amendments of 1986, Congress stipulated that EPA set monitoring and MCL requirements
for 83 additional contaminants by June 1989. Since it is not possible to assess quantitatively
risks for all drinking water contaminants or even a subset of those that are regulated, a
number of representative drinking water contaminants were selected for characterization in
this report: microbiological contaminants, inorganic chemicals, volatile organic chemicals
(VOC), pesticides, disinfection by-products, radionuclides and corrosion byproducts.
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6.2 POLLUTANT CHARACTERIZATION
6.2.1 Total Coliform/Microbiological Contaminants
There are many historical records with reported cases of disease transmission from microbial
agents in drinking water supplies. Pathogenic and nonpathogenic bacteria, viruses, protozoa
and cysts can all be transmitted via ingestion of contaminated drinking water. Cases of
waterborne disease in Region VIE have involved such diverse contaminants as Giardia
lamblia. Campylobacter, and a multitude of pathogenic coliforms and viruses. Since there
are literally hundreds of possible microbial agents, agent-specific monitoring of water
supplies is not practiced. Instead, the indicator organisms of the coliform bacteria group are
used to evaluate bacteriological quality of water. Turbidity is also an important parameter
since it acts to shield bacteria during the disinfection process, thus making disinfection less
effective. Available data indicate that there may be no direct relationship between turbidity
levels and coliform in drinking water and the incidence of waterborne disease. Turbidity
is an important indicator of the effectiveness of surface water treatment and therefore, is
currently regulated for surface water supplies only. Thus, its significance throughout the
Region is unknown. Table 6-1 indicates that coliform is the most widely reported
contaminant causing either Type 1 or Type 2 violations as reported for Region VIII in
FRDS. Besides total coliform violations data, additional data is needed to relate disease
incidence to drinking water. This additional data would consist of the following:
• Disease incidence reports by state
• Surveys of water systems that experienced a contamination problem
• Special studies or investigations conducted by State, local or Federal health
agencies that involved data collected from drinking water supplies
6.2.2 Nitrate as Nitrogen
Nitrate present in drinking water in excess of 45 mg/L (10 mg/L as nitrogen) is associated
with the incidence of methemoglobinemia, which can cause "blue baby" syndrome. This
problem is mainly confined to infants less than 6 months of age and primarily to agricultural
areas. Nitrate violations are reported by EPA staff to cause approximately 0.9% of the Type
1 and 2 violations reported in FRDS, see Table 6-1.
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Table 6-1
Listed Region VIII Contaminants Responsible
for Type 1 and 2 Violations
Cumulative Cumulative
Contaminant Frequency Percent Frequency Percent
Arsenic 1 0.1 1 0.1
Coliform 994 90.2 995 90.3
Combined Radium 4 0.4 999 90.7
Fluoride 40 3.6 1039 94.3
Nitrate 10 0.9 1049 95.2
TThm 20 1.8 1069 97.0
Turbidity 33 3.0 1102 100.0
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6-5
6.2.3 Lead
Lead was regulated as a primary drinking water contaminant at .05 mg/L in 1976. Since
that time, additional toxicological data have indicated that lead concentrations in drinking
water far below the MCL are capable of producing adverse health effects, particularly in
younger children, infants and fetuses. Lead causes damage to the nervous system, the blood-
forming processes (hemopoietic), the gastrointestinal system and the kidney. More recent
studies show that lead also causes cognitive damage, retards growth and can raise blood
pressure in adult males, even at low exposure levels. Health effects range from relatively
subtle biochemical change at low doses (it has been learned that blood lead levels in
children such as 15 jig/Dl are capable of producing measurable neurological changes) to
severe retardation or death at higher levels. Lead is also regarded as a B2 carcinogen from
the weight of evidence.
Currently, the MCL for lead is being revised downward to reflect our greater knowledge of
its adverse effects and widespread occurrence in water supply distribution systems. In
Region VIII, there were very few violations of the lead MCL reported in the FRDs
database.
6.2.4 Trihalomethanes
Trihalomethanes (THM) are volatile organic compounds that are formed when chlorine
used in the disinfection process comes in contact with organic humic and fulvic acids. While
four different by-products are formed (chloroform, bromoform, dichlorobromomethane, and
dibromochloromethane), chloroform is the species found in the highest concentration. The
THMs are regulated collectively as total THMs. The interim MCL is set at 0.1 mg/L and
applies for the total concentration of any combination of THMs present. The population
exposed to THMs would be those surface water systems serving populations of 10,000 or
more customers (as per the regulations these systems are required to chlorinate) and any
other surface supplies that chlorinate.
The Office of Drinking Water is preparing a mandatory disinfection treatment rule for
groundwater. The anticipated proposal date is January 1991, with promulgation
approximately one year later. ODW is also preparing a rule that will limit levels of
disinfectants and disinfection by-products in finished drinking water. The anticipated
proposal date for this rule is September 1991. Promulgation is planned for 1992. Chemicals
that have been confirmed as subject to this rule include total trihalomethanes, haloacetic
acids, chlorine dioxide, chlorite, chlorate, chlorine and chloramine. Several other chemicals
may potentially be added to this rule as well.
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6-6
Total trihalomethanes were reported to cause approximately 1.8%,of all reported Region
VIII Type 1 and 2 violations.
62.5 Radionuclides
Radium 226-and Radium-228 were regulated under An interim primary standard which
combined MCL of 5 Pci/1 under the SDWA in 1976. This MCL used gross alpha as a
screen (15 Pci/1) for these regulated alpha emitters. Since that time, the Office of Drinking
Water has been developing new regulations and is expected to publish a Notice of Proposed
Rulemaking in January 1991. This Notice is expected to propose MCLGs, MCLs, Best
Available Technologies (BAT) for setting MCLs and as conditions for receiving variances
and exemptions and monitoring requirements for radon-222, radium-226, radium-228, gross
alpha, natural uranium, and beta particle and photon emitters. All radionuclides that will
be considered are classified as Group A, known human carcinogens; thus, the MCLGs will
be proposed as zero. The Agency is considering proposing a separate MCL for each radium
isotope which centers around 5 Pci/L.
Data on the average occurrence of radium in public water supplies in Region VIII is not
available from FRDS database since measured concentrations for compliance monitoring
are not reported. However, EPA's Office of Radiation Programs conducted a nationwide
survey in 1980-81 of 2,500 public groundwater supplies in 27 States representing 45% of the
drinking water nationally consumed. The population weighted average value for radium-226
in all community drinking water supplies is estimated to range between 0.3 and 0.8 Pci/1,
while that for radium-228 is estimated to be in the range of 0.4-1.0 Pci/1. These results are
described in Federal Register. Vol.51, No. 189, Sept. 30, 1986. FRDs indicates that for one
year (1989), the average violation level was 8.6 Pci/1. Approximately 0.4% of reported Type
1 and 2 violations in Region VIII are due to combined radium.
62.6 Radon
Radon is another concern of the State public water supply programs. It has been estimated
that between 5,000 and 20,000 lung cancers occur annually in the U.S. because of radon
levels in indoor air. About 1-7% of these cases result from the release of radon from
drinking water sources related activities such as showering, bathing, flushing toilets, cooking
and washing clothes and dishes (Lammering, 1990). In an average lifetime of 70 years, it
is estimated that between 2,000 and 40,000 lung cancer deaths will occur as the result of
radon levels in public water supplies (primarily groundwater) in the U.S. The average radon
concentration in water supplies varies between States.
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6-7
Currently, there is no good database on radon levels specific to Region VIII. Wyoming is
the only state that has survey data. The NIRs survey will provide additional data on radon
occurrence. The present combined national data available show the population weighted
average concentration for radon in public drinking water supplies from groundwater is about
420 Pci/1.
62.1 Trichloroethvlene
Trichloroethylene was regulated as a primary regulated drinking water contaminant at .005
mg/L in July 1987. It is classified as a Class B2 probable human carcinogen based on the
weight of toxicological evidence. Acute oral exposures (15-25 ml) to TCE in humans have
resulted in vomiting, abdominal pain and transient unconsciousness, while longer-term
occupational exposures suggest liver damage. The major source of TCE released to the
environment is from its use as a metal degreasers. Since TCE is not spent during its use,
the majority of all TCE produced is released to the environment. TCE released to the air
is degraded within a few days. TCE released to surface waters migrates to the atmosphere
within a few days or weeks where it is also degraded. However, TCE that is released to the
land migrates readily to the groundwater where it remains for months to years. TCE does
not easily degrade in groundwater, but under certain conditions may degrade to
dichloroethylene and vinyl chloride. TCE is a common contaminant in ground and surface
water, with higher levels found in groundwater. National surveys of drinking water supplies
have shown that 3% of all public water systems using groundwater contain TCE at levels
of 0.5 ng/L or higher. Approximately 0.4% have levels greater than 100 iig/L.
6.2.8 Tetrachloroethvlene
Tetrachloroethylene (PCE) is another chemical that falls under the classification of VOCs.
Originally slated for promulgation at the same time as TCE in July 1987, it was withdrawn
from the group due to newly available bioassay data. This data created a controversy
surrounding its weight of evidence classification as a E2 or C carcinogen. Currently, PCE
is classified as a E2 carcinogen is scheduled for promulgation of an MCL and MCLG in
June 1990. The MCL and MCLG will be .005 mg/L and zero, respectively. PCE also has
many industrial uses and, like TCE, is not spent during its use, but is released directly back
into the atmosphere. During its disposal, it is usually discharged directly to land and surface
water. PCE released to air degrades within days or weeks. PCE released to water degrades
slowly. It is very mobile in soil and easily travels to the groundwater where it remains for
months or years. Under certain conditions, PCE is degraded to TCE and then to
dichloroethylene and vinyl chloride. National surveys of drinking water supplies have shown
that 3% of all public water systems using groundwater contain PCE at levels of 0.5 ug/L or
higher. About 0.7% have PCE levels above 5 jig/L.
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6-8
62.9 Trichloroethane
Trichloroethane (TCA) was regulated as a primary drinking water contaminant at 0.2 mg/L
in July 1987. It has been placed in the category of class D carcinogens, which have not been
evaluated as to their human carcinogenic potential due to insufficient data. The major
source of TCA released to the environment is from its use as a metal degreaser. As with
the other two previously discussed VOCs, TCA is not consumed during metal degreasing;
thus, all of it is released to the environment. TCA released to the air degrades slowly with
an estimated half life of 1 to 8 days. TCA released to surface waters migrates to the
atmosphere in a few days or weeks. TCA which is released to land does not sorb onto soil
and travels quickly to groundwater. It slowly hydrolyses in groundwater with an estimated
half-life exceeding 6 months. As with TCE, TCA does not bioaccumulate in animals or food
chains. TCA is a good representative chemical because it occurs widely in the environment.
It is a common contaminant in groundwater and surface water, with higher levels measured
in groundwater. National drinking water surveys have found that 3% of all public water
systems using groundwater contain TCA at levels of 0.5 jig/L or higher.
6.2.10 Alachlor
Alachlor is currently scheduled for promulgation in June 1990. The proposed MCL is 0.002
mg/L and the MCLG is zero. Alachlor has been classified as a B2 carcinogen due to the
weight-of-evidence of human carcinogenic properties. Alachlor had one of the largest
production volumes of any pesticide. It is applied to the soil either before or just after the
crop has emerged and is rapidly metabolized by crops after application. It is widely used
for corn and soybean crops. In the soil, alachlor is degraded by bacteria under both
anaerobic and aerobic conditions. Alachlor is not photodegradable and does not hydrolyze
under environmental conditions. Alachlor is moderately mobile in sandy and silty soil and
has been shown to migrate to groundwater. On a national basis, alachlor has been
reassured in both surface and groundwaters. Federal and State surveys of surface water
have reported alachlor to occur at levels of 1 ppb.
6.2.11 Atrazine
Atrazine is currently scheduled for promulgation in June 1990. The proposed MCL and
MCLG is 0.003 mg/L. Atrazine has been classified as a C (possible human carcinogen) due
to the lack of evidence of its human carcinogenic potential and incomplete evidence of its
animal carcinogenic potential. The STORET 1988 national database indicates that atrazine
has been found in 4,123 of 10,942 surface water samples and in 343 of 3,208 groundwater
samples. These samples were collected at 1,659 surface water locations and 2,510
groundwater locations. The 85th percentile of all non-zero samples was 2.3 p.g/L in surface
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6-9
water and 1.9 ug/L in groundwater. This information serves to provide a general idea of
its occurrence. Atrazine is moderately to highly mobile in soils ranging in texture from clay
to gravelly sand. Studies show that under aquatic field conditions, atrazine is relatively
stable under environmental Ph conditions, but does dissipate due to leaching and to dilution
from irrigation water, with residues persisting for three years in soil on the sides and
bottoms of irrigation ditches. Atrazine degrades in soil by photolysis and microbial
processes.
62.12 Sources. Contaminants. Exposure Pathways and Effects
All public and private drinking water supplies should be regarded as potential sources of
contaminants, as stated by the problem definition. However, under the Safe Drinking Water
Act, the State and Federal governments are not mandated to regulate private drinking water
supplies, thus information regarding the quality of private drinking water supplies is not
readily available.
There are three possible routes of exposure from drinking water as a source of
contaminants. These include ingestion, inhalation and dermal contact. The major route of
exposure from most drinking water contaminants is through ingestion, however defending
on the physical properties of the contaminant, i.e., volatility, Kow, etc., inhalation of VOCs
such as trichloroethylene can occur as the compound is released into the air from use of hot
water such as showering, bathing, or washing dishes. Some studies have shown that
absorption of chemicals via inhalation of indoor air can be equal to that of ingestion.
As with the VOCs, similar concerns exist for the inhalation of radon in drinking water.
Radon is released from drinking water under the same conditions as VOCs.
6.3 HUMAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT
6.3.1 Toxicity Assessment
This section presents both cancer and noncancer toxicity information on the representative
chemicals described in the previous section. For carcinogens, this determines the
relationship between the dose and the probability of developing cancer. This relationship
predicts the level of risk associated with a certain exposure. Data presented in Table 6-2
includes the U.S. EPA weight-of-evidence, the oral and inhalation cancer potency factors
(slope factors), the unit risk factors for ingestion (ug/L) and inhalation (ug/m3) for a 10 -
6 excess lifetime cancer risk.
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Table 6-2
CARCINOGENIC PARAMETERS OF DRINKING WATER CONTAMINANTS
Unit
Factor
Contaminant
Carcin-
ogen
Class
Oral CPF
(slope-
factor)
(mg/kg/d)-l
Inhal. CPF
(slope-
factor)
(mg/kg/d)-l
Oral Unit
Risk Factor
(ug/L)
Inhal.
Risk
(ug/m3)
Coliform
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
Nitrate
NA
NA
NA
NA
ND
Lead
B2
1.4 E-4
ND
0.88
ND
1'lHMs*
B2
6.1 E-3
8.1 E-2
1.7 E-7
2.3 E-5
TCE
B2
1.1 E-2
1.7 E-2
3.1 E-7
1.7 E-6
PCE
B2
5.1 E-2
3.3 E-3
1.4 E-6
9.5 E-7
1,1,1-TCA
D
NA
NA
NA
NA
Toluene
D
NA
NA
NA
NA
Atrazine
C
ND
ND
ND
ND
Alachlor
B2
ND
ND
ND
ND
Radium
226-228
A
3.6 E-5
ND
1.0 E-9
ND
Radon 222
A
ND
1.8 E-6
ND
ND
* 1'l HMs - (Total Trihalomethanes) is expressed as chloroform.
TCE - Trichloroethylene
PCE - Tetrachloroethylene
TCA - Trichloroethane
NA - Not Applicable
ND - Not Determined
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6-11
For noncarcinogens, this step determines the relationship between dose of a contaminant
and the probability of developing an adverse health effect. Unlike the dose-response
relationship for carcinogens, these relationships are thought to involve a threshold below
which an adverse health effect will not likely occur. The toxicity information for
noncarcinogens is listed in Table 6-3 and includes the Maximum Contaminant Levels
(MCLs) for drinking water, the oral and inhalation chemical reference doses (RfD) for
chronic exposures, the one and ten-day Health Advisories (exposure doses considered by the
Agency to be acceptable for acute exposures), and toxicological effects and endpoints.
Of the contaminants examined, the carcinogens include two Class A (human carcinogen)
contaminants, i.e., combined radium 226-228 and radon 222. Several probable human
carcinogens (Class B) are also included such as, tetrachloroethylene, trichloroethylene,
alachlor, and total trihalomethanes (evaluated using chloroform). Since IRIS is not regularly
updated, the oral and inhalation cancer potency factors (CPF) and unit risk factors were
obtained from the OERR/ORD Health Effects Assessment Summary Tables (HEAST) of
fourth quarter, FY 1989. Other values were obtained from the U.S. EPA Region 3
Reference Concentration Worksheet, Version 4.1. One Class C (possible human
carcinogen) chemical, atrazine was also evaluated, although no risk factors have been
determined yet. Thus, atrazine will only be assessed in terms of noncarcinogenic risks.
Other selected contaminants, which have not yet been evaluated with respect to evidence
of human carcinogenicity (Class C D), include 1,1,1-trichloroethane and toluene. These will
also be assessed for noncarcinogenic risk .
The toxicity assessment for all selected contaminants (see Table 6-3) summarizes toxicity
values which were also obtained from the HEAST tables and verified through the Office of
Drinking Water (ODW) materials. All other toxicology information in the table was
obtained from the ODW Health Advisory documents for the respective chemicals. Only the
chronic oral and inhalation RfDs have been listed in Table 6-3. The Health Advisory values
reflect acute exposure limits in drinking water.
6.4 EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT
Defensible quantitative health risks associated with this problem area could not be prepared
with the available data. However, we have attempted to dimension the risk to State and
Indian populations by defining the number of individuals that rely on different categories
of drinking water supply.
Table 6-4 summarizes the source of water supply by State and Indian Lands across
Region VIII. These data suggest considerable variety in drinking water sources across the
Region. Colorado and Utah, on the one hand, rely to a far greater extent than the
remaining States or Indian Lands on surface water systems. Residents of Indian Lands rely
more heavily on groundwater supply than any other State or ownership group.
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Table 6-3
TOXICOLOGICAL PARAMETERS OF DRINKING WATER CONTAMINANTS
Contaminant
Chronic
Oral Reference
Dose
(mg/kg/day)
Chronic
Inhalation
Reference Dose
(mg/kg/day)
Chronic
Maximum
Contaminant
Level (mg/L)
Acute
Health Advisory
Level 1 and
10-day (mg/L)
Toxicological
Endpoints
Acute/
Chronic
Coliform Bacl
NA
NA
Varies *
NA
GI irritation
Inorganic Lead
1.4 E-4
4.3 E-4
.005 mg/L source
TT at tap
NA
neurological: subtle biochemical
changes, impaired mental perf, circul.
syst. kidney fct.
Nitrate (as N)
1.0
ND
10.0
10.
methemoglobinemia in infants less than
6 months / death
TTHMs as chloroform
.01
ND
0.1
NA
hepatotoxicity/cancer
T richloroethylene
.007
NA
.005
NA
abdominal pain, unconsciousness,
hepatotoxicity / cancer
T etrachloroethylene
.01
ND
.005'
2.0
hepatotoxicity,
nephrotoxicity, CNS effects/cancer
1,1,1 - TCA
.09
1.0
0.2
100/40
CNS effects / hepatotoxicity, pulmonary
congestion (inhn) edema
Toluene
0.3
1.5
2.0"
20/3
CNS toxicity / peripheral nervous syst.
eff./ nepatoxicity, renal toxicity
Alrazine
.005
ND
.003"
0.1
kidney, liver, lung congestion/ poss.
reprod. develop, and mutogenic effect
Alachlor
.01
ND
.002"
0.1
hepatotoxicity, ocular eff/ cancer,
possible devel. effects
Radium 226/228
NA
NA
5 pci/1
NA
bone and mastoid cancers
Radon
NA
NA
ND
NA
lung cancer
ND - Not Determined 'IT - Treatment Technology NA - Noi Applicable a - Proposed
• MCI. vanes based on anal method, sample volume and numbei ol samples collected per month. Also, two types of MCI^. monthly aveiage and single sample MCL, based on coliform
density After 12/31/90, no more than 5% ol samples may be positive l'oi systems collecting kss than 40 sjmples pei month no moie than 1 may be positive
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Table 6-4
Potential Population at Risk
due to Drinking Water in Region VIII
Total State
State Population
Population Served B
y
Surface
Water
Systems
Ground
Water
Systems
Private
Wells
Colorado 3,476,000
Montana 703,000
North Dakota 551,000
South Dakota 650,000
Utah 3,143,000
Wyoming 866,000
Indian Lands 52,000
2,876,733 82.8%
350,996 49.9%
274,444 49.8%
247,955 38.1%
2,535,203 80.7%
282,732 32.6%
13,431 25.8%
599,738 17.3%
327,770 46.6%
250,928 45.5%
370,977 57.1%
607,619 19.3%
583,509 67.4%
38,830 74.7%
24,234 3.4%
25,628 4.7%
31,068 4.8%
Total Region VIII 9,441,000
6,581,494
2,779,371
80,930
Numbers do not add up due to reporting inaccuracies in the FROS data base,
rounding off, rough State specific estimates of private well use.
Populations and percentages are estimated.
Water system categories are inclusive of purchased water.
All systems included in this table are only the active and current systems.
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6-14
Table 6-5 lists the population by State and Indian Lands being served by four separate
categories of groundwater supply systems. As mentioned previously, individuals served by
the smallest water suppliers and private systems are generally regarded as being at greater
risk. These data suggest that Montana and Colorado have the largest absolute populations
at risk due to contaminated groundwater drinking supplies. On the other hand, Montana
and residents of Indian Lands have the highest relative risks, with approximately 52 and
38% of their populations served by groundwater in the <500 category.
Table 6-6 lists data similar to Table 6-5, but for surface water systems. These data indicate
that Colorado has the greatest number of people served by systems <500 people, followed
by Montana. On the other hand, Colorado has over 2.5 million residents served by the
largest category of water supplier, thus enjoying increased drinking water protection.
In lieu of a specific Region VIII estimate of health effects due to contaminated drinking
water, we have relied on a statistic reported in "Waterborne Diseases in the United States"
(CRC, 1986). 29,185 cases of waterborne illness were reported between 1981 and 1983.
This suggests an annual incidence of approximately 14,593 cases for both public and private
supplies. Scaling to Region VIII by the ratio of populations, implies roughly 490 cases of
illness annually associated with aggregated drinking water pollution.
Using a previously cited range of annual national cancer cases due to radon exposures
(5,000 to 20,000) and an estimate that between 1 and 7% of these cancers are due to
exposures associated with drinking water, estimated annual lung cancer cases in Region VIII
can be estimated to range between approximately 2 and 46.
6.5 WELFARE DAMAGES
Welfare damages associated with contaminated drinking water supplies may be due to a
number of factors, including: cost of illness and lost wages; the cost of replacing
contaminated water supplies; the opportunity costs associated with lost uses of contaminated
ground and surface water supplies; and costs associated with home purification devices.
To estimate health effects costs, the annual lung cancer cases estimated above were
multiplied by the direct medical cost and foregone earnings per cancer case:
(Annual Cancer Cases)(Direct Costs and Forgone Earnings) = HC
where:
HC=health costs
RCG/Hagier, Bailly, Inc.
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Table 6-5
Population at Risk (Groundwater) in Region VIII
State
<500
501-3300
3301-1000
>10001
Colorado
138,854
162,165
170,864
115,210
Montana
170,027
75,592
26,651
55,500
North Dakota
65,557
107,592
49,758
26,361
South Dakota
73,169
131,577
64,836
101,395
Utah
89,838
147,450
125,338
244,903
Wyoming
61,691
56,733
56,595
408,490
Indian Lands
14,867
15,763
8,200
0
Total Region VIII
614,003
696,872
502,242
951,859
Grand Total
2,764,976
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Table 6-6
Population at Risk (Surface water) in Region VIII
State
<500
501-3300
3301-1000
>10001
Colorado
17,385
83,976
188,545
2,556,050
Montana
12,528
36,674
90,904
236,000
North Dakota
3,205
18,863
20,903
257,017
South Dakota
9,692
34,923
51,579
182,865
Utah
4,807
51,156
115,494
2,363,746
Wyoming
12,198
33,534
63,849
173,151
Indian Lands
1,185
12,246
0
0
Total Region VIII
61,000
271,372
531,274
5,768,829
Grand Total
6,632,475
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6-17
Estimated direct and indirect medical cancer costs are based on a range of cost per case
estimates. The lower bound estimate, based on Hartunian, et al., is $80,000, while the upper
bound estimate developed by the American Cancer Society is $137,000. These estimates
provide differing values for foregone earnings and medical costs. Both estimates are
weighted average costs associated with all types of cancers.
Lower bound estimate
HC = (2)($80,000) = $ 160,000 (1988 $)
Upper bound estimate
HC = (46)($ 137,000) = $6,302,000 (1988 $).
Quantified welfare damage estimates for other endpoints have not been prepared due to the
lack of readily usable data describing the number of effects and Regional costs of
replacement and remediation.
Given the number of annual private well replacements and public water supply hook ups
associated with drinking water contamination, the cost of replacing contaminated drinking
water supplies could be estimated. These costs may be estimated by assuming that the
capital costs for- are $3,500 for replacing a private well by digging a new well and $300,000
for replacing a public supply well by extending a hook up from another public supply. These
costs do not include the annual operating costs for these private and public systems.
6.6 OMISSIONS
It was not possible to estimate quantitatively and credibly the number of health effects due
to contaminated drinking water supplies in Region VIII without using national data and
scaling it to the Region. In addition, welfare damages have not been estimated. These
omissions may be particularly significant, as costs associated with meeting new EPA drinking
water standards may be very high for a number of Region VIII States.
6.7 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING THE ANALYSES
There was little data available to characterize the exposure of Region VIII populations to
contaminated drinking water. In addition, there is very little data estimating the quality of
private drinking water supplies.
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6.8 PRINCIPAL CONTACTS
Benson, Robert
Sanders, Doris
6.9 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hartunian, N.S., C.N. Smart, and M.S. Thompson. 1981. The Incidence and Economic
Costs of Major Health Impairments. A Comparative Analysis of Cancer. Motor Vehicle
Injuries. Coronary Heart Disease, and Stroke. D.C. Heath and Company.
Lammering, Milton. 1990. Personal Communication. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency Region VIII, Denver, CO.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. Region V Comparative Risk Analysis.
Chicago, IL.
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7.0 STORAGE TANKS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The Storage Tanks problem area covers risks to human health and welfare, and the
environment posed by the following types of storage tank facilities:
• Underground storage tanks used for storing petroleum products or regulated
substances.
• Ground level or on ground storage tanks used for storing petroleum products or
regulated substances.
• Above ground storage tanks used for storing petroleum products or regulated
substances.
The types of risks to human health and the environment from storage tanks that fall within
this problem area are those resulting from the routine or continuous release of petroleum
products or regulated substances to the soils, surface water, groundwater, and air. Typically,
these releases' occur in the form of undetected leaks. This analysis considers only the
distribution of, and risks due to, under ground storage tanks (USTs). Quantified welfare
risks are estimated based on the number of tanks requiring corrective action and cost
estimates associated with those actions.
Stored substances falling within this area are petroleum products and regulated substances,
including gasoline, diesel fuel, motor oils, heating oils, solvents, lubricants, and inorganic
acids and bases. These substances can contaminate soils, water, and air with such toxic
substances as benzene, toluene, xylene, ethylbenzene, chlorinated solvents, petroleum
hydrocarbons, and heavy metals.
This problem area does not include risks arising from the following types of facilities or
releases:
• Storage tanks used to store hazardous wastes. These facilities fall within the
Active Hazardous Waste Facility problem area.
• Acute accidents or releases from storage tanks, including tank collapses or
explosions. These releases are covered under the Accidental Chemical Release
problem area. It should be noted that it has not been possible to precisely
define the boundary conditions separating "acute" and "routine" releases in this
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report. By not considering acute releases, this report may underestimate risks
due to USTs in Region VIII.
There are an estimated 71,656 USTs in Region VIII (see Table 1). Of these, approximately
39% are between 110 and 1,999 gallons in volume, with 38% and 23% ranging between
2,000 and 9,999 and 10,000 and 29,999 gallons, respectively. Approximately 91% of the
USTs in Region VIII are used for petroleum storage. Fourty-seven percent of the tanks in
the Region are between 0 and 10 years of age; however, approximately 21% are over 20
years old or have undetermined ages, see Appendix 1 for additional data regarding the types
and distribution of USTs in the Region. However, the estimated universe of releases is
approximated at 10-30% of the total registered tanks. Discussion and analysis of this
problem area focuses on petroleum products due to the large percentage of lists used for
petroleum storage in the Region.
Petroleum products can include a wide variety of commercial products including crude oil,
gasoline, fuel oils, and lubricants. There are a number of compounds associated with
petroleum, primarily saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons. In addition, it is common
practice to enhance the performance of petroleum products by adding various compounds.
Some of the additives may be acutely or chronically toxic. Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene,
and xylene are the compounds that are known to have potentially serious adverse health and
environmental effects. A number of studies have been conducted on the human health
effects of these constituents, but there is relatively little data on their ecological impact.
7.2 HUMAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT
12.1 Toxicity Assessment
Epidemiological literature suggests a relationship between exposure to gasoline, or its
constituents, principally benzene, and cancer incidence. To date, only benzene has been
causally linked to human cancer. NESCAUM's 1989 study evaluating the health effects due
to gasoline exposure offers the following summary of findings from the literature:
• Gasoline is presumed to be carcinogenic to human beings. This finding is based
largely on the fact that benzene, a volatile component of gasoline, is an
established human carcinogen. Any exposure to gasoline entails benzene
exposure. In addition, limited animal data indicates that toluene and xylene,
which are also gasoline components, are carcinogenic in rodents. Finally,
evidence from epidemiological studies on gasoline suggests that exposure may
itself be carcinogenic to humans, irrespective of benzene's carcinogenicity.
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• The epidemiological evidence regarding benzene carcinogenicity is widely
accepted. The evidence regarding the human carcinogenicity of the gasoline
mixture, however, is subject to significant uncertainties. These uncertainties stem
from the limited ability of epidemiological studies to identify carcinogens
(particularly weak carcinogens), the complexity of the chemical exposures
associated with the petroleum industry, and the lack of any clearly defined target
organ that gasoline may affect. Moreover, the fact that many epidemiological
investigations have been conducted, each one analyzing several types of cancer,
raises the concern that apparently significant associations may actually have been
random statistical fluctuations. Nonetheless, a more qualitative analysis of the
study findings suggests that clearer positive associations could be established
upon more rigorous analyses.
Non-cancer health effects have been attributed to the ingestion, inhalation, or dermal
exposure to gasoline or its constituents. The most sensitive endpoint for gasoline is kidney
toxicity, which has been shown to result from human equivalent exposure in the 2 to 4
mg/kg/day range. The most sensitive endpoints for principal constituents of concern include
hematoxicity associated with benzene exposure in the range of 0.1 to 1 mg/kg/day and
neurobehavioral, hematological, and immunological effects associated with toluene exposure
in the range of 0.5 to 1.5 mg/kg/day. Reproductive and fetotoxic effects have been
associated with exposure to xylene at an equivalent dose level of 17 mg/kg/day.
122 Exposure Assessment
Primary exposure pathways of concern are via contaminated groundwater and soil. Human
exposures may occur through ingesting contaminated water, inhaling vapors, and dermal
exposure from contaminated water while showering, washing clothes or dishes, or through
inhaling vapors penetrating basement or foundation walls. In unusual cases, vapor
concentrations may reach levels conducive to fire or explosion. Vapor inhalation may also
occur outdoors in areas adjacent to a leaking tank, but this is generally viewed as a less
significant exposure pathway.
In addition to the public health hazard posed by the problems outlined above, there is an
occupational health and safety hazard resulting from the exposure of environmental
remediation workers involved in the removal of leaking underground storage tanks. Failure
to render tanks properly inert and improper handling during the removal process may result
in explosion. These health risks are not considered in this analysis, as occupational risks are
not considered in other problem areas.
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The population potentially at risk in Region VIII is defined as those dependent upon
groundwater as a primary source of drinking water supplied without benefit of routine
monitoring and treatment for volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Such measures would
otherwise prevent ingestion of petroleum-contaminated water. Estimated population
supplied by groundwater-based public water systems serving populations of 3,300 or less,
presented below for the six states in Region VIII and indian lands (see Table 7-2).
This definition of the population at risk may underestimate the population at risk in Region
VIII. For example, mountain properties located within large municipal or county
jurisdictions are not all hooked up to public water supplies. Boulder County, Colorado
(population 200,000) for example, has a number of mountain properties that use private
wells and septic systems.
Primary water supply systems serving 3,300 customers or less are not yet required to test for
volatile organics. Effective January 1, 1991, all systems serving 25 people or more will be
required to sample each water supply source, initially on a quarterly basis, to determine the
presence and extent of VOC contamination. Assuming the regulations are observed by
smaller systems and are effectively enforced by the Agency, this requirement will
substantially reduce the estimated population at risk of ingesting contaminated groundwater.
Note that the population potentially at risk constitutes approximately 14% of total Regional
population and ranges from a low of 8% in Utah to a high of 35% in Montana. Note that
approximately 60% of the Region's Indian population may be at risk, while approximately
75% of the population residing on Indian Lands utilizes groundwater systems. The
assumption that tribal communities larger than 3,300 monitor for VOCs may underestimate
health risks. The magnitude of this underestimate is unknown.
72.3 Human Health Risk Characterization
Both cancer and non-cancer risks associated with ingesting contaminated groundwater and
inhalating vapors from contaminated water have been estimated in NESCAUM's 1989 study
of health effects resulting from gasoline exposure. Estimates were based on an analysis of
case studies involving leaking underground petroleum storage tanks in New England. Since
comparable case study analyses were not available for the states in Region VIII, the
NESCAUM exposure scenarios were used to derive estimated annual cancer deaths and
non-cancer hazard indices for the population at risk in Region VIII. These data and
estimates are presented in Table 7-3 (annual cancer deaths) and Table 7-4 (non-cancer
hazard indices).
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It is important to emphasize that these estimates are conservative. They are based on many
simplifying assumptions necessary to fill primary data gaps or inadequacies. Resulting
estimates probably overstate "true" risk levels.
There is considerable uncertainty regarding the comparative human health effects of
exposure via ingestion of contaminated drinking water versus inhalation of vapors and
dermal exposure from contaminated water while showering, bathing, washing hands, dishes,
or clothes. Comparative exposure levels simulated from modeling efforts reported in the
literature range from 90+ percent to parity for ingestion versus inhalation. Dermal
exposure has been estimated at relatively insignificant levels by comparison to either
ingestion or inhalation.
We have confined our attention to cancer and non-cancer risks associated with daily
ingestion of two liters of drinking water contaminated by low levels of petroleum or its by-
products. Higher exposure levels are assumed to trigger a taste or odor response that
effectively limits subsequent exposure. It is further assumed that few, if any, would be
subjected to a lifetime of exposure. Available evidence points to much shorter exposure
periods. The subchronic level of seven years provides a suitably conservative assumption
for purposes of this analysis.
Calculation of non-cancer risk has also been derived with reference to the ingestion of
contaminated drinking water. The non-cancer hazard index is computed by dividing
estimated exposure levels by the corresponding oral reference doses. Note from the
estimates outlined below that ingestion-induced exposure levels for gasoline exceed the oral
reference dose for non-cancer effects. Benzene exposure levels are well below the
corresponding reference dose for benzene. Toluene and xylene exposure levels are orders
of magnitude below their respective reference doses and do not appear to present serious
health concerns.
7.3 ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
7.3.1 Toxicity Assessment
Depending on extent of release and proximity to sensitive receptors, UST releases may
result in potentially significant adverse ecological effects. The extent of ecosystem damage
depends on numerous of factors, including: nature of released material, type of habitat,
ecosystem stability, and affected species.
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732 Exposure Assessment
Locations of USTs in Region VIII were not identified in this analysis; therefore, this section
contains no site-specific data. However, there is generally a correlation between urban
population clusters and UST locations. This is true because the majority of USTs are used
by gasoline retailers. In addition, most USTs are located in areas that are not in their
original natural state; the areas have been disturbed as a result of urbanization. This does
not, however, exclude the possibility that a leaking UST can have significant effects on the
environment. Groundwater, surface water, soil, and air are the primary environmental
concerns associated with leaking USTs. Contamination from leaking USTs can create
environmental problems that can lead to an increase in plant and animal morbidity and
mortality.
In a national survey conducted by versar, SCS, and Franklin Associates, 12,444 release
incidents from USTs were identified between 1970 and 1984 (Versar, 1986). Of those
12,444 releases, 68% were releases to soil; 45% released to groundwater; 22% released to
surface water; and 15% released to air. Gasoline was identified as the released material
in 70% of the reported incidents.
Releases from USTs have the potential to adversely affect surface water. A number of
factors influence the incidence of surface water contamination from leaking USTs, including:
proximity of tank to body of water; materials leaking from tank; amount of released
material; groundwater flow; and local soils and geology.
If conditions exist that allow the flow of released material to surface water, the negative
ecological impacts can be extensive. Historically, leaks from USTs have not had an
overwhelming impact on surface water due to the fact that soil and ground between the leak
and the surface water body acts as an attenuator.
Leaking USTs can also affect ecosystems via soil contamination and by releasing to
groundwater, which can ultimately contaminate aquifiers and surface water. Soil
contamination may adversely affect terrestrial organisms at the lowest level of the food
chain. This may expose higher-order organisms to adverse health consequences due to
ingestion of contaminated food sources. Groundwater contamination may result in adverse
health effects upon plant and animal life at the surface. Ingestion of contaminated water
where it emerges in springs or wetland areas represents one exposure pathway.
Groundwater may, consequently, contaminate surface waters, presenting immersion or
ingestion hazards for a wide range of terrestrial and aquatic organisms.
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7-7
7.3 J Ecological Risk Characterization
Severity
Ecological damage resulting from underground storage tank releases generally can be
considered low in severity relative to other problem areas. However, there is considerable
uncertainty associated with this conclusion.
It is difficult to determine the time frame in which the affected ecosystems will recover from
contamination due to leaking underground storage tanks. Oil and gas spills to surface water
will evaporate quickly (depending on the extent of the release). If sediments are
contaminated, the period of recovery will be extended accordingly. Water temperature and
turbidity will also affect the rate of recovery. Groundwater contamination is more complex,
and it is difficult to determine the rate of recovery. Contaminated groundwater may affect
the overall water supply, which in turn may affect both plant and animal life.
7.4 WELFARE RISK ASSESSMENT
Welfare risks associated with this problem area potentially include:
• cost of illness and lost wages associated with cancer and non-cancer illness;
• loss of groundwater option value, where option value can be thought of as an
economic measure of the value of future uses that would be foregone due to
contamination;
• costs associated with replacing or testing drinking water contaminated by releases
to ground and surface water;
• property value damages associated with explosions or accidents due to leaking
USTs;
• aesthetic harms and damages associated with drinking water contamination, as
well as the costs associated with private individuals purchasing home drinking
water filtration devices; and
• costs associated with clean-up of leaking USTs.
Quantitative welfare damages are based only on an estimate of the annual cost associated
with UST clean-up in Region VIII. These costs were estimated by assuming that a mean
clean-up cost is $150,000 (Geise, 1990). This damage estimate was multiplied by the
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7-8
number of reported clean-up actions reported by the states in the 1989 Activities Report.
A total of 383 enforcement actions to clean-up were reported in 1989. Thus, damages
associated with LUST enforcement actions could be approximately $57,450,000 annually in
Region VIII.
7.9 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Benson, B. 1990. Personal communication. Region VIII, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Denver, Colorado.
Geise, W. 1990. Personal communication. Region VIII, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Denver, Colorado.
Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management. 1989. Evaluation of the Health
Effects from Exposure to Gasoline and Gasoline Vapors. Final Report, August.
Shehata, A.T. 1985. "A Multi-Route Exposure Assessment of Chemically Contaminated
Drinking Water," Toxicology and Public Health. Vol. 1, No. 4.
Telephone conversation with Mr. Gerald W. Phillips, Chief of the Office of UST/LUST,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region V, June 1990.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1987. "National Primary Drinking Water
Regulations; Synthetic Organic Chemicals; Monitoring for Unregulated Contaminants,"
Final Rule, 52 FR 25690, July 8.
Versar, Inc. 1986. Analysis of the National Data Base of Underground Storage Tank
Release Incidents. Report to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid
Waste, June 13.
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Table 7-1
Distribution of Known Underground Storage
Tanks in Region VIII by Numbers, Volume, and Age.
Volume of USTs in Gallons
Age of USTs in Years
Total
110-
2000-
10000-
30000-
50000+
>20 or
P6troleum
State
Tanks
1999
9999
29999
49999
0-5
6-10
11-15
16-20
Unknown
Tanks
Colorado
20,901
5,851
9,013
5,805
150
82
6,543
4,439
4,180
3,184
3,470
19,043
Montana
18,138
11,120
4,710
2,817
36
85
3,064
4,689
3,827
2,802
4,023
16,936
North Dakota
6,707
2,591
2,330
1,711
23
52
1,538
1,478
943
892
1,971
6,075
South Dakota
6,794
2,800
2,667
1,308
14
5
1,411
1,578
1,199
989
1,737
6,232
Utah
11,112
2,795
4,723
3,506
50
38
2,886
2,495
2,038
1,548
2,090
10,032
Wyoming
8,004
2,757
3,683
1,531
17
16
1,843
1,894
1,416
1,107
1,936
7,229
TOTAL
71,656
27,914
27,126
16,678
290
278
17,285
16,573
13,603
10,522
15,227
65,547
Percent of Total Tanks
Colorado
27.99o/o
43.12%
27.77%
0.72%
0.39%
31.30%
21.24%
20.00%
15.23%
16.60%
91.11%
Montana
61.31%
25.97%
15.53%
0.20%
0.47%
16.89%
25.85%
21.10%
15.45%
22.18%
93.37%
North Dakota
38.63%
34.74%
25.51%
0.34%
0.78%
22.93%
22.04%
14.06%
13.30%
29.39%
90.58%
South Dakota
41.21%
39.26%
19.25%
0.21%
0.07%
20.77%
23.23%
17.65%
14.56%
25.57%
91.73%
Utah
25.15%
42.50%
31.55%
0.45%
0.34%
25.97%
22.45%
18.34%
13.93%
18.81%
90.28%
Wyoming
34.45%
46.01%
19.13%
0.21%
0.20%
23.03%
23.66%
17.69%
13.83%
24.19%
90.32%
TOTAL
38.96%
37.86%
23.28%
0.40%
0.39%
24.12%
23.13%
18.98%
14.68%
21.25%
91.47%
From: State Surveys of Underground Storage Tanks, Spring 1989. See appendix 1 for a complete data set.
-------
Table 7-2
Population Served by Groundwater Systems
of Less than 3300 People. [1]
Ground
Ground Water
Total
Percent of
Water
Between
Population
Population
State
Population
<500
501-3300
at Risk
at Risk
Colorado
3,476,000
138,854
162,165
301,019
8.66%
Montana
703,000
170,027
75,592
245,619
34.94%
North Dakota
551,000
65,557
107,592
173,149
31.42%
South Dakota
650,000
73,169
131,577
204,746
31.50%
Utah
3,143,000
89,838
147,450
237,288
7.55%
Wyoming
866,000
61,691
56,733
118,424
13.67%
Indian
52,000
14,867
15,763
30,630
58.90%
TOTAL
9,441,000
614,003
696,872
1,310,875
13.88%
[1] Data provided by Bob Benson of Region VIII, U.S. EPA, Denver, CO.
-------
Table 7-3
Cancer Risk Assessment
Ground
Ground
Total
Percent of
Estimated
Estimated
Water
Water
Population
Population
Population
Cancer
Annual
State
Population
<500 (1)
501-3300 [2]
at Risk
at Risk
Exposed
Deaths
Cancer Deaths
Colorado
3,476.000
138,854
162,165
301,019
8.66%
19,867
1.19
0.02
Montana
703,000
170,027
75,592
245,619
34.94%
16,211
0.97
0.01
North Dakota
551,000
65,557
107,592
173,149
31.42%
11,428
0.69
0.01
South Dakota
650,000
73,169
131,577
204,746
31.50%
13,513
0.81
0.01
Utah
3,143,000
89,838
147,450
237,288
7.55%
15,661
0.94
0.01
Wyoming
866,000
61,691
56,733
118,424
13.67%
7,816
0.47
0.01
Indian Lands
52,000
14,867
15,763
30,630
58.90%
2,022
0.12
0.00
TOTAL
9,441,000
614,003
696,872
1,310,875
13.88%
86,518
5.19
0.07
[1] Population served by groundwater systems serving populations < 500.
(2) Population served by groundwater systems serving populations between 501 and 3300.
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Table 4
Non-Cancer Risk Assessment
Exposure Reference Dose Hazard Index
(mg/kg/day) (mg/kg/day) (Exposure/RFD)
Gasoline 1.7 x 10-1 0.1 1.70
Benzene 1.4 x 10-2 0.1 0.14
Toluene 8.1 x 10-3 0.5 0.02
Xylene 8.6 x 10-3 1.2 0.01
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APPENDIX 1
-------
SURVEY OF UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANKS - SPRING, 1989
Report for the State of COLORADO, Prepared on October 5, 1989
Volume of UST in Gallons
I--
1 Material of I
110-
2,000-
10,000-
30 ,000-
50,000+
Totals
construction j
1,999
9 ,999
29,999
49,999
1
Steel 1
5 ,026
7 ,979
4,433
133
63
17,634
FRP 1
310
579
1,173
10
4
2,076
Concrete I
83
27
26
3
10
149
Unknown I
415
424
154
4
5
1 ,002
Other I
17
4
19
0
0
40
Totals 1
1
5 ,851
9 ,013
5 ,805
150
82
20 ,901
z contents in Uoi j —
Petroleum 1
5 ,259
8 ,310
5,331
87
56
19,043
Hazardous Mat'l. I
20
46
69
2
2
139
Empty 1
248
286
121
6
4
665
Unknown 1
19
22
31
0
0
72
QfcJajar |
254
308
253
52
20
8 8.7
-S |
1
5 ,800
8 ,972
5 ,805
147
82
20 ,806
Avg. Data Entry Completed: 100.0 Percent
Survey Conducted 06/14/89
Records processed:
Facility: 8,530
Tank: 23 ,080
Unreadable Records:
Facility: 12
Tank: 0
Tanks with:
Non-numeric Age Data: 0
Missing Age Data: 976
Tanks with: |
Non-numeric Capacity Data: 0
Missing Capacity Data: 434
Unknown Capacity Data: 16 3
Capacities Less than 110 Gallons: 1,312
Page 1 of 2
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SURVEY OF UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANKS - SPRING, 1989
Report for the
state of
COLORADO,
Prepared
on October
5, 1989
l - -
Age
of UST
in Years
i
i iterial of I
0-5
6-10
11-15
16-20
>20 or
Totals
nstruction |
_ —
Unknown
1
Steel 1
4,590
3,888
3,761
3 ,005
3 ,101
18,345
FRP 1
1,490
323
237
19
24
2,093
Concrete 1
67
30
15
27
28
167
Unknown 1
370
195
162
133
309
1,169
Other 1
26
3
5
0
8
42
Totals 1
1
6 ,543
4,439
4 ,180
3 ,184
3 ,470
21 ,816
z contents in uoi i—
_ |
— |
Petroleum 1
5 ,977
4,053
3,811
2,838
3,011
19,690
Hazardous Mat'l. 1
27
33
54
25
12
151
Empty 1
199
102
97
171
209
773
Unknown 1
37
5
30
15
32
119
Other 1
299
213
161
97
191
96 i
Totals 1
6 ,539
4,406
4,153
3 ,146
3 ,455
21 ,699
j c o r ir o s x o n 11 o l © c u |
odic Protectionl
1 ,911
431
336
287
289
3 ,254
xwcerior Lining |
457
165
68
99
165
954
FRP I
469
129
92
19
14
723
None 1
2 ,396
2 ,682
2 ,630
1 ,990
1 ,706
11 ,404
Unknown 1
1 ,264
1 ,035
1,057
795
1 ,307
5 ,458
Other 1
63
9
4
5
4
85
Totals i
1
6,560
4 ,451
4,187
3,195
3 ,485
21 ,878
4 riping i=—=
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ |
i
Bare Steel 1
709
579
528
466
755
3 ,037
Galvanized Steel |
2,599
2,422
2,316
1 ,728
1 ,452
10 ,517
FRP 1
1,893
416
386
257
191
3,143
Cathodic Protection!
590
181
120
163
138
1,192
Unknown 1
928
727
779
597
886
3 ,917
Other |
248
195
127
78
153
801
Totals 1
1
6 ,967
4 ,520
4,256
3 ,289
3,575
22,607
a uwnersnip 1=—
|
. i
*ate/Corporate |
4,741
3 ,217
2,960
2,341
2 ,203
15 ,462
l/State Gov't |
951
582
482
310
477
2,802
ral Government |
171
136
110
106
373
896
Indian Trust Lands |
24
6
15
3
0
48
Uncertain |
37
12
18
24
19
110
Totals |
1
In-
5 ,924
3 ,953
3 ,585
2 ,784
3 ,072
19,318
Page 2 of 2
-------
SURVEY OF UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANKS - SPRING, 1989
Report for the State of MONTANA, Prepared on October 5, 1989
Volume of UST in Gallons
1-
1 Material of I
110-
2,000-
10,000-
30,000-
50 ,000 +
Totals
Construction I
1 ,999
9 ,999
29 ,999
49,999
1
Steel 1
10 ,290
4,398
1,868
30
40
16 ,626
FRP 1
31
43
53
0
0
127
Concrete 1
37
11
6
1
3
58
Unknown 1
558
129
40
0
0
727
Other 1
204
129
220
5
42
660
Totals 1
11,120
4,710
2,187
36
85
18,138
z conlcjIlS in uoi i
— i
Petroleum 1
10 ,292
4 ,490
2,069
34
51
16 ,936
Hazardous Mat'1. |
29
15
12
0
5
61
Empty 1
210
68
28
0
3
309
Unknown 1
48
4
2
0
2
56
|
519
115
95
2
25
756
als I
1
1 =
•11 ,098
4,692
2,206
36
86
18,118
Avg. Data Entry Completed: 100.0 Percent
Survey Conducted 06/08/89
Records processed:
Facility: 9,441
Tank: 18,587
Unreadable Records:
Facility: 0
Tank: 0
Tanks with:
Non-numeric Age Data: 16
Missing Age Data: 12
Tanks with:
Non-numeric Capacity Data: 2
Missing Capacity Data: -12
Unknown Capacity Data: 151
Capacities Less than 110 Gallons: 129
Page 1 of 2
-------
SURVEY OF UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANKS - SPRING, 1989
Report for the
State of
MONTANA,
Prepared
on October
5, 1989
1
Age
Of UST
in Years
1
^Material of I
0-5
6-10
11-15
16-20
>20 or
Totals
"onstruction j
_ _ — —
Unknown
I
Steel 1
2,816
4,414
3,563
2,613
3 ,412
16,818
FRP I
65
34
19
6
4
128
Concrete 1
22
17
5
5
12
61
Unknown I
41
125
156
109
349
780
Other 1
120
99
84
69
246
618
Totals 1
1
3 ,064
4 ,689
3 ,827
2,802
4,023
18 ,405
2 Contents in UbT |
- -1
— — I
Petroleum 1
2,930
4,502
3 ,646
2,606
3,445
17 ,129
Hazardous Mat'l. |
14
13
6
9
23
6 5
Empty 1
32
40
41
32
186
331
Unknown 1
2
2
2
2
59
67
Other 1
86
119
129
152
307
793
Totals 1
1
3 ,064
4,676
3 ,824
2 ,801
4 ,020
18,385
3 corrosion rrotsct i —
^odic Protection|
568
199
87
189
183
1 ,226
irior Lining |
90
93
76
61
45
365
r rtr 1
76
56
27
11
13
183
None 1
1 ,933
3 ,482
2,669
1 ,783
2 ,068
11 ,935
Unknown 1
278
763
884
679
1 ,448
4 ,052
Other 1
118
109
90
82
266
665
Totals 1
1
3,063
4 ,702
3 ,833
2 ,805
4 ,023
18 ,426
4 Piping 1-===
_ _ _ I
1
Bare Steel I
371
650
512
395
672
2 ,600
Galvanized Steel I
2,021
2,989
2 ,385
1,638
1 ,701
10 ,734
FRP 1
142
26
31
29
7
235
Cathodic Protection!
193
118
55
50
117
533
Unknown I
232
513
548
408
999
2 ,700
Other I
254
445
326
309
613
1,947
Totals 1
1
3 ,213
4 ,741
3 ,857
2,829
4,109
18,749
5 ownersnip 1 _ -
_ |
i
Private/Corporate |
2,694
4 ,220
3 ,439
2,375
3 ,208
15 ,936
al/State Gov't |
305
315
284
238
304
1 ,446
sral Government I
73
147
91
176
447
934
iiiuiiam Trust Lands |
1
10
5
2
8
26
Uncertain 1
19
16
35
29
82
181
Totals I
1
!====
3 ,092
4 ,708
3 ,854
2 ,820
4 ,049
18 ,523
Page 2 of 2
-------
SURVEY OF UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANKS - SPRING, 1989
Report for the State of NORTH DAKOTA, Prepared on October 5, 1989
Volume of UST in Gallons
1 Material of
Construction
110-
1,999
2 ,000-
9 ,999
10,000-
29 ,999
30,000-
49 ,999
50,000+
Totals
Steel
2,398
2,175
1 ,633
20
46
6 ,272
FRP
73
86
52
0
0
211
Concrete
12
7
2
1
5
27
Unknown
103
60
23
2
1
189
Other
5
2
1
0
0
8
Totals
2 ,591
2 ,330
1 ,711
23
52
6 ,707
2 Contents in UST
Petroleum
Hazardous Mat'l.
Empty
Unknown
Other
fefcals
2,322
2,140
1,586
19
8
6,0/5
14
12
12
0
1
39
123
63
24
0
1
211
8
5
4
0
0
17
122
108
81
4
42
357
2,589
2,328
1 ,707
23
52
6 ,699
Avg. Data Entry Completed: 100.0 Percent
Survey Conducted 06/19/89
Records processed:
Facility: 2,794
Tank: 6,8 33
Unreadable Records:
Facility: 0
Tank: 0
Tanks with:
Non-numeric Age Data:. 0
Missing Age Data: 6
Tanks with:
Non-numeric Capacity Data: 0
Missing Capacity Data: 7
Unknown Capacity Data: 78
Capacities Less than 110 Gallons: 37
Page 1 of 2
-------
SURVEY OF UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANKS -» SPRING, 1989
Report for the
State of NORTH DAKOTA,
Prepared
on October 5, 1989
I
Age
of UST in
Years
1
Material of |
0-5
6-10
11-15
16-20
>20 or
Totals
onstruction |
Unknown
I
Steel 1
1 ,408
1,366
884
845
1,850
6,353
FRP 1
109
67
27
5
3
211
Concrete 1
8
11
4
0
6
29
Unknown 1
6
32
28
42
111
219
Other 1
7
2
0
0
1
10
Totals 1
^ ^ A M ^ a m ^ m ^ yi f T f 1 ¦
1,538
1,478
943
892
1 ,971
6,822
Z contents in i
Petroleum 1
1,436
1,375
872
809
1,663
6,155
Hazardous Mat'l. I
21
14
2
0
3
40
Empty 1
16
25
25
47
117
230
Unknown 1
0
1
3
1
20
25
Other 1
63
63
41
35
162
364
Totals 1
1,536
1 ,478
943
892
1 ,965
6,814
3 C 0 IT JT 0 S10 h *r r 0 u 6 0 l |
iodic Protection!
568
132
68
68
501
1 ,337
srior Lining |
64
38
19
14
39
174
FRP 1
55
37
20
12
10
134
None 1
771
1 ,085
629
522
852
3 ,859
Unknown 1
78
186
207
276
570
1 ,317
Other 1
2
0
0
0
0
2
Totals I
1,538
1 ,478
943
892
1,972
6 ,823
4 Piping 1 =
_ 1
Bare Steel 1
276
285
194
189
576
1 ,520
Galvanized Steel I
977
924
578
491
883
3,853
FRP I
69
19
1
3
2
94
Cathodic Protection|
220
48
42
21
422
753
Unknown 1
83
192
130
180
439
1 ,024
Other 1
100
52
32
29
68
281
Totals 1
1
1 ,725
1,520
977
913
2 ,390
7 ,525
5 ownersnip 1-
i
Q-*^ate/Corporate |
1 ,335
1,291
794
769
1 ,266
5 ,455
l/State Gov't |
131
140
104
77
117
569
ral Government |
60
48
43
44
580
775
Indian Trust Lands |
0
0
0
0
0
0
Uncertain |
7
0
0
2
9
18
Totals I
1
1
1 ,533
1 ,479
941
892
1,972
6 ,817
Page 2 of 2
-------
SURVEY OF UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANKS - SPRING, 1989
Report for the State of SOUTH DAXOTA, Prepared on October 5, 1989
Volume of UST in Gallons
1 -
1 Material of I
110-
2,000-
10 ,000-
30,000-
50 ,000+
Total:
Construction |
1 ,999
9 ,999
29,999
49,999
1
Steel 1
2 ,686
2,532
1,261
14
5
6 , 4 9 £
FRP 1
22
55
19
0
0
96
Concrete 1
5
0
1
0
0
6
Unknown 1
81
79
26
0
0
186
Other I
6
1
1
0
0
8
Totals I
1
O f i n T T CT I *•
2,800
2,667
1,308
14
5
6 ,794
V*< Oil TL 6*1 S X il U w X J
|
1
Petroleum I
2 ,567
2,483
1,169
12
1
6,232
Hazardous Mat'l. |
5
7
20
0
0
32
Empty 1
126
85
16
0
0
227
Unknown I
6
3
0
0
0
9
^ier j
98
71
92
2
4
267
als |
2 ,802
2 ,649
1 ,297
14
5
6,767
Avg. Data Entry Completed: 10.0 Percent
Survey conducted 07/10/89
Records processed:
Facility: 2,887
Tank: 7,455
Unreadable Records:
Facility: 0
Tank: 0
Tanks with:
Non-numeric Age Data: 0
Missing Age Data: 496
Tajiks with:
Non-numeric Capacity Data: o
Missing Capacity Data: 537
Unknown Capacity Data: 53
Capacities Less than 110 Gallons: 17
Page 1 of 2
-------
SURVEY
OF UNDERGROUND STORAGE
TANKS - SPRING,
1989
Report for the
State of
SOUTH DAKOTA,
Prepared
on October 5, 1989
l
Age
of UST in
Years
1
i—Material of |
0-5
6-10
11-15
16-20
>20 or
Totals
onstruction j
Unknown
1
Steel 1
1,346
1,524
1,158
943
1,609
6 ,580
FRP 1
53
25
15
2
2
97
Concrete I
2
2
0
1
1
6
Unknown I
6
25
25
43
123
222
Other 1
4
2
1
0
2
Q
Totals 1
^ ^ a ^ am ^ m 4 m T T C^ } «
1,411
1. ,578
1,199
989
1,737
6,914
2 Cu^u61^lS xn udi 1
Petroleum I
1,334
1,489
1 ,092
920
1 ,465
6 ,300
Hazardous Mat'l. |
2
8
16
3
4
33
Empty 1
20
20
34
41
140
255
Unknown I
0
5
0
0
17
22
Other I
40
48
53
25
103
269
Totals I
^ ^ A V ^ A M « A ^ ^ A A A ^ I ^
1,396
1,570
1 ,195
989
1 ,729
6,879
3 corrosion rrotecti-
odic Protection!
439
51
35
17
237
779
-rior Lining |
36
22
19
15
15
107
FRP 1
44
23
12
9
5
93
None 1
775
1,153
818
607
790
4,143
UnJcnovn I
107
330
318
340
685
1 ,780
Other 1
12
0
0
0
6
18
Totals 1
1
A 4 M mm 1
1,413
1,579
1,202
988
1 ,738
6 ,920
4 Piping l-
_ 1
Bare Steel 1
169
225
202
189
335
1 ,120
Galvanized Steel 1
884
1 ,104
749
569
676
3 ,982
FRP 1
104
7
4
1
6
122
Cathodic Protection!
209
18
16
13
214
470
unknown 1
93
194
189
194
429
1 ,099
Other 1
80
36
48
29
59
252
Totals 1
1
1,539
1,584
1 ,208
995
1 ,719
7 ,045
5 Ownership 1 -
I
i
a«^vate/Corporate |
858
988
780
606
855
4 ,087
l/State Gov't j
230
248
168
148
256
1 ,050
:ral Government |
50
14
25
25
273
387
Indian Trust Lands |
3
3
1
3
16
26
Uncertain |
0
3
1
5
20
29
Totals I
1
1
1,141
1 ,256
975
787
1 ,420
5 ,579
Page 2 of 2
-------
SURVEY OF UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANKS - SPRING, 1989
Report for the State of UTAH, Prepared on October 5, 1989
Volume of UST in Gallons
1-
1 Material of I
110-
2,000-
10 ,000-
30 ,000-
50 ,000+
Totals
Construction I
1,999
9,999
29,999
49,999
1
Steel 1
2,488
4,286
3,018
47
16
9,855
FRP 1
104
209
384
0
0
697
Concrete 1
21
22
18
3
18
82
Unknown 1
174
203
74
0
0
451
Other 1
8
3
12
0
4
27
Totals 1
2,795
4,723
3 ,506
50
38
11,112
^ ^ 011 011 l S X il U 0 X |
1
— 1
Petroleum I
2,433
4,280
3 ,264
37
18
10,032
Hazardous Mat'l. I
9
28
33
3
13
86
Empty 1
103
113
68
1
2
287
Unknown 1
9
11
2
1
0
23
J2ther I
238
275
139
8
5
665
tals I
1
1 ==
2,792
4 ,707
3 ,506
50
38
11 ,093
Avg. Data Entry Completed: 100.0 Percent
Survey Conducted 06/20/89
Records processed:
Facility: 3,964
Tank: 11,494
Unreadable Records:
Facility: 7
Tank: 0
Tanks with:
Non-numeric Age Data: 0
Missing Age Data: 401
Tanks with:
Non-numeric Capacity Data: 0
Missing Capacity Data: 168
Unknown Capacity Data: 107
Capacities Less than 110 Gallons: 70
Page 1 of 2
-------
SURVEY OF UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANKS - SPRING, 1989
Report for the State of UTAH, Prepared on October 5, 1989
Age of UST in Years
1 —
1 Material of |
i
i
i
i
i
O 1
1 1
in l
1
I
t
l
I
i
cr i
I I
•—1 I
O 1
1
1
1
11-15
16-20
>20 or
Totals
instruction j
Unknown
|
1
Steel 1
2,286
2,233
1 ,909
1,435
1,917
9 ,780
FRP 1
516
133
35
16
12
712
Concrete I
22
23
10
6
20
81
Unknown 1
37
102
84
91
139
453
Other I
25
4
0
0
2
31
Totals I
1
^ ^ a m ^ a ^ a « m T T Q 1 « m
2,886
2,495
2,038
1,548
2,090
11,057
z contents in uox i
Petroleum I
2,629
2,239
1,887
1 ,396
1 ,796
9 ,947
Hazardous Mat'l. |
18
25
3
2
38
86
Empty I
57
39
44
50
101
291
Unknown I
4
5
7
0
5
21
Other 1
170
183
90
99
150
692
Totals I
1
2,878
2,491
2,031
1 ,547
2 ,090
11,037
j corrosion rrotecti—
hodic Protection!
1,185
366
342
150
135
2,178
erior Lining |
218
119
37
19
32
425
r«r I
142
38
16
3
5
204
None I
1 ,065
1 ,416
1,165
934
1 ,013
5,593
Unknown j
261
557
483
445
912
2,658
Other I
18
3
0
1
0
22
Totals I
1
A O « m m i v«
2,889
2,499
2,043
1 ,552
2 ,097
11,080
4 riping 1 —
1
I
Bare steel I
265
222
323
152
466
1 ,428
Galvanized Steel j
1 ,167
1 ,458
1,204
870
908
5 ,607
FRP j
990
208
110
68
34
1,410
Cathodic Protection!
168
53
57
51
67
396
Unknown I
255
460
334
386
546
1,981
Other I
163
124
58
46
124
515
Totals 1
j
3 ,008
2,525
2,086
1,573
2 ,145
11 ,337
d uwnersnxp I —-
- i
i
Private/corporate I
2,321
1 ,944
1,494
1,143
1 ,376
8 ,278
fal/State Gov't I
283
257
222
181
380
1 ,323
,eral Government I
81
76
153
52
193
555
-muian Trust Lands |
0
4
0
0
0
4
Uncertain 1
9
20
8
11
13
61
Totals 1
1
1==
2,694
2 ,301
1,877
1,387
1 ,962
10 ,221
Page 2 of 2
-------
SURVEY OF UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANKS - SPRING, 1989
Report for the State of WYOMING, Prepared on October 5, 1989
Volume of UST in Gallons
1—
1 Material of |
110-
2 ,000-
10 ,000-
30 ,000-
50,000+
Totals
Construction j
1,999
9 ,999
29 ,999
49,999
1
Steel 1
2 ,436
3 ,352
1 ,405
13
15
7,221
FRP 1
73
138
87
3
0
301
Concrete 1
48
15
1
1
1
66
Unknown 1
181
163
37
0
0
381
Other 1
19
15
1
0
0
35
Totals I
1
2,757
3,683
1,531
17
16
8 ,004
2 Contents m ust i—
Petroleum I
2 ,446
3 ,361
1,396
13
13
7,229
Hazardous Mat'l. |
24
12
6
2
1
45
Empty 1
127
177
40
1
0
345
Unknown I
10
16
5
0
0
31
Other |
149
117
84
1
2
353
ftls i
1
I--
2,756
3,683
1,531
17
16
8 ,003
Avg. Data Entry Completed: 100.0 Percent
Survey Conducted 06/15/89
Records processed:
Facility: 3,320
Tank: 8,197
Unreadable Records:
Facility: 0
Tank: 0
Tanks with:
Non-numeric Age Data: 0
Missing Age Data: 1
Tanks with:
Non-numeric Capacity Data: 0
Missing Capacity Data: 1
Unknown Capacity Data: 148
Capacities Less'than 110 Gallons:' 44
Page l of 2
-------
SURVEY OF
UNDERGROUND STORAGE
TANKS
- SPRING, 1989
Report for the
State of
WYOMING, Prepared
on October
5, 1989
l
Age
Of UST
in Years
1
l Material of |
0-5
6-10
11-15
16-20
>20 or
Total
Construction j
Unknown
1
Steel I
1,570
1,740
1,337
1,030
1,650
7,32
FRP 1
222
64
18
1
4
30
Concrete j
18
12
6
4
28
6
Unknown I
24
74
54
71
234
45
Other 1
9
4
1
1
20
3
Totals I
1
1,843
1 ,894
1,416
1 ,107
1,936
8 ,19
2 contents m ubi i-===
Petroleum I
1,648
1 ,727
1,316
997
1,665
7 ,352
Hazardous Mat'l. j
26
12
0
7
3
4S
Empty I
54
61
48
73
128
364
Unknown 1
1
1
4
1
49
56
Other 1
114
93
47
29
90
37 3
Totals 1
1
1 ,843
1,894
1,415
1 ,107
1,935
8 ,194
3 C0 IT ITOS X On £ i O w6C u |
thodic Protection|
514
158
82
54
111
919
terior Lining j
137
49
12
16
74
288
TRP 1
104
34
12
3
6
159
None 1
954
1 ,270
1,011
686
935
4,856
Unknown j
113
378
297
346
807
1,941
Other I
21
5
2
2
3
33
Totals 1
1
1,843
1,894
1,416
1 ,107
1,936
8 ,196
4 Piping 1====
— 1
Bare Steel 1
252
305
221
173
307
1 ,258
Galvanized Steel |
1,060
1,060
906
605
817
4 ,448
FRP I
207
74
21
23
6
331
Cathodic Protection!
202
64
33
32
45
376
Unknown I
119
309
220
238
685
1,571
Other j
153
120
42
52
103
470
Totals j
1
1,993
1,932
1,443
1,123
1 ,963
8 ,454
5 uwnersnip 1====
1
— i
Private/Corporate |
1,450
1 ,655
1,233
936
1,466
6 ,740
al/State Gov't |
356
201
145
130
172
1 ,004
eral Government |
33
34
22
30
270
389
xIndian Trust Lands |
0
0
0
0
0
0
Uncertain |
4
4
14
10
24
56
Totals I
1
1 —
1,843
1,894
1,414
1,106
1,932
8 ,189
Page 2 of 2
-------
8-1
8.0 ACTIVE HAZARDOUS WASTE FACILITIES
8.1 INTRODUCTION
The Active Hazardous Waste Facilities problem area addresses risks to human health,
welfare, and ecosystems posed by facilities that generate, store, treat, and dispose of
hazardous wastes. Additionally, this area covers risks associated with the transportation of
hazardous waste. Specific facilities and activities covered in this problem area include:
• Hazardous waste generating sites, including industrial plants and other facilities
producing and accumulating hazardous wastes that meet the definition of a
"Generator" under 40 CFR 260;
• Hazardous waste storage facilities storing wastes in tanks and containers;
• Hazardous waste treatment facilities that treat wastes through physical, chemical,
or biological means;
• Hazardous waste incinerators;
• Boilers and industrial furnaces using hazardous waste as fuel;
• Hazardous waste surface impoundments;
• Hazardous waste land treatment facilities;
• Hazardous waste landfills and waste piles;
• Inactive solid waste management units at active; hazardous waste facilities;
• Hazardous waste recycling units which are exempted under current regulation,
such as solvent recycling columns; and,
• Hazardous waste transportation.
The types of risks to human health, welfare, and ecosystems resulting from active hazardous
waste facilities falling within this problem area include those resulting from accidental or
nonaccidental releases of hazardous wastes and waste constituents to air, soils, surface water,
and groundwater. Welfare risks are associated with the economic damages caused by these
problems and also by the public's perception of risk associated with these sites.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
8-2
Substances within this problem area include the approximately 450 hazardous wastes listed
by EPA in 40 CFR 261, which include various solvents, process wastes, and discarded
commercial chemical products, and wastes failing any of the waste characteristic tests
defined in 40 CFR 261. Waste characteristics resulting in designation as a characteristic
hazardous waste include:
• Ignitability
• Corrosivity
• Reactivity
• EP Toxicity
8.2 POPULATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE FACILITIES IN EPA REGION VIII
The environmental risks associated with hazardous waste disposal have long been recognized
in Region VIII. A 1985 Region VIII report ranked "hazardous waste control as the Region's
most difficult environmental problem and number one priority not only because of its
potential effects on human health and the high level of public concern it generates, but also
because of the overwhelming time, costs and complexity involved in investigation, litigation,
and cleanup of waste sites." (EPA, 1985).
Aggregate data reported in 1985 indicate that a total of 21,740 regulated large hazardous
waste generators reported generation of 271.0 million tons of hazardous waste nationwide
(U.S. EPA, 1989a). Of this total, Table 8-1 shows that Region VIII contained only 1.7% of
total large hazardous waste generators, and produced only 0.5% of the total hazardous waste
in the nation. Only Region I reported producing less hazardous waste by large hazardous
waste generators in 1985. The relationship of hazardous waste generation in Region VIII
to other Regions is graphically represented in Figure 8-1, while Figure 8-2 represents
hazardous waste generation by state.
The population of active hazardous waste facilities in Region VIII includes several broad
categories of facilities, such as generators, interim status or permitted hazardous waste
management facilities, and other management facilities that may be exempt from interim
status and permitting requirements, such as blenders and burners of hazardous waste fuels.
There are 1,391 (Minkoff and Valdez, 1990) large quantity generators of hazardous waste
in Region VIII (see Table 8-2). Some of these generators treat or dispose of wastes on site,
and are also classified as treatment, storage, and disposal facilities (TSDs). However, the
majority of these generators temporarily store wastes in tanks and containers before shipping
wastes off-site for treatment or disposal. About 44 large quantity generators have been
identified as having violated groundwater protection standards in Region VIII (see Appendix
1).
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
Table 1
Percent Large Hazardous Waste Generators and
Hazardous Waste Quantity Generated by EPA Region, 1985
Hazardous waste generators Hazardous waste quantity
Region Percent Percent
1 9.6 0.1
2 10.3 9.3
3 15.8 25.5
4 10.3 35.2
5 13.4 4.5
6 14.0 20.0
7 2.4 0.8
8 1.7 0.5
9 19.3 3.9
10 33 02
TOTAL U.S. 100.0 * 100.0 *
From: U.S. EPA 1989a, prepared by DPRA from the 1985 Biennial Report SAS Data
Library. (Sections I and III data. DL88350)
-------
FIGURE 1. AMOUNT OF HAZARDOUS WASTE GENERATED
BY EPA REGION, 1985
(000 tons)
Quantity
100, 000 1
90, 000 -
80. 000 :
70, 000:
60, 000
50, 000 -
40, 000 :
30, 000
20. 000
10. 000
0
2 3 4 5 6 7
Region
m.
8
10
Source: Prepared by DPRA from the 1985 Biennial Repoft SAS Data Library.
(Sections I nd III data. DL88350)
7
-------
FIGURE 2. HAZARDOUS WASTE^ENERATED IN THE U.S. BY STATE, 1985
Source:
Prepared by DPRA from the 1985 Biennial Report SAS Data Libraiy. (Sections 1 and ID data. DL88350)
-------
Prepared by:
Jon Minkoff and Stella Valdez
RCRA Implementation Branch
TABLE 2
HAZARDOUS WASTE NOTIFICATION FIGURES
07/27/90
TSD Types Withdrawals Valid
State
LQG
SQG
leans
TSD
S3
Stor
Jt a
Disp
Incin
B/B
MUM
XMT
RTY
CLS
TOT
Notifiers
CO
450
2049
242
^2¥
22
1/(2)
65
581
59
78
276
994
3007
MT
92
257
73
11
2
9
0
40
41
20
14
67
142
437
ND
69
317
57
8
5
2
1
41
92
7
32
20
151
502
SD
171
212
59
2
2
0
0
18
152
7
41
13
213
425
UT
542
479
140
33
15
16
2/(1)
43
96
84
5
88
273
1153
WY
62
21fi
ak
17
_6
11
_Q_
13
209
54
26
62
351
412
Total
1391
3532
655
£0
4/(3)
226
1121
231
1%
526
212k
5936
1 ty
NOTE: LQG = large quantity generators (> 1000 kg/mo), SQG = small quantity generators (100-1000 kg/mo), Trans =
transporters, TSD = treatment, storage and disposal facilities, TSD Types: Stor = storage &/or treatment only,
Disp = disposal and any other processes, Incin = incineration without disposal (#s in parentheses show
incineration with disposal), B/B = burner/blenders (used oil or hazardous waste fuel), Withdrawals = notifiers
which have withdrawn from the system for the reason indicated: NIIW = no hazardous waste (261-3), XMT = exempted
from regulation (e.g., mining wastes; 261-4), RCY = recycling exempt (e.g., onsite; 266), CLS = closed business
(most are not 264/5 closures), TOT = total withdrawals, Valid Notifiers = waste handlers still fully "in the
system" (including SQGs). The number of Valid Notifiers is not equal to sum of generators, transporters, TSDs
and burner/blenders because many handlers are engaged in more than one type of activity.
-------
8-7
In addition to large quantity generators, there are approximately 3,532 small quantity
generators (SQGs) in Region VIII (Minkoff and Valdez, 1990). These SQGs also generally
store wastes on-site prior to shipment off-site for treatment or disposal.
There are approximately 1221 interim status or permitted hazardous waste treatment,
storage, or disposal facilities in Region VIII (Minkoff and Valdez). These units include
surface impoundments, waste piles, landfills, incinerators, land treatment units, storage and
treatment tanks, and container storage units. Additionally, there are two facilities which
burn hazardous waste fuel, which are exempt from interim status and permitting at this time
(Minkoff and Valdez, 1990). The estimated distribution of RCRA Subtitle C Facilities in
Region VIII is shown in Table 8-2.
Facilities that have had regulated active hazardous waste units are subject to the corrective
action requirements for solid waste management units that are releasing or threaten to
release hazardous constituents to the environment. Approximately 56 hazardous waste
facilities are estimated to have required or require corrective action for one or more solid
waste management units. The distribution of these facilities and current regulatory status
is shown in Table 8-3.
8.3 HUMAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT
8.3.1 Toxicity Assessment
Active hazardous waste management facilities manage a wide variety of wastes containing
hazardous constituents. The broad categories of wastes and hazardous constituents reported
by facilities in Region VIII include:
• Chlorinated and non-chlorinated solvents, including 1,1,1 trichloromethane,
trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene, methyl ethyl ketone, toluene, xylene, etc.
• General mixtures, including some state-only regulated waste.
• Process wastes and sludges from petroleum refining, chemicals manufacturing,
and wood treating containing heavy metals and toxic organics.
• Characteristic wastes that are ignitable, reactive, corrosive, or toxic.
Principal hazardous waste streams are characterized graphically for each state in Figures 8-3
through 8-9. Large quantity waste stream generation is further represented in Tables 8-4
through 8-9. These data indicate that general waste streams characteristics vary significantly
across Region Vm states.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
jMt
TABLE 3
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CORRECTIVE ACTION REPORT 6
NUMBER OF FACILITIES WITH RFA'S AND RFI'S
PARTI
NO OF RFA NO. OF RFI NO. OF WP NO OF RFI MO OF RFI
STATE COMPLETED IMPOSED APPROVED COMPLETED WORKPLAN NOD ISSUED
CO 25 18 11 5 O
MT 4 2 0 0 0
ND 3
SO 1
UT 12 A 0 O O
WY 11 8 1 0 0
TOTAL 56 32 12 5 O
-------
FIGURE 3
Waste Stream Generation
Colorado
MOMX 74.08
MOMX: mixtures, general
POOS: spent halogenated aolTenta
D00& reactive iraate
£001: emission control dust/sludge from ateelmaklng
DOMX: mixtures, oharaoterlatlo
Other 0.13
DOMX 1.68
K061 3.93
D003 4,21
POOS 9,97
-------
FIGURE 4
Waste Stream Generation
South Dakota
D001 39.8
F006 17,07
P003 13,73
~001: Ignltable waste
POOSr spent nonhalogemted solvents
F00£k spent nonhalogented solvents
FOOL spent halogenated solvents
MOMXj mixtures, general
F002: spent halogenated solvents
Other 6,27
TO02 6.38
WOMX 9.34
F001 9.41
-------
FIGURE 5
Waste Stream Generation
Utah
D002 93.99
Other 2.72
MOMX 1.09
B044 2.2
~002: oorroslve Traste
KD44: iraBtenrater sludge from production ol zinc pigments
MO MX: mixtures, general
-------
FIGURE 6
Waste Stream Generation
Wyoming
D001 24.46
K062 10.08
^ _ t DOMX 9.84
D009: oorrosxve lraste
D001: Ignltable lraste
KD52: tank bottoms {leaded) from petroleum refining
DOMX: mixtures, characteristic
~003: reaotlTO -waste
K049: slop oil emulsion solids from petroleum refining
DOOfl: lead
D002 27,74
Other 9.64
D008 4.26
K049 6,67
D003 8,42
-------
FIGURE 7
Waste Stream Generation
North Dakota
KOMX 46,41
KGMK: mixtures, listed industrial
DO MX: mixtures, characteristic
KD51: API separator sludge from petroleum refining
DOOfl: lead
D00?: chromium
-------
FIGURE 8
Waste Stream Generation
Montana
KD01 66.46
KD49 17.46
K001: sludge from rrasterrater treatment from vrood preserving
K049: slop oil emulsion solids lrom petroleum refining
KOifl: DAP float from petroleum refining
K051: API separator sludge from petroleum refining
-------
TABLE 4
Waste Stream Generation State Ranking - Colorado
Quantity
State
Generated
Waste
% of
National
Waste
in State
Code
State
Rank
Code
(tons)
Rank
Total
27
K051
NONE
N/A
N/A
47
K031
NONE
N/A
N/A
36
K047
NONE
N/A
N/A
22
K048
NONE
N/A
N/A
14
K104
NONE
N/A
N/A
41
U188
NONE
N/A
N/A
15
K013
NONE
N/A
N/A
42
K071
NONE
N/A
N/A
16
K011
NONE
N/A
N/A
43
D010
NONE
N/A
N/A
17
K087
NONE
N/A
N/A
46
K002
NONE
N/A
N/A
18
P020
NONE
N/A
N/A
39
K022
NONE
N/A
N/A
37
F024
NONE
N/A
N/A
31
K049
NONE
N/A
N/A
20
K016
NONE
N/A
N/A
23
F007
NONE
N/A
N/A
44
K060
NONE
N/A
N/A
50
K018
NONE
N/A
N/A
49
K083
NONE
N/A
N/A
2
MOMX
218,522
1
74.08
19
F002
29,436
2
9.97
7
D003
12,444
3
4.21
11
K061
11,594
4
3.93
3
DOMX
4,971
5
1.68
9
K062
4,069
6
1.37
8
D001
3,036
7
1.02
4
D007
1,958
8
0.66
12
FOMX
1,915
9
0.64
1
D002
1,668
10
0.56
5
KOMX
1,175
11
0.39
38
DO 04
925
13
0.31
10
F006
527
14
0.17
25
F005
352
15
0.11
13
D008
301
17
0.10
26
F001
257
18
0.08
6
F003
111
20
0.03
24
UOMX
26
21
0.00
30
K001
24
22
0.00
48
K052
15
24
0.00
28
F019
12
25
0.00
40
K044
8
27
0.00
35
D009
5
32
0.00
29
D005
3
35
0.00
34
F009
3
36
0.00
45
U220
3
40
0.00
32
DOOO
2
41
0.00
33
D006
2
42
0.00
21
U036
2
48
0.00
-------
TABLE 5
Waste Stream Generation State Ranking - South Dakota
Quantity
State
Generated
Waste
% of
National
Waste
in State
Code
State
Rank
Code
(tons)
Rank
Total
23
F007
NONE
N/A
N/A
24
U0MX
NONE
N/A
N/A
50
K018
NONE
N/A
N/A
3
DOMX
NONE
N/A
N/A
43
D010
NONE
N/A
N/A
49
K083
NONE
N/A
N/A
44
K060
NONE
N/A
N/A
46
K002
NONE
N/A
N/A
9
K062
NONE
N/A
N/A
42
K071
NONE
N/A
N/A
27
K051
NONE
N/A
N/A
11
K061
NONE
N/A
N/A
28
F019
NONE
N/A
N/A
48
K052
NONE
N/A
N/A
29
D005
NONE
N/A
N/A
15
K013
NONE
N/A
N/A
30
K001
NONE
N/A
N/A
17
K087
NONE
N/A
N/A
31
K049
NONE
N/A
N/A
47
K031
NONE
N/A
N/A
32
D000
NONE
N/A
N/A
21
U036
NONE
N/A
N/A
33
0006
NONE
N/A
N/A
45
U220
NONE
N/A
N/A
34
F009
NONE
N/A
N/A
7
D003
NONE
N/A
N/A
35
D009
NONE
N/A
N/A
12
FOMX
NONE
N/A
N/A
36
K047
NONE
N/A
N/A
16
K011
NONE
N/A
N/A
37
F024
NONE
N/A
N/A
20
K016
NONE
N/A
N/A
38
D004
NONE
N/A
N/A
5
KOMX
NONE
N/A
N/A
39
K022
NONE
N/A
N/A
14
K104
NONE
N/A
N/A
40
K044
NONE
N/A
N/A
22
K048
NONE
N/A
N/A
18
P020
NONE
N/A
N/A
10
F006
NONE
N/A
N/A
41
U188
NONE
N/A
N/A
8
D001
359
1
39.80
25
F005
154
2
17.07
6
F003
124
3
13.73
26
F001
85
4
9.41
2
MOMX
84
5
9.34
19
F002
49
6
5.38
1
0002
22
7
2.41
4
D007
19
8
2.09
13
0008
6
9
0.70
-------
TABLE 6
Waste Stream Generation State Ranking - Utah
Quantity
State
Generated
Waste
%Of
National
Waste
in State
Code
State
Rank
Code
(tons)
Rank
Total
15
KOI 3
NONE
N/A
N/A
46
K002
NONE
N/A
N/A
44
K060
NONE
N/A
N/A
20
KOI 6
NONE
N/A
N/A
18
P020
NONE
N/A
N/A
50
KOI 8
NONE
N/A
N/A
49
K083
NONE
N/A
N/A
43
D010
NONE
N/A
N/A
37
F024
NONE
N/A
N/A
14
K104
NONE
N/A
N/A
47
K031
NONE
N/A
N/A
42
K071
NONE
N/A
N/A
36
K047
NONE
N/A
N/A
32
D000
NONE
N/A
N/A
39
K022
NONE
N/A
N/A
16
K011
NONE
N/A
N/A
1
D002
1,066,704
1
93.99
40
K044
25,079
2
2.20
2
MOMX
12,450
3
1.09
31
K049
7,823
4
0.68
27
K051
6,964
5
0.61
3
DOMX
2,626
6
0.23
5
KOMX
2,453
7
0.21
9
K062
2,128
8
0.18
8
D001
1,938
9
0.17
7
D003
1,703
10
0.15
17
K087
1,186
11
0.10
26
F001
831
12
0.07
12
FOMX
648
13
0.05
10
F006
449
14
0.03
19
F002
310
15
0.02
11
K061
272
16
0.02
25
F005
205
17
0.01
6
F003
204
18
0.01
48
K052
148
19
0.01
38
D004
126
20
0.01
13
D008
124
21
0.01
24
UOMX
100
22
0.00
4
D007
76
23
0.00
22
K048
73
24
0.00
28
F019
54
25
0.00
30
K001
40
26
0.00
23
F007
4
32
0.00
33
DO 06
3
35
0.00
21
U036
1
39
0.00
34
F009
1
41
0.00
35
D009
<1
46
0.00
45
U220
<1
50
0.00
29
D005
<1
53
0.00
41
U188
<1
60
0.00
-------
TABLE 7
Waste Stream Generation State Ranking - Wyoming
Quantity
State
Generated
Waste
% of
National
Waste
in State
Code
State
Rank
Code
(tons)
Rank
Total
26
F001
NONE
N/A
N/A
19
F002
NONE
N/A
N/A
20
K016
NONE
N/A
N/A
50
K018
NONE
N/A
N/A
21
U036
NONE
N/A
N/A
47
K031
NONE
N/A
N/A
22
K048
NONE
N/A
N/A
46
K002
NONE
N/A
N/A
23
F007
NONE
N/A
N/A
9
K062
NONE
N/A
N/A
41
U188
NONE
N/A
N/A
11
K061
NONE
N/A
N/A
25
F005
NONE
N/A
N/A
44
K060
NONE
N/A
N/A
40
K044
NONE
N/A
N/A
15
K013
NONE
N/A
N/A
39
K022
NONE
N/A
N/A
42
K071
NONE
N/A
N/A
28
F019
NONE
N/A
N/A
36
K047
NONE
N/A
N/A
29
D005
NONE
N/A
N/A
6
F003
NONE
N/A
N/A
30
K001
NONE
N/A
N/A
10
F006
NONE
N/A
N/A
37
F024
NONE
N/A
N/A
14
K104
NONE
N/A
N/A
32
D000
NONE
N/A
N/A
10
P020
NONE
N/A
N/A
33
D006
NONE
N/A
N/A
45
U220
NONE
N/A
N/A
34
F009
NONE
N/A
N/A
16
K011
NONE
N/A
N/A
12
FOMX
NONE
N/A
N/A
49
K083
NONE
N/A
N/A
35
DO 09
NONE
N/A
N/A
1
D002
4,375
1
27.74
8
D001
3,856
2
24.45
48
K052
1,590
3
10.08
3
DOMX
1,552
4
9.84
7
D003
1,329
5
8.42
31
K049
895
6
5.67
13
0008
672
7
4.26
27
K051
537
8
3.40
5
KOMX
527
9
3.34
4
D007
194
10
1.23
43
D010
165
11
1.04
2
MOMX
37
12
0.23
24
UOMX
26
13
0.16
17
K087
6
15
0.03
38
D004
3
16
0.01
-------
TABLE 8
Waste Stream Generation State Ranking - North Dakota
Quantity
State
Generated
Waste
% of
National
Waste
in State
Code
State
Rank
Code
(tons)
Rank
Total
22
K048
NONE
N/A
N/A
23
F007
NONE
N/A
N/A
50
K018
NONE
N/A
N/A
24
U0MX
NONE
N/A
N/A
21
U036
NONE
N/A
N/A
43
D010
NONE
N/A
N/A
49
K083
NONE
N/A
N/A
40
K044
NONE
N/A
N/A
42
K071
NONE
N/A
N/A
9
K062
NONE
N/A
N/A
10
F0O6
NONE
N/A
N/A
11
K061
NONE
N/A
N/A
47
K031
NONE
N/A
N/A
39
K022
NONE
N/A
N/A
46
K002
NONE
N/A
N/A
15
K013
NONE
N/A
N/A
38
D004
NONE
N/A
N/A
17
K087
NONE
N/A
N/A
28
F019
NONE
N/A
N/A
41
U188
NONE
N/A
N/A
45
U220
NONE
N/A
N/A
37
F024
NONE
N/A
N/A
30
K001
NONE
N/A
N/A
36
K047
NONE
N/A
N/A
31
K049
NONE
N/A
N/A
14
K104
NONE
N/A
N/A
32
D000
NONE
N/A
N/A
18
P020
NONE
N/A
N/A
33
D006
NONE
N/A
N/A
7
D003
NONE
N/A
N/A
34
F009
NONE
N/A
N/A
16
K011
NONE
N/A
N/A
12
FOMX
NONE
N/A
N/A
20
KOI 6
NONE
N/A
N/A
44
K060
NONE
N/A
N/A
5
KOMX
1,449
1
45.41
3
DOMX
1,298
2
40.68
27
K051
128
3
4.01
13
D008
119
4
3.72
4
D007
55
5
1.73
8
D001
48
6
1.50
19
F002
41
7
1.29
26
F001
16
8
0.49
2
MOMX
14
9
0.43
48
K052
11
10
0.33
1
D002
5
11
0.15
25
F005
2
13
0.05
29
DO05
1
14
0.04
6
F003
<1
15
0.00
35
D009
<1
17
0.00
-------
TABLE 9
Waste Stream Generation State Ranking - Montana
Quantity
State
Generated
Waste
% of
National
Waste
in State
Code
State
Rank
Code
(tons)
Rank
Total
21
U036
NONE
N/A
N/A
18
P020
NONE
N/A
N/A
19
F002
NONE
N/A
N/A
3
DOMX
NONE
N/A
N/A
20
K016
NONE
N/A
N/A
5
KOMX
NONE
N/A
N/A
41
U188
NONE
N/A
N/A
40
K044
NONE
N/A
N/A
2
MOMX
NONE
N/A
N/A
9
K062
NONE
N/A
N/A
23
F007
NONE
N/A
N/A
11
K061
NONE
N/A
N/A
24
UOMX
NONE
N/A
N/A
38
D004
NONE
N/A
N/A
46
K002
NONE
N/A
N/A
15
K013
NONE
N/A
N/A
37
F024
NONE
N/A
N/A
17
K087
NONE
N/A
N/A
36
K047
NONE
N/A
N/A
50
K018
NONE
N/A
N/A
28
F019
NONE
N/A
N/A
39
K022
NONE
N/A
N/A
29
D005
NONE
N/A
N/A
12
FOMX
NONE
N/A
N/A
14
K104
NONE
N/A
N/A
44
K060
NONE
N/A
N/A
16
K011
NONE
N/A
N/A
49
K083
NONE
N/A
N/A
34
F009
NONE
N/A
N/A
47
K031
NONE
N/A
N/A
42
K071
NONE
N/A
N/A
30
K001
16,730
1
66.46
31
K049
4,396
2
17.46
22
K048
2,141
3
8.50
27
K051
996
4
3.95
48
K052
238
6
0.94
1
D002
209
7
0.83
8
D001
95
8
0.37
33
DO 06
25
9
0.09
13
D008
18
11
0.07
26
F001
14
12
0.05
6
F003
6
13
0.02
4
D007
4
14
0.01
43
D010
3
15
0.01
25
F005
1
18
0.00
45
U220
1
20
0.00
7
D003
1
21
0.00
32
0000
1
23
0.00
10
F006
1
24
0.00
35
D009
<1
28
0.00
-------
8-22
For example, mixed general wastes constitute approximately 74% of the total hazardous
wastes generated in Colorado, only approximately 9% in South Dakota and are insignificant
in the remaining states. Table 8-10 shows that all Region VIII states except Wyoming are
net exporters of Hazardous Waste. Regionwide, approximately 13,607 tons of hazardous
waste were imported in 1985, while approximately 35,795 tons were exported.
8.3.2 Exposure Assessment
Potential routes of human exposure to releases of hazardous constituents from hazardous
waste sites include exposure through groundwater contamination, surface water
contamination, air emissions, and direct contact with hazardous wastes.
In general, exposure through ingestion of drinking water has been identified as the most
important route of exposure to hazardous constituents from operating hazardous waste
facilities and corrective action sites.
Surface water is not considered to be a significant route of concern for human exposures to
contaminants from active hazardous waste sites because water systems which obtain supplies
from surface waters are generally public systems. These systems are monitored and treated
under provisions of the Safe Drinking Water Act, and potential exposures through complying
public systems would be expected to be very low due to the combined factors of dilution in
surface water, contaminant reduction through treatment (aeration, flocculation, filtration),
and prevention of contaminant exceedences of maximum contaminant levels through
monitoring. In particular, new Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) and Maximum
Contaminant Levels Goals (MCLGs) will be going into effect shortly for many of the
volatile organic hydrocarbons (VOCs) found to contaminant groundwater at hazardous waste
facilities; additional MCLs and MCLGs are under development for an expanded list of
organic contaminants. Assuming that these standards will be enforced, it is not plausible
to project that long term (e.g., 30 years) exposures to contaminants from active hazardous
waste sites will occur through surface supplied public water systems.
It is not possible to quantify adequately estimates of human health risks associated with
RCRA facilities in the Region. However, it appears that both the cancer and non-cancer
risks associated with these facilities are quite small. For example, in a recent risk analysis
using very conservative assumptions designed to provide upper bound risk estimates, A.T.
Kearney estimated that exposure to hazardous waste from groundwater contamination in
Region V was responsible only for 4.1 additional cancer cases. Given that Region V
currently reports over 16,600 large quantity generators and a population of approximately
43 million people, if similar calculations were performed for Region VIII, the estimated
number of annual cancer cases would be likely to be insignificant.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
8-23
Table 8-10
Region VIII Hazardous Waste Imports
and Exports - 1985 by Ton
State Imports Exports
Colorado
1,214
21,590
Montana
0
389
North Dakota
2
3,178
South Dakota
180
861
Utah
10,323
Wyoming
1,330
515
TOTAL
13,607
35,795
From U.S. EPA 1989.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
8-24
8.4 ECOLOGICAL RISK
EPA has recently completed a study of available information on ecological risks associated
with RCRA Subtitle C facilities (U.S. EPA, 1989b), including both operating hazardous
waste management units and inactive units requiring corrective action. The results of this
study generally indicate that:
• Due to the focus of the RCRA program on risks to human health, relatively little
information is available on ecological risk associated with facilities.
• 52 sites with ecological damages were identified in the study; documentary
evidence was available for only 16 of these sites. Because ecological information
has not been collected systematically, and is available for so.
• 52 sites with ecological damages were identified in the study; documentary
evidence was available for only 16 of these sites. Because ecological information
has not been collected systematically, and is available for so few sites, the
information available is probably not representative of the nature and extent of
ecological risks.
• In the professional judgement of EPA Regional staffs, many Subtitle C facilities
probably pose ecological threats, but there is little factual information available
to support this judgement.
8.4.1 Toxicity Assessment
RCRA Subtitle C facilities manage a wide variety of wastes which may be toxic to flora and
fauna. Observed ecological damages from RCRA facilities include fish kills, diseased
benthic (sediment) habitats, chronic or behavioral effects on aquatic and terrestrial plant
and animal species, oyster mortality, reduced flora and fauna species diversity, and reduced
productivity in wetland habitats (U.S. EPA, 1989b). These damages are associated with
releases of toxic heavy metals, organochlorine and other pesticide wastes, and other toxic
organics constituents.
From the national study of ecological threats, the primary routes through which ecological
damages occur are through migration of contaminated groundwater and/or surface runoff
to surface waters or wetlands. In 75 percent of the identified cases, groundwater discharge
to surface waters was the route of concern; in 42 percent of the cases, overland flow to
surface waters was the route of concern (U.S. EPA, 1989b).
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
8-25
The principal ecological damages of concern identified at Subtitle C facilities are toxic
effects on aquatic and wetland organisms, resulting in mortality, reduced species diversity,
and reduced productivity. In 83 percent of cases, damages to surface water environments
were or primary concern; in 50 percent of the cases, damages to wetlands were of concern
(U.S. EPA, 1989b). Only one case identified toxic effects of terrestrial wildlife.
8.4.2 Exposure Assessment
The primary types of waste management units contributing to ecological risks identified in
the national study (U.S. EPA, 1989) were operating land disposal units (landfills,
impoundments, and waste piles) and inactive units requiring corrective action.
Operating land disposal units are designed, constructed, operated, and monitored to prevent
unauthorized (e.g., without a NPDES permit) releases of contaminants to surface waters or
groundwaters. Thus, it is unlikely that a large percentage of these operating units would
pose a threat to surface water or wetlands with continued inspection and enforcement under
the RCRA program.
Units requiring corrective action, however, typically do not meet current operating criteria
and frequently have had confirmed releases to the environment. However, information on
the extent of damages at sites, and environmental concentrations of contaminants in surface
waters, benthic deposits, or organisms, are very scant.
8.5 WELFARE DAMAGES
Known or suspected welfare damages associated with RCRA facilities include:
• the costs associated with replacing or testing drinking water contaminated by
releases to surface or groundwater;
• the potential loss of groundwater option value, where groundwater option can
be thought of as an economic measure of the value of future uses that would be
foregone due to contamination;
• the depreciation of properties in the vicinity of a RCRA facility, including the
potential reduced suitability for the development of alternative future uses;
• aesthetic harms and damages such as odors; and
• health care costs and foregone earnings due to illnesses caused by exposure to
toxins originating at RCRA facilities.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
8-26
It has not been possible to develop credible welfare damage estimates associated with this
problem area due to numerous uncertainties and data gaps associated with this problem
area. Principal uncertainties include:
• The lack of data regarding ground and surface water remediation costs. While
some data is available for a number of Corrective Action facilities, it is not
possible to credibly extrapolate this data to the universe of RCRA facilities in
the Region.
• The lack of data regarding the extent and severity of groundwater contamination
due to RCRA facilities in the Region, as well as the absence of any current
estimates of groundwater option value. Given the importance of groundwater
resources in Region VIII, groundwater option value could be a very significant
source of welfare damages in Region VIII.
• The absence of studies evaluating property value effects associated with RCRA
facilities in Region VIII, the difficulty of interpreting the current literature
regarding these effects (as measured at municipal waste and CERCLA sites), and
the inability to readily relate existing site data to commercial and residential
property.
• The absence of quantified health effects estimates associated with RCRA
facilities.
8.10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Minkoff and Valdez. 1990. Personal Communication: U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Region VIII, Denver, CO.
U.S. EPA. 1985. Environmental Management Report, 1985 Update. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Region VIII, September, 1985.
U.S. EPA. 1989a. 1985 National Biennial Report of Hazardous Waste Generators and
Treatment. Storage, and Disposal Facilities Regulated Under RCRA. Volume 1: Summary.
Office of Solid Waste, Office of Policy, Planning, and Information, Washington, D.C.,
EPA/530-SW-89-033A, March.
U.S. EPA. 1989b. The Nature and Extent of Ecological Risks at Superfund Sites and
RCRA Facilities. Office of Policy Planning and Evaluation, Washington, D.C.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
FACILITY NAME
CITY
FACILITY ID
APPENDIX 1
EPa REGION VIII
INSPECTION - ENFORCEMENT REPORT
INITIAL
EVAL DATE
SUBSEQ
DATE
TYPE
EVAL
I
N
S
P
c
L
A
S
AREA OF EVAL
G C
W P
F P C M O L
RBSATB
AREA
OF
VIOL
ACTION
DATE
COMPLIANCE
07/26/90
PENALTIES
SCHED ACTUAL ASSESS COLLECT
AERO PROPELLER INC
BROOMFIELD C00078349727 9 020686 12
01 020686 GW S WA 1
BOULDER SCIENTIFIC COMPANY
MEAD C0D000694869 GTF«
BRODERICK. INVESTMENTS CO
DENVER C0D000110254 G F»
01 011790 CS S WA 1 S S
050688 10
01 050688 EI S JK 1 XX
X 1 05 GW 01 041988 111589
S 1 05 GW 01 041988 011589
1 04 OT 01 071189 081189 091189
•• (C2322) VIOLATION OF INTERIM STATUS;STORAGE VIOLATIONS;
M 122084 01
01 091785 CS E MD 1
•• (C2322) PENDING
COLORADO STATE UNIVERSITY
FORT COLLINS C0T090011529 GTF» M 021185 05
01 022784 GW E
1 X
»» (C2322) 8/3/83-N0 GWM WELLS
011588 21
01 011588 GW S WA 1 X 0
CONOCO INC
COMMERCE CITY
C0D0606271-.J GTF» M 122784 02
01 122784 EI S
030889 17
01 030889 OT S
111 GW 01 022886 062886 052886
1 08 GW 02 052886 052887 052886
117 GW 03 052886 052887 052886
1 19 GW 04 052886 052887 070186
1 04 GW 01 062984 073184 011085
1 05 GW 02 011085 021085 031486
1 03 GW 01 032188 042188 061989
1 04 GW 01 05298C 092683 091786
1 05 GW 02 091786 111786 050587
1
1 16 GW 01 030889
•• (C2322) ORDER ADDRESS CORRECTIVE ACTION FOR RELEASE;
DENVER-ARAPAHOE CHEM WASTE PROCESS FAC
AURORA C0D000695007 G F» M 052082 11
01 052082 EI E EF 1
X 1 04 GW 01 012183 022183 032184
1 05 GW 02 032184 041084 041084
111 GW 03 011585 021585 102986
1 18 GW 04 010885 040885 011585
1 19 GW 05 102986 102986 021787
»» (C2322) COMPANY HAS COMPLIED WITH ORDER; STILL LITIGATING PENALTY;\
021986 21
01 021986 GW S JK 1
EAGLE PICHER INDUSTRIES INCORPORATED
COLORADO SPRINGS C0D048126726 G F* M 092884 02
01 092884 GW S
1 B
0 0 1 05 GW 01 103086 123086 112086
1 04 GW 01 080585 090585 122986
100000 100000
17000
0
38250 38250
48650
40000
990
49516
36000
-------
EPA REGION VIII
INSPECTION - ENFORCEMENT REPORT
FACILITY NAME
CITY
FACILITY 10
INITIAL
EVAL DATE
SUBSEQ TYPE
DATE EVAL
I C AREA OF EVAL C
N L L E AREA
S A GCFPCMOLAN OF ACTION
P S WPRBSATBSF VIOL DATE
COMPLIANCE
SCHED ACTUAL
07/26/90
PENALTIES
ASSESS COLLECT
>• (C2322) 4/25/85-PRE-WELL INSTALLATION
1 05 GW 02 122986 01298/ 030587
1 (16 GW 03 122986 122987 050688
1 Mr CS 01 TZOZ87 010288
1,-f6 ,GW 04 050688 101188
5000
0
38050
5000
0
120887 22
01 120887 GW S WA 2 X 0 2 03 GW 01 031688 041688
•• (C2322) SAMPLING TECHNIQUE USED IS INADQEQUATE;
HEWLETT-PACKARD COLORADO SPRINGS DIV
COLORADO SPRINGS C0D041099086 G F*
KOPPERS (BEA2ER EAST INC)
DENVER C0DO07077175 GTF»
M 030389 13
01 030389 EI S FD 1
M 092982 02
01 092982 EI E
1 16 GW 01 010290 060191
1 X 0 1 04 GW 01 092884 102884 061786 33600
1 05 GW 02 091988 111988 15000
1 16 GW 03 091988 111988
•* (C2322) 9/29/8?-GWM ISSUES. NO FREEBOARD. PROTECTIVE COVERING. SPILL, CONTINGENCY PLAN
102786 08
01 102786 GW S WA 1
042589 29
01 042589 GW S NR 1
1 05 GW 01 042088 123088
1 04 GW 01 052289
MARTIN MARIETTA AEROSPACE
LITTLETON C0D001704790 GTF*
M 120384 04
01 120384 GW S
1
1 05 GW 02 022785 032785 032785
1 04 GW 03 022185 030285 030285
•» CC2322) 12/3/84-PENDING REPORT FROM TES CONTRACTOR ON COMPREHENSIVE MONITORING
NCR MICROELECTRON
COLORADO SPRINGS C0D059113142 G
ROC ICY FLATS PLANT - US DOE
GOLDEN C07890010526 G F»
022685 11
08 022685 EI S NJ 1
110785 13
01 110785 EI E MF 1
070885 01
01 070885 GW S WA 1
M 081385 05
01 081385 EI S NJ 1
081385 07
03 090985 EI S MP 1
X X
0 X
O 0
1 05 GW 01 050786 123086 123086
1 04 OT 01 020690 022892
1 16 GW 01 020786 090786
1 05 GW 01 061388 083088 101588
1 05 GW 01 073186 112886 112886
1 16 GW 02 073186 073188
1000000 520000
EPA REGION VIII
INSPECTION - ENFORCEMENT REPORT
1 16 GW 01 073186 073187
117 GW 02 073186 073187
0
0
07/26/90
0
0
-------
FACILITY NAME
CITY
FACILITY ID
INITIAL
EVAL DATE
SUBSEQ TYPE
DATE EVAL
I C A * EVAL C
N L L E AREA
S A GCFPCMOLAN OF
P S WPRBSATBSF VIOL
ACTION
DATE
COMPLIANCE
SCHED ACTUAL
*• (C2322) LOIS VISIT FOR GW WELLS AND OBSERVE SAMPLING;
040687 10
01 040687 GW S FD 1 X 1 03 GW 01 071988 103189 060789
»• (C2322) THIS WAS A 6 DAYS INSPECTION DONE ON 4/1-6-7-8-13-14/87
042288 16
01 042288 RR S PC 1 X
011189 24
01 011189 EI S JK 1 H
1 03 GW 01 071988 103189 060789
X 1 04 GW 01 060789 091589 071489
1 OS GW 02 071489 091489
1 22 LB 01 091989 091990
1 fkT C\0 AAAOOQ 10AQAQ
•• (C2322) THIS ORDER COVER INSPECTION FROM 1987 TO PRESENT 9/89;
063089 26
01 063089 GW S PC 1 X
ROCKY MOUNTAIN ARSENAL
COMMERCE CITY C05210020769 G F* M 062686 17
01 062686 GW S WA 1 X
050189 24
01 050189 GW S JE 1 B X
SYNTEX CHEMICALS INC
BOULDER C0D076470525 GTF» M 032988 10
01 032988 RR S FD 1 R
SYNTEX LYONS GROUNDWATER CLEANUP PROJECT
LYONS C00981551286 G 091087 01
01 091087 EI S TM 1 R
TRANSPORTATION TEST CENTER
PUEBLO C06670990039 G
091086 01
01 091086 EI S JJK 1
WESTERN SLOPE REFINING (GARY)
FRUITA C0D067315390 G F* M 112982 03
01 112982 EI E
1 05 GW 01 110389 013090
1 18 GW 01 090386 110386 111486
111 GW 02 111486 111487
0 0 X 1 04 GW 01 052389 120189
1 04 GW 01 061388 022889 092888
1 05 GW 02 092888 022889
1 05 GW 01 120987 123199 021188
1 05 OT 01 081288 013089 021188
OX 1 05 GW 01 121187 021188 010588
1 04 GW 01 042784 062784 022487
1 05 GW 02 022487 032487 081787
1
PENALTIES
ASSESS COLLECT
94100
18840
•• (C2322) 11/29/82-GWM ISSUES. HW ANALYSIS. FREEBOARD. INADEQUATE CONTINGENCY PLAN
-------
FACILITY NAME
CITY
FACILITY ID
EPA REGION VIII
INSPECTION - ENFORCEMENT REPORT
INITIAL I C
EVAL DATE N L
SUBSEO TYPE S A
DATE EVAL P S
AREA OF EVAL C
L E AREA
GCFPCMOLAN OF
WPRBSATBSF VIOL
ACTION
DATE
COMPLIANCE
07/26/90
PENALTIES
SCHED ACTUAL ASSESS COLLECT
CONOCO BILLINGS REFINERY
BILLINGS MTD006229405 G F» M 10O583 01
01 100583 EI S JA 2 X
•* (C2322) GWM CLASS 3 VIOLATIONS -
•• (C2363) NEW WELLS INSTALLED
EXXON BILLINGS REFINERY
BILLINGS MTD010380574 G F» M 051585 03
01 051585 GW S RT 2 X
FARMERS UNION CENTRAL EXCHANGE (CENEX)
LAUREL MTD006238083 GTF* M 051986 10
01 051986 EI S PL 2 X
MONTANA REFINING CO
BLAPK EAGLE MTD000475194 G F* M 091285 07
01 091285 GW S RT 2 X
TRANSBAS INC
BILLINGS
MTD079711198
* M 032483 40
01 032483 EI S BJ 1 X
01 050383 CS S Bj 1 X
050187 37
01 050187 EI S BJ 1 X
2 03 GW 01 031484
WL ISSUED 3/14/84
072186
2 10 GW 01 100885 111185 040786
2 03 GW 01 060686
2 03 GW 01 041486
2 10 GW 02 060986
2 10 GW 03 111286
111 GW 01 013184
1 18 OT 01 042883
1 04 GW 01 071483
111 GW 02 032284
1 04 GW 03 083183
1 18 GW 01 052087
111 GW 02 112487
090386
060986
111286
121586 121086
021788
021788
021788
042284 040484
021788
112487
021788
10000
32000
5000
5000
-------
5 EPA REGION VIII 07/26/90
INSPECTION - ENFORCEMENT REPORT
INITIAL
I
c
AREA OF
EVAL
C
EVAL DATE
N
L
L
E
AREA
COMPLIANCE
PENALTIES
FACILITY NAME
SUBSEQ TYPE
S
A
G C F P
C M 0
L
A
N
OF
ACTION
CITY FACII ITY ID
DATE EVAL
P
S
W P R 8
SAT
B
S
F
VIOL
DATE
SCHED ACTUAL
ASSESS COLLECT
DAKOTA GASIFICATION CO
BEULAH NDD000690594 GTF*
M 102985 03
01 102985 GW S
2
X
0 0
2
03
GW 01
120685
010586 123085
FLYING J INC (WESTLAND REFINERY)
WILLISTON NDT390010049 G F«
M 082085 05
01 082085 GW S
2
X
2
03
GW 01
091085
101085 102285
•* (C2322) 8-20-85 MONITORING WELL CONSTRUCTION APPEARED TO BE INADEQUATE FOR COMPLIANCE OF
110488 22
01 110488 GW E SZ 1 H X X 1 18 OT 01 080789 090789
1 19 OT 02 090789 200000
»• (C2322) AWAITING VALID'D LAB ANALYSIS RESULTS. STATE ADVISED OF VIOL'TNS 3-31-89.
-------
FACILITY NAME
CITY
FACILITY ID
EPA REGION VIII
INSPECTION - ENFORCEMENT REPORT
INITIAL
EVAL DATE
SUBSEQ
DATE
TYPE
EVAL
I
N
S
P
C AREA OF EVAL C
L L E AREA
A GC FPCMOLAN OF ACTION
S WPRBSATBSF VIOL DATE
07/26/90
COMPLIANCE
PENALTIES
SCHED ACTUAL ASSESS COLLECT
AMOCO OIL COMPANY SALT LAKE REFINERY
SALT LAKE CITY UTD000826362 GTF*
BIG WEST OIL / FLYING J
NORTH SALT LAKE UTD045267127 G
BROWNING MANUFACTURING COMPANY
MORGAN UTD041310558 G
GENEVA STEEL (BMT) (FORMERLY USX)
PROVO UTD009086133 G F«
HERCULES INC BACCHUS WORKS
WEST VALLEY CITY UTD001705029 GTF*
PENN20IL COMPANY (FORMERLY SEAGULL)
ROOSEVELT UTD073093874 GTF»
M 060988 18
01 060988 EI S WH 1 X
S 2 X
•• (C2322) GW — CEI
062089 21
01 062089 GW S JTW 1 S
M 011085 03
02 030685 GW S
060989 17
C: 060989 GW S MG 1
0 0
0 X
0 X
0 X
0 X
1 05 GW 01 060689
2 03 OT 01 081988 091688 091688
1 03 OT 01 101089 110389
1 04 OT 02 101089 110389
1 03 GW 01 040285 053085 103085
1 04 GW 02 040285 053085 103085
1 03 OT 01 082289 092289 042590
1 04 OT 02 082289 092289 042590
1 05 OT 03 042590 052490 052490
»• (C2322) STIPULATION AND CONSENT ORDER SIGNED 04-25-90.
8000
050285 01
01 050285 EI S
1
10000
X 1 03 GW 01 080285 090685 070588
1 04 GW 02 080285 090685 070588
1 05 GW 03 070588 042489 042489
•» (C2322) 10-18-85 REFERRAL TO AGENCY FOR PENALTY ASSESSMENT;
•« (C2342) STIPULATION AND CONSENT ORDER SIGNED 07-05-88.
060487 04
01 060487 GW S 2 2 OX 2 03 OT 01 072987 082887 082887
•» (C2322) VIOL IS CONTINUING. FIRST DOCUMENTED 5-2-85;WL ADDRESSES VIOL FOUND 6-4-87;
032588 05
01 032588 GW S RP 2 S OX 2 03 OT 01 051688 062788 052688
*• (C2322) DATE OF VIOLATION DISCOVERY. 880511. GWM VIOLATION ARE CONTINUING. WILL BE
•* (C2363) ADDRESSED THROUGH CLOSURE.
8000
5000
M 032189 13
01 032189 GW S JP 2 2
M 060686 10
01 060686 RR S ST 1 XXX
OX 2 03 OT 01 052589 062089 061989
1 03 GW 01 060686 070686 060686
1 05 GW 02 081688 081688 081689
•» (C2322) STIPULATION AND CONSENT ORDER SIGNED 08-16-88.
M 032085 14
315000 190000
-------
FACILITY NAME
CITY
FACILITY ID
EPA REGION VIII
INSPECTION - ENFORCEMENT REPORT
INITIAL I C AREA OF EVAL C
EVAL DATE N L L E AREA
SUBSEQ TYPE S A GCFPCMOLAN OF ACTION
DATE EVAL P S WPRBSATBSF VIOL DATE
07/26/90
COMPLIANCE
PENALTIES
SCHED ACTUAL ASSESS COLLECT
01 032085 GW S 1 X 0 1 05 GW 01 122386 030287 081889
*• (C2322) EXTENSION OF COMPLIANCE DATE FROM 1-30-87 TO 3-2-87;
RIVERSIDE INDUSTRIES INC
OGDEN UTD094667995 G F*
M 020684 19
01 020684 EI S SA 1
1 03 GW 01 021584 051584 071885
1 05 GW 02 021584 051584 071885
1 19 GW 03 071885 081886 081187
10000
10000
093087 22
01 093087 GW S AM 1
Z Z
1 02 GW 01 102687 120187
SYRO STEEL COMPANY
CENTERVILLE UTD041075896 G F*
THIOKOL CORPORATION
BRIGHAM CITY UTD009081357 GTF*
TOOELE ARMY DEPOT (NORTH)
TOOELE UT3213820894 GTF»
USPCI GRASSY MOUNTAIN FACILITY
CLIVE UTD991301748 GTF«
M 012885 01
01 01*?*iQ5 GW S
1
1 03 GW 01 022585 032985
1 04 GW 02 022585 032985
•• (C2322) ORDER CONTAINS SEVERAL DIFFERENT COMPLIANCE DATES
092387 18
01 092387 EI S DV
B
120185
032685
122888
0 0 O 1 03 GW 01 062388
1 16 GW 02 122888
»» (C2322) NO SCH'D COMPL DATE. GWM VIOL'S TO BE ADDRESSED BY EPA'S 3008(H) ORDER.
•» (C2363) STATE HAS CO PENDING TO RESOLVE ALL PAST VIOL.. NOT PART OF 3008(H) ORDER
M 012885 02
01 012985 GW S
1
0 X
1 03 GW 01 031985
1 04 GW 02 031985
** (C2322) 1/29/85-COMBINATION EVALUATION/GWM INSPECTION
050185
050185
110885
110885
100000
M 111583 01
01 111583 GW S
1
1 03 GW 01 120283 121083 121083
011085 04
01 011085 GW S IX 1 03 GW 01 020485 020485
•» (C2322) 2/4/85-UNDER REVIEW BY ATTORNEY GENERAL'S OFFICE
052185 07
01 052185 GW S
1
0 X
1 05
1 11
1 16
(C2322) OVERSIGHT VISIT BY J SILVERNALE
GW 01 090385
GW 02 011386
GW 03 011386
100385
031386
011388
020485
011386
030486
47000
47000
092688 16
01 092688 EI
E MP 1 XX
»» (C2322) COMPLAINT COVERED LAND BAN...
»• (C2363) R3008-90-06
X X X 1 04 LB 01 032990 050190
OTHER VIOLATIONS TO BE ADDRESED BY STATE.
M 011085 18
01 011085 EI X
1 04 GW 01 091685 110885 101885
-------
8 EPA REGION VIII
INSPECTION - ENFORCEMENT REPORT
07/26/90
FACILITY NAME
CITY
FACILITY ID
UTAH TEST & TRAINING RANGE (HILL AFB)
WENDOVE
UT0570090001 F*
WESTERN ZIRCONIUM INC
OGOEN UTD092024934
G F
INITIAL
I
C
AREA OF
EVAL
C
EVAL DATE
N
L
L
E
AREA
COMPLIANCE
SUBSEO TYPE
S
A
G C F P
C M 0
L
A
N
OF
ACTION
DATE EVAL
P
S
W P R B
SAT
B
S
F
VIOL
DATE
SCHED
ACTUAL
1
05
GW 02
101885
110885
101885
01 011085 GW S
1
X
1
03
GW 01
020585
030185
101885
1
05
GW 02
020585
030185
101885
040488 54
01 040488 GW S
RP
1
X
0 X
1
03
GW 01
071888
082988
020389
•• (C2322) NOT.
OF
VIOLATION.
041789 58
01 041789 GW S
RP
1
Z X
0 X
X
1
03
PB 01
082989
092989
061990
1
04
PB 02
082989
092989
061990
1
05
PB 03
061990
091790
*• (C2322) STIPULATION AND CONSENT ORDER SIGNED 6-
-19-90.
M 101284 01
01 101284 GW S
1
X
0 0
1
03
GW 01
011585
040185
040285
1
05
GW 02
011585
040185
040285
1
04
GW 03
011585
040185
040285
(C2322) 10/12/84-COMBINAT ION EVALUATION/GWM INSPECTION
052385 03
01 052385 GW
1 X X 1 03 GW 01 071085 080785 072485
1 04 GW 02 071085 080785 072485
•• (C2322) 5-23-85-0VERSIGHT VISIT BY J. SILERNALE
PENALTIES
ASSESS COLLECT
0
20000
0
0
M 011085 02
01 011085 GW S 1 X 1 03 GW 01 051085 061085 101585 (
•• (C2322) 10-15-85 ACTION WAS ISSUANCE OF CP FACILITY HAS CLEAN CLOSED 10-15-85:
•• (C2363) STATE ISSUED CLOSURE PLAN.
0
20000
180000 180000
0
0
-------
EPA REGION VIII
INSPECTION - ENFORCEMENT REPORT
FACILITY NAME
CITY
FACILITY ID
INITIAL
EVAL DATE
SUBSEQ
DATE
TYPE
EV/AL
I
N
5
P
C AREA OF EVAL C
L L E AREA
A GCFPCMOLAN OF ACTION
S WPRBSATBSF VIOL DATE
COMPLIANCE
SCHED ACTUAL
07/26/90
PENALTIES
ASSESS COLLECT
FMC CORP PHOSPHORUS CHEMICAL DIVISION
KEMMERER WYD069811404 G F*
FRONTIER OIL CHEYENNE REF (HUSKY/RMT)
CHEYENNE WYD051843613 G F»
JIMS WATER SERVICE INC
GILLETTE WYD990829673
M 032289 13
01 032289 EI S TL 2 X O X O 2 03 OT 01 022190
• * (C2322) CEI (WDEQ LEAD) LDR (WDEQ LEAD)
M 122986 13
01 122986 OT E DC 1 R 1 16 GW 01 093088
*• (C2322) SAMPLING CONDUCTED BY FRONTIER IN DEC OF 1986.
F* M 070881 04
022190
LITTLE AMERICA REFINING COMPANY
EVANSVILLE WYD048743009 GTF*
SINCLAIR OIL CORPORATION
SINCLAIR WYD0799S9185 G F*
TEXACO INC
CASPER
WYD088677943 GTF*
UNION PACIFIC RAILROAD
LARAMIE WYD061112470 GTF*
01 070881 GW
E
DS
1
X
X
1
04
GW
01
102681
112681
020382
12000
5400
1
05
GW
02
020382
020383
0
C
M 042186 11
01 04228C GW
E
DS
1
X
1
04
GW
01
092386
112386
011287
12000
E
2
X
2
02
GW
01
111786
122086
011287
041088 17
01 041088 EI
E
DJS
1
R
X
1
08
GW
01
041988
060688
120188
02 120188 CO
E
TEA
1
R
0
1
16
GW
01
120188
120190
03 061589 CD
E
TEA
1
X
X
s
1
04
GW
01
061589
*» (C2322) SEC 7003 ORDER ISSUED 4/19/88 DIRECT CIVIL REFERRAL TO DOJ ON 3/31/89.
M 07098c. 09
01 070985 EI E
2 X
120285 11
01 120285 GW E JH 1 X
O 0
0 0
2 03 GW 01 082885 092885 092885
1 04 GW 01 050286 060286 020787 6500
1 05 GW 02 020987 032387 042487 2000
•• (C2322) NO WL SENT. FACILITY RESPONDED VIA CORRESPONDENCE TO PERSONNEL TRAINING
2000
041487 14
01 042487 EI E HAG 2 X 0
•• (C2322) VISUAL SITE INSPECTION;
M 060188 12
01 060188 SI E FF 1 R
2 02 GW 01 012588 022588 021188
1 15 GW 01 092988 092991 041289
1 16 GW 02 041289 041292
•• (C2322) THIS ORDER REPLACES INITIAL 3008(H) ISSUED 9/29/88
060288 15
01 060288 OM S MB 2 X
M 042181 01
2 03 GW 01 102088 013089 012089
-------
10
FACILITY NAME
CITY
EPA REGION VIII
INSPECTION - ENFORCEMENT REPORT
07/26/90
FACILITY ID
INITIAL I C
EVAL DATE N L
SUBSEQ TYPE S A
DATE EVAL P S
AREA OF EVAL C
L E AREA
GCFPCMOLAN OF ACTION
WPRBSATBSF VIOL DATE
COMPLIANCE
PENALTIES
SCHED ACTUAL ASSESS COLLECT
01 042181 EI E 1 X X
«• (C2322) 4/21/81-GUM ISSUES,
WYOMING REFINING CO NEWCASTLE REFINERY
NEWCASTLE WYD043705102 G M 081881 01
01 081881 EI E RL 1 X
(C2322) RESOLVED BY 6/1/88 CONSENT
0 1 04 CP 01 111083 111083 111083
1 05 CP 02 111083 043084 043084
1 05 CP 03 071784 113084 113084
CLOSURE PLANS, INSPECTION OF SITES, RECORDS
GW 01
AA 01
1 04
1 18
1 19
1 11 _
AGREEMENT
010383
020888
GW 02 060188
GW 03 092686
020383
020889
100190
122686
020888
060188
060188
YELLOWSTONE CODY REF (HUSKY/RMT/BIGWEST)
CODY WYD006230189 G F* M 040683 01
02 041284 EI
1 X X
60850
25000
(C2322) 4/6/83-CLOSURE. GWM.
X 1 04 GW 01 092884 102884 101084 15380
1 05 GW 02 101084 092486 021086 15380
OPERATING W/0 A PERMIT, STORAGE OVER 90 DAYS.
25000
8815
-------
11
FACILITY NAME
CITY
EPA REGION VIII
INSPECTION - ENFORCEMENT REPORT
07/26/90
FACILITY ID
INITIAL I C
EVAL DATE N L
SUBSEQ TYPE S A
DATE EVAL PS
AREA OF EVAL
G C
W P
c
L E AREA
PCMOLAN OF ACTION
B S A T B S F VIOL DATE
COMPLIANCE
PENALTIES
SCHED ACTUAL ASSESS COLLECT
-------
9-1
9.0 ABANDONED HAZARDOUS WASTE SITES
9.1 INTRODUCTION
The Abandoned Hazardous Waste Site problem area covers risks posed to human health
and welfare, and ecosystems by abandoned waste treatment, storage, disposal, or recycling
facilities, illegal dumpsites, and other abandoned waste sites. Specific categories of sites
covered within this problem area include:
• Superfund National Priority List (NPL) sites, including Federal facilities on the
NPL.
• State Superfund sites (sites being remedied under state equivalents to the
Superfund program).
• Other sites reported to EPA and listed on the CERCLIS site list, including
Federal Facility sites, sites which have been scored using the Hazard Ranking
System, and sites remaining to be scored.
• Other unmanaged hazardous waste sites which are no longer in operation.
This problem area includes a variety of different types of abandoned sites, including
hazardous waste facilities, municipal and industrial waste facilities, mining sites, recycling
facilities, illegal dumps, and contaminated sediment sites.
The types of risks covered within this problem area include risks to ecosystems and human
health arising from:
• Exposure to contaminants through migration via air, surface water, and
groundwater, and through food chain exposures
• Direct contact with wastes or contaminants
Welfare damages associated with Abandoned Hazardous Waste Sites may be due to
remediation costs; direct health care costs and foregone earnings associated with adverse
health effects; residential willingness to pay for clean up of hazardous waste sites; damage
to residential property values near the sites; replacement or treatment costs of
contaminated drinking water; loss of groundwater option value; loss of development
potential and option values associated with contaminated lands; aesthetic/visual damages;
and habitat loss and reduced recreational opportunities.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
9-2
Region VIII Superfund staff have rightly pointed towards the numerous limitations of this
assessment. It should be noted that Region VIII Comparative Risk Project and
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc. staff are well aware of the limitations associated with this analysis.
However, a more refined analysis would require significantly more resources or Superfund
staff effort than were available to support this very limited effort.
9.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF REGION VIII ABANDONED HAZARDOUS WASTE SITES
There are currently 46 sites in Region VIII on the National Priorities List (NPL) - 34 final
and 12 proposed. In all, there are over 1,037 sites that have been or are to be reviewed for
possible addition to the NPL About 653 of these sites have been analyzed to some degree
and no further remedial action is planned. The remainder have had or will have some sort
of additional site characterization work done on them. Table 9-1 summarizes Region VIII
site inventory data.
Data describing the location of all sites listed in the CERCLIS database exist, and further
descriptive analysis of the distribution of Abandoned Hazardous Waste Sites would be
straightforward. However, this analysis has not been conducted in this report as it wouldn't
support the development of credible risk estimates given current time and resource
constraints.
9.3 HUMAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT
Health risks estimated in this report are based on the Human Health Risk Assessment
performed during the Colorado Environment 2000 Project. Health risk data were explicitly
evaluated for four Abandoned Hazardous Waste Sites in the Colorado 2000 Project: the
Marshall Landfill, Sand Creek, Broderick Wood Products, and the Denver Radium Sites.
Best estimate and worst case individual risk estimates were obtained for Marshall Landfill,
Sand Creek, and Broderick Wood Products from public health evaluations in Remedial
Investigation/Feasibility Studies for these sites. Best estimate and worst case individual risks
for Denver Radium were estimated in a recent comparative risk analysis of metro-Denver
Superfund sites prepared for the Denver Environmental Strategies Project.
To provide conservative estimates of the range of cancer risks, the report presented a range
of individual lifetime cancer risks bounded by the highest worst case and highest best
estimate of the risks at the above sites. Consequently, health risk estimates for the
population surrounding these Denver sites are probably overestimated. Table 9-2 presents
the best and worst case estimates of individual lifetime cancer risks for each pathway of
concern at the four sites.
Population exposure estimates were developed for people residents near CERCLA sites in
South Adams County based on the number of individuals served by the South Adams
County water supply. Estimates developed by the report assume that water supply
contamination in South Adams County is similar to contamination at the Sand Creek Site.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
Table 9-1
Site Inventory and Progress Toward SARA Targets
As of April 30, 1990
Region 8
Number of Sites 1,037
Percent of Total Sites 3.18
Number of Proposed NPL Sites 12
Number of Final NPL Sites 34
Non-Federal Sites
Number of Non-Federal Sites 978
Percent of Total Non-Federal Sites 3.13
Number of PA Sites 888
Number of Non-PA Sites 90
Number of NFRAP PA Sites 653
NFRAP Percent of Non-Federal PA Sites 73.54
Number of SI Sites 289
Number of NFRAP SI Sites 172
NFRAP Percent of Non-Federal SI Sites 59.52
Federal Sites
Number of Federal Sites 59
Percent of Total Federal Sites 4.51
Number of PA/SI Sites 57
Number of Non-PA/SI Sites 2
Number of NFRAP PA/SI Sites 27
NFRAP Percent of PA/SI Federal Sites 47.37
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
Table 9-2
Individual Lifetime Cancer Risks for Colorado Inactive Hazardous Uaste Sites
(Best/Uorst Case Estimates)
Si te
Marshall Landfill
Contaminants
heavy metals,
VOCs
Groundwater
Ingestion
8E-03/3E-01*
(arsenic)
Air
Inhalation
5E-07/1E-05
(1,1 -dichloroethene)
Soil
Inges t i on/Cont act
low
Groundwater
Inhalation
Surface Water
Ingestion
Sand Creek
Broderick Wood Products
Woodbury Chemical
VOCs, semi-
volatile organ-
ics, heavy met-
als, pesticides,
herbicides
PAHs, penta, and
dioxin
VOCs, pesticides
2E-03/9E-03
2E-05/5E-04
(industrial workers)
2E-05/1E-4
(off-site receptors)
possible exposure possible exposure
3E-07/6E-04*
(chiIdren)
1E-06/2E-03*
(industrial workers)
2E-03/9E-02*
(PAH, arsenic)
possible exposure
3E-04/9E-04
possible exposure
Denver Radium
Lowry Landfill
Rocky Flats
Rocky Mountain Arsenal
radiological
contamination,
heavy metals,
organics
VOCs
organic, inorg-
ic, radionuclide
contamination
toxic and hazardous
material, unex-
ploded ordinance
1E-02/1E-01
exposure unlikely possible exposure
possible exposure possible exposure
possible exposure possible exposure
possible exposure
possible exposure
possible exposure
possible exposure
possible exposure
possible exposure
possible exposure
Martin Marrietta
oiIs, heavy metals
solvents
possible exposure exposure unlikely
Chemical Sales Corp.
MA
NA
These risks estimates may be based on an outdated cancer potency factor for arsenic. Estimates based on revised
information for arsenic are expected to be lower by approximately one order of magnitude.
-------
9-5
The report developed two separate estimates of the exposed population for the South
Adams County Sites. The first estimate was for current users of the South Adams County
water system who switched from private wells to the public water supply because of private
well contamination. The report estimated this population to be 3,000 residents, and
assumed that this population was exposed to cancer risks similar to the Sand Creek Site.
A second exposed population estimate was developed for individuals consuming
contaminated drinking water from the South Adams County water supply. The report
estimated that approximately 27,000 individuals were exposed to TCE concentrations of 26
ppb.
For sites without individual and population cancer risk estimates, the report assumed that
the upper bound population risks would be no higher than the highest population risks
estimated for eight Superfund sites nationally. Lifetime cancer risks associated with these
sites ranged from 5e-2 to 7 per site. The study assumed that there are seven lifetime cases
per site for upperbound risk estimate purposes and three and a half cases for best estimate
risks.
For the purposes of this study, we assumed lifetime cancer risks to range between 5e-2 and
7 cases each for the 46 NPL Sites in the Region. Estimated cancer cases are summarized
for the sites estimated by the report and for the remaining NPL sites in the Region in Table
9-3.
Non-cancer endpoints were not estimated. However, exposure to pollutants originating at
Abandoned Hazardous Waste Sites increases risks of systemic disease in an unknown
population throughout the Region. Abandoned mining and milling sites pose potentially
significant systemic health risks.
9.4 ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
Ecological effects at Abandoned Hazardous Waste sites can be severe. Death, depressed
reproduction, and decreased genetic diversity in plant and animal life can result from
toxicant release at hazardous waste sites. Most of these sites are contaminated with
chemicals that are persistent and bioaccumulative (e.g., PAHs, PCBs, lead, cadmium) and
have contaminants present that are acutely toxic to aquatic organisms when present in
sufficient concentrations. At lower concentrations, these toxicants can present serious long-
term threats to the environment. (Summary of Ecological Risks, Assessment Methods, and
Risk Management Decisions in Superfund and RCRA, June 1989).
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
9-6
Table 9-3
Range of Estimated Annual Cancer Cases
Associated with Region VIII NPL Sites
Lower Bound
(5e-2)(46)/70 = .003 annual cancer cases
Upper Bound
(7)(46)/70 = 4.6 annual cancer cases
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
9-7
In this study of ecological risks from Region VIII Superfund sites, limited quantitative
information was available. This paucity of information is partially due to reliance on the
current Hazard Ranking System (HRS) for placement of sites on the NPL. The inclusion
of ecological factors in the current HRS is limited; ecological hazard is scored simply in
terms of the distance from a site to the nearest "sensitive environment." Under the current
HRS scoring algorithm, NPL listing is impossible for sites where ecological risks are the sole
concern. Obviously, sites that score just below the NPL listing threshold based on human
health concerns can be pushed past the threshold based on ecological concerns, but
ecological risk is not the driving factor. Because superfund remedial action is less likely to
occur at a site if it is not listed on the NPL, this is a crucial decision point in the Superfund
program, and one in which ecological risk is not an important consideration. The proposed
revision to the HRS (53 Req. 51962, December 23, 1988) would expand the consideration
of ecological concerns, but at this time it is uncertain to what extent the revisions will affect
site placement on the NPL.
Due to data limitations it has not been possible to estimate the ecologic risks posed by
Abandoned Hazardous Waste Sites in Region 8. However, EPA's Unfinished Business
report ranked Superfund sites as presenting low ecological risks (five on a scale of one to
six). This ranking was based on the conclusion that releases from Superfund sites tend to
be localized. EPA also concluded that the overall intensity of the impacts is medium,
although potentially high on a local level. The Unfinished Business report results do not
reflect the widespread ecological risks in Region 8 associated with mining wastes. These
risks are further discussed in Chapter 20.
Ecological damages associated with Abandoned Hazardous Waste sites in Region VIII are
only beginning to be understood. This is due in part to the complexity of ecological
processes, the absence of baseline biological data, and the magnitude of the affected areas.
For additional discussion, see Problem Area 20.
9.5 WELFARE RISK ASSESSMENT
Quantitative welfare risk estimates are developed for the following potential damage
categories: remediation costs; medical costs and foregone income associated with annual
cancer cases; and residential property value decrement.
9.5.1 Remediation Costs
For Abandoned Hazardous Waste sites in the Region that have Records of Decision,
remediation costs are summarized in Table 9-4. With the exception of annual operation and
maintenance costs, cost data listed in Table 9-4 are not annualized. In addition, due to the
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Table 9.4
Record of Decision for Region VIII
Fiscal Year 1982 through 1988
Site Name
State
Threat/Problem
Present Worth/
Capital Costs [1]
O&M
Costs [2]
Anaconda Smelter
Smelter Facility/160-
Acre Mill Creek Community
MT
Air contaminated with metals including
arsenic, cadmium, and lead
$300,000 pw
Broderick Wood Products
Wood Preserving Facility
CO
Soil, sludge, oil, and wastewater
contaminated with VOCs including
benzene, organics including PAHs, PCPs
and dioxins, and metals including
arsenic and lead
$2,264,000 pw
$3,603,200
California Gulch
Mining District
CO
SW, sediments, and GW contaminated
with metals including cadmium, copper,
lead and zinc
$11,982,770 c
$460,307 a
Central City/Clear Creek
CO
Possible contamination of sediments,
and downstream SW and GW with organics
$1,663,000 c
$511,000 a
Central City/Clear Creek
Mining District
CO
Soil and SW contaminated with metals
$1,049,600 pw
$20,992 a
Denver Radium I
12th & Quivas
CO
Soil contaminated with radium and
its decay products
$3,702,800 pw
$290,000 pw
Denver Radium II
11th and Umatilla
CO
Soil and debris contaminated with
radium and its decay products
$4,230,300 pw
$194,700 pw
Denver Radium III
1,000 W. Louisiana
CO
Soil and debris contaminated with
radium and its decay products
$2,172,800 C
$305,800 pw
Denver Radium/Card Property
CO
Soil, sediment, and debris contaminated
with radium and its decay products
$1,148,000 pw
$89,500 pw
Denver Radium/Open Space
Property
CO
Soil contaminated with radium and
its decay products
$955,400 pw
Denver Radium/ROBCO
CO
Soil and buildings contaminated with radiu
$1,912,400 c
$6,000 a
Denver Radium Site Streets
CO
Ashpalt contaminated with radium
$30,000 c
variable
Libby Ground Water
MT
Soil and GW contamiated with organics
including creosote, and inorganics
PRP responsibility
Marshall Landfill
CO
GW and SW contaminated with VOCs
including TCE & PCE, organics, and metals
$1,819,000 c
$152,000 a
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Table 9.4 (cont.)
Record of Decision tor Region VIII
Fiscal Year 1982 through 1988
Site Name
State
Threat/Problem
Present Worth/
Capital Costs [1]
O&M
Costs [2]
Milltown
MT
GW and soil contaminated with metals
including arsenic
$262,714 c
$4,238 a
Mllltown
MT
GW and soil contaminated with metals
including arsenic
not specified
North Dakota Arsenic Trioxide
ND
GW contaminated with metals including
arsenic
$2,212,600 c
$57,400 a
Rocky Mountain Arsenal
CO
GW contaminated with VOCs including
TCE, and inorganics
$8,869,000 c
$10,100,000 with
$372,000 a
air stripping
Smuggler Mountain
CO
GW and soil contaminated with metals
including cadmium and lead
$1,816,550 c
$30,900 a
Union Pacific Railroad
WY
GW and soil contaminated with organics
including PCBs and creosote, and
inorganics
$7,000,000 c
$57,000 a
Woodbury Chemical
CO
GW, soil and sediments contaminated
with pesticides, metals, and organics
$2,450,000 C
$21,000 a
1 pw - present worth, c - capital cost
2pw» present worth, a - annual cost, and numbers are years annual cost applies
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Table 9-4 (cont.)
Record of Decision for Region VIII
Fiscal Year 1989
Site Name
State
Threat/Problem
Present Worth/
Capital Costs [1]
O&M
Costs [2]
Burlington Northern
Somers Plant
MT
Soil, sediment, and GW contaminated
with organics including PAHs and phenols,
and metals including zinc.
$11,000,000 pw
$661,000 yrs 1-2
$811,000 yrs 3-10
$72,000 yrs 11-30
Libby Ground Water Contam-
ination
Well Field
MT
Soil, sediment, and GW contaminated
with VOCs including benzene; other
organics including dioxin, PAHs, and
PCPs; metals including arsenic; and oil
$5,777,000 pw
$670,200 year 2
$521,200 yrs 3-5
$232,200 yrs 6-8
$80,000 yrs 9-30
Monticello Vicinity Properties
Uranium Millsite
UT
Soil, construction materials, and
debris contaminated with thorium 230,
radium 226, and radon222 contained in the
vanadium and uranium mill tailings
$5,915,000 avg
Corresponds to $65
multiplied by 91 pro{
000 per property
)erties
Sand Creek Industrial
Former Pesticide
Manufacturing Operation
CO
Soil, onsite buildings, and tanks contam-
inated with VOCs including TCE and PCE;
and other organics including pesticides
$5,349,600 pw
not specified
Woodbury Chemical
CO
Soil contaminated with VOCs including
PCE and TCE; other organics including
pesticides; and metals including arsenic
$6,962,600 pw
$31,400 a
1 pw - present worth, c - capital cost
2 pw - present worth, a - annual cost, and numbers are years annual cost applies
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9-11
numerous site factors that determine remedial action costs at Abandoned Hazardous Waste
sites, it is not possible to extrapolate remediation costs from these sites to the remaining
NPL sites in the Region or, even more broadly, to other CERCLIS sites.
9.52 Medical Costs and Foregone Earnings
To estimate health effects costs, the annual cancer cases estimated in the previous section
were multiplied by the direct medical cost and foregone earnings per cancer case:
(Annual Cancer Cases)(Direct Costs and Forgone Earnings) = HC
where:
HC = health costs
Estimated direct and indirect medical cancer costs are based on a range of cost per case
estimates. The lower bound estimate, based on Hartunian, et al., is $80,000, while the upper
bound estimate developed by the American Cancer Society is $137,000. These estimates
provide differing values for foregone earnings and medical costs. Both estimates are
weighted average costs associated with all types of cancers.
Lower bound estimate
HC = (.032($80,000) = $2,560 (1988 $)
Upper bound estimate
HC = (4.6)($ 137,000) = $630,000 (1988 $).
9.5.3 Residential Property Value Decrement
Results of a growing body of empirical research suggest that values of residential properties
increase as the distance of those properties increases from active hazardous waste facilities
and other solid waste disposal sites. These studies use econometric analyses to estimate the
difference in value or residences near a site and comparable homes further from the site.
Results from these studies indicate that:
Homeowners in the Boston area are willing to pay from $300 to $500 per mile for a
location more distant from a hazardous waste landfill (Smith and Desvouges, 1986).
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The mean willingness to pay of homeowners in the Boston area for an increase of 0.8
miles in distance from a superfund site was $69 in the average housing market
(Michaels et al., 1987).
McClelland, et al. (1989) determined that, on average, housing prices were $4,793
lower for residents concerned about the proximity of a superfund site than they would
have been if residents were not concerned about the site.
To estimate a range in potential damage to property values from these studies, a lower
bound estimate of $69 and an upper bound estimate of $500 per exposed home was
assumed.
It was not possible to obtain estimates of the number of residences sufficiently near to
Region VIII sites to suffer property value damages. To provide a very rough estimate of
potential damages, we assumed a range of between 10 and 100 homes to be sufficiently
close to sites to suffer property value damages. This results between 460 and 4,600 homes
near the 46 NPL sites. Resulting property value damages range from $31,740 to $2,300,000.
9.6 ASSUMPTIONS
The analysis of cancer incidence relies on national data and a highly uncertain extrapolation.
These estimates only address potential cancer cases deriving from Region VIII NPL sites
and only very imperfectly address the range of carcinogens present at numerous Region VIII
sites. We assume that the reliance on national estimates and limiting the scope of the
analysis to NPL sites results in a downward biasing of the annual cancer estimates.
We assumed that no credible analysis of non-cancer health effects was possible in the
context of this analysis. We are unable to determine the magnitude of error introduced by
this assumption.
Quantitative estimates of the ecological risks due to Abandoned Hazardous Waste sites were
not prepared. While these risks were considered to be small in the National Comparative
Risk Project, ecosystem risks due to mining sites cause significant, yet unquantified damage
to ecosystems in Region VIII. See Chapter 20 for an additional discussion of these
damages.
The analysis of property values relies on numerous simplifying assumptions that were
previously discussed. The most significant being the range of values associated with property
value decrement and the housing distribution surrounding sites.
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9-13
The analysis also assumes that economic damages associated with cancer cases can be
adequately described without taking into account the pain and suffering caused by these
cancers. This assumption leads to an underestimate of the actual economic damages. We
also assume that the costs associated with non-cancer effects are adequately represented as
zero, which probably understates damages to some extent. The magnitude of the bias
introduced by these assumptions is unknown.
9.7 OMISSIONS
The analysis doesn't consider damages due to lost property redevelopment potential and
public tax revenue. These are important sources of damage, but could not be estimated in
this analysis.
9.8 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING THE ANALYSES
The analysis of health effects could potentially be improved by developing a statistically
based sample of Region VIII NPL sites where health risks have been estimated. If properly
stratified, the sample may allow for a broader characterization of health risks than contained
in this report.
The development of a readily usable GIS capability to support risk analysis would be very
useful in relating Abandoned Hazardous Waste sites to a variety of potentially important
receptors, including: population, housing characteristics, property value characteristics, and
potentially sensitive ecosystems.
9.9 PRINCIPAL CONTACTS
Paula Cifka
Charles Moar
9.10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Applied Decision Analysis. 1987. "A Site Ranking Panel Evaluation of the Relative Risks
Posed by Twenty Superfund Sites." September.
Colorado Environment 2000. 1989. "Inactive Hazardous Waste Sites." Prepared by
Industrial Economics, Incorporated. State of Colorado, Denver.
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9-14
Hartunian, N.S., C.N. Smart, and M.S. Thompson. 1981. The Incidence and Economic
Costs of Major Health Impairments. A Comparative Analysis of Cancer. Motor Vehicle
Injuries. Coronary Heart Disease, and Stroke. D.C. Heath and Company.
McClelland, G.H., W.D. Schulze, and B. Hurd. 1989. "The Effect of Risk Beliefs on
Property Values: A Case of a Hazardous Waste Site." Unpublished.
Michaels, G., V.K. Smith, and D. Harrison. 1987. "Market Segmentation and Valuing
Amenities with Hedonic Models: the Case of Hazardous Waste Sites." Unpublished.
Smith, V.K. and W.H. Desvouges. 1986. "The Value of Avoiding a LULU: Hazardous
Waste Disposal Sites." The Review of Economics and Statistics. Vol.LXVIII, No.2, pp. 293-
299.
U.S. EPA. 1988. "Post-Remedial Use of Superfund Sites: Social and Economic Effects of
Remediation." Office of Comparative Environmental Management. PB89-189682.
Washington, D.C.
U.S. EPA. 1984. "Benefits of Regulating Hazardous Waste Disposal: Land Values as an
Estimator." Economic Analysis Division. EPA-230-03-85-004, Washington, D.C.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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10-1
10.0 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE SITES
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The Municipal Solid Waste sites problem area covers risks to human health and welfare,
and (MSWS) posed by open or closed land disposal facilities (including landfills and open
dumps) used to dispose of municipal refuse. Regulated under Subtitle D of the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), these facilities are not subject to the hazardous
waste restrictions under Subtitle C of RCRA. Solid Wastes regulated under RCRA Subtitle
D are defined in 40 CFR Part 257 as:
...any garbage, refuse, sludge from a waste treatment plant, water supply
treatment plant or air pollution control facility and other discarded material,
including solid, liquid, semisolid, or contained gaseous material resulting from
industrial, commercial, mining, and agricultural operations, and from community
activities, but does not include solid or dissolved materials in irrigation return
flows or industrial discharges which are point sources subject to permits under
Section 402 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as amended (86 Stat.
880), source, special nuclear, or by product material as defined by the Atomic
Energy Act of 1954, as amended.
The following types of Subtitle D wastes have been identified (U.S. EPA, 1988):
• Municipal solid waste;
• Household hazardous waste;
• Municipal sludge;
• Municipal waste combustion ash;
• Infectious waste;
• Industrial nonhazardous waste;
• Very-small-quantity generator hazardous waste;
• Construction and demolition waste;
• Agricultural waste;
• Oil and gas waste;
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10-2
• Utility waste; and,
• Mining waste.
This problem area considers risks associated with all of the above waste types with the
exception of industrial nonhazardous waste, which is treated in problem area 11.
Table 10-1 lists the estimated contents of a typical Municipal Solid Waste Landfill.
Considered in more detail, waste streams relevant to this problem area are:
Municipal solid waste (MSW) is a mixture of household, institutional, commercial, and
municipal solid waste. The composition of MSW varies, by generally more than half
(by weight) is paper products and yard waste. In 1986, approximately 158 million tons
of MSW were generated in the United States. Table 10-2 describes Subtitle D Waste
categories and U.S waste quantities, as described in U.S. EPA (1988). Table 10-3
shows the current estimated composition of MSW in the U.S.
Household hazardous waste (HHW) is waste generated by households that meets the
technical definition of hazardous waste, but is exempted from Subtitle C regulations.
Typical" HHW includes automotive products, home maintenance products, household
cleaners, lawn and garden products, and miscellaneous wastes, eg., batteries, pool
chemicals, and nail polish remover.
Municipal sludge (MS) includes both drinking water and wastewater treatment
sludges. Drinking water treatment processes produce sludge that consists of a variety
of organic and inorganic materials. The concentration of these materials is a function
of the treatment process chosen and the raw water quality used. Municipal sewage
treatment is accomplished principally through biological processes. These result in
primarily organic sludges.
Municipal waste combustion ash is produced in MSW fuel combustion.
Approximately 6% of all MSW generated is incinerated at energy recovery facilities,
producing fly ash and bottom ash wastes.
Infectious wastes are defined by the EPA Guided for Infectious Waste Management
as wastes capable of producing an infectious disease. The U.S. EPA (1988) has
estimated that between 8 to 13 pounds of infectious wastes are generated by each
hospital bed, daily. These wastes include: isolation wastes, cultures and stocks of
infectious agents, human blood, pathological wastes, contaminated sharps (needles),
and contaminated animal parts.
Tires. The U.S. EPA (1988) estimated that over 70% of the discarded tires
(approximately 168 million/year) are discarded in landfills or junkyards.
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Table 10-1
Wastes Disposed of in a Typical
Municipal Solid Waste Landfill
Waste Composition Percentage
Waste Types
(mean value) (a)
Household Waste
72.00%
Commercial Waste
17.00%
Construction/Demolition Waste
6.00%
Industrial Process Waste
2.73%
Other Waste
1.18%
Sewage Sludge
0.50%
Other Incinerator Ash
0.22%
Asbestos-Containing Waste
0.16%
Municipal Incinerator Ash
0.08%
VSQG Hazardous Waste
0.08%
Infectious Waste
0.05%
SOURCE: U.S. EPA (1988)
(a) Percentages are rounded and do not add to 100 percent.
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Table 10-2
Wastes Disposed of in a Typical
Municipal Solid Waste Landfill
Waste Category Estimated Annual Generation Rate
(million tons)
Industrial Nonhazardous Waste
7,600 (a,b)
Oil and Gas Waste (c)
- drilling waste
129 - 871 (d,e)
- produced waters
1,966 - 2,738 (e.f)
Mining Waste (c)
>1,400 (g)
Municipal Solid Waste
158 (b)
- household hazardous waste
0.002 - 0.56 (b)
Municipal Waste Combustion Ash
3.2 - 8.1 (h)
Utility Waste (c)
- ash
69 (i)
- flue gas desulfurization waste
16 (i)
Construction and Demolition Waste
31.5 (j)
Municipal Sludge
- wastewater treatment
6.9 (b)
- water treatment
3.5 (b)
Very-Small-Quantity (b) Generator
Hazardous Waste (<100 kg/mo)
0.2 (e)
Waste Tires
240 million tires (g)
Infectious Waste
2.1 (e,l)
Agricultural Waste
Unknown
Approximate Total
>11,387
SOURCE: U.S. EPA (1988)
(a) Not including industrial waste that is recycled or disposed of off site.
(b) These estimates are derived from 1986 data.
(c) Waste category is the subject of a separate report to Congress.
(d) Converted to tons from barrels: 42 gals = 1 barrel, ~ 17 lbs/gal.
(e) These estimates are derived from 1985 data.
(f) Converted to tons from barrels: 42 gals = 1 barrel, ~8 lbs/gal.
(g) These estimates are derived from 1983 data.
(h) This estimate is derived from 1988 data.
(i) These estimates are derived from 1984 data.
(j) This estimate is derived from 1970 data.
(k) Small quantity generators (100-1,000 kg/mo waste) have been regulated
under RCRA, Subtitle C, since October 1986.
Before then, approximately-
830,000 tons of small-quantity generator hazardous wastes were
disposed of in Subtitle D facilities every year.
(1) Includes only infectious hospital waste.
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Table 10-3
Average Annual U.S. Waste Stream Quantity and Composition
Amount Percent of
(millions of) Waste Stream
tons (%)
Paper & Paperboard
64.7
41.0
Glass
12.9
8.2
Metals
13.7
8.7
Plastics
10.3
6.5
Rubber & Leather
4.0
2.5
Textiles
2.8
1.8
Wood
5.8
3.7
Food Waste
12.5
7.9
Yard Waste
28.3
17.9
Other
11
12
TOTAL
157.7
99.9
Source: National Solid Waste Management Association, 1989, in "Interim Report of
the Governor's Task Force on Integrated Solid Waste Management," 1990.
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10-6
Very Small-Quantity-Generator Waste is waste that meets the definition of 40 CFR
Part 261, and is generated at rates less than 100 kg/month. SQGs are estimated to
generate approximately 1 million tons of hazardous waste annually in the U.S., and
VSQGs produce about 20% of this waste. Table 10-4 summarizes national estimates
of the number of VSQGs and waste quantities for the U.S.
Construction and demolition waste includes mixed lumber, roofing and sheeting
scraps, broken concrete, asphalt, brick, stone, plaster, wallboard, glass, piping, and
other building materials. Estimated quantities of demolition and construction waste
range from 0.12 to 3.52 pounds per capita per day nationally (U.S. EPA, 1988).
Agricultural Wastes include animal wastes from feedlots and farms, crop production
wastes, irrigation wastes, and collected field run-off.
Oil and Gas Waste is characterized by high concentrations of chloride, total dissolved
solids, barium, sodium, and calcium.
Utility Wastes. Approximately 90% of the wastes generated during the combustion
of fossil fuels are associated with coal-fired electric power plants. In 1984, coal-fired
power plants generated 69 million tons of ash and 16 million tons of flue gas
desulfurization wastes in the U.S. (U.S. EPA, 1988).
Mining Waste includes wastes from crushing, screening washing, flotation, smelting,
and refining mined materials. High concentrations of heavy metals, sodium, and
potassium may be associated with these waste streams.
MSWS threaten human health and ecosystems through air emissions of volatile toxic
chemicals and methane gas, subsurface methane migration resulting in potentially explosive
conditions in structures, and ground and surface water contamination by landfill leachate
containing organic and inorganic toxic contaminants and/or pathogenic substances.
Contamination may occur through subsurface migration, runoff, evaporation or wind erosion.
10.2 POPULATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE SITES
There are approximately 780 operating municipal solid waste landfills in Region VIII. The
population of open municipal solid waste landfills distributed by state is shown in Table 10-
5. We were unable to determine the spatial distribution of municipal waste sites in Region
VIII. However, Figure 10-1 shows the current distribution of sites in Colorado.
In addition to these operating landfills, there are an undetermined number of closed
municipal landfills in EPA Region VIII.
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Table 10.4
Number of Small-Quantity Generators and Waste Quantity
Generated by Waste Stream
VSQGs: Generators of
<100kg of Hazardous
Waste/Month
(Subtitle D Waste)
Waste
Number of
Quantity
Waste Stream*
Generators
(ton/yr)
Arsenic wastes
21
8
Cuanide wastes
587
19
Dry cleaning filtration residues
13,168
5,674
Empty pesticide containers
9,809
1,424
Heavy metal dust
48
11
Heavy metal solutions
15
7
Heavy metal waste materials
121
34
Ignitiable paint waste
12,788
2,028
Ignitable wastes
8,951
1,001
Ink sludges containing chromium or lead
1,093
99
Mercury wastes
19
1
Other reactive wastes
1,133
97
Paint wastes containing heavy metals
381
13
Pesticide solutions
3,207
1,153
Photographic wastes
21,287
4,856
Solutions of sludges containing silver
4,482
1,033
Solvent still botoms
2,114
126
Spent plating wastes
3,960
543
Spent solvents
77,629
21,420
Strong acids or alkalies
13,739
2,170
Used lead-acid batteries
119,747
71,495
Waste formaldehyde
11,930
3,805
Waste inks containing flammable
solvents or heavy metals
3,642
290
Waste pesticides
2,852
441
Wastes containing ammonia
1,154
106
Wastewater containing wood
88
29
Wastewater sludges containing heavy metals
894
207
Total
314,679
118,090
Total"*
314,859
118,090
• Some SQGs generate more than one waste stream
* * Total number of generators differed from published EPA source
when added independently.
Source: (U.S. EPA, 1988)
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10-8
Table 10-5
Distribution of Operating Region VIII Landfills, by State
State
Open
Closed
Montana
North Dakota
South Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
Colorado
120
65
150
220
80
148
783
unknown
130
unknown
unknown
20
150
Sources: U.S. EPA, 1990; Wilbur, 1990; Wetzel, 1990; Dahl, 1990; Burns, 1990; and
Link, 1990.
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Figure 10-1
Municipal Solid Waste Landfills in Colorado
Municipal Solid Waste Landfills in Colorado
RCRA Subtitle D Compliance Status* - November 1989
+ Not In Compliance
A Potentially in Compliance
¦ In Compliance
* EPA Region VIII preliminary assessment ot probable complaince
wim anticipated RCRA Subtitle 0 revisions based on data from CDH.
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10-10
10.3 HUMAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT
10.3.1 Toxicity Assessment
Documented contaminants from municipal landfills include a set of approximately 200
constituents, including:
• Conventional pollutants, such as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical
oxygen demand (COD), iron, chloride, and ammonia.
• Heavy metals, such as arsenic, antimony, cadmium, and chromium.
• Organic chemicals, including vinyl chloride, tetrachloroethylene,
dichloromethane, carbon tetrachloride, and phenol.
In the regulatory impact analysis for proposed criteria for classification of municipal solid
waste landfills, OSW evaluated risks to human health and the environment posed by
selected hazardous constituents found in municipal landfill leachates. These constituents
were selected to represent the maximum likely risks to be posed by municipal landfill
leachates based on their prevalence in samples of leachate taken from multiple facilities,
average concentrations found in leachate, toxicity, mobility, and persistence (TBS, 1987).
The constituents selected for risk modeling in the RIA were vinyl chloride, arsenic, iron,
tetrachloroethane, dichloromethane, carbon tetrachloride, antimony, and phenol. Five of
the contaminants are carcinogens. The non-cancer effects of these contaminants are
neurotoxicity, cardiovascular changes, and kidney and liver damage. Information on the
carcinogenicity and toxicity of these compounds is presented in Tables 10-6 and 10-7 (U.S.
EPA, 1989).
10.3.2 Exposure Assessment
Table 10-8 lists violations of state media protection standards at MSWS in 1984. These data
suggest that four principal exposure routes that should be considered in evaluating health
risks associated with MSWS. Previous assessments of health risks associated with MSWS
have focused on groundwater and methane migration based on available data.
Existing exposure data were insufficient to support a credible estimate of human exposure
to toxicants associated with MSWS in Region VIII.
Two principal routes of exposure or risk should be considered in an analysis of health risks
due to MSWS: exposure due to migration of contaminants from municipal solid waste
landfills through groundwater, and risks arising through subsurface methane gas migration.
These routes are based on data availability and previous risk assessments, which indicate
that these are the principal routes through which risks to human health may occur.
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Table 10-6
Carcinogenic Effects of MSW Leachate Constituents
Slope
Factor
Tumor Site
Carcin-
Level of
Oral
Inhaled
Constituent
ogen
Route
Confidence
(mg/kg/d)-1
(mg/kg/d)-1
Oral
Inhaled
T etrachloroethane
Yes
Oral, Inh
C
5.8E-05
2.0E-01
Liver
Liver
Carbon Tetrachloride
Yes
Oral, Inh
B2
1.5E-05
1.3E-01
Liver
Liver
Vinyl Chloride
Yes
Oral, Inh
A
4.2E-05
2.3E+00
Liver
Lung
Arsenic
Yes
Oral, Inh
A
NA
4.3E-03
Skin
Resp.Tract
Source: "Health Effects Assessment Summary Tables - Fourth Quarter, FY 19889",
U.S. EPA, OSWER, October 1989.
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Table 10-7
Subchronic and Chronic Effects
of MSW Leachate Constituents
RFD
Effect of Concern
Constituent
Route
Oral
(mg/kg/d)
Inhaled
(mg/kg/d)
Oral
Inhaled
Uncertainty
Factor
Carbon Tetrachloride
Subchronic
Oral
7E-03
NA
Liver Lesions
NA
100
Chronic
Oral
7E-04
NA
Liver Lesions
NA
1000
Antimony
Subchronic
Oral
4E-04
NA
Blood Chemis.
NA
1000
Chronic
Oral
4E-04
NA
Blood Chemis.
NA
1000
Arsenic
Subchronic
Oral
1E-03
NA
Keratosis
NA
1
Chronic
Oral
1E-03
NA
Keratosis
NA
1
Phenol
Subchronic
Oral
6E-01
NA
Reduced Fetal
NA
100
Chronic
Oral
6E-01
NA
Body Weight
Reduced Fetal
Body Weight
NA
100
Source: "Health Effects Assessment Summary Tables - Fourth Quarter, FY 1989",
U.S. EPA, OSWER, October 1989.
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Table 10-8
Violations of State Media Protection Standards at
Municipal Solid Waste Landfills in 1984 (a)
Number of Facilities
with at Least One
Facilities with
Medium of Concern
Violation
Monitoring
Percent
Ground Water
586
2,331
25%
Surface Water
660
1,100
12%
Air
845
358
4%
Methane (subsurface gas)
180
427
5%
SOURCE: U.S. EPA (1988)
(a) Includes 9,284 municipal solid waste landfills identified by
the 1984 State census.
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10.3.3 Human Health Risk Characterization
Cancer Risks
Quantitative cancer risks were not estimated in this analysis due to significant uncertainties
regarding the distribution of open and closed MSWS, as well as difficulties inherent in
estimating exposed populations.
Risk estimates presented in the RLA. represent average individual lifetime cancer risks due
to exposure to leachate contaminated groundwater. The analysis calculates these averages
based on a 300 year modeling period, in order to provide time for risks to be manifested
(e.g., for cap failure, leachate release, and contaminant migration) under a variety of
different design and location scenarios.
The RIA apportions facilities by risk range. For MP IV facilities (facilities located in areas
of high net precipitation and shortground water travel times), the distribution of facility risks
is as follows (TBS, 1987):
• Approximately 10 percent of facilities have risks greater than 1 x lOE-5 (high)
• 17 percent have risks in the range of 1 x lOE-5 to 1 x 10E-6 (medium)
• 9 percent have risks in the range of 1 x 10E-6 to 1 x 10E-8 (low)
• 10 percent have risk lower than 1 x 10E-8 (very low)
• 54 percent had zero risk because no wells were in the vicinity of the facility
Closed municipal solid waste landfills probably pose a similar or greater threat of
environmental contamination and resulting risks than operating landfills due to changes in
landfill design, and operation of these landfills prior to the implementation of RCRA
Subtitle C standards for hazardous waste management.
Cancer risks that may arise due to air exposures to emissions from municipal incinerators
were not estimated due to a lack of information.
Non-Cancer Risks
Non-cancer health effects were initially evaluated in developing the regulatory impact
analysis for criteria for municipal solid waste landfills. Modeled exposures were found to
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be substantially lower than the Reference Doses (Rfds) for the constituents due to the low
concentrations of the constituents in leachate. Since non-cancer health effects demonstrate
threshold doses below which no health effects are observed (No Observed Adverse Effect
Levels, or NOAELs), and Rfds are based on these levels, no cases of non-cancer health
damages were projected in the RIA.
Risks From Explosions
There is a risk of explosion due to methane gas migration from municipal waste landfills to
nearby structures. Methane may collect in confined spaces within structures at levels
exceeding the Lower Explosive Limit (LEL) and result in an explosion if provided a source
of ignition. There are documented cases of such explosions.
In general, horizontal methane migration in the subsurface environment is limited because
methane vents through the ground surface. Typically, only structures located in proximity
to a landfill, or on a filled area, are at risk. However, were venting is prevented by
pavement, locally saturated surface soils, or frozen surface soils, or where sewers or
underground utilities provide a highly permeable pathway, methane may migrate substantial
distances (up to approximately 1000 yards). Region VIII states typically will have frozen
ground conditions for a substantial portion of the year.
10.4 ECOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
The major routes of contaminant releases from MSWS are surface runoff of leachate (e.g.,
discharged from surface seeps in above-ground landfills) and leachate discharge to
groundwater. In either case, MSWS ecological damages associated with these facilities
would occur in surface waters or wetlands through surface runoff or discharge of
contaminated groundwater from hydraulically connected surficial aquifers.
There is very limited documentation available on environmental damages resulting from
MSWS. One documented damage case study identified damages to wetlands and nearby
lakes from a 300 acre landfill leaching into these waters. Note that a 300 acre municipal
waste landfill is a relatively large landfill (top 10 percent in size). Projected ecological
damages from these releases included toxic effects on freshwater and estuarine fish and
macroinvertebrates (U.S. EPA, 1989).
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10.4.1 Toxicity Assessment
MSWS release a large variety of contaminants to surface or groundwaters. Constituents
released include were reviewed in oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, chlorides,
ammonia, aluminum, arsenic, barium, vinyl chloride, heavy metals, pesticides, and volatile
organics. 80D and COD effect aquatic environments by depleting oxygen, which may affect
fish and other aquatic organisms. Other of these constituents, including ammonia and
aluminum, are toxic to marine organisms.
The effects any release of leachate on surface waters will largely depend on the ultimate
concentration of the contaminants in the receiving body of water. In general, the volume
of leachate flowing from an average landfill is low, but the relative concentrations of
constituents are high compared to other sources of surface water contamination.
10.5 WELFARE RISK ASSESSMENT
Potential welfare damages associated with Region VIII MSWS include:
• Property damage resulting from methane gas explosions;
• Costs associated with replacing or treating drinking water supplies contaminated
by MSWS;
• Loss of groundwater option value, where option value is an economic measure
of the value of future use that would be foregone as a result of contamination;
• Aesthetic damages and nuisances such as odors, birds, and noise;
• Loss of fish and wildlife habitat, and the potential loss of recreational
opportunity;
• Health care costs and foregone earnings associated with illnesses; and,
• Property value depreciation in the immediate vicinity of MSWS, in some cases
this may be related to the reduced suitability of sites for post closure uses.
It was not possible to develop credible quantitative welfare damage estimates for the above
categories due to missing data. If these data were available, welfare risks could be
calculated with some measure of confidence.
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10.6 REFERENCES
JRB Associates. 1984 "Evaluation of RCRA Subtitle D Facilities," JRB Associates,
prepared for the U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, June 29.
Temple, Barker, and Sloan, Inc. 1987. "Draft Regulatory Impact Analysis of Proposed
Revisions to the Subtitle D Criteria for Municipal Solid Waste Landfills," prepared for U.S.
EPA, Office of Solid Waste, Economic Analysis Staffs May 11.
U.S. EPA. 1989. "Health Effects Assessment Summary Tables, Fourth Quarter, FY. Office
of Solid Waste and Emergency Response.
U.S. EPA. 1988. "OSWER Comparative Risk Study, Report of the Health Effects
Workgroup," Office of Solid Waste, Office of Policy Planning and Information, July.
ICF, Inc. 1989. "The Nature and Extent of Ecological Risks at Superfund Sites and RCRA
Facilities," prepared for U.S. EPA, Office of Policy Planning and Evaluation, Office of Policy
Analysis, Pub. No. EPA-230-03-89-043, June.
Versar, Inc. 1988. "Ecological Risk Characterization Methodology," prepared for U.S. EPA,
Office of Solid Waste, April.
Dames and Moore. 1990. "Interim Report of the Governor's Task Force on Integrated Solid
Waste Management." Submitted to Governor Roy Romer and the Colorado General
Assembly.
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10.0 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE SITES
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The Municipal Solid Waste sites problem area covers risks to human health and welfare,
and (MSWS) posed by open or closed land disposal facilities (including landfills and open
dumps) used to dispose of municipal refuse. Regulated under Subtitle D of the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), these facilities are not subject to the hazardous
waste restrictions under Subtitle C of RCRA. Solid Wastes regulated under RCRA Subtitle
D are defined in 40 CFR Part 257 as:
...any garbage, refuse, sludge from a waste treatment plant, water supply
treatment plant or air pollution control facility and other discarded material,
including solid, liquid, semisolid, or contained gaseous material resulting from
industrial, commercial, mining, and agricultural operations, and from community
activities, but does not include solid or dissolved materials in irrigation return
flows or industrial discharges which are point sources subject to permits under
Section 402 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as amended (86 Stat.
880), source, special nuclear, or by product material as defined by the Atomic
Energy Act of 1954, as amended.
The following types of Subtitle D wastes have been identified (U.S. EPA, 1988):
• Municipal solid waste;
• Household hazardous waste;
• Municipal sludge;
• Municipal waste combustion ash;
• Infectious waste;
• Industrial nonhazardous waste;
• Very-small-quantity generator hazardous waste;
• Construction and demolition waste;
• Agricultural waste;
• Oil and gas waste;
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11.0 INDUSTRIAL SOLID WASTE SITES
11.1 INTRODUCTION
In analyzing the comparative risks of this problem area, the most important issue is the
scarcity or absence of data. Readily available data on the population of industrial solid
waste facilities are limited, and, when available, are often aggregated at the national level.
While states are in a better position to generate data on specific facilities, this information
is not easily accessible.
There are virtually no data with which to assess the risks that industrial solid waste facilities
pose to people or the environment. Although the toxic constituents in various types of
industrial wastes are known and can be evaluated, the data needed to translate known
potential health effects of these toxic constituents into risks posed to populations or
ecological systems are currently unavailable. Basic data needs include the concentrations
of toxic constituents in the solid wastes managed at industrial facilities, estimates of the
potential for uncontrolled releases of contaminants from these facilities, and information on
the potentially exposed populations residing near these facilities.
Until data on the characteristics of existing industrial solid waste facilities are available and
the potential risks from the major types of facilities are assessed or modeled, rigorous,
defensible assessments of risk cannot be made. Currently, any risk assessments must largely
depend on assumptions or professional judgement, subject to substantial uncertainty. Data
that can fill current gaps and meet some of these needs are scheduled to be collected in the
relatively near future (Geise, 1990).
11.2 PROBLEM AREA DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION
The Industrial Solid Waste Sites category includes any open industrial solid waste land
disposal facility not subject to regulation under Subtitle C of RCRA. Specific types of
facilities included in this category are:
• Commercial and on-site industrial waste landfills.
• Mining waste disposal sites, other than those coal mine waste sites regulated
under the Surface Mine Reclamation Act. Mine waste is characterized as a high
volume, low hazard waste. As such, it is distinct from the majority of industrial
solid waste and will be. addressed separately in the discussion below.
• Construction and demolition debris sites.
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Types of waste management units at these facilities include landfills, surface impoundments,
land application units, and waste piles.
These facilities threaten human health and the environment through air emissions of toxic
materials, subsurface methane migration, and ground and surface water contamination by
landfill leachate containing organic and inorganic toxic contaminants and/or pathogenic
substances. Contamination may occur through subsurface migration, surface runoff,
evaporation or wind erosion.
Substances disposed of at these facilities include a wide variety of industrial waste materials,
including:
• process and waste treatment sludges;
• office wastes;
• discarded equipment;
• stripping and cleaning residues;
• food processing wastes; and,
• incinerator ash.
These wastes may include some toxic contaminants, including solvents and heavy metals, at
concentrations below those which trigger regulation under Subtitle C of RCRA (for
example, below the organic toxicity characteristic concentration limits). On-site and off-site
facilities typically differ greatly in terms of the variety of wastes disposed and volume of
waste.
This category excludes:
• Oil and gas waste sites, such as brine pits;
• High and low-level radioactive waste disposal sites;
• Closed industrial waste sites at operating RCRA Subtitle C facilities, which are
covered under the Active Hazardous Waste Facilities problem area; and
• Other closed industrial waste sites, which are covered under the abandoned
hazardous waste site problem area.
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It is important to note that Subtitle D specifically excludes certain waste from its definition
of industrial solid waste. In proposed rules for solid waste disposal facility criteria (40 CFR
Parts 257 and 258, August 30, 1988), the Agency excluded mining waste and oil and gas
waste from the definition of industrial solid waste. EPA, however, has revised its approach
to mine waste and currently expects to include this waste within the scope of Subtitle D.
11.3 POPULATION OF INDUSTRIAL SOLID WASTE FACILITIES IN REGION VIII
Because of the absence of comprehensive inventories of facilities, the population of active
industrial Subtitle D facilities in Region V must be estimated.
Estimates of the population of industrial Subtitle D facilities were developed using national
level data collected for EPA in the mid-1980s. Two studies were used for the estimate:
"Subtitle D Study Phase 1 Report" (subsequently referred to as the Phase 1 Report) and
"Screening Survey of Industrial Subtitle D Establishments" (subsequently referred to as the
Screening Survey). The major advantage of the studies is their comprehensiveness in
addressing the range of facility types regulated by Subtitle D.
Estimates of Region VIII facilities developed using these studies are presented in Table 11-
1. Table 11-1 first presents each study's estimate of the national total of industrial solid
waste facilities by type of facility. As shown, the Phase 1- Report did not include waste piles
and the Screening Survey did not include demolition landfills. For those type of facilities
where direct comparisons can be made, the Phase 1 Report consistently indicates higher
numbers. That report is based on a 1984 survey. The Screening Survey was conducted in
1985.
The method used to estimate Region VIII's share of the nation's industrial solid waste
facilities was to determine the Region's share of industrial activity, as reported in County
Business Patterns, and apportion facilities accordingly. To measure industrial activity we
relied on estimates of the number of industrial establishments in the Region. Region VIII's
share of all U.S. industrial establishments is also shown in Table 11-1. Using this regional
"predictor", estimates of Region VIII industrial solid waste facilities were computed.
11.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUSTRIAL SOLID WASTE FACILITIES
The Screening Survey discussed the degree to which the population of facilities is
concentrated in a few industries. For the four types of facilities addressed by the Screening
Survey - landfills, surface impoundments, land application units, and waste piles, the
majority of facilities is operated by a few industry segments. For example, almost half of
all identified landfills are operated by the stone, clay and glass industry and 75 percent are
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Table 11-1
Estimated Industrial Solid Waste Facilities in Region VIII
Demolition Surface Land Application Waste
Landfills Landfills Impoundments Units Piles
Estimates from
National Surveys
Total U.S. facilities estimated by Phase I report 3,511
by screening survey 2,757
Region VIII share of U.S.
industrial establishments 2.8%
Region VIII facilities estimated by
Phase I report: low 98
high
by screening survey: low
high: 77
2,591
NA
2.8%
72
16,232
15,253
2.8%
454
427
5,590
4,308
2.8%
156
121
NA
5,335
2.8%
149
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11-5
operated by that industry and the food products, paper, iron and steel, and electric power
generation industries. The most concentrated case is the 73 percent of land application,
units operated by the food products industry.
This data also show similar patterns of concentration for the quantity of waste managed by
industry in the four types of facilities. It should be noted that the industry segments that
operate the majority of facilities typically do not also manage the majority of the waste
generated by all industry. For example, the electric utility industry manages 62 percent of
the industrial wastes that go to industrial landfills, but only operates 6 percent of the total
number of industrial landfills. Conversely, the stone, clay, and glass industry operates 46
percent of all industry landfills, but only manages 9 percent of all solid waste disposed of
in industrial landfills.
This data clearly demonstrate that industrial solid waste management is dominated by a
relatively small number of industries. Whether the issue is the population of facilities or the
quantity of wastes managed, the bulk of activity for a given type of facility can be found in
five or six industries.
A mail survey conducted in 1984 provided data on the size of and volume of wastes
managed by industrial and demolition landfills (Westat, 1986). That survey estimated that
71 percent of industrial landfills are less than 10 acres in area and that 98 percent are
smaller than 100 acres. Similarly, 61 percent of demolition landfills are smaller than 10
acres in area and 97 percent are smaller than 100 acres.
Statistics on the quantity of waste accepted by these facilities showed similar patterns. Of
industrial landfills, 79 percent accepted less than 30 tons of waste daily and 97 accepted less
than 500 tons per day. Seventy-five percent of demolition landfills accepted less than 30
tons of waste per day, while 97 percent accepted less than 500 tons per day.
Other descriptive data on industrial facilities are not currently available. For example, data
on characteristics relevant to the risks these facilities pose are absent, including the extent
to which facilities are lined, the presence of monitoring systems, the frequency of releases
from facilities, populations in close proximity, drinking water wells within close proximity.
As noted at the end of this section, data collection relevant to some of these issues will
begin shortly.
11.5 VOLUME OF WASTE MANAGED IN REGION VIII
Data on the volume of industrial solid waste managed in Region VIII are particularly
limited. The Screening Survey provided national estimates of wastes managed by type of
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facility. Region VTH's share of these national estimates can be estimated with the procedure
previously employed to estimate the Region's share of industrial facilities. That procedure
uses the Region's share of industrial activity measured by establishments to estimate the
Region's share of industrial solid waste.
Table 11-2 presents the results of this estimate for the types of facilities addressed by the
Screening Survey. The obvious finding from this estimate is that surface impoundments are
used to manage the predominate share of industrial solid wastes in Region VIII.
11.6 HUMAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT
No information on waste characterization at industrial non-hazardous solid waste facilities
was available. No detailed estimate of the quantities of wastes at these facilities was
available, nor were data available for the types of waste managed at facilities. The following
assessment is then largely based on assumptions about industrial solid waste and industrial
Subtitle D facilities in Region VIII.
Industrial non-hazardous waste facilities in Region VIII are assumed to produce the
following waste streams: sulfites, cellulosic residues, acetones, methanol, gypsum, stone,
asbestos, silicates of limes, toluene, lead, mercury, arsenic, benzene, xylene, phenol, carbon
dichloride, carbon disulfide, hydrogen cyanide, chrome, and heavy metals. Most of the
inorganics will be present as metal oxides and hydroxides, but may be soluble under acidic
conditions. In general, toxic constituents will be present at relatively low concentrations,
below EP Toxic levels and, in the future, below the Organic Toxicity Characteristic limits.
Demolition debris waste disposal facilities handle mainly construction wastes: broken bricks,
plaster, insulation material, wooden material, stone aggregate, reinforcing bars, glass,
plastics, roofing, sheeting, scrap, broken concrete, asphalt, stone, piping and other building
materials.
Mining waste facilities handle waste resulting from mining, smelting and refining operations.
Wastes resulting from crushing, screening, washing and floatation are also mining wastes.
Heavy metals, sodium, potassium, sulfates, and cyanides may be present in such waste.
In the absence of availability of information on the waste characteristics handled at
individual waste disposal facilities, and any construction details and monitoring data at these
facilities, credible estimates of human health risk cannot be provided. Previous studies have
focused on professional judgment driven by assumptions to derive a the quantitative
evaluation of the risks posed by these facilities. These reports have tried to model releases
and exposures to hypothetical maximally exposed individuals (MEI), while making
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assumptions about the chemicals to which the MEI will be exposed, the concentration and
duration of exposure, and the location of the MEI. Assumptions about exposure levels to
various segments of population, and the number of people v exposed were also made in
previous evaluations.
This human health risk assessment addresses the general category of chemicals that
individuals may be exposed to and the effects of such exposures by bounding the problem.
The method used to derive an upper bound risk estimate involves:
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Table 11-2
Estimated Industrial Landfill Facilities in Region VIII
Industrial
Landfills
Demolition
Landfills
Total
Landfills
U.S. Total Landfills
3,396
2,355
15,578
% of Total U.S.
21.80%
15.12%
Region VIII Landfills
1,471
Region VIII Landfills
based on Total U.S. %
321
222
Source: U.S. EPA, "Subtitle D Study Phase I Report."
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11-9
• Assuming that toxic constituents are present in industrial wastes at all facilities
in the Region at levels just below the Subtitle C toxicity characteristic levels.
• Assuming that all facilities are located in areas where private wells are used as
a water source, with an average potentially exposed population of 500 people per
facility.
• Assuming a dilution/attenuation factor of 100 between the point of leachate
discharge from the waste site to the receptor.
11.6.1 Toxicity Assessment
The severity and adverse effects of exposure to a chemical depend on the properties of the
chemical exposure, the concentration and duration of exposure. In the absence of this data,
the exposure effects are evaluated based on the general class of chemicals and their adverse
effects.
Industrial Subtitle D facilities do not pose consistent risks. Demolition debris waste
management units should not pose substantial risks because of the inert nature of the
material in such facilities. Industrial waste and mining waste facilities will pose a larger
exposure risk.
Exposures may occur from heavy metals such as lead, chrome, mercury, and cadmium from
industrial landfills and from organics such as toluene, xylene, carbon tetrachloride, TCE and
benzene. These toxic chemicals may be present in the industrial landfills due to the nature
of operations in the major industries represented in Region VIII. So long as the
concentrations of these chemicals do not exceed EPA criteria for hazardous waste, these
toxic chemicals may be present in non-hazardous industrial waste. Most of the metals in
industrial waste sludge are in the form of hydroxides or oxides, and as such are stable, but
can easily be soluble under acidic conditions.
11.6.2 Exposure Assessment
Exposure from chemicals originating in individual waste facilities will primarily take place
through drinking water. The chemicals may be mobilized into groundwater and also
discharged into surface waters. Leachate generated in landfills, surface impoundments and
land application units handling industrial waste is expected to be typically high in heavy
metals such as lead, chromium, cadmium and mercury, but lower than that expected in
leachate from hazardous waste facilities.
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No data were available on actual concentrations of constituents in leachates from industrial
facilities or at potential exposure points. Additionally, no data were available to directly
estimate the potentially exposed population. Consequently, credible risk estimates were not
possible.
11.7 ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
Discharges to the environment from industrial solid waste facilities may result in adverse
effects to the ecological environment. The nature and severity of these impacts will depend
on the size of the waste handling facility and the volume, characteristics, and duration of the
discharges of chemicals from the facility. The component of the ecosystem affected
adversely will depend upon the media into which the chemicals are released. Aquatic life
will be impacted by releases to surface waters, whereas plants and avian species will be
affected by releases to air and water.
Both acute and chronic effects may be observed. Ecological impacts such as fish kills,
impairment of health and reproductive capabilities, and bioaccumulation in the food chain
may result from discharges to the environment. These impacts may be reversible or non-
reversible and severity of their effects will depend on the resiliency of the ecological system
impacted and the presence of any fragile or endangered species in that system.
Ecological impacts can be evaluated only if information on the type and population of the
exposed species, its stability, chemicals they are exposed to and duration of exposures is
available. Such data relevant to industrial solid waste facilities were not available. As a
result, no attempt was made to quantitatively evaluate risk assessment for ecological
exposures.
It is assumed that larger ecological impacts will result from surface impoundments handling
mining waste because of their size relative to other industrial solid waste facilities.
Discharges to surface water and air may take place from industrial waste handling facilities
resulting in adverse ecological impacts. At this point in time, such impacts cannot be
quantitatively evaluated.
11.8 WELFARE RISK ASSESSMENT
Potential welfare damages associated with Region VIII industrial waste facilities include:
• Costs associated with replacing or treating drinking water supplies;
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• Loss of groundwater option value, where option value is an economic measure
of the value of future use that would be foregone as a result of contamination;
• Health care costs and foregone earnings associated with illnesses; and,
• Property value depreciation in the immediate vicinity of industrial waste sites, in
some cases this may be related to the reduced suitability of sites for post closure
uses.
It was not possible to develop credible quantitative welfare damage estimates for the above
categories due to missing data. If these data were available, welfare risks could be
calculated with some measure of confidence.
11.9 UNCERTAINTY
The reliability of this assessment is low due to the lack of data and the extensive reliance
on professional judgement and assumptions in developing risk estimates. Assumptions
encompass all compartments of the risk assessment: the chemicals considered,
concentrations of exposure, the duration of exposure, and the size of population exposed.
Although the analysis attempted to keep the chemicals modeled and their concentrations
representative of the waste being considered, and to provide a reasonable estimate of the
upper bound risk, it must be highlighted that a different set of assumptions could lead to
completely different risk estimates.
There are substantial data gaps that prevent a careful assessment of the risks posed by
industrial Subtitle D facilities. The areas where better data are needed include:
• The population of facilities by type of facility
• Characteristics of facilities related to risks posed to the human population and
ecological systems
• Waste characteristics by type of facility and by industry
• Potential for releases by type of facility
• Risk assessment models for major types of facilities
State regulatory agencies are an obvious source of data on the population of facilities.
Acquiring data from states, however, relies on-site work which was not within the scope of
this effort.
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EPA's final rule for municipal landfill criteria will also include a notice that industrial
facilities covered by Subtitle D meet notification requirements. Those requirements include
basic information on the facility and limited data on the potential for exposure of
populations or ecological systems to wastes managed by these facilities. The final rule is
scheduled for September 1990 and industry is expected to have 18 months to meet the
notification requirement.
This summer, EPA's mine waste work group will initiate several studies to better assess risks
from these wastes. The studies will include a national survey of sites, an environmental
analysis at a variety of type of facilities, and a sampling effort. Results are expected in 12
to 18 months.
11.10 REFERENCES
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1986. "Subtitle D Study Phase 1 Report," PB87-
116810, National Technical Information Service, Springfield, VA, October.
Westat, Inc. 1987. "Screening Survey of Industrial Subtitle D Establishments," draft final
report, submitted to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December 29.
Westat, Inc. 1986. "Census of State and Territorial Subtitle D Non-Hazardous Waste
Programs," prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, October.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. "Preamble to Toxicity Characteristics
Revisions," 55 FR 61, March 26.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1990. "Toxicity Characteristics Revisions, Final
Rule," 55 FR 61, March 26.
Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management. 1989. "Evaluation of the Health
Effects from Exposure to Gasoline and Gasoline Vapors," August.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1989. "Health Effects Assessment Summary Tables,
Fourth Quarter, FY 89," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, OSWER, October.
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12.0 ACCIDENTAL CHEMICAL RELEASE TO THE ENVIRONMENT
12.1 INTRODUCTION
The Accidental Chemical Release to the Environment problem area covers risks to human
health and welfare, and ecosystems posed by accidental or episodic (non-recurring) chemical
releases from:
• Manufacturing facilities, including refineries, chemical plants, metal
manufacturing and finishing plants, and other similar operations.
• Product storage facilities, including tank farms and warehouses.
• Product and waste transportation equipment, including pipelines, barges,
railroads, and trucks.
The threats posed by these releases are of several types:
• Risks of injury and death due to fires and explosions associated with chemicals.
• Risks of illness and death due to exposure to released chemicals, which may be
acutely toxic, carcinogenic, teratogenic, or mutagenic. Exposures may occur
through direct contact, air emissions, and surface and groundwater
contamination.
• Ecosystem damage caused by air, surface water, ground water, and soil
contamination, particularly damage to surface water and wetlands.
Virtually any chemical product or waste may be accidentally released during production,
storage, and transportation. 40 CFR 302 lists over 800 hazardous substances for which EPA
has designated reportable quantities, requiring that accidental releases of the chemical over
the reportable quantity be reported to EPA. A wide variety of acids, bases, solvents, organic
chemicals, pesticides, and heavy metal compounds are listed hazardous substances.
Additionally, spills of crude oil and petroleum products to water must be reported. Releases
of petroleum products, including crude oil, are required to be reported only if they enter a
waterway and produce a sheen on top water.
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12-2
This category excludes:
• Routine releases of chemicals to air or surface water which are permitted or
regulated under the Clean Air Act or Clean Water Act, such as releases from
process or tank vents.
• Routine releases of contaminants to surface waters, soils, or ground water from
abandoned waste sites, active hazardous waste facilities, and storage tanks.
• It should be noted that some, but not all permitted releases are excluded from
reporting. Abandoned waste sites and active hazardous waste facilities can have
accidental releases of hazardous substances that are reportable. However,
releases from these facilities are covered under separate problem areas.
Data on the number of accidental releases occurring in Region VIII were made available
through the Emergency Response Notification System (ERNS) data base. The data base
is maintained by the United States Department of Transportation (USDOT) and is made
up of release reports received by USDOT, USEPA, and the United States Coast Guard.
Whenever a release of a reportable quantity of a hazardous substance occurs it must be
reported to USDOT, USEPA, or the US Coast Guard. These agencies, in turn, file a report
with USDOT so that the incident may be recorded in the ERNS data base. The data base
is meant to be a comprehensive listing of all the accidental releases to the environment that
occur in the United States. However, many references cite tendencies for the data base to
under report the number of releases of reportable quantities that occur.
12.2 POPULATION OF ACCIDENTAL CHEMICAL RELEASES
The Emergency Response Section in Region VIII believes that the ERNS data base contains
between 25% and 45% of the accidental releases that occur in Region VIII. See Table 12-1
for a summary of reported spills for years 1987, 1988, 1989, and 1990 to the present. For
that reason, the number of releases reported by the ERNS data base for Region VIII was
taken as only 35% (the average of 25% and 45%) of the total releases that had occurred.
Using this assumption, approximately 1,351 releases of reportable quantities of oil and
hazardous substances occurred in Region VIII in 1989.
Table 12-2 presents a breakdown of the percentages of releases by type of material. The
data indicate that oil was the most frequently released material. Approximately 50% of the
releases reported to ERNS from 1987 through 1989 were characterized as oil releases. Note
that no data on type of release were available for Colorado.
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12-3
When the data on releases were analyzed by state, Colorado accounted for 49% of all
releases in Region VIII during 1987-1989.
12.3 HUMAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT
12.3.1 Toxicity Assessment
Oil and petroleum products (fuel oil, diesel oil, gasoline) produce a wide variety of health
effects due to the different makeup of each product. The toxicity of these hydrocarbons is
generally considered indirectly proportional to their viscosity, with those materials having
high viscosity considered to be less toxic. Gasoline can produce significant central nervous
system toxicity with a potential aspiration hazard. Fuel oil and diesel oil are generally
nontoxic in normal, ingested doses. However, ingestion may lead to lipoid pneumonia if
aspiration occurs. The release of fuel oil, diesel oil, or gasoline is considered a more serious
threat to ecosystems than to human populations.
While it has not been possible to identify principal chemicals/toxicants released in Region
VIII, additional toxics released may include:
PCBs
The U.S. EPA has classified PCBs as probable human carcinogens based on evidence that
PCBs cause cancer in animals. PCBs produce non-cancerous health effects as well. The
health effects produced vary according to the duration of exposure and the exposure
pathway (ref). Inhalation of air contaminated with PCBs can lead to skin irritation in
humans if the PCB concentration exceeds 0.05 mg in a cubic meter of air and the exposure
lasts longer than two weeks. For air exposures of less than two weeks, no quantitative data
are available that support the identification of human health effects. Likewise, no
quantitative data are available to support the identification of non-cancerous health effects
due to ingestion of PCBs. However, doses have been identified below which only a minimal
risk of non-cancerous effects can be assumed. Direct contact , with PCBs can produce
non-cancerous health effects in humans for exposures lasting more than two weeks. These
include skin irritation and liver effects. No quantitative data are available to aid in the
identification of human health effects due to direct contact with PCBs when exposures last
two weeks or less.
Lead
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Although it is suspected that lead is a potential human carcinogen, U.S. EPA's Carcinogen
Assessment Group has recommended that a numerical estimate not be used in assessing the
risks associated with lead. The group felt that too many uncertainties were involved with
quantifying this risk. They added that the current state of knowledge in lead
pharmacokinetics indicated that an estimate derived by standard procedures would not
adequately describe the risks to exposed populations. However, under Section 109 of the
Clean Air Act, USEPA has set a primary national ambient air quality standard for lead of
1.5 micrograms per cubic meter. This is a health-based quantity. In addition, a maximum
contaminant level (MCL) of lead in drinking water has been set at 0.05 milligrams per liter.
Currently, this value has interim status. USEPA OSWER has released a directive stating
that soil concentrations for lead must not exceed 500 to 1000 ppm.
12.3.2 Exposure Assessment
Acute (short-term) exposures associated with releases are probably inhalation of airborne
contaminants resulting from a release and direct (dermal) contact with released material.
A secondary exposure pathway would be ingestion of contaminated material after dermal
contact.
The Emergency Response Section also is concerned with the chronic (long-term) effects of
spills and releases. Potentially important pathways for chronic exposures include ingestion,
direct contact, and inhalation of groundwater and surface waters contaminated by spilled
and released materials. Inhalation of air is also viewed as an important pathway when
dealing with releases of heavy metals such as lead. It has not been possible to estimate
human exposures associated with accidental exposures in this assessment.
12.4 ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
12.4.1 Toxicity Assessment
Oil
Research on the effects of oil on wildlife and resources has identified certain characteristics
common in freshwater spills. The impacts on ecosystems of interest are summarized below.
Algae: Phytoplankton are largely unaffected by spilled oil except to certain components of
oil. Filamentous and benthic algae suffer some impacts but also exhibit resistance and
appear to recover quickly. Blue-green algae may actually increase after a spill.
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Macrophyte vegetation: Submerged species and the submerged portions of emergent species
are generally not affected. However, emergent species and those at the water's edge are
affected and may die because of surface oiling.
Invertebrates: Impacts in real spills appear to be minimal or short-lived. The group most
affected have been insects that dwell on the air/water interface.
Fish: Larvae and fry have generally suffered more impact than adults. Some adult fish have
exhibited tainting of flesh.
Birds: Exposure to toxic effects occurs through ingestion, and absorption. Effects may be
transferred to eggs and chicks. Oiling of feathers has also produced problems with heat
regulation and buoyancy. The Peregrine Falcon inhabits the Region and is a Federal
endangered species. Therefore, bird protection and cleanup may be important
considerations.
Mammals: The effects are similar to those for birds. Surface oiling will change the
insulative properties of the fur. Mortality can result from ingestion.
PCBs
For aquatic life, PCB concentrations in water of less than 0.014 ug total PCBs/L (ppb)
appear to afford a reasonable degree of protection. LC-50 values for fish listed as
inhabiting the Region ranged from 54 ug/L for Aroclor 1242 and 1254 in Bluegills to a
reported high of 540 ug/L for Aroclor 1016 in the same species and 560 ug/L in Channel
Catfish.
Among small mammals listed among the species inhabiting the wetlands of the Region, the
mink is one of the most susceptible PCB poisoning. A dietary level as low as 100 ug
PCBs/kg fresh weight produced death and reproductive toxicity in mink. A tolerable daily
limit has been estimated at less than 1.5 ug/kg body weight. Mink given a single oral dose
of three different Aroclors (1221, 1242, 1254) produced LD-SOs of 0.88 (avg.), 3.0, and 4.0
g/kg body weight, respectively. Recent data indicate that certain hexachlorobiphenyls (such
as 3,4,5,3',4',5' HCBP) are extremely toxic to mink. Concentrations as low as 0.1 mg/kg
fresh weight diet produced an LD-SO in 3 months and completely inhibited reproduction
in survivors. However, other HCBPs (2,4,5,2',4',5' HCBP and 2,3,6,2',3',6' HCBP) were not
fatal under similar conditions and did not produce adverse reproductive effects. The signs
of PCB poisoning in mink include anorexia, bloody stools, fatty liver, kidney degeneration,
and hemorrhagic gastric ulcers.
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For birds, total PCB levels in excess of 3,000 ug/kg fresh weight (diet) have been frequently
associated with PCB poisoning. As a group, birds are more resistant to acutely toxic effects
of PCBs than mammals. Oral exposures given to Mallards in single doses resulted in
LD-SO greater than 2 g/kg body weight. Signs of PCB poisoning among birds include
morbidity, tremors, beak pointed upwards, and muscular incoordination. At necropsy, the
liver frequently contains hemorrhagic areas and the gastrointestinal tract is filled with
blackish fluid.
Lead
Adverse effects on aquatic biota have been reported at waterborne concentrations as low
as 1 to 5 ug/1 for lead. The observed effects included reduced survival, impaired
reproduction, reduced growth, and high bioconcentration. Terrestrial plants suffer adverse
effects at total concentrations of several hundred mg of lead per kilogram of soil. Plants
residing in low pH or low organic content soils readily accumulate lead. Inhibited plant
growth, reduced photosynthesis, and reduced mitosis and water absorption are some of the
reported effects.
Although the evidence supporting the claim that ingested lead shot is a major cause of
mortality in waterfowl and other birds is overwhelming, the use of lead shot is being phased
out. By 1991-1992 all uses of lead shot for hunting waterfowl must be eliminated
nationwide. Other forms of inorganic lead have not been shown to produce subclinical signs
of lead toxicosis in bird populations. However, it should be noted that lead poisoning has
been reported in eagles, vultures, and falcons (i.e. birds of prey). Most cases result from the
ingestion of lead shot in food items. The outward signs of lead poisoning in birds are loss
of appetite, lethargy, weakness, tremors, drooped wings, and impaired locomotion, balance
and depth perception. Reports show that death follows exposure to lead poisoning in 2 to
3 weeks (Friend, 1985).
Fish that are continuously exposed to toxic concentrations of waterborne lead exhibit signs
of lead poisoning: spinal curvature, anemia, darkening of tissue, degeneration of the caudal
fin, reduced ability to swim against the current, adverse respiratory effects, elevated lead
concentrations in blood, bone, gill, liver, and kidney, muscular atrophy, paralysis, growth
inhibition, renal pathology, retardation of sexual maturity, and death. Although lead is
concentrated by biota from water, no convincing evidence exists to support a claim that it
is transferred through food chains.
Although some domestic and laboratory animals have exhibited reduced survival at acute
oral lead doses, data are missing for toxic and sublethal effects on mammalian wildlife.
Based on laboratory studies researchers have concluded that organolead compounds appear
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12-7
more toxic than inorganic lead compounds, food chain biomagnification is negligible, and
younger organisms are more susceptible to adverse effects from lead exposure (USDOI,
1988).
Dioxin
Laboratory studies on 2,3,7,8-TCDD have reported that exposures of aquatic organisms,
birds, and mammals result in acute and delayed mortality, and carcinogenic, teratogenic,
mutagenic, mistopathologic, immunotoxic, and reproductive effects. The effects vary greatly
among exposed species. The summary of some laboratory studies on the effects of this
material on wildlife is presented below.
Accumulation of 2,3,7,8-TCDD from the aquatic environment was noted for algae and
macrophytes, and channel catfish. Effects in channel catfish included fin necrosis, erratic
swimming, hemorrhaging from anus and lower jaw, BCF of 2181 and mortality.
Mallards have an acute oral LD-50 value of more than 108 ug/kg of body weight for
2,3,7,8-TCDD. Some of the signs of intoxication observed included excessive drinking, loss
of appetite, hpoactivity, weakness, muscular incoordination, fluffed feathers, falling, tremors,
convulsions, and immobility. Death occurred between 13 and 37 days after exposure.
Remission was observed in survivors, however, by day 30 of posttreatment. Although there
may be no scientific evidence of biomagnification of PCDDs in birds, it has been
hypothesized that piscivorous birds have a greater potential to accumulate PCDDs than the
fish that they eat (NRCC, 1981).
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12-8
12.42 Exposure Assessment
Exposures of birds and mammals to the materials reviewed typically occur by direct contact
and ingestion. Fish are exposed through ingestion as well.
12.43 Ecological Risk Characterization
The principal ecological effects of concern associated with accidental chemical releases are
effects on aquatic ecosystems, including effects on birds and mammals which come in
contact with water contamination physically or through ingestion of contaminated water
organisms. Generally, spills occurring on land which do not immediately run off into surface
waters can be contained and cleaned up before serious, irreversible ecological damage
occurs.
The effects of acute spills on aquatic ecosystems depends upon the material spilled, its
volume, and the volume and mixing characteristics of the water body into which the material
is spilled. Frequent results of major spills of oil and hazardous substances include kills of
fish, birds, and mammals.
In dynamic environments, such as streams, the local effects of spills are frequently transient
and reversible. That is, while the spill may result in one-time kills of fish, birds, and
mammals, the effects are dissipated relatively rapidly over time due to dilution of the spilled
materials. However, for large spills which exceed the dilution capacity of the receiving
water body, releases to dynamic environments can spread the effects of the spill rapidly over
a large geographic area, greatly magnifying the ultimate impacts of the spill.
In static aquatic ecosystems, such as wetlands and lakes, the effects of a major spill can
persist for a long period unless measures are taken to actively remove the toxic materials.
While the effects may be contained in geographical extent, materials can persist in toxic
levels until diluted or degraded.
The most frequently spilled material in Region VIII is oil, which accounts for 50% of all
reported spills (approximately 3900 spills in 1989). In sufficient volume, oil spills can result
in kills of fish, birds, and mammals through ingestion of toxic levels of oil and oil
constituents, and through physical contact (e.g., oiling of fur and feathers). Most oil spills
in Region VIE are relatively small.
12.5 RISK SUMMARY
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12-9
The most important health effects associated with accidental releases are short-term (acute),
non-cancer effects that affect very localized areas. In the vast majority of cases, the
populations affected by releases is small. However, some releases have the potential to
produce catastrophic effects especially when releases involve toxic chemicals in the vapor
phase. Prevailing wind speed and direction are important variables when dealing with
releases where air is the major transport medium.
The health effects associated with the chemicals identified as major concerns in Region VIII
range from skin irritations to possible mortality. Some effects such are systemic in nature
while others are local. Non-cancer effects or more likely to result from accidental releases
than cancer effects. This is due to the short-term nature of release events. Although some
residual is usually left behind after cleanup, those levels should be low enough as to not
produce cancer effects from a single episode.
Other types of releases may actually produce the opposite effects. Releases from leaking
drums or tanks that go undetected or unchecked can lead to soil contamination, surface
water contamination, and even ground water contamination. Releases of this type lead to
exposures through direct contact with and/or ingestion of contaminated water or soil. These
effects can produce long-term effects and usually result in more extensive cleanup efforts
when they are discovered.
Other paths such as dermal contact and ingestion generally play only minor roles. Typically,
populations in the immediate vicinity of a release or who are located close by and downwind
receive the highest exposures.
The risks associated with accidental releases must be discussed qualitatively. Data are not
generally available from EPA sources that allow exposures resulting from accidental releases
to be calculated. In some cases where exposure data are available, risks can be quantified,
but in other cases the chemical of interest does not possess an EPA-verified reference dose.
In cases where cleanup levels have been established with the help of quantitative risk
assessment (as is the case for PCBs), residual risks may be minimized with respect to the
current level of knowledge concerning a pollutant. More work must be performed in this
area as important data are lacking for many chemicals of interest.
12.6 WELFARE RISKS
Credible estimates of welfare risks associated with accidental releases could not be
developed given available data and project resource constraints. However, accidental
releases in the Region are likely to be associated with welfare damages through the
following pathways:
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• health care costs and costs of illness measures;
• ecosystem damages;
• cost of response and cleanup; and,
• property damages.
12.7 PRINCIPAL CONTACTS
Scott Whitmore, U.S. EPA, Region VIII.
12.8 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anderson, D. 1990. Personal communication. Ecology and Environment, Inc., Denver,
Colorado.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 1986. Chromium Hazards to
Fish. Wildlife and Invertebrates: A Synoptic Review. Contaminant Hazard Reviews Report
No. 6, January.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 1986. Polvchlorinated Biphenvl
Hazards to Fish. Wildlife and Invertebrates: A Synoptic Review. Contaminant Hazard
Reviews Report No. 7, April.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 1986. Dioxin Hazards to Fish.
Wildlife, and Invertebrates: A Synoptic Review. Contaminant Hazard Reviews Report No.
8, May.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 1988. Lead Hazards to Fish-
Wildlife. and Invertebrates: A Synoptic Review. Contaminant Hazard Reviews Report No.
14, April.
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Table 12-1
Reported Spills by State and Type in Region VIII
Number of Reported. Spills
State
1987
1988
1989
Totals
Colorado
211
329
408
948
Montana
23
54
58
135
North Dakota
37
41
77
155
South Dakota
45
48
28
121
Utah
77
89
112
278
Wyoming
80
129
136
345
Total Region VIII
473
690
819
1982
Number of Oil Product Spills
State
1987
1988
1989
Totals
Montana
12
30
37
79
North Dakota
21
34
19
74
South Dakota
20
31
7
58
Utah
25
40
46
111
Wyoming
43
82
71
196
Total Region VIII
121
217
180
518
Number of Hazardous Substance Spills
State
1987
1988
1989
Totals
Montana
5
20
18
43
North Dakota
11
13
51
75
South Dakota
10
15
13
38
Utah
23
34
41
98
Wyoming
16
32
43
91
Total Region VIII
65
114
166
345
Number of Other Spills
State
1987
1988
1989
Totals
Montana
8
10
12
30
North Dakota
5
3
7
15
South Dakota
14
3
7
24
Utah
25
13
25
63
Wyoming
16
14
21
51
Total Region VIII
68
43
72
183
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Table 12-2
Percent of Spills by Type in Region VIII
Percent of Spills as Oil Product Spills
State
1987
1988
1989
Montana
52.2%
55.6%
63.8%
North Dakota
56.8%
82.9%
24.7%
South Dakota
44.4%
64.6%
25.0%
Utah
32.5%
44.9%
41.1%
Wyoming
53.8%
63.6%
52.2%
Percent of Spills as Hazardous Substance Spills
State
1987
1988
1989
Montana
21.7%
37.0%
31.0%
North Dakota
29.7%
31.7%
66.2%
South Dakota
22.2%
31.3%
46.4%
Utah
29.9%
38.2%
36.6%
Wyoming
20.0%
24.8%
31.6%
Percent of Spills as Other Spills
State
1987
1988
1989
Montana
34.8%
18.5%
20.7%
North Dakota
13.5%
7.3%
9.1%
South Dakota
31.1%
6.3%
25.0%
Utah
32.5%
14.6%
22.3%
Wyoming
20.0%
10.9%
15.4%
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13a
DIETARY CANCER RISK FROM EXPOSURE TO PESTICIDES
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Cancer risk from dietary exposure to potentially oncogenic pesticides is estimated
using the OPP Dietary Risk Evaluation System (DRES) and State and Federal pesticide
residue data for 39,578 samples collected over the past 2 1 /2 years. Anticipated residues
(ARs) for 7 of 13 pesticides, selected by OPP and OPPE on the basis of cancer potency
and use information, were estimated using residue data from the FDA pesticide
monitoring data base and the Mississippi State University 'Foodcontam' data base. The
estimated ARs, along with cancer potency factors, were entered into the DRES, which
contains information on food consumption, for the 7 pesticides to estimate lifetime cancer
risk. Table 1 shows upper bounds on estimated additional cancer deaths by pesticide.
These estimates are upper bounds on cancer risk; the true risk may be as low as zero.
PROBLEM AREA DEFINITION
The Agency is required under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide
Act to assess the potential health hazard these pesticides pose to the human population.
EPA has registered pesticide products containing approximately 600 active ingredients.
This assessment is to include an evaluation of data submitted by the pesticide industry
to demonstrate the acute, subchronic, chronic, developmental and reproductive, and
oncogenic effects resulting from exposure to pesticides. Human exposure to pesticides
may occur from ingestion of groundwater contaminated by agricultural runoff and
leaching, and from ingestion of vegetables and other agricultural products treated with
pesticides, as well as consumption of meat, milk, poultry, and eggs, and where livestock
have been treated directly or have consumed feed items with pesticide residues.
The oncogenic risk associated with dietary exposure to agricultural products will
be evaluated by combining estimates of human cancer potency for selected pesticides,
residue data from direct chemical analysis of food items, and food consumption patterns.
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
To generate estimates of human cancer risk from dietary exposure to pesticides,
specific data on oncogenic potential, pesticide residue data, agricultural use information,
and food consumption patterns are required. For this analysis, cancer potency factors
1
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estimated by the Office of Pesticide Programs were used as measures of oncogenic
potential. The Biological and Economic Analysis Division of OPP provided agricultural use
information in terms of major crop uses and percentages of crops treated. Pesticide
residue data in raw agricultural commodities were obtained from two sources: the FDA
domestic surveillance pesticide residue monitoring data base (FDA data) and the FDA-
sponsored Mississippi State University Foodcontam data base (Foodcontam data). Food
consumption data were available from the OPP computerized Dietary Risk Evaluation
System.
It is important to indicate some of the limitations of these data. This analysis is
designed to comparatively rank dietary cancer risks from exposure to pesticides with
other health and environmental risks posed by other problem areas defined under the
Regional Comparative Risk Project. We have not attempted to characterize the complete
spectrum of health risk associated with exposure to pesticides. This analysis considers
only cancer risk from 13 registered active ingredients via one major exposure scenario
(i.e., food residues). Uncertainties in the estimation of the cancer potency factors, the
accuracy of the residue data, omissions in the use data, and uncertainties in food
consumption patterns over time may influence the estimates described here. Analyses
for each EPA region are not being attempted since food consumption patterns at a
regional level were assumed not to vary significantly from one another (e.g., a crop grown
in one region may be shipped and consumed in another region).
Selection of Pesticides of Concern
This analysis is concerned with human cancer risk from pesticide exposure. For
that reason, all pesticides for which OPP has calculated a cancer potency factor were
considered eligible for inclusion in this analysis. Excluded from this initial list of 69
pesticides were pesticides with no food uses, those that have been canceled or had their
registrations withdrawn, and those that have not been classified into an EPA cancer
category. Table 2 lists the 13 selected pesticides along with their cancer potency values
and the effect, where available, on which the cancer potency factor is based. The cancer
potency for ETU is used as a surrogate for the EBDCs: maneb, mancozeb, metiram, and
zineb. The selection decisions were reached by consensus of scientific opinion between
OPP and OPPE.
Cancer potency values are calculated primarily from animal studies by extrapolating
from high doses given to animals under experimental conditions to low doses indicative
of human exposure using the linearized multistage model, which describes the
relationship between dose and cancer risk.
2
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Residue Information
Pesticide residue information was obtained from two sources, the FDA data base,
and the MSU Foodcontam data base. The FDA data base consists of pesticide residue
information generated by FDA laboratories during routine monitoring of agricultural
commodities grown or imported into the U.S. The Foodcontam data base comprises
pesticide residue monitoring data obtained by the State laboratories of California, Florida,
Indiana, Michigan, New York, Oregon, Virginia, and Wisconsin.
Searches of these two computerized data bases were performed for all crops for
which the 13 pesticides of concern are used. Searches of the FDA data base for residue
information gathered over a 2 1/2 year period (1988 to May 1990) were conducted by
FDA, and the search results were provided as hardcopy printouts. Searches of the
Foodcontam data base for the fiscal years 1988 and 1989 plus the first two quarters of
fiscal year 1990 were performed by Dynamac on the data provided by MSU in electronic
format.
For the two data sets, average pesticide residues of the positive samples were
calculated for each commodity by summing the values of the measured residues and
dividing by the number of samples reported above the detection limit for that commodity.
The number of negative samples (i.e., residues less than the detection limit) and the
minimum and maximum residue values were also determined for each commodity. In
addition, the number of additional negative samples reported as having been analyzed
by multi-residue methods capable of detecting the presence of a pesticide of concern
(had the pesticide been present above its limit of detection), but not reported as having
been analyzed for that pesticide, was also derived from the data for each commodity.
Anticipated residues for the pesticides on each commodity of interest were
calculated based on the analytical results obtained for all samples analyzed for that
pesticide. The influence of processing of foods on the anticipated residues was not
considered. For the non-detects, two possibilities exist: either the pesticide is not present
in the sample at all, or it is present at a level below the limit of detection of the analytical
method. Therefore, the actual residue level may be as low as 0 ppm or as great as the
limit of detection. A sensitivity analysis was performed to determine the influence of the
assumed level of residue present in the non-detect samples on the calculated anticipated
residue. Two scenarios that define the magnitude of this influence were investigated, i.e.,
assuming that the residue on the non-detects was either 0 ppm or equal to the limit of
detection.
Both data bases contained residue vaiues for only 7 of the pesticides of concern.
Hence, this analysis encompasses only those 7 chemicals. In addition, FDA reports that
routine monitoring methods are not available for acifluorfen.
3
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Food Consumption
Food consumption patterns were estimated using the DRES, which contains the
USDA national food consumption survey data gathered during 1977/1978.
Estimates of Cancer Risk
The dietary cancer risk analyses were performed using the DRES and its inherent
food consumption data, the pesticide residue data generated from the FDA and
Foodcontam data bases, and the cancer potency factors estimated by OPP to calculate
lifetime cancer risk from dietary exposure to the 13 pesticides included in this analysis.
All estimates are considered to be upper bounds on cancer risk. The true risk may be
as low as zero.
Pesticide use information, which was provided by OPP and included all crops on
which the chemical is used, the number of pounds of active ingredient used per crop, and
the percentage of crop treated with that pesticide, was used to identify the crops upon
which the pesticides of concerned are applied. Not all of this information was available
for all 13 pesticides. In general, for the FDA data base, only pesticide residue data on
crops with one percent or greater use of the pesticide of concern were included in the
risk analyses.
RESULTS
Tables 3 and 4 give summaries of the additional cancer deaths resulting from
dietary exposure to the pesticides of concern.
SENSITIVITY AND UNCERTAINTIES ANALYSIS
Selection of Pesticides of Concern
More "than 600 active ingredients are currently registered with OPP under FIFRA
for use as pesticides. This analysis concentrates on only a small fraction of these
chemicals and involves only dietary risk; it does not examine additional risks from
exposure via other pathways, including drinking water contamination through ground
water or agricultural runoff and household exposure to insecticides or herbicides. Hence,
cancer estimates produced here represent a portion of the overall cancer risks from
exposure to pesticides. However, it is believed that the 13 pesticides of concern may
represent a substantial portion of the dietary risk of cancer.
4
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Estimation of Anticipated Residues
A number of uncertainties regarding the representativeness and the utility of the
residue data exist, particularly with respect to the Foodcontam data. These uncertainties
include sampling rationale, sampling and sample handling, and the accuracy and
comparability of the various analytical methods used by different laboratories, including
the limits of detection for each method. Some of the more important uncertainties are
discussed below.
A problem with both data sets is the often low number of samples analyzed for a
given pesticide on a given commodity. This lowers the statistical significance and
reliability of the anticipated residue assigned to that pesticide/commodity pair. In some
cases, no data were available for commodities known to be treated by a pesticide of
concern. No estimate of anticipated residue was made, and therefore, these commodities
were not included in the analysis. Another difficulty encountered was the differing
schemes used by EPA, FDA, and MSU to describe and code the commodities. This
added uncertainty to the assignment of pesticide residue data to the proper commodity.
The lack of information on the limits of detection was another shortcoming of both data
sets. Nominal limits of detection had to be assigned for each pesticide of concern for
which there were residue data to calculate the upper bound of the anticipated residues.
In addition to the uncertainties described above for both data sets, the
Foodcontam data may not be representative of the entire U.S. food supply because only
eight States currently participate in this voluntary program. In addition, samples obtained
as a result of focused monitoring may be included within the Foodcontam data set. This
could have the effect of biasing the results upward, since these samples are not chosen
randomly but for the purpose of identifying whether a problem exists.
Food Consumption Patterns
The food consumption data from the DRES are provided by the USDA from a
survey of population food consumption habits from the late 1970s. The USDA survey was
designed to be representative of the U.S. population at the time it was conducted.
Changes in such habits through the 1980s are not reflected in these data. Hence, in
addition to the uncertainties in the origional survey, there is also uncertainty associated
with using food consumption patterns from the 1970s that may no longer be appropriate
today.
Cancer Potency
Cancer potency data used in this analysis are derived by OPP through the
evaluation of animal bioassays. Several uncertainties are associated with this approach:
5
-------
(1) the use of animal data to estimate human cancer risk; (2) the selection of one
bioassay over another equally well-conducted study; (3) the selection of one oncogenic
response within a study over another oncogenic response; and (4) the use of a
mathematical model, usually the linearized multistage, to correctly predict cancer risk at
low doses.
Estimation of Dietary Risk
All the uncertainties discussed above contribute to the overall uncertainty in the
estimates presented in this analysis. While it is not possible to quantify each one and to
determine its effect on the numbers presented here, it is important to be aware of the
sources of potential bias in the estimates.
USE OF DATA
The purpose of this analysis is to provide a relative ranking of dietary cancer risk
with other environmental concerns. It is not intended to be an extensive evaluation of this
risk, but rather a qualitative assessment of potential risks. As such, it should not be used
to definitively predict human cancer risk. The uncertainties discussed in the preceding
sections of the report explain the limits of these estimates.
6
-------
Table 1
Summary of Estimated Additional Lifetime Cancer Risk. By Pesticide
Estimated Additional Lifetime Cancer Deaths per
1,000,000 population
FDA Data Base
Foodcontam Data Base
Pesticide
Low AR
High AR
Low AR
High AR
Benomyl
1
1
1
2
Captan
16
17
3
3
Chlorothalonil
1
4
7
24
EBDCs
38
84
11
77
Permethrin
< 1
6
1
7
Simazine
0
41
INS
INS
Trifluralin
0
1
< 1
< 1
INS = insufficient information
7
-------
Table 2
Cancer Potency Factors and Selected Toxicity Information
for the 13 Pesticides of Concern
Pesticide
Cancer Potency Factor
(mg/kg/day)"1
Basis for Cancer
Assessment
Benomyl
4.2E-3
NA
Captan
3.6E-3
NA
Chlorothalonil
1.1E-2
female rat renal
tumors
EBDCs
1.4E-1
NA
Propioconazole (Tilt)
7.9E-2
mouse liver tumors
Acifluorfen (Tackle)
3.55E-2
NA
Alachlor
8.0E-2
nasal turbinate
tumors
Atrazine
2.2E-1
female rat mammary
tumors
Diclofop-methyl
(Hoelon)
1.35
NA
Oxyfluorfen
1.28E-1
NA
Simazine
1.2E-1
female rat mammary
tumors
Treflan (Trifluralin)
7.7E-3
male rat thyroid
adenoma/carcinoma
Permethrin
1.8E-2
mouse lung and liver
tumors
NA = not available at the time this report was prepared.
8
-------
Table 3.
Estimated Lifetime Cancer Risk from Dietary Exposure to Pesticides by Commodity Group
for Low and High Anticipated Residue Estimates Derived from the FDA Data Base
(additional cancer cases per 1,000,000 population)
Cn—nrllty
1ml
Captsn
CMoroth«lantl
ESOCs
P«rM(hnn
S IMI in*
|
IrtflurAtIn
*•79 K-341
*•531 M-5592
*•571 N*6A36
N-1144
*•730 N«57B9
P-1 M-2957
P-0 N-319
High
AA
| L«sfy V«g. s*c.
| Iruilci
-
-
--
0.1
0.2
5
6
0.03
0.04
| iMfy Vsg."
9 trust «•
"
"
--
"
0.0005
0.06
1*9-» Vog.
..
0.2
0.3
0
0.3
0
0 0)
0
0.007
fcjlb V«fl.
..
..
0.06
0.2
0
2
Fruiting ¥sg.
•ac. cucurbits
"
--
--
0.4
2
7
26
0.05
3
Fruiting V«g.
Inc. cucurbits
0.02
0.05
-
0.01
0.2
0.4
2
toot/Vubor
VoMtablM
"
--
--
0
1
2
13
0
2
| Citrus
0
0.)
0
25
¦ Pcmm fruits
0.4
0.5
0.07
0.3
..
24
32
0
9
1 Stons fruits
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
..
$¦•11 fruits snd
Nrrlu
0.1
0.1
0.09
0.1
0
3
0
3
C«r«sl firtina
0
0.0)
16
16
0.04
0.6
0
4
0
1
H Unsp*clll«d
--
--
5.6700
0
0.001
L«
0.7200
1.4400
16.4600
16.9000
0.57D5
3.9600
3a.4ooo
64.0000
0.1200
0.0000
41.0000
0.0000
1.0000
t • Mtatotr of posltlv* i«plM
M ¦ Votsl nutoar of
*• ¦ r«si<*J> Information lor crops In this coModity grotj) «oro not svsilato'.«
-------
Table 4.
Estimated Lifetime Cancer Risk from Dietary Exposure to Pesticides by Commodity Group
for Low and High Anticipated Residue Estimates Derived from the Foodcontam Data Base
(additional cancer cases per 1,000,000 population)
comity
tmtmrl
Captan
CMorothalonil
IftOCa
Paraathrln
tiaailna
TrlllufalIn
H22 «4M
f 342 K-2115
f*»1 M-39}1
P«16 N-1804
*•77* M>7734
*•3 M-36
m*74
Ml 0ft
At
Loafy Vtg. uc.
IriMici
0
0.009
0.04
0.0*
0.4
0.9
0
2
0.6
0.7
IMS
IMS
Loafy Vof.
Irmlci
0
0.02
0.006
0.007
0.2
0.7
6
8
0.0*
0.3
US
IMS
i«9UH V*fl.
0.002
0.0S
0.06
0.1
0.4
2
IMS
IMS
tutb vag.
..
0.004
0.04
0.0002
0.00%
0
2
IMS
IMS
fruiting Vof.
axe. cucurblti
--
--
3
9
0
21
0.2
1
IMS
IMS
fruiting Vag.
Inc. cucurbit«
-
"
0.0006
0.91
3
7
0
1
0.0006
0 06
IMS
INS
l6ot/lkiMr
V«90t«blM
--
"
"
0.01
3
2
20
0
0
US
INS
0.005
0.005
Cltrua
o.s
0.8
..
INS
INS
fruits
0.8
0.9
0.1
0.4
2
12
0
2
US
US
Stono frulta
0.3
0.1
0.6
o.r
0.04
0.7
0
1
0
0.4
US
IMS
tail fruit* and
iarrla*
0.04
0.07
2
2
0.1
0.3
1
S
US
IMS
Caraal firaira
..
..
0
0.4
US
US
1 Unapoctflad
0
o.os
0
3
0.001
0.09
US
INS
Lm
1.4420
2.1990
2.6106
J.JJ70
7.1502
23.60S0
11.0000
77.0000
0.6M6
6.9700
IMS
IMS
0.00*0
0 ooso
f - Mtor of potltlv* tMpIrs
¦ ¦ lotil nutoar of
IMS ¦ iMutllctmt iteli to Htlaati rlak
• • • rmickj* Information for crop* In this ccaMdity gro^ mr« not avulabli
-------
no
EPA Comparative Risk Study
Summary of Non-Dietary Risks from Pesticide Use
Region 8
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Pesticides are defined as substances used to kill, inhibit, regulate, or repel species
such as insects and mites, weeds, fungi, rodents, and other organisms deemed undesirable
(or as defined by FIFRA, substances which "prevent, destroy, repel, or mitigate" pests).
They occupy an unusual niche among the universe of chemicals that humans encounter
as they are deliberately added to various environments to achieve the stated purpose
(Murphy 1986). There is little debate regarding the numerous benefits achieved by
pesticides in agricultural productivity, public health, and other areas. However, it is
well-documented that many pesticides are not selective in their toxicity, and that direct
exposures to pesticide handlers and to residues remaining in indoor and outdoor
environments have produced numerous cases of injury and death, and that pesticides are
suspected of producing delayed adverse effects, including cancer.
Situations in Region 8 that represent potential occupational and other non-dietary
health risks due to pesticide exposures include:
•persons handling pesticides intended for use on
agricultural crops;
"persons performing hand labor tasks on pesticide-treated crops;
•persons applying pesticides in and to structures,
especially residences, and on lawns surrounding these structures; and
•persons, especially children, occupying such structures.
This report attempts to assess the health risks in these exposure situations for
comparison to other environmental concerns. Health risk, a function of both exposure
and toxicity, is assessed for several pesticides of concern, using exposure and toxicological
potency estimates from the published literature and from U.S. EPA, and using
preliminary estimates prepared for this report. This analysis will not attempt to identify
and develop quantitative estimates of health risks associated with all major uses of
pesticides in agricultural and structural pesticide-use situations because of the diversity of
use patterns, toxicity ranges, and exposure scenarios presented by agricultural and
structural pesticide uses in Region 8. This analysis also does not attempt to prioritize the
selected active pesticide ingredients for further review or regulatory action. Therefore,
the results of this analysis are not appropriate for purposes other than the regional
comparative risk project.
1
-------
2
Region 8 agricultural patterns and population demographics indicate that pesticide
usage has the potential for exposing significant populations of pesticide handlers and
residents, compared to agricultural fieldworkers. This analysis identified several use and
exposure situations which may represent unacceptable health risks. These include
carcinogenic and other delayed-onset adverse effects from exposure of applicators and
mixer/loaders handling the insecticides and herbicides used on major field crops and
rangelands, and concerns for acute and subchronic effects for children playing on
insecticide-treated surfaces such as carpets and turf. Quantitative risk estimate ranges for
many of the assessed populations exceed levels deemed acceptable in other
environmental areas (i.e. Hazard Indices exceed 1, cancer estimates exceed one per ten
thousand). Examples of risk estimates are given in the following summary table.
-------
3
1 Worker Activity
Pesticide
Cancer Risk
Hazard Index
Field Worker
Captan
3 per 100,000 to 2
per 1,000
0.09 to 5.6
Chlorothalonil
1 per 10,000 to 8
per 1,000
0.8 to 48.7
Malathion
0.6 to 36.5
| Commercial
| Groundboom
| Applicator
Atrazine
4 per 10,000 to 7
per 100
0.4 to 62
Trifluralin
2 per 100,000 to 2
per 1,000
0.3 to 41.3
Methyl Parathion
32 to 4,080
2,4-D
4 per 10,000 to 6
per 1,000
Carbofuran
1.6 to 204
Commercial
Mixer/Loader
. Atrazine
2 per 1,000 to
3 per 100
2 to 24
2,4-D
2 per 10,000 to 2
per 1,000
Carbofuran
8 to 78
The interpretation and uncertainties of this analysis are discussed in the risk
assessment, uncertainty analysis, and technical appendix sections of this report. Perhaps
the largest area of uncertainty to be considered in interpreting the following results is the
poor data base for dermal absorption of most pesticides. In the general absence of such
data, an assumption of 100% absorption was necessary. Reduced absorption rates could
have a marked effect in reducing the risk estimates presented in this report. For some
pesticides, however, such reductions might not be enough to lower the estimates to levels
deemed acceptable, even in small populations.
-------
4
DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM
A. Agriculture
Concerns for exposure of agricultural workers to pesticides first began to be raised
during the 1950's and 1960's as many of the environmentally persistent organochlorine
insecticides, generally of low acute toxicity, began to be replaced with less persistent but
often highly acutely toxic cholinesterase-inhibiting organophosphates and N-methyl
carbamate insecticides, including parathion, mevinphos, phosalone, dialifor, methomyl,
and others. Persons handling these pesticides and those entering treated areas to
perform hand labor tasks were exposed to these pesticides at levels capable of producing
illness or death.
Agricultural pesticide usage shows an upward trend, with approximately 1 billion
pounds each of pesticides and wood preservatives applied nationally in 1987 (Young
1987). In particular, there is an increasing use of herbicides, primarily due to reduced
tillage on major grain crops, and a decreasing use of insecticides. Currently, herbicide
use is over twice as high as insecticide use. These herbicides, along with most fungicides
and some insecticides, are classified as being only slightly or moderately acutely toxic.
However, these products may be of concern with regard to a possible potential to
produce delayed adverse effects with repeated low level exposure over time, including
reproductive and developmental toxicity, organ system toxicity (e.g. hepatic, pulmonary,
neurological, and renal toxins), and oncogenic (cancer-causing) effects (Sharp et al. 1986,
Wilk 1986, Moses 1989, Blair et al. 1989).
Concerns for reentry exposures exist on a nationwide basis. Reporting of
pesticide-implicated illness and injury is mandatory in California and therefore it has the
most complete record of suspected and confirmed effects attributed to pesticide
exposures (as reviewed in U.S. EPA 1984). California is often viewed as a "worst case";
however, such a view is probably inaccurate given the incomplete incident-reporting in
most states and the more stringent California worker protection regulations. However,
California may be unique among the states in the employment of highly hand labor-
intensive agricultural practices, the wide-spread usage of acutely toxic organophosphorus
insecticides, and the arid climate which permits the persistence of these insecticides and
their transformation into even more toxic oxidation products.
In 1977 in California, physicians reported 1,518 cases of occupational illness or
injury from pesticides, of which 12% were to field workers. Approximately one-fourth of
the field worker cases were of a systemic nature, with the remainder being injuries to the
skin, eyes, or both (U.S. EPA 1984). In comparison, reported occupational injuries from
pesticide exposure in 1987 numbered 1,595 (580 definitely from pesticides, 391 probable,
and the remainder possible or unlikely), with approximately one-half of a systemic nature.
Total reports did not show a clear trend in frequency between 1982 and 1987, however.
-------
5
Also, of total occupational reports filed in 1987, 28% involved exposure to residues in
agricultural fields or on commodities (Maddy et al. 1990).
Krieger and Edmiston (n.d.) analyzed and ranked pesticides in California
according to reported occurrences of systemic injury from 1982 through 1986, and noted
that the highest incidence was associated with parathion use which accounted for 18% of
total reports, almost twice that of the second ranked pesticide - mevinfos. Fifteen of the
20 highest ranked pesticides were cholinesterase-inhibiting insecticides, including
methomyl, methamidophos, dimethoate, methidathion, and carbofuran.
An accurate accounting of occupational pesticide-related illness and injury on a
national scale may not be possible. In a compilation prepared by Jerry Blondell of
OPP/U.S. EPA, over 63,000 pesticide-related incidents were reported to poison control
centers in 1988, two-thirds of which were from insecticides. The organophosphates
dominated the pesticide classes in terms of producing fatalities. Wasserman and Wiles
(1985) estimate upwards of 300,000 pesticide-related illness and injury incidents occur
nationwide on an annual basis. Thus, although statistics on pesticide-related occupational
illness and injury for Region 8 were not available for this report, it can be concluded
from the above national statistics, and extensive use of agricultural pesticides as discussed
below, that a significant concern exists in this Region.
Mitigating the risk of immediate illness and injury resulting from exposures to
highly acutely toxic pesticides such as organophosphates, N-methyl carbamates, fumigants,
and paraquat has received much of the focus in regulating occupational exposure to
pesticides. However, reducing the risk of delayed-onset adverse health effects, such as
cancer, reproductive and developmental effects, and organ system toxicity resulting from
exposures to pesticides is receiving increased attention.
1. Agricultural Workers
These concerns are especially great for migrant agricultural workers who rely upon
field activities to provide their living. Nationally, it is estimated that there are 800,000
migrant farmworkers and dependents, and 1,900,000 seasonal farmworkers and
dependents (Wilk 1986). The potential exists for both acute and chronic exposures upon
entry into treated areas to perform hand labor tasks, and these populations are perhaps
among those at highest risk for additive or synergistic toxicity from exposures to
combinations of pesticides and other applied chemicals ("inert ingredients", fertilizers).
Potentially sensitive populations include pregnant and nursing women, and young children
who commonly work in fields (illegally) or accompany a working parent. Children
working or living in treated fields may be exposed to amounts of pesticides equivalent to
those of adults, and thus incur higher exposures on the basis of body weight. Poor health
care, inadequate housing, alcoholism, heat stress and other factors are possible toxicity-
modifying factors to be considered in assessment of health risks from pesticide exposure
in these workers. In many areas, language barriers and lack of education may hamper
-------
6
understanding of increasingly complex safety-related issues and requirements. A number
of exposure sources exist for agricultural field workers including: dermal contact with and
inhalation of foliar, soil, and dust residues; spray drift; as well as ingestion of treated
food (Wilk 1986, Maddy et al. 1990).
These concerns have, over the past twenty years, led to the development of a
number of state and federal programs for agricultural worker protection, including
establishment of reentry intervals for acutely toxic pesticides and those suspected of
teratogenic or carcinogenic potential. While these programs have undoubtedly
contributed to reduced occupational pesticide exposure, the concerns have not been
eliminated, as evidenced by continuing documentation of exposure and injury in states
such as California which have comparatively advanced exposure and safety standards
(Maddy et al. 1990).
2. Agricultural Pesticide Applicators
Persons who handle agricultural pesticides on either a continuous or intermittent
basis are also at risk from adverse pesticide effects, both because such pesticide handlers
have the potential to contact large quantities of more highly concentrated formulations of
the materials, and because certain application methods have an inherently high exposure
potential. Pesticide handlers perform such activities as:
* mixing the formulated products with diluent (water, oil,
etc.);
* loading pesticides into the application equipment;
* operating application equipment;
* flagging for aerial applications; and
* cleaning mixing, loading, and application equipment.
Exposures may occur:
* during normal operations;
* from spills, splashes, drift, or fallout;
* from equipment leakage and failure;
* from failure to appropriately use personal protective
equipment; and
* from failure to follow other precautionary directions on
labels (Maddy et al. 1990).
Certain application methods present high exposure potential to the applicator,
including:
-------
7
* airblast and other high-pressure sprayers that generate
mists and fogs (common in Region 2 fruit trees and
vegetable crops);
* backpack or knapsack sprayers; and
* airborne dispersal of pesticides in enclosed areas such
as greenhouses (Waldron 1985).
Application equipment and methods that present lower exposure potential to the
applicator include:
* low pressure, coarse droplet dispersal as from boom
sprayers;
* granular applications;
* equipment and methods that release the pesticide in close
proximity to the target area, such as soil-incorporation or soil
injection techniques; and
* equipment that separates the applicator from the
application environment such as enclosed cockpits
or enclosed cabs.
Mixing and loading have the potential to produce higher exposures than the
application tasks (Mumma et al. 1985), because mixers and loaders may be handling
concentrated forms of the pesticides. Soluble packaging and closed mixing/loading
systems, when available, aid in mitigating these exposures. Improved training for
pesticide handlers, better hygiene practices, and the appropriate use of personal
protective equipment also can contribute to decreased exposure potential in handling
operations (Cowell et al. 1989). However, ignorance, accidents, and equipment failure
can negate such safety programs. Furthermore, current personal protective equipment
technology may not be adequate to protect pesticide handlers using pesticides that are
highly toxic by the dermal route, such as parathion and mevinphos.
No national statistics were available for reported occupational injury to applicators
of agricultural pesticides alone. However, Maddy et al. (1990) reported that occupational
injuries for pesticide applicators (401) approximately equalled those reported for
agricultural field workers (372) in California in 1987, and were much higher than those
reported for mixer/loaders and Daggers (132).
B. Residential Pesticide Use
Individuals of all ages, occupations, and economic status are exposed to pesticides
in a wide variety of non-dietary, non-agricultural uses and settings. These may include
household, garden, and lawn chemicals (applied commercially or by private individuals),
termiticide and other structural treatments (i.e. wood preservatives), nurseries, golf
courses, public buildings, rights of way, mosquito control and related public health
-------
8
programs, industrial and medical disinfectants, and fumigation/sterilization (medical
instruments, buildings).
Residential exposure to pesticides has been associated with a significant
proportion of reported pesticide intoxication incidents, many either involving children or
indicating they are a major population of concern for these usages (as reviewed in
Fenske et al. 1990). Although statistics on pesticide exposures in Region 8 residential
settings were not available for this report, there is little basis to conclude that substantial
differences exist among the Regions. In 1984, 1180 calls were made to the San Francisco
Poison Control Center and Toxic Information Center regarding pesticides, nearly one-
third of which involved the exposure of children to insecticides (Berteau et al. 1989).
The results of the Non-Occupational Pesticide Study, NOPES (U.S. EPA 1990) indicated
the detection throughout the year of a number of home and garden-use pesticides in
indoor air of two urban areas of the United States. Elements of this study have also
developed data suggesting that exposure in homes may also occur via contact with
products during application and with contaminated house dust (Roberts and Camarrn
1989). Currie et al. (1990) studied office exposure after application of formulations of
several insecticides and found substantial and persistent indoor air and surface residues.
Commercial lawn care has grown into a major business. It depends heavily upon
the use of chemical pesticides, which is a cause for increasing concern due to a shortage
of chronic toxicity information for many of the products applied. Over 10% of individual
homeowners may utilize such a service. Also, homeowners apply lawn and garden
pesticides themselves (GAO 1990).
A recent study has suggested that a statistically significant increase in the
incidence of childhood leukemia is associated with parental use of pesticides around the
home (Lowengart et al. 1987). Additionally, although the weight of evidence is
inconclusive at present, there have been suggestions in farmers of a carcinogenic effect
from long-term usage of the herbicide 2,4-D (used on residential lawns) (Blair et al.
1989). Thus, chronic exposure, as indicated in NOPES and other sources, to residential
and other non-agricultural pesticides may present a concern for public health in addition
to the acute exposure and toxicity issues that have predominated the regulation of these
chemicals.
Children may be particularly prone to elevated exposures to pesticides due to
characteristic behaviors including extensive crawling and contact with ground and floor,
and a high level of hand to mouth activity. Combined with a higher body surface
area/weight ratio than adults, closer proximity to treated surfaces such as carpets and
turf, and the probability of increased unprotected skin area in contact with contaminated
surfaces, the potential for exposures via dermal contact, ingestion, and inhalation may be
significant in children (Roberts and Camann 1989, Berteau et al. 1989, Fenske et al.
1990). Recent data by Fenske et al. (1990) indicates that indoor exposure to pesticide
vapors from carpet treatment, even in ventilated rooms, may pose a particular concern
-------
9
for children, due to a gradient of airborne residue that results in higher concentrations in
the breathing zone of a child playing on the carpet It has also been estimated that
children may be at up to 12-fold greater risk from exposure to indoor and outdoor
contaminants associated with soil and dust, relative to adults (Hawley 1986). A
substantial proportion of lead intake in children is via direct contact with dusts and soil,
with subsequent ingestion of lead residues via hand to mouth contact. Lead can
accumulate around the outside foundation of older homes due to the weathering and
flaking of lead-based paints, and these residues appear to contribute significantly to levels
of lead detected in indoor house dust from tracking in with foot traffic (Roberts et al. in
press). This situation is analogous to the previous practice of applying persistent
termiticides such as chlordane and heptachlor around outside foundations that appears to
have contributed to the recent detection of such chemicals in the indoor air of numerous
homes sampled in NOPES (U.S. EPA 1990). Transfer of outdoor residues of pesticides
from lawns to indoor carpets by foot traffic was demonstrated in a recent study (Nelson
et al. 1988). Therefore, ingestion of pesticides adsorbed to dusts is an important factor
to be considered in developing residential exposure assessments for pesticides.
Exposure of children to cholinesterase-inhibiting insecticides, which account for a
large proportion of residential use insecticides, may result in adverse effects not
immediately recognized as pesticide toxicity given the nature of many children's behavior
patterns such as drooling and frequent urination, which resemble symptoms of the onset
of anticholinesterase-induced toxicity (Berteau et al. 1989). EPA recently issued a
cancellation order for phenyl mercuric acetate and other mercury-based biocides in
paints due to an investigation of a case of child poisoning in the home linked to these
ingredients (Federal Register, 6/29/90). When these factors are considered in the context
of the incompletely developed detoxification enzyme systems and nervous systems of
children, it is clear that this population must be given priority in determining acceptable
levels of exposure and health risk from the use of residential pesticides.
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10
EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT AND HEALTH RISK CHARACTERIZATION
The first step in deriving estimates of health risk from potentially hazardous
materials is to determine through measurements, models, or a combination thereof, the
levels of exposure an individual may receive as a single (acute), repeated intermediate
(subchronic), or repeated long-term (chronic) event(s). In the case of pesticides, each of
these exposure estimates may be pertinent, although chronic exposure is generally most
important for potential carcinogens, while acute and subchronic exposures may apply to
other forms of toxicity, including neurotoxicity and other forms of systemic toxicity (renal
toxicity, dermal toxicity, reproductive effects, and so forth). Route of exposure is another
important element in the exposure assessment, as many compounds exhibit different
patterns of toxicity and potency depending on whether entry into the body occurs via
dermal absorption, inhalation (of particles, aerosols, or vapors), or ingestion.
Exposure estimates are then integrated with quantitative measures of carcinogenic
potency (Cancer Potency Factors, CPF), or compared with measures of acute toxicity
(lethal dose, No Observed Adverse Effect Levels, NOAELs) or chronic toxicity
(Reference Doses, RfDs), to quantitatively estimate health risk. Toxicity data for select
pesticides, as well as for other environmental contaminants included for comparative
purposes, are summarized in Table 1 in the technical appendix to this report, along with
a summary of the assessment approach .
This assessment of non-dietary pesticide exposure and risk in Region 8 begins with
a determination of the major applications and types of pesticides used. For agricultural
areas, this will define the relative importance of reentry exposure vs. handler exposure, as
well as the major active ingredients to be considered. Non-agricultural exposures to a
large degree are determined by the level of urban/suburban vs. rural populations, as the
former will present greater usages of residential and turf pesticides (for homes, golf
courses, parks, and the like) compared to rural areas where the crop and livestock (i.e
dips, fly control, disinfectants, spray drift/track-in) sources contribute to residential
exposure.
Pesticide Use in Region 8
A. Agricultural Pesticide Use Profile
Agricultural practices in Region 8 differ among the states. Grazing of beef cattle
and sheep is the most important agricultural activity in Wyoming and Montana. Cash
crops in these two states are wheat, oats, barley, sugar beets, and hay, but only a small
percentage of agricultural land is devoted to their production. Livestock production is
also significant in North and South Dakota (beef cattle, sheep, hogs). Wheat, oats, rye,
barley, soybeans and hay are important crops. Sunflower seed (ND, SD), potatoes (ND),
and sugar beets (ND) are also grown. Timber is produced in Montana, South Dakota,
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and Wyoming. The high technology features of crop production in this region indicate
that exposures for farm workers entering treated fields for cultivating and harvesting are
minor compared to other areas of the U.S. (i.e. Regions 4 and 9). Thus, applicators and
other pesticide handlers involved in treating the extensive grain and other field crops
grown in this region provide the primary concern for exposure to agricultural pesticides.
Statistics on populations of farm workers and pesticide handlers in Region 8 were not
available.
Major pesticides utilized in Region 8, based on several sources including RFF
(1986), and contact with Dallas Miller of Region 8 of U.S. EPA, include major field crop
herbicides such as 2,4-D on grain crops, pichloram on pastureland, and lesser amounts of
trifluralin and other herbicides. Major use insecticides include methyl parathion on field
crops, aldicarb granular (potatoes), carbofuran, azinphos-methyl, and disyston. Due to
dry climate, fungicide use is minor.
B. Non-Agricultural Pesticide Use Profile
Region 8 provides a blend of urbanized and rural populations. Therefore,
patterns of non-agricultural pesticides observed nationally apply roughly to Region 2.
However, Region 8 has the fewest number of single unit housing structures (1.8 million),
and therefore, the magnitude of the exposed population is expected to be less than other
regions which extensively use pesticides in these settings, such as Regions 4 and 5.
Representative non-agricultural compounds include: house, turf, and garden
products such as propoxur, chloropyrifos, diazinon, oftanol, carbaryl, bendiocarb,
benomyl, chlorothalonil, 2,4-D, dicamba, atrazine, dacthal and several others (GAO
1990); termiticides and structural wood preservatives; chloropyrifos, heptachlor and
chlordane (discontinued but residual), pentachlorophenol, and inorganics (arsenic,
copper). Less extensive population exposure, while potentially high on an individual
basis, may be found from usages in: nurseries; public buildings (insecticides,
disinfectants); rights of way (herbicides); mosquito and other control programs;
industrial, food processing, and medical disinfectants; and fumigation (grain, food
products, medical instruments, buildings).
Estimates of Non-dietary Exposure and Risk from Pesticides in Region 8.
Potential routes of exposure to pesticides include:
* dermal absorption of pesticides from a variety of
contaminated surfaces such as foliage, soil, dust,
and other indoor or outdoor surfaces;
* inhalation of vapors, dusts, and aerosols; and
* ingestion via transfer from contaminated skin or
objects.
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Dietary exposure to pesticide residues in food is considered in a separate
component part of the pesticide comparative risk analysis. In occupational and
residential contexts, dermal absorption appears generally to present the greatest avenue
of entry of pesticides into the body (Durham 1985). However, the other exposure routes
may be very important for certain active ingredients and circumstances, and must be
given consideration in the design and conduct of an exposure assessment.
Major usage chemicals in fruit/vegetable and field crop areas and urban
applications were considered in assessing risks for farm workers, pesticide handlers, and
urban populations. EPA-verified toxicity values (from IRIS and U.S. EPA 1990) were
used to estimate chronic risks. However, given the lack of basic toxicological information
on many major pesticides and the on-going process of verifying dose/response data,
certain pesticides could not be carried through a quantitative risk assessment.
Also, it is possible but unlikely that a given worker will be exposed to one single
active ingredient or pesticide class exclusively over a work career, as was assumed in the
exposure assessments which follow. Since not all fungicides or herbicides, for example,
are carcinogenic, nor are all insecticides highly potent chronic nerve toxins, and because
EPA and state review is systematically identifying and reducing exposure to such
materials, assuming exposure over a full work career to selected carcinogenic or
otherwise chronic toxins may not be a highly probable event. Exposure estimates were
not adjusted downward on this basis, however, because additive or synergistic (or
antagonistic) effects are conceivable in these exposure settings. As noted elsewhere in
this analysis, dermal exposures estimated in this analysis assume 100% skin absorption
efficiency, due to the variability in this parameter among pesticides and the general lack
of data. For poorly absorbed pesticides, risks presented in this analysis may be
overestimated. Captan, for example, is absorbed to the extent of approximately 1.3% per
hour through the skin. Thus, depending on hygiene practices, risks from captan exposure
may be approximately 5 to 10% of those presented in this report. In addition to
consideration of exposure potential, considerable professional judgement was used to
select pesticides for this regional comparative risk summary in order to achieve a
representative and balanced range of toxicological concern, without unduly exaggerating
or understating risks. The risk estimates were developed under considerable time and
resource constraints, for use in a relativistic risk ranking process, and therefore should
not be used for any other purpose.
A. Migrant Agricultural Workers
Many of the major field crops in Region 8 are raised with a minimum of hand-
labor work and are harvested mechanically. Thus, fieldworker exposure presents less
concern than in certain other Reions (i.e. 4 and 9). Estimating a typical or
representative exposure rate for a worker is not possible due to the great variety of
production practices, work activities, crop characteristics and growth stage, weather and
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climate, application rates and residue decay rates, and personal experience and hygiene
habits. These all can directly affect levels of surface residues and dermal exposure.
Furthermore, estimating long term exposure rates for this worker population is extremely
difficult, due to the seasonal nature of the work and migration patterns (Lunchick 1990).
Numerous studies have sought to characterize worker reentry exposure by integrating
estimates of dermal transfer rates from various crop surfaces with measurements of
surface residue dissipation. When combined with appropriate toxicological estimates of
no effect levels or virtually safe doses, intervals intended to protect workers reentering
treated fields can be estimated (as reviewed in U.S. EPA 1984 and Knaak et al. 1989).
For the purpose of this comparative summary, pesticide exposures and risks to
agricultural workers in Region 8 will be estimated in several contexts utilizing published
data and estimates and encompassing a range of exposure scenarios: harvesting
strawberries (a low crop), and harvesting fruit trees. Popendorf and Franklin (1987)
present a range of harvester pesticide exposure rates of 0.5 to 30 mg/hr, with a median of
15. The upper value corresponds with the high end of the range observed for orange
harvesters (from Popendorf, 1980; often considered a high exposure situation due to
head and upper body exposure to the leaves). The lower value corresponds with rates
presented in Zweig et al. (1985) for strawberries. Therefore," this range will be used to
estimate representative harvesting exposure rates for Region 8 vegetable or fruit crops.
Daily Exposure
At these hourly rates, and assuming an eight hour work day and 70 kg body
weight, daily exposure is estimated from 0.06 mg/kg to 3.43 mg/kg. As a rough estimate
of acute exposure risks, these exposures are approximately 100 times less than median
lethal oral doses for three widely used and relatively less acutely toxic fruit and vegetable
insecticides: malathion, carbaryl, and phenthoate (reliable estimates of dermal toxicity
were generally unavailable for this analysis). Federal or state reentry standards would
presumably apply to more highly toxic acute agents, although there continue to be
documented cases of worker injury from Toxicity Gass I materials.
lifetime Exposure
As noted previously, basic knowledge of the extent of a work year and career for
seasonal and migrant agricultural workers is lacking (Lunchick 1990). For the purposes
of this assessment, it will be assumed that workers are engaged in hand labor activities
requiring extensive pesticide contact for 35 years, 26 weeks per year, 6 eight hour days
per week. The estimated range of long term daily lifetime exposure rates, normalized
over a 70 year lifetime, for a worker weighing 70 kg is 0.012 mg/kg/day to 0.73 mg/kg/day
(mean 0.37). Exposures in actual situations will be to mixtures of residue types, with
possibilities for additive, synergistic, and antagonistic effects.
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Using the cancer potency factors from Table 1, and assuming all of long term
exposure is to one active ingredient, the following estimates of excess lifetime cancer
incidence can be made for chronic exposure (Note: cancer risk is the probability of
incurring the disease in excess of background levels over a lifetime; risks are presented
as fractions, for instance 3 cases per 100,000 exposed people, 3E-5, or 3 x 10-5; for
further information, refer to the technical appendix to this report).
Cancer Risks:
Captan: 3E-5 to 2E-3 (3 per 100,000 to 2 per 1,000)
Chlorothalonil: E-4 to 8E-3 (1 per 10,000 to 8 per 1,000)
Non-Carcinogenic Hazard Indices:
For non-carcinogenic effects, the ratio of lifetime daily exposure rate to the
Reference Dose (RfD, summarized in Table 1), or Hazard Indices (HI, Hazard Indices
of 1 or greater indicate a threshold for potential chronic toxicity may have been
exceeded) for two insecticides and the above fungicides are:
Captan: 0.09 to 5.6
Chlorothalonil: 0.8 to 48.7
Carbaryl: 0.1 to 7.3
Malathion: 0.6 to 36.5
Summary
Estimates of both worker cancer incidence and the possibility for other chronic
effects for selected fungicides and insecticides approach or exceed levels generally
considered unacceptable. Risk estimates in the mid- to lower end of the range may
perhaps better reflect reasonable estimates because of factors such as reentry intervals,
use of work gloves (albeit an uncommon practice at present), limitations on levels of skin
absorption of residues, and the unlikely event that all of an individual's exposure is from
a single carcinogenic or chronic agent. All of these will serve to reduce exposure and
risk level. However, the magnitude of the upper end of the estimated risk range suggests
a serious concern for workers harvesting tree crops treated with fungicides, insecticides,
and miticides. Nevertheless, this assessment places perspective on the potential health
impacts of agricultural worker exposure to pesticides, relative to other environmental
health problems.
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B. Agricultural Pesticide Applicators
U.S. EPA and other organizations that have extensively studied the issues have
determined that applicator exposure to pesticides is primarily a function of work
practices, application method and rate, formulation type, and other factors largely
independent of the active ingredient being applied. (U.S. EPA 1987, Honeycutt 1989, and
Reinert and Severn 1985). This has permitted development of a generic approach to
estimating applicator and mixer/loader exposure, which may include the use of a
computer data base of measured values capable of calculating exposures for a variety of
specified settings (Honeycutt 1989).
This data base is being developed and validated. Therefore, for the purposes of
this comparative summary, select handler exposure estimates representing a range
including a reasonable upperbound value were taken from the literature. Several
scenarios pertinent to Region 8 agricultural practices were defined: including acute and
chronic exposure of mixer/loaders and groundboom applicators of an insecticide and
herbicides commonly used for major Region 8 field crops.
Based on information from Curt Lunchick of OPP/U.S. EPA (Lunchick 1990),
seasonal application patterns for a commercial applicator may consist of applying
preemergent herbicide for 15 full working days per season, followed by a ten week period
of insecticide/fungicide treatment (weekly for each customer), or 50 days per year. For
chronic estimation, a 35 year career is assumed. Mixer/loaders utilizing closed system
equipment provide separate support for 4 hours per day. Farmers applying pesticides on
a small scale may do so 1 to 3 days per year, and perform their own mixing and loading,
frequently with open systems.
Lunchick et al. (1989) reviewed a number of surrogate applicator dermal exposure
studies for groundboom application of alachlor herbicide and reported exposures ranging
from 0.15 to 72.0 mg/hr, normalized for a 1 pound active ingredient (a.i.)/acre application
rate, with various levels of protection accounting for some of the variability (especially
the use of open vs. closed cab tractors). This range agrees well with the total dermal
exposure rates of 1.0 to 130 mg/hour (mean = 24.4) contained in the review by Reinert
and Severn (1985) for groundboom applicators on row crops. This latter range will
therefore be used for this assessment.
Reinert and Severn (1985) present a range of measured exposure rates for
mixer/loader exposures of 39 to 3,000 (mean 510) mg/hour for wettable powder
formulations, and 27 to 32,000 (mean 7,800) mg/hour for liquid formulations. Virtually
all (>95%) exposure was to the hands. Protective gloves used appropriately would be
expected to reduce mixer/loader exposure by at least 90%. Such a reduction would be in
keeping with the range of 10 to 100 mg/hour (median 45) presented by Popendorf and
Franklin (1987) for mixing and loading with open systems. The latter estimate will be
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used for this assessment, as it incorporates a reasonable assumption of protective
equipment use for the lower end of the exposure range.
Therefore, assuming 525 eight hour work days per lifetime (15 days per year, 35
year career) for the groundboom applicator and mixer/loader while handling herbicides,
plus an additional 1,750 days for these same workers while handling
insecticides/fungicides (50 days per year for 35 years); plus additional assumptions of 70
kg body weight, 70 year (25,550 day) lifespans, and that airborne exposures are minimal
relative to dermal exposures (Durham 1985), the following short term and long term
exposure estimates can be made:
Commercial Groundboom Application:
Daily Exposure = 0.11 to 14.9 mg/kg/work day [2.8 mean]
[1.0 to 130 mg/hour (24.4 mean) * 8 hour/70 kg]
This exposure rate presents less concern for herbicides of low acute toxicity, such
as atrazine and trifluralin than for materials in higher toxicity categories, with the upper
daily exposure estimate approaching or exceeding observable effect levels or median
lethal doses measured in animals for the latter. Protective equipment requirements
would lessen, but not eliminate, concerns for such highly toxic materials such as paraquat
and methyl parathion. For compounds which are extremely toxic dermally, such as
mevinphos and ethyl parathion, available personal protective equipment may not provide
adequate protection.
Lifetime Exposure = 0.002 to 031 mg/kg/day for herbicides;
= 0.008 to 1.02 mg/kg/day for
insecticides/fungicides.
[0.11 to 14.9 mg/kg/work day (2.8 mean) * number work days/25,550 days lifetime]
Cancer risk estimates for exposure to herbicides include:
Atrazine: 4E-4 to 7E-2 (4 per 10,000 to 7 per 100)
2,4-D: 4E-5 to 6E-3 (4 per 100,000 to 6 per 1,000)
Trifluralin: 2E-5 to 2E-3 (2 per 100,000 to 2 per 1,000)
Non-Carcinogenic Hazard Indices:
Methyl parathion: 32 to 4,080
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Car bo fur an: 1.6 to 204
Atrazine: 0.4 to 62
Trifluralin: 0.3 to 41.3
Summary
To summarize, application of major use pesticides to field crops by groundboom
methods appears to present significant health risks to applicators for both carcinogenic and
non-carcinogenic long-term toxicity endpoints, with quantitative estimates exceeding by large
margins those levels of cancer risk and other long term toxicity typically deemed acceptable
by the Agency for general populations or individuals.
Commercial Mixing and Loading (open system):
Daily Exposure = 0.6 to 5.7 (2.57 median) mg/kg/work day
[10 to 100 (45 median) mg/hour * 4 hours/70 kg]
These levels of exposure raise concerns for highly toxic materials such as methyl
parathion and similarly toxic compounds in cases where appropriate personal protective
equipment is used improperly or not at all. Acute toxicity concerns appear to be low for the
herbicides and less acutely toxic insecticides and fungicides.
Lifetime Exposure = 0.01 to 0.12 (0.05 median) mg/kg/day for
herbicides;
0.04 to 039 for insecticides and
fungicides.
[0.6 to 5.7 (2.57 median) mg/kgAvork day * number of work days for herbicides (525) or
insecticides and fungicides (i.e. 1750)/25,550 days lifetime]
Cancer Risks:
Atrazine: 2E-3 to 3E-2 (2 per 1,000 to 3 per 100)
Chlorothalonil: 4E-4 to 4E-3 (4 per 10,000 to 4 per 1,000)
Captan: 9E-5 to 9E-4 (9 per 100,000 to 9 per 10,000)
2,4-D: 2E-4 to 2E-3 (2 per 10,000 to 2 per 1,000)
Trifluralin: 8E-5 to 9E-4 (8 per 100,000 to 9 per 10,000)
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Non-Carcinogenic Hazard Indices:
Atrazine: 2 to 24.0
Captan: 0.3 to 3.0
Carbaryl: 0.4 to 4.0
Carbofuran: 8 to 78
Malathion: 2 to 20
Summary
To summarize, commercial mixers and loaders of selected herbicides, insecticides, and
fungicides may be at risk of carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic long-term effects elevated
above generally accepted levels. Concerns for acute toxicity may also exist for unprotected
workers handling highly toxic chemicals such as methyl parathion.
C. Non-Agricultural Pesticide Users
Indoor sources of pesticide exposure include foggers (such as "flea bombs"), spot or
crack and crevice treatments, vapor strips for flying insects, moth repellents, residual
termiticides, pesticides for pet use (flea collars, dips, shampoos), disinfectants, and indoor
plant applications. Outdoor pesticides can also gain entry into the household via foot traffic
and dust. The materials applied in the home are primarily insecticides, with usage dominated
by a limited number of active ingredients including chlorpyrifos, propoxur, diazinon,
malathion, DDVP, and pyrethroids, as well as persistent discontinued products (chlordane,
heptachlor, DDT and its degradates).
Region 8 has the fewest number of single unit housing structures among the Regions
(ca. 1.8 million), suggesting relatively low to moderate usage of pesticides applied in urban
settings among EPA regions (RFF 1986). Major urban insecticides include chloropyrifos (a
major termiticide replacement and a major-use indoor insecticide), malathion, methoxychlor,
bendiocarb, carbaryl, and diazinon; herbicides include 2,4-D and esters, dicamba, dacthal;
and chlorothalonil fungicide (U.S. EPA 1990, GAO 1990).
At present, there is little consensus on approaches to estimating exposure in urban
settings. The Non-Dietary Exposure Branch of OPP/U.S. EPA is currently evaluating
residential outdoor and indoor exposure assessment methodology, as are the California
Department of Food and Agriculture, the Canadian Ministry of Health and Welfare,
pesticide manufacturers, and other organizations. To assess exposure to pesticides in
residential settings, the following scenarios are considered: indoor and outdoor acute and
long-term exposure to children playing on pesticide-treated surfaces, and commercial lawn
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care pesticide application. Chronic residential indoor exposure as developed by NOPES
(U.S. EPA 1990) is reviewed in a companion risk analysis on indoor air quality.
Acute and chronic indoor and outdoor exposure
Fenske et al. (1990) measured available residues of chlorpyrifos in an unoccupied
apartment following broadcast application by a professional applicator of an aqueous
formulation for flea control. All rooms were carpeted with thick pile carpet In the two
ventilated rooms, surface residues declined rapidly, relative to the unventilated room. Air
residues in the breathing zone of a child, closer to the carpet surface were considerably
higher than the adult zone and were stated to be above a National Academy of Science
interim guideline for indoor air chlorpyrifos residues after application for termite treatment.
An exposure and risk assessment was also conducted. Based on both a series of assumptions
on dermal transfer and absorption into the body (dermal absorption data was available for
chlorpyrifos) and the measured residues, total dermal and inhalation exposure was estimated
as 0.075 mg/kg for the day of application and 0.038 mg/kg for the day after application.
Berteau et al. (1989) of the California Department of Health Services and of CDFA
conducted a worst case analysis for a child's exposure to three commonly used indoor
insecticides: propoxur, chloropyrifos, and dichlovos (DDVP). They obtained estimates of
2.2 to 50 mg/kg for acute daily exposure beginning immediately after carpet treatment. The
latter value included a 100% dermal absorption factor because measured data for the active
ingredient assessed, DDVP, were not available. For the purpose of this assessment, a range
of 0.04 (for chlorpyrifos estimated by Fenske et al.) to 5.7 mg/kg (for propoxur estimated
by Berteau et al.) will be used to estimate acute exposure to an indoor pesticide-treated
room. For subchronic and chronic exposure, it is assumed that exposure occurs three times
per year for five years (mean body weight 15 kg); 0.0003 to 0.05 mg/kg/day for five years or
0.000005 to 0.0007 mg/kg/day over a 70 year lifetime (adjusted for 70 kg adult weight).
Acute Risks:
Both Berteau et al. (1989) and Fenske et al. (1990) concluded that their estimates of
childhood exposure exceeded criteria for acute toxicity concerns in children playing on
recently treated surfaces, including no effect levels for cholinesterase inhibition by
chlorpyrifos and propoxur. By inference, insecticide treated lawns may represent similar
(possibly reduced due to less inhalation exposure) potential acute risks to playing children.
Indoor Cancer Risks:
Cancer risks for propoxur using propoxur exposure estimates from Berteau et al.
(1989) and a cancer potency factor of 0.0079:
Propoxur: 6E-6 (6 per 1,000,000)
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Indoor Non-carcinogenic Subchronic Hazard Indices (using chemical-specific exposure
estimates):
Chlorpyrifos: 0.1
Propoxur: 12.5
The estimates of Fenske et al. (1990) and Berteau et al. (1989) may apply to outdoor
"reentry" exposure as well, for children playing on treated lawns, with allowance for lower
inhalation exposures. The estimate of Fenske et al. (1990) contains a contribution from
inhalation of 31 to 42%, while the Berteau et al. (1989) estimates for inhalation are less than
1% of the total. This would correspondingly reduce the chlorpyrifos hazard index, but the
estimates for propoxur would not materially change.
The significance of air residues reported in NOPES (U.S. EPA 1990), and the
assessment of potential health risks presented in that report is discussed fully in a companion
comparative risk summary for indoor air contaminants.
Turf applicator exposure
Commercial (professional) applicators of turf chemicals may be exposed to a variety
of pesticides - predominantly herbicides. Home garden pesticides are also a source of
exposure. This assessment will consider turf pesticides as the focus for assessing outdoor
urban exposure. Commercially and privately applied residential turf pesticides include such
ingredients as the chlorophenoxy herbicides (2,4-D and esters, dicamba), and several
insecticides such as diazinon and malathion. Thus, a broad spectrum of active ingredients
and potential concerns for toxicity may exist for the outdoor residential usage patterns.
The work season of commercial lawn care applicators may consist of 6 days per week
for up to 8 weeks per type of pesticide applied (i.e. insecticide vs. herbicide) (Freeborg et
al. 1985). Neither good data on turf applicator exposure rates nor acceptable surrogate data
were available for this assessment, therefore a quantitative risk assessment was not
developed for this scenario. However, long-term exposure in professional applicators and
support personnel, combined with the suspected carcinogenicity of several high use active
ingredients, present concerns for long-term health risks to this worker population.
ASSESSMENT LIMITATIONS - UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
This analysis of the potential health impacts of non-dietary exposures to pesticides
is intended to be used only as part of a general comparison with the potential health impact
of other areas of environmental concern. Quantitative exposure and risk estimates
presented in this report are derived either from peer reviewed publications or government
reports and data bases, utilizing standard methodology for characterizing risks in the
presence of data uncertainty and variability. Thus, they are generally reasonable estimates
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incorporating conservative assumptions regarding human exposure and toxicological
response, including extrapolation from animal toxicity data, exposure models, and possible
synergistic and additive effects (recognizing that antagonistic effects are possible) from
exposure to mixtures of chemicals or from additional exposure sources.
They do not include adjustments for variables such as:
* individual work and hygiene practices;
* personal protective equipment use;
* formulation type; or
* weather (outdoors) and ventilation (indoors).
Perhaps the most significant area of uncertainty in these assessments, other than
frequent lack of basic toxicological information on major active ingredients currently in use,
is one based on the rate of dermal absorption of each pesticide. Depending on a variety of
factors, pesticides vary widely in the rate they are absorbed through the skin. Known dermal
absorption rates through human forearm skin range from 75% for carbaryl to a 0.3% rate
for paraquat, for example. Other factors being equal, these rates would reduce the assessed
risks by perhaps as little as 25% to as much as 300-fold. Unfortunately, dermal absorption
rates are not available for most pesticides, including many of those assessed herein. Also,
while inhalation exposures generally appear to be a relatively minor component of non-
dietary exposure (thus not considered in depth in this analysis), they may be significant under
certain circumstances. Further, dermal toxicity data were not readily available, particularly
for chronic toxicity, necessitating the use of oral toxicity data. While it can be generalized
that absorption following ingestion is more efficient than by the dermal route, it is not a
proven phenomenon for all organic chemicals, including pesticides. In the face of these
uncertainties, the analysis assumed a dermal absorption rate of 100% for all pesticides.
Because of time constraints in developing this analysis, other areas of uncertainty
were not fully addressed. First, the weight of evidence for carcinogenicity of selected
pesticides identified as possible vs. probable human carcinogens was not fully addressed.
Neither was the seriousness of certain non-carcinogenic forms of toxicity weighed (i.e.
irreversible kidney toxicity or teratogenicity vs. reversible neurotoxicity). The regulatory and
usage status of all assessed pesticides could not be verified. It is possible that some of the
pesticides assessed are being phased down or withdrawn from use, or soon will undergo a
detailed safety review. Finally, the potential for modification of toxicological response from
exposure to mixtures of pesticides and other chemicals could not be addressed given the
innumerable combinations possible. The latter provides the principal basis for the
conservative estimation techniques utilized in this analysis.
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TTiis analysis should therefore not be used as a rigorous determination or risks from
exposure to specific products and usages, nor as an indication of potential risks from the
hundreds of active ingredients currently applied in agricultural and non-agricultural
settings. As a result, the conclusions of this analysis are inappropriate for other than the
stated purpose.
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TECHNICAL APPENDIX
23
RISK ASSESSMENT DEFINITION AND SAMPLE CALCULATIONS
Risk assessment, or risk analysis, is a highly complex science. In essence, it is
predictive toxicology, seeking to determine the level of potential health effects present in
select populations exposed to a given chemical or other agent, based on observations in
controlled animal tests or human experience in other areas of endeavor. As might be
expected, it is an uncertain science in many respects, and this is reflected in regulatory
applications of risk assessment, where the goal of protection of public health imposes a
number of conservative assumptions for toxicity mechanisms, extrapolation, and exposure
assessment techniques (often highly debated in the scientific community) for particular
contaminants and situations.
For this analysis of risks from non-dietary pesticide exposures, these conservative
techniques were applied so as to be consistent with assessments in other areas addressed in
this project and to acknowledge the many areas of uncertainty present in this subject area.
For further information on the approach taken in this report, the reader is referred to the
risk and exposure assessment guidelines issued by U.S. EPA in 1986, and other risk
assessment guidance such as that issued by the EPA Superfund and other program offices.
The following is a brief explanation of the approach taken in developing this risk analysis.
Cancer risk, defined as the probability of incurring cancer from a particular agent
over a lifetime in excess of expected or background rates, was estimated by first determining
daily exposure rate over a 70 year lifetime for a 70 kg (body weight) individual, after having
calculated total lifetime exposure in units of milligrams (mg). Thus, the lifetime daily
exposure is described in terms of mg/kg body weight/day of lifetime. This exposure estimate
is multiplied by a value termed the cancer potency factor (CPF, also ql*, unit risk factor).
The CPF, in units of l/(mg/kg/day), is an estimated measure of a chemical's ability to induce
cancer in humans as a function of exposure or dose. It is usually derived from a controlled
study in laboratory animals where, because of economic, logistic, and statistical
considerations, the low end of the dose/response region most relevant to human exposure
cannot usually be accurately determined. Thus, a conservative assumption of non-threshold
response is made, and a biostatistical carcinogenesis model such as the linearized, multistage
model of Crump and associates is applied to the data. The CPF is the upper-bound
estimate from the modeled low-dose slope estimate of response vs. dose. The following is
a sample calculation performed for this report, for agricultural field worker exposure to a
suspect carcinogen: the fungicide captan.
Exposure per work day = 0.06 to 3.43 mg/kg/workday
Exposure per day of lifetime = 0.06 to 3.43 mg/kg/workday X 5460 workdays/25,550 days per
lifetime = 0.012 to 0.73 mg/kg/day
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Cancer Risk - 0.012 to 0.73 mg/kg/day X 0.0023/mg*kg*day (CPF) =
3E-5 to 2E-3; or 3 per 100,000 to 2 per 1,000.
Lifetime risks from exposure to individual carcinogens are considered to be additive
in nature, although this assumption was not addressed directly in this report due to data
limitations.
For compounds suspected of producing non-carcinogenic effects (frequently including
carcinogens), such as organ toxicity, reproductive/developmental, or other effects upon
subchronic or long-term exposure, an assumption is made, based on extensive experience,
that thresholds may exist below which a toxic response is not observable. To quantify non-
carcinogenic risk, an estimate is made, again usually from animal test data, termed the
Reference Dose, or RfD. The RfD has generally superseded the previous concept of the
Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI). Both values are usually derived by examining available
dose/response data (usually from animals) and determining a no observed adverse effect
level (NOAEL) for the particular toxic effect of concern - generally the effect which occurs
at the lowest exposure with the most serious outcome to health. An uncertainty factor
(formerly margin of safety) is applied to the NOAEL to estimate a comparable protective
exposure in humans. Typically, an uncertainty factor of 100 is applied to the NOAEL to
derive the human RfD: 10-fold to extrapolate from animals to humans, and 10-fold to be
protective of sensitive human populations. Other modifying factors may on occasion be
applied.
The Hazard Index, the ratio of long-term daily intake to RfD, or HI, is a measure of
potential chronic toxicity for non-carcinogenic effects. If the HI equals or exceeds 1, it is
considered that a threshold for chronic toxicity may have been exceeded, suggesting concerns
for adverse effects in the exposed population. The following calculation demonstrates how
the Hazard Index was derived for captan in agricultural field workers. The RfD of captan
is 0.13 mg/kg/day. The estimated lifetime daily exposure of agricultural workers to captan
is 0.012 to 0.73 mg/kg/day from above. Therefore, the HI = 0.12 to 0.73 mg/kg/day / 0.13
mg/kg/day = 0.09 to 5.6. Thus, long-term exposures in the mid- to upper range of exposure
would raise concerns for chronic, non-carcinogenic effects from captan.
For exposures to multiple chronic toxicants, the HI values may be summed,
particularly if the agents act upon the same systems, in order to estimate additive toxicity.
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25
Table 1. Compiled Reference Toxicity Values for Selected Pesticides
| Pesticide/Use
Cancer Potency Factor
Reference Dose
Acute Toxicity (c)
1 Alachlor/Field Crop
| Herbicide
ND
0.01 (b)
930 mg/kg, oral LD50,
rats
j Atrazine/Field Crop
| and Turf Herbicide
0.22 (a)
0.005 (a)
1,750 mg/kg, oral
LD50, rats
1 Captan/Fruit and
j Vegetable Fungicide
0.0023 (a)
0.13 (a)
9,000 mg/kg, oral
LD50, rats
9 CarbarylTFruit and
9 Vegetable Insecticide
ND
0.1 10,000 mg/kg, oral
LD50, rat
2,4-D and esters/
Herbicide
0.019 (a)
ND
375 mg/kg, oral LD50,
rat
Carbofuran/ Field
Crop Insecticide
ND
0.005 (b)
11 mg/kg, oral LD50,
rat
Dicamba/Lawn
Herbicide
ND
0.03 (b)
1,707 mg/kg, oral
LD50, rat
DicofofCitrus Miticide
0.34 (a)
0.001 (a)
820 mg/kg, oral LD50,
Malathion/Home and
g Vegetable Insecticide
ND
0.02 (a)
1000 mg/kg, oral
LD50, rat
fl Methyl Parathion/
Field Crop Insecticide
ND
0.00025 (b)
9 mg/kg, oral LD50,
rat
Paraquat/Field Crop
Herbicide
ND
ND
150 mg/kg, oral LD50,
rat
Propoxur/Home and
Lawn Insecticide
0.0079 (a)
0.004 (a)
95 mg/kg, oral LD50,
rat
Trifluralin/
Field Crop Herbicide
0.0077 (a)
0.0075 (b)
5,000 mg/kg, oral
LD50, mice
PCBs
7.7 (b)
0.0001 (b)
Benzo(a)pyrene
11.5 (b)
Vinyl Chloride
23(b)
Ethylene Dibromide
41.0 (b)
I
U.S. EPA (\W), b) IRIS c) LXTOXNET (V&9)
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26
REFERENCES
Berteau, P.E., J.B. Knaak, ct al. 1989. Insecticide Absorption from Indoor Surfaces, in:
Biological Monitoring for Pesticide Exposure. ACS Symposium Series 382. eds. R.G. Wang,
GA. Franklin, R.C. Honeycutt, and J.C. Reinert pp. 315 - 326. American Chemical Society,
Washington, DC.
Blair, A., S.H. Zahm, K.P. Cantor, and PA. Stewart. 1989. Estimating Exposure to
Pesticides in Epidemiological Studies of Cancer, in: Biological Monitoring for Pesticide
Exposure. ACS Symposium Series 382. eds. R.G. Wang, C.A. Franklin, R.C. Honeycutt,
and J.C. Reinert. pp. 38 - 46. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC.
Cowell, J.E., S. Dubelman, et al. 1989. Ways to Reduce Applicator Exposure to Pesticides,
in: Biological Monitoring for Pesticide Exposure. ACS Symposium Series 382. eds. R.G.
Wang, C.A. Franklin, R.C. Honeycutt, and J.C. Reinert. pp. 28 -37. American Chemical
Society, Washington, DC.
Currie, K.L., E.C. McDonald, et al. 1990. Concentrations of Diazinon, Chloropyrifos, and
Bendiocarb after Application in Offices. Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 51:23-27.
Durham, W.F. 1985. Introduction, in: Dermal Exposure Related to Pesticide Use. ACS
Symposium Series 273. eds. R.C. Honeycutt, G. Zweig, and N.N. Ragsdale. American
Chemical Society, Washington, DC.
ETN. 1989. EXTOXNET - Extension Toxicology Network. B. Hotchkiss, J. Gillet, M.
Kamrin, J. Witt, and A. Craigmill. Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.
Fenske, R.A., Black K.G., et al. 1990. Potential Exposure and Health Risks of Infants
following Indoor Residential Pesticide Application: Am. J. of Public Health. 80: 689 - 693.
Freeborg, R.P., W.H. Daniel, and VJ. Konopinski. 1985. in: Dermal Exposure Related
to Pesticide Use. ACS Symposium Series 273. eds. R.C. Honeycutt, G. Zweig, and N.N.
Ragsdale. pp. 287-295. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC.
GAO. 1990. Lawn Care Pesticides. Report to the Chairman, Subcommittee on Toxic
Substances, Environmental Oversight, Research and Development, Committee on
Environment and Public Works, U. S. Senate. U.S. General Accounting Office, Washington,
DC 20548. March, 1990.
Hawley, J.K. 1986. Assessment of Health Risk from Exposure to Contaminated Soil. Risk
Analysis. 5:289-302.
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27
Honeycutt, R.C. 1989. National Agricultural Chemicals Association Overview on
Assessment of Mixer-Loader-Applicator Exposure to Pesticides. ACS Symposium Series
382. eds. R.G. Wang, CA. Franklin, R.C. Honeycutt, and J.C. Reinert. pp. 368 - 374.
American Chemical Society, Washington, DC.
IRIS. 1990. Integrated Risk Information System. U.S. EPA/NLM on-line data base.
National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, MD.
Knaak, J.B., Y. Iwata, and K.T. Maddy. 1989. The Worker Hazard Posed by Re-entry into
Pesticide-Treated Foliage: Development of Safe Reentry Times, with Emphasis on
Chlorthiophos and Carbosulfan. in: The Risk Assessment of Environmental and Human
Health Hazards: A Textbook of Case Studies. Editor: DJ. Paustenbach. John Wiley &
Sons, New York, NY.
Krieger R. and S. Edmiston. no date. Ranking of Pesticides According to the Number of
Systemic Illnesses Related to Agricultural Pesticide Use in California, 1982-1986. California
Department of Food and Agriculture, Sacramento, CA.
Lowengart, R.A., J.M. Peters, et al. 1987. Childhood Leukemia and Parents' Occupational
and Home Exposures. J. Nat. Cancer Inst. 79:39-46.
Lunchick, C., G. Burin, J.C. Reinert, and K.E. Warkentien. 1989. The Environmental
Protection Agency's Use of Biological Monitoring Data for the Special Review of Alachlor.
ACS Symposium Series 382. eds. R.G. Wang, C.A. Franklin, R.C. Honeycutt, and J.C.
Reinert. pp. 326 - 337. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC.
Lunchick, C. 1990. Telephone conversation between C. Lunchick, Non-Dietary Exposure
Branch, OPP/U.S. EPA, and H.T. Appleton, Paladin Associates, Inc., DeWitt, NY. July 7,
1990.
Maddy, K.T., S. Edmiston, and D. Richmond. 1990. Illnesses, Injuries, and Deaths from
Pesticide Exposures in California, 1949-1988. Reviews of Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 114:57-
123.
Moses, M. 1989. Pesticide-Related Health Problems and Farmworkers. AAOHN Journal.
37:115-130.
Mumma, R.O., G.A. Brandes, and CF. Gordon. 1985. Exposure of Applicators and Mixer-
loaders during the Application of Mancozeb by Airplanes, Airblast Sprayers, and
Compressed-Air Backpack Sprayers, in: Dermal Exposure Related to Pesticide Use. ACS
Symposium Series 273. eds. R.C Honeycutt, G. Zweig, and N.N. Ragsdale. pp. 201-219.
American Chemical Society, Washington, DC.
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28
Murphy, S.D. 1986. Toxic Effects of Pesticides, pp. 519 - 581. in: Casarett and Doull's
Toxicology, 3rd edition, CD. Klassen, M.O. Amdur, and J. Doull, eds. Macmillan Publishing
Co., New York, NY.
Nelson, G, J.R. Fleeker, and LW. Cook. 1988. Transfer of Pesticides from Lawn to
Carpet. Symposium Proceedings, The First International Symposium on the Impact of
Pesticides, Industrial and Consumer Chemicals on the Environment. Feb. 10-12, Orlando,
FL.
Popendorf, W. 1980. Exploring Citrus Harvesters' Exposure to Pesticide Contaminated
Fruit. Am. Ind. Hyg. J. 42:652-659.
Popendorf, W. and C.A. Franklin. 1987. Pesticide Exposure Assessment, in: Pesticide
Science and Biotechnology, R. Greenhalgh and T.R. Roberts, eds. pp. 565-568.
Reinert, J.C. and D J. Severn. 1985. Dermal Exposure to Pesticides: The Environmental
Protection Agency's View, in: Dermal Exposure Related to Pesticide Use. ACS Symposium
Series 273. eds. R.C. Honeycutt, G. Zweig, and N.N. Ragsdale. pp. 357-368. American
Chemical Society, Washington, DC.
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Assessing Exposure to Pesticides in House Dust. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 43:717 -
724.
Roberts, J.W., W.T. Budd, et al. in press. Potential Risks from Lead in House Dust from
Older Seattle Homes, submitted J. Air and Waste Manage. Assoc.
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Public Health. 7:441-471.
U.S. EPA. 1984. Pesticide Assessment Guidelines. Subdivision K. Exposure: Reentry
Protection. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
U.S. EPA. 1987. Pesticide Assessment Guidelines. Subdivision U. Applicator Exposure
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Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711. EPA/600/3-90/003.
Waldron, A. 1985. The Potential for Applicator-Worker Exposure to Pesticides in
Greenhouse Operations, in: Dermal Exposure Related to Pesticide Use. ACS Symposium
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29
Series 273. eds. R.C. Honeycutt, G. Zweig, and N.N. Ragsdale. pp. 311-332. American
Chemical Society, Washington, DC.
Wasserman, R.F. and R. Wiles. 1985. Field Duty: U.S. Farmworkers and Pesticide Safety.
World Resources Institute. July 1985.
Wilk, V.A. 1986. The Occupational Health of Migrant and Seasonal Farmworkers in the
United States. Farmworker Justice Fund, Washington DC.
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Symposium Series 336, Pesticides: Minimizing the Risks, eds. N.N. Ragsdale and R.J. Kuhr.
pp. 1 -11. American Chemical Society, Washington DC.
Zweig, G., J.T. LefQngwell, and W. Popendorf. 1985. The Relationship Between Dermal
Pesticide Exposure by Fruit Harvesters and Dislodgeable Foliar Residues. J. Environ. Sci.
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/3c.
SUMMARY REPORT
Ecological Effects of Pesticides
EPA Region VDI
Regional Comparative Risk Project
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
August 1990
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report is a summary of the potential ecological effects of pesticide use. The objective of
this summary is to provide technical support information for Region VIII analysts and managers
involved in EPA's Comparative Risk project. This summary is not a definitive characterization
of ecological risks; rather a synthesis of information readily available within the time frame of
this assignment.
This report includes pesticide use information, a description of receptor elements, as well as
the ecological impact assessment of pesticides. Acute toxicity data for the major classes of
pesticides evaluated is included. A series of appendices presenting detailed data and
information used to derive this summary report are provided for documentation.
The following summarizes this risk analysis8 outcome for Region VIII:
1. The intensity of ecological risk from pesticides is considered medium based on
regional information; though it is important to note that it may be intense in
localized areas.
2. The potential duration of pesticide effects is moderate, but it could be considered
long term in localized areas.
3. Pesticides typically affect ecosystems and their components, thus their impact can be
considered of low global importance.
4. The value of the ecological resources impacted is considered moderate due to the
unique regional habitats present.
5. The extent of pesticide application in the Region is considered high (62 percent
devoted to agriculture).
"Region IV definitions for the evaluative terminology were used.
ES-1
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INTRODUCTION
Pesticides are unique environmental contaminants in that they are deliberately added to the
environment for the purpose of killing or injuring living organisms. Ideally, pesticides should
be highly specific to target pests, and noninjurious to desirable nontarget species. However,
most pesticides are not highly selective and can be injurious to many nontarget organisms.
Based on their widespread use, pesticides pose a risk to nontarget native fish and wildlife
species, habitats, communities, and ecosystems; both aquatic and terrestrial systems are affected
by pesticides. This analysis reviews the ecological risk of pesticides for Region VIII (the
Region). Receptors with higher susceptibility to pesticides were identified based on their
exposure potential and sensitivity. This analysis should be applicable to a great number of
pesticides used in this Region. The information included in this report emanates from
numerous discussions with experts from conservation groups, state and federal agencies, and
academia. Published and unpublished reports were used to support these assessments.
Organochlorine pesticides (otherwise known as chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides) were the
first synthetic organic chemicals to be extensively used for pest control. Currently,
organophosphorus compounds represent the largest group of pesticides used. The insecticidal
properties of carbamates were discovered in 1931 and developed in the late 1940s; since then,
other compounds like substituted phenols, substituted ureas, and nitro compounds have been
developed and are widely used.
Ecological resources are at risk from pesticide use in agriculture, forestry, aquatic plant control,
maintenance of transportation corridors, and municipal and private pest management (e.g.,
mosquito control). Pesticides are introduced into the environment through numerous routes
including air (aerial spray and offcite drift), water (direct application and runoff), and land
(direct application to crops or other "resources"). Receptors can be exposed to pesticides
through numerous pathways including dermal contact, ingestion of pesticide granules or
contaminated matter, and inhalation of pesticides during spraying operations. The receptors
evaluated included species, biotic communities, and ecosystems. Changes in ecosystem structure
and function were quantified as data were available. Due to the complexity of ecosystem
responses, the severity of pesticide risk is difficult to address. The toxicological database is
dominated by dose-response type of studies concentrating mainly on standard species under
1
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standard laboratory conditions. The evaluation of pesticide effects under Geld conditions has
only recently been incorporated into ecological risk assessments prepared as part of the Federal
Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FTFRA) registration process. Thus, previous field
ecological impact information is available mainly as incidental effects, poisonings, or die-offs
reported to various agencies.
A group of "risk factors" reflecting the likelihood that a pesticide could reach receptors and
affect the structure and function of the ecosystem were identified. This analysis was conducted
for EPA's Comparative Risk project. Although acceptable scientific procedures were followed,
the information presented herein is not appropriate for other uses. This analysis was prepared
to provide environmental managers with information and "tools" to relatively rank different
environmental problems by the residual risk they pose to the environment.
THE REGION
Region VIII includes 20 ecoregions (listed in Figure 1) adapted to numerous anthropomorphic
uses creating a pattern of pesticide use which is very complex. The vegetation is mostly prairie
and high-altitude woodland including sage brush, conifers, saltbush/greasewood, juniper/pinyon
woodland, alpine meadows, grama/buffalo grass, wheat grass/needle grass, sandhills prairie, and
bluestem prairie. The land use pattern is primarily subhumid and semiarid grassland with
components of croplands, cropland with grazing land, desert shrubland, forest and woodland,
and irrigated agriculture. (Appendix A includes a detailed description of the Region). Region
VIII has several endangered or threatened species and encompasses many rare ecosystems.
The U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI) lists 63 animal species in the Region as
endangered species, including 33 mammals, 9 birds, 4 reptiles and amphibians, and 17 fish and
invertebrates (50 CFR Part 17). These species represent a broad cross-section of all taxonomic
and ecological groups.
PESTICIDE USE
Accurate pesticide use information is needed to evaluate the potential impact of this group of
chemicals on the environment. More than 50,000 pesticide products are registered for
thousands of agricultural purposes in the United States (1), and about 70 percent of new
chemicals produced are used in agriculture. Insecticides, fungicides, and herbicides comprise
2
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i
Ik
0 50 100 ISO 200 Miles
1 i i i i
I 1 1— 1 i i i
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 Kilometers
V North j
LEGEND
1) NORTHERN BASIN AND RANGE
14 SOUTHERN BASM AND RANGE
15 NORTHERN ROCXIES
16 MONTANA VALLEY AND FOOTHILL PRAIRIES
17 MDOLE ROCHES
II WYOMING BASIN
19 WASATCH ANO UNTA MOUNTAINS
20 COLORADO PLATEAUS
21 SOUTHERN ROCHES
22 ARIZONA/NEW MEXICO PLATEAU
2S WESTERN HCH PLAINS
28 SOUTHWESTERN TAflLELANOS
41 NORTHERN MONTANA GLCJATED PLAINS
42 NORTHWESTERN GLACIATED PLAINS
41 NORTHWESTERN GREAT H_A«S
44 NEBRASKA SAM) HILLS
41 NORTHEASTERN GREAT PLAINS
46 NORTHERN GLACIATED PLAINS
47 WESTERN CORN BELT PLAINS
48 RB> RIVER VALLEY
Figure 1 ECOREGIONS ENCOMPASSED BY EPA REGION VIII
SOURCES: Omernik, 1986; KBN Engineering and Applied Sciences, Inc., 1990.
&EPA
3
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about 90 percent of all pesticides used in agriculture (2). Herbicides are the most widely used
agricultural pesticides in the United States. There are 121 chemicals registered as herbicides
with hundreds of trademark products.
Due to the large number of pesticides used in the Region and the scarcity of pesticide use
data, EPA (3) selected 41 active ingredients for national review based on their documented
toxicity to avian, mammalian, and aquatic species. Pesticides potentially affecting groundwater
were also included in this list (Table 1). Fifteen of the 40 pesticides selected are included in
Gianessi and Puffer's (4) national use estimates of selected agricultural pesticides. It is
important to note that Gianessi and Puffer's (4) estimates include 25 of approximately 200
commonly used active ingredients and was compiled using information from 1982 to 1985.
Furthermore, pesticide use extrapolations should not be made from these 25 active ingredients
to the remaining active ingredients not included in Gianessi and Puffer's (4) study. Acute
toxicity data for the 41 selected pesticides are included in Appendix B. Agricultural lands
comprise approximately 62 percent of the estimated 372 million acres in Region VIII. Pesticide
use estimates for the Region were over 2.7 million pounds of organophosphates, 2.5 million
pounds of carbamates, 2.0 million pounds of triazines, 3.8 million pounds of nitroanilines,
4 J million pounds of acid amines, and 11.8 million pounds of phenoxy herbicides (2,4-D only)
(Table 2).
In addition to agricultural applications, pesticides are used for mosquito control, aquatic plant
control, forest management, human disease control, right-of-way, and golf course maintenance;
these uses were not estimated by Gianessi and Puffer (4).
The 1982 Census of Agriculture (5), includes graphical displays of crops grown nationwide that
can be used to identify major agricultural areas and ecosystems at risk from pesticides.
Changes in land use should be reviewed to identify areas of advancing agriculture, as these
areas may be receiving pesticides for the first time.
4
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Table 1. Critical Stress Agents-Active Ingredients Selected for Review
Diazinon (B,F, GW)a
Azinphos ethyl/methyl (B, M)
Fenvalgrate (Esfenvalerate) (F)
Carbaryl (F, Honey Bees)a
Phorate (B, M)a
Coumaphos (F, B, M)
Cypermethrin (F)
Diflubenzuron (Dimilin)
Tralomethrin (F)
Endosulfan (F)
Befenthrin (F)
Fenthion (F)
Lamda-Cyhalothrin (F)
Terbufos (B, M)
Cyfluthrin (F)
Thiobencarb (B, M)a
Tefluthrin (F)
Chlorpyrifos (B, F)
Aldicarb (B, M, GW)
Carbofuran (B, M, GW)a
Demeton (B, M)
Disulfoton (B, GW)a
Ethoprop (B)a
Famphur (B, M)
Fenamiphos (B, M)
Fonofos (B, M)
Isophenphos (B, M)
Methomyl (B, M)
Oxamyl (B)
Permethrin (F)b
2,4-D (GW)ab
Atrazine (F, GW)ab
Cyanazine (GW)
Triflualin (GW, F)ab
Metolachlor (GW)a
Alachlor (GW)ab
Simazine (?)b
Malathion (B, F, GW, M)a
Parathion ethyl/methyl (B, F, GW, M)a
Dimethoate (B, M)
EPN (B, F, M)
Note: B = indicates avian (bird) concerns.
F = indicates aquatic (fish) concerns.
GW = indicates groundwater impact concerns.
M = indicates mammalian concerns.
aIndicates use information available from Gianessi and Puffer (4).
''Indicates chemical is on Food Residue List.
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation,
1990 (3).
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Tab!* 2. Pesticide Usa Estimates* Availabla foe Region VIII
Pesticide
Colorado
Montana
Total Pounda of Active Ingredient Per Year
H. Dakota
S. Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
Region VIII
Total
Ornanophosphates
Diazinon
Dlaulfoton
Ethoprop
Malathion
Parathion
(ethyl)
Parathion
(methyl)
Phorate
Carbamates
Carbaryl
Thiobencarb
Carbofuran
Trlazlnes
Atrazina
Nltroanlllnes
Trifluralln
Acid Amldea
Alachlor
Metolachlor
4,240
39,270
27,771
13,210
214,736
2,061
83,765
39,670
NEA
247,897
573,926
53,680
520,641
265,238
Chlorinated Fhenoxv Herbicides
2, 4-D 1,557,927
574
5,866
2,267
37,354
311,019
60,105
54,739
255,085
NEA
420,425
30,230
12,022
45,346
18,993
4,097,466
6,291
11,366
NEA
106,110
333,791
7,007
119,306
378,647
NEA
333,066
364,800
3.044,S94
521,136
101,256
3,120,325
NEA
171
NEA
3,097
124,562
7,232
1,063,674
242,702
NEA
620,247
1,025,902
704,381
2,641,181
321,225
885,355
2,230
3,599
1,970
17,866
17,138
2,534
5,911
6,494
NEA
5,821
40,724
2,572
30,387
19,098
919,137
NEA
5,547
NEA
13,349
13,590
NEA
5,971
15,335
65,819
32,008
192,986
1,014,836
78,939
1.333.366
Total Organophosphates 2,733,289
10,423
NEA
10,348
933,021
NEA
1.637.804
Total Carbamates 2,570,825
19,950
9,781
40,790
3,628
2,055,532
3,827,430
3,799,481
729.438
Total Acid Amines 4,528,919
1,316,549 11,896,754
Note: NEA ¦ No estimate availabla
'Noncropland uses are not accounted.
Source: Gianessi and Puffer, 1989 (4) (Data for mid-1980s).
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The indicator crops selected by EPA for review are corn, citrus, potatoes, apples, tomatoes,
wheat, cotton, and soybeans (6). Maps of distribution of these crops are included in
Appendix C. Crops of interest for the Region include wheat, corn, soybeans, and potatoes.
Based on the number of acres harvested, wheat comprised the largest acreage, with its
distribution mainly on the Red River Valley, Glaciated Plains, and Montana Valley and Foothill
Prairies; corn is concentrated along the Northern Glaciated Plains. Soybeans and potatoes are
mainly along the Red River Valley (5). Figure 1 shows the location of the ecoregions
mentioned.
RECEPTOR ELEMENTS
Emphasis was placed on the identification of receptor elements (habitats and species) at risk
due to the complexity of the pesticide use patterns. KBN Engineering and Applied Sciences,
Inc. (KBN) has identified several sets of characteristics which make a habitat (ecological
community) or species potentially vulnerable to damage from pesticides. These risk factors
reflect the likelihood that a pesticide could reach a habitat and potentially affect the survival of
significant populations directly through acute and/or chronic toxic effects or indirectly through
damage to the habitat or food chain. All potential routes of exposure were assessed; they
included water, land, and air.
The following are the risk factors for habitats identified:
1. Location of a habitat in low topographic situations (areas) or aquatic/wetland
environments where pesticides could be brought in by surface water and
groundwater;
2. Small patch size of a viable habitat surrounded by agricultural or forestry land that
could be vulnerable to spray drift from adjacent fields or forests;
3. Ecological communities characterized by important and potentially sensitive
populations or diverse assemblages of plants, invertebrates, amphibians, fish, and/or
top carnivores;
4. Rare habitat types, presumed to support rare species; ^
5. Habitats and species that have not been previously exposed to toxic substances or
other serious disturbances (most sensitive species are likely to have already dropped
out of the biota of a disturbed system);
7
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6. Agricultural regions where farmlands are expanding into native ecosystems not
previously exposed to pesticides;
7. The leading edge of an agricultural or forestry epidemic that is being controlled by
pesticides;
8. Systems with low regenerative capability;
9. Systems subject to natural and/or manmade stresses; and
10. Communities supporting threatened or endangered species.
A species can be considered potentially at risk if it has any of the following characteristics.
1. It represents a rare, threatened, or endangered species;
2. It represents a keystone species that plays a critical role in the ecosystem;
3. It is known to be susceptible to toxic effects of pesticides;
4. It is endangered and has a high exposure potential to pesticides, including wide
ranging species with multiple exposure potential;
5. It has a critical life history stage or requirement (food or habitat) known to be
sensitive to pesticides;
6. It is at the extension of its range or utilizing a marginal quality habitat exposed to
pesticides.
ECOLOGICAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
Habitats and Spedes at Risk
To identify habitats and species at risk, experts from U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS),
Heritage Programs, conservation organizations, and other appropriate agencies were contacted
and interviewed regarding habitats and species with the risk factor characteristics outlined
previously. The interviewers also inquired about known or suspected pesticide impacts on
habitats or species. A number of types of habitats and species in Region VIII were identified
potentially at risk from pesticides.
Two basic habitat risk concerns were identified as priority issues for Region VIII:
1. Multiple impacts on wetlands, which receive runoff from pesticide application areas.
Drift from aerial sprays for grasshopper control is a serious problem in riparian and
wetland habitats in eastern Dakotas. Impacts on migratory birds using pothole wetlands
8
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08/22/90
are also of particular concern. Rare communities like fens and saline lakes are
especially vulnerable to biodiversity degradation.
2. Damage to nontarget plants subjected to hayfield herbicide drift. Sprays for control of
leafy spurge and Canada thistle have been observed to damage nearby cottonwood and
boxelder woodlands, which are rare habitats in this region.
For a detailed presentation of ecological risk factors, see Appendix D.
Reported Effects
Fish and wildlife kills or die-ofis from pesticides occur regularly in the Region. Data available
were reviewed. Some of the studies reviewed referred to undocumented poisonings of fish and
wildlife. Additional information can be obtained from the National Wildlife Health Center in
Madison, Wisconsin. This Center maintains extensive records of suspected wildlife poisonings;
due to time constraints these databases were not accessed for the Region. These wildlife
poisonings and die-offs are the main documentation of pesticide field effects for most
pesticides.
For Region VIII a complete record of fish and Wildlife kills or dieoffs from pesticides was not
available for this review. However such episodes have been reported. The following is a
description of three such episodes in Region VIII:
a. There are a number of incidences where birds of prey like eagles have eaten poisoned
carcasses and have died as a result. For example along the Colorado river 10 eagles
both bald and golden died from people lacing mule dear carcasses which were meant
for coyotes.
b. In Pierre, North Dakota, ninety birds died, Canadian geese and Snow geese, from
thimet poisoning. As a result four bald and three golden eagles died of secondary
poisoning from eating the geese.
c. Within South Dakota there have been six or more documented cases where baits
treated with carbofuran or a similar poison have killed eagles. The baits have been a
dead calf that had been sprayed or injected with the chemical.*
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It was the opinion of the scientists interviewed that both acute and subacute effects to
nontarget fish and wildlife occur more often than realized.
Field pesticides studies are conducted by industry to evaluate the effects of particular pesticides
on nontarget species. Nontarget species (mainly birds) are typically affected during these
studies (7).
RISK ANALYSIS SYNTHESIS
Pesticide use is ubiquitous throughout the Region (Table 2). More than 50,000 pesticide
products are registered currently for thousands of agricultural purposes and about 70 percent of
new chemicals are used in agriculture. The issue of pesticide regional distribution is
compounded by the fact that economics also plays a major role in pesticide use. A Florida
study showed that there is a direct relationship between crop value and pesticide use per acre
(8). Thus, in the assessment of risk, attention must be paid not only to the crops grown in
largest areas but also to the pesticide use patterns locally (especially near sensitive habitats and
species).
Most pesticides are not highly specific to the target organism and impact nontarget species, thus
affecting ecosystem structure and function Region-wide. Pesticides enter the environment
through all routes of exposure (air, land, and water) and receptors are exposed to them by all
possible exposure pathways.
Wildlife poisoning and die-off incidents presented earlier document that pesticides impact
nontarget organisms, even when applied according to label instructions. Unfortunately,
documentation and identification of the exact cause and extent of the reported poisonings is
often lacking. Animals that are affected by chronic exposure often leave the area of the
poisoning and are not detected. Animals that are killed may rapidly decompose, making post
mortem examinations and residue analysis difficult. In aquatic incidents, the animals are often
carried away by currents and are subject to rapid decomposition as well. The above conditions
lead to a significant probability of underreporting and, therefore, underestimate field pesticide
effects.
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Forty-one active ingredients were selected by EPA (3) for evaluation (Table 1); those with
available use estimates by Gianessi and Puffer (4) are presented in Table 2. Pesticide estimates
available should be cross-referenced with available use data or regional experts. Otherwise,
critical active ingredients can be inadvertently omitted.
The following risk analysis is based on pesticides grouped by their chemical structure. Use
estimates for selected pesticides is summarized in Table 2. Their acute toxicity profiles are
included in Appendix B.
Organophosphates
Organophosphates represent one of the largest groups of pesticides used nationwide, but
regional estimates indicate that organophosphate use is similar to other pesticides groups
evaluated (with the exception of phenoxy herbicides) (Table 2). Several confirmed and
suspected pesticide poisonings have been associated with this group of pesticides. The
persistence of these pesticides is typically low to moderate (days to weeks) and the potential for
bioaccumulation is low. However, the toxicity of these pesticides to insects, fish, and mammals
is high due to their ability to inhibit the acetyl cholinesterase enzymes. For pesticides applied
by aerial spraying, the risk of effects to nontarget organisms in adjacent habitats is high. For
pesticides where broadcasting of granules is used, significant risk to nontarget species feeding in
these areas exists unless the pesticides are quickly incorporated into the soil. Ethyl parathion
has been identified more than any organophosphate as the cause of unintentional wildlife die-
offs.
Carbamates
Carbamates are also anticholinesterases and are widely used for insect control. Carbamates
have been identified as possibly responsible for several incidents of pesticide poisoning in
Florida. Carbamates have relatively moderate persistence in the environment and typically have
a low bioaccumulation potential. Most carbamates are considered highly acutely toxic to
wildlife (bird and mammals) if ingested. Aldicarb is one of the most toxic pesticides in use
today; unfortunately it was not included in Gianessi and Puffer's estimates (4). Aldicarb is
applied as granules. Birds (e.g., herons, egrets, song birds, etc.) and other animals feeding in
11
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90068B5/VIII/SUM-12
08/22/90
agricultural field can be considered at risk if the granules are not quickly and properly
incorporated in the soil.
Pyrethroids
Eight pyrethroids were included in the national list (3). Use estimates are not available from
Gianessi and Puffer (4) for this group of pesticides. The persistence and bioaccumulation
potential of these pesticides is low. These compounds are typically toxic to fish and
invertebrates. They are applied by aerial or ground spraying.
Chlorinated Phenoxy
The chlorinated phenoxy compound, 2,4-D, a systemic herbicide, has a moderate persistence
and a low bioaccumulation potential. It has low to moderate toxicity to wildlife but is toxic to
aquatic organisms. It is applied by aerial or ground spraying, broadcast granules, or injection
(aquatic use). The environmental effect of 2,4-D on plant life is to change the dominant plant
species in the area (ecosystem structure changes). The major risks appear to be habitat loss
for species in or adjacent to areas sprayed due to drift. Changes in habitat caused by
phenoxies have been shown to affect the following species: ducks in wetlands, pocket gophers
in rangelands, and populations of deer, voles, elk, and chipmunks (9). Over 11.8 million
pounds of 2,4-D are estimated to be used yearly in the Region.
Triazines
Triazines are moderately toxic to invertebrates, fish, and birds. They have low toxicity to
mammals. Endangered aquatic species can be affected if the compounds are applied directly to
aquatic system. Terrestrial endangered species may be affected if the pesticides are used in
ditch banks and right-of-way. Simazine is registered for use as a herbicide and algicide on
crops, noncrops, forest and aquatic sites. The primary action of all triazines is interference
with photosynthesis. Simazine has a low bioaccumulation potential in fish. Its persistence in
ponds is variable, the average half-life is 30 days, thus it is not persistent in aquatic systems.
Acid Amides
The acid amides are widely used herbicides. Most are used for selective control of seeding
weeds either by preemergence application or preplant soil application. Alachlor is a
12
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90068B5/VIII/SUM-13
08/22/90
preemergence herbicide relatively non-toxic to birds and mammals. The soil persistence in the
environment is relatively short.
DISCUSSION
Two basic habitat risk concerns were identified as priority issues for Region VIII:
1. Multiple impacts on wetlands, which receive runoff from pesticide application areas.
Drift from aerial sprays for grasshopper control is a serious problem in riparian and
wetlands habitats in eastern Dakotas. Impacts on migratory birds using pothole
wetlands are also of particular concern. Rare communities like fens and saline lakes
are especially vulnerable to biodiversity degradation.
2. Damage to nontarget plants subjected to hayfleld herbicide drift. Sprays for control of
leafy spurge and Canada thistle have been observed to damage nearby cottonwood and
boxelder woodlands, which are rare habitats in this region.
Appendix E includes summaries of analyses conducted by the Office of Pesticide Programs (7).
These tables present listings of endangered species potentially at risk from pesticides used in
croplands (Table E-l), forest lands (Table E-2), range and pasture land (Table E-3) and aquatic
systems (Table E-4, mosquito larvicides). This information is presented by state for the
Region. Sixty-three animal species are listed as endangered in Region VIIL Pesticides used on
croplands were identified as potentially affecting two endangered fish and two endangered avian
species. Forest products were identified as potentially affecting two endangered plants, and
four fish species. Range and pastureland products were identified as potentially affecting
numerous plants, five fish species, two reptiles, and one bird species. Mosquito larvicides were
determined to potentially affect three bird, two fish, and one reptile species.
The following summarizes this risk analysis' outcome for Region VIII:
\
1. The intensity of ecological risk from pesticides is considered medium, based on regional
information, though it is important to note that it may be intense in localized areas.
"Region IV definitions for the evaluative terminology were used (11).
13
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90068B5/VIII/SUM-14
08/22/90
2. The potential duration of pesticide effects is moderate, but it could be considered long
term in localized areas.
3. Pesticides typically affect ecosystems and their components, thus their impact can be
considered of low global importance.
4. The value of the ecological resources impacted is considered moderate.
5. The extent of pesticide application in the Region is considered high (62 percent
devoted to agriculture).
14
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90068B3/VIII/REF
08/21/90
REFERENCES
Murphy, S.D. 1980. Pesticides. In: Cassarett and Doull's Toxicology. J. Doull,
C.D. Klaassen, and M.O. Amdur, Editors. MacMillan Publishing Company.
Nimmo, D.R. 1985. Pesticides. In: Fundamentals of Aquatic Toxicology --
Methods and Applications. (G.M. Rand and S.R. Petrocelli, eds.). Pages 335 to
373. Hemisphere Publishing Corporation.
Worden, R.C 1990. Personal Communication. U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation.
Gianessi, L.P. and C.A. Puffer. 1989. Use of Selected Pesticides in Agricultural
Crop Production - National Summary. Unpublished Document Prepared by
Resources for the Future.
U.S. Department of the Census. 1982. The 1982 Census of Agriculture. Volume
2, Part I, Graphic Summary.
Worden, R.C. 1990. Personal Communication. Crop Information Provided by
Resources for the Future to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Policy, Planning and Evaluation.
Turner, L. 1989. Personal Communication. Crop-Endangered Species Analyses
Conducted by the Office of Pesticide Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency.
Nail, L.E., C. Phillippy, W. Tschinkel, S. Dwinell, and Ken Kuhl. 1987. Ranking of
Possible Targets for Biological and Alternate Control Based on Pesticide Use. Pesticide
Review Council, Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services.
Biggar, J.W. and J.N. Seiber, 1987. Fate of Pesticides in the Environment.
Proceedings of a Technical Seminar. Agricultural Experiment Station. Division of
Agriculture and Natural Resources. Publication Number 3320.
Omernik, J.H. 1986. Ecoregions of the Conterminous United States. Corvallis
Environmental Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Berish, C. 1990.
REF-1
-------
APPENDIX A
ECOLOGICAL SETTING
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08/22/90
REGIONAL SETTING
Region VIII extends from the Canadian border southward through the rocky Mountains and the
western Great Plains to the borders of Arizona and New Mexico. Figure 1 shows the
ecoregions, as defined by Omernik (10), covered by the Gve states comprising this Region. The
Northern Rockies of northwestern Montana are high mountains with forests of cedar, hemlock,
pine, spruce, and Douglas fir. These grade into the high Middle Rockies, which are
characterized by spruce/fir forests and alpine meadows. There is some grazing in this
ecoregion. The interdigitated Montana Valley and Foothill Prairies are more extensively grazed
grasslands with some irrigated agriculture.
Croplands dominate the Northern Montana Glaciated Plains, Northwestern Glaciated Plains,
Northern Glaciated Plains, and Red River Valley along the Canadian border, and the
Northeastern Great Plains to the south. The grassy rangelands of the Northwestern Great
Plains are the central heart of Region VIII. They grade southwestward into the desert
shrubland of the Wyoming Basin, where there are areas with irrigated agriculture. To the
southeast lie the high Southern Rockies, which are rangelands characterized by forests of
spruce, fir, and pine with alpine meadows. To their west, in eastern Utah, the high mountains
and plains of the Colorado Plateaus have some irrigated agriculture in a juniper/pinyon
woodland and desert shrub rangeland matrix.
Douglas fir, western spruce/fir/Douglas fir, and Arizona pine characterize the rangelands of the
high Wasatch and Uinta mountains of central Utah. Further west are the plains and mountains
of Northern Basin and Range, an area of sagebrush/greasewood desert rangeland. South of the
Rockies, the edge of the Arizona/New Mexico Plateau extends into southern Colorado. This is
a tableland range region with dry grasslands and sagebrush/saltbush/greasewood desert
shrubland. Further east are the Southwestern Tablelands, where there is some cropland amidst
expanses of grassland range. These tablelands grade northeastward into the Western High
Plains, which have been largely converted to cropland, with some grazing land and irrigated
agriculture.
-------
ilk
North
50
I
100
I
150
I
200 Miles
I
-i r
i i i i
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 Kilometers
LEGEND
11 NORTHERN BA9N AND RANGE
14 SOUTHERN BASIN MD RANGE
15 NORTOBW ROCHES
16 MONTANA VALLEY ANO FOOTHU. PRAIRIES
17 MIDDLE ROCKIES
It WYOMNG BASIN
19 WASATCH ANO UINTA MOUNTAINS
20 COLORADO PLATEAUS
21 SOUTHBtN ROCHES
22 ARHONA/NEW MEXICO PLATEAU
25 WESTERN HIGH PLAINS
28 SOUTHWESTERN TABLELANDS
41 NORTHERN MONTANA GLACIATED PLAINS
42 NORTHWESTERN GLACIATED PLAINS
43 NORTHWESTERN GREAT PLAINS
44 NEBRASKA SANDHILLS
45 NORTHEASTERN GREAT PLAINS
46 NORTHERN GLACIATED PLAINS
47 WESTERN CORN BELT PLAINS
48 RED RIVCT VALLEY
Figure 1 ECOREGIONS ENCOMPASSED BY EPA REGION VIII
SOURCES: Omernlk, 1986; KBN Engineering and Applied Sciences, Inc., 1990.
&EPA
-------
APPENDIX B
ACUTE TOXICITY DATA OF SELECTED PESTICIDES
-------
Tabla B-l. Representative Acute Toxicity Ranges for Selected Pesticides
Compound Ham*
CAS Number
Ornanophoaphataa
Azinphos-methyl
86-50-0
Chlorpyrifos
2921-88-2
Coumaphoa
56-72-4
Demeton
8065-48-3
Diazinon
333-41-5
Dimethoata
60-51-5
Disulfoton
298-04-4
EPN
2104-64-5
Ethoprop
13194-48-4
Famphur
52-85-7
Oral
Maomals
4.4 to 80"
97 to 2,000c
16 to 55b
1.5 to 30*
66 to 967c
28 to 500b
2 to <15*
9 to 200*
61. 5e
30 to 400b
<"»«/>*>
Avians
8.5 to 283*
8.4 to 1,590"
3.5 to 32"
2.38 to 22"
2 to 110"
6.6 to 63.5*
3.2 to >32"
3.08 to 53.4"
4.21 to 12.6*
1.8 to 9.87"
90068B3/RGNVIII
08/22/90
(Page 1 of 5)
Acres of
Acute LC50 (u*/L) Application
Fish Invartabraten for Ragion VIII
0.36 to 4,810" 0.10 to 56* 275
<1.0 to 280* 0.11 to 10" 393
340 to l,100b 0.07 to 0.10* 0
42 to 3,700" 14 to 78* 45
52 to 10,300* 0.2 to 522* 161
6,000 to 8,600c 43 to 200* 485
60 to 4,700" 3.9 to 52* 299
100 to 110,000b 0.56 to 7.4* 10
1,000 to 2,000b 1.3 to 2.53* 139
0
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90068B3/RGNVIII
08/22/90
Table B-l. Representative Acuta Toxioity Ranges for Salactad Pesticides (Pago 2 of 3)
Compound Noma
CAS Number
Mammals
Oral LP50 (nrut/fcn)
Avians
Fish
Acuta LC50 (uk/L)
Invertebrates
Acres of
Application
for Region VIII
Fanamiphos
22224-92-8
8.1 to 100*
0.5 to 2.** 72.1*
ND
Fenthion
55-38-9
150 to 300e
1.8 to 25.9®
550 to 3,404
0.62 to 6,400*
Fonofos
944-22-9
8 to 17.5*
10 to 42b 6.8 to 110*
24*
694
Isophenphos
25311-71-1
28 to 127b
13 to 19b 1,000 to 4,000b
12
MaLathion
121-75-5
480 to 4,060e 167 to l,485c 4.1 to 12,900*
0.5 to >10,000*
704
Parathion
56-38-2
3 to 56*
0.125 to >24*
18 to 2,650*
0.04 to 600*
1,317
Phorata
298-02-2
1.6 to 4*
0.616 to 21*
1.0 to 340*
0.6 to SO*
60S
Terbufos
13071-79-9
1.3 to 9.2"
15 to 26b 0.77 to 1,800*
0.2 to 1.4*
588
Carbamates
Aldicarb
116-06-3
0.65 to 7*
1.78 to 5.34*
52 to 660*
ND
154
Bendicarb
22781-23-3
40 to 179b
21 to 33b
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Table B-l. Representetive Acuta Toxicity Rangea for Salactad Pesticides (Page 3 of 5)
Compound Name
CAS Number
Mammals
Oral LD50 (n«/k«)
Avians
Fish
Acute LC50 (un/L)
Invertebrates
Acres of
Application
for Region VIII
Carbaryl
63-25-2
200 to 850°
56 to 3,000c 250 to 39,000b
1.7 to 21,000*
538
Carbofuran
1563-66-2
2.5 to 34.5* 0.238 to 90*
88 to 2,859s
9.8 to 38.6*
1,174
Methomyl
16752-77-5
11 to >5,000b 10 to 42b
300 to 32,000°
7.6 to 1,050*
563
Ox amy 1
23135-22-0
5.4 to 37*
2.6 to 9.4* 3,700 to 17,500c
170 to 5,600°
13
Trlazinea
Atrazine
1912-24-9
1,750 to 5,100°
HD
4,500 to 42,000c
ND
NEA
Cyanazln*
21725-46-2
33*c
445 to >2,400° 9.000 to 21.300°
2,000°
NEA
Simazine
122-34-9
>5,000 to >15,380* >4,640*
2,800 to 510,000c 1,000 to 130,000b
NEA
HI troanilines
Trifluralin
1582-09-8
>2,000 to >10,000* >2,000*
8.4 to 2.200*
37 to 50,000*
NEA
Acid Amides
Alachlor
15972-60-8
930 to >5,010"
ND
1.400 to 6,400c
2,500 to >320,000°
NEA
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90068B3/RGNVIII
08/22/90
Table B-l. Representative Acute Toxicity Rangea for Selected Pesticides (Page 4 of 5)
Acres of
Compound Name Oral LD50 (nut/kit) Acute LC50 (uk/L) Application
CAS Number Mamoala Avians Fish Invertebrates for Region VIII
Metolachlor 2,780* 2,000 to 10,000° 3,800 to 26,000° NEA
51218-45-2
Chlorinated Ftmoir Berbicldet
2,4-D 100 to 1,000° 340 to >2,025° 000 to 300,600b 740 to 64,290b NEA
Bifenthrin
82657-04-3
Cyfluthrin
68359-37-5
Lambda-Cyhalothrln
91465-08-6
Cyperaethrin 247 to 309° >4,640* 0.82 to 55* 0.26* NEA
52315-07-8
Fenvalerate 0.32 to 76* 0.032 to 2.1* NEA
51630-58-1
Permethrln 2.3 to 97* 0.17 to 1.26* NEA
52645-53-1
T«£Luthrln
79538-32-2
Traloraothrin
668*1-25-6
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90068B3/RGNVIII
08/22/90
Table B-l. Repreaentative Acuta Toxicity Ranges for Salactad Paaticldaa (Page S of S)
Acres of
Compound Name Oral LD50 (mn/kn) Acute IC50 (un/L) Application
CAS Number Mammals Avians Fish Invertebrates for Region VIII
Ureas
Dimilin >4,640 to >10,000* >23,000 to 660,000d 2.1 to >100,000* NEA
(Diflubeuzuron)
35367-38-5
Ornanochlorlnes
Endosulfan 30 to 110b 31.2 to 1,000" 0.09 to 11* 0.04 to 71.B* NEA
115-29-7
Note: The classification of paaticldaa is based on the lower range of LC50 or LD50 valuaa.
NEA ¦ No estimate available.
"Very highly toxic,
highly toxic.
'Moderately toxic.
dSlightly toxic.
'Practically nontoxic.
Sources: EPA Pesticide Fact Sheets.
Hudson at al., 1984.
Humburg at al., 1989.
Mayer and Ellersleck, 1986.
Smith, 1987.
Verschueren, 1983.
-------
APPENDIX C
GRAPHIC DISPLAYS OF CROP DISTRIBUTION
COPIED FROM U.S. DEPARTMENT OF
THE CENSUS 1982 GRAPHIC SUMMARY (5)
-------
Wheat Harvested for Grain: 1982
1982 CENSUS OF AGRICULTURE
GRAPHIC SUMMARY 147
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Irish Potatoes Harvested: 1982
1982 CENSUS OF AGRICULTURE
GRAPHIC SUMMARY 161
-------
Acres of Orange Trees: 1982
186 GRAPHIC SUMMARY
o
1982 CENSUS OF AGRICULTURI
-------
1982 CENSUS OF AGRICULTURE
GRAPHIC SUMMARY 187
-------
Acres of Apple Trees: 1982
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1982 CENSUS OF AGRICULTURE
GRAPHIC SUMMARY 183
-------
Tomatoes Harvested for Sale: 1982
178 GRAPHIC SUMMARY
1982 CENSUS OF AGRICUL1
-------
-------
APPENDIX D
ECOLOGICAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
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90068B5/VTII/D-1
08/22/90
ECOLOGICAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
OVERVIEW
To identify habitats at risk, experts from U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS), Heritage
Programs, conservation organizations, and other appropriate agencies were contacted and
interviewed regarding habitats and species with the risk factor characteristics outlined
previously. The interviewers also inquired about known or suspected pesticide impacts on
habitats or species. The information below is a synthesis of the experts' comments and readily
available literature; note that many of these were quick assessments, not scientifically based
facts. Information from USFWS is identified by an asterisk (*). In Region VIII there are a
number of types of habitats and species potentially at risk from pesticides.
HABITATS AT RISK
Synthesis of information from KBN's sources identified the habitats in the following listings as
at risk from pesticides. The states/areas named are places where the problem was specifically
mentioned; a thorough analysis might reveal that other parts of the Region may be equally or
at higher risk. This technical support document records the diverse habitat/pesticide concerns
elicited by the interviews. KBN's scientists integrated and evaluated this input to identify the
priority issues discussed in the summary document.
The following listing presents examples of the kinds of habitats characterized by each risk
factor. Many of these could be combined or listed under multiple risk factors. The grouping
only illustrates the types of risk situations observed in Region VIII.
1. Habitats with low topographical location (e.g. aquatic systems and wetlands) subject to
runoff potentially contaminated by pesticides such as:
a. Riparian and wetland communities near agricultural land or highway buffer zones;
b. Fens and saline lakes in North Dakota;
c. Perennial and free-flowing rivers in North Dakota, which have sandbars important to
rare shorebirds.
2. Habitats with small patch size surrounded by areas subject to aerial drift from pesticide
spraying, including:
a. Prairie potholes, where isolated wetlands important to waterfowl are surrounded by
cropland.
3. Habitats not previously subjected to pesticide spraying (e.g., expanding agricultural areas,
expanding pest control efforts), including:
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08/22/90
a. Wetlands in the eastern Dakotas, where drift from aerial applications of grasshopper
insecticide is a serious problem;
b. Cottonwood and boxelder woodlands in Wyoming, where spraying for leafy spurge
and Canada thistle in hayfield areas has been observed to kill trees.
4. Habitats containing diverse and unique animal and plant communities, including:
INFORMATION NOT AVAILABLE
5. Rare habitats, including:
a. North Dakota's only sphagnum bog, which lies on the international boundary and is
subject to herbicide spraying.
SPECIES AT RISK
1. Species with high (or suspected) sensitivity to pesticides, such as:
a. Prairie cordgrass (Spartina pectinatal. occurring in the eastern half of Wyoming and
Nebraska sedge (Carex nebrascensis-). occurring throughout Wyoming, are suspected
to be subject to herbicide spraying for leafy spurge and Canada thistle in hayfield
areas.
b. Migratory birds including waterfowl, shore wading birds, and song birds utilizing
wetlands that are subject to exposure to crop pesticide.
c. Piping plover (Charodius melodusl affected by crop pesticides,
d. Interior least tern (Sterna antillarium) affected by crop pesticide runoff,
e. Wyoming toad (Bufo hemiophrvs baxteri) affected by runoff from rangeland, cropland
pesticides, and mosquito larvicides,
f. Humpback chub (Gila cvnhal affected by runoff of rangeland and forestry pesticides,
g. Kendall Warm Springs dace (Rhinichthvs osculus thermalis) affected by runoff of
forest and rangeland pesticides.
2. Endangered species with high exposure potential to pesticides, including wide ranging
species with multiple exposure potential, such as:
a. Astragalus desereticus. which grows only alongside a highway in Utah County, Utah,
and is at risk from highway herbicide spraying.
b. Peregrine falcon (Falco peregrinus") in Western Colorado and Eastern Utah is being
affected by the spraying for momat crickets. Also the spraying of brush rangelands.
c. There are eight endangered fish in the region which include the squaw-fish, humback
chub, boney tailed chub, pallid sturgeon. The pesticide runoff into rivers like the
Colorado and the Mississippi are causing deaths.*
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90068B5/VIII/D-3
08/22/90
d. Golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetus ) Grasshopper control programs involving spraying
affect consumers directly, with some potential from secondary poisoning of ingesting
poisoned consumers (i.e. golden eagle eating a sage grouse which had consumed
poisoned grasshoppers). This spraying may affect upland game birds and tallgrass
prairie remnants in extreme eastern North Dakota which are subject to direct
application of insecticide.
3. Endangered species with a critical life history stage or requirement (food or habitat)
known to be sensitive to pesticides;
INFORMATION NOT AVAILABLE
4. Keystone species/indicator species;
INFORMATION NOT AVAILABLE
5. Species at the extension of their range or occurring in unsuitable habitats and exposed to
pesticides or species with small or disjunt populations which are exposed to pesticides.
INFORMATION NOT AVAILABLE
REPORTED EFFECTS
For Region VIII a complete record of fish and Wildlife kills or dieoffs from pesticides was not
available for this review. However such episodes have been reported. The following is a
description of three such episodes in Region VIII:
a. There are a number of incidences where birds of prey like eagles have eaten
poisoned carcasses and have died as a result. For example along the Colorado river
10 eagles both bald and golden died from people lacing mule dear carcasses which
were meant for coyotes.
b. In Pierre, North Dakota, ninety birds died, Canadian geese and Snow geese, from
thimet poisoning. As a result four bald and three golden eagles died of secondary
poisoning from eating the geese.
c. Within South Dakota there have been six or more documented cases where baits
treated with carbofuran or a similar poison have killed eagles. The baits have been a
dead calf that had been sprayed or injected with the chemical.*
It was the opinion of the scientists interviewed that both acute and subacute effects to
nontarget fish and wildlife occur more regular than realized. In addition, field studies of
pesticides conducted by industry to evaluate the effects of particular pesticides for pesticide
registration are conducted to evaluate nontarget effects. Based on the understanding of these
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90068B5/VIII/D-4
08/22/90
studies nontarget organism can be affected by the use of certain pesticides. For example,
nontarget organisms are frequently affected by aldicarb.
Documentation and identification of the cause and extent of pesticide poisoning is often lacking.
The actions related to the suspected poisoning are rarely observed or reported. Animals that
are affected by chronic exposure often leave the area of the poisoning and are not detected.
Animals that are killed may rapidly decompose, making post-mortem examination and residue
analysis difficult. Animals may be carried away and consumed by other animals. In aquatic
incidents, animals can be carried away by currents and subject to rapid decomposition.
DISCUSSION OF LIMITATIONS OF ASSESSMENT
The main limitation of the analysis was the scarcity of pesticide use data. Although estimates
are available for some of the active ingredients used in the Region, pesticide use patterns and
locations within counties is needed to assess the risk to habitats and species of concern. A
somewhat "artificial" limitation of this assessment was the timeframe and level of effort
scheduled. For example, episodic information was not able to be obtained within this project
although it is important in understanding the nature of the ecological risks associated with
pesticides use in Region VIII.
Mapping of pesticide use estimates and data, as well as crop locations, will be extremely useful.
The location of habitats and species at high risk should then be added to maps. This exercise
through a geographic information system can facilitate the evaluation of the extent of ecological
risk from pesticide use.
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APPENDIX E
PESTICIDE RISK TO ENDANGERED SPECIES
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90068B5
08/21/90
Table E~l. Region VIII--Suggested Endangered Spaclea Restrictions for Crop* Uae Producta Containing One or More of the Following Active
Ingredients (Page 1 of 2)
ACTIVE INGREDIENTS USED OH CROPLANDS
ALDICARB
ATRAZINE
BIPHENTHRIN (TALSTAR)
CARBA^yi.
CARBOFURAN
AZINPHOS-METHYL
BENSULIDE (BENTASAN)
BOLSTAR (SULPROFOS)
DIMETBOATE
CLOETHOCARB
DASANIT
BIFENOX
BUFENCARB (BUX)
IMIDAN (PHOSMET)
DICROTOPHOS
PJAZipON
FLUCHLORALIN
CARBOPHENOTHION
METHQMYL
ISOPHENPHOS
CHLORPYR1FOS
PENDIMETHALIN
CYPERMETHRIN
PHOS PHAMI DON
METHYL PARATHION
EPN (NONGRANULAR)
PROFLURALIN
DEMETON
THIODICARB
OXAMYL
ENDOSULFAN (NON-
DISYSTON
TRICHLORFON
GRANULAR)
EPN (GRANULAR)
ENDRIN
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90068B5
08/21/90
Table E-l. Region VIII--Suggested Endangered Species Restrictions for Crop* Use Products Containing One or More of the Following Active
Ingredients (Page 2 of 2)
ACTIVE INGREDIENTS USED ON CROPLANDS
DEF
DICOFOL
FONOFOS (DYFONATE)
PROPACHLOR
2.*-D (ISOOCTYL ESTER)
FENAMIPHOS (NEMACUR)
TRIFLURALIN
ENDANGERED SPECIES POTENTIALLY AT RISK (BY STATE)
None listed
MONTANA
MONTANA
UTAH
Piping plover
Piping plover
Woundfln
June sucker
NORTH DAKOTA
NORTH DAKOTA
Interior least tern
Interior least tern
Piping plover
Piping plover
SOUTH DAKOTA
SOUTH DAKOTA
Interior least tern
Interior least tern
Piping plover
Piping plover
UTAH
UTAH
Woundfln
Houndfin
June sucker
June sucker
Note: Underline Indicates pesticide use estimates available from Glanessl and Puffer (4).
*Crop uses are corn, cotton, soybeans, sorghum and small grains (wheat, barley, oats and rya).
''Cotton use of endrln Is allowed west of 1-35 only.
Source: Turner, 1989 (7).
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Table E-2. Region VII—Suggested Endangered Species Restrictions Cor Forest Products Containing One or More of the FolloMing Active Ingredients
ACTIVE INGREDIENTS USED ON FOREST LANDS
AMITROL
2.4-DP
AZINPHOS-METHYL
CARBARYL
AhMONIUM SULFAMATE
FENITROTHION
DIFLUBENZURON
ATMflPP
AMINOCARB (MATACIL)
CACODYLIC ACID
METHYL PARATHION
DALAFON
TRICHLORFON
DICHLOBENIL
DIPHENAMID
EPTC
FOSAMINE AMONIUM
GLYFHOSATE
HEXAZINONE
MYLONE
PARAQUAT
PICLORAM
SIMAZINE
ENDANGERED SPECIES POTENTIALLY AT RISK (BY STATE)
UTAB
COLORADO
COLORADO
COLORADO
Last chance townsendia
Greenback cutthroat trout
Greenback cutthroat trout
Greenback cutthroat trout
McGuire primrose
Bonytail chub
Bonytall chub
Bonytall chub
Humpback chub
Humpback chub
Humpback chub
Colorado squawflsh
Colorado squawflsh
Colorado squawflsh
UTAH
UTAH
UTAH
Bonytall chub
Bonytall chub
Bonytall chub
Humpback chub
Humpback chub
Humpback chub
Colorado squawflsh
Colorado squawflsh
Colorado squawflsh
Last chance townsendia
McGuire primrose
Note: Underline indicates pesticide use estimates available from Gianessi and Puffer (A)
Source: Turner, 1989 (7).
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Table E-3. Region VII--Suggested Endangered Speciea Restriction! Cor Range and Faatureland Uses Containing On* or Mora of the Following Active
Ingredients
ACTIVE INGREDIENTS USED ON RANGE AND PASTURE LAND
Ammonium sulfamate
Atraxlne
Chlopyralld
2.A-D
21A-b (salts and asters)
2!a-6p
DaLapon
Dlcamba
Dlmethylamlna Dlcamba
Bexazlnone
MCPA, acid
MCPA (salts and amines)
Plcloram
Potassium Plcloram
Sodium Dlcamba
Tabuthluron
Triethylene Plcloram
Ca£barvi
8:
arc
alath
lad
lailnon
thyl farathlon
icnlorfon
ENDANGERED SPECIES POTENTIALLY AT RISK (BY STATE)
COLORADO
COLORADO
Colorado squawfish
COLORADO
Colorado squawfish
Bonytall chub
Clay-loving wild-buckwheat
Bonytail chub
Humpback chub
KnowLton cactus
Humpback chub
Greenback cutthroat trout
Mancos milkvetch
Greenback cutthroat trout
Mesa Verde cactus
North Park phacella
UTAH
MONTANA
Spineless hedgehog cactus
Colorado squawfish
Piping plover
Uinta Basin hookless cactus
Bonytall chub
Humpback chub
UTAH
June sucker
NORTH DAKOTA
Clay phacella
Woundfin
Interior least tern
Dwarf bear-poppy
Heliotrope mllkvetch
Piping plover
Jonas cycladenla
WYOMING
SOUTH DAKOTA
Last Chance townsendla
Kendall Warm Springs dace
Interior least tern
Magulre daisy
Wyoming toad
Piping plover
Msgulra primrose
Purple-spined hedgehog cactus
UTAH
Rydberg milk-vetch
Colorado squawfish
Toad-flax cress
Bonytall chub
San Rafael cactus
Humpback chub
Slier pincushion cactus
Desert tortoise
Spineless hedgehog cactus
June sucker
Spreading wild-buckwheat
Woundfin
Uinta Basin hookless cactus
Welsh's milkweed
Wright's fishhook cactus
WYOMING
Kendall Warm Springs dace
Wyoming toad
Whooping crane
Nota: Underline indicates pesticide use estimates available from Gianessi and Puffer (4).
Source: Turner, 1989 (7).
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90068B5/VIII
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Table E-4. Region VIH-Suggested Endangered Species Restrictions for Mosquito Larvicides Containing
One or More of the Following Active Ingredients
ACTIVE INGREDIENTS USED ON RANGE AND PASTURELAND
FENTHION
METHYL PARATHION
ETHYL PARATHION
TEMEPHOS
CHLORPYRIFOS
DDVP
ENDANGERED SPECIES POTENTIALLY AT RISK (BY STATE)
NORTH DAKOTA
NORTH DAKOTA
Interior least tern
Interior least tern
SOUTH DAKOTA
SOUTH DAKOTA
Piping plover
Piping plover
Interior least tern
Interior least tern
UTAH
UTAH
Woundfin
Woundfin
June sucker
June sucker
WYOMING
WYOMING
Kendall Warm Springs dace
Kendall Warm Springs dace
Whooping crane
Whooping crane
Note: Underline indicates pesticide use estimates available from Giannessi and Puffer (6).
Source: Turner, 1989 (7).
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14-1
14.0 CRITERIA AIR POLLUTANTS
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Under the Clean Air Act, national ambient air quality standards have been established to
protect public health and welfare for six major air pollutants. These pollutants, which are
referred to as criteria air pollutants, include:
• ozone
• particulate matter
• carbon monoxide
• sulfur dioxide
• nitrogen dioxide
• lead
Major sources of these pollutants include motor vehicles, electric utilities, home heating,
industrial and commercial processors, agricultural and forest burning, and mining activity.
This risk assessment estimates the current human health, welfare and ecologic effects
associated with criteria air pollutants in EPA Region VIII. These estimates are intended
for comparison to estimates similarly obtained for other environmental issues being
considered in the Comparative Risk Project.
142 HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTS
There is a great deal of information available regarding the health effects associated with
criteria air pollutants. The most comprehensive summaries are provided by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency in the various criteria documents and staff reports listed
in Section 14.3 of the bibliography. This analysis relies specifically on the syntheses of this
literature from previous risk assessments conducted for several criteria air pollutants, which
are listed in Section 14.2 of the bibliography.
This analysis is organized according to the six criteria air pollutants. Human health effects
associated with each of these pollutants are different and, for the most part, separable.
With the exception of lead, this plan of attack assumes that there are no significant health
effects associated with exposures at ambient levels below the primary standards for each
pollutant. However, health effects were estimated for particulate matter at thresholds below
the current primary standard. Ambient air is only one pathway for lead exposure; therefore
changes in airborne lead levels may be associated with significant health effects for
individuals who are also exposed to lead from other sources.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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14-2
It is important to note that although the federal primary standards for criteria air pollutants
are set with the intention of protecting human health with some margin of safety, the
scientific evidence is inconclusive in many cases regarding the level and even the existence
of thresholds below which no health effects are observed. For several criteria air pollutants,
particularly ozone and particulate matter, there is some evidence that health effects occur
at levels below the current standards, although this conclusion is not necessarily widely
accepted. For all criteria pollutants, the margin of safety provided by the standard is
probably not large, especially for individuals in the most sensitive population groups. Many
different types of health effects have been demonstrated or are suspected to occur as a
result of exposures to various levels of the criteria pollutants. It is not feasible to cover all
of these health effects for this risk assessment. The approach taken has been to select
health effects categories that have been important in the standard setting process and are
therefore expected to be the first effects to occur at levels just above the standards. We
have also focused on health effects for which there is quantitative epidemiological
information and that are representative of the most significant health effects expected (in
terms of number of people affected or the seriousness of the effect on the individual). The
results are, therefore, expected to give a good idea of the magnitude of the health problem
associated with the criteria air pollutants, but should not be thought of as comprehensive.
Procedures used in this analysis start with estimates of the number of people exposed to
ambient pollution levels that exceed the federal primary ambient air quality standards and
the frequency with which these exposures occur. To this we add information about segments
of the exposed population at risk of various health effects at ambient levels that occur in
Region VIII, and, to the extent possible, suggest procedures for calculating incidence
estimates for specific health effects. Data on monitored levels of criteria air pollutants and
standard exceedances are compiled by state agencies responsible for air pollution control.
Types of health effects covered in this analysis are non-cancer and there are no significant
(multi-year) time lags between exposure and effect. Calculations are summarized in the
results tables are based both on yearly and average concentration data. In cases where
estimates are based on average concentration data, we include estimates of the standard
deviation. The estimated number of health effects cases are for a single year and would be
expected to be the same in any other year with comparable pollution levels. Thus, if
pollution levels were to remain the same for 70 years, the annual incidence estimates could
be multiplied by 70.
14J.1 Ozone
Ozone is a pollutant that forms in the atmosphere in the presence of hydrocarbons, nitrogen
oxides, and sunlight. It is the primary component of what is known as photochemical smog.
It is irritating to the human respiratory system, and there is some evidence that exposure to
ozone is associated with higher rates of acute respiratory illness. Ozone is also believed to
aggravate chronic respiratory diseases. Chronic exposure to elevated ozone levels may
potentially contribute to the development of chronic respiratory diseases, although the
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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14-3
evidence on this is not conclusive.
The federal primary standard for ozone is an hourly average of .12 ppm, not to be exceeded
on average (over a three year period) more than once per year. It is set at this level to
preventing acute respiratory irritation or other respiratory symptoms. Ozone monitoring
data indicates that exceedances of the federal ozone standard occur in few locations in
Region VIII, (see Table 14-1). This table shows the number of days exceeding both the
Federal Primary Standard and 0.10 ppm during 1987 and 1988. These data suggest that
known exceedances of the two thresholds are limited to the front range area of Colorado
and the Salt Lake City/Provo area in Utah. Not unexpectedly, a large majority of the
Region's population resides in these areas. Approximately one-third of the population is
exposed above the Federal Primary Standard, while approximately two-thirds are exposed
to ozone concentrations above 0.10 ppm.
Chestnut and Rowe (1988) and Chestnut et al. (1987a) used available epidemiological
evidence to estimate two types of health effects associated with ozone: respiratory restricted
activity days and asthma attacks. This was done for the metropolitan areas of Denver,
Colorado, and San Jose, California. Respiratory restricted activity days are days on which
the individual's normal activities are restricted due to respiratory illness. Most respiratory
restricted activity days involve only minor activity restriction as opposed to a work loss day
or a bed day. Calculating the number of cases for these health effects is somewhat more
complex than for particulate matter due to the need to consider daily ozone levels. The
results of the San Jose study can, however, be used to derive an estimate of the risk of
experiencing these health effects for the individual in an area when elevated ozone levels
occur on a given day. The results of the San Jose analysis indicate that the average daily
risks on days when the highest hourly ozone reading is above 0.12 ppm are as follows:
J
annual asthma attacks = S 0.00029 * DAYSj * 0.04 * POPj (1)
J = 1
annual respiratory J
restricted activity days = S 0.00092 * DAYSj * 0.96 * POPj (2)
j = l
where:
DAYSj = the number of days/year on which daily high ozone hour exceeds .12 ppm
in location j
POPj = total population in location j
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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Table 14-1
Health Effects due to Ozone
in Region VIII
Ozone Concentration
Health Effects
Number of Exceedance Days
State
>0.105 >0.125 >0.105 >0.125 >0.105 >0.125 >0.105 >0.125
Restricted
County
ppm
ppm ppm
ppm
ppm ppm
ppm
ppm
Asthma
Activity
1987
1988
1989
Average
Population
Attacks [1]
Days [2]
Colorado
Arapahoe Co
3
1 10
1
1
5
1
391.200
4
290
Boulder
8
4
2
1
5
81.239
Denver
6
1 3
3
492,200
Arvada
9
1 7
1
3
6
1
430,200
4
319
Utah
Bountiful
4
1 9
2
13
2
9
2
32,900
1
61
Salt Lake Cit
2
10
2
5
2
6
1
674,201
13
1001
Provo
3
2
1
2
169699
Roy
2
1
1
19700
Total
Population >-0.105
2,291.339
Population >- 0.125
1.528.501
22
1.672
1 Annual Asthma Attacks - 0.4*POPj'EXDAYJ"0.00037 where: EXDAYj is the number of
exceedance days and POPj is the exposed population at monitoring site j.
2 Annual Respiratory Restricted Activity Days - 0.96"POP)*EXDAYj"0.00116 where: EXDAYj is the number of
exceedance days and POP is the exposed population at monitoring site j.
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14-5
National statistics suggest that about 4% of the population currently has asthma. Equation
1 is therefore multiplied by 4% of the population living in the area where the daily high
ozone reading equals or exceeds 0.12 ppm (or 0.10 ppm) and summed across all such days
to obtain an estimate of the number of asthma attacks in a given time period. Equation 2
is multiplied by 96% of the population living in the area where the daily high ozone reading
equals or exceeds 0.12 ppm (or 0.10 ppm) and summed across all such days to obtain an
estimate of the number of respiratory restricted activity days in a given time period.
Table 14-1 summarizes results of the ozone health risk analysis, while additionally including
cost of measures associated with these health end points. Derivation of these estimates will
be discussed in Section ??. The number of annual asthma attacks and annual respiratory
restricted activity days are estimated using county population data. This exposure
assumption is very conservative, and assumes that every individual in the county where an
evidence value was monitored is exposed to concentrations above the threshold value.
14.2J Particulate Matter
The current federal primary standard for particulate matter was set by EPA in 1987 for
particles 10 microns in diameter or smaller (PM10). An annual average of 50 tig/m3 is not
to be exceeded and a 24-hour average of 150 jig/m3 is not to be exceeded more than once
a year. The previous federal primary standard for particulate matter was based on total
suspended particulates (TSP). This was an annual geometric mean not to exceed 75 ng/m3,
and a 24-hour level of 260 jig/m3 not to be exceeded more than once a year.
Particulate matter is not really a single pollutant, but a composite of all the small particles
suspended in the atmosphere. The chemical composition of these particles can vary at
different times and at different locations. Studies that have found an association between
health effects and ambient particulate matter levels do not provide sufficient information
from which to infer whether some types of particles cause more problems than others.
Smaller particles are believed to be more of a health hazard because they can be inhaled
more deeply into the respiratory system, which was the rationale for changing the federal
particulate matter standard from TSP to PM10.
Sulfate particles are common types of small particles that form in the atmosphere when
gaseous sulfur oxides are present. These types of fine particles are suspected of being
especially harmful to human health and may be a significant factor in the observed
association between ambient particulate matter and health effects. Health effects associated
with sulfate particles are discussed in the acid deposition analysis of health effects. It is
important to note, however, that there is some ambiguity regarding this division due to the
difficulty of separating the effects of different types of particles in epidemiological studies.
RCO/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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14-6
Epidemiological studies that have covered fairly wide geographic areas in the U.S., have
found an association between ambient particulate matter levels and restricted activity days.
There is also some evidence that particulate matter is associated with a greater frequency
of emergency room visits, with higher rates of chronic respiratory disease, and with adverse
effects on lung function. Some of these latter health effects may actually underlie the
observed association with restricted activity days. The biological pathways for these effects
are not well understood, but it is believed that particulate matter affects human health via
the respiratory system.
Restricted activity days are days on which an individual's normal activities are restricted to
some extent due to illness. This includes confinement to bed and days missed from work
as well as more minor activity restrictions. Based on results reported by Ostro (1983), we
used the following procedure for estimating the number of restricted activity days currently
associated with particulate matter expressed as TSP, in EPA Region VIII.
Annual restricted J
activity days = 2 .073 * (TSPj - TSPt) * POPj (3)
j = l
where:
TSPj = annual average TSP in jig/m3 in location j
TSP, = assumed TSP health threshold
POPj = total population in location j
Tables 14-2 and 14-3 present results of alternative analysis used to estimate restricted
activity days associated with particulate matter in Region VIII. Note that health effects
estimated using Huse (?) different data and equations are significantly different. For the
purpose of this analysis, they should be considered bounding estimates of health effects. We
used the following equation to estimate restricted activity days associated with PM10:
Annual restricted
activity days = 0.046*(PMi(,j - 38) POPj
where:
PMi0J is measured particulate in iig/m3 in Region i
POPj is population in Region j
14.2.4 Carbon Monoxide
When carbon monoxide (CO) enters the respiratory system, it attaches to hemoglobin and
forms carboxyhemoglobin (COHb), reducing the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood.
CO's affinity for hemoglobin is much greater than that of oxygen and when present in
significant amounts can result in a significant reduction in oxygen carried to the tissues of
the body. Exposures to very high levels of CO for some period of time (such as in a closed
garage with a running automobile) can result in death.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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Table 14-2
Annual Health Effects due to
Particulate Matter (PM10) in Region VIII
State
County or City
Population
Annual Average TSP in ug/m3
Standard
1987 1988 1989 Average Deviation
Annual
Restricted
Activity
Days [1]
Colorado
Alamosa
6,830
51
51
0.00
4,084
Archuleta Co.
5,200
60
52
44
52
6.53
3,349
Boulder
81,239
43
35
37
38
3.40
1,246
Denver
492,200
49
35
35
40
6.60
37,735
Montana
Lincoln Co.
18,700
69
62
59
63
4.19
21,792
Sanders Co.
8,600
41
36
51
43
6.24
1,846
Utah
Salt Lake Co.
720,000
37
44
42
41
2.94
99,360
Utah Co.
242,700
41
50
51
47
4.50
104,199
Wyoming
Fremont Co.
33,900
50
35
31
39
8.18
1,040
Sheridan Co.
25,100
48
47
37
44
4.97
6,928
Total
1,634,469
281,578
1 Annual Restricted Activity Days = 0.046*(PM10j-38)*POPj where: PM10j is the 3 year average
measured particulate concentration in ug/m3 and POPj is the exposed population in region j.
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Table 14-3.
Annual Health Effects due to
Total Suspended Particulates (TSP) in Region VIII
Estimated
Annual Average TSP in ug/m3
Number of
Resticted
State
Population
Standard
Activity
County
(1)
1987
1988
1989
Average
Deviation
Days (2)
Colorado
Adams Co.
281,000
101
99
83
94
8.06
396,585
Alamosa
6,830
53
58
118
76
29.53
665
Englewood
30,021
86
73
80
6.50
9,862
Delta
21,225
103
110
107
3.50
48,807
Denver
492.200
104
102
104
103
0.86
1,013,243
Castle Rock
45,400
76
68
114
86
20.07
36,456
Montana
Ronan Park
1,530
107
79
68
85
16.42
1,080
Poison
2,800
95
68
68
77
12.73
409
Rosebud
9,900
115
98
90
101
10.42
18,790
Total
890,906
1,525,896
1 1986 population estimates.
2 Annual Restricted Activity Days =» 0.073*(TSPj-75)*POPj where TSPj is the 3 year averag
annual arithmetic mean TSP in ug/m3 and POPj is population for region j.
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14-9
Some population groups are believed to be at higher risk of ill effects for exposures to
ambient CO levels tliat occur in many urban areas in the U.S. that exceed the federal
primary CO standards. These include individuals with heart disease, with chronic respiratory
disease, with chronic anemia, and fetuses. The normal healthy population is also at risk of
some ill effects (primarily of a less serious nature) at ambient CO levels that occur in some
areas.
In general, the available quantitative information regarding dose-response relationships
between CO or COHb levels and adverse health effects is limited. The literature suggests
COHb levels above which certain adverse health effects begin to occur in some population
groups, but does not allow an estimation of the number of people expected to experience
the adverse effects at different COHb levels. Estimating COHb levels that can be expected
in the population at various ambient CO levels measured at stationary monitors has also
proved very difficult. CO exposure models have been developed at EPA and used in the
standard setting process, but specific quantitative results remain quite uncertain.
For this screening level risk assessment, we used the federal primary standard for CO and
the pollution standard index levels for CO as thresholds with regard to ambient CO levels.
Individuals living in areas where these levels are exceeded were presumed to be at some
elevated risk of experiencing a CO related health effect on days when the CO standard is
exceeded. The types of health effects likely to occur can be identified, but the magnitude
of the risk for the exposed individual will remain unspecified. Thus, the outcome of this
calculation is the number of people at elevated risk of each type of health effect and the
number of days in the year that this elevated risk occurs, but the incidence of these health
effects is unspecified.
The CO related health effect that has been demonstrated at the lowest CO'b levels is
reduced time to onset of angina pain for individuals with coronary heart disease, which
involves about 10% of the population in the U.S. This is the health effect that the federal
standard is set to prevent. Thus, when the standard is exceeded we can expect individuals
with heart disease to be at elevated risk of having angina pain. As CO levels increase we
can expect this risk to increase and also expect that other population groups will also be
subject to elevated risk of some CO related health effects. For the general population, the
first health effects observed at elevated COHb levels are reduced ability to concentrate on
a complex task and reduced capacity for strenuous exercise.
The monitoring network for CO in each state in Region VIII can be used to identify the
locations of CO levels that exceed the following levels. The health risks expected for the
population in the area of the monitor are listed. We focus on the 8-hour standard since this
is exceeded much more frequently than the 1-hour standard.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
14-10
CO 8-hour Average
Exceeds
Pollution Standard
Index
Health Risk
9 ppm
(federal standard)
100
10% of population at
moderate risk of increased
angina pain
90% of population at low
risk of mild symptoms
15 ppm
200
10% of population at high
risk of increased angina pain
90% of population at
moderate risk of mild
symptoms
Table 14-4 summarizes the number of person days at risk due to elevated carbon monoxide
concentrations based first on county and then on city populations.
14.2.5 Sulfur Dioxide
Probably the most significant health effects associated with sulfur dioxide are related to
sulfate particles, which are a component of acid deposition. Sulfates are primarily secondary
pollutants that form in the atmosphere in the presence of sulfur dioxide. The health effects
associated with sulfate particles are discussed in the acidic deposition analysis. In this section
we discuss the health effects associated with exposures to elevated gaseous sulfur dioxide
only.
According to U.S. EPA's AIRS data, Region VIII is in attainment with the sulfur dioxide
primary standards. We, therefore, do not estimate health effects due to gaseous sulfur
dioxide concentrations.
14.2.6 Lead
Federal ambient air quality standards for lead are currently met throughout Region VIII,
but people are exposed to lead through a variety of pathways from a variety of sources.
Given this fact plus recent findings of health effects at lower blood lead levels, airborne lead
may still be contributing to lead related health effects in Region VIII. The primary source
of airborne lead is from automobiles. Lead in automobile emissions has been
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
Table 14-4
Health Effects due to Carbon Monoxide
In Region VIII
Number of
Population at
Violations
Risk of
Population at
Number of Person Days
8 hr. avg. > 9 ppm
Increased
Risk of
at Risk
State
3 Year
Standard
Angina Pain
Risk
Mild Symptoms
Risk
Increased
Mild
Area
Population
1987
1988
1989
Average Deviation
(1]
Severity
121
Severity
Angina Pain
Symptoms
Colorado
Adams Co.
281,000
5
1
0
2
2.16
28,100
moderate
252,900
low
56,200
505,800
Boulder
81,239
1
0
0
0
0.47
8,124
moderate
73,115
low
2,708
24,372
Denver Co.
492,200
15
6
3
8
5.17
49,220
moderate
442,980
low
393,760
3,543,840
8 hr. avg. > 15 ppm
2
1
1
0.50
49,220
high
442,980
moderate
49,220
442.980
Colorado Springs
276,872
1
2
1
1
0.47
27,687
moderate
249,185
low
36,916
332,246
Fort Collins
78,287
5
3
1
3
1.63
7,829
moderate
70,458
low
23,486
211,375
8 hr. avg. > 15 ppm
1
0
0.00
7,829
high
70,458
moderate
2,610
23,486
Greely
62,297
3
1
0
1
1.25
6,230
moderate
56,067
low
8,306
74,756
Montana
Great Falls
66,256
3
1
0
1
1.25
6,626
moderate
59,630
low
8,834
79,507
Missoula
58,035
3
1
2
2
0.82
5,804
moderate
52,232
low
11,607
104,463
Utah
Salt Lake City
674,201
2
0
0
1
0.94
67,420
moderate
606,781
low
44,947
404,521
Provo
169,699
10
3
6
6
2.87
16,970
moderate
152,729
low
107,476
967,284
8hr. avg. > 15 ppm
2
1
0.00
16,970
high
152,781
moderate
11,313
101,854
Ogden
205,744
1
0
1
1
0.47
20,574
moderate
185,170
low
13,716
123,446
TOTAL
2,445,830
244.583
moderate
2,201,247
low
707,957
6,371,611
74,019
high
666,219
moderate
63,143
568,320
1 At CO concentrations > 9ppm and <15 ppm, 10% of the exposed population are at moderate risk of
increased angina pain. At concentration > 15ppm the risk is high.
2 At CO concentrations > 9ppm and <15 ppm, 10% of the exposed population are at low risk of
mild symptoms. At concentration > 15ppm the risk is moderate.
-------
14-12
reduced dramatically in the last 10 years and EPA regulations currently in place are
expected to reduce lead in automobile emissions to near zero as older cars are retired. In
the meantime, some lead is still being emitted.
Chestnut et al. (1987a,b) developed estimates of the health effects associated with current
(1985 and 1986) lead emissions from automobiles in San Jose and in Denver, assuming that
other sources of lead remain at current levels. The results of these analyses were used to
derive per capita risks of health effects due to lead in gasoline in these two urban areas.
There is no reason to expect per capita emissions of lead from automobiles to be
significantly different in urban areas in Region VIII than in these two urban areas, so these
per capita risk estimates can be used to estimate the approximate risks to the urban
population in Region VIII from current levels of automobile lead emissions.
Significant health effects associated with lead in gasoline are not expected to occur in rural
areas because automobile emissions are much less concentrated.
The analyses for Denver and San Jose covered eight types of health effects associated with
lead. In this analysis, we have divided these into two categories, minor and serious, and
have selected the highest individual risk for each population group to represent the
magnitude of the risk in each category. The estimates will therefore be for the most
common health effect expected, but will understate the total health effects to some extent.
For all groups except children under 6 years old, the minor health category is dominated by
peripheral nervous system effects, which essentially involve minor effects on motor nerve
conduction. For children under 6, the minor category is elevated free erythrocyte
protoporphyrin, which is an early indicator of elevated blood lead but is not directly
associated with any serious health effects when it is the only symptom present. The serious
health effects category is increased incidence of hypertension in adult males and central
nervous system effects (including IQ decrements) in children under 6. The estimated
incidence of serious health effects for adult women and children 6 to 17 was essentially
inconsequential in the San Jose and Denver analyses.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
14-13
Per Capita Risk of
Minor Health Effect
Per Capita Risk of
Population Group
(approximate percent of urban population in parentheses)
Adult Males Adult Females
(35%)
(35%)
.0012 .000043
(p. neuro.) (p. neuro.)
.0051
(hypertension)
Children
6-17 years
(20%)
Children
< 6 years
(10%)
.00054 .0091
(p. neuro.) (FEP)
.0024
(c neuro.)
These per capita risk factors were multiplied by the urban population in Region VIII in each
group to obtain incidence estimates in each health effect category. These results are
summarized in Table 14-5.
14.2.7 Uncertainties and Omissions
All of the incidence estimates obtained using this analysis should be viewed as approximate,
not exact point estimates. The uncertainty varies across the different pollutants and
different health effects, but previous analyses that looked at potential ranges in these kinds
of estimates found that in most cases the uncertainty was at least a factor of 2 and might
be as high as a factor of 10.
As noted in the introduction, this analysis does not provide a comprehensive estimation of
the health effects associated with the criteria pollutants. The health effects covered include,
however, more than half of the categories of health effects for which quantitative
information is available and cover the majority of the health effects cases that would be
expected at the levels of these pollutants that occur in Region VIII. More important than
the quantifiable effects that were excluded are the suspected effects that could not be
quantified. Chronic exposures to elevated levels of particulate matter and ozone are
suspected of contributing to the development of chronic respiratory diseases in some
individuals, but this has not been demonstrated conclusively or in a way that lends itself to
quantification of the risk. Due to the serious consequences of many chronic respiratory
diseases this is a potentially significant omission.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
Table 14-5
Health Effects due to Lead in Region VIII
% Urban
Minor Health Effects [2]
Population
Population
Adult Males
Adult Females
Children 6-
¦17 Yr.
Children < 6 yr.
State
[1]
(11
(35%) [p. neuro.)
(35%) [p. neuro.)
(20%) [p. neuro.]
(10%) (FEP)
Colorado
3,231,000
80.6%
1094
39
281
2370
Montana
826,000
52.9%
184
7
47
398
North Dakota
685,000
48.8%
140
5
36
304
South Dakota
708,000
46.4%
138
5
35
299
Utah
1,645,000
84.4%
583
21
150
1263
Wyoming
509,000
62.7%
134
5
34
290
TOTAL Region VIII
7,604,000
2,273
81
584
4,924
Serious Health Effects
% Urban
Adult Males
Children < 6 yr.
State
Population
Population
[hypertension]
[c. neuro]
Colorado
3,231,000
80.6%
4648
625
Montana
826.000
52.9%
780
105
North Dakota
685,000
48.8%
597
80
South Dakota
708,000
46.4%
586
79
Utah
1,645,000
84.4%
2478
333
Wyoming
509,000
62.7%
570
77
TOTAL Region VIII
7,604,000
9,659
1,299
1 From U.S. Department of Commerce 'Statistical Abstracts of the United States 1987'
2 Approximate percent of urban population in parentheses.
-------
14-15
14.3 WELFARE DAMAGES
Welfare damages are estimated for human health endpoints, and damage to man-made
materials. Human health damages are based on incidence estimates that have been
discussed in the previous section, while damages to man-made materials are discussed
below. Current air pollutant loads are not significantly high to be associated with either
factory nor agricultural productivity losses.
14.3.1 Materials Damage
Four criteria air pollutants have been associated with materials damage: particulate matter,
nitrogen dioxide, and ozone. Regional welfare damage estimates are based on the following
approaches and are summarized in Table 14-6. Table 14-7 summarizes economic damage
estimates to households due to particulate concentrations in Region VIII. Table ??
summarizes materials damage due to ozone, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter effects
to the manufacturing sector.
Particulate Matter
Particulate matter has been identified as causing soiling and discoloration effects on a wide
variety of materials, including paint, structural metals, and other building materials. The
primary effect is considered to be the soiling of surfaces. This soiling has welfare impacts
through increased cleaning costs and by reducing the useful life of affected materials.
Economic damages related to particulate matter soiling have been estimated for households
and two manufacturing industries.
Methodology
1. Household Damages. Mathtech (1986) estimated annual household damages as $0,906
(1988 $)/|j.g change in the annual geometric mean total of particulates. They also
used 10 jig/m3 as an approximate background estimate for TSP. Using this
approach, annual household soiling damages due to particulates are:
AHSD = 0.906* HHj" (TSPj -10)
where:
Hhj = the number of households living in area j
TSPj = the annual geometric mean TSP concentration in the area
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
Table 14-6
Annual Household Soiling Damage
due to Total Suspended Particulates (TSP) in Region VIII
Annual Average TSP in ug/m3
Household
Soiling
State
Standard
Damage [1]
County or City
Population
1987
1988
1989
Average
Deviation
($1988)
Colorado
Adams Co.
281,000
86
88
74
83
6.18
$6,928,807
Alamosa
6,830
48
51
80
60
14.43
$115,107
Englewood
30,021
79
69
74
5.00
$651,962
Archuleta Co.
5,200
89
89
0.00
$139,395
Boulder
81,239
48
51
48
49
1.41
$1,075,093
Delta
21,225
94
97
96
1.50
$615,787
Denver
492,200
93
87
93
91
2.83
$13,528,311
Castle Rock
45,400
65
63
85
71
9.93
$939,729
Eagle Co.
15,900
89
89
0.00
$426,227
Colorado Springs
276,872
59
60
55
58
2.16
$4,509,592
Durango
12,000
38
37
30
35
3.56,
$101,798
Canon City
13,000
53
53
0.00
$189,683
Glenwood Springs
4,700
62
62
0.00
$82,931
Jefferson Co.
430,200
60
60
0.00
$7,298,899
Lake Co.
5,900
41
41
39
40
0.94
$60,728
Limon
1,800
38
44
40
41
2.49
$18,731
Sterling
11,400
64
57
58
60
3.09
$192,126
Pitkin Co.
10,900
58
55
57
57
1.25
$172,604
Lamar
7,700
47
47
0.00
$96,674
Pueblo
109,444
38
42
40
2.00
$1,114,115
Steamboat Springs
5,100
80
80
0.00
$121,139
Telluride
1,500
89
89
0.00
$40,210
Platteville
1,662
62
66
57
62
3.68
$29,138
Montana
Big Horn Co.
10,900
30
37
27
31
4.19
$78,905
Blaine Co.
7,000
44
42
34
40
4.32
$71,258
Cascade Co.
78,200
54
53
50
52
1.70
$1,123,327
Flathead Co.
58,600
86
86
0.00
$1,511,222
Bozeman
21,700
40
40
0.00
$220,901
Jefferson Co.
8,300
71
40
39
50
14.85
$112,656
Lake Co.
21,100
65
53
55
58
5.25
$341,283
Lewis & Clark Co.
47,000
56
57
48
54
4.03
$696,410
Lincoln Co.
18,700
83
83
0.00
$463,214
Missoula Co.
78,300
44
38
37
40
3.09
$788,220
Roosevelt Co.
11,100
49
38
38
42
5.19
$119,273
-------
Table 14-6 (cont.)
Annual Household Soiling Damage
due to Total Suspended Particulates (TSP) in Region VIII
Annual Average TSP in ug/m3
Household
Soiling
State
Standard
Damage [1]
County or City
Population
1987
1988
1989
Average
Deviation
($1988)
Rosebud Co.
12,200.
56
52
52
53
1.89
$179,390
Yellowstone Co.
116,400
60
52
46
53
5.73
$1,685,228
North Dakota
Burleigh Co.
60,400
51
51
51
0.00
$840,307
Cass Co.
100,200
36
37
37
0.50
$901,012
Dunn Co.
4,500
18
18
0.00
$12,216
Grand Forks Co.
70,500
46
46
0.00
$861,209
Stark Co.
24,700
52
52
0.00
$352,017
Stutsman Co.
23,300
15
15
0.00
$39,531
Williams Co.
23,300
36
36
0.00
$205,564
South Dakota
Brookings Co.
24,200
20
20
0.00
$82,117
Codington Co.
22,700
38
38
0.00
$215,676
Hughes Co.
15,200
46
46
0.00
$185,679
Minnehaha Co.
125,500
40
48
44
4.00
$1,447,903
Pennington Co.
82,000
49
66
58
8.50
$1,321,674
Yankton Co.
18,900
35
35
0.00
$160,331
Utah
Davis Co.
184,800
43
52
53
49
4.50
$2,466,492
Emery Co.
11,300
46
47
47
0.50
$139,955
Moab
5,333
46
49
52
49
2.45
$70,575
Cedar City
19,200
47
46
44
46
1.25
$232,370
Salt Lake Co.
720,000
64
69
54
62
6.24
$12,785,798
Uintah Co.
22,300
33
33
0.00
$174,040
Utah Co.
242,700
54
84
69
15.00
$4,858,909
Weber Co.
160,200
45
56
43
48
5.72
$2,065,680
Wyoming
Albany Co.
26,600
48
46
45
46
1.25
$327,947
Campbell Co.
32,800
30
28
30
29
0.94
$215,178
Fremont Co.
33,900
40
41
42
41
0.82
$356,598
Laramie Co.
75,200
29
27
27
28
0.94
$450,806
Natrona Co.
64,700
37
38
42
39
2.16
$636,677
Park Co.
24,200
46
45
31
41
6.85
$251,825
Sheridan Co.
25,100
46
41
33
40
5.35
$255,512
-------
Table 14-6 (cont.)
Annual Household Soiling Damage
due to Total Suspended Particulates (TSP) in Region VIII
Annual Average TSP in ug/m3
Household
Soiling
State
Standard
Damage [1]
County or City
Population
1987
1988
1989 Average Deviation
($1988)
Sweetwater Co.
43,300
37
33
35 35 1.63
$367,320
Teton Co.
11,600
49
39
46 45 4.19
$136,454
Uinta Co.
13,021
28
29
25 27 1.70
$76,585
Total
4,672,347
$78,334,029
1 Household Soiling Damage = 0.906*HHj*(TSPj-10)/2.67 where: TSPj is the annual geometric
mean concentration in ug/m3 and HHj is the number of households in region j, and HHj =
population/2.67 people per household.
-------
Table 14-7
Welfare Effects of Materials Damage due to Ozone,
Nitrogen Dioxide, and PM10 in Region VIII
PM10
Nitrogen
Manufacturing
Ozone
Dioxide
Sector
Population
Materials
Materials
Materials
State
1986
Damage (1)
Damage (2)
Damage (3)
Colorado
3,231,000
$3,033,195
$4,282,157
$49,958,501
Montana
826,000
$775,431
$1,094.727
$12,771,811
North Dakota
685,000
$643,064
$907,854
$10,591,635
South Dakota
708,000
$664,655
$938,337
$10,947,267
Utah
1,645,000
$1,544,291
$2,180,176
$25,435,387
Wyoming
509,000
$477,838
$674,595
$7,870,281
TOTAL
7,604,000
$7,138,475
$10,077,847
$117,574,882
1 Welfare effects of materials damage due to Ozone is estimated to be $0.94 per person
in 1988 dollars.
2 Welfare effects of materials damage due to Nitrogen Dioxide is estimated to be $1.33
per person in 1988 dollars.
3 Welfare effects of materials damage due to PM10 is estimated to be $15.46 per person
in 1988 dollars.
-------
14-18
2. Manufacturing Sector Damages. Mathtech also estimated a model to calculate
damages in the manufacturing sector. Estimates were made for two industries:
fabricated structural metal products and metal working machinery. Mathtech
estimated that national damages were approximately $3.3 million due to current levels
of TSP. If we assume that these costs are largely passed on to consumers, this implies
average per capita damages of $14. To estimate damages in Region VIII, we
multiplied $14 by the Regional population.
Nitrogen Dioxide
The primary materials damage effect associated with nitrogen dioxide is dye fading. The
EPA estimated that the national cost of dye fading due to nitrogen dioxide is $280
million/year, or $1.20 per capita. To estimate damages in Region VIII, we multiplied $1.20
by the Region's population. This estimate is very conservative and should be considered an
upper bound.
Ozone
Elastomers are the most vulnerable material to ozone damage. The EPA estimated that
annual damage to automobile and truck tires was about $200 million, or $.85/person. To
calculate Region VIII damages, multiply this value by the Region's population. As with the
N02 damage estimate, this estimate is very conservative.
14.32 Health Care Costs
Health care costs include direct medical costs and lost productivity due to inability to
conduct normal work activities. The financial impact does not reflect the full social welfare f
impact because it does not reflect pain and discomfort of the individual, lost ability to
conduct non-work activities such as recreation, and the inconvenience and concern of friends
and families. Cost of illness measures do not include damages associated with mortality.
We estimated average costs for three health endpoints described earlier in the Human
Health Risk Assessment:
• Restricted Activity Day
• Asthma Attack
• Respiratory Restricted Activity Day
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
14-19
Restricted Activity Dav
Restricted activity days are days on which an individual's normal activities are restricted due
to illness. This includes confinement to bed and days missed from work as well as other
minor restrictions in activity. Rowe et al. (1986) cite evidence that about one-third of all
restricted activity days involve days missed from work. The average daily full-time wage in
the U.S. is about $95. Rowe et al. suggest that the medical costs associated with the types
of restricted activity days likely to be caused by air pollution might be expected to average
about $5 per day. Thus, the average financial cost of a restricted activity day would be:
.33 *$95+5 = approximately $35
Asthma Attack
Rowe et al. (1986) estimate the direct medical costs associated with an average asthma
attack as $10. Assuming that asthma attacks are equivalent to restricted activity days, one
third of all asthma attacks will involve a lost day from work. The average cost of an asthma
attack is:
.33*$95+10=approximately $40
Respiratory Restricted Activity Dav
Direct medical costs associated with restricted respiratory activity days are likely to be
minimal and can be reasonably assumed to be zero. Assuming that one-tenth of all
respiratory restricted activity days involve a day missed from work, the average cost for a
restricted respiratory activity day is $10.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
14-20
2. Manufacturing Sector Damages. Mathtech also estimated a model to calculate
damages in the manufacturing sector. Estimates were made for two industries:
fabricated structural metal products and metal working machinery. Mathtech
estimated that national damages were approximately $3.3 million due to current levels
of TSP. If we assume that these costs are largely passed on to consumers, this implies
average per capita damages of $14. To estimate damages in Region VIII, we
multiplied $14 by the Regional population.
Nitrogen Dioxide
The primary materials damage effect associated with nitrogen dioxide is dye fading. The
EPA estimated that the national cost of dye fading due to nitrogen dioxide is $280
million/year, or $1.20 per capita. To estimate damages in Region VIII, we multiplied $1.20
by the Region's population. This estimate is very conservative and should be considered an
upper bound.
Ozone
Elastomers are the most vulnerable material to ozone damage. The EPA estimated that
annual damage to automobile and truck tires was about $200 million, or $.85/person. To
calculate Region VIII damages, multiply this value by the Region's population. As with the
N02 damage estimate, this estimate is very conservative.
14.3.2 Health Care Costs
Health care costs include direct medical costs and lost productivity due to inability to
conduct normal work activities. The financial impact does not reflect the full social welfare
impact because it does not reflect pain and discomfort of the individual, lost ability to
conduct non-work activities such as recreation, and the inconvenience and concern of friends
and families. Cost of illness measures do not include damages associated with mortality.
We estimated average costs for three health endpoints described earlier in the Human
Health Risk Assessment:
• Restricted Activity Day
• Asthma Attack
• Respiratory Restricted Activity Day
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
14-20
14.5 REFERENCES
Bennett, D. 1990. Personal Communication. University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI.
Chestnut, Lauraine G., and Robert D. Rowe. 1988. Ambient Particulate Matter and Ozone
Benefit Analysis for Denver. Draft report prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, D.C., January.
Chestnut, L.G., R.D. Rove and B.D. Ostro. 1987a. Santa Clara Criteria Air Pollutant
Benefit Analysis. Draft Final Report prepared for the Regulatory Integration Division, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., May.
Chestnut, L.G., T.N. Neithercut, and B.D. Ostro. 1987b. The Health Effects Associated
with Lead in Gasoline and Drinking Water in Metro-Denver. Draft Report prepared for
the Regulatory Integration Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington,
D.C., October.
Evans, J.S., T. Tosteson, and P.L. Kinney. 1984. "Cross-Sectional Mortality Studies and Air
Pollution Risk Assessment." Environment International 10:55-83.
Ostro, B.D. 1983. "Urban Air Pollution and Morbidity: A Retrospective Approach." Urban
Studies 20: 343-51.
Perlin, S. 1986. Health Score Evaluation for Pollutants in the Santa Clara Vallev Project:
Inorganic Lead. Regulatory Integration Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington D.C., April.
Portney, P.R., and J. Mullahy. 1986. "Urban Air Quality and Acute Respiratory Illness."
Journal of Urban Economics 20 (July): 21-38.
Schwartz, J., and A.H. Marcus. 1986. "Statistical Reanalysis of Data Relating Mortality to
Air Pollution During London Winters 1958-1972." Draft paper presented to the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Clean Air Science Advisory Committee in December,
Research Triangle Park, NC.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1987. Regulatory Impact Analysis on the National
Ambient Air OualitY Standards for Sulfur Oxides (Sulfur Dioxide-). Draft, Prepared by the
Strategies and Air Standards Division, Office of Air, Noise, and Radiation, Research
Triangle Park, NC, May.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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14-21
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1986a. Regulatory Impact Analysis on the National
Ambient Air Quality Standards for Particulate Matter: Second Addendum. Prepared by the
Strategies and Air Standards Division, Office of Air, Noise, and Radiation, Research
Triangle Park, NC, December.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1984. Regulatory Impact Analysis on the National
Ambient Air Quality Standards for Particulate Matter. Prepared by the Strategies and Air
Standards Division, Office of Air, Noise, and Radiation, Research Triangle Park, NC,
February 21.
. 1986b. Air Quality Criteria for Ozone and Other Photochemical Oxidants.
Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office, Research Triangle Park, NC. EPA/600/8-
84/0206F.
. 1985b. Air Quality Criteria for Ozone and Other Photochemical Oxidants. External
Review Draft. Research Triangle Park, NC. EPA-600/8-84-020B.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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14-21
Restricted Activity Dav
Restricted activity days are days on which an individual's normal activities are restricted due
to illness. This includes confinement to bed and days missed from work as well as other
minor restrictions in activity. Rowe et al. (1986) cite evidence that about one-third of all
restricted activity days involve days missed from work. The average daily full-time wage in
the U.S. is about $95. Rowe et al. suggest that the medical costs associated with the types
of restricted activity days likely to be caused by air pollution might be expected to average
about $5 per day. Thus, the average financial cost of a restricted activity day would be:
.33 *$95+5 = approximately $35
Asthma Attack
Rowe et al. (1986) estimate the direct medical costs associated with an average asthma
attack as $10. Assuming that asthma attacks are equivalent to restricted activity days, one
third of all asthma attacks will involve a lost day from work. The average cost of an asthma
attack is:
.33*$95+10 = approximately $40
Respiratory Restricted Activity Dav
Direct medical costs associated with restricted respiratory activity days are likely to be
minimal and can be reasonably assumed to be zero. Assuming that one-tenth of all
respiratory restricted activity days involve a day missed from work, the average cost for a
restricted respiratory activity day is $10.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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Table 14-8
Welfare Effects due to Ozone
in Region VIII
Ozone Concentration
Welfare Effects ($1986)
Number of Exceedance Days
State
>0.105 >0.125 >0.105 >0.125 >0.105 >0.125 >0.105 >0.125
Restricted
County
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm ppm
ppm
ppm
Asthma
Activity
1987
1988
1989
Average
Population
Attacks [1]
Days [2]
Colorado
Arapahoe Co
3
1
10
1
1
5
1
391,200
$154
$2,904
Boulder
8
4
2
1
5
81,239
Denver
6
1
3
3
492,200
Arvada
9
1
7
1
3
6
1
430,200
$170
$3,194
Utah
Bountiful
4
1
9
2
13
2
9
2
32,900
$32
$611
Salt Lake Cit
2
10
2
5
2
6
1
674,201
$532
$10,011
Provo
3
2
1
2
169699
Roy
2
1
1
19700
Total
Population >«
0.105
2.291,339
Population >«
0.125
1,528,501
$889
$16,719
1 Welfare effect is estimated to be $40 per Asthma Attack.
2 Welfare effect is estimated to be $10 per Restricted Activity Day.
-------
Table 14-9
Annual Welfare Damage of Health Endpoints
due to Particulate Matter (PM10) in Region VIII
State
County or City
Population
Annual Average TSP in ug/m3
Standard
1987 1988 1989 Average Deviation
Annual
Restricted
Activity
Days [1]
Welfare
Effect of
Lost Days [2]
($1988)
Colorado
Alamosa
6,830
51
51
0.00
4,084
$157,901
Archuleta Co.
5,200
60
52
44
52
6.53
3,349
$129,465
Boulder
81,239
43
35
37
38
3.40
1,246
$48,157
Denver
492,200
49
35
35
40
6.60
37,735
$1,458,848
Montana
Lincoln Co.
18,700
69
62
59
63
4.19
21,792
$842,468
Sanders Co.
8,600
41
36
51
43
6.24
1,846
$71,372
Utah
Salt Lake Co.
720,000
37
44
42
41
2.94
99,360
$3,841,258
Utah Co.
242,700
41
50
51
47
4.50
104,199
$4,028,341
Wyoming
Fremont Co.
33,900
50
35
31
39
8.18
1,040
$40,191
Sheridan Co.
25,100
48
47
37
44
4.97
6,928
$267,821
Total
1,634,469
281,578
10,885,821
1 Annual Restricted Activity Days = 0.046*(PM10j-38)*POPj where: PMIOj is the 3 year average
measured particulate concentration in ug/m3 and POPj is the exposed population in region j.
2 Welfare effect is estimated to be $38.66 per Restricted Activity Day in }1988 dollars.
-------
Table 14-10
Annual Welfare Damage of Health Endpoints
due to Total Suspended Particulates (TSP) in Region VIII
Welfare
Estimated
Damage for
Annual Average TSP in ug/m3
Number of
Resticted
Resticted
Activity
State
Population
Standard
Activity
Days (3)
County
(1)
1987
1988
1989
Average
Deviation
Days (2)
($1988)
Colorado
Adams Co.
281,000
101
99
83
94
8.06
396,585
$15,330,219
Alamosa
6,830
53
58
118
76
29.53
665
$25,698
Englewood
30,021
86
73
80
6.50
9,862
$381,218
Delta
21,225
103
110
107
3.50
48,807
$1,886,660
Denver
492,200
104
102
104
103
0.86
1,013,243
$39,167,516
Castle Rock
45,400
76
68
114
86
20.07
36,456
$1,409,236
Montana
Ronan Park
1,530
107
79
68
85
16.42
1,080
$41,735
Poison
2,800
95
68
68
77
12.73
409
$15,802
Rosebud
9,900
115
98
90
101
10.42
18,790
$726,347
Total
890,906
1,525,896
$58,984,431
1 1986 population estimates.
2 Annual Restricted Activity Days = 0.073*(TSPj-75)*POPj where TSPj is the 3 year average
annual arithmetic mean TSP in ug/m3 and POPj is population for region j.
3 Estimated welfare damage is $38.66 per Restricted Activity Day in 1988 dollars.
-------
14-25
14.5 REFERENCES
Bennett, D. 1990. Personal Communication. University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI.
Chestnut, Lauraine G., and Robert D. Rowe. 1988. Ambient Particulate Matter and Ozone
Benefit Analysis for Denver. Draft report prepared for the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, D.C., January.
Chestnut, L.G., R.D. Rove and B.D. Ostro. 1987a. Santa Clara Criteria Air Pollutant
Benefit Analysis. Draft Final Report prepared for the Regulatory Integration Division, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., May.
Chestnut, L.G., T.N. Neithercut, and B.D. Ostro. 1987b. The Health Effects Associated
with Lead in Gasoline and Drinking Water in Metro-Denver. Draft Report prepared for
the Regulatory Integration Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington,
D.C., October.
Evans, J.S., T. Tosteson, and P.L. Kinney. 1984. "Cross-Sectional Mortality Studies and Air
Pollution Risk Assessment." Environment International 10:55-83.
Ostro, B.D. 1983. "Urban Air Pollution and Morbidity: A Retrospective Approach." Urban
Studies 20: 343-51.
Perlin, S. 1986. Health Score Evaluation for Pollutants in the Santa Clara Vallev Project:
Inorganic Lead. Regulatory Integration Division, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington D.C., April.
Portney, P.R., and J. Mullahy. 1986. "Urban Air Quality and Acute Respiratory Illness."
Journal of Urban Economics 20 (July): 21-38.
Schwartz, J., and A.H. Marcus. 1986. "Statistical Reanalysis of Data Relating Mortality to
Air Pollution During London Winters 1958-1972." Draft paper presented to the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Clean Air Science Advisory Committee in December,
Research Triangle Park, NC.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1987. Regulatory Impact Analysis on the National
Ambient Air OualitY Standards for Sulfur Oxides (Sulfur DioxideV Draft, Prepared by the
Strategies and Air Standards Division, Office of Air, Noise, and Radiation, Research
Triangle Park, NC, May.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
14-26
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1986a. Regulatory Impact Analysis on the National
Ambient Air Quality Standards for Particulate Matter: Second Addendum. Prepared by the
Strategies and Air Standards Division, Office of Air, Noise, and Radiation, Research
Triangle Park, NC, December.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1984. Regulatory Impact Analysis on the National
Ambient Air Quality Standards for Particulate Matter. Prepared by the Strategies and Air
Standards Division, Office of Air, Noise, and Radiation, Research Triangle Park, NC,
February 21.
. 1986b. Air Quality Criteria for Ozone and Other Photochemical Oxidants.
Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office, Research Triangle Park, NC. EPA/600/8-
84/0206F.
. 1985b. Air Quality Criteria for Ozone and Other Photochemical Oxidants. External
Review Draft. Research Triangle Park, NC. EPA-600/8-84-020B.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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15-1
15.0 ACID DEPOSITION AND VISIBILITY DEGRADATION
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels include oxides of sulfur and nitrogen which
transform in the atmosphere into sulfuric and nitric acids. Organic acids, natural and
anthropogenic VOCs, and seasalts may also contribute to the acidity of precipitation. Wet
and dry deposition of these acidic substances impact on sensitive terrestrial 'and aquatic
ecosystems causing widespread damage where deposition levels are high and ecosystems and
their components are sensitive. Emissions of S02, NO^ VOCs (volatile organic compounds)
and small particles also contribute to visibility degradation. The direct effects these criteria
air pollutants on health, welfare and ecosystems are not considered in this problem but are
dealt with separately in Problem 14. Health, ecosystem, and welfare effects of acid
deposition and visibility degradation are the focus of this assessment.
Region VIII contains vast areas of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems which are extremely
sensitive to acidic deposition impacts, however, current emissions and deposition levels are
low and chronic acidification effects have not been detected or are quite small (Landers, et
al., 1987; Vertucci, In Press; Turk and Campbell, 1987). The extent of sensitive lake
ecosystems in Region VIII (exclusive of the Dakotas) has been defined as part of the EPA
Western Lake survey (Landers, et al., 1987). The sensitivity of regional soils is poorly
known (Binkely, 1989), however, sensitive soils generally occur in the watersheds of poorly
buffered lakes. Recent studies have quantified the extreme sensitivity of native western
trout to low pH and elevated Al concentrations (Woodward, et al., 1989).
At current deposition levels effects may be limited to, short term episodic effects in very
sensitive aquatic ecosystems, and subtle long-term changes in soil chemistry. Episodic
acidification has been documented at current levels of deposition for a Rocky Mountain
lake, however effects were slight and short term (approximately 3 days) (Vertucci, In Press).
The structure and function of sensitive, poorly buffered, freshwater ecosystems in Region
VIII can be significantly altered if deposition levels rise significantly. Model evidence
suggests that even at current deposition levels, depletion of soil base saturation and a
reduction in the watershed export of alkalinity is possible (Binkely, 1990). Effects on
terrestrial biota are unlikely at this time, with the possible exception of sites very near large
copper smelters, and damage at these sites is more likely to be associated with gaseous S02
effects.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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15-2
15.2 DATA DESCRIBING POLLUTANT SOURCES: EMISSIONS
Emissions data used in this assessment include those complied since 1975 by month by state
for VOCs, S02 and NOx by Kohout et al. (1989) as part of DOE's Month and State Current
Emission Trends (MSCET) program. Given the long range transport of air pollutants, and
dominant meteorologic patterns, Region VIITs airshed is taken to be the Western U.S.,
states west of the Mississippi River and Minnesota. The predominant pollutant emitted
from 1975-1985 was VOC. VOC emissions levels declined from a peak at 10.1 million
metric tons in 1978 to a 1988 level of 7.4 million metric tons. NOx emissions peaked at 6.1
million metric tons in 1978, fell to 7.8 in 1986 and have risen to 8.1 in 1988. The S02
emissions for the West region peaked at 6.6 million metric tons in 1979 declined to 5.3
million metric tons in 1987 and has risen to 5.8 million metric tons in 1988.
Figure 15-1 shows the total annual U.S. emissions and the declining national emissions
trends for NO^ S02 and VOC. The 13 year trends in S02, NOx and VOC emissions for
Region VIII states are depicted in Figures 15-2, 15-3 and 15-4, respectively.
The trends in emission flux of S02, plus NOx for each State in Region VIII are shown in
Figure 15-5. Montana has shown a dramatic decline in S and N emissions since 1975
associated with the 1980 closure of the Anaconda copper smelter. Utah also exhibited
declining emissions until 1986. Emissions in South Dakota have been relatively constant and
are the lowest in the Region. North Dakota has had the most consistent increase in
emissions; since 1975 emissions have doubled. Emissions from Colorado and Wyoming have
generally increased since 1975.
The percentage contribution of Region VIII States to total national emissions has remained
constant for VOCs and increased slightly, in 1988, for S02, and increased markedly for NOx,
since 1975 (Figure 15-6). Regional emissions of NOx and S02 have increased their fraction
of national total emissions by over 2% since 1975. While national emissions have been
declining, total Region VIII emissions have declined for VOC, increased for NOx and
generally decreased for S02 except for the precipitous increase in S02 observed in 1988
(Figure 15-7).
Ranked by order of importance, S02 emissions in the Western U.S. include: electric
utilities, industrial processes, industrial fuel, transportation, commercial/residential energy
use, and miscellaneous sources. NOx emissions, also ranked by importance, are:
transportation, electric utilities, sources of industrial fuel, industrial processes,
commercial/residential energy use, and miscellaneous sources. (Kohout et al., 1989).
A projection of estimated total emissions trends for Region VIII States in the NAPAP
Interim Assessment of 1987 included S02 increases of 42% and NOx increases of 142%
between 1980 and 2030. State projections in utility emissions from 1980-2010 suggest
increases in S02 emissions for Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Utah
of 104%, 178%, 177%, 208% and a decrease in S02 emissions for Wyoming (47%). NOx
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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V)
O
h
LU
2
2
Figure 15.1
ANNUAL EMISSIONS OF S02, NOx. VOC
FOR ALL UNITED STATES
50
48
46
44
42
40
38
36
34
32
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
:-a:
,.A"
'-A -— -
A'
-k
Q-
~ '
1975
-A
"A-
A-.
--A-
"4-
-0-
_ 0
—K
1977
1976 1978
~ NOx t S02
1979 1981
1980 1982
YEAR
1983
1985
1984
VOC a N0x+S02
-Eh
1986
-e-
1987
1988
(Kohout et al., 1989)
-------
Figure 15.2
ANNUAL EMISSIONS OF S02
EPA REGION VIU STATES
400
oc
<
UJ
>-
a
ui
a.
CM
O
(/)
o
oc.
h
UJ
2
o
o
o
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
-A-
"A- A-
-A a—
-±r
--A A-
~A'
1975
1977
1976 1978
n CO t MT
1979 1981
1980 1982
YEAR
ND a SD
1983
1985
1984 1986
UT v WY
.A
1987
1988
(Kohout et al., 1989)
-------
Figure 15.3
ANNUAL EMISSIONS OF NOx
400
EPA REGION VIII STATES
a.
<
u
>-
OC
LJ
a.
X
O
z
(0
g
a
h-
LJ
2
O
O
o
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
A"
-A- A-
-A A—
~
—A-
,A
~~~A'
0
1975
1977
1976
~ CO
1978
i MT
1979 1981 |
1980 1982
YEAR
ND
1983
a SD
1985
1984 1986
UT v WY
1987
1988
(Kohout et al., 1989)
-------
oc.
<
UJ
>-
a.
LU
Q.
O
o
>
-------
550
Figure 15.5
ANNUAL EMISSIONS OF S02 + NOx
EPA REGION VUI STATES
a.
<
UJ
>-
a.
UJ
o.
M
o
(/)
+
x.
O
00
z
O
h-
o
a
h
LU
2
O
o
o
500
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
A-
A'
—A-
—
1975
1977
1976
~ CO
1978
MT
1979 1961
1980 1982
YEAR
-fr-
1983
-A- _
,A
ND
a SD
1984
UT
1985
\7
A
1987
1986
WY
1988
(Kohout et al., 1989)
-------
11
Figure 15.6
ANNUAL EMISSIONS OF S02. NOx. VOC
FOR EPA REGION VIII STATES % USA TOTAL
CO
z
o
00
2
Li
_l
<
I-
O
H
<
CO
3
10
6
A"
-A"
-A
A
.A
.A
A.
o
o
UJ
tt
~-
-B-
~0"
—¦a-
-
r-
-B-
-Ef
-K.
,0"
t;) Q BT
i- +
1975
1977
1979
1976 1978
n NOx i S02
1961
1980 1982
YEAR
1983
"V-
"I"
1985
-/-
1987
1984 1986
VOC a NOx+S02
1988
(Kohout et al., 1989)
-------
ce.
<
w
>-
a
Id
a.
(0
o
on
h
UJ
2
2.1
2
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Figure 15.7
ANNUAL EMISSIONS OF S02, NOx. VOC
FOR ALL EPA REGION VM STATES
1976
1978
1980 1982
YEAR
1984
1986
1988
n NOx
t S02 VOC a N0x+S02
(Kohout et al., 1989)
-------
15-10
emissions are projected to increase by 80%, 280%, 234%, 230% and 64% for Colorado,
Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming, respectively. While these
emissions projections are replete with uncertainty, the trend is clearly toward increases in
emissions for the Region (NAPAP, 1987).
15.2.1 Data Describing Pollutant Stressors: Deposition of H+. Nitrate and Sulfate
Acid deposition data used in this assessment are from the NADP, NTN network of
precipitation chemistry monitoring (NADP, 1989). There are 40 active NADP/NTN
monitoring sites in Region VIII(Figure 15-8).
Current precipitation concentrations of H+, S04 and N03 collected in Region VIII, (using
the NADP Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado station as an example), are about 10,
20 and 19 jieq/1 respectively, or 1/6, 1/3 to 1/5, or 2/3 their respective concentrations
found in the Eastern U.S. (Galloway, et al., 1984). The concentration of hydrogen ion is
similar to "background" levels while the concentration of S04 is 2 to 5 times background and
the concentration of N03 is 3 to 5 times levels at found in remote sites (Galloway et al.,
1984).
Current sulfur and nitrogen deposition levels in Region VIII have been estimated at 1.7 and
2.6 kg/ha/yr respectively (Fox, et al., 1989). Nitrogen depositipn includes nitrate and
ammonium and an added 30% for dry N deposition. In contrast, deposition of sulfur and
nitrogen in the Eastern U.S. can be as high as 13 and 7 kg/ha/yr, respectively (Fox et al.,
1989). Precipitation-weighted mean annual hydrogen ion concentration as pH is generally
greater than 5.1 for the Region (NADP, 1989).
15.2.2 Uncertainty of Deposition Estimates
NADP wet deposition estimates underestimate total deposition since dry deposition is not
measured. Deposition of strong anions varies between monitoring sites due primarily to
variations in precipitation anion and, secondarily, through variations in precipitation
concentrations. Actual deposition to sensitive ecosystems is not precisely known, as few
estimates of dry deposition exist from the Region and monitoring stations are not typically
located in the most sensitive terrain (remote mountain wilderness areas).
The dominant form of precipitation in the Region is snow. However, collection efficiencies
of dry light snow falling during high wind conditions are very low. Thus, deposition
estimates critical to assessing potential impacts on sensitive mountain ecosystems contain
much uncertainty. One study provides some insight into these uncertainties. NADP wet
deposition was compared with the bulk deposition to a snow-pack in the Snowy Range of
the Medicine Bow Mountains in Wyoming (Vertucci and Fox (in prep). Precipitation volume
collected by NADP and snow-pack water equivalent compared well at this site. The
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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Figure 15-8
NADP/NTN Monitoring Network
Locations of active sites in the NADP/NTN network as of 05 October, 1089
(NADP, 1989)
-------
15-12
difference between bulk and wet-only deposition provided a crude estimate of dry
deposition. NADP wet only deposition of S04 was similar to snow-pack deposition values
(3.84 kg/ha versus 3.68(+_ 1.3)), while N03 wet deposition was lower than snow-pack bulk
deposition values (2.56 kg/ha versus 4.00 (±0.80)), suggesting significant amounts of dry
deposition of N03. Dry sulfur deposition may not be significant in the Region, as lake
sulfate concentrations tend to reflect wet deposition concentrations, except for sites with
geologic sources of sulfate (Landers et al., 1987; Turk, 1988). Due to the biological uptake
of nitrate, a similar assessment of regional nitrogen dry deposition through comparison of
precipitation concentrations and lake concentrations is not possible.
15.3 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EMISSIONS AND DEPOSITION
In order to discuss future risks of acidic deposition in Region VIII, data are needed on the
relationship between emissions and deposition. Emissions projections can be linked to
deposition, if the functional relationship between sources and deposition can be described.
Evidence has been presented which suggests that emissions are linearly related to deposition
in the West (Oppenheimer et al., 1985; Epstein and Oppenheimer, 1986). Changes in
regional S02 emissions have been recently shown to correspond with changes in
precipitation chemistry (S04 and pH) for the Eastern U.S. (Butler and Likens, In Press).
The weight of evidence supports the assumption that increases in emissions will be followed
by proportional increases in deposition amount in Region VIII.
15.4 DATA ON ECOSYSTEM SENSITIVITY TO POLLUTANT EXPOSURE
There are extensive data on the sensitivity of ecosystems to acidic deposition. Ecosystem
sensitivity to acidic deposition has been found to be closely related to geologic, edaphic and
hydrologic features (Turner et al., 1990).
Base-poor soils form over acidic slowly weatherable bedrock and have limited capacity to
buffer incoming acidic deposition especially if soils are thin and hydrologic flow paths are
short. Streams and lakes in such environments represent the most sensitive ecosystems to
acidic deposition. Acidification effects on lakes have preceded detectable effects on
terrestrial ecosystems, and can be measured through a variety of means (Schindler, 1988;
Asbury et al., 1989; Sullivan et al., 1990; Vertucci, In Press)
The sensitivity of aquatic ecosystems can be quantified by assessment of the ecosystems'
ability to neutralize incoming acids. The ability of a water sample to neutralize acids is
quantified as the alkalinity or acid neutralizing capacity (ANC) of the sample. Lake
alkalinity or ANC has been widely used as an index of lake sensitivity. In areas already
influenced by acidic deposition the sum of the basic cations is used since acidification can
reduce ANC. It should be noted that the sample ANC is only an index to the sensitivity of
the ecosystem. The neutralization of incoming acids occurs in lake watersheds by mineral
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weathering and exchange reactions in soils and by within lake processes that consume acids.
The relative importance and magnitude of these processes and their ability to sustain
alkalinity production in the face of acidic deposition are what actually determines ecosystem
"sensitivity". Once the processes controlling lake buffering capacity are overwhelmed by acid
inputs, alkalinity decline and then pH depressions and subsequent aluminum dissolution
occurs. Biological impacts follow chemical acidification.
Terrestrial ecosystems sensitive to the effects of acid deposition include those that are
currently under stress from "normal" conditions such as short growing seasons, draughty
periods and low nutrient availability. Such conditions characterize much of the landscape
of the Rocky Mountain West. The sensitivity of regional soils is poorly known (Binkely,
1989), however, sensitive soils generally occur in the watersheds of poorly buffered lakes and
streams. The sensitivity of terrestrial plants to direct effects from gaseous criteria pollutants
will be discussed in Problem 14.
15.5 DATA ON ECOSYSTEM EFFECTS OF POLLUTANT EXPOSURE
The effects of acid deposition on terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems have been the focus of
much attention. The end of the NAPAP (National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program)
effort in 1990 will provide numerous detailed state-of-science/ technology assessments that
can, when final drafts are completed, provide an extensive review of acid deposition effects.
Only a brief summary of effects is presented here.
The effects of acid deposition on terrestrial ecosystems is neither as well known nor as well
documented as aquatic ecosystem effects.
15.5.1 Terrestrial Effects
Documented terrestrial effects due to acid deposition as outlined by Binkely (1990) include:
• Direct acidity effects
• Leaching losses of nutrient cations
• Fertilization effect of sulfate and nitrate
Direct Acidity Effects
• Direct pH effects on tree roots, mycorrhizae and soil microbes
The direct pH effects are likely to be small, as tree roots aren't very sensitive to
pH. Impacts on mycorrhizae and microbes are not well known and are probably
not critical.
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• Soil solution alkalinity
The soil solution can buffer additions of acids, to varying degrees depending on
the soil type. Relatively small declines in soil pH caused by acid deposition can
amplify into large reductions in the alkalinity of soil water which can lead to
surface water acidification.
• Effects of lowering pH on aluminum in the soil solution
Many plants and soil biota are very sensitive to concentrations of aluminum, and
the concentrations of aluminum in soil solution depends strongly on soil pH. If
soil pH declines by 1 unit, due to acidic deposition aluminum concentrations may
increase by a factor of 1,000 unless some other factor intervenes (such as organic
matter binding with the aluminum).
Leaching Losses of Nutrient Cations
The rate of leaching of nutrient cations such as calcium, magnesium and potassium may be
increased by acidic deposition. For example, additions of HN03 (nitric acid) could result
in the H+ removing a K+ from the soil exchange complex, and the K+ could leach out of
the soil associated with the N03-. The degree to which terrestrial ecosystem productivity
in the West is limited by nutrient cations (rather than by nitrogen, phosphorous or sulfur)
is not well known, but studies with lodgepole pine have shown that potassium deficiency may
be common. Cation leaching could lead to reduced forest productivity.
Fertilization Effect of Nitrate and Sulfate
Two aspects of the fertilization effect are important:
• Neutralization of acidity and prevention of cation leaching
• Altered ecosystem productivity and species composition
Most ecosystems in the West are probably nitrogen limited, which means that any nitrate
deposited in acidic deposition will be retained by the plants with two effects:
First, the acidity of the nitric acid will be neutralized by the plants, because
transforming nitrate into protein nitrogen requires consumption of H + secondly there
would be no opportunity to increase the leaching losses of cation nutrients.
Most western ecosystems probably aren't limited by the availability of sulfur, so the
deposition of sulfuric acid may well lead to acidification and leaching of nutrient cations.
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The effects of fertilization of ecosystems with low levels of nitrogen each year have not been
well examined. Fertilization studies have tended to focus on large doses added only one or
two times during a long forest rotation. Possible, but currently unexamined effects include:
Increased tree leaf area
Increased tree growth
Decreased forest floor sunlight
Cooler temperatures
Reduced understory growth
Effects on forage wildlife
Altered species composition
Overstory trees
Understory, shrubs and herbs
Change in diversity
Altered food quality for grazers
Increased or decreased susceptibility to insect attack
Improved food quality leading to improve animal vigor and fecundity
There is an extensive literature on the effects acid deposition on aquatic biota and
ecosystems (e.g. Haines, 1981; Schindler, 1988; Baker et al., In Review).
As noted previously, acidic deposition causes the acidification of sensitive surface waters
resulting in reduced alkalinity, lower pH and elevated metal concentrations. Impacts have
occurred on aquatic organisms at all trophic levels (decomposers, primary produces and
primary and secondary consumers). Reductions in species abundance, production and
growth have occurred and sensitive species have been lost. Fish mortality, reduced growth
and reproductive failure have been documented. Ecosystem effects such as reductions in
productivity and decomposition rate and nutrient concentrations have not been observed in
ecosystem experiments (Schindler et al., 1985).
Direct biotic effects of acidification primarily occur due to the toxicity of hydrogen ion and
elevated metal concentrations, chiefly aluminum metals toxicity may be mitigated by
complexation with dissolved organic carbon (DOC). There is considerable variation in the
sensitivity of aquatic biota to acidification (Eilers et al., 1984). The pH threshold
determining ecosystem effects is difficult to specify, however, early effects have been noted
up to pH 6.0. Indirect biotic responses have been documented which could not have been
predicted from toxicological or mesocosm investigations (Schindler et al., 1985). The
magnitude of biological impoverishment in impacted areas is largely unknown due to the
absence of baseline biotic surveys. Schindler et al. (1989) modeled species loss for impacted
regions of the U.S. and up to 70% of acid sensitive taxa such as leaches, molluscs, and
insects may have been eliminated from some regions.
15.6 EXPOSURE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP DATA
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The response of terrestrial ecosystems to acidic deposition is difficult to detect and quantify
while the effects of surface water acidification can be detected and quantified in a number
ways. Furthermore, aquatic ecosystems are consistently more sensitive to initial increases
in acidic deposition than are terrestrial ecosystems. Therefore, this assessment will primarily
focus on detection and quantification of aquatic ecosystem responses to chronic acidification.
Episodic acidification will also be evaluated.
Several lines of evidence have been used by other investigators to show that lakes have been
acidified through time. A majority of the evidence is indirect: loss of sport fish populations
(Harvey and Lee, 1982; Baker and Harvey, 1985), changes in aquatic plant communities
(Hendrey and Vertucci, 1980), sediment metal concentrations (Galloway and Likens, 1979;
Baron et al., 1986; Charles and Norton, 1986), diatom species assemblages (Baron et al.,
1986; Charles and Norton, 1986; Sullivan et al., 1990), and empirical geochemical models
of the acidification process (Henriksen, 1979; Aimer et al., 1978; Wright, 1983; Wright, 1988;
Turk and Campbell, 1987; Schnoor, 1984).
Direct evidence of acidification is available as long-term data on surface water and
precipitation chemistry and from "pairs" of data from historic and more recent lake
chemistry surveys (Asbury et al., 1989; Lewis, 1982; Davis et al., 1978; Hendrey et al., 1980;
Johnson, 1979a; Johnson, 1979b; Pfeiffer and Festa, 1980; Schofield, 1977; Schofield, 1982;
Wright, 1977; Eilers et al., 1989). Screening procedures and target loading estimates have
also been used to predict when effects may occur.
15.7 ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ALGORITHMS
No data are available to quantify the areal extent of risks on terrestrial ecosystems from acid
deposition in Region VIII. There is no evidence of any current impacts on terrestrial
ecosystems in the Region. This risk assessment will focus on aquatic ecosystems and will
utilize the EPA lake survey and other results to document any extant effects and define
ecosystem sensitivity and quantify the amount of aquatic resources at risk to acidic
deposition. Qualitative risks are defined by evaluating the current extent of effects, regional
sensitivity and estimates of the effects of projected emissions increases.
15.8 EVIDENCE OF CURRENT EFFECTS
15.8.1 Aquatic Effects
Each of the lines of evidence historically used to identify acidification of aquatic ecosystems,
both direct and indirect, were evaluated for Region VIII.
There is little indirect evidence of lake acidification in the Region. There is no evidence
that fish populations or aquatic plant communities have been impacted by acid deposition.
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Some evidence suggests that lake sediment metal concentrations suggest these sources are
not acid deposition related.
There is some controversy over the possible role of atmospheric deposition and the observed
declines in amphibian populations in the Region. Hart and Hoffman (1989) suggest that
episodic acidification of pond habitats has influenced the decline in tiger salamander
populations in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado. The data published, however, do not
support their suggestion, if a rigorous definition of episodic acidification is applied (Vertucci,
In press). Furthermore, the wide-spread amphibian decline documented by Corn, et al.
(1989) can not be explained by acid deposition effects.
Extensive surveys of lake water chemistry data have not provided evidence of significant
chronic acidification effects in Region VIII. Landers, et al. (1987) use data from the EPA
western lake survey and the empirical geochemical models developed by Henriksen, (1979)
and Aimer et al. (1978) to suggest there is no current effect of acid deposition in the
Region. Turk and Campbell (1987) and Turk and Spar (In Press) have estimated an upper
bound to the amount of lake acidification in the Region due to current deposition effects
at 5 to 27 p.eq/1. The use of these geochemical models to estimate acidification has
numerous limitations and none have been verified with actual measures of acidification
(Vertucci, In press). Modern survey data from the Region did not find any acidified lakes,
defined as pH <5.5, or alkalinity < 0.0 jxeq/1 (Landers, et al., 1987).
There have been no clear direct measures of chronic lake acidification in the Region; either
the data are lacking or effects are non existent. There are no long-term data on lake
chemistry in Region VIII to evaluate subtle changes in alkalinity or pH associated with
changes in deposition chemistry from pristine conditions. Historic and more recent lake
survey data were compared by Lewis (1982) for lakes in the Front Range of Colorado and
by Vertucci (In press) for lakes in the Wind River Range of Wyoming.
Lewis (1982) reported a loss of 97 p.eq/1 of alkalinity however, this study has been re-
evaluated by Turk et al., 1988. The authors report that results presented by Lewis (1982)
can be explained not by acid deposition, but by methods differences and changes in climate
between sampling periods. Vertucci (In Press) found no evidence of chronic acidification
for the Wyoming lakes sampled in the 1930s and in 1988 when comparable methods were
used.
Screening procedures employed by the U.S.D.A. Forest Service and literature estimates of
"critical" loads imply that current levels of deposition are below thresholds of expected
effects. Acid deposition screening procedures developed by the Forest Service suggest that
at current deposition levels lakes in the Region are not being impacted by chronic
acidification (Fox, et al., 1989). Estimates of critical loads of sulfate to surface waters in
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Norway, which are known to produce impacts on sensitive aquatic ecosystems, are not
exceeded by current deposition or concentration levels in the Rocky Mountain Region,
therefore effects are not expected (see Henriksen and Brakke, 1988).
The most likely initial effects of acidic deposition in the Region will be expressed as
episodic acidification of sensitive high elevation lakes. Episodic acidification can be directly
measured using high-frequency sampling and through characterization and interpretation of
water chemistry. One detailed study in the Region has documented a slight episodic
acidification at snowmelt of about 20 jieq/1 for a lake in Wyoming (Vertucci, In press).
Lake outlet pH dropped to pH 6.0 along with the 20 jieq/1 alkalinity decline associated with
an acid anion pulse from the melting snow-pack. Due to their remote locations and high
altitudes, logistical difficulties prohibit monitoring efforts at the most at risk sites during the
period of early snowmelt when acid episodes are likely. Subsequently, the extent of episodic
acidification at current deposition levels is unknown.
15.9 EXTENT OF ECOSYSTEMS AT RISK
15.9.1 Aquatic Ecosystems
The most sensitive ecosystems to acid deposition in Region VIII are the poorly buffered
alpine lakes and streams in the Rocky Mountains. The EPA Western Lake Survey (WLS)
found that western mountain aquatic ecosystems are among the most sensitive to the effects
of acidic deposition of any lakes in the world (Landers, et al., 1987). Class I wilderness
lakes were especially at risk (Eilers et al., 1989).
The magnitude of the risk of acid deposition to lakes in the Region, exclusive of the
Dakotas, can be partially quantified by using the results of the probability based Western
lake survey. (The Western Lake Survey did not sample in either North or South Dakota.
Surface water alkalinities in these States are much higher than sensitive levels. For
example, the South Dakota Department of Water and Natural Resources have no alkalinity
data lower than @ 1000 neq/l (Bill Stewart, Pers. Comm.).) The number of lakes with ANC
values < 50 iieq/1 (considered very sensitive) and the number of lakes with ANC values <
200 ueq/1 (sensitive) are reported in Table 15-1 for each State in the Region covered by the
EPA survey. The numbers reported are those associated with the upper 95% confidence
limit of the estimate.
The surface water survey estimates that 539 lakes in the region are very sensitive (ANC, < 50
p.eq/1) and 3628 lakes are sensitive (ANC <200 neq/1). (The area of lake surface at risk
may be estimated by multiplying the number of lakes by the median lake size (Table 15-1).
Very sensitive lakes in the region cover 2,548 ha while sensitive lakes cover 17,359 ha.
Landers, et al. (1987) reported that for the Northern (Montana, Washington, Oregon),
Central (Montana, Wyoming, Idaho, Utah), and Southern (Colorado, Wyoming, New
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Table 15-1
Lake Surface Area at Risk
Lake
Lake
Lake
# Lakes
# Lakes
Area HA
Area HA
Median
ANC < 50
ANC < 200
ANC < 50
ANC < 200
State
Size HA
95% ucl
95% ucl
95% ucl
95% ucl
Montana
4.6
240
1035
1104
4761
Colorado
3.5
90
739
315
2587
Utah
5.4
51
620
275
3348
Wyoming
5.4
158
1234
853
6664
South Dakota
North Dakota
Region VIII
539
3628
2547
17360
Northern MT, WA, OR
1792
8351
Central MT, WY,
ID, UT
2584
24327
Southern CO, WY, NM
509
3232
TOTAL
4885
35910
(Landers et al., 1987)
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Mexico) Rocky Mountains lakes with ANC values <50 jieq/1 cover 4885 ha and lakes with
ANC values < 200 neq/1 cover 35910 ha.
The miles of streams at risk from acid deposition are unknown for the Region. Presumably,
sensitive lakes are fed by sensitive streams and flow into sensitive outlet streams.
15.10 VISIBILITY EFFECTS
Data on visibility impacts for the Region are available from a National Park Service
visibility monitoring network and airport visibility data. Isopleths of median visual range
(MVR) and the location of Park Service monitoring stations are reported in Figure 15-9.
Visibility in the Region ranges from over 200 km MVR in Utah to less than 130 km MVR
in eastern Colorado and the Dakotas. An estimate of median visual range using airport
visual range data are presented in Figure 15-10 as presented by Trijonis (In press). The
patterns in the visibility isopleths from these two data sources show some agreement.
Historic "base line" visual range in the West is estimated to be 230 ± 35 km while in the
Eastern U.S. the estimate is 150 ± 45 km (Trijonis, In press).
The deterioration in visibility has been analyzed in extinction budgets. For the rural West
20% of the total extinction is due to sulfates and 7% is attributed to NOx (nitrates plus N02)
while the values for the urban west are 13% and 20% respectively (Trijonis, In press). The
isopleths of visibility are inversely related to the concentrations of fine ammonium, sulfate,
nitrate and other particles monitored by IMPROVE (Cahill et al., 1990).
15.11 HEALTH EFFECTS
Current levels of acid deposition in the Region are unlikely to be associated with human
health effects.
15.12 WELFARE EFFECTS
Since there are limited environmental effects of acid deposition at this time there are no
economic impacts. Should deposition levels rise effects could lead to losses in fisheries,
agriculture, forestry, and damage to materials.
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Figure 15-9
Isopleths of Median Visual Range over the
Western United States, Summer 1983
J 10km
90-110km
110-130km
130-150km
150-170km
170-190km
i 190-2l0km
¦ NPS Monitors
~ Data Collected by Individual Park or State
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Figure 15.10
Estimated Median Visual Range (km) for Rural
Areas of the United States
airport visual ranqa by i.j to account for diffarancaa
in dacaetion tnraaftelda.
• Oata ara toe but racant atudlaa indicaea tnat
currant conditions ara approsiaataly tha saaa as anown hara.
(Trijonis et al., in review)
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15.12.1 Welfare Damages due to Visibility Impairment
Visibility Welfare Damages
The effects of increases in S02 and NOx on visibility have been widely documented. S02
emissions indirectly reduce visibility through the formation of sulfate particles that scatter
light and make distant objects harder to see. NOx emissions produce gaseous N02, which
combines with ammonia in the atmosphere to form ammonium nitrate particles, which also
reduce visibility.
The physical effects of historical increases in S02 and NOx emissions on visibility have been
large. Under natural background conditions, average visual range has been estimated to be
as great as 150 km in the eastern United States. By contrast, rural areas south of the Great
Lakes and east of the Mississippi River are known to have standard visual ranges that
average approximately 30 km. This suggests an 80 percent reduction in visibility from
natural conditions.
Estimating the magnitude of visual range loss in Region VIII, however, is very difficult, as
this loss is influenced by local meteorological conditions, seasonal factors, and variability
associated with the long range transportation of acid aerosols into the Region.
For the purposes of this analysis, we have assumed that current Region VIII visual range
can be described by visibility isopleths shown in Figure 15-10. We also assumed that natural
background visibility in Region VIII is approximately 230 km, see section 15.10. This
estimate is based on the current NAPAP Draft Integrated Assessment for background
visibility ranged in the "arid west." While this background estimate is probably quite
accurate for Wyoming, Utah, Colorado, and the majority of Montana, it probably
overestimates the background visual range in the Dakotas. Consequently, even the lower
bound estimate of visibility damages should be viewed as conservative. Because of
uncertainties associated with these estimates and the "true" value of current visual range
across the Region, these estimates should be viewed as quite speculative.
Conceptually, there are two types of welfare damage associated with visibility decrements,
these are:
• Non-market damages to residents of, or visitors to, areas in Region VIII with
degraded visibility, and
• Non-market damages to non-users who value good visibility in Region VIII, even
though they do not currently, or plan to, reside in or visit Region VIII.
A number of studies recently documented by Rowe and Chestnut for the National Acid
Precipitation Assessment Program's State of the Science Report reveal that both users and
non-users value changes in visibility in the sense that they are willing to pay to prevent
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visibility decrements. In some cases, these willingness to pay bids are quite large. In studies
of urban areas in the eastern United States, Rowe and Chestnut suggest that resident
households may be willing to pay an average of $100 to $300 to avoid relatively small
decrements in visual range.
These values have been obtained through the use of the contingent-valuation method. In
this evaluation approach, members of a sample population are interviewed and asked how
much money they would be willing to hvpothetically pay to prevent degraded visibility.
Answers to this question have been used to develop the "consensus damage function" that
we used to estimate welfare damages associated with visibility degradation in Region VIII.
Welfare damages associated with visibility loss were estimated by two equations:
TWTP, = $50/hh*ln(230/(x) * hh
TWTPU = $200/hh*ln(230/(x) * hh
where:
TWTP, = the lower bound estimate of the total willingness to pay for visibility
damages
TWTPU = the upper bound estimate of the total willingness to pay for visibility
damages
$50/hh = lower bound estimate of individual household's willingness to pay to avoid
visibility damages
$200/hh = upper bound estimate of individual household's willingness to pay to avoid
visibility damages
In = natural log
(150/(x)) = the assumed background visual range divided by the estimated current
visual range bounded by a lower bound estimate of 16 and an upper bound of 50.
The assumed mean of the distribution is 34.
hh = households, estimated by: (Region VIII population/2.76).
To estimate the number of households affected by visibility decrements described in Figure
15-10, we made crude assumptions regarding the Regional population distribution within
each of the current visibility isopleths estimated by NAPAP. These population distribution
assumptions are summarized in Table 15-2.
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Table 15-2
Estimated Visibility Welfare Damages
in Region VIII
State
Current
Visual
Range (km)
Baseline
Visual
Range (km)
Population
Number of
Households
Lower Bound
Welfare
Damage
Upper Bound
Welfare
Damage
North Dakota
50
230
333,500
124,906
$9,530,707
$38,122,830
100
230
333,500
124,906
$5,201,783
$20,807,131
South Dakota
30
230
237,429
88,925
$9,056,458
$36,225,831
50
230
237,429
88,925
$6,785,206
$27,140,826
100
230
237,429
88,925
$3,703,310
$14,813,242
Colorado
100
230
660,200
247,266
$10,297,502
$41,190,008
150
230
2,640,800
989,064
$21,138,467
$84,553,869
Utah
150
230
1,690,000
632,959
$13,527,723
$54,110,890
Wyoming
100
230
359,250
134,551
$5,603,420
$22,413,678
150
230
119,750
44,850
$958,547
$3,834,189
Montana
100
230
805,000
301,498
$12,556,027
$50,224,108
TOTAL Region VIII
7,654,287
2,866,774
$98,359,150
$393,436,601
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Results of the analysis are reported in Table 15-2 and are briefly summarized below.
Annual damages range from a minimum of approximately $98 million to a maximum of
approximately $393 million.
There are two significant uncertainties that should be taken into account when analyzing
these results. First, the validity of contingent valuation to derive non-market values is
currently a question of considerable debate. There are numerous methodological and
theoretical problems that need to be resolved before one can be confident regarding
damages estimated using this technique. Secondly, the complex nature of the physical
processes associated with reductions in visibility make it difficult to allocate visibility
decrements to anthropogenic factors. In addition, we were unable to obtain precise
estimates of visibility changes in Region VIII.
15.13 ASSUMPTIONS
A number of assumptions were made in this analysis due to the absence of sufficient data.
Assumptions were made as to the airshed of Region VIII and the amount of dry versus wet
deposition. In order to evaluate risks associated with changes in emissions it was assumed
that increases in emissions cause increases in deposition and effects in a linear manner.
15.14 UNCERTAINTY
In areas experiencing significant acidic deposition, effects have been well documented for
aquatic ecosystems and are less clearly understood for terrestrial ecosystems. However,
projections of future emissions, estimates of total deposition and models predicting impacts
are highly uncertain. The amount of wet deposition to sensitive mountain ecosystems and
the amount of dry deposition are not well known for the region.
While many of the effects of acidic deposition have been well researched some areas are
less well known. For example, the effects of acidic deposition as an influence on other
stressors, ie. insect damage to trees, is not well understood. The effects of low-dose, long-
term nitrogen fertilization of terrestrial ecosystems has not been investigated and may cause
significant changes in N-limited biota. The extent of episodic acidification, and the factors
controlling the intensity of acidic episodes is not well known.
While the Western Lake Survey estimated the sensitivity of lakes in the Region, the miles
of streams at risk to acidic deposition is unknown.
15.15 OMISSIONS
The direct effects of acidic deposition associated with gaseous pollutants is not considered
in this assessment.
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15.16 REFERENCES
Baker, J.P. et al. (In Review). Biological effects of changes in surface water acid-base
chemistry. State-of-Science/Technology Report No. 13. National Acid Precipitation
Assessment program, Washington, DC.
Binkley, D. 1989. Sensitivity of forest soils in the Western U.S. to acidic deposition, pp.561-
573 In: Effects of Air Pollution on Western Forests. (R. Olson and A. Lefohn. eds.) Air and
Waste Management Association, Pittsburgh.
Binkley, D. 1990. Pollution and Forest Soils: Effects and Monitoring. Proceedings USDA
Forest Service Air Resource Management Workshop January 23-26, 1990. USDA Forest
Service Region 2. Lakewood, CO.
Butler, T.J., and G.E. Likens. (In press). The impact of changing regional emissions on
precipitation chemistry in the Eastern United States. Atmospheric Environment:
Cahill, T.A., R.A. Eldred, K. Wilkinson, B. Perley, and W.C. Malm. 1990. Spacial and
temporal trends of fine particles at remote US sites. Presentation at the 83rd Annual
Meeting & Exhibition Air & Waste management Association. Pittsburgh, PA. June 24-29.
Eilers, J.M., GJ. Lien, R.G. Berg. 1984. Aquatic organisms in acidic environments: A
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Eilers, J.M. D.F. Brakke, D.H. Landers, and W.S. Overton. 1989. Chemistry of wilderness
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Epstein, C.B. and M. Oppenheimer, 1986. Empirical relation between sulphur dioxide
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Fox et al. 1989. A Screening Procedure to Evaluate Air Pollution Effects on Class I
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Haines, T.A. 1981. Acidic precipitation and its consequences for aquatic ecosystems: A
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Harte, J. and E. Hoffman, 1989. Possible effects of acid deposition on a Rocky Mountain
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Henriksen, A. and D.F. Brakke. 1988. Sulfate deposition to surface waters: Estimating
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Characteristics of lakes in the western United States. Volume I. Population descriptions
and physico-chemical relationships. EPA/600/3-86/054a, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, DC. 176pp.
National Atmospheric Deposition Program (1989) NADP/NTN Annual Data Summary:
Precipitation chemistry in the United States 1988. Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory,
Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, pp 379.
National Park Service, 1988. Air Quality in the National Parks: A Summary of Findings
from the National Park Service Air Quality Research and Monitoring Program. USDI,
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Oppenheimer, M., C.B. Epstein, and R.E. Yuhnke. 1985. Acid deposition, smelter
emissions, and the linearity issue in the Western United States. Science 229:859-862.
Galloway, J.N., G.E. Likens and M.E. Hawley. 1984. Acid precipitation: Natural versus
anthropogenic components. Science:226 829-831.
Schindler, D.W. et al. 1985. Long-term ecosystem stress: The effects of years of
experimental acidification on a small lake. Science 228:1395-1401.
Schindler, D.W. 1988. Effects of acid rain on freshwater ecosystems. Science 239:1149-157.
Schindler, D.W., S.E. Kasian, and R.H. Hesslein. 1989. Biological impoverishment in lakes
of the midwestera and northeastern United States from acid rain. Environ. Sci. Technol.
23:573-580.
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Sullivan, TJ. et al. 1990. Quantification of changes in lakewater chemistry in response to
acidic deposition. Nature 345:54-58.
Turk, J. T. 1988. Use of regional lake-sulfate concentrations in the evaluation of watershed
process in high-elevation parts of the Western United States. Verh. Internat. Verein.
Limnol. 23:138-143.
Turk, J.T. and D. Campbell, 1987. Estimates of acidification of lakes in the Mt. Zirkel
Wilderness Area, Colorado. Water Resources Research. 23:1757-1761.
Turner et al. (In Review). Watershed and lake processes affecting surface water acid-base
chemistry. State-of-Science/Technology Report No. 10. National Acid Precipitation
Assessment program, Washington, DC.
Vertucci, F.A. (In Press). Methods of detecting and quantifying lake acidification. In:
Proceedings, International Mountain Watershed Symposium. University of California Press.
Vertucci, F.A. and D.G. Fox. (in prep). An estimate of dry deposition to a Rocky Mountain
Snow-pack.
Aimer, B., W. Dickson, C. Ekstrom, and E. Hornstrom. 1978. Sulfur pollution and the
aquatic ecosystem, pp. 271-311. In: J.O. Nriagu [eds.], Sulfur in the Environment: Part II,
Ecological Impacts, John Wiley and Sons, New York, N.Y. 1978.
Asbury, C. E., F. A. Vertucci, M. D. Mattson, and G. E. Likens. 1989. The acidification of
Adirondack lakes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 23:362-365.
Baker, J. and T. Harvey. 1985. Critique of acid lakes and fish populations status in the
Adirondack Region of New York State. Final Report, NAPAP Project E3-25, U.S.E.P.A.,
Wash., D.C.
Baron, J., S. A. Norton, D. R. Beeson, and R. Herrmann. 1986. Sediment diatom and metal
stratigraphy from Rocky Mountain lakes with special reference to atmospheric deposition.
Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 43(7): 1350-1362.
Charles, D. F. and S. A. Norton. 1986. Paleolimnological evidence for trends in atmospheric
deposition of acids and metals. In: Acid Deposition: Long Term Trends, National Research
Council [eds], National Academy Press, Wash., D.C., pp. 335-434.
Davis, R. M., J. Bailey, and S. Norton. 1978. Acidification of Maine (USA) lakes by acidic
precipitation. Verh. Int. Verein. Limnol. 20:532-537.
Drever, J. I. 1982. The Geochemistry of Natural Waters. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, 388 pp.
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Driscoll, C. T. and G. E. Likens. 1982. Hydrogen ion budget of an aggrading forested
ecosystem. Tellus 34:283-292.
Eilers, J. M., D. F. Brakke, D. H. Landers, and W. S. Overton. (In Press a). Chemistry of
wilderness lakes in the Western United States. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment
Eilers, J. M., G. E. Glass, A. K. Pollack, and J. A. Sorensen. (1989). Changes in
conductivity, alkalinity, calcium and pH during a fifty-year period in selected northern
Wisconsin lakes. Canadian Jour. Fish. Aquat. Sci.
Galloway, J. N. and G. E. Likens. 1979.' Atmospheric enhancement of metal deposition in
Adirondack lake sediments. Limnol. Oceanogr. 24:427-433.
Galloway, J. N., G. R. Hendrey, C. L. Schofield, N. E. Peters, and A. H. Johannes. 1987.
Processes and causes of lake acidification during spring snowmelt in the west-central
Adirondack Mountains New York. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 44:1595-1602.
Galloway, J. N., G. E. Likens, W. C. Keene, and J. M. Miller. 1982. The composition of
precipitation in remote areas of the world. J. Geophys. Res. 87:8771-8776.
Harvey, H. H. and C. Lee. 1982. Historical fisheries changes related to surface water pH
changes in Canada. In: Acid Rain Fisheries, Proceedings of an International Symposium on
Acid Rain and Fisher Impacts on Northeastern North America, American Fisheries Society
Maryland, pp. 45-55.
Hazzard, A. S. 1935. Instructions for Stream and Lake Survey Work. Department of
Commerce, Bureau of Fisheries Report, Washington, D.C. 34 pp.
Hendrey, G. R. and F. A. Vertucci. 1980. Benthic plant communities in acidic lake Colden,
New York: sphagnum and the algal mat. In: D. Drablos and A. Tollan [eds.], Proc. Internat.
Conf. Ecological Impact of Acid Precipitation, As-NLH, Norway: 314-315.
Hendrey, G., J. Galloway, S. Norton, C. Schofield, P. Shaffer, and D. Burns. 1980.
Geological and Hydrochemical Sensitivity of the Eastern United States to Acid
Precipitation, Environmental Protection Agency, Corvallis Environmental Research
Laboratory, EPA 600/3-80-024, Corvallis, Oregon.
Henriksen, A. 1979. A simple approach for identifying and measuring acidification of
freshwater. Nature 278:542-545.
Henriksen, A. 1984. Changes in base cation concentrations due to freshwater acidification.
Verh. Internat. Verin. Limnol. 22:692-698.
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Johnson, A. 1979a. Evidence of acidification of headwater streams in the New Jersey
pinelands. Journal of Environmental Quality 8: 383-386.
Johnson, A. 1979b. Evidence of acidification of headwater streams in the New Jersey
pinelands. Science 206:834-836.
Kramer, J. and A. Tessier. 1982. Acidification of aquatic systems: a critique of chemical
approaches. Environ. Sci. Technol. 16(11):606A-615A.
Kramer, J. R., A. W. Andren, R. A. Smith, A. H. Johnson, R. B. Alexander, and G.
Oehlerlt. 1986. Streams and lakes. In: Acid Deposition: Long Term Trends. National
Research Council, eds., National Academy Press, Wash., D.C., pp. 231-299.
Landers, D. H., J. M. Eilers, D. F. Brakke, W. S. Overton, P. E. Kellar, M. E. Silverstein,
R. D. Schondbrod, R. E. Crowe, R. A. Linthurst, J. M. Omernik, S. A. Teague, and E. P.
Meier. 1987. Characteristics of lakes in the western United States. Vol I: Population
Descriptions and Physico-Chemical Relationships. EPA-600/3-86/054a, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. 176 p.
Lewis, W. 1982. Changes in pH and buffering capacity of lakes in the Colorado Rockies.
Limnology and Oceanography 27:167-172.
Likens, G. E., F. H. Bormann, R. S. Pierce, J. S. Eaton, and N. M. Johnson. 1977.
Biogeochemistry of a Forested Ecosystem. Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. 146 pp.
National Atmospheric Deposition Program. 1987. NADP Annual Data Summary,
Precipitation Chemistry in the United States, 1985. Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory,
Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO.
Pfeiffer, M. and P. Festa. 1980. Acidity Status of Lakes in the Adirondack Region of New
York in Relation to Fish Resources. New York Department Environmental Conservation
Report FW-P168 (10/80), Albany, New York.
Rodhe, W. 1949. The ionic composition of lake waters. Verh. Int. Verein. Limnol.
13:121-141.
Sanders, F. S. 1988. Surface water chemistry during snowmelt in a subalpine Catchment in
Southeastern Wyoming: A Preliminary Assessment. Final Report to USDA Forest Service,
Contract 28-K5-360, Fort Collins, CO. 85 pp.
Schindler, D. W., K. H. Mills, D. F. Malley, D. L. Finlay, J. A. Shearer, I. J. Davies, M. A.
Turner, G. A. Linsey, and D. R. Cruikshank. 1985. Long-term ecosystem stress: the effects
of years of acidification on a small lake. Science 228:1395-1401.
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Schindler, D. W. 1988. Effects of acid rain on freshwater ecosystems. Science 239:149-157.
Schnoor, J. 1984. Modeling of Total Acid Precipitation Impacts. John I. Teasely, Series
Editor, Butterworth Publishers. 222 pp.
Schofield, C. L. 1977. Dynamics and Management of Adirondack Fish Populations. 1.
Natural Waters with Lethal Conditions for Fish. Final report to New York Department of
Environmental Conservation, Albany, New York.
Schofield, C. L. 1982. Historical fisheries changes in the United States related to decreases
in surface water pH. In: Acid Rain Fisheries, Proceedings of an International Symposium
on Acid Rain and Fish Impacts on Northeastern North America, American Fisheries Society
Maryland, pp. 57-68.
Simon, J. R. 1935. A Survey of the Waters of the Wyoming National Forest, Department
of Commerce, Bureau of Fisheries Report (April), Washington, D.C., 30 pp.
Small, M. J. M. C. Sutton, and M. W. Milke. 1988. Parametric distributions of regional lake
chemistry: fitted and derived. Environ. Sci. Technol. 22:196-204.
Stensland, G. J., D. M. Whelpdale, and G. Oehlert. 1986. Precipitation chemistry. In: Acid
Deposition: Long Term Trends, National Research Council, eds., National Academy Press,
Wash., D.C., pp. 128-199.
Stoddard, J. L. 1987. Alkalinity dynamics in an unacidified alpine lake, Sierra Nevada,
California. Limnol. Oceanogr. 32:825-839.
Stumm, W. and J. J. Morgan. 1981. Aquatic Chemistry - An Introduction Emphasizing
Chemical Equilibrium in Natural Waters, 2nd edition, John Wiley & Sons, 780 pp.
Trijonis, J. et al. (In Review). Visibility: Existing and Historical Conditiosn-Causes and
Effects. State-of-Science/Technology Report No. 24. National Acid Precipitation
Assessment program, Washington, DC.
Turk, J. T. and D. H. Campbell. 1987. Estimates of acidification of lakes in the Mt. Zirkel
wilderness area, Colorado. Water Resources Research 23:1757-1761.
Wright, R. F. 1977. Historical Changes in the pH of 128 Lakes in Southern Norway and 130
Lakes in Southern Sweden Over the Period 1923-1976. Technical Note TN 34/77, Acid
Rain-Forest and Fish Project, Oslo, Norway, 1977.
Wright, R. F. 1983. Predicting Acidification of North American Lakes. NIVA Rep 0-81036
Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Oslo, Norway.
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Wright, R. F. 1988. Acidification of lakes in the eastern United States and southern
Norway: a comparison. Environ. Sci. Technol. 22:178-182.
Young, J. R., E. C. Ellis, and G. M. Hidy. 1988. Deposition of air-borne acidifiers in the
western environment. J. Environ. Qual. 17: 1-26.
15.17 CONTACTS
Visibility:
Marc Pitchford- EMSL Los Vegas EPA Lab (702)-789-2363
Rich Fisher- USDA Forest Service, RMFRES Fort Collins, CO
W. Malm- USDI Park Service, Fort Collins, CO
Acid Deposition Effects:
Dan Binkley- CSU Forestry Dept., Fort Collins, CO
John Turk- USGS, Denver, CO
Doug Fox- USDA Forest Service, RMFRES Fort Collins, CO
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16.0 HAZARDOUS/TOXIC AIR POLLUTANTS
16.1 INTRODUCTION
This problem area covers risks to human health and welfare due to outdoor exposure to
airborne hazardous air pollutants from routine or continuous from point and nonpoint
source emissions. Pollutants include asbestos, various toxic metals (e.g., chromium,
beryllium), organic gases (benzene, chlorinated solvents), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs, such as benzo(a)pyrene,primarily in particulate form), gasoline vapors, incomplete
combustion products, airborne pathogens, cooling towers, and a variety of other volatile
organic chemicals and toxics. This problem area also covers exposure through both
inhalation and air deposition of these pollutants to land areas.
Major sources of these pollutants include large industrial facilities, motor vehicles, chemical
plants, commercial solvent users, and combustion sources. This category excludes, to the
extent possible, risks from pesticides, airborne lead, radioactive substances,
chloroflourocarbons, emissions from waste treatment, storage and disposal facilities, storage
tanks, and indoor air toxicants.
As will be discussed below, this assumption is considered to be reasonable.
Region VIII Effects = National Data Population of Region VIII
Population of Nation
16.2 HUMAN HEALTH RISK
16.2.1 Toxicity Assessment
The carcinogens selected for evaluation include acrylonitrile, arsenic, asbestos, benzene, 1,3-
butadiene, cadmium, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, chromium (hexavalent), coke oven
emissions, dioxin, ethylene dibromide, ethylene dichloride, ethylene oxide, formaldehyde,
gasoline vapors, hexachlorobutadiene, hydrazine, methylene chloride, perchloroethylene,
products of incomplete combustion, trichloroethylene, vinyl chloride and, vinylidene chloride.
The cancer rates presented Ln the studies used in the national report were updated, as
necessary, based on unit risk factors used by EPA Although the pollutants studied varied
from proven human carcinogen to probable human carcinogen to possible human
carcinogen, all were treated in the analyses as carcinogens.
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Pollutants selected for evaluation of non-cancer effects include acetaldehyde, acrolein,
arsenic, benzene, beryllium, carbon disulfide, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, ethylene
oxide, formaldehyde, hydrogen sulfide, methyl ethyl ketone, methyl methacrylate, methyl
isocyanate, nitrobenzene, perchloroethylene, phenol, phthalic anhydride, styrene, tetramethyl
lead, toluene diisocyanate, and vinyl chloride.
Exposure to airborne pollutants can result in non-cancer health effects ranging from subtle
biochemical, physiological, or pathological effects to death. Various organ systems may be
affected including the pulmonary, nervous, gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, and
hematopoietic systems. In addition, hepatic, renal, reproductive, and developmental toxicity
have been observed.
In the national study, cancer risk estimates were derived giving equal consideration to
measured and modeled data, provided that one estimate was not clearly preferable. Cancer
rates for a pollutant and source category were extrapolated to nationwide estimates based
on the geographic scope of each study examined. Direct extrapolation to total nationwide
estimates was possible for most pollutants due to their inclusion in at least one study of
nationwide scope. In instances where a pollutant was included only in a study of limited
geographical scope, the concentration of the pollutant/source category in the area studied
relative to the national concentration was considered. This information was then utilized
to extrapolate nationwide estimates.
The national population used is 243,400,000. The population used in Region VIII is
7,655,000 or, approximately 3% of the national population.
16.2.3 Human Health Risk Characterization
Cancer Risk
In the studies used in "Cancer Risk from Outdoor Exposure to Air Toxics", aggregate
maximum lifetime individual risks exceeding 10^ were reported in almost every case. Risks
of 10"3 or greater from individual pollutants were reported adjacent to various types of
sources. Average lifetime individual risks in urban areas from exposure to many pollutants
were generally between 10^ and 10"5 but ranged 10"3 to 10"6. These levels were the result
of combined exposure to mobile and stationary sources.
In the national study, estimates of annual cancer incidence were derived by estimating the
annual cancer cases per million population for each pollutant source category combination
reported in the data sources. These estimates were then modified as necessary to reflect
updated unit risk and emission factors. Total nationwide annual incidence were then
estimated by summing across all pollutant/source categories.
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The procedure outlined above results in an estimate of 1,577 to 2,540 cancer cases per year,
nationally, caused by exposure to the pollutants listed previously. With Region VIII
comprising approximately 19 percent of the Nation's population, apportioning national data
to the region by population results in a projection of 47 to 76 cancer cases per year in
Region VIIL (It is noted that these national numbers are different than those presented in
the national report since the risks due to waste treatment storage and disposal facilities,
radionuclides, and radon have been subtracted. This is consistent with the problem area
definition and description).
Note that cancer unit risk values used in this study are based on assumptions and are
therefore somewhat uncertain. Further, the fraction of the total risk attributable to
pollutants and source categories not covered in the study is unknown. Nevertheless, the
study is valuable as a reasonable indication of the magnitude of potential cancer risk caused
by this specific group of pollutants and is therefore, in general, considered to be moderately
to highly certain.
Non-Cancer Risk
Non-cancer risks from exposure to toxic pollutants routinely emitted to the air by industrial
or commercial sources are being evaluated by the Office of Air Quality Planning and
Standards in a Broad Screening and Urban County Study. Based on analysis of the
preliminary data available from the study, it is reasonable to conclude that environmental
acute and chronic exposures to toxic air pollutants have the potential to adversely impact
public health, although the exact magnitude of the increased risks is unclear.
Preliminary results of the Broad Screening portion of the study indicate that:
• approximately 48 percent of the chemicals studied exceeded the health reference
levels for chronic exposures;
• long-term (annual) exposures were estimated above the Lowest Observed Effect
Level (LOEL) for 3-5 percent of the chemicals studied;
• 58 percent of exposures exceeded health reference levels for short term (24-
hour) exposures; and,
• in hundreds of U.S. cities, exposure to multiple pollutants was of concern, with
concentrations in 260 cities exceeding the hazard index.
Preliminary results of the Urban County portion of the study indicate that:
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• using long-term modeling of both average and maximum emissions, a substantial
number of facilities were estimated to cause exceedances of health levels, with
31 percent of the 131 facilities exceeding chronic health effect levels for 9
chemicals;
• using short-term modeling, more pollutants and facilities were associated with
exceedances of LOELs with and without uncertainty factors applied, with 75
percent of the 131 facilities exceeding acute health effect, levels for 42
chemicals; and,
• for chemicals of concern, substantial numbers of facilities were associated with
exceedances of the health reference level, and a small percentage of facilities
emitted pollutants in quantities exceeding the LOELs.
There is considerable uncertainty associated with characterizing non-cancer health risks at
exposures greater than the reference dose and less than the LOEL. Nevertheless, using the
Broad Screening portion of the study, it is estimated that 50 million people and 38 million
people nationally are exposed to levels of pollutants greater than health reference levels for
acute effects and chronic effects respectively. Providing that regional characteristics are
similar to national characteristics, an estimate of Region VIII values can be determined
using population.
163 ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
Due to the absence of exposure-response relationships linking ambient concentrations of
hazardous/toxic air pollutants and the response of ecosystem components, no evaluation of
ecological risks was developed. The U.S. EPA Environmental Laboratory at Corvallis,
Oregon currently has a limited program in place evaluating the effects of a small set of air
toxics on a limited number of test species.
16.4 WELFARE RISK ASSESSMENT
Welfare risks associated with hazardous/toxic air pollution have been estimated in
association with the annual cancer cases estimated in Section 16.2.
To estimate these costs, estimated annual cancer cases were multiplied by the direct medical
cost and foregone earnings per cancer case:
(Annual Cancer Cases)(Direct Costs and Forgone Earnings) = HC
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where:
HC = health costs
Estimated direct and indirect medical cancer costs are based on a range of cost per case
estimates. The lower bound estimate, based on Hartunian, et al., is $80,000, while the upper
bound estimate developed by the American Cancer Society is $137,000. These estimates
provide differing values for foregone earnings and medical costs. Both estimates are
weighted average costs associated with all types of cancers.
Lower bound estimate
HC = (47)($80,000) = $3,760,000 (1988 $)
Upper bound estimate
HC = (76)($ 137,000) = $10,412,000 (1988 $).
16.5 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dean, N.L., Poje, J. and Burke, RJ., 1989. The Toxic 500. The National Wildlife
Federation, Washington, D.C.
Environmental Protection Agency, 1989. Cancer Risk from Outdoor Exposure to Air Toxics:
Exterral Review Draft. Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards.
Environmental Protection Agency, 1989. Toxic Air Pollutants and Noncancer Health Risks:
Summary of Screening Study: External Review Draft. Office of Air Quality Planning and
Standards.
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n*
EPA Comparative Risk Study
Indoor Air Quality Health Risk Assessment
Region 8
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This analysis identifies and, for several compounds, estimates the risks posed to human health
attributable to indoor air pollutants. The estimates indicate only the general range of risk to the
public in sufficient detail for comparing against other environmental problems. Although these
estimates are based on generally accepted toxicity, exposure, and risk characterization
methodologies, the results are not appropriate for other purposes.
In addition to many health effects not quantified here, estimates of the likely range of individual
lifetime risks and population risks from cancer due to indoor air pollutants in Region 8 are as
follows:
Individual Lifetime Risk of Cancer - 4 x 10*3 to 2 x 10-2
(4 in 1,000 to 2 in 100)
Population Risk of Cancer - 50 to 600 excess cases per year
These risks are caused primarily from environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), asbestos, and several
volatile organic compounds (VOCs): formaldehyde, benzene, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform,
and tetrachloroethylene. Among the noncancer effects, the most important appear to be a
miscellany of respiratory problems known collectively as sick building syndrome (SBS) and a
heightened sensitivity to chemicals known as multiple chemical sensitivity (MCS). Few data exist
for these conditions, but MCS creates severe physical reactions and limitations and some believe
that SBS is widespread (affecting approximately 20 percent of office buildings).
DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM
People spend up to 90 percent of their time indoors.1 With technological changes in the chemical,
manufacturing, and construction industries, thousands of potentially dangerous pollutants have
been introduced into the indoor environment. Energy conservation standards and practices have
produced a large portion of our current building stock that are more effectively sealed but that may
not provide adequate air to dilute or purge these indoor pollutants.2 A result of these and other
possible causes (such as smoking), concentrations for several pollutants have been found to be
twice to five times more concentrated in indoor air than outdoor air.3 The health effects of
exposure to indoor pollutants have been reported to vary from mild irritation to cancer and
subsequent death.
The base of available information is growing, but the multi-disciplinary and multiple chemical
nature of indoor air quality (IAQ) issues makes comprehensive research difficult. There are no
ecological effects that can associated with indoor air pollutants and, therefore, no ecological risk
assessment for this problem area was conducted. This analysis first discusses cancerous effects,
followed by discussions of noncancerous effects.
CANCER EFFECTS
Contaminants in indoor air can cause cancer (Table 1). Because the methods used to estimate
effects differ, this section is organized by contaminant (VOCs and PAHs, pesticides, ETS, and
asbestos). The discussion of each group of contaminants includes a summary of the toxicity of the
compounds, common exposures, and a characterization of individual risks and population risks.
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Indoor Air Quahiy Health Risk Assessment
Page 2
Table 1- Health Effects and Sources of Indoor Air Pollutant*
Pollutant
Subetentiated Sources
Cancer
Aaeocla
Neuro
ed Health
Respl r
Effects
Llv/Kld
Oevel
Reference
VOCe
Benzene
Auto Exhaust, ETS, Foets Fumes
Adhesrves, Paint Remover Building
Materials. Photo Processing Chemicals
A
X
X
X
X
A & S 1966
Formsiosnyoe
Building Materials Comoustion
Appiiances/Heaters/Engmes Adhesives
Caroeting, ETS. Home & Office
Furmsnings Auto Exhaust
01
X
X
X
USEPA 1907
Cnioroform
Water Clothes Wasner, Adhesives
foam insulation Inks
02
X
X
A & S 1936
Car oon
Tetrachloride
Grease Cleaners. Adhesives Foam
insulation inks
B2
X
X
USE°A 19&4
i 2-Dicmora-
ethane
Adhesive Foam insulation Tape
B2
X
Cornur '980
If i C M 3 '0 •
ethylene
Adhesives Foam insulation inns
Photo Processing Chemicals Tape
Coatings Lubricants. Rubber
02
X
X
Cornisr 190C
Tetracnioro-
etny/ene
Dry Cleaning Acnesivea, Foam insul-
ation ln«$
B2
X
Co.^'3" -,9a:
Benzo|a)®yrene
ETS Building Materials hVAC Systems
CompusTion Appiiances/Heaters/E*:gine5
Cleaners and Waxes. Pesticides Adhesives
Paints and Supplies
B2
X
X
EPA 1989
Pesticides
Aiflnn
Alona-BHC
Cniordane
Dieldnn
Heotacnior
ProxOur
4 4' DDE
insecticide, withdrawn from u S
insecticide. banned »n J S
insecticide. withdrawn m 1988
insecticide. withdrawn from u 5
insecticice
insecticide, common inaoor use
insecticide
B2
02
B2
B2
B2
02
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
EPA * 9B8 1990
EPA 1980 1990
EPA T 988 ? 990
EPA 1988 1990
EPAi988 -990
E°A1980 199C
EPA * 988 1900
Asbestos
Chysotn'e
Amosite
Croodoiite
-45% of ai( asoestoa found m buildings
Second most common found m Duiidings
Used only for high temperature applications
A
A
A
X
X
X
EPA 1985
EPA '985
EPA 1985
ETS
Tobacco SmoKing
X
X
EPA '989
S A S 1983
Biological
Contaminants
VtnjMC. oacwium. moics msec: ana
arachnid excrete pollen animal an-d human
dander
X
EPA 1989
Carbon Monoxide
Comousoon Gases ETS Auto Exhaust
X
X
Ammann undated
Sulfur Dioxide
Combustion of fuels containing sulfur
X
EPA 1987
Ammann unoatea
Nitrogen Dioxide
Combustion Appliances, ETS
X
Admur 1966
Ammann undated
Key. Car EPA weight*oNevidence carcinogenicity rating
A« Known human carcinogen
B1 ¦ ProoaBie human carcinogen (limned human data)
32« Probafite human carcinogen (no human data)
C- PowWe human carcinogen
X- Reported health effect
Neuron Neurological impairment
ResiD'r* Respiratory imoairment including aatnma
Ljv/KiO- Liver and/or Kidney dysfunction
Deveia Developmental problems including reproductive and congenrtai
References.
Amdur. MO 'Air Pollutants' in Caaeerett and Douli's Toxicology 3rd Ed Macminan Pubnsning, ny 1906
Ammann. H . 'Effects of inooor Aatiuta/rta on Seftsrtve Bopuiaoons ' USEPA Office of Research A Oevetooment nasiarcft Tnangie Par* NC Undated
Andrews, L.S and R Snyder, 'Tone effects of solvents and vapors" in Caaarett and Douli's Toxcotogy 3rd Ed Macmnian Publishing ny 1986
Comiah. hh. 'Sotvents and Vaoors,' in Caaeerett and Douli's Toxtcoiogy 2nd Ed Macminan Publishing, NY, i960
SpengierJ.O and K Sexton Inooor Air Pollution A Pudiic H«aith Perspective Science Vol 221 No *006 1903
USEPA, Guidance for Controlling Aabeatoa-Contaimng Materials m Buildings Office of Pesticides & Toxtc Substancee. 6PA/560/5-85/024 June 1985
USEPA. Health Assessment Document for Acetaidehyoe Review Draft. Office of Hearth and Environment Assessment EPA/600/8-67/014 1067
USEPA. 'Nonoccupational Pesttcidee Expoeure Study (NOPES)' Office of Researcn & Development, EPA/600/3-90/003, January '090
USEPA. Report to Congress on inooor Air Quality. Office of Air & Radiation indoor Air Programs EPA/400/1-69/001C AuQuet 1869
USEPA. Researcn and Development* Hearth Effects Assessment for Cart»n Tetracmonoe Draft Report. Environmental Catena and Assessment Office.
CincmartJ Oh No ECAO-CJN-H039. 1964
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Indoor Air Quality Health Risk Assessment
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VOCs
Toxicity Assessment
The characteristics of VOCs in the indoor environment are poorly understood. Hundreds of VOCs
are commonly detected in the indoor environment and several are classified as Group A or B
human carcinogens.4 The compounds considered here were selected because they were frequently
reported, usually occur in substantially higher concentrations indoors than outdoors, and they had
readily available, pertinent data. Only one polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH),
Benzo(a)Pyrene, was selected because of the relative insignificance of PAHs as a group to the
analysis and because of insufficient data on other PAHs. The group of VOCs commonly referered
to as phthalate esters were also not included because of the lack of sufficient exposure data and the
apparent insignificant contribution of the group to the risk analysis. The compounds selected for
analysis and their corresponding cancer potency factors are listed below in order from highest to
lowest toxicity.
Compound
Benzo(a)Pyrene5
Carbon tetrachloride5
1,2-Dichloroethane^
Chloroform^
Cancer
Potency Factor
11.5
0.13
0.091
0.081
Compound
Tetrachloroethylene^
Formaldehyde6
Benzene^
Trichloroethylene^
Cancer
Potency Factor
0.051
0.038'
0.029
0.011
Exposure Assessment
The range of concentrations used in the analysis are listed below. This analysis identifies likely
exposure levels rather than worst-case or extreme exposures. The range of concentrations used,
therefore, generally reflect the differences between median and mean values reported in published
studies rather than the full range of maximum and minimum values.8 They are listed from highest
to lowest concentrations.
Compound
Concentration Range
(ug/m^)
Low Hieh
Formaldehyde
8
424
Benzene
2
204
Carbon tetrachloride
0
45
Chloroform
0.1
44
Tetrachloroethylene
5
18
Trichloroethy lene
1
13
1,2-Dichloroe thane
1
12
Benzo(a)Pyrene
0.001
0.003
In determining individual exposure, this analysis assumes an inhalation rate of 23 m^/day and an
average person's weight as 70 kg9.
Risk Characterization
This analysis uses some common exposure information and generally applies those exposures on a
24-hour basis to all residents in the region. Assuming exposures are for 24 hours is reasonable
considering that 80 to 90 percent of an individual's time is spent in an indoor environment. This
analysis does not attempt to rigorously account for differences in exposures by location (homes,
offices, and schools, for example) or to distinct groups (sensitive populations, for example), or to
account for the hundreds of chemicals found in indoor air. Individual risks and annual population
risks are calculated using the following equations.
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Indoor Air Quality Health Risk Assessment
Page 4
Individual Lifetime Risk = concentration (ug/m3) x inhalation rate (23m3/day) +
1000 (ug/mg) + 70 (kg/person) x cancer potency (mg/kg-day)"1
Population Risk = individual lifetime risk x 2.675 million (Region 8's
population) + 70 years (average life expectancy)
The results are shown below:
VOCs and PAHs
Individual Risk P9pu]aU9n Risk
¦ (lifetime risk) (annual excess cancer cases)
Compound
Low
High
Low
High
Formaldehyde
1 x lO*4
5 x 10*3
4
202
Benzene
2 x lO*5
2 x 10*3
1
74
Carbon tetrachloride
0
2 x 10"3
0
73
Chloroform
X
>—»
o
1
On
1 x lO'3
0.1
45
1,2-Dichloroe thane
3 x 10*5
4 x lO*4
1
14
Tetrachloroethylene
8x 10"5
3 x lO*4
3
12
Trichloroethylene
4 x lO*6
5 x lO*5
0.1
2
Benzo(a)Pyrene
4 x 10*6
1 x 10*5
0.1
0.4
PESTICIDES
The data and methodology used for estimating lifetime individual risk for pesticides in indoor air is
adopted from the Nonoccupational Pesticide Exposure Study CNOPESt published by the U.S.
EPA in January 1990. Pesticides are commonly detected in indoor air. We include several
pesticides that have been withdrawn, suspended, or banned because they are expected to remain in
indoor air for decades.
Toxicity Assessment
Potency Factors are taken from the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS).
Cancer Cancer
Pesticide Potency Factor Pesticide Pptgncy Factor
Aldrin 17.0 Chlordane 1.3
Dieldrin 16.0 4 4' DDE 0.34
alpha-BHC 6.3 Proxpur (Baygon) 0.0079
Heptachlor 4.5
Exposure Assessment
The range of concentrations to be used in the analysis are listed below and are from studies of
Jacksonville, FL and Springfield, MA.10
Pesticide
Chlordane
Proxpur (Baygon)
Heptachlor
Aldrin
Dieldrin
4 4' DDE
alpha-BHC
Concentration Ranee
(ug/m3)
197.1
to
198.7
15.0
to
185.2
27.2
to
115.2
0.1
to
26.0
0.8
to
6.4
0.6
to
3.8
0.2
to
0.8
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Indoor Air Quality Health Risk Assessment
Page 5
An additional calculation allowed for a 2-year half-life of the cyclodiene termiticides (Heptachlor,
Aldrin, Dieldrin, and Chlordane) that have been banned, withdrawn, or suspended. Although it is
not known at what rate these pesticides degrade, this assumption helps identify the potential low
end of the range for these compounds. The NOPES study assumed an inhalation rate of
21m-fyday.
Risk Characterization
The range of estimates for lifetime individual risks as reported in the NOPES study follow, along
with estimates of the number of annual excess cancer cases to the population of Region 8.
Individual Risk
Population Risk
Pesticide
(lifetime risk)
Low Hieh
(annual excess cancer cases)
Low Hieh
Heptachlor
1 x 10"6
2 x 10-4
0.04
8
Aldrin
2 x 10*8
1 x 10-4
0.001
4
Chlordane
3 x 10-6
7 x 10-5
0.1
3
Dieldrin
1 x 10*7
3 x 10-5
0.004
1
alpha-BHC
4 x 10-7
2 x 10*6
0.02
0.1
4 4' DDE
6 x 10"8
4 x 10"7
0.002
0.02
Proxpur (Baygon)
3 x 10-8
4 x lO*7
0.001
0.02
ENVIRONMENTAL TOBACCO SMOKE (ETS)
This analysis uses direct estimates of individual lifetime risk and population risk. The toxicity and
exposure assessment sections, below, provide additional information but are not used in
calculating risks.
Toxicity Assessment
Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS) causes a variety of health effects including lung cancer,
cardiovascular effects, increased susceptibility to infectious diseases in children, chronic and acute
pulmonary effects in children, mucous membrane irritation, and allergic reactions.11 The cancer
risk associated with ETS for nonsmokers has been estimated at 5 x 10 "5 cancer deaths per
person per mg of tobacco exposure per day.1213-14 (Note that these are the estimated cancer
deaths, compared to estimated cancer cases for the other compounds analyzed.)
Exposure Assessment
Due to the complex chemical composition of ETS, exposure studies generally focus on one
component of ETS (tar) and report that nonsmokers are typically exposed to 1.4 mg of tar daily.15
Risk Characterization
One study's estimate of the lifetime risks of lung cancer death from ETS is between 4x10-3 and
1 x 10"2 for nonsmokers and only slightly higher for ex-smokers.16 The same study estimates
that the annual number of lung cancer deaths from ETS is between 2,500 and 5,200 nationally,
depending on the methodology used. To estimate the number of deaths in Region 8, this analysis
uses the midpoint of that range, 3,850 (a number also close to an estimate in a recent EPA review
draft report), and Region 8's share of the national population (2.675 million+275.7 million or
1.0%). The annual number of lung cancer deaths in Region 8 attributable to ETS is, therefore,
3,850 x 1.0% or 37.
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Indoor Air Quality Health Risk Assessment
Page 6
ASBESTOS
Asbestos is the collective name given to two groups of naturally occurring mineral fibers found in
various rock formations. The two groups being amphibole (amosite, crocidolite, etc.) and
serpentine (chrysotile). For decades prior to 1973, asbestos was the material of choice for a wide
variety of thermal, acoustical, and abrasive applications because of its unique properties. Asbestos
containing materials (ACM) are found in cement products, acoustical plaster, fireproofing textiles,
wallboard, ceiling tiles, vinyl floor tiles, thermal system insulation, and numerous other
materials.17
Toxicity Assessment
Asbestos is classified by the EPA Science Advisory Board (SAB) as a Group A known human
carcinogen.18 Asbestos-related diseases include: lung cancer, mesothelioma, and asbestosis.19 In
general, dose-response data have relied heavily on occupational exposure information from various
asbestos-related industries. Extrapolation of the relationship between exposure and disease
indicates that only a small proportion of people exposed to low levels of asbestos will develop
asbestos-related diseases. Subpopulations at greatest risk (other than those occupationally
exposed) are: smokers, children, and young adults.
EPA has reported the unit risks of lung cancer and mesothelioma from asbestos exposure. These
two cancers are by far the most important causes of death among exposed individuals. (Note that
these are the estimated cancer deaths, compared to estimated cancer cases for the other
compounds analyzed.)
Lifetime Unit Cancer Risk 20
(per 0.01 fibers/ml)
Pppylation Mesothelioma Lung Cancer
Female Smokers 2.52 x 10*3 1.50 x 10*3
Female Nonsmoker 2.72 x 10*3 1.64 x 10*4
Male Smokers 1.81 x 10*3 2.38 x 10*3
Male Nonsmokers 2.20x10*3 1.85x10*4
Exposure Assessment
EPA surveys estimate that, nationally, 31,000 (-35 percent) schools and 733,000 (-20 percent)
office buildings contain ACM in varying states of disrepair.21 The ACM in these buildings can be
classified as friable (ACM with a high probability of fiber release when disturbed) or nonfriable.
The average lifetime exposure to asbestos in indoor environments have typically been reported at
0.01 fibers/ml.22 There are several studies of schools done in the late 1970s and early 1980s that
showed vastly higher concentrations. These studies, however, were before the 1986 Asbestos
Hazard Emergency Response Act (AHERA) was adopted into law. AHERA required Local
Education Agencies (LEAs) to carry out initial response actions and have implemented an asbestos
management plan in public and private schools by July 1989. We assume that most LEAs have
complied with this regulation and have either removed all friable and nonfriable ACM or have it
under a strict management plan that should prevent any future significant fiber release episodes.
To date, Federal regulations have not required AHERA be applied to other buildings. For these
reasons, these early school studies are omitted from our analysis. This study uses 0.01 fibers/ml
as the upper range of exposure.
The lower limit for typical concentrations (0.0004 fibers/ml) is an arithmetic mean of several
studies of public buildings. The estimate for average nonoccupational exposure concentration is,
therefore, between 0.0004 and 0.01 fibers/ml.
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Indoor Air Quality Health Risk Assessment
Page 7
Risk Characterization
The lifetime individual risks of death from mesothelioma and lung cancer for nonoccupational
exposures to airborne asbestos fibers are shown below.
Asbestos Individual Lifetime Cancer Risk
Low f0.0004 fibers/mil High fO.Ol fibers/mil
PopylaUQIl Mesothelioma Lung Cancer Mesothelioma Lung
Female Smokers 1 x 10"4 6 x 10*5 3 x 10"3 2 x 10" 3
Female Nonsmoker 1 x 10"4 7 x 10"6 3 x 10*3 2 x 10"4
Male Smokers 7 x 10"^ 1 x 10"4 2 x 10"^ 2 x 10"^
Male Nonsmokers 9 x 10*5 7 x 10*6 2 x 10"3 2 x 10*4
The estimate of individual lifetime risk, therefore, is between 7 x 10*^ and 3 x 10'3 and
population risk is between 03 and 115 cases per year.
NONCANCER EFFECTS
Humans are known to respond to indoor air pollutants in a variety of ways (Table 1). The actual
response of an individual depends on at least the following: the individual's tolerance limits, the
type of pollutants in the air, the exposure or dose and the number of exposures, the target organ(s)
potentially affected, the rate of absorption and excretion by the body, and the rate of metabolism.
A precise understanding in the scientific community of these effects and their causes is lacking,
partly because the pollutants appear in complex mixtures in indoor air.
Typically, the health of most people is not severely threatened by noncarcinogenic exposures to
low levels of indoor contaminants. The efforts are usually limited to discomfort or mild illness but
include the following (with the reported percent of people in problem buildings reporting these
conditions):
Eye irritation (2323 to 81 %24)
Dry throat (3523 to 71%24)
Headache (3123 to 86%25)
Fatigue (1726 to 61%25)
Dizziness (1925 to 46%26)
Sinus congestion (51%24)
Skin irritation (38%22)
Shortness of breath (923 to 33%24)
Nausea (1524 to 51%26)
Nasal irritation (2026 to 43%25)
The prevalence of these associated symptoms led to acknowledgement of a "Sick Building
Synarome" (SBS). The World Health Organization estimates that 30 percent of all new buildings
may have problems that can lead to occupant complaints and illness. Others have hypothesized that
it is possible that 20 percent of office workers (about 108 thousand people in Region 8) work in
"sick buildings." The term Building-Related Illness (BRI) refers to more severe responses to
indoor air pollutants. Examples of BRI include Legionnaires' Disease (which occurs mainly in
hospitals and usually affects patients with kidney disease ) and Hypersensitivity Pnuemonitis, but
there are few data on how many people may be suffering from BRI.
Another building-related diagnosis being increasingly accepted by clinicians is Multiple
Chemical Sensitivity (MCS). MCS is a condition affecting a small subset of the population
that has become sensitized to chemicals in the environment. Affected individuals appear to
repeatedly suffer acute reactions upon exposure to pollutant levels commonly found in indoor
environments. These exposures would not cause the majority of the population to experience
discernible adverse effects.
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Indoor Air Quality Health Risk Assessment
Page 8
Poiential synergistic, antagonistic, and additive effects may play an important role in causing the
acute symptoms associated with SBS and MCS. Synergism is known to exist among the
following:
• PAHs and irritant gases (SCb arid NO2)27 • Ozone and aerosols (ammonium sulfate)30
• PAHs and ETS27 • SO2 and aerosols (ammonium sulfate)30
• SO2 and aerosols (sodium chloride)28 • Asbestos and BaP31
• Asbestos and ETS29
Complex mixtures of chemicals are ubiquitous to indoor environments and are made up, in part, of
environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), VOCs, pesticides, and combustion gases. (A subset of these
pollutants have been found to be carcinogenic and are discussed individually in earlier sections.)
• Environmental tobacco smoke has been associated with cardiovascular effects,
increased susceptibility to infectious diseases in children, chronic and acute pulmonary
cffecis in children, mucous membrane irriiaiion, and allergic responses.32
• VOCs have been identified a potential causative agent in SBS investigations.33 Health
effects, reportedly attributable to exposure to VO(fs, range from sensory irritation to
behavioral, neurotoxic, and hepatoxic effects.34 Formaldehyde has been shown to cause
mucous membrane irritation at very low concentrations (0.1 to 0.2 ppm) in chamber
studies.35
• Pesticides are by definition poisonous, and affect the nervous system, the hepatic
system, and the reproductive system.35
• Combustion gases that have been found to accumulate in indoor environments are
carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and sulfur dioxide. The effects of CO may be grossly
underestimated. One study reported that sensitive populations may be highly affected by
indoor exposures and misdiagnosed with symptoms related to flu, food poisoning, Alz-
heimer's disease, and general decrepitude.36 Nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide are lung
irritants that cause respiratory difficulty in sensitive populations, particularly asthmatics.37
• Airborne biological contaminants are also ubiquitous in indoor environments.
Biogenic aerosols can produce direct toxicity, or may be pathogenic or allergenic.38
CAVEATS
This analysis of the approximate health impacts of poor indoor air quality is designed to be used
only as part of a general comparison with other environmental problems. The quantitative risk
estimates are based on generally accepted toxicity, exposure, and risk characterization
methodologies and, therefore, carry all of the uncertainties typical of assessing risks (high-dose to
low-dose extrapolations and animal-to-human extrapolations, for example). Further, this analysis
has additional uncertainties resulting from the lack of specific data, particularly on exposures. For
example, this analysis uses some common exposure information and generally applies those
exposures on a 24-hour basis to all residents in the region. It does not attempt to rigorously
account for differences in exposures by location (homes, offices, and schools, for example) or to
distinct groups (sensitive populations, for example), or to account for the hundreds of chemicals
found in indoor air. As a result, the conclusions of this analysis are not appropriate for
other purposes. This analysis does, however, probably account for the major health effects
from poor indoor air quality, at least as is now known.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
The derivations used in this analysis are available in the Documentation Report.
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Indoor Air Quality Health Risk Assessment
Page 9
SUMMARY OF QUANTIFIED CANCER RISKS
Individual and
Population
Risks
Carcinogenic Agents
Region 8
Individual
Risks
Population
Risks
Lower
to
Upper
Lower
to
Upper
---(lifeti
me
risk)---
(annual excess cancer cases)
VOCs:
Formaldahyde
1 E-04
to
5E-03
4
to
202
Benzene
2E-05
to
2E-03
1
to
74
Carbon tetrachloride
0E + 00
to
2E-03
0
to
73
Chloroform
3E-06
to
1 E-03
0.1
to
45
1,2 Dichloroethane
3E-05
to
4E-04
1
to
1 4
Tetrachloroethylene
8E-05
to
3E-04
3
to
1 2
Trichloroethylene
4E-06
to
5E-05
0.1
to
2
Benzo(a)Pyrene
4E-06
to
1 E-05
0 1
to
0 4
3esticides:
Heptachlor
1 E-06
to
2E-04
0 04
to
8
Aldrin
2E-08
to
1 E-04
0 001
to
4
Chlordane
3E-06
to
7E-05
0 1
to
3
Dieldrin
1 E-07
to
3E-05
0 004
to
1
alpha-BHC
4E-07
to
2E-06
0.02
to
0 1
4 4' DDE
6E-08
to
4E-07
0.002
to
0.02
Proxpur(Baygon)
3E-08
to
4E-07
0.001
to
0 02
ETS*
4E-03
to
1 E-02
37
to
37
Asbestos
7E-06
to
3E-03
0.3
to
1 1 5
Total Risk:
4 E-03
to
2E-02
47
to
590
* Individual risks are for nonsmokers, population risk is computed considering additional
subpopulations.
Note: Detail may not directly compute to population risk due to independent derivation of
ETS risks and independent rounding.
Estimated
1990 population
is 2675
thousand
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Indoor Air Quality Health Risk Assessment
Page 10
Notes
1 Moschandreas, D.J. and S.S. Morse, Exposure Estimation and Mobility Patterns, 72nd Annual
Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association (Cincinnati, Ohio, 1979).
2Maldonado, E.A.B. and J.E. Woods, "A Method to Select Locations for Indoor Air Quality
Sampling," Building and Environment, Vol. 18, No. 4, 1983, pp. 171-180.
3Wallace. Lance A., The Total Exposure Assessment Methodology (TEAM) Study - Phase II,
USEPA, Office of Research and Development, February, 1983.
4USEPA. Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality, Office of Air and Radiation, Indoor Air
Programs, EPA/400/1-89/001C, (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office), August
1989, p. 4-24.
5USEPA, Health Assessment Document for Acetaldehyde, Review Draft, Washington. D.C.:
Office of Health and Environmental Assessment, EPA 600/8-86/015A, 1987.
6USEPA, Assessment of Health Risks to Garment Workers and Certain Home Residents from
Exposure to Formaldehyde, Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances. Washington, D.C., 1987.
7Versar, Documentation for W-E-T Model Input Parameters: California List Constituents, Draft
Report, Washington, D.C.: USEPA, Office of Solid Waste, EPA Contract No. 68-01-7053,
1986.
g
See Documentation Report.
9Executive Office of the President, Risk Analysis: A Guide to Principles and Methods for
Analyzing Health and Environmental Risks, Council on Environmental Quality, 1989, p. 132.
10USEPA, Nonoccupational Pesticide Exposure Study (NOPES), Office of Research and
Development, EPA/600/3-90/003, January 1990, pp. 93-112.
nReport to Congress on Indoor Air Quality, p. 3-2.
12Repace, J.L., and A.H. Lowery, "A Quantitative Estimate of Nonsmokers' Lung Cancer Risk
from Passive Smoking, Environment International, 1985, 11:3-22.
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Indoor Air Quality Health Risk Assessment
Page 11
13Repace and Lowery, "An Indoor Air Quality Standard for Environmental Tobacco Smoke Based
Upon Carcinogenic Risk," New York State Journal of Medicine, 85:381-383.
14Repace and Lowery, "A Rebuttal to Criticism of the Phenomenologic Model of Nonsmokers'
Lung Cancer Risk from Passive Smoking," Environmental Carcinogens revs. (Journal of
Environmental Science and Health) C4:225-235.
^Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality, p. 4-22.
16Robins. James, National Research Council,"Appendix D: Risk Assessment -- Exposure to
Environmental Tobacco Smoke and Lung Cancer," Environmental Tobacco Smoke: Measuring
and Assessing Health Effects, National Academy Press, 1986. As reported in the 1990 USEPA
Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality, p. 4-20.
17USEPA, Guidance for Controlling Asbestos-Containing Materials in Buildings, Office of
Pesticides and Toxic Substances, EPA/560/5-85-024, June 1985, p. 1-1.
l8Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality, p. 4-15.
19 Guidance for Controlling Asbestos-Containing Materials in Buildings. p. 1-2.
20USEPA, Airborne Asbestos Health Assessment Update, Office of Health and Environmental
Assessment, EPA/600/8-84/003F, June 1986, pp. 163-165.
21 Guidance for Controlling Asbestos-Containing Materials in Buildings, p. 1-1.
22Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality, p.4-18.
23Pickering, A.C., et al., "Sick Building Syndrome." In Indoor Air, Volume 3: Sensory and
Hyperreactivity Reactions to Sick Buildings, Proceedings of the International Conference on
Indoor Air Quality and Climate (Stockholm), U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington D.C.,
NTIS Publication No. PB-85-104206, August 20-24, 1984.
24National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Hazard Evaluations and
Technical Assistance Branch, Guidance for Indoor Air Quality Investigations (Cincinnati, Ohio),
January, 1987.
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Indoor Air Quality Health Risk Assessment
Page 12
25Sterling, E.M., et al., "Sick Buildings: Case Studies of Tight Building Syndrome and Indoor
Air Quality Investigations in Modern Office Buildings," Environmental Health Review, Vol. 29,
No. 3, pp. 11-16, 1985.
26Breysse, P.A., "The Office Environment - How Dangerous?" In Indoor Air, Volume 3:
Sensory and hyperreactivity reactions to sick buildings," Proceedings of the International
Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate (Stockholm), U.S. Department of Commerce.
Washington D.C., NTIS Publication No. PB-85-104206, August 20-24, 1984.
27USEPA Health Assessment Document for Polycyclic Organic Matter, Draft Report, Office of
Research and Development, Washington, D.C., 1980.
2SAmdur, M.O., "Air Pollutants." In Klaassen, C.D. et al. (eds). Casarett and Doull's
Toxicology. The Basic Science of Poisons. Third Edition (New York: Macmillan Publishing,
1986).
29Airborne Asbestos Health Assessment Update, 1986.
30Last, J.A., "Heaith Effects of Indoor Air Pollution: Synergistic Effects of Nitrogen Dioxide and
a Respirable Aerosol," Environment International, Vol. 9, 1983, pp. 319-322.
31Mossman, B.T., J. Bignon, M. Corn, A. Seaton, J.B.L. Gee, "Asbestos: Scientific
Developments and Implications for Public Policy," Science, January 19, 1990, 247:294.
32Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality, p. 3-6.
22Ibid, p. 3-7.
uIbid., p. 3-6.
35Ibid., p. 3-7.
36Ammann, H., "Effects of Indoor Pollutants on Sensitive Populations," USEPA, Office of
Research and Development, Research Triangle Park, N.C., Undated, p. 1.
37Ibid., p. 5.
38Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality, p. 3-13.
-------
EPA Comparative Risk Study
Indoor Air Quality Welfare Effects Assessment
Region 8
Executive Summary
Poor indoor air quality can create a variety of economic costs to society including increased medical
costs, losses to productivity, and damage to materials. The welfare effects of indoor air quality are
estimated in this study using a damage approach (that estimates the cost of physical damage caused
by a problem) to assign a value to the economic costs. Because of the lack of substantiated
research in this area, the estimates are incomplete and subject to great uncertainty. The estimates
are not statistically reliable and should be used only to compare the possible magnitude of the
welfare effects of indoor air quality with the effects of other environmental problems.
Indoor air pollutants can cause damage to materials such as metals, paints, textiles, paper, leather,
computer equipment, and electrical equipment. Although the cost of material damage may
be substantial, the value is not quantified because of the lack of research in the area. The
medical costs of indoor air relate to the cost of medical care for the health effects caused by indoor
air. For Region 8, the medical costs are estimated at $10 million to $24 million per
year. The costs of lost productivity consist of 1) reduced productive years due to major life-
threatening health effects and 2) the day-to-day productivity losses of the general work force.
These productivity losses are estimated at $0.56 billion to $0.62 billion per year.
For effects quantified in this analysis, the total welfare costs are about $0.57 billion to
$0.64 billion per year for Region 8.
Introduction
Very few studies are available on the economic costs of poor indoor air quality. In its Report to
Congress on Indoor Air Quality1, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) identified
three major categories of economic costs: material costs, direct medical costs, and lost productivity
costs. Using available research data, EPA quantified welfare costs for direct medical costs and lost
productivity costs but was unable to assign a dollar value to the material costs. This analysis relies
heavily on EPA's work as detailed in Chapter 5 of the Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality
for its methodologies and assumptions. Each of the three damage categories are described in detail
in the following sections.
Materials Costs
Indoor air pollutants can cause adverse effects on materials and equipment. Costs associated with
the adverse effects could include maintenance, repair, and replacement costs for soiling, deteriora-
tion of appearance, and reduced service life. Table 1 summarizes materials that can be affected, the
types of possible damage, and the principal indoor air pollutants that can cause this damage.
As with health effects, some objects and materials can be considered a "sensitive population."
Particularly sensitive objects include leather-bound books, fine art, electrical equipment, and
computer equipment. The value of damage to unique art and antique books can be priceless.
Telephone switching and computer equipment is susceptible to corrosion caused by air particles
and gases. A representative of Bell Communications Research2 reported that the seven regional
telephone companies have spent large sums to replace, clean, or repair switches as a result of
indoor air contaminants. Failures have occurred throughout the system, and range in cost from as
little as $10,000 to as high as $380,000 per event. With the growing number of personal
computers in use, the cost of damage to electrical equipment could be quite substantial.
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Indoor Air Quality Welfare Effects Assessment
Page 2
EPA Comaprative Risk Study
Summary of Indoor Air Quality Issues
Regions 2. and 4-9
Air Pollution Effects on Materials
Materials Type of Damage
Principal Air Pollutants
Metals Corrosion tarnishing
Sulfur oxides ana otner acia gase;
Paint and organic coatings Surface erosion
discoloration soiling
Sulfur oxides hydrogen su!';ces
particulate matter
Textiles Reduced tensile strength
soiling
Sulfur oxides nitrogen oxides
particulate matter
Textile dyes Fading color change
nitrogen oxides ozcne
Paper Embrittlement. soiling
Sulfur oxides particulate matte*
Magnetic storage media Loss of signal
Particulate matter
Photographic materials microblemishes. "sulfiding"
Sulfur oxides, hydrogen sulfide
Rubber Cracking
Ozone
Leather Weakening, powdered surface
Sulfur oxides
Ceramics Change of surface appearance
Acid gases. HF
Source- Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality.
Volume II Assessment and Control of Indoor Air Pollution.
August 1989 p 5-6
-------
Indoor Air Quality Welfare Effects Assessment
Page 3
Medical Costs
The annual number of excess cancer cases attributable to indoor air pollution are estimated and
presented in the health effects section. The medical costs associated with the cancer cases, how-
ever, represent a welfare effect of indoor air. As in Chapter 5 of Report to Congress on Indoor
Air Quality, the medical costs of the excess cancer are estimated using a 1981 study by Hartunian,
ex aL3 that estimates the present value of direct medical expenditures for various illnesses derived
from actual cost experi-ences. Future medical costs were discounted to present value using a 6
percent discount rate.
The calculation of the medical costs due to excess cancer cases involves multiplying the number of
excess cancer cases derived in the health effect analysis by the average cost per cancer case (avail-
able data are in 1986 dollars). Thus, the medical costs due to increased cancer cases for Region 8
equals 47 cancer cases multiplied by $24,938 per case for a total of $1 million at the low end of
the range and 590 cases for a total of $15 million at the high end.
Chapter 5 of the Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality calculates several other types of
medical costs related to non-cancer health effects. The first cost relates to asthmatic children. A
New York City study4 found that asthmatic children from smoking households visited hospital
emergency rooms more often than those from non-smoking households. The cost of the
increased emergency room visits by asthmatic children can be calculated as a welfare
effect of poor indoor air. The New York City study reported that the number of increased
emergency room visits equals 1.26 visits per year per asthmatic child in smoking home. The
Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality estimated, based on National Center for Health
Statistics data, that 5 percent of children under 18 suffer from asthma. According to the Center for
Disease Control, 43 percent of children live in smoking households. The cost of the additional
emergency room visits equals the percent of children with asthma (5 percent) multiplied by the
population of children under 18 to derive the number of children with asthma. Next, the number
of children with asthma is multiplied by the percent of children in smoking households (43 percent)
to get the number of asthmatic children in smoking households. That figure is then multiplied by
the additional number of emergency room visits per year (1.26) and the average cost of the visits
($90). For Region 8 the resulting cost is $2 million.
Besides cancer, Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS) is reported to cause other major diseases.
For example, according to a study by Wells5, 32,000 cases of heart disease per year (for the
U.S.) are attributable to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS). In order to estimate the number of
heart disease cases from ETS for Region 8, the number of heart disease cases are disaggregated
from the country's total based on Region 8's population. The total medical costs for ETS heart
disease equals the estimated number of cases for Region 8 (352) multiplied by the medical costs
per case ($9,684)) or $3 million.
Another category of increased medical costs is due to increased medical visits for the white
collar work force necessitated by indoor air quality problems. Based on a survey in New
England6, white collar workers have an extra .26 visits with doctors per year due to poor indoor
air quality. Assuming a white collar work force of 541 million in Region 8 and an average cost per
visit to the doctor of $307, the additional medical costs equals $4 million.
Productivity Losses
The value of decreased worker productivity due to poor indoor air can also be included as a welfare
effect. Decreased worker productivity falls into two categories: reduced productivity within the
general work force and disease-specific productivity losses.
Within the general white collar work force, poor indoor air quality may cause a reduction in worker
productivity due to headaches, eye irritation, and fatigue. Workers may also spend time away
-------
Indoor Air Quality Welfare Effects Assessment
Page 4
from their work location by taking breaks or walks outdoors to relieve these symptoms. A study
of 94 state government office buildings conducted by a coalition of employee unions8 found that 3
percent (or 14 minutes, or .23 hours) per day is lost due to poor indoor air quality. In addition,
worker days lost due to sick leave were found to increase by an average of .6 extra sick days per
worker per year.
The cost, then, of the reduced daily productivity per white collar worker equals the average white
collar wage rate (Si5.56), multiplied by .23 hours/day times 2080 hours per year (52 weeks per
year times 40 hours per week) multiplied by the Region 8 work force of 541 million. The daily
productivity losses for Region 8 equals $1 billion. The productivity losses due to increased sick
leave equals the wage rate multiplied by 4.8 sick hours, multiplied by the white collar work force
in the region for a cost of $40 million. The total general worker productivity losses for
Region 8 (both lost time and sick leave) is estimated at $544 million.
Disease-specific lost productivity is measured based on the lost earnings caused by the increased
number of cancer cases and cases of heart disease. Lost productivity costs due to excess cancer
cases equals the number of cases multiplied by the cost of lost productivity per case ($92,645)
from the Hartunian Study9 or $4 million at the lower end of the range and $55 million at the
high end. Lost productivity costs due to excess heart disease cases equals the number of cases
multiplied by the cost of lost productivity per case ($44,896) from the Hartunian Study10 or $16
million.
* * * * #
Summary of Welfare Costs Attributable to Poor Indoor Air Quality
Region 8
Costs or Losses
Low High
• ($ million)
Medical Costs
Cancer $1 $15
Noncancer
Emergency room visits by asthmatic children 2 2
Heart disease 3 3
Increased visits to doctors by workers 4 4
Subtotal $10 $24
Productivity Losses
General worker productivity $544 $544
Cancer 4 55
Heart disease 16 1£
Subtotal $564 $615
TOTAL $574 $638
The largest portion of the welfare costs are attributable to lost productivity among the general white
collar work force. These estimates for the white collar labor force productivity losses are in the
billions of dollars and should only be considered a gross estimate to be used to compare the
possible magnitude of the welfare effects of poor indoor air quality with the welfare effects of other
environmental problems.
-------
Indoor Air Quality Welfare Effects Assessment
Page 5
Notes
^SEPA, Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality, Office of Air and Radiation, Indoor Air
Programs, EPA/400/1 -89/001C, (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office), August
1989, Chapter 5, pages 5-1 - 5-21.
2Weschler. C.. Bell Communications Research, Personal Communication with David Mudarri.
EPA, June 30, 1988 as cited in Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality, page 5-7.
3Hartunian, N. et al., The Incidence and Economic Costs of Major Health Impairments.
Lexington Books. 1981, as cited in Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality, pages 5-7 - 5-8.
4Evans, D.. etai, "The Impact of Passive Smoking on Emergency Room Visits of Urban
Children with Asthma". American Review of Respiratory Diseases, 135:567-572: summarized in
Residential Hygiene, Vol. 4, No. 2, page 12, as cited in Report to Congress on Indoor Air
Quality, page 5-10.
5Wells, A.J., "Passive Smoking Mortality: A Review and Preliminary Risk Assessment",
Presented at 79th annual meeting, Air Pollution Control Association, Minneapolis, Minnesota.
1986, as cited in Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality, page 3-6.
6Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality, page 5-11.
7Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality, pages 5-12.
8Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality, page 5-11.
9Hartunian, N. et aL, The Incidence and Economic Costs of Major Health Impairments,
Lexington Books, 1981, as cited in Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality, pages 5-7 - 5-8.
10Hartunian, N. et aL, The Incidence and Economic Costs of Major Health Impairments,
Lexington Books, 1981, as cited in Report to Congress on Indoor Air Quality, pages 5-7 - 5-8.
-------
no
Documentation Report
Indoor Air Quality
Welfare Effects Assessment
(ONLY USE WITH FULL REPORT)
Environomics, Inc.
-------
Indoor Air Qualu> Welfare Effects Assessmcni
Documentation Report
P.ige 2
Prepared by Environomics Inc
Design, Entry and Checking by
Rose Odom and Curtis Haymore
EPA Comparative Risk Study
Indoor Air Quality Issues
Regional Comparisons for Regions 2 and 4-9
Revised 7:09 90
Welfare Effects Worksheet
(USE ONLY WITH FULL REGIONAL REPORT. THIS WORKSHEET
PERFORMS ALL CALCULATIONS NOT SHOWN IN REPORT.)
a_Directory
input & Computation Areas
b_Cancer_Cases
c_Cancer_Costs
d_No._of_ Children
e_Asthmatic_Children
f_Heart_Diseaae
g_Whlte_Collar_Workers
h_Doctor_Vislts
l_General_Productivity_ Losses
_Cancer_Productivity_Losses
k_Heart_Dlsease_Productivity
Z_ASSUMPTIONS
Report Areas
DIRECTORY
Use FORMULA GOTO to get to these areas
This is it. return for this list
Input Number of cancer cases by region due to indoor air
Computes Medical costs by region for cancer cases
Inputs 1989 percent of population under 18 and population by State
Computes Regional population of children
Computes Costs of ER visits of asthmatic cnildren m smoking househoios
Computes Medical costs by region forheart disease cases
Inputs 1989 workers by industry sector and State
Computes Regional and total workers
Computes Costs of doctor visits from general work force
Computes Productivity losses lo general white collar work force
Computes Productivity losses due to cancer cases
Computes Productivity losses due to heart disease cases
Lists several of the input assumptions
Reglon_l
empty
Region_2
Contains
welfare
cost
summary
calculations
for
Region
2
Reglon_3
empty
Reglon_4
Contains
welfare
cost
summary
calculations
for
Region
4
Region_5
Contains
welfare
cost
summary
calculations
for
Region
5
Region_6
Contains
welfare
cost
summary
calculations
for
Region
6
Region_7
Contains
welfare
cost
summary
calculations
for
Region
7
Region_8
Contains
welfare
cost
summary
calculations
for
Region
8
Reglon_9
Contains
welfare
cost
summary
calculations
for
Region
9
Region_10
empty
-------
Indoor Air Quality Welfare Effects Assessment
Documentation Repon
Page 3
Number of Cancer Cases by Region
Annual Excess
Region Cancer Cases
Low to
High
Region 2
452
5.659
Region 4
797
9.989
Region 5
816
1 0.223
Region 6
520
6.518
Region 7
212
2.652
Region 8
47
590
Region 9
618
7.736
Total
Reference: See Summaries of Quantified
Cancer Risks from the Health Effects
Assessment or its Documentation
Report.
-------
Medical Cost of
Excess Cancer Cases
Number of
Health Costs
Excess Cancer
Health Costs
of Excess Cancer
Cases Annually
Per Case
Cases
Low to High
Low to
High
Region 2
452 5,659
$24,938
$1 1,271,976
$141,124,142
Region 4
797 9,989
$24,938
$19,875,586
$249,105,682
Region 5
816 10,223
$24,938
$20,349,408
$254,941,1 74
Region 6
520 6,518
$24,938
$1 2,967,760
$162,545,884
Region 7
212 2,652
$24,938
$5,286,856
$66,1 35,576
Region 8
47 590
$24,938
$1,172,086
$14,713,420
Region 9
618 7,736
$24,938
$15,411 ,684
$192,920,368
Source: For
"number of cases," see
previous, adjoining
table
For "health costs," see assumptions.
-------
Indoor Air Oualit> Welfare Effects Assessment
Documentation Report
Pngc 5
Number of Children
Under
18.
By Region.
By State
Percent of
EPA
Population
Total
Population
Reaion State
Under Aae
18
Population
Under Aae 18
(000 s|
(000 s)
Region 2
New York
24
5^
1 7 77 3
4354 4
New Jersey
23
9%
7899
1887 9
Virgin Islands
0
0%
0 0
0
03o
0 0
Total
2567 2
6242 2
Region 4
Norm Carolina
25
4C;
6690
1 699 3
South Carolina
27
5=t
3549
976 0
Kentucky
26
7 \
3 7 4 5
999 9
Tennessee
25
as
4972
1282 8
Georgia
27
9=r
6663
1859 0
Alabama
27
43o
4 18 1
11456
Mississippi
26
7%
2699
720 6
Florida
22
5°c
12818
2884 1
Total
45 3 1 7
11567 2
Region 5
Ohio
26
3%
1079 1
2838 0
Indiana
26
6 S
5550
1 4 76 3
Illinois
26
2%
116 12
3042 3
Wisconsin
26
4808
1 269 3
Michigan
26
' *0
9293
2181 2
Minnesota
26
2H
4324
11329
Total
46 37 8
12240 1
Region 6
Louisiana
29
5S
4513
1331 3
Arkansas
27
1
2427
657 7
Oklahoma
27
3%
3285
896 8
Texas
29
7%
17712
5260 5
New Mexico
29
8%
1632
486 3
Total
2 9 5 6 9
8632 7
Region 7
Kansas
26
3%
2492
655 4
Missouri
25
6%
5192
1329 2
Iowa
25
8%
2758
7116
Nebraska
26
6%
1 588
422 4
Total
1 2030
3 118.5
Region 8
South Dakota
27
6%
708
195 4
North Dakota
27
8%
660
183 5
Montana
25
6%
805
206 1
Wyoming
30
2%
502
151 6
TotMl
26 75
736 6
Region 9
California
26
4%
29 1 26
7689 3
Nevada
25
1%
1076
270 1
Arizona
27
1%
3752
1016 8
Hawaii
26
4%
114 1
301 2
Guam
0 0
Total
3 5 0 9 5
9277 4
Source 1987 Resident Population by Age and State
Statistical
Abstract ot the
United
States 1969
P 22
-------
Costs
of Additional
Emergency Room
Visits for Asthmatic Children In
Smoking Households
Incressed
Number of
Percent of
Estimated
Number of
Asthmatic
COBt Of
Emergency
Cost of
Children in
Percent of
Number of
Asthmatic
Children in
Additional
Room Visits
Additional
Smoking
Asthmatic
Children
Children
Smoking
Emergency Room
Per Year
Visits
Households
Children
In Region
in Region
Homes
Visits
(000s)
(000s)
(000s)
(4) x (5)
(3) * (6)
( 1 )x(2)x(7)x1000
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Region
2
1 26
$90 00
43 00%
5 00%
6242
2
3 12 1
1 34
2
$15,219,220
Region
4
1 26
$90 00
43 00%
5 00%
1 1 567
2
578 4
248
7
$28.201,942
Region
5
1 26
$90 00
43 00%
5 00%
1 2240
1
612 0
263
2
$29,842,607
R*.*gion
6
1 26
$90 00
43 00%
5 00%
8632
7
43 16
1 65
6
$2 1 .047 26 1
Rogion
7
1 26
$90 00
43 00%
5 00%
3 118
5
1 55 9
67
0
$7,603,264
Region
B
1 26
$90 00
43 00%
5 00%
736
6
36 8
1 5
8
$1 .795.836
Region
9
1 26
$90 00
43 00%
5 00 %
9277
4
463 9
1 99
5
$22,619 122
Source
Columns (I) (4).
see assumptions
Column (5) Environomics. Inc lable tilled. "Number ol
Children Under
10 By Region
Bv Stale'
D
o.
c
>
O
c
CH
I
£3
£ m
3 S
Hi r,
5 7
K >
o ¦*
tj pa
to re
rr= -a
" o
o a
-------
Medical Costs
of Heart Disease Cases Caused by ETS
Percent of
Number of
Number of
Health Costs
Population
Excess Heart Disease
Excess Heart Disease
Health Costs
Of
Excess Heart Disease
Region
In Region
Cases Annually
Cases In Region
Per Case
Cases
(percent)
(dollars)
(dollars)
(1) x (2)
(3) x(4)
1
- 2 -
- 3 -
4
5 -
Region 2
10.55%
32000
3376
$9,684
$32,693,184
Region 4
1 8.62%
32000
5958
$9,684
$57,697,272
Region 5
19.05%
32000
6096
$9,684
$59,033,664
Region 6
12.15%
32000
3888
$9,684
$37,651,392
Region 7
4 94%
32000
1581
$9,684
$1 5,310,404
Region 8
1.10%
32000
352
$9,684
$3,408,768
Region 9-
1 4 42%
32000
46 1 4
$9,684
$44,681 ,976
Source Columns (2) and
(4).
see assumptions. Column (1) is derived from Environomics, Inc. table
titled,
"Number of Children
Under 18, By Region, By
State" by dividing the national total (see assumptions) by the regional totals
-------
Indoor Air Quality Welfare Effects Assessment
Documentation Report
Page 8
1989 White Collar Work Force by
Industry Sector.
By Region, by State
Finance.
EPA
Insurance,
Reaion. State
and Real Eslale
Services
Government
Total
¦ (OOOsi
Region2
New York
794
5
2346
8
1 446 9
4588
2
New Jersey
242
7
951
7
558 8
1 753
2
Virgin Islands
2
0
9
3
1 3 5
24
8
Total
1039
2
3307
8
2019 2
6366
2
Region 4
North Carolina
1 32
3
560
3
4 73 4
1 166
0
South Carolina
68
2
275
2
270 8
6 1 4
2
Kentucky
60
5
312
9
253 2
626
6
Tennessee
103
6
465.2
334 3
903
1
Georgia
163
5
609
5
512 7
1285
7
Alabama
70
9
302
4
3 14 7
688
0
Mississippi
38
9
1 53
4
200 2
392
5
Florida
371
5
1 502
0
805 2
2678
7
Total
1009
4
4 1 80
9
3164 5
8354
8
Region 5
Ohio
252
6
1 1 40
8
705 7
2099
1
Indiana
122
1
503
2
358 5
983
8
Illinois
372
4
1278
a
736 0
2389
2
Wisconsin
1 18
1
508
5
334 0
960
6
Michigan
188
6
900
2
627 3
17 16
1
Minnesota
120
5
534
4
327 6
982
5
Total
1 1 74
3
4865
9
3091 1
9 13 1.
3
Region 6
Louisiana
78
7
344
9
312 2
735
8
Arkansas
38
3
1 73
7
154 0
366
0
Oklahoma
58
5
259
2
254 1
571
8
Texas
432
5
1610
0
1222 2
3264
7
New Mexico
26
5
139
1
1 44 6
310
2
Total
634
5
2526
9
2087 1
5248
5
Region 7
Kansas
58
1
231
0
210 9
500
0
Missouri
135
1
552
8
358 6
1 046
5
Iowa
68
4
276
1
217 0
561
5
Nebraska
48
3
167
2
1 40 5
356
0
Total
309 9
1227
1
927 0
2464
0
Region 8
South Dakota
15
7
67
1
61 3
1 44
1
North Dakota
12
2
65
9
65 6
1 43
7
Montana
13
2
7 1
6
70 1
1 54
9
Wyoming
7
3
36
5
54 9
98
7
Total
48
4
241
1
251 9
541
4
Region 9
California
836
3
3271
5
2002 1
6109
9
Nevada
25
5
251
1
70 8
347
4
Arizona
92
6
389
0
246 1
727
7
Hawaii
35
1
1 44
6
101 5
281
2
Guam
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
Total
989
5
4056
2
2420 5
7466
2
Source 1989 Employees on nonagricultural payrolls in
States by
maior
industry Statistical Abstract of the
United States
1989
pages 128-145
Environomics, Inc
selected sectors
to
represent white collar workers
-------
Indoor Air Quality Welfare Effects Assessment
Documentation Report
Page 9
Medical Costs of Increased Visits to
Doctor s Office Due to Indoor Air
Increased
Number
Total Cost of
Visits Per
of
Cost per
Increased
Region
Worker
Workers
Visits
Doctors Visits
--(000's)--
(do
I a r s )
Region 2
0 24
6366.2
S30
$45,836,640
Region 4
0.24
8354.8
S30
S60.1 54,560
Region 5
0.24
9131.3
S30
S65,745,360
Region 6
0.24
5248.5
S30
$37,789,200
Region 7
0.24
2464
S30
$1 7.740,800
Region 8
0.24
541.4
$30
$3,898,080
Region 9
0 24
7466 2
S30
$53,756,640
Source
For "increased
visits" and "cost per
visit." see assumptions.
For "number of
workers." see Environomics table
titled,
1989 White Collar Work Force by Industry Sector,
By Region. By State
-------
Productivity Losses to the
General Work Force
Due to
Indoor Air Quality
Annual
Cost of
Increased
Economic
Lost Time
Lost
Sick
Leave
Cost of
Cost of Poor
Region
Employees
Wage Rate
Per Employee
Productivity
Per Employee
Sick Leave
IAQ to Personnel
[1]
[2]
Ol
Ml
15]
(61
[7]
(000s)
(hours)
(sick_
days"
( 23*260d/y)
[1J*(2|*[3|*1000
8hrs/day) [ 1|
* [ 2] * [ 5) * 1 000
M).(6]
Region 2
6366
2
$15 56
59 8
$5,923,672. 706
4
8
$475,478,746
$6,399,151 452
Region 4
8354
8
$15 56
59 8
$7,774,041.142
4
8
$624,003,302
$8,398,044,444
Region 5
9131
3
$15 56
59 8
$8,496,565,074
4
8
$681,998.534
$9,1 78.563,608
Region 6
5248
5
$15 56
59 8
$4,883,666,268
4
8
$391,999,968
$5,275,666,236
Region 7
2464
0
$15 56
59 8
$2,292,722,432
4
8
$184,031,232
$2,476,753,664
Region 8
541
4
$15 56
59 8
$503,766,203
4
8
$40,436,083
$544,202,286
Region 9
7466
2
$15 56
59 8
$6,947,209,506
4
8
$557,635,546
$7,504,845,052
assumes 260
days/year
Source col (1)
Environomics,
Inc table tilled,
"1989 White Collar
Work Force by Industry Sector.
By Region, By
Stale"
cols (2). (3),
and (5) see
assumptions
3
C.
>
o
I
gl'
c tr
3 f?
rD r;
= >
3 o
£ £
"-S 3
- o q
o n 2
1C
-------
Productivity Losses Due to Excess Cancer Cases
Number of
Productivity
Productivity
Losses
Excess Cancer
Losses
of Excess Cancer
Region
Cases Annually
Per Case
Cases
Low to High
Low to
High
Region 2
452 5659
$92,645
$4 1,875,540
$524,278,055
Region 4
797 9989
$92,645
$73,838,065
$925,430,905
Region 5
816 10223
$92,645
$75,598,320
$947,109,835
Region 6
520 6518
$92,645
$48,1 75,400
$603,860,1 1 0
Region 7
212 2652
$92,645
$1 9,640,740
$245,694,540
Region 8
47 590
$92,645
$4,354,31 5
$54,660,550
Region 9
618 7736
$92,645
$57,254,610
$71 6,701 ,720
Source Cancer cases from Environomics. Inc table
titled. Number of
Cancer Cases by Region"
Productivity losses,
see assumptions
-------
Indoor Air Quality Welfare Effects Assessment
Documentation Report
Page 12
Productivity Losses 0
ue to Heart Disease Caused By ETS
Number of
Productivity
Productivity Losses
Excess Heart Disease
Losses of Excess Heart Disease
Region
Cases Annually
Per Case
Cases
Region 2
3376
$44,896
S1 51,568,896
Region 4
5958
S44.896
$267,490,368
Region 5
6096
544,896
$273,686,016
Region 6
3888
$44,896
S1 74,555.648
Region 7
1 581
$44,896
$70,980,576
Region 8
352
$44,896
$1 5.803.392
Region 9
461 4
$44,896
$207,150,144
Source: Number of cases from ENVIRONOMICS. Inc table titled,
"Medical Costs
of Heart Disease Cases Caused by ETS" For productivity losses, see assumptions.
-------
Cancer Costs:
ASSUMPTIONS
1986$
Reference
CancerMedCost (health care costs for cancer)
$24,938
Report
to
Congress,
page
5 8
Cancer Prod Cost (lost productivity from cancer)
$92,645
Report
to
Congress,
page
5 13
Non-Cancer Costs:
Heart Med Cost (health care costs)
$9,684
Report
to
Congress,
page
5 8
Heart Prod Cost (lost productivity 1rom heart disease)
$44,896
Report
to
Congress,
page
5-13
ER visits (increased emergency room visits)
1 26
Report
to
Congress,
page
5-10
Doc Visit cost (average cost per doctor visit)
$30.00
Report
to
Congress,
page
5-12
ER cost (average cost per emergency room visit)
$90 00
Report
to
Congress,
page
5 10
wagerate (average white collar wage rate)
$15 56
Report
to
Congress,
page
5 15
doc visit (average increased doctors visits per worker per year)
0.24
Report
to
Congress,
page
5-12
sick days (average increased sick days per worker per year)
0.6
Report
to
Congress,
page
5 15
losttime (average daily lost time per worker)
0 23
Report
to
Congress,
page
5 15
percent asthma (percent of asthmathic children)
0 05
Report
to
Congress,
page
5 10
Per_smoking (percent of smoking households)
0.43
Report
to
Congress,
page
5 10
Heart cases (number of heart disease cases, U S)
32000
Report
to
Congress,
page
5 9
US Population (in 000s)
243400
Statistical
Abstract of the
United States 1989, p. 24
3
C.
O
c
|
O A
C rt
r,
c
-D
d."
m
m
o'
o
§ 2
3 a
-O 3
— Op
UJ ~ =±
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Indoor Air Quality Welfare Effects Assessment
Documentation Report
Page 14
EPA Comaparative Risk Study
Summary of Indoor Air Quality Issues
Welfare Costs
Region 2
Cost
or Losses
Low
to Hiqh
Health Costs
— (million
dollars) —
Cancer
S11
S1 41
Non-Cancer
Heart Disease
Emergency Room Visits of Asthmatic Children
Increased Worker Doctors Visits
S33
S15
S46
$33
$15
S46
Subtotal
$105
$235
Productivity Losses
Cancer
$42
$524
Heart Disease
S1 52
S1 52
Decreased Worker Productivity
$6,399
$6,399
Subtotal
$6,593
$7,075
Total
$6,698
$7,310
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Indoor Air Quality Welfare Effects Assessment
Documentation Report
Page IS
EPA Comaparative Risk Study
Summary of Indoor Air Quality Issues
Welfare Costs
Region 4
Cost
or Losses
Low
to High
Health Costs
— (million
dollars) —
Cancer:
S20
$249
Non-Cancer
Heart Disease:
Emergency Room Visits of Asthmatic Children.
Increased Worker Doctors Visits.
S58
S28
S60
S58
$28
S60
Subtotal
S166
S395
Productivity Losses:
Cancer-
S74
$925
Heart Disease:
S267
S267
Decreased Worker Productivity:
$8,398
$8,398
Subtotal
58,739
S9.590
Total:
$8,905
$9,985
-------
Indoor Air Quality Weltare Effects Assessment
Documentation Report
P;igc 1 (S
EPA Comaparative Risk Study
Summary of Indoor Air Quality Issues
Welfare Costs
Region 5
Cost
or Losses
Low
to Hiqh
Health Costs:
— (million
dollars) —
Cancer:
S20
S255
Non-Cancer
Heart Disease:
Emergency Room Visits of Asthmatic Children
Increased Worker Doctors Visits:
S59
S30
S66
S59
S30
S66
Subtotal
S1 7 5
S410
Productivity Losses:
Cancer:
S76
S947
Heart Disease:
S274
S274
Decreased Worker Productivity-
$9,179
S9.1 79
Subtotal
S9.529
S1 0.400
Total:
$9,704
$10,810
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Indoor Air Quality Wellare Ettects Assessment
Documentation Report
Page 17
EPA Comaparative Risk Study
Summary of Indoor Air Quality Issues
Welfare Costs
Region 6
Cost
or Losses
Low
to High
Health Costs
— (million
dollars) —
Cancer:
S13
S163
Non-Cancer
Heart Disease:
Emergency Room Visits of Asthmatic Children:
Increased Worker Doctors Visits:
S38
S21
S38
$38
S21
$38
Subtotal
S1 10
S260
Productivity Losses.
Cancer:
$48
S504
Heart Disease:
$175
S1 75
Decreased Worker Productivity:
S5.276
$5,276
Subtotal
$5,499
$6,055
Total:
$5,609
$6,315
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Indoor Air Quality Welfare Effects Assessment
Documentation Report
Page 18
EPA Comaparative Risk Study
Summary of Indoor Air Quality Issues
Welfare Costs
Region 7
Cost
or Losses
Low
to Hiqh
Health Costs.
— (million
dollars) —
Cancer:
S5
S66
Non-Cancer
Heart Disease:
Emergency Room Visits of Asthmatic Children
Increased Worker Doctors Visits.
S15
$8
Si 8
S15
$8
$18
Subtotal
$46
$107
Productivity Losses:
Cancer:
$20
S246
Heart Disease:
S16
$16
Decreased Worker Productivity:
$2,477
$2,477
Subtotal
$2.51 3
$2,739
Total:
$2,559
$2,846
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Indoor Air Qualin Welfare Effects Assessment
Documentation Rcpon
Page 1<>
EPA Comaparative Risk Study
Summary of Indoor Air Quality Issues
Welfare Costs
Region 8
Cost
or Losses
Low
to Hiqh
Health Costs:
---(million
dollars) —
Cancer
51
S1 5
Non-Cancer
Heart Disease.
Emergency Room Visits of Asthmatic Children:
Increased Worker Doctors Visits
S3
S2
$4
53
S2
54
Subtotal
S10
S24
Productivity Losses-
Cancer:
$4
S55
Heart Disease:
$16
S16
Decreased Worker Productivity:
S544
S544
Subtotal
S564
S615
Total:
$574
$639
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Indoor Air QualU\ Welfare Effects Assessment
Documentation Report
Page 20
EPA Comaparative Risk Study
Summary of Indoor Air Quality Issues
Welfare Costs
Region 9
Cost
or Losses
Low
to Hiqh
Health Costs-
— (million
dollars) —
Cancer-
S15
S193
Non-Cancer
Heart Disease.
Emergency Room Visits of Asthmatic Children:
Increased Worker Doctors Visits.
S45
$23
S54
S45
S23
S54
Subtotal
51 37
S31 5
Productivity Losses:
Cancer:
S57
S717
Heart Disease-
S207
S207
Decreased Worker Productivity:
S7.505
S7.505
Subtotal
$7,769
58,429
Total:
$7,906
$8,744
-------
18-1
18.0 INDOOR RADON
18.1 INTRODUCTION
The Indoor Radon problem area addresses risks to human health and welfare posed by
radon radioactive decay particles. Human health effects estimated are limited to annual
Region VIII cancer cases. Welfare damages are based on cost of illness measures and
estimated costs of radon mitigation.
Radon is radioactive gas produced by the decay of radium, which occurs naturally in almost
all soil and rock. Health risks occur when radon migrates into buildings through foundation
cracks or other openings such as sumps, utility ports, or uncovered crawl spaces. Radon can
also enter the atmosphere of a building when it volatizes from the drinking water supply.
As radon gas undergoes radioactive decay in a building's atmosphere, it produces a series
of short-lived radioactive decay products. When inhaled, some of these decay products are
deposited in air passages of the respiratory system and emit alpha particles which can
damage tissue of the bronchial epithelium and lead to lung cancer.
Radon is a known human carcinogen to which the entire population of Region VIII and the
nation is exposed to some extent.
18.2 HUMAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT
182.1 Toxicity Assessment
Radon is classified as a Group A human carcinogen. Studies of laboratory animals and
human epidemiological studies have produced well documented evidence that exposure to
radon decay products causes lung cancer. These epidemiological studies, despite widely
varying exposure conditions, have demonstrated remarkably consistent dose-response
relationships. Excess relative risk calculations derived from five major studies of
underground miners show a range of 1.1 percent to 3.6 percent increase in lung cancer per
Working Level Month (WLM) of radon exposure.
As recommended by the Science Advisory Board, the U.S. EPA uses relative risk models
of the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP 50) and the National
Academy of Sciences' Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations (BEIR
IV). These models assume that the incidence of excess lung cancer associated with exposure
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
18-2
to indoor radon is proportional to the baseline incidence of lung cancer in the population
as a whole. This implies that the health impact of radon is multiplicative with other risk
factors which cause lung cancer (e.g. smoking) and that the incidence of lung cancer due to
indoor radon will vary with other population characteristics such as age, sex and occupation.
EPA's current central estimate of the lifetime rate of lung cancer deaths due to radon is 360
deaths/million persons - WLM. This is the average of the age-averaged lifetime rates
calculated using lifetable analysis in conjunction with the ICRP 50 and BEIR IV models.
1822 Exposure Assessment
The EPA assumes the average indoor radon exposure level in single family detached homes
in the United States to be 0.25 WLM per year. This is based on an annual average indoor
radon concentration of 1.3 pCi/L, assuming 75 percent residential occupancy time and 50
percent equilibrium factor between radon and its decay products.
There is now evidence available to suggest that average indoor radon levels in Region VIII
exceed the national average value. EPA, in conjunction with the States of Colorado,
Wyoming, North Dakota and Utah, has conducted random winter-time screening
measurements of numerous homes. To determine the average annual level of exposure in
the region, it is necessary to convert the basement screening measurements obtained from
the surveys to housewide annual averages. This has been done by Milt Lammering, see
Table 18-1.
18.2.3 Human Heath Risk Characterization
Cancer Risk
Estimated average basement radon levels for Region VIII are shown in Table 18-1. No data
were available for North Dakota or Montana; for these states, we estimated radon
concentrations based on an average of Radon concentrations measured in the remaining
Region Vm states.
As mentioned previously, Lammering (1990) estimated living space Radon concentrations
as approximately one half measured basement levels. This suggests Radon concentrations
ranging from 1.8 to 3.5 pCi/1. This range corresponds to an estimated increased risk of lung
cancer death of approximately 15 to 35 in a population of 1,000 individuals. Selecting the
midpoint of this range suggests an estimated risk factor of 2.5xl0"2.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
Table 18-1
Household Radon Levels and Cancer Risk
due to Radon in Region VIII
Living
Basement
Space
Lifetime
Average
Average
Individual
Population
Level [1]
Level [2]
Cancer
State
1986
(pCi/l)
(PCi/l)
Risk
Colorado
3,231,000
5.9
3.0
2.5E-02
Montana
826,000
4.8
2.4
2.5E-02
North Dakota
685,000
7.0
3.5
2.5E-02
South Dakota
708,000
4.8
2.4
2.5E-02
Utah
1,645,000
2.6
2.5E-02
Wyoming
509,000
3.6
1.8
2.5E-02
TOTAL
7,604,000
[1] No data available for South Dakota or Montana. Assume average
of other four states.
[2] Assume living space level = 1/2 of basement level.
-------
18-4
Annual cancer deaths are estimated in this report by:
N = (WLM/yr)(360 lcd/106 WLM)(P)
where:
N = Estimated cancer deaths
WLM/yr = Working level months/year (a function of total dose)
P = Population.
Results of these calculations are summarized in Table 18-2 on a State and Regional basis.
Ecological Risk Assessment
No ecological risk assessment has been performed for indoor radon because there are no
documented ecological impacts.
18.3 WELFARE RISK ASSESSMENT
Welfare risks are based on estimates of annual cancer deaths and estimated radon
mitigation costs.
18.3.1 Cancer Welfare Damages
To estimate these costs, estimated annual cancer cases were multiplied by the direct medical
cost and foregone earnings per cancer case:
(Annual Cancer Cases)(Direct Costs and Forgone Earnings) = HC
where:
HC = health costs
Estimated direct and indirect medical cancer costs are based on a range of cost per case
estimates. The lower bound estimate, based on Hartunian, et al., is $80,000, while the upper
bound estimate developed by the American Cancer Society is $137,000. These estimates
provide differing values for foregone earnings and medical costs. Both estimates are
weighted average costs associated with all types of cancers.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
Table 18-2
Household Radon Levels and Annual Cancer Deaths
due to Radon in Region VIII
Living
Basement
Space
Annual
Average
Average
Cancer
Population
Level [1]
Level [2]
WLM/yr
Deaths
State
1986
(pCi/l)
(pCi/l)
[3]
Kl
Colorado
3,231,000
5.9
3.0
0.373
434
Montana
826,000
4.8
2.4
0.304
90
North Dakota
685,000
7.0
3.5
0.443
109
South Dakota
708,000
4.8
2.4
0.304
77
Utah
1,645,000
2.6
0.329
195
Wyoming
509,000
3.6
1.8
0.228
42
TOTAL
7,604,000
948
[1] No data available for South Dakota or Montana. Assume average
of other four states.
[2] Assume living space level = 1/2 of basement level.
[3] WLM is working level months per year based on 75% occupancy and
50% equilibrium.
[4] Annual Cancer Deaths = WLM/yr * 360 Icd/10*6 WLM " population.
-------
18-6
Lower bound estimate
HC = (948)($80,000) = $75,840,000 (1988 $)
Upper bound estimate
HC = (948)($ 137,000)=$129,876,000 (1988 $).
18.3.2 Mitigation Costs
Lammering (1990) estimated that less than 2% of the households in Region VIII have
conducted some kind of Radon mitigation. A conservative estimate of mitigation cost
estimates was developed by assuming costs of $1,500 for radon mitigation. Assuming an
average household size of 2.67 people, yields an estimate of 2.85 million households in the
Region. Thus, approximately 57,000 households have conducted radon mitigation in Region
VIII at an estimated cost of approximately $8.55 million. An alternative estimate of total
mitigation costs can be derived by assuming that as many as 15% of the homes in Region
VIII may have annual average radon levels that exceed EPA guidelines. Assuming that the
cost of mitigation is $1,500 yields a damage estimate of approximately $640 million.
18.4 IBLIOGRAPHY
Oge . 1989. "Current ORP Estimates of Annual Radon-Induced Deaths in the General
Popu -ion." Memorandum, Office of Air Radiation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Washington, DC.
U.S. EPA. 1986. "A Citizen's Guide to Radon." Office of Air and Radiation, OPA-86-004,
Washington, DC.
Lammering, M. 1990. Personal Communication. Region VIII U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Denver, CO.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
EPA COMPARATIVE RISK STUDY
SUMMARY OF
HUMAN HEALTH RISKS, ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS,
AND WELFARE LOSSES ASSOCIATED WITH
RADIATION OTHER THAN RADON
REGION 8
July 1990
-------
EXBCUTIV* SUMURY
This study identifies natural and manmade sources of ionizing radiation other
than radon and discusses the sources and suspected effects of exposure to non-
ionizing radiation. Ionizing radiation is a known carcinogen, and can also
cause genetic and tetratogenic (birth defects) effects. Estimates of the
human health risks, in terms of lifetime fatal cancer risks to individuals and
excess and fatal cancers expected to be incurred annually in the exposed
populations, are presented for occupational, medical, and environmental expo-
sure to sources of ionizing radiation. No known ecological impacts are at-
tributable to ionizing radiation, therefore no ecological risk assessment was
conducted. Welfare effects of excess cancers are roughly estimated using a
value of $100,000 per cancer.
No estimates of human health risks, ecological impacts, or welfare effects
from exposure to non-ionizing radiation are given. The lack of quantitative
estimates emphasizes the tentative state of our knowledge as to the signifi-
cance of either occupational or environmental exposure to the ubiquitous
sources of non-ionizing radiation.
The estimates of the range of individual lifetime fatal cancer risks and
annual fatal cancers expected in the populations exposed to ionizing radiation
other than radon are as follows:
Natural Background Radiation:
Individual Lifetime Fatal Cancer Risk = 4E-3
Excess Fatal Cancers/Year = 362 (in a population of 7.9 million persons)
Occupational Exposures:
Individual Lifetime Fatal Cancer Risk = < 1E-6 to 8E-2
Excess Fatal Cancers/Year = 1.2 (in a population of 20.2 thousand persons)
Medical Exposures:
Individual Lifetime Fatal Cancer Risk = not estimated
Excess Fatal Cancers/Year = 119 (in a population of 3.3 million persons)
Manmade and Technologically Enhanced Sources:
Individual Lifetime Risk = < 1E-6 to > 2E-4
Excess Fatal Cancers/Year = 4.4 (in a population of 7.9 million persons).
The basis and the context of these estimates is given in the following sec-
tions. The exposure and risk estimates that are presented in this report are
believed to be sufficiently accurate to allow comparison with other environ-
mental problems. However, although many of the estimates are based on moni-
tored exposures and the others are derived using generally accepted exposure
assessment methodologies, the results are not appropriate for other purposes.
1
-------
DESCRIPTION OF PROBLEM
Exposure to ionizing radiation other than radon and non-ionizing radiation is
ubiquitous in our technological society. Due to the significant differences
in the state of our knowledge regarding the effects of ionizing and non-
ionizing radiation the sources and impacts of each are addressed separately.
Ionizing Radiation
Ionizing radiation refers to radiation that strips electrons from atoms in the
medium through which it passes. The adverse effects of exposure to ionizing
radiation, and hence of radioactive materials, are carcinogenicity, mutagenic-
ity, and teratogenicity. From the perspective of total societal risk, cancer
induction and genetic mutations are the most important effects. Both cancer
induction and genetic mutations are believed to be stochastic effects; i.e.,
the probability of these effects (the risk of occurrence) increases with dose,
but the severity of the effect is independent of dose. Furthermore, there is
no convincing evidence of a threshold of exposure below which the risks are
zero.
Evidence of the deleterious effects of exposure to ionizing radiation comes
from both human epidemiology and animal studies. The human epidemiologic data
for cancer induction are extensive. Thus, as the EPA noted in the Environmen-
tal Impact Statement (EIS) supporting the recent radionuclide NESHAPS (Nation-
al Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants) rulemaking, "the risk can
be estimated to within an order of magnitude with a high degree of confidence.
Perhaps for only one other carcinogen - tobacco smoke - is it possible to
estimate risks more reliably." (EPA89a)
The unit used in radiation dose assessment is the rad (radiation absorbed
dose). One rad is the dose corresponding to the absorption of 100 ergs per
gram of tissue. Since not all forms of ionizing radiation produce the same
effect per rad, the rem is used as the unit of dose equivalence. For materi-
als taken into the body, the dose will be delivered over the period that the
material remains in the body. Thus, the convention has been established to
integrate the dose over the entire period that the material will remain in the
body and assign the total dose to the year of exposure, resulting in the
committed dose equivalent (rem). Finally, since irradiation of the organs and
tissues of the body may not be uniform, the radiation protection community has
introduced the concept of the effective whole-body dose equivalent (rem EDE).
The EDE is calculated by weighting the doses received by the various organs by
risk based factors and then summing the weighted organ doses to derive the
EDE. The collective population exposure is given in person-rem EDE, and is
derived by simply summing the exposures of the individuals in the population.
In this report, the doses are given in rem or millirem (1/1,000th of a rem)
EDE for individuals and person-rem EDE for populations. The quantification of
radiation exposures and resulting cancer risks are based on the following
estimates:
Lifetime exposure to 3 mrem/y EDE = 1E-4 lifetime fatal cancer risk;
1E+6 person-rem/year EDE = 400,fatal cancers/year; and
Total Cancer Incidence/Fatal Cancer Incidence = 2, a 50 percent mortality rate
once a cancer has been expressed.
2
-------
The risk factors used in this report are consistent with those used by the EPA
in the recent radionuclide NESHAFS rulemaking (EPA89a). They are based on a
linear extrapolation of the dose response exhibited by the Japanese A-bomb
survivors (and other human epidemiologic evidence), using the relative risk
projection model (primarily), and assuming that there is no risk threshold.
The EPA believes that the estimated fatal cancer risk of 400 per 1E+6 person-
rem EDE represents a best estimate, and that the actual risk likely lies
within the range of 120 to 1,200 fatal cancers per 1E+6 person-rem EDE. For
radiation exposure of the whole body the total incidence of cancer does not
exceed the incidence of fatal cancer by more than a factor of two. It should
be noted the risk coefficient has been extrapolated from high doses and high
dose rates. At the lower doses and dose rates associated with levels of
exposure in the environment, the possibility that the actual risk could be
zero cannot be ruled out on epidemiologic grounds due to the high rate of
cancer. The current consensus of scientific opinion is that no threshold
exists.
Sources of Exposure to Ionizing Radiation
Sources of ionizing radiation are grouped into four major classifications:
natural background; occupational exposures; medical exposures; and manmade and
technologically enhanced sources. The estimated exposures and risk associated
with the specific components or facilities within each of these categories are
summarized in Tables 1-4, respectively. The "basis for the estimates are
discussed in the following sub-sections.
Natural Background Radiation
The doses and potential risks associated with exposure to naturally occurring
background radiation and naturally occurring radionuclides have been estimated
in a number of national and international reports (EPA81, NCRP87, UNSCEAR82).
These exposures are divided into three components; external exposure to
terrestrial radiation, external exposure to cosmic radiation, and internal
exposure to naturally occurring radionuclides. Table 1 presents the individu-
al and population exposures, and the resulting cancer risks from these
sources. Exposures to radon and radon progeny are excluded as they are in-
cluded in the Indoor Radon Problem Area. Exposures and risks to technologi-
cally enhanced sources of naturally occurring radiation are addressed in the
section on Manmade and Technologically Enhanced Sources.
The estimated external exposures include shielding correction factors for the
time spent indoors and take into consideration the additional indoor exposures
associated with construction materials that contain elevated levels of natu-
rally occurring radionuclides. Self-shielding is also taken into account.
The internal doses are the effective whole body dose equivalent from naturally
occurring internal emitters, as reported in NCRP 93 (NCRP87). The values do
not include the lung dose from radon and radon progeny. A constant value for
internal dose is used, representing the national average. It was not consid-
ered feasible to estimate differences in internal dose among states. In
addition, other than radon progeny, which are not addressed in this report,
the dominant contributor to the internal dose from naturally occurring radio-
nuclides is K-40, which is under homeostatic control and, as a result, does
not vary significantly among individuals.
3
-------
The population doses were estimated using published values of the projected
1990 population (BC87), as the 1990 census data were not available for this
report.
Table 1: Natural Background Radiation - Stmary of Individual and Population Exposures and Risks
Individuals Population
Average Average Fatal Total
Lifetime Fatal Exposure Population Exposure Cancers Cancers
State/Source Cancer Risk (mrem/y) at R1sk^ (person-rem/y) per Year per Year
Colorado
2
Cosmic
Terrestrial'
Internal^
2E-3
1E-3
1E-3
47.5
42.6
38
3,434,000
3,434,000
3,434,000
1.6E+5
1.5E+5
1.3E+5
65
59
52
130
117
104
Totals
4E-3
128.1
3,434,000
4.4E+5
176
352
Montana
Cosmic
Terrestrial
Internal
1E-3
1E-3
1E-3
36.3
29.2
38
805,000
805,000
805,000
2.9E+4
2.4E+4
3.1E+4
12
9
12
23
19
24
Totals
3E-3
103.5
805,000
8.3E+4
33
67
N. Dakota
Cosmic
Terrestrial
Internal
1E-3
1E-3
1E-3
29.9
29.2
38
660,000
660,000
660,000
2.0E+4
1.9E+4
2.5E+4
8
8
10
16
15
20
Totals
3E-3
97.1
660,000
6.4E+4
26
51
S. Dakota
Cosmic
Terrestrial
Internal
1E-3
1E-3
1E-3
30.7
29.2
38
708,000
708,000
"708,000
2.2E+4
2.1E+4
2.7E+4
9
8
11
17
17
22
Totals
3E-3
97.9
708,000
6.9E+4
28
55
Utah
Cosmic
Terrestrial
Internal
Totals
1E-3
1E-3
4E-3
41.8
29.2
38
109.0
1,776,000
1,776,000
1,776,000
1,776,000
7.4E+4
5.2E+4
6.7E+4
1.9E+5
30
21
27
77
59
41
54
155
Wyoming
Cosmic
Terrestrial
Internal
2E-3
1E-31
1E-3
50.4
29.2
38
502,000
502,000
502,000
2.5E+4
1.5E+4
1.9E+4
10
6
8
20
12
15
Totals
Region 8 Totals
4E-3
4E-3
117.6
115.4
502,000
7,885,000
5.9E+4
9.1E+5
24
362
47
724
4
-------
Table l(cont): Natural Background Radiation - Sunry of Individual and Population Exposures and Risks
1 1990 population projections taken from "Table No. 27. State Population Projections: 1987-2010" In the
U.S. Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1988, 108th Edition, Washington, D.C.,
1987.
2 From Table 1 of EPA81. The cosmic ray and terrestrial doses Include shielding.
3 From Table 2-4 of NCRP Report No. 93, "Ionizing Radiation Exposure of the Population of the United
States," 1987. The Internal dose 1s the effective whole body dose from naturally occurring internal
emitters. However, 1t does, not Include the lung dose from the Inhalation of radon and its progeny. For
the purpose of this analysis, 1t 1s assumed that the Internal dose does not vary significantly among
locations. This 1s a reasonable assumption since the dose 1s predominantly due to K-40, which is under
homeostatic control and does not vary significantly among Individuals.
4 Totals may not add due to independent rounding.
The differences among states in the individual external exposures reflect
differences in the external dose rates due to (1) the differences in the
concentrations of naturally occurring radionuclides in soils, and (2) the
differences in cosmic radiation associated with different elevations and
latitudes. The differences among the states within the region are relatively
small primarily because the comparisons are made on the basis of the average
conditions within each state in the region. However, the differences in
terrestrial radiation, and, in some cases cosmic radiation, among areas of a
smaller scale within a state, such as at the county level or smaller, can be
substantial. This occurs because local differences in soil type and geology
can be large and significantly affect the terrestrial radiation fields. In
addition, the cosmic ray field atop a mountain is significantly different than
in a valley. Both types of differences tend to average out when looking at
state wide averages (population risks), but can be substantial on a smaller
(individual risk) scale. Further, when considering that people spend differ-
ent amounts of time indoors, and that the structural material of a building
can affect the indoor radiation fields, the variability in external dose can
be even greater, perhaps on the order of 10 to 20 mrem/yr, depending on the
structural material of the building alone (UNSCEAR82).
Occupational Radiation Exposures
A wide variety of Federal and State agencies regulate occupational exposure to
ionizing radiation, with uniformity of worker" protection established by Feder-
al Guidance developed by the EPA and issued by the President. Current Federal
Guidance (FR87) establishes a basic limit of 5 rem EDE per year for occupa-
tional exposure, and Federal agencies with regulatory responsibility are in
the process of conforming their regulations to this recommended limit.
The major classes of occupational exposure include: Department of Energy
(DOE) weapons production of research facilities; nuclear fuel cycle facili-
ties; Department of Defense (DOD) facilities; non-fuel cycle facilities li-
censed by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) or the Agreement States
to use byproduct, source, and special nuclear materials (this includes hospi-
5
-------
tals and other medical facilities); air transportation; and mineral extraction
and processing industries that process materials with elevated concentrations
of naturally occurring uranium or thorium and their progeny.
In this report, estimates of the exposures and cancer risks to workers at each
of these types of facilities except the mineral processing facilities are
given. The lack of data for mineral extraction and processing industries is
not believed to present a significant underestimate of the risks, as the pri-
mary exposure is to radon and its progeny which are not included in this
problem area.
Table 2 presents the estimated exposures and risks from occupational exposure.
For uranium fuel cycle and DOE facilities, the estimates are presented by
site, and represent exposures of individuals vith measurable exposures. The
values given for nuclear power plants represent averages of 5 years of expo-
sure data. Such average data provide a better estimate of collective risk as
they capture the variations in exposure during different phases of operations,
e.g., at power, normal refueling, and special maintenance. For nuclear power
reactors it should also be noted that the doses are assigned to the unit where
the exposure was incurred. Due to the widespread use of temporary workers
during outages, the individuals receiving such exposures may or may not reside
in the region. For medical, D00, and other NRC-licensed facilities, and air
transportation crews, the exposure data are only available in terms of nation-
al totals. The exposures and resulting risks were apportioned to the region
on the basis of population. The exposure estimates for each of these compo-
nents, with the exception of air transportation crews, are based on measured
exposures.
Table 2: Occupational Radiation Exposure - Sumary of Individual and Population Exposures and Risks
Individuals Population
Average Average Fatal Total
Lifetime Fatal Exposure Population Exposure Cancers Cancers
Industry/Site Cancer Risk (mrem/y) at Risk'' (person-rem/y) per Year per Year
Nuclear Fuel Cycle
2
Power Reactors
Fort St. Vraln 1E-3 60 131 7.9E+0 0.002 0.004
Other Fuel Cycle - None Assessed in Region 8
Fuel Cycle Totals4 1E-3 60 131 7.9E+0 0.002 0.004
DOE Facilities
Rockwell Int.
Rocky Flats 1E-3 820
D00 Facilities5 2E-3 90
1,719 1.4E+3 0.3 0.6
1,900 1.7E+2 0.03 0.06
6
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Table 2(cont): Occupational Radiation Exposure - Siaaary of Individual and Population Exposures and Risks
Individuals
Industry/Site
Average
Lifetime Fatal
Cancer Risk
Average
Exposure
(mrem/y)
Population
Population
at Risk
Exposure
(person-rem/y)
Fatal
Cancers
per Year
Total
Cancers
per Year
NRC-L1censed Facilities
Medical
0.5
0.04
0.3
0.03
0.9
0.8
2.4
1 Based on number of workers with measurable exposures.
2 Data represents a 5-year average, 1982-1986, of data presented 1n BR89.
3 No data available, estimates based on average values for BWRs.
4 Totals may not add due to Independent rounding.
5 Based on data 1n Table 4 of EPA84a, estimates are for exposures in 1980.
6 Based on data in NCRP87.
Facilities 3E-3 150
Manufacturing &
Distribution 5E-3 270
Other Users"* 4E-3 210
Industrial
Radiography^ 8E-3 450
NRC Totals 3E-3 175
A1r Transport® 1E-2 630
Region 8 Totals SE-3 293
8,700 1.3E+3 0.3
380 1.0E+2 0.02
4,000 8.4E+2 0.2
175 7.9E+1 0.02
13,255 2.3E+3 0.5
3,150 2.0E+3 0.4
20,155 5.9E+3 1.2
For air crews, the exposures are estimated based on average exposure of 0.7
mrem/hr to enhanced cosmic radiation, and 900 hours/year exposure. The value
of 0.7 mrem/hr corresponds to the dose rate at 39,000 feet, the typical cruis-
ing altitude of modern jets, and reflects the NCRP's recent revision of the
quality factor for neutrons. The value does not take into account the in-
creased dose rates associated with either solar flares or polar latitudes.
Solar flares, which range from 2 to 12 per year and last from a few minutes to
a week, can increase the dose rate by several hundred times (BA89). Nine hun-
dred hours/year exposure represents the upper range of 620 - 900 air hours per
year derived from data presented in FAA90 for flight crews.
Two additional points needed to be made regarding the estimated risks. The
first is that the number of fatal cancers are estimated using 200 fatal can-
7
-------
cers per 1E+6 person-rem. This approximate value, one-half the value used for
estimating risks to the general population, may be derived from Table V-26 in
NAS80 and reflects two facts. One, that for the continuous lifetime exposures
on which the estimate of 400 fatal cancers per 1E+6 person-rem is based,
approximately 60 percent of the risk is associated with exposures received in
the first 19 years of life (EPA89a). And two, virtually all occupationally
exposed individuals are 18 years of age or older.
The second point concerns the lack of estimates of maximum individual risk.
Unfortunately, the need to protect the confidentiality of the workers makes it
impossible to derive cumulative exposures for individuals. An upper-bound for
maximum individual risk can be obtained by assuming 47 years of exposure at
the 5 rem per year limit. This would result in a total exposure of 235 rem.
Using a risk coefficient one-half that used for members of the general popula-
tion, this would correspond to a maximum lifetime fatal cancer risk of roughly
8E-2.
Medical Radiation Exposures
Radiation is one of the principal tools of diagnostic medicine and of cancer
therapy. Thus, the exposure is deliberate and its benefits are thought to
outweigh the potential risks. The exposure data presented in Table 3 for
medical radiation are derived from NCRP Report No. 93 (NCRP87). Since there
are no documented statistical data or citations in the literature which would
allow for the calculation of medical exposures by state or region, the collec-
tive exposures and cancer risks have been apportioned simply on the basis of
population. This is believed to be reasonably accurate, since medical health
care practices do not differ greatly among different regions of the country.
Table 3: Medical Radiation Exposure - Sunmary of Individual and Population Exposures and Risks
Individuals Population
Average Average Fatal Total
Lifetime Fatal Exposure Population Exposure Cancers Cancers
Type of Exposure Cancer Risk^ (mrem) at Risk (person-rem/y) per Year per Year
Medical X-Rays 4E-5 87 3,300,000 2.9E+5 115 230
Radiopharmaceuticals 2E-4 320 32,000 1.0E+4 4 S
Region 8 Totals2 3,332,000 3.0E+5 119 238
1 Lifetime risk of a single average exposure, see text.
2 Totals may not add due to independent rounding.
Extreme caution should be exercised in interpreting the risk estimates provid-
ed for medical exposures. The estimates of the lifetime individual fatal
cancer risk are based on a single average exposure, as no data are available
on cumulative individual exposures. In addition, the lifetime fatal cancer
8
-------
risk and the estimates of excess cancers are based on the risk coefficients
for the general population. However, the age distribution of those receiving
medical exposures differs from that of the general population, being highly
skewed towards older individuals. While older persons are generally believed
to be more radio-sensitive, actual cancer induction may actually be lower due
to the long latency period of cancer induction. Thus, some of the estimated
excess cancers may never actually be expressed due to the death of the indi-
vidual from other causes.
Kanaade and Technologically gnKanrerf Sources
Exposures to manmade and technologically enhanced sources includes exposures
of member of the general public who live in the vicinity of the sources which
were identified above as causing occupational exposures and/or those members
of the public who travel by airplane. The EPA's Office of Radiation Programs
has estimated the exposures to both nearby individuals and the populations
within 80-km of sources that are felt to pose the greatest hazard of releasing
radioactive materials into the ambient air (EPA84b and EPA89b). The estimates
of exposure and risk that are presented in Table 4, with the exception of air
travel, are derived from those estimates and only include exposure to efflu-
ents released to air. Exposure to radioactive materials via liquid pathways
is not estimated, but is roughly comparable to exposures to radioactive mate-
rials released to air from industrial sources.
Table 4: fenaade and Technologically Enhanced Radiation -
Suanary of Individual and Population Exposures and Risks
Individuals Population
Range of Maximum Fatal Total
Lifetime Fatal Exposure Population Exposure Cancers Cancers
Industry/Site Cancer Risk (rtrem/y) at Risk1 (person-rem/y) per Year per Year
Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Uranium Mines
Colorado
South Dakota
Wyoming
< 1E-6 - 6E-6 2E-1
< 1E-6 - 2E-6 6E-2
< 1E-6 - 2E-5 6E-1
Mines Totals
< 1E-6 - 2E-5
6E-1
Uranium Mills
Minerals Exploration
Sweetwater Mill
Sweetwater Co, WY < 1E-6
Pathfinder Mines
Lucky Mc Mill
Gas Hills, WY < 1E-6
Pathfinder Mines
Shirley Basin Mill ,
Shirley Basin, WY < 1E-6
2E-2
3E-3
2E-2
NA
NA
NA
2.0E+0
1.0E+0
1.0E+1
9E-4
4E-4
5E-3
2E-3
8E-4
1E-2
NA
1.3E+1
5E-3
1E-2
17,000 5.0E-2
2E-5
4E-5
22,000 1.0E-5
7E-6
1E-5
69,000 2.0E-1
9E-5
2E-4
9
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Table 4(cont): Minada and Technologically Enhanced Radiation -
-|—in j of Individual and Population Exposures and Risks
Individuals
Industry/Site
Range of
Lifetime Fatal
Cancer Risk
Maximum
Exposure
(mrem/y)
Population
at R1sk^
Population
, Exposure
(person-rem/y)
Fatal
Cancers
per Year
Total
Cancers
per Year
Plateau Resources
Shootaring Canyon Mill
Shootarirtg Canyon, UT< 1E-6
R1o Algom
La Sal Mill
La Sal. UT < 1E-6 - 2E-6
Umetco Minerals Corp.
White Mesa Mill
Blanding, UT < 1E-6
6E-3
6E-2
2E-2
6E-2
1E-1
Mills Totals < 1E-6 - 2E-6
Fuel Fab. < 1E-6 - 4E-6
Power Reactors
Fort St. Vrain - Not Assessed
Other Fuel Cycle - None 1n Region 8
Fuel Cycle Totals < 1E-6 - 2E-5 6E-1
1,600 2.0E-3
21,000 8.0E-2
17,000 5.0E-2
150,000 4.0E-1
1,560,000 5.0E-1
7E-7
3E-5
2E-5
2E-4
2E-4
1E-6
6E-5
4E-S
4E-4
4E-4
1.560,000 1.4E+0
6E-3
1E-2
DOE Facilities
Rocky Flats Plant
Jefferson Co., CO
< 1E-6
3E-4
1,900,000
2.0E-2
9E-6
2E-5
DCO Facilities - None assessod In Region 8
NRC-Licensed Facilities
Hospitals* < 1E-6
Laboratories* < 1E-6
Low-level Waste
Incinerators* < 1E-6
NRC Totals
< 1E-6
2E-2
8E-3
4E-4
2E-2
7,890,000
7,890,000
7,890,000
7,890,000
3.0E+0
1.0E+0
2.0E-1
4.0E+0
1E-3
6E-4
8E-5
2E-3
2E-3
1E-3
2E-4
3E-3
Mineral Extraction Industries
Phosphate Rock
Producers
< 1E-6 - 1E-5
3E-1
2,600,000
1.0E+1
4E-3
8E-3
10
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Table 4(cont): Haraade and Technologically Enhanced Radiation -
"null J of Individual and Population Exposures and Risks
Individuals Population
Range of Maximum Fatal Total
Lifetime Fatal Exposure Population Exposure Cancers Cancers
Industry/Site Cancer Risk (mrem/y) at Risk (person-rem/y) per Year per Year
Wet Process
Fertlizer Plants* < 1E-6 - 3E-6 9E-2 502,000 2.0E+0 8E-4 2E-3
Elemental
Phosphorus Plants < 1E-6 - 6E-5 2E+0 71,000 1.0E+1 5E-3 1E-2
Mineral Extraction
Industries Totals < 1E-6 - 6E-5 2E+0 3.100,000 2.0E+1 1E-2 2E-2
Air Transport not estimated - 7,890,000 1. 1E+4 4.4 8.8
Region 8 Totals < 1E-6 - »6E-5 2E+0 7,890.000 1.1E+4 4.4 8.8
1 Population within 80-km
2 Totals may not add due to Independent rounding.
* Model or reference facility.
The estimates for the exposure of the general population to industrial sources
are based on both site-specific assessments and extrapolations from reference
facilities. Where reference facilities provide the basis, the site name is
marked with an asterisk (*). For actual facilities, the exposure of the
maximally exposed individual reflects either an actual off-site residence, or
the fencepost exposure in the predominant wind direction. Where reference
facilities were used, the maximum exposure is based on an individual assumed
at a close-in location (typically 150 m) in the predominant wind direction.
Where the original assessment used a reference facility, collective popula-
tions are estimated using the generic population distributions that were
assessed and the number of facilities in the region. If the projected popula-
tion obtained in this manner exceeded the regional population, the population
at risk was constrained to the regional population.
In assessing the exposures and risks due to air travel, only collective expo-
sures and risks are given. The collective risk is based on 0.7 mrem/hr, 1.5
hours/trip, and a total of 340 million trips/year (NCRP87). The collective
dose was then apportioned to the region on the basis of population.
11
-------
Hoo-Ionizing Radiation
The biological effects of non-ionizing radiation are not well understood. At
this time, the risks and impacts associated with manmade non-ionizing radia-
tion found in the environment cannot be accurately assessed.
Non-ionizing radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum which does not
strip electrons from atoms creating ions. This non-ionizing radiation con-
sists of a broad range of electromagnetic phenomena including long-wavelength
ultra-violet light, visible light, infra-red light, microwaves, radio-waves,
and the electric and magnetic fields associated with electrical power and
equipment (60 Hertz).
This type of radiation has long been known to have biological effects through
a so-called "thermal" mechanism. That is, a mechanism whereby the radiation
absorbed by a body results in a heating of the body's tissue. Almost all
present-day exposure standards for non-ionizing radiation limit exposures to
below "thermal" thresholds.
In addition to the thermal effects, scientists have observed phenomena that
are not explained by "thermal" mechanisms. These phenomena have variously
been called "athermal" or "nonthermal" bioeffects. Although the scientific
literature has published reports of nonthermal bioeffects for some time, there
has been an absence of "hard" scientific data corroborating such effects.
This has led to skepticism about experiments displaying nonthermal effects.
Some scientists have suggested that nonthermal effects might possess unique
properties that make traditional concepts of radiation dose inappropriate for
describing some types of bioeffects of non-ionizing radiation. For example,
"windows" in frequency and field intensity have been suggested to explain
differences found in very similar scientific experiments. It has been hy-
pothesized that effects might occur within these windows and not outside of
them. If this is true, the traditional assumption would not hold that more
exposure to the field would cause a more pronounced effect.
Bioeffects and Sources of Non-Ionizing Radiation
Until recently, the only nonthermal effect observed from non-ionizing radia-
tion were behavioral changes in animals exposed to very high intensities at
higher (radio and microwave) frequencies. However, recent epidemiologic
studies at extremely low frequencies (60 Hertz) have indicated potential
cancer effects in children. Moreover, a limited number of cellular level
experiments have been performed that indicate the carcinogenicity is a plausi-
ble but not confirmed result of exposure to extremely low electromagnetic
fields.
Epidemiologic studies suggesting a correlation between power frequency expo-
sure and cancer include:
o elevated incidence of cancer in children exposed in residences in
proximity to electrical transmission and distribution lines;
o elevated incidence of cancer in children whose father's were occupa-
tionally exposed; and
o occupational exposure to electromagnetic fields.
12
-------
The elevated risks associated with these types of exposure are quite modest.
The reported evidence is statistically significant in some case-controlled
studies of cancer in children. This human evidence, though, is observational
in nature, and some have suggested that these studies did not control poten-
tially relevant factors which might also lead to these statistical differ-
ences .
What is most striking about these epidemiologic studies is the type of expo-
sure which has been correlated with cancer. The focus of exposure has been to
power frequency (60 Hertz) magnetic fields at relatively low levels (2-3
milliGauss or, equivalently, 0.2-0.3 microTesla). In comparison, this level
is well below the earth's static magnetic field of about 600 milliGauss (60
microTesla). Also, an electrical wire carrying 1 ampere of current produces
0.2-0.3 microTesla at a distance of 3 feet from the wire.
Sources of this level of magnetic (and electric) fields at and near power
frequencies are ubiquitous. Sources include electric blankets, fluorescent
lamps, TV receivers, computer terminals, hair dryers, electric razors, micro-
wave ovens, stereo headphones, coffee makers, subway cars and platforms,
powerlines (at the edge of the right-of-way), etc. Data on exposure of the
general public to these power frequencies are limited.
Cellular experiments with low frequency non-ionizing radiation have neither
confirmed nor refuted the results of the epidemiologic studies. Although many
studies have not linked non-ionizing radiation to bioeffects, a few studies
have noted changes in brain tissue calcium efflux and some other effects after
exposure to electric and crossed electric/magnetic fields.
Major sources of population exposure to high frequency sources include special
radars used by the military and civilian sector for air traffic control. Some
radio transmitters may constitute sources of high level population exposure.
In addition, some foreign sources operating above power levels allowed in the
United States likely result in high levels of exposure to populations living
near the border.
Population Exposure
Almost all exposure to non-ionizing radiation cannot be physically sensed.
Most exposure can be inferred by knowing the characteristics of electrical or
electronic equipment that are the sources of such radiation. Power lines and
power transformers are examples of such equipment. Special instruments are
available to measure the electric and magnetic field components of non-ioniz-
ing radiation.
Two notable studies have examined population exposure to power frequency and
radio frequency non-ionizing radiation. These are a study by Silva, et al.
(SI85) sponsored by the Electric Power Research Institute which compared human
exposure during agricultural and recreational activities near power lines to
exposure during domestic activities in the home. An EPA study (HA86) has also
characterized population exposure to radio frequency non-ionizing radiation.
Most types of population exposure are likely to be comparable in all regions
of the United States. Individual variability in the types of electrical
equipment used in the home is more likely than commercial and military sources
to determine personal exposure levels. In some instances, power transmission
13
-------
lines, power distribution lines, large electrical generators and motors,
radars and radio transmitters constitute local "hot spots" of exposure.
Actual population exposure is, however, difficult to infer without detailed
measurements.
At our current level of understanding, it is 'not possible to establish direct
links between population exposure to non-ionizing radiation and cancer. In
fact, we are even uncertain as to which parameters are important to assessing
exposure; i.e., magnetic field component, electrical field component, level of
intensity of the field, frequency of the field, duration of exposure, etc.
Ecological Impacts of Ionizing Radiation
At the levels of environmental radioactivity of concern to this project,
radiation exposure has little or no adverse effects on organisms other than
man or on the environment.
The adverse effects associated with low-levels of radioactivity in the envi-
ronment are cancer, genetic effects, and birth defects. Such effects, even if
extremely rare or undetectable, are of concern to humans. However, for organ-
isms other than man, the concern is not with individual organisms but on the
viability of the species and the function and structure of the ecosystem as a
whole. The following briefly summarizes the research and demonstrates that
low-level radiation is of concern only to humans and may be considered in-
consequential in terms of its potential ecological effects.
During the 1960s and 1970s a vast amount of radiobiological research was
performed to assess the impacts of radiation-on plant and animal communities.
The research included a large number of comprehensive laboratory and field
studies motivated primarily by concern over fallout from weapons tests.
Excellent reviews of the literature are provided by Turner (TU) and Casaretti
(CA68). A more recent review was prepared by the Office of Radiation Programs
in 1986 (EPA86).
In summary, it appears that at prolonged exposures of ecosystems below a few
rad per day there are no detectable adverse ecological impacts. Turner con-
cludes that, though the community interactions to prolonged exposures to
ionizing radiation are complex and difficult to predict, doses on the order of
several hundred rads per year would be needed to cause extinction of a spe-
cies. Such exposures can occur following a major nuclear accident (e.g.,
Chernobyl), but are not associated with the production and use of radioactive
materials. Nor are they associated with uncontrolled sites where previous
activities have resulted in the contamination of the site with radioactive
materials.
Welfare Effects of Ionizing Radiation
The potential welfare effects associated with radiation exposure can be divid-
ed into two broad categories:
o costs associated with effects on human health, and
o costs associated with commercial damage.
14
-------
The costs associated with health effects include direct medical costs and lost
productivity due to the inability to conduct normal work activities. The 1988
report Cancer Facts and Figures, published by the American Cancer Society,
estimates that for 1985 the total economic cost of cancer was $71.5 billion.
This includes direct medical costs and indirect costs associated with lost
productivity. The American Cancer Society estimates that there were 985,000
new cases of cancer in the United States in 1988. Since, over a 30 year
period, the per capita age adjusted cancer death rate has increased at a rate
of less than one percent per year, the estimate of 985,000 cancers can be used
to estimate the approximate cost per cancer. Escalating the 1985 cost by 7.5
percent per year inflation in health care services (BC87), and assuming the
cancer incidence remains virtually unchanged, results in an economic cost of
cancer in 1990 dollars of approximately $100,000 per case. In Region 8, the
total costs of radiogenic cancer would be on the order of $100 million per
year, or roughly 3.1 percent of the regional cost of all cancers.
The costs associated with commercial damage caused directly by radiation are
negligible. Unlike many other categories of environmental pollutants, radio-
active contaminants and background radiation do not cause direct ecological
damage. However, the contamination of facilities and sites where radioactive
materials have been or are produced and used, can result in considerable
cleanup costs. For commercial facilities, the costs of decontaminating and
decommissioning the facilities and the sites are reflected in the costs of the
products or services. For sites owned by government agencies, the costs will
be borne by the taxpayers. Restoration of the sites operated for the Depart-
ment of Energy has been initiated. Current estimates place these restoration
costs in the hundreds of billions of dollars. Whether or not such costs will
actually be incurred is uncertain at this time, and no estimate is made of the
costs on a regional basis.
Other welfare effects associated with other classes of pollutants are general-
ly not applicable to ionizing radiation. Radioactive effluents do not impair
visibility, result in esthetic damage, or result in recreational losses. Nor,
do they, at the levels corresponding to normal operations, result in commer-
cial harvest loses or destruction of property. Agricultural losses due to
accidental releases are not assessed.
¦15
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REFERENCES
BA89 Barish, R. J., Understanding In-Flight Radiation - A Reference
Manual, published by In-Flight Radiation Protection Services, New
York, NY, 1989.
BC87 U.S. Bureau of Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States:
1988, 108th Edition, Washington, D.C., 1987.
BR89 Brooks, B.G., Occupational Radiation Exposure at Commercial Nuclear
Power Reactors - 1986, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, NUREG-
0713, Vol. 8, Washington, D.C., 1989.
CA68 Casaretti, A.P., Radiation Biology, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, 1968.
EPA89a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Impact State-
ment - NESHAPS for Radionuclides: Background Information Document
- Volume I: Risk Assessment Methodology, EPA 520/1-89-005, Office
of Radiation Programs, Washington, D.C., September 1989.
EPA89b U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Environmental Impact State-
ment - NESHAPS for Radionuclides: Background Information Document
- Volume II: Risk Assessments, EPA 520/1-89-005, Office of Radia-
tion Programs, Washington, D.C., September 1989.
EPA86 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Effects of Radiation on
Aquatic Organisms and Radiobiological Methodologies for Effects
Assessment, EPA 520/1-85-016, Office of Radiation Programs, Wash-
ington, D.C., February 1986.
EPA84a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Occupational Exposure to
Ionizing Radiation in the United States, EPA-520/1-84-005, Office
of Radiation Programs, Washington, D.C., September 1984.
EPA84b U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Radionuclides: Background
Information for Final Rules - Volume II, EPA 520/1-84-022-2, Office
of Radiation Programs, Washington, D.C., October 1984.
EPA81 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Population exposure to Exter-
nal Natural Radiation Background in the United States, EPA/SEPD-80-
12, Office of Radiation Programs, Washington, D.C., April 19981.
FAA90 Federal Aviation Administration, Radiation Exposure of Air Carrier
Crewmembers, Advisory Circular 120-52, March 5, 1990.
FR87 The Federal Register, Vol. 52, No." 17, January 27, 1987.
HA86 Hankin, N.N., The Radiofrequency Radiation Environment: Environ-
mental Exposure Levels and RF Radiation Emitting Sources, EPA
520/1-85-014, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of
Radiation Programs, Washington, D.C., July 1986.
16
-------
NAS80 National Academy of Sciences, The Effect on Populations of Expo-
sures to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation: 1980, Committee on the
Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations, Washington, D.C., 1980.
NCRP87 National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements, Ionizing
Radiation Exposure of the Population of the United States, NCRP
Report No. 93, Bethesda, MD, 1987.
SI85 Silva, J.M., Hummon, N.P., Huber, D.L., Zaffanella, L.E., and Deno,
D.W., AC Field Exposure Study: Human Exposure to 60-Hz Electric
Fields, EA-3993, Interim Report, prepared for the Electric Power
Research Institute (EPRI) under Research Project 799-16, April
1985.
TU Turner, F.B., Effects of Continuous Irradiation of Animal Popula-
tions, work performed for the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Divi-
sion of Biomedical and Environmental Research, under contract
AT(04-1)GEN-12 with the University of California.
UNSCEAR82 United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radia-
tion, Ionizing Radiation: Sources and Biological Effects, United
Nations, New York, 1982.
Additional References Not Cited in the Report
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Evaluation of the Potential Carcinoge-
nicity of Electromagnetic Fields, EPA 600/6-90-005a, Workshop Review Draft,
Office of Radiation Programs, Washington, D.C., June 1990.
Elder, J.A. and Cahill, D.F., Biological Effects of Radiofrequency Radiation,
EPA 600/8-83-026f, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research
and Development, Research Triangle Park, NC, September 1984.
Elder, J.A., A Reassessment of the Biological Effects of Radiofrequency Radia-
tion, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Radiation Programs,
Washington, D.C., July 21, 1987.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Federal Radiation Protection Guidance:
Proposed Alternatives for Controlling Public Exposure to Radiofrequency Radia-
tion, Notice of Proposed Recommendations published in the Federal Register,
July 30, 1986.
Foster, K.R. and Guy, A.W., "The Microwave Problem," Scientific American, Vol.
255, No. 3, p. 32, September 1986.
17
-------
20-1
20.0 MINING WASTES
20.1 INTRODUCTION
Mining and milling sites in Region VIII, both active and inactive, produce wastes that have
significant ecologic, human health, and welfare effects. Mining related wastes impact
Region VIII resources through numerous media, including: air emissions, surface runoff,
point source discharges, groundwater contamination, and the destruction of aquatic and
terrestrial habitats. While mining wastes have effects considered in other Problem Areas
including: non-point source discharges to surface waters, physical degradation of wetlands
and aquatic habitats, groundwater contamination, drinking water contamination,
abandoned/superfund hazardous waste sites, radiation other than radon, lead from all
sources and physical degradation of terrestrial ecosystems, it is of sufficient importance in
the Region to be considered in a detailed, separate risk assessment.
The sources of mining wastes in the Region are from hard rock and coal mines, uranium
mines, sand and gravel mines, milling operations and abandoned mines and milling sites.
Data on the extent of these activities and their ecologic, human health, and welfare effects
are limited.
The extent of mining activities and their subsequent impacts in the Region are in some cases
quantitatively, while in other instances qualitatively defined, depending on the source of
wastes, type of pollutant and receptors.
Ecosystem effects of mining activities occur primarily through habitat destruction of
terrestrial systems, and via runoff and spills to surface waters and groundwater, which can
result in acute or chronic toxicity in aquatic systems.
Health effects from mining activities occur primarily through direct contact with
contaminated soils and waters which are ingested, or via inhalation of toxic air pollutants.
Welfare effects of mining activities are associated with replacement, or mitigation costs of
lost resources including: 1) water resources, (loss of surface and groundwater drinking water
supplies, loss of irrigation waters for agriculture and live stock, loss of recreation use and
the treatment costs to re-obtain these uses), 2) land resources, (exclusion from other uses
and development, depressed real estate values, subsidence damages to property over mine
sites, and 3) cost of illness measures associated with human health effects.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
20-2
20.2 MINING WASTE SOURCE DATA
The quantity of mining wastes and their impact is related to the number and size of active
and inactive mining sites. In addition, mine location, type of mining and milling activity, the
proximity to sensitive receptors, and the regulatory authority responsible for the site also
determine ecological, human health, and welfare impacts.
For Region VIII, data are presented on:
• the number of coal, hard rock and sand and gravel mining properties (USDI,
Bureau of Mines (BOM) MILS data, Table 20-1);
• the acres of active coal mines (USDI, Office of Surface Mining, Table 20-2);
• the number of mining properties associated with various commodities (USDI,
Bureau of Mines (BOM) MILS data, Table 20-3);
• the amount of commodity produced (Minerals Yearbook, Table 20-4) and the
location or major active mining sites (Figures 20-1 through 20-6);
• the number, location, capacity, status and process used for uranium mills and
mines in the U.S. (USEPA, 1989, Table 20-5a,b and 20-6);
• the number and location of CERCLA abandoned mine sites (USEPA, Table 20-
7); and,
• the number and location of superfund NPL mine sites (USEPA, Table 20-7).
The number of coal, hard rock and sand and gravel mining properties in Region VIII are
listed in Table 20-1. These data are derived from the USDI, Bureau of Mines (BOM) MILS
data set. The data are a "current" listing from 1990, however, data entree began in 1974-
1981 and only new large properties have been added to the data set since 1981. The
number of properties listed provides no index to the scale of the operation, and many
properties have no activity associated with them. The large numbers of properties in the
Region are only a crude index of the scale of regional mining activities and their risks to
environmental, human health, and welfare end points.
The acres of active coal mines under 1989 permits issued by the USDI, Office of Surface
Mining, are listed in Table 20-2. An unknown fraction of the areas under permit are
currently being mined. However, the tabulated mine permit areas do provide a direct
measure of the area of land currently at risk due to coal mining activities. In Region VIII
over 660,000 acres may be affected by coal mining activities.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
Table 20-1
1990 USDI Bureau of Mines Listing
of Mining Properties by States and Commodity
Commodity = coal
Commodity = sand & gravel
Commodity
= gold, silver, copper,
lead, zinc, iron, or uranium
Current Status
Current Status
Current Status
Past Temp.
Past
Temp.
Past
Temp.
State
Producer
Producer Shutdown
Producer
Producer Shutdown
Producer
Producer Shutdown
Colorado
96
809
12
644
533
1
268
5896
46
Montana
17
81
0
30
95
0
222
1375
9
North Dakota
16
939
0
88
47
0
0
13
0
South Dakota
23
197
0
204
409
0
16
344
5
Utah
25
179
67
388
1043
147
137
1546
58
Wyoming
36
707
0
60
80
34
101
677
2
Total Region VIII
213
2912
79
1414
2207
182
744
9851
120
-------
Table 20-2
USDI Office of Surface Mining
Coal Mine Permits in 1989
State
Surface
Acres
Subsurface
Other
Colorado
42,986
45,800
20
Montana
48,758
129
0
North Dakota
44,722
0
15
South Dakota
0
0
0
Utah
0
150,519
357
Wyoming
319,661
10,410
0
TOTAL Region VIII
456,127
206,858
392
(Adele Merchant, Pers. Comm.)
-------
Table 20-3
Number of Properties
BOM Mills Data 1982
Commodity
Colorado Montana
North
Dakota
South
Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
Region Vlli
Aluminum
17
0
1
33
11
62
Antimony
1
0
9
28
0
38
Asbestos
2
0
0
2
16
20
Barium
4
0
0
3
6
13
Barite
22
0
0
22
3
47
Beryllium
109
0
107
26
14
256
Chromium
0
0
0
2
10
12
Cobalt
5
0
0
1
4
10
Columbium
4
0
34
1
6
45
Copper
1310
0
11
901
176
2398
Fluorine
183
0
4
177
21
385
Gold
4275
0
280
489
152
5196
Graphite
9
0
1
1
28
39
Iron
106
0
18
230
179
533
Lead
2395
0
43
744
25
3207
Lithium
2
0
34
1
5
42
Magnesium
12
0
0
19
18
49
Manganese
261
4
12
162
18
457
Mercury
6
0
0
11
1
18
Molybdenum
57
0
0
37
9
103
Nickel
18
0
0
0
6
24
Phosphate
2
0
1
46
127
176
Platium
1
0
0
4
17
22
Potash
9
0
0
37
20
66
Rare Earth
26
0
0
1
9
36
Sand & grave
1843
193
680
1858
299
4873
Silver
3573
0
264
796
37
4670
Sulfur
38
0
6
16
19
79
Tantalum
12
0
30
0
9
51
Thorium
27
0
0
4
12
43
Tin
15
0
96
2
3
116
Titanium
10
0
0
10
44
64
Tungsten
252
0
52
111
35
450
Vanadium
2051
0
0
297
8
2356
Zinc
1969
0
5
446
11
2431
Zirconium
5
0
0
9
1
15
-------
Table 20-4
1988 Quantity Values by State
Mineral
Units
Colorado
Montana
North
Dakota
South
Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
REGION VIII
TOTAL
Beryllium
Short tons
5,851
5,851
Cement
Masonry
Thousand short tons
4
4
Portland
Thousand short tons
490
772
1,262
Clays
Short tons
272,790
101,194
84,787
Withheld
340,156
2,357,616
3,156,543
Copper
Metric tons
898
898
Gold
Troy ounces
164,809
294,976
449,514
909,299
Gypsum
Thousand short tons
27
Withheld
27
Lead
Metric tons
8,266
8,266
Lime
Thousand short tons
108
365
26
499
Salt
Thousand short tons
1,006
1,006
Sand and gravel
Construction
Thousand short tons
21,566
7,241
3,772
7,929
17,843
3,413
61,764
Industrial
Thousand short tons
3
3
Silver
Troy ounces
854,413
6,186,074
84,398
7,124,885
Stone
Crushed
Thousand short tons
10,600
1,800
5,500
7,300
2,500
27,700
Dimension
Short tons
3,450
43,297
2,004
48,751
Talc
Short tons
377,789
377,789
Vermiculite
Short tons
0
Zinc
Metric tons
18,935
18,935
-------
Figure 20.1
Principal Mineral Producing Localities in Colorado
-------
Figure 20.2
Principal Mineral Producing Localities in Montana
MONTANA
LEOENO
Sut« boundary
Counlf bOundvy
o
C«pU
•
C»y
— 1 ¦ -
C
-------
Figure 20.3
Principal Mineral Producing Localities in North Dakota
-------
Figure 20.4
Principal Mineral Producing Localities in South Dakota
SOUTH DAKOTA
-------
Figure 20.5
Principal Mineral Producing Localities in Utah
UTAH
LEGEND
Suit boi^dary
Coumy boundary
o
Cap4a>
•
Crfy
C'uthad Stone^urtd
ft 0»a*»l dwicti
MINERAL SYMBOLS
*9
5h«
*»P
A«
CM
GOV
•«
Baryhum
t*
Ba*y«H«n ptanl
Ctm
pi*m
c*r
C%y
cs
C'wthad Stona
c«
Cow*
ۥ
Coopa* plan
O-O
Ownanaon G'anaa
M
D>m«n»iOn Stwiitont
kon
OTP
Grpw»
K
Potatfc
Ihwa
Lite p**nt
Magn#t*«n
Magn«ftnjm m«iai pi»ni
a«o
MotyM*rH*n
9
PftoapAai* (ock
••K
Sad
ftO
Sand and Gsavat
St—<
Iton rnrxl Siaa< plant
uv
Oaotum Vinadmni
uv
Ufa"***** VanMjsjfn plan
Conrantiaiioo of
m>n«>a^ opaiaions
Principal Mineral-Producing Localities
-------
Figure 20.6
Principal Mineral Producing Localities in Wyoming
-------
Table 20-5a
Currently Operating Underground Uranium Mines
in Region VIII
State
Mine Name
Current Ore
Production Rate
(MT/d) (a)
Colorado
Calliham
?
Colorado
Deremo-Snyder
280
Colorado
King Solomon
350
Colorado
NIL
50
Colorado
Schwartzenwalder
0
Colorado
Sunday
200
Colorado
Wilson-Silverbell
90
Utah
La Sal
160
Utah
Snowbell-Pandora
54
Wyoming
Sheep Mountain #1
220
(a) MT/d - metric tons per day; 1 short ton
= 0.907 metric ton
-------
Table 20-5b
Estimated Status (a) of Surface
Uranium Mine Reclamation
State
Surface Uranium Mines with
> 1,000 Tons Production
Total Ore Production
1,000- 100,000 Tons
Total Ore Production
>100,000 Tons
1,000-100,000 Greater than
Tons 100,000 Tons
Class I Class II Unreclaimed
(%) (%) (%)
Class I Class II Unreclaimed
(%) (%) (%)
Colorado
Monatana
North Dakota
South Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
12 4
1 0
10 0
33 2
6 0
66 31
5 20 75
0 5 95
0 5 95
0 0 100
5 40 55
5 20 75
0 5 95
5 40 55
(a) Status defined as:
Class I - total backfill, recontouring, and revegetation;
Class II - resloping of waste piles and pits, topsoiling, and revegetation;
Unreclaimed - property abandoned without restoration.
-------
Table 20-6
Licensed Conventional Uranium Mills
as of June 1989 (a)
Operating
Reclamation
State
Mill
Owner
Status (b)
Status (c)
Colorado
Canon City
Cotter Corp.
Standby
Future
Uravan
UMETCO Minerals
Standby
In Progress (d)
South Dakota
Edgemont
TVA
Decommission
Completed
Utah
White Mesa
UMETCO Minerals
Active
Future
Rio Algom
Rio Algom
Standby
In Progress (e)
Moab
Atlas
Decommission
In Progress
Shootaring
Plateau Resources
Standby
Future
Wyoming
Lucky Mc
Pathfinder
Standby
Future
Split Rock
Western Nuclear
Decommission
In Progress
Umetco
UMETCO Minerals
Decommission
In Progress
Bear Creek
Rocky Mt. Energy
Decommission
In Progress
Shirley Basin
Pathfinder
Active
Future
Sweetwater
Minerals Expl.
Standby
Future
Highland
EXXON
Decommission
Cover in Place
FAP
Amerian Nuclear Corp.
Decommission
Unknown
Petrotomics
Petrotomics
Decommission
Design Approval Pending
-------
Table 20-6 (cont.)
Licensed Conventional Uranium Mills
as of June 1989 (a)
(a) Data obtained from conversations with cognizant personnel in Agreement
States and the NRC, comments submitted by individual companies and the
American Mining Congress during the public comment period, and site
visits. Does not include mills licensed but not constructed.
(b) Active mills are currently processing ore and producing yellowcake.
Standby mills are not currently processing ore but are capable of
restarting. At mills designated by * Decommission*, the mill structure has
been or is being dismantled and no future milling will occur at the site.
(c) Reclamation to the UMTRCA requirements is in various stages of completion,
creating a dynamic situation. The terms used to describe the reclamation
status are as follows: "Future" means that the impoundment is being
maintained to accept additional tailings and that reclamation activities
have not been started; "Design Approval Pending" means that the final
disposal design has been submitted for regulatory approval and that
preliminary reclamation activities are underway; "In Progress" means that
active relamation has begun, but the final cover is not completed; "Cover
in Place" designates that the final earthen cover has been completed, but
final stabilization has not been completed; and "Completed" means that
disposal and stabilization have been accomplished in accordance with the
UMTRCA requirements.
(d) According to UMETCO, the mill is being held on standby but the entire
impoundment area is being reclaimed. Thus, if future milling is done at
this facility a new impoundment will have to be constructed. For the
purposes of this analysis, the facility is grouped with other
decommissioning mills.
(e) The upper impoundment, which is filled, is being reclaimed. The lower
impoundment is being maintained to accept future tailings.
-------
raDie 20-7
Mining and Milling CERCLA Sites in Region VIII
NAME
CITY
COUNTY
STATE EVENT TYPE
SEVEN DEVILS MINE
WATERON
JEFFERSON
CO
DS1 PA1 SI1
CAPTAIN JACK MILL
WARD
BOULDER
CO
RV1 DS1 PA1
FLATIRIONS COMPANIES PROPERTIES
BOULDER
BOULDER
CO
DS1 PA1
HENDRICKS MINING & MILLING
BOULDER
BOULDER
CO
DS1 PA1 HR SI1
CENTRAL CITY-CLEAR CREEK
IDAHO SPGS, CENT. CY. BK HA
CLEAR CR & GILPI
CO
RV1 RV2DS1 PA1 HR NP1 NF1 SI1 CR1 CR2AR1 WP RI1
FS1 RO RD1 MA TA1 TA2 TA3 OH AR1 FS1 RO RD1 RD2
RA1 RA2TA1 AR1 FS1 TA1
HENDERSON MINE CLIMAX MOL
EMPIRE
CLEAR CREEK
CO
DS1 PA1
SILVER MOUNTAIN-GRACE MINE SITE
EMPIRE
CLEAR CREEK
CO
DS1 PA1
ILSE MINE
WESTCLIFFE
CUSTER
CO
DS1 PA1
LAMOTTE MINE
RICO
DOLORES
CO
DS1 PA1
RICO-ARGENTINE
RICO
DOLORES
CO
DS1 PA1 SI1
EAGLE MINE
GILMAN
EAGLE
CO
IR1 DS1 PA1 HR NP1 NF1 SI1 CR1 AR1 CO RO RD1 RA1
HA1 OH1
FREJONLEY MINE
MCCOY
EAGLE
CO
RV1 DS1 PA1
NEW RIFLE URANIUM MILL TAILINGS
RIFLE
GARFIELD
CO
DS1 PA1
OLD RIFLE URANIUM MILL TAILINGS
RIFLE
GARFIELD
CO
DS1 PA1
RIO BLANCO OIL SHALE COMPANY TRACT
RIFLE
GARFIELD
CO
DS1 PA1
HAROLD BLACKHAWK
BLACKHAWK
GILPIN
CO
RV1 DS1 PA1
INACTIVE GOLD MINING
CENTRAL CITY
GILPIN
CO
DS1 PA1 SI1
HENDERSON ML CLIMAX MOL
PARSHALL
GRAND
CO
DS1 PA1
GUNNISON MILL SITE
GUNNISON
GUNNISON
CO
DS1 PA1 SI1
KERR MINE
WALDEN
JACKSON
CO
DS1 PA1 SI1
COORS PORCELAIN CO-CLAY MINE
GOLDEN
JEFFERSON
CO
DS1 PA1
ASARCO INC LEADVILLE UNIT
LEADVILLE
LAKE
CO
DS1 PA1
CALIFORNIA GULCH
LEADVILLE
LAKE
CO
IR1 DS1 PA1 HR NP1 NF1 SI1 CR1 RM AR1 WP CO TS1
RO RD1 RD2RA1 OM MA TOl HA1 CR1 AR1 C01
LEADVILLE TUNNEL
LEADVILLE
LAKE
CO
DS1 PA1 SI1
SLAG PILE (NL IND. PROP.)
LEADVILLE
LAKE
CO
DS1 PA1 SI1
GATEWAY VANADIUM MILL
GATEWAY
MESA
CO
DS1 PA1 HR SI1
GRAND JUNCTION URANIUM MILL TAILING
GRAND JUNCTION
MESA
CO
DS1 PA1
LOMA VANADIUM MILL
LOMA
MESA
CO
DS1 PA1 HR SI1
K-T MINE
MAYBELL
MOFFAT
CO
DS1 PA1
GENL ELEC URANIUM MGMT CORP
NATURITA
MONTROSE
CO
DS1 PA1
NATURITA URANIUM MILL TAILINGS
NATURITA
MONTROSE
CO
DS1 PA1
-------
TaTSTCT20-7 (cont.)
Mining and Milling CERCLA Sites in Region VIII
NAME
CITY
COUNTY
STATE EVENT TYPE
URAVAN URANIUM (UNION CARBIDE)
URAVAN
MONTROSE
CO
DS1 PA1 HR NP1 NF1 SI1
CR1 AR1 CO RO RD1 RA1
VANADIUM MILL SITE NEWMIRE COLORAD
TELLURIDE
MONTROSE
CO
DS1 PA1 HR1
IDARADO MINE-OURAY
OURAY
OURAY
CO
DS1 PA1 SI1
SMUGGLER MOUNTAIN
ASPEN
PITKIN
CO
RV1 DS1 PA1 NP1 NF1 SI1
CR1 CR2AR1 FS1 FS2 CO CO
RO RD1RD2MA TA1 TA2 AR1
ENERGY FUELS MINE NO 1
STEAMBOAT SPRINGS
ROUTT
CO
DS1 PA1
ENERGY FUELS MINE NO 2
STEAMBOAT SPRINGS
ROUTT
CO
DS1 PA1
ENERGY FUELS MINE NO 3
STEAMBOAT SPRINGS
ROUTT
CO
DS1 PA1
MIDDLE CREEK MINE
STEAMBOAT SPRINGS
ROUTT
CO
DS1 PA1
TWENTY MILE MINE
MILNER
ROUTT
CO
DS1 PA1
NL IND, MINE, MILL
BONANZA
SAGUACHE
CO
DS1 PA1
BAKER'S PARK MILL
HOWARDSVILLE
SAN JUAN
CO
DS1 PA1 PA2 HR SI1
STANDARD METALS CORP MAYFLOWER Ml SILVERTON
SAN JUAN
CO
DS1 PA1 SI1
STANDARD METALS CORP SUNNYSIDE Ml
GLADSTONE
SAN JUAN
CO
DS1 PA1 SI1
ATLAS MINERALS-SUMMIT PROP
SAN MIGUEL
CO
DS1 PA1 SI1
IDARADO MINE-TELLURIDE
TELLURIDE
SAN MIGUEL
CO
DS1 PA1 SI1
N CONTINENT URANIUM MILL TAILINGS
SLICKROCK
SAN MIGUEL
CO
DS1 PA1
PLACERVILLE TRAM SITE
PLACERVILLE
SAN MIGUEL
CO
DS1 PA1 HR SI1
SAWPIT TRAM SITE (ORE STORAGE)
SAWPIT
SAN MIGUEL
CO
DS1 PA1 HR SI1
UNION CARBIDE URANIUM MILL TAILINGS
SLICKROCK
SAN MIGUEL
CO
DS1 PA1
CAMERON HEAP LEACH
CRIPPLE CREEK
TELLER
CO
DS1 PA1 SI1
APEX MILL-BANNACK STATE PARK
BANNACK
BEAVERHEAD
MT
DS1 PA1 HR SI1
ERMONT MILL-MILL TAILINGS
ARGENTA
BEAVERHEAD
MT
DS1 PA1
TUNGSTEN MILL-MILL TAILINGS
GLEN
BEAVERHEAD
MT
DS1 PA1 PA2
ANACONDA MINERALS CO. GREAT FALLS
BLACK EAGLE
CASCADE
MT
DS1 PA1 HR1
ANACONDA CO. SMELTER
ANACONDA
DEER LODGE
MT
RV1 DS1 PA1 HR1
MONTANA RADIATION-ANACONDA
ANACONDA
DEER LODGE
MT
DS1 PA1
KENDALL VENTURE MINE
HILGER
FERGUS
MT
DS1 PA1
ASBESTOS MINE (KARST)
BOZEMAN
GALLATIN
MT
DS1 PA1
PHILIPSBURG MINING AREA
PHILIPSBURG
GRANITE
MT
DS1 PA1
HIGH ORE MINE
BASIN
JEFFERSON
MT
DS1 PA1
WICKES/CORBIN MINING SITE
WICKES
JEFFERSON
MT
DS1 PA1
GOLDEN MESSENGER MINE
YORK
LEWIS AND CLARK
MT
DS1 PA1
GOLDSIL MINING CO.
MARYSVILLE
LEWIS AND CLARK
MT
DS1 PA1 SI1
KAISER CEMENT
MONTANA CITY
LEWIS AND CLARK
MT
DS1 PA1 SI1
-------
Table zo-7 (cont.)
Mining and Milling CERCLA Sites in Region VIII
NAME
CITY
COUNTY
STATE EVENT TYPE
MOTHER LODE GOLD & SILVER LTD.
EAST HELENA
LEWIS AND CLARK
MT
IR1 DS1 PA1 SI1 AR1
ASARCO INC TROY UNIT
TROY
LINCOLN
MT
DS1 PA1
JARDINE ARSENIC TAILINGS
JARDINE
PARK
MT
DS1 PA1
MCLAREN MILL TAILINGS
COOKE CITY
PARK
MT
RV1 DS1 PA1 PA2
ZORTMAN MINE
LEWIS & CLARK NATL FOREST
BLAINE
MT
DS1 PA1
ROCKY MOUNTAIN PHOSPHATE
GARRISON
POWELL
MT
DS1 PA1 HR1
FLATHEAD MINE AREA
SANDERS
MT
DS1 PA1
REVAIS CREEK MINE
DIXON
SANDERS
MT
DS1 PA1
SLUICE GULCH LEAKING MINE ADIT
PHILIPSBURG
SANDERS
MT
DS1 PA1
ANACONDA COPPER CO BUTTE OPERATIO BUTTE
SILVER BOW
MT
DS1 PA1
EMPIRE SAND AND GRAVEL
BILLINGS
YELLOWSTONE
MT
DS1 PA1 SI1
LOHOFF GRAVEL PIT
BILLINGS
YELLOWSTONE
MT
DS1 PA1 SI1 SI2
BOWMAN LIGNITE ASHING
GRIFFIN
BOWMAN
ND
DS1 PA1
ARSENIC TRIOXIDE SITE
LIDGERWOOD
RICHLAND
ND
RS1 RV1 RV2 DS1 PA1
HR
NP1
NF1
SI1
SI2
CR1 AR1 WP
RI1 FS1 RO RD1 RA1
TA1
CR1
AR1
CO
RO
RD1 RD2 RA1
RA2 MA1
SARGENT COUNTY ARSENIC
FORMAN
SARGENT
ND
DS1 PA1
SLOPE COUNTY ARSENIC SITE
AMIDON
SLOPE
ND
DS1 PA1
EDGEMONT SD URANIUM MILL TAILINGS
EDGEMONT
FALL RIVER
SD
DS1 PA1 PA2
TVA SILVER KING MINES INC
EDGEMONT
FALL RIVER
SD
DS1 PA1 PA2
ANNIE CREEK MINE & PROCESSING
LEAD
LAWRENCE
SD
DS1 PA1 SI1
HOMESTAKE MINING CO GOLD DIV
LEAD
LAWRENCE
SD
DS1 PA1
MAITLAND TAILINGS IMPOUND
LEAD
LAWRENCE
SD
DS1 PA1
STRAWBERRY CREEK MINE TAILINGS
LEAD
LAWRENCE
SD
DS1 PA1
VIPONT MINE
GROUSE CREEK
BOX ELDER
UT
DS1 PA1
DRY VALLEY VANADIUM MILL
SAN JUAN
DAVIS
UT
DS1 PA1
GOLD DOME MINING AND MILLING SITE
OREM
UTAH
UT
DS1
GREEN RIVER URANIUM MILL TAILINGS
GREEN RIVER
EMERY
UT
IR1 DS1 PA1 AR1
ATLAS MINERAL CORP MILL SITE
MOAB
GRAND
UT
DS1 PA1 SI1
ORE BUYING STATION-MOAB
MOAB
GRAND
UT
DS1 PA1
THOMPSON URANIUM ORE
THOMPSON
GRAND
UT
DS1 PA1
DESERT MOUNDS MINE
CEDAR CITY
IRON
UT
DS1 PA1
EAST SUMMIT MINING CLAIMS
MODENA
IRON
UT
DS1
BINGHAM CREEK CHANNEL
COPPERTON
SALT LAKE
UT
DS1 PA1
BINGHAM CREEK/ANACONDA TAILINGS
COPPERTON
SALT LAKE
UT
DS1 PA1
-------
TaD!fT20-7 (cont.)
Mining and Milling CERCLA Sites in Region VIII
NAME
CITY
COUNTY
STATE EVENT TYPE
BUTTERFIELD MINE (ST. JOE'S TUNNEL)
R3.T4, SOUTH SEC 12
SALT LAKE
UT
DS1 PA1
CHEVRON FERTILIZER AND MINING PLANT MAGNA
SALT LAKE
UT
DS1 PA1 PA2
FRYE CANYON TAILING
HITE
SALT LAKE
UT
DS1 PA1
GENEVA ROCK PRODUCTS
SALT LAKE CITY
SALT LAKE
UT
DS1 PA1
KENNECOTT-BINGHAM
COPPERTON
SALT LAKE
UT
DS1 PA1
KENNECOTT TAILINGS
MAGNA
SALT LAKE
UT
DS1 PA1
LARK TAILINGS
LARK
SALT LAKE
UT
DS1 PA1
OLD COBALT TAILINGS POND
LAKE POINT
SALT LAKE
UT
DS1 PA1 PA2
SHARON STEEL (MIDVALE TAILINGS)
MIDVALE
SALT LAKE
UT
RS1 RV1 DS1 PA1 HR NP1 SI1 AR1
CR1 AR1 WP CO MA
MA TA1 AR1 FS1
VITRO URANIUM MILL TAILINGS
SALT LAKE CITY
SALT LAKE
UT
DS1 PA1
MONTICELLO MILL TAILINGS (DOE)
MONTICELLO
SAN JUAN
UT
DS1 PA1 PA2 NP1 NF1 SI1
AR1 CO
MA
COI
MONTICELLO VICINITY PROPERTIES
MONTICELLO
SAN JUAN
UT
DS1 PA1 HR NP1 NF1 SI1
RA1 MA OH1
CR1AR1
CO
RO RD1
RIO ALGOM CORP/LISBON MINE
LA SAL
SAN JUAN
UT
DS1 PA1
RICHARDSON FLAT TAILINGS
PARK CITY
SUMMIT
UT
DS1 PA1 NP1 SI1 C01
SILVER CREEK TAILINGS
PARK CITY
SUMMIT
UT
DS1 PA1 HR NP1 SI1 NR
FP1
SILVER MAPLE CLAIMS
PARK CITY
SUMMIT
UT
DS1 PA1
AMER. CONSOLIDATED MINING CLIFTON SI CLIFTON
TOOELE
UT
DS1 PA1
ANACONDA COPPER CO-CARR FORK OPE
TOOELE
TOOELE
UT
DS1 PA1 PA2 SI1 SI2
BAUER TAILINGS
BAUER
TOOELE
UT
DS1 PA1 PA2 SI1
KEIGLEY QUARRY /US STEEL CORP
SANTAQUIN
UTAH
UT
DS1 PA1
SOAPSTONE BASIN SINKHOLE
PROVO
UTAH
UT
DS1 PA1 SI1
TROJAN CORP
SPANISH FRK
UTAH
UT
DS1 PA1 PA2
MAYFLOWER MOUNTAIN TAILINGS
MAYFLOWER MOUNTAIN
WASATCH
UT
DS1 PA1 HR NP1 SI1 NR
FP1
LEEDS SILVER RECLAMATION SITE
LEEDS
WASHINGTON
UT
DS1 PA1
SOUTHWEST ASSAY SITE
LEEDS/SILVER REEF
WASHINGTON
UT
DS1 PA1
WESTERN ZIRCONIUM INC
OGDEN
WEBER
UT
DS1 PA1
K&N ENERGY-COOPER STATION
WALTMAN
NATRONA
WY
RV1
WILLIAMS STRATEGIC METALS
LARAMIE
ALBANY
WY
DS1 PA1
PORCUPINE CREEK MINE
LOVELL
BIG HORN
WY
DS1 PA1 PA2
BAGGS URANIUM MILL SITE
BAGGS
CARBON
WY
DS1 PA1
HANNA SUBSIDENCE PITS
HANNA
CARBON
WY
DS1 PA1
SPLIT ROCK URANIUM MILL ACID POND
JEFFREY CITY
CARBON
WY
DS1 PA1
SPLIT ROCK URANIUM MILL SITE
JEFFREY CITY
CARBON
WY
DS1 PA1
-------
Table 20-7 (cont.)
Mining and Milling CERCLA Sites in Region VIII
NAME
CITY
COUNTY
STATE EVENT TYPE
SPOOK SITE
CONVERSE
WY
DS1 PA1
ATLANTIC CITY ORE OPERATIONS
LANDER
FREMONT
WY
DS1 PA1
DUNCAN MINE-ATLANTIC CITY
ATLANTIC CITY
FREMONT
WY
DS1 PA1
RIVERTON URANIUM MILL TAILINGS
RIVERTON
FREMONT
WY
DS1 PA1
AMOCO, BLACK HILLS BENTONITE
CASPER
NATRONA
WY
DS1 PA1
ASBESTOS MINE-CASPER MOUNTAIN
CASPER
NATRONA
WY
DS1 PA1
NPL SITES
NAME
CITY
COUNTY
STATE EVENT TYPE
SMUGGLER MOUNTAIN
ASPEN
PITKIN
CO
RV1 DS1 PA1 NP1 NF1 SI1 CR1 CR2AR1 FS1 FS2 CO
CO
RO RD1RD2MA
TA1 TA2 AR1
EAGLE MINE
GILMAN
EAGLE
CO
IR1 DS1 PA1 HR
NP1 NF1 SI1 CR1 AR1 CO RO RD1 RA1
HA1 OH1
CENTRAL CITY-CLEAR CREEK
IDAHO SPGS. CENT. CY. BK HA
CLEAR CR & GILPI
CO
RV1 RV2 DS1 PA1
HR NP1 NF1 SI1 CR1 CR2AR1 AR2AR3
WP RI1 FS1 RO
RD1RD2MA TA1 TA2 TA3 OH AR1
FS1
RO RD1RD2RA1
RA2TA1 AR FS TA1
CALIFORNIA GULCH
LEADVILLE
LAKE
CO
IR1 DS1 PA1 HR
NP1 NF1 SI1 CR1 RM AR1 WP CO
TS1
RO RD1RD2RA1
OM MA TOI HA1 CR1 AR1 COI
URAVAN URANIUM (UNION CARBIDE)
URAVAN
MONTROSE
CO
DS1 PA1 HR NP1
NF1 SI1 CR1 AR1 CO RO RD1 RA1
ARSENIC TRIOXIDE SITE
LIDGERWOOD
RICHLAND
ND
RS1 RV1 RV2DS1
PA1 HR NP1 NF1 SI1 SI2 CR1 AR1
AR2
WP RI1 FS1 RO
RD1 RA1 TA1 CR1 AR1 CO RO RD1
RDi
RA1 RA2MA1
MIDVALE SLAG
MIDVALE
SALT LAKE
UT
RS1 RV1 DS1 PA1
NP1 SI1 AR1 MA TA1
SHARON STEEL (MIDVALE TAILINGS)
MIDVALE
SALT LAKE
UT
RS1 RV1 DS1 PA1
HR NP1 SI1 AR1 CR1 AR1 WP CO
MA
MA TA1 AR1 FS1
MONTICELLO MILL TAILINGS (DOE)
MONTICELLO
SAN JUAN
UT
DS1 PA1 PA2 NP1
NF1 SI1 AR1 CO MA COI
MONTICELLO VICINITY PROPERTIES
MONTICELLO
SAN JUAN
UT
DS1 PA1 HR NP1
NF1 SI1 CR1 AR1 CO RO RD1 RA1
MA OH1
RICHARDSON FLAT TAILINGS
PARK CITY
SUMMIT
UT
DS1 PA1 NP1 SI1
C01
-------
20-22
Because effects and their consequent risks vary with the type of mining activity, the number
of mining properties associated with various commodities is of interest. From the USDI,
Bureau of Mines (BOM) MILS data set the number of properties in each State associated
with specific commodities is listed in Table 20-3.
A better understanding of the amount of waste generated and subsequent potential impacts
can be developed by reviewing the amount of commodity produced. Generally speaking,
for a given commodity, the greater the amount of production the more wastes are generated.
The amount of production in 1988 for selected commodities is listed for each State in Table
20-4. Locations of each major actively producing mine is displayed in Figures 20-1 through
20-6. These figures show the type of mining activity, the density of mining activity across
the States and the proximity of mines to urban populations.
The number, location, capacity, status and process used for uranium mills and mines in the
U.S. is listed in Table 20-5a,b and 20-6 as compiled by the US EPA, 1989.
Many of the environmental problems associated with uranium mining and milling are
associated with inactive sites. Table 20-5b also lists the status of the reclamation process
for surface uranium mines in Region VIII. Most of the surface uranium mines in the
Region are unreclaimed abandoned properties.
The number and location of CERCLA abandoned mine sites and the number and location
of superfund NPL mine sites are listed in Table 20-7. Of the CERCLA sites related to
resource extraction activities in Region VIII, 63 are mine related sites, 55 are sites
associated with mills, 12 are associated with cement or fertilizer operations, and 2 sites
associated with oil or ash. The nine mining related NPL superfund sites are either mines,
mills or their associated tailings.
20.3 DATA DESCRIBING MINING WASTE EFFECTS
20.3.1 Pollutant Effects
Two major pollutant categories associated with mining activities are metals and pH. A
variety of metallic wastes can be produced as byproducts of hardrock mining activities
including: arsenic, beryllium, cadmium chromium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, mercury,
selenium, tin, and zinc. The toxicity of each metal has been investigated. However, much
less is known about combined impacts of several metals. Mining of sulfide ores and coal
causes acid mine drainage where low pH, directly and indirectly through metals dissolution,
is toxic to aquatic life. Uranium mining is associated with radioactive contamination of
lands and surface waters and air emissions.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
20-23
Land disturbance associated with mining activities such as the removal of vegetation cover
and the piling of mill and mine tailings has produced locally significant damage to terrestrial
ecosystems and is responsible for elevated loads in sediment adjacent aquatic ecosystems.
Wind transported soil and dust particles containing toxic metals are a primary pathway of
mining related health effects, as is the direct ingestion of soils containing toxic metals, ie.
lead. Health effects of these pollutants have been widely investigated, and standards have
been set for aquatic ecosystem concentrations, Federal and State drinking water, and soil
and air concentrations for many of these pollutants.
If we assume that metal, pH, and radiation pollution in surface waters are associated chiefly
with mining wastes, then damage to aquatic ecosystems due to these pollutants may be
related to the State 1989 319 and 305b Reports. These data are summarized in Table 20-8.
Metals account for 5,428 miles of stream impairment, while pH affects 1,577 miles, and
radiation affects 2 miles of streams in Region VIII. Metal contamination causes the most
stream impairment in Utah, 1,908 miles, followed by Colorado, 1,345 miles, Montana, 1,141
miles and North Dakota, 1,016 miles. In Region VIII, metals impaired 93,785 acres and pH
impaired 5,600 acres of lake surface waters, with Montana exhibiting the greatest metal
impairment, 57,598 acres, followed by Utah, 32,472 acres, and Colorado 3,715 acres.
20.3.2 Aquatic Ecosystem Effects
As previously noted, the extent of damage to aquatic ecosystems due to mining can be
estimated from data presented in the States 319 and 305b Reports, as resource extraction
is listed as a primary impact generating category. The State 319 and 305b Reports further
subdivide resource extraction activities into:
• surface mining;
• subsurface mining;
• placer mining;
• dredge mining
• petroleum activities;
• mill tailings; and
• mine tailings.
Table 20-9 lists the estimated streams miles and lakes acreage impaired by resource
extraction activities in Region VIII.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
Table 20-8
Miles of Stream and Acres of Lake impaired by Pollutant - Region Vlll
Miles of Stream Impaired
North
South
Pollutant
Colorado Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Pesticides
275
275
Metals
1345
1141
1016
11
1908
7
5428
Ammonia
823
823
Chlorine
4
4
Other Inorganics
790
790
Nutrients
756
3178
7269
232
1747
13181
pH
163
656
758
1577
Siltation
2133
6769
4375
385
3303
16965
Organic Enrichment/DO
120
1184
204
2748
4256
Salinity/TDS/chlorides
1488
3032
1818
1333
891
8562
Thermal modification
1699
875
8
2582
Flow alterations
2746
414
401
3561
Other habitat alterations
1363
43
965
2371
Pathogens
53
510
2844
1185
1623
418
6633
Radiation
2
2
Oil and Grease
64
64
Taste and odor
Suspended solids
2S63
1707
4270
Noxious aquatic plants
Filling and draining
Acres of Lake Impaired
North
South
Pollutant
Colorado
Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Pesticides
0
Metals
3715
57598
32472
93785
Ammonia
131579
131579
Chlorine
0
Other Inorganics
0
Nutrients
22554
107664
581539
88046
134453
56950
991205
PH
5600
5600
Siltation
6278
350654
500930
67753
10905
89775
1026294
Organic Enrichment/DO
11411
574014
158
112547
54772
752902
Salinlty/TDStehlorfdes
590
27759
425981
11255
489
466074
Thermal modification
25226
46
2874
28146
Flow alterations
83522
56324
7868
12332
160046
Other habitat alterations
6848
6848
Pathogens
325
10743
11068
Radiation
0
Oil and Grease
0
Taste and odor
27
27
Suspended solids
44282
113911
952
108627
267772
Noxious aquatic plants
61018
86501
122932
270451
Filling and draining
353
353
-------
Table 20-9
Miles of Stream and Acres ot Lake Impaired by Source Category - Region Vlll
Miles of Stream Impaired
Source Category
Colorado Montana
North
Dakota
South
Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
817
574
624
2015
Nonpoint Sources
0
Agriculture
4709
11276
17874
4664
5868
7176
51566
Silviculture
43
748
112
161
495
1559
Construction
7
204
26
285
1965
2487
Urban Runoff
129
131
38
262
400
315
1275
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
1359
1605
255
62
293
731
4305
Land Disposal
301
26
115
76
518
Hydromodification
221
3116
4362
216
1572
9488
Other
118
732
4616
1224
1600
2686
10975
Source Unknown
10
18
114
142
Acres of Lake Impaired
Source Category
Colorado Montana
North
Dakota
South
Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
3500
1897
221443
20509
247349
Nonpoint Sources
443
443
Agriculture
19816
395435
2011717
103386
272831
206950
3010135
Silviculture
41475
1004
42479
Construction
13625
10695
76442
100762
Urban Runoff
9451
16
10011
1434
20912
Resource Exttact/expiore/dev.
1955
4200
60
83
40720
47018
Land Disposal
325
42345
130
22003
64803
Hydromodification
1760
37930
57910
9577
119171
49536
275884
Other
78402
571768
2028
26921
104232
783350
Source Unknown
454
1991
2445
-------
20-26
In Region VIII 4,305 miles of streams are impaired by resource extraction activities, with
Montana and Colorado exhibiting the greatest impairment, 1,605 and 1,359 miles
respectively.
Stream impairment due to resource extraction is less than one tenth that of agricultural
impacts and about half as extensive as hydromodification and "other" impacts according to
these State data. The environmental consequences of non-attainment due to mining versus
agriculture or other activities may not be the same, however.
Data are available from the State 319 reports on the "intensity" of resource impact. Table
20-10 lists the miles and acres impacted by various categories as slight, moderate, and high
impairment, and Table 20-11 lists the miles and acres impacted by various sub-categories
as slight, moderate, and high impairment. These largely subjective values suggest that the
Region VIII States generally evaluate resource extraction as causing moderate impacts to
surface waters.
Due to the subjective nature of these data firm, conclusions regarding stressor severity and
environmental damage are difficult. For example, one can argue about the relative impacts
of different activities based on knowledge of ecosystem impacts and recovery. Recovery
from eutrophication due to agricultural practices can occur rapidly once the source of
nutrients are removed from a stream. In contrast, stream ecosystems with metal
contaminated sediments associated with mining activities may never fully recover with out
expensive remediation, which can also cause extensive physical disturbances.
Over 47,000 acres of lakes are impaired by resource extraction activities in Region VIII, with
Wyoming's lake being most affected (40,720 acres), and the balance primarily due to effects
in Montana (4,200) and Colorado (1,955).
Data on the amount of impairment due to metals, pH and radiation is larger than the
regional amount of mining impairment. This may be due to metal contamination (ie.
selenium) as salts derived from evaporation and irrigation water reuse. The values between
metal effects and mining impairment agree for Colorado and Montana but differ for Utah,
North Dakota and Wyoming.
Aquatic ecosystem impairment, as suggested by impaired use categories, (aquatic fish and
wildlife, warm water fisheries, cold water fisheries, public water supply, irrigation and
agriculture, livestock watering, industrial, and recreation) are summarized for Region VIII
in Table 20-12 and listed by State in Table 20-13. Note that the same stream reach can and
often is listed as impaired by more than one stressor and receptor category.
Mining activities most often impair cold water fisheries, recreation, and public water
supplies. Of the mining resource extraction activities categories, impairment is due most to
subsurface mining, 1,743 miles, followed by petroleum activities, 637 miles, generic
unspecified mining activities, 487 miles, surface mining, 408 miles, mill tailings, 351 miles,
placer mining, 236 miles, dredge mining, 94 miles, and mine tailings, 57 miles (Table 20-12).
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
Table 20-10
Impact by Source Category by State in Region VIII
Miles of Stream
Colorado
Montana
North Dakota
South Dakota
Wyoming
Source Category
Slight
Moderate
High
Slight
Moderate
High
Slight
Moderate
High
Slight Moderate
High
Slight
Moderate
High
Point Sources
686
178
213
456
438
Nonpoint Sources
Agriculture
691
876
621
191
5360
728
1542
5621
2395
1143
1127
2279
3395
2555
Silviculture
43
12
635
79
112
235
343
156
Construction
7
204
26
1337
1749
1131
Urban Runoff
36
93
83
50
38
38
262
64
292
300
112
Resource Extract/explore
574
467
316
137
1002
358
255
255
62
62
602
680
302
Land Disposal
5
176
59
26
76
76
14
Hydromodlfication
50
17
153
119
2044
255
906
2603
1787
407
801
743
Other
118
720
12
927
3952
656
400
860
1927
2424
1474
Source Unknown
10
18
20
114
Acres of Lake
Colorado
Montana
North Dakota
South Dakota
Wyoming
Source Category
Slight
Moderate
High
Slight
Moderate
High
Slight
Moderate
High
Slight Moderate
High
Slight
Moderate
High
Point Sources
3500
3500
27
1870
20509
20509
19100
Nonpoint Sources
443
Agriculture
2160
9710
6716
327468
43796
14673
113713
580763
86818
643
82739
94338
110319
70053
Silviculture
38125
30800
468
162
Construction
13625
3655
73205
76417
44399
Urban Runoff
2160
4631
2660
16
1434
1434
Resource Extract/explore
1955
2100
60
60
83
40720
40720
13300
Land Disposal
325
12425
33425
150
130
8272
13731
Hydromodification
1760
37930
34580
325
57519
57221
7868
1709
39824
46200
38055
Other
49895
40274
113650
569807
76197
412
1395
94338
103519
63512
Source Unknown
41
413
1991
-------
Table 20-10 (cont.)
Impact by Source Category In Region VIII
Miles of Stream
Source Category
Slight
Moderate
High
Point Sources
213
1142
616
Nonpoint Sources
0
0
0
Agriculture
4702
16394
7425
Silviculture
247
1021
347
Construction
1337
1986
1131
Urban Runoff
328
776
264
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
1567
2210
1292
Land Disposal
81
278
73
Hydromodification
1482
5466
2938
Other
2854
7613
3002
Source Unknown
0
30
132
Acres of Lake
Source Category
Slight
Moderate
High
Point Sources
24009
24036
20970
Nonpoint Sources
0
0
443
Agriculture
537679
745231
260999
Silviculture
38125
31268
162
Construction
86830
80072
44399
Urban Runoff
3594
6065
2676
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
40780
44835
13383
Land Disposal
12425
42152
13881
Hydromodification
78079
146167
98745
Other
257883
714012
141104
Source Unknown
0
41
2404
-------
Table 20-11
Impact by Source Subcategory - Region VIII
Miles of Stream
Source Category
Subcategory
Slight
Moderate
High
Point Sources
0
0
0
Industrial
196
328
330
Municipal
17
825
297
Nonpoint Sources
0
0
0
Agriculture
7
1047
675
Non-irrigated crop prod.
2071
8987
3199
Irrigated crop prod.
2361
6637
2357
Pasture land
1513
6627
1397
Range land
2606
6119
3071
Feedlots
677
3768
393
Aquaculture
0
0
0
Animal holding areas
792
1516
352
Streambank erosion
563
2271
900
Silviculture
12
522
59
Harvesting, restoration
163
366
150
Forest management
52
93
23
Road construct/maint
25
201
183
Construction
0
55
0
Highway/road/bridge
1329
1923
1128
Land development
132
140
87
Urban Runoff
0
82
56
Storm sewers
10
226
21
Surface runoff
328
516
202
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
61
484
65
Surface mining
383
316
60
Subsurface mining
573
834
469
Placer mining
16
176
57
Dredge mining
0
84
48
Petroleum activities
470
371
484
Mill tailings
134
147
224
Mine tailings
6
20
37
Land Disposal
0
2
0
Wastewater
0
120
0
On-site wastewater treat.
81
276
73
Hydromodlfication
23
71
115
Channelization
495
1431
1580
Dredging
0
0
0
Dam construction
254
75
259
Flow regulation
122
1505
269
Bridge construction
0
0
0
Removal of riparian veg.
30
296
41
Streambank modification
1002
4380
2191
Other
0
50
0
Atmospheric deposition
0
27
0
Highway maintenance
18
108
48
In-place contaminants
0
427
18
Natural
2836
7054
2936
Recreational activities
0
0
0
Source Unknown
0
30
132
-------
Table 20-11 (cont.)
Impact by Source Subcategory - Region VIII
Acres of Lake
Source Category
I
Subcategory
Slight
moderate
High
Point Sources
0
27
0
Industrial
0
0
0
Municipal
20509
20509
20970
Nonpofnt Sources
0
0
443
Agriculture
327468
30854
82639
Non-irrigated crop prod.
113713
592213
96568
Irrigated crop prod.
84568
479478
83995
Pasture land
113972
510751
20324
Range land
93424
106830
65922
Feedlots
112771
491793
28817
Aquaculture
0
0
0
Animal holding areas
919
71938
63346
Streambank erosion
0
1955
615
Silviculture
34775
31236
162
Harvesting, restoration
3350
0
0
Forest management
0
0
0
Road construct/maint.
3350
410
0
Construction
13625
0
0
Highway/road/bridge
73205
80072
44399
Land development
25
25
0
Urban Runotf
0
0
0
Storm sewers
0
0
0
Surface runoff
3594
6065
2676
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
0
0
83
Surface mining
9480
9480
0
Subsurface mining
0
4055
0
Placer mining
0
2100
0
Dredge mining
0
0
0
Petroleum activities
31300
31300
13300
Mill tailings
0
0
0
Mine tailings
0
0
0
Land Disposal
7555
32830
0
Wastewater
0
0
0
On-site wastewater treat.
4870
9322
13881
Hydromodification
34580
34580
0
Channelization
0
897
897
Dredging
0
0
0
Dam construction
0
0
0
Flow regulation
31005
38773
25729
Bridge construction
0
80
0
Removal of riparian veg.
325
56919
56507
Streambank modification
12169
15116
15810
Other
0
55
55
Atmospheric deposition
1580
60
0
Highway maintenance
0
25
915
In-place contaminants
113095
566030
73021
Natural
143208
149780
67520
Recreational activities
0
30
58
Source Unknown
0
41
2404
-------
Table 20-11 (cont.)
Impact by Source Subcategory by State - Region VIII
Miles of Stream Impaired
Source Category
Subcategory
Colorado
Slight Moderate High
Montana
Slight Moderate High
North Dakota
Slight Moderate High
Point Sources
Industrial
Municipal
Nonpolnt Sources
Agricufture
IMon-irrigated crop prod.
Irrigated crop prod.
Pasture land
Range land
Feedlots
Aquaculture
Animal holding areas
Streambank erosion
7
176
464 685 370
563 572 460
486 700 384
888 102
1830 135
179 3576 508
67 2029 215
236 22
55 1454 241
1542 5512 2395
124 15
615 2633 222
699 3160 642
677 3078 387
699 570 255
Silviculture
Harvesting, restoration
Forest management
Road constructymaint.
43
12 522 59
100 20
72 20
Construction
Highway/road/bridge
Land development
7
29
175
Urban Runofl
Storm sewers
Surface runoff
36 93
45 45
38 5
38 5
38 38
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
Surface mining
Subsurface mining
Placer mining
Dredge mining
Petroleum activities
Mill tailings
Mine tailings
72
553 461 306
4 18
15
10
361 3
22
6 358 163
12 158 47
81 35
64
119 147 224
6 20 28
255 255
Land Disposal
Wastewater
On-site wastewater treat.
2
120
5 174 59
Hydromodification
Channelization
Dredging
Dam construction
Flow regulation
Bridge construction
Removal of riparian veg.
Streambank modification
1
17
50 153
48 45
119 207 119
75
1126 58
54
1382 56
291 933 1100
229 234
109
199
615 2342 1554
Other
Atmospheric deposition
Highway maintenance
In-place contaminants
Natural
Recreational activities
118
50
32
638 12
27
427
927 3525 656
Source Unknown
10
-------
Table 20-11 (cont.)
Impact by Source Subcategory by State - Region VIII
Miles of Stream impaired
South Dakota
Wyoming
Source Category
Subcategory
Slight Moderate
High
Slight
Moderate
High
Point Sources
Industrial
11
11
196
317
319
Municipal
686
178
17
139
119
Nonpofnt Sources
Agriculture
49
463
110
110
Non-irrigated crop prod.
941
462
529
529
207
Irrigated crop prod.
157
47
1718
2097
1418
Pasture land
685
831
1281
960
Range land
312
455
1344
2075
1514
Feedlots
690
6
Aquaculture
Animal holding areas
555
94
156
75
Streambank erosion
22
118
275
Silviculture
Harvesting, restoration
163
266
130
Forest management
52
93
23
Road construct/maint.
112
25
86
51
Construction
26
Highway/road/bridge
1329
1741
1128
Land development
132
140
87
Urban Runoff
37
11
Storm sewers
178
6
10
10
10
Surface runoff
47
47
292
300
112
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
62
62
61
61
Surface mining
311
294
60
Subsurface mining
15
15
Placer mining
10
Dredge mining
3
13
Petroleum activities
215
307
229
Mill tailings
Mine tailings
Land Disposal
Wastewater
On-site wastewater treat.
26
76
76
14
Hydromodification
23
23
70
Channelization
85
290
361
Dredging
Dam construction
25
25
Flow regulation
122
253
211
Bridge construction
Removal of riparian veg.
30
43
41
Streambank modification
337
655
428
Other
Atmospheric deposition
Highway maintenance
37
11
18
39
37
In-piace contaminants
18
Natural
389
831
1909
2385
1437
Recreational activities
Source Unknown
18
20
114
-------
Table 20-11 (cont.)
Impact by Source Subcategory by State - Region VIII
Acres of Lake Impaired
Source Category
Subcategory
Colorado
Slight Moderate High
Montana
Slight Moderate High
North Dakota
Slight Moderate High
Point Sources
Industrial
Municipal
Nonpolnt Sources
Agriculture
Non-irrigated crop prod.
Irrigated crop prod.
Pasture land
Range land
Feedlots
Aquaculture
Animal holding areas
Streambank erosion
2160 7430 6716
325 615
1955 615
327468 30246
11450 9750
7640 7650
7640 1423
113713 580763 86818
368231
112563 495567 12801
495 4360 1985
112771 491558 10557
919 71238 61046
Silviculture
Harvesting, restoration
Forest management
Road construct/maint.
34775 30800
3350
3350
Construction
Highway/road/bridge
Land development
13625
3655
Urban Runoff
Storm sewers
Surface runoff
2160 4631 2660
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
Surface mining
Subsurface mining
Placer mining
Dredge mining
Petroleum activities
Mill tailings
Mine tailings
1955
2100
2100
60 60
Land Disposal
Wastewater
On-site wastewater treat.
325
7555 32505
4870 920 150
130
Hydromodification
Channelization
Dredging
Dam construction
Flow regulation
Bridge construction
Removal of riparian veg.
Streambank modification
1760
34580 34580
3350
197 197
324 324
80
325 56919 56507
197 391
Other
Atmospheric deposition
Highway maintenance
In-place contaminants
Natural
Recreational activities
1520
48375 40274
55 55
60 60
113095 566030 73021
495 5575 3284
Source Unknown
-------
Table 20-11 (cont.)
Impact by Source Subcategory by State - Region VIII
Acres of Lake Impaired
Source Category
Subcategory
South Dakota
Slight Moderate High
Wyoming
Slight Moderate High
Point Sources
Industrial
Municipal
27
1870
20509 20509 19100
Nonpoint Sources
443
Agriculture
Non-irrigated crop prod.
Irrigated crop prod.
Pasture land
Range land
Feedlots
Aquaculture
Animal holding areas
Streambank erosion
608 82639
35
35 99
235 18260
1600
82408 96177 69629
1409 7509 6100
92929 102110 63223
700 700
Silviculture
Harvesting, restoration
Forest management
Road construct/maint.
436 162
410
Construction
Highway/road/bridge
Land development
73205 76417 44399
25 25
Urban Runoff
Storm sewers
Surface runoff
16
1434 1434
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
Surface mining
Subsurface mining
Placer mining
Dredge mining
Petroleum activities
Mill tailings
Mine tailings
83
9420 9420
31300 31300 13300
Land Disposal
Wastewater
On-site wastewater treat.
8272 13731
Hydromodification
Channelization
Dredging
Dam construction
Flow regulation
Bridge construction
Removal of riparian veg.
Streambank modification
7868 1209
500
700 700
31005 30581 22436
8819 14919 14919
Other
Atmospheric deposition
Highway maintenance
In-place contaminants
Natural
Recreational activities
25 915
412 724
30 58
94338 103519 63512
Source Unknown
41 413
1991
-------
Table 20-12
Miles of Stream and Acres of Lake Impaired by Source Subcategory by Use Category - Region VIII
Miles of Stream
Aquatic
Warm
Cold
Public
Agriculture
Source Category
Fish &
Water
Water
Water
&
Livestock
Idus-
Rec-
Subcategory
Wildlife
Fishery
Fishery
Supply
Irrigation
Watering
trial
reation
TOTAL
Point Sources
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Industrial
11
110
239
194
196
109
0
41
473
Municipal
628
795
67
244
862
806
0
902
968
Nonpoint Sources
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Agriculture
506
709
950
334
574
567
0
678
1568
Non-irrigated crop prod.
4450
5564
1050
3386
3857
2262
231
6460
11011
Irrigated crop prod.
438
3247
4662
3179
3439
1539
0
3861
8185
Pasture land
2201
3095
2549
1806
1782
1737
0
2378
7153
Range land
2218
2534
2597
1241
3064
767
209
4779
8294
Feedlots
1809
1929
0
207
931
690
209
2296
3768
Aquaculture
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Animal holding areas
624
810
306
604
789
563
0
1763
2165
Streambank erosion
0
1853
1655
2244
2517
1037
0
1886
3554
Silviculture
0
0
536
45
0
0
0
79
536
Harvesting, restoration
0
0
411
0
0
0
0
0
411
Forest management
0
0
67
0
0
0
0
30
97
Road construct/maint.
112
112
242
28
155
112
0
155
242
Construction
26
26
29
0
36
36
0
36
55
Highway/road/bridge
157
629
1349
209
408
0
0
76
2007
Land development
0
40
104
0
0
0
0
0
140
Urban Runoff
37
26
56
45
37
37
0
82
82
Storm sewers
178
178
43
0
178
178
0
188
231
Surface runoff
85
177
300
96
126
47
0
223
562
Resource Extract/explore/d
62
51
436
13
68
68
0
68
487
Surface mining
0
317
91
82
365
2
0
74
408
Subsurface mining
0
49
1636
1177
1216
156
0
1616
1743
Placer mining
0
0
236
22
21
3
0
68
236
Dredge mining
0
0
94
47
35
35
0
47
94
Petroleum activities
77
280
305
319
319
64
0
319
637
Mill tailings
0
0
351
188
88
73
0
300
351
Mine tailings
0
0
57
27
7
0
0
32
57
Land Disposal
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
2
2
Wastewater
0
0
120
0
0
0
0
0
120
On-site wastewater treat.
26
26
193
72
26
26
0
156
281
Hydromodification
0
0
118
68
0
0
0
45
118
Channelization
816
643
715
406
343
78
0
1052
18 77
Dredging
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Dam construction
234
234
100
0
0
0
0
75
334
Flow regulation
109
683
955
574
152
57
0
871
1633
Bridge construction
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Removal of riparian veg.
199
0
97
199
0
0
0
0
296
Streambank modification
1892
2338
1717
1500
567
23
0
2208
5014
Other
0
0
50
0
0
0
0
0
50
Atmospheric deposition
27
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
27
Highway maintenance
37
26
82
0
37
37
0
37
108
in-place contaminants
217
18
0
322
18
18
0
123
445
Natural
2767
3000
2335
1355
2740
1260
231
4575
8745
Recreational activities
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Source Unknown
18
18
95
0
42
28
0
23
142
-------
Table 20-12 (cont.)
Miles of Stream and Acres of Lake impaired by Source Subcategory by Use Category - Region Vlll
Acres of Lake
Aquatic
Warm
Cold
Public
Agriculture
Source Category
Fish &
Water
Water
Water
&
Livestock
Idus-
Rec-
Subcategory
Wildlife
Fishery
Fishery
Supply
Irrigation
Watering
trial
reation
TOTAL
Point Sources
27
0
3500
27
0
27
0
3527
3527
Industrial
98990
98000
1470
990
99470
99470
0
98480
99470
Municipal
110860
120775
23577
13973
121973
123843
0
111948
144352
Nonpoint Sources
443
443
0
350
0
443
0
443
443
Agriculture
83122
336303
56721
295605
25639
83122
0
380554
433004
Non-irrigated crop prod.
99098
156324
16262
32973
131453
131453
0
692695
717906
Irrigated crop prod.
0
34083
17613
10400
24186
7650
0
396327
496034
Pasture land
35
13728
94348
4268
5691
5726
0
508713
516442
Range land
99124
137977
14577
24209
123763
122498
0
115553
230332
Feedlots
18495
24007
103467
10927
23287
29422
0
520360
520980
Aguaculture
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Animal holding areas
1600
16347
0
0
0
1600
0
63380
73538
Streambank erosion
10000
10965
10934
10804
21899
19329
0
21549
21899
Silviculture
594
0
35369
53
0
594
0
1644
35369
Harvesting, restoration
0
0
3350
0
0
0
0
0
3350
Forest management
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Road construct/mafnt.
410
0
3760
32
0
410
0
410
3760
Construction
10000
10011
9509
5484
10695
10695
0
10695
24320
Highway/road/bridge
0
25797
66297
0
0
0
0
9505
76417
Land development
0
0
25
0
0
0
0
0
25
Urban Runoff
10000
10011
0
0
10011
10011
0
10011
10011
Storm sewers
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Surface runoff
16
2327
8574
7691
7691
16
0
9467
10901
Resource Extract/explore/d
83
83
0
0
0
83
0
83
83
Surface mining
0
9480
0
0
0
0
0
0
9480
Subsurface mining
0
0
4055
1955
1955
0
0
4055
4055
Placer mining
0
0
2100
0
0
0
0
2100
2100
Dredge mining
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Petroleum activities
0
13300
31300
0
0
0
0
0
31300
Mill tailings
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Mine tailings
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Land Disposal
0
0
36730
325
32S
0
0
3980
36730
Wastewater
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
On-site wastewater treat.
22003
21729
6344
1503
1749
22003
0
23163
28073
Hydromodification
108000
119171
34580
11171
119171
119171
0
108266
15371
Channelization
0
897
0
0
0
0
0
0
897
Dredging
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Dam construction
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Flow regulation
9077
17612
26257
1209
0
9077
0
10837
45078
Bridge construction
0
80
0
0
0
0
0
0
80
Removal of riparian veg.
0
919
0
0
0
0
0
56919
56919
Streambank modification
500
6991
12169
0
0
500
0
694
19160
Other
0
55
480
0
480
480
0
2055
535
Atmospheric deposition
0
60
1520
0
0
0
0
0
1580
Highway maintenance
940
851
89
671
0
940
0
940
940
In-ptace contaminants
108
27597
24146
0
0
0
0
553203
566078
Natural
2103
29060
108114
62667
14832
15378
0
76311
202067
Recreational activities
83
11
12140
12057
12068
12151
0
12151
12151
Source Unknown
454
454
1962
41
0
454
0
483
2445
-------
Table 20-13
Source Subcategory by State - Region VIII
Miles of Stream Impaired
Source Category
North
South
Subcategory Colorado
Montana
Dakota
Dakota Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
0
Industrial
11
462
473
Municipal
806
162
968
Nonpoint Sources
0
Agriculture
7
945
506
110
1568
Non-irrigated crop prod
176
1965
7036
1305
529
11011
Irrigated crop prod.
1480
4104
124
157
2321
8185
Pasture land
2264
2633
685
1572
7153
Range land
1517
3797
767
2214
8294
Feedlots
3078
690
3768
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
249
1206
555
156
2165
Streambank erosion
1530
1750
275
3554
Silviculture
536
536
Harvesting, restoration
120
291
411
Forest management
97
97
Road construct/maint.
43
92
107
242
Construction
29
26
55
Highway/road/bridge
7
175
1825
2007
Land development
140
140
Urban Runoff
45
37
82
Storm sewers
43
178
10
231
Surface runoff
129
43
38
47
305
562
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
364
62
61
487
Surface mining
72
22
314
408
Subsurface mining
1242
486
15
1743
Placer mining
21
205
10
236
Dredge mining
81
13
94
Petroleum activities
64
255
318
637
Mill tailings
15
336
351
Mine tailings
10
48
57
Land Disposal
2
2
Wastewater
120
120
On-site wastewater treat.
179
26
76
281
Hydromodification
48
70
118
Channelization
1
326
1162
388
1877
Dredging
0
Dam construction
75
234
25
334
Flow regulation
17
1184
109
323
1633
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
54
199
43
296
Streambank modificatio
203
1429
2659
723
5014
Other
50
50
Atmospheric deposition
27
27
Highway maintenance
32
37
39
108
In-place contaminants
427
18
445
Natural
118
650
4161
1169
2647
8745
Recreational activities
0
Source Unknown
10
18
114
142
-------
Table 20-13 (corn.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Aquatic Fish & Wildlife
Miles of Stream Impaired
Source Category
North
South
Subcategory Colorado Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
0
Industrial
11
11
Municipal
628
628
Nonpoint Sources
0
Agriculture
506
506
Non-irrigated crop prod.
3243
1127
80
4450
Irrigated crop prod.
124
157
157
438
Pasture land
1694
507
2201
Range land
1294
767
157
2218
Feedlots
1297
512
1809
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
248
377
624
Streambank erosion
0
Silviculture
0
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Ftoad construct/malnt.
112
112
Construction
26
26
Highway/road/bridge
157
157
Land development
0
Urban Runoff
37
37
Storm sewers
178
178
Surface runoff
38
47
85
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
62
62
Surface mining
0
Subsurface mining
0
Placer mining
0
Dredge mining
0
Petroleum activities
77
77
Mill tailings
0
Mine tailings
0
Land Disposal
0
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
26
26
Hydromodification
0
Channelization
816
816
Dredging
0
Dam construction
234
234
Flow regulation
109
109
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
199
199
Streambank modification
1892
1892
Other
0
Atmospheric deposition
27
27
Highway maintenance
37
37
In-place contaminants
199
18
217
Natural
1441
1169
157
2767
Recreational activities
0
Source Unknown
18
18
-------
Table 20-13 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Warm Water Fisheries
Miles of Stream impaired
Source Category
North
South
Subcategory Colorado
Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
0
Industrial
110
110
Municipal
795
795
Nonpoint Sources
0
Agriculture
119
480
110
709
Non-irrigated crop prod.
176
1053
2719
1305
311
5564
Irrigated crop prod.
805
1728
109
157
449
3247
Pasture land
1019
1374
685
18
3095
Range land
650
836
767
281
2534
Feedlots
1239
690
1929
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
255
555
810
Streambank erosion
676
1067
110
1853
Silviculture
0
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Road construct/malnt.
112
112
Construction
26
26
Highway/road/bridge
629
629
Land development
40
40
Urban Runoff
26
26
Storm sewers
173
178
Surface runoff
50
47
80
177
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
51
51
Surface mining
6
311
317
Subsurface mining
47
2
49
Placer mining
0
Dredge mining
0
Petroleum activities
255
25
280
Mill tailings
0
Mine tailings
0
Land Disposal
0
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
26
26
Hydromodification
0
Channelization
629
14
643
Dredging
0
Dam construction
234
234
Flow regulation
569
109
5
683
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
0
Streambank modification
144
494
1686
14
2338
Other
0
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
26
26
In-place contaminants
18
18
Natural
118
1073
1160
649
3000
Recreational activities
0
Source Unknown
18
18
-------
Table 20-13(cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Cold Water Fisheries
Miles of Stream
Source Category
North
South
Subcategory Colorado
Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
0
Industrial
11
228
239
Municipal
11
56
67
Nonpoint Sources
0
Agriculture
7
807
26
110
950
Non-irrigated crop prod.
912
138
1050
Irrigated crop prod.
676
2376
1611
4662
Pasture land
1245
1305
2549
Range land
867
1730
2597
Feediots
0
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
249
57
306
Streambank erosion
854
683
118
1655
Silviculture
536
536
Harvesting, restoration
120
291
411
Forest management
67
67
Road construct/malm.
43
92
107
242
Construction
29
29
Highway/road/bridge
7
175
1167
1349
Land development
4
100
104
Urban Runoff
45
11
56
Storm sewers
43
43
Surface runoff
79
43
178
300
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
364
11
61
436
Surface mining
66
22
3
91
Subsurface mining
1137
484
15
1636
Placer mining
21
205
10
236
Dredge mining
81
13
94
Petroleum activities
64
241
305
Mill tailings
15
336
351
Mine tailings
10
48
57
Land Disposal
2
2
Wastewater
120
120
On-site wastewater treat.
179
14
193
Hydromodiflcation
48
70
118
Channelization
1
326
388
715
Dredging
0
Dam construction
75
25
100
Flow regulation
17
615
323
955
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
54
43
97
Streambank modification
59
935
723
1717
Other
50
50
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
32
11
39
82
In-place contaminants
0
Natural
650
9
1676
2335
Recreational activities
0
Source Unknown
95
95
-------
Table 20-13 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Public Water Supply
Miles of Stream
Source Category
North
South
Subcategory Colorado
Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
0
Industrial
194
194
Municipal
178
66
244
Nonpoint Sources
0
Agriculture
7
217
110
334
Non-irrigated crop prod.
15
1616
1548
207
3386
Irrigated crop prod.
824
2227
128
3179
Pasture land
1346
115
207
138
1806
Range land
871
370
1241
Feedtots
207
207
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
87
255
207
55
604
Streambank erosion
805
1172
267
2244
Silviculture
45
45
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Road construct/malnt.
28
28
Construction
0
Highway/road/bridge
7
69
133
209
Land development
0
Urban Runoff
45
45
Storm sewers
0
Surface runoff
78
18
96
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
13
13
Surface mining
60
22
82
Subsurface mining
831
346
1177
Placer mining
18
4
22
Dredge mining
47
47
Petroleum activities
64
255
319
Mill tailings
15
173
188
Mine tailings
5
22
27
Land Disposal
0
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
54
18
72
Hydromodification
45
23
68
Channelization
78
328
406
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Flow regulation
16
558
574
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
199
199
Streambank modification
104
678
718
1500
Other
0
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
0
In-place contaminants
322
322
Natural
118
243
793
201
1355
Recreational activities
0
Source Unknown
0
-------
Table 20-13(cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Irrigation and Agriculture
Miles of Stream
Source Category
North
South
Subcategory Colorado
Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
0
Industrial
11
185
196
Municipal
806
56
862
Nonpoint Sources
0
Agriculture
7
61
506
574
Non-irrigated crop prod.
176
957
1197
1276
251
3857
irrigated crop prod.
1390
1361
157
532
3439
Pasture land
1052
656
74
1782
Range land
1476
693
767
128
3064
Feedlots
269
661
931
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
8
255
526
789
Streambank erosion
1480
1037
2517
Silviculture
0
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Road constructymalnt.
43
112
155
Construction
10
26
36
Highway/road/bridge
7
401
408
Land development
0
Urban Runoff
37
37
Storm sewers
178
178
Surface runoff
79
47
126
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
6
62
68
Surface mining
72
2
291
365
Subsurface mining
1060
156
1216
Placer mining
18
3
21
Dredge mining
35
35
Petroleum activities
64
255
319
Mill tailings
15
73
88
Mine tailings
7
7
Land Disposal
0
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
26
26
Hydromodification
0
Channelization
1
78
264
343
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Flow regulation
17
57
78
152
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
0
Streambank modification
203
23
264
77
567
Other
0
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
37
37
In-place contaminants
18
18
Natural
118
957
1169
497
2740
Recreational activities
0
Source Unknown
10
18
14
42
-------
Table 20-13 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Livestock Watering
Miles of Stream
Source Category
North
South
Subcategory Colorado
Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
0
Industrial
11
98
109
Municipal
806
806
Nonpoint Sources
0
Agriculture
61
506
567
Non-irrigated crop prod.
957
1305
2262
Irrigated crop prod.
1361
157
21
1539
Pasture land
1052
685
1737
Range land
767
767
Feedlots
690
690
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
a
555
563
Streambank erosion
1037
1037
Silviculture
0
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Road construct/malnt.
112
112
Construction
10
26
36
Highway/road/bridge
0
Land development
0
Urban Runoff
37
37
Storm sewers
170
178
Surface runoff
47
47
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
6
62
68
Surface mining
2
2
Subsurface mining
156
156
Placer mining
3
3
Dredge mining
35
35
Petroleum activities
64
64
Mill tailings
73
73
Mine tailings
0
Land Oisposal
0
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
26
26
Hydromodification
0
Channelization
78
78
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Flow regulation
57
57
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
0
Streambank modification
23
23
Other
0
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
37
37
In-place contaminants
18
18
Natural
1169
91
1260
Recreational activities
0
Source Unknown
10
18
28
-------
Table 20-13 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Industrial
Miles of Stream
Source Category
North South
Subcategory Colorado
Montana Dakota Dakota Utah Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
0
Industrial
0
Municipal
0
Nonpoint Sources
0
Agriculture
0
Non-irrigated crop prod.
231
231
Irrigated crop prod.
0
Pasture land
0
Range land
209
209
Feedlots
209
209
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
0
Streambank erosion
0
Silviculture
0
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Road construct/malnt.
0
Construction
0
Highway/road/bridge
0
Land development
0
Urban Runoff
0
Storm sewers
0
Surface runoff
0
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
0
Surface mining
0
Subsurface mining
0
Placer mining
0
Dredge mining
0
Petroleum activities
0
Mill tailings
0
Mine tailings
0
Land Disposal
0
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
0
Hydromodification
0
Channelization
0
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Flow regulation
0
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
0
Streambank modification
0
Other
0
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
0
lo-place contaminants
0
Natural
231
231
Recreational activities
0
Source Unknown
0
-------
Table 20-13 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Recreation
Miles of Stream
Source Category
North
South
Colorado
Montana
Dakota
Dakota Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
0
Industrial
11
30
41
Municipal
806
96
902
Nonpoint Sources
0
Agriculture
7
165
506
678
Non-irrigated crop prod
176
1007
3972
1305
6460
Irrigated crop prod.
1480
2000
124
157
100
3861
Pasture land
477
977
685
240
2378
Range land
1517
2438
767
57
4779
Feedlots
1605
690
2296
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
174
959
555
76
1763
Streambank erosion
1530
356
1886
Silviculture
79
79
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
30
30
Road constructymalnt.
43
112
155
Construction
10
26
36
Highway/road/bridge
7
69
76
Land development
0
Urban Runoff
45
37
82
Storm sewers
178
10
188
Surface runoff
129
47
47
223
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
6
62
68
Surface mining
72
2
74
Subsurface mining
1242
375
1616
Placer mining
21
47
68
Dredge mining
47
47
Petroleum activities
64
255
319
Mill tailings
15
285
300
Mine tailings
10
23
32
Land Disposal
2
2
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
54
26
76
156
Hydromodification
45
45
Channelization
1
219
832
1052
Dredging
0
Dam construction
75
75
Flow regulation
17
689
109
56
871
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
0
Streambank modificatio
203
651
1354
2208
Other
0
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
37
37
In-place contaminants
105
18
123
Natural
110
463
2782
1169
44
4575
Recreational activities
0
Source Unknown
18
5
23
-------
Table 20-13 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by State - Region VIII
Acres of Lake Impaired
North
South
Pollutant Colorado
Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
3500
27
3527
Industrial
99470
99470
Municipal
1870
121973
20509
144352
Nonpoint Sources
443
443
Agriculture
349882
83122
433004
Non-irrigated crop prod.
21200
580763
115943
717906
Irrigated crop prod.
16306
15290
368231
96207
496034
Pasture land
9063
495567
35
4268
7509
516442
Range land
940
4360
134
122364
102534
230332
Feedlots
491558
18495
10927
520980
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
71238
1600
700
73538
Streambank erosion
2570
19329
21899
Silviculture
34775
594
35369
Harvesting, restoration
3350
3350
Forest management
0
Road construct/maint.
3350
410
3760
Construction
13625
10695
24320
Highway/road/bridge
76417
76417
Land development
25
25
Urban Runoff
10011
10011
Storm sewers
0
Surface runoff
9451
16
1434
10901
Resource Extract/explore/dev
83
83
Surface mining
60
9420
9480
Subsurface mining
1955
2100
4055
Placer mining
2100
2100
Dredge mining
0
Petroleum activities
31300
31300
Mill tailings
0
Mine tailings
0
Land Disposal
325
36405
36730
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
5940
130
22003
28073
Hydromodification
34580
119171
153751
Channelization
197
700
897
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Flow regulation
1760
324
9077
33917
45078
Bridge construction
80
80
Removal of riparian veg.
56919
56919
Streambank modification
3350
391
500
14919
19160
Other
55
480
535
Atmospheric deposition
1520
60
1580
Highway maintenance
940
940
In-piace contaminants
566078
566078
Natural
76882
5575
1005
14373
104232
202067
Recreational activities
83
12068
12151
Source Unknown
454
1991
2445
-------
Table 20-13 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Aquatic Fish 4 Wildlife
Acres of Lake Impaired
Source Category
North
South
Subcategory Colorado Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
27
27
Industrial
98990
98990
Municipal
1870
108990
110860
Nonpoint Sources
443
443
Agriculture
83122
83122
Non-irrigated crop prod.
108
98990
99098
Irrigated crop prod.
0
Pasture land
35
35
Range land
134
98990
99124
Feedlots
18495
18495
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
1600
1600
Streambank erosion
10000
10000
Silviculture
594
594
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Road construct/malnl.
410
410
Construction
10000
10000
Highway/road/bridge
0
Land development
0
Urban Runoff
10000
10000
Storm sewers
0
Surface runoff
16
16
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
83
83
Surface mining
0
Subsurface mining
0
Placer mining
0
Dredge mining
0
Petroleum activities
0
Mill tailings
0
Mine tailings
0
Land Disposal
0
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
22003
22003
Hydromodification
108000
108000
Channelization
0
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Flow regulation
9077
9077
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
0
Streambank modification
500
500
Other
0
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
940
940
in-place contaminants
108
108
Natural
108
1005
990
2103
Recreational activities
83
83
Source Unknown
454
454
-------
Table 20-13 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Warm Water Fisheries
Acres of Lake Impaired
Source Category
North
South
Subcategory Colorado
Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
0
Industrial
98000
98000
Municipal
1870
118905
120775
Nonpoint Sources
443
443
Agriculture
253599
82704
336303
Non-irrigated crop prod.
11360
35443
109521
156324
Irrigated crop prod. 13983
20100
34083
Pasture land
7593
35
6100
13728
Range land 615
2610
134
109521
25097
137977
Feedlots
5397
18260
350
24007
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
14047
1600
700
16347
Streambank erosion 615
10350
10965
Silviculture
0
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Road construct/malnt.
0
Construction
10011
10011
Highway/road/bridge
25797
25797
Land development
0
Urban Runolf
10011
10011
Storm sewers
0
Surface runoff 2311
16
2327
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
83
83
Surface mining
60
9420
9480
Subsurface mining
0
Placer mining
0
Dredge mining
0
Petroleum activities
13300
13300
Mill tailings
0
Mine tailings
0
Land Disposal
0
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
130
21599
21729
Hydromodification
119171
119171
Channelization
197
700
897
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Flow regulation
324
7868
9420
17612
Bridge construction
80
80
Removal of riparian veg.
919
919
Streambank modification
391
500
6100
6991
Other
55
55
Atmospheric deposition
60
60
Highway maintenance
851
851
In-place contaminants
27597
27597
Natural
2634
713
616
25097
29060
Recreational activities
11
11
Source Unknown
454
454
-------
Table 20-13 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Cold Water Fisheries
Acres of Lake Impaired
Source Category
North
South
Subcategory Colorado
Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
3500
3500
Industrial
1470
1470
Municipal
3068
20509
23577
Nonpoint Sources
0
Agriculture
56303
418
56721
Non-irrigated crop prod.
9840
6422
16262
Irrigated crop prod.
2323
15290
17613
Pasture land
903
4268
89177
94348
Range land
325
12843
1409
14577
Feedlots
235
10577
92655
103467
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
0
Streambank erosion
1955
8979
10934
Silviculture
34775
594
35369
Harvesting, restoration
3350
3350
Forest management
0
Road construcVmalnt.
3350
410
3760
Construction
8825
684
9509
Highway/road/bridge
66297
66297
Land development
25
25
Urban Runoff
0
Storm sewers
0
Surface runoff
7140
1434
8574
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
0
Surface mining
0
Subsurface mining
1955
2100
4055
Placer mining
2100
2100
Dredge mining
0
Petroleum activities
31300
31300
Mill tailings
0
Mine tailings
0
Land Disposal
325
36405
36730
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
5940
404
6344
Hydromodification
34580
34580
Channelization
0
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Flow regulation
1760
24497
26257
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
0
Streambank modification
3350
8819
12169
Other
480
480
Atmospheric deposition
1520
1520
Highway maintenance
89
89
In-place contaminants
24146
24146
Natural
293
13757
94064
108114
Recreational activities
83
12057
12140
Source Unknown
1962
1962
-------
Table 20-l3(cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Public Water Supply
Acres of Lake Impaired
Source Category
North
South
Subcategory Colorado
Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
27
27
Industrial
990
990
Municipal
13973
13973
Nonpoint Sources
350
350
Agriculture
293579
2026
295605
Non-irrigated crop prod.
15510
17463
32973
Irrigated crop prod.
2750
7650
10400
Pasture land
4268
4268
Range land
325
23884
24209
Feedlots
10927
10927
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
0
Streambank erosion
1955
8849
10804
Silviculture
53
53
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Road construct/malnt.
32
32
Construction
4800
684
5484
Highway/road/bridge
0
Land development
0
Urban Runoff
0
Storm sewers
0
Surface runoff
7691
7691
Resource Extract/axplore/dev.
0
Surface mining
0
Subsurface mining
1955
1955
Placer mining
0
Dredge mining
0
Petroleum activities
0
Mill tailings
0
Mine tailings
0
Land Disposal
325
325
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
1503
1503
Hydromodification
11171
11171
Channelization
0
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Flow regulation
1209
1209
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
0
Streambank modification
0
Other
0
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
671
671
In-place contaminants
0
Natural
47848
157
14373
289
62667
Recreational activities
12057
12057
Source Unknown
41
41
-------
Table 20-13 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Irrigation and Agriculture
Acres of Lake Impaired
Source Category
North
South
|
Subcategory Colorado
Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
0
Industrial
99470
99470
Municipal
121973
121973
Nonpoint Sources
0
Agriculture
25639
25639
Non-irrigated crop prod.
15510
115943
131453
Irrigated crop prod.
16306
7650
230
24186
Pasture land
1423
4268
5691
Range land
940
122364
459
123763
Feediots
12360
10927
23287
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
0
Streambank erosion
2570
19329
21899
Silviculture
0
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Road construct/maint.
0
Construction
10695
10695
Highway/road/bridge
0
Land development
0
Urban Runoff
10011
10011
Storm sewers
0
Surface runoff
7691
7691
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
0
Surface mining
0
Subsurface mining
1955
1955
Placer mining
0
Dredge mining
0
Petroleum activities
0
Milt tailings
0
Mine tailings
0
Land Disposal
325
325
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
1749
1749
Hydromodiflcation
119171
119171
Channelization
0
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Flow regulation
0
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
0
Streambank modification
0
Other
480
480
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
0
In-place contaminants
0
Natural
14373
459
14832
Recreational activities
12068
12068
Source Unknown
0
-------
Table 20-13 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Livestock Watering
Acres of Lake Impaired
Source Category
North
South
Subcategory Colorado
Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
27
27
Industrial
99470
99470
Municipal
1870
121973
123843
Nonpolnt Sources
443
443
Agriculture
83122
83122
Non-irrigated crop prod.
15510
115943
131453
Irrigated crop prod.
7650
7650
Pasture land
1423
35
4268
5726
Range land
134
122364
122498
Feedlots
18495
10927
29422
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
1600
1600
Streambank erosion
19329
19329
Silviculture
594
594
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Road construct/malnt.
410
410
Construction
10695
10695
Highway/road/bridge
0
Land development
0
Urban Runoff
10011
10011
Storm sewers
0
Surface runoff
16
16
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
83
83
Surface mining
0
Subsurface mining
0
Placer mining
0
Dredge mining
0
Petroleum activities
0
Mill tailings
0
Mine tailings
0
Land Disposal
0
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
22003
22003
Hydromodiflcation
119171
119171
Channelization
0
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Flow regulation
9077
9077
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
0
Streambank modification
500
500
Other
480
480
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
940
940
In-place contaminants
0
Natural
1005
14373
15378
Recreational activities
83
12068
12151
Source Unknown
454
454
-------
Table 20-13 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Industrial
Acres of Lake Impaired
Source Category North
South
Subcategory Colorado Montana Dakota
Dakota Utah Wyoming TOTAL
Point Sources
0
Industrial
0
Municipal
0
Nonpoint Sources
0
Agriculture
0
Non-irrigated crop prod.
0
Irrigated crop prod.
0
Pasture land
0
Range land
0
Feedlots
0
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
0
Streambank erosion
0
Silviculture
0
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Road construct/maint.
0
Construction
0
Highway/road/bridge
0
Land development
0
Urban Runoff
0
Storm sewers
0
Surface runoff
0
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
0
Surface mining
0
Subsurface mining
0
Placer mining
0
Dredge mining
0
Petroleum activities
0
Mill tailings
0
Mine tailings
0
Land Disposal
0
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
0
Hydromodificatlon
0
Channelization
0
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Flow regulation
0
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
0
Streambank modification
0
Other
0
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
0
In-place contaminants
0
Natural
0
Recreational activities
0
Source Unknown
0
-------
Table 20-13 (cont.)
Source Subcategory by Use Category by State: Recreation
Acres of Lake Impaired
Source Category
North
South
Colorado
Montana
Dakota
Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
TOTAL
Point Sources
3500
27
3527
Industrial
98480
98480
Municipal
1870
110078
111948
Nonpoint Sources
443
443
Agriculture
297432
83122
380554
Non-irrigated crop prod.
21050
567947
103698
692695
Irrigated crop prod. 16306
11790
368231
396327
Pasture land
9063
495347
35
4268
508713
Range land
940
4360
134
110119
115553
Feedlots
491288
18495
10577
520360
Aquaculture
0
Animal holding areas
61780
1600
63380
Streambank erosion
2570
18979
21549
Silviculture
1050
594
1644
Harvesting, restoration
0
Forest management
0
Road construct/maint.
410
410
Construction
10695
10695
Highway/road/bridge
9505
9505
Land development
0
Urban Runoff
10011
10011
Storm sewers
0
Surface runoff
9451
16
9467
Resource Extract/explore/dev.
83
83
Surface mining
0
Subsurface mining
1955
2100
4055
Placer mining
2100
2100
Dredge mining
0
Petroleum activities
0
Mill tailings
0
Mine tailings
0
Land Disposal
325
3655
3980
Wastewater
0
On-site wastewater treat.
1030
130
22003
23163
Hydromodiflcatlon
108266
108266
Channelization
0
Dredging
0
Dam construction
0
Flow regulation
1760
9077
10837
Bridge construction
0
Removal of riparian veg.
56919
56919
Streambank modification
194
500
694
Other
55
480
535
Atmospheric deposition
0
Highway maintenance
940
940
In-place contaminants
553203
553203
Natural
56744
5529
1005
13033
76311
Recreational activities
83
12068
12151
Source Unknown
454
29
483
-------
20-55
Data on the effects of surface mining on fish and wildlife resources were reported by
Spaulding and Ogden (1968) using 1967 State fish and game department reports. The miles
and surface acres of streams, number and acres of natural and man-made lakes, and the
acres of wildlife habitat adversely affected by surface mining are reported in Table 20-14
as taken from Spaulding and Ogden, 1968. Comparison of these data with more recent data
suggest that effects of mining activities have become more extensive. As the reliability of
these data are unknown, further quantitative comparisons may not be justified.
20.3.3 Terrestrial Ecosystem Effects
Quantitative data on the extent of terrestrial ecosystem damage due to mining activities are
lacking. Qualitative data on the potential magnitude of this problem can be derived from
the data describing mining waste sources, described in Section 20.2.
We assume that terrestrial ecosystem effects are correlated with the number and size of
surface mining operations, for example (Tables 20-1 through 20-7). This assumption is
evaluated by comparing data on known impacts and data quantifying mining waste sources.
Colorado and Montana have the greatest number of mines and the most miles of impact.
Even though there are no active hard rock mines listed in Table 20-1 for North Dakota,
abandoned mines are still affecting stream water quality. The acres of 1989 coal mine
permits listed for each State (Table 20-2) is linearly correlated (R2 = 0.994) with the amount
of land disturbance listed in Table 20-15. The correspondences seen between measured
impacts and indices of mining activity suggest that these may be surrogate measures of
impact potential where measured impacts are lacking.
The amount of impact on terrestrial ecosystems from surface mining activities was reported
in the EPA Unfinished Business Report using 1977 U.S.D.A. data (EPA, 1987). The
amount of land area disturbed by coal mines, sand and gravel, and "other" mines is reported
both for lands requiring and not requiring reclamation (Table 20-15). Of the total land area
disturbed, 25% was unprotected by reclamation laws. For Region VIII over 100,000 acres
of land were disturbed by 1977 for which reclamation was not legally mandated, or about
4% of the National total.
Region VIII states with the greatest disturbance were Colorado, Montana and Wyoming,
followed by South Dakota, Utah and North Dakota. Coal mines and sand and gravel mines
disturbed as much land as all other forms of mining activity.
Impacted wildlife habitat area, for all Region VIII States except Wyoming, is reported in
Table 20-14 from the study by Spaulding and Ogden, 1968. These authors reported that
by 1967 115,498 acres of wildlife habitat had been disturbed by surface mining activities in
the Region, representing nearly 6% of the National total.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
Table 20-14
Fish and Wildlife Habitat Adversely Affected
by Surface Mining (1968)
Pre 1968 Data USFWS
Fish &
Number of
Number of
Number of
Wildlife
Wildlife
State
Streams
Miles
Lakes
Acres
Reservoirs
Acres
Habitat
Habitat
Colorado
880
1,930
0
0
13
600
21,515
24,045
Montana
136
234
0
0
0
0
10,830
11,064
North Dakota
0
0
0
0
0
0
33,140
33,140
South Dakota
640
3,250
0
0
33
9,275
23,000
35,525
Utah
16
90
0
0
0
0
11,434
11,524
Wyoming
10
200
0
0
0
0
Unknown
200
Region VIII
1,682
5,704
0
0
46
9,875
99,919
115,498
USA
12,898
135,970
281
103,630
168
41,516
1.687,288
1,968,404
Region VIII
13.04%
4.20%
0.00%
0.00%
27.38%
23.79%
5.92%
5.87%
as % of USA
(Spaulding and Ogden, 1968)
-------
Table 20-15
Land Disturbed by Mining
No Reclamation Required
Reclamation
Required
Total Land
Sand and
Other
Without
Sand and
Other
Total Land
State
Coal
Gravel
Areas
Reclamation
Coal
Gravel
Areas
Disturbed
Colorado
7,089
8,334
15,861
31,284
1,195
11,672
6,513
64,687
Montana
1,955
4,655
18,340
24,950
4,766
4,492
6,598
53,334
North Dakota
1,050
2,010
200
3,260
6,725
0
0
48,580
South Dakota
890
10,153
5,259
16,302
0
6,826
695
30,972
Utah
635
3,999
4,414
9,048
133
4,637
10,216
31,555
Wyoming
9,657
3.673
12,376
25,706
62,028
7,665
12,787
113,697
Region VIII
21,276
32,824
56,450
110,550
74,847
35,292
36,809
342,825
USA
1,097,088
799,042
830,407
2,726,537
570,088
257,851
267,097
5,719,776
Region VIII
1.94%
4.11%
6.80%
4.05%
13.13%
13.69%
13.78%
5.99%
as % of USA
(USDA, 1977, In: EPA, 1987)
-------
20-58
20.4 ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH MINING SITES AND WASTES
Data quantitatively and qualitatively describing the extent of mining waste effects in the
Region (Sections 20.2-20.3) were combined with knowledge of the ecological effects of
mining wastes (eg. Down and Stocks, 1977) to qualitatively define the ecological risks of
mining sites and wastes in Region VIII.
Mining related activities have had a demonstrable impact on terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems in the Region. Specific ecological damages depend on the type of mining
operation and the degree to which a regulatory framework addressing those processes is in
place and enforced.
20.4.1 Terrestrial Ecosystem Degradation
The environmental risks associated with loss of terrestrial habitat from mining activities are
extreme in the sense that habitat loss can be irreversible and permanent. Reclamation of
some mined lands is legally mandated and technically possible. However, reclamation in
some environments is impossible or difficult (ie. mountainous terrain) and may not be
required by existing regulations.
Many mine waste piles are phytotoxic due to elevated metal concentrations and subsequent
re-vegetation of phytotoxic lands is limited. Generally speaking, effects from hard rock
metal mines in mountainous terrain will be more intensive, more difficult to remediate, and
more long lasting than other mining activities. Potential impacts from coal mining can be
extensive but less intensive since coal mines are associated with more gentle terrain, and
remediation requirements are set by State and Federal laws.
Successful reclamation may be impaired by a lack of understanding of the best mix of
vegetation required for proper remediation of habitat, as habitat requirements are not fully
known and techniques of reclamation are in development. Under already stressful
circumstances, effects of disturbance on wildlife can be especially severe.
Effects of sand and gravel mining occur at more locations but at smaller scales than other
mining operations. Federal regulations regarding remediation are lacking, and State laws
vary with the size of sand and gravel mine operation. Effects are generally limited to
disruption and loss of terrestrial habitat.
Effects of surface mining activities and tailings piles are obvious and directly consume
terrestrial habitat, while the effects of subsurface mining can be indirect and may only
become apparent due to subsidence or through local alterations of hydrology.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
20-59
20.4.2 Aquatic Ecosystem Degradation
Ecosystem effects of mining activities on aquatic ecosystems occur primarily via runoff and
spills to surface waters and groundwater, which can result in acute or chronic toxicity in
aquatic systems, and secondarily through habitat destruction. Ecosystem effects are site
specific. The kinds of pollutants and their chemical speciation dramatically affect toxicity.
Metal Mining Effects
Primary aquatic ecosystem effects of metal mining are due to acid mine drainage and
elevated metal concentrations. Some sediment production from bare soil on steep slopes
also contributes to siltation and sedimentation in surface waters as well.
Data are available to evaluate the aquatic toxicity of most of mining related metals. The
following discussion is based on the Pennsylvania Comparative Risk Project: Ecological Risk
Hazard Finding. State of Pennsylvania (1988), unless otherwise cited.
Although lower pH has been reported to increase the toxicity of some metals (e.g.,
chromium VI), there are few data relating toxicity to pH for most metals. There also are
few data concerning community and ecosystem effects of metals, such effects are likely to
be very site-specific. Data available to evaluate the potential effects of various levels of
sediment metal contamination on rooted plants, benthic invertebrates, and fish are limited.
There are few data available to relate fish tissue residue levels of metals to possible adverse
effects on the fish.
Various metals and metal species produce different types of toxic effects.
Species level effects of metals in fish include:
• neurotoxicity;
• impaired reproduction;
• reduced growth;
• damage to gill surfaces and impaired respiration;
• mortality; and
• other effects.
RCG/Hagier, Bailly, Inc.
-------
20-60
Ecosystem-level effects include:
• reduced primary and secondary productivity;
• loss of top carnivores;
• changes in community composition; and
• modification of nutrient cycling.
The effects of heavy metals in the environment depend on their concentrations and chemical
form(s). The chemical form(s) of metals are determined by complex suites of both abiotic
and biotic factors including pH, Eh, salinity, alkalinity, the presence of other metals and
ligands, dissolved oxygen, and the presence or absence of specific types of bacteria. Toxic
compounds that are persistent, such as metals, and that bioaccumulate can have serious
adverse effects on species at high trophic levels (e.g., trout) despite low environmental
concentrations.
Table 20-16 lists in the EPA acute and chronic Ambient Water Quality Criteria (AWQC)
for metals. These toxicity values indicate that iron, nickel, and zinc are unlikely to cause
problems except at high surface water concentrations. On the other hand, mercury,
cadmium, lead, and beryllium can produce adverse effects at low environmental
concentrations. Chromium VI and copper are also highly toxic, although they do not often
reach toxic concentrations in surface water for several reasons.
Representative bioconcentration factors for aquatic invertebrates or fish are also listed in
Table 20-16. The chronic AWQC are designed to protect against bioaccumulation to levels
that would be toxic to fish. Mercury, lead, and cadmium have a high potential for
bioaccumulation to toxic levels in aquatic food chains.
The expert panel convened by the Cornell Ecosystems Research Center (EPA, 1987) in the
National Comparative Risk Project estimated that decades or centuries would be required
for surface water bodies to recover from metal contamination. Sediments contaminated with
metals continue to be a source of contamination to biota, particularly benthic invertebrates
and bottom feeding fish. Animals that have been exposed to heavy metals and that have
developed significant body burdens will remain contaminated for years or for life.
Because the natural "flushing" of some metals from sediments is a very slow process, metal-
contaminated sediments can produce adverse effects on aquatic life for decades or centuries
after the sources of contamination are eliminated. The recovery time for lakes and ponds
should be longer than that for flowing surface waters (e.g., rivers and streams) because the
"flushing" process is slower (i.e., longer residence time).
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
Table 20-16
Water Quality Criteria
EPA Acute
EPA Chronic
Biocon-
Freshwater
Freshwater
centration
AWQC
AWQC
Factor
(ug/liter)
(ug/liter)
log(BCF)
(1)
(1)
(1)
Aluminum
Arsenic III
360
a
190
a
1.2
Arsenic V
850
48
1.2
Beryllium
130
a
5.3
a
2
Chromium III
1800
210
1-2
Chromium VI
16
*
11
*
1-2
Copper I
18
*
12
*
2.3 b
Copper II
Cadmium
3.9
*
1.1
*
3.6
Iron
—
1000
—
Lead
82
*
3.2
•
3.4
Manganese
—
—
—
Mercury
2.4
0.012
3.4
Nickel
1400
*
160
*
2.3
Selenium
280
36
1.3
Zinc
120
*
110
*
2
Tin
—
—
—
References:
(1) U.S. EPA (1986), Quality Criteria for Water;
U.S. EPA (1979), Water-Related Fate of 129 Priority Pollutants.
Notes:
a: Data insufficient to develop and AWQC. Value listed is a
LOEL.
b: Oysters strongly accumulate copper, but copper does not
appear to biomagnify.
": Criterion is hardness dependent (100 mg/liter used).
-------
20-62
The exposure of biota to multiple metals and the bioaccumulation of metals are two means
by which metals can produce more severe effects than what might be expected from
laboratory toxicity tests alone. Other conditions that would alter the toxicity of metals to
aquatic life are discussed below.
• Methylation of metals by bacteria. Certain bacteria are capable of transforming
inorganic metal compounds to methylated organic compounds, which are often
more toxic and are bioconcentrated to a greater degree than are their inorganic
precursors. Bacterial methylation occurs with mercury, selenium, lead, tin, and
arsenic.
• Acidification. Low pH levels release sediment-bound metals and increases their
concentrations in the water column (EPA, 1979). Thus, the association of low
pH with metals in runoff from abandoned mine drainage increases the exposure
of aquatic organisms to metals in the water column.
To better evaluate environmental risks due to individual metals some specific considerations
are listed below.
• Arsenic. The acute and chronic toxicity of arsenic depends upon its valence state
(Table 20-16). The chemistry of arsenic in water is particularly complex and the
form present in solution depends upon pH, organic content, suspended solids,
and sediment concentrations (EPA 1984a).
• Beryllium. Beryllium has low aqueous solubility and can be found in high
concentrations adsorbed to particulate matter in turbid waters. Water hardness
has a substantial effect on the acute toxicity of beryllium (EPA, 1980a).
• Cadmium. The impact of cadmium on aquatic organisms depends upon its
chemical form. In well-oxygenated fresh waters low in organic carbon, free
divalent cadmium will be the predominant form while in turbid waters, dissolved
organic material can bind a substantial portion of the total cadmium. As water
hardness decreases, the toxicity of cadmium increases (EPA, 1984b).
• Chromium. Chromium exists in two oxidation states in aqueous systems,
chromium III and chromium VI. The hexavalent form of chromium is quite
soluble and is not sorbed to any significant degree by clays or hydrous metal
oxides. Hexavalent chromium is a moderately strong oxidizing agent and reacts
with reducing materials to form trivalent chromium. Trivalent chromium reacts
with aqueous hydroxide ions to form the insoluble chromium hydroxide.
Hexavalent chromium is substantially more toxic than the trivalent form. Water
hardness affects the toxicity of chromium III. Insufficient data were available to
relate the toxicity of chromium VI to water hardness, but the toxicity of
chromium VI appears to increase with decreasing pH (EPA, 1984c).
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
-------
20-63
• Copper. The cupric ion, responsible for most of copper's toxic effects, is highly
reactive, forms moderate to strong complexes, and precipitates with many
inorganic and organic constituents of natural waters. Thus, in eutrophic waters,
copper complexing predominates, and most organic and inorganic copper
complexes and precipitates appear to be much less toxic than free cupric ion.
• Iron. Iron is an essential trace element required by both plants and animals.
High iron loading in alkaline conditions can produce precipitates that coat the
natural bottom of a surface water body, smothering existing benthic flora and
fauna and making the substrate unsuitable for recolonization by the species
originally present (EPA, 1984d).
• Lead. Lead toxicity to aquatic organisms increases as water hardness decreases
(EPA, 1986a).
• Manganese. Manganese does not occur naturally as an uncomplexed metal but
is found in various salts and minerals, frequently in association with iron
compounds. Permanganates have been reported to kill fish at concentrations of
2.2 to 4.1 mg/liter, but permanganates are not persistent; they rapidly oxidize
organic materials and are thereby reduced and rendered less toxic (EPA, 1986a).
• Mercury. Mercury (II) can be methylated by both aerobic and anaerobic
bacteria. Methylmercury is more toxic than mercury (EPA 1984e).
• Selenium. Selenium occurs naturally in surface water from the weathering of
parent rock material and exists in several forms. The inorganic selenites ( + 4)
and selenates ( + 6) are soluble. Because the ratios between the concentrations
of selenium in water that are acutely and chronically toxic to aquatic species are
small (EPA 1980), surface water bodies with high background levels of selenium
would be particularly at risk if additional selenium loading occurred (EPA,
1980b).
• Tin. Tin is not usually considered to pose a major problem as a heavy metal
contaminant. However, under reducing conditions, tin can be methylated, and
alkyl tin compounds are central nervous system toxins (WHO, 1980).
• Zinc. Zinc is an essential micronutrient, and organisms have evolved
mechanisms for accumulation of zinc from water and excretion of zinc, at least
within limits of ambient zinc concentrations. As water hardness decreases, zinc
toxicity increases. Most zinc introduced into aquatic environments is partitioned
into sediments by sorption onto hydrous iron and manganese oxides, clay
minerals, and organic materials. As sediments change from a reduced to an
oxidized state, more zinc is mobilized and released in a soluble form (EPA,
1987).
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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20-64
It is important to note that while much is known about the toxic effects of individual metals
on certain aquatic species, community and ecosystem level effects may occur at lower
concentrations than those specified in the standards.
Coal Mining Effects
Surface mining is the dominant form of coal mining in the Region. As with metallic mines,
acid mine drainage is also associated with active and inactive coal mines. Metal
concentrations can be elevated in surface and groundwaters, and increased erosion can yield
high concentrations of suspended sediments (TSS and TDS) and increased sedimentation.
Coal mining activities can disrupt hydrologic flow paths and cause extensive aquatic habitat
loss. Effects are site specific.
Sand and Gravel Mining Effects
The magnitude of effects from sand and gravel mining are related to the proximity of the
mining activity to surface waters and the mines specific location. Mines associated with
steep slopes adjacent to streams and rivers can contribute significant levels of suspended
sediments to streams. Some mining activity occurs within stream beds and most sand and
gravel mines are historic fluvial deposits which are often near existing waterways. Habitat
loss is the primary effect of sand and gravel mining on aquatic ecosystems.
Uranium Mining and Mill Tailings Effects
The effects of uranium mining and mill tailings differ between surface and underground
mining operations, and inactive and licensed uranium mill tailing operations. Given the well
documented mutagenic, teratogenic, and carcinogenic effects of radiation on humans, the
effects of uranium mining and mill tailings find their greatest expression in human health
impacts. Environmental impacts of radiation have not been well documented. Typical
effects are similar to other land disturbing mining activities: loss of terrestrial habitat and
increased sediment and pollutant loads to surface waters. Remediation efforts associated
with mill tailing "disposal" also results in permanent loss of terrestrial habitats.
20.5 MINING HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTS
This section presents a discussion of the health effects due to active and inactive mining and
milling sites in Region VIII. Associated health risks are principally due to direct ingestion
of contaminated soil and water, and inhalation of toxic air pollutants. Toxicants include
heavy metals (ie. lead and cadmium), arsenic and radioactive mine wastes. Exposure
pathways both are direct and indirect.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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20-65
Direct human contact and misuse of mining waste usually occurs at unrestricted sites.
Direct impacts on mine employees while at work are not considered in this assessment.
Abandoned sites can be used by children as play areas or by other individuals for outdoor
recreational activities such as hiking, mountain biking or motorized dirt biking. Dust
generating activities can increase inhalation exposures. Inactive mining sites contain physical
hazards, (ie.abandoned mine shafts) which are annually a source of mortality in the Region.
Mine waste materials can be moved from the mine site and improperly used as building
materials, for children's sandboxes, or as garden soil supplements. Tailings added to
gardening or agricultural soils can result in crops with elevated metal levels that may pose
a health risk when ingested (Chaney et al. 1984).
Indirect exposure pathways are through wind and water borne transport of toxic substances
from mine waste sites to humans off site.
Airborne exposures are primarily from fugitive dusts associated with transport and
placement of wastes, mine waste piles, dried tailings piles and haul roads (USEPA, 1985).
Inactive mines may produce fewer airborne emissions due to the lack of movement of wastes
and road use. Deposition of air transported toxicants can be a source of contamination of
domestic, garden and agricultural soils.
Water can carry contaminants from mine wastes in overland flow, stream flow and in
groundwaters. Precipitation onto tailings piles can leach pollutants as the water infiltrates
the waste piles. Mine activities can include pumping water from mine excavations, leaching
with waterborne chemicals etc. Contaminated surface waters can contaminate groundwaters.
Health effects occur when the contaminated surface or groundwaters are ingested directly
or contaminants enter the food chain and are subsequently ingested with food. The
ingestion of high concentrations of mine waste toxicants in contaminated game, fish, or
livestock may result from the bioaccumulation of specific toxicants in the food chain.
The severity of the threat to humans is a function of the toxicity of the waste and the dose.
Dose is related to the concentration of toxicant and the extent of direct contact, inhalation
or ingestion. The potential dose usually lessens with distance from the source as both
concentrations and amount of contact declines.
20.5.1 Data on the Health Effects of Mining Related Wastes1
Health effects vary with the type of hazard associated with particular mining wastes. Data
on the dose-response of individual pollutants have lead to the establishment of action levels
or environmental "levels of concern" for lead, cadmium, arsenic and radon in various media.
1 This section is taken from Colorado Environment, 2000
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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20-66
Ongoing research may change some of these levels in the future and the currently accepted
levels listed below do not take into account multiple effects or more than one pollutant.
• Lead
National Ambient Air Quality Standard 1.5 ug/m3
Current MCL for drinking water 50 ug/L
Proposed MCL for drinking water 5 ug/L
There is currently no consensus regarding soil lead levels of concern. Children
who live on properties with unnaturally high soil lead values, however, are
considered to be the population at highest risk due to their normal soil ingestion
habits. Attempts to evaluate soil lead levels have resulted in considerable
research into the relationships between soil lead and blood lead, soil lead and
house dust lead, and blood lead and adverse health effects.
Some research has also been done to evaluate the effectiveness of public health
intervention programs (behavior modification) in reducing blood lead levels in
children.
As a result of this research, EPA has determined that blood lead levels of 10-15
g/dL may cause irreversible health effects. Using 10-15 g/dL as a target blood
lead level, the proposed MCL as an "acceptable" ingestion level, information
from several soil lead/blood lead studies, and EPA's biokinetic model, it is
possible to estimate soil lead action levels based on different land uses. The
estimated soil lead action level necessary to protect children under a residential
scenario is in the range of 200-500 mg/Kg. Studies at a mining site in Idaho,
however, with children living on properties with soil lead values of 3000-5000
mg/Kg have shown that public health intervention and education programs may
also have a demonstrable effect in reducing blood lead concentrations.
• Arsenic
MCL for drinking water 50 ug/L
Proposed MCLG for drinking water 50 ug/L
Carcinogenic Potency Factor (CPF) 1.75 (mg/Kg/day)*1
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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20-67
Using the CPF and assuming a lifetime residential exposure scenario, it is
possible to estimate a range of soil action levels for arsenic of .03 - 30 mg/Kg
which corresponds to a risk range of 10-7 - 10-4.
• Cadmium
MCL for drinking water 10 ug/L
Proposed MCLG for drinking water 5 ug/L
Carcinogenic Potency Factor (CPF) 6.1 (mg/Kg/day)'1
(via inhalation only)
Reference Dose (RfD) 5x10^ mg/Kg/day
Because cadmium occurs with lead and is removed when lead is removed, action
levels for cadmium in soil are typically not set for mining sites in Colorado.
• Radon
EPA has promulgated standards for concentrations of radium-226 for open land
and concentrations of radon progeny for habitable buildings as follows:
Land: The concentration of radium-226 in land averaged over an area of 100
m2 shall not exceed the background level by more than 5 pCi/g, averaged over
the first 15 cm of soil below the surface.
Buildings: 1. An annual average radon decay product concentration
(including background) shall not exceed 0.02 W.L., and
2. The level of gamma radiation shall not exceed the background
level by more than 20 uR/hour.
MCLs for radionuclides in drinking water include the following:
Radium-226 and -228 5 pCi/L
Gross alpha activity 15 pCi/L
XCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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20-68
20.5.2 Data on Health Risks Due to Mining Related Wastes
Data on the health risks associated with mining wastes have been compiled from two
sources; 1) A national study prepared for the U.S. EPA Office of Solid Waste by ICF
(1987), "Risk Screening Analysis of Mining Wastes"; and 2) A national study of health risks
associated with Uranium mining and milling EPA (1989), "Risk Assessments Methodology.
EIS NESHAPS for Radionuclides Volume I-III."
A quantitative health risk analysis associated with metal mining, asbestos, phosphate and
uranium mining for contaminants following several pathways was completed for selected
mines throughout the U.S. (ICF, 1987).
Results estimating the human health effects associated with mining a variety of ore types
are presented, including: molybdenum, titanium, copper, iron, lead/zinc, gold and silver,
uranium/vanadium and phosphate.
The number of Region VIII mine sites included in this national assessment provides an
indication of the relevance of this assessment to Region VIII mining activities. The
following ratios associated with each ore type are the number of Region VIII sites/total sites
in the national data set.
We assume that risks defined from the national data set will reflect relative risks in Region
VIII. Risks at individual sites are site specific. This discussion should be interpreted as a
guide to the relative health risks to the maximally exposed individual associated with mining
the listed ore types. Data are presented from the ICF study for the maximum and minimum
risk identified for each ore type via each water-borne pathway of exposure, see Tables 20-17
and 20-18.
Non-cancer risks due to the offsite inhalation pathway for each ore segment exceeded the
standard for only one site associated with an open pit uranium mining operation in Region
VIII, Table 20-19. The maximum modeled doses and associated risks are listed in Table
20-19.
molybdenum
copper
iron
lead + zinc
3/66
1/12
1/26
6/25
32/127
19/25
1/27
gold and silver
uranium
phosphate
RCG/Haglei, Bailly, Inc.
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Table 20-17
Carcinogenic Risk
Ground Water
Ground Water
to Surface Water
Surface Water
Ore Type
High
Low
High
Low
High
Low
Molybdenum
1E-02
1E-09
1E-04
1E-09
1E-07
1E-09
Titanium
1E-04
1E-09
1E-05
1E-09
1E-09
1E-09
Copper
1E-01
1E-09
1E—01
1E-09
1E-03
1E-09
Iron
1E-02
1E-09
1E-03
1E-09
1E-05
1E-09
Lead/zinc
1E-03
1E-09
1E-05
1E-09
1E-04
1E-09
Gold & silver
1 E-01
1E-09
1E-03
1E-09
1E-03
1E-09
Uranium/vanadium
1E-02
1E-09
1E-03
1E-09
1E-05
1E-09
Phosphate
1E-02
1E-09
1E-03
1E-09
1E-04
1E-09
Table 20-18
Non-Carcinogenic Risk
Ground Water
Ground Water
to Surface Water
Surface Water
Ore Type
High
Low
High
Low
High
Low
Molybdenum
1E+01
1E-09
1E-01
1E-09
1E-Q3
1E-09
Titanium
1E+02
1 E-01
1E+01
1 E-01
1E-09
1E-09
Copper
1E+02
1E-09
1E+02
1E-09
1E-02
1E-09
Iron
1E+00
1E-09
1E-01
1E-09
1E-02
1E-09
Lead/zinc
1 E-01
1E-09
1E-04
1E-09
1E+00
1E-09
Gold & silver
1E+01
1E-09
1 E-01
1E-09
1 E-01
1E-09
Uranium/vanadium
1E+02
1E-09
1E+01
1E-09
1E-02
1E-09
Phosphate
1E+01
1E-09
1E+01
1E-09
1E-02
1E-09
(ICF, 1987)
-------
Table 20-19
Offsite Inhalation Pathway
Non-Cancer Risks
Maximum
Dose
Risk
Dose/Risk
Ore Type
Modeled
Threshold
Threshold
Copper
4.84E-03
6E-03
8.07E-01
Gold/Silver
2.34E-03
6E-03
3.90E-01
Iron
5.43E-03
6E-03
9.05E-01
Lead/Zinc
1.16E-04
6E-03
1.93E-02
Molybdenum
7.35E-04
6E-03
1.23E-01
Phosphate
1.17E-03
6E-03
1.95E-01
Titanium
1.00E-07
6E-03
1.67E-05
Uranium/Vanadium
1.31E-02 *
6E-04
2.18E+01
* Exceeded standard
(ICF, 1987)
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20-71
The offsite inhalation pathway range of cancer risks for each ore segment are listed in Table
20-20. Uranium, phosphate, gold, silver and copper mining operations posed the highest
cancer risks.
Offsite direct contact (ingestion) pathway risks were modeled from deposition of mine
derived particles to the site boundary. Human health risks estimated via this pathway were
negligible in all cases since very low levels of deposition of fugitive dusts were estimated
at site boundaries.
Onsite direct contact (ingestion) pathways for non-cancer risks maximum dose values
exceeded standards for two segments, gold/silver and lead/zinc extraction sites, Table 20-21.
In each case lead standards were exceeded.
Onsite direct contact (ingestion) pathways for maximum and minimum estimated cancer
risks for each ore type are listed in Table 20-22. For all mining segments except uranium,
arsenic is the major toxicant responsible for increased cancer risks. For uranium mining,
radon is the primary stressor.
Summary of ICF Results
A wide variety of risks were estimated for the mining sites studied. Variations in calculated
risk levels were due to differences in commodity types and their associated toxicants,
exposure pathways, and site specific factors related to individual mine sites. Even with this
variation, we conclude that for each segment of concern in Region VIII, the study showed
at least one pathway/receptor combination with risk over threshold values.
While maximum and minimum range values were presented here, note that only a small
percentage of model runs showed cancer risks greater than 10"6. The highest cancer risks
were associated with the groundwater-well pathways. Offsite direct contact pathway were
associated with low risks, while onsite direct contact pathways produced very low noncancer
and variable cancer risk results.
The inhalation risks for noncarcinogens was very low, while carcinogenic risks were variable
and in some cases, significant. Estimates of cancer risks from uranium mining and milling
activities are available for specific sites in Region VIII. Risks were defined for radon and
non-radon health effects associated with several activities including:
• Active Licenced Mills
Non Radon Effects
Radon Effects
Pre UMTRCA
Post UMTRCA
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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Table 20-20
Offsite Inhalation Pathway
Cancer Risk
Minimum
Maximum
Ore Type
Risk
Risk
Copper
5.15E-08
1.53E-03
Gold/Silver
8.04E-07
2.08E-03
Iron
1 07E-05
4.29E-04
Lead/Zinc
4.79E-08
3.86E-05
Molybdenum
2.15E-06
1.15E-04
Phosphate
5.18E-08
3.76E-03
Titanium
5.83E-09
9.90E-08
Uranium/Vanadium
3.40E-08
3.88E-03
(ICF, 1987)
-------
Table 20-21
Onsite Direct Contact Pathway
Non-Cancer Risks
Maximum
Dose
Risk
Dose/Risk
Ore Type
Modeled
Threshold
Threshold
Copper
1.77E-04
6.0E-04
3.0E-01
Gold/Silver
9.53E-04 *
6.0E-04
1.6E+00
Iron
1.69E-05
6.0E-03
2.8E-02
Lead/Zinc
2.05E-03 "
6.0E-04
3.4E+00
Molybdenum
3.28E-05
6.0E-03
5.5E-02
Phosphate
2.55E-04
5.0E-03
5.1E-02
Titanium
6.44E-07
6.0E-04
1.1E-03
Uranium/Vanadium
3.38E-02
5.1E-02
6.6E-01
* Exceeded Standard
(ICF, 1987)
-------
Table 20-22
Onsite Direct Contact Pathway
Cancer Risk
Minimum
Maximum
Ore Type
Risk
Risk
Copper
1.06E-06
5.95E-04
Gold/Silver
1.39E-06
3.33E-03
Iron
1.08E-06
1.40E-04
Lead/Zinc
4.76E-07
2.42E-04
Molybdenum
1.82E-06
3.61 E-06
Phosphate
3.53E-07
1.80E-04
Titanium
2.27E-07
1.81 E-06
Uranium
3.76E-08
1.14E-04
(ICF, 1987)
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20-75
• Inactive Mills
Radon Effects
• Underground Uranium Mines
• Surface Uranium Mines
• Phosphorous Mine
• Phosphogypsum Stacks
• Active Surface Mines
There are 16 active licenced uranium mills in Region VIII, Table 20-23 (EPA, 1989).
Modeled non-radon health risks are lower in most cases than the radon related health risks
(Table 20-23). The highest non-radon risk was 0.00009 deaths/year for the population
within an 80 km radius of Shirley Basin Mill, Wyoming. The highest radon risk (before any
remediation) was estimated to be 0.0066 deaths/year for the Canon City Mill, Colorado.
Following planed UMTRCA remediation this risk declines to 0.00043 deaths/year. Even
after UMTOCA disposal radon emissions from the Moab Utah mill are projected to cause
0.0013 deaths/year (Table 20-23).
There are 16 inactive uranium mill tailings sites in Region VIII, (EPA, 1989). The quantity
of tailings, the proposed remediation action and the estimated radon health risks are listed
in Table 20-24. The maximum risk identified was 0.00099 deaths/year associated with the
site at Grand Junction, CO (Table 20-24).
There are 10 operating underground uranium mines in Region VIII. The maximum cancer
risk identified was 0.7 deaths per year for the Schwartzwalder, Colorado mine (Table 20-25).
Of the 128 small (1,000-100,000 tons/yr) and 37 large (> 100,000 tons/yr) surface uranium
mines listed in Table 20-5b, only 15 have radon health risk estimates (Table 20-26). The
maximum cancer risk to the most exposed individual was given as 5xl0"5.
There is one phosphorous mine listed in Region VIII where health effects were estimated
(EPA, 1989). Risk to the most exposed individual was 6xl0"5, and the population risk was
0.005 deaths/yr associated with the Stauffer mine in Silver Bow, Montana (EPA, 1989).
Cancer causing agents associated with phosphorous mines are: U-238, U234, Th-230, Ra-226,
Ra-222, Pb-210 and Po-210.
RCG/HagJer, Bailly, Inc.
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Table 20-23
Health Effects Model for Licensed Conventional
Uranium Mills as of June 1989
Non-Radon Emissions
Radon Emissions
Post-UMTRCA Disposal
Radon Emissions
Nearby
Regional
Nearby
Regional
Nearby
Regional
Individuals
(0-80km)
Individuals
(0-80km)
Individuals
(0-80km)
Lifetime Fatal
Population
Lifetime Fatal
Population
Lifetime Fatal
Population
State
Mill
Cacer Risk
Deaths/Yr
Cacer Risk
Deaths/Yr
Cacer Risk
Deaths/Yr
Colorado
Canon City
2E-05
6.6E-03
2E-06
4.3E-04
Uravan
9E-07
4.2E-05
South Dakota
Edgemont
1E-05
3.7E-04
Utah
White Mesa
6E-07
2E-05
2E-05
1.1E-03
2E-06
9.1E-05
Rio Algom
2E-06
3E-05
9E-06
2.8E-04
8E-06
2.5E-04
Moab
8E-05
1.3E-03
Shootaring
2E-07
7E-07
5E-06
2.2E-05
2E-06
6.5E-06
Wyoming
Lucky Mc
1E-07
7E-06
1E-05
6.0E-04
6E-06
3.1E-04
Split Rock
4E-05
3.2E-04
Umetco
6E-06
3.3E-04
Bear Creek
2E-06
2.8E-04
Shirley Basin
6E-07
9E-05
2E-05
1.8E-03
1E-05
9.2E-04
Sweetwater
7E-07
2E-05
6E-06
1.2E-04
2E-06
5.3E-05
Highland
7E-06
6.8E-04
FAP
4E-06
1.9E-04
Petrotomics
2E-05
4.5E-04
-------
Table 20-24
Inactive Uranium Mill Tailings Sites (a)
Radon
Nearby
Regional
Quantity of
Individuals
(0-80km)
Tailings
Schedule
Lifetime Fatal
Population
Site
(10A6 tons)
Proposed Action
Start
Finish
Cancer Risk
Deaths/yr
Durango, CO
1.6
Removal to Bodo Canyon site
UW(c)
FY90
5E-05
6.7E-04
Grand Junction, CO
1.9
Removal to Cheney site
UW
FY93
8E-06
9.9E-04
Gunnison, CO
0.5
Removal to Landfill site
FY90
FY92
1E-06
7.5E-05
Maybell, CO
2.6
Stabilization in place
FY91
FY92
8E-06
1.0E-04
Naturita, CO
0.6
Removal to Dry Flats site
FY91
FY92
5E-05
3.5E-05
New Rifle, CO
2.7
Removal to Estes Gulch site
UW
FY92
1E-05
5.3E-04
Old Rifle, CO
0.4
Removal to Estes Gulch site
UW
FY92
1E-05
5.3E-04
Slick Rock, (NC) (d), CO
0.04
Removal to Slick Rock (UC)
—
DONE
1E-05
6.4E-06
Slick Rock (UC) (e), CO
0.35
Stabilization in place
—
DONE
1E-05
6.4E-06
Belfield, NO
—
Removal to Bowman site
FY92
FY93
3E-06
4.0E-06
Bowman, ND
—
Stabilization in place
FY92
FY93
3E-06
4.0E-06
Green River, UT
0.12
Stabilization in place
UW
DONE
9E-07
3.3E-06
Mexican Hat, UT
2.2
Stabilization in place
UW
FY91
6E-05
3.4E-04
Salt Lake City, UT
1.7
Removel to S. Clive site
—
DONE
4E-07
4.9E-05
Converse County, WY
0.19
Stabilization in place
UW
FY89
Riverton, WY
0.9
Removal to UMETCO's Gas Hills site
UW
FY91
(a) DOE88
(b) The start and finish dates refer to construction activities to stabilize and cover the tailings.
The finish dates do not include development and implementation of the Surveillance and Monitoring
Program or certification that the remedial action is complete.
(c) UW = underway, i.e., remedial actions to stabilize the tailings have been initiated.
(d) North Continent pile
(e) Union Carbide pile
-------
Table 20-25
Cancer Risk and Cancer Death due to Currently Operating
Underground Uranium Mines in Region VIII
State
Mine Name
Maximum Lifetime Committed Fatal
Fatal Cancer Risk Cancers per Year
to Individual (0-80 km)
Colorado
Calliham
1E-03
4E-04
Colorado
Deremo-Snyder
2E-03
1E-03
Colorado
King Solomon
4E-04
5E-03
Colorado
NIL
7E-05
2E-03
Colorado
Schwartzenwalder
1E-03
7E-01
Colorado
Sunday
3E-04
4E-03
Colorado
Wilson-Silverbell
3E-04
1E-03
Utah
La Sal
4E-03
3E-03
Utah
Snowbell-Pandora
1E-03
4E-03
Wyoming
Sheep Mountain #1
6E-06
2E-04
-------
Table 20-26
Mines Characterized in the Field Studies
Estimated Exposures and
Risks to Individuals
Living Near Surface
Uranium Mines. (Radon)
Estimated Lifetime Fatal Cancer Risks
from Particulate Emissions
Nearby
Regional
Size
Recla-
Individuals
(0-80km)
(Tons
mation
Maximum Lifetime Fatal
Lifetime Fatal
Population
State
Mine
Ore)
Status
Cancer Risk to Individual
Cancer Risk
Deaths/yr
Wyoming
2E-05
5E-03
Morton Ranch #1704
L
F
1E-06
Lucky Mc 70-1, 7E
L
U
3E-06
Lucky Mc 4X, 4P
L
U
3E-06
Lucky Mc W. Gas Hills
L
u
2E-06
Shirley Basin
L
o
5E-05
South Dakota
2E-06
4E-04
Darrow #1
S
u
2E-07
Darrow #2, 3
L
u
5E-07
Darrow #4
S
u
2E-07
Darrow #5
L
u
2E-06
Freezeout
S
u
7E-07
Colorado
6E-06
9E-04
Gert #4-7
L
u
3E-05
Johnson
S
u
6E-06
Sage
S
u
3E-05
Marge #1-3
s
u
2E-05
Rob
L
u
2E-05
F= Fully reclaimed
U= Unreclaimed
O = Operating
L= >100,000
S= 1,000- 100,000
(EPA, 1989)
-------
20-80
Emissions from two phosphogypsm stacks, located in Rock Springs, Wyoming and Magna,
Utah have associated health risks of 5xl0'5 for the most exposed individual, and 0.02 cancer
deaths/yr if the emissions are not remediated (EPA, 1989). The cancer causing agents
associated with phosphogypsm stacks are: U-238, U234, Th-230, Ra-226, Ra-222, Pb-210 and
Po-210.
The health risks of mine employees are not considered here except to list the number of
people employed in the mining industry in each state during 1988 as reported in the State
Minerals Year Books:
State number
Colorado 5,100
Montana 6,200
North Dakota 350(a)
South Dakota 2,760
Utah 8,612
(a) nonfules sector only
20.6 MINING WELFARE EFFECTS
This section discusses welfare damages due to active and inactive mining and milling sites
in Region VIII. There are many different types of welfare effects that might be associated
with mining and milling activities in Region VIII. These include:
• Replacement or treatment of contaminated drinking water;
• Loss of groundwater option value;
• Reduced suitability of surface water for agriculture;
• Reduced suitability of property for development;
• Property damage due to mine subsidence;
• Cost of illness due to ingestion of contaminated media;
• Cost of remedial actions at abandoned mine and mill sites;
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20-81
• Loss of recreation opportunities; and
• Loss of valued habitats.
Data are not available to allow a quantitative analysis of each of these potential welfare
effects. In some cases data are available on the extent of the problem and no cost
estimates, (ie. miles of recreational fishing streams impaired by mining activities), in others
cases studies of damages have been estimated for a State, but can not be extrapolated to
the Region, (ie. property damage costs due to mine subsidence in Colorado), and yet in
another case, data derived from one State can be extrapolated to the Region, ie., survey
data on recreation impacts per mile of stream heavily impaired due to mining for one mine
can be extrapolated to all Regional stream impacts due to mining activities.
Replacement or Treatment of Contaminated Drinking Water
In Region VIII fully 1,875 miles of public water supply streams were impaired due to mining
activities in 1989 according to the State 319 reports summarized here in Table 20-12. (Data
are not presented for Utah, as the State reports do not analyse the data into specific
impaired uses.) In 1989, Colorado had 929 miles of impaired public water supply streams,
while Montana had 691 miles and North Dakota had 255 miles impaired due to mining
activities. In Colorado in 1989 1,955 acres of surface waters were impaired from drinking
water uses (Table 20-13).
Data are not available to convert miles of impacted streams to the cost of replacement or
treatment. The magnitude of these costs should be related to the availability of alternative
potable water supplies. If alternative drinking water is not available, then the cost of
remediation contaminated water could be quite high.
Loss of Groundwater Option Value
No quantitative or qualitative data are available to asses the costs associated with loss of
groundwater option value. The costs will be highest where larger populations reliant on
groundwater are nearest mine sites and alternative water supplies are limited.
Reduced Suitability of Surface Water for Agriculture
In Region VIII fully 2,119 miles of streams were impaired from irrigation and agriculture
uses in 1989 due to mining activities according to the State 319 reports summarized here in
Table 20-12. (Again, Utah data are not available.) In 1989 Colorado had 1,172 miles of
streams impaired from agro-irrigation uses while Montana had 339 miles, Wyoming had 291
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20-82
miles and North Dakota had 255 miles, and Utah had 62 miles impaired due to mining
activities (Table 20-13). The miles of impairment of agricultural and irrigation waters also
were impaired of live stock use in Montana and South Dakota.
Data are not available to convert miles of impacted streams to the cost of replacement or
treatment. In Colorado in 1989 the same 1,955 acres of surface waters were impaired from
irrigation agricultural and drinking water uses (Table 20-13).
Reduced Suitability of Property for Development
In areas adjacent to land impacted by mine wastes real estate values drop. Lands directly
contaminated with mine wastes may be forever unsuited to new development. Remediation
costs can be very high. Examples of remediation costs at some Regional CERCLA sites are
listed below. The costs of relocation of homesteads found to be on contaminated lands can
be high. The areal extent and specific costs associated with these issues are not known.
Property Damage Due to Mine Subsidence
Mine subsidence results from the removal of rock from underground mining sites and
subsequent disturbance of the ground surface. Ground deformations including, sags, cracks
and sink holes may severely damage residential or commercial buildings. Abandoned coal
mines are a particular hazard. For Colorado, it has been estimated that over 5,000 homes
and 13,000 people may be affected by mine subsidence in the front range urban corridor
(Colorado Environment, 2000). Cost estimates of total potential subsidence damages were
placed at 6.5 million dollars for the Colorado front range.
The extent of subsidence in the Region is unknown as are cost estimates of total potential
damages. Wyoming currently has only 2 active underground coal mines. The extent of
historic underground coal mines is unknown.
Cost of Illness Due to Ingestion of Contaminated Media
The costs of illness due to human uptake of contaminated mine wastes are unknown but
may well be significant. The absence of data on this issue represents a critical element in
the uncertainty of our assessment. Populations at risk include those living on or near
historic mining sites and tourists attracted to abandoned mine sites. Education and public
awareness programs can effectively reduce exposure and risk.
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Cost of Remedial Actions at Mine and Mill Waste Sites
The total costs of remedial actions at abandoned mine and mill sites throughout the Region
are largely unknown. Several examples have been compiled, where remedial actions have
been mandated and implemented.
Some data on costs of remediation and reclamation were presented in the State Minerals
Year Books and other data are available from EPA Records of Decisions (RODS) for
Superfund sites and remediation activities associated with uranium mining and milling sites.
A summary of listed costs is presented for each State, as published in the Minerals
Yearbook, for exemplary purposes. Costs mentioned in the Minerals Yearbook total over
$500 million for Region VIII States.
Superfund remediation costs for Region VIII associated with mining and milling operations,
the type of toxicant(s), waste volume, methods of remediation and cleanup goals are listed
in Table 20-27. For Region VIII published Superfund remediation costs associated with
mining and milling activities are $37,851,034 dollars in capital costs, $7,264,600 in present
worth costs, and annual operation and maintenance costs of $1,084,837 per year (Table 20-
27). Credible annual damages connot be developed from this data.
Costs associated with selected uranium mining and milling activities are listed in Tables 20-
28 through 20-30. Estimated costs of reducing radon-222 flux rates to the EPA UMTRCA
standard of 20 pCi/m2 and 2pCi/m2 for active uranium mill sites are listed in Table 20-28.
as millions of 1988 $. Estimated costs of reducing radon-222 flux rates to the EPA
UMTRCA standard of 20 pCi/m2 and 2pCi/m2 for inactive uranium mill sites are listed in
Table 20-29 as millions of 1988 $. Estimated costs to extend underground uranium mine
exhaust stacks by 10 and 60 meters for 10 Region VIII mines are listed in Table 20-.30.
Costs listed below represent some minimal value for the States and the Region, and are
some unknown fraction of total costs associated with remediation efforts extant and planned.
Data are from the State minerals yearbooks unless otherwise indicated.
• Colorado
For the Eagle Mine, Gilman, Eagle County, CERCLA site $4.55 million has
been paid by Gulf and Western Industries, Inc. related to remediation of this
hard rock mining site.
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Sit*
Slate/1ype/
Signature Oat#/
¦eoion Remedul Actian
Table 20-27
Superfund Mining Sites
FY82-FY88 Record of Decision Summary Table
'hreat/ProfelpiK
Willc Vglu*
Components o'
ieLetted Itemed y
Cleanup
Pr»M(lt
Worth/
C«p>t«l and
-W t«ill
VIII Anaconda
Saw Iter. MI
Smelter raciIi ty/
160-Acre Mi 11
Creek Community
10/02/87
1st
Air contaminated with Not
metals including specified
arsenic, cadmium, and
lead
Relocation of all regaining residents (8
homes) with teaqporary erosional
stabi11tat ion using a vegetative soil cover;
demolition, consolidation, and temporary
onsite storage of debris; implementation of
institutional controls including deed and
access restrictions; and site maintenance
Risk-based performance
goals for arsenic and
cadmium appear technically
unattainable and were less
than background levels.
Consequently, background
levels for arsenic
0.01 ug/m? and cadmium
0.01 ug/m^ will be met.
The NAAQS for lead
1.5 ug/ar' also will be met
$300,000
(present
worth)
VIII California
Gulch. CO
Mining District
03/29/68
Ist-final
VIII Central City/
Clear Creek, CO
09/30/87
1st
VIII Central City/
Clear Creek. CO
Mining Oistrict
03/31/88
2nd
SW, sediments, and GW
contaminated with
metals including
cadmium, copper,
lead, and zinc
Poss ible
contamination of
sediments, and
downstream SW and GW
with inorganics
Soil and SW
contaminated with
metals
210 tons
(waste
discharged
per year)
Not
spec if ied
Not
specified
Construction of surge ponds at Yak Tunnel
portal; construction of concrete plugs at
three tunnel locations; sealing of shafts
and drill holes; diversion of surface water
•way from tunnel recharge areas and grouting
of highly fractured rock; implementation of
a monitoring netwtrk to detect leakage,
seeps, or GW migration; and installation of
pump and interim treatment should surface
seepage occur
This operable unit invokes
an interim remedy waiver
Passive/acti ve treatment syste
mine drainage discharge
for acid
Slope stabilization at Big rive Tunnel and
Gregory Incline; and runon controls at all
five tailings and waste rock piles
Interim remedy. All Alls will
be determined in future 0-U-
Dnal ARAR determinations
will be addressed in the
final operable unit
$11,982,770
(capital)
$460,307
(annual (MM)
$1,663,000
(capital)
$511.000
(annual (MM)
$1,049,600
(present
worth)
$20,992
(annual (MM)
-------
Region
S*t«
State/Type/
Signature Date/
JleaediiJAtlion Lhre#t/Prgbiea
Table^P27 (cont.)
Superfund Mining Sites
FY82-FY88 Record of Decision Summary Table
.Mule Volume
Components of
Seletted Remedy
Present
Worth/
Capital and
XJuruie faiJs W Coils
VIII
VIII
Mill town, MT
04/14/84
1st
Mill town, MT
08/07/85
2nd
GW and soil
contaminated with
¦etaIs including
arseni c
GW and soiI
contaminated with
metals including
arsenic
Not
speci f ied
Not
spec i f ied
Construction of a new well and distribution
lystta; and flushing and testing residential
pluabing systems
Repl acement of household water supply
appurtenances; and on-going testing of
residential pluabing systems
GM wi11 be treated to EPA
drinking water standards for
arsenic 0.0S0 mg/l
Not specified
$262,714
(capital)
$4,238
(annual MM)
Not
spec i f ied
VIII
North Dakota
Arsenic
Trioxide. NO
09/26/86
lst-Final
GW contaminated with Not
metals including specified
arsenic
Expansion and hook-up of homes to GW Water supplied for doawstic
treatment and distribution system; and and agricultural purposes
evaluation of possible institutional controls will attain the MCI for
arsenic 25 ug/t
$2,212,600
(capi tal)
$57,400
(annual 001)
VIII
Smuggler
Mountain, CO
09/26/86
1st
GW and soil
contaminated with
metals including
cadmium and lead
410,000 yd^ Excavation and permanent onsite RCRA
disposal of soils; soil capping; and
alternate water supply
Excavation and onsite $1,816,550
isolation of soil with lead (capital)
greater than 5,000 mg/kg.
Soils between 1.000-5.000 $30,900
mg/kg will be covered with (annual OtH)
6-12 inches of topsoil. GW
will be monitored to comply
with SOMA Standards
-------
Table 20-28
Estimated Costs of Reducing Average Radon-222
Flux Rate to 20pCi/mA2/s (a) or 2pCi/rrr2/s (a)
(Millions of 1988 Dollars)
State
Mill
20 pCi/mA2/s (a)
Total Cost
2 pCi/mA2/s (a)
Total Cost
Colorado
Canon City
Primary
$13.87
$21.82
Secondary
$6.04
$9.58
Uravan
$11.20
$17.39
South Dakota
Edgemont
$20.74
$31.60
Utah
White Mesa
$24.75
$36.24
Rio Algom
Upper
$7.05
$11.12
Lower
$7.21
$11.36
Moab
$24.72
$37.71
Shootaring
$0.94
$1.56
Wyoming
Lucky Mac
Piles 1-3
$27.57
$45.50
Evap. Ponds
$3.54
$3.54
Split Rock
$16.20
$29.98
Umetco Gas Hills
$33.93
$53.19
Bear Creek
$8.52
$16.47
Shirley Basin
$37.38
$61.68
Sweetwater
$5.07
$8.34
Highland
$32.63
$50.30
FAP
$18.40
$28.74
Petrotomics
$23.80
$36.17
(a) Costs are Calculated for the lower of the given flux rate or the design flux.
(EPA, 1989)
-------
Table 20-29
Estimated Costs of Achieving the UMTRCA Limit
for Inactive Mill Tailings
Mill
Average Limit of 20 pCi/mA2/s
(Millions of 1988 Dollars)
Total Cost
Average Limit of 2 pCi/nrr2/s
(Millions of 1988 Dollars)
Total Cost
Durango, CO
$6.39
$9.70
Grand Junction, CO
$12.47
$15.09
Gunnison, CO
$8.25
$8.25
Maybell, CO
$12.48
$16.11
Naturita, CO
$2.61
$3.38
New/Old Rifle, CO
$11.73
$17.58
Slick Rock, CO
$0.82
$1.05
Bowman/Belfield, ND
$1.47
$1.76
Green River, UT
$1.89
$1.89
Mexican Hat, UT
$1.19
$1.62
Salt Lake City, UT
$7.37
$11.47
(EPA, 1989)
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Table 20-30
Estimated Costs to Extend the Heights
of Ventilation Exhaust Stacks
at Each Underground Uranium Mine (Pi88b)
Stack Height
State
Mine Name
10 Meter
60 Meter
Colorado
Calliham
31,200
291,400
Colorado
Deremo-Snyder
343,200
3,205,400
Colorado
King Solomon
405,600
3,788,200
Colorado
NIL
55,500
467,100
Colorado
Schwartzwalder (a)
93,900
874,200
Colorado
Sunday
374,400
3,496,800
Colorado
Wilson-Silverbell
218,400
2,039,800
Utah
La Sal
124,300
1,117,500
Utah
Snowball-Pandora
99,400
894,000
Wyoming
Sheep Mountain #1
70,000
612,000
TOTALS
1,815,900
16,786,400
(a) Estimates do not include converting vents that exhaust
horizontally through canyon walls.
(EPA, 1989)
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20-89
The Globe Plant, Denver, operated by ASARCO, Inc., has paid $625,000 to
cover past and future "response costs" associated with cadmium and lead
contamination and effects at this CERCLA site. ASARCO, Inc. has also spent
$750,000 for a waste water treatment plant to protect down stream
contamination and ASARCO built a fence to protect the local population from
exposure to their industrial drainage ditch.
To mitigate wastes entering the Arkansas River from the Yak tunnel and
California Gulch CERCLA sites in Leadville, a $2,000,000 pond treatment
facility has been constructed with EPA funds to control wastes. ASARCO, Inc.
and others are defendants in this case.
The estimated remediation costs for uranium mill sites in Colorado were
estimated as part of "Colorado Environment 2000" at 418 million (1988) dollars.
These costs are not equal to welfare damages caused by the sites, and were not
meant to reflect environmental, health, and property damages. Such remediation
costs can, however, be viewed as welfare damages using a cost-avoided approach.
Damages are considered equal to the costs that could have been avoided without
the uranium mill tailings pollution. The cost estimates are considered a lower
bound since remediation activities are slow and cost increase over time.
• Montana
In the Clark River Basin there are three Superfund sites where the Anaconda
Co. is involved in a $50 million lawsuit. The Montana Departments of Heath
and Wildlife and Parks estimates that 100 square miles and 30,000 people are
affected. By 1988, the U.S. EPA had spent about $20 million in soil and water
treatment and remediation at the Clark Fork sites. Of this amount, $9 million
was used at Silver Bow Creek in Butte, $4.1 million was used to clean up a
smelter related tailing pond in the town of Anaconda, $2.7 million was used for
the Milltown Reservoir due to metals contamination problems, and $1.3 million
on a study of the Clark Fork River. Bob Fox, EPA Helena Montana, confirmed
that these "Yearbook" estimates are in "the ball park". A total of 28 million
dollars had been spent at the Clark River sites by the EPA by 1989 (B. Fox,
Pers. Comm.). The Montana State Minerals Yearbook quotes a "private"
source's estimate that future clean up costs at these sites could cost an estimated
$1.5 billion. The accuracy and reliability of this speculation is unknown.
The Federal Office of Surface Mining has given Montana a $5 million grant to
clean up abandoned mine sites. About $1 million dollars were spent to cap and
fill abandon mines near the city of Butte.
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20-90
• North Dakota
The State Minerals Yearbook reported that wastes from coal combustion in
North Dakota amounted to 2.2 million short tons in 1988 with a disposal cost of
$5 to $15 per ton.
• South Dakota
Costs associated with the remediation of the Whitewood Creek Super Fund site
were not given in the Yearbook. High levels of arsenic, (2,500ppm) cadmium
and mercury have been found associated with the 10.4 millions tons of old gold
mine tailings in this drainage.
• Utah
State legislation was passed which provides for a trust fund for the reclamation
of abandon mines. No costs were estimated.
Reclamation at the recently closed Uranium mill at Moab owned by Atlas Corp.
will take 6-7 years and cost an estimated 7 million dollars.
A 1989 Record of Decision exists for the Monticello Vicinity Properties in
Monticello Utah (USEPA, 1990). Tailings associated with the milling of
vanadium and uranium during 1944-1960 were used for construction purposes in
the city. Mill tailings were used as: fill for open lands, backfill around water,
sewer and electrical lines, sub-base for driveways, sidewalks, and concrete slabs;
backfill against basement foundations; and a sand mix in concrete, plaster ad
mortar. Surveys indicated that 91 properties required remedial action. The cite
also includes the dismantled mill and stabilized mill tailings piles. The costs
associated with remedial action for the 91 "included" properties is $65,000 per
property or $5,915,000. The millsite is not included in the 91 properties.
• Wyoming
The Department of Environmental Quality's abandoned mine land program, has
spent $39 million reclaiming 214 sites covering 7,500 ares of old bentonite mines.
Cost to reclaim old gold mine sites have not been estimated, however,
reclamation efforts are in conflict with historic mine site preservation efforts.
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Uranium mill tailings were moved from an Indian Reservation to another
location at a cost of $24 million.
Loss of Recreation Opportunities
Degradation of stream water quality due to resource extraction activities was documented
in Section 20.3 and ecological effects were detailed in Section 20.4. Of the 4,305 miles of
streams impaired in the Region, 3,206 miles were impaired from cold water fishery use.
Fully 1,292 miles of streams were listed as having "high" impacts from mining activities in
Region VIII.
Stream reaches with high severity rankings are unlikely to support healthy reproducing fish
populations, which will effect recreational participation (Owens, 1989).
One study has estimated recreation opportunity losses due to mining (Rowe and Schulze,
1985) using the Recreation User Day Method. An estimate of the loss in recreation user
days associated with natural resource injury, ie., water pollution and the loss of stream
habitat, and then uses existing estimates of the willingness to pay of users for alternative
types of recreation per day to measure economic damage. This specific study was done for
the Eagle Mine Site in Colorado where recreational participation along the Eagle river was
reduced by 9,600 recreation visitor days per stream mile per year. If other highly impaired
streams experience similar reductions in recreation participation due to reduced water
quality in the Region then 12,403,200 recreation visitor days are lost annually due to mining
and milling related water pollution. Based on a review of recreation visitor day values,
Rowe et al. (1987) estimated that one water related recreation visitor day could range in
value from a low of $13 to a high of $28. Thus, annual damages for the 1,292 miles of
highly impacted streams could range from 161 million to 347 million dollars per year.
These estimates are highly uncertain. The extrapolation from one study (Eagle Mine
Colorado and the Eagle river) to the whole Region assumes that the recreation participation
measured for this stream is similar to participation at all highly impacted streams in the
Region. The fact that the Eagle river is close to several towns, has good road access, and
has experienced severe habitat damage from mine drainage suggests that the participation
losses might be lower in other highly impacted stream reaches. The estimates derived here
may be considered as overestimate. If the participation Region wide is 1/4 the participation
at the Eagle river then the cost estimates would range from 40 million to 87 million dollars
per year.
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Loss of Valued Habitats
The amount of lost habitat due to surface mining activities is not precisely known and
neither are the values of these lost habitats. The areal extent of potential and measured
disturbance can be approximated with existing data. For example, the extent of surface coal
mining permits in the Region in 1989 covered 456,000 acres. In 1968 115,500 acres of
wildlife habitat in the Region had been disturbed by surface mining activities (Table 20-14).
By 1977 estimates of the area of lands disturbed by mining were 342,825 acres, with 110,550
acres of these disturbed lands without mandatory remediation. No attempt is made here
to estimated the value of these amounts of habitat loss.
20.7 ASSUMPTIONS
In order to use data on the amount of mining activity; number of mines, amount of
commodity produced, area under mine permits to infer the extent of potential risks we must
assume that these data are correlated with mine waste generation and impacts. We
evaluated this assumption with limited data and found that a good relationship can exist
between impacts and amounts of mining activity.
Use of the State 319 data assumes that non-attainment is an indication of ecologic damage.
We also characterized impacts due to metals, pH and radiation, as listed in the State 319
reports, as being associated with mining activities. The subjective impairment levels listed
in the 319 reports were assumed to indicate something of the severity of impacts and
environmental damage.
By using health risk data from a National study of mining health risks we are assuming that
these results apply to Region VHI. The fraction of the National study sites, from Region
VIII were listed so this assumption can be in part evaluated.
20.8 UNCERTAINTY
Many of the effects of mining activities are certain. The combined influence of multiple
stressors on ecosystems or human health is not well known. Effects predicted from
individual pollutants usually are underestimates when multiple pollutants are stressing the
ecosystem.
While the 319 data give interesting "quantitative" numbers on the miles and acres of surface
waters impaired, the actual extent and intensity of impacts are not known. This is because
the same stream or lake can be listed as impaired from more than one use category by more
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20-93
than one stressor. Furthermore, the amount of impaired water bodies reflects results from
a non-random qualitative assessment of water quality by each State.
Differences exist between States in their implementation of 319 reporting.
Very little data exist which documents the extent of terrestrial habitat disturbance due to
mining. The applicability of the older data, 1968 to 1990 conditions is unknown. Very
limited data on the amount of health risks due to uranium mines were available compared
with the number of mines in the Region. The estimates presented may or may not reflect
all mines in the Region. Of the economic risks associated with mining activities, the health
costs associated with mining induced health problems may represent a major unknown.
20.9 OMISSIONS
Quantitative up-to-date information on the amount of mining activity in the Region are
lacking. The BOM data base is not current and we were not able to get a copy of the Mine
Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) current listing of mines in the Region. The Utah
319 report does not list impairment by severity or by use class impaired. This assessment
does not include any estimate of health effects to mine workers.
20.10 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING RISK ASSESSMENT-REDUCING
UNCERTAINTY
Quantitative statistically valid data on the areal extent of mining impacts would be most
useful.
20.11 REFERENCES
Chaney, R.L., S.B. Sterrett, and H.W. Meilki. 1984. The Potential for Heavy Metal
Exposure from Urban Gardens and Soils. In: J.R. Preer (Ed.). Proceedings of a Symposium
on Heavy Metals in Urban Gardens. Univ. District of Columbia Extension Service, pp.37-84.
Down, C.G. and J. Stocks. 1977. Environmental Impact of Mining. John Wiley and Sons.
New York
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1987. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Zinc.
Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-87-003. PB87-153581.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1986. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Nickel.
Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-86004.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1984a. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for
Arsenic. Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-84033. PB85-227445.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1984b. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for
Cadmium. Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-84032. PB85-227031.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1984c. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for
Chromium. Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-84029. PB85-227478.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1984d. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for
Copper. Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-84031.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1984e. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for
Mercury. Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-84026. PB85-227452.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1980a. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for
Beryllium. Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-80024. PB81-117350.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1980b. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for
Selenium. Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-80070. PB81-117814.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1979. Water-Related Environmental Fate of 129
Priority Pollutants. Volume 1. Office of Water Planning and Standards. EPA-440/4-29-029a.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1985. Report to congress: Wastes from the
Extraction and Benefication of Metallic Ores, Phosphate Rock, Asbestos, Overburden from
Uranium Mining, and Oil Shale. (EPA/530-5W-033). Washington, D.C. Office of Solid
Waste and Emergency Response.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1987. Unfinished Business: A comparative
Assessment of Environmental Problems. Appendix ID Ecological Risk Work Group. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Wash. D.C.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1989. Risk Assesments. Environmental Impact
Statement. NESHAPS for Radionuclides. Background Information Document-Volume 2.
(EPA\520\ 1-89-006-1). Washington, D.C. Office of Radiation Programs.
Fox, Bob. (Pers. Comm.) US EPA Helena Montana. (406)449-5414.
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Guthrie, F.E., and Perry, JJ. (eds.). 1980. Introduction to Environmental Toxicology.
Elsevier, New York.
Macan, T.T. 1963. Freshwater Ecology, 2nd Edition. John Wiley and Sons, N.Y.
Owens, R. 1989. Personal communication, Colorado Department of Health, Denver, CO.
(cited IN: Colorado 2000).
ICF, 1987. Risk Screening Analysis of Mining Wastes. Report to USEPA Office of Solid
Waste. By ICF Inc. International Square 1850 K Street, Northwest, Washington, D.C. 20006.
Pennak, R.W. 1953. Fresh-Water Invertebrates of the United States. The Ronald Press
Company, N.J.
Reid, G.K., and R.D. Wood. 1976. Ecology of Inland Waters and Estuaries, 2nd Edition, D.
Van Nostrand Company, N.Y.
Rowe, R.D. and W.D. Schulze. 1985. Economic Assessment of Damage Related to the Eagle
Mine Facility, prepared for Engineering-Sciences Inc., Denver, CO.
Rowe, R.D., A. Michelsen, and R. Walsh. 1987. Recreation Benefits from Water Quality
Improvements in Metro-Denver: Background Analysis, prepared for U.S. EPA,
Environmental Strategies for Metro-Denver, Denver, CO.
Spaulding, W.M. and R.D. Ogden. 1968. Effects of Surface Mining on the Fish and Wildlife
Resources of the United States. USDI. Fish and Wildlife Service. Bureau of Sport Fisheries
and Wildlife Resource Publication 68. 51p. Washington, D.C..
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The Globe Plant, Denver, operated by ASARCO, Inc., has paid $625,000 to
cover past and future "response costs" associated with cadmium and lead
contamination and effects at this CERCLA site. ASARCO, Inc. has also spent
$750,000 for a waste water treatment plant to protect down stream
contamination and ASARCO built a fence to protect the local population from
exposure to their industrial drainage ditch.
To mitigate wastes entering the Arkansas River from the Yak tunnel and
California Gulch CERCLA sites in Leadville, a $2,000,000 pond treatment
facility has been constructed with EPA funds to control wastes. ASARCO, Inc.
and others are defendants in this case.
The estimated remediation costs for uranium mill sites in Colorado were
estimated as part of "Colorado Environment 2000" at 418 million (1988) dollars.
These costs are not equal to welfare damages caused by the sites, and were not
meant to reflect environmental, health, and property damages. Such remediation
costs can, however, be viewed as welfare damages using a cost-avoided approach.
Damages are considered equal to the costs that could have been avoided without
the uranium mill tailings pollution. The cost estimates are considered a lower
bound since remediation activities are slow and cost increase over time.
• Montana
In the Clark River Basin there are three Superfund sites where the Anaconda
Co. is involved in a $50 million lawsuit. The Montana Departments of Heath
and Wildlife and Parks estimates that 100 square miles and 30,000 people are
affected. By 1988, the U.S. EPA had spent about $20 million in soil and water
treatment and remediation at the Clark Fork sites. Of this amount, $9 million
was used at Silver Bow Creek in Butte, $4.1 million was used to clean up a
smelter related tailing pond in the town of Anaconda, $2.7 million was used for
the Milltown Reservoir due to metals contamination problems, and $1.3 million
on a study of the Clark Fork River. Bob Fox, EPA Helena Montana, confirmed
that these "Yearbook" estimates are in "the ball park". A total of 28 million
dollars had been spent at the Clark River sites by the EPA by 1989 (B. Fox,
Pers. Comm.). The Montana State Minerals Yearbook quotes a "private"
source's estimate that future clean up costs at these sites could cost an estimated
$1.5 billion. The accuracy and reliability of this speculation is unknown.
The Federal Office of Surface Mining has given Montana a $5 million grant to
clean up abandoned mine sites. About $1 million dollars were spent to cap and
fill abandon mines near the city of Butte.
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• North Dakota
The State Minerals Yearbook reported that wastes from coal combustion in
North Dakota amounted to 2.2 million short tons in 1988 with a disposal cost of
$5 to $15 per ton.
• South Dakota
Costs associated with the remediation of the Whitewood Creek Super Fund site
were not given in the Yearbook. High levels of arsenic, (2,500ppm) cadmium
and mercury have been found associated with the 10.4 millions tons of old gold
mine tailings in this drainage.
• Utah
State legislation was passed which provides for a trust fund for the reclamation
of abandon mines. No costs were estimated.
Reclamation at the recently closed Uranium mill at Moab owned by Atlas Corp.
will take 6-7 years and cost an estimated 7 million dollars.
A 1989 Record of Decision exists for the Monticello Vicinity Properties in
Monticello Utah (USEPA, 1990). Tailings associated with the milling of
vanadium and uranium during 1944-1960 were used for construction purposes in
the city. Mill tailings were used as: fill for open lands, backfill around water,
sewer and electrical lines, sub-base for driveways, sidewalks, and concrete slabs;
backfill against basement foundations; and a sand mix in concrete, plaster ad
mortar. Surveys indicated that 91 properties required remedial action. The cite
also includes the dismantled mill and stabilized mill tailings piles. The costs
associated with remedial action for the 91 "included" properties is $65,000 per
property or $5,915,000. The millsite is not included in the 91 properties.
• Wyoming
The Department of Environmental Quality's abandoned mine land program, has
spent $39 million reclaiming 214 sites covering 7,500 ares of old bentonite mines.
Cost to reclaim old gold mine sites have not been estimated, however,
reclamation efforts are in conflict with historic mine site preservation efforts.
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Uranium mill tailings were moved from an Indian Reservation to another
location at a cost of $24 million.
Loss of Recreation Opportunities
Degradation of stream water quality due to resource extraction activities was documented
in Section 20.3 and ecological effects were detailed in Section 20.4. Of the 4,305 miles of
streams impaired in the Region, 3,206 miles were impaired from cold water fishery use.
Fully 1,292 miles of streams were listed as having "high" impacts from mining activities in
Region VIII.
Stream reaches with high severity rankings are unlikely to support healthy reproducing fish
populations, which will effect recreational participation (Owens, 1989).
One study has estimated recreation opportunity losses due to mining (Rowe and Schulze,
1985) using the Recreation User Day Method. An estimate of the loss in recreation user
days associated with natural resource injury, ie., water pollution and the loss of stream
habitat, and then uses existing estimates of the willingness to pay of users for alternative
types of recreation per day to measure economic damage. This specific study was done for
the Eagle Mine Site in Colorado where recreational participation along the Eagle river was
reduced by 9,600 recreation visitor days per stream mile per year. If other highly impaired
streams experience similar reductions in recreation participation due to reduced water
quality in the Region then 12,403,200 recreation visitor days are lost annually due to mining
and milling related water pollution. Based on a review of recreation visitor day values,
Rowe et al. (1987) estimated that one water related recreation visitor day could range in
value from a low of $13 to a high of $28. Thus, annual damages for the 1,292 miles of
highly impacted streams could range from 161 million to 347 million dollars per year.
These estimates are highly uncertain. The extrapolation from one study (Eagle Mine
Colorado and the Eagle river) to the whole Region assumes that the recreation participation
measured for this stream is similar to participation at all highly impacted streams in the
Region. The fact that the Eagle river is close to several towns, has good road access, and
has experienced severe habitat damage from mine drainage suggests that the participation
losses might be lower in other highly impacted stream reaches. The estimates derived here
may be considered as overestimate. If the participation Region wide is 1/4 the participation
at the Eagle river then the cost estimates would range from 40 million to 87 million dollars
per year.
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Loss of Valued Habitats
The amount of lost habitat due to surface mining activities is not precisely known and
neither are the values of these lost habitats. The areal extent of potential and measured
disturbance can be approximated with existing data. For example, the extent of surface coal
mining permits in the Region in 1989 covered 456,000 acres. In 1968 115,500 acres of
wildlife habitat in the Region had been disturbed by surface mining activities (Table 20-14).
By 1977 estimates of the area of lands disturbed by mining were 342,825 acres, with 110,550
acres of these disturbed lands without mandatory remediation. No attempt is made here
to estimated the value of these amounts of habitat loss.
20.7 ASSUMPTIONS
In order to use data on the amount of mining activity; number of mines, amount of
commodity produced, area under mine permits to infer the extent of potential risks we must
assume that these data are correlated with mine waste generation and impacts. We
evaluated this assumption with limited data and found that a good relationship can exist
between impacts and amounts of mining activity.
Use of the State 319 data assumes that non-attainment is an indication of ecologic damage.
We also characterized impacts due to metals, pH and radiation, as listed in the State 319
reports, as being associated with mining activities. The subjective impairment levels listed
in the 319 reports were assumed to indicate something of the severity of impacts and
environmental damage.
By using health risk data from a National study of mining health risks we are assuming that
these results apply to Region VIII. The fraction of the National study sites, from Region
VIII were listed so this assumption can be in part evaluated.
20.8 UNCERTAINTY
Many of the effects of mining activities are certain. The combined influence of multiple
stressors on ecosystems or human health is not well known. Effects predicted from
individual pollutants usually are underestimates when multiple pollutants are stressing the
ecosystem.
While the 319 data give interesting "quantitative" numbers on the miles and acres of surface
waters impaired, the actual extent and intensity of impacts are not known. This is because
the same stream or lake can be listed as impaired from more than one use category by more
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than one stressor. Furthermore, the amount of impaired water bodies reflects results from
a non-random qualitative assessment of water quality by each State.
Differences exist between States in their implementation of 319 reporting.
Very little data exist which documents the extent of terrestrial habitat disturbance due to
mining. The applicability of the older data, 1968 to 1990 conditions is unknown. Very
limited data on the amount of health risks due to uranium mines were available compared
with the number of mines in the Region. The estimates presented may or may not reflect
all mines in the Region. Of the economic risks associated with mining activities, the health
costs associated with mining induced health problems may represent a major unknown.
20.9 OMISSIONS
Quantitative up-to-date information on the amount of mining activity in the Region are
lacking. The BOM data base is not current and we were not able to get a copy of the Mine
Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) current listing of mines in the Region. The Utah
319 report does not list impairment by severity or by use class impaired. This assessment
does not include any estimate of health effects to mine workers.
20.10 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING RISK ASSESSMENT-REDUCING
UNCERTAINTY
Quantitative statistically valid data on the areal extent of mining impacts would be most
useful.
20.11 REFERENCES
Chaney, R.L., S.B. Sterrett, and H.W. Meilki. 1984. The Potential for Heavy Metal
Exposure from Urban Gardens and Soils. In: J.R. Preer (Ed.). Proceedings of a Symposium
on Heavy Metals in Urban Gardens. Univ. District of Columbia Extension Service, pp.37-84.
Down, C.G. and J. Stocks. 1977. Environmental Impact of Mining. John Wiley and Sons.
New York
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1987. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Zinc.
Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-87-003. PB87-153581.
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Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1986. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for Nickel.
Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-86004.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1984a. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for
Arsenic. Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-84033. PB85-227445.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1984b. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for
Cadmium. Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-84032. PB85-227031.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1984c. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for
Chromium. Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-84029. PB85-227478.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1984d. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for
Copper. Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-84031.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1984e. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for
Mercury. Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-84026. PB85-227452.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1980a. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for
Beryllium. Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-80024. PB81-117350.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1980b. Ambient Water Quality Criteria for
Selenium. Office of Water Regulations and Standards. EPA 440/5-80070. PB81-117814.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1979. Water-Related Environmental Fate of 129
Priority Pollutants. Volume 1. Office of Water Planning and Standards. EPA-440/4-29-029a.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1985. Report to congress: Wastes from the
Extraction and Benefication of Metallic Ores, Phosphate Rock, Asbestos, Overburden from
Uranium Mining, and Oil Shale. (EPA/530-5W-033). Washington, D.C. Office of Solid
Waste and Emergency Response.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1987. Unfinished Business: A comparative
Assessment of Environmental Problems. Appendix III Ecological Risk Work Group. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Wash. D.C.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 1989. Risk Assesments. Environmental Impact
Statement. NESHAPS for Radionuclides. Background Information Document-Volume 2.
(EPA\520\ 1-89-006-1). Washington, D.C. Office of Radiation Programs.
Fox, Bob. (Pers. Comm.) US EPA Helena Montana. (406)449-5414.
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Guthrie, F.E., and Perry, J.J. (eds.). 1980. Introduction to Environmental Toxicology.
Elsevier, New York.
Macan, T.T. 1963. Freshwater Ecology, 2nd Edition. John Wiley and Sons, N.Y.
Owens, R. 1989. Personal communication, Colorado Department of Health, Denver, CO.
(cited IN: Colorado 2000).
ICF, 1987. Risk Screening Analysis of Mining Wastes. Report to USEPA Office of Solid
Waste. By ICF Inc. International Square 1850 K Street, Northwest, Washington, D.C. 20006.
Pennak, R.W. 1953. Fresh-Water Invertebrates of the United States. The Ronald Press
Company, N.J.
Reid, G.K., and R.D. Wood. 1976. Ecology of Inland Waters and Estuaries, 2nd Edition, D.
Van Nostrand Company, N.Y.
Rowe, R.D. and W.D. Schulze. 1985. Economic Assessment of Damage Related to the Eagle
Mine Facility, prepared for Engineering-Sciences Inc., Denver, CO.
Rowe, R.D., A. Michelsen, and R. Walsh. 1987. Recreation Benefits from Water Quality
Improvements in Metro-Denver: Background Analysis, prepared for U.S. EPA,
Environmental Strategies for Metro-Denver, Denver, CO.
Spaulding, W.M. and R.D. Ogden. 1968. Effects of Surface Mining on the Fish and Wildlife
Resources of the United States. USDI. Fish and Wildlife Service. Bureau of Sport Fisheries
and Wildlife Resource Publication 68. 51p. Washington, D.C..
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21.0 LEAD
21.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter assesses human health, ecological, and welfare risks from lead. Human
exposure to lead can occur from air, soil, food and drinking water. Primary sources of lead
discharges include gasoline, solder, water distribution pipes, paint, as well as mining,
smelting, and refining operations. Of these sources, mining, smelting and refining operations
are assumed to generate the majority of ecological risks.
It should be understood that the estimates presented for this problem area are meant to be
illustrative, rather than numerically precise. The risk assessments are based on
extrapolations from national distributions, average values, and, in some cases, personal
communications. Many of the published data and approaches used have not been subject
to peer-review. Thus, the estimates presented herein are meant to provide the reader with
a general feel for the order-of-magnitude of risk. In addition, the analysis does not consider
solder and lead-based paint as potential exposure
21.2 HUMAN HEALTH RISK ASSESSMENT
21.2.1 Toxicological Profile
Lead substitutes for a number of essential minerals in biological processes, particularly iron
and calcium (Luckey, 1977). The principal toxic effects of lead include inhibition of heme
synthesis (used for carrying oxygen in hemoglobin), kidney disfunction, and central nervous
system (CNS) effects (ATSDR, 1988). Symptoms of these impacts are quite broad, and can
include increased blood pressure, anemia, fatigue, depression, mental illness, irritability,
memory loss, dullness, impaired motor control, reduced learning ability and reduced growth.
Of special concern is the impact of lead exposure on children, since they have greater
sensitivity to lead than adults. This sensitivity includes increased brain penetration, higher
skeletal uptake, and greater CNS impairment for a given level of uptake. Table 21-1 lists
lead-related health effects associated with specific blood lead levels (PbB).
Out of this suite of potential effects, risks are assessed for the following specific responses:
• Newborn mortality. Elevated levels of PbB in pregnant women has been shown
statistically to be associated with reduced birth weight in infants. Reduced birth
weight, in turn, has been linked with increased likelihood of infant mortality.
Thus, the probability of infant death can be assessed with respect to maternal
PbB (EPA, 1989).
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Table 21-1
Health effects associated with blood lead levels (PbB)
Blood Potential
Lead Health Effect
(ng/dL)
Sensitive
Population
Reference
4 Reduced growth
5 Hypertension
6 Electrophysiological
Dysfunction
10 Enzyme Inhibition
10 Hypertension
12 Interference with
Vitamin D
Metabolism
10-15 Cognitive
Dysfunction
Fetus/young
Children
Middle-aged
Males
Children
Children
Middle-aged
Males
Children
Infants
Schwartz et al. (1986)
Victery et al. (1988)
Schwartz and Otto (1987)
Angle et al. (1982)
Neri et al. (1988)
Mahaffey et al. (1982)
EPA (1986)
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• Circulatory effects in adult males. Elevated PbB levels in adult males has been
linked statistically to several adverse health effects associated with the circulatory
system, including hypertension, strokes, and heart attacks.
• I.Q. reductions. Of the health effects related to lead in children, one of the most
tractable from the standpoint of quantification is the relationship between PbB
and intelligence, typically measured in I.Q. points.
It should be noted that there may be a threshold for acute neurologic effects; however, no
threshold has been observed to-date for effects on heme synthesis or on learning ability
(CDC, 1985; EPA, 1989).
21.2.2 Exposure Assessment
Exposure Scenarios
Human health risks are estimated for the three toxicological endpoints described above
according to two alternative exposure analyses:
• Average risks are estimated for the population of Region VIII based on the
national distribution of blood lead.
• Risks to higher-than-average exposed populations are assessed based on exposure
to lead from superfund sites.
Based on the Second National Health and Nutrition Estimation Study (NHANES II)
conducted from 1976-1980, EPA (1989) characterized national distributions of PbB as being
lognormal. When adjusted for subsequent reductions in leaded gasoline, Abt (1989)
estimated that the geometric mean (GM) of this national distribution of PbB in 1990 will
be 3-5 ng/dL, with a geometric standard deviation (GSD) of 1.42. This analysis was refined
further to include a distributional breakdown by age and sex (Table 21-2).
Population Exposed
The total exposed population of the six states in Region VIII is 7.65 million, based on 1986
census data. 1984 census data indicate that of this total, approximately 700,000 are 5 years
and under. Moreover, it was estimated that approximately 10% of the population of
Colorado was comprised of middle-aged males (40-59 yrs) (State of Colorado, 1989).
Applying this same proportion to the entire region yields an assumed exposed middle-age
male population of 765,000 (Table 21-3). The population of women of child-bearing age
(ages 14-44) was estimated from 1984 census data by assuming that 50% of all individuals
within the appropriate age brackets were female. This population was estimated to be 1.9
million (Table 21-3).
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Table 21-2
Distribution of 1990 blood lead concentrations (tig/dL) for
different sub-populations. Value used in analysis in
bold-face, range in parenthesis
Geometric Mean Geometric Standard Deviation
Children 3.9 1.42
(2 yrs) (3.0 - 4.7)
White Men 43 1.39
(40-59 yrs) (3.8 - 4.9)
Overall 4.0 1.42
(3.0 - 5.0)
Source: Abt (1989)
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Table 21-3
Exposed population in Region VIII
State
Total Population1
Colorado
3,267,000
Montana
819,000
North Dakota
680,000
South Dakota
707,000
Utah
1,665,000
Wyoming
507,000
Total
7,646,000
Average Exposure Scenario
Men (40-59)
765,000
Women (14-44)
1,900,000
Children (5 and under) 700,000
High-Exposure Scenario
Total
115,000
Men (40-59)
11,500
Women (14-44)
28,750
Children (5 and under) 10,350
1 Based on 1986 U.S. Census data.
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The population of the high-exposure scenario was estimated roughly by summing the
populations of communities in which mine-related National Priority List (NPL) sites are
located2. Assuming that 100% of individuals living in these communities can be classed
within the high-exposure group yields a population of approximately 115,000, or 1.5% of the
total population. The breakdown of this high-exposure population into the three target
subpopulations (women of childbearing age, adult males (40-59 years), and children aged
5 and under) was accomplished by applying the same ratios as apply in the overall
population (Table 21-3). Although this estimate is quite conservative because of the
assumption of 100% exposure in NPL-site communities, it may present a rough picture of
the magnitude of a high-exposure sub-population within the region.
Rough estimates of the distribution of PbB in the high-exposure group were made by
shifting the national distribution of PbB upwards (see Abt, 1989). This shift was made using
the results of three studies of PbB in mining communities located in Region VIII (from
Steele, et al., 1990). In the first study, conducted in Telluride, CO by Bornschein, et al.
(1988), a relationship was found indicating an increase in PbB of 2.2 jig/dL per 1000 ppm
Pb in soil. For the Telluride site (with average soil lead of 178 ppm) this suggests increasing
the PbB distribution by 0.4 ng/dL. A second study conducted in Park City, UT by Perrotta
and Stafford (ND) (cited in Steele et al., 1990) showed a GM PbB of 7.8 jig/dL, an upwards
shift of nearly 4 jig/dL over the national GM. A third study, conducted in Leadville, CO
by the Colorado Department of Health (CDH, 1990) calculated the GM of PbB in children
and in adult males to be 8.7 p.g/dl (GSD = 1.8), and in women of childbearing age to be 1.1
jig/dl (GSD = 1.66). A fourth, unrelated, study of mining communities in the UK calculated
PbB of 8.9 jig/dL. For lack of more rigorous analyses of PbB in mining communities in
Region VIII, two scenarios were assumed from the above: a "high-risk" scenario with GM
PbB of 8 ng/dL, and a "low-risk" scenario in which national GM were shifted upwards by
0.4 ng/dL. In both cases, the GSD was applied from the national PbB distribution.
21.2.3 Human Health Risk Characterization
Fetal Effects
Fetal effects of blood lead, expressed in terms of decreases of >2 points in Bayley MDI
scores of neurobehavioral performance are based on a threshold effects model (Abt, 1989).
This threshold model suggest that pregnant women with PbB in excess of 10 jig/dL would
have expected MDI scores lower than the population average. In addition, it was estimated
by Abt (1989) that pregnant women with PbB > 10 jig/dL can be expected to give birth to
children with lower expected IQ scores.
2 The following localities were included: UT (Anaconda, Butte, Milltown, E. Helena); CO (Leadville, Aspen,
Central City, Eagle, Telluride); UT (Monticello, Midvale, Park City, W. Jordan). Site selection based on
personal communication by J. Levall, U.S. EPA, Region VIII.
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Average Case
The total number of cases of fetal effects was assessed by estimating the probability of
exceeding the 10 jig/dL threshold from the national distribution of PbB for women. This
probability, 0.27%, was then multiplied by the total population of women of childbearing
age (ages 14 to 44) in Region VIII (1.9 million) and by 6.8%, the proportion of this
subpopulation expected to give birth to a child in a given year (Abt, 1989). Using this
technique, 349 expected cases were estimated (Table 21-4).
High-Exposure Case
Applying the above methodology to the two high-exposure scenarios yields an estimated 156
cases for the high-risk scenario, and 2 cases for the lower-risk scenario (Table 21-4).
Neurological and Developmental Effects (Children)
Average Case
A similar threshold model was proposed by Abt (1989) (based on study results of Schwartz
(1987) and Fulton et al. (1987)) to estimate the number of annual childhood cases of either
stunted growth or reduced CNS development. Once again, the applied threshold level was
10 ng/dL, while the number of expected cases was estimated by multiplying the probability
of exceeding the threshold (based on the national distribution of PbB in children), 0.27%,
by the number of children in Region VIII. The total expected number of cases is estimated
to be 1,890 (Table 21-4).
High-Exposure Case
For the high exposure group, an expected 828 cases were estimated for the high-risk
scenario, and an expected 17 cases for the lower-risk scenario (Table 21-4).
Cardiovascular Effects-Adult Males
An alternative approach was used to estimate expected frequencies of hypertension in adult
males as a result of exposure to lead. This latter approach was based on the assumption of
a non-threshold dose-response relationship (EPA, 1989). Pirkle, et al. (1987), as cited by
Abt (1989), proposed a logistic equation relating the log of an individual's blood lead to the
probability that the individual's diastolic pressure would exceed 90 mm Hg:
P = 1/{1 + e-[0.793 (In PbB) - 2.72|| (j)
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Table 21-4
Results of health risk analysis for blood lead in Region VIII
Exposure Scenario
Average Case High Exposure/High Risk High Exposure/Low Risk
Health
Endpoint
Fetal Effects: 349 156 2
Neurobehavior
Fetal Effects: 349 156 2
IQ Decrement
Developmental
Effects: 1,890 828 17
Children
Cardiovascular
Effects: 30,000 - 77,000 14,000 8,750
Adult Men
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where p is the probability that an individual's diastolic pressure exceeds 90 mm Hg, and PbB
is the individual's blood lead level (ng/dL). This logistic equation is depicted in Figure 21-
1.
The total number of expected cases was then extrapolated using the joint probability of
exceeding a given level of PbB, and the probability of developing hypertension for that
blood lead concentration:
E(CVC) = max [Pr (Hj) « Pr (PbBj) • EP] (2)
where E(CVC) is the most likely estimate of the number of cardiovascular "cases", Pr(HJ
and Pr(PbB) are, respectively, the probability of developing hypertension and the probability
of exceeding a given blood lead level (based on the national distribution of PbB in adult
men) for i concentrations of PbB, and EP is the size of the exposed population. This joint
relationship is shown in Figure 21-2. Based on this analysis, it was estimated that most
likely occurrence of cardiovascular cases is 77,000, or 11% of the exposed population (Table
21-4)3.
Given this extreme result, it must be noted that an alternative estimation method was used
by Abt (1989) which involved application of a 7 ng/dL threshold concentration for
hypertension. Application of this metric to the distribution of PbB yields an expected
probability of 4.3%, or 32,895 cases. Given current uncertainties about the true dose-
response relationship, however, it can only be supposed that the expected number of cases
would likely fall within the range of 30,000 to 80,000.
High Exposure Case
Applying the logistic regression equation to the high exposure/high-risk case yields an
estimated 14,000 cases, or 20% of the assumed population of 70,000. For the high
exposure/low-risk case, 8,750 cases (12.5% of the exposed population) were estimated
(Table 21-4).
2U ECOLOGICAL RISK ASSESSMENT
21.3.1 Toxicological Profile
Lead is a cumulative toxicant with relatively low acute toxicity, but a wide variety of
potential chronic responses, including:
3 It must be recalled that the cardiovascular endpoint assessed using the foregoing dose-response
relationship is the likelihood of diastolic BP exceeding 90 mm Hg.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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Figure 21.1 Relationship between [PbB]
in adult men and probability of
hypertension
Probability
PbB (ug/dL)
-------
Figure 21.2. Joint probability of
blood lead (PbB) and hypertension.
Probability
PbB (ug/dL)
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21-12
• inhibition of aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALAD) (involved in synthesis of
hemoglobin), reducing oxygen carrying capacity of blood;
• degenerative spinal curvature (scoliosis, lordosis) in fish;
• neurological and behavioral effects in mammals, including hyperactivity in rats
and mice, and impaired learning ability in monkeys;
• reproductive effects in mammals and amphibians (including post-implantation
mortality, skeletal abnormalities, decreased growth rates);
• behavioral effects in fish; and
• reproductive impairment and impairment of chemoreception in fish and
zooplankton (Canada Ministry of the Environment, No Date).
Lead toxicity is primarily attributable to free Pb2+. Acute toxicity (LC50) values for lead
range from approximately 1 - 400 mg/1 for aquatic species. For plant species, toxicity values
are extremely variable, and depend on soil makeup. In loblolly pine and red maple, for
example, lead levels of 100-500 ppm resulted in accelerated leaf dropping and an increase
in red pigmentation in the maple, and a decrease in needle size in the pine. In carrots and
lettuce, however, significant growth inhibition was shown to occur at concentrations between
0.5 and 5 ppm.
Chronic effects in aquatic species may occur at significantly lower concentrations, however.
For example, chronic responses have been demonstrated at lead concentrations (dissolved
Pb) between 0.0041 and 0.032 mg/1 for rainbow trout, 10 mg/1 in catfish, and 30 mg/1 in
Daphnia magna (Canada Ministry of the Environment, No Date).
21.32 Exposure Assessment
The absence of environmental concentration data for lead in different media in Region VIII
prevents a detailed exposure assessment for this problem area. However, environmental
exposures will occur via atmospheric deposition (primarily from leaded gasoline and from
smelting operations), and from mining runoff.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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2133 Ecological Risk Characterization
Absence of exposure assessment data prevents quantification of ecological risks. However,
it is likely that primary ecological effects of lead will occur in mining/smelting sites, where
environmental concentrations can attain levels in tens of thousands of ppm. Moreover, sites
with low ambient alkalinity will tend to promote more severe ecological damage because
of the mitigating effect of alkalinity on lead toxicity.
21.4 WELFARE RISK ASSESSMENT
Welfare effects resulting from exposure to environmental lead can include:
• costs of illness and lost wages associated with hypertension;
• costs of illness associated with fetal effects;
• psychological damages associated with infant mortality; and
• forgone earning potential and addition education associated with I.Q. decrement.
Non-health related welfare effects can include:
• forgone benefits (recreational, aesthetic and other non-use benefits) associated
with injured natural resources;
• reductions in property values in areas with high lead concentrations;
• social effects (e.g., social and economic stratification) related to the fact that the
preponderance of effects may occur in lower-income groups because of high
exposures to leaded paint and gasoline fumes in urban areas, poorer health care,
etc.
There is little published information available to monetize the above welfare effects.
Mathtech (1986) estimated the "costs" of hypertension (medical treatment, lost wages,
medication) to be approximately $24 - $252 per case (1986 dollars). Assuming the total
number of cases to be 30,000 - 80,000, this yields a range of .7 to 20 million dollars. Abt
(1989), in a similar analysis, suggest a per/case cost of $277, or 8 to 22 million dollars.
Fetal mortality-effects were valued by RCG (1990) using a value-of-life approach. A range
of values of a "statistical life" were obtained from the available literature (1.7 to 8.8 million
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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(1988 dollars)). Applying these values to the expected number of cases yields an estimated
593 million to 3 billion dollars.
I.Q. decrement was valued by Abt (1989) as being approximately $2500 per affected child.
Applying this cost figure to the risk results yields a welfare cost of 0.9 million dollars.
It should be noted that the above studies provide extremely rough benchmarks of welfare
costs. For example, monetization of hypertension in terms of medical care, lost income and
medication may ignore significant psychological impacts, and application of "value of a
statistical life" and I.Q. decrement approaches are both highly controversial. Finally, it must
be recalled that only a fraction of welfare-related effects are included in this approach.
Thus, the monetized estimates provided above (ranging from hundreds of millions to billions
of dollars) should be deemed a lower bound of the actual welfare effects of lead.
21.5 CONCLUSIONS
The ubiquity of lead (as a result of emissions from leaded gasoline, widespread historical
use of leaded paints, leaded pipes and solder in water supply, and elemental lead in soil),
coupled with the significant (and varied) chronic health effects of lead, points to the
potential for considerable human health impacts from this problem area. Specifically, health
impacts to sensitive populations (children, middle-aged rfiales) may be highly significant in
areas of extreme exposure (inner cities, mining communities). Because of the potential for
extensive health effects, welfare-related impacts from lead may be extensive. Finally, the
relatively low acute toxicity of lead suggests that large-scale ecological effects are unlikely
to occur in Region VIII. However, the variability of chronic effects in both aquatic and
terrestrial species could lead to substantial impacts in localized areas of high concentration
(e.g. NPL sites).
21.6 PRINCIPAL CONTACTS
Jim Levall, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region VIII.
Ellen Mangione, Colorado Department of Health
Bill Chappell, Colorado University Center for Environmental Science
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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21.7 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Abt. 1989. Monetized health benefits of regulating sewage sludge use and disposal. Final
report to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Policy Analysis and Office of
Water Regulations and Standards. Abt Associates, Inc. Cambridge, MA
Angle, C.R. et al 1982. Erythrocyte nucleotide in children - Increased blood lead and
cytidine triphosphate. Pediatric Research. 16:331-334.
ATSDR. 1988. The nature and extent of lead poisoning in children in the United States:
A report to Congress. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Agency for Toxic
Substances and Disease Registry, Washington, DC.
Bornschein, R.L., C.S. Clark, J. Grote, S. Roda, B. Peace, and P. Succop. 1988. Soil/lead-
blood/lead relationships in an urban community and in a mining community. Paper
presented at: Conference on Lead in Soil:Issues and Guidelines, March 7-9,1988, Chapel Hill,
NC.
Canada Ministry of the Environment. No Date. Phase 3 Dossier: Lead. Hazardous
Contaminants Coordination Branch. Toronto, Ont.
CDH. 1990. Leadville metals exposure study. Colorado Department of Health, Division
of Disease Control and Environmental Epidemiology. Denver, CO.
EPA. 1989. Review of the national ambient air quality standards for lead: exposure analysis
methodology and validation. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, OAQPS Staff Report,
Washington, DC.
EPA (1986). 1986. Air quality criteria for lead. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Research Triangle Park, NC. EPA 600/8-83/028 a-d F.
State of Colorado. 1989. Colorado environment 2000. Denver, CO.
Luckey, T. 1977. Metal Toxicity in Mammals. Plenum Press, New York, NY.
Mahaffey, K.R. et al 1982. Association between age, blood lead concentration, and serum
1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol levels in children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.
35:1327-1332.
Neri, L.C., D. Hewitt, and B. Orsen. 1988. Blood lead and blood pressure: Analysis of cross
sectional and longitudinal data from Canada. Environ. Health Persp. 78:123-126.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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Pirkle, J.L., J. Schwartz, J.R. Landis, and W.R. Harlan. 1987. The relationship between
blood lead levels and blood pressure, and its cardiovascular risk implications. American
Journal of Epidemiology. 121:
Schwartz, J. and D. Otto. 1987. Blood lead, hearing thresholds, and neurobehavioral
development in children and youth. Arch, of Env. Health. 42:153-160.
Steele, MJ., B.D. Beck, B.L. Murphy, and H.S. Strauss. 1990. Assessing the contribution
from lead in mining wastes to blood. Reg. ToxicoL Pharmacol 11:158-190.
Victery, W., H.A. Tyroler, R. Volpe, and D.L. Grant. 1988. Summary of discussion sessions:
Symposium on lead-blood pressure relationships. Environ. Health Persp. 78:139-159.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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22-1
22.0 PHYSICAL DEGRADATION OF TERRESTRIAL
ECOSYSTEMS/HABITATS
22.1 INTRODUCTION
The Physical Degradation of Terrestrial Ecosystems and Habitats problem area covers risks
to the environment and human welfare. Human health effects are not estimated for this
problem area. Risks in this problem area are associated with physical modifications of the
environment, for example, construction, mining, logging, and agricultural drainage; wind and
water caused soil erosion; and habitat fragmentation. Effects of desertification were not
addressed due to a paucity of data. However, we believe that anecdotal evidence suggests
that this may be a significant problem in Region VIII. Only welfare effects associated with
both off and on-site soil erosion damages were considered in this analysis. The effects of
agricultural drainage on wetland resources are also discussed in the Wetlands problem area.
Loss of terrestrial habitat occurs through changes in land use, highway construction,
urbanization, agriculture, silviculture, mining and related practices that "consume" or alter
physical landscape features. For example, direct loss of habitat and dramatic alteration of
ecosystem structure and function results when lands are converted from natural ecosystems
to roads and urban areas.
Terrestrial ecosystems, including agro-ecosystems, are degraded by physical means such as
soil loss, erosion, desertification, by timber harvesting, and grazing activities.
Landscape alterations are in some cases permanent (urbanization and road construction),
with long-term and irreversible effects. Other physical modifications such as grazing and
timber harvest can result in short term and reversible effects. Under poor management
practices, however, silvicultural and grazing impacts can be extensive and relatively
permanent.
Habitat loss due to this problem area may be the major cause of reduced local and regional
biodiversity. Species reliant on a specific habitat are forced into local extinction with habitat
loss. Interruption of migration pathways and habitat fragmentation may also affect species
distributions at Regional scales.
222 DATA DESCRIBING THE EXTENT OF PHYSICAL HABITAT AND ECOSYSTEM
DEGRADATION IN REGION VIII
Data on the losses of physical habitat in Region VIII are lacking. An indication of the
magnitude of habitat loss and ecosystem physical degradation has been derived from several
sources for this assessment. The source of data differs for Federal and non-Federal lands
in the Region. The relative area of Federal versus non-Federal lands for Region VIII States
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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22-2
is listed in Table 22-1 as reported by the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) (1987). For
Region VTII just over 30% of the land area is Federal. The amount of Federal land in each
State varies by State from 4.4% in North Dakota to 60% in Utah.
22.2.1 Non-Federal Lands Data
For non-federal lands the Soil Conservation Service's, statistically based National Resources
Inventories (NRI) of 1982 and 1987 are used to estimate the amount of terrestrial habitat
physical degradation due to land development and soil erosion (SCS, 1989).
2222 Scone of Land Development
The amount of land area developed ("urban and built up lands") was estimated by the NRI
for all non-Federal lands in both the 1982 and 1987 surveys. The acres of developed land,
the total land area, the percentage of the total area developed and the change in developed
land area since 1982 are listed in Table 22-2. For Region Vm about 1.5 % of the total non-
Federal land area has been developed compared with the national average of 4%. For
states within the Region values of percentage development range from a low of 0.8 % in
Utah and Wyoming to a high of 2.7% in North Dakota.
Each State has shown an increase in the area of developed lands since 1982; Colorado has
seen the largest increase in developed land area, 91,900 acres while South Dakota has
increased developed lands least, 4,900 acres. The Regional increase in the area of
developed lands between the survey years was 174,500 acres.
22.2.3 Soil Loss
The SCS estimates the amount of soil loss and erosion on cropland, pastureland, range land,
forest land, and other minor rural land classes (SCS, 1989). Soil loss by sheet and rill
erosion are estimated for each land class while wind erosion is only estimated from
cropland.
We used SCS data to derive the amount of soil loss (tons per year) in the Region and in
each state as:
Soil Loss (tons per acre) = Sum[(ALCC)(SLLCC)]
where:
ALCC = acres of land cover/class
SLLCC = soil loss(tons/acre/yr)/Iand cover class
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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Table 22-1
Area of Federal and Non-Federal Lands
State
Acreage of
Federal Lands
Acreage of Non-
Federal Lands
Acreage of
Total Lands
Percent of
Federal Lands
Colorado
19,781,207
46,704,553
66,485,760
29.75%
Montana
27,445,436
65,825,604
93,271,040
29.43%
North Dakota
1,958,284
42,494,196
44,452,480
4.41%
South Dakota
2,676,039
46,205,881
48,881,920
5.47%
Utah
31,636,133
21,060,827
52,696,960
60.03%
Wyoming
29,005,724
33,337,317
62,343,040
46.53%
Region VIII
112,502,823
255,628,377
368,131,200
30.56%
USA
688,253,346
1,583,090,014
2,271,343,360
30.30%
Region VIII
16.35%
16.15%
16.21%
as % of USA
(SCS, 1987)
-------
Table 22-2
Development on Non-Federal Lands
State
Year
Acres
Developed
Total Area
Percent
Developed
Colorado
Montana
North Dakota
South Dakota
Utah
Wyoming
USA
Region VIII
1982
1987
Change
1,283,000
1,374,900
(91,900)
66,618,200
1982
1987
Change
991,800
999,300
(7,500)
94,109,200
1982
1987
Change
1,224,300
1,242,200
(17,900)
45,249,500
1982
1987
Change
1,059,100
1,064,000
(4,900)
49,354,000
1982
1987
Change
428,100
465,000
(36,900)
54,335,500
1982
1987
Change
485,700
501,100
(15,400)
62,598,000
1982
1987
Change
73,557,800
77,553,900
(3,996,100)
1,940,059,700
1982
1987
Change
5,472,000
5,646,500
(174,500)
372,264,400
1.90%
2.06%
1.05%
1.06%
2.71%
2.75%
2.15%
2.16%
0.79%
0.86%
0.78%
0.80%
3.79%
4.00%
1.47%
1.52%
(SCS, 1989)
-------
22-5
The amount of soil loss due to water and wind erosion in 1982 and 1987 is presented in
Figures 22-1 and 22-2, respectively. Soil loss via wind erosion is of similar magnitude as the
water born losses.
Regional soil loss approaches 1 billion tons of soil per year (SCS, 1989). States vary in the
amount of wind and water erosion; Wyoming and Utah have the smallest soil loss, while
Colorado and Montana exhibit the greatest losses. Region V1TI accounts for about 13-17%
of the total U.S. soil loss. By erosion type, the Region accounts for 41% of total wind born
losses and 6% of water born soil loss in the U.S. in 1987.
Trends in habitat degradation from soil loss can be estimated from SCS data, as habitat
degradation is associated with total soil loss (SCS, 1989). Between 1982 and 1987 three
States in the Region (Colorado, Utah, and North Dakota) showed an increase in total soil
loss while the other States (South Dakota, Montana, and Wyoming) demonstrated a
decrease in soil loss (Figure 22-3).
The observed changes in total soil loss resulted from an increase in wind erosion in all
States except Montana and Wyoming, and a decrease in water erosion for all but Montana
(Figure 22-3). For the Region and each State, except Montana, total estimated annual soil
loss from sheet and rill erosion was significantly less in 1987 than NRI found in 1982
(Figures 22-4 through 22-6).
While the general pattern is toward reductions in soil loss from water erosion, some land
use classes in several states have seen increased soil loss from water erosion. Soil loss from
croplands has increased since 1982 in Montana and North Dakota by 3,000,000 and
2,000,000 tons of soil per year, respectively. Colorado has also seen an increase in soil loss
from forest lands of about 1,000,000 tons of soil per year (Figure 22-6).
The amount of habitat damage from water born soil loss varies with land use. A more
detailed assessment of the degradation of the various SCS land cover types due to water
born soil loss is shown in Figures 22-4 through 22-6. Soil loss varies with land cover class.
Crop and range lands evidence more soil loss than forest and pasture lands. Within the
Region loss amounts differ between States. For example, cropland losses are small in
Wyoming and Utah compared with other States while range land soil loss is relatively more
important for these States.
Colorado and South Dakota have nearly two times the water born soil loss of the other
States due to the apparent contribution from minor lands. The magnitude of contribution
from minor lands is uncertain due to the smaller sampling size attained for minor land
classes and variability in soil loss from minor land class constituents (George, 1990). These
minor class constituents include barren lands, urban areas, farmsteads, and feed lots. Soil
losses estimated due to these land use types can be very large if the random sample falls at
a site with a steep slope on highly erodible barren land or a feed lot. Extrapolation to the
region from such samples can yield disproportionately high loss estimates.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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240
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Figure 22.1
Soil Loss From Wind and Water Erosion
^ co
MT ND fWI SD UT fWl WY
-------
300
280
260
240
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Figure 22.2
Soil Loss From Wind and Water Erosion
SCS SURVEY 1987
WIND
WATER
TOTAL
-------
60
Figure 22.3
Change in Soil Loss From Wind and Water Erosion
1987-1982 NRI INVENTORY
03
Q)
O
cn
o
in
c
o
I-
o
o
o
o
o
o
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
&
0
7~
A
-20
WIND
WATER
TOTAL
CO MT ND fWI SD |\\1 UT \/A WY
(SCS, 1987, 1989)
-------
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 22.4
Soil Loss From Sheet and Rill Erosion
1982 SCS NATIONAL RESOURCES INVENTORY
CROPLAND
PASTURE
RANGE
FOREST
MINOR
t2r
TOTAL
NON-FEDERAL RURAL LAND TYPE
CO MT V//A ND FxVI SD [\\1 UT \/A WY
-------
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Figure 22.5
Soil Loss From Sheet and Rill Erosion
1987 SCS NATIONAL RESOURCES INVENTORY
X
J3
;x
Mx\/
CROPLAND
PASTURE
RANGE
FOREST
MINOR
NON-FEDERAL RURAL U\ND TYPE
g§g] CO MT [222 ND fWl SD UT [ZZ WY
TOTAL
-------
4
3
2
1
0
1
2
¦3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
1
Figure 22.6
Change in Soil Loss From Sheet and Riil Erosion
1987-1982 NRI INVENTORY
I
T23
fo42
r*
\
7—
V
X
X
X
\
X
\
X
\
X
\
X
\
X
s
X
\
X
X
X
\
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X
\
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X
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X
\
X
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X
X
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x\
x\
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x
X
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X
X
X
X
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PASTURE
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MINOR
TOTAL
NON-FEDERAL RURAL LAND TYPE
co ESS mt £221 nd e>2 sd 15X1 ut
WY
-------
22-12
223 FEDERAL LANDS DATA
For Federal lands controlled by the U.S.D.A. Forest Sen-ice, U.S.D.I. Bureau of Land
Management and Park Service, quantitative data on the loss of habitat or the amount of
physical ecosystem degradation are lacking. An index to the potential amount of physical
disturbance to Federally managed landscapes is derived from USD A (1990a) and BLM
(1990). Similar data for Park Service lands were not available.
The Forest Service and BLM annual statistical summaries provide data on: the condition
of BLM grazing lands, the amount of grazing and timber harvesting, and the amount of
habitat disturbed by fire.
22.3.1 Grazing
Data on grazing impacts on range lands are maintained by the BLM. (BLM, 1990). The
amount of habitat degradation on grazing lands managed by BLM is quantified in Table
22-3 as the percentage of range lands exhibiting poor, fair, good or excellent condition.
Condition is expressed as the degree of similarity of present vegetation to the potential
natural, or "climax", plant community where Excellent = 76-100% similarity, Good = 51-
75% similarity, Fair = 26-50% similarity; and Poor = 0-25% similarity. About 45% of
Region VIII BLM range lands are in fair or poor condition.
The amount of habitat at risk from grazing activity is related to the amount of grazing. The
actual amounts of BLM and Forest Service lands under grazing are not published. For
BLM land, grazing data are indexed by dollar amount of grazing leases and licenses (Table
22-4). For Forest Service lands, the number of animal unit months (AUM) are published
(Table 22-4). (An animal unit month is the amount of forage required by a 1,000-pound
cow, or the equivalent for 1 month.)
For Region VIII BLM lands, about 7.5 million dollars in grazing leases are let each year.
This corresponds to 41.5% of the total grazing receipts for BLM lands nationwide. By this
index Montana and Wyoming have the most grazing activitv, and North Dakota the least
(Table 22-4).
The amount of grazing activity on Forest Services lands, measured by the number of AUM
for Region VIII, is 3,596,214 AMUs (Table 22-4). On Forest Service lands the amount of
grazing is greatest in Colorado, followed by Utah, Wyoming, Montana, South Dakota, and
North Dakota.
RCG/Hagler. Bailly, Inc.
Working Draft for EPA ¦- Do Not Cue or Distribute
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22-12
223, FEDERAL LANDS DATA
For Federal lands controlled by the U.S.D.A. Forest Service, U.S.D.I. Bureau of Land
Management and Park Service, quantitative data on the loss of habitat or the amount of
physical ecosystem degradation are lacking. An index to the potential amount of physical
disturbance to Federally managed landscapes is derived from USD A (1990a) and BLM
(1990). Similar data for Park Service lands were not available.
The Forest Service and BLM annual statistical summaries provide data on: the condition
of BLM grazing lands, the amount of grazing and timber harvesting, and the amount of
habitat disturbed by fire.
22.3.1 Grazing
Data on grazing impacts on range lands are maintained by the BLM. (BLM, 1990). The
amount of habitat degradation on grazing lands managed by BLM is quantified in Table 22-
3 as the percentage of range lands exhibiting poor, fair, good or excellent condition.
Condition is expressed as the degree of similarity of present vegetation to the potential
natural, or "climax", plant community where Excellent = 76-100% similarity, Good = 51-
75% similarity, Fair = 26-50% similarity; and Poor = 0-25% similarity. About 45% of
Region VIII BLM range lands are in fair or poor condition.
The amount of habitat at risk from grazing activity is related to the amount of grazing. The
actual amounts of BLM and Forest Service lands under grazing are not published. For
BLM land, grazing data are indexed by dollar amount of grazing leases and licenses (Table
22-4). For Forest Service lands, the number of animal unit months (AUM) are published
(Table 22-4). (An animal unit month is the amount of forage required by a 1,000-pound
cow, or the equivalent for 1 month.)
For Region VIII BLM lands, about 7.5 million dollars in grazing leases are let each year.
This corresponds to 41.5% of the total grazing receipts for BLM lands nationwide. By this
index Montana and Wyoming have the most grazing activity, and North Dakota the least
(Table 22-4).
The amount of grazing activity on Forest Services lands, measured by the number of AUM
for Region VIII, is 3,596,214 AMUs (Table 22-4). On Forest Service lands the amount of
grazing is greatest in Colorado, followed by Utah, Wyoming, Montana, South Dakota, and
North Dakota.
RCG/Hajler, Bailly, Inc.
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Table 22-3
Habitat Condition on BLM Grazing Lands
% by Range Condition Class (a)
Unclass-
State
Ecellent
Good
Fair
Poor
ified (b)
Colorado
3
15
39
24
19
Montana
6
57
21
1
15
North Dakota
South Dakota
Utah
4
28
40
13
15
Wyoming
5
48
35
6
6
Region VIII
4.5
37
33.75
11
13.75
BLM
3
30
36
16
14
a Expressed in degree of similarity of present vegetation to the potential
natural, or climax, plant community: Excellent=76-100% similarity
Good= 51-75% similarity, Fair = 26-50% similarity; Poor = 0-25% similarlt
b This category includes rangelands for which neither data nor estimates ar
(BLM, 1990)
-------
Table 22-4
Grazing and Silviculture Activity
on BLM and Forest Service Lands
Grazing Lease,
Grazing
Volume (MBF)
Value of
Value of
Timber Sales
Licenses
AUM
Timber Sales
Timber Sales
Timber/MBF
State
BLM Lands
BLM Lands
FS Lands
FS Lands
FS Lands
FS Lands
Colorado
$143,896
$929,722
938,894
189,305
$5,117,813
$27
Montana
$418,406
$2,258,772
516,966
444,880
$40,056,671
$90
North Dakota
$0
$16,551
422,152
65
$600
$9
South Dakota
$1,873
$140,077
444,092
93,399
$7,249,007
$78
Utah
$63,319
$1,577,585
663,738
72,056
$1,773,898
$25
Wyoming
$182,084
$2,573,827
610,372
104,056
$3,385,228
$33
Region VIII
$809,578
$7,496,534
3,596,214
903,761
$57,583,217
$64
USA Total
$253,281,601
$18,071,483
8,073,204
8,414,587
$1,077,534,474
$128
Region VIII
0.3
41.5
44.5
10.7
5.3
as % of USA
(MBF= thousand board feet)
-------
22-15
2232 Timber Harvesting
The amount of lands disturbed by timber harvesting is not published by the BLM or Forest
Service; however, data on the amount of timber sales or volume of timber sold are
published and can serve as indicators of the land amount disturbed by timber harvesting
(BLM, 1990; USDA, 1990a).
Over $800,000 worth of timber was harvested in FY 1989, on BLM lands in Region VIII.
This represents only 0.3% of the national BLM timber sales (Table 22-4). On Forest
Service lands in Region VIII, $57.5 million worth of timber were harvested in FY 1989.
This represents 5.3% of national Forest Service timber sales. These data suggest that North
Dakota is potentially the least vulnerable Region VIII state to timber harvesting, while
Montana has potentially the largest impacts (Table 22-4).
22.3.3 Fire
The amount of habitat disturbed by fire in any given year varies greatly. For BLM lands
ia 1989 less than 50,000 acres burned in Region VTII (Table 22-5). On Forest Service lands
in 1988 over 400,000 acres burned (Table 22-5). The Yellowstone fires on Park Service
lands in 1988 affected over one million acres.
22J.4 Surface Mining
The amount of lands disturbed in Region VIII by surface mining activities where no
reclamation is required, was quantified in 1977 by the USDA and is presented here as
reported by EPA (1987) (Table 22-6). For Region VHI, over 110,000 acres of lands were
disturbed by mining in 1977 representing 0.3% of the land area (Table 22-6). Physical
disturbances of lands due to mining are greatest in Colorado and Wyoming, and smallest
in North Dakota and Utah (when expressed as a percentage of the total land area). The
amount of lands disturbed by mining activities is further documented in problem area 20.
223.5 Road Building
Data on the destruction of terrestrial habitat by road building and development of Federal
lands is limited. For Forest Service lands in Region VIII, approximately 5,000 acres of
forest lands were disturbed by road building activities in FY 1989 (USDA, 1990a).
Estimates for other Federal lands were not found.
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22.3.2 Timber Harvesting
The amount of lands disturbed by timber harvesting is not published by the BLM or Forest
Service; however, data on the amount of timber sales or volume of timber sold are
published and can serve as indicators of the land amount disturbed by timber harvesting
(BLM, 1990; USDA, 1990a).
Over $800,000 worth of timber was harvested in FY 1989, on BLM lands in Region VIII.
This represents only 0.3% of the national BLM timber sales (Table 22-4). On Forest Service
lands in Region VIII, S57.5 million worth of timber were harvested in FY 1989. This
represents 5.3% of national Forest Service timber sales. These data suggest that North
Dakota is potentially the least vulnerable Region VIII state to timber harvesting, while
Montana has potentially the largest impacts (Table 22-4).
22.3.3 Fire
The amount of habitat disturbed by fire in any given year varies greatly. For BLM lands in
1989 less than 50,000 acres burned in Region VIII (Table 22-5). On Forest Service lands
in 1988 over 400,000 acres burned (Table 22-5). The Yellowstone fires on Park Service
lands in 1988 affected over one million acres.
22.3.4 Surface Mining
The amount of lands disturbed in Region VIII by surface mining activities where no
reclamation is required, was quantified in 1977 by the USDA and is presented here as
reported by EPA (1987) (Table 22-6). For Region VIII, over 110,000 acres of lands were
disturbed by mining in 1977 representing 0.3% of the land area (Table 22-6). Physical
disturbances of lands due to mining are greatest in Colorado and Wyoming, and smallest
in North Dakota and Utah (when expressed as a percentage of the total land area). The
amount of lands disturbed by mining activities is further documented in problem area 20.
22.3.5 Road Building
Data on the destruction of terrestrial habitat by road building and development of Federal
lands is limited. For Forest Service lands in Region VIII, approximately 5,000 acres of forest
lands were disturbed by road building activities in FY 1989 (USDA, 1990a). Estimates for
other Federal lands were not found.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
Working Draft for EPA Re\tinv - Do Not Cut; or Dumbute
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Table 22-5
Habitat Disturbed by Fire
1989
1988
Acreage
Acreage
Net Resource
Acreage
Net Resource
BLM
BLM+FS
Burned
Burned
Value
Burned
Value
Loss/Acre
Land
State
BLM
Non-BLM
BLM Loss $
FS Lands
FS Loss $ (a)
Burned
Burned
Colorado
11.819
2,928
$203,000
33.037
$454,771
$13.77
47,784
Montana
431
498
$8,000
68,206
$587,350
$8.61
69,135
North Dakota
84,803
$719,129
$8.48
84,803
South Dakota
69,512
$589,462
$8.48
69,512
Utah
28,634
3,157
$169,000
25,400
$135,026
$5.32
57,191
Wyoming
1,446
957
$43,000
124,127
$2,221,166
$17.89
126,530
Region VIII
42,330
7,540
$423,000
405,085
$3,435,953
$8.48
454.955
BLM Total
204,857
101,647
$2,760,000
2,613,868
$23,537,297
$9.00
2,920,372
Region VIII
20.66%
7.42%
15.50%
15.58%
as % of BLM
(a) FS lands resource value loss uses FS acres and BLM estimates of loss/acre
(BLM, 1990; USDA, 1990)
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Table 22-6
Area (acres) of Land Disturbed by Mining (a)
Sand and
Other
Total
State
Coal Mines
Gravel Mines
Mined Areas
Land
Colorado
7,089
8,334
15,861
31,284
Montana
1,955
4,655
18,340
24,950
North Dakota
1,050
2,010
200
3,260
South Dakota
890
10,153
5,259
16,302
Utah
635
3,999
4,414
9,048
Wyoming
9,657
3.673
12,376
25,706
Region VIII
21,276
32,824
56,450
110,550
USA
1,097,088
799,042
830,407
2,726,537
Region VIII
1.94%
4.11%
6.80%
4.05%
as % of USA
(a) Area listed for lands disturbed where no reclamation required.
From USDA, 1980. Soil and Water Resource Conservation Act: Appraisal 80.
Review Draft. Part 1.
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22-18
22.4 ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS
Data from each of the sources presented above can be used to indicate the areal extent or
magnitude of losses of habitat due to physical disturbance. Since these estimates are largely
qualitative in nature, quantification of the extent of ecological impacts due to habitat
disturbance from the various sources is limited, and when presented highly uncertain.
22.4.1 Land Development Effects
The environmental impacts associated with complete habitat and ecosystem loss due to
development are clear. The measured loss of habitat to development represents a
permanent loss of about 1.5 % of the Region's natural or agro-ecosystem non-Federal lands
(Table 22-2). The national average is 4% developed lands. The ecosystems are not
impacted per se. but simply no longer exist. Recovery of these destroyed ecosystems is not
likely.
More subtle environmental effects of habitat loss include fragmentation of habitat,
disruption of migratory pathways of animals and biodiversity changes. These indirect
impacts are difficult to quantify. Disruption of corridors of migration may also influence
species ability to respond to climate change. Drainage or prairie pot hole Wetlands in
North and South Dakota is responsible for significant waterfowl migratory habitat loss.
Habitat destruction by development is a major problem and is difficult to mitigate since it
is inexorably linked to population and economic growth.
22.4.2 Soil Loss Effects
Soil loss is an important vehicle of habitat loss and physical destruction of terrestrial
ecosystems in the Region. SCS data for non-Federal lands indicate massive soil loss due to
wind and water erosion (Figures 22-1; 22-2; 22-4; and 22-5). Associated with these losses,
are reduced agro-ecosystem productivity and degradation of rangeland habitat. Trends since
the 1982 SCS survey suggest that water erosion is being mitigated by proper land use
practices, while wind erosion from crop lands has increased (Figures 22-3; 22-6).
Quantitative estimates of ecological damage from soil erosion are illusive. However, one
estimate for the western mountain States suggests that only a small fraction of lands, 0.4
million acres, will experience greater than a 25% reduction in productivity due to soil
erosion over the next 100 years (USDA, 1990b).
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22.43 Grazing Effects
Range lands are extensively grazed in the Region (Table 22-4) and habitat condition of
nearly half the grazing lands, according to BLM, is fair or poor (Table 22-3). Grazing may
represent a major physical disturbance to the range land ecosystems of the Region. Poor
management practices can lead to long-term irreversible damage to range lands, especially
riparian areas. Grazing activities can contribute to soil loss. Extensive loss of soil from
range lands has been documented by the SCS (Figures 22-4, 22-5). Since 1982 the soil loss
from Range lands has decreased, however. (Figure 22-6). Shifts in species composition of
vegetation, loss of productivity and effects on game species are likely at high levels of
grazing activity.
22.4.4 Timber Harvesting Effects
The physical disturbance of forested lands via timber harvesting is well known. The amount
of lands disturbed in the Region is not known. Most silvicultural activities in the Region
occur on Forest Service lands. We can assume that under proper silvicultural practices long-
term habitat disruption will be minimal. However, indications are that poor silvicultural
practices can lead to long-term disruption of forest ecosystem structure and function. Forest
regrowth may be permanently hampered on steep slopes where harvesting activities have
contributed to soil loss.
22.4.5 Fire Effects
For this assessment, habitat "loss" from fire is considered a natural phenomena. Wild fires
have had a major role in the structuring of many natural terrestrial ecosystems in the
Region. Recovery and succession following fires mitigates most long-term effects of habitat
change induced by fire except under extreme and rare circumstances.
22.4.6 Surface Mining Effects
Surface mining activities occur in patches of various scales throughout the region. The
extent of physical habitat disruption due to surface mining varies from several square feet
to square miles. The areas disturbed by surface mines where no remediation is required has
been tabulated (Table 22-6). We can assume a permanent loss of natural habitat for these
lands. The other effects of surface mining activities are considered elsewhere in this
assessment, Problem 20.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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22.4.7 Road Building Effects
Road construction consumes habitat directly and indirectly. The amount of road surface is
a direct measure of the amount of lost habitat. Depending on the type of road, habitat loss
can be permanent or temporary. Roads indirectly facilitate loss of habitat and habitat
destruction by providing access to otherwise remote areas. With access comes the increased
disturbance to terrestrial ecosystems associated with development, logging, off road vehicle
use, and litter.
22.5 WELFARE DAMAGES
This section estimates current welfare damages associated with soil erosion in Region VIII.
Calculated welfare effects estimate both on and off-site economic damages. Damage
estimates related to rill and sheet erosion are based on 1982 National Resource Inventory
data and estimates of U.S. and regional on and off-site economic damages (Colacicco, et al.,
1989 and Ribaudo, 1986; 1989). Wind erosion damage estimates are based on Piper (1989).
22.5.1 On-Site Damages
On-site damages caused by soil erosion are the value of reduced agricultural yields and
increased costs of inputs, such as fertilizers that result from soil losses due to wind and sheet
and rill erosion processes. Yields may be reduced due to reductions in water-holding
capacity, infiltration rates, nutrient availability, organic matter, and other beneficial topsoil
characteristics.
Colacicco, et al. and Alt, et al. (1989) used the Erosion Productivity Impact Calculator and
erosion rates from the 1982 NRI data to estimate regional and national damages from soil
erosion over the next 100 years. They assumed that future yield losses would occur only on
land losing soil at a rate greater than the soils tolerance rate (T-value). Economic damages
were developed by quantifying the value of yield and fertilizer losses from soil erosion by
simulating price changes in crops and fertilizers and discounting to present (1982) values.
This procedure estimated an average value of the on-site loss per ton of cropland and
pastureland as being $0.20 in the Mountain farm Production Region. Specific estimates
were not developed for Region VTII States. The Mountain Region includes: Montana,
Idaho, Wyoming, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Mexico, and Arizona.
By assuming that the $0.20/ton value is adequate for Region VIII and the purpose of this
assessment, estimates of on-site damage can be developed by multiplying this value by the
total cropland and pasture erosion noted in the 1987 NRI tables:
RCG/Hagler,'Bailly, Inc.
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22-21
(156,060,700 crop + 2,910,500 pasture) (.20) = $31,794,240
Converting to 1988 dollars, the estimated present value of on-site erosion in Region VIII
is $39,901,771.
22.5.2 Off-Site Damages
Soil erosion from farmland and other lands increases sediment, nutrient, and pesticide
loadings in surface waters. Sediments, nutrients, and pesticides cause sedimentation
problems in reservoirs, affect aquatic plant and animal life, affect the quality of wetland and
riparian habitats, reduce recreation opportunities, and may be related to human health
effects.
Ribaudo (1986) estimated the off-site damages due to water caused erosion for each of the
Farm Production Regions and the U.S. His estimates do not include damages caused by
wind erosion. Based on his calculations, erosion causes $0.81 (1983 dollars) of damages per
ton of soil loss in the Mountain Region. In a recent evaluation of the off-site benefits of
the Conservation Reserve Program, Ribaudo estimated that water erosion causes SI. 12
(1986 dollars) per ton of damages in the Mountain Region (Ribaudo, 1989). We propose
to use the more recent damage figure, as Ribaudo believes that to be more accurate than
the 1986 estimate.
Total Region VIII sheet and rill erosion from all sources was estimated in the 1987 NRI as
approximately 453,671,900 tons per year. To calculate economic damages:
$1.20 (1989 $) * 453,671,900 = $544,406,280
This damage estimate includes estimated damages to recreational fishing, water storage
facilities, flood damage, drainage ditches and irrigation canals, water treatment facilities,
municipal and industrial water uses, electric power plants, and irrigated agriculture.
22.5J Wind Erosion
Low average rainfall, frequent drought, and relatively high wind velocities characterize much
of Region VHI's landscape. These conditions, combined with fine soils and sparse
vegetation, make some Region VIII lands very susceptible to wind erosion problems. The
Soil Conservation Service estimated that average annual soil erosion on non-federal land
in Region VHI due to wind erosion was about 570,422 tons.
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22-22
Wind erosion creates two types of welfare damages: on-site and off-site. On-site costs are
imposed on all farmers and ranchers who own or lease the land exposed to wind erosion.
These damages are primarily productivity impacts. Other on-site costs include emergency
tillage operations to reduce blowing soil, damage to growing crops, and damage to farm
equipment. Off-site damages are particulate-related damages imposed on those who live
or work downwind from blowing soil. These damages include increases cleaning and
maintenance for businesses and households, damages to nonfarm machinery, and adverse
health impacts. According to Piper (1989) on-site damages of wind erosion are only 2.1%
to 3.5% of the off-site household sector damages in New Mexico. Other data reviewed in
Piper (1989) suggest that on-site crop productivity losses in the Western United States are
small compared to off-site damages, perhaps less than 5% of the estimated off-site wind
erosion damages.
Piper (1989) estimated off-site household damages from all sources of wind erosion in New
Mexico. He found that total off-site damages were estimated to be S465.8 million annually,
averaging $980 per household per year in 1984 dollars. Concerting the household damage
estimate to 1988 dollars using the GNP implicit price inflator yields a household damage
estimate of $1,107. To estimate per capita Region VTII damages:
$1107/2.66 people per household, or
per capita damages are approximately $425.
Total estimated annual damages due to wind erosion equal $425 x the Region VIII
population (7,655,000), or $3.25 x 1010
This estimate does not include cost of illness measures for emphysema cases or other health
effects potentially attributable to wind erosion. In addition, it does not include damage to
non-residential structures or sectors of the economy. However, estimated damages seem far
too great to be plausible.
22.5.4 Uncertainty
This estimate was based on one survey of New Mexico residents to determine the
incremental costs of cleaning residential property associated with wind erosion. No other
studies of off-site damages associated with wind erosion were located. Using the per
household damage estimate calculated for New Mexico to estimate damages in Region VIII
assumes that:
• Region VIII States experience similar wind erosion; and
• Region VIII residents are equally impacted (damaged) by wind erosion.
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This estimate does not include on-site damages or damages to non-residential sectors of the
economy. However, Piper (1989) cites evidence that on-site wind erosion damages are small
when compared with off-site damages.
22.6 ASSUMPTIONS
The areal extent of terrestrial habitat degradation can be related to the amount of land use
modification as documented in government documents cited above.
The amount of past and future physical degradation of terrestrial habitats in the Region can
be related to Regional economic and population growth. The extent of urbanization and
road construction, for example, are clearly related to population and economic growth. We
can assume that increased ecological impacts will co-occur with increased growth.
For Federally managed lands the assumption can be made that the NEPA process and the
National Forest Management Act (Forest Service), the Federal Land Policy and
Management Act (BLM), and the Taylor Grazing Act (BLM) will limit and regulate
environmental, health and economic impacts due to physical degradation on Federal lands.
Our assessment of impacts on non-Federal lands is primarily derived from SCS NRI data.
We assume that the statistical design of the NRI provides an adequate index to the amount
of habitat disruption due to soil erosion in the region and that the 1977 USDA assessment
reported in EPA, 1987 is related to current impacts due to surface mining.
22.7 UNCERTAINTY
There is an unknown amount of uncertainty in the estimates that can be derived as to the
effects of terrestrial habitat degradation in the Region. Where ecosystems are lost, effects
are certain and permanent. Effects due to soil erosion are also well known.
22.8 OMISSIONS
This assessment is limited by the quantity and quality of data available to estimate regional
habitat loss and terrestrial ecosystem degradation.
We have not considered impacts on National Park Lands. This omission is not serious,
however, since Parks do not participate in consumptive activities, ie. timber harvest, new
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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Table 22-7
Soil Erosion (1000 tons/year)
State
Year
Wind (a)
Water
Total
Colorado
1982
1987
Change
84,970
139,287
54,317
131742
131,025
-717
216,712
270,312
53,600
Montana
1982
1987
Change
144,340
138,562
-5,778
71,070
71,150
80
215,410
209,712
-5,698
North Dakota
1982
1987
Change
85,975
112,260
26,285
61,584
61,520
-64
147,559
173,780
26,221
South Dakota
1982
1987
Change
42,215
42,895
680
129,088
124,329
-4,759
171,303
167,224
-4,079
Utah
1982
1987
Change
64,200
111,676
47,476
37,274
27,158
-10,116
101,474
138,834
37,360
Wyoming
1982
1987
Change
27,458
25,741
-1,717
44,930
38,489
-6,441
72,388
64,230
-8158
USA
1982
1987
Change
1,306,349
1,395,377
89,028
3,253,537
2,817,637
-435,900
4,559,886
4,213,014
-346,872
Region VIII
1982
1987
Change
449,158
570,421
121,263
154,424
156,061
1,637
603,582
726,482
122,900
Region VIII
as % USA
1982
1987
34%
41%
5%
6%
13%
17%
(a) 1987 total wind erosion calculated using 1987 wind erosion
from crop lands (SCS, 1989) and 1982 ratio of wind erosion
from crop lands to total wind erosion, 1982 (SCS, 1987).
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Table 22-8
Soil Erosion via Water on
Non-Federal Rural Land (1,000 tons/year)
State
Year
Cropland
Pasture
Range
Forest
Minor
Total
Colorado
1982
24,387
502
53,112
16,469
36,416
131,742
1987
24,128
633
51,540
17,540
35,954
131,025
Change
-259
131
-1,573
1,071
-462
-717
Montana
1982
30,954
607
34,013
4,177
0
71,070
1987
33,973
634
29,415
4,202
161
71,150
Change
3,019
27
-4,598
25
161
81
North Dakota
1982
51,375
510
9,879
132
265
61,584
1987
53,321
603
8,940
129
138
61,520
Change
1,946
93
-939
-3
-127
-65
South Dakota
1982
44,062
811
22,790
281
64,054
129,088
1987
40,984
706
19,937
283
62,188
124,329
Change
-3,078
-105
-2,853
2
-1,865
-4,758
Utah
1982
1,835
49
20,316
13,223
1,392
37,274
1987
2,002
56
15,312
8,303
1,027
27,158
Change
167
7
-5,004
-4,920
-365
-10,116
Wyoming
1982
1,811
225
40,172
786
1,685
44,930
1987
1,653
278
34,819
1,279
610
38,489
Change
-158
53
-5,353
493
-1,074
-6,441
USA
1982
1,812,032
172,006
529,964
354,211
393,582
3,253,537
1987
1,606,797
' 168,967
482,022
315,524
317,539
2,817,637
Change
-205,235
-3,039
-47,943
-38,687
-76,043
-435,900
Region VIII
1982
154,424
2,704
180,283
35,068
103,811
475,688
1987
156,061
2,910
159,963
31,735
100,078
453,672
Change
1,637
206
-20,320
-3,333
-3,733
-22,016
Region VIII
1982
9%
2%
34%
10%
26%
15%
| as % of US
1987
10%
2%
33%
10%
32%
16%
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22-24
construction activities are limited, and only fires, which are largely a natural phenomena,
result in habitat alteration and loss.
We have not evaluated the effects of fractionation of habitat, and the interruption of
migration paths that have occurred since the aboriginal landscape mosaic has been re-
patterned by anthropogenic influences. The scale of natural landscape disruption by
agriculture and urban development has had a large, yet unknown influence, on terrestrial
ecosystem function, and population and community dynamics. These questions are currently
major concerns of the new discipline of landscape ecology.
22.9 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING RISK ASSESSMENT-REDUCING
UNCERTAINTY
22.10 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alt, K., C.T. Osborn, D. Colacicco. 1989. "Soil Erosion, What Effect on Agricultural
Productivity?" USDA, Economic Research Service, Agricultural Information Bulletin
Number 556, Washington, D.C. January.
BLM, 1990. Public Land Statistics 1989. Vol. 174. U.S. Department of the Interior
Washington, D.C.
Colacicco, D., T. Osborn, and K. Alt. 1989. "Economic Damage from Soil Erosion."
Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. Jan.-Feb., pp:35-39.
EPA, 1987. "Comparative Ecological Risk. A Report of the Ecological Risk WorkGroup."
U.S. EPA Office of Policy Analysis. Office of Policy, Planning and Evaluation. Washington,
D.C
George, Tom. (Pers. Comm.) Director of SCS National Resources Inventory, Washington
D.C. (202)447-4530.
Piper, S. 1989. "Measuring Particulate Pollution Damage from Wind Erosion in the
Western United States." Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. Jan.-Feb., pp:70-75.
Ribaudo, M.O. 1989. Personal communication, Natural Resource Economics Division,
Economic Research Service, USDA, Washington, D.C.
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Ribaudo, M.O. 1986. "Reducing Soil Erosion: Off-Site Benefits." USDA, Economic
Research Service, Agricultural Economic Report Number 561, Washington, D.C.,
September.
SCS. 1985. 1982 National Resource Inventory Tables. Soil Conservation Service, USDA,
Denver, CO, January.
SCS, 1987. Basic Statistics 1982 National Resources Inventory. USDA Soil Conservation
Service. Iowa State University Statistical Laboratory Statistical Bulletin Number 756.
SCS, 1989. Summary Report 1987 National Resources Inventory. USDA Soil Conservation
Service. Iowa State University Statistical Laboratory Statistical Bulletin Number 790.
USDA, 1990a. Report of the Forest Service, Fiscal Year 1989. United States Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service Washington, D.C. 224p.
USDA, 1990b. The Second RCA Appraisal. Soil, Water, and Related Resources on
Nonfederal Land in the United States. Analysis of Condition and Trends. USDA
Department of Agriculture. Miscellaneous Publication Number 1482.
22.11 CONTACTS
Tom George, Director of the Soil Conservation Service National Resources Inventory,
Washington, D.C. (202)-447-4530.
RCG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc.
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23-1
23.0 GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE AND STRATOSPHERIC OZONE
DEPLETION
23.1 INTRODUCTION
Anthropogenic gaseous emissions are altering the chemistry of the global atmosphere in
such a way as to potentially induce global climate change and deplete stratospheric ozone.
Physical laws predict that these chemical changes will result in global warming due to the
greenhouse effect of certain gases, particularly carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and
chloroflurocarbons, as well as other species. Stratospheric ozone depletion is caused, in
large part, by chlorine and bromine radicals in the upper atmosphere derived from
chloroflurocarbons (CFCs) and halons. Reductions in stratospheric ozone allow larger
amounts of biologically dangerous ultraviolet (UV) radiation to reach earth surfaces and
also contributes to global warming.
Global climate change will potentially have broad effects on the biosphere including effects
on water resources, agriculture, forestry, natural ecosystems, sea level, energy use,
transportation, and many other aspects of life on earth. Effects of ozone depletion and
subsequent increased UV light intensity include human health issues, principally skin
carcinomas and melanomas, cataracts and other eye diseases, and immune system effects.
A number of studies have estimated eye losses associated with increased UV-B radiation.
Ecological implications, including impacts on aquatic life at the base of the global food
chain, are also anticipated related in increased levels of UV-B radiation.
The information in this assessment is derived from a number of sources including: Hansen,
et al. 1987, 1984; Hoffman and Wells 1987; Houghton and Woodwell, 1989; Titus, 1986;
Environment 2010, 1990 and others as listed.
This assessment briefly reviews and evaluates the literature associated with these issues.
The scale of and uncertainties associated with these problems is vast, and global circulation
models can not accurately predict climate change effects at regional scales. In addition, the
various models currently in use do not produce similar predictions for regions. For example,
model predictions of changes in soil moisture with a doubling of atmospheric C02 for the
Region VIII area range from increases > 2cm to decreases of 4cm (EPRI, 1990). A
detailed assessment of "predicted" changes for the Region can not be credibly performed at
this time. However, current research efforts may provide the information needed to provide
adequate detailed studies to inform policy making.
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23.2 DATA DESCRIBING GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE
The greenhouse effect results from the trapping of radiant energy in the lower atmosphere
by greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
chloroflurocarbons and ozone. The principal greenhouse gas, carbon dioxide, accounts for
approximately 50% of the current anthropogenic greenhouse effect. The secondary gases
account for the remaining effect, principally methane (20%), CFCs and halons (15%),
nitrous oxide (10%) and tropospheric ozone (5%). These gases and their current
concentrations in the atmosphere are the result of numerous biogeochemically and
anthropogenically derived emissions. Without these gases the Earth's surface would be
about 30 degrees cooler than it is now and life as we know it would be prohibited.
Anthropogenic emissions have significantly affected the concentrations of greenhouse gases
greatly over a relatively short time scale.
There are no data which specifically quantify the amount of greenhouse gas emissions in
Region VIII. The principal anthropogenic source of C02 in the Region is the burning of
carbon fuels (coal, petroleum, and natural gas). The contribution of C02 from deforestation
is minor, while prescribed and natural forest fires may contribute significant amounts of C02
in any given year.
The primary source of methane is derived from biological respiration including sheep and
cattle production, and swamps and marshes. The combustion of biomass, coal mining, and
natural gas also make contributions to total methane emissions. CFCs and halons have no
natural source, all are manufactured. CFCs are used as aerosol propellants, solvents,
blowing agents for insulating foams, and in a number of other industrial processes. Halons
are used as fire extinguishing agents. The residence time of CFCs once in the atmosphere
can exceed 100 years and the radiative forcing (the change in temperature/ppb of
compound) is 20,000 times higher than that of C02 (Ramanathan et al. 1985).
Projected and measured increases in greenhouse gas concentrations and their effects have
convinced that scientific community that:
• Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases are accumulating in the atmosphere.
• As these gases accumulate, they will cause a gradual increase in global average
temperature; an effective doubling of C02 could occur as early as 2030.
• An effective doubling of C02 will eventually cause global average temperature
increases of at least 1.5 degrees C and no more than 4.5 degrees C over the next
60 years.
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• With this gradual warming will also come changes in wind, precipitation, and
other climatic patterns.
• There will be substantial regional variability. In general, temperature increases
will be greater in the polar latitudes and lesser in the equatorial latitudes; some
areas may be cooler than at present.
• Global precipitation will increase; regional precipitation may increase or
decrease.
• Stream flow amount and seasonal pattern will be altered.
• Sea level will rise due to warming and expansion of the oceans plus ice and snow
melt; most scenarios predict changes in the range of 0.5 to 2.0 meters increase
by 2100.
23.3 DATA DESCRIBING THE ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF GLOBAL CLIMATE
CHANGE FOR REGION VIII
Climate affects everything on the planet. Climate change will induce many major changes
in the global and Regional ecosystems. The implications for the Region can not be
quantitatively described at this time. Even qualitative discussions are of limited meaning
given the absence of data and predictive tools. The following discussion attempts to identify
some areas of possible concern.
233.1 Effects on Ecosystem Distributions and Biodiversity
Region VIII includes ecosystems exposed to a diverse array of climatic conditions from
deserts to alpine tundra, great plains grasslands to lush forests. The biodiversity of the
Region is high. Past and current climatic conditions have shaped the boundaries of the
ecosystems of the Region. The ecosystems in this Region may have evolved under greater
stress than those in other regions since drought, severe cold, heat and strong winds are not
uncommon climatic stressors to Region VIII landscapes. The Region contains numerous
terrestrial ecosystems and associated organisms at the edges of their climatically defined
distributions. Changing climatic conditions can greatly alter current ecosystem distributions
throughout the Region in ways and to an extent which is unknown at this time. Given
climatic change, Region VIII ecosystem distribution will be significantly altered and
biodiversity will likely be reduced.
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2332 Effects on Agriculture
As the greenhouse effect increases the average temperature, changes the magnitude and
frequency of precipitation, and ultimately alters the hydrology in the Region, the nature of
agricultural production could change. While direct fertilization may occur with enhanced
C02 concentrations and individual plant water use efficiency may increase in Region VIII,
subtle changes in water supply could overwhelm any direct C02 related crop benefits.
Rangeland production is also greatly influence by water supply such that increased drought
frequency could take many range lands out of animal production. Many Region VIII range
lands could become deserts with relatively small changes in precipitation patterns and
quantities. Climate change could induce shifts in crop pest and disease infestations.
Expansion of irrigation and shifts in regional agricultural production patterns could imply
more competition for water resources, and larger potential for ground and surface water
pollution, loss of wildlife habitat, and increased soil erosion. Precipitation, wind speed, and
evaporation rate are major factors in soil loss from croplands which could each be effected
by climate change.
23.33 Effects on Forestry
The impact of climatic changes on the growth and health of forests in Region VIII is
unknown. Forest species will not survive climatic changes which put the climate outside
their specific tolerance levels. Tree species tolerance levels are not known precisely.
Individual plant response will depend on the plants' reaction to various stresses in
combination with an increased carbon dioxide atmosphere. For example, the response of
plants to heat stress is related to C02 concentrations. The optimum temperature for
photosynthesis increases by about 5 degrees C in an atmosphere with double the present
levels of C02. Thus, within the range of projected temperature increases, elevated levels
of C02 could partially compensate for higher temperatures without unduly stressing plants
directly.
There are a number secondary and tertiary possible effects of doubled C02 and global
warming on forest plants that were summarized in Environment 2010 (1989):
• Rapid leader elongation may predispose trees to wind damage.
• Warmer, wetter autumns could prevent "hardening off leaving trees more
vulnerable to frost damage.
• Increased C02 could cause earlier flowering and increased seed production due
to the increase in ratio of carbon to nitrogen.
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• Plants may require more nitrogen and in some areas phosphorus to obtain
maximum benefits from the C02 increase.
• Tolerance to air pollution could increase due to partial closure of stomata in
response to increased levels of C02.
• Increased potential for wildfire is projected to be associated with less spring and
summer precipitation.
• A drier climate and increased water stress are likely to increase attacks by boring
insects.
• Rising carbon dioxide levels could alter the types and magnitude of pest
problems.
• Competition with shrubs or grass may substantially change and severely restrict
natural regeneration in some areas.
• Conifers have fixed growth and may suffer in relation to plants with free growth.
• In general, the competitive capacity of C, relative to C4 plants should be
increased by increasing concentrations of C02. However, all forest trees have
the C3 carbon pathway and the differences in competitive capacity among species
are likely to be smaller among trees than in communities of annual plants.
233.4 Effects on Water Resources and the Hvdrologic Cvcle
The forested mountains in Region VIII are the source of most of the water used to support
midwestern agriculture and numerous growing urban areas within and outside the Region.
We can not predict, as yet, how Regional precipitation patterns might change with
greenhouse warming. The fraction of annual precipitation as snow and rain may change.
Evaporation rates will increase with temperature, reducing runoff even if precipitation levels
stay the same.
Increased drought can have severe effects over much of the Region as many natural plant
communities and agro-ecosystems are near the lower limit of tolerance to precipitation
amount. Increased demand for water for agriculture, industry and population centers within
and down stream of the Region will be associated with drought and elevated temperatures.
The current competition for water will be intensified if drought conditions become more
common in the future.
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Snowmelt is the dominant hydrologic event responsible for much of the variation in inter-
annual stream flow. Patterns of snowmelt will change with changing climatic conditions.
Increases in temperature may result in faster snowmelt with less sustained mid summer
flows. Winter stream flow may increase with peek flows moving closer to winter months.
Flood frequency, intensity, and recurrence intervals may change with changing climate.
Numerous biologic effects will be associated with changes in hydrology of the region induced
by climate change. Specific data are not available, however.
The effects of climate change on sea level rise is of little direct consequence for Region VIII
and is not discussed here.
23.4 DATA DESCRIBING OZONE DEPLETION
Monitoring of stratospheric ozone concentrations has detected annual average total ozone
column concentration decreases of about 2-3% or 0.35% annually between 1978 and 1985
(Ozone Trends Panel, 1988). The actual numbers will vary with latitude and specific
estimates for Region VIII are not available. The depletion of stratospheric ozone is thought
to be caused by CFCs and halons and their production of chlorine and bromine radicals in
the stratosphere which then undergo reactions that consume ozone.
23.4.1 Data Describing the Ecological Effects of Ozone Depletion
The ecological implications of ozone depletion are not yet well studied; most efforts have
addressed human health issues. There is an important interaction between ozone depletion
and global warming. The existing ozone layer screens out more than 99% of the incoming
ultraviolet energy between 200 and 320 nanometers and reradiates energy in the infrared
wavelengths. As the ozone layer decreases, the stratosphere cools, and the energy balance
of the earth is effected. How these events affect global climate is not precisely known.
23.4.2 Effects on Terrestrial Ecosystems
Data on the effects of increased UV radiation on terrestrial ecosystems of Region VIII is
lacking. Increased UV radiation can affect plants in a number of ways. Of the 200 different
plant species and varieties screened, two thirds were reported to react adversely to elevated
levels of UV/B radiation (Teramura 1986).
UV light effects have included physiological, biochemical, morphological and anatomical
plant responses. Plant growth, productivity, reproduction, competition and disease resistance
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may be influenced by enhanced UV/B radiation. Most studies to date have been quite
limited and possible interactive effects have not been sufficiently studied. Few field studies
have been done.
While some data are available on the effects of UV radiation and other stresses, such as
water stress and mineral deficiency, no information on the effects of other atmospheric
stressors (ozone, sulfur dioxide or C02) are available. Also most plants screened were crop
plants, less in known about responses of natural plant communities. No studies have been
conducted relevant to several Region VIII terrestrial ecosystems. While studies have been
done on UV effects on agricultural lands, tundra and alpine ecosystems, temperate forests
and grasslands, no studies have been done on desert and semidesert ecosystems, savanna
lands, woodlands and scrublands (Teramura, 1986).
23.4.3 Effects on Aquatic Ecosystems
Direct evidence on the potential ecological effects of increased UV-B radiation on aquatic
ecosystems is not available for Region VIII. Experimental data have shown, however, that
UV-B radiation can damage larval and juvenile fish, copepods and aquatic plants (Worrest,
1986). Effects have included decreases in fecundity, growth, and survival. Since UV-B
radiation is readily absorbed by proteins and nucleic acids many effects are thought to be
through degradation of these important biochemicals.
Reported effects vary considerably by species. Species sensitivity may relate to the depth
at which the organisms are normally found and their UV-B absorbance properties.
Avoidance of increased UV-B in surface waters may be accomplished by some organisms
through vertical migration in the water collum. Changes in the vertical distribution of
organisms could potentially have numerous implications. The penetration of UV-B
radiation into natural waters is a key variable in assessing the potential impact of this
radiation on aquatic ecosystems. Avoidance of surface waters by phytoplankton can reduce
productivity by limiting the volume of water available for primary production and reducing
the amount of light available for photosynthesis. Effects at lower trophic levels, and direct
effects on fishes may combine to influence important fish populations and production.
23.5 HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTS OF GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE AND OZONE
DEPLETION
23.5.1 Health Effects of Climate Change
It is very difficult to predict specific regional impacts of global climate change on human
health, as few studies have been completed. The approach used in this assessment is to
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review the results of studies of how current climate is interrelated to human health as
described in White and Hertz-Picciotto (1985). Two questions are briefly addressed. 1)
How may increases in temperature affect human health? 2) How may increased variability
in weather conditions affect human health?
The amount and kinds of endemic diseases currently evident in the Region may change with
an increase in temperature. Bacteria, viruses, allergens and fungi distributed throughout the
atmosphere and soils are affected by atmospheric conditions, temperature, precipitation,
humidity, sunlight and wind. These climatic factors contribute to the dispersal and survival
of many disease organisms. Human disease organisms carried by other vectors may also be
influenced by changes in climate which affect the range of the vector and disease organisms.
The geographic range of diseases may change in some as yet unpredictable manner with
climatic changes.
Changes in the variability of weather patterns are projected to occur with climate change.
Certain climatic variations are known to directly or indirectly affect human health by effects
on disease bearing or causing organisms. Increased humidity adds to human susceptibility
to disease in cold weather. Hot weather aids the survivability of many pathogenic
organisms. Temperature extremes stress the body's thermoregulatory system. Chronically
ill, elderly and infant populations have difficulty adapting to rapid, prolonged temperature
changes and increased mortality and morbidity may result during either heat or cold waves.
Healthy individuals may also suffer increased stress due to overexposure to temperature
extremes.
23.5.2 Human Health Effects of Ozone Depletion
Ozone depletion is predicted to affect human skin, eyes and the immune system. The
stratospheric ozone protects human health by effectively absorbing ultraviolet radiation
between 200 and 320 nm (UV-B and UV-C). A 1% decrease in stratospheric ozone can
result in a 2% increase in UV-B light exposure.
UV-B is a major factor in human skin cancers, basal and squamous cell carcinomas and
malignant melanomas (Scheibner, et al., 1986). Increased exposure to all UV light is related
to an increased risk of developing such skin cancers (Armstrong, et al., 1988). Basal and
squamous cell carcinomas are the most common cancer found in the United States with
400,000 to 500,000 cases reported each year (Koh, et al., 1989). They typically occur on sun
exposed body sites of fair skinned Caucasians. Their incidence increases with increased age
and cumulative lifetime exposure to sunlight. (Scotto, et al. 1988). While rarely fatal, a 3-
6% increase in these common skin cancers can be reliably predicted for each 1% decrease
in ozone (Hoffman, 1987).
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Malignant melanomas are the ninth most common form of cancer, with their incidence
rising at a faster rate (93% increase during last 8 years) than any cancer except male lung
cancer (Kripke, 1988a).
Mortality from these cancers is also increasing with 6000 deaths out of an estimated 27,300
cases reported in 1988 (Koh, et al., 1989). They result from UV induced cellular damage
which, under laboratory conditions, contributes to both their induction and subsequent
growth. They occur throughout the body and appear related not only to lifetime total sun
exposure, but also to acute episodes of sun exposure or sunburn (Kripke, 1988a). Research
now indicates some relationship between malignant melanomas and UV induced damage
to the immune system. A 1% decrease in ozone can be predicted to cause a 1-1.5%
increase in malignant melanomas (Hoffman, 1987).
UV-B radiation is suspected of contributing to three types of ocular changes: cortical
cataract formation (Taylor et al. 1988), macular degeneration of the retina (Young, 1988),
and Pterygium, a degeneration of the epithelial conjunctiva, (Prendergast, 1989).
Limited information exists on the mechanistic connection between excess UV-B radiation
exposure and disease. Immuno-function response to UV-B exposure has been studied only
recently. The significance of such immune changes on the incidence of skin cancers and
human infectious diseases is, as yet undetermined (Kripke, 1988b). Laboratory research
indicates three perturbations in immune response, occurring both locally in irradiated skin
and systemically at sites distant from the irradiated area (Kripke, 1988a). 1) UV radiation
alters Langerhans cells morphologically and decreases their numbers, destroying the skin's
capability to respond to foreign substances or infective organisms (Kripke, 1988a). 2)
Increased exposure to UV light greatly increases the systemic proportion of T-suppressor
cells in relation to T-helper cells with a resulting decrease in the immune system's ability
to fight disease. This change in T cell ratio may bear a role in the appearance of malignant
melanoma on sites distant from sun exposed body surfaces. The suppressed immune
response may also affect other infectious diseases such as herpes and parasitic infections
(Kripke, 1988b). 3) Cellular DNA can also be directly damaged by exposure to UV
radiation. Increased spontaneous cellular mutation and a decreased ability to repair damage
created by either UV exposure or disease processes may have an as yet undetermined effect
on human health (Kripke, 1988a).
23.6 ASSUMPTIONS
Many of the effects of global change defined at global and national scales will be important
in Region VIII.
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23.7 OMISSIONS
Quantitative assessments are avoided in this assessment due to the lack of data on Regional
effects.
23.8 UNCERTAINTY
Uncertainty is the dominant characteristic of this assessment.
23.8.1 Economic Effects of Global Climate Change
The economic effects of global climate change have not been evaluated at Regional scales;
however, some national and global estimates have been made (eg. Adams et al. 1988). This
assessment will not attempt to estimate economic impacts of global climate change on the
Region. A reading of the potential ecological affects does suggest avenues of economic
effects related to agriculture, forestry and water resource issues.
23.8.2 Economic Effects of Ozone Depletion
The economic effects of ozone depletion are not known at either global or local scales. A
comprehensive quantitative estimation of economic effects of ozone depletion is not possible
at this time. Several ecological and health effects have economic consequences. Changes
in productivity of agricultural crops or fisheries will surely have economic consequences.
One study estimates changes in welfare in the US attributable to the depletion of
stratospheric ozone (Adams and Rowe, 1988). These authors suggest that depletion of
stratospheric ozone will directly affect crop yield and also increase the amount of
tropospheric ozone which then further decreases crop yields. They project that a 15 percent
reduction in stratospheric ozone will give rise to a 13 percent increase in tropospheric
ozone. Together the estimated decrease in economic welfare to the U.S. would be $2.6
billion annually.
23.9 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVING RISK ASSESSMENT-REDUCING
UNCERTAINTY
The results of the international research initiative on global change issues may provide
information which will aid in the assessment of the risks of global change. Enhancement
of the spacial resolution of global circulation models may provide information to predict
climate change the finer scales needed for Regional assessments.
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23.10 REFERENCES
Adams, R.M., D. Glyer, and B.A. McCarl. 1988. "The Economic Effects of Climate Change
on U.S. Agriculture: A Preliminary Assessment." Corvallis Environmental Research
Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Corvallis, Oregon.
Adams, R.M. and R.D. Rowe. 1988. "The Economic Effects of Stratospheric Ozone
Depletion on U.S. Agriculture: A Preliminary Assessment." Corvallis Environmental
Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Corvallis, Oregon.
Armstrong, B.K., 1988. Epidemiology of malignant melanoma: Intermittent or total
accumulated exposure to the sun. Journal of Dermatologic Surgery & Oncology 14(8):849.
EPRI, 1990. Sharper focus on Greenhouse Science. EPRI Journal 14(4):4-13.
Environment 2001. 1989. "The State of the Environment Report Vol III Part 6." Risk
Evaluation Reports for Global Warming and Ozone Depletion, pl-64.
Hansen, J. et al. 1987. "Evidence for future warming: How much and when? pp 57-76 In:
Shand, W.E., J.S. Hofman (eds). 1987. The Greenhouse Effect, Climate Change and U.S.
Forests. The Conservation Foundation, Washington, D.C.
Hansen, J. et al. 1984. "Climate Sensitivity to Increasing Greenhouse Gases." pp.57-77 In:
Barth, M.C. & J.G. Titus (eds). 1984. Greenhouse effect and sea level rise. Van Nostrand
Reinhold Co., New York.
Hoffman, J.S. (ed). 1987. "An Assessment of the Risks of Stratospheric Modification." U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
Hoffman, J.S. and J.B. Wells. 1987. "Past and projected changes in greenhouse gases." pp
19-41 In: Shand, W.E., J.S. Hofman (eds). 1987. The Greenhouse effect, climate change and
U.S. forests. The Conservation Foundation, Washington, D.C.
Houghton, RA and G.M. Woodwell. 1989. "Global climate change." Scientific American
260(4):36-44.
Koh, H.K. et al. 1989. "Screening for Melanoma/Skin Cancer: Theoretic and Practical
Considerations." Journal of American Academy of Dermatology Feb. 1989:159-172.
Kripke, M.L. 1988a. "Impact of Ozone Depletion on Skin Cancers." Journal of
Dermatological Surgery and Oncology. 14(8): 853-856.
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Kripke, M.L. 1988b. Address, Annual Academy of Dermatology Meeting, San Diego,
California, December, 1988.
Ozone Trends Panel, 1988. Report to Congress. National Aeronautics & Space
Administration, Washington.
Prendergast, W., 1989. Optbamology Lecture. Portland, OR. March 1989.
Ramanathan, V., R.J. Cicerone, G.B. Sing, and J.T. Kiehl. 1985. Trace Gas Trends and
their Potential Role in Climate Change." Journal of Geophysical Research 90:5557-5566.
Scotto, J. et al. 1988. Biologically Effective Ultraviolet Radiation: Surface Measurements
in the United States." Science. 239:762-764.
Taylor, et al. 1988. Effect of Ultraviolet Radiation on Cataract Formation." New England
Journal of Medicine. 319:1429-1433.
Teramura, A.H.. 1986. "Overview of Our Current State of Knowledge of UV Effects on
Plants." p 165-173. In: J.G. Titus, (ed,), 1986. Effects of Changes in Stratospheric Ozone
and Global Climate. Vol 1: Overview. Proceedings of a conference convened by the United
Nations Environment Programme and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Washington, D.C.
Titus, J.G. Ed., 1986. "Effects of Changes in Stratospheric Ozone and Global Climate. Vol
1: Overview." Proceedings of a conference convened by the United Nations Environment
Programme and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Washington, D.C.
White, M.R. and I. Hertz-Picciotto. 1985. "Human Health: Analysis of Climate Related to
Health." pp 171-206 In: White, M.R. (ed). 1985. Characterization of Information
Requirements for Studies of C02 Effects: Water Resources, Agriculture, Fisheries, Forests
and Human Health. U.S. Department of Energy. DOE/ER-0236.
Worrest, R.C. 1986. "The Effect of Solar UV-B Radiation on Aquatic Systems: An
Overview." In: J.G. Titus, (ed,), 1986. Effects of Changes in Stratospheric Ozone and
Global Climate. Vol 1: Overview. Proceedings of a conference convened by the United
Nations Environment Programme and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Washington, D.C.
Young, R.W. 1988. "Solar Radiation and Age-Related Macular Degeneration. Survey of
Opthamologv 32:252-262.
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