,- .{3- .
Manpower Planning
for
Wastewater Treatment Plants
Prepared for
Office of Water Programs,
Environmental Protection Agency
by
Olympus Research Corporation
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Manpower Planning
for
Wastewater Treatment Plants
Prepared for
Office of Water Programs,
Environmental Protection Agency
by
Olympus Research Corporation
-------
DISCRIMINATION PROHIBITED - Title VI
of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 states: "No
person in the United States shall, on the ground
of race, color, or national origin, be excluded
from participation in, be denied the benefits
of, or be subjected to discrimination under
any program or activity receiving Federal fi-
nancial assistance." Therefore, the Vocational
and Technical Education program, like all
other programs or activities receiving financial
assistance from the Department of Health,
Education, and Welfare, must be operated in
compliance with this law.
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Contents
Foreword page v
Chapter One. Principles and Practices in Manpower Planning 1
A. Typology and Experience in Manpower Planning 3
B. National Macro-manpower Planning 5
C. National Manpower Program Planning 7
D. Micro-manpower Planning within the Private Sector 16
E. Micro-manpower Planning within the Water Pollution
Control Field 21
Bibliography 27
Chapter Two. Water Pollution and the Development of the
Water Pollution Control Program 29
A. Introduction 31
B. Water as a Resource 32
C. Threats to Water Quality 33
D. Factors Affecting Water Quality 37
E. Governmental and Private Responses for Water
Quality 40
F. Nationaf Water Pollution Control Program 46
Bibliography 56
Chapter Three. Human Resource Development and Water
Pollution Control 57
A. Role of the Manpower Planner in Human Resource
Development 59
B. The Education System 61
C. The Employment Service System and the U.S.
Department of Labor 71
D. National Manpower Programs 75
E. Manpower Development and Training in the Water
Pollution Control Field 81
F. A Model for Cooperative Human Resource Develop-
ment Planning 88
Bibliography 91
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IV
Chapter Four. Manpower Planning for Municipal Wastewater
Treatment Plants 93
A. Introduction 95
B. Manpower Planning Process — An Overview 95
C. Seven Steps for Manpower Planning in Municipal
Wastewater Treatment Plants 100
Chapter Five. Applied Manpower Planning for Municipal
Wastewater Treatment Plants 127
Applied Step 1:
A. Inventory of Existing Plants 130
B. Types of Occupations 132
C. Existing Training Opportunities 135
D. Career Ladders 136
Applied Step 2:
A. Legislative Authority 137
B. Water Quality Uses and Criteria 137
C. Budgetary History 138
Applied Step 3:
A. Measuring Current Employment Characteristics 140
B. Projecting Future Employment Characteristics 146
C. Additional Manpower Needs 151
Applied Step 4:
A. Recruitment 155
B. Retention 159
C. Utilization 159
Applied Step 5 165
Applied Step 6 170
Applied Step 7 172
Appendix I 175
Appendix II 181
Appendix III 193
Glossary 199
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FOREWORD
The instructional material provided in this manual has
been designed to offer guidance to those individuals engaged in
manpower planning for certain segments of the water pollution
control field. A preliminary version of this material was used in
a series of three workshops sponsored by the Office of Water
Programs (OWP). Representatives of federal, state, and local
water pollution control agencies attended these workshops, as
did representatives of federal and state offices of labor and of
education. The reactions of the participants in these workshops
to the preliminary material were solicited, as were their sugges-
tions for improvement. Many of these suggestions have been
included in the current version of this manpower planning
manual.
This manual has been written because of the importance
attached to manpower planning by OWP. The manpower de-
velopment staff within OWP recognizes that manpower is a vital
factor in the accomplishment of national water pollution con-
trol objectives. The effectiveness and economy with which
wastewater treatment plants and collection systems are de-
signed, constructed, and operated are dependent upon the avail-
ability of qualified personnel to the public and private organiza-
tions responsible for these functions. Because of the recognition
of the importance of manpower, OWP has established a man-
power planning program whose objective is to satisfy the basic
objective of manpower planning and to ensure that the neces-
sary trained manpower is available at the time and place re-
quired. The basic components of OWP's manpower planning
program are the development of a forecasting process by which
manpower needs can be determined and the development of
action programs by which the projected needs may be satisfied.
The forecasting process consists of the following elements: the
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vi
development of planning tools, the determination of manpower
and training requirements, the determination of manpower
training supply, and the identification of imbalances between
supply and demand. The basic function of the action programs
of manpower planning is to develop programs aimed at recruit-
ing, retaining, and utilizing manpower and to develop programs
to provide adequate training for new and current employees in
the water pollution control field. This manual represents an
initial and important step in satisfying the objectives of the
manpower planning program.
One of the objectives of the manpower planning program
within OWP is the establishing of a manpower planning capa-
bility at the state level for all manpower issues related to water
pollution control. This is not an immediate objective, however,
and a less comprehensive manpower planning capability is being
sought during the initial phases of OWP's program. For this
reason the scope of this manual has been limited to a consider-
ation of manpower planning for that segment of the water pol-
lution control field whose manpower needs have been given first
priority by OWP: municipal wastewater treatment plants.
To satisfy the various manpower objectives in water pol-
lution control in general and for wastewater treatment plants in
particular, local, state, and federal cooperation will be required.
Recognizing the value of such cooperation, OWP has proceeded
in its strategy of developing a manpower planning capability on
the premise that the ultimate responsibility for obtaining the
necessary manpower resides with that organization needing the
manpower, whether it be a state or local entity. The federal
government, however, can perform certain common and de-
velopmental-type functions more effectively and economically
than can individual states and cities. Futhermore, it is felt that
water pollution control manpower planning cannot be done in-
dependent of the many manpower programs sponsored by the
federal government, which, of course, require the participation
of other federal agencies. The development of this manual falls
within one of those areas where it is felt that the resources of
the federal government are most effectively and efficiently
allocated.
Responsibility for overseeing the construction, operation,
and maintenance of municipal wastewater treatment plants is
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vii
usually a state function. The training and certification of the
manpower employed in these municipal plants are also a state
function most usually performed by the state water pollution
control agencies. The primary focus in designing this manual has
been directed therefore to that person in a state agency who has
the responsibility for planning the manpower and training re-
quirements of municipal wastewater treatment plants. This per-
son may or may not be employed by the state water pollution
control agency. For example, such a person may in fact work in
a state or local manpower planning council, the state employ-
ment security office, or a state environmental protection agency.
Because of the possible diversity in the backgrounds of
those engaged in manpower planning for municipal wastewater
treatment plants, the instructional material in this manual has
been prepared and organized to meet five general objectives:
(1) To review the general principles and practices of
manpower planning
(2) To review the development of the nation's water
pollution control program and the need for a sys-
tematic effort in water pollution control, partic-
ularly at the municipal level
(3) To examine the educational and manpower develop-
ment resources that are available for use by the
water pollution control field
(4) To provide instruction in manpower planning for
use in planning manpower needs of municipal
wastewater treatment plants
(5) To organize in a workbook format a series of steps
that draws upon the above information and applies
it directly to manpower planning for municipal
wastewater treatment plants
The information presented in meeting the five objectives
has been organized into five separate chapters. It should be
noted that the instructional material will move from the general
to the specific. This style was followed to permit use of this
manual by persons employed both in and out of the water
pollution field.
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CHAPTER ONE
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES IN
MANPOWER PLANNING
A. Typology and Experience in Manpower Planning
B. National Macro-manpower Planning
C. National Manpower Program Planning
1. Emergence of National Manpower Programs
2. Cooperative Area Manpower Planning System
3. Emergence of State and Area Manpower Planning
Councils
4. Interagency Cooperative Issuances No. 72-1 and No. 72-2
5. National Manpower Program Planning Steps and
Principles
D. Micro-manpower Planning within the Private Sector
E. Micro-manpower Planning within the Water Pollution Control
Field
Bibliography
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This manual has been prepared as a result of effective coop-
eration between two federal agencies, the U. S. Office of Educa-
tion and the Environmental Protection Agency. A contract be-
tween Olympus Research Corporation and USOE, supple-
mented by additional funds from EPA, made it possible to glean
the necessary talent from the environmental and educational
spheres to review initial drafts of the document and to produce
the final publication. Special thanks go to Dr. Howard Matthews,
Director, Division of Manpower Development and Training,
USOE, for providing the contractual support of the project.
Without the guidance and direction of Morton S. Ettelstein
of the Manpower Development Staff, Office of Water Programs,
EPA, this manual would not have its present thrust. The com-
ments and constructive criticism of Thomas R. Hill of the Divi-
sion of Manpower Development and Training, Bureau of Adult,
Vocational and Technical Education, USOE, have aided greatly.
The manual was developed in what was essentially a three-
step process. First, the draft of the manual was prepared by
Olympus Research Corporation under the guidance and direc-
tion of the Environmental Protection Agency. Second, the draft
was presented at a series of seminars held across the nation to
more than 200 knowledgeable individuals who reviewed the
material and offered suggestions for improvement. Those who
reviewed the material included representatives from both na-
tional and regional staffs of EPA, from the Department of
Health, Education and Welfare, from the Department of Labor,
from various state environmental agencies, and from agencies of
metropolitan government dealing with environmental and man-
power problems. Finally, the manual was rewritten in its pres-
ent form to reflect the suggestions obtained through the series
of conferences.
The manual was written by J. Kenneth Davies, Lloyd L.
Gallardo, Edward F. Mackin, Garth L. Mangum, Kenneth C.
Olson, and Colin Wright, who had final editorial responsibility.
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CHAPTER ONE
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES IN MANPOWER PLANNING
Though the primary user of this manual might be a
specialist in planning to meet state and local needs for personnel
in water quality activities, he will undoubtedly perform his
unctions more effectively as he becomes a part of a new and
growing profession involved in a wide variety of activities but
using a common set of tools toward accomplishing a similar set
o o jectives—the profession of manpower planner. In this
cnapter we identify the various levels and types of manpower
planning and review those steps generally followed in what we
refer to as specialized or micro-manpower planning—that form
of manpower planning closest to the assignment of the state
water pollution control manpower planner.
A. Typology and Experience in Manpower Planning
No single concern has more generally permeated the full
range of economic and social activites throughout the world
over the past two decades than the concern for manpower as a
human resource. There are many reasons for this concern.
Government policies aimed at maintaining or achieving full em-
ployment have become a political imperative in every industrial
democracy. In an industrial society the majority are dependent
upon wage and salary income, while in a democratic society the
majority will demand that the government meet those needs
they cannot meet themselves. Job creation is high on the list of
such needs. In addition, because inflation is a major obstacle to
full employment, nations pursuing the goaf of inflation control
must train and upgrade their workers and improve their labor
markets to reduce the inflationary impact of government
employment policy. As advanced societies meet more and more
of their basic needs for goods, the emphasis of consumer
demand shifts toward the more labor-intensive services. In the
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4
+rtr thP tPchnoloqy becomes more developed
capitai-goods secto , human inputs from trained minds
and, to demand Jh absorb the best techni-
and hands. War™r® d more people living closer and
cal manpower. Wi ^ more tec|rin0|0gyr the corn-
closer together, smQre human effort in planning, control,
-—- -
capital and natural resources was dominant.
To show the universality of national manpower planning,
a discuSon of a few international examples will be enlighten-
ing The nature and objectives of the economic and political
»«»• «¦« »• i—""1"""""" "Ml
reflect those differences.
Manpower planning in Western and Northern Europe is
similar to that in the United States .n having as its major ob-
iective the social welfare of wage-earning families. Subsidiary,
but important to this objective, is the reduction ,n inflationary
pressure induced by a policy of ma.nta.ning full employment
The immediate goal of such planning is to prov.de a ,ob for all
who deTire it-a goal made possible by the rise of the work,ng
da® to political power. The need for adopt.ng such a goal
comes atout in part because of maladjustments existing in the
marketplace for which corrections must be made. The ach.ev.ng
of this goal is made easier by the small size population
homogeneity, ideological commitment, and low b.rthrate of the
countries involved.
The objective of Soviet manpower planning is the effi-
cient use of a scarce economic resource-manpower-and is an
integral part of the national economic plan. The U.S.S.R. faces
labor shortages because of the great population losses during
World War II, yet its economic development plans require dis-
persal of population and manpower over a vast expanse of terri-
tory Soviet policies provide incentives for workers to move to
undesirable locations and to work at "productive" (goods-
producing) rather than "unproductive" (sen/ice) jobs. Despite
its reputation for arbitrariness, the Soviet Union seems to have
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5
given up most of the various forms of compulsion it once used
and now relies primarily on monetary incentives, though com-
pulsion remains as the ultimate tool of manpower policy and is
used when needed.
Japanese manpower planning is dedicated to the maxi-
mum utilization of the labor force and is made necessary by the
existence of rapid economic growth, a reduced birthrate (in-
duced by a vigorous program of birth control), and a paternalis-
tic employment system. Numerous policies and programs have
been instituted to increase the labor force through increased
participation of women, older workers, and rural residents.
In contrast to these activities in developed countries, the
developing agrarian nations find themselves in the quandary of
too few educated and trained workers and too many unedu-
cated and untrained citizens. Their manpower plans usually con-
tain programs for the development of rudimentary school sys-
tems designed to increase literacy and programs to either send
their nationals abroad for certain education or training or to
attract citizens from other countries to provide the needed
initial cadre of entrepreneurs, managers, engineers, technicians,
and teachers.
Three types and levels of manpower planning have
emerged within the United States: (1) national macro-man-
power planning to determine the levels of economic growth
necessary to achieve employment targets or to fill the human
resource needs for meeting national goals, (2) national man-
power program planning for administration of programs de-
signed to remedy the problems of special groups of persons, and
(3) micro-manpower planning for the specialized needs of
private business firms, employer associations, employee associa-
tions, and public agencies. Examples of each will better illus-
trate the role and techniques of the manpower planner in
modern society.
B. National Macro-manpower Planning
An oversimplified version of national macro-manpower
planning would include: (1) forecasting the size of the labor
force in the following year, (2) estimating the level of economic
production (gross national product (GNP)) likely to occur with-
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6
out policy measure changes, (3) estimating the level of employ-
ment likely to be generated by that GNP, (4) deciding upon an
employment target, and (5) devising policies, consistent with
other economic and social goals, to reach that target.
To illustrate these five steps, we introduce a simple
example. Let us assume that the size of the labor force (those
employed plus those seeking employment) next year is to be
90.5 million persons. Let us now suppose that the estimate of
the GNP next year is $1,100 billion and that this level of GNP
will generate employment of 85.1 million persons which is 94
percent of the projected labor force, tf it were now assumed
that 96 percent employment of the labor force is the optimal
employment level, meaning employment for 86.9 million, an
unemployment gap of 1.4 million people would exist, and steps
would then have to be taken to eliminate this gap. These steps
might include government fiscal and/or monetary policies that
involve the national government's power to tax, spend, and
regulate the supply of money and credit. In instituting such
policies, other national goals must be taken into consideration,
such as price stability and personal freedom.
While the primary tools used in reaching the target of full
employment are such items as expenditures, tax, and monetary
variables, there is growing interest (though not as yet much
skill) in using education, manpower training, and the various
labor market measures as anti-inflation devices to assist in reach-
ing macro-man power planning goals. It is now generally con-
ceded that the U.S. economy could attain any level of employ-
ment it wanted if it could just learn to do so without inflation.
While macro-manpower planning may seem removed
from the operations of other manpower planners, the ease or
difficulty with which other manpower planners are able to
accomplish their work will be affected by macro-manpower
successes or failures. It would seem, therefore, that other man-
power planners must become familiar and conversant with what
is taking place with manpower issues at the macro level. A start
in providing material pursuant to this end is found in some of
the remaining sections of this chapter and also in Chapter
Three.
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C. National Manpower Program Planning
During the 1950s manpower policies and programs in the
United States concentrated on producing a supply of highly
educated scientists and engineers devoted to keeping ahead of
the Soviet Union in the arms and space races. Persistently rising
levels of unemployment during the late 1950s and the explosive
race issues of then and the early 1960s turned attention to new
issues. Alleviating the competitive handicaps of those persons in
or entering into the labor market, who were unable to obtain
adequate employment and earnings, became the dominant
objective of manpower policies in the 1960s. In the 1970s, with
the general level of unemployment rising, concern began to be
expressed for other groups, such as unemployed aerospace
workers and returning veterans.
1. Emergence of National Manpower Programs
A long series of programs has emerged in an attempt to
meet these needs. The Manpower Development and Training
Act; the Economic Opportunity Act, with its Neighborhood
Youth Corps, Job Corps, Operation Mainstream, and New
Careers Program; JOBS; and the Work Incentive (WIN) program
to rehabilitate welfare recipients and the Concentrated Employ-
ment Program (CEP) to bring together all manpower programs
in a concentrated area comprise the more important ones. The
most recent is the Emergency Employment Act (EEA) of 1971,
also known as PEP (for public employment programs), which
seeks to employ the unemployed in public sector service jobs
during the current recession (1971-72).
This variety of categorical programs—all (except for the
last mentioned) aimed at essentially the same disadvantaged
target groups but having different administering agencies; fund-
ing procedures; eligibility requirements; levels of federal, state,
and local authority; and mixes of services—was confusing and
hard to administer. National policy making tended toward uni-
form program directives regardless of local situations. Categori-
cal programs required enrollees to fit program requirements in
order to receive available services, rather than having a package
of services tailored to individual needs.
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Policy makers were never able to make up their minds
whether the basic obstacles to adequate employment and in-
come for so many were the individual's lack of qualifications
and motivation or institutionalized discrimination in the hiring
process. For policy, the answer made all the difference. Some
programs leaned one way and some the £ther. Most assumed
that the individual, rather than the institutions had to change.
But increasingly we are becoming aware that there are institu-
tional barriers requiring institutional reform.
2. Cooperative Area Manpower Planning System
The Cooperative Area Manpower Planning System
(CAMPS) was created in an attempt to coordinate all of the
agencies and programs. Representatives of each agency involved
in funding and administering manpower programs in a state or
major metropolitan area met, explored state or local employ-
ment problems, identified target groups, and informed each
other of their plans. This cooperation was, however, a case of
equals working with equals with no one having authority to
reallocate funds across program lines if one program should
seem better adapted to the current or local situation than
another.
In each state, the Employment Service (ES) was to pro-
vide the leadership but include all agencies involved in man-
power programs. Each state was to draft a state plan for the
delivery of manpower services. As the system expanded, OEO,
the Departments of Commerce, Housing and Urban Develop-
ment, Agriculture, and Defense along with the Civil Service
Commission became signatories to the interagency guidelines
setting up CAMPS in the spring of 1967. In 1971, EPA was
added as a signatory.
The system was to include regional, state, and local
CAMPS committees. The local committees were to draw up
their plans, under federally issued guidelines, to be forwarded to
the states and there consolidated in state plans to be forwarded
for regional approval. Individual agencies maintained the power
of final approval of their individual programs.
While CAMPS has been far from perfectly effective, it
established a mechanism for communication among agencies
providing manpower and manpower-related services, and it
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pointed to the need for more power through control of funding
if it was to be an effective planning agency. The U.S. Depart-
ment of Labor (DOL) has continued to be the primary advo-
cate and user of CAMPS, with most of the other agencies pro-
viding varying degrees of resistance or acceptance.
Probably the most effective use of CAMPS as a planning
device has been with Manpower Development and Training
(MDT). Of the money allotted to MDT by Congress, Washing-
ton retains 20 percent to be used for national projects to meet
critical national needs. The remaining 80 percent is made avail-
able to the states. Of that 80 percent, 20 percent has been
available to be spent by the states in accordance with their
approved CAMPS plans but without specific regional approval.
The remaining 80 percent of state-allocated money can be spent
only on project-by-project approval of the regional officials.
3. The Emergence of State and Area Manpower Planning
Councils
Frustrated by the details of administering programs under
the restrictions of federal guidelines, a few governors and
mayors began to play a stronger role. Some were irritated by
the fact that federal manpower funds tended to bypass them in
going directly to either autonomous state education and em-
ployment service agencies or to quasi-private community action
agencies operating at the local level. Through legislation or
executive order, a few governors and mayors began to intervene
with their own staffs and organizations. Examples of such
organizations are New York's Human Resources Administra-
tion, Utah's State Manpower Planning Council, and California's
Department of Human Resource Development. Within whatever
discretion was available under federal law, they wanted to shape
manpower programs to fit local, political, and economic needs.
DOL has become increasingly aware of the objective need
and political pressure to decentralize more manpower policy
decision making to the regional, state, and local levels, and has
declared its intent to go as far as present law allows toward
decentralization and decategorization. A concomitant of this
has been the decategorization of the manpower programs to
give more flexibility in determining the mix of services. A
variety of legislative proposals has been made to effect this
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flexibility; and there seems to be a strong likelihood of their
eventual success. In general, the ultimate model will probably
involve federal funding and guidelines; state, local, and regional
annual or multiyear plans; federal (national and regional) plan
approval; state and local administration; and federal (regional)
monitoring and evaluation. The major issue is the exact degree
of federal (regional), state, and local authority. Each level tends
to be jealous of its prerogatives and decision-making authority.
Each thinks of the others as being hungry for power.
In the meantime, states (and a limited number of local
governments) have been given federal funds through CAMPS for
manpower planning staffs. This contribution from CAMPS has
placed personnel on the staffs of large city mayors and governors
who have a personal interest in enlarging the rotes of their prin-
cipals—and therefore themselves—in manpower decisions, and
constitutes a cadre of perhaps 1,000 nonfederal planners
(financed by federal funds) engaged in manpower programs for
the disadvantaged. EEA funds have probably increased the
number of local and state manpower planners, though the total
effect is yet unknown. This is in addition to the manpower
administrators on state and local governments' payrolls. Most of
these personnel have limited backgrounds and training in their
new assignments. In addition, involvement of private industry
through the National Alliance of Businessmen's Job Oppor-
tunities in the Business Sector (NAB-JOBS) has produced an
uncertain number of manpower staff on private payrolls added
to those already employed by private agencies administering
Job Corps and Job Corps-type programs. At this point, federal
manpower staffs are more numerous and more experienced,
though most of them are better described as administrators
rather than as planners.
President Nixon in 1971 and again in 1972 asked Con-
gress for manpower revenue sharing in which blocs of man-
power money would be made available to state and larger local
units or consortia of governments with few strings attached.
Such monies, coupled with the limited manpower monies
appropriated by state and local governments, would enhance
the ability of these units to do manpower planning. There is,
however, much concern over the ability of such units to do
effective planning and to do the type of planning that would
meet the national goals of emphasizing assistance to the dis-
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advantaged. This concern could probably be met, at least in
part, by the development of professionally competent man-
power planners at all levels of government. The future of
revenue sharing, at least under the present administration and
Congress, is at best uncertain.
4. Interagency Cooperative Issuances No. 72-1 and No.
72-2
Meanwhile in 1971, the National Manpower Coordinating
Council (NMCC), faced with eventual decentralization and in a
move toward revenue sharing, issued Interagency Cooperative
Issuance No. 72-2 in recognition of the "lack of impact of
CAMPS on funding decisions." The issuance called for both
structural and functional revision of CAMPS, allowing for in-
creased initiative by state and local officials in the planning and
initiating of manpower programs. Former state CAMPS com-
mittees are known as State Planning Councils and local CAMPS
committees as Manpower Area Planning Councils (MAPC). The
primary tasks of these councils are:
(1) To advise elected officials, governors, and RMCCs
of locally conceived area and state needs
(2) To assist local elected officials and governors in the
development of plans to meet these needs, incit-
ing priorities and recommendations for funding
These plans are to include all manpower and manpoi^fcfi-
related programs, irrespective of funding source. In the casern
programs funded by the Manpower Administration and agt#ed
upon by the RMCCs, these plans will constitute action plao%lflf
funding to the maximum extent possible under existing &M6
With respect to other agencies, they only constitute red&fffe
mendations.
State and area councils will be supported by independent
secretarial staffs. Area plans are submitted through the St
manpower planning council with its comments to RMCC, and
MAPC has the opportunity to comment to RMCC on the state
plan.
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Membership on the planning councils has been expanded
to include:
(1) Representation from the broadest spectrum of
interests
(2) Decision-making agency representation
(3) Client group representatives chosen by the clients
(4) Representation of the public, business, and or-
ganized labor
ICA No. 72-1 constitutes the policy guidelines for fiscal
year 1972, with a separate section for each of the agencies
signatory to the document, including OWP.
Five planning levels have been designated:
(1) The National Manpower Coordinating Committee
(NMCC)
(2) Regional Manpower Coordinating Committees
(RMCC)
(3) State Manpower Planning Councils (SMPC)
(4) Manpower Area Planning Councils (MAPC)
(5) Ancillary Manpower Planning Boards (AMPB)
The NMCC establishes the overall goals and guidelines, delegat-
ing to the RMCCs the responsibility and authority to administer
these. These committees include representatives from the nine
federal departments and agencies signatory to CAMPS. The
SMPCs are the creation of the governors and constitute their
overall manpower planning arm. MAPCs are the creations of
mayors or other local officials of large cities, metropolitan
areas, and other special areas such as Indian reservations. The
AMPBs are planning arms of the SMPCs, in areas not designated
as MAPCs.
The sequence of planning as stated in ICA No. 72-2 is as
follows:
(1) SMPCs, MAPCs, and AMPBs are involved in pre-
liminary planning and discussions and develop draft
plans.
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(2) Draft plans are exchanged, and an attempt is made
to reach agreement.
(3) MAPCs and AMPBs submit plans to the governor.
MAPC plans are also submitted to the RMCCs.
(4) SMPCs develop comprehensive state plans, forward-
ing to the RMCCs and to mayors.
(5) Mayors comment to RMCCs on state plans.
(6) RMCCs review plans and comments, resolve dif-
ferences, and approve plans.
(7) RMCC agencies use plans to the extent possible in
final actions.
These plans will:
(1) Identify the people needing services
(2) Identify employers needing workers
(3) Designate the provision of services needed to make
people employable in the shortest and best way
(4) Include all manpower and manpower-related pro-
gram plans regardless of funding source
If this CAMPS planning process is fully implemented, it
will constitute a major change in the planning process, with the
local areas and states playing the major roles in the development
of plans. Implementation is contingent, however, on developing
the manpower planning capabilities of the local and state plan-
ning councils and boards that will require trained planners—
either full-time manpower planners or general planners with
manpower planning capabilities. The experience gained should
lead the way to considerable decentralization.
5. National Manpower Program Planning Steps and
Principles
In a profession so new that only two universities—the
University of Utah and the University of Redlands, insofar as
we know—explicitly give a master's degree in manpower plan-
ning and administration, there is as yet no common methodol-
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14
ogy for manpower planning. There is, however, a near consensus
on the appropriate planning steps in national manpower pro-
gram planning. Such planning steps are:
(1) Identifying critical manpower problems
(2) Establishing manpower program objectives
(3) Exploring alternative approaches to the accomplish-
ment of objectives
(a) Inventory of resources
(b) Identification of alternate target groups
(c) Establishment of priorities
(d) Marshaling of available facts
(e) Estimate of costs and benefits
(4) Choosing and implementing most cost-effective
approach
(5) Involving inputs from other institutions related to
manpower planning process: unions, schools, em-
ployment service, etc.
(6) Monitoring programs
(7) Evaluating program achievement
(8) Feeding back and modifying from lessons of ex-
perience
There is also emerging a set of principles for national
manpower program planning which may have application to
other manpower planning activities:
(1) There should be a regular and formal process of
manpower planning at the state and local levels as
welt as at the regional and national levels.
(2) Planning, to be meaningful, must be a continuous
effort unencumbered by the problems of day-to-
day administration.
(3) Manpower planning, like planning in general, in-
volves systematic steps, procedures, and actions to:
(a) Identify the people to be served
(b) Establish priorities
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15
(c) Formulate a mix of services
(d) Organize a delivery system
(e) Feed back into the program the improvements
and the results of monitoring and evaluation
(4) Planning of manpower services in the present en-
vironment requires that the planning body control
the allocation of funds. If funding takes place in-
dependently of the formal planning process, the
planning program will not have the support or the
impact desired.
(5) Manpower planning requires that the people need-
ing service be brought together with the institu-
tional capacity to provide service. This means, in
practical terms, that cities and states must jointly
plan and program a common effort. Neither has the
capacity to proceed independently of the other.
(6) Persons with nearly equal employment handicaps
should have equal access to services. This concept
requires a model for the formal allocation of re-
sources on a geographical basis and on a program-
content and -level basis.
(7) A manpower planning program should be structured
so that it has the support and possibly the partici-
pation of client groups, appropriate elected of-
ficials, manpower agency professionals, and persons
with the professional planning skills from eco-
nomics, statistics, psychology, and related disci-
plines.
While the manpower planner, for whom this manual is
primarily designed, will have little to do directly with most
national manpower program planning, these programs do con-
stitute potential sources for the manpower needed in his man-
power programs. In addition, the increasing social and political
pressures require that the micro-manpower planner take these
programs and their clienteles into consideration in their man-
power planning activities. Therefore, close acquaintance with
programs and personnel in this area is essential.
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16
D. Micro-manpower Planning within the Private Sector
The major purpose of this manual is to meet the needs of
the state water pollution control manpower planner. In sub-
sequent chapters material will be presented to give that individ-
ual perspective in the ramifications of his job. Such a perspec-
tive will be obtained by a discussion of the nature of environ-
mental problems, the scope and structure of the water pollution
control field, the organization of the education, training, and
employment systems which develop this nation's manpower
resources, and the principles, practices, and functions of the
manpower planning profession. The remainder of this chapter,
however, will be devoted to discussing the basic principles and
steps of what has been referred to as micro-manpower plan-
ning-that type of manpower planning conducted to meet the
manpower needs of a particular industry, company, or agency.
It is from this general area of manpower planning that the
specific steps in manpower planning for wastewater treatment
plants will be derived.
Manpower planning in the business firm is a relatively
new activity. In the past, most employees have needed only the
most rudimentary training for their jobs, and such skills could
be replaced with ease if new skills were needed. However, with
unionization, seniority rules, benefit packages, and changes in
business practices, there has developed a tendency toward the
development of careers, reducing turnover and making for a
greater interdependence between employers and employees. A
higher proportion of employees are now skilled workers, techni-
cians, engineers, scientists, and others with long training times
in whom firms may have made major investments and which
firms want to retain. Professional business management puts a
premium on looking ahead to see that each supervisor, manager,
and corporate officer is understudied and the right replacement
is in the right place at the right time. Whereas once the primary
personnel concern was human relations (to keep employees
happy despite the necessity of discipline) or labor relations
(keeping the peace), manpower planning with its career implica-
tions is now rising in importance relative to both.
The primary motivation for firms and employer associa-
tions to be involved in manpower planning is its ability to con-
tribute to profits. Thus, if the costs of manpower planning and
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17
developments are less than the potential benefits, planning will
be done once the relationship of costs to benefits is known.
Increasingly, larger firms and employer associations include, as
potential benefits, the public esteem that may come from
demonstrating a social conscience in their manpower policies as
well as the direct benefits that may be derived from cooperating
with government in its attempt to achieve certain social goals,
especially in the hiring of disadvantaged people. These in-
clusions enhance the prospects for manpower planning.
In its manpower planning, a firm or employer association
must take four unique and important manpower characteristics
into consideration:
(1) To reach maximum productivity in higher skills, an
individual must prepare by way of education and
training for a long period of time.
(2) The value of workers generally appreciates, rather
than depreciates, from use for a substantial period
of time.
(3) An investment in manpower becomes the possession
of the individual who is free to leave the employ-
ment of a firm or agency almost at will, though he
or she may well remain in the industry.
(4) Personal satisfaction plays a key role in a worker's
productivity and stability.
The employer's manpower needs depend upon the prod-
uct or service he sells, the technology used, and the profit-
ability of the firm. The available manpower depends upon the
population, the labor force participation rate (the percentage of
the population in the labor force), the human resource develop-
ment system, and the demands of other employers.
To project manpower needs, therefore, entails projecting
economic conditions, product or service demand, market share,
wage rates, costs, and prices. The sophistication required for
such projections lies beyond the resources of all but the larger
individual firms, though business or industrial associations or
consultants may be of some value to small companies. The most
effective manpower planning is found in rapidly growing com-
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18
panies in expanding industries, but is concentrated primarily
with planning for the higher level or skill shortage positions.
This part of the manpower planning profession, though
also new, has begun to develop its assorted professional prac-
tices. For instance, the usual steps to manpower planning in the
firm or association consist of:
(1) A projection of manpower requirements in different
firms, departments, divisions, occupations, and
levels at various points in the future
(2} An inventory of the numbers, ages, skills, and per-
formance of current personnel
(3) Implementation of a plan to develop current per-
sonnel appropriate to meet future needs and to
supplement that personnel as required from outside
sources
At a more detailed level, these steps require the man-
power planner to:
(1) Examine the historical data to determine the re-
lationships between the size and composition of the
work force and sales, production, and inventories
{2) Examine the historical data to determine retire-
ments, deaths, quitting and dismissal rates, promo-
tions and transfers, and retraining periods and re-
trainability rates
(3) Determine the relationship of staff functions to line
employees, sales volume, and production
(4) Examine the rate of product or service development
and its impact on the work force
(5) Determine the rate of productivity increase in terms
of the ratios of man-hours to output, capital equip-
ment to output, and of man-hours productivity
index to capital productivity index
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Then, given forecasts regarding sales, capital outlays, and
product development, the following steps are taken in defining
the work to be done:
(1) Make forecasts of turnover, promotion and transfer,
retrainability and productivity increases (both from
ongoing methods of improvement, work simplifica-
tion, etc., and from major installations of automa-
tion, electronic data-processing equipment, plant
layout revisions, etc.).
(2) Construct a model to forecast future manpower
needs based on forecasted variables.
(3) Use the model to make two-, five-, and ten-year
projections.
(4) With these projections, the company can compare
its projected manpower supply to its projected
needs and make plans to do something about its
potential quantitative deficit or surplus.
Once the quantitative requirements for the future have
been forecast, the firm or employer association must answer
such pertinent qualitative questions relating to its employment
needs as the following:
(1) Can the voluntary separation rate be reduced, par-
ticularly among the most promising younger em-
ployees?
(2) Can the replacement problem be met by opening
up positions in middle management for younger
men? What changes would this mean in retirement
policy?
(3) Do all management positions require the equiva-
lent of a college education?
(4) Are there men among the hourly and weekly work
force with managerial potential?
(5) What are the sources of manpower-untrained and
trained?
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20
(6) Can women be used for some of the supervisory
jobs?
(7) Can jobs be identified which develop younger men
at faster rates than other jobs?
(8) Can capable men be obtained by transfer from
other units of the firm or industry?
(9) Should the firm begin to hire outsiders who will
provide the talent and age requirements needed?
(10) What are the qualitative requirements of the
various jobs?
(11) How might the qualitative requirements best be
met?
(12) What training programs are needed to fill needs?
(13) What is the best situs for these training programs?
(14) Are there any departments with problems of
greater or lesser severity than the overall firm?
(15) Does the firm realty need, say, 15 percent of its
labor force as engineers when a third of them are
doing nonengineering work?
(16) Can men not considered to have promotion poten-
tial be developed into promotable candidates?
(17) Can incentive factors (salaries, fringe benefits,
promotions, job status, etc.) be revised to achieve
greater effort from available manpower?
(18) Is a high school diploma really necessary?
(19) Are there identifiable career ladders?
(20) What training programs are needed to make career
ladders effective?
A firm with some foresight will have established criteria
for either internal development and promotion or outside re-
cruiting. Though internal development is usually preferred,
there are times and jobs for which the firm has no current
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21
available talent or lacks the time to develop the skills, knowl-
edge, and judgments of existing personnel. When this occurs,
the manpower planner must take steps to assure that there are
responsive external human resource development institutions
available within the community. This requires a knowledge of
and working relationship with such human resource institutions.
A primary conflict often exists between national man-
power program planning and micro-manpower planning in the
efforts of national manpower program planners to get the dis-
advantaged hired. Ever-increasing hiring standards stand in the
way of employing the more poorly equipped workers. Em-
ployer reluctance to train, unless absolutely necessary, can be
understood when it is realized that the trained worker is free to
leave almost at will and may hire himself out to a competitor.
However, effective manpower planning should result in a higher
retention rate, minimizing the losses from this source; and in-
ternal training programs may reduce the length and cost of the
orientation period. The federal NAB-JOBS and MDT-OJT pro-
grams help to bridge this gap, with the federal government
financing the training of disadvantaged workers by private
firms.
The location and authority of the manpower planner in
the business firm is still unclear; but there seems to be a
tendency to place the function, along with budgeting, under
those having ultimate responsibility for generating and measur-
ing performance of an operating plan. With techniques so new,
the pitfalls are many. Errors in projections are common and
widespread. The primary determinants of future employment
are not generally clear. There are no generally accepted meas-
ures of competence, and personal judgments are less than objec-
tive. Department heads and other supervisors often attempt to
"hoard" good people by "hiding them" from the planner. In-
ternal and external labor markets touch only at certain ports of
entry and exit, making it difficult to foresee future interactions
between supply and demand for manpower.
E. Micro-manpower Planning within the Water Pollution Control
Field
Leadership for manpower planning within the water pol-
lution control field is exercised by the Manpower Development
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22
Staff (MDS) within OWP. The fact that this manual has been
prepared indicates the value that OWP is placing upon the
development of a capability to engage in manpower planning.
Such planning is considered a vital factor in accomplishing the
national water pollution control objectives. It has been recog-
nized, however, that the formulation and evaluation of pro-
grams to provide adequate manpower to the water quality in-
dustry have been hampered by two problems: (1) a lack of
information concerning what are the real requirements for and
supply of water pollution control manpower, and (2) the lack
of a systematic framework for doing manpower planning within
the 50 states and territorial possessions.
The first problem is being rectified by the execution of a
survey questionnaire completed on a sample of 3,500 municipal
wastewater treatment plants and administered jointly by the
Department of Labor and the Environmental Protection Agency
in 1971 (hereafter called DOL/EPA survey). The preparation of
this manual is an attempt to rectify some of the implications of
the second problem.
Some of the major functions performed by MDS are:
(1) To establish manpower planning criteria
(2) To develop manpower factor guidelines
(3) To measure current employment in the water
quality industry
(4) To project future manpower requirements in the
water quality industry
(5) To develop programs to improve the recruitment,
retention, and utilization of manpower
(6) To assist regional and state agencies in manpower
planning
(7) To collect and disseminate manpower information
OWP believes that it can best serve the water quality
industry by actively seeking to effect close coordination with
other federal programs. In this way it will utilize the skills and
resources of other agencies, particularly manpower agencies
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23
within DOL and the U.S. Office of Education (USOE). The
1970-71 survey of employment in municipal wastewater treat-
ment plants is an example of interagency cooperation initiated
by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and OWP.
MDS, in cooperation with DOL's Manpower Administra-
tion, designed and conducted in 1971 an extensive survey of
employment in municipal wastewater treatment plants. (A copy
of the survey questionnaire appears as Appendix I.) State em-
ployment service personnel, water pollution control organiza-
tions, and many similar regional, state, and local groups par-
ticipated in the administration of this survey. The results should
provide the industry with very useful base-line data for measur-
ing employment in one major segment of the industry. Similar
cooperation is anticipated with the Department of Housing and
Urban Development (HUD). In addition, some cooperative ef-
forts are under way to improve the level of manpower planning
in large metropolitan areas and in regional labor market areas.
For example, the necessity of identification of manpower needs
is now recognized by EPA and HUD in water quality programs
that are planned jointly.
In addition to measuring current employment, MDS has
been concerned about projections of future manpower require-
ments. Tasks associated with this function include: design of
the methodologies and procedure for generating, processing,
storing, and communicating the data and information, and
establishment of the appropriate capabilities of manpower plan-
ning at all levels of government. To make periodic manpower
projections, plans will be prepared and reported by each of the
states and each of the regions, and this will be used as a basis for
development of national projections and plans by OWP staff.
Until state and city capabilities are developed, regional and na-
tional projections will be made on the basis of existing available
data.
The objectives of establishing manpower planning criteria
will be to produce, maintain, and disseminate criteria to facili-
tate the identification of the various types of personnel engaged
in water pollution control activities and to make manpower
requirement determinations. The criteria will need to be con-
tinuously updated to provide for changes in technology and in
manpower utilization practices. It is intended that the criteria
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24
be made available to consulting engineers and government staffs
for planning the staffing of new plants and evaluating the
staffing of existing plants. The regional staffs will be called
upon to make arrangements for criteria development studies, to
handle the regional review of new criteria, and to assist others in
the application of the criteria.
To ensure that appropriate manpower information is
generated and manpower factors are considered in the design
and demonstration of new equipment, MDS will develop, main-
tain, and disseminate a manual of guidelines. The manual will be
made available to all EPA staff, contractors, equipment manu-
facturers, and others connected with the design and analysis of
water pollution control systems at the state and local levels.
Various forms of assistance will be provided for designing
work plans, preparing requests for proposals, selecting and
negotiating with contractors, reviewing project progress, and
determining acceptability of end products. Assistance will be
provided to engineering and research firms and to equipment
manufacturers in their activities related to the manpower
factors associated with equipment and system design and
demonstration. OWP is concerned with the solution of problems
and improvement of practices related to manpower develop-
ment and utilization. To this end, guidance materials will be
generated and special analyses made on topics such as recruiting
practices, certification of wastewater treatment plant operators,
salary structures, career development opportunities, and organi-
zation and management practices.
It is anticipated that a manpower planning capability will
be established in each region. The primary outputs of this effort
will be projections of regional manpower needs and supply and
action plans for training and overcoming manpower problems.
In addition, regional offices will stand ready to assist state of-
fices in their planning activities.
The extent to which the function of manpower planning
is recognized as an essential activity by the senior administrator
of a state agency will be an important measure of how well
municipal wastewater treatment plants will be staffed, operated,
and maintained. It is no accident that in those states with syste-
matic manpower planning, program development, and training
of plant operators, significant gains have been recorded in
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25
achieving water quality objectives. Progress in proper staffing at
the municipal wastewater treatment level is often a reflection of
how well a state agency's senior management perceives the man-
power planning function. If it ranks in importance and is
coordinated with facilities construction, surveillance, enforce-
ment, and standard setting, it will directly influence the quality
of those parts of these agency functions that depend upon an
adequate supply of qualified manpower. If, on the other hand,
it is relegated to a staff member as "one more hat to wear" in
an understaffed state agency, state water pollution control
authorities would do well to consider alternative methods for
having this function performed.
For a state water pollution control agency to develop a
satisfactory manpower plan, a number of factors must be avail-
able: (1) a person or persons who are knowledgeable and can
articulate the mission, goals, and objectives of the industry; (2)
the resources and technology available and required to achieve
the desired objectives; (3) an accurate data base that can be
collected and utilized and which can define the direction and
boundaries or limits of the industry; and (4) at least one person
who can identify, analyze, and describe the most significant
issues or problems that relate to the industry's manpower needs.
In short, the minimum manpower planning capability that must
be available to a state water pollution control agency is the
ability to at least identify, define, and assign priority to those
manpower requirements absolutely essential to achieving the
agency's objectives.
If manpower planning for water pollution control is not
done within the state water quality agency or by a more com-
prehensive environmental management agency, two alternatives
should be considered: planning by state agencies other than the
water pollution control agency and planning by the local com-
munities. At least three "outside" manpower planning resources
are available to assist state authorites responsible for water pol-
lution control: (1) the state department of employment secu-
rity, (2) the state department of education, and (3) CAMPS,
with its system of state and local manpower planning councils.
The first two of these resources will be examined in Chapter
Three, while the third has been treated in this chapter. AH rep-
resent valuable expertise to assist water quality agencies in
establishing manpower development and training programs.
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26
There are many advantages in having the staff of a state
water pollution control agency develop its own manpower plan-
ning capability. Other state agencies operate under different
authority and pursue objectives that may sometimes be in con-
flict with the goals of water pollution control. An example of
such conflicts is the possibility of a conflict between the main-
taining of full employment and the achieving of some desired
level of water quality. Manpower planners in general will have as
one of their goals that of full employment. Such a goal, how-
ever, may have to go unsatisfied, temporarily at least, if a firm
has to be closed down or have its production activities curtailed
because its activities are causing water pollution which places in
jeopardy the health and general welfare of the community.
Nevertheless, a state water pollution control agency should be
prepared to investigate and seriously consider close cooperation
in manpower planning with officials from education, the em-
ployment service, and state manpower planning councils. After
all, if the aim of the manpower planner is to develop programs
that make the most effective use of personnel, minimizing
duplication of effort at any level of government will reflect well
on the state agency executive who successfully makes full use of
the expertise and resources of other state agencies that he
believes are equipped to assist in manpower planning.
For the most part, few local communities have the re-
sources to carry out comprehensive manpower planning to meet
their needs in the water pollution control field. However, large
cities and a growing number of other urban population centers
have initiated modest efforts to carry out metropolitan regional
planning, and this recent development in the national strategy
for improved water quality management offers the state water
pollution control agency an excellent opportunity to participate
with other local organizations as a member of a metropolitan
manpower planning council. Such membership will put the state
water agency into direct communication not only with training
and manpower development agencies, but also with those who
offer funding and technical assistance that can be used in plan-
ning programs to upgrade workers now on the job or to train
new workers for future job openings. Local communities will
probably continue to look to state agencies for programs for the
training and upgrading of workers now employed in local
plants.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bakke, E. Wight. The Mission of Manpower Policy. Studies in
Employment and Unemployment Series. Washington,
D.C.: Upjohn Institute for Employment Research, 1969.
Bowen, William G., and T. Aldrich Finegan. The Economics of
Labor Force Participation. Princeton: Princeton Univer-
sity Press, 1969.
Doeringer, Peter, and Michael Peore. Internal Labor Markets
and Manpower Analysis. Lexington, Mass.: Heath, 1971.
Ginzberg, Eli. Manpower Agenda for America. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1968.
Gordon, R. A. The Goal of Full Employment. New York: John
Wiley, 1967.
Lecht, Leonard A. Manpower Needs for National Goals in the
197Q's. New York: Praeger, 1969.
Levitan, Sar A., and Garth L. Mangum. Federal Training and
Work Programs in the Sixties. Ann Arbor: University of
Michigan Press, 1968.
Mangum, Garth L. The Emergence of Manpower Policy. New
York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, 1969.
Somers, Gerald G., and W. D. Wood, eds. Cost-Benefit Analysis
of Manpower Policies. Kingston, Ontario: Industrial Rela-
tions Centre, Queen's University, 1969.
U.S. Department of Labor, Manpower Report of the President.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
1970.
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CHAPTER TWO
WATER POLLUTION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF
THE WATER POLLUTION CONTROL PROGRAM
A. Introduction
B. Water as a Resource
C. Threats to Water Quality
1. Types of Pollutants
2. Amounts of Pollution
a. Growth of BOD
b. Growth of phosphorus
c. Growth of thermal pollution
D. Factors Affecting Water Quality
1. Increases in Population
2. Changes in Technology
3. Lack of Economic Incentives or Penalties
4. Frontier Psychology-
E. Governmental and Private Responses for Water Quality
1. Role of State and Local Governments
2. Role of the Federal Government
3. Role of the Private Sector
F. National Water Pollution Control Program
1. Mission, Objectives, and Goals of the Office of Water
Programs
2. Program Strategy
3. Priorities in National Problem Areas
4. Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants
5. Construction of Plants
Bibliography
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CHAPTER TWO
WATER POLLUTION AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF
THE WATER POLLUTION CONTROL PROGRAM
A. Introduction
Pollution is a pervasive and persistent problem. We have
all seen chimneys belching smoke, refuse strewn along our high-
ways, automobile graveyards, and once-clean waters turned foul
by human and industrial waste. Pollution does not discriminate
among individuals and communities by affecting some and not
others, though some may experience pollution more than
others. Pollution has no public advocates, though individuals
may differ in their recommendations for its proper reduction.
Pollution, we all agree, is bad and must be significantly reduced.
In his message transmitting to Congress the first annual
report of the Council on Environmental Quality, President
Nixon said:
Our environmental problems are very serious, indeed
urgent, but they do not justify either panic or hysteria.
The problems are highly complex, and their resolution
will require rational systematic approaches, hard work,
and patience. There must be a national commitment and
a rational commitment.1
That such commitments are being made in the area of water
pollution control we hope to illustrate in this chapter.
The contents of this chapter have also been designed to
provide a common understanding of water pollution problems
and pollution control programs for the manpower planner in
the water pollution control field, regardless of in which state
office such planning may occur. We shall discuss water as a
'Council on Environmental Quality, Environmental Quality (Washington,
D,C,; U,S. Government Printing Office, 1970), p. xiv. (Emphasis in the original.)
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32
national resource, threats to the quality of this resource, and
the development of legislation and governmental programs to
preserve it.
B. Water as a Resource
Two observations which, though simple, provide a key to
understanding the problem of water quality are: (1) The supply
of water from nature remains basically constant from year to
year, and (2) conflicting demands are made upon the use of
water.
While the supply of water has remained constant, the
demand for water has increased. This is not to imply, as some
prophets of doom have suggested, that we are or will shortly be
out of water, though water shortages are of great concern in
certain regions. Rather, it implies that the public's attitude
toward the use of water must be changed if the supply of
water of a desired quality is to be maintained and distributed
equitably.
There are two essentially conflicting demands imposed
upon our water supply. One type of demand arises from the
fact that water is necessary to maintain and to preserve all
forms of life. For such demands certain standards of cleanliness
are required. The second type of demand arises from the use-
fulness of water in certain human and industrial activities. For
such uses high standards of cleanliness are not required.
Quite clearly these two opposing demands for water
cause almost certain conflict—a conflict arising out of the com-
monality of the water resource. They also create a conflict
because individuals and firms, though generally falling into both
classifications of demand, are not always aware of the effects
their actions have upon themselves and upon others. These cir-
cumstances also arise because some of the economic and politi-
cal institutions in the United States have not been designed to
reflect the fact that water is generally a scarce and valuable
resource that is used to satisfy a variety of functions. In former
times a smaller and more dispersed population, along with a
lower level economic activity, did not place a great deal of
strain upon the ability of water to dilute and assimilate waste.
As a consequence of this lower scale of activity, the inherent
conflicts in the different demands placed upon water remained
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33
dormant. As the level of population and economic activity
changed and as water uses changed, the condition of water
quality changed also.
C. Threats to Water Quality
Documentation, in the sense of providing precise figures,
of the amount and type of pollutants emitted into receiving
waters is difficult if not impossible. Government agencies have
not inventoried all sources of pollution; nor do the resources
exist for them to accomplish this task in the foreseeable future.
However, samples of water quality at different points in time
and space, recurrent testing of water quality at stationary test-
ing stations, and extrapolations to the universe from these
samples (based upon reasonable analytical techniques and pro-
fessional judgments of those skilled in water quality manage-
ment) are available.
1. Types o f Poflu tan ts
There are eight major categories of water pollutants2: (1)
oxygen-demanding wastes, (2) disease-causing agents, (3) plant
nutrients, (4) synthetic organic chemicals, (5) inorganic chemi-
cals and mineral substances, (6) sediments, (7) radioactive sub-
stances, and (8) heat.
2. Amounts of Pollution
Though we have noted that a precise documentation of
the magnitude of water pollution is not possible at this time,
nevertheless some idea of the magnitude of certain aspects of
the problem, particularly as it may change over time, is possible.
In this section we consider, by way of illustration and example
only, the projected changes in three factors related to water
pollution. The three factors that we have chosen are BOD,
phosphorus, and thermal pollution. Although thermal pollution
is not directly related to the pollution activities of wastewater
treatment plants, nevertheless the available data depicting the
possible growth of thermal pollution will give us some indi-
cation of the possible growth of pollution in general.
a. Growth of BOD. The primary measurement of the
strength of organic waste is the amount of oxygen used in a
2For further details, see U.S. Department of Interior, A Primer on Wastewater
Treatment (Washington, D.C.: U.S, Government Printing Office, 1969), pp. 10-13.
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34
fixed period of time and at a fixed temperature by the biologi-
cal processes involved in the stabilization of organic matter.
This action is called the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).
The presence of organisms in water allows bacteria to de-
compose waste material. If, however, the concentration of
organic waste is high, the available oxygen is insufficient to
allow the bacteria to decompose the waste, and water pollution
results.
Table 2-1 shows the estimated increase in the gross pro-
duction of BOD for 1957, 1964, and 1968. The average annual
growth rate in BOD production is approximately 6 percent. The
important insights to be obtained from this table are that: (a)
the production of BOD is related to many industrial activities
TABLE 2-1
Estimated Increase in Gross Production of BOD
(1957, 1964, 1968)
Millions of Pounds of BOD per Year
Waste Source
1957
1964
1968
Food processing
3,400
4,300
4,600
Textile mill products
660
890
1,100
Paper and allied products
4,300
5,900
7,800
Chemical and allied products
5,500
9,700
14,200
Petroleum and coal
410
500
550
Rubber and plastics
20
40
60
Primary metals
350
480
550
Machinery
100
130
180
Transportation equipment
50
120
160
All other
300
390
470
Manufacturing TOTAL
15,090
22,460
29,670
Sewered population
5,700
7,600
8,500
TOTAL
20,790
30,060
38,170
Annual rate of increase
5.4%
6.2%
Source: Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality Office, Cost of Clean
Water, vol. II of Cost Effectiveness and Clean Water (Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Government Printing Office, March 1971).
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35
and since these activities increase over time, so will the produc-
tion of BOD; and (b) approximately one-third of the produced
BOD comes from sewage, and as the population increases, BOD
will increase also. Clearly, the implication of these observations
is that increasing economic activity and population will require
increasing amounts of treatment to maintain given water quality
standards.
b. Growth of phosphorus. Natural bodies of water con-
tain mineral and organic elements that are essential for biologi-
cal growth. Sometimes, as the result of pollution, however, an
overabundance of one or more of these elements occurs. Table
2-2 shows the magnitude of increase of one such element-
phosphorus. Increases of such a magnitude have had a dele-
TABLE 2-2
Estimated Increase in Phosphorus Discharged
as Municipal Sewage
(1957,1964,1968)
1957 1964 1968
Sewered population (millions of persons)
Per capita phosphorus production, pounds
(a) From metabolic process
(b) From consumption of detergents
98.4 119.6 139.7
1.0
2.0
1.0
3.0
1.0
3.3
TOTAL sewered phosphorus (million
lbs per year)
295.2 478.4 600.7
Less phosphorus incorporated in sewage
sludge:
(a) Primary treatment-0.5 lb
per capita (million lbs per year)
(b) Secondary treatment-1.31 lbs
per capita (million lbs per year)
(12.9) (20.4) (21.8)
(63.6) (81.3) (111.8)
TOTAL discharged phosphorus (million
lbs per year)
218.7 "376T "5B77T
Source: Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality Office, Cost of Chan
Water, vol. II of Cost Effectiveness and Cfean Water (Washington, D.C.: L/.S.
Government Printing Office, March 1971).
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36
terious effect upon water ecology and have caused abnormal
growth in certain aquatic organisms. The amount of available
phosphorus has increased in recent years because of the substi-
tution of phosphorus detergents for soap, not only by house-
holds but also by industry. In addition, because of the increased
demand for phosphorus, the production of phosphorus deter-
gents has increased, thus resulting in an increase in the amount
of phosphorus entering receiving waters, not only as a residual
from cleansing processes but also as a waste in the production
of the detergent itself.
The estimated increases in phosphorus discharges from
municipal sewage for 1957, 1964, and 1968 are shown in Table
2-2. The average annual growth rate in estimated phosphorus
production was approximately 7 percent between 1957 and
1968. Clearly, the same conclusions may be obtained concern-
ing the growth of phosphorus as were obtained for BOD.
c. Growth of thermal pollution. The primary source of
thermal pollution is the electric power industry which requires
tremendous quantities of water for cooling. Insofar as the use of
electricity will increase in the future, the possible magnitude of
thermal pollution will also increase. Table 2-3 shows the past
and estimated future use of electricity from 1912 to 1985.
TABLE 2-3
U.S. Electric Power—Past Use and Future Estimates
Billion
Year
Kilowatt-hours
1912
12
1960
753
1965
1,060
1970
1,503
1975
2,022
1980
2,754
1985
3,639
Source: Federal Water Control Administration, "Industrial Waste Guide on Thermal
Pollution" (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, September
1968).
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37
From 1970 to 1985 the average annual increase in the use of
electricity is approximately 6 percent.
D. Factors Affecting Water Quality
The factors that affect water quality may be divided into
four categories: (1) increases in population, (2) changes in tech-
nology, (3) the lack of economic incentives or penalties, and (4)
the existence of a "frontier psychology."
We shall not be concerned as to whether this is an ex-
haustive listing or whether a shorter list could be as encom-
passing, nor shall we attempt to list these factors in order of the
seriousness of their effect; but rather, we present this classifica-
tion because it provides a convenient framework for summariz-
ing the principal causes of water pollution.
1, Increases in Population
The sheer increase in the number of people places con-
siderable pressure upon facilities designed to treat wastewater.
More people simply implies more waste. If waste water is not
adequately treated and is allowed to find its way into the water
system, as has occurred in recent years, more water pollution
results. The effects of increases in the population are further
intensified by the tendency of the population to congregate in
large urban areas. The resulting increases in population density
place great strain upon existing treatment facilities and do so, it
appears, in greater proportion than the simple increase in popu-
lation density.
The increases in waste resulting from increases in popula-
tion are not limited to human waste. As more people are
absorbed into the economy, more products are demanded and
produced, whether they be industrial or agricultural. Thus eco-
nomic activity has increased with a resulting increase not only
of final products but also of waste material.
2. Changes in Technology
With the advance of science, new products and new
methods have evolved. Our life-styles have been changed. We
drive more and bigger automobiles, buy drinks in "disposable"
containers, and use new chemicals in our homes and factories.
Though such changes may have had significant beneficial effects
upon our lives, they have not been without some detrimental
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38
side effects. In moving to new ways of producing electricity (for
example, by harnessing atomic power), we have experienced, as
a detrimental side effect, the consequences of emitting heated
water {thermal pollution) into our estuaries. Advances in biolog-
ical and chemical branches of science have increased the effici-
ency by which we produce food, but they have done so with
the consequence that our water resources are becoming satu-
rated with harmful pesticides and phosphates.
3. Lack of Economic Incentives or Penalties
Although many of our activities are affected by economic
forces, we have usually considered the bounties of nature to be
unlimited. Because of the conflicting demands placed upon our
water resource and the relative scarcity of such resources, this
provision of nature cannot be considered a free good, especially
if we desire certain standards of water quality while still de-
manding certain material things.
If we allow the indiscriminate emission of pollutants into
our waterways, we pay all of the costs inherent in low water
quality—fewer places to swim, higher costs of supplying drink-
ing water, and increased possibility of disease. Vet if we elimi-
nate pollutants completely, we face the prospect of high control
costs for individuals and for firms, with the resulting decreases
in individuals' incomes to spend on other goods and services. We
must reduce pollution in an effective and equitable manner.
We have seen significant changes in technology and
leisure time without the required changes in economic incen-
tives to control their adverse effects. For example, individuals
buy disposable containers but are not confronted directly with
the cost of disposing of them. Consequently, more products are
produced in disposable containers than would be the case if the
price of the product reflected its true cost. Furthermore, firms
emit such things as chemicals and refuse into receiving waters
without paying the added purification costs of providing
potable water or without indemnifying those directly affected
by the resulting dirty water. As a consequence of these con-
ditions, such firms are able to charge a price for their products
that is lower than if they were confronted with the true costs of
their operations. This situation would be alleviated if firms were
confronted with the true cost of their activities. This could be
accomplished by imposing taxes upon certain goods, the pro-
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39
ceeds of which would pay for their disposal, and by imposing
effluent fees, the presence of which would give industry the
incentive to decrease the emission of pollutants. In the absence
of such economic incentives, water quality will continue to be
less than what is desirable or attainable. The recognition of
these facts has found expression in the most recent report of
the President's Council of Economic Advisors; and recently
Russell Train, Chairman of the Council of Environmental
Quality, said:
We think that significant reductions in waste discharges
might be more quickly and inexpensively effected if, in
addition to regulatory restrictions, changes were made in
the costs of facing individual polluters. For example, a
system of effluent or emission charges requiring pay-
ment for the amount of specific pollutants added to the
environment would, it seems to me, help harness the
normal competitive forces of our economy to work with
us rather than against us in achieving our pollution
abatement goals.3
4. Frontier Psychology
In summarizing the relationship between the American
society and its natural resources, Alexis de Tocqueville said,
"Their ancestry gave them love of equality and of freedom; but
God Himself gave them the means of remaining equal and free
by placing them upon a boundless continent." This abundance
has, however, caused us to be careless. This carelessness has
been referred to as "a reflection of our frontier psychology."
Man has traditionally been a developer, for he alone
among all living things is capable of changing his environment.
It has been asserted that man, particularly Western man, has
pursued development with a frontier mentality—a mentality
that causes him to believe that his resources are unlimited. As a
consequence of this error in thinking and this selfishness of
attitude, developmental decisions have been made without an
awareness of their consequences for water quality. Cities have
3Address delivered at the Atlantic Council, Battelle Memorial Institute
Conference, Department of State, Washington, D.C., June 15, 1971 (processed) as
quoted in Charles L. Schultze at at. (eds.), Setting National Priorities in the 1972
Budget (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution), p. 239.
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40
grown with no more thought to sewage treatment than the
requisite pipes to direct the effluent to some receiving waters,
and firms have expanded their facilities with equally reckless
abandon.
E. Governmental and Private Responses for Water Quality
Pollution control has become a major issue of public
policy. In this section we shall review some of the major land-
marks in the development of government response to problems
of water pollution control. Though our review is brief, it is
sufficient to indicate that in recent years the rate at which
government control has been extended and monetary appropri-
ations made has risen quite rapidly.
1. Role of State and Local Governments
Prior to 1948 most of the responsibility for controlling
water pollution resided with state and local governments. Even
in colonial times cities had regulations governing the disposal of
sewage. Baltimore, for example, banned the use of cesspools in
1889, in 1857 Philadelphia began the construction of a sewer
system, and also in 1857 Brooklyn installed sewers for the
transportation of sewage. As cities grew, regulations governing
the emission of foreign material into waterways were adopted
by both state and local authorities. However, such regulations
were adopted primarily to minimize the disruption of water
navigation. Late in the 19th century as scientists began to estab-
lish the relationship between contagious diseases and water
pollution, state and local governments created public health
boards that were charged with pollution control as a way of
maintaining health standards.
State and local governments have traditionally played an
innovative role in environmental protections and continue to do
so even with the increased involvement of the federal govern-
ment, an involvement we shall document in the next section.
The state and local governments perform creative and essential
functions in planning, managing, and enforcing the various
means that have been adopted to restore and maintain water
quality. Though the variety in and the number of state and local
governmental efforts prohibit a detailed examination of their
activities, a few general observations can be made by referring
to two tables recently released by EPA.
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41
Table 2-4 shows the amount of funding and the amount
of manpower for state and federal water quality agencies as
funded in 1970 and budgeted for 1971. As indicated in the
table, there has occurred an increase of approximately 21 per-
cent in the amount of money devoted to water quality pro-
grams and an increase of approximately 8 percent in the num-
ber of man-years devoted to work in such programs.
Though state and local governments have enjoyed con-
siderable success in their efforts in water pollution control, their
work has become increasingly difficult as pollution has in-
creased and as the size and number of municipalities have
increased. Since pollution is no respecter of political bound-
aries, it was difficult for one locality, or even a state, to clean
up its water when other communities were not so inclined.
Furthermore, even those communities dedicated to improving
water quality have experienced increasing difficulty in financing
their projects as financial squeezes began to affect state and
local governments. In addition, there arose competition among
municipalities for new business, some of which polluted; and in
many areas pollution control was afforded low priority by those
cities competing for new industry and fearful that stringent
controls would put them at a competitive disadvantage. Such
problems, along with the experiences of the New Deal (e.g.,
increased federal control and aid to state and local govern-
ments), eventually began to encourage federal authorities to
take increasingly more initiative.
2. Role of the Federal Government
Prior to 1948 the only federal legislation in the area of
water pollution control was an 1899 law prohibiting the dump-
ing of debris into navigable waters—to prevent impediments to
navigation rather than to fight pollution—and a 1924 act pro-
hibiting oil pollution from ocean-going vessels. Since 1948 a
series of federal acts has been passed, beginning with the Water
Pollution Control Act of 1948. The contents of this Act were
based upon the opinion that the control of water pollution was
a state and local responsibility but that the federal government
should aid the financing of such facilities by providing capital in
the form of Joans to state and local governments. In 1956 the
Water Pollution Control Act was amended to change what was a
temporary authority into a permanent authority and to change
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jn-i
22.
15.
11.
35.
192.
21
64
33
63
72
50
31
20
188
56
22
49
45
49
29
82
58
95
60
25
31
TABLE 2-4
Funding and Manpower for State Water Quality
Agencies
(1970-71)
Fiscal Year 1970 Funding
Fiscal Year 1971 Budgeted
Federal
State
Total
Federal
State
Total
Fiscal Year
1970
Man-Years
185,012
20,100
69,377
118,169
662,460
84.970
169/B11
86,267
89.055
267,440
223,337
65,100
42,957
379,097
229,696
123,699
98,724
171,210
187,743
64,122
183,480
224,604
358,803
156,651
149,000
199.368
58,068
56,280
59,003
182,401
2.314,066
141,463
324,787
217,312
271,515
462,300
412,894
114,781
173,467
645,359
346,732
121,309
321.285
218,059
266,887
371,023
1,135,869
413,490
659,392
561,030
123,235
224.456
243,080
76,380
128,380
300,570
2,976,526
226,433
494,598
303,579
360,570
729,740
636,231
179,881
216,424
1,024,456
576,428
245.008
420.009
389,269
454.630
435,145
1,319,349
638,094
1,018,195
717,681
272,235
423,824
190,500
20,000
75,500
115,700
661.100
88,000
167,400
85,900
87,800
266,300
218,700
71,100
44.100
428,000
230,000
121,200
97,600
165,000
184,100
63,000
181,300
264,600
357,800
155,400
145,100
196,700
158,750
114,700
88,117
275,000
2,801,270
220,485
503,905
202,200
579,744
658,519
535,544
184,900
214,000
2,327,340
484,358
124,580
426,400
327,546
331,502
397,093
1,369,830
457,598
992,200
661,955
72,550
230,534
349,250
134,700
163,617
390.700
3,462,370
308,485
671,305
288,100
667,544
924,819
754,244
256,000
258,100
2,755,340
714,358
245,780
524,000
492,546
515,602
460,093
1,551,130
722,198
1,350,000
817,355
217,650
427.234
21.90
8.20
12.75
27.30
239.00
20.00
50.80
36.33
51.70
6830
38.00
24.20
9.75
95.00
66.03
15.25
37.75
33.00
40.00
24.00
69.20
58.00
91.00
60.40
25.75
3150
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Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Ok laho ma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Guam
Puerto Rico
Virgin Islands
TOTAL
39,896
66,404
21,485
63,488
313,742
52,875
671,175
269,764
34,398
445,000
119,156
97,121
496,504
110,443
159.749
41,165
212,537
436,951
54,592
43,999
212,858
131,037
111,682
196,393
23,786
46,719
198,900
52,725
69,117
77,909
32.682
300,544
856,408
34,943
4,349,545
438.219
30.454
495,549
138,437
497,780
1,779,523
163,827
200,631
58.683
188,780
1,796,201
62.455
216,078
625.220
997,205
173,790
959,602
31,302
43,105
106,234
35,325
109,013
144,313
54,167
364,032
1,170,150
87,818
5,020,720
707,983
64,852
940,549
257,593
594,901
2,276,027
274,270
360,380
99,848
401,317
2,233,152
117,047
260.077
838.078
1,128,242
285,472
1,155,995
55,088
89,824
305,134
88,050
39,000
66,400
23,787
63,500
311,900
52,300
650,400
264,600
37,200
447,300
117,600
96,900
488,300
111,000
157,400
38,500
208,200
427,000
55,400
43,700
210,500
131,037
111,682
193,000
23,600
75,000
195,000
70,300
68,664
117,021
34,213
517,326
726,204
113,000
4,564,632
509,930
27,700
819,875
181.098
468,835
2,085,978
187,200
365,474
66,500
329,320
1,771,339
92,052
239,820
1,065,740
1,025,803
233,870
1-402,000
39,400
39,469
182,813
35,150
9.334,796 24,956,011 34,290,807 9,392,406 32,051,045
107,664
183,421
58,000
580,826
1,038,104
165,300
5,215,032
774,530
64,900
1,267,175
298,698
565,735
2,574,278
298,200
522374
105,000
537,520
2,198,339
147,452
283,520
1,276,240
1,156,840
345,552
1,595,000
63,000
114,469
377,813
105,450
41.443,451®
7.00
12.20
5.50
55.00
77.90
11.30
328.00
58.50
6.00
51.10
19.00
38.50
206.00
29.65
36.50
11.70
31.50
133.00
11.15
21.60
78.50
73.50
28.50
75.00
2.50
7.80
26.50
10.40
2,709.1 1
7.00
11.90
5.71
66.00
88.90
14.60
300.00
57.00
5 £5
60.00
31.90
41.80
170.81
32.60
43.00
8.70
37.50
145.00
12.67
23.00
100.00
73.50
28.50
83.00
3.00
10.60
36.95
10.90
2,934.75k
N°Feisca^ear to^e^ec^errt'jijI^Tune^lsca^year'.'65' ^ 6XpenditUreS ,or facilities.
a 20.86 percent increase over 1970 expenditures
b 8.3 percent increase over 1970 level
Source: Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Programs.
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44
what had been a system of loans to a system of grants. The
annual authorization under the amended Act was $50 million.
In the early 1960s Congress appeared to be dissatisfied
with the progress of pollution control and eventually adopted
the Water Quality Act in 1965. This Act increased the author-
ized level of funding, increased support to research and develop-
ment activities, created the Federal Water Pollution Control
Administration (FWPCA), and strengthened the role to be
played by the federal government in the enforcement of water
pollution control and the establishment of water quality cri-
teria. In 1966 the Clean Water Restoration Act was passed,
which further increased authorized funding—reaching a high of
$1.25 billion by 1971—and increased research and development
activities into advanced water treatment methods. Also at this
time (1966) the FWPCA was transferred from Health, Educa-
tion and Welfare (HEW) to the Department of the Interior.
Between 1967 and 1970 water pollution control legisla-
tion concentrated upon specific pollution problems. Bills were
passed which dealt with problems of oil pollution, acid mine
drainage, eutrophication, and thermal pollution. Such acts were
primarily designed to strengthen the weaknesses of former acts
or to cover aspects of pollution control that had been over-
looked in previous acts. In addition, the FWPCA was changed to
the Federal Water Quality Administration (FWQA).
In 1970, realizing the fragmentation of responsibility, not
only in water pollution control but the entire area of environ-
mental control, President Nixon by a Presidential Act estab-
lished EPA. This agency represented an addition to the Presi-
dent's cabinet and thereby emphasized the importance the
federal government was now assigning to problems of environ-
mental deterioration. In addition to EPA the President estab-
lished the Council on Environmental Quality—a committee
created to report directly to the President in an advisory and
recommendatory capacity on environmental issues.
Three terms frequently used to describe the government
funding process include authorization, appropriation, and ex-
penditures. Each term has a specific meaning. When a legislature
enacts a new law that requires funding for implementation, the
legislature will authorize a ceiling or upper limit in dollar
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amounts. The actual monies Congress or a state legislature
appropriates for any piece of legislation are the result of a sub-
sequent and an entirely different appropriation process.
Appropriations are often below authorization amounts. Ex-
penditures of a government depend upon an agency of the
executive branch of government. While a government agency
can usually find ways to encumber all funds it has received
through an appropriation, it is possible for a variety of reasons
for expenditures to fall below the level of appropriations. It is
not unusual for a legislature to increase both appropriation and
authorization levels from time to time on any piece of legisla-
tion, thus permitting an agency to expand its staff and services.
In Table 2-5 a summary of federal appropriations for water
pollution control is shown. As can be seen, both appropriations
and expenditures have increased, though expenditures have
been substantially below those amounts appropriated.
TABLE 2-5
Federal Appropriations and Expenditures for
Water Pollution Control
(Millions of dollars)
Actual Estimated Proposed
1965 1969 1970 1 971 1972
Grant program for construction of
waste treatment facilities:
Appropriations $ 93 $214 $800 $1,000 $2,000
Expenditures 70 135 176 422 1,000
Administration, research, develop-
ment, miscellaneous grants,
enforcement:
Appropriations 35 87 87 120 143
Expenditures 31 79 86 113 131
TOTAL;
Appropriations 128 301 887 1,120 2,143
Expenditures $101 $214 $262 $ 535 $1,131
Sources: The Budget of the United States Government . . . Appendix, for fiscal
years 1967, 1971, 1972, pp. 494 and 496, 625 and 803, 805, respectively;
The Budget of the United States Government, Fiscal Year 1972 (Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office), p. 113.
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46
3. Role of the Private Sector
The private sector has also become involved in the con-
trol of water pollution. Most obviously, the private sector has
been affected by governmental regulations and, in many cases,
has had to reorganize its production processes to meet the re-
quirements of the new legislation. If some aspects of the cur-
rently proposed legislation are enacted, the private sector will
have to reorganize its production processes even more.
Some indication of what has been occurring in the private
sector in the area of water pollution control can be obtained by
examining the appropriations for research and development in
this area as well as the amount of money actually invested in
pollution control equipment. Table 2-6 shows the amount
appropriated to research and development in 1970 by broad
industrial classifications and the planned expenditure for 1971.
Table 2-7 gives actual and planned investments in both air and
water pollution control. Though these figures are not as ac-
curate as we should like, they do perhaps give some indication
of the monies involved and the increased commitment of the
private sector to pollution control. These monies fall short of
those that it has been estimated will be required by industry to
satisfy federal guidelines such that further increases can reason-
ably be expected.
President Nixon has called for the establishing of a na-
tional industrial pollution control council. Such a council would
work closely with the Council on Environmental Quality, the
Secretary of Commerce, and other federal agencies involved in
pollution control. The purpose of such a council would be to
help develop effective policies for curbing pollution, to enlist
increased support from business and industry to reduce pollu-
tion, and to provide a mechanism through which government
officials could work with industrial leaders to establish volun-
tary programs for accomplishing desired pollution control goals.
F. National Water Pollution Control Program
In response to expressions of public concern over existing
levels of water pollution (as reflected in part in the passing of
certain legislation), a national water pollution control program
was developed. In this section we review the significant aspects
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47
of this program. In our review we shall, as in previous sections,
concentrate upon the role of municipal wastewater treatment
facilities and upon those aspects of the national program that
would seem to be of importance to the manpower planner.
TABLE 2-6
Industry Research and Development Expenditures
for Pollution Control, 1970-71
(Millions of dollars)
Percent
Actual
Planned
change
Industry
1970
1971
1970-71
Iron and Steel
$ 1.7
$ 0.8
-53
Nonferrous metals
10.1
13.5
34
Machinery
177.6
186.5
5
Electrical machinery and communications
48.1
63.7
32
Aerospace
181.3
222.0
22
Autos, trucks, and parts
60.1
74.6
24
Other transportation equipment
2.2
2.1
—5
Fabricated metals and ordnance
7.0
11.0
57
Professional and scientific instruments
31.6
32.9
4
Lumber
0.4
1.2
200
Furniture
0.4
1.1
175
Chemicals
53.1
36.1
-32
Paper
8.2
8.3
1
Rubber
3.2
3.1
-3
Stone, clay, and glass
15.4
19.1
24
Petroleum products
34.4
43.2
26
Food and kindred products
5.6
7.3
30
Textile mill products
5.0
4.3
-14
Apparel
<.5
<.5
NA
Other manufacturing
15.7
12.4
-21
All manufacturing
661.1
743.2
12
Non manufacturing
80.4
182.6
127
All industry
$741.5
$925.8
25
Source: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
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48
TABLE 2-7
Industry Investment for Air and Water Pollution
Control, 1969-71
(Millions of dollars)
Actual
Planned
Percent
Planned
percent
Industry
Iron and steel
Nonferrous metals
Electrical machinery
Machinery
Autos, trucks, and parts
Aerospace
Other transportation equipment
Fabricated metals
Instruments
Stone, clay, and glass
Other durables
TOTAL durables
Chemicals
Paper
Rubber
Petroleum
Food and kindred products
Textiles
Other nondurables
TOTAL nondurables
All manufacturing
Mining
Railroads
Airlines
Other transportation
Communicat ions
Electric utilities
Gas utilities
Commercial
Ail business
1969
1970
1971
1969-70
1970-71
$ 179
$ 206
$ 212
15
3
41
100
152
144
52
32
52
58
63
12
51
121
169
137
40
55
67
118
22
76
22
15
18
—32
20
15
15
6
0
-60
44
53
70
20
32
25
25
28
0
12
63
64
104
2
62
103
135
175
31
30
630
853
1,110
35
30
140
169
263
21
56
143
153
321
7
110
9
50
42
456
-16
260
337
507
30
50
58
84
151
45
80
10'
13
25
30
92
31
60
37
94
-38
651
866
1,346
33
55
1,281
1,719
2,456
34
43
105
115
135
10
17
NA
28
28
NA
0
NA
21
27
NA
29
0
4
10
150
0
a
a
NA
NA
155
405
679
161
68
130
110
148
—15
35
0
100
158
58
$1,671
$2,502
$3,641
50
46
NA = not available
a Less than 0.5
b Based on large chain, mail order, end department stores; insurance com-
panies; banks; and other commercial business
Source: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
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49
1. Mission, Objectives, and Goals of the Office of Water
Programs
Within the framework of the federal-state-municipal part-
nership, a national strategy has been suggested that, if fol-
lowed, will contribute significantly to achieving adequate stand-
ards of water quality throughout the country. This plan in-
cludes a statement of the mission, objectives, and goals of the
national program for water pollution control and an established
order of priorities among a variety of possible activities.
The central mission of the national program is:
(1) To prevent further pollution of the nation's water
resources by preserving existing high-quality waters
for future generations and maintaining achieved
level of water quality for presently defined uses
(2) To reverse the present degradations of the nation's
waters and to enhance the value of water and re-
lated resources by abating pollution and by manag-
ing waste-bearing waters for beneficial reuse
(3) To contribute to a coordinated and long-range
national program for the preservation of a balanced
environment
A principal objective of the national program for the
five-year period ending in 1976 is to establish water quality
standards and obtain compliance with such standards. The ob-
jective to be attained by 1980 is to manage and control all
sources of water pollution and to develop the technology and
institutions for the complete recycling of waste and the reuse of
renovated waste waters.
To achieve the objective of reaching established water
quality standards, several intermediate goals have been estab-
lished. The following is a sample of such goals:
(1) To have an information system and the manage-
ment capability to direct resources toward high-
priority goals (by 1971)
(2) To establish effluent requirements as an element in
establishing water quality criteria (by 1972)
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50
(3) To complete programs of heat and radiation control
from power plants (by 1972)
(4) To complete required implementable water basin
plans to be certified by the states and river basin
commissions and to be accepted by OWP {by 1973)
(5) To achieve compliance with effluent requirements
for municipal wastes and maintain this level of
compliance on an ongoing basis through surveil-
lance, enforcement, and public utility long-term
financing arrangements (by 1974)
2. Program Strategy
The goals of the national water pollution control program
have been structured into an order of priorities which in turn
determines a water program strategy. Within this program
strategy the most important item is the establishing of water
quality standards. Such standards, when properly used, identify
water uses and water quality criteria along with a timetable for
corrective measures and a mechanism for implementation and
enforcement of the standards. The second item in the program
strategy is the development of river basin pollution abatement
and prevention plans. Water quality standards provide the basis
for control and abatement activities to be implemented in each
basin plan, while the basin plan provides the means for focusing
upon the appropriate combination of technology, facility con-
struction, enforcement, and the management of resources in the
most cost-effective manner for obtaining the desired water
quality.
Some significant elements of the program strategy are:
(1) To take those actions that will assure the adoption
of federally approved water quality standards by all
of the states
(2) To take those actions that will encourage the state
to develop implementable plans to achieve the
federally approved water standards. This will be
done by:
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51
(a) Increasing federal and state emphasis upon
good planning for river basins and regional-
metropolitan areas
(b) Requiring that federally subsidized construc-
tion projects conform with approved water
quality plans
(c) Assuring that the priorities established in state
program plans (i.e., the one- and five-year lists
to be explained subsequently) are consistent
with the schedules contained in approved basin
or regional-metropolitan water quality plans
(3) Annual, qualified, objective analysis of each state
program to identify strengths and weaknesses,
activeness of legislative base, inactivity of funding,
and successes as measured by programs in attaining
water pollution control goals
3. Priorities in National Problem Areas
In assessing the impediments to achieving the stated ob-
jectives of water quality, we have identified several national
problem areas. These problem areas are: (1) municipal-sewered
wastes, (2) industrial and power plant wastes, (3) agricultural
wastes, (4) other urban wastes, (5) oil and hazardous materials
spills, (6) mining and wells, and (7) other wastes.
To order this list of problem areas in terms of priorities,
two indices were compiled by EPA/OWP. One, the "impact
index " attempted to relate the proportion of waste discharged
by a given problem area to total wastes discharged in the basin
and to the population adversely affected by this discharge. A
large relative discharge affecting a large proportion of the
basin's population results in a high index. The other was the
"action effectiveness index" which combines the relative costs
of control, effectiveness toward meeting standards, availability
of technology to meet the need, and willingness and ability to
proceed with the desired activity. This factor modifies the
impact index to indicate the most effective area in which to
make initial investments.
Municipal-sewered discharges ranked first among the
problem areas regardless of which index was used. This factor
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52
indicates that attention to this particular problem area has been
assigned first priority.
4. Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants
Municipal wastewater treatment plants, ranging from very
minor holding tanks to highly complex operations that permit
water to be eventually recycled into the community's potable
water supply, are designed to perform specific functions. The
EPA data collection and reporting system, known asSTORET,
uses "type of treatment" as the key term in the identification
of a municipal wastewater treatment plant. Approximately 16
separate types of treatment can be identified. This number is
increased, however, when it is realized that a particular plant
may engage in several types of treatment. Terms such as
"primary" and "secondary" are used to describe the general
type of treatment a plant engages in and, as such, will contain
specific types of treatment.
To establish more precisely the place of employment for
detailed manpower planning, identifying the plant by two addi-
tional means of subclassification is necessary: plant size and
specific processes available for treating waste. Plant size is
measured by the volume of waste water treated or the average
daily flow expressed in million gallons per day (mgd). Deter-
mining the specific process in the use is a little more complex;
but it is the combination of processes that most accurately
represents the technology used in the plant. As an example, a
secondary treatment plant is formed by a configuration of a
number of specific processes extended beyond the primary
process.
Advanced or tertiary-type treatment plants, while few in
number,4 are significant because they represent the most
modern technology available in the municipal water quality
field and, as such, signal to the manpower planner many of the
job tasks that must be performed in the future.
For the present (and the immediate future), the man-
power planner in a state agency is required to devote much of
4
Only 10 tertiary plants were reported in Federal Water Quality Administra-
tion, "Inventory of Municipal Waste Facilities," Statistical Summary, 1968 (Washing-
ton, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, June 1970).
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53
his time to calculating the need and developing training pro-
grams for persons increasingly employed in plants having the
secondary treatment process. Table 2-8 gives data that are
suggestive of the direction technological change has taken
during the past few years. As can be seen, in 1940 the number
of secondary and primary plants was about the same, while by
1968 the number of secondary plants was approximately four
times that of primary plants. Furthermore, the total number of
plants more than doubled within the 28-year period. Similar
growth in the future is not unlikely.
In future years the concern for higher water quality
standards, increasing population, and changes in technology will
bring about the following changes in wastewater facilities: (1)
replacement of obsolete plants, (2) expansion of existing plants
by increasing flow capacity, (3) improvement of or upgrading
the treatment process in existing plants, (4) combination of (2)
and (3), and (5) new plant design and construction.
5. Construction of Plants
Clearly the construction of municipal wastewater treat-
ment plants will play an important role in the national plan and
strategy for water quality. For this reason, as well as for reasons
Type of Treatment 1940 1945 1948 1949 1957 1962 1968
TABLE 2-8
Number of Primary and Secondary Municipal
Wastewater Treatment Plants in
the United States
(Selected years, 1940-68)
Primary
2,938 2,889 3,035 3,073 2,771 2,709 2,431
Secondary
2,630 2,897 3,023 3,157 4,747 6,669 10,126
TOTAL
5,580 5,786 6,058 6,230 7,518 9,378 12,565
Source: Federal Water Quality Administration, "Inventory of Municipal Waste Facilities,"
Statistical Summary, 1968 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, June
?970).
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54
that will become more apparent in subsequent chapters of this
manual, it will be profitable for us to trace those steps that are
most commonly followed in bringing a wastewater treatment
plant into being.
Following a period of determining desired water uses
(current and future) and establishing water quality criteria at
the various sources that are necessary to effect those uses, state
agencies identify and record the specific sources of pollution to
determine which sources need to be reduced. When a munici-
pality is found to be discharging waste that causes the receiving
water to be below water quality standards, the state water
pollution control agency notifies by letter the appropriate local
authority. Since this letter is recognized in many states as a legal
citation fully enforceable by the state courts, its receipt by the
local governmental authorities signifies the commencement of
the community's attempt to do its part in meeting water quality
standards either by building new or by expanding and upgrading
existing wastewater treatment plants.
Through authorization given by the various water pollu-
tion control acts discussed in the previous section, the federal
government stands ready to offer financial assistance to local
governments wishing to build, expand, or upgrade wastewater
treatment plants. To qualify for such assistance, certain pro-
cedures must be followed: When the type and size of facility
has been determined, designed, and approved by the state water
pollution control agency, the local community, through the
state, formally applies for a federal sewage treatment works
grant. If the application is approved, the grant is awarded, and
shortly thereafter the final plans and specifications of the plant
are submitted and approved. With this approval, bids for the
construction of the plant may be taken and, upon acceptance,
construction initiated. Immediately prior to the construction of
the facility, the engineer responsible for designing the waste-
water treatment plant must submit for approval an "operating
manual" which includes staffing requirements. Upon the com-
pletion of construction, the plant is inspected and commences
operation thereafter.
One year after the facility has been in operation, regional
operations and maintenance personnel inspect the facility. Cur-
rent rules and regulations for federal grants also require that the
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55
state assure that it will conduct annual inspections for three
years after construction to determine whether such facilities are
operated and maintained in an efficient, economic, and effec-
tive manner and to ensure that approved operative and main-
tenance practices are followed. Although all states do not have
annual or seasonal inspection programs, it is intended that such
a capability be established in the near future.
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56
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Barkley, Paul W., and Daniel W. Seckler. Economic Growth and
Environmental Decay. New York: Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich, Inc., 1972.
Council on Environmental Quality, Environmental Quality.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
1971.
Davies, J. Clarence. The Politics of Pollution. New York:
Western Publishing Company, 1970.
Kowondy, Edward J. Concepts of Ecology. Englewood Cliffs:
Prentice Hall, Inc., 1969.
Sundquist, James L. Politics and Policy. Washington, D.C.: The
Brookings Institution.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Design, Operation and Main-
tenance of Waste Water Treatment Facilities. Washington
D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1970.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Municipal Waste Facilities in
the United States. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government
Printing Office, 1970.
U.S. Department of the Interior, A Primer on Wastewater Treat-
ment. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing
Office, 1969.
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CHAPTER THREE
HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT AND WATER
POLLUTION CONTROL
A. Role of the Manpower Planner in Human Resource Develop-
ment
B. The Education System
1. Its Evolution
2. General School System
3. Vocational Schools
4. Two-Year Colleges
5. Four-Year Colleges
6. Post-graduate Universities
7. Continuing Education
8. Cooperative Education
9. Employer Education and Training Programs
10. Apprenticeship Programs
11. State and Local Roles in Education
12. Federal Role in Education
13. Purpose of Education and Training
C. The Employment Service System and the U.S. Department
of Labor
1. Its Evolution
2. Organization and Functional Operations of the Em-
ployment Service
D. National Manpower Programs
1. Manpower Development and Training
2. Vocational Rehabilitation
3. Public Employment Programs
4. Other National Manpower Programs
5. Need for Coordination in Manpower Programs
E. Manpower Development and Training in the Water Pollution
Control Field
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58
1. OWP Training Grants
a. Graduate programs
b. Research training fellowships
c. Undergraduate training grants
d. Operator/technician training grants
e. Other technical training grants
2. Direct Training
3. Training Programs under Interagency Agreements
a. Coupled classroom and on-the-job training programs
b. Regional institutional training programs
c. Transition training programs
d. Public service careers programs
4. Related Environmental Training Programs
5. Involvement with CAMPS
F. A Model for Cooperative Human Resource Development
Planning
Bibliography
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CHAPTER THREE
HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT AND WATER
POLLUTION CONTROL
Solving the problems of water pollution control will re-
quire a major manpower effort. This is a commonplace fact of
the age in which we live—the age of manpower, of education, of
human resources. Whatever the current issue, be it law and
order, community health, national defense, reduction of
poverty, or the protection of our environment, the critical re-
source is trained manpower: physical and social scientists, en-
gineers and technicians, and those workers with social as well as
manipulative skills.
The results of a recent study conducted by the National
Planning Association (NPA) illustrates the challenge of acquir-
ing the necessary manpower to achieve certain goals. Consider-
ing a series of national goals identified in 1960 by a national
commission established by President Eisenhower, NPA asked,
"If we seriously set out to achieve these goals, would we have
enough manpower to do them all?" The answer was an un-
qualified "No!" If we want rising living standards—including
both private and public goods and services; national defense;
better health care; improved education; adequate recreational
facilities; cultural amenities; resource conservation and develop-
ment; housing; a clean, attractive, and healthy environment; and
all the rest—we cannot have them all at once. We must, there-
fore, establish priorities among these goals and organize our
resources efficiently to achieve as many of them as possible. To
this end we must plan the development of human resources to
enable them to make the greatest possible contribution to the
achievement of these national goals.
A. Role of the Manpower Planner in Human Resource
Development
The manpower planner is charged with the primary re-
sponsibility of satisfying the manpower needs of the organiza-
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60
tion within which he operates. In meeting this responsibility,
the manpower planner must first identify the number and kind
of workers that are needed and at which particular time and
place they will be needed. The methodology used in identifying
such needs will be developed subsequently. The manpower
planner must then plan to meet these identified needs through
the development of human resources. Developing the needed
human resources will require that the manpower planner: {1) be
familiar with the existing human resource development institu-
tions, |2) determine the extent to which these institutions can
provide the needed manpower, and (3) work with these institu-
tions to maximize their contributions to human resource
development. Any deficiency in the ability of existing insti-
tutions to meet human resource needs will require that the
manpower planner become involved either in the adjustment of
existing institutions or in the creation of new institutions. It is
with the human resource development institutional framework
of the United States that we shall be concerned in this chapter.
While the manpower planner's primary function is to en-
gage in those activities that will ensure that his organization's
manpower needs be satisfied, the psychology of today's labor
force and the human-oriented training of the professional man-
power planner require that his activities go beyond merely
meeting the identifiable institutional needs. Today's worker
demands the opportunity to develop to the maximum of his
potential as a human being. This means the opportunity : (1) to
become educated to the extent capable, desired, and needed to
compete in a modern world; (2) to become trained with an
occupational skill needed by the society within which he lives;
and (3) to have the opportunity to put that knowledge and skill
to effective use and in so doing, provide for his personal needs.
The manpower planner must understand and accept these per-
sonal, people-oriented needs and seek a mutual accommodation
with the needs of his industry. The exciting concept about man-
power planning is that personal human needs can usually be met
at the same time that the institutional needs are satisfied. The
extent to which the manpower planner is successful in accom-
modating these needs will determine his ultimate success as a
professional.
If these needs are to be met, it is required that, in addi-
tion to a vigorous and growing economy which will be providing
job opportunities:
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61
(1) An education system providing sufficient education
and vocational training exist to enable all citizens
to develop their human potentials to the maximum,
thus enabling them to compete in the labor market
(2) An employment system provide the educated and
trained labor force with the opportunity to take
advantage of employment opportunities which will
best utilize their talents
B. The Education System
1. /ts Evolution
The American education system began early in the his-
tory of the United States. The Founding Fathers saw the need
for the encouragement of the educational process. Under the
Land Ordinance of 1785, 1/36 of the land in new territories was
set aside for support of educational activities, with most states
adding a like amount for a total of 1/18 of the land to benefit
the common schools. This Act was followed by the Morrill Act
of 1862, which granted land as an endowment for state colleges
dedicated to education in the agricultural and mechanical arts.
Most of these schools later added education in business and
industry and played a key role through their extension services
in the development of the most productive agricultural system
in the world.
By the turn of the century, a ma\or schism had developed
in the ranks of education. One group, the generalists, main-
tained that the major purpose of high school was to prepare
students for college and that college was to emphasize a liberal
education in culture and theory. Little or no attention was
given to preparing people for a "job." On the other hand, the
"vocationalists" looked upon people as human economic re-
sources and maintained the need to prepare them throughout
the educational process with skills needed in the labor market.
John Dewey, who saw the benefits to be derived from the
preparation of worker-citizens and the danger of a bifurcated
education system, tried but could not heal the breach. The
generalists prevailed to the neglect of vocational education.
To aid in meeting the demands for skilled manpower in
World War I, Congress passed the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917
which provided federal grants on a matching basis to states for
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62
vocational education. Throughout the following years, the fed-
eral government remained the prime sponsor of vocational edu-
cation. The original list of vocational programs allowed under
Smith-Hughes—agricultural, trade, industry, and home econom-
ics-was later expanded to include distributive education and
secretarial training. On the state level, however, the generatists
prevailed, with the resulting neglect by the state and local
school districts of vocational education. While traditional high
schools and state colleges secured new buildings and the best
students, vocational education inherited the castoffs, both in
terms of buildings, students, and all too frequently, teachers.
It became too often the neglected stepchild.
In 1963, following many years of intensive debate in re-
sponse to the Manpower Revolution of that decade, the Voca-
tional Education Act was passed (amended in 1968), constitut-
ing one of the most significant developments in the evolution of
a system for human resource development The restrictions of
the old vocational education legislation were removed. For the
first time, vocational education was to be people (human)
rather than program oriented. The Act emphasized assistance to
the individual in preparing for employment and keeping up-to-
date with the knowledge and skills needed by the job market.
Programs could cut across all occupations except those requir-
ing at least a bachelor's degree. They could involve people of all
ages and preparation levels. Research and experimentation were
provided. Area vocational schools were also encouraged. And
most importantly, the federal funds available were increased
from $55 million in 1964 to $225 million in 1968, with state
and local funds increasing in the same period from $278 million
to $715 million. The result has been more attractive physical
plants, younger and more competent staffs, and, consequently,
a range of student quality from the least able to the most able.
The physically, socially, and economically handicapped or dis-
advantaged are singled out for special attention. Vocational edu-
cation has become a full-fledged and fully accepted part of the
academic community, cutting across the wide range of com-
munity interests.
Perhaps a return to John Dewey's philosophy of educa-
tion calling for worker-citizens is becoming possible. An educa-
tional system which concentrates on developing the manipu-
lative as well as the intellectual skills, which gives to all students
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63
the real option to select and prepare for a career which may
emphasize one or the other, might better meet our needs. To
give our students that real choice, training for manipulative
skills should be as honored and supported as training in intellec-
tual skills. Manipulative training should contain sufficient con-
tent to provide the opportunity for change to the other ap-
proach. By the same token, the student who selects the more
intellectual approach should have as a real option the transfer to
a manipulative-oriented program. To make such transfers pos-
sible requires the removal of psychological and other barriers
low existing.
One of the most promising developments within the edu-
ction establishment in making effective Dewey's concept of
worker-citizens is what is called "career education," Promoted
jy USOE, the concept is relatively simple. The education estab-
ishment is being nudged in the direction of educating students
or careers rather than educating them for college or for a job.
To accomplish such an education requires that students obtain
i wide acquaintance with the "world of work." Such an ac-
juaintance should be developed throughout a student's school
ife and should permeate the whole curriculum. At thesecond-
iry level, a student will make a tentative selection of a career
irea, each career area encompassing all levels of skill and con-
ceptualization. This selection is followed by the development of
he skill needed in that career field, enabling the student to
ecure a job upon exit from school, whether by dropout or
raduation. Whichever the form of exit, the system would en-
ourage reentry for the development of additional skills and
oncepts as needed for continued career development. This con-
ept envisions education as a means to an end—a career—rather
han solely as an end in itself.
2. General School System
Historically, the American education system has begun
vith the five- or six-year-olds, either in kindergarten or the first
irade. Increasingly, however, educational opportunities are
>eing given to three- and four-year-old preschoolers in private or
luasi-private nursery schools. The federal Headstart program
>rovides funds for preschool programs, primarily for children
rom disadvantaged homes. Grades 1 through 8 concentrate
heir attention on developing reading, writing, speaking and
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64
computational skills as well as an understanding of the world in
which we live. However, manipulative skills are generally neg-
lected after kindergarten. While the emphasis in grades 9
through 12 is usually on the same order as the earlier grades,
some schools include vocational courses which begin to develop
manipulative vocational skills as well as some appreciation of
vocational opportunities after high school. These programs still
suffer somewhat from the traditional view that only the trouble-
makers and less capable students find their way into such pro-
grams, though there is some evidence that this attitude may be
breaking down. One of the major problems facing the man-
power planner is that individuals just finishing high school, or
those who have dropped out, are seldom prepared for much
more than laborer kinds of entry-level jobs. The dropout,
because of his frequent lack of abilities obtained from a general
education (e.g., reading, writing, speaking, computation, and
general understanding), is frequently limited in his ability to be
promoted without additional education. The high school gradu-
ate, who has taken full advantage of the educational program,
usually has the general skills needed to make advancements on
the job. However, he frequently lacks practical knowledge and
manipulative skills, which many entry-level jobs require. The
high school diploma and the graduation equivalency diploma
(G.E.D.), generally speaking, can be assumed to give a student
sufficient basic education to handle lower level entry jobs.
The continued development of the "career education"
concept should eventually merge the academic or traditional
education with vocational education, both being important in
developing and maintaining a career.
3. Vocational Schools
An important arm of the education system is vocational
schools, public and private, that accept individuals regardless of
educational credentials and train them in a particular vocation.
These schools pay little attention to so-called general educa-
tion—humanities, the arts, the sciences, the social sciences. The
training, though generally narrow, provides students with the
skills to obtain employment in narrow occupational fields such
as barbering, secretarial, plumbing, heating, electrical, computer
technology, etc. Theoretical underpinnings are often neglected
in favor of the practical. From the viewpoint of the individual,
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the chief disadvantage of such schools is that a particular skill
may become obsolete, of little or no economic value; and unless
the individual has continued with his "education," he may be at
a disadvantage in a changing labor market. This disadvantage is
overcome by looking at the training in the vocational school not
as something that is final, but only as a step in "career educa-
tion." From the viewpoint of manpower planning, such gradu-
ates can be used in operator- or craftsman-type jobs; but with-
out additional, more generalized education, they are usually
limited, or at least thought to be limited, in their abilities to
advance.
4. Two-Year Colleges
Sometimes identified as the most rapidly growing sector
of the American education system, the two-year college helps to
bridge the gap created by the nature of the development of
most four-year colleges. There are generally three kinds of two-
year colleges: technical, community, and junior. The technical
colleges concentrate primarily on programs to train people in
vocational and manipulative skills, but with an increasing
amount of general and theoretical background. They grant cer-
tificates for completion of certain short-term courses and fre-
quently grant associate degrees for the completion of two-year
programs. Operators, technicians, and skilled workers are often
products of these schools.
Community colleges emphasize educational service to the
whole community and are frequently much like technical
colleges in what they emphasize and in the programs they offer.
Increasingly, these colleges are "open schools" admitting all
applicants and then helping them move from their present edu-
cational levels to wherever they wish to move. Much impetus
has been given to this trend by the inclusion of MDTA skill
centers at community colleges.
Junior colleges may have much the same characteristics as
the technical and community colleges. The more traditional
junior colleges do, however, constitute a stepping stone to the
four-year college and university-either for those who wish to
improve upon their high school preparation or for those who
wish a less expensive first two years in their post-high school
educational program. Associate degrees are usually granted by
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junior colleges, and sometimes there are limited vocational pro-
grams available.
5. Four-Year Colleges
The more traditional post-high school college has been
the four-year college or university offering bachelors' degrees.
Such institutions are usually characterized as providing what is
called a "liberal education," though some schools also offer
vocational programs. A person may major in the humanities,
fine arts, sciences, or social sciences. These students are seldom
prepared for a job as such, though their more general and theo-
retical training may prepare them for learning one of a wide
variety of primarily white-collar occupations. Many employers
look to these graduates as potential managers requiring a more
generalized background than is provided in technical and voca-
tional schools. The graduates of the science programs can often
assume, with a minimum amount of additional training, a tech-
nology-type job. A substantial number of college students con-
tinue on to graduate school.
6. Post-graduate Universities
Long considered the ultimate in education are the post-
graduate universities which include the programs and philoso-
phies of the four-year colleges but in addition offer graduate
programs with masters' and doctorate degrees. They frequently
include such professional programs as law, engineering, den-
tistry, business, medicine, etc. The graduates of these schools
are usually classified as professionals and scientists—at the top
of the educational spectrum.
7. Continuing Education
High schools, two-year colleges, four-year colleges, and
universities frequently have continuing or adult education pro-
grams and short courses designed for adults who are not en-
rolled as full-time students and frequently do not intend to get
a degree but merely want to continue their educations as cir-
cumstances permit. Such programs offer real opportunities for
upgrading the abilities of full-time employees. They are usually
quite flexible in the courses they offer, and there are seldom
any entrance requirements. They are generally held at night,
though vocational and technical schools and community col-
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leges also cater to this type of student in daytime offerings.
Adult basic education is often available, financed by federal
funds, enabling adults with deficiencies in English, mathematics,
and other basic education to learn or relearn these subjects. It is
frequently possible to obtain a G.E.D. which is generally accept-
able as the equivalent of a high school diploma. Such education
frequently establishes a base, permitting people previously con-
demned to dead-end, low-paying jobs to develop the skills
needed for occupational and economic upgrading.
8. Cooperative Education
While most daytime education programs have little or no
on-the-job training components, some schools have developed
cooperative education programs which build into the education
process the opportunity to work for remuneration under educa-
tional direction and often for credit. These programs enable
students to earn while they learn, and for some, provide a
superior form of motivation for the learning process,
9. Employer Education and Training Programs
Many of the larger employers offer education and train-
ing programs for their employees. These are of two primary
types: external and internal. Some employers pay for the tui-
tion and books and grant free time or any combination of these
for employees to enroll in courses and programs, usually
directly related to their present jobs or in preparation for ad-
vancement. Large firms frequently have internal training pro-
grams in which they either bring in instructors under employer
auspices or develop their own cadre of instructors for the pur-
pose of upgrading and updating their staffs. Internal programs
have the advantage of giving the employer greater control over
what the employees learn, and the training can be tied directly
to their unique operations. There is less transferability of
knowledge and greater direct benefits. One of the problems may
be employee receptivity.
Correspondence courses are often available to employees,
with employers sometimes financing these courses if they are
closely enough related to the employees' work. Somewhat
related to the traditional correspondence course is the self-
instruction or programmed learning course. Such a course may
be tailor-made to a particular employer's operation, with a
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minimum amount of instructor activity and a maximum
amount of self-teaching. Such programs are especially helpful
for orientation and at lower levels of competence, though of
less value at the more sophisticated levels. The same kinds of
programs are also available in more general types of learning
such as accounting, simple mathematics, grammar, etc.
From the social point of view employer education and
training programs have the deficiency of being generally limited
to those of demonstrated superiority. The NAB-JOBS program
helps to bridge this gap through federal financing of training for
disadvantaged people.
10. Apprenticeship Programs
In some of the more highly skilled trades, formal appren-
ticeship programs are available. Usually under the joint spon-
sorship of management and the labor union with relevant juris-
diction (a carefully structured and controlled program of
mostly on-the-job training), an apprentice, working with an ex-
perienced journeyman, is trained carefully in each phase of the
trade or skill. These programs last usually from two to five
years, at the end of which time the apprentice becomes a
journeyman. There is sometimes conflict between labor unions
which promote these programs and vocational schools which
attempt to shorten the period of training required for a skilled
craftsman through formal classroom and on-the-job training.
From the social point of view, these programs have in the past
worked to the disadvantage of racial minority groups that have
been systematically excluded from such programs. Equal em-
ployment laws and regulations enforced on management and
unions alike should in time eliminate this form of discrimina-
tion, especially where federal funds are used.
11. State and Local Rotes in Education
At the state level, the highest authority in education is
usually vested in a single board which provides policy direction
to specialized segments of the education system. The state
board, for elementary and secondary education, will usually
provide for the establishment of local administrative units called
school districts. One of the unique characteristics of American
education is the extent to which schools are administered by
local authorities operating independently under local boards.
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The theory supporting this practice argues that local control
will permit education to reflect and be responsive to the will of
the local electorate and taxpayer. In very few cases will local
school districts be concerned with manpower planning as an
ongoing activity. Most school districts will look to the state
department of education for guidance in this area. The few
exceptions to this general procedure are the large metropolitan
school districts or specialized regional vocational education
districts.
Within most state education systems there is (either as a
separate board or under the general board) an authority to
administer the state's higher education, post-secondary system.
There is also a vocational education office charged with the
responsibility for promoting vocational education through the
school system of the state. There is sometimes conflict over the
location of responsibility for the administration of post-
secondary vocational education. Many vocational educators and
their promoters do not feel comfortable (in fact, feel dis-
criminated against) when controlled by university- and college-
oriented boards and have moved in the direction of separate
boards.
12. Federal Role in Education
While historically education has been considered as pri-
marily the function of local and state government, with the
private sector fundamentally concerned with colleges and uni-
versities, the federal government has come to play a significant
role. USOE has been given prime responsibility for aiding in the
development of an education system which will promote
national goals as formulated by Congress, the Supreme Court,
the President, and the federal educational bureaucracy. USOE
has established and staffed regional offices which work closely
with state and local agencies as well as monitor the progress of
federal contracts and grants to various education and research
agencies. In addition, USOE, assisted by its regional offices,
collects, analyzes, and disseminates data needed within the edu-
cation establishment.
Within USOE is the Bureau of Adult, Vocational, and
Library Programs directing its primary efforts toward two
groups: (1) the high school dropout and the high school gradu-
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ates, both of whom are in need of specialized training for
immediate employment, and (2) people in the labor force who
need retraining to keep up with technological change. Funds are
provided to states on a fifty-fifty matching basis. Within the
Bureau, the Division of Manpower Development and Training
was created in response to the Manpower Development and
Training Act of 1962. This Division has been given the responsi-
bility for the management and operation of HEW's respon-
sibilities under MDTA, with the primary purpose of providing
"education and training to help unemployed and under-
employed persons fully participate in productive employment."
The Division also has the responsibility to help establish pro-
grams to alleviate skill shortages. Both the Bureau and the Divi-
sion have representatives in the regional offices of USOE which
are a part of the regional offices of HEW.
13. Purpose of Education and Training
The purpose of education differs, depending upon the
frame of reference. From the point of view of the individual, it
is a means of providing for his needs—physical, mental, psycho-
logical, social, political, and spiritual. From the point of view of
society, it is to develop an enlightened citizen capable of self-
government and self-support. From the point of view of the
employer, it is to prepare productive workers. Examining this
latter function in greater detail, we find that general education
should prepare a person to make adjustment to entry-level jobs
in the minimum amount of time and with the minimum amount
of expense to the employer. The employer does not want to
have to teach new employees how to read, write, and speak
English, or how to do simple arithmetic. Career education
recognizes that, in addition, manipulative skills and positive
work attitudes are also an important part of the education pro-
cess. The employer usually expects to provide orientation train-
ing. Training for upgrading of existing employees is designed to
give them the opportunity for higher level jobs, providing them
with upward mobility for those who desire it, and for morale
building. Training for updating enables the employer to take
advantage of the latest technology in the field, either to remain
competitive or to become more efficient if in a noncompetitive
position. It is generally felt that both upgrading and updating,
to be most effective from the employer's point of view, must be
under his considerable control and directed toward meeting his
needs.
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Under the career education concept, there is no longer
the traditional dichotomy between education and training, both
concepts being merged into the single term "career education."
However, there may still be conflict between the traditional
advocates. Increasingly educators are accepting the idea that the
proof of a "good" educational experience is employment.
Schools are more and more concerning themselves with what
happens to their graduates, some even accepting the responsi-
bility to help graduates find jobs. The resulting close contact
with the world of work should play a key role in developing
worker-citizens.
C. The Employment Service System and the U.S. Department
of Labor
It would be a mistake to assume that the preparation of
an individual through the education system automatically
assures that he will be a part of the labor force. The next step in
entering the labor force after obtaining an education, while
usually not as time-consuming, nevertheless is not automatic,
nor even easy. An individual must convince an employer that
there is a need for his service. With the development of the
public employment service (ES) system, we have the second
major element of a human resource development establishment.
J. Its Evolution
Until the 1930s, job hunting and placement were hap-
hazard. Most people were hired off the streets or through
friends, though some firms had developed fairly sophisticated
personnel departments to screen job applicants. Private employ-
ment offices existed for certain kinds of jobs but were fre-
quently characterized by exploitation of the job seekers. During
World War I, a nationwide public employment service was
organized to meet the labor demands of that period. However,
during the 1920s it was allowed to atrophy almost to a point of
extinction. Under the authority of the Wagner-Peyser Act of
1933, the beginnings of a new national employment system
were laid, with state employment services to be financed on a
matching basis from general funds. In 1935, the Social Security
Act was passed, establishing the basic system of today. States
had the opportunity of establishing employment services to be
financed 100 percent out of federal funds coming from a
federal unemployment compensation tax on employers. All
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states eventually took advantage of the opportunity and estab-
lished state employment service agencies.
During the remainder of the prewar years, these state
services were mainly concerned with screening welfare and
work-relief participants through the application of "ready,
willing, and able-to-work" tests. The system was federalized
shortly after the outbreak of World War II, being placed under
the War Manpower Commission and given the responsibility to
allocate scarce manpower. Following the war, the Employment
Act of 1946 was passed, declaring that:
It is the continuing policy and responsibility of the
federal government to use all practicable means con-
sistent with its need and obligations and other essential
considerations of national policy with the assistance and
cooperation of industry, agriculture, labor, and state and
local governments, to coordinate and utilize all its plans,
functions and resources for the purpose of creating and
maintaining, in a manner calculated to foster and pro-
mote free competitive enterprise and the general wetfare,
urrfjev be a^ortied useful
employment opportunities, including self-employment,
for those able, willing, and seeking to work, and to pro-
mote maximim employment, production, and
purchasing power.
Despite this legislative injunction, the service was allowed
to atrophy again, its primary function being an "unemployment
agency" responsible for handling unemployment compensation
claims and matching a few job orders with the available
workers.
In 1958, Secretary of Labor James P. Mitchell gave a
speech in which he criticized the service for failing to act
adequately as a placement agency. This criticism released several
forces which began to develop the service into what is des-
ignated by some authorities as a "community manpower service
center," with its major function "human resource develop-
ment." In some states, it has virtually become such, while in
others, it remains as the "unemployment office."
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2. Organization and Functional Operations of the
Employment Service
Beginning in 1962, in response to the "manpower revolu-
tion" of that decade, ES began to take on expanded responsi-
bility as a manpower agency concerned with all aspects of man-
power. Each employment center was to become a community
manpower center, operating within a state- and nationwide net-
work. To achieve its goal of a more efficient labor market
involved not only in the employer's interest but also in that of
the clients, ES was required to become associated with em-
ployers, unions, schools, and community development efforts.
With the plethora of manpower programs of the 1960s, its in-
volvement would have to expand to include the myriad of
federal manpower programs as well as programs providing an-
cillary services. No longer was ES to merely wait tor jobs to be
listed with it. It was to seek new job orders and to place clients.
To accomplish its goals, ES has had the traditional tools
of testing, counseling, referrals, and payment of unemployment
compensation. Beginning with the "war on poverty," it has
been expected to assist clients not meeting employer standards
by working with vocational educators to establish training
courses in fields where there is "reasonable expectation of em-
ployment." In addition, ES is to recruit and screen unem-
ployed and underemployed persons for those training programs.
Training is then to be followed by placement efforts.
Another tool is "relocation." ES has had limited funds to
use in assisting clients to relocate, moving from areas of high
unemployment to areas of manpower shortages or low unem-
ployment. When coupled with education and training.it has the
potential power to improve the functioning of the labor market.
Unfortunately, ES funds have been too limited to contribute
significantly to the solution of unemployment.
For a time, ES was so concerned with its antipoverty
client orientation that it ran the danger of losing the confidence
of the employers who became wary of ES referrals. Recently,
however, the service has moved to a more balanced position,
that of providing the best possible service to all elements of the
community, and employers are increasingly using ES services.
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Federal agencies and contractors are required by law to list job
openings with ES.
Some of the activities of the Office of Economic Oppor-
tunity (OEO), especially the Community Action Agencies
(CAA), in setting up competitive service centers which reached
out to the youth and the poor, induced ES to add to its services
Youth Opportunity Centers (near central city ghettos) as well as
other "outreach" activities, seeking out potential clients hesi-
tant to come into ES centers. Minority consultants were added
to whom racial minorities could better relate.
In 1968, ES was given responsibility to provide man-
power services to Concentrated Employment Programs (CEP),
to train and place welfare recipients in the Work Incentive
(WIN) program, to recruit disadvantaged people for JOB Oppor-
tunities in the Business Sector (JOBS), and to lead in the estab-
lishment of CAMPS.
Considerable internal turmoil was involved in these
changes and additions, resulting in the elimination of the
Bureau of Employment Service and the creation of the U.S.
Training and Employment Service of the Manpower Administra-
tion. State employment services were to relate to the federal
government through the regional manpower administrators and
thence to the Manpower Administration.
For the unemployment offices to become community
manpower service centers, considerable changing of funding and
philosophy was required. The transition has been made more
difficult, though not impossible, by the fact that state offices
operated under both state and federal laws. Although federal
financing tends to give federal authorities some power over state
activities, the fact that the system must operate under state civil
service and state legislatures often makes it more difficult for
federal officials to implement their ideas. The conflict is not
only between state and federal officials, however, for in the
past several years sharp disagreements have occurred at the
federal level between "old line" ES personnel and those who
are pressing the community manpower service concept. The in-
volvement of ES activities within the line authority of the Man-
power Administration of DOL may be onerous to some, but it
enhances the role of state ES agencies as manpower service
agencies.
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DOL has decentralized its activities to a great extent, and
the regional manpower administrator is being given the major
responsibility for promoting and monitoring manpower pro-
grams within his region. A large proportion of DOL and OEO
manpower money is apportioned to the regional offices. The
regional manpower administrator will, in turn, apportion it to
state and local manpower planning councils.
The national Manpower Administration is advised, in
part, by the National Manpower Advisory Committee (NMAC).
While the NMAC has no administrative power, it can and does
make its influence felt on policy questions. This advisory body
also advises, though less effectively, the secretary of HEW on
his manpower responsibilities. The regional manpower admini-
strator also has an advisory committee which advises him on the
application of policy to the region. This regional committee also
serves in an advisory capacity to the regional director of HEW.
Its chairman also serves as an associate member of NMAC,
giving a regional input to NMAC.
While on the state level, ES has served as the primary
agent for planning DOL's manpower programs, this function is
in the process of being changed with the development of the
state and local manpower planning councils that serve as the
manpower planning arm of the governor and local elected
public officials. However, whatever the outcome, ES will still
play a very powerful role. In local areas it will probably con-
tinue as a prime deliverer of programs for human resource
development because of its presence throughout community-
based employment offices.
D. National Manpower Programs
In addition to the manpower revolution of the 1960s and
its demands for changes in the human resource development
system, a third dimension was added which was to make its
mark upon the other elements—education and the employment
service. Until the 1960s those two elements constituted the
whole. But in the minds of some, they were not responsive
enough to the needs of this new era of rapid change which had
left behind about a fifth of the population, the poor of the
nation. The result was the creation of national manpower pro-
grams with the purpose of optimizing the manpower contribu-
tions of the nation's population. Because of past neglect, special
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attention was focused on those sectors of the population ex-
periencing the greatest difficulty in becoming an effective part
of the labor force.
1. Manpower Development and Training
The first really significant element of this new dimension
of the human resource development system was MDT, created
by the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962
(MDTA).
Human Resource Development (HRD) requires a linking of
ES with the education establishment. A key mechanism for
accomplishing this has been the enactment and administration
of MDTA. Conceived as a temporary program to train persons
unemployed as a result of technological change and later
adapted as a part of the "war on poverty," MDT has shown its
staying power and flexibility by assuming a leadership role in
HRD. While it has responsibility for vocational-type training
for the adult population in general, its major emphasis is on the
disadvantaged portions of the population.
Under MDTA, administrative responsibility is shared by
the secretary of HEW and the Secretary of Labor. DOL, acting
through the state employment service, establishes the need for
training by identifying people eligible for and requiring training
and the occupations in which there is reasonable expectation of
employment. Within HEW, the division of MDT of USOE is
responsible for administering manpower institutional training
programs to meet the objectives under Title II of the Act.
Specifically, each state employment service has designated an
MDTA coordinator and each state school office an MDTA
supervisor, usually within a division of vocational and technical
education. These two coordinate MDT for the state. MDTA has
made possible a variety of major innovations in the HRD system
which are of interest to the manpower planner. These innova-
tions are:
(1) Innovative techniques and material for those lacking
adequate communicative and computative skills
(2) Use of adult basic education to upgrade the general
educational level of trainees
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(3) Bilingual basic education and skills training for
those who must learn English as a second language
(4) On-site testing to determine education areas which
need strengthening as well as to determine occupa-
tional abilities and interests
(5) On-site counseling to assist students to meet
successfully their new challenges, and especially to
help in making occupational choices
(6) Open admissions, admitting all persons referred by
agencies, regardless of educational background
(7) Open-entry/open-exit institutional training using
modular units, admitting students at any point in
the course and allowing them to exit at any time
(8) Development of occupational clusters, permitting
greater flexibility on the part of the trainees in the
selection of an occupation
(9) Association of skill centers with colleges en-
couraging MDTA students to enroll in allowable
courses with regular college students. The acquisi-
tion of a G.E.D. has become possible, and some
MDTA students are encouraged to continue for a
college degree.
Perhaps one of the most important contributions to the
range of institutions available to the HRD system has been the
MDTA skill center and its emphasis of institutional training for
disadvantaged persons. MDTA has provided a basis for funding a
variety of environmental manpower training programs and will
continue to be a resource of considerable value to the man-
power planner.
In addition to the institutional programs and courses
located at various education institutions and at independent
skill centers, MDT has established on-the-job training (MDT-
OJT) programs with employers in which employers are reim-
bursed for training costs through the state ES. During slack
labor market periods, employer response has been less than
enthusiastic. However, during tight labor markets, employer
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enthusiasm increases considerably. Overall, OJT constitutes
roughly one-half of the MDTA enrollment. In addition to MOT
(institutional) and MDT-OJT, there is an individual referral pro-
gram. Where institutional training is needed but there is insuffi-
cient demand to warrant the establishment of special classes at
an institution, individuals can be referred for training to existing
programs. MDT is expensive primarily because it involves living
stipends in addition to covering direct educational costs, but
such arrangements do assist those who could not afford addi-
tional training without such help.
2. Vocational Rehabilitation
An additional resource which is of some importance to
the manpower planner is the Vocational Rehabilitation Pro-
gram, not only in its preparation of people for employment but
also in the example of success it provides in human rehabilita-
tion. This program is an employment-oriented activity whose
goal is employability. Although it offers both skill development
and job creation, its special significance is the process by which
access to employability services and employment is achieved.
The vocational rehabilitation program each year places in
competitive employment a large number of disadvantaged
persons, making it one of a small number of effective programs.
The high success rate is built in because the process begins with
careful evaluation of the potential employability of the client.
When employability is determined, the Rehabilitation Services
Administration has, within a single program, the authority to
fund nearly any activity related to employment for any eligible
client. Essentially any service that contributes to achieving the
individual's employment objective is acceptable, including: (1)
comprehensive evaluation, both psychological and medical; (2)
medical, surgical, and hospital care and related therapy to
remove or reduce disabilities; (3) prosthetic devices; (4) counsel-
ing and guidance for vocation adjustment; (5) training; (6)
service in comprehensive or specialized rehabilitation facilities;
(7) maintenance and transportation; (8) tools, equipment, and
licenses needed for work or in establishing a small business; and
(9) placement and follow-up. Eligibility, too, is broad, having
expanded from the physically handicapped to the mentally
handicapped, and more recently to behavioral disorders
characterized by deviant social behavior or impaired ability to
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carry out normal relationships with family and community
which may result from vocational, educational, cultural, social,
environmental, or other factors.
The key element of the program is a personal relationship
between a client and a trained counselor, equipped, as it were,
with a blank check to purchase whatever medical, educational,
or other services are needed to successfully place the client in
satisfactory employment. After evaluation to ascertain potential
employabiiity and to determine handicaps and strengths, the
counselor and client jointly work out an employment plan
merging the client's interests and realistic possibilities for
employment. The program is usually locally administered by a
state social services department, education department, or as a
separate entity. A few states have created departments of
human resources which encompass the rehabilitation function.
It is of considerable importance for the manpower
planner to establish close ties with the Vocational Rehabili-
tation Agency.
3. Public Employment Programs
Long advocated by manpower experts, an important and
growing part of national manpower programming are programs
offering the unemployed and disadvantaged jobs with local and
state governments, either temporary or permanent, to be
financed by federal funds.
Public Service Careers (PSC) is aimed at opening entry-
level public jobs to the disadvantaged by revising the nature of
tasks performed to eliminate unnecessary barriers to employ-
ment. Additionally, efforts are made to eliminate arbitrary
merit or civil service system requirements which effectively bar
the disadvantaged from public service. Funds are provided for
training of program enrollees and some supportive services.
Stipends or subsidy to the employing unit are not included.
The Emergency Employment Act of 1971 (PEP) provides
a new and probably permanent addition to the arsenal of man-
power resources. Public service employment funds are allocated
to cities, counties, and states to pay up to 90 percent of the
wages and benefits for new public service jobs in areas of critical
public concern. Persons hired with these funds must be unem-
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ployed for at least 30 days (in the case of rehires) and seven
days (in the case of new hires). Special requirements exist for
underemployed persons. Special preference is given to un-
employed Viet Nam veterans, graduates of manpower programs,
and high-technology and professional manpower. Unfortu-
nately, minimal funds are provided for training purposes under
this Act. The program requires that individuals be moved
eventually to permanent-type jobs. Since pollution control is
one of the most critical public service needs, the PEP program,
by making federally financed public employment slots possible
in the area of environmental management (including water
quality), may have a major impact in adding to the flexibility of
environmental manpower planning. Such inclusion, however, is
not automatic but must be sought.
4. Other National Manpower Programs
There are a number of other categorical manpower pro-
grams which constitute less important resources to the environ-
mental manpower planner within the HRD system. Neverthe-
less, they should be understood. Those programs authorized
under the Economic Opportunity Act, such as Neighborhood
Youth Corps, Job Corps, Operation Mainstream, and Special
Impact, may be of some use to the manpower planner con-
cerned with environmental careers.
The Work Incentive Program authorized by 1968 amend-
ments to the Social Security Act, which is aimed at moving
welfare recipients into productive employment, may be difficult
to adapt to environmental careers under existing conditions;
however, the resourceful planner may find it of some value.
5. Need for Coordination in Manpower Programs
This seemingly endless expansion of manpower and man-
power-related programs produced considerable confusion and
conflict. A myriad of agencies and programs with varying re-
quirements and benefits were competing for the same clientele.
Local agencies were faced with an increasing variety of pro-
grams and funding sources. In the closing month of fiscal year
1966, the announcement of cooperative state manpower plan-
ning was made, the result of leadership by the Manpower
Administration of DOL but in cooperation with HEW. This
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planning effort was to become CAMPS which was described in
Chapter One.
E. Manpower Development and Training in the Water Pollution
Control Field
The education system usually provides the general educa-
tion required for persons entering the water pollution control
field at the lower level-entry positions. A number of post-high
school institutions might possibly provide the training in water
pollution control needed by the professional and technical
workers, either entry or upgrading, without any federal en-
couragement. However, in an industry as uncertain as water
pollution control, because of its dependence upon relatively
unpredictable legislative and executive decisions, training for
specific occupations in the industry would be highly speculative
and risky. It has therefore been necessary for an agency of
government to help assume the financial risks inherent in such
training programs. This function OWP has assumed, helping to
direct national resources into their areas through its training
programs, both in-house and out-of-house. The training activi-
ties of MDS fall into three basic categories: training grants,
direct training, and interagency training programs.
1, OWP Training Grants
It will be helpful to summarize the internal education and
training programs now being offered by OWP in order to indi-
cate the directions in which MDS is moving to support water
pollution control activities. This staff is developing a fully in-
tegrated training approach which incorporates remedial educa-
tion programs as well as beginning, intermediate, and advanced
programs in training water pollution control personnel. For
applications or information write to: Chief, Academic Training
Branch, Manpower Development Staff, Office of Water Pro-
grams, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington,
D.C. 20460.
a. Graduate programs. Within the general category of
training grants, there are several subprograms. The first is gradu-
ate training programs in water pollution control and water
quality management. These training activities, authorized by the
Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1956, as amended, pro-
vide that EPA/OWP will maintain a grant-in-aid program aimed
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at assisting public and private institutions in establishing, ex-
panding, or improving training opportunities for persons in-
terested in careers or research, teaching, administration, and
general service in water pollution control. Individual support is
provided through such training programs in the form of stipends
and allowances for individuals obtaining professional degrees
leading to careers in the field of water pollution control or the
management of water quality. The basic program requires the
possession of a bachelor's degree, normal eligibility for
admission to graduate school, and appointment on a full-time
basis.
The graduate training program is basically aimed at pro-
ducing professional personnel in four general careers in water
pollution control: (1} environmental engineers; (2) aquatic
biologists, water chemists, and chemical engineers; (3) admini-
strators and planners; and (4) economists and other social
scientists. In addition to stipend support of trainees, grants may
also be made to institutions which offer the training program
for the purpose of improving the staff and facilities. Under the
grant-in-aid program, a variety of special areas is covered, in-
cluding: sanitary or agricultural engineering, limnology,
aquatic-ecology, wildlife biology, zoology, and oceanography.
In addition to the full-time graduate training, short-term
programs are offered which provide upgrading and skill im-
provement capacity to working professionals. Furthermore,
attempts are being made to service those engineers from such
fields as aerospace and electronics who, for a variety of reasons,
have found difficulty obtaining employment in recent months
and hope to find employment in the water pollution control
field.
b. Research training fellowships. In addition to graduate
training programs, the FederaJ Water Pollution Control Act of
1956 provides that OWP may maintain a grant-in-aid program to
increase the number and competence of trained specialists
engaged in research and other activities related to the control of
water pollution and the maintenance of water quality. As a
result, OWP has made available a limited number of research
training fellowships for study in the fields of engineering, physi-
cal science, biological science, and some socioeconomic disci-
plines. The applicant must have a bachelor's degree, must have
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completed 30 hours of graduate study at a recognized institu-
tion of higher education, and be accepted for admission in an
appropriate institution. These fellowships are generally awarded
for a 12-month period, and the research fellow is expected to
pursue a program on a full-time basis. Support for longer
periods is available. Post-doctoral fellowships are also available
for those with doctoral degrees.
c. Undergraduate training grants. Enactment of the
Water Quality Improvement Act of 1970 specifically provided
for undergraduate training grants to institutions of higher edu-
cation which agreed to provide training to individuals planning
to enter an occupation which involves the design, operation, or
maintenance of wasterwater treatment works. Training grants
may be awarded to two-year, post-high school institutions for
demonstration programs in the operation, maintenance, and
management of treatment plants. Demonstration programs at
the baccalaureate level to train individuals in the design of treat-
ment works are also fundable. Individual scholarships for under-
graduate study are authorized under the law and will be pro-
vided by the granting institutions.
d. Operator/technician training grants. Improvement Sec-
tion 5(g)(1) of the Water Quality Act of 1970 makes possible
the support of:
(1) State training grants to upgrade plant personnel
(2) Advanced waste treatment training
(3) Instructor training
The basic objective of Section 5(g)(1) is to plan, devise,
implement, and fund training programs that will assure an
adequate supply of skilled subprofessional manpower to operate
and monitor wastewater treatment collection and distribution
systems. Specific programs that are included in this program
are:
(1) Coupled OJT training programs utilizing both class-
room instruction and on-the-job training
(2) Variations of classroom training with in-service,
hands-on training
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(3) Correspondence or extension courses followed by
"over-the-shoulder"-type instruction
(4) Highly specialized technical training for high levels
of plant personnel, such as phosphorous removal
techniques and instrumentation training
(5) Decision-maker seminars to acquaint civic officials
with training efforts
(6) Combinations of the above, including short-term
refresher courses
Pilot grants will be developed in approximately 30 states for
training 1,500 persons.
Additional funds will be allocated for programs that are
national in scope. These programs are initiated by members of
the state and local training branch headquarters staff to fill the
voids left in the overall training effort needed to attain MDS
requirements. These efforts are coordinated with the regions in
order to develop sites to carry on the training. Programs to be
researched and funded under this portion of the commitment
are:
(1) Advanced waste treatment programs for profes-
sional and other interested persons
(2) Training courses for instructors at all levels of our
training programs
(3) National decision-maker conference
(4) Field-study course to provide training for operators
unable to attend regular training sessions
(5} Training courses for operators employed by federal
agencies as a joint effort
(6) Extended aeration courses for operators of small
package plants throughout the country
e. Other technical training grants. MDS has also under-
taken a few innovative technical grants aimed at furthering the
capacity of the Division to perform its function. These activities
include the development of curriculum guides and teacher train-
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ing systems, the development of programmed instructional
materials, and the promotion of a correspondence course for
treatment plant operators developed by Sacramento State
College.
2. Direct Training
MDS conducts certain programs on a direct basis at
selected institutions in support of water pollution control at
five locations in Ohio, Oklahoma, Georgia, Oregon, and New
Jersey. Additional training courses can be held in other areas.
The objective of the direct training branch is to provide special-
ized training in specific causes, prevention, and control method-
ologies related to water pollution. Training offered under the
Direct Training Branch is usually not offered or readily available
elsewhere in these specialized subjects.
Specific training is provided in the planning, develop-
ment, and management of wastewater treatment facilities.
Training programs are aimed at improving the operation and
maintenance of wastewater treatment facilities and support and
supplementary state and local programs of operator training.
Direct training programs typically focus upon those individuals
in supervisory, managerial, or training levels who are in a posi-
tion to transmit their knowledge to others whom they supervise
or with whom they work.
It is expected that this training will lead to rapid applica-
tion of new research findings, increase skills of technical and
professional personnel, and train new employees recruited from
other professional or technical areas in the special skills required
in water pollution control. Scientists, engineers, and recognized
authorities from other EPA programs, other government
agencies, universities, and industry supplement the training staff
by serving as guest lecturers and special consultants.
Most training is conducted in the form of highly tech-
nical, short-term courses of one or two week's duration. The
scope and level of these courses is designed to meet specific
practical features of wastewater treatment plant design and
operation, water quality evaluation in field and laboratory, and
technical and administrative aspects of water quality manage-
ment and water pollution control.
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3. Training Programs under Interagency Agreements
MDS, through its state and local manpower development
branch, has undertaken a variety of initiatives aimed at meeting
the critical shortage of trained operators in wastewater treat-
ment plants at the state and local levels. It has participated
actively in the CAMPS program, developing four programs
funded cooperatively with DOL, HEW, and OEO.
a. Coupled classroom and on-the-job training programs.
MDS along with MDTA has developed a combination of class-
room and on-the-job training programs under subcontracts with
states, municipalities, councils of governments, colleges, univer-
sities, and special wastewater districts. This program currently
trains approximately 1,000 operators annually-70 percent of
whom are undergoing upgrading training while 30 percent are
new entries. These training programs vary from 22 to 44 weeks
in length, depending upon local assessment of conditions and
needs. All provide essentially the same basic instruction and
training in subjects such as mathematics, science, communica-
tions, plant operations, laboratory techniques, and maintenance
practices. Through cooperative arrangements between the train-
ing institutions and publicly owned local wastewater treatment
facilities, trainees receive part of their training at these latter
facilities. Certificates of proficiency are issued in the program,
and in most cases those operators who take upgrading training
have received salary increases. The program is administered on
the basis of subcontracts with states, major municipalities, or
councils of the government and with direct grants to universities
and special wastewater districts. Coupled classroom and on-the-
job programs are now being carried out in about half of the
states in the nation.
b. Regional institutional training programs. In addition
to the state and local levels' coupled programs, OWP has ini-
tiated a series of regional full-time training programs based at
community colleges or vocational schools in critically situated
areas of the country. Regional centers in New Jersey, Maryland,
Florida, Ohio, Colorado, Missouri, Iowa, and Louisiana offer
short-term courses approximately 22 weeks in duration. Enroll-
ment in the regional centers is generally limited to approxi-
mately 40 trainees per session. Each trainee receives approxi-
mately 440 hours of formal classroom instruction and 440
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hours of related hands-on training in a cooperating wastewater
treatment pfant. Subsistence allowances are paid to the trainees
by DOL through MDTA.
c. Transition training programs. An additional experi-
mental program has been developed which is aimed at ser-
vicemen returning to civilian life. This program, operated in
cooperation with the Department of Defense, has linked nine
regional military installations to nine local educational institu-
tions offering courses in wastewater treatment plant operation
in Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Hawaii, Washing-
ton, Ohio, and California. Two additional programs are being
developed overseas in Korea and Germany. Sewage plants
located near the training institutions and military bases are
utilized during the course. The course is open to servicemen
during their last six months of duty.
d. Public service careers programs. Using the Public Ser-
vice Careers Program in 1971-72, MDS has been engaged in the
training of approximately 400 new wastewater treatment plant
operators for existing job vacancies and upgrading the skills of
500 employed persons in Alaska, South Carolina, Texas,
Virginia, Wisconsin, and the Virgin Islands.
4. Related Environmental Training Programs
Related environmental training programs are offered by
the Environmental Control Administration, Radiological Health
Traininn Branch, Solid Wastes Management Office, Air Pol-
lution Control Office, and all of EPA. In addition, related pro-
grams are offered by the National Institute of Occupational
Safety and Health, the Food and Drug Administration, and the
Center for Disease Control of the Department of Health, Educa-
tion and Welfare.
5. Involvement with CAMPS
OWP, the first office within EPA to become involved in
the CAMPS planning, participated in the issuance of ICA No.
72-1; and EPA personnel, largely out of OWP, have been
appointed to serve with regional CAMPS committees.
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In its CAMPS planning document, OWP states that the
Manpower Development Staff program is:
(1) To encourage and assist agencies, institutions, and
individuals in conducting courses dealing with en-
vironmental pollution
(2) To increase the number and proficiency of persons
employed as treatment operators
(3) To schedule courses of EPA facilities for profes-
sionals and subprofessionals
(4) To provide grants to schools or individuals for sub-
professional training
To assure inclusion in CAMPS planning on the state level,
the state environmental authorities must seek representation on
the state CAMPS committee or manpower planning councils.
Because of the emphasis of MDTA and a member of other
manpower programs on serving the "disadvantaged," environ-
mental authorities should give serious consideration to develop-
ing recruitment and training plans, enabling people in this
category to become environmental control personnel. This may
require some restructuring of job content and added flexibility
in training programs.
F. A Mode/ for Cooperative Human Resource Development
Planning
An important function of the manpower planner is that
of providing a bridge between the area he represents and other
professional fields. When employed by a state agency or in a
particular industry, be it health care, transportation, or improv-
ing environment quality, the manpower planner has a dual
responsibility. On the one hand he must understand the tech-
nical operations and needs of his own industry in order to
adequately interpret his industry to other agencies and profes-
sions. He must also become familiar with the human resource
agencies his organization might use in meeting its manpower
requirements. The more expert the manpower planner can be in
assessing his industry's manpower needs, the greater will be the
opportunity for precision and confidence in his translation of
these needs into terms and concepts useful to educational
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administrators, curriculum developers, and training institutions.
As a bridge builder, the manpower planner can provide an
administrative paradigm for human resource development
through cooperative planning.
Cooperative planning has already begun in the water pol-
lution control field in both the national and the regional offices
of EPA. It is suggested that further cooperation between
regional manpower representatives, from the appropriate federal
agencies, be encouraged by fostering a "team approach" to
planning at the regional and state levels. The three federal
agencies most concerned with developing trained manpower for
water quality and environmental management include the Man-
power Administration officers in DOL, the USOE, and, of
course, the OWP.
This team approach can also be fostered by regional rep-
resentatives at the state and local levels by setting up situations
which bring appropriate state and local representatives together
to jointly plan development of the needed human resources.
The state agency representatives would include the state super-
visor for manpower programs in the state employment office,
the manpower specialist for vocational education in the state
office of education, and the state water pollution control
agency person most concerned with the proper staffing of
wastewater treatment facilities and similar areas of manpower
need. It will also be to the advantage of the water quality man-
power planner to be involved in the manpower planning and
coordinating activities of the state and area manpower planning
councils or CAMPS committees. The simple model illustrated in
Figure 3.1 shows the relationship of those agencies that should
be involved in manpower planning for the water pollution con-
trol field.
The chief advantage to be derived from this "team
approach" to planning can be seen in the potential for each
agency to profit from the experience and information pool of
the other two agencies. DOL and the state employment services
possess considerable expertise in measuring demand in the fabor
market and making job and salary evaluation, while the voca-
tional education staff is familiar with the resources and capa-
bility of regional, state, and local training institutions. The man-
power planner representing an environmental agency is in an
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ideal position to facilitate communication and program plan-
ning between his own agency and the two federal and state
units most concerned with employment and training, and the
manpower planning councils can help relate water quality man-
power planning to the overall manpower planning and activities
of the state and local areas.
Figure 3-1. A Model for Cooperative Human Resource Development Planning
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Becker, Gary. Human Capital. New York: National Bureau of
Economic Research, 1964.
Belitsky, A. Harvey. Private Vocational Schools and Their Stu-
dents. Cambridge: Schenkman, 1969.
Berg, Ivar. Education and Jobs: The Great Training Robbery.
New York: Praeger, 1970.
Blau, Peter M., and Dudley Duncan Otis. The American Occupa-
tional Structure. New York: John Wiley, 1967.
Cassell, Frank H. The Public Employment Service: Organization
in Change. Ann Arbor, Mich. : Academic Publications,
1968.
Evans, Rupert N. "School for Schoolings Sake," in The Transi-
tion from School to Work, a report based on the Prince-
ton Manpower Symposium, May 9-10, 1968. Princeton,
N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963.
Farber, David J. "Apprenticeship in the United States: Labor
Market Forces and Social PolicyJournal of Human Re-
sources, Winter 1967.
Folger, John, Helen Astin, and Alan Bayer. Human Resources
and Higher Education. New York: Russell Sage Founda-
tion, 1970.
Harbison, Frederick, and Charles A. Myers. Education, Man-
power, and Economic Growth. New York: McGraw-Hill,
1969.
Mangum, Garth L., ed. The Manpower Revolution. New York:
Doubleday, 1965.
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Myers, Charles A. The Role of the Private Sector in Manpower
Development. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins, 1971.
Patten, Thomas H. Manpower and the Development of Human
Resources. New York: John Wiley, 1971.
Report of the Panel of Consultants on Vocational Education,
Education for a Changing World of Work. Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963.
Rhine, Shirley H., and Daniet Creamer. The Technical Man-
power Shortage: How Acute? New York: National In-
dustrial Conference Board, 1969.
Somers, Gerald G., and J. Kenneth Little, eds. Vocational Edu-
cation: Today and Tommorrow. Madison, Wise.: Center
for Studies in Vocational and Technical Education, Uni-
versity of Wisconsin, 1971.
Thurow, Lester. Investment in Human Capital. Belmont, Calif.:
Wadsworth, 1970.
U.S. Department of Labor. Apprenticeship. (Booklet, no date),
24 pp.
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CHAPTER FOUR
MANPOWER PLANNING FOR MUNICIPAL
WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS
A. Introduction
B. Manpower Planning Process—An Overview
C. Seven Steps for Manpower Planning in Municipal Wastewater
Treatment Plants
1. Describe that segment of the water pollution control
field for which manpower training is being per-
formed.
2. Determine the relationship between the objectives of
the state water pollution control agency and the
objectives of manpower planning.
3. Determine selected characteristics of current and
expected employment.
4. Analyze manpower problems.
5. Develop training plans and action steps in response
to current and expected manpower training needs
and manpower problems.
6. Develop and maintain a data system.
7. Monitor and evaluate all of the manpower planning
process.
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CHAPTER FOUR
MANPOWER PLANNING FOR MUNICIPAL
WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS
A. introduction
In this chapter the focus is narrowed to manpower plan-
ning for a specific source of employment in water pollution
control. Because of the limited resources available to the man-
power planner in a state water pollution control agency and the
initiatory aspects of this planning effort, our approach will not
be as detailed as we might like. Furthermore, the development
of the manpower planning techniques will be made within the
institutional framework already established, or in the process of
being established, by OWP and the conceptual framework
implied by the methodology employed in the recent DOL/EPA
survey of employment in wastewater treatment plants.
Though the exposition in this chapter is primarily in
terms of a single occupation, that of wastewater treatment plant
operator, the analysis can be applied to most, if not all, occupa-
tions found in a wastewater treatment plant.
B. The Manpower Planning Process—An Overview
The objective of manpower planning for wastewater
treatment plants is to ensure that the right number and the right
kind of people are in the right place at the right time. The
primary function of the manpower planner is to develop man-
power information and training plans to ensure that this ob-
jective is continuously satisfied.
To assess whether the planning objective is being satisfied,
the planner must first define, or have defined for him, what the
"right number" and the "right kind" of people are. The defini-
tion of what constitutes the right number of people is related to
what has been called the level of "recommended employment,"
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while the definition of the right type of people is related to the
qualifications workers should have when occupying positions
within wastewater treatment plants. Determining the right place
and time for employment requires the optimal placement of
workers both spatially and temporally. This aspect of the man-
power objective recognizes that elements of change impinge
upon those processes that affect manpower conditions and
should be taken into account by the manpower planner.
The major aspects of change that affect manpower con-
ditions in wastewater treatment plants are the growth in the
number and size of the plants, the change in technology of
wastewater treatment, and the various elements of transforma-
tion that occur within a given level of employment. Over time
both the number and size of wastewater treatment plants have
increased. As such changes continue, they will generate an on-
going need for additional manpower. In addition to this source
of growth in the level of employment, more manpower will be
required to fill positions vacated by individuals who, for a
variety of reasons, terminate their employment. As changes in
the technology of wastewater treatment occur and as changes in
water quality standards call for more reliability in the perform-
ance of wastewater treatment plants, not only will additional
manpower be needed, but the qualifications of many of those
currently employed will have to be updated. All of these
changes will require imaginative additions to existing training
programs.
When the manpower planner has assured himself that he
is familiar with the definitional and descriptive aspects of
employment in wastewater treatment plants, he must then
determine in a quantitative sense whether the objective is cur-
rently being achieved and whether or not it will be achieved in
the future. This will require that the manpower planner not
only measure and assess characteristics of current employment,
but also project future employment characteristics.
If the manpower objective is currently being satisfied, the
planner must determine whether existing and expected future
manpower programs, as tempered by his expectations of future
manpower conditions, are sufficient to guarantee that the ob-
jective will be continuously satisfied. If the objective is not
being satisfied, or if existing programs are judged inadequate to
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ameliorate projected future problems, the manpower planner
must determine the nature and possible cause for such failure.
Having made such a determination, he must develop, or assist in
the development of, those programs that will eliminate, or at
least reduce, current and anticipated future manpower
problems.
To measure and project selected characteristics of em-
ployment in wastewater treatment plants, the manpower plan-
ner must collect and draw conclusions from certain data. These
tasks require that the planner establish a system for collecting,
storing, retrieving, and analyzing data. The collection of data
for inclusion in such a data system implies that there is a body
of data deemed important to collect and that an analytical
framework exists, whether stated explicitly or residing im-
plicitly in the actions of the planner, that serves as a guide in
determining which data are relevant.
The analytical framework used in this manual is dual but
interrelated. We are concerned with recommended employment
while also being concerned with budgeted and actual employ-
ment. In the DOL/EPA survey of employment in wastewater
treatment plants, the three types of employment are identified
and measured. Recommended employment is that which, if cur-
rently used, would maximize the establishment's efficient
operation. Budgeted employment is that level budgeted by the
government, a unit responsible for the operation of the waste-
water facility. Actual employment is simply the number of in-
dividuals employed by the facility at the time the survey
questionnaire was completed.
Historically there have been differences in the numbers
associated with these alternative measures of employment.
Recommended employment is based upon engineering and
other technological considerations, while budgeted and actual
employment is determined by the various economic forces
that impinge upon the demand and supply for positions in
wastewater treatment plants. The number of people actually
employed in a given occupation will be determined by the jux-
taposition of demand and supply forces, where those various
forces subserve under the demand for workers are affected, in
varying degrees, by the technological considerations that deter-
mine the level of recommended employment. The level of
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actual employment for a given occupation within wastewater
treatment plants will be related to such variables as: (1) the
budget for the plants, (2) wages paid within the occupation, (3)
wages paid in occupations requiring similar skills and education,
(4) the effluent {in mgds) of the plant, (5) water quality stand-
ards, (6) certification requirements for operators, (7) nature of
labor market for that area in which the plant is located and
from which it is expected to draw its labor supply, and (8)
general nature of working conditions.
Wastewater treatment plants are operated by personnel
employed by local municipalities, the officials of which also
determine the operating budget for the facility. It is from this
budget that money is made available to employ individuals to
operate the plant. For given values of other variables that affect
the employment of a particular type of labor, it is reasonable to
expect that the larger the budget allocated to the plant, the
more employment there will be. Because of this, the size of the
budget is among the more significant variables that determine
the amount of employment within a plant. It is, for example,
one of the important variables which determine how close
actual employment is to recommended employment. Within a
given budget, however, other variables will have an important
effect on the level of actual employment.
Wages paid to operators, especially in relation to wages
paid to individuals of similar skill and educational attainment
working in other occupations, will be a significant determining
factor in both the number of people who are sought by the
managers of the wastewater facility and the number of people
wishing to work there. Working conditions, which contain a
variety of possible configurations, will be an important factor
in determining the desirability of work within a wastewater
treatment plant and will, therefore, affect the level of employ-
ment that can be achieved with a given wage rate.
The effluent of a wastewater treatment plant, both in its
quantity and quality, is an index of the number of gallons of
water treated and the type of treatment used. In Chapter Two,
we documented the growth in the quantity of pollutants being
produced and the growth of the wastewater treatment plants to
treat these pollutants. Each of these factors implies that the
number of gallons treated will increase over time. Furthermore,
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the type of treatment has changed over time; one of the most
recent examples of which are new methods for phosphorus re-
moval. It is reasonable to assume a positive relationship between
the amount of water treated in both of its dimensions and the
quantity of operators demanded; thus as treatment increases,
and no changes in technology occur, we should expect an
increase in the level of recommended employment.
Enforcing certain laws and regulations to increase water
quality will have two separate effects upon employment. As
water quality standards are enforced, the amount of water
treated and the degree of treatment will increase with the result-
ing increase in actual employment. In addition, there are exist-
ing regulations which when enforced, give many states the
power to require that budgeted employment be equal to recom-
mended employment. When such laws are enforced and there
occurs an increase in budgeted employment, actual employment
may also increase.
The quantity of labor available for employment within a
wastewater treatment plant will, in the aggregate, be determined
by the number of people between certain ages since only such
people are considered to be potential members of the labor
force. The specific educational and skill requirements for cer-
tain jobs delimit the available number for such jobs as does the
spatial distribution of places of residence and places of work.
There are limitations upon how far people can and will travel to
and from work; thus the labor market for a particular plant will
have a spatial limitation. In time, however, all of these con-
straints might be relaxed as individuals respond to certain
stimuli. Thus the size of the available labor force might increase
as people migrate into a given area or as transportation facilities
improve, or the number of people having a given educational
background might increase as the size and number of various
training programs are increased.
Within the general type of restriction just outlined, the
quantity of labor available to a wastewater treatment plant will
also be a function of the wages paid. In general, the higher the
wage in one occupation (relative to another requiring similar
skills and education and having similar working conditions), the
greater will be the quantity of labor made available for employ-
ment. This increase in the quantity may come about because of
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the added inducement for certain people to travel farther to and
from work or even to change their places of residence to be
closer to the source of higher wages. Higher wages may induce
people to obtain the requisite training for a particular job,
though this will not affect the available quantity immediately
because of the necessary time lags in completing the training.
Higher wages may also affect the size of the labor force by
inducing students to leave school earlier than normal and induc-
ing those not in the labor force, such as housewives and dis-
couraged workers, to enter it either on a full- or part-time basis.
Within the preceding analytical framework, the man-
power planner must determine the number of additional
workers who must be recruited to a particular occupation and
the type of training they should be given. He should also deter-
mine what additional training might be provided for current and
future employees. Training, whether for new or existing em-
ployees, may be of short or long duration and may be for the
purpose of skill improvement or for entry-level jobs. Upon ob-
taining estimates of the number of people receiving the various
types of training, the manpower planner should work in cooper-
ation with training specialists in devising an efficient program
for meeting training needs.
C. Seven Steps for Manpower Planning in Municipal Wastewater
Treatment Plants
To accomplish the basic objectives of manpower planning
requires that certain activities be performed. The performance
of these activities may be viewed as occurring in a sequential
fashion, the order of which, though differing in minor ways
among different planners, would be dictated by a logic shared
by many individuals engaged in manpower planning. Though
the sequence may be divided into few or many steps, we have
chosen to delineate the following seven discrete steps as descrip-
tive of the planning process:
(1) Describe that segment of the water pollution con-
trol field for which manpower planning is being
performed.
(2) Determine the relationship between the objectives
of the state water pollution control agency and the
objectives of manpower planning.
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101
(3) Determine selected characteristics of current and
expected employment.
(4) Analyze manpower problems.
(5) Develop training plans and action steps in response
to current and expected manpower training needs
and problems.
(6) Develop and maintain a data system.
(7) Monitor and evaluate all of the manpower planning
process.
The details of how one applies each step may differ
slightly among the various types of manpower, and some plan-
ners may prefer to increase or decrease this number of steps to
allow for more or less detail. Nevertheless, the seven steps pro-
vide a useful framework for initiating a manpower planning
process in the water pollution control field.
1. First Step: Describe that segment of the water pollu-
tion control field for which manpower planning is
being performed.
The purpose of executing this step is to have the man-
power planner become familiar with that segment of the water
pollution control field for which he is conducting manpower
planning. The technological aspects of wastewater treatment
will have important effects upon manpower issues. The man-
power planner must, consequently, become familiar with some
of the general technological aspects of water pollution control.
He should also become familiar with existing job classifications
and requirements.
One of the first things that the manpower planner should
note is that wastewater treatment plants differ by the type of
treatment they perform and the amount of waste water they
treat per day. We shall refer to these two characteristics as the
"type and size" of the wastewater treatment plant. The type of
treatment may be identified by its code number obtained from
a coding system used, but now in the process of being re-
developed, by OWP. A list of the codes in recent use follows.
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102
Code
Name
20
21
22
23
24
29
30
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
Primary—settling tanks with no detail
septic tanks
Imhoff tanks
mechanically cleaned tanks
plain, hopper bottom tanks
Primary—others and unknown
Chemical
Secondary—activated sludge
extended aeration
biological filters, fixed nozzle
biological filters, rotary
intermittent sand filter
land disposal
lagoons
biological
Secondary—others and unknown
The size of a wastewater treatment plant is usually identified
on the basis of the plant's "average day capacity," measured
in mgds. In the DOL/EPA survey, six classifications of size
were recognized: unknown, 0.001—0.999, 1.000—4.999, 5.000
-24.999, 25.000-99.999, and 100.000 plus.
Within a wastewater treatment plant several occupations
are found. In the DOL/EPA survey 21 specific occupational
categories were identified and a summary of the job descrip-
tions provided. (In Appendix II, we provide a list and summary
job description of these 21 occupations.) In many states the
number of occupations found within a typical wastewater treat-
ment plant, and the relevant job description, will differ from
those used in the DOL/EPA survey. For example, the DOL/EPA
survey listed two classifications of operators—Operator I and
Operator II—while in some states four or five grades or classifi-
cations of operators exis^. all with differing job descriptions.
That such differences exist is not surprising, given the local
autonomy that has existed and still exists in the operation of
wastewater treatment facilities.
OWP is aware of the diversity in both the number and
description of occupations and is now supporting research
aimed at improving our understanding concerning the appro-
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103
priate number of occupations to designate for wastewater treat-
ment plants, the number of workers that should be assigned to
each occupation, the appropriate job descriptions for each
occupation, and the general education and skill requirements
for each occupation. Such research is not being undertaken
merely to try to standardize job numbers and descriptions, but
rather to provide assistance to local communities in the efficient
staffing of their wastewater treatment facilities. One of the first
results of this research are the "staffing guides" that now exist
in preliminary form.
The engineer who designs a wastewater treatment plant
provides a schedule detailing the number and type of workers to
be employed in each job classification within the plant, if the
plant is to be operated at its design efficiency. (The level of
employment that would occur if these recommendations were
followed is the recommended employment mentioned pre-
viously.) The engineer will have at his disposal the staffing
guides which OWP will shortly make available throughout the
nation. These staffing guides are not intended to represent static
organizational tables, but rather are intended to be flexible
guidelines for staffing complements to be adapted to specific
local situations. These guides also contain an occupational list
for wastewater treatment plants along with a description of the
type of work performed and the skills required to perform such
work for each occupation. The occupational descriptions should
also be considered flexible guidelines to be adjusted according
to what local conditions dictate. A preliminary sample of a
staffing guide appears as Table 5-1 :D in Chapter Five.
Knowing that wastewater treatment plants differ by type
and size, that there has been some attempt to standardize the
job descriptions and occupational structure in such plants, and
that the staffing complement varies according to plant type and
size, the manpower planner should inventory his own state with
respect to the type of facilities currently in operation and deter-
mine whether the occupational titles and descriptions displayed
in Appendix II compare with those currently in use within his
state.
Not only should the manpower planner become familiar
with the different employment requirements and the suggested
qualifications of the various personnel within a wastewater
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104
treatment plant, he should also determine what training pro-
grams are currently available and what additional training pro-
grams it would be desirable to institute. Aside from the "quali-
tative" aspect of training, the manpower planner should also
determine some of the "quantitative" aspects of training pro-
grams. He should obtain knowledge about the financial re-
sources available for training programs, the capability of exist-
ing training institutions to increase their training loads, the
availability of additional or alternative institutions to conduct
training, and the methods by which recruits for the various
training programs are obtained.
Some of the specific problems a manpower planner may
identify in recruiting candidates for a training program may
actually have their roots within the occupation, or in the inter-
related network of various occupations for which the training is
being offered. For example, if the occupation is one lacking in
opportunity for personal advancement, it will be exceedingly
difficult to recruit and retain employees. If, however, the
occupation or series of occupations can be structured to pro-
vide a "career ladder," then the recruiting, training, and job
stability may be greatly enhanced.
2. Second Step: Determine the relationship between the
objectives of the state water pollution control agency
and the objectives of manpower planning.
The purpose in executing this step is to have the man-
power planner become familiar with the specific objectives of
the state water pollution control agency that might affect the
fulfillment of the manpower planning objective. The presence
of this step acknowledges that the manpower planner must view
himself as an important member of the state water pollution
control team. Certain policies and priorities established by the
state agency affect the specific direction that manpower plan-
ning will take, as may the limitations of those individuals or
agencies that support the manpower planner in the performance
of his duties.
The objectives and goals of manpower planning should be
understood within the broader objectives and goals of a state's
water pollution control program. As discussed in Chapter Three
the federal water pollution control program identifies the state
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water pollution control agencies as playing a central role in
improving water quality. Because of the central role of the state
agency and the effort of the federal and state agencies to work
together, it will often be the case, aside from minor differences
in emphasis, that the objectives of the state program will,
wherever applicable, be the same as those of the federal pro-
gram. The manpower planner should become familiar with his
state's programs, particularly as they apply to the improvement,
expansion, and operation of existing wastewater treatment
plants and the construction of new plants.
The manpower planner may wish to begin this aspect of
the planning process by collecting and becoming familiar with
the contents of such items as the state's various water pollution
control planning documents, the water quality standards imple-
mentation plans, the legislation authorizing the construction of
wastewater treatment plants in the state, the policy statements
and directives being issued on the state's water pollution by the
state agency, and whatever information is available concerning
past and projected future values of the financial support for
water pollution control programs. This information will provide
the manpower planner with a broad outline of the state's water
pollution control objectives.
In addition to this kind of information, it will also be
useful for the manpower planner to obtain copies of what are
referred to in many states as the "one-year" and "five-year
needs." These documents list a state water pollution control
agency's priorities for building new wastewater treatment plants
throughout the state. Such information is based upon the priori-
ties established by the various basin plans that may exist within
the state and the water quality standards implementation plans.
One further piece of information that the manpower
planner should obtain relates to the water pollution control
agency's position regarding the staffing of wastewater treatment
plants. Since the number of people to be recruited and trained
should be based upon actual employment rather than recom-
mended employment, it will be necessary for the planner to
determine whether, in his state, an attempt will be made to
induce the municipalities that budget for wastewater treatment
plants to bring employment, or at least the number of budgeted
positions, in line with the level of recommended employment.
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He should also be familiar with his state's program for the certi-
fication of operators. He should determine the current effects
such a program has upon desirable training programs and the
possible future effects that changes in the program might have.
3. Third Step: Determine selected characteristics of cur-
rent and expected employment.
The purpose of completing this step is for the manpower
planner to gain knowledge of the various dimensions of current
and expected future employment within wastewater treatment
plants. This knowledge is needed to determine current and
expected future manpower and training needs. An important
aspect of this step is the development and use of an instrument
to collect the data by which to measure the various dimensions
of current and expected future employment. The DOL/EPA
survey is an example of such an instrument and represents the
initial attempt to collect manpower data for wastewater treat-
ment plants.
We shall divide this step into three subsections. In the
first we shall deal primarily with current employment character-
istics, in the second with projecting future employment charac-
teristics, and in the third with calculating additional manpower
requirements.
a. Current employment characteristics. When the survey
instrument is completed, the first task is to determine the value
of the three alternative measures of employment—recom-
mended, budgeted, and actual. Since both full- and part-time
work exists as a part of actual employment and may exist as a
part of recommended employment, an attempt should be made
to distinguish between total employment (whether it be recom-
mended, budgeted, or actual) and total full-time employment.
If resources permit, data should also be obtained on "full-time
equivalent" employment. For example, if the total number of
workers is 120 and the total full-time workers is 100 with the
20 people working half-time, then there would be 110 full-time
equivalent workers.
The differences among the three alternative measures of
employment should be computed. The difference between
recommended and budgeted employment will be referred to as
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the "budget shortfall," the difference between budgeted em-
ployment and actual employment as "vacancies," and the total
of these two, or what is the difference between recommended
and actual employment, as the "employment shortfall." These
shortfalls and vacancies should also be expressed in ratio form,
with actual employment being the denominator, in order to
eliminate scale effects and to facilitate certain types of pro-
jections to be discussed below.
In addition to measuring employment totals, the man-
power planner should obtain other characteristics of employ-
ment. In particular, "terminations" and "accessions" should be
measured. Terminations are the number of employees that leave
a particular occupation within the year, while accessions are the
number of people that enter a particular occupation within the
year. (On some occasions such changes are referred to as "turn-
overs.") Terminations determine the number of workers that
have to be attracted to the occupation if employment is to
remain unchanged within the relevant time period, while acces-
sions measure the number of workers attracted to the position.
Terminations consist of several components. Individuals
leave a particular occupation for several reasons—they die,
retire, quit, are discharged, are promoted within the plant or to
some other plant, or are transferred or request a transfer to
some other plant. Accession, which measures the sources from
which new employees were recruited, also has several com-
ponents. An individual may come to a particular job from what
we shall refer to as "external labor sources." Workers coming
from this source will usually have no direct experience in waste-
water treatment plants and may exhibit considerable variance in
their education and skills. Another component of accession is
that related to those workers who are already employed in a
wastewater treatment plant but who transfer into the occupa-
tion in question. Such transfers may be in the form of a promo-
tion, or an upgrade, insofar as the transfer is to an occupation
requiring greater expertise than the position vacated. Such
transfers may occur from within the same plant or from some
other plant within the state. Transfers may also be "horizontal
transfers," those individuals who transferred from one waste-
water treatment plant to another while keeping the same
occupational title. Although the same occupational title is used,
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108
different skills may be required. The determining factor in this
matter would seem to be the difference in the type and size of
plant between which the employee transferred.
In Figure 4.1, we illustrate schematically the preceding
process. We also introduce in this diagram some alternative
nomenclature. We shall divide terminations into two major com-
ponents—separations and transfers out—where "separations" in-
clude such items as "quits" and "discharges" while "transfers
out" refers to those workers that left their employment in the
occupation in question but did not leave the state's wastewater
treatment system. We shall also divide accessions into two major
components—new hires and transfers into—where "new hires"
are those workers that come from external labor supply sources
and "transfers into" includes accessions due to upgrade within
or between plants and horizontal transfers between plants. We
also illustrate in Figure 4.1 the fact that workers may enter a
particular occupation with or without training though, of
course, the former is to be preferred.
One additional piece of information that should be
obtained when this step is executed is a detailed education and
work profile of each employee in the wastewater treatment
plants. This information may be difficult for many manpower
planners to obtain because of budgetary restrictions, and less
ambitious undertakings should be followed. At a minimum, in-
formation should be collected that attempts to assure whether
current employees are qualified for their positions. If certifica-
tion requirements exist, such information will be important not
only for determining the number of current employees that
should have some type of training but also the needed capacity
of any program designed to bring all those employees so re-
quired into certification.
b. Future employment characteristics. The manpower
planner should project the value of all the employment charac-
teristics measured in the preceding substep. A reasonable period
of time over which to make projections of future employment
characteristics is five years because other segments of the water
pollution control field engage in five-year projections. Because
of the time necessary to project the value of future employment
and the lead time necessary to respond to whatever problems
may exist, a period of one or two years is too short a time. This
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Figure 4.1. Termination and Accession Processes
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110
is especially true when it is recognized that most of the available
data are annual. Furthermore, the tradition of post-secondary
school programs and the postponement of career choice until
early adulthood appear to dictate a planning horizon of from
three to five years.
The projection of future manpower requirements and
employment can be accomplished by relying upon data ob-
tained from the survey instrument used to measure current em-
ployment and from certain documents that are related to what
we have referred to in Chapter Two as the construction grants
process.
From among the many activities that occur in the con-
struction grants process, five can be singled out as having partic-
ular significance to the manpower planner. They are significant
either because certain important information is available at that
time or because it would be desirable to have certain informa-
tion at that time. These five activity points are: the basin plan,
the construction grant application, the approval of plans and
specifications, the final inspection, and the operation and main-
tenance annual inspection. Though certain manpower informa-
tion is already available from existing forms, it is the intent of
EPA/OWP to expand the available data base by adding to these
forms questions that are designed to obtain additional man-
power information.
To illustrate the type of information that is normally
available at these five data points, we shall trace the process by
which a typical wastewater treatment plant comes into exist-
ence. Initially the need for a wastewater treatment plant, either
a new one or an expansion of an old one, is identified in the
basin plan—the first data point. The plant is often identified by
the type and size needed and, as such, will appear on the state's
list of priorities where a date is sometimes given for completion
of such a facility. The use of this information, and the informa-
tion contained in the staffing guides, will enable the manpower
planner to make some preliminary projections for the additional
manpower that will be required to operate this plant. Such a
projection would be of recommended employment.
The second source of information is the engineering
report accompanying the construction grants application form.
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New federal guidelines require that manpower data be made
available in the engineering report. Such information, when
available, can be obtained from those offices in the state dealing
either with operations and maintenance or construction grants.
Should such manpower data not be made available, the man-
power planner can once again use the available information on
the type and size, the staffing guide, and the estimated date of
completion to make preliminary projections of recommended
employment.
The third data point in the construction grants process is
when the plans for the construction of the wastewater treat-
ment plant and the specifications of the plant are approved. At
this point an operations and maintenance manual is usually
available, as is a detailed staffing plan. Upon completion of the
plant, a final inspection is conducted at which time we have the
occurrence of the fourth data point. Up to this point in the
process, only the level of recommended employment has been
available because actual budgetary data have not been available,
and there has been an absence of an employment history from
which to obtain data such as terminations and accessions. When
the final inspection occurs, however, data on budgeted employ-
ment will be available since by the time this inspection is held,
the plant is complete and ready for operation.
After the final inspection, another inspection is per-
formed approximately one year after the plant has been in oper-
ation and represents the fifth data point. This inspection is
normally executed jointly by federal and state personnel from
the operations and maintenance division. It is the intention of
OWP to establish at least an annual inspection of wastewater
treatment plants by state personnel from operations and main-
tenance. Though this inspection was originally designed and
planned on the basis of gathering data on the technological
aspects of the plant's operation, it is the intent of both the
federal operations and maintenance and the manpower develop-
ment staff in OWP to expand this annual inspection form to
collect the data which are pertinent to manpower planning.
Because the new federal guidelines pertaining to the
operation and maintenance of wastewater treatment plants re-
quire that manpower data be made available at the data points
listed above, the manpower planner's task of obtaining data of
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projected increases in recommended employment resulting from
new and expanded plants is made more simple. In principle, he
should be able to visit those people in his state agency con-
cerned with construction grants, as well as operations and main-
tenance, to obtain data on recommended employment for each
year for approximately the next five years. Because of these
new guidelines, the manpower planner should therefore make
every effort to become acquainted with those individuals
working in the offices responsible for collecting these data, and
should continuously urge them to supply him with, and
possibly cooperate in the format for displaying such data.
We illustrate in Figure 4.2 the time phasing of the man-
power data collection system. The amount of information on
manpower aspects of wastewater treatment plants increases as
the plant draws closer to completion, as does the certainty
attached to the data.
Much of the projected employment data obtained from
the construction grants process will be for recommended em-
ployment. One of the tasks that the manpower planner must
do, which we shall discuss shortly, is to determine additional
manpower and training needs. But such determinations should
be based upon actual rather than recommended employment.
Insofar as actual employment is expected to differ from recom-
mended employment, the manpower planner must make
separate estimates of the future values of actual employment.
Given the limited resources available to most manpower
planners, detailed projections will not be feasible and, given the
probable magnitude of the manpower problems of the state,
unnecessary. Until additional resources are made available or
experience suggests that more complex methods are required,
the manpower planner should make his projections of future
actual employment in the following manner: from the annual
survey of wastewater treatment plants, the manpower planner
can calculate the factor proportionality between recommended
and actual employment which we shall note as "P." Actually,
several Ps might be estimated, not only for different occupa-
tions but also for different types and sizes of plants so that, in
principle, a matrix of Ps would be computed.
When future actual employment is projected, these Ps
may be used by simply multiplying the projected recommended
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DETAIL AND
CERTAINTY OF
MANPOWER DATA
OPERATIONS AND
MAINTENANCE
ANNUAL INSPECTION
FINAL
INSPECTION
APPROVAL OF
CONSTRUCTION
PLANT
SPECIFICATIONS
APPLICATION FOR
CONSTRUCTION GRANT
AND FILING OF
ENGINEER'S REPORT
BASIN PLAN
TIME
Figure 4.2. The Time Phasing of Manpower Data
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114
employment by them. This would imply that the ratio of actual
to recommended employment which exists today is assumed to
exist each year in the future. Should there be reason to believe
that future conditions will change so as to affect the size of P,
then the value of P used in this process should be adjusted
accordingly. For example, if the relevant P for a given pro-
jection has been estimated to be 0.80 in the current period, but
it is expected that in the near future actual employment will be
closer to recommended employment, because of a concerted
effort to enforce existing regulations, then over the next five
years the value of P used might increase as in the following
sequence 0.82, 0.84, 0.86, 0.88, and 0.90. This would imply
that over the length of the five-year planning horizon, it is being
assumed that actual employment in wastewater treatment
plants will increase from 80 to 90 percent of recommended
employment.
c. Additional manpower requirements. A further task in
this step, which applies to both current and future time periods,
is the determination of additional manpower requirements.
Such a determination has both a quantitative and qualitative
aspect. It will require that the manpower planner calculate the
number of additional workers that will be required in each
occupation for each year in the planning horizon, the type of
training they may require, and the type of training that may
be required of current employees.
To determine the number of additional workers that will
be needed, the manpower planner must determine what growth
in actual employment will occur within the year and how many
workers will terminate employment within the year. There are
several aspects to consider under the rubric of growth, all of
which, however, will be captured in the value assigned to P, the
factor of proportionality between actual and recommended
employment. Growth in actual employment may occur because
of the addition of new or the expansion of existing plants, or
because of a decrease in the employment shortfall in new and
existing plants.
By examining the accession rate and its various com-
ponents, the manpower planner will be able to obtain estimates
of the most likely sources for the additional manpower. On the
basis of the various accession rates, the manpower planner may
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115
then provide estimates to those individuals working in the train-
ing division of labor supply when they, in consultation with the
manpower planner, may devise the appropriate training pro-
grams.
The final task in the execution of this step is the revision
of various aspects of the estimating procedure. Over time,
changes in termination and accession rates may occur and
should be used in the projection process. Adjustments over time
may also be required in the value assigned to P. If, for example,
current federal guidelines are followed, the value of P will very
shortly be equal to unity, indicating an equivalence between
actual and recommended employment.
4. Fourth Step: Analyze Manpower Problems.
The purpose of analyzing manpower problems is to have
the manpower planner become familiar with a variety of possi-
ble manpower issues—their causes and possible solutions.
Although there are many problems with which a manpower
planner may be confronted in successfully fulfilling his ob-
jectives, we shall consider only a portion of them and shall
consider only those that relate directly to the recruitment, re-
tention, and utilization of the wastewater treatment plant
personnel.
There can, quite legitimately, be some disagreement
about what constitutes a manpower problem, the evidence that
a given problem exists, and the cause of that problem. This
occurs, in part, because of the infinite regress which may occur
in determining the "basic" cause of a problem. Hence, differ-
ences among individuals concerning differences between cause
and effect relationships will, to some extent, depend upon how
far in the infinite regress pattern a particular problem is traced.
One possible way of viewing a sequence of manpower problems
is illustrated in Figure 4.3. The sequence has been extended to
just beyond that point where it seems reasonable to expect the
actions of the manpower planner to have some noticeable
effect. In the first block, the specific problem confronting the
water quality industry with which manpower will be intimately
related is the improper operation and maintenance of a waste-
water treatment plant. The "cause" of this problem, to some,
might be identified as "inadequate staffing," in both its quanti-
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©
©
©
©
IMPROPER
PLANT
OPERATION
AND
MAINTENANCE
INADEQUATE
STAFFING
1. RECRUITMENT
2. RETENTION
3. UTILIZATION
1. LOW WAGES
2. POOR WORKING
CONDITIONS
3. TRADE UNION
REQUIREMENTS,
E.G., INTERNAL
LABOR MARKET
4. CIVIL SERVICE
REGULATIONS
6. PLANT LOCATION NOT
AVAILABLE TO PUBLIC
TRANSPORTATION
6. CERTIFICATION
REQUIREMENTS
7. LACK OF A CAREER
PROGRAM
1. INADEQUATE
PUBLIC
BUDGETS
ATTITUDES
2. LACK OF
MODERN
MANAGE
MENT OR
ADMINIS-
TRATION
©
HIGH TERMINATION RATE
2. LONG-TERM JOB VACANCIES
3. EXCESSIVE USE OF PART-TIME STAFF
4. POOR QUALITY RECRUITS
Figure 4.3. The Sequence of Manpower Problems
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117
tative and qualitative aspects, while to others inadequate
staffing will simply be identified as another problem. The
"cause" of inadequate staffing may be identified as being re-
lated to recruitment, retention, and use of manpower, which
may be caused by low wages or poor working conditions, which
in turn are identified by others to be "problems." Two other
steps illustrating the problem of inadequate budgeting, poor
plant management, and public attitudes are included in the
figure. Block G, which is not in the chain of possible problems
but is connected to blocks C and D, may be taken as factors
which may be problems in themselves but also evidence of other
problems. Thus the existence of a high termination rate is in-
dicative of a problem in manpower retention or evidence of
poor working conditions, etc.
A question the manpower planner must answer is, "At
which level should I attempt to enter the chain of problems
depicted in the preceding figure?" The principle of division of
labor would seem to suggest that those individuals working in
operations and maintenance be concerned with blocks A and B,
while the manpower planner would direct most of his energies
to solving those problems listed in blocks C and D.
The inability to recruit new and retain current employees
may be related to similar variables. Difficulties in recruiting new
individuals into a particular occupation may be related to the
existence of physically poor working conditions, lack of
assumed prestige in the occupation, or low wages. The presence
of any one of these variables, with the absence of compensating
offsets in other variables, would be sufficient to cause recruit-
ment and retention problems. Alternatively, however, the
presence of one or two of these variables may be completely
offset by significantly high values for the remaining values. For
example, high wages may offset the effects of poor working
conditions and occupational prestige.
To determine whether recruitment and retention are
existing problems within wastewater treatment plants, we find
that some of the variables already computed may be of assis-
tance. If retention is a problem, for example, it would be ex-
pected that separation rates, particularly quit rates, would be
higher than for other occupations within the state that require
similar skills and education. If recruitment is a problem, it
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would be expected that the vacancy rate would be higher than
the state average for similar occupations. Problems of recruit-
ment and retention may also be reflected in more qualitative as
compared to quantitative aspects of employment. The presence
of workers with qualifications less than those that are reason-
ably desirable would be evidence of recruitment and retention
problems. The willingness of those supervising the operation of
wastewater treatment plants to accept poor work habits would
also be evidence of recruitment and retention problems.
The appropriate use of workers, though most appropri-
ately related to the technological operations of the plant, may
result in certain types of problems with which the manpower
planner must concern himself. Hiring or promoting workers to
positions for which they are not qualified would be one form of
poor utilization that might place undue pressures upon some
workers, thus causing them to quit and thereby contributing to
manpower problems. Considerable disparity between recom-
mended and actual employment might be taken as prima facie
evidence of poor worker utilization. Such conditions may result
in increased work loads on existing workers and thereby eventu-
ally lead to the other problems of recruitment and retention.
Determining whether recruitment and retention of
workers are indeed a problem for a state's wastewater treatment
plants would require that quit and vacancy rates be compared
with such rates for other occupations. Comparisons among
occupations within wastewater treatment plants should also be
made to determine whether internal differences exist. To deter-
mine which of several possible factors are contributing to the
existence of any manpower problem will be a difficult task,
given the resources available to most state manpower planners;
nevertheless, some attempt should be made to determine the
cause of specific problems.
5. Fifth Step: Develop training plans and action steps in
response to current and expected manpower training
needs and manpower problems.
The purpose of executing this step is to have the man-
power planner develop plans for recruiting, to a particular
occupation, that number of workers his calculations imply will
be needed, to ensure that such recruits receive the training
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119
necessary to properly qualify for the occupation, and to take
certain steps designed to eliminate those manpower problems
already identified. Much of the program development and
activities called for in executing this step will require that the
manpower planner develop a close working relationship with
individuals in a variety of departments both within and outside
the state water pollution control agency. Furthermore, the man-
power planner must develop a sense of priorities in his work of
implementing certain programs. Problems that affect the
present operation and maintenance of wastewater treatment
plants will require an immediate response, even though initially
pretested solutions are not available, while the planning for and
implementation of programs that have bearing more upon the
solution to future problems should be afforded somewhat lower
priority. This is not to imply that the planning and development
of manpower programs to solve expected future problems
should not be initiated in the current period, but only that their
urgency should be recognized as being less than the solution to
current problems.
The development of additional training programs will re-
quire time not only to develop the content of the programs but
also to recruit students, organize and offer the planned training,
and evaluate the results. In setting up training programs, the
planner should ask and have answered the following kinds of
questions:
(1) Who will be trained? What is their level of educa-
tion? Their age? Are they inside or outside the
industry?
(2) Are they being trained for entry-level positions with
career opportunities and mobility, or for positions
that offer little opportunity for advancement?
(3) What prerequisite skills should be expected of
trainees recruited to the program under consider-
ation?
(4) What task will the graduates be expected to perform
once they are on the job?
(5) Do existing training programs have the ability to
satisfy current and projected training needs?
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120
The answers to some of these questions will be obtained
from the data generated in executing previous steps. For
example, data collected on accessions to a given occupation will
give the manpower planner information on the sources of
additional manpower. If data are also collected on the educa-
tional background of such individuals, then, in consultation
with individuals working in federal training programs, the
appropriate kind of training can be identified and planned.
The manpower planner will find assistance in meeting his
training needs from the following sources:
(1) A training officer in his own agency
(2) The state director of vocational education in the
state department of education
(3) The manpower development officer in the state
employment service
(4) A community college dean of occupational studies
or a person in a similar position in another post-
secondary institution offering technical programs
(5) The manpower development and training com-
mittee of the state or regional federation or associ-
ation concerned with water pollution control
(6) Federal OWP
(7) Consulting engineers
(8) Equipment manufacturers
(9) The various unions concerned with the various
occupations within wastewater treatment facilities
The person contacted in any of these organizations
should be familiar with funding sources to expand or initiate
new training programs. He will also be anxious to learn of any
opportunity that promises to offer a "reasonable expectation of
employment" to the graduates of his training programs.
In the development of a training program, the manpower
planner and the training specialists may jointly develop pro-
grams based on the following steps:
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121
(1) Establish performance objectives expected of the
program graduates once employed on the job.
(2) Design an evaluation procedure to measure the level
of performance of the graduates on the job.
(3) Design the instructional and training format of the
presentation form (e.g., "hands-on" experience,
lecture/note taking, experimentation/discovery,
programmed self-instruction, and combinations of
these).
(4) Select instructional media (e.g., case materials,
specialized equipment, films, tapes, etc.).
(5) Develop instructional components (e.g., modular
forms, concepts, units).
(6) Test and revise instructional components on pilot
groups.
(7) Produce instructional components.
(8) Test and revise instructional components.
(9) Implement training program.
(10) Test and revise instructional system as a result,
measuring graduate performance on the job.
Once a given program has been developed, it should, inso-
far as it is successfully fulfilling its objectives, be maintained.
The goal of program maintenance is creation of an interactive
network of parties who have a direct interest in the water
quality and manpower fields. The purpose of this network is the
maintenance of programs and activities that minimize man-
power problems. A manpower planner, working in cooperation
with training specialists {both inside and outside the industry)
and representative of employer groups, trade unions, profes-
sional organizations, state and local employment services, and
educational institutions, should promote the flow of informa-
tion concerning manpower problems. In addition, he should
work toward the development of an organization for monitor-
ing the progress of recently developed manpower programs,
identifying new manpower problems as they occur and project-
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ing potential manpower problem areas at some time in the
future.
The manpower planner's active membership on state,
regional, or area manpower planning councils is a good place to
begin to build an interactive network of interested groups.
There is no formula that outlines in step-by-step fashion how to
create a program to maintain the success of earlier efforts. But a
manpower planner who gets himself situated to participate in
the feedback of ongoing operations and at the front end of new
developments in the industry will soon learn how to meet the
manpower needs of his industry.
There may be some reservations as to how much a state
manpower planner in the state water pollution control agency
may act toward solving certain types of manpower problems
that could confront a municipal wastewater treatment plant.
The most likely candidates for such manpower problems are
poor working conditions and low relative wages. Insofar as the
manpower planner can document such problems and the magni-
tude of the actions necessary to solve them, he can then, either
singly or as part of a team effort, try to convince those people
who have more direct control over such matters that these
problems are of serious proportion and should be eliminated.
At this point in the manpower planning process the man-
power planner should report the results from completing the
first five steps to those individuals that will provide the assis-
tance necessary to satisfy the manpower planning objectives.
Thus, he should report his estimates of training needs to the
staff concerned with training in this agency, his analysis of man-
power problems to the various agencies that may assist him in
eliminating whatever problems exist (the agency so chosen will,
of course, depend upon the manpower probtems that have been
discovered), and his estimate of future manpower needs to in-
dividuals not only within his own agency but also to CAMPS.
Such reports should describe the situation under discussion, and
tables should accompany such a report whenever necessary.
The manpower planner should contact the executive
director and/or the chairman of the state manpower planning
council to request an opportunity to present his report at a
regularly scheduled meeting. Sufficient copies of written reports
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123
should be furnished to the secretariat of the state CAMPS
organization to provide each member with a copy. Verbal
presentations to the council should focus upon identifiable
action steps to be taken by the council collectively as well as by
individual members who represent service-delivery agencies.
Training needs requiring allocation of resources should be a
matter of principal importance.
Where appropriate, similar presentations should be made
to area manpower planning councils with appropriate attention
paid to area-specific problems and action steps.
6. Sixth Step: Develop and maintain a data system.
In executing the preceding steps, certain employment
data were collected and analyzed. These data were used as the
basis for such activities as projecting the future values of certain
employment characteristics, documenting the possible existence
of manpower problems, and determining the number of addi-
tional workers needed each year within the planning horizon.
Clearly, the existence of manpower data is important for the
manpower planning process, and every effort should be made to
increase the amount and availability of useful data.
To accomplish such a task not only requires that annual
surveys of wastewater treatment plants be conducted and the
progress of new plants monitored, but also that the resulting
data be stored in such a manner as to be easily retrievable for
future use and analysis. In time, the manpower planner may
have direct access to computer facilities and programming
expertise; but until such time comes, he will do well to devise
simple tables that summarize for each year the data collected in
the annual survey and the various calculations and projections
made on the basis of those data. By faithfully recording the
annual data and calculations made with such data, the man-
power planner will be contributing to the important task of
developing time series data for manpower in the wastewater
treatment plant segment of water pollution control.
Because of the importance of alternative measures of
employment, these should be recorded each year, as should
terminations and accessions. Since the various rates—vacancy,
terminations, etc. —are used in analyzing manpower problems
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124
and projecting the future value of certain employment charac-
teristics, they should be recorded in such a way as to facilitate
the manpower planner in detecting any significant changes in
their respective values.
Because of the uncertainty attached to the projections
made by the manpower planner, he should be aware of the
possibility of projection errors and be ready to measure and
adjust for such errors in his future work. It is through the
maintenance of a data system on a continuing basis that the
manpower planner will have the data necessary to compare his
projections and analysis with the data measured in the annual
survey and adjust his projections and analytical techniques
accordingly.
The manpower planner should become knowledgeable of
other information and data systems within state and federal
water pollution control offices and, wherever meaningful, in-
tegrate his system with other systems. In obtaining such knowl-
edge, he will undoubtedly discover alternative sources of data.
Though it will always be necessary for him to initiate some data
collection, nevertheless the amount he has to personally collect
could be minimized by successfully integrating his data system
with others.
7. Seventh Step: Monitor and evaluate the manpower
planning process.
Throughout this manual, particularly in the first part of
this chapter, the general principles of manpower planning have
been outlined in a manner that seems most reasonable for their
application to manpower planning in the water pollution con-
trol field. Because of the peculiarities of the various states,
other slight adjustments to these principles may have to be
made on a state level by the state manpower planner. To
accomplish this, the manpower planner must continually seek
to improve his performance by making the necessary adjust-
ments in his various activities. It should be apparent, therefore,
that the job of manpower planning will not be complete until
the manpower planner has determined how effective his man-
power plan, in both its design and execution, has been. For this
reason it is important that the evaluation of the manpower
planning process be considered as a separate step in this process.
Although listed as a separate step, the evaluation of the plan-
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125
ning process, more than any other of the preceding steps, is best
understood as a continuous process and one fully integrated
with all of the preceding steps. Information obtained from
monitoring and evaluating the planning process should be fed
back into each step of the planning process in an attempt to
improve the precision and reliability of the process. Such
practices of using information in this way are often referred to
as "feedback" systems.
In order that the various components of the manpower
planning process be correctly evaluated, the manpower planner
must establish performance criteria. Some difficulty may be
experienced in doing this during the initial phases of establish-
ing a manpower planning capability within a state. Thus, for
example, it may be difficult, initially, to determine whether or
not an error of 15 percent in projecting actual employment
next year is tolerable. In time, when the state manpower
planner has accumulated experience within his state and with
information provided to him by OWP from experiences in other
states, some basis for establishing quantifiable performance
criteria will have been developed. With such criteria the state
manpower planner may then be able to measure his own per-
formance and take the appropriate steps to improve it. The
areas in which he will most easily be able to grade his perform-
ance will be those such as the accuracy of his projections of
future actual employment, his calculation of future manpower
needs, the ratio of the number of people trained to the number
of people that should be trained, and the adequacy of alterna-
tive techniques in projecting the value of selected employment
characteristics and in reducing the problem areas of manpower
within his state.
An important aspect of the evaluation process is the use-
ful inputs that it provides within the framework of a feedback
system. By the evaluation of past performance, insight will be
obtained on how to improve upon currently practiced pro-
cedures. These weaknesses can be corrected with a resulting
increase in the efficiency of the manpower planning process.
Such a process of continually evaluating performance and
making the necessary corrections by feeding the relevant infor-
mation back into the planning systems is made more effective,
in general, when all of the feedback information is used with
little delay and with the greater specificity of the feedback
information.
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CHAPTER FIVE
APPLIED MANPOWER PLANNING FOR MUNICIPAL
WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS
Applied Step 1: Describe that segment of the water pollution
control field for which manpower planning is
being performed.
A. Inventory of Existing Plants
B. Types of Occupations
C. Existing Training Opportunities
D. Career Ladders
Applied Step 2: Determine the relationship between objectives
of the state water pollution control agency
and the objectives of manpower planning.
A. Legislative Authority
B. Water Quality Uses and Criteria
C. Budgetary History
Applied Step 3: Determine selected characteristics of current
and expected employment.
A. Measuring Current Employment Characteristics
B. Projecting Future Employment Characteristics
C. Additional Manpower Needs
Applied Step 4: Analyze manpower problems.
A. Recruitment
B. Retention
C. Utilization
Applied Step 5: Develop training plans and action steps in
response to current and expected manpower
training needs.
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128
Applied Step 6: Develop and maintain a data system.
Applied Step 7: Monitor and Evaluate the Manpower Planning
Process.
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CHAPTER FIVE
APPLIED MANPOWER PLANNING FOR MUNICIPAL
WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS
The purpose of this chapter, which we shall refer to as
the workbook section of the manual, is to provide for the
application of those planning procedures outlined in the pre-
vious chapter. It is the intent of this workbook to provide the
manpower planner with an outline of the forms (and a descrip-
tion of the detailed steps for completing such forms) that can
be used in carrying out the various manpower planning activi-
ties. In the process of completing this workbook, the manpower
planner would have executed all the planning steps developed in
the previous chapter and would thereby have completed the
first cycle in conducting manpower planning for a segment of
the water pollution control field.
As mentioned in the previous chapter, our exposition will
be primarily in terms of the single occupation of wastewater
treatment plant operator. Our planning methods are, however,
applicable, with only minor changes, to the remaining occupa-
tions within a wastewater treatment plant. Our practice of con-
sidering only the occupation of operator will imply that when
an entire table is to be devoted to the characteristics of a single
occupation, the operator classification will be used; and when a
table is relevant for all occupations, we shall highlight only the
operator classification—it being understood that the remaining
occupations are treated in an identical manner.
This workbook has been developed in such a manner that
each element in the manpower planning process is spelled out in
considerable detail. Some persons will no doubt find the work
program outlined here difficult, and others will likely question
the necessity to be as thorough and careful as this workbook
requires. The workbook should be a helpful guide, however, and
is not intended that it be a straightjacket requiring unnecessary
precision and detail. Each planner can adapt the material pro-
vided here to meet the needs of his organization. It is essential,
however, that the manpower planning process outlined in this
document be thoroughly understood. Once a broad and general
understanding is achieved, and after some experience, changes
or modifications may be readily incorporated into a state's man-
power planning process.
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1
130
Applied Step 1: Describe that segment of the water pollution
control field for which manpower planning is
being performed.
A. Inventory of Existing Plants
The manpower planner may obtain information from the
staff concerned with monitoring the operation and maintenance
of wastewater treatment plants that would enable him to pre-
pare an inventory of the wastewater treatment plants within his
state. Initially, this information can be accumulated in a master
table having the format as illustrated in Table 5-1 :A. In such a
TABLE 5-1 :A
Inventory of the State's Wastewater Treatment Plants
PLANT
NUMBER
codes
SIZE
TREATMENT
LOCATION
COUNTY
SMSA
BASIN
IN
MOO
CODE
NAME
table the manpower planner would have displayed all the
relevant information concerned with the physical aspects of his
state's wastewater treatment plant system. This information
may, for certain purposes, be rearranged and displayed in a
format such as that illustrated in Table 5-1 :B. This table uses
the treatment codes currently used by STORET (but currently
under revision) and a division of plants by size as used in the
DOL/EPA survey of employment in wastewater treatment
plants. Note that a table such as Table 5-1 :B provides a
summary of plants by type and size. Some of this same infor-
mation could be displayed in an alternative and simpler format.
We illustrate such a format in Table 5-1 :C.
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131
TABLE 5-1 :B
Inventory of the State's Existing Plants by Type and Size
TYPE OF
TREATMENT
57,
ZE OF PLANT BY A VERAGE DA Y CAPACITY MGO
UNKNOWN
0.001-
0.999
1.000-
4.999
5.000-
24.999
25.000-
99.999
100.000^
TOTAL FOR
GIVEN TYPE
20 PRIMARY-SETTLING
TANKS
21 PRIMARY-SEPTIC
TANKS
22 PR I MARY — IMHOF F
TANKS
23 PRIMARY-MECHAN-
ICALLY CLEANEO
24 PRIMARY-PLAIN,
HOPPER BOTTOM
20 PRIMARY-OTHERS
AND UNKNOWN
30 CHEMICAL
41 SECONDARY-ACTI-
VATED SLUOGE
42 SECONDARY-EXTEND-
ED AERATION
43 SECONDARY-
BIOLOGICAL
44 SECONDARY-
BIOLOGICAL
45 SECONDARY-SAND
FILTER
46 SECONDARY-LAND
DISPOSAL
47 SECONDARY-
LAGOONS
48 SECONDARY-
BIOLOGICAL
49 SECONDARY-OTHERS
AND UNKNOWN
TOTAL PLANTS FOR
GIVEN SIZE
TABLE 5-1 :C
Inventory of the State's Existing Plants by
General Type of Treatment and by Size
TYPE OF
TREATMENT
SIZE OF PLANT BY A VERAGE DA Y CAPACITY IN MGD
UNKNOWN
0.001-
0.998
1.000-
4.999
5.000-
24.999
2S.OO0»-
99.999
100.000*
TOTAL PLANTS
FOR GIVEN
TYPE
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
TERTIARY
TOTAL PLANTS
FOR GIVEN
SIZE
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132
B. Types of Occupations
In the DOL/EPA survey, a total of 21 specified occupa-
tions were used. A list of these occupations appears as the first
column in the example of a staffing guide displayed as Table
5-1 :D, and a list of the job descriptions appears as Appendix II.
TABLE 5-1 :D
Staff Complements to Wastewater Treatment Plants
Example No. 1a
Plant Average Day Capacity in mgd
Occupation Title
1
3
5
10
20
35
50
65
80
100
Estimated Number of Personnel
Superintendent
0.5
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Assistant superintendent
1
1
1
1
1
Clerk typist
1
1
1
1.5
2
2
2
Operations supervisor
1
Shift foreman
1
1
1
Operator 11
1
1
1
1
2
3
6
6
7
8
Operator I
3
4
5
4
4
5
6
6
6
8
Auto, equipment operator
1
1
1
2
2
Maintenance supervisor
1
Mech. maintenance foreman
1
1
1
Maintenance mechanic II
0.5
1
1
1
2
2
2
Maintenance mechanic I
1
1
1
1
2
2
Electrician II
0.5
1
1
1
1
1
Electrician I
0.5
0.5
1
1
Maintenance helper
1
1
1
2
2
3
4
Laborer
0.5
1
1
2
4
4
5
5
7
Painter
0.5
Storekeeper
1
1
1
Custodian
1
1
1
1
Chemist
0.5
0.5
Laboratory technician
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
TOTAL staff complement
4
5.5
7.5
9.5
14.5
22
29
34.5
41.5
48
9
Plant components included in this example are:
Liquid Treatment
Raw wastewater pumping
Preliminary treatment
Primary sedimentation
Chlorination
Sludge Treatment
Primary sludge pumping
Sludge digestion
Sludge drying beds (b)
(1,3 and 5 mgd plants)
Sludge lagoons (c)
(10 mgd and larger plants)
Other Plant Components
Yard work
Laboratory
Administration and general
, Sludge removed from plant site by plant personnel.
Sludge removed from plant site under contract.
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133
In some states the occupations will differ from those exhibited
in the staffing guide. When such differences arise, the manpower
planner should note them and decide whether to recommend
that job restructuring be attempted in order to align the list of
occupations in his state with those suggested by OWP. Valuable
information used in making such decisions would be obtained
by comparing the OWP job descriptions with those in his state.
It is probably the case, for example, that the job descriptions
for Operators I and II cover whatever number of operators
appear in most states, but the division of responsibilities (i.e.,
the job structure) among operators is different.
In addition to being familiar with the job descriptions for
the various occupations within his state's wastewater treatment
plant system, the manpower planner should become familiar
with other aspects of the occupation. Such aspects would
include the qualification profile, the entry sources for the
occupation, and those occupations into which a worker may
transfer from the occupation in question. These additional
characteristics of the occupation, along with the job descrip-
tion, constitute what is called the occupation description. An
example of an occupation description for Operator I is:
OCCUPATION DESCRIPTION
Title: OPERATOR I, WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT
JOB DESCRIPTION
Assists Operator II in performance of any combination of
following tasks pertinent to controlling operation of plant or
performs various tasks as directed: Operates treatment facili-
ties to control flow and processing of wastewater, sludge,
and effluent. Monitors gages, meters, and control panels.
Observes variations in operating conditions and interprets
meter and gage readings and test results to determine pro-
cessing requirements. Operates valves and gates either
manually or by remote control; starts and stops pumps,
engines, and generators to control and adjust flow and treat-
ment processes. Maintains shift log and records meter and
gage readings. Extracts samples and performs routine labora-
tory tests and analyses. Performs routine maintenance func-
tions and custodial duties. Operates and maintains power
generating equipment and incinerators. Classified by title
such as Pumping Station Operator I or Digester Operator I
when performing specialized activities only.
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QUALIFICA TIONS PROFIL E
1. Formal Education
High school graduate or equivalent training and experi-
ence.
2. General Requirements
a. Ability to learn operation of plant processes and
equ ipment.
b. Ability to maintain and evaluate simple records.
c. Ability to maintain working relationship with other
shift workers.
3. General Educational Development
a. Reasoning
Apply common sense understanding to carry out
written, oral, or diagrammatic instructions. Deal with
problems involving concrete variables in or from stand-
ardized situations.
b. Mathematical
Perform ordinary arithmetical calculations.
c. Language
Ability to comprehend oral and written instructions,
record information, and request supplies and work
materials orally or in writing.
4. Specific Vocational Preparation
On-the-job training from date of employment. Com-
pletion of an operator training course highly desirable.
Previous experience as laborer or equipment operator in
wastewater treatment plant also desirable.
5. Aptitudes-Relative to General Working Population
)
)
) Lowest third excluding
) bottom 10 percent
a. Intelligence
b. Verbal
c. Numerical
d. Spatial
e. Form Perception
f. Clerical Perception )
g. Motor Coordination )
h. Finger Dexterity )
i. Manual Dexterity ) Middle third
j. Eye-Hand-Foot Coordination ) Lowest third excluding
bottom 10 percent
k. Color Discrimination ) Middle third
6. Interests
Preference for activities of a routine, concrete,
organized nature; dealing with things and objects.
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135
7. Temperament
Worker must adjust to situations involving a variety of
duties and evaluation of information against measurable
criteria.
8. Physical Demands
Medium work; involving climbing, balancing, stooping,
kneeling, crouching, reaching, handling, fingering, talk-
ing, hearing, visual acuity, depth perception, and color
vision.
9. Working Conditions
Both inside and outside. Exposed to weather, fumes,
odors, and dust. May be exposed to toxic conditions.
Definite risk of bodily injury.
ENTRY SOURCES: Graduates of operator training courses,
treatment plant laborers or equipment operators,
general public.
PROGRESSION TO: Operator II.5
C. Existing Training Opportunities
Though many aspects of a state's training programs will
be considered in Applied Step 5, an appropriate description of
that segment of the water pollution control field for which
manpower planning is being performed should contain data that
describe some of the quantitative aspects of existing training
opportunities. It will be important, for example, for the man-
power planner to know something about the dimensions of the
state's capacity to train individuals for positions within waste-
water treatment plants. By completing a table such as Table
5-1 :E, the manpower planner will gain information on what the
TABLE 5-1 :E
Summary of Training Programs for 1971
OCCUPATION
NAME ANO
LOCATION OF
TRAINING
PROGRAM
length
Of
COURSE
COURSE
CAPACITY
NUMBER
trained
NUMBER
FINDING
EMPLOYMENT
IN AREA
OF TRAINING
TRAINING
EXPENDITURE
TOTAL
PER
TRAINEE
'Manpower Development Staff, "Manpower Requirements," mimeographed
(Washington, D.C.: Office of Water Programs, Environmental Protection Agency,
1972), pp. 197, 198.
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136
state's current capacity to train is and the relevant training costs
per trainee. This information will be helpful in projecting the
costs of increasing this capacity if, for example, projections of
future training needs should differ significantly from current
training capacity.
D. Career Ladders
A career ladder within a wastewater treatment plant pro-
vides an opportunity for advancement and defines the path that
such advancement is most likely to follow. Whether or not
career ladders exist will play an important part in satisfying the
objectives of manpower planning, for their presence will tend to
attract and keep workers while their absence will tend to repel
and discourage workers. The manpower planner should docu-
ment the existence of career ladders in his state and help in the
development and introduction of them should they be weak or
absent. Figure 5.1 (a modification of an internal document of
SUPERINTENDENT I
Figure 5.1. Career Ladder for a 50 to 100 mgd Wastewater Treatment Plant
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137
MDS) shows a schematic of a career ladder. The manpower
planner should construct the relevant figure for his state. More
quantitative aspects of career ladders will be considered in
Applied Step 5.
Applied Step 2: Determine the relationship between objectives
of the state water pollution control agency and
the objectives of manpower planning.
The purpose of this operation is to provide the manpower
planner with a simple set of guidelines to assess the progress his
agency has made in achieving its objectives of water pollution
control. As a unit of government, the state water pollution
control agency will be responsive to and its success dependent
upon: (1) legislative authority, (2) program activities, and {3)
available resources. A familiarity with these important elements
will permit the manpower planner to make judgments concern-
ing the direction of his agency and the progress it is making in
pursuit of specified objectives.
A. Legislative Authority
The manpower planner should do the following tasks:
(1) Cite and describe the state and federal legislative
authority that defines the missions of water pollu-
tion control in his state. Cite the title of the law or
laws, or report on the progress of any legislation
currently under consideration by the state legisla-
ture that will modify in any substantial way the
goats or objectives of the state water pollution
control agency.
(2) Comment upon any relevant policy directives that
have significant manpower implications.
B. Water Quality Uses and Criteria
(1) Because water quality standards represent specific
benchmarks for evaluating a state's progress in
bringing water pollution under control, briefly
describe the progress made by the state in establish-
ing water quality standards on both interstate and
intrastate waterways.
-------
138
(2) What is the status of the water uses inventory?
(3) What is the status of the establishing of water
quality criteria?
(4) What is the status of the state's implementation
plans for municipalities only?
C, Budgetary History
The manpower planner should describe the agency's
budgetary history for the past few years and estimate the fiscal
resources the agency can anticipate to meet future needs. This
task may be accomplished by completing a table such as Table
5-2: A.
TABLE 5-2:A
State Budgetary History and a Tentative Forecast for Construction
and Grants to Municipalities for Wastewater Treatment Plants
1969-1976
(Millions of dollars)
1969
1970
1971
1972
1976
FEDERAL SHARE
STATE SHARE
LOCAL SHARE
TOTAL
Applied Step 3: Determine selected characteristics of current
and expected employment.
The DOL/EPA survey of wastewater treatment plants was
done on a sample basis, and the resulting data inflated so as to
apply to the universe of plants. In the future, information on
the universe of plants should be obtained. The most probable
source of acquiring the needed information is through the in-
spections currently managed {and currently being expanded) by
the staff concerned with the operation and maintenance of
wastewater treatment plants. Should this opportunity not be
available in the manpower planner's state, he should consider
circulating a form such as the instrument shown as Table 5-3: A.
-------
139
We shall refer to this instrument simply as the "data form"
throughout this chapter.
TABLE 5-3:A
Wastewater Treatment Plant Data Form
1. IITAIlllUUINf UA.
\ IVAfl coftfc
3. CTATI NAM!
|4 MutiWUU
t. im«a coot i. iuim eeos
J. TVM 6P TMA*m«nt 1
to. million gallons P4A 6iV
M ASjb*bo«IMO^
OCCUPATION
•
1
Z
w
z
2
0
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c
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1 J
Z J
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h
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H
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MPAAATIONS
i
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TM.NSMM INTO
i
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o
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TOTAL (ALL OCCUP^TlO*»>
01
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03
03
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97
MAINTENANCE •VPKNVtfrO*
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MECHANICAL MAlNTIMANCI
Ot
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MECHANIC 1
MAINTINANCt Mlk'tn
12
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13
14
CHIMIST
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It
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It
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Once the data form has been completed, the manpower
planner should make certain calculations. We shall illustrate the
relevant tables in which to record these calculations but shall do
so only for the occupation noted as Operator I—it being already
understood that similar calculations should be made for the
remaining occupations. Occasionally in following discussions,
we shall use a table that contains all of the occupations, and we
do this at those times when it seems appropriate to remind the
manpower planner that master tables should occasionally be
made which summarize the results of several calculations.
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140
It is quite possible that a data collection system for each
wastewater treatment plant in the state will be unnecessary if
measures can be adopted by which existing manpower data can
be simply updated on a continuing basis. Perhaps the simplest
way to accomplish this would be to have the manpower planner
return a previously completed copy of the data form to the
person in charge of the wastewater treatment plant to make the
necessary changes. Because the manpower planner must depend
upon the plant manager for the correctness of his data, the
more demands the planner places upon the manager's own data
system, the less accurate are the data received most likely to be.
This observation implies that the manpower planner should ask
only for "raw data" and not request that the plant manager
make certain calculations.
A. Measuring Current Employment Characteristics
From the preceding data form (Table 5-3:A) and from
the DOL/EPA survey in Appendix I, information to complete
Table 5-3:B may be obtained. Columns 2 through 4 in this table
are obtained by summing, for each occupation, columns e, c,
and a in questionnaire A of the DOL/EPA survey. (This infor-
mation is also available directly from Table 1 compiled from the
DOL/EPA survey that should have been compiled in completing
the DOL/EPA survey.) From the data form for wastewater
treatment plants, when completed, the relevant totals are
obtained from columns a, d, and g, respectively.
TABLE 5-3:B
Alternative Measures of Employment by Occupation
Table 5-3:C may be completed from information in Table
5-3:B in the following manner: column 2 is obtained by sub-
-------
141
trading column 3 from column 2 in Table 5-3:B; column 3 by
subtracting column 4 from column 3; and column 4 by either
adding columns 2 and 3 in Tabfe 5-3:C or subtracting column 4
from column 2 in Table 5-3:B.
TABLE 5-3:C
Shortfalls and Vacancies by Occupation
(1)
OCCUPATION
(2)
BUDGET
SHORTFALL
(3)
VACANCY
(4)
EMPLOYMENT
SHORTFALL
~
[operator 1 I
1" 1
Table 5-3:D is completed by dividing columns 2, 3, and 4
in Table 5-3:C by column 4 of Table 5-3:B. The data in Table
5-3:D are free of scale effects, so that meaningful intraoccupa-
tional comparisons can be made. (Such comparisons will be
made in Applied Step 4.)
TABLE 5-3: D
Shortfall and Vacancy Rates by Occupation
(1>
OCCUPATION
(2)
BUDGET
SHORTFALL RATE
(3)
VACANCY
RATE
(4)
EMPLOYMENT
SHORTFALL RATE
OPERATOR t
In Table'5-3:E data on terminations and accessions are
displayed. From the data form the total number of terminations
is the sum of column m, while separations are the sum of
column n. The components of separations are, in order, the
sums of columns o through q. The total number of transfers out
-------
142
is the sum of column r. From the DOL/EPA survey the total
number of terminations is the sums of columns m and n as
appropriately inflated. Separations are the sum of column n,
with quits being the sum of column o, and transfers out are the
sum of column m. Additional detail on the components of
separation is not available from the DOL/EPA survey.
TABLE 5-3: E
Terminations and Accessions by Occupation
OCCUPATION
TERMINATIONS
ACCESSIONS
TOTAL
SEPARATIONS
TRANSFER*
OUT
TOTAL
NEW
HIRES
TRANSFERS
INTO
TOTAL
OUITS
DSCHARCES
DC ATM/
RETIREMENT
TOTAL
UPGRADE
HORIZONTAL
For accessions we have from the data form the total
number as the sum of column s. For the components we have
new hires from column f; and for transfers into and its com-
ponents, we have columns u, v, and w. Total accessions from
the DOL/EPA survey are obtained from column /, with new
hires from column and transfers into from column /. Further
detail is not easily or accurately available from the DOL/EPA
survey.
Total termination and accession rates are most appro-
priately computed by using current actual employment as the
denominator or base. Their major components—separations and
transfers out; new hires and transfers into—could be expressed
in two alternative forms: The first form would use current
actual employment as a base, while the second would use the
number of terminations and accessions, respectively, as the
bases. The remaining components such as quits, discharges, up-
grades, etc., could be expressed by using the previously men-
tioned bases but may also be used for a base, as applicable:
separations, transfers out, new hires, or transfers into. Which of
these alternative bases is eventually chosen will depend upon
the uses to which the resulting rates are to be put. Since the
most frequently used rate would be that using actual employ-
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143
ment as a base, it is such a rate that is entered into Table
5-3:F. Other tables could be displayed using the alternative
bases and could, for convenience, be listed as Tables 5-3:Fi, Fii,
etc.
TABLE 5-3: F
Termination and Accession Rates by Occupation
OCC UPAt I ON
TERMINATION RATES
ACCESSION RATES
TOTAL
SEPARATIONS
TRANSFtfiS
OUT
TOTAL
TRANSFERS
•NTO
TOf AL
QUITS
DISCHARGES
OE ATHr
Retirement
TOTAL
UPGRADE
HORIZONTAL
All of the preceding tables were concerned with data that
were relevant to the state as a whole. The manpower planner
should now complete similar tables but for data according to
size of plant, type of treatment, and plant location. To do this,
he must decide upon the division of his state's plants according
to type, size, and location. In the tables that follow in the
sequel, we shall assume a division by type and size simitar to
that used in the DOL/EPA survey of four types of treatment
(i.e., two primary and two secondary) and five size classifica-
tions. Since a manpower planner in a particular state—as
dictated by the specific characteristics of his state's wastewater
plant system—may wish to use a different classifying of plants,
we shall refer to type of treatment by the codes A, B, C, and D,
and size of plant by the codes 1,2,3, 4, and 5.
We shall not display the tables that would be the counter-
parts to Tables 5-3:B through F, for they would be repetitive
and used more in the nature of worksheets for those tables
which we shall illustrate immediately below. In Tables 5-3:G
through J, certain information is listed according to type and
size of plant. This information will be useful in noting differ-
ences among plants according to type and size and will be the
basis for some of the analyses introduced in Applied Step 4.
To complete Table 5-3:G, the manpower planner should
enter the level of recommended, budgeted, ar>d actual employ-
ment, in that order, in subcells a, b, and c.
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144
TABLE 5-3:G
Comparison of Alternative Employment Concepts by Type and Size
of Wastewater Treatment Plant for Operator I
Type
of
T reatment
Size of Plant
Av. for
Given Type
1
?
3
A
5
A
a.
b.
c.
B
a.
b.
c.
C
a.
b.
c.
D
a.
b
c.
Av. for
Given Si/e
In Table 5~3:H, the shortfall and vacancy rates should be
displayed. Listed in order, these will be: budget shortfall rate,
vacancy rate, and employment shortfall rate. These will be
entered in subcells a, b, and c.
In Table 5-3:1, termination rates by type and size of plant
are displayed. The three numbers are, in order: termination
rate, separation rate, and transfer out rate. These will be entered
in subcells a, b, and c.
In Table 5-3:J, the components of the separation rate are
displayed. They are, in order: quit rate, discharge rate, and
death and retirement rate. These will be entered in subcells a b
and c.
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145
TABLE 5-3:H
Comparison of Shortfall Vacancy Rates by Type and Size
of Wastewater Treatment Plant for Operator I
Type
of
T reatm ent
Size of Ptant
Av. for
Given Type
1
?
3
A
5
A
a.
b.
c.
B
a.
b.
c.
C
a.
b.
c.
D
a.
b.
c.
Av. for
Given Size
TABLE 5-3:1
Comparison of Termination Rates by Type and Size of Waste-
water Treatment Plant for Operator I
Type
of
T reatment
Size of Plant
Av. for
Given Type
1
2
3
4
5
A
a.
b.
c.
B
a.
b.
c.
C
a.
b.
c.
0
a.
b.
c.
Av. for
Given Size
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146
TABLE 5-3:J
Comparison of Separation Rates by Type and Size of Waste-
water Treatment Plant for Operator 1
Type
of
T reatment
Size of Plant
Av. for
Given Type
1
2
3
4
5
A
a.
b.
c.
B
a.
b.
c.
C
a.
b.
c.
D
a.
b.
c.
Av. for
Given Size
B. Projecting Future Employment Characteristics
It was stated in Chapter Four that projections of actual
employment would be based upon the projections of recom-
mended employment. The projections of recommended
employment could, in principle, be obtained in two alternative
ways:
(1) From the manpower information system to be
implemented for manpower planning for waste-
water treatment plants
(2) From estimates based upon the construction grants
process
(a) Either directly from the staff concerned with
municipal wastewater facilities or
(b) Indirectly on the basis of information concern-
ing new and expanded plants within the state
and upon information contained in the staf-
fing guides
-------
147
None of these methods is completely satisfactory and the merits
of each should probably be combined.
The projections obtained from the manpower informa-
tion system for wastewater treatment plants could be obtained
in the same way as such estimates were obtained in the
DOL/EPA survey. In that survey plant managers were asked to
use whatever means were at their disposal to project future
recommended employment in their particular plants, while
various municipal officials were surveyed to determine the com-
pletion dates of new plants, and estimates of expected future
employment were then made with regard to such plants.
The second alternative would be to obtain from the staff
concerned with the operation and maintenance of wastewater
treatment plants the manpower data required in the various
forms used in the construction grants process, and then add to
this the estimates of any changes in recommended employment
in existing plants. If manpower data are not available directly
from the operations and maintenance staff, the manpower
planner must generate his own estimates.
With the manpower information system currently being
developed by OWP, coupled with the incentive that most states
would have in maintaining a good data base on which to make
projections of construction and financial needs in the area of
water pollution control, it would seem reasonable to expect
that the manpower planner could obtain estimates of additions
to recommended employment directly from the staff concerned
with the operation and maintenance of wastewater treatment
plants. Many states have for several years collected the data that
are necessary to complete the first three columns of Table
5-3: K, and with the advent of new federal reporting procedures,
the data necessary to complete the remaining columns will be
available.
Should projections of additions to recommended employ-
ment from new plants not be available directly from the munici-
pal facilities office, it will then be necessary for the manpower
planner to rely upon the information he obtains from conduct-
ing his employment survey or by making his own projections.
He can make such projections by obtaining information such as
that contained in the first three columns of Table 5-3:K and
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148
TABLE 5-3:K
New Plants and Their Recommended Employment
Listed in Order of Projected Construction
Completion Dates
TYPE
SIZE
COMPLETION
DATE
RECOMMENDED
EMPLOYMENT
OPERATOR I
combining it with information readily available from the
staffing guides. Hence if the manpower planner knows that a
plant of a given type and given size is to come on line in six
months, he can then obtain from the staffing guide relevant to
such a plant a tolerable approximation to the additions to
recommended employment by occupation sufficient to com-
plete Table 5-3: K.
The recommended employment listed in Table 5-3:K
should be added for each year in the planning horizon and
entered into a table such as Table 5-3: L.
TABLE 5-3: L
Additions to Recommended Employment
from New Plants by Year
From the staff concerned with municipal facilities or
from the annual updating of the data form, the manpower
planner will obtain estimates of changes in recommended
employment for existing plants that are being modified in some
-------
way. Such information may be entered in a table such as Table
5-3:M.
TABLE 5-3:M
Additions to Recommended Employment
from Existing Plants by Year
To determine the projected level of employment for next
year, the manpower planner adds to recommended employment
for this year the total of additions to recommended employ-
ment from new plants and the changes in recommended em-
ployment from the modification of existing plants. The man-
power planner may accumulate this total for each year in the
planning horizon and may complete a table such as Table 5-3:N.
TABLE 5-3: N
Recommended Employment by Year and by Occupation
operator t
Before estimates of actual employment can be obtained,
it is necessary to determine the value of P, the factor of propor-
tionality between actual and recommended employment, for
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150
the state as a whole and the various occupations separately. This
can be done quite simply by dividing actual by recommended
employment. We show the format for displaying such calcula-
tions as Table 5-3:0.
TABLE 5-3:0
Factors of Proportionality between Actual and
Recommended Employment by Occupation
OCCUPATION
RECOMMENDED
EMPLOYMENT
ACTUAL
EMPLOYMENT
ACTUAL
= B
RECOMMENDED
The factors of proportionality displayed in the previous
table are most applicable for the first year in the planning
horizon. If it is anticipated, for whatever reason, that actual
employment will change relative to recommended employment
throughout the planning horizon, such changes should then be
incorporated into the value of the Ps that are used in future
time periods. To record the changes, if any, in the expected
value of the factors of proportionality, the manpower planner
should construct a table such as Table 5-3:P. This table will also
provide the manpower planner with a record by which at some
future date he may check the accuracy of his projections con-
cerning the relationships between actual and recommended
employment.
TABLE 5-3:P
Factors of Proportionality by Occupation and Year
YEAR
OCCUPATION
1971 | 1972
1973 | 1974 | 1975 | 1976
| OPERATOR I
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151
To obtain estimates of actual employment, the manpower
planner should multiply the estimates of recommended employ-
ment in Table 5-3:N by the factors of proportionality in Table
5-3.P with the results entered into a table such as Table 5-3:Q.
TABLE 5-3:Q
Estimates of Actual Employment by Year and Occupation
OCCUPATION
ACTUAL EMPLOYMENT
1971
1972
1973 | 1974 | 1978 | 1976
| OPERATOR 1 |
C. Additional Manpower Needs
By additional manpower needs, we mean the additional
workers required in order that the effective demand for workers
be satisfied. Such needs arise because people terminate employ-
ment and also because growth occurs in employment. Estimates
of the additional workers that will be needed because of termi-
nation may be obtained by multiplying the estimate of actual
employment by the termination rate. If Ej denotes actual em-
ployment in the /th year and fy the termination rate, then the
additional manpower needed in 1972 due to terminations
would equal Actually, since employment changes
throughout the year, a better estimate would be to compute the
average employment for 1971 and 1972 and multiply it by the
termination rate for 1971. Since employment and termination
rates are available by occupation, this calculation can be done
for each occupation.
Additional needs due to growth may be computed simply
by subtracting actual employment of one year from actual em-
ployment of a succeeding year. Hence, for 1972 the additional
needs due to growth would simply be £72 - E7j.
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152
Needs arising from the growth of employment may be
further separated according to whether the growth comes from
new and expanded plants or from certain changes in the em-
ployment practices within wastewater treatment plants. Those
changes that we specifically have in mind are the possible
decreases in the employment shortfall. Insofar as changes in the
factor of proportionality were assumed in estimating future
actual employment, then implicit in such estimates was the
assumption that changes in the employment shortfall would
occur. Insofar as the manpower planner feels it beneficial to
separate the effects of growth into these two components, he
may do so by estimating future actual employment on the
assumtpion that the factor of proportionality does not
change—which, upon subtracting succeeding estimates, gives
additional manpower needs due to new and expanded plants
only-and then multiplying actual employment by additions to
the factor of proportionality to obtain increased manpower
needs from changes in employment practices.
The above calculations should be made for each occupa-
tion and entered into a table such as Table 5-3:R. The totals
from such tables can then be shown in a format such as Table
5-3:S. These two tables are shown in their entirety.
TABLE 5-3:R
Additional Manpower Needed by Source for Operator 1
from 1972 to 1976
REASONS FOR
ADDITIONAL MANPOWER
YEAR
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1. TERMINATIONS IN
CURRENT EMPLOYMENT
2. GROWTH IN CURRENT
EMPLOYMENT
a. NEW AND EXPANDED
PLANTS
b. DECREASE IN EMPLOY-
MENT SHORTFALL
TOTAL
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152
Needs arising from the growth of employment may be
further separated according to whether the growth comes from
new and expanded plants or from certain changes in the em-
ployment practices within wastewater treatment plants. Those
changes that we specifically have in mind are the possible
decreases in the employment shortfall. Insofar as changes in the
factor of proportionality were assumed in estimating future
actual employment, then implicit in such estimates was the
assumption that changes in the employment shortfall would
occur. Insofar as the manpower planner feels it beneficial to
separate the effects of growth into these two components, he
may do so by estimating future actual employment on the
assumtpion that the factor of proportionality does not
change—which, upon subtracting succeeding estimates, gives
additional manpower needs due to new and expanded plants
only-and then multiplying actual employment by additions to
the factor of proportionality to obtain increased manpower
needs from changes in employment practices.
The above calculations should be made for each occupa-
tion and entered into a table such as Table 5-3:R. The totals
from such tables can then be shown in a format such as Table
5-3:S. These two tables are shown in their entirety.
TABLE 5-3:R
Additional Manpower Needed by Source for Operator 1
from 1972 to 1976
REASONS FOR
ADDITIONAL MANPOWER
YEAR
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1. TERMINATIONS IN
CURRENT EMPLOYMENT
2. GROWTH IN CURRENT
EMPLOYMENT
a. NEW AND EXPANDED
PLANTS
b. DECREASE IN EMPLOY-
MENT SHORTFALL
TOTAL
-------
TABLE 5-3:S
153
Additional Manpower Needed by Occupation
from 1972 to 1976
OCCUPATION
YEAR
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
TOTAL
-------
154
The final task in executing Applied Step 3 is to estimate
the sources from which the additional manpower needs are
most likely to be obtained. To accomplish this, we turn to the
various components of the accession rate. For purposes of ex-
position, note that the major components of accessions are
"new hires" and "transfers into." If these rates were, for
example, 1/3 and 2/3, expressed as a percentage of total acces-
sion, and an additional 12 workers were needed within the
coming year, then on the basis of past experience, and in the
absence of additional information, it would be reasonable to
estimate that three would come from new hires and nine from
transfers into the occupation.
Care should be exercised in this matter, however, to
assure that this estimating procedure be adjusted if additional
evidence exists. If, for example, it had been discovered that, on
the average, 50 percent of new Operator Its came from the
ranks of Operator Is and that, due to some change in the plant
operation, additional Operator lis were needed to such an
extent that 50 percent of the increase would be greater than all
employees in the Operator I category, then the preceding tech-
nique would have to be adjusted.
In a table such as Table 5-3:T the estimates of additional
manpower needed in a specific year should be entered, and
then, on the basis of existing data concerning the various com-
ponents of accessions, estimates should be made on the most
likely source of such manpower. Such information will be in-
valuable in designing training programs since the presumed
background of the new workers may have significant effects
upon the contents of the training program.
TABLE 5-3:T
Sources of Additional Manpower by Occupation
OCCUPATIONS
ADDITIONAL
MANPOWER
NEEDED
SOURCE OF ADDITIONAL MANPOWER
NEW HIRES
TRANSFERS INTO
UPGRADE | HORIZONTAL
OPERATOR I
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155
Applied Step 4: Analyze manpower problems.
The basic problems that the manpower planner will wish
to investigate in this section are related to the recruitment,
retention, and utilization of personnel. It is first required that
he determine whether such problems exist. When such a deter-
mination is made, it should be noted that certain types of
evidence may be related to more than one problem area. Thus,
for example, high vacancy rates may be indicative of both re-
cruitment and retention problems. This observation is simply a
way of noting that the three manpower problems under in-
vestigation are themselves interrelated. Having called such inter-
relationships to the attention of the manpower planner, we
shall, nevertheless, consider each of the three problems sepa-
rately for each has certain unique characteristics.
A. Recruitment
Evidence that recruitment is a problem would be in-
dicated by:
(1) H igh vacancy rates
(2) Excessive use of part-time personnel
(3) Poor quality of recruits
Judgmental decisions will be required in determining
what is "high," "excessive," and "poor." Such decisions may be
aided, however, by collecting and comparing certain data. To
determine whether vacancy rates are "high," the manpower
planner should:
(1) Compare vacancy rates for occupations within
wastewater treatment plants to determine whether
there is significant variation among occupations
(2) Compare the vacancy rate for each occupation with
the vacancy rate, wherever possible, for occupa-
tions requiring similar skill and educational back-
ground
A comparison of vacancy rates for occupations within
wastewater treatment plants will be facilitated by listing occu-
-------
156
pations, in decreasing order, according to their vacancy rates.
This would be accomplished by completing Table 5-4: A.
TABLE 5-4: A
Rank Order of Occupations by Vacancy Rate
OCCUPATIONS RANKED ACCORDING
TO DECREASING VACANCY RATE
(1)
VACANCY RATE
(2)
With the help of individuals located in the state employ-
ment service, the manpower planner could complete a table
such as Table 5-4:B. Column 1 lists occupations for wastewater
treatment plants and column 2, the vacancy rate for each
TABLE 5-4:B
Comparison of Vacancy Rates in WWTPs with
Occupations Requiring Similar Skills and/or Education
OCCUPATION
(n
VACANCY RATES FOR OTHER OCCUPATIONS
VACANCY RATE
(2)
HIGH
<3>
LOW
(4)
(UNWEIGHTED)
AVERAGE
(5)
occupation. Columns 3 and 4 display the high, low, and average
vacancy rates for occupations having similar skill or educational
requirements.
Evidence that there was an excessive use of part-time
personnel would be obtained from a comparison of actual part-
time to recommended part-time employment. To facilitate the
comparison, Table 5-4:C should be completed.
-------
157
TABLE 5-4.C
Comparison of Actual Part-time with Recommended Part-time Workers
OCCUPATIONS
(1)
NUMBER OF PART-
TIME WORKERS
PART-TIME
RATES
ACTUAL PART-TtME RATE
RECOMMENDED PART-TIME
RATE
RECOM-
MENDED
<2>
ACTUAL
(3)
RECOM-
MENDED
(4)
ACTUAL
IS)
(6)
U"
In Table 5-4:C both the numbers and rates of part-time
workers are shown. The rates are displayed to eliminate possible
scale effects. It may be possible, however, to have a difference
between recommended and actual part-time workers yet have
equality in the part-time rates. This would reflect a problem not
so much of incorrect use of part-time workers but rather one of
having differences between recommended and actual employ-
ment. Column 6 lists the ratio of the part-time ratios. A value of
unity indicates that recommended and actual part-time rates are
equal, a value less than unity indicates that the actual part-time
rate is less than the recommended part-time rate, and a value
greater than unity indicates a higher part-time rate for actual
employment than for recommended employment.
Evidence to discriminate among the quality of possible
recruits will be quite difficult to obtain for most manpower
planners, given the resources at their disposal. A table could be
constructed from data that the manpower planner may obtain
from those individuals working in the training office and from
Tables F-5 through F-11 in the Manpower Report of the Presi-
dent (MRP) by which a comparison of the quality of recruits
could be made. In Table 5-4.D we display a format that would
facilitate such a comparison.
If it is possible to complete all or part of Table 5-4:B,
those occupations in wastewater treatment plants having higher
vacancy rates than the average of other occupations would be
candidates for further study. If Table 5-4:B cannot be com-
pleted, those occupations ranked at the top of Table 5-4:A
should be considered further. How far down the rank ordering
-------
158
TABLE 5-4:D
Comparison of New Recruits for the Positions of Operators I and II
with Enrollees in Various Training Programs
PERCENTAGE HAVING YEARS OF SCHOOL COMPLETED
CLASSIFICATION
UNDER
8 YEARS
8 YEARS
9 11 YEARS
12 YEARS
OVER
12 YEARS
OPERATOR 1
INSTITUTIONAL TRAIN-
ING PROGRAMS
UNDER MDTA
(MRP. Table F 5)
OJT TRAINING PRO-
GRAMS UNDER
MDTA
(MRP, Table F 7)
OPERATION MAIN-
STREAM PROJECT
(MRP, Table F 101
NEW CAREERS PROJ
ECT (MRP, Table F 10}
CIVILIAN LABOR
FORCE 2E YEARS
AND OLDER
(MRP, Table E 101
OTHER OCCUPATIONS
OF SIMILAR SKILL
REQUIREMENTS
of occupations the manpower planner will go will depend upon
the resources at his disposal and his judgmental decision as to
what constitutes high or "intolerable" vacancy rates.
Similar procedures should be followed in determining
whether "excessive" use of part-time personnel is occurring.
Those occupations for which the ratio
actual part-time rate
recommended part-time rate
is other than unity should be investigated further. Greatest con-
cern would appear to be warranted when the ratio is greater
than unity. Should those occupations so characterized also be
those ranked high according to vacancy rates, additional cause
exists to investigate such occupations further.
-------
159
The manner in which additional investigations should be
made will be discussed after we consider the problems of reten-
tion and utilization.
B. Retention
Evidence that retention is a problem could be obtained
by analyzing the various components of the termination rate.
Those components that would be the most relevant to investi-
gate would be quits and discharges. High quit rates would be
evidence of voluntary separation from the plant, for a variety of
possible reasons, while discharges would be indicative of in-
voluntary separations. Again, however, benchmarks to deter-
mine normality are not easily available,and judgmental decisions
will have to be made. To facilitate these decisions, an ordering
of occupations according to quit and discharge rates ought to be
made. This would require the completion of a table such as
Table 5-4:E.
TABLE 5-4: E
Rank Order of Occupations According to Quit and
Discharge Rates
QUIT
RATE
RANK ORDER
OF OCCUPATION
RANK ORDER
OF OCCUPATION
DIS-
CHARGE
RATE
C. Utilization
The utilization of personnel is an issue most appro-
priately investigated by the staff concerned with the operation
and management of wastewater treatment plants. Nevertheless,
there is one way of displaying certain data already computed
that would, from the manpower planner's perspective, indicate
those occupations where some problems with utilization might
exist. Insofar as shortfalls may indicate the presence of utiliza-
-------
160
tion problems, a rank ordering of occupations according to
shortfall rates would at least indicate, in a simple manner, those
occupations where utilization may be a problem. This pro-
cedure would require the completion of Table 5-4:F. in this
table we have allowed for a ranking as the basis of budget
shortfall and employment shortfalls.
TABLE 5-4:F
Rank Order of Occupations By
Shortfall Rates
BUDGET
SHORTFALL RATE
OCCUPATION
OCCUPATION
EMPLOYMENT
SHORTFALL RATE
In summarizing all of the preceding work in this step and
in preparing for the analysis of the possible determination of
manpower problems, the manpower planner should complete a
table such as Table 5-4:G. Using the value of 1 to denote the
occupation having the highest rate for a particular variable, we
could rank alt occupations according to the various problem
areas. From such a table those occupations appearing to rank
high in all or many areas should be the first ones considered for
further study.
To help determine which occupations are primary candi-
dates for further study, the manpower planner should compute
the average rank. This would require the summing of all the
points for each occupation in Table 5-4:G, dividing by 5, and
then ranking the occupations from low value to high value as in
Table 5-4:H. The occupations having the lowest average value
are those that would seem to be experiencing the more serious
problems.
Upon determining whether certain problems exist or,
alternatively, after determining whether the value of some
-------
161
TABLE 5-4;G
Rank Ordering of Occupations According to Several Possible Problem Areas
OCCUPATION
TITlG
11)
OCCUPATION RANK ACCORDING TO
VACANCY
RA TE
12)
PART TIME
RATE
<31
QUIT RATE
(4)
DISCHARGE
RATE
151
EMPLOYMENT
SHORTFALL RATE
(6;
SUPERINTENDENT
ASSISTANT
SUPERINTENDENT
OPERATIONS
SUPERVISOR
SHIFT FOREMAN
OPERATOR ll
OPERATOR 1
MAINTENANCE
SUPE R VISOR
MECHANICAL MAIN
TENANCE foreman
MECHANtC II
MECHANIC 1
MAINTENANCE
HE LPE R
£ LECTRICIAN II
ELECTRICIAN 1
CHEMIST
LABORA TOR V
TECHNICIAN
STOREKEEPER
CLERK T VPiST
automotive equip
MENT OPE RATOR
CUSTODIAN
PAINTt R
LABORER
variable constitutes a problem, the manpower planner should
attempt to determine the cause of the problem. This is an area
of analysis that many state agencies may find difficult to com-
plete because of inadequate resources. Nevertheless, the man-
power planner should attempt to ascertain the principal causes
of the problem. Primary candidates for the causes of many
-------
162
TABLE 5-4:H
Rank Order of Occupations According to the
Average Value of Several Possible Problem Areas
OCCUPATION
AVERAGE VALUE OF RANK ORDER
problems are low wages, poor working conditions, lack of career
ladders, etc. Though it will be difficult to quantify many of
these variables, some attempt should be made to do so.
The types of analyses with respect to determining the
possible cause of certain problems that we shall consider in this
section are simple and straightforward. We shall suggest that
certain scatter diagrams be computed and, on the basis of cer-
tain simple tests, will determine whether certain cause and
effect relationships exist. When the type of analysis that we are
about to suggest is conducted, it is necessary that certain com-
putations be made which involve the obtaining of average
values for certain variables and the difference between the
average and individual values. For example, if we denote that
the wage rate for a particular computation in the /th plant
within the_state was Wj, then the average wage rate will be
noted as W. The difference between_the average wage and the
individual wage_will be _noted as (W -Wj). The proportional
difference as (W — Wj)!W, Hereinafter, the proportional dif-
ference in wages will be noted as w*.
We may do similar computations for other variables such
that we would have the following set of definitions:
v* = proportional difference in vacancy rates
p* = proportional difference in part-time rates
s* = proportional difference in employment shortfall rates
q* = proportional difference in quit rates
d* = proportional difference in discharge rates
-------
163
When these computations are completed, they can be
entered onto a scatter diagram such as the one shown in Figure
5.2.
+v*
2¦ ¦
1 ¦ ¦
—W*
~2
-1
-H-
2
+W'
-1 ¦ ¦
-2 ¦¦
Figure 5.2. Relationship between Vacancy Rate and Wage Rate
In a diagram such as Figure 5.2 we would expect that as
wages in a particular plant went above the average wage, the
vacancy rate would tend to go below the average vacancy rate.
Hence if there were a cause and effect relationship between
wages and vacancy rates, we would expect to see a negative
trend in the scatter diagram, as indicated by Figure 5.3.
A positive relationship would not be expected, and the
scatter diagram depicting no definite trend, as in Figure 5.4,
would be taken as partial evidence that, in the particular case at
hand, there is no strong relationship between wages and
vacancies.
Similar analyses could be followed for the other variables
listed above. Should the scatter diagrams indicate the trends
that are expected if cause and effect relationships exist, this
would be a signal to the manpower planner to eliminate the
problem by working on eliminating the cause of the problem.
Thus, if vacancies are judged to be an important manpower
-------
+v*
Figure 5.3. One Possible Negative Relationship
between Vacancies and Wage Rates
+v*
Figure 5.1. One Possible Neutral Relationship
between Vacancies and Wage Rates
-------
165
problem and it is indicated that wages and vacancies are related
as expected, the manpower planner should then pursue those
measures aimed at increasing the wages in those plants that are
below average and in raising the wages for all workers in that
occupation throughout the state.
It is intended by OWP that in the near future certain
types of manpower analyses will be computerized. Thus the
type of analyses that we have just reviewed will be done more
rigorously by using sophisticated statistical techniques and the
facilities of the STORET system. Until such time as these anal-
yses are available, however, it will be helpful to the manpower
planner to perform the types of analyses we have suggested.
Applied Step 5: Develop training plans and action steps in re-
sponse to current and expected manpower train-
ing needs.
In the execution of this step, the manpower planner seeks
to compile data and develop plans concerning the kind of train-
ing that is to be provided in the state, the location within the
state for this training, and the number of people who should
participate. Training programs may in general be classified as
training for: (1) entry-level positions or (2) skill improvement.
Training programs for skill improvement may be further differ-
entiated according to whether the training is: (1) to upgrade the
skills of workers who are currently employed but who are, for
example, transferring from one occupation to another, or (2) to
update certain skills that may have become obsolete because of
technological change within an occupation. Training programs
for occupations within wastewater treatment plants should also
be differentiated according to the type and size of plant in
which the trainee is to be employed. In consultation with the
staff concerned with training and with the staff concerned with
the operation and maintenance of wastewater treatment plants,
the manpower planner may group the plants within his state by
type and size according to the similarity of their training needs.
The quantitative dimensions of the required training ca-
pacity for these general types of training may be determined by
data obtained in the execution of the state's training needs for a
given occupation, plant classification, and year and may be dis-
played in a table such as Table 5-5:A. Within each general classi-
-------
166
TABLE 5-5: A
Total Training Needs for Operator la for 1972
TYPG OF
TRAINING
M)
number
TO BE
TRAINED
(2)
NUMBER
TRAINED
LAST YEAR
13)
TRAINING
COSTS
LAST YEAR
(4)
CHANGE IN
NUMBER TO
BE TRAINED
1(2)-{3)1
(S>
ESTIMATED
TRAINING
COSTS THIS
YEAR
(6)
CHANGE IN
TRAINING
COSTS
((5) - <6)1
(7)
ENTRY LEVEL
UPGRADE
UPOATE
TOTAL
*Atthou0h thlft tabfa It fanaraliztd, tha manpower planner may with to eonttruct a ttmllar Ubla for «*eh plant
clarification that haa common training raouir#m«r>tt.
fication of training, the manpower planner should determine
the number that should be trained, the number trained last
year, and the difference between these numbers. If the numbers
entered in column 2 are those that have been measured in the
various substeps of Applied Step 3, the data displayed in col-
umn 4 will be a measure of the required increase in the state's
training capacity. The remaining columns give some insight into
the dimensions of the budgetary aspect of satisfying the esti-
mated training needs of the state.
Each of the aggregate training statistics can be broken
down into finer detail for each of the general classifications of
training. In Table 5-5:B we illustrate the format for such data
TABLE 5-5: B
Training Needs for Entry-Level Training for Operator la for 1972
TRAININO
PROGRAM
COOI
m
TrM OF
TRAINING
-------
167
OJT, institutional, or coupled training? This information, along
with information concerning the geographical distribution of
the required training, will help in determining the location for
such training. The remaining columns follow the pattern of Ta-
ble 5-5:A by seeking to illustrate the magnitude of the changes
in training needs and the relevant budgetary requirements of
satisfying such changes.
On occasion there may be some difficulties in determin
ing where the manpower planning process ends and the role of
manpower training begins. This is not a distinction to belabor,
though the fact that it may exist indicates the nature of other
types of information that must be provided in order that ade
quate training programs can be developed. Before individuafs
have been recruited into a training program, the content of such
a program should be determined by the type of work that the
trainee will be expected to perform. For this reason the man-
power planner should provide the staff of the training office of
his state agency (should such an office be separate from the
manpower planner's office) with the relevant occupation de-
scriptions for his state. Such descriptions will list the general
educational, specific vocation educational, and skill require-
ments for various occupations. These descriptions will, in turn,
help to determine the contents of the training programs. Fur-
thermore, the occupation description should refer to the specif-
ic categories of training within the state. This should be done in
that section of the occupation description which delineates spe-
cific vocational training.
To help those concerned with training to adjust their
curriculum to the characteristics of the labor force that is re
cruited to the positions, the manpower planner should prepare a
table such as that displayed in Table 5-5:C. Such information
gives those working in the training office an estimate of the raw
material with which they will work.
In a number of states certification programs for positions
within wastewater treatment plants have been or may shortly be
introduced. Such programs often call for a training response. To
display the important data relevant to training needs for certifi-
cation, the manpower planner should complete a table such as
Table 5-5:D. In addition to such data the manpower planner
should provide a verbal description of the nature of the certifi-
-------
168
TABLE 5-5:C
Characteristics of Individuals Participating in
Training Programs for Operator I for 1971
CLASS IF ICATION
OF
TRAINING
Distribution of years of
school completed
AVERAGE
NUMBER OF
YEARS
COMPLETED
AVERAGE
AGE
PERCENT
HAVING
PREVIOUS
TRAINING
LESS
THEN
8 YRS
8 YRS
9 U YRS
\2 YRS
OVER
12 YRS
ENTRY
UPGRADE
UPDATE
TABLE 5-5:D
Characteristics of Certification Program by Occupation for 1972
OCCUPATION
NUMBER
EMPLOYED
NUMBER THAT
REQUIRE
CERTIFICATION
PERCENT OF
THOSE WHO
NEED
CERTIFICATION
NUMBER
CERTIFIED
LAST YEAR
CERTIFICATION
CLASSIFICATION
OPERATOR 1 I
cation program which would include a description of those
skills that a worker will be required to have. Such a description
will be similar to the occupation description, as adjusted for the
peculiarities of his state, displayed in Applied Step 3.
A final task that the manpower planner should perform
relates to the nature of career ladders within his state's waste-
water treatment plant system. Career ladders provide an oppor
tunity for advancement within the occupational structure of a
wastewater treatment plant. The typical routes for such ad
vancement within the manpower planner's state system shouid
be documented. This can be done verbally, diagramaticaily, or
by the use of a table. We have illustrated in Figure 5.1 in this
chapter one possible system of career ladders. From the figure
the outlines of a table such as Table 5-5:E can be constructed
such that when the relevant data have been entered into the
tables, some quantification of the extent of career ladders with
in the state is available, though such quantification may vary
according to plant size. From Table 5-5:E we may conclude, for
-------
169
TABLE 5-5:E
Quantitative Description of Career Ladder for Operator I for 1971
OCCUPATIONS
FROM WHICH WORKERS
HAVE TRANSFERED
INTO OPERATOR I
CLASSIFICATION
(1)
NUMBER OF
ACCESSIONS
INTO
OPERATOR I
(2)
PERCENT
OF ACCESSIONS
FROM THIS
SOURCE
(3)
LABORER
AUTO EQUIPMENT
OPERATOR
CUSTODIAN
TOTAL
example, that the higher the percentage in each row of column
3, the more the occupation in question is a source of advance-
ment to Operator I classification, and the more important is
such an occupation in the career ladder structure of the waste-
water treatment plant. In Table 5-5:Ei we have a table illustrat-
TABLE 5-5;Ei
OCCUPATIONS
TO WHICH WORKERS
HAVE TRANSFERED
FROM OPERATOR I
CLASSIFICATION
NUMBER OF
TRANSFERS
FROM
OPERATOR I
PERCENT OF
TRANSFERRED
FROM
OPERATOR I
OPERATOR II
FOREMAN
OPERATIONS
SUPERVISOR
TOTAL
-------
170
ing transfers out of Operator I with similar conclusions to be
drawn from this table as from Table 5-5: E.
Much of the information that is necessary in the execu-
tion of this planning step will have to be obtained from sources
not previously mentioned. It should be possible, for example,
for some of the training data to be obtained from the staff
concerned with training wastewater treatment personnel within
the state. Other information, such as the educational profile, is
most appropriately obtained by distributing a questionnaire to
each employee in the state's wastewater treatment plant system.
In Appendix III we display a questionnaire recently circulated
by Michigan's Department of Public Health. The Michigan In-
formation Form collects such data on the employee as his edu-
cational and training background, his employment record, and
his certification status. From such data it will be possible to
generate estimates of the educational profile of the work force
for a particular occupation within the state's wastewater treat-
ment plants. It should also be possible to determine certain
aspects of training needs.
Applied Step 6: Develop and maintain a data system.
At this point in the development of a manpower planning
capability in state water pollution control agencies, it would be
an improvement on existing practices if the manpower planner
executed the previous five steps and did so with care and con-
viction. In the sixth step it is suggested that the manpower
planner record the output of all the previous steps, which can
be conveniently accomplished by completing a table such as
Table 5-6: A. Over time this table can be extended to cover
more years than illustrated in this table.
It should be recalled that as a part of Applied Step 3, a
data form was introduced for each wastewater treatment plant.
One task that should be an important aspect of Applied Step 6
is the maintenance and expansion of this data form. Because it
was unreasonable to ask those people in charge of managing a
wastewater treatment plant to make certain calculations per-
taining to employment within their particular plant, the data
included in the data form are not as complete as the manpower
planner's data system should be. It is suggested that a "sum-
mary data matrix," such as the one displayed as Table 5-6.A,
-------
TABLE 5-6:A
Summary Data Matrix of Employment
Characteristics for Operator I
CHARACTERISTICS
YEAR
1971
1972
1972
1974
I 197E
i 1976
RECOMMENDED TOTAL
RECOMMENDED FULL TIME
RECOMMENDED FULL TIME
equivalents
BUDGETED TOTAL
BUDGETED FULL TIME
BUDGETED FULL TIME
EQUIVALENTS
ACTUAL EMPLOYMENT
ACTUAL FULL TIME
ACTUAL FULL-TIME
EQUIVALENTS
ACTUAL FULL TIME
EMPLOYMENT EQUIVALENTS
ACTUAL/RECOMMENDED
EMPLOYMENT
BUDGET SHORTFALL
BUDGET SHORTFALL RATE
VACANCY
VACANCY RATE
EMPLOYMENT SHORTFALL
EMPLOYMENT SHORTFALL
RATE
TOTAL TERMINATIONS
SEPARATIONS
QUITS
discharges
DEATH AND RETIREMENT
TRANSFERS OUT
ACCESSIONS
NEW HIRES
TRANSFERS INTO
UPGRADE
HORIZONTAL
TERMINATION RATE
SEPARATION RATE
QUIT RATE
DISCHARGE RATE
DEATH / RE T1 RE ME NT RATE
TRANSFER OUT RATE
ACCESSION RATE
NEW HIRE RATE
TRANSFERS INTO RATE
UPGRADE RATE
HORIZONTAL RATE
NUMBER TRAINED
NUMBER THAT REQUIRE
TRAINING
TOTAL. NUMBER
CERTIFIED
NUMBER C£ RTIFIED
THIS YfcAR
-------
172
for this reason be maintained for each plant within the state's
wastewater treatment system. Such a form is not as formidable
to maintain as it may first appear to be because for many
plants, the entries will not change significantly from year to
year. Furthermore, the information needed to update and main-
tain such a form, especially for the smaller plants within the
state's system, could be obtained by a simple telephone call. A
plant manager could have been provided with a copy of the data
form for the preceding year and asked merely to report the
changes in employment that may have occurred.
Applied Step 7: Monitor and Evaluate the Manpower Planning
Process
This action step provides the planner with the means for
measuring his effectiveness and, of equal importance, a proce-
dure for improving the planning process. By definition, the
process of planning requires both preview and review of the task
to be performed. This suggests that the planner view his func-
tion as a continuous process of iteration and reiteration. The
results should be a refinement of both data inputs and judg-
ments. Evaluation, therefore, is not the final step in the plan-
ning process; it represents a milestone the planner can use to
signal a return and critical review of each of the previous steps.
The initial part of the execution of this step is intended
to provide the planner with a set of basic questions he will want
to consider and a means for measuring the progress achieved
relative to each applied step. The more frequent his review and
the more specific his response, the higher the quality of the
feedback into the planning process.
The manpower planner should complete Table 5-7:A,
checking that statement which best describes the status of his
various activities.
An important aspect of the monitoring and evaluation of
the manpower planning process is the investigation of the accu-
racy with which the values of future manpower variables are
projected. To facilitate such an investigation, the manpower
planner should complete a table such as Table 5-7:B. If the
numbers in column 4 are negative, the projected values are
-------
TABLE 5-7: A
Evaluation Check-Off
Applied Step 1
Applied Step 2
Applied Step 3
Applied Step 4
Applied Step 5
Applied Step 6
Applied Step 7
Determination has
not begun or has
been delayed.
Study of objectives
has not begun.
Design of survey has
not begun.
Analysis of
problems has not
begun.
Action on training
needs has not
begun.
3ata requirements
are not known.
Evaluation
procedure has not
begun.
Study of field has
begun.
Agency objectives
have not begun.
Survey instrument
has been devel-
oped, field tested,
and data collected.
The identification
of problem areas
has been com-
pleted.
Contact has been
established with
training authori-
ties.
Data requirements
have been
specified.
Evaluation
procedure is being
developed.
Determination of
field is in progress.
Agency objectives
have been
analyzed.
Analysis of data
under way and
employment levels
have been
determined.
Isolation of
problems is well
under way.
Training require-
ments specified,
needs established,
and program
elements iden-
tified.
Data requirements
are being collected.
E valuation
procedures have
been identified and
being set up.
Determination of
field is well under
way.
Tentative manpower
objectives have
been formulated.
Identification of
employment
characteristics has
been completed.
Analysis of specific
problems has been
completed.
Funding commit-
ments made,
facilities made
available, and staff
assigned.
Data requirements
have bean
collected and
organized.
E valuation
procedures have
been established
and under way.
Comprehensive and
in-depth study has
been completed.
Manpower
objectives have
been derived from
a ge ncy obj ectives
in detail.
Future estimates of
employment
requirements have
been determined.
Rank order of
importance has
been assigned to
problems.
Arrangements
completed to
provide training as
required on a
regular basis.
Information system
has been installed
and is operating.
Evaluation
p r ocedure has
been accom-
plished-
-------
174
TABLE 5-7:B
Comparison of Projected and Actual Values
of Manpower Variables for Operator I for 1972
MANPOWER
VARIABLE
PROJECTED
VALUE
ACTUAL
VALUE
PERCENTAGE
DIFFERENCE
[-"aM
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
RECOMMENDED
EMPLOYMENT
BUDGETED EMPLOYMENT
ACTUAL EMPLOYMENT
ADDITIONAL MANPOWER
NEEDS
greater than the actual values, and if positive, the projected
values are smaller than the actual values. From such information
the manpower planner must try to determine the cause of the
projection error and make the judgmental decision of what con-
stitutes a significant error. In executing the planning process
during the next time period, he should adjust his projection
techniques in accordance with the errors displayed in Table
5-7:B. Errors displayed in this table should provide input into
the next cycle of manpower planning activities by indicating to
the manpower planner those areas of his plan that are in need of
the greatest adjustment.
-------
APPENDIX I
DOL/EPA Survey
-------
DOL/EPA Survey
177
(J.5, DKPAH TMI N T Of LAUOH
MtApvwir Admimilraliun niNT
DATA ON EMPLOYMENT IN MUNICIPAL WASTE TREATMENT PLANTS IN BLACK INK
_ OlilSriONNAIHt A,
1. ESTABLISHMENT NO.
TVFZrl
CODE
i. STATE NAME
7. TYPE Of TREATMENT CODE
19. MILLION GALLONS PER DAY
I. TVPg M TflgATM?hf"KAMg
II. NAM^ ANO ADDRESS OF E5TAOLl4MM£AIT
7
udtr
COUN1 VIS, £M£A
COOE I COOE
6. BASIN
COOE
i POPULATION GROUP SERVED
1Z. STATE INFLATION FACTOR
ii. SMiA INPLATiM PAtt6k
_ABQR TURNOVER'P
RECEDING YEAR
WAGES
ft
EMPLOYMENT
Accessions
tnl«fA»l
TrjMtet
Separation*
VACANCIES
SELECTED
wastewater
TREATMENT PLANT
OCCUPATIONS
a
2
}
Z
u
Z
m
o
c
3
u
c I
3 =
U 5
IL
O
*
•» —
ll
3
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Total (Ad Occupations}
01
Superintendent
02
Au't. Superintendent
03
j
Opefiticnf Supervisor
04
!
Shift Foreman
05
Operator It
06
Operator 1
07
!
Maintenance Supervisor
08
Mech- Maint Foreman
09
Mechanic 11
10
Mechanic 1
11
Maintenance Helper
12
Electrician 11
13
Electrician f
14
Cb»mJ*t
15
Laboratory Technician
16
Storekeeper
17
X '
I
Cletk Typist
13
i
Auto Equipment Operator
19
1
i
Custodian
20
|
Painter
21
I
Laborer
22
I
Other
23
NARRATIVE SECTION (Check one'
1. Ii thr treatment facility meeting the discharge requirements established at the ume of dewjn? . ~ Yes G No
2. I* thf treatment facility meeting current durh.jrt/e requirements* - CD Ye* CJ No
tf "No," check the item thai identifies the most important reason CJ Hydrjuiic overtoarf L' Organic overload
Cl Inadequate O&M budqet ZTJ lnarirr>
-------
178
EMPLOYMENT PROJECTIONS FOR EXISTING MUNICIPAL WASTE TREATMENT PLANTS
QUESTIONNAIRE ft
NAME ANO ADDRESS OF ESTABLISHMENT
AVERAGE EMPLOYMENT FOR OCTOBER
selected wastewater
ACTUAL
PROJECTEO
TREATMENT PLANT
OCCUPATIONS
MO,
1970
l»7l
1172
1*7]
1 #74
>«7S
•
b
C
d
e
r
Total (All Occupation*)
01
Superintendent
0!
Ait't. Superintendent
03
Operation* Supervise*
04
Shift Foreman
OS
Operator U
06
Operator 1
07
Maintenance Supervisor
08
Meek. Mkihl. Foremen
09
Mechanic II
10
Mechanic I
11
Maintenance Helper
12
Electrician tl
13
Electrician 1
14
Chem i* t
15
Laboratory Technician
16
Storekeeper
17
Clerk Typist
18
Auto. Kquip. Operator
19
Custodian
20
Painter
21
Laborer
22
Other
23
MA 7^20
Apr l*7|
-------
179
EMPLOYMENT PROJECTIONS FOR NEW MUNICIPAL WASTE TREATMENT PLANTS
questionnaire c
name and address of establishment
AVERAGE EMPLOYMENT FOR OCTOBER
SELECTED
LINE
NO,
ACTUAL
PROJECTED
WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT
OCCUPATIONS
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
a
b
c
d
e
F
Total (All Oo < u|iaiinns)
01
Su|H'rinti'nd<'iu
02
Ass*l. Supe'rinirfidfiii
03
1
Operation* Supervisor
04
Shift Korcm.in
05
Oprr«lor II
06
OpCMtor 1
07
Maimt'fi.i4i< (..* Supi-rvism
OB
Mc
-------
APPENDIX II
-------
Appendix II
MANPOWER ADMINISTRATION - ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION AGENCY: JOINT SURVEY OF
MUNICIPAL WASTE TREATMENT PLANTS
JOB DESCRIPTIONS OF OCCUPATION CATEGORIES
SUPERINTENDENT:
Responsible for administration, operation, and maintenance of
entire plant. Exercises direct authority over all plant functions
and personnel, in accordance with approved policies and pro-
cedures. Inspects plant regularly. Analyzes and evaluates opera-
tion and maintenance functions; initiates or recommends new
or improved practices. Develops plans and procedures to ensure
efficient operation of present plant and provide for projected
future requirements. Recommends plant improvements and ad-
ditions. Co-ordinates data and prepares or reviews and approves
operation reports and budget requests. Controls expenditure of
budgeted funds and requests approval for major expenditures, if
required. Recommends specifications for major equipment and
material purchases. Organizes and directs activities of plant per-
sonnel. Maintains effective communications and working rela-
tionships with employees, government officials, and general
public. Designated as Superintendent I or II, depending upon
size and complexity of plant.
ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT:
Assists in administrative engineering and supervisory duties,
under general direction of superintendent. Serves as superinten-
dent in his absence. Aids in analyzing and evaluating operating
and maintenance procedures, and in developing new or im-
proved practices. Participates in maintenance of operating rec-
ords, compilation of data, and report preparation. Assists in
employee training. Inspects plant. Assists in planning special
maintenance work and minor plant alterations. Designated As-
-------
184
sistant Superintendent I or II, depending upon size and com-
plexity of plant.
CLERK TYPIST:
Performs any combination of following tasks and/or other cleri-
cal duties. Operates typewriter and other standard office ma-
chines and equipment; including adding machine, calculator,
and duplicating machine. Serves as secretary to superintendent.
Acts as receptionist. Responsible for personal work determina-
tion in accordance with established precedent or policy. Sets up
simple office routines and filing systems. Minor supervisory re-
sponsibilities. Composes routine correspondence. Answers tele-
phone and handles routine inquiries from public. Typing in-
cludes tables, reports, requisitions, forms, and other material
from copy, draft, or dictating machines; frequently involving
judgment regarding format or information to be included. Cleri-
cal duties include maintaining financial records not requiring
technical bookkeeping skills. Duties ordinarily include posting,
filing/sorting, and other routine clerical functions.
OPERATIONS SUPERVISOR:
Supervises and co-ordinates activities of plant operators, labor-
ers, custodians, and/or laboratory personnel. Prepares work
schedules, subject to approval of superintendent or assistant.
Analyzes recording instrument readings and laboratory test re-
sults, adjusts various plant processes accordingly. Prepares re-
ports and maintains records. Inspects plant to determine effi-
ciency of operation, cleanliness, and maintenance requirements.
Instructs and directs operators. Determines remedial action in
emergencies. Conducts training program. Requisitions chemicals
and supplies. Performs duties of assistant superintendent in his
absence.
SHIFT FOREMAN:
Supervises operation of plant, under general direction of supe-
riors. Performs duties of maintenance supervisor or foreman in
their absence. Supervises, instructs, and assigns specific duties to
shift workers. Reviews and evaluates work performance. Partici-
pates in training programs. Inspects plant equipment and proc-
esses regularly. Analyzes instrument readings and laboratory
test results. Determines site and causes of any malfunctions.
-------
185
Orders, supervises, or participates in required adjustments or
repairs. Maintains and evaluates operating records. Replaces
operator or maintenance worker during emergency situations.
Communicates with other shift foremen regarding plant condi-
tions.
OPERATOR II:
Performs any combination of following tasks pertinent to con-
trolling operation of plant. Operates wastewater treatment,
sludge processing, and disposal equipment to control flow and
processing of wastewater, sludge, and effluent. Monitors gauges,
meters and control panels. Observes variations in operating con-
ditions and interprets meter and gauge readings and test results
to determine processing requirements. Operates valves and gates
either manually or by remote control; starts and stops pumps,
engines and generators to control and adjust flow and treatment
processes. Maintains shift log and records meter and gauge read-
ings. Extracts samples and performs routine laboratory tests and
analyses. Performs routine maintenance functionsand custodial
duties. Operates and maintains power generating equipment and
incinerators. Classified by titles such as Pump Station Operator
or Digestor Operator when performing specialized activities
only.
OPERATOR I:
Assists Operator II in performance of any combination of fol-
lowing tasks pertinent to controlling operation of plant or per-
forms various tasks as directed. Operates wastewater treatment,
sludge processing, and disposal equipment to control flow and
processing of wastewater, sludge, and effluent. Monitors gauges,
meters, and control panels. Observes variations in operating con-
ditions and interprets meter and gauge readings and test results
to determine processing requirements. Operates valves and gates
either manually or by remote control; starts and stops pumps,
engines, and generators to control and adjust flow and treat-
ment processes as required. Maintains shift log and records me-
ter and gauge readings. Extracts samples and performs routine
laboratory tests and analyses. Performs routine maintenance
functions and custodial duties. Operates and maintains power
generating equipment and incinerators. Classified by title such
as Pump Station Operator I, or Digester Operator I when per-
forming specialized activities only.
-------
186
MAINTENANCE SUPERVISOR:
Supervises all preventive and corrective maintenance on plant
and equipment. Plans, schedules, and directs maintenance of
wide variety of specialized mechanical and electrical equipment
plus buildings, structures, and grounds. Inspects plant frequent-
ly to ensure proper maintenance procedures. Determines neces-
sity for and establishes long-range maintenance programs. De-
cides remedial action in emergency situations. Assigns work to
Mechanical Maintenance Foreman and Electricians. Supervises
installation and testing of new or rebuilt equipment. Supervises
and instructs maintenance personnel. Supervises inspection of
subcontracted maintenance work. Submits maintenance budget
requests. Supervises maintenance records. Performs related
work as required.
MECHANICAL MAINTENANCE FOREMAN:
Supervises mechanical maintenance crew in performance of
wide variety of maintenance and repair tasks on machinery,
equipment, buildings, structures, and grounds. Duties include
any combination of tasks such as the following: Assigns tasks to
maintenance crew. Directs and/or participates in maintenance
and repair tasks as required. Supervises and instructs mainte-
nance personnel on routine and emergency tasks. Consults supe-
riors regarding preventive maintenance program. Establishes and
operates preventive program. Inspects plant and mechanical
equipment for malfunctions and needed repairs. Determines re-
pair methods. Consults with superior and/or manufacturer's rep-
resentatives on difficult or complicated repairs. Keeps mainte-
nance records. Works with subcontractors.
MAINTENANCE MECHANIC II:
Performs preventive maintenance and repairs on mechanical and
electro-mechanical machinery and equipment, under general di-
rect ion of superior. Maintains buildings, structures, and
grounds. Duties include any combination of tasks such as fol-
lowing: Lubricates equipment and checks for malfunctions. Re-
places packing in pumps or valves. Replaces bearings in motors,
pumps, and other equipment. Adjusts and cleans bar screens,
commtnutors, and weir plates. Cleans out pipes and performs
other plumbing and pipefitting tasks as required. Uses gas and/
or arc welding equipment to heat, cut, braze, or weld. Performs
-------
187
duties of electrician and/or painter in their absence. Relines
incinerator with firebrick. Installs and sets up new equipment.
Assists in keeping maintenance records. Supervises, instructs,
and inspects work of Mechanic I, Operator-Mechanic, Mainte-
nance Worker, or Laborer to ensure proper performance of
maintenance work or repairs. Performs general maintenance and
repair tasks on buildings, structures, and grounds.
MAINTENANCE MECHANIC I:
Performs or assists in performance of preventive maintenance
and repairs on mechnical and electro-mechanical machinery and
equipment, under direction of Mechanic II, Foreman, or Super-
visor. Maintains buildings, structures, and grounds. Duties in-
clude any combination of tasks such as following: Lubricates
motors and equipment and checks for malfunction. Replaces
packing in pumps and valves. Replaces bearings in motors,
pumps, and other equipment. Adjusts and cleans bar screens,
comminutors, and weir plates. Installs and sets up new equip-
ment. Cleans out pipes and performs other plumbing and pipe-
fitting tasks as required. Uses gas and/or arc welding equipment
to heat, cut, braze, or weld. Performs duties of electrician and/
or painter in their absence. Assists Mechanic II and/or Foreman
on difficult or highly complicated maintenance or repair tasks.
Performs general maintenance and repair tasks on buildings,
structures and grounds; including limited laboring and custodial
tasks. Assists in keeping maintenance records.
MAINTENANCE HELPER:
Assists maintenance mechanics in maintaining and repairing
equipment, machinery, buildings, and grounds. Duties include
any combination of tasks such as following: Cleans and lubri-
cates pumps, motors, and related equipment. Assists in remov-
ing, repairing, and replacing equipment as directed. Performs
routine building maintenance work. Performs simple repairs and
adjustments to equipment. Keeps simple records. Carries or
holds materials, supplies, or tools to assist mechanics, elec-
tricians, or painters. Performs laborer tasks as required.
ELECTRICIAN II:
Inspects, repairs, and maintains electrical and/or electronic op-
erating and control systems, equipment, and fixtures; including
-------
188
instrumentation and heating and cooling systems. Exercises in-
dependent judgment in solving normal work problems under
general supervision of maintenance supervisor or assistant super-
intendent, uses standard and special electrical tools and equip-
ment, such as voltmeters, ammeters, and synchroscopes. Duties
include any combination of tasks such as following: Inspects,
maintains and repairs wiring and lighting systems, electrical con-
trol equipment, meters, outlets, and panels. Installs new equip-
ment. Interprets oral and written instructions, specifications,
wiring diagrams and codes. Supervises Electrician I, Mainte-
nance Helper, and /or Laborer. Establishes and operates sched-
uled maintenance program for plant equipment. Repairs elec-
trical and electronic instruments. Keeps maintenance records.
Prepares labor and material estimates.
ELECTRICIAN I:
Participates in installation, maintenance, and repair of electrical
systems, equipment, and fixtures. Assists Electrician II in partic-
ularly difficult or complicated tasks. Work frequently per-
formed independently, subject to inspection by superiors. Fol-
lows oral and written instructions including specifications,
wiring diagrams, and codes. Duties include any combination of
tasks such as following: Inspects, maintains, and repairs wiring
and lighting systems, electrical control equipment, meters, out-
lets, and panels. Installs new equipment. Supervises mainte-
nance helper and/or laborer. Repairs electrical instruments.
Keeps maintenance records.
CHEMIST:
Supervises and performs specialized and complex chemical, bac-
teriological and physical tests and analyses of raw, partially
treated, and treated wastewater and by-products to determine
efficiency of plant processes and ensure that plant effluent
meets local, state, and federal requirements. Conducts or super-
vises less complex routine tests. Supervises collection of labora-
tory samples. When laboratory technician is present, supervises
technician and provides routine procedures to be followed.
Evaluates and interprets test results, establishes test priorities,
prepares reports, and supervises laboratory technicians. Assem-
bles data, maintains records, and prepares periodic reports. Sets
up pilot processes when conducting research on improved pro-
-------
189
cedures. Provides direct or indirect instructions to operating
personnel regarding chemical requirements and adjustments,
changes, or additions to various treatment processes. Classified
as Chief Chemist, Chemist I or Chemist II, or Research Chemist
according to function performed.
LABORATORY TECHNICIAN:
Performs any combination of the following routine laboratory
tasks as instructed by chemist. Collects samples of plant in-
fluent, partially treated wastewater, sludge, effluent, and other
by-products. Assembles instruments and equipment for analyti-
cal or research work. Prepares chemical and bacteriological me-
dia, stains, reagents, and test solutions routinely used in labora-
tory. Operates equipment and conducts tests as directed.
Maintains test result records, prepares data sheets. Prepares or
assists in preparation of reports. Cleans, maintains and stores
instruments and equipment. Maintains inventory and order sup-
plies. Performs custodial duties in laboratory. Operates labora-
tory in small primary treatment or trickling filter plant in ab-
sence of chemist.
STOREKEEPER:
Requisitions, receives, stores, and issues supplies, tools, and
equipment. Maintains inventory records and controls. Duties in-
clude any combination of tasks such as following: Inspects in-
coming stock to verify quantity, quality, and adherence to spec-
ifications. Identifies and stores material. Fills orders and issues
supplies from stock. Prepares periodic or perpetual inventory.
Requisitions replacement quantities of stock items as necessary.
Compiles records and reports of material used, spoilage or other
loss, inventory adjustments, and refusal of shipments. Recom-
mends changes in established procedures. Determines methods
of storage, identification, and location of stock. Divides stock
quantities into portions to fill orders.
AUTOMOTIVE EQUIPMENT OPERATOR:
Operates automotive equipment such as dump truck, tank
truck, fork lift, or tractor to perform any combination of tasks
such as following: Loads or assists in loading grit, sludge, or
other disposable material. Hauls material from plant to disposal
area. Unloads material at destination. Operates tractor to cut
-------
190
grass or weeds, bulldoze soil, or remove snow. Performs mainte-
nance on vehicles.
CUSTODIAN:
Cleans all or designated portions of wastewater treatment plant
and grounds. Performs any combination of tasks such as follow-
ing in accordance with established procedures, subject to inspec-
tion for adherence to required standards of cleanliness and com-
pliance with instructions. Sweeps, mops, waxes, and polishes
floors; washes walls and woodwork; dusts furniture, piping,
valves, etc. Washes and polishes windows and metal surfaces.
Cleans restrooms and maintains supplies. Empties wastecans and
ashtrays. Polices and performs general custodial duties on
grounds, including picking up litter and sweeping walks. May
shovel snow and cut grass. Adjusts heat and air conditioning
controls. Reports any repairs or adjustments required. Acts as
watchman. Washes and polishes cars and trucks.
PAINTER:
Performs all types of painting work, including any combination
of tasks such as following: Under general supervision of Mainte-
nance Foreman or Shift Foreman. Prepares various surfaces for
painting by washing, scraping, burning, sanding, sand-blasting or
other means as necessary. Mixes, matches, and blends various
paints, enamels, lacquers, varnishes, stains and special protective
coatings to achieve desired color, consistency, and drying prop-
erties. Caulks, putties, cements, or plasters holes and cracks.
Cuts and replaces glass in windows and doors. Erects and uses
ladders, scaffolding, and swinging stage equipment as required.
Paints buildings, structures, equipment, and furniture using
brush, roller, spray gun or other applicator. Prepares wall and
hangs paper or other wall-covering material. Performs simple
sign-painting, using stencils. Requisitions material and equip-
ment. Cleans and stores tools and equipment. Cleans up work
site or arranges for laborer to clean up.
LABORER:
Performs any combination of following: Tasks in Wastewater
Treatment Plant. Cleans equipment such as bar screens, com-
minutors, and weirs. Lubricates machinery, loads and unloads
trucks; spreads sand, gravel, and dirt. Drives truck. Paints
-------
191
(rough) and performs other minor maintenance. Digs and refills
ditches. Cleans drains, ditches, and culverts. Cuts grass, weeds,
and brush; trims trees and bushes; rakes grass, leaves, and trash;
seeds and cares for lawn and ornamental plantings. Removes
snow and ice from walkways, driveways, and equipment. Col-
lects and disposes of trash and garbage. Washes and cleans
vehicles, tools, and equipment. Carries or holds material,
supplies, or tools to assist maintenance personnel.
-------
APPENDIX til
-------
195
WWTP - J
WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT OPERATORS
INFORMATION FORM
SOCIAL SECURITY NUMBER;
NAME (U*r. Firtl, MiddU tnit.i
HOME MAILING ADDRESS:
POST OFFlCEi
STATE
ZIP CODE:
HOME PHONE NQ:<(*cfu4t Arwa Co4*1
BIRTM0A TCi
SEX;
EMPLOYMENT STATUS;
1. Q male
i Q active i. Q ikactivb
i. Q rewAn
J. ~ flCTIRCO
PRESENT EMPLOYMENT (Fill in Mow):
NAME OF PLANtt
PLANT MAILING ADDRESS:
POSITION TITLE:
STATUS:
t. Q FULL TIME
2. Q PART TIME
3. Q SEASONAL
WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT CERTIFICATE (Fill in ImIow):
1. 0 CLASS A
2. 0 CLASS 0
3. 0 CLASS C
4. 0 CLASS 0
5- ~ NOT
C€ftT1FlEO
WATER TREATMENT CERTIFICATES (Fill In tulsw):
>. 0 f i
2. 0 F 2
3. 0 r 3
4. 0 a .
s. 0 02
6 0 M
7. 0 T
PROFESSIONAL STATUS (Fill In b«lsw)i
I. O ENGINEER
HESrSTEBED: 1. ~ YES i ~ NO
REGISTRATION NO-.
2 0 SANITARIAN
HECWTEnED: I. Q»« 2- ~ MO
REGISTRATION NO-.
3. Q OTHER:
HEGISTEHED: '• ~ YIS * ~ HO
REtltSTKATtON NO:
MILITARY STATUS/
VETERAN: 1. 0 YES 2. 0 NO
DRAFT CLASS:
I hereby certify th«t the information contained herein is accurate and complete.
SrfMfur*
Omit
-------
196
EDUCATION AND TRAINING - DIVISION I wwtp - n
GRAMMAR SCHOOL (Orel* kigk«H grmdt yam ccmpUtmd in Crwmmm* ScAoofl; I 2 3 4 5 6 7 6
HIGHER EOUCATION
HIGH SCHOOL
COURSE OF
STUDY
CIRCLE HIGHEST
GRADE COMPLETED
Data F*«m
Mo. . Yr.
Dot* To
Mo, . Yt.
DID YOU
GRADUATE?
NAME:
9 10 11 12
'¦ ~ v«
*• ~ NO
LOCATION:
NAm£(
9 10 11 12
'¦ ~ YtS
1- ~ NO
LOCATION:
IF YOU OI0 NOT GRADUATE FROM HIGH SCHOOL, HAVE YOU OBTAINED Q YgS IF YES - DATE
A STANDARO HIGH SCHOOL EQUIVALENCY G.EO. CERTIFICATE? 2. £] NO EARNED (Mo.-Yr.)
>UNI0* COLLEGES, COLLEGES YOU HAVE ATTENDED (LUt WM:
NAME:
MAJOR:
OATES ATTENDED
NAME OF DEGREE:
From (Mo.-Yr.);
To (Mo.-Yr.)!
LOCATION;
MIHOR:
YEAR OF DEGREE:
NAME"
MAJOR:
DATES ATTENDED
NAME or DtGRCC.
From (Mo.-Yr.):
To (Mo.-Yr,)j
LOCATION:
MINOR:
YEAR of DEGREE:
NAME:
MAJOR:
DATES ATTENDED
NAME of 0EGR6E:
From (Mo.-Yr.}:
To (Mo.-Yr.):
LOCATION:
MINOR:
YEAR or DEGREE:
HOW MANY HOURS CREDIT HAVE YOU OBTAINED FROM AN ACCREDITED COLLEGE IFiU in *•/otrt-*
NOTE.' Ttm credits aro obtained in ¦ school offering 3 twalve--weeli periods from September to Jon*. Semestar credit* are obtained In a school offering
2 of 3 lixttm-wMli p*riodt annually. If you ot tended mrt than thro* colleges, use additional sheets of paper and attach.
GRADUATE
UNDERGRADUATE
UNOERGRAOUATE
SEMESTER CREDITS: .
GRADUATE
TERM CREDITS:
WHAT BUSINESS, TRADE, OR OTHER SCHOOLS HAVE YOU ATTENDED Undoing coarse* wbtU in mitiury itrvtct):
NOTE: Include arty e*lentio/i or corrsspondence courses you hov« completed. List in sequence from eorliost data to pressfll, Giva nam* of school, or
sponsoring agency, location, course title of lobjttr notorial, bi|lnfling and ending datas of attendance, and hows in class por week. For correspondence
counts, chock proper box. Include so«h courses es 'Gull Lake Laboratory Course', bwt do not include short duration activities such a*, 'Wastewater Plant
Operator Fall Training Session,'
NAME:
COURSE TITLE OR SUBJECT:
DATES ATTENDED
HOURS IN
CLASS PER Wk.
From (Mo.-Yr.)
To (Mo.-Yr.)
LOCATION:
CORRESPONDENCE
COURSE: T'J YES
NAME:
COURSE TITLE OR SUBJECT*
DATES ATTENDED
HOURS IN
CLASS PER WK,
From (Mo.-Yr.)
To (Mo.-Yr.)
LOCAT ION:
CORRESPONDENCE
COURSE: Q YES
NAME
COURSE TITLE OR SUBJECT:
DATES ATTENDED
HOURS IN
CLASS PER Wr.
From(Mo.-Yr.)
To (Mo.-Yr.)
LOCATION:
CORRESPONDENCE
COURSE: ["^ YES
NAME
COURSE TITLE OR SUBJECT:
DATES ATTENDED
HOURS IN
CLASS PER Wk,
From (Mo.*Y».)
To (Mo.-Yr.)
LOCATION:
CORRESPONDENCE
COURSE: [_] YES
NAME
COURSE TITLE OR SUBJECT;
DATES ATTENDED
HOURS IN
CLASS PER WK.
From (Mo.-Yr,)
Tq (Mo,-Y*.)
LOCATION:
CORRESPONDENCE
COURSE: [_] YES
NAME
COURSE TITLE OR SUBJECT:
DATES A1
TENDED
HOURS IN
CLASS PER WK.
From (Mc,*Yt,)
To (Mo.-Yr.)
LOCATION:
CORRESPONDENCE
COURSE: Q YES
IF YOU HAVE ATTENDED MORE THAN SIX SPECIAL STUDIES COURSES. USE ADDITIONAL SHEETS OF PAPER AND ATTACH.
-------
197
EXPERIENCE - DIVISION II
YEAR ENTERED WORK IN
AREAS IN WHICH YOU ARE MOST KNOWLEDGEABLE:
WA^TflHATFD tBP4TUfNT P\ A|JT.
1,
2*
~
~
PRIMARY TREATMENT W/DIGESTERS
ACTIVATED SLUDGE
NUMBER OF YEARS OF EXPERIENCE INt
I, primary trfatmfnt
9.
fl
TRICKLING FILTER
2 ACTIVATED SLUC"?*
4.
n
LABORATORY
J trickling pi* tfb
8.
n
MECHANICAL WORK
4 j A0ORATnOY ,
s.
n
ELECTRICAL WORK
5, niGFSTERS
7.
~
VACUUM FILTERS
fi VACUilM FILTERS .
B.
H
INCINERATOR
7 INCINERATOR
9
~
ath PR-
B RAPIO SANO FILTER
EMPLOYMENT RECORD (Fill In b*low)i
NOTE; Beginning with yew praaant or last employment and continuing rn rovorao timo or dor, li•* end doieribo In dotoil in tho apoca* pnvidtd, and on
•dditianel ahoot» if nocoaaory, ovary poaitlon which you hova tilled aince the beginning of yOuf wo»t«woler treatment plant »*orfc ouperionce including
the* while in the militafy a or vice. If yaw hove hald two ar mora petitions lot the soma plant of dlMorent levoli of ra»pon«i1)4|»ty or «ri*b dilforent dwtiea.
lie* and describe than aeporotely tha tana aa though ihia had been for aepdrote employer*.
plant LOCATION:
POSITION TITLE; S. ~ CHIEF CHEMIST
T. ~ SUPERINTENDENT 6. 0 LAB. TECHNICIAN
2. ~ ASST. SUPERINTENDENT 7. ~ MECHANIC
3. n SHIFT SUPERVISOR 8. ~ ELECTRICIAN
A n nCfBATOP 9. OTHFR:
DATE From (Mo.-Yr.)
DATE Ts (Mo.-Yr.)
No. Employees
Supervised
by you: .
DESCRIPTION OF DUTIES fB* Sp*c,/ic>.-
PLANT LOCATION:
POSITION TITLE: 5 Q CHIEF CHEMIST
1. 0 SUPERINTENDENT 6. 0 LAB. TECHNICIAN
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G LOSSA R Y
Accessions
Additions to establishment's employment roll within the
preceding year
Accession rate
Total accessions divided by current full-time employ-
ment
Horizontal—number of people who transferred into the
occupation from a similar occupation in a wastewater
treatment plant
Horizontal rate —total number of horizontal transfers di-
vided by total number of transfers
New hires —number of people hired within the past year
who were obtained from external labor supply sources
New hire rate—number of new hires divided by number
of accessions
Transfers into —number of people entering a particular
occupation who were transferred from some other
occupation either within the same wastewater treat-
ment plant or from some other plant in the state
Transfer into rate — number of people transferring into
the occupation divided by accession rate
Upgrade—that number of people who transferred into the
occupation from some other occupation requiring
fewer skills and less educational background
Upgrade rate—total number of upgrade transfers divided
by the total number of transfers
Associate degree
An educational degree usually signifying completion of
two years of prescribed college or university level course-
work
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200
Bachelor's degree
An educational degree usually signifying completion of
four years of prescribed college or university work
Basic education
The education essential to take care of one's self, usually
including basic language, mathematics, and other commu-
nication skills
Basic plan
A plan for achieving water quality standards within an
area drained by a river and its tributaries
Bilingual
Communication in two languages
Biochemical oxygen demand
The quantity of oxygen used in the biochemical oxida-
tion of organic matter in a specified time, at a specified
temperature, and under specified conditions. This term
also refers to a standard test used in assessing wastewater
strength.
Career education
A concept of education which brings together both gen-
eral and vocational education in mutual support to assist
the individual in the development and maintenance of a
career throughout a working life
Career ladder
The various skid or developmental steps, arranged from
the lowest level to the highest, in a career area
Categorical programs
Government programs to meet a specific need
Certification
The granting of a certificate which states that an individ-
ual has successfully completed a given course or a series
of related courses and indicating that the individual is
qualified to perform a given function
Client
An individual making use of the services of an agency
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201
Community Action Agency (CAA)
A local agency formed and funded by the Office of Eco-
nomic Opportunity for the purpose of representing the
poor and providing certain programs of assistance with a
high degree of client control. Sometimes referred to as
the Community Action Programs (CAP).
Community college
A two-year educational institution with minimal en-
trance requirements, established to serve the post-
secondary and remedial educational needs of a communi-
ty
Concentrated Employment Program (CEP)
A federally funded program to bring together all needed
manpower services within a limited target area to provide
concentrated services to the disadvantaged
Cooperative Area Manpower Planning System (CAMPS)
A system established by federal agencies engaged in man-
power development activities for the coordination of
such activities at the local, state, regional, and national
levels
Cooperative education
A work-study program at the college level enabling a stu-
dent to work about half time while pursuing a college
program, under the supervision and control of the educa-
tional institution
Cost-effective approach
The use of an approach to the attaining of certain objec-
tives which has the least cost for the greatest effectiveness
Coupled classroom
A program bringing work and classroom experience to-
gether, each reinforcing the other through a coordinated
curriculum of activities
Decategorization
The elimination of categories
Decentralization
The delegation of authority and responsibility to subsidi-
ary units
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202
Direct training
The training developed and offered by an agency
Disadvantages
Those meeting federal standards
(1) Poverty level incomes and
(2) Unemployed or underemployed and
(a) Under 23 or
|b) Over 45 or
(c) Minority or
(d) Handicapped or
(e) High school dropout
Doctorate degree
A professional degree offered by universities and colleges
following successful completion of several years of work
beyond the bachelor's degree signifying that the recipient
is a scholar in a given field of learning
Dropout
One who leaves school before completion of a given pro-
gram
Economic Opportunity Act
The federal act of 1964 setting up the Office of Econom-
ic Opportunity with the avowed purpose of eliminating
poverty by opening to everyone the opportunity for "ed-
ucation, training, work, decency, and dignity "
Education
The process of developing knowledge, skill, mind, and
character
Effluent
Wastewater or other liquid, partially or completely treat-
ed, or in its natural state, flowing out of a treatment
plant
Elementary education
The education from kindergarten through 6th grade
Employment
Actual employment—number of people employed at the
time the survey was taken
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203
Actual full-time employment—number of people em-
ployed at the time the survey was taken who worked at
least 36 hours a week
Actual full-time equivalents-total number of hours
worked by all people employed divided by 40
Actual part-time employment—number of people em-
ployed at the time the survey was taken who worked
less than 36 hours a week
Authorized employment —number of people allowed in
the budget for the wastewater treatment plant
Authorized full-time employment—the number of people
allowed in the budget for the wastewater treatment
plant who worked at least 36 hours a week
Authorized full-time equivalents—number of hours
worked by all people authorized for employment divid-
ed by 40
Authorized part-time employment—the number of people
allowed in the budget for the wastewater treatment
plant who worked less than 36 hours a week
Recommended employment—the number of people who
if currently employed would maximize the plant's effec-
tive operations
Recommended full-time employment—the number of
people who if currently employed would maximize the
plant's effective operation who would work at least 36
hours a week
Recommended full-time equivalents—total number of rec-
ommended hours of work divided by 40
Recommended part-time employment—the number of
people who if currently employed would maximize the
plant's effective operation who would work less than 36
hours a week
Evaluate
To determine the degree to which the objectives of a
program are met
External labor market
That labor market lying outside the industry
Feedback
Making available to a program the results of monitoring
and evaluation so that the program can be continuously
improved
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204
Fringe benefits
Those nonmonetary rewards or benefits provided by an
employer
Full employment
The employment of all persons willing and able to work.
Statistically this is about 95—96 percent of the labor force
General education development diploma (G.E.D.)
A program designed for school dropouts to give them the
development equivalent to that received from securing a
high school diploma, and generally accepted in lieu of
that diploma
Graduate training
Education and training beyond the bachelor's degree
Gross national product (GNP)
The market value of all goods and services produced by a
nation for the marketplace
Hands-on
Experience using actual equipment
Higher education
Education beyond high school
Human resource development
The development of human beings into producers
through education, training, and employment services
Inflation
The general or overall upward movement of prices or the
price level
Interagency agreement
An agreement between two or more government agencies
Internal labor market
That labor market within an industry
Institutional program
A training program in an educational institution as differ-
entiated from an apprenticeship or on-the-job training
Job Corps
A program of education and training for disadvantaged
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high school dropouts to build them into self-respecting,
productive citizens
Job evaluation
The process of dividing a job into its major components
to enable analysis for the purpose of establishing rates
of pay and training
Journeyman
A craftsman qualified to function in a trade without su-
pervision
Junior college
Two-year, post-secondary colleges with the main purpose
of preparing people to go on to a four-year college pro-
gram
Labor market
The geographical area within which most workers are se-
cured. For some occupations, this may be a given com-
munity, while for others, it may be nationwide.
Labor unions
Organizations of workers for the purpose of representing
them in bargaining with private employers or government
Liberal education
Education in the arts—literature, philosophy, languages,
history—as compared with professional or technical sub-
jects
Macro-manpower planning
That manpower planning associated with macro-econom-
ic planning, which generally involves full employment of
human resources of manpower
Manpower
Productive human beings
Manpower Administration
The agency within the Department of Labor with the
primary responsibility for administering manpower pro-
grams
Manpower advisory committees
Federal committees at the regional and national levels
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206
created to advise Department of Labor and Department
of Health, Education and Welfare officials on manpower
problems and programs
Manpower coordinating councils
Federal councils of federal officials from various agencies
at the national and regional levels to coordinate federal
manpower programs
Manpower Development and Training Act (MDTA)
The federal legislation of 1962, first designed to retrain
persons with obsolete skills, redirected to include youth
and then to emphasize training for the disadvantaged
Manpower planning
Planning for the optimal development and use of man-
power
Manpower planning councils
Councils at local and state levels, representing a cross
section of the community, including elected and ap-
pointed officials, clients, business and labor represen-
tatives, to plan manpower activities for optimum effec-
tiveness
Manpower revolution
The period of the 1960s in which technological changes
and problems became apparent, producing a series of cor-
rective manpower programs
Master's degree
A collegiate degree usually requiring one to two years of
work beyond the bachelor's degree
Micro-manpower planning
That manpower planning involved in meeting the man-
power needs of a particular company, agency or industry
Minorities
Refers to those ethnic groups in a minority who experi-
ence special problems of assimilation into the dominant
culture
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207
Monitor
The day-to-day evaluation of a program's movement to-
ward achieving certain goals
National Alliance of Businessmen—Job Opportunities in the
Business Sector (NAB-JOBS)
An organization of businessmen with the purpose of giv-
ing jobs to disadvantaged people, the extra training costs
involved being reimbursable from the federal government
National manpower program planning
That manpower planning involved in meeting specific na-
tional needs, i.e., pollution, disadvantaged, shortage of
science skills, etc.
Neighborhood Youth Corps (NYC)
A federally funded program to give jobs to youth 16 to
22, enabling them to stay in school or return after drop-
ping out
Occupational cluster
A grouping of closely related skills or occupations having
a common core of skills and/or learning
On-the-job training (OJT)
The usually informal training that is a part of learning a
job as compared with classroom and apprenticeship pro-
grams
Open entry
The admission of students regardless of educational back-
ground taking them as far as they are capable and desire
Operation Mainstream
A federal 0E0 work-relief program for older, near un-
employable workers
Operator
One who operates equipment in the workplace
Outreach
Reaching out into the community, offering services to
clients rather than waiting for clients to come into an
office
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208
Placement
The placing of a person on a job by an educational or
employment agency
Pollution
A condition created by the presence of harmful or objec-
tionable material in water
Port of entry
The place where a person enters
Productivity
The output per unit of input, usually per person or per
man-hour
Professional
One who works in any profession such as law, medicine,
engineering, teaching, etc., implying training at the four
year college level
Programmed learning
A planned system program for learning a subject usually
of the self-instruction variety
Projections
Using current statistics, determining future statistics from
the trends they establish
Promotion
The movement up an occupational ladder
Public employment
Employment with a government agency
Public Employment Program (PEP)
The temporary program established by the Emergency
Employment Act of 1971 to subsidize jobs in the public
sector of the local and state levels of unemployed and
underemployed persons
Public service careers
A permanent federal program to finance the preparation
of disadvantaged persons for careers in the public service
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209
Referrals
Those persons referred to an agency or employer for ser-
vice or employment
Regional
Generally refers to the geographical area covered by sev-
eral states
Relocation
The process of moving, usually from an area of labor
surplus to an area of labor shortage
Revenue sharing
The granting of a block of money for generalized pur-
poses and with few guidelines
Salary
Payment by the week, month, or year
Secondary education
Education in the 7th through 12th grades
Skilled worker-craftsman
A worker who has learned a craft or trade
Skills Center
Centers set up under MDTA to give disadvantaged people
the opportunity to develop a skill and basic education
Special impact
Areas especially hard hit by military bases from which
large numbers of students enter the school system, but
the residents pay no property tax to support the schools
Subprofessionals—paraprofessionals
Persons trained to perform work to assist professionals
but requiring less than baccalaureate education and train-
ing
Technical college
A post-high school educational institution which prepares
technicians in relatively narrow occupational areas
Technician
A person trained to perform complex or technical jobs
requiring less than bachelor's degree work or its equivalent
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210
Technology
The method of performing a series of operations
Terminations — number of people who discontinue their em-
ployment within the preceding year for a particular oc-
cupation
Death and retirement rate—total number who died or re-
tired divided by total number of separations
Death and retirements—total number of people within a
wastewater treatment plant terminated because of
death or retirement
Discharge—number of people released from employment
because of unsatisfactory performance
Discharge rate—the number of discharges divided by num-
ber of terminations
Quit rate—total number of quits divided by total number
of separations
Quits—number of people who voluntarily terminated
their employment within the wastewater treatment
plant
Separation rate—total number of separations divided by
the total number of terminations
Separations—number of people who discontinued their
employment within a state's system of wastewater
treatment plant
Termination rate—total terminations divided by full-time
employment
Transfers out—number of people who terminated their
employment within a given occupation in a waste-
water treatment plant in order to obtain employment
either in some other occupation within the same or
alternative waste facility
Transfer out rate—total number of transfers out divided
by total number of terminations
Tight labor market
A condition in the labor market in which there is a short-
age of workers to meet existing demand, creating good
job opportunities and rising wage levels
Training
The development of vocational skills
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211
Training grant
The awarding of money by a government agency to estab-
lish a training program
Transfer
The lateral movement of a person from department to
department or plant to plant
Turnover
The change of personnel
Typology
The differentiation of various types of activity
Undergraduate training or education
The training or education in college up to and including a
bachelor's degree
Unemployment
Being without a job but in the process of looking for one
Unemployment compensation
Compensation paid to workers by the government during
periods of unemployment
Updating
Bringing skills up to date with the latest technology
Upgrading
The improvement of job skills
Vocational education
The preparation of an individual for a vocation, usually
requiring manual skills
Vocational rehabilitation
Making people employable through the reduction or elim-
ination of physical, mental or social problems
Wages
Payment by the hour
Water quality
The chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of
water with respect to its suitability for a particular use.
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212
The same water may be of good quality for one use and
bad for another, depending upon its characteristics and
the requirements for the particular use.
Water standards
Definitions of water quality established as a basis for con-
trol for various water-use classifications
Water use
A system of classifying utilization of waters in natural
watercourses for such purposes as potable water supply,
recreation and bathing, fish culture, industrial water,
waste assimilation, transportation, and power produc-
tion
White-collar occupations
Those occupations requiring a substantial amount of
communicative skill and involving substantial mental ac-
tivity
Work Incentive (WIN)
A federally financed program for welfare recipients who
are able to work in which extra compensation is provided
them as an incentive to register for employment and edu-
cational/training programs.
Youth opportunity centers
Centers established specifically to aid youth in the devel-
opment of job skills and the acquisition of job opportuni-
ties
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