A Regional Environmental
Strategic Plan (RESP)
for U.S. EPA and the States of
Region IV
EPA Administrator
Review M
Atlanta,
October 30 - 31,
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A Regional Environmental
Strategic Plan (RESP)
for U.S. EPA and the States of
Region IV
EPA Administrator and State Director
Review Meeting
Atlanta, Georgia
October 30 - 31,1995
Conducted by:
The Florida Center for Public Management
The Florida State University
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Table of Contents
Section 1 Agenda
Section 2 RESP Format
Section 3 Planning Process
Secton 4 Guiding Principles
Section 5 Draft Vision Statement
Section 6 Draft Strategy Statement
Section 7 Draft Issues, Goals and Strategies
Section 8 Goal and Strategy Development Criteria
and Indicator Selection Criteria
Section 9 Goal Supporting Indicators
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Preliminary Agenda
EPA Region IV Administrator and State Directors Meeting
Regional Environmental Strategic Plan
Atlanta, Georgia
October 30 - 31, 1995
October 30
10:00 AM
Welcome and Opening Remarks - John Hankinson
10:15 AM
Status of State Grants in FY 96 Budget - Mike Peyton
10:30 AM
How Region IV Strategic Planning Efforts Fit with Performance Partnerships and
Community-Based Environmental Protection -- John Hankinson
10:45 AM
Review of the Regional Environmental Strategic Plan (RESP)
Review of Strategic Issues
Review of the Draft Vision Statement, Strategy Statement and Regional Goals and
Strategies ~ Gil Bergquist, Florida Center for Public Management
12:00 PM
Lunch
1:00 PM
Continued Review of the RESP
5:00 PM
End of First Day Discussion
October 31
8:00 AM
Continuation of Discussion of Goals and Strategies
10:15 AM
Discussion of Community-Based Environmental Protection - John
Hankinson and Harold Reheis
11:15 AM
Other Issues - John Hankinson and Wayne Scharber
12:15 PM
Adjourn
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Section 2:
RESP Format
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RESP Format
DRAFT
Volume 1 - Regional Environmental Strategic
Plan
Introduction
Description of the Plan, its uses and the process used to develop it.
Commitment by EPA and the states to use it to guide their work. Signed by
Hankinson and the 8 state directors.
Guiding Principles
The principles approved at the initial meeting. Describes the reason for the
plan and its intent. Rough equivalent of a mission statement.
Vision Statement
A one-page statement describing in visual terms the environmental
conditions that will exist in the region in 20 years if the RESP is realized.
Regional Environmental Strategy Statement
A 2-4 page narrative statement that describes in broad, strategic terms the
fundamental changes in policy, programs and process that will be required
to achieve the results described in the vision statement and in the goals of
the plan.
Strategic Issues
Issue Definition
Trends and Conditions Statement
Goal(s)
Indicators
Strategies
Management Plan
Description of how the planning process will function.
Volume 2 -- Indicator Manual
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Section 3:
Planning Process
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Proposed Environmental Management / ^
Planning Model vo1
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Overview '
The Florida Center for Public Management (FCPM) of the Florida State University is developing a model environmental
management planning process. The intent of this model process is to provide planning teams with a performance planning
structure that provides consistent, comparable products and results across all ecosystem planning efforts while
accommodating wide variations in political circumstances, planning sophistication, public involvement, previous planning
activity and media attention. Because the model deals with planning performance and results and not with organization
and process management, the model should work equally well in integrating the work that has occurred in extensively
studied and well documented systems as well as serving as the core development process for systems that have had
relatively little previous planning and research. The principal features of the model include:
a strategic orientation to set long-term guidance and direction,
an operational component to set the action agenda for achieving results,
an issue-based orientation that identifies a limited number of strategic environmental concerns around which all of
the planning revolves,
an indicator-supported system capable of quantitatively measuring trends and progress in dealing with the issue,
a goal-driven approach that focuses the activities associated with each of the issues on the achievement of specific,
quantitative and graphically displayable environmental results,
accountability systems that require participants to identify their specific roles and actions and to be held responsible
for their fulfillment, and
an iterative process that ensures that the plan is annually reviewed and strategic and operational planning provisions
are modified based upon the environmental success of the project as measured by the project's goals.
The Structure of the Model
The physical structure of the products of the model will closely resemble relatively standard strategic planning formats.
The success of the model will reflect how it is carried out, not its form. In general there are three basic components of the
model:
a strategic component that identifies the critical issues, sets goals for measuring the achievement of success and sets
the long-term direction necessary to guide the actions of the principal participants,
an operational component that specifies the individual and collective actions that each of the participants must take
and holds them accountable for their performance, and
a review component that forces the continuing assessment of the achievements of the process and directs changes in
either or both of the strategic or operational components as required.
The process for carrying out the steps necessary to implement the model across these three components includes:
Strategic Component
identifying 8-12 strategic issues that reflect the priority end result of environmental concerns that must be dealt with
in the next 5-20 years if the values of the ecosystem are to be maintained or improved, 'r <1 Y\
identifying indicators that accurately measure critical trends associated with each issue and provide measures of
success,
developing for each issue a quantitative, graphically displayed goal and objectives that are based on one of the
indicators,
developing a series of strategies for each issue that reflects the achievements that must be accomplished to meet the
goal,
Operational Component
negotiating among the participants the specific actions that must take place within a two-year period to make
appropriate progress in meeting the strategic goal for each issue,
developing an accountability system for tracking and reporting on the achievement of the specific, time-based
commitments made by each participant on an annual basis,
Review Component
reviewing annual progress in meeting each of the goals, making changes in the strategic and/or operational plans if
progress is not satisfactory, and
conducting an annual update of the operational plan to add a new second year to the plan.
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Section 4:
Guiding Principles
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Proposed Guiding Principles
for the Development of a
Regional Environmental Strategic Plan (RESP) for
the States and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in
Region 4
The purpose of this Regional Environmental Strategic Plan (RESP) is to:
Establish a cooperative and collaborative environmental planning process
between the states and EPA in Region 4,
Provide strategic direction to the joint activities of the states and the Regional
Office in achieving regional environmental goals and objectives,
Shift the focus of the EPA-State relationship from program accomplishments
to the achievement of explicit environmental results,
Create the foundation for the negotiation of individual state agreements
based on the achievements of environmental results, and
Prepare the Region and its states for participation in the new roles offered by
Performance-Partnership Agreements and by opportunities for changes in
EPA oversight practices.
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Section 5:
Draft
Vision Statement
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An Environmental
Vision for Region IV:
2015
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The National Vision
The New Generation of Environmental Protection: EPA's Strategic Plan envisions a world in which:
All individuals and institutions value the environment and choose to act in a manner that
ensures achievement of sustainable environmental and economic goals.
The natural balance of all living things is no longer threatened and all individuals -- rich and
poor, young and old -- share in the benefits of a healthy environment.
This vision is expanded in the Proposed Environmental Goals for America with Benchmarks for Year
2005:
We envision a 21st century where healthy and economically secure people sustain -- and are
sustained by - a healthy environment. Every person breathes clean air, drinks clean water,
eats safe food, and lives, works and plays in clean, pleasant, and safe surroundings. Natural
processes carry on side-by-side with human activities and diverse natural systems support
economic development for years to come.
The Regional Vision
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the states of Region IV accept this national vision and offer
their own vision, refined to reflect the special environmental values of the southeast.
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Section 6:
Draft Strategy
Statement
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An Environmental
Strategy Statement
For Region IV:
2015
Since the creation of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency over two decades ago, we
have made tremendous progress in improving
the environmental quality of life in the United
States. This progress was achieved through the
implementation of large programs designed to
firmly regulate major sources of air and water
pollution and waste. The federal Clean Water
Act, Clean Air Act, Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act, and the Safe Drinking Water Act
were comprehensive programs, focused to deal
directly with large, obvious, and clearly important
sources of pollution. This concentration on large
polluters has resulted in tremendous progress,
with marked improve-
ment in air and water
quality in most of our
more heavily polluted
areas. After 20 years
of such regulatory, or
"command and con-
trol" types of pro-
grams, much of the
pollution caused by
such sources is being
successfully man-
aged, and the opportunity to make further gains
by increased regulatory activities is being made
on the margin. While the continuance of such
large regulatory programs is an essential
element in protecting our environment, it is
apparent to most of our citizens that the
environmental values of our nation and our
states remain threatened and that our current
activities are not sufficient to provide the type
and amount of environmental protection our
citizens demand.
It is becoming clear, therefore, that current
environmental laws do not support an
environmental policy that is dealing with the
totality of our current environmental problems.
By focusing on large and visible environmental
issues, we have created a national
environmental policy that is defined by a limited
set of issues that have a very public or political
context. The result is that important and
potentially more environmentally dangerous or
damaging issues whose effects are less
obvious, less political, or not as emotionally
charged receive disproportionately less attention
and financial support than they deserve.
Increasingly, this creates the potential for a
serious misallocation of public resources and
the distortion of environmental public policy.
This continued threat to our environmental
values is attributable to several factors. First,
even if each source of pollution or ecological
degradation is being more tightly regulated, the
total number of sources, particularly in a high
growth area, increases
the total level of
pollution or degrad-
ation. Our raw
numbers are starting to
work against us.
Second, rapid tech-
nological advances
often outstrips the
ability of government to
provide adequate safe-
guards for . new
pollution effects. Finally, much of our current
pollution emanates from sources that are largely
beyond regulation and are personal rather than
institutional in nature. Much of our pollution
results from individual decisions that we ail
make on a daily basis. The single greatest
source of water pollution today comes from
stormwater -- the water that runs off of our
roads, parking lots, and farms. Individual
decisions that we make about how we treat our
parking and how we apply fertilizers, pesticides,
herbicides, and other yard chemicals have major
impacts on the quality of our waters. Our indoor
air environments are consistently ranked as
having the highest risk to human health, yet they
are generally unsupported by programs and are
beyond regulation. The largest source of air
pollution is the automobile. How we maintain
our vehicles and the number of miles we drive
them contributes profoundly to air pollution.
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The emphasis on command and control
programs tended to focus attention ^of specific
problems generally confined to specific'media --
air, water and waste. It has become
increasingly obvious, that compartmentalizing
environmental, issues has increasingly limited
our ability to deal with them comprehensively
and effectively As the interconnectedness of
environmental issues has become more
obvious, the structure of current environmental
programs has received increasingly stronger
and more frequent challenges.
It is clear that at both the national and the state
level we will need to begin making hard choices
concerning funding and the array of
environmental programs provided. Scarce
resources will demand that our selection of
environmental programs and our allocation of
resources accurately reflect the reality of
environmental needs if we are to be successful
in meeting future demands.
A Regional Strategy
Dealing with these circumstances will require some fundamental changes in the way environmental
agencies in Region IV must approach their missions. This Regional Environmental Strategic Plan
identifies five major strategic changes that need to be made if EPA and states of Region IV are to
successfully adapt to meet the environmental challenges of the next 20 years.
Strategy 1: The environment must be treated within an integrated and
more c holistic framework. The recognition that environmental issues are highly
interconnected and increasingly more complex has raised questions concerning the appropriateness
of the categorical, media-based programs that presently dominate federal and state environmental
policy and activities. Dealing with environmental problems on a media basis can achieve important
results, but important benefits can be lost. If a resource is being confronted by several different
problems, dealing with just one of them may not have enough impact to bring about a full solution.
Further, without viewing a resource in a systemic fashion, the impacts of a single medium activity
cannot be comprehended in terms of how it affects the broader system, which can sometimes be
negative.
As environmental issues are conceptualized in broader terms as opposed to individual issues, new
frameworks are being offered that are focused on taking a more integrated, more holistic, and more
systemic approach. Current approaches being developed include:
ecosystem management,
place-based management,
watershed management, and
cross-media management.
Whether some, all or none of these frameworks are finally recognized and used, environmental
management will develop some sort of system-based management process to structure a broader
assessment of environmental issues.
Strategy 2: The role of the public in environmental protection must
become larger and more profound. The historic role of the public in environmental in an
official context has been slight and perfunctory, and in the public context political and confrontational.
New forms of public involvement in environmental protection are evolving that can change the way the
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Further, the clanty of our mission did not
demand sophisticated planning and
management processes. The sources of
pollution were so large, so obvious and so
institutional and budgetary resources so
expandable, that good decision systems
supported by effective planning and information
systems were underutilized.
The focus on regulation tended to create an
adversarial relationship with the private sector,
making command and control types of programs
expensive, litigious and time consuming for both
the regulator and the regulated. Because of the
institutional character of regulatory types of
programs, the roles and opportunities for
citizens to participate in the protection of their
own environmental values were limited and
confrontational.
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public participates in environmental policy. Approximately half of the states have now completed
comparative risk assessment studies that have, in most cases, created significant opportunities for the
public to directly participate in setting environmental priorities, a new and promising role. Increasingly,
important environmental issues are arising that result from millions of individual, personal decisions
(indoor air, stormwater, automobile-based pollution discussed above) for which institutional solutions
are difficult if not impossible. The education of the citizen as an actor involved in solving one'sown
problems as an educated, aware, good environmental citizen possessing a strong environmental ethic
of stewardship is the goal for the future. Groups of such individuals working at the community level
have the potential to provide higher levels of environmental protection, with organizational and
technical assistance from EPA and the states, than governmental programs could ever offer alone.
Strategy 3: The private sector needs to become a partner with government
in solving environmental problems. One of the artifacts of command and control
approaches is the development of an adversarial, confrontational, and litigious relationship
between government and the private sector. While the continuance of regulation as a strategy for
environmental protection will likely prevent the elimination of this negative association, a great
many opportunities exist or can be created to soften this conflict through regulatory reform and
through the creation of new, highly positive, collaborative, and cooperative relationships capable
of making the private sector an active partner of government in protecting the environment. The
growing success of pollution prevention initiatives provides a foundation for further growth in
private sector activities in dealing creatively with their own waste processes and provides a model
for the development of other approaches to involving private industry. During the next 20 years
environmental agencies and the private sector need to define and implement new strategies that
benefit both the environment and private interests. Such approaches as performance permitting,
compliance-based regulation, and market-based incentives needs to be reevaluated and used
whenever feasible.
Strategy 4: The range of environmental strategies needs to be expanded to
deal with more diversified environmental issues and new types of clients.
EPA and its counterpart state agencies employ an increasingly wide range of environmental strategies
to accomplish its mission. However, the preponderance of their resources and attention are focused
on the management of monolithic regulatory programs and on restoration activities associated with
cleaning up polluted sites. While regulation and restoration are environmental strategies that will
remain important, if not central, parts of any overall environmental program structure, the benefits they
are producing are becoming more questionable in terms of their high budgetary costs in times of
financial distress and in terms of the actual increment of environmental benefit they continue to
produce in comparison with environmental benefits from alternative environmental strategies.
Environmental protection during the next 20 years will be fundamentally different than in the past.
Some strategies useful in dealing with this changed setting might include:
the greater use of acquisition and related techniques like mitigation banking to protect critical
resources,
assisting in the financing of environmental solutions through partnering, developing new financing
mechanisms, and by reducing the impacts of unfunded mandates,
providing technical assistance in the form of consulting, training, and monitoring to private
industry, community-based groups and private citizens,
participating in the presentation of environmental education in a variety of forums to make our
citizens and their children good environmental partners,
supporting key research and technology development to support the solution of priority
problems,
building coalitions of private sector and community-based groups for partnering solutions to
environmental problems,
increasing the scope and depth of monitoring activities to provide environmental information for
making sound, more holistic decisions and supporting the activities of community-based groups,
and
designing and conducting serious, information-based, results-driven planning processes to
ensure better, more timely decisions, and the more effective use of resources.
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Strategy 5: The tools and techniques employed for environmental
management need to be improved and more conscientiously employed. For
the past 25 years environment management may have been too easy; the problems were egregious
and obvious, the solutions fairly straightforward and the resources were available and expandable.
Under such circumstances the need to make tough management choices was not urgent. This has
been reflected in a number ways in the manner in which environmental organizations have managed
themselves to include, among others:
a general absence or weakness of strategic planning process,
the lack of a serious connection between planning and budgeting systems,
a weakness in monitoring or other information gathering processes that could be used to make
environmental decisions, and
a lack of systematic environmental analysis as the foundation of environmental policy.
Circumstances have changed. Environmental issues are no longer quite so obvious or simple, the
solutions are not so direct, the problems and "their sources are more diverse, and the financial
resources available to deal with environmental issues are static or shrinking. Dealing with more
complex and difficult circumstances will require better decisionmaking processes and tools and more
dedication to applying and using them.
At the center of this change in management process is a fundamental change in the nature of the
EPA-state relationship. The proposed Performance Partnership Agreement process is an important
first step in a changed relationship, a true partnership that is based more in environmental
performance than in prescriptive guidance. Support for this initiative or for other that will follow will
require:
a reliance on environmental indicators that are derived from better information which is, in turn,
derived from better data systems,
more comprehensive, risk-based analyses of environmental problems and issues,
the use of better evaluation tools to gauge our programmatic and environmental success, and
the development of a results orientation to ensure that our decisions are based on achieving
environmental benefits.
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Section 7:
Draft Issues, Goals
and Strategies
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Regional Strategic Issue 1:
Alteration and Loss of
Ecosystems
An ecosystem is comprised of the biological community together with its physical environment. The
alteration and loss of ecosystems is important because as these systems become degraded the overall
environmental health of the region will be impacted. This issue provides a broad view of the relative health
and present status of components of marine, estuarine, freshwater, and upland ecosystems present in the
region. The primary concerns are habitat degradation, fragmentation, and loss; loss of terrestrial and
aquatic species; and effects of contaminants on ecosystems. Habitat degradation, fragmentation, and loss
deals with the impacts on ecosystems due to human alteration such as the construction of dams, roads,
and channels as well as the loss of terrestrial habitat for human uses and unrestrained growth. Loss of
terrestrial and aquatic species addresses the status of plant and animal species populations, biodiversity,
and the introduction of exotic species. Finally, the effects of contaminants deals with the accumulation and
deposition of toxics and sedimentation in lakes and streams.
Trends and Conditions
Ecosystems within Region
IV vary perhaps more widely
than any other region in the
nation. With systems that
range from mountainous
Appalachians to thousands
of miles of coastal areas
fronting the Atlantic Ocean
and the Gulf of Mexico, the region includes
temperate, sub-tropical, and tropical
environments. The range of premier
ecosystems includes such diverse systems as
the Great Smoky Mountain Park and the
Everglades National Park.
The condition of ecosystems in EPA Region IV
varies widely depending on levels of human
development and associated land use activities,
pollution impacts, and introduction of exotic
plant and animal species. A major indicator of
the condition of ecosystems is the condition and
amount of natural upland, wetland, and marine
communities that are present in the region.
Degradation of ecosystems can be caused by
alteration and loss of critical natural
communities that provide essential ecological
functions. Examples of some natural
communities that have been significantly altered
by human uses include bottomland hardwood
forests, longleaf pine forests, spruce-pine
forests, wetlands, and large free flowing rivers.
The amount of exotic plant and animal species
within the region is also an indicator of the
condition of its ecosystems. Introduction of
exotic species into ecosystems can cause
declines in native species populations and
diversity within the region. Another indicator of
the condition of ecosystems is the number of
threatened and endangered species in the
region and in individual states. Many species
require very specific ecosystem and habitat
conditions. Rapid changes in conditions caused
by human development can degrade ecosystem
quality to the point that species' survival is
threatened.
Physical modification of terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems by human development activities is
the primary pressure on the quality of
ecosystems within the region. Wide ranges of
upland, wetland, and aquatic disturbances occur
during industrial, commercial, residential,
agricultural, forestry, and mining activities. The
primary pressure associated with development
activity is the removal of natural vegetative cover
and the alteration of land surfaces. The impacts
of these activities on ecosystems range from
fragmentation of ecosystems and habitat, to
simplification of ecosystems through forest
management practices and agricultural
activities, to complete elimination of all natural
ecosystem functions from activities such as
dense urban development and mining. The
impacts of these pressures can cause loss of
EPA-State Regional Environmental Strategic Plan - DRAFT
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ecological functions, reductions in plant and
animal diversity, degradation and loss of soil
structure, and eutrophication of water bodies.
Trends for the alteration of ecosystems are not
readily available for all natural community types;
however, information is available for some types
from state Heritage programs, the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, the U.S. Forest Service, and
private conservation organizations such as the
Nature Conservancy.
The introduction and spread of exotic species in
the region is another critical pressure on
ecosystem conditions. As exotic plant and
animal species are introduced into ecosystems,
they can out-compete native species and
change natural ecosystem functions. The
uncontrolled growth of exotic species can have
long-term consequences for ecosystems by
displacing native species, destroying food
sources, and affecting water quality. The spread
of exotic species can cause serious ecological
damage to ecosystems that in some instances is
irreparable.
Strategies have been undertaken by both
governmental bodies and private entities to
address the issue of ecosystem alteration and
loss. One method that has been employed is to
purchase sensitive or critical lands to protect
them from development or alteration. This
strategy has been used by federal, state, and
local governments as well as by private
conservation groups. Other strategies that
address this issue have focused around land
use planning activities and laws developed by
federal, state, and local governments. At the
federal level, the National Environmental Policy
Act (NEPA), section 404 of the Clean Water Act,
and the Endangered Species Act are all
legislative mandates that require consideration
of ecosystem impacts. NEPA requires that the
environmental impacts of all federal projects,
including ecosystems impacts, must be
reviewed and alternatives to reduce the impacts
must be developed. Section 404 is used to
protect wetland ecosystems and -preserve
associated ecosystem functions. The
Threatened and Endangered Species Act
requires protection of critical habitats that
support populations of endangered and
threatened species. Also, some states have
similar environmental policy acts that require the
review of potential environmental and
ecosystem impacts created by state government
projects in a manner similar to NEPA.
Among the states of the region, Florida is
particularly active in ecosystem-based
environmental protection. Responding to
legislative direction, the Florida Department of
Environmental Protection has completed a
process involving over 300 public and private
stakeholders to design and implement the
reorientation of the agency to provide
ecosystem-based environmental protection.
Pilot projects involving seven Florida
ecosystems are presently underway.
Many local governments implement their own
ordinances that protect local environmental
resources and ecosystems.
Regional Goals
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Goal: By 2010 the net loss of identified high value, threatened
ecosystems will be reduced to zero1 s&uiz 'f
ฃn\inmm?ntul Value
1The data to support this indicator do not currently exist. U.S. EPA and the states of Region IV will need to
identify the critical ecosystems of the region and establish their boundaries. Using satellite technology,
measurements need to be made of the land cover and assessments of change in the amount and
composition of that land cover need to be made every two years.
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Goal: By 2010, all threatened and endangered animal species
currently with declining populations will have stable or
improving populations.2
140 -
Number of Declining Federally Listed Wildlife Species
120
100 -ฆ
ฎ 80
ฃ
60 -
40 ฆ
20 -
1992
1995
2000
Year
2005
2010
Goal: By 2010, all threatened and endangered plant species
currently with declining populations will have stable or
improving populations.3
Number of Declining Federally Listed Plant Species
80
70
50
h.
50
ffl
n
E
40
3
Z
30
20
10
0
1992
1995
2000
Year
2005
2010
2The data for the indicators supporting this goal for threatened and endangered species are provided by the
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's 1992 Report to Congress: Endangered and Threatened Species Recovery
Program, and preliminary data from the 1995 Report. The data are available in hard copy format. Data
from these reports are available for each state for these two years. Supplementary data for these and other
years can be obtained from state environmental agencies and nongovernmental organizations such as the
Nature Conservancy's Natural Heritage programs.
3See footnote #2.
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Indicators
Forest land area by acre and type
Change in land cover types
Number of federally listed threatened and endangered plant and wildlife species
Population of commercially/recreationally harvested fish species
Fish advisories for mercury
Shellfish bed closures
Presence of exotic plant and animal species
I
Strategies
clf Identify all major ecosystems of regional concern. ^ oa-U, ฆ&-- ^ A
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2. Implement cooperative, collaborative, goal-driven, results-based planning for all ecosystems
of regional concern.
.ฆsf Develop monitoring and indicator systems capable of measuring the status and trends
associated with each ecosystem.
4. Develop management structures and process in the region to support ecosystem protection.
P 5. Develop standards for sustainability for each ecosystem of regional concern.
6. Facilitate interstate planning to protect ecosystems located in several states.
7. Develop, prioritize, and implement a research agenda dealing with the key needs of each
ecosystem in the region.
8. Increase the coordination between groups or agencies that are responsible for/corridor//
planning efforts in the region.
9. Develop methodologies to assess the cumulative and secondary effects on ecosystems from
the alteration and loss of critical natural lands.
10. Provide organizational and technical support to community-based ecosystem protection
projects.
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Regional Strategic Issue 2:
Alteration and Loss of Coastal
and Inland Wetlands
A coastal or inland wetland ecosystem can be defined as a water-dependent biological community together
with its physical environment. Coastal and inland wetland systems provide essential habitat to many
indigenous plant and animal species. Wetlands also serve many important functions to humans: they
moderate the effects of floods, improve water quality, and have aesthetic value. This issue addresses the
alteration and loss of coastal and inland wetlands including the filling, draining, drowning, restoration, and
construction of wetlands.
Trends and Conditions
Based on wetland status
and trends data collected
by the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service (FWS),
there are approximately 37
million acres of coastal and
inland wetlands in the eight
Region IV states,
comprising more than 35% of all the wetlands in
the 48 contiguous United States. Wetlands
cover approximately 16% of the Southeast
landscape. Approximately 90% of these
wetlands are freshwater (palustrine) wetlands, of
which three quarters are forested wetlands.
There has been a
general decrease in
the acreage of wet-
lands from 1982 to
1992 for Alabama,
Florida, Georgia,
North Carolina, and
South Carolina. The
acreage of wet-
lands in Alabama
decreased by .22
percent for the ten-
year period. Florida experienced a 1.5 percent
decrease in wetland acreage, Georgia
experienced a .6 percent decrease, North
Carolina experienced a 4 percent decrease, and
South Carolina experienced a .2 percent
decrease. Kentucky, Mississippi, and
Tennessee all experienced increases in wetland
acreage for the ten-year period.
Total Wetland Acreage in the Southeast Region
Overall, there has been a decrease in total
acreage of wetlands for the southeast region.
From 1982 to 1992, total wetland acreage
decreased by approximately one percent ~
411,100 acres -- for the region. The
overwhelming majority of this loss was to
palustrine forested wetlands. The major sources
of loss were loss to agricultural use, conversion
to another wetland type, and filling.
In some cases, conversion involves changing
from one wetland type to another, such as from
a bottomland hardwood system to a planted pine
system. In that case, some wetland functions
are lost (i.e., habitat) while some may be
retained. In other
conversions, wet-
lands are filled,
inundated, or other-
wise altered to such
an extent that few, if
any, original wet-
land functions re-
main.
Section 404 of the
Clean Water Act
(CWA) gives EPA and the Army Corps of
Engineers (COE) the primary authority to
address wetlands losses. However other CWA
provisions, particularly Section 401, can be an
effective state tool to address wetland issues.
Other actions that are being taken or that should
be expanded include improved coordination
between the states, U.S. EPA, the Army Corps
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of Engineers, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service. This cooperation could be used in
many areas to improve the permitting system,
for both individual and general permits, to be
more protective of the resources. Some Region
IV states have their own programs to regulate
wetland loss, and federal assistance should
continue to be available to help build state
capacity to protect wetlands.
Regional Goals
Goal: By 2005, the net loss of wetlands In the region will be
limited to 1% of the 1992 acreage, and no further net losses will
occur.1
Rate of Wetland Loss
43200
_ 43000
(0
T3
C
g 42800
3
O
Z 42600
42400
u
<
42200
42000
CO
00
O)
CO
O)
O)
Year
O
8
CVI
O
O
Indicators
Acreage of wetlands lost
Acreage of wetlands by community type
Acreage of wetlands restored, enhanced, or created through permitted activities
Strategies
1. Develop and implement Wetlands Comprehensive Plans at the watershed, ecosystem, state,
and regional levels.
2. Track wetland losses and gains by basin and by identified ecosystem.
The data for the indicator supporting this goal are provided by the U. S. Department of Agriculture as part
of the National Resources Inventory. The data are available in hard copy in the 1992 Summary Report
National Resources Inventory (NRI) and on CD-ROM. Data are available for each state at 5-year intervals
beginning in 1982 and represent results from sampling some 800 sites.
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3. Use the Advance Identification of Wetlands (ADID) program as a proactive planning process.
4. Use the State Wetlands Grant Program as the foundation for building state capacity in
wetlands protection.
5. Implement wetlands education and training programs to provide wetlands education to the
general public, and the educational community.
6. Provide specialized education and training in wetlands protection to state agencies, local
governments, the agriculture, forestry, and development sectors, and community-based
environmental protection groups.
7. Plan and conduct place-based wetland restoration activities.
8. Promote mitigation planning and mitigation banking in the region.
9. Encourage the use of the Section 319 Nonpoint Source Grant Program as a funding source
for wetland restoration projects.
10. Develop improved techniques for wetlands restoration and creation.
11. Distribute wetlands information to state land use planning officials.
12. Increase coordination between entities who are responsible for planning and corridor efforts.
13. Obtain access to the Regulatory Analysis and Management System to better track wetland
losses and gains through regulatory activities.
14. Increase coordination with the COE and the FWS regarding 404 permits and enforcement.
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Regional Strategic Issue 3:
Land Management
In the face of enormous development pressures, land needs for wildlife habitat, recreation, greenspace, and
water resource protection are increasingly threatened. This issue addresses impacts resulting from the use
and management of land resources, including the impacts from the growth and development of cities,
towns, suburbs, and urban areas. It is also concerned with the impacts resulting from sprawling land
development patterns (including the tack of parks and reduction of greenspaces); the use and creation of
infrastructure; and forestry, mining, and agricultural practices. The focus of this issue is on patterns of
development and balancing the future uses of public lands.
Trends and Conditions
EPA Region IV's diverse
landscapes, from coastal
salt marshes to the
Appalachian Mountains,
are home to a rich
biological heritage of
thousands of species of
plants and animals,
including humans. The
health of these species and the non-living
environment they inhabit is greatly affected by
the impacts of human development activities.
Rapid growth in many areas of the country
during the 1970s accelerated the degradation
caused by development on the productive
capacity of ecosystems and the condition of the
environment as a whole. If a healthy natural
environment is necessary to maintain human
health and welfare, then preserving the
ecological integrity of the environment should be
a primary focus in land management decisions.
Preserving the region's ecological resources will
depend on land management strategies and the
ability to control impacts caused by land
development. This issue addresses the impacts
resulting from the use and management of land
resources for activities such as urban
development, agriculture, forestry, and mining.
Land use distribution in Region IV states is
shown below. The 1992 Natural Resources
Inventory data show that uplands cover 97%
(234 million acres) of Region IV's total area
while only 3% is covered by water.
Approximately 120 million acres (49%) of
Region IV are forested lands, about 69 million
acres (28%) are agriculture lands, and 20 million
acres (8%) are designated as developed.
Tracking changes in these patterns of
development is necessary to carry out effective
land management planning efforts.
The distribution of land use in the region is
constantly changing. Monitoring long-term land
use trends helps to evaluate the pressures
development places on land resources. Though
the net change in acreage of land uses may be
slight for any single year, changes in land use
patterns over time can have significant
implications for preservation of the ecological
integrity of natural lands. Land use patterns
should be monitored at the regional, state, and
States
Land Use/Land Cover Types
Forest
Agriculture
Urban
Water Area
Alabama
63%
21%
6%
3%
Florida
33%
29%
12%
9%
Georgia
58%
22%
8%
3%
Kentucky
40%
43%
6%
3%
Mississippi
52%
32%
4%
3%
North Carolina
47%
24%
11%
8%
South Carolina
55%
21%
9%
4%
Tennessee
43%
37%
8%
3%
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local levels in order to detect significant impacts
that land use changes may have. Monitoring at
all levels is necessary because changes in land
use can have different impacts on different
geographic scales. For example, the loss of
1,000 acres of forest may seem insignificant at
the regional level while in a certain community
the change could have a substantial impact on a
local ecosystem.
Understanding the reasons for changes in land
use patterns is important in developing
strategies for future land management. Several
social and economic changes during the past 25
years have influenced the rate at which land is
converted to urban uses. Changes in
population, the economy, and expansion of
infrastructure have significantly contributed to
changes in land conversion rates. Primary
factors driving land conversion rates were the
increase in population, expansion of urban
areas, improvements in rural transportation, and
the beginning of the interstate highway system.
One of the primary pressures on land
management concerns in Region IV has been
the tremendous population growth since the
1970s. The percent increase in population for
each state in Region IV from 1980 to 1990 is
shown in the table below. The percentage of the
population residing in coastal areas is projected
to increase from the 1990 level of 35.2% to
37.1% by the year 2010. The region's
population is projected to grow to over 50 million
residents by the late 1990s, from just over 45
million in 1990. Region IV is currently
witnessing some of the negative environmental
effects of this growth and increased economic
activity.
States
Percent Increase in
Population
1980-1990
Alabama
3.8%
Florida
32.7%
Georgia
18.6%
Kentucky
0.7%
Mississippi
2.1%
North Carolina
12.7%
South Carolina
11.7%
Tennessee
6.2%
Much of this growth is taking place in major
urban centers and in the region's coastal areas.
Population density in Region IV for 1990 was
approximately 120.8 persons per square mile of
land area, and density is projected to increase to
150.7 persons per square mile by the year 2010.
The expansion of development to support this
population growth and human activity has
caused a shift from environmentally beneficial
uses of land to less desirable uses that alter or
destroy the ecological functioning of these
lands. In addition, the environmentally beneficial
uses of land that is not developed or altered can
suffer when adjacent land is changed in such a
way as to isolate or degrade habitat or
ecological function. Sensitive coastal and inland
ecosystems will be subject to increasing
pressure as this growth continues.
The primary method used to protect ecologically
important lands from these pressures is through
protection and conservation efforts by federal,
state, and local governments. The most visible
protected lands are state and national forests
and parks. Region IV includes approximately
845,000 acres of state parks and 135,000 acres
of national forest lands. Each state park and
forest program also protects other ecologically
important lands. In addition to these two efforts,
there are numerous other land conservation and
protection programs in each state such as
Florida's Conservation and Recreation Lands
Program and Tennessee's State Natural Areas
Program. The combination of conservation
programs from federal, state, and non-
governmental sources throughout the region
serves as the primary method for protecting
ecologically significant lands in the region.
No single federal or state agency has the sole
responsibility for management of public lands in
the region. State fish and wildlife agencies have
the primary responsibility for managing fish and
wildlife habitat on state owned waters and lands.
Federal land management agencies such as the
Fish and Wildlife Service, Forest Service,
Bureau of Land Management, and others are
responsible for managing fish and wildlife
habitat on federally owned lands and may assist
states in the management of habitats on other
lands. Some agencies, such as the Soil
Conservation Service and the Cooperation
Extension Service, also provide technical
assistance, information, and education on fish
and wildlife management to private land owners
and land users.
Governmental regulation of land development
activities also plays a significant role in land
management in Region IV. There is a wide
diversity of state land use planning initiatives
throughout the region. Examples of this
diversity are illustrated by the approaches of
Kentucky and Florida. Kentucky's approach has
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been to allow the choice to engage in local
planning to be decided on a community-by-
community basis. According to a 1987 survey
conducted by the Kentucky Legislative Research
Commission, 53 of the state's 120 counties have
established planning commissions and 61 cities
have established independent city planning
commissions. On the other hand, Florida's
approach has been to legislatively mandate
each municipal government to develop a
comprehensive plan. It is based on a top down
management system with basic planning
requirements set by the state legislature and
overseen by the Florida Department of
Community Affairs. Local government
comprehensive plans must meet the
requirements laid out in planning legislation.
In addition to state and local planning mandates
and regulations, the federal government also
has regulations to control the environmental
impacts caused by federal projects. For
instance, legislation was enacted in the 1980s to
ensure that actions by the federal government
do not encourage poor choices in land use
decisions. The Farmland Protection Policy Act,
included in the Agriculture and Food Act of 1981
and amended in the Food Security Act of 1985,
requires federal agencies to consider the effects
their programs will have on prime farmlands.
The conservation provisions of the 1985 act are
designed to ensure that the USDA commodity
programs do not subsidize unwise changes in
land use. Program benefits will be denied to
producers who drain wetlands or remove the
plant cover from grass or forest land to plant
agricultural commodities.
The actions and approaches taken by each level
of government in part dictate the impact that
future growth will have on ecologically important
lands. Continual and consistent evaluation of
land use changes throughout the region will
enhance efforts to coordinate land management
strategies between different levels of
government. As urban growth continues,
coordination of different land management
efforts will direct development in a way that
reduces the harmful impacts to the environment
and will help achieve land management goals in
the region.
Regional Goals
Goal: By 2015, increase the acres of ecologically important
lands in protected or managed status by (X).1
Environmental Value
l**5 2000 2005 2010 WIJ
1The data to support this goal must be collected for each state in the region. U.S. EPA and the states of
Region IV will need to identify all lands currently owned and managed through federal, state, local, and non-
governmental programs and organizations for the purpose of protection or conservation of ecologically
significant lands.
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Indicators
Change in acreage of land use
Number of septic tanks as a percentage of housing starts
Population change
Developed acres required per each additional person
Pesticide usage - total volume, acreage, and crop type
Number of wildlife management areas
Number/acres of state parks and forests
Number/acres of national parks and forests
Acres of resources with special protection designations
Acres of environmentally important land on military reservations
Strategies
1. Develop a regional strategy for coordinating sound land management practices for
conservation and preservation among and between the Region, the states, other federal
agencies, community groups, and private landowners.
2. Develop a regional GIS system to monitor changes in land cover.
3. Include the private sector in land management planning and programs.
4. Coordinate land management planning with economic development and transportation
planning.
5. Develop a strategy for including local governments and community-based groups in regional
land management.
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Regional Strategic Issue 4:
Environmentally Damaged
Lands
Natural systems can become degraded due to human alteration or use. Humans cause environmental
damage to land when resources are used, extracted, or altered. This issue is concerned with the physical
and chemical damage caused to land. The issue of physically damaged lands comprises eroded lands,
beach restoration, and mining restoration. Chemically damaged lands focuses on deposition of toxics,
radiation, nutrients, pathogens, and metals from hazardous waste disposal, agricultural practices, and other
human uses of land. Chemical contamination can occur via permitted or accidental releases of hazardous
substances; how these contaminants are introduced into the environment and how they are removed is a
primary focus of this issue.
Trends and Conditions
Human use and alteration
of lands can cause de-
gradation to the ecological
functions of natural sys-
tems. The environmental
damage to lands occurs
during resource use,
extraction, and alteration.
This issue addresses the concerns of physical
and chemical damage caused to natural
systems by human activities.
The issue of
physically damaged
lands deals primarily
with eroded lands and
natural lands altered
through mining and
industrial activities.
Erosion is a major
problem associated
with many types of
land use, and erosion
from unprotected sites during construction is the
leading cause of erosion problems. Soil erosion
in urban areas is a serious problem for the state
of Georgia, particularly from construction sites
without adequate erosion control measures.
Erosion caused by agricultural activities is not as
great a problem but does have a considerable
impact on lands throughout the region.
Mississippi's erosion concerns focus primarily
on cropland erosion, and conservation
treatments to protect lands from erosion are
needed for 65% of all pastureland and 58% of
forest lands. Kentucky is particularly concerned
with erosion from lands that have been strip-
mined or used as quarries, pits, and road
construction sites; the erosion rates are as high
as 72.2 tons per acre per year for these types of
sites.
Chemically damaged lands focuses on the
deposition and accumulation of toxics,
radioactive materials, nutrients, pathogens, and
metals from hazardous waste disposal,
agricultural practices, and other human
activities. Land becomes contaminated in a
number of different ways. In Region IV:
There are 5,785 sites on the
Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)
Estimated Average Sheet and RID
Erosion Rate on Nonfederal Lands
Land users and all levels of government are
cooperating to reduce erosion. In Alabama, re-
search is being conducted to determine soil loss
and management requirements for minimum
tillage systems on erodible
lands. Fertility require-
ments of -eroded lands are
also being studied. The
U.S. Department of
Agriculture has developed
a system for indexing the
sensitivity of soil to erosion
damage; this erosion index
(El) system indicates the
need for erosion control
more precisely than other
systems of classifying soil erosion hazards.
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List. These are sites that have been or are
being investigated for possible
contamination by hazardous waste.
There are 185 sites having a severe enough
problem to qualify them for the National
Priorities List (NPL). The contamination is
severe enough to warrant further
investigation and remediation.
There are 29,843 small quantity generators
and 5,011 large quantity generators of
hazardous waste.
There are 837 facilities subject to Corrective
Action. This means these existing facilities
are required to take remedial cleanup action
for past disposal practices.
There are 745 treatment storage and
disposal facilities. These facilities treat
hazardous waste currently generated or
waste material from remediation efforts.
The basic cause of the environmental problems
at NPL and Corrective Action sites was the
improper disposal of hazardous wastes.
Remediation is both expensive and time
consuming, and absolute restoration of the site
may not occur. Sites vary in size and causes of
contamination.
Hazardous waste releases can impact surface
waters, ground water, land, and air. The
impacts vary from site to site, although most
sites involve contaminated ground water and
many sites potentially impact citizens who live
nearby. There is no one typical site that could
be used as a benchmark. The number of
Corrective Action sites and NPL sites has
increased over the years, although the rate of
increase has slowed over the last several years.
In order to prevent the need for future cleanup,
hazardous waste generators and disposers are
heavily regulated. The primary legislative acts
that address hazardous waste regulation and
remediation are CERCLA and the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). The
regulations require generated hazardous waste
to be handled in a safe manner. To address
past improper disposal, the Corrective Action
program is used for existing operating facilities
and the NPL program is used for abandoned
sites or sites where the owner is unknown. To
date, over 45 NPL sites have reached the stage
called construction completed. Over 177
Corrective Action sites have completed
stabilization measures. Due to technical, legal,
and financial issues, remediation projects take
considerable time to complete. Each project
requires a substantial study phase, and nearly
all NPL sites involve public controversy.
Use, transportation, and/or storage of chemicals
can result in the occurrence of accidental
spillage, release, and environmental
contamination. Since individual states create
their own legislation regarding how chemical
emergencies are to be managed, responses
differ from state to state. The federal
Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-
Know Act of 1986 reiterated state responsibility
for response activity and required that states
establish emergency planning committees and
contingency plans that prepare states to
respond to chemical emergencies.
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Regional Goals
Goal: By 2005, water-based erosion of croplands will be
reduced to X tons per acre.1
Cropland Erosion
a>
60 -J
a.
50
"D
40
0)
0)
- - - -
T3
30 -
O
a
UJ
<
20
m
c
10
o
H
o J
I I i i 1 i 1 1 I I I ! 1
1982 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
Years
Goal: By 2005, 70% of the abandoned hazardous waste sites
currently on EPA's National Priorities List (NPL) will be cleaned
up or construction completed.2
Environmental Value
IW5 2000 2005 201(1 2015
1The data are provided by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resource Conservation Service,
Natural Resources Inventory Division. The data are collected every 5 years and are available in both hard
copy and CD ROM formats.
2Data not received by date of publication.
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Goal: By 2005, cleanup actions will be completed at 80% of the
approximately 5,000 abandoned waste sites that are currently
under assessment or listed on the NPL.3
Environmental Value
1W5 XK*> 2005 2010 2014
Goal: By 2005, at least 10% of contaminated federal lands at
National Priorities List sites will be cleaned up and made
available for productive uses though restoration efforts.4
Environmental Value
IWi 2000 2005 3)10 3015
Indicators
Erosion rates
Number of beach restoration projects
Cleanup and completed construction of Superfund sites
Number/acreage of RCRA sites
Number/acreage of Superfund sites
3Data not received by date of publication.
4Data not received by date of publication.
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Number/acreage of state priority sites
Previously contaminated sites that are of reusable quality
Number of leaking underground storage tank (LUST) sites
Strategies
Physical
(under development)
Chemical y
1. Encourage pollution prevention.
2. Support the development of new technologies that provide improved strategies for
remediating waste.
3. Provide technical assistance to state and local agencies for emergency
preparedness/planning efforts.
4. Reduce the amount of hazardous waste being incinerated.
5. Complete the assessment of Superfund sites.
6. Initiate and complete construction at Superfund sites.
7. Involve and educate citizens located in areas or communities near Superfund or other
remediation sites.
8. Implement Corrective Action measures at RCRA facilities.
9. Return former military base land to public/private ownership.
10. Investigate accidents to identify the causes for prevention of future accidental releases.
11. Assist in emergency preparedness first response training and simulation exercises, including
the public, for evacuation and shelter-in-place activities.
12. Support inter-agency coordination for accidental release incidents reported to state
emergency response commissions and local emergency planning committees.
13. Provide training in EPA and Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) standards
for emergency response and waste management workers.
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Regional Strategic Issue 5:
Contaminants in the
Environment
This issue addresses existing ambient concentrations of pollutants in the environment, including the
permitted and accidental releases of hazardous contaminants and the effects that they have. The focus of
this issue is on releases or depositions of contaminants. The primary concerns regarding these two sub-
issues are TRI releases, chemical releases, bioaccumulation of contaminants, cumulative and interactive
effects of contaminants, pesticide use, and atmospheric deposition.
Trends and Conditions
The pathways by which
contaminants enter the
environment are dependent
on the type of pollutant and
the method of disposal.
Sources of contamination
include releases or emis-
sions of gases to the air,
chemicals which are spilled,
landfilled, or injected into the
earth, and waste which is discharged into water
bodies from point and nonpoint sources such as
treatment plants and accidental spiils. The
cumulative effects of these contaminants impact
the food chain, air supply, drinking water, and
entire ecosystems.
Air pollution from various sources impacts the
environment through the atmospheric deposition
of gases such as nitrogen dioxide. In ambient
concentrations, nitrogen dioxide can become a
pulmonary irritant, contribute to the formation of
ozone in the environment, and act as a
constituent of acid rain. The accidental release
of similar air pollutants can ultimately cause
serious injury or death to those who come into
contact with them. Pollutants emitted into the
atmosphere can travel various distances and be
deposited to ecosystems far removed from their
original source. The Clean Air Act (CAA)
delineated six criteria air toxics (particulate
matter, ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide,
lead, and carbon monoxide) and defined air
quality standards for each. Levels of these air
toxics are monitored throughout the region by
state and local agencies. Historically, certain
areas in the region have not met the air quality
standards for one or more of the criteria
pollutants. Each of these areas has been
identified as a "nonattainment area" in
accordance with the requirements of the CAA.
States are required to develop state
implementation plans (SIPs) which describe
each state's plan to bring its nonattainment
areas back into attainment. These SIPs are
the compilation of state regulations which
have been approved by the EPA and are
therefore federally enforceable.
One hundred eighty-nine air pollutants are
required to be regularly reported to the EPA
through the Toxic Release Inventory (TRI). A
facility must report to the Toxic Release
Inventory if it conducts manufacturing operations
within Standard Industrial Classification (SIC)
codes 20 through 39, has 10 or more full-time
employees, and manufactures or processes
more than 25,000 pounds or uses more than
10,000 pounds of any listed chemical during the
calendar year. For 1993, TRI reporting was
required for 316 chemicals and 20 chemical
categories. In that same year, reported air
releases were part of 718 million pounds of
listed toxic chemicals released into the air,
surface water, land, and underground injection
wells. Additionally, 896 million pounds were
transferred to off-site locations for recycling,
energy recovery, publicly owned waste
treatment services (POWTS), private treatment,
and disposal.
Studies have shown that atmospheric deposition
of gases has also been a contributing factor in
the degradation of water quality and associated
adverse human health and ecological effects.
Section 112(m) of the CAA, the Great Waters
Program, as amended in 1990, requires the
evaluation of atmospheric deposition of air
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pollutants into coastal waters. All of the
pollutants, with the exception of nitrogen, are of
concern because of their persistence in the
environment, tendency to bioaccumulate, and
potential toxicity to humans and the
environment.
Contaminants in the water arrive not only by air,
but also by stormwater discharges and point and
nonpoint sources. These contaminants bio-
accumulate in the flesh of species which eat,
breathe, and live in aquatic conditions.
Consequences have included shellfish bed
closures, periodic fish kills, and the poisoning of
birds which consume fish tainted with toxic
chemicals. In some cases, the impacts of
contaminants released into water have included
human fatalities as well.
The composition and volume of waste and
incidences of contamination have increased
over time along with increases in population and
industrialization. Different categories and
toxicities of wastes, such as hazardous waste,
solid waste, and medical waste, must be dealt
with on a regular basis. Even wastes that are
properly managed have the potential to impact
the environment because of accidental spills,
leaks, or explosions. Contamination of the
ground results from improper disposal of these
wastes, indiscreet dumping, or the application of
pesticides. In 1993, the EPA listed 450 wastes
as hazardous. Ninety percent of the total waste
is water used in industrial processes. An
estimated 300 to 700 million tons of hazardous
waste are produced annually and must be
recycled, treated, incinerated, stored, or
disposed. Storage and disposal methods
usually require the use of land above or below
ground. For example, the disposal of hazardous
waste into a landfill or through deep-well
injection must be done in a manner that does
not result in waste leaching through the landfill,
contaminating nearby soil or infiltrating drinking
water sources. Regular monitoring of under-
ground injection wells is now required by the
Safe Drinking Water Act.
The use of pesticides to combat vermin and
insects and to produce larger and healthier
crops has also taken its toll on the environment.
Pesticides used on the ground have affected
wildlife through direct exposure and by
contamination of their food supplies.
Contaminated soils impact insects that live there
and indirectly impact the animals that feed on
them. Residues from pesticides used in
agricultural operations have also been found in
water-supply wells. The federal statute
regulating pesticides is called FIFRA (the
Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide
Act). FIFRA regulates the sale and distribution
of pesticides and mandates that chemical
manufacturers conduct a cost/benefit analysis
that shows new pesticides will not cause
"unreasonable and adverse effects on the
environment."
Regional Goals
Goal: By 2005, prevention actions will contribute to a 25%
reduction from 1993 levels in toxic chemicals released from
industrial facilities.1
The data for the indicator supporting this goal are provided by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in
the 1993 Toxic Release Inventory Public Data Release. The data are available in hard copy format or on
CD-ROM for the years 1988, 1991, 1992, and 1993.
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Toxic Chemicals Released From Industrial Facilities
1,000,000,000
(0
ฆo
c
3
o
Q.
o
I-
900,000,000
800,000,000 ฆ.
700,000,000 ฆ
600,000,000 ฆ.
500,000,000
400,000,000 ฆ ฆ
300,000,000
200,000,000 ฆ
100,000,000 ฆ
0 J-
1988
1991
1992
1993
Year
1995
2000
2005
Goal: By 2015, water quality goals and terrestrial systems will
not be adversely affected by atmospheric deposition.2
Environmental Value
2Data adequate to support this goal do not presently exist. The first strategy of Strategic Issue #5 proposes
creation of a deposition monitoring system.
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Goal: By 2005, reduce accidental releases of hazardous
chemicals potentially harmful to humans, animals, vegetation,
and property to zero.3
Environmental Value
Indicators
Toxic releases by medium
Reductions in toxic releases -- pounds per year
Pounds of pesticides sold/applied
Strategies
1. Develop a regionwide atmospheric deposition monitoring network with analyses and temporal
and spatial coverage appropriate to assess the extent of this environmental problem.
2. Develop monitoring systems to measure accumulation of toxics in the environment.
3. Expand support for ongoing monitoring efforts (i.e., NADP).
4. Develop a methodology for prioritizing regional parameters of concern (i.e., levels of mercury,
lead, etc.).
5. Evaluate whether other pollutants should be added to the fifteen pollutants of concern listed in
Section 112(m) of the CAA.
6. Identify sources of the targeted pollutants.
7. Compile an inventory of known areas of contamination.
3Awaiting data required to support goal.
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8. Utilize the mass-balance approach using monitoring, modeling, and emission inventory efforts
to determine relative loadings of targeted pollutants.
9. Develop a cross-media methodology for identifying areas of potential accumulation of
contaminants.
10. Share information on new and renewal permit applications for sources with the potential to
emit pollutants of concern.
11. Improve the efficiency of cross-media programs, using the discretionary authority in existing
statutes to implement rules and regulations that prohibit multimedia environmental releases
that cause or contribute to environmental impairment.
12. Examine incentives for reductions in releases of pollutants of concern in the development of
strategies and regulations directed towards pollution prevention and reduction.
13. Include the private sector in activities for performance-based reductions.
14. Provide technical assistance in pollution prevention efforts.
15. Encourage voluntary pollution prevention efforts that lead to reductions in the release of
pollutants of concern (such as the "Virtual Elimination Pilot Project" underway in the Great
Lakes Basin).
16. Develop qualitative measures of success which recognize behavioral changes in the
regulated community in order to accurately gauge improvements and identify sources of data.
17. Evaluate mechanisms to establish and reward voluntary prevention efforts.
18. Identify innovative incentives for education through creative application of the Enforcement
Response Policy.
19. Assess and quantify the human health and environmental risks from exposure to air toxics,
especially via indirect exposure routes, and quantify the social, environmental, and economic
costs and benefits of pollution prevention and regulatory action.
20. Use the results of a risk assessment/cost-benefit analysis when taking reasonable actions to
reduce emissions and subsequent deposition of pollutants of concern.
21. Support development and implementation of pesticide management plans.
22. Create an inventory of pesticide use within the region and identify the stockpiles and
emissions of pesticides of known or potential concern.
23. Fund programs to collect and properly dispose of existing stocks of canceled pesticides from
residents.
24. Develop and incorporate environmental stewardship and other innovative strategies into
pesticide management programs while involving the appropriate stakeholders in the process.
25. Enhance education and awareness related to pesticide programs and accomplishments, and
use education as a regulatory tool.
26. Facilitate the development and use of waste exchanges.
27. Support research on new detection technologies.
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28. Ask all utilities to voluntarily decommission their polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB)-containing
electrical equipment.
29. Use CAMEO, LANDVIEW II, and GIS in planning, information management, and response.
30. Identify probable users of hazardous materials and take actions to increase voluntary
compliance with EPCRA, CERCLA 103, and CAA 112(r).
31. Identify probable users of hazardous materials and take enforcement actions against
egregious non-compliers with EPCRE, CERCLA 103, and CAA 112(r).
32. Support regional data gathering and analysis for accidental release incidents.
33. Identify high risk facilities and provide technical assistance to prevent chemical accidents and
reduce risks.
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Trends and Conditions
Two principal con-
cerns of waste
management are the
generation and man-
agement of municipal
solid waste and
hazardous waste mat-
erials. Municipal solid
waste is garbage and trash that is generated by
households, schools, offices, and similar
facilities. Hazardous waste is primarily waste
that meets the legal definition of hazardous and
must be managed in accordance to federal
regulations.
The major problems associated with this issue
include:
addressing citizen concerns pertaining to
old landfills,
the operation of existing landfills,
the siting problems associated with locating
new landfills, and
hazardous waste generation.
Historically the primary means of solid waste
disposal has been through landfills, both public
and private. Within the last decade some areas
have begun to turn to alternative disposal
options such as reuse, recycling, and
incineration. Each of these alternative options
has resulted in a significant reduction in the
volume of waste disposed of in landfills. The
primary reason communities have turned to
these other options is government mandated
goals to reduce the amount of waste disposed in
landfills.
There are presently 491 operating municipal
solid waste landfills in Region IV. In 1990 there
were 914. The decrease is primarily due to the
many landfills not able or willing to meet the
federal criteria for landfill sites. All states in
Region IV have adopted the criteria.
Recycling and incineration have had a
significant impact on reducing the waste sent to
landfills. In 1990 there were 235 curbside
recycling programs in place; by 1994, there were
920 programs in place.
All states in Region IV have adopted EPA
national criteria for solid waste reduction in their
state programs. EPA's efforts in the area of
municipal solid waste are focused on
encouraging and promoting recycling and reuse
programs, leaving states to actually regulate
solid waste landfills.
From 1988 to 1994 there was an overall
increase of approximately 59 percent in the
total tonnage of municipal solid waste
generated for the eight states in EPA Region
IV. The total tonnage of waste recycled or
composted for the region increased from
2,380,000 tons in 1988 to 13,082,000 tons in
1994; this was an increase of approximately
450 percent. The total tonnage of waste
incinerated experienced an overall increase of
approximately 25 percent from 1988 to 1994.
Although recycling, composting, and
incineration have experienced increases in the
tonnage of waste processed at those facilities,
the tonnage of landfilled waste has also
increased by approximately 35 percent.
Hazardous waste is of particular concern to
the southeast region as it requires special
management due to the serious threat it
poses to human health and the environment.
In accordance with 40 CFR 262.41 of the
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act,
businesses which generate over 2,200 pounds
Regional Strategic Issue 6:
Waste Management
Waste management addresses the municipal solid waste and hazardous waste and materials generated
from residential, commercial, governmental, or institutional establishments that are collected, processed,
and disposed of through a public or private waste management service. This issue deals with the effects on
the ecology and on human health from ivasfes that are improperly managed. Contaminants that are of
concern include radiation, pathogens, toxics, nutrients, and metals.
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of hazardous waste must report information
regarding their waste generation and
management activities to state environmental
agencies and the U.S. EPA.
The tonnage of hazardous waste generated in
the eight southeastern states increased
dramatically from 1987 to 1993. Although
there was some fluctuation in the amounts
generated, the overall tonnage of hazardous
waste generated increased by approximately
67,871 percent. The largest volume was in
1989, with 39,354,148 tons of hazardous
waste generated. With future increases in the
quality and quantity of data collected, the
region must look at information about the
success of waste reduction as a waste
management tool.
(Note: Further review of the hazardous
waste generation data is being conducted
in order to explore the obvious
eccentricities that occur in certain states
during some years.)
Municipal Solid Waste Generated (in tons)
Year
Tons of Solid
Waste
Generated
Tons of Waste
Recycled
(percent)
Tons of Waste
Incinerated
(percent)
Tons of Waste
Landfilled
(percent)
1988
39,160,000
2,380,000 (6%)
5,392,000 (14%)
31,388,000 (80%)
1989
45,000,000
1,172,000 (2%)
4,385,000 (10%)
39,443,000 (88%)
1990
47,400,000
4,139,000 (9%)
4,895,000 (10%)
38,366,000 (81%)
1991
47,500,000
6,289,000 (13%)
4,502,000 (10%)
36,709,000 (77%)
1992
55,238,000
8,783,000 (16%)
6,086,000 (11%)
40,369,000 (73%)
1993
55,642,000
10,779,000 (19%)
5,877,000 (11%)
38,986,000 (70%)
1994
62,175,000
13,082,000 (21%)
6,758,000 (11%)
42,335,000 (68%)
Hazardous Waste Generated (in tons)
State
1987
1989
1991
1993
Alabama
3,049
403,701
559,823
779,645
Florida
519
411,832
508,839
213,888
Georgia
39,838
2,615,210
757,885
921,076
Kentucky
5,851
149,612
487,622
397,488
Mississippi
1,296
717,291
8,050,831
1,882,053
North Carolina
928
586,338
281,849
447,718
South Carolina
4,850
106,224
604,456
310,399
Tennessee
884
34,363,940
1,697,402
33,937,638
Total
57,215
39,354,148
12,948,707
38,889,905
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Regional Goals
Goal: By 2005 increase the percentage of municipal solid
waste diverted from disposal by 30% through source reduction,
reuse and recycling.1
Municipal Solid Waste Generated
Year
Goal: By 2005, the generation of municipal waste per capita
will be reduced to the 1990 level of 4.3 pounds per day, and 30%
of the municipal waste that is generated will be recycled.2
Environmental Value
1995 2Wป 2W15 2010 2015
1The data for the indicator supporting this goal are provided by BioCycle. Since 1989 BioCycle, The Journal
of Composting and Recycling, has printed a nationwide survey of solid waste conditions and trends. The
survey tracks data from 50 states and the District of Columbia. The bulk of the figures come from state
agencies and represent the best data available.
2Data not received for inclusion.
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Goal: By 2010, hazardous waste generation will be reduced by
25 percent from the 1993 levels of hazardous waste generated.3
Hazardous Waste Generated
Year
Indicators
Generation of municipal solid waste - tons generated, landfilled, incinerated, recycled
Industrial wastes: tons generated, recycled, incinerated, landfilled
Construction and debris wastes: tons generated, recycled, incinerated, landfilled
Radioactive waste generated
Volume of hazardous waste generated
Volume of hazardous waste recycled/reused
Strategies
1. Support the development of new technologies that reduce waste.
2. Promote source reduction activities through education, program support, and technical
assistance.
3. Provide compliance assistance through inspections that highlight alternative treatment or
source reduction activities.
4. Assess recycling markets and provide assistance to increase capacity where needed.
5. Assist in the development of effective infrastructure for the collection, processing, and
marketing of recyclables.
data for the indicator supporting this goal are provided by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Solid Waste, as part of their biennial report, National Biennial RCRA Hazardous Waste Report.
States are required to report information biennially to EPA. The data are available in hard copy format.
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6. Increase awareness and purchase of recycled-content products.
7. Examine economies of scale in monitoring efforts.
8. Target large industrial firms for recycling.
9. Examine landfill monitoring processes for opportunities to reduce costs.
10. Study the methods used for the transport of wastes.
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Regional Strategic Issue 7:
Surface Water Quality
This issue addresses the quality of surface waters as it affects human health, ecology, and quality of life. It
includes all freshwater lakes, rivers, streams, springs, and waters from estuaries and marine systems. In
addition, this issue addresses the impacts to surface water quality from domestic wastes,
industrial/hazardous wastes, solid wastes, atmospheric deposition, contaminated soils and sediments, and
other nonpoint sources of pollution.
Trends and Conditions
Jk
Surface water
resources in EPA
Region IV include a
rich and diverse
group of rivers, lakes,
and estuaries that
provide significant
ecological, aesthetic,
and economic value
to all states within the
region. The waters are essential for providing
the habitat needed to support aquatic life and
wildlife. They also provide water for drinking,
recreation, agriculture, food, industry, and power
generation. The primary threat to the basic
functions provided by water resources in Region
IV is pollution from human activities.
During the years of 1993 and 1994, the Region
IV states reported in their 305(b) water quality
reports that the water quality conditions of
approximately 27% of streams, 72% of lakes
and 89% of estuaries were assessed. Of the
waterbodies assessed, approximately 62% of
the rivers, 65% of the lakes, and 73% of the
estuaries fully supported designated uses as
established by the individual states. These
designated uses typically include drinking water
supply, recreation, support of fish and other
aquatic life, and support of wildlife. While water
quality improvements have occurred in some
areas due to improved treatment of point source
discharges, water quality conditions in other
areas have declined. These declines are due to
a variety of human impacts.
At the present time the major source of stress on
surface water resource comes from land use
changes associated with expansion of human
population and societal demands on water
resources. The primary sources of stressors on
surface water quality can be separated into two
categories: point sources and nonpoint sources.
Each of these sources of water pollution
contributes to increased loadings of sediment,
nutrients, metals, pathogens, toxic substances,
and airborne pollutants as well as to habitat
destruction.
There are two primary sources of point source
water pollution: municipal wastewater
discharges and industrial wastewater
discharges. Municipal wastewater is generated
by households, public buildings, commercial
establishments, stormwater sewers, and some
industries that discharge into municipal sewer
systems. The primary impacts on water quality
from municipal wastewater are from the amounts
of sediments, excessive nutrients, and organic
matter discharged into water bodies. Though
municipal wastewater is treated to reduce the
impacts on receiving waters, the level of
treatment varies greatly and is not always
sufficient to reduce these impacts to negligible
levels.
Industrial wastewater is water used primarily to
cool or clean machinery, process raw materials
or food, and control air pollution. The primary
pollutants associated with industrial wastewater
are acids, detergents, oil and grease, heavy
metals, pathogens, halogenated solvents,
nutrients, organic matter, and suspended solids.
The primary impacts of industrial wastewater are
on aquatic organisms and fish. The chemicals,
heavy metals, and even the heat of the water
itself can accumulate and cause acute poisoning
of the organisms in the receiving waters. Both
municipal and industrial wastewater are subject
to regulations on the treatment required before
the wastewater can be discharged into receiving
waters. The overall impacts of wastewater
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discharges have been significant in the past, but
new and improved treatment technologies and
regulations have substantially reduced the
impacts from point source discharges. At the
present time the more important concern for
controlling impacts to surface water bodies is
nonpoint discharges.
Sources of nonpoint discharges are urban and
suburban runoff, agriculture runoff, dredge and
fill operations, spills, and atmospheric
deposition. Nonpoint sources account for over
65% of the total amount of pollutants discharged
into rivers, lakes, and estuaries. Pollutants
associated with nonpoint sources include heavy
metals, salt, oil, gasoline, sediments, pesticides,
fertilizers, nutrients, and organic matter.
Impacts from nonpoint sources appear to be
following an increasing trend in many areas of
Region IV.
Nonpoint discharges arise primarily from human
use and conversion of land for development and
agricultural and industrial uses to support human
needs. Without proper controls to limit
discharges from developed lands, severe
pollution can occur from nonpoint sources. In
addition, destruction of riparian zones and
aquatic habitat from various land uses also
severely impacts the ability of natural processes
to mitigate the impacts of pollutants found in
stormwater run-off. Atmospheric deposition of
pollutants generated through air emissions
(primarily from automobile and industrial
sources), are also a significant contributor to
nonpoint source pollutant loadings. Atmospheric
deposition is a primary factor in the acidification
of water bodies due to acid rain and a major
source of excessive nutrient loadings to surface
waters.
The major strategies in place to control
discharges from both sources have been
developed and undertaken by the states in
Region IV with assistance from federal
agencies, local governments, industry, and
concerned citizen groups. Federal agencies
such as the U.S. Forest Service, Department of
Defense, and Department of Energy are
responsible for control of pollutants from
sources on lands under federal management.
The primary legislative authority associated with
water quality comes from the federal Clean
Water Act, state clean water acts, and local
ordinances.
Point source stressors are primarily controlled
by the establishment of instream standards for
pollutants and issuance of National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits
that do not allow pollutants to be discharged in
excess of set standards. Accidental spills and
releases are controlled by municipal and
industrial permitees, with required actions
outlined in spill prevention and control plans
developed by the individual facilities.
Nonpoint source pollution from land use
activities is controlled by the proper
implementation of best management practices
(BMPs) to control pollutants that result from
these activities. Implementation of these BMPs
is controlled by state and local ordinances, with
voluntary compliance encouraged in some
instances. The measures taken to control both
sources of discharges (but primarily point source
discharges) have led to significant improve-
ments in the prevention of degradation of
surface waters, and overall water quality is
improving. Though current efforts are resulting
in improved water quality conditions within the
region, additional strategies will be needed to
continue this improvement so that eventually all
waters fully support their designated use.
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Regional Goals
Goal: By 2005, increase the percentage of river miles/lake
acres/estuary acres fully supporting designated uses by 10%.1
Percentage of River Miles, Lake Acres, and
Esturary Acres Fully Supporting Designated Uses*
80 -i
ซ
C 65
a>
o
ฃ 60
55
50 1 !
1992 1994 2000 2005
Year
'The water quality trend from 1992 to 1994 declined from 71% to 69%. It should be noted that this is likely
attributable to increases in total waters assessed in each state from 1992 to 1994 rather than to a decrease
in water quality.
Indicators
Miles or acres of streams/lakes/estuaries not meeting designated use (% miles/acres
assessed and % miles/acres total)
Index of biotic integrity^
Trophrcrstatll 5"ofiakes
Number of outstanding resource waters
Sediment contamination from toxics
Concentration of mercury and other toxics in fish tissue
Strategies
1. Expand the coverage of the region's water quality monitoring system.
2. Improve the efficiency of using existing monitoring data.
3. Develop new techniques to better assess biological/ecological trends and conditions.
1Water quality data for each state are available in the 305(b) reports prepared by each state's
environmental agency and submitted to the United States Environmental Protection Agency. Copies of
each state report are available from David Melgaard, Division of Water, EPA Region IV, 345 Courtland
Street NE, Atlanta, GA 30365 or at (404) 347-2126 ext. 6590.
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4. Improve 305(b) consistency among states.
5. Prioritize the causes of water bodies' failure to meet designated use standards and develop
strategies to deal with each cause.
6. Use monitoring data to make environmental and program decisions.
7. Identify successful models of nonpoint source pollution mitigation and share the information
with the other states in the region.
8. Provide organizational and technical support for a community-based approach to water quality
protection.
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Regional Strategic Issue 8:
Ground Water Quality
This issue addresses the quality of ground water as it affects human health, ecology, and quality of life. It
includes potable and nonpotable water that is found below the land's surface in the aquifers. The primary
concern of this issue is the contamination of the ground water from toxics, metals, nutrients, pathogens, and
salinity. These contaminants find their way into ground water from sources such as old landfills, septic
tanks, use of chemicals, underground storage tanks, and abandoned wells.
Trends and Conditions
Ground water sup-
plies over half of
the nation's pop-
ulation with drinking
water. Over 90% of
rural America relies
on ground water as
its source of drinking water. In general, the
southeastern states mirror these numbers; the
notable exceptions are Florida and Mississippi,
where over 90% of each state's total population
relies on ground water for its drinking water.
Other important ground water uses include
irrigation and commercial and industrial
applications. The ecological importance of
ground water in providing streamflow to surface
water and in supporting habitat needs must also
be recognized.
Since contamination of ground water typically
occurs in localized areas, it is difficult to make
broad statements concerning ground water
quality conditions. Many locations within each
state have shown ground water quality
degradation that constrains the use of ground
water, but these instances are localized and
typically do not affect large regional ground
water resources.
When asked to rank categories of contaminant
sources for the 1994 305(b) report, the states
responded with assignment of high, medium,
low, and unspecified priority. Those categories
of contaminant sources that received the highest
rankings (shown below after combining high and
medium priorities) are as follows:
underground storage tanks;
pesticide applications;
fertilized applications;
landfills;
septic tanks;
above ground storage tanks;
surface impoundments; and
shallow injection wells.
The states were also asked to rank ground
water contaminants for the 1994 305(b) report.
The following ground water contaminants were
found to be of the highest concern:
petroleum compounds;
other organic compounds;
nitrates;
organic pesticides;
metals; and
bacteria.
State environmental agencies receive funding
from EPA under Section 106 of the Clean Water
Act in support of their state ground water
protection programs. These state programs
address a variety of issues, concerns, and
activities including the development of
Comprehensive State Ground Water Protection
Programs (CSGWPPs). CSGWPPs are
intended to be a framework for states to
coordinate and set priorities for all ground water-
related activities in each state. CSGWPPs are
to be customized to meet the needs and vision
of each state, should emphasize the need to
prevent ground water contamination, and should
build upon the principles of state/EPA
partnerships in protecting ground water.
Specifically, other activities supported by the
106 Ground Water Protection Program Grant
include the development of ground water
standards, regulations, and classification
systems; monitoring networks; permitting
programs; response actions; the development of
management systems; review and technical
support to other programs; outreach and
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education; groundwater resource investigations
and mapping; and support for wellhead
protection.
The Wellhead Protection Program (WHP) was
established by the Safe Drinking Water Act
Amendments of 1986. The Act requires states
to develop programs to protect the areas around
public water supply wells from contamination.
WHP efforts are funded by EPA primarily
through the 106 Ground Water Protection
Program Grants. Numerous small grants to
local governments have also been made in
support of local program development and
implementation. Currently, seven Region IV
states have had their WHP Programs approved
by EPA.
Other environmental statutes dealing with
Superfund sites, hazardous waste sites,
underground storage tanks, pesticides, and
underground injection control have established
ground water-related programs that also address
ground water protection and remediation
concerns.
Regional Goals
Goal: Protect the quality of the region's ground water to
ensure human and ecosystem health.1
Indicators
Point source loadings to ground water (LUST, UIC, and contaminated sites)
Percent of hazardous waste sites with confirmed contamination of ground water
Number of municipal drinking water wells closed due to contamination
Strategies
1. Develop a regional ground water protection strategy.
2. Develop a comprehensive ground water, protection strategy for each state.
3. Develop a regional ground water quality monitoring system.
1No source of data presently exists that is capable of supporting an indicator-driven goal.
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Regional Strategic Issue 9:
Water Quantity
This issue addresses the impacts to human health, ecology, and quality of life resulting from the depletion
of fresh water supplies. Water quantity considers the water supply and management of both surface and
ground water resources. The primary concerns of this issue are overdraft and minimum flows and levels.
The sub-issue of overdraft deals with the impacts on wetlands and surface water from ground water
overdraft as well as issues of saltwater intmsion, depletion, and competing uses. Minimum flows and levels
deals with concerns of depletion, competing uses, and effects on aquatic communities.
Trends and Conditions
The available water supply
for the Region IV area is
controlled by a combination
of geography, geology,
hydrology, and yearly
precipitation. The rapidly
increasing population growth
in the southeast region of the
United States has con-
strained the availability of water resources in
some areas to supply human needs as well as
maintain aquatic ecosystems. Population
centers dependent on the headwaters of
watersheds are vying for river flows, and in
some areas available surface water quantities
are not adequate for all uses. The current
negotiations between Georgia, Florida and
Alabama over allocation ot tne unaianoocFiei
"^ffiver water is a prime example ot a situation
where potential overuse of a resource by
competing uses can occur, and decisions on
proper use of the limited quantity must be
carefully made to satisfy all demands. In some
coastal areas cities that depend on aquifers are
looking for solutions to saltwater intrusion and
overuse of aquifers. Also, in other areas
communities are depending on limited
groundwater supplies and are seeking new
sources of potable water to meet increasing
demands. Municipalities are having to find ways
to conserve and reuse supplies, develop water
use strategies to reduce the need for new
infrastructure, and develop new expensive
supplies.
The primary stressors associated with this issue
are related to increased human populations and
societal demands on the resource. Increased
industrial and agricultural demand for water are
also related to increasing human needs. The
trend for increased water use is prevalent in
most of the Region IV area. Several areas have
taken steps to reduce per capita consumption of
water by developing water use strategies and
less consumptive technologies aimed at
conserving the resource, while other areas are
expending capital to build new water supply
reservoirs and infrastructure to meet new
demands.
The development and maintenance of water
supplies are primarily under state and local
jurisdiction and control. Maintenance of surface
water flows adequate for protection of aquatic
life is controlled by state and federal pollution
control acts. Water conservation and control
strategies are often developed by individual
municipalities, counties, or regional commis-
sions with the overall goals of reducing per
capita consumption rates in critical areas and
developing conservation and reuse programs.
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Regional Goals
Goal: (Under Development)
Environmental Value
Indicators
Allocation by use by sector
Average water use per person
Strategies
1. Assess the amount of water withdrawn for different uses and develop strategies for
minimizing the use of water.
2. Promote the development of wastewater reuse programs.
3. Support education programs for water conservation.
4. Support efforts to improve the efficiency of water conservation technologies.
5. Facilitate the exchange of information between states.
6. Identify areas where the use of water is damaging future water supplies and ecological
functioning.
7. Involve private industry in the process of reducing water use for their sectors.
8. Establish safe flows and levels for all rivers and streams of regional significance and develop
strategies to ensure their maintenance.
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Trends and Conditions
Regional Strategic Issue 10:
Air Quality
The issue of air quality is concerned with the air outdoors and the upper atmosphere. It addresses the
effects of criteria pollutants, toxics, and stratospheric ozone depletion. It includes effects on air quality from
auto, industrial, and biohazardous emissions. The sub-issue of criteria pollutants deals with the six criteria
pollutants (particulate matter, ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, lead, and carbon monoxide), acid rain,
mobile sources, and non-attainment areas. Toxics addresses mobile sources and TRI releases.
Air pollution, as
identified by
exceedances of the
National Ambient Air
Quality Standards
(NAAQS), can cause
sickness, especially
in the elderly and the
very young, and
damage to the
environment and to property. The accidental
release of some air pollutants can cause serious
injury or death. Pursuant to the Clean Air Act
(CAA), six criteria air pollutants are monitored
throughout the region by state and local
agencies: particulate matter (276 sites), ozone
(175 sites), sulfur dioxide (63 sites), nitrogen
dioxide (42 sites), lead (99 sites) and carbon
monoxide (86 sites). Oyer half of these monitors
have been collecting data for over ten years. All
areas in Region IV are meeting the NAAQS for
four (carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide,
particulate matter, and nitrogen dioxide) of the
six criteria pollutants. Pursuant to the 1990
amendments to the Clean Air Act, there were a
total of 33 NAAQS nonattainment designations
relating to criteria pollutants. Currently, only six
of the areas continue to monitor violations. The
region had nineteen ozone NAAQS non-
attainment areas, pursuant to the 1990
amendments; since that time, fifteen areas are
monitoring attainment and twelve areas have
been redesignated to attainment status. The
region had six sulfur dioxide NAAQS
nonattainment areas at the time of the 1990
amendments, and since that time two areas
have been redesignated to attainment status
and two areas are pending redesignation. The
region had four carbon monoxide NAAQS
nonattainment areas pursuant to the 1990
amendments; all four areas have since been
redesignated to attainment status. The region
had five lead NAAQS nonattainment areas
pursuant to the 1990 amendments; since that
time, three of the five lead nonattainment areas
are monitoring attainment and one area has
been redesignated to attainment status.
The following chart displays the number of areas
assigned nonattainment designations and the
number of areas that have had violations of the
ambient air standards:
A limited amount of ambient hazardous air
pollutant (HAP) data has been collected in some
urban areas over the past several years. These
data are not sufficient to describe trends in
ambient levels of hazardous air pollutants.
Although there is some variation, since 1990
there is a downward trend in emissions of
criteria pollutants or their precursors from mobile
sources and from stationary sources such as
utilities and the auto manufacturing industry. In
ozone nonattainment and maintenance areas,
the emissions of ozone precursors (volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) and nitrogen oxides
(NO*)) have remained constant or decreased
due to the regulatory requirements for ozone
nonattainment areas.
Number of
Number of
Year
Nonattainment
Areas Violating
Designations
a Standard
1990
20
23
1991
19
15
1992
33
10
1993
29
7
1994
25
5
1995
13
8
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For 1993, Toxics Release Inventory (TRI)
reported that 502 million pounds of TRI
chemicals were released to the air (stack and
fugitive emissions). This reflects a decrease of
70 million pounds as compared with 1988.
Some of the 189 HAPs listed in the CAA are not
included in the TRI. However, as recently as
November 22, 1994, nine of these were added
as part of the expansion of TRI. The remaining
HAPs have not been added because of, among
other reasons, their low production quantities.
Certain areas have been identified as
"nonattainment" for one or more of the criteria air
pollutants. These areas have been designated
nonattainment in accordance with the
requirements of the CAA. States are required to
develop state implementation plans (SIPs) which
describe each state's plan to bring its
nonattainment areas back into attainment.
These SIPs are the compilation of state
regulations which have been approved by the
EPA and are therefore federally enforceable.
Title V of the CAA addresses the permitting of
major stationary sources and certain other
sources of both criteria and non-criteria
pollutants. The permit program will ensure that
all of a source's obligations with respect to its
pollutants will be contained in one permit
document, and that the source will file periodic
reports identifying the extent to which it has
complied with its obligations. Both these
requirements will greatly enhance the ability of
federal and state agencies to evaluate air
quality.
Title III of the CAA addresses requirements for
both major and non-major sources of air
pollution for HAPs. The Act requires EPA to
issue standards over a ten-year period in order
to regulate emissions of 189 toxic air pollutants
from various industries and other sources. Once
a source becomes subject to a certain EPA-
issued HAPs rule, the source will also be
required to submit applications for the approval
of new construction and reconstruction and to
undertake performance testing, monitoring,
record keeping, and reporting.
Regional Goals
Goal: By 2005, permanently eliminate all nonattainment areas
in the region.1
Number of Nonattainment Designations
CO
(0
0)
0
E
c
(0
s
n
a)
a
E
3
1990
1991
1992 1993 1994
Year
1995
2000
2005
The data for the indicator supporting this goal are provided by the U.S. EPA Region IV Air Division as part
of their NAAQS program. The data are available in hard copy format at no cost. Data are available
annually for each state.
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Goal: By 2005, reduce emissions of air toxics by 50%.2
Environmental Value
Indicators
Carbon monoxide emissions and ambient concentrations
Nitrogen dioxide emissions and ambient concentrations
Sulfur dioxide emissions and ambient concentrations
Particulate matter emissions and ambient concentrations
Lead emissions and ambient concentrations
Exceedances of the ambient standard for ozone
Numbers of people living in metropolitan areas and counties where air does not meet criteria
pollutant standards
Nonattainment areas by pollutant
Acidic deposition
Volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions from motor vehicles
Volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions from stationary sources
Pounds of toxics generated by stationary sources
Ambient concentrations of toxics
Toxic Release Inventory emissions to air of Clean Air Act regulated Hazardous Air Pollutants
Usage and sales of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
CFC Production
Strategies
1. Develop cooperative strategies to ensure that attainment status is maintained.
2. Reduce emissions through pollution prevention measures.
3. Coordinate pollution prevention work with private sector efforts.
^he data to support this goal are not presently available. EPA expects to be able to begin collection of air
toxics data during 1996 to establish a baseline for this indicator.
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4. Involve the private sector in efforts to reduce air pollution.
5. Improve and expand the ability to monitor air toxics.
6. Develop and support community-based environmental protection efforts.
7. Conduct research into unique regional ozone strategies.
8. Promote the management of CFCs in the region.
9. Expand and improve provision of technical assistance to communities on Title V.
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Trends and Conditions
Regional Strategic Issue 11:
Human Health
/0 (c\ io L f US-
The environment is composed of living organisms and the non-living media that surround them. Because of
the numerous and complex interactions between organisms and their environment, separation of entities
into categories of"living things" and "environment" is, for the most part, an artificial concept. How humans
affect their surroundings largely determines how the environment affects humans; just as people can
degrade the health of the environment, a contaminated environment can adversely impact human health.
This issue focuses on some of the major toxics that adversely influence human health via their introduction
into the various environmental media (i.e., water, air, land) and through exposure to toxic substances in the
workplace.
Living organisms come
into contact with toxic
substances via air,
water, soil, and direct
exposure. Routes
whereby toxics are
introduced into living
things include inhal-
ation, ingestion, and
direct absorption through the skin.
Between 1985 and 1991, the National
Governors' Association (NGA), under a
cooperative agreement with the U.S. Agency for
Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
(ATSDR), conducted biennial surveys to identify
contaminated sites that were closed or restricted
to the public. The compilation of these Toxic
Site Surveys (TSSs) displays information on
sites that have restrictions for ground water, land
area, surface water, and other sites (i.e., waste
ponds/lagoons and buildings). The five
contaminants most frequently found in the states
of EPA Region IV are shown in the chart that
follows for 1991, the last year in which the
survey was conducted.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are
commonly found in the air (e.g., via gasoline
vapors), ground and surface water sources, and
indoor air. In addition to being carcinogenic,
VOCs can cause eye irritation and visual
disorders, respiratory irritation, fatigue, impaired
memory, and other disorders. Benzene is a
VOC which is frequently found in contaminated
ground water and in other contaminated sites; it
is a constituent of petroleum products and is a
commonly used industrial solvent. Benzene is a
confirmed human carcinogen; routes of human
exposure include ingestion, inhalation, and
absorption through contact with skin. VOCs also
contribute to the formation of photooxidant smog
(ozone), and exposure to ozone can impair lung
function in healthy people and can seriously
endanger people with existing respiratory
problems (e.g., asthmatics). Ozone is extremely
reactive, promoting free-radical oxidation that
leads to ceil aging, cell death, DNA damage,
mutagenesis, and carcinogenesis.
Humans may come into contact with
poiychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), a group of
209 fat-soluble chemicals, through the ingestion
of fish, meat, eggs, milk, and other substances
in which these chemicals have bioaccumulated.
PCBs are no longer manufactured in the United
States, and although they are carcinogenic, they
appear to pose little threat to human health in
concentrations typically found in the
environment. Occupational exposure, however,
has been associated with the occurrence of
chloracne, a disfiguring skin disorder. Some
types of electrical equipment still contain PCBs.
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Most Frequently Found Contaminants in Region IV States in 1991
All Sites
Ground Water Wells Only
contaminant
# of sites
contaminant
# of wells
benzene
28
EDB
2,308
gasoline
26
benzene
2,224
pesticides
17
pesticides
2,212
EDB
15
fertilizers
2,012
PCBs, VOCs
14
solvents
1,667
EDB = ethylene dibromide
PCBs = polychlorinated biphenyls
VOCs = volatile organic compounds
Fertilizer-contaminated water can cause
elevated levels of nitrates and other chemicals.
Ingestion of nitrate-contaminated well water can
result in an acute blood condition called
methemoglobinemia, to which newborns are
particularly susceptible. In addition, long-term
exposure to nitrates may contribute to the
development of cancer in children and adults,
since nitrates can react with other chemicals to
form nitrosamines, which are known animal
carcinogens.
The effects of long-term exposure to low levels
of pesticide residues in food and water are
unknown. Adequate toxicological data are
available for only about 100 of the 600 active
pesticide ingredients currently found in the
United States. High levels of occupational
exposure to pesticides have resulted in
symptoms of acute intoxication, ranging from
nausea or muscle tremors to coma and
sometimes death. Ethylene dibromide (EDB) is
a grain fumigant and is also a component of
some anti-knock gasolines. Acute exposure to
EDB causes severe skin irritation, and EDB
inhalation can result in pulmonary lesions;
prolonged contact may injure the liver and
kidneys. EDB is strongly suspected to be
carcinogenic. The U.S. has no national
database for the reporting of acute pesticide
poisoning.
In addition to the above-referenced toxics of
regional significance, there are many other toxic
substances that are ubiquitous in the
environment and which can negatively impact
human health. Following is a discussion of
some of these chemicals.
Mercury is a metallic element that is found in
some pesticides and which can enter surface
waters through atmospheric deposition. When
converted to organic methyl mercury by aquatic
microorganisms, this toxic progressively
bioaccumulates through the food chain. Being
at the top of the food chain, humans can ingest
high levels of mercury when contaminated fish
are consumed. In humans, organic mercury is
neurotoxic, can damage kidneys, and may be
teratogenic. Inorganic mercury, largely in the
form of mercury vapor, can also adversely affect
human health. Before August 1990, when the
EPA banned mercury additives from indoor
paint, latex paint manufacturers frequently
added mercury compounds to preserve paint
from the growth of microorganisms. Walls that
were painted with these products are sources of
mercury vapor, since mercury can vaporize and
be released into the air, resulting in high indoor
air levels of mercury. Inorganic mercury fumes
can cause tremors and irritability in humans.
Lead is a heavy metal that is emitted into the
atmosphere primarily via industrial activities,
combustion of gasoline additives, combustion of
solid waste, and energy production. Lead is
deposited onto soil and into water, and because
lead is very stable, it generally does not
degrade. Although lead was banned from
general use in automobile gasoline around
1980, lead from gasoline burned before then
persists in the environment. Human exposure to
lead primarily results from inhalation and
ingestion. Lead water pipes and lead soldering
used in water pipes are significant sources of
ingestible lead.
The Centers for Disease Control's current
definition of lead poisoning is a blood lead level
of 10 ug/dl or higher; a level of 150 ug/dl is
considered lethal. The health effects of lead
include central nervous system damage ranging
from cognitive deficits to brain damage, kidney
impairment, anemia, increased blood pressure,
and many other medical manifestations. Central
nervous system effects may be irreversible.
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Children are particularly susceptible to the
effects of ingested lead, as children experience
five times the amount of gastrointestinal lead
absorption of adults. No safe level of lead in
blood has been determined. In addition, since
lead accumulates in bones, blood lead levels
may not be indicative of past lead exposure.
Distillation and reverse osmosis are two
effective means of treating water to remove
lead.
The term asbestos refers to two groups of
fibrous mineral silicates found in certain types of
rocks. Asbestos dust is a confirmed carcinogen
that, after a long period of latency following
inhalation, can result in several types of lung
cancer. In addition, irreversible scarring of lung
tissue (asbestosis) can be caused by asbestos
inhalation, and skin irritation can result from
acute exposure. Asbestos removal workers and
workers in industries that use or mine asbestos
are particularly at risk of adverse health effects,
especially if they smoke cigarettes. It is thought
that most people who live or work in asbestos-
containing buildings are at little risk of adverse
health effects from these substances. And
although asbestos is also present in some
cement drinking water pipes, a U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services study concluded
that increased risk of gastrointestinal cancer is
unlikely from this source.
Radon is a naturally-occurring radioactive gas
that is produced from the radioactive decay of
radium. It is present in soil and rocks and is
sometimes present in ground water. The
greatest threats to human health result from high
concentrations of radon in indoor air.
Concentration of radon in indoor air is mostly
dependent on soil and rock radon
concentrations, ventilation characteristics of
buildings, and the structural integrity of
buildings' basements and foundations. In
addition, radon present in ground water is
released into the air when water is agitated (e.g.,
via faucets, washing machines, etc.). Inhaled
radon undergoes radioactive decay in the lungs,
causing damage to cells and to DNA. In the
United States, radon is considered the second
leading cause of lung cancer. Developing
fetuses are particularly vulnerable to adverse
effects from DNA damage and mutation, since
high prenatal growth rates accelerate the
manifestations of genetic damage. Aerating
water before it enters buildings can essentially
eliminate radon in water from entering indoor air;
reverse osmosis is also an effective way to
remove radon from water.
Regional Goals
Goal: By the year 2005, 20% of all homes in Region IV will be
tested for radon, and 40% of those found to exceed 4pCi/l will be
mitigated.1
Environmental Value
1 Data to support this goal are not presently available.
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Indicators
Average blood lead levels in children attributable to drinking water
Waterborne disease outbreaks from public water supplies
Hospital admissions due to respiratory distress during criteria pollutant exceedances
Number of known hospital admissions and deaths due to chemical releases
Percentage of homes tested for radon with levels of 4pCi/L or above
Workplace pesticide exposure - acute and chronic
Number of cancer illnesses from asbestosis
Change in cancer rates
Strategies
1. Develop research capable of linking human health effects to environmental conditions.
2. Coordinate with state and local health organizations to screen for environmental causes of
disease.
3. Develop partnerships between other governmental and non-profit organizations to more
efficiently use resources.
4. Encourage parents to test their children for blood lead levels.
5. Develop a process for inspection of individual private wells.
6. Develop public education processes pertaining to indoor air quality.
7. Identify the areas of greatest risk from radon for early attention.
8. Develop/refine state strategies by continually sharing results of different approaches states
and EPA have tried in radon testing programs.
9. Use a voluntary approach that incorporates incentives and regulation in the development of
radon programs.
10. Develop performance partnership grants and identify new resources for use in radon
programs.
11. Develop new radon-resistant building codes.
12. Implement policies for routine radon testing at real estate transactions.
13. Provide radon education for specific groups (i.e., public, real estate agents and
commissioners, lending industry, legislators, homebuilders, code officials, and community-
based groups).
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Regional Strategic Issue 12:
Indoor Air Quality
(To be developed)
Trends and Conditions
(To be developed)
Regional Goals
Goal: Indoor air quality will meet all national health and
environmental standards for outdoor air, except where specific
sources are present.
Environmental Value
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Goal: By the year 2005, the number of children exposed to
environmental tobacco smoke will be reduced by 50%.
Environmental Value
Indicators
Number of children exposed to environmental tobacco smoke in their homes, compiled in
EPA-sponsored surveys
Strategies
1. Develop state-specific action plans for indoor air quality, identifying the greatest sources of
risk within each state.
2. Maintain communication among states and EPA concerning new program materials,
research, and project results.
3. Form partnerships with other governmental and non-profit organizations to efficiently disperse
resources for specific projects.
4. Continue a voluntary approach to reducing the public health threats posed by indoor air
pollution, incorporating incentives and regulations where appropriate.
5. Support training of occupational groups to help ensure better indoor air quality for the public.
6. Identify new funding resources for indoor air quality activities.
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Section 8:
Goal and Strategy
Development Criteria and
Indicator Selection Criteria
-------
Goal Development
Criteria
RESP Goals are:
Reflective of the (a) major realistic achievement with
regard to the issue.
Time constrained.
Expressed in quantitative terms and supported by an indicator that
meets indicator selection criteria.
Set to reflect environmental end points that, whenever possible,
achieve sustainability.
Indicator Selection Criteria
Ideally, each indicator should meet a series of standards designed to ensure high and consistent quality. Listed below
are the selection criteria employed by SEG1P in all of its indicator work. Selection criteria are of two types:
essential - criteria an indicator must meet, and
preferable -- criteria an indicator should meet
Essential Criteria include:
Measurable: The indicator measures a feature of the environment that can be quantified simply using standard
methodologies with a known degree of performance and precision.
Data Quality: The data supporting the indicators are adequately supported by sound collection methodologies,
data management systems and quality assurance procedures to ensure that the indicator is accurately represented.
The data should be clearly defined, verifiable, scientifically acceptable and easy to reproduce.
Importance: The indicator must measure some aspect of environmental quality that reflects an issue of major
national importance to states and to the federal government in demonstrating the current and future conditions of
the environment.
Relevance: The indicator should be relevant to a desired significant policy goal, issue, legal mandate, or agency
mission (e.g., contaminated fish fillets for consumption advisories; species of recreational or commercial value)
that provides information of obvious value that can be easily related to the public and decisionmakers.
-------
Representative: Changes in the indicator are highly correlated to trends in the other parameters or systems they
are selected to represent.
Appropriate scale: The indicator responds to changes on an appropriate geographic (e.g., national or regional)
and/or temporal (e.g., yearly) scale.
Trends: The data for the indicator should have been collected over a sufficient period of time to allow some
analysis of trends or should provide a baseline for future trends. The indicator should show reliability over time,
bringing to light a representative trend, preferably annual.
Decision support: The indicator should provide information to a level appropriate for making policy decisions.
Highly specific and special parameters, useful to technical staff, will not be of much significance to policy staff or
management decisionmakers.
Preferable Criteria include:
Results: The indicator should measure a direct environmental result (e.g., an impact on human health or
ecological conditions). Indicators expressing changes in ambient conditions or changes in measures reflecting
discharges or releases are acceptable, but not preferred. Process measures (e.g., permits, compliance and
enforcement activities, etc.) are not acceptable.
Understandable: The indicator should be simple and clear, and sufficiently nontechnical to be comprehensible to
the general public with brief explanation. The indicator should lend itself to effective and appealing display and
presentation.
Sensitivity: The indicator is able to distinguish meaningful differences in environmental conditions with an
acceptable degree of resolution. Small changes in the indicator show measurable results.
Integrates effects/exposures: The indicator integrates effects or exposure over time and space and responds to
the cumulative impacts of multiple stressors. It is broadly applicable to many stressors and sites.
Data comparability: The data supporting an indicator can be compared to existing and past measures of
conditions to develop trends and define variation.
Cost effective/availability: The information for an indicator is available or can be obtained with reasonable cost
and effort and provides maximum information per unit effort.
Anticipatory: The indicator is capable of providing an early warning of environmental change.
-------
Strategy Criteria
Strategies for the RESP Issues:
Reflect a step or accomplishment that will help result in a major
achievement with regard to the issue.
Express a fundamental change in the way the Region and the states are
currently addressing the issue.
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Section 9:
Goal Supporting
Indicators
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Land Cover Types
Level of Indicator: 6
Type of Indicator: B
Explanation of Indicator
The conversion of natural ecosystems to other uses is a major problem in the southeastern
United States. Agriculture, housing developments, suburban sprawl, city growth, and road
construction are some of the greatest threats to natural communities. Land conversion leads to
landscape fragmentation followed by piecemeal conservation efforts. One inevitable
consequence is the loss of the interconnectedness between ecosystems. Land-water links are
relatively obvious. Other connections are equally important, yet more subtle. The preservation of
rare species and communities is an important conservation goal. However, it has several
drawbacks. First, it promotes a piecemeal approach to preservation. And secondly, it can result
in species or communities being ignored until they become endangered.
A major problem with protecting ecologically important and or sensitive lands is that
comprehensive knowledge on the existing amount of land cover types is not readily available. An
annual comprehensive assessment of existing vegetative communities would provide information
on the acreage of each land cover type and show whether the acreage is decreasing or increasing
over time. One of the primary tools available to provide this information is landsat satellite
imagery. The use of Landsat satellite imagery allows large areas to be assessed relatively quickly
and accurately.
Data Characteristics
SOURCE
This information can be obtained from Landsat satellite imagery from each state in Region IV. To
obtain information about Landsat data for each state, contact Eric Hughes, Wetlands Programs,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Region IV, 345 Courtland Street, NE, Atlanta, Georgia,
30365, or at (404) 347-3871.
ACQUISITION
There are substantial costs involved in obtaining Landsat data. The cost per scene of data is
approximately $2000 to 3000. One state could require any where from 12 to 20 scenes for a
comprehensive assessment of the state.
COLLECTION
The satellite that collects the data is on an 18 day cycle. The opportunity for data collection exists
when the satellite passes over the area that is to be mapped. Once the data is collected, it is for
sale by scene.
Data Limitations
Landsat satellite imagery data is collected very consistently. However, the way the data is
interpreted can be inconsistent when compared across states. Because of high costs, some
states may be unable to obtain the data.
Recommendations
States need to be funded to obtain and interpret Landsat satellite imagery data. In addition, a
consistent methodology needs to be devised for data interpretation so that data can be compared
across states.
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Number of Endangered or Threatened
Wildlife Species
Level of Indicator: 2 Type of Indicator: A
Explanation of Indicator
The Federal Endangered Species Act [16 U.S.C. 1531 et.seq.] passed in 1973 with the purpose of
preventing the destruction of natural diversity and conserving species at risk from extinction.
Major goals of the Act are to avert species extinctions and declines, stabilize existing populations,
prevent habitat destruction, and restore habitat necessary for species survival. The Act was
amended in 1988 to make the requirements of the Department of the Interior and Department of
Commerce Secretaries more specific in developing and implementing recovery plans for all listed
species.
The recovery plan is based on cooperation between private, federal, and state entities in collecting
the necessary biological information on the species, developing specific goals, and formulating the
management needs in order to help the species survive and eventually recover. Additionally, a
timeframe for recovery and the associated costs are estimated. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
policy is to prepare a recovery outline within 60 days of the species being listed, a draft plan within
1 year, and a final recovery plan within 2.5 years. The exceptions are when states have already
developed a recovery plan, or the species is believed to be extinct. Due to limited funding, the
Service has focused on addressing the problems of "threshold species". Threshold species are
those with declining populations facing extinction, or improving and close to recovery. The
methods used in recovery may include reintroduction of species into former habitat, land
acquisiton, captive propagation, and landowner education.
All listings of species are based on the best biological and commercial (trade) information
available as well as new information at the time it becomes available. Each species is identified
as either:
Improving (I) - those species known to be increasing in numbers and/or whose threats to their
continued existence are lessening in the wild.
Stable (S) - those species known to have stable numbers over the recent past and whose
threats have remained relatively constant or diminished in the wild.
Declining (D) - those species known to be decreasing in numbers and/or whose threats to
their continued existence are increasing in the wild.
Unknown (U) - those species where additional survey work is required to determine their
current status.
Extinct (E) - those species that are believed to be extinct in the wild.
Data Characteristics
SOURCE
Information for this indicator was supplied by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service in its 1992 Report to
Congress, Endangered and Threatened Species Recovery Program. This report can be obtained
by contacting the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Ecological Services Suite 200, 1875 Century Blvd.,
Atlanta, Georgia, 30345, or at (404) 679-7107 or by fax (404) 679-7081.
Preliminary data on the status of listed species for 1995 can be obtained by contacting William
Kramer, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Division of Endangered Species, Mail Stop ARLSQ452,
Washington, D.C. 20240, or at (703) 358-2106 or at fax (703) 358-1735. Supplementary
information on federal and state listed endangered species can also be obtained through the
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Nature Conservancy's Natural Heritage programs in each state, as well as state government
environmental agencies.
ACQUISITION
The 1992 Report can be obtained in hard copy format at no charge from the U.S. Fish & Wildlife
office in Atlanta, Georgia. The preliminary 1995 data from the 1995 report can be obtained in a
hard copy format at no charge from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in Washington, D.C.
Individual state reports can be obtained from respective government environmental agencies, or
the Natural Heritage programs within each state for either minimal or no fee.
COLLECTION
Efforts at data collection for listed animal species comes from coordination between the federal
and state governments, as well as nongovernmental organizations such as the Nature
Conservancy and their Natural Heritage programs within each state.
Data Limitations
For many of the species listed, the exact number or location of habitat is undetermined due to
budgetary and staffing constraints faced by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. These same
constraints limit the Wildlife Service's ability to analyze more species in need of federal protection;
hence, the list presented may not be a complete one. The method of looking at the total number
of species listed for the region aggregates the state data together and does not account for when
some states have similar species listed. For example, the category of extinct species has a total
of 17 for 1995 when the Ivory-billed Woodpecker accounts for 8 of those since it is listed in all
eight states. In addition, aggregating the data across all states of the region does not account for
individual animal species that have been delisted due to recovery plan completions.
Data Analysis
Each category of listings rose from 1992 to 1995 with the exception of stable species. This could
be due to a stable species moving to the improved listing, such as the Wood Stork, or a species
moving to the declining listing, such as the Indiana Bat or the Key Deer. The total number of
animals species increased most likely due to further efforts at identifying newly endangered or
threatened species and in direct correlation with increased destruction of natural habitat. There
was also a sharp rise in the number of species whose status is unknown. This may indicate a
progressive initiative to discover more species in need of federal protection, yet not enough time
or resources to identify the existing status. In 1992, the percentage of animal species listed as
declining represented 43% of animal species out of the total listing of endangered animal species.
This remained fairly constant to 1995 with a slight reduction to 39%. The largest increase among
the declining population were aquatic species such as clams and mollusks, indicating the need for
renewed efforts in shellfish bed protection against contaminants and exotic species.
Number of Threatened and Endangered Wild
Year
Total
Plants
Improving
Stable
Declining
Unknown
Extinct
1992
395
255
44
51
110
45
6
1995
493
332
52
45
130
88
17
ife Species
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Number of Federally Listed Threatened and Endangered
Wildlife Species By Category
ซj 300
E
a
~ 1992
~ 1995
Category
References
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1995. Preliminary data on 1995 Endangered and Threatened
Species Recovery Program. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service,
Washington, D.C.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1994. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants. U.S.
Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1992. Report to Congress: Endangered and Threatened Species
Recovery Program. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service,
Washington, D.C.
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Number of Endangered or Threatened
Plant Species
Level of Indicator: 2 Type of Indicator: A
Explanation of Indicator
The Federal Endangered Species Act [16 U.S.C. 1531 et.seq.] passed in 1973 with the purpose of
preventing the destruction of natural diversity and conserving species at risk from extinction.
Major goals of the Act are to avert species extinctions and declines, stabilize existing populations,
prevent habitat destruction, and restore habitat necessary for species survival. The Act was
amended in 1988 to make the requirements of the Department of the Interior and Department of
Commerce Secretaries more specific in developing and implementing recovery plans for all listed
species.
The recovery plan is based on cooperation between private, federal, and state entities in collecting
the necessary biological information on the species, developing specific goals, and formulating the
management needs in order to help the species survive and eventually recover. Additionally, a
time frame for recovery and the associated costs are estimated. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
policy is to prepare a recovery outline within 60 days of the species being listed, a draft plan within
1 year, and a final recovery plan within 2.5 years. The exceptions are when states have already
developed a recovery plan, or the species is believed to be extinct. Due to limited funding, the
Service has focused on addressing the problems of "threshold species". Threshold species are
those with declining populations facing extinction, or improving and close to recovery. The
methods used in recovery may include reintroduction of species into former habitat, land
acquisition, captive propagation, and landowner education.
All listings of species are based on the best biological and commercial (trade) information
available as well as new information at the time it becomes available. Each species is identified
as either:
Improving (I) - those species known to be increasing in numbers and/or whose threats to their
continued existence are lessening in the wild.
Stable (S) - those species known to have stable numbers over the recent past and whose
threats have remained relatively constant or diminished in the wild.
Declining (D) - those species known to be decreasing in numbers and/or whose threats to
their continued existence are increasing in the wild.
Unknown (U) - those species where additional survey work is required to determine their
current status.
Extinct (E) - those species that are believed to be extinct in the wild.
Data Characteristics
SOURCE
Information for this indicator was supplied by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service in its 1992 Report to
Congress, Endangered and Threatened Species Recovery Program. This report can be obtained
by contacting the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Ecological Services Suite 200, 1875 Century Blvd.,
Atlanta, Georgia, 30345, or at (404) 679-7107 or by fax (404) 679-7081.
Preliminary data on the status of listed species for 1995 can be obtained by contacting William
Kramer, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Division of Endangered Species, Mail Stop ARLSQ452,
Washington, D.C. 20240, or at (703) 358-2106 or fax (703) 358-1735. Supplementary information
on federal and state listed endangered species can also be obtained through the Nature
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Conservancy's Natural Heritage programs in each state, as well as state government
environmental agencies.
ACQUISITION
The 1992 Report can be obtained in hard copy format at no charge from the U.S. Fish & Wildlife
office in Atlanta, Georgia. The preliminary 1995 data from the 1995 report can be obtained in a
hard copy format at no charge from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in Washington, D.C.
Individual state reports can be obtained from respective government environmental agencies, or
the Natural Heritage programs within each state for either minimal or no fee.
COLLECTION
Efforts at data collection for listed plant species comes from coordination between the federal and
state governments, as well as nongovernmental organizations such as the Nature Conservancy
and their Natural Heritage programs within each state.
Data Limitations
For many of the species listed, the exact number or location of habitat is undetermined due to
budgetary and staffing constraints faced by the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. These same
constraints limit the Wildlife Service's ability to analyze more species in need of federal protection;
hence, the list presented may not be a complete one. The method of looking at the total number
of plant species listed for the region aggregates the state data together and does not account for
when some states have similar species listed. For example, the category of declining species has
a total of 56 for 1995 when the Rhus michauxii (Michaux's sumac) accounts for 4 of those since it
is listed in four states. In addition, aggregating the data across all states of the Region does not
account for individual plant species that have been delisted due to recovery plan completions.
Data Analysis
Each category of listings rose from 1992 to 1995 with the exception of those declining and those
with an unknown status. There were no extinct species listed. The positive change in the number
of species declining could be an indicator that more plant species have stabilized. The number of
plant species with a stable status more than doubled from 32 in 1992 to 67 in 1995. The total
number of plant species listed increased by almost 100 in 1995. This may be due to further
efforts by the Wildlife Service to identify newly endangered or threatened species, and in direct
correlation with increased destruction of natural habitat. In 1992, the percentage of plant species
listed as declining represented 53% of all plant species listed. This fell to 35% in 1995.
Number of Threatened and Endangered Plant Species
Year
Total
Plants
Improving
Stable
Declining
Unknown
Extinct
1992
395
140
10
32
74
24
0
1995
493
161
20
67
56
18
0
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Number of Federally Listed Threatened and Endangered
Plant Species By Category
500
450
400
350
(D 300
n
E
3
z
250
200
150
100
50
0
_/
A
%
>
:-r
iri
m
|SSM } I 1
JS
Q_
Category
~ 1992
~ 1995
References
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1995. Preliminary data on 1995 Endangered and Threatened
Species Recovery Program. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service,
Washington, D.C.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1994. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants. U.S.
Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Servce. 1992. Report to Congress: Endangered and Threatened Species
Recovery Program. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service,
Washington, D.C.
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Wetland Change
Level of Indicator: 6
Type of Indicator: A
Explanation of Indicator
Wetlands are essential to the survival of a state's indigenous plant and animal species and
provide many services and commodities to humanity. At the ecosystem level, wetlands moderate
the effects of floods, improve water quality and have aesthetic value. They are also believed to
contribute to the stability of global levels of available atmospheric sulfur, carbon dioxide, methane,
and nitrogen. In addition, they help maintain water quality by storing nutrients, reducing sediment
loads, and reducing erosion. Wetlands are a significant habitat for fish and wildlife, including
many threatened and endangered species and large populations of migratory birds. Due to their
significance in providing a wide range of natural functions, trends in wetland acreage provide a
useful indication of terrestrial environmental conditions.
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that over 200 million acres of wetlands existed in
what is presently the 48 contiguous states during colonial times. Due to farmland conversion,
urban development, and habitat fragmentation, over 100 million acres of wetlands have been lost
(U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1990).
Data Characteristics
SOURCE
This data can be obtained by contacting J. Jeffery Goebel of the U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Natural Resources Conservation Service, National Resources Inventory Division, PO Box 2829,
Washington, D.C., 20013, or at (202) 720-9032 or by fax (202) 690-2019.
ACQUISITION
The national data can be obtained in hard copy format in the annual summary report, Summary
Report National Resources Inventory at no cost or on four CD-ROMs (ISO 9660 format) at $50
per disk. The NRI is mandated by Congress to be conducted every five years. At each sample
point, information is available for three years, e.g., 1982, 1987, and 1992.
COLLECTION
National Resources Inventory data are collected by multi-disciplinary data collection teams
headed by Natural Resources Conservation Service resources inventory specialists in each state.
Field visits are required when necessary. A specialized data entry software system, NRI
Information System Data Entry Software, was utilized to increase efficiency and ensure
consistent, high-quality data. The 1992 NRI covers some 800,000 sample sites representing all
non-federal land - about 75 percent of the United States' land area.
Data Limitations
NRI data are statistically reliable for national, regional, state, and substate analysis. The NRI was
scientifically designed and conducted and based on recognized statistical sampling methods.
However, the data are estimates, not absolute numbers. They are based on data collected at
sample sites, not on data collected from a comprehensive census; therefore, sampling variation
can exist. This sampling variation is small for state and national totals. However, sampling
variation may be significant when using these totals to calculate 5- and 10-year changes. Small
changes may not be statistically significant.
Data Analysis
There was a general decrease in the acreage of wetlands from 1982 to 1992 for Alabama,
Florida, Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina. The acreage of wetlands in Alabama
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decreased by .22 percent for the ten year period. Florida experienced a 1.5 percent decrease in
wetland acreage, Georgia experienced a .6 percent decrease, North Carolina experienced a 4
percent decrease, and South Carolina experienced a .2 percent decrease. Kentucky, Mississippi,
and Tennessee all experienced increases in wetland acreage for the ten year period.
There has been a decrease in total acreage of wetlands for the southeast region. From 1982 to
1992, total wetland acreage decreased by approximately one percent for the region.
Changes in Wetland Acreage By State
12000-/
10000
8000-
6000
4000
2000
State
~ 1982 Acreage
~ 1992 Acreage
Total Wetland Acreage in the Southeast Region
1982 Acreage 1992 Acreage
Year
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Ecologically Significant Lands in
Protected or Managed Status
Level of Indicator: 2 Type of Indicator: B
Explanation of Indicator
Many of the southeast region's most ecologically significant lands are protected through federal,
state, and local land management and conservation programs. These programs protect lands for
wildlife habitat, recreation, greenspace, and surface water protection which are continually
threatened by the pressures of urban development. Though regulations are in place throughout
the region to mitigate the impacts of development, it is still necessary to purchase those critical
resource areas which are not adequately protected from the negative impacts associated with
population growth and the expansion of developed areas. There are programs at all levels of
government as well as non-profit organizations that participate in the acquisition and management
of lands in the region for the purpose of protecting their ecological integrity.
The federal government has in the past acquired substantial areas of ecologically significant
lands. These lands can be found within National Parks, National Forests, National Wildlife
Refuges, National Recreation Areas, military lands, and Indian reservations. The state level has
an even wider range of land protection programs because each state provides their own
strategies and approaches to protection of natural lands. State lands considered for inclusion as
ecologically significant lands in protected or managed status include State Parks, State Forests,
any lands listed under special state protection such as wildlife management areas and greenways,
and any lands listed as state preserves. Also for consideration should be lands protected through
state sponsored governmental bodies such as regional councils that may not be listed in state
public land inventories. Lands owned by local governments should also be included though it
should be noted that these lands are often owned and managed jointly with state and non-profit
organizations. The final category of protected and managed lands considered should be those
lands owned or managed by non-profit conservation organizations such as The Nature
Conservancy and The National Audubon Society. In total, the amount of public lands put aside for
preservation, conservation, and protection is an important indicator of the overall status on the
protection of ecologically significant lands for the states in EPA Region IV.
Data Characteristics
SOURCE
Information on federally owned public lands can be collected from the National Park Service, the
U. S. Forestry Service, the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and the Department of Defense. State
information should be obtained from the state environmental agencies, state park and recreation
services, state forestry services, and state lands bureaus. Lands owned by local government and
non-profit organizations may be found in state inventories of public lands or can be found by
contacting the local governments and individual organizations, such as the Nature Conservancy or
the Audubon Society.
ACQUISITION
This information is not currently inventoried for the states in EPA Region IV. EPA Region IV and
the states in Region IV should conduct a survey of each state to compile an inventory of the
publicly owned and managed lands throughout the region.
COLLECTION
Collection of these data are not currently conducted for EPA Region IV as a whole and individual
states have varying levels of data collected on publicly owned and managed lands.
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Data Limitations
Data for publicly owned lands should provide a accurate inventory of ecologically sensitive lands
in protected or managed status throughout the region. Limitations to the data collected are that
lands in public ownership may not designate ecologically significant lands. National and state
landmarks and parks do not always contain natural lands. Separating the data to include the
quality or ability of the land to serve as a natural habitat should be feasible without a significant
increase in effort and would eliminate this limitation.
Recommendations
Funding should be provided for developing a GIS database in each state containing publicly
owned and managed lands in EPA Region IV. This database should be developed with consistent
methodology for data interpretation so that data can be compared across states and. evaluated at
the region level.
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Erosion Rates on Nonfederal Land
Level of Indicator: 4 Type of Indicator: A
Explanation of Indicator
Soil erosion is a natural process which may be accelerated by human actions. Erosion has two
stages in which individual particles of soil are separated from the mass of soil and transported by
wind or water. When sufficient energy is removed from the erosive process, a third stage,
deposition, occurs (Morgan 1979). On a national level, erosion is the greatest threat to soil
productivity, and the single largest source of pollution to waterways. Water is responsible for
approximately two-thirds and wind for one-third of erosion from agricultural lands in the United
States (Soil Conservation Service 1987). Rates of erosion are dependent primarily upon four
factors: the erosivity of the eroding agent (water or wind), the soil's erodibility, the slope of the
land, and the nature of the ground cover (Morgan 1979).
This indicator displays erosion rates from sheet and rill erosion and wind erosion on nonfederal
lands. Sheet and rill erosion is erosion caused by water.
Data Characteristics
SOURCE
This data can be obtained by contacting J. Jeffery Goebel of the U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Natural Resources Conservation Service, Natural Resources Inventory Division, PO Box 2829,
Washington, D.C., 20013, or at (202) 720-9032 or by fax (202) 690-2019.
ACQUISITION
The national data can be obtained in hard copy format in the annual summary report, Summary
Report National Resources Inventory at no cost or on four CD-ROMs (ISO 9660 format) at $50
per disk. The NRI is mandated by Congress to be conducted every five years. At each sample
point, information is available for three years, e.g., 1982,1987, and 1992.
COLLECTION
Natural Resources Inventory data are collected by multi-disciplinary data collection teams headed
by Natural Resource Conservation Sen/ice resources inventory specialists in each state. Field
visits are required when necessary. A specialized data entry software system, NRI Information
System Data Entry Software, was utilized to increase efficiency and ensure consistent, high-
quality data. The 1992 NRI covers some 800,000 sample sites representing all non-federal land -
about 75 percent of the United States land area.
Data Limitations
NRI data are statistically reliable for national, regional, state, and substate analysis. The NRI was
scientifically designed and conducted and is based on recognized statistical sampling methods.
However, the data are estimates, not absolute numbers. They are based on data collected at
sample sites, not on data collected from a comprehensive census; therefore, sampling variation
can exist. This sampling variation is small for state and national totals. However, sampling
variation may be significant when using these totals to calculate 5- and 10-year changes. Small
changes may not be statistically significant.
Data Analysis
Over the ten year period presented, there has been an overall declining trend of sheet and rill
erosion rates for the southeast region. The average erosion rate for cropland caused by sheet
and rill (i.e., water being the eroding agent) has decreased from 50.4 tons per acre per year in
1982 to 38.9 tons per acre per year in 1992, a decrease in tonnage of 23 percent. The average
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rate of sheet and rill erosion on pastureland fell from 7.8 tons per acre per year in 1982 to 7.5 tons
per acre per year in 1992. This was a slight decrease in tonnage of 4 percent. The erosion rate
for rangelands has remained relatively flat. It should be noted that even though there has been a
declining regional trend for sheet and rill erosion rates, there could be variation in erosion rates at
the individual state level. There has not been any erosion caused by wind recorded in the
southeastern states over the past ten years. The overall decrease in average erosion rates could
be attributed to the use of best management practices (BMPs), which are practices that are
ascertained to be the most effective and practicable means of controlling erosion or other
environmental problems.
Estimated Average Sheet and Rill
Erosion Rate on Nonfederal Lands
1982 1987 1992
Year
~ Cropland Erosion
ฆ Pastureland Erosion
~ Rangeland Erosion
References
Morgan, R.P.C. 1979. Soil Erosion. New York, NY: Longman Group Limited.
Soil Conservation Service. 1987. Soil Erosion By Water. United States Department of
Agriculture.
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Level of Indicator: 3
Toxic Chemical Releases By Media
Type of Indicator: A
Explanation of Indicator
The reporting of toxic chemical releases is mandated by Section 313 of the Emergency Planning
and Community Right to Know Act of 1986 (SARA Title III). Industrial releases of more than 320
toxic chemicals and chemical categories have been reported to the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) annually beginning on July 1, 1988 with 1987 data. Industries which fall within
Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) Codes 20 - 39, having more than 10 employees and
manufacturing or processing more than 25,000 pounds of a specific qualifying chemical in
calendar year 1991 are required to report.
What can be measured through this reporting process are significant reductions in quantities of
chemicals which are released as a result of industries either improving their processes or
reducing the use of toxic chemicals. The decreasing threshold for mandatory reporting provides a
built-in incentive for industries to reduce chemical utilization in order to escape the reporting
requirements (75,000 pounds in 1987, 50,000 pounds in 1988 and 25,000 pounds in 1989, 1990
and 1991).
Improved technology should reduce chemical wastes, increase the utilization of by-products, and
in some cases lead to implementation of closed system processes which should cause reductions
in total land releases. As cost incentives become operational, many of these toxic chemicals will
be recycled rather than released.
A release is an on-site discharge of a toxic chemical to the environment. This includes emissions
to the air, discharges to bodies of water, and releases at the facility to land and underground
injection wells. Releases to air are reported either as fugitive (emissions from equipment leaks,
evaporative losses from surface impoundments and spills, and releases from building ventilation
systems) or stack emissions (releases from a confined air stream, such as stacks, vents, ducts,
or pipes). Releases to water include discharges to streams, rivers, lakes, oceans, and other
water bodies, including contained sources such as industrial process outflow pipes or open
trenches. Releases due to runoff are also reported. Releases to land occur within the boundaries
of the reporting facility. Releases to land include disposal of toxic chemicals mixed with solid
wastes in a landfill, land treatment application farming, and surface impoundment. Underground
injection is the disposal of fluids by the subsurface placement of the fluids in a well (EPA 1991).
Data Characteristics
SOURCE
Information for this indicator is supplied by EPA in its annual inventory, entitled Toxics Release
Inventory: Public Data Release. These reports can be obtained by contacting the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics (TS-779),
Washington, D.C. 20460, or by contacting Booz, Allan, and Hamilton, EPCRA, Crystal Square II,
Suite 1200A, 1725 Jefferson Davis Highway, Arlington, Virginia, 22202-4163, or by calling the
Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Information Hotline at (800) 535-0202. Data
within this inventory are supplied by industries which are required to report. Estimates of releases
are based on monitoring data or measurements of actual chemical releases, mass balance
calculations, published emission factors, or best engineering estimates as applied to specific
processes.
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ACQUISITION
The toxic chemical release inventory is supplied in hard copy by EPA. There are data
reproduction costs associated with this indicator.
COLLECTION
Data for each calendar year are submitted by industries in each state to EPA by July 1 the year
following collection. The release inventory is based on estimates for an entire year. By law, all
qualifying industries in the nation are required to report toxic chemical releases which meet the
criteria for reporting. A facility must report if it: conducts manufacturing operations within
Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) codes 20 through 39, has 10 or more full-time employees,
and manufactures or processes more than 25,000 pounds or uses more than 10,000 pounds of
any listed chemical during the calendar year. For 1993, TRI reporting was required for 316
different chemicals and 20 chemical categories.
Data Limitations
Although detailed reports on toxic chemical releases and spills exist, the Toxic Chemical Release
Inventory is the only summary information which is currently available on industrial activity. The
TRI includes over 82,000 reports from approximately 23,000 facilities each year; however, it only
obtains a portion of all toxic chemical releases nationwide. Small facilities (those with fewer than
10 employees) and facilities that do not meet chemical thresholds are not required to file TRI
reports. Accuracy of release data may vary from facility to facility and from year to year. Facilities
are not required to perform any monitoring to develop TRI estimates, and may use a variety of
estimation techniques if actual measurements are not available. Even with the current limitations
of the data this inventory can provide some utility for evaluating environmental degradation from
toxic chemicals with statistics to determine increases and decreases. Analysis of more detailed
reports can supply cause and effect relationships.
Since chemicals of varying toxicity are grouped in the inventory, it will not be possible in the near
future to determine releases of specific kinds of chemicals with this inventory (detailed reports are
available). Further, the averaging method which is used does not depict the magnitude and
impact of large releases of short duration that could be more deleterious in a concentrated state.
Since only the larger firms which utilize larger amounts of chemicals are required to report, there
will be reporting omissions. In the aggregate, the amount of these omitted chemicals could cause
significant environmental degradation.
Another limitation is that TRI reports reflect releases of chemicals, not exposures of the public to
those chemicals.
Data Analysis
The data presented show total toxics released in the region through air emissions, surface water
discharges, underground injection, and releases to land. Data was available from the TRI for the
years 1988, 1991, 1992, & 1993. From 1988 to 1993, all four categories of releases have shown
significant declines. Total releases declined from 966,332,728 pounds in 1988 to 713,476,675
pounds in 1993. This represents a significant 27% decline from 1988, or a 6.75% decrease per
year of data available. Total Air Emissions, the largest category of releases, experienced a 26%
decline during the period. The only increase in emissions during the 5 year period was a 4%
increase in underground injections for 1992. This medium then experienced a 20% decline in
1993. The percentage of total 1993 releases attributable to each state in Region IV were:
Tennessee (26.4%), Mississippi (16.4%), Alabama (14.6%), North Carolina (12.6%), Florida
(9.6%), South Carolina (8.2%), Georgia (6.9%), and Kentucky (4.9%).
The general decline in toxic releases may be the result of two influences. The early figures
reported are more likely to be incorrect due to inadequate technology which led many industries to
over-estimate releases. Improvements in technology have led to more accurate reports of fewer
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toxics being released. Secondly, the use of toxics is declining. The main reason for this decline is
the less robust economy. Many industries can no longer afford the expenses related to toxic
waste generation and disposal and are, therefore, substituting other substances for them. For
example, the chemical industry decreased its total releases nationwide by 236 million pounds,
accounting for 58% of the total reduction of all releases between 1992 and 1993.
TR1 Emissions Released By Media
Year
Total Air
Emissions
Surface
Water
Discharges
Underground
Injections
Releases to
Land
1988
627,154,805
29,315,822
167,563,037
97,299,064
1991
581,517,457
20,534,331
161,657,065
77,051,037
1992
549,083,644
20,280,420
168,586,138
75,346,922
1993
497,682,754
17,040,920
135,905,208
62,518,793
ฆg 400000000
c
3
ฃ 300000000
200000000
100000000
1980
TRI Emissions Released By Media
EPA Region IV
1991
1992
1993
Year
~ Total Air Emissions
ฆ Surface Water Discharges
~ Underground Injection
ฆ Releases to Land
References
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1993. Toxic Release Inventory Public Data Release. U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, Washington,
D.C.
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Generation of Municipal Solid Waste:
Tons Generated, Landfilled, Incinerated, Recycled
Level of Indicator: 3 Type of Indicator: A
Explanation of Indicator
Historically, most municipal solid waste in the United States has been buried in landfills. Though
once a relatively inexpensive method of waste disposal, landfills have become increasingly
expensive due to available land and environmental constraints. The scarcity of suitable land
within a short distance of an urban area is one reason for the increased expense of disposing of
wastes in landfills. The scarcity of land results in an increase in competition for land development
which in turn increases the cost of the land. Environmental regulations limiting the destruction of
wetlands and restricting disposal of solid wastes in areas where water contamination is possible
has also increased the expense of using landfills for disposal of solid wastes. In addition, energy
price increases make the power generated from burning waste more valuable. This increases the
incentive to dispose of waste through incineration because it reduces the total volume of solid
waste while producing power that can be sold to generate revenue (Cutter et. al. 1985).
This indicator shows trends and conditions in generation and management of municipal solid
waste by tons generated, landfilled, incinerated, and recycled for the region.
Data Characteristics
SOURCE
Since 1989, BioCycle, the Journal of Composting and Recycling, has printed a nationwide survey
of solid waste conditions and trends in their April and May issues. Reprints of the "State of
Garbage America" articles are available from Ann Miller, JG Press, 419 State Avenue, Emmaus,
Pennsylvania, 18049, or at (610) 967-4135.
ACQUISITION
Reprints of BioCycle are $5 each from the above address.
COLLECTION
The survey tracks data from 50 states and the District of Columbia. The bulk of the figures come
from state agencies and represent the best data available.
Data Limitations
Although the survey targets municipal solid waste, in practice a considerable amount of industrial
waste is included in the waste generation figures because it goes to the same disposal facilities.
A number of states use estimates, especially with regard to recycling percentages, and the quality
of the data reported by state municipal solid waste programs varies widely in the
comprehensiveness and rigor of data gathering. The figures are for a particular year, although in
some instances, recycling, landfilling, and incineration estimates come from prior years because
of the timing of the survey and the frequency of state data compilation. Furthermore, there is no
uniform set of definitions used for what materials are included in municipal solid waste; thus,
some states may be counting different materials than other.
Data Analysis
From 1988 to 1994 there was an overall increase of approximately 59 percent in the total tonnage
of municipal solid waste generated for the eight states in EPA Region IV. The total tonnage of
waste recycled or composted for the region has increased from 2,380,000 tons in 1988 to
13,082,000 tons in 1994; this was an increase by approximately 450 percent. The total tonnage of
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waste incinerated has experienced an overall increase of approximately 25 percent from 1988 to
1994. Although recycling, composting, and incineration have experienced increased in the
tonnage of waste that they process at these facilities, the tonnage of waste of landfilled has also
increased by approximately 35 percent.
Tonnage of Waste Recycled/Composted,
Incinerated, and Landfilled
ฆTonnage Recycled/ Composted
~Tonnage Incinerated
~Tonnage Landfilled
Total Tonnage of Waste Generated for the Region
(0
C
C
70,000,000-1
60,000,000-
50,000,000-
40,000,000-
30,000,000-
20,000,000-
10,000,000-
0-
References
Cutter, Susan L., Hilary Lambert Renwick, and William H. Renwick. 1989. Exploitation,
Conservation, Preservation. New Jersey: Rowan & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
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Hazardous Waste Generated
Level of Indicator: 3 Type of Indicator: A
Explanation of Indicator
In accordance with 40 CFR 262.41 of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, businesses
which generate over 1,000 Kg (2,200 lbs) of hazardous waste in any given calendar month must
report information regarding their waste generation and management activities to state
environmental agencies and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Hazardous waste
includes waste identified by specific characteristics (ignitable, corrosive, reactive, or toxic) and
wastes identified by a specific listing in 40 CFR Part 261. With future increases in the quality and
quantity of data collected, this source could provide additional information about the success of
waste reduction as a waste management tool.
To clarify and improve the indicator a number of additions can be made:
account for primary waste generation only to avoid double-counting wastes derived from
secondary treatment;
note the number of generators as a reference point;
identify the absolute amount of waste that is newly regulated compared to the previous year to
avoid masking reductions in waste generation by new wastes that were previously
unregulated and uncounted in the previous year; and
demonstration of trends by showing percentage changes in waste generated from year to
year.
Data Characteristics
SOURCE
National data disaggregable to the states can be obtained by contacting Lisa Heams,
Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste, 401 M Street, SW, Room SE-264,
Washington, D.C., 20460 or by calling (703) 308-7907.
ACQUISITION
The national data can be obtained in hard copy format in the biannual report, National Biennial
RCRA Hazardous Waste Report.
COLLECTION
States are required to report information biennially to EPA.
Data Limitations
Overall this is a good indicator for hazardous waste management. This analysis would provide a
useful measure of the amount of hazardous waste entering the waste management system.
Future environmental quality depends on the effectiveness and accuracy of this system. Waste
which is improperly managed may result in extensive environmental damage to any or all of a
state's natural resources. Furthermore, data on generation by specific waste types provide
valuable information for decision-makers to use in their efforts to allocate resources into the
appropriate areas.
The greatest limitation of this information is that historically only Large Quantity Generators
(businesses which generate over 2,200 lbs. of hazardous waste in any calendar month) are
required to report. Existing information on Small Quantity Generators is limited and is not
included in the annual generation analysis. There is also a problem with the consistency of the
historical data. Over the years the original legislation has been amended and significant changes
have been made in the hazardous waste list. As a result, some businesses have been brought
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into the reporting system and others have been taken out. Following the RCRA amendments in
1984, there was a significant decrease in the total amount of waste generated. It may be more
appropriate to only use data collected since 1985. Finally, there is a minor problem with the
development of a trend with these data as the information is only be collected every other year.
To resolve this problem, only historical data in the same increments of alternating years should be
used.
Data Analysis
The tonnage of hazardous waste generated in the eight southeastern states has increased
dramatically from 1987 to 1993. Although there was some fluctuation in the amount generated,
the overall tonnage of hazardous waste generated increased by approximately 67,871 percent.
The largest volume was in 1989 with 39,354,148 tons of hazardous waste generated.
Hazardous Waste Generated
State
1987
1989
1991
1993
Alabama
3,049
403,701
559,823
779,645
Florida
519
411,832
508,839
213,888
Georgia
39,838
2,615,210
757,885
921,076
Kentucky
5,851
149,612
487,622
397,488
Mississippi
1,296
717,291
8,050,831
1,882,053
North Carolina
928
586,338
281,849
447,718
South Carolina
4,850
106,224
604,456
310,399
Tennessee
884
34,363,940
1,697,402
33,937,638
Total
57,215
39,354,148
12,948,707
38,889,905
'Eccentricities in the data are still being investigated.
Total Hazardous Waste Generated
45,000,000
40,000,000-
35,000,000-
30,000,000-
<2 25,000,000
ฐ 20,000,000
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Surface Water Quality in Region IV
Rivers, Lakes, and Estuaries
Level of Indicator: 4 Type of Indicator: A
Explanation of Indicator
In accordance with the Federal Clean Water Act, Section 305(b), each state is required to
summarize and assess STORET data on the quality of surface water throughout their state and
submit a report to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). STORET is the
EPA water quality database that holds data collected from local, county, regional, state, and
federal agencies. Each state agency responsible for submitting the 305(b) report to EPA utilizes
the STORET database to assess the water quality of rivers, lakes, and estuaries throughout their
state. Each water body assessed has a number of monitoring stations which sample water quality
anywhere from two to twelve times a year. These samples are averaged to produce an annual
value for each parameter of water quality.
Each water body in Region IV has been classified by the state with a designated use such as
suitable for aquatic life, suitable for drinking water, or suitable for recreation. Each designated use
has a minimum standard for water quality that must be met in order for a water body to be
classified as supporting its designated use. The 305(b) report's assessment of water quality
provides summaries of river, lake, and estuary use support status as either fully supporting,
partially supporting, or not supporting designated use. The use support status can be broken into
percentage of waters assessed to evaluate how many of the state's waters can support their
designated use. The 305(b) report also identifies the causes of nonsupport of designated uses.
The assessment of waters supporting designated use and causes for waters not supporting
designated use can be used in setting goals and regulations for improving water quality. This
indicator shows the trends and conditions of surface water quality in each state which provides a
tool for surface water quality management efforts.
Data Characteristics
SOURCE
The 305(b) reports are prepared by each state environmental agency as a requirement of Section
305(b) of the Federal Clean Water Act and submitted to the United States Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA). Copies of each state report are available from individual state
environmental agencies or from David Melgaard, Division of Water, EPA Region IV, 345
Courtland Street NE, Atlanta, GA 30365, or at (404) 347-2126 ext. 6590.
ACQUISITION
The 305(b) reports can be obtained in hard copy format at no cost.
COLLECTION
The states are required to submit their reports to EPA biannually.
Data Limitations
Water quality data in the 305(b) report are limited because it is not feasible to sample every point
in every water body continuously to determine the values for the parameters of ambient surface
water quality. Therefore, the 305(b) report assumes that samples collected at a few points within
a water body at different times of the year will reflect the annual ambient water quality for sections
of each type of water body. The number of samples taken by a given monitoring station can vary,
although the minimum number is two samples for any parameter to be included in the 305(b)
reports. The timing of the samples is random. The locations of the monitoring stations are also
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random, however, if any samples produce extreme readings indicating close proximity to a point
source of contaminants or an isolated contamination event, the sample is excluded from the
305(b) report. Comparisons of the data from year to year is limited by the change in the amount
of waters assessed in each state each year. The miles and acres of waters assessed each year
are limited due to time and cost constraints so that only a limited percentage of the waters in each
state are actually monitored. The amount and location of waters monitored change from year to
year which limits the consistency of data used in evaluation of long term trends. In addition to
limitations due to sampling techniques, the evaluation of water quality data does not take into
account natural occurrences that might affect ambient water quality such as abnormally high
rainfall periods or droughts which can skew the ambient measurements of water quality
parameters up or down. Though limitations do exist for 305(b) report data, it still provides
information that can be used in assessing the long term trends in surface water quality for each
state.
Data Analysis
The data illustrate that from 1992 to 1994 there was an increase in the total amount of water miles
and acres assessed in Region IV. River miles assessed increased by only 1 percent while lake
and estuary acres assessed increased by 7 and 22 percent respectively. While the total number
of waters assessed increased, the percentage of waters fully supporting their designated use
decreased by 2 percent. Broken into their individual categories, the percentage of river miles fully
supporting their designated use increased by 13 percent while lake acres decreased by 1 percent
and estuary acres by two percent. Although the total amount of waters fully supporting their
designated use declined between 1992 and 1994, this is more likely attributable to the increase in
amount of waters assessed instead of an actual decrease in water quality in the region.
Percentage of River Miles, Lake Acres, and Estuary Acres
Assessed in Region IV States
State
Percentage of River
Miles Assessed
Percentage of Lake
Acres Assessed
Percentage of Estuary
Acres Assessed
1992
1994
1992
1994
1992
1994
Alabama
12%
17%
80%
95%
56%
100%
Florida
23%
23%
45%
59%
63%
92%
Georgia
6%
9%
93%
89%
100%
100%
Kentucky
18%
18%
90%
95%
~*
+*
Mississippi
42%
10%
65%
65%
14%
14%
North Carolina
93%
92%
100%
100%
100%
100%
South Carolina
40%
74%
73%
40%
20%
36%
Tennessee
NA
57%
NA
100%
**
#*
Total
26%
27%
65%
72%
67%
89%
NA - Report not available " - No estuaries present
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Goal: By 2005, reduce accidental releases to air of hazardous
chemicals potentially harmful to humans, animals, vegetation,
and property to zero.2
Accidental Releases of Hazardous Chemicals
to Air in Region IV
400
350
300
3) 250
a> 200
-------
Percentage of Rivers, Lakes, and Streams Fully Supporting or
Not Supporting Their Designated Use in Region IV.
Year
Rivers
La
kes
Estuaries
Percentage
Fully
Supporting
Percentage
Not
Supporting
Percentage
Fully
Supporting
Percentage
Not
Supporting
Percentage
Fully
Supporting
Percentage
Not
Supporting
1992
49%
8%
66%
5%
75%
8%
1994
62%
12%
65%
12%
73%
9%
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Number of Nonattainment Areas
Level of Indicator: 2 Type of Indicator: A
Explanation of Indicator
The Clean Air Act (CAA) of 1970 is considered to be the first federal environmental law enacted
by the federal government and formed the federal air pollution control program. The basis of the
CAA was the establishment of health-based national ambient air quality standards. The
standards were required to be met through the utilization of best available control technology that
would reduce emissions continuously and improve the quality of the air (Wagner 1994).
The air quality standards, known as the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS),
establish threshold levels of air pollution for the criteria pollutants. Levels that fail below the
threshold do not adversely affect human health. Managing air pollution and improving air quality
focuses on meeting the NAAQS. Areas that have air quality exceeding the NAAQS for a pollutant
are designated as nonattainment areas for that pollutant. Thus, the primary objective of the
program is to mandate efforts to reduce air emissions enough to improve air quality in that area
until it meets the NAAQS (Wagner 1994).
States are required to develop state implementation plans (SIPs) which describe each state's plan
to bring its nonattainment areas back into compliance, in accordance with the CAA. These SIPs
are the compilation of state effective regulations which have been approved by the EPA and are
therefore federally enforceable.
Data Characteristics
SOURCE
This information can be obtained by contacting Linda Anderson-Carnahan, EPA Region IV, Air
Division, 345 Courtland Street, NE, Atlanta, Georgia 30365, or at (404) 347-3555, extension 4192.
ACQUISITION
This information can be obtained in a hard copy format at no cost.
COLLECTION
Data are collected at monitoring stations throughout the eight states. Each state conducts the
monitoring, although some stations are state designated and some national designated. All
monitoring stations must be approved by EPA. Monitoring and reporting is continuous throughout
the year.
Data Limitations
These data are spatially limited. In some cases, there may be only one monitoring station in an
entire county. Therefore, the data may not always be an accurate assessment of air quality in an
area.
Data Analysis
Although there was some fluctuation between 1990 and 1992, after 1992 there has been a steady
declining trend. From 1990 to 1992 the number of nonattainment areas increased from 20 to 33,
an increase of 65 percent. However, from 1992 to 1995 the number decreased from 33 to 13, a
decrease of approximately 61 percent. The overall decrease from 1990 to 1995 was 35 percent.
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Number of Nonattainment Designations
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995
Year
References
Wagner, Travis. 1994. In Our Backyard~A Guide to Understanding Pollution and Its Effects.
Van Nostrand Reinhold: New York, New York.
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