North Carolina
Cooperative
Extension Service
North Carolina
State University
Land Use
and
Water
Quality
A Guide
Understanding
Nonpoin t-Sou rce
Pollution and
Creating Local
Management
Programs

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Some Terms to Know
Best Management Practices (BMPs): Environmentally sound alternatives to
customary but environmentally damaging practices of farming, forestry, or
development. BMPs are aimed at controlling nonpoint-source pollution
through practices such as conservation tillage, integrated pest management,
stormwater runoff control, and erosion control practice at construction sites.
Estuary: An area of the sea at the lower end of a river where the ocean tide meets
the river current.
Erosion: The wearing away of the land surface by the movement of water, wind,
or ice.
Nonpoint-source (NPS) pollution: Environmental contamination that arises
from diffuse areas and is carried in runoff water from a field, forest, or
urban area into waterways.
Point-source pollution: Environmental contamination that originates from the
discharge of pollutants from a single, readily identifiable source such as an
industrial or sewage discharge pipe.
Pollutant: Any substance that is introduced in such a quantity as to damage or
disrupt the natural balance of an ecosystem. Some of the most common
pollutants include soil particles (sediment), pesticides, nutrients from
animal waste, metals, and petroleum products.
Runoff: Water from precipitation that flows over the surface of land and
ultimately reaches waterways, usually carrying pollutants such as
nutrients, chemicals, and sediment.
Sediment: Particles of soil, rock, and biological materials that are transported
into bodies of water or onto land. Sedimentation occurs when these particles
settle into water or onto land.
Watershed: An area of land that drains into one or more specific streams, rivers,
or other bodies of water.

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Contents
Some Terms to Know 	inside front cover
1.	Introduction 	1
2.	The Water Pollution Problem	3
3. Reducing NPS Pollution:
Management Practices & Institutional Resources	10
4. Barriers to the Adoption of Best Management Practices .... 17
5. The Planning Stage:
Setting Priorities for NPS Pollution Control 	25
6.	Implementing Effective NPS Pollution Control Programs .... 35
7.	Accepting the Challenge	45
Suggestions for Further Reading	inside back cover
library W
US Eavironmeate! Protection Age**
345 Courtland Street
Atlanta, Georgia 30365

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Acknowledgments
We acknowledge the valuable advice and assistance provided by a
number of people and organizations. Top-quality editorial and design
work were provided by Teri Houck, assisted by Tom Knecht. They are
responsible for the final appearance and readability of this publication.
Our secretaries (Tammy Hinton, Dianne Poole, and Wilma McClain)
were also very diligent. We are also grateful for photographs provided by
the Water Quality Group, the Department of Soil Science, the Department
of Home Economics, and the Department of Agricultural Communi-
cations at North Carolina State University.
We appreciated and tried to incorporate the variety of comments
and advice we received from the numerous reviewers, most of whom
reviewed two drafts of this publication. Also, we learned a lot from the
nearly 300 citizens who participated in four educational workshops that
we conducted during the spring of 1990. We acknowledge the support of
Si Garber, Jim Easley, and others who helped plan and conduct these
workshops. We appreciate the support and advice of Randall Waite,
Jennifer Steel, and Joan Giordano of the Albemarle-Pamlico Estuarine
Study.

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1. Introduction
In recent years people have become increasingly aware of the need to
preserve the quality of water in our lakes, rivers, estuaries, and coastal
waters. Our health, our economy, and our environment all depend on
clean water resources. Furthermore, clean water is vital to wildlife and to
recreational activities such as boating, fishing, and swimming. Unless
measures are taken to control pollution, declining water quality will have
far-reaching ecological, economic, and aesthetic consequences.
This manual has been developed to help landowners, local leaders,
resource management professionals, and concerned citizens gain a better
understanding of water pollution problems and methods for solving
them. You may find certain chapters more relevant than others,
depending on your background, interests, and responsibilities in the area
of water quality.
Chapters 2 and 3 introduce the basic concepts of water quality and
nonpoint-source pollution control for those who are not already familiar
with these topics. Chapter 4 describes in detail the barriers that limit
landowners' willingness and ability to control nonpoint sources of
pollution. Chapter 5 provides a step-by-step planning procedure for
targeting the most serious nonpoint-source pollution problems in a
watershed. Chapter 6 presents guidelines for developing educational and
citizen-involvement programs, based on a team approach. Finally,
Chapter 7 should be useful to all readers because it describes many of the
key organizations involved in nonpoint-source pollution control.
Fish kills provide dramatic
evidence of water pollution.

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Sources Of Water Water quality problems arise from a number of sources. Some can be
Quality Problems attributed to point sources. Pollution from these sources enters the
environment at single locations (such as a pipe or ditch) that can usually
be detected quite easily. Discharges from industries and sewage
treatment plants are typical point sources of pollution.
Nonpoint-source pollution, on the other hand, enters the environment
from diffuse areas. Some of this pollution originates on land and travels
to waterways. For example, the water that runs off of cropland or
forestland may carry fertilizers, pesticides, and soil particles (sediment) to
nearby lakes and streams. The area of land that drains into a specific body
of water is called a watershed. Drainage from a watershed can carry
harmful pollutants into that water body.
The origins of nonpoint-source pollution vary among geographic
regions. Agricultural pollutants from cropland and from areas used for
animal production are the most widespread. Urban sources, including
storm drainage and runoff from construction sites, are next in
importance. Forestry activities such as logging and replanting are
significant nonpoint sources of pollution in some areas. Other pollutants
come from shoreline erosion and atmospheric fallout. In some places,
important nonpoint sources may include faulty septic systems and
mining areas.
From the sources described, pollutants such as chemicals, sediment,
and nutrients can be carried by runoff water into streams, rivers, lakes,
and estuaries (the areas where freshwater rivers join the ocean). Even
fresh water can be considered a pollutant when it is introduced into the
water of estuaries because it can decrease salinity and threaten the
nursery areas of various marine animals.
Controlling The technical and institutional mechanisms needed to detect and control
Water Pollution point-source pollution are well established. Pollution from nonpoint
sources, however, is relatively difficult to isolate and control, partly
because the sources are often hard to identify. Furthermore, the capability
for controlling nonpoint-source pollution rests with many different
individuals and organizations who control the use of land.
In some cases the owners or other persons responsible for these
sources do not understand the need for better water quality management
or the mechanisms available to achieve it. A great deal of coordination
and teamwork is needed to identify nonpoint sources of pollution,
provide information to those responsible, and encourage them to take
corrective action. This manual focuses on practical methods for
improving water quality management and ways of promoting the
application of those methods.
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2. The Water Pollution Problem
North Carolina's
Water Quality
Types of Pollution Before the 1970s, point sources were responsible for much of the
degradation of water quality. However, because of improvements in
wastewater treatment plants in the 1970s and 1980s, point sources that
comply with permits are no longer the major cause of water pollution.
Nonpoint sources are now considered the most widespread
contributor to the degradation of water quality. Typical nonpoint sources
of pollution include runoff from cropland, animal production and waste
management areas, urban areas, construction sites, and logging roads.
The state has developed the N.C. Nonpoint Source Management Program
to address the water quality impacts of pollutants from these nonpoint
sources. The N.C. Division of Environmental Management (DEM) is the
lead agency, with other agencies such as the Division of Forest Resources,
the Division of Soil and Water Conservation, and the Division of Land
Resources taking leading roles in specific areas.
Impacts of Nonpoint- Nonpoint-source pollution can affect water quality in a number of ways.
Source Water Pollution Most forms of nonpoint-source pollution are a result of runoff from land
areas. Some runoff is normal, occurring naturally in undisturbed areas.
However, human changes in land use increase runoff and
nonpoint-source pollution. Runoff from rainfall and snowmelt carries a
number of different substances that can result in water pollution,
depending on the amounts and types of contaminants.
When steeply sloping land
is unprotected, the flow of
runoff water can carry large
amounts of sediment and
other contaminants into
nearby bodies of water.
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Sediment is by far the largest nonpoint-source pollutant by volume.
Sediment comes mainly from erosion of areas such as cropland,
construction sites, and stream banks. Sediment increases the turbidity (or
cloudiness) of the water, directly harming fish and other aquatic life. In
addition, other, more harmful compounds attach to the sediment and are
carried with sediment particles into the water.
Another common type of nonpoint-source pollution is an increase
in the amount of nutrients (such as nitrogen and phosphorus) that enter
the water. Nutrients can attach to sediment or may be dissolved in the
water. When these nutrients reach a water body, they stimulate plant
growth, just as they do on land. Such plant growth (especially of
undesirable algae or aquatic weeds) may cause significant changes in the
aquatic environment. One of the most serious problems involves
eutrophication, or overenrichment with nutrients. The algal blooms that
develop can lead to a number of serious problems. When the algal
blooms die off, the water's oxygen supply is depleted, resulting in fish
kills and nutrient overenrichment.
Toxic chemicals that wash off the land surface are another form of
nonpoint-source pollution. Even relatively small amounts of pesticides
from cropland or urban lawns can lead to changes in ecological
conditions. Urban runoff can carry heavy metals (such as lead) and oil.
These toxic compounds often have subtle, long-term impacts. In some
cases, these compounds can become concentrated in shellfish and finfish,
posing potential risks to human health.
Other types of pollutants can also cause problems in certain water
bodies. Bacteria or other pathogens (disease-causing organisms) can harm
fish or even pose human health risks. Shellfish harvesting is forbidden
when fecal colif orm tests show the shellfish to be contaminated. Such
contamination could be due to animal waste from livestock operations,
human waste from malfunctioning septic tanks, or stormwater runoff.
Organic matter from these same sources can reduce the oxygen content of
the water. Reduced oxygen levels or the presence of microorganisms can
lead to fish kills or diseases.
Water Quality Programs have been under way for several decades to monitor and
Assessments improve water quality. Section 305(b) of the federal Clean Water Act
requires each state to prepare a biennial report to:
1.	describe the quality of all waters of the state,
2.	assess the extent to which these waters protect aquatic life and
provide for recreational activities and other uses,
3.	assess the extent to which the discharge of pollutants has been
controlled to improve water quality, and
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4. describe the nature and extent of nonpoint-source pollutants
and ways in which this pollution can be controlled.
Much of the information in this publication on water quality ratings
and water quality conditions is taken from the North Carolina
Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources report
entitled Water Quality Progress in North Carolina, 1988-1989, 305(b) Report.
Further information is available from the N.C. Division of Environmental
Management.
Water Quality Ratings The state assigns classifications and associated standards to waters based
on best usage in the interest of the public. Ratings are assigned to reflect
the ability of a given water body to support its designated uses. A water
body that fully supports its uses is rated as supporting. A water body
rated as support-threatened is characterized by either improving or
worsening water quality but continues to fully support its uses. A water
body that supports some of its designated uses is considered to be
partially supporting. If a water body does not support any of its
designated uses, it is considered to be nonsupporting. When there are no
data available on which to base a use support rating, it is listed as
nonevaluated.
These ratings are assigned by considering a broad range of factors,
such as biological and chemical monitoring data, information received
from government agencies or the public, and best professional judgments
by resource professionals. The following statements about water quality
are largely judgments based on the best available data. They are intended
to show the general pattern of the extent, causes, and sources of water
pollution. Further in-depth study is necessary to more accurately describe
the water pollution and determine management actions in a particular
area.
Water Quality Conditions The quality of water in North Carolina's streams and rivers is generally
good. Much of the pollution control effort is therefore aimed at protecting
our waters by preventing them from becoming polluted. Most waters
(64%) fully support their uses, while 25% partially support and 6% do not
support their uses. Five percent of our streams and rivers were not
evaluated. Although agriculture is thought to be the most widespread
contributor to stream degradation across most of the state, urban runoff
and wastewater treatment plants have significant impacts on stream
usage in several areas. Of the degradation in impaired waters, it is
estimated that:
•	agriculture is responsible for 47%,
•	wastewater treatment plants for 14%,
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•	urban runoff for 8%, and
•	other unidentified nonpoint sources for 31%.
The major types of degradation include sediment (30%), bacteria (6%),
ammonia (4%), and other unidentified causes.
When comparing sources of degradation, it is important to keep in
mind the severity of the impact. For example, while agriculture affects a
relatively large number of stream miles compared to urban and
construction runoff, the impact from agriculture is generally less severe.
In general, bodies of water that are affected by agricultural activities are
usually rated as partially supporting, whereas those that receive urban
runoff are frequently rated as nonsupporting. Exceptions occur, however.
The difference in severity can be explained partly by the types of
pollutants generated from each source. Although agriculture and urban
runoff are both sources of sediment, nutrients, and toxic chemicals, urban
runoff generally has higher concentrations of oil, grease, and heavy
metals.
The quality of water in North Carolina's lakes is also generally
good. Of the estimated 1,500 lakes in the state, 144 are considered to be
significant. Lakes are considered to be significant if they meet one of the
three following conditions: (1) water quality assessments have been
performed by DEM; (2) they are classified as drinking water supplies, or
(3) they are greater than 100 acres in surface area and are accessible to the
public.
In these significant lakes, 96% of the total acreage supports
designated uses, 1% partially supports, and 3% does not support these
uses. The water quality degradation in these lakes is estimated to result
from:
•	in-place contaminants (37%),
•	industrial discharges (29%),
•	municipal discharges (10%),
•	agriculture (5%), and
•	unspecified sources (19%).
The types of degradation in water quality include metals (75%), aquatic
vegetation (15%), nutrients (5%), organic material (3%), and
sedimentation (2%).
The quality of water in the state's estuaries is also generally good.
Overall, 91% of the estuarine acreage fully supports designated uses, 9%
partially supports, and less than 1% does not support these vises. The
major sources of pollution of the degraded acreage are thought to be:

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•	agricultural runoff (35%),
•	municipal wastewater treatment plant discharges (16%),
•	natural runoff (primarily from forested land) (14%),
•	urban runoff (10%),
•	animal feedlot runoff (9%), and
•	other nonpoint sources (16%).
The primary types of the degradation are thought to be
eutrophication (77%), bacteria (12%), and low dissolved oxygen
concentrations (5%).
Though the overall quality of coastal waters is good, the conversion
of coastal forests to agricultural uses has affected areas critical to
saltwater fishery resources. Extensive development along barrier islands
is also having an impact on shellfishing areas. In addition, nonpoint-
source impacts of coliform bacteria in agricultural and urban runoff/as
well as from septic tanks in unsuitable soils, have contributed to the
closure of some shellfishing waters.
Programs have been developed to help protect water bodies from
these sources of pollution. The implementation of existing
nonpoint-source pollution programs, expansion of stormwater
regulations, improvement of classifications, and expansion of the
Agricultural Cost Share Program should help to protect and improve
water quality. However, since these actions generally address
nonpoint-source pollution, which is more difficult to control than
point-source pollution, progress will probably be slow.
Pollution Control Efforts Previous pollution control efforts have emphasized point sources. Since
the early 1970s, all point-source dischargers have been required to obtain
a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit from
the Division of Environmental Management. In order to protect
downstream water quality, limits are set on the amount and type of
pollution that each point source is allowed to discharge. DEM continues
to improve its point-source permit program through expanded
monitoring, enhanced compliance tracking, effluent nutrient
requirements, pollution reduction requirements, and municipal
pretreatment activities.
While point-source discharges to surface waters are regulated solely
by DEM, many different agencies are involved in controlling pollution
from nonpoint sources. North Carolina, like other states, uses a
combination of regulatory (mandatory) and nonregulatory (voluntary)
programs for nonpoint-source pollution control. For example,
sedimentation from construction sites and mining areas, as well as land
7

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disposal of waste, is regulated by agencies at both the state and local
levels. In contrast, the state administers a multimillion dollar agricultural
cost-share program (targeting nonpoint-source pollution) in which
participation is voluntary. Recent initiatives to minimize nonpoint-source
pollution from development activities include mandatory stormwater
controls in selected watersheds to protect valuable aquatic resources. As
nonpoint-source pollution control gains importance both at the national
and state levels, North Carolina's own program will continue to evolve
and strengthen.
Origins Of Nonpoint- This section focuses on the most significant nonpoint-source pollution
Source Pollution problems and identifies the major sources of this pollution.
Agriculture Agricultural nonpoint-source pollution problems are many, varied, and
often difficult to pinpoint. This type of pollution relates directly to how
farmers use land. The primary pollutants from cropland are sediment,
nutrients, and pesticides. The pollutants from land used for animal
production include sediment, nutrients, organic matter, and
microorganisms.
In terms of volume, sediment is the greatest nonpoint-source
pollutant. Cropland is a major contributor of the sediment that enters
surface waters. Not all cropland contributes equal amounts of sediment
to surface waters. The potential for sediment to move from cropland to
water bodies depends upon a number of factors, such as soil
characteristics, slope, climate, and proximity to surface waters. Pollution
generated on cropland also relates directly to crop type, tillage method,
and other management practices. Excessive applications of fertilizers,
manure, and pesticides to cropland can also lead to water pollution.
Another water quality concern is freshwater drainage from agricultural
land into saltwater nursery areas.
Forestry The forestry industry generally produces a smaller volume of
nonpoint-source pollutants than agriculture. However, forestry
operations can cause major nonpoint-source pollution problems in areas
where trees are being harvested, planted, or treated with pesticides.
The amount of pollution that forestry contributes to water quality
depends upon the characteristics of the forestland (such as soil type and
slope), climatic conditions, the forest management practices used, and the
care with which the practices are carried out. Chemical pollutants can be
introduced to water bodies through practices such as aerial spraying near
a watercourse. As is the case with agricultural land, freshwater drainage
from forestland can affect saltwater nursery areas.
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By disturbing the soil and
exposing it to the effects of
precipitation, timber harvesting
activities can contribute to the
pollution of waterways.
Urban Sources Urban runoff can cause significant local water quality effects. A large
proportion of the pollutants in urban runoff consist of sediment and
debris from pavements and buildings. These materials can clog
waterways and degrade aquatic habitats. Heavy metals (such as lead) and
inorganic chemicals from transportation activities, building materials,
and other sources are also significant pollutants. Pesticides and fertilizers
from lawns and gardens are often present in urban runoff.
The amount of pollution from urban runoff depends on the amount
of paved area, slope of the land, type of storm management, and other
considerations. Septic tanks, solid waste disposal sites, and mining can
also contribute to nonpoint-source pollution.
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3. Reducing NPS Pollution:
Management Practices & Institutional Resources
Best Management Research into nonpoint-source (NPS) pollution has led to a better
Practices (BMPs) understanding of the ways pollutants move into waterways. It has also
led to the development of best management practices (BMPs) — that is,
methods of conducting everyday activities such as farming, forestry,
construction, and waste disposal with minimum damage to the
environment. These BMPs help keep runoff from leaving the land and
carrying pollutants into bodies of water. Substantial water quality
benefits can be achieved by carefully targeting those land areas and
activities that cause the most pollution (see Chapter 5). Federal and state
programs can assist in implementing BMPs. This section describes some
of the BMPs currently available for reducing nonpoint-source pollution
from farms, forestland, and urban areas.
BMPs for Agriculture Many BMPs have been developed to control pollutants from agricultural
areas. A sample of available BMPs is given in Table 1. These may be
used individually or in combination. There are many other specific BMPs
Table t. Examples of Best Management Practices for Agriculture
Problem	Best Management Practices
Sediment from cropland	Conservation tillage
Contour strip cropping
Terracing
Grassed waterways
Excessive pesticide pollution of water
Water quality degradation
from animal wastes
Excessive nutrient pollution of water
Integrated pest management
Following label directions
Careful pesticide handling, storage,
and container disposal
Exclusion of livestock from water bodies
Following soil test recommendations
Feedlot waste management systems
Nutrient use management
Nutrient use management
Practices described above for control
of sediment pollution from cropland
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as well as modifications of the ones listed, such as integrated crop
management for both pesticides and fertilizers. Many of these BMPs
benefit production agriculture while helping to conserve natural
resources.
Most BMPs for cropland aim to reduce soil erosion and minimize
runoff. They are designed to catch pollutants, keeping them from
moving away from the site and into the water. The BMPs for livestock
waste generally involve containing the material and applying it to the
land in order to recycle nutrients and organic matter to the soil.
When effectively
managed, animal waste
lagoons make it possible
to recycle nutrients and
organic matter, preventing
pollution of water
resources.
BMPs for Forestland Effective BMPs have been developed for forestry. Sediment is the most
important potential pollutant. Thus, emphasis is placed on protecting
forest soils with practices that reduce erosion to acceptable levels. Such
practices include minimizing soil disturbance during forestry activities;
maximizing the distance between large areas of bare soil; dispersing
surface water flow across natural buffer areas; and establishing
streamside management zones during timber harvesting.
Each site must be evaluated to determine the combination of
techniques that best suit its characteristics. As in agriculture, the
adoption of certain BMPs may often be to the advantage of the owner or
operator. For example, proper construction of logging roads intended for
long-term use may lower operation and maintenance costs. In some
instances, however, BMPs are not in the economic interest of the owner or
operator. Some BMPs, for example, require costly specialized equipment
or extra time and labor (see Chapter 4).
BMPs for Urban Areas Structural and nonstructural methods are available to control urban
runoff. Structural methods provide a means of controlling polluted water
and diverting it from major waterways. Such control structures include
runoff retention basins, in-line storage, and in-line screens. These devices
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retain water and solids within basins and conveyance systems. They also
allow water to percolate into the ground to reduce peak flows and the
amount of pollutants that reach receiving waters.
Nonstructural BMPs include maintenance, cleanup, and sound
land-use planning. Some of these BMPs are as simple as following label
directions when using pesticides or other chemicals. Also, soil tests can
be conducted to determine nutrient needs instead of randomly applying
fertilizers or lime to lawns and shrubbery. Proper disposal of motor oil is
another example of a nonstructural BMP that is simple but significant in
controlling nonpoint-source pollution.
Urban areas that are under development have the greatest
opportunity for employing a full range of structural and nonstructural
BMPs. Nonpoint-source pollution can be prevented for the least cost in
these areas. For example, good land-use planning can reduce future
runoff and pollution. Communities in the development stages can
readily incorporate structural measures to reduce long-term urban runoff.
In the initial planning and construction stages, these communities can
also integrate BMPs for soil erosion control.
The costs of most BMPs are borne by landowners and the public
(through government programs). However, these practices yield many
benefits to the taxpayers and society. BMPs can protect or restore
recreational opportunities, preserve or restore commercial fishing and
shellfishing opportunities, and maintain land values by improving the
appearance of receiving waters. In addition, these practices reduce
damage to drainage systems, obstruction of navigation channels and
harbors, and the frequency and severity of floods. To enhance these
benefits, a number of laws have been enacted to control pollution.
Proper disposal of household
chemicals and petroleum products is
a best management practice that can
significantly reduce nonpoint-source
pollution from urban areas.
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Institutional
Resources
for Solving Water
Quality Problems
Water Quality Legislation Many laws have been passed at federal and state levels to help control
pollution of our state's waterways. Two major federal laws provide the
principal directives for state and local actions. These are the Federal
Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (Public Law 92-500)
and the Water Quality Act of 1987. The overall objective of P.L. 92-500
was to "restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological
integrity of the nation's waters." Section 208 of the act required the
development of plans that would include processes to reduce or control
nonpoint-source pollution from various land-use activities.
The 1987 Water Quality Act reauthorized the 1972 bill. This act
places greater emphasis on nonpoint-source pollution control by
requiring each state to develop strategies for managing nonpoint-source
pollution (Section 319).
A foundation for the water quality management strategies in North
Carolina is the policy adopted by the General Assembly to "achieve and
maintain for the citizens of the state a total environment of superior
quality" (G.S. 143-211). This builds on Article XIV, Section 5, of the state
Constitution, known as the North Carolina "Environmental Bill of
Rights," which mandates that the state take an active role in controlling
and limiting water pollution. The State Environmental Policy Act also
declares that the state will seek to attain the widest range of beneficial
uses of the environment without degradation (G.S. 113A-3).
A fundamental tenet of North Carolina's environmental
management efforts is its antidegradation policy. The basic principle is to
protect water quality from further deterioration. This policy also
stipulates that every effort must be made to improve existing water
quality.
Agencies and Programs Nonpoint-source pollution, by its nature, is very complex. Thus, the
identification of the sources and the establishment and management of
programs to address these sources involve many participants. In North
Carolina, the Water Quality Section of the Division of Environmental
Management coordinates the Nonpoint Source Management Program
Other state agencies and organizations have important roles in this
program.
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Designated Area
Organization
of Responsibility
Division of Environmental Management
General water quality

and urban runoff
Division of Soil and Water Conservation
Agriculture
Division of Land Resources
Construction
Division of Environmental Health
On-site wastewater treatment
Division of Forest Resources
Forestry
Department of Transportation
Transportation
In addition to these management agencies, several state and federal
agencies, local governments, and environmental programs also have a
role in nonpoint-source pollution control. Their work complements
existing statewide efforts or is concentrated in specific geographic areas.
These organizations and programs include:
•	N.C. Cooperative Extension Service (CES)
•	N.C. Department of Agriculture (NCDA)
•	U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
•	U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
>	Soil Conservation Service (SCS)
>	Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service
(ASCS)
>	Forest Service (FS)
•	National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
•	U.S. Geological Survey (USGS)
•	Albemarle-Pamlico Estuarine Study (APES)
•	Water Resources Research Institute (WRRI)
•	Pollution Prevention Pays (PPP) program
•	Sea Grant program
•	Stream Watch program
•	Keep America Beautiful program
•	N.C. Conservation Tax Credit program
These agencies and programs are described in NCDEHNR report
89-02, North Carolina Nonpoint Source Management Program, April, 1989.
Several of the key organizations are described in Chapter 7 of this manual.

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Key local agencies, including those with federal or state affiliation,
also play major roles. These include:
•	Soil and water conservation districts
•	Cooperative Extension Service (CES)
•	County commissioners
•	Municipal boards
Private groups also play a vital role in assisting the nonpoint-source
pollution control effort. Several of these groups are listed along with
their addresses in Chapter 7.
In addition, the faculties of North Carolina State University and
other institutions conduct research and educational programs to develop
and disseminate knowledge that can help other agencies and individuals
in their efforts to improve land management and water quality.
Effective implementation of water quality policies and programs
ultimately depends on local agencies and their interaction with
landowners. Cooperative teamwork among these agencies is vital to the
success of any water quality effort (see Chapter 6).
Incentives and Section 319 of the 1987 Water Quality Act amendments authorized $400
Assistance Programs million in federal grants for implementing nonpoint-source pollution
management programs and protecting groundwater quality nationally.
However, only $89 million was appropriated for 1990 and 1991.
The N.C. Agriculture Cost-Share Program is a highly successful
incentive program to promote water quality. It is administered by the
Division of Soil and Water Conservation of the Department of
Environment, Health, and Natural Resources. Initiated in 1984 as a pilot
project in three nutrient-sensitive watersheds (Falls Lake, Jordan Lake,
and the Chowan River), the program has expanded statewide with an
annual budget of approximately $8 million. Under the program, the 94
local Soil and Water Conservation District (SWCD) boards, administered
by the Soil and Water Conservation Commission, are responsible for:
•	identifying treatment areas,
•	allocating resources,
•	signing contractual agreements with landowners,
•	providing technical assistance for the planning and
implementation of BMPs, and
•	encouraging the use of appropriate BMPs to protect water
quality.
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By funding the cost-share program, North Carolina has taken a
significant step toward addressing the water pollution problems that
result from agricultural activities. Because the program emphasizes
water quality, it stimulates interest and support for other local, state, and
federal water quality programs.
The ASCS provides significant cost-share funding for agricultural
conservation programs. State and federal funding for specific projects is
provided by other pollution control programs.
Implementing BMPs can provide other benefits to farmers because
BMPs that control nonpoint-source pollution are also consistent with
sound agricultural practices. For example, BMPs that control soil erosion
and its associated pollutants can increase the long-term productivity of a
land site.
Other Institutional The North Carolina Sedimentation Pollution Control Act was passed in
Approaches 1973 to prevent NPS pollution that is caused by sediment. This act
requires BMPs to be installed and maintained during land-disturbing
activities (such as construction) in order to prevent erosion and
sedimentation. The act is performance based — that is, the BMPs used for
a construction site must be effective in controlling erosion and meet four
mandatory standards of performance. Therefore, this law is flexible
because it allows landowners and developers to draw from a variety of
BMPs and tailor the erosion control system to fit each site. The North
Carolina Division of Land Resources administers this program.
The initial version of the Sedimentation Pollution Control Act
provided a blanket exemption for agriculture and forestry. However,
1989 amendments to the act specify nine performance standards that the
forestry industry must now meet. These performance standards are
comprehensive in that they cover all phases of forest management and
involve a variety of specific BMPs. They are mandatory in the sense that
they must be met to maintain the exemption from the act. The North
Carolina Division of Forest Resources is responsible for determining
whether a forestry activity is in compliance with the performance
standards. Monetary penalties are possible for violations.
Agriculture remains exempt under the act. But changes in federal
farm programs and policy are meant to discourage traditionally accepted
practices that are now recognized as contributing to nonpoint-source
pollution. For example, the 1985 and 1990 Food Security Acts (that is,
farm bills) require farmers who continue to farm highly erodible land to
develop and implement an approved conservation farm plan in order to
remain eligible for certain federal farm program benefits. Such financial
disincentives can also be used to achieve nonpoint-source pollution
control.
16

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4. Barriers to the Adoption
of Best Management Practices
Controlling nonpoint-source pollution in a watershed depends on the
adoption of BMPs by the owners and managers of the watershed's land
areas. Before these individuals will be willing and able to employ new
practices, however, they must have access to the necessary information as
well as technical assistance, financial incentives, and social support.
Many barriers can limit people's willingness or ability to adopt
BMPs. An understanding of these barriers makes it possible to develop
and implement local programs that will enable people to obtain the help
they need and encourage them to use BMPs. This chapter discusses
technical, educational, social, institutional, and economic barriers to the
adoption of BMPs. The discussion includes examples for the four largest
categories of land use: cropland, animal production sites, forestland, and
urban areas.
For simplicity, the term landowner will be used to designate not only
those who own land, but also those responsible for the activities that take
place on it, even if they do not hold ownership. Included, for example,
are tenant farmers, logging companies that harvest timber, and
construction contractors involved in urban land development.
Technical Barriers Lack of technical information can be a serious barrier. Local officials
rarely have adequate data on the location and severity of nonpoint-source
pollution problems, thus impeding their efforts to focus assistance on
sites where the problems are most severe. It is also difficult to determine
the origin of the most serious pollution sources when a large area is
affected and many different tracts of land are involved. Problems often
start far upstream from the polluted body of water. Where sources such
as individual farms or forestlands are close together, it may be impossible
to determine which ones are responsible for the water quality problems.
In addition, it is difficult to determine natural background levels of
contamination and distinguish them from increased levels caused by
human activity.
Natural conditions may also pose barriers to the use of BMPs.
Climate and topography affect the need for BMPs and influence their
effectiveness. For example, erosion control BMPs are not as important on
17

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flat lands as they are in rolling or mountainous terrain. Recommended
BMPs also differ because of the diversity of activities in an area. Some
practices are not compatible with certain activities — for example, no-till
farming techniques cannot be used for peanut production. Therefore, no
single management plan will work for all situations. Individual plans
must be developed for each parcel of land in a watershed based on its
characteristics and use. Possible future changes in land use must also be
considered when developing a plan. This is a time-consuming process,
involving extensive discussion with landowners.
Barriers also result from a lack of available technology and other
resources. Livestock producers, for example, face obstacles in
implementing BMPs. The large volume of animal waste produced is
normally applied to agricultural fields, but the amount of land available
to many livestock producers is inadequate, particularly if a large number
of animals are concentrated in a small area. Sometimes the soils are not
suitable for the application of wastes. In many cases the problem is
compounded by the need to store the waste until the optimum time for
application. Excessive rainfall can cause stored wastes to overflow into
nearby waterways.
New animal production
technologies can help in
management of
nonpoint-source
pollution. Because so
many cows are housed in
this one barn, it is
possible to collect wastes
automatically and
dispose of them without
jeopardizing water quality.
In urban areas it is frequently difficult and expensive to solve
nonpoint-source pollution problems. For example, retention ponds help
remove contaminants from urban runoff, but often there is not enough
open land on which to build them. Technologies for trapping storm
runoff and recycling it for other uses have not been fully developed.
Furthermore, many communities have old sanitary sewer systems that
allow excessive infiltration during storms. If the municipal wastewater
treatment plant is unable to handle the added volume, poorly treated (or
untreated) wastewater is discharged into waterways

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Educational Barriers A lack of basic knowledge about nonpoint-source pollution and methods
for controlling it, as well as indifferent or negative attitudes toward the
proble, can be considered educational barriers. These obstacles can be
addressed by educational efforts directed at changing people's attitudes
and behaviors.
Some landowners and managers are unconcerned about
nonpoint-source pollution because they do not perceive the total scope
and complexity of water quality problems. They do not understand how
land use and water quality are linked. Many landowners are not fully
aware of conditions on their own land that give rise to nonpoint-source
pollution problems. Some of the more subtle problems are not readily
visible. For example, farmers may not think they have an erosion
problem until they see obvious signs (such as gullies) in their fields. They
may find it very hard to understand sheet erosion, which leaves very little
visible evidence. In developed areas, local officials are often not aware
how much pollution is caused by urban runoff because this source of
pollution is more difficult to identify and control than point sources.
Even if landowners are aware of erosion problems and solutions,
they may lack the technical information or managerial skills needed to
adopt BMPs successfully. Some landowners are unaware of the many
BMPs available for controlling nonpoint-source pollution and are
unfamiliar with the types and sources of technical and financial assistance
available. Some livestock producers, for example, do not fully
understand how to manage livestock waste in ways that will prevent
pollution. Some of those in the forest industry do not understand the
procedures they must follow to avoid pollution. Landowners do not
always understand the advantages and disadvantages associated with
each BMP, and the available technical information is sometimes not
presented in ways that landowners find understandable.
Negative attitudes can also be considered as educational barriers to
the acceptance of BMPs. These attitudes include traditionalism, or the
belief that time-honored methods are better than new ones; independence,
or the belief that individuals should handle their own problems without
government involvement; aversion to risk, or the unwillingness to take the
chances involved in trying new methods; and individualism, or the desire
to maintain control over one's own land-use decisions. Many landowners
believe they should be free to do what they want with their own land.
Some landowners hold negative attitudes toward certain management
practices, viewing them as too complex or as incompatible with other
aspects of their operation.
Lack of broader public understanding can be an important obstacle,
too. Most citizens do not understand the practices used in farming,
forestry, and urban waste management. They may not recognize that
certain tools and practices (such as chemical pest control) are necessary.
19

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In discussing pollution concerns, the mass media sometimes
inadvertently misinform the public about land-use practices and their
relation to water quality.
Social Barriers Social barriers are obstacles related to the interaction of landowners with
other people, including family members, neighbors, and others in their
community. Also involved is the landowners' sense of responsibility to
the community and to society at large.
Some landowners are reluctant to accept responsibility for
nonpoint-source pollution problems arising on their land. As previously
noted, the conditions giving rise to nonpoint-source pollution may be
scarcely noticeable, and there is a natural inclination to place the blame
elsewhere. Furthermore, some landowners are concerned that they may
be fined or prosecuted if they admit that conditions on their land are
contributing to pollution problems. In some cases, economic factors
override social concerns. Some landowners tend to view land
management strictly from an economic point of view, giving insufficient
attention to the effects of management practices on soil, water, and
wildlife. To meet economic pressures, foresters, farmers, and developers
of urban land often do only enough to comply with regulations.
Accepting responsibility for nonpoint-source pollution and
modifying practices to reduce it requires support from others. The
support of family members is particularly important. Sometimes,
however, a family's other needs take priority over the adoption of BMPs
for nonpoint-source pollution control. Also, older family members may
resist change and oppose the adoption of new practices by younger
members.
Landowners and managers also
need support from their peers and
community leaders. Local opinion
leaders play a vital role in shaping
attitudes and behavior. Even the most
independent landowners look to their
peer group for advice and support. If
local norms and customs discourage
the adoption of certain BMPs,
landowners will be less likely to use
them.
People other than the landowner
are often involved in decisions that
affect land management practices. In
the case of forestland, for example, the
owner is often viewed as being
Friends, neighbors, and local leaders
can help landowners change attitudes
and adopt best management practices.
20

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responsible for pollution control, but timber buyers and loggers are also
involved in harvesting activities. They may not recognize their
responsibilities or know how to implement BMPs. Similar situations arise
in contracting for the development of urban land.
Some forms of land tenure present barriers. Lack of cooperation
between landlords and tenants can be a serious problem. Many landlords
do not even discuss BMPs with their tenants. If they do, they are likely to
disagree about who is responsible for bearing the costs. Longer-term
leases may alleviate the problem to some extent, but in many situations a
long lease is not in the best interest of the landlord. In addition, absentee
landownership is common today, and absentee landlords are often
unfamiliar with land management or the associated nonpoint-source
pollution problems.
Social change and demographic trends can be barriers. Farmers
make up only a small percentage of our population today, and
consequently many citizens do not understand farming, farm problems,
or land management methods. In some urban areas, growth is rapid.
Development involves a large number of different groups and
organizations. Pressures for growth and development may override
concerns for environmental quality.
Institutional Barriers Government regulations, programs, and agencies can present barriers to
the implementation of BMPs. Potential problems include conflicting
policy goals, lack of motivation, inadequate resources, poor coordination
among agencies, and landowners' distrust of government programs.
Some policies employ financial incentives that encourage maximum
food production or economic development, objectives that can work
against pollution control.
Even where government nonpoint-source pollution control policies
exist, they may not be translated into action programs unless there is the
political will to make them work. Without widespread public support for
nonpoint-source pollution control, especially at the local level,
government leaders focus their attention on more immediate and visible
priorities. Pressure for economic growth may reduce commitment to
pollution control.
Shortages of funding and staff may impede the efforts of agencies
seeking to alleviate nonpoint-source pollution. Most government
agencies find that the need to provide assistance to farmers and other
landowners is increasing, while the resources available are decreasing. A
common outcome is a failure to enforce regulations and an inability to
assist landowners in making decisions and complying with regulations.
21

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When regulations are not enforced and upheld in courts, landowners are
less inclined to take them seriously.
Inadequate coordination and communication among organizations
with related responsibilities may also be a problem. Many decisions are
made at the state or national level rather than the local level. As a result,
the responsibilities of the various agencies are not always clearly
delineated. Too much fragmentation of agency responsibility may limit
cooperation. Landowners may become confused and discouraged by the
growing scope and number of governmental regulations, many of which
involve complex paperwork. Conflict among agencies and organizations
at various levels of government is sometimes a problem. If the
landowner becomes the victim of poor coordination or outright conflict
between agencies, it can lead to frustration and a lack of cooperation with
nonpoint-source pollution control efforts.
Coordination is especially important in dealing with a problem such
as nonpoint-source pollution that affects an entire watershed and
therefore crosses political boundaries. Although the effects of
nonpoint-source pollution are most clearly observed at the downstream
end of a watershed, land-use activities in upland areas may contribute
substantially to the problem. Pollution problems therefore cannot be
solved without strong regional cooperation among organizations.
Landowner attitudes toward government programs and prior
experience with these programs can also present an obstacle. Some
landowners distrust government programs and policies. They are also
concerned that new regulations will become increasingly stringent,
making it economically impossible for them to continue their farming,
livestock, forestry, or urban development operations. Some fanners, for
example, are concerned that land their family has farmed for generations
may be designated a wetland, requiring that it be taken out of production.
Such concerns cause fear and reduce landowners' confidence in
institutions.
In addition, perceived inequities contribute to distrust of
government programs. Sometimes a practice is allowed in one place but
not on an adjacent tract of land, leading people to believe that regulations
are being inconsistently enforced. Also, special interests are sometimes
perceived as having too much influence over political decisions.
Economic Barriers The economic costs of implementing BMPs can be a serious obstacle to
nonpoint-source pollution control. Conservation and pollution control
efforts have relied heavily on stewardship as an incentive. However,
economic barriers can deter even the best-intentioned landowners from
adopting BMPs.
22

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Most BMPs provide little or no direct, short-term economic benefit
to the landowner. It is therefore difficult to convince landowners to
invest in them unless assistance is available from a government
cost-sharing program. Even the most conscientious farmers, forest
landowners, and urban developers have a legitimate concern that
adopting BMPs will reduce their profits.
Some landowners simply do not make enough money to invest in
new practices or equipment. During economic downturns, private
investments in BMPs are often more difficult to justify. Adopting and
maintaining agricultural BMPs require an investment of labor, which is in
shorter supply on today's farms than in the past.
With the exception of a small number of BMPs that return
immediate economic benefits, money spent on these conservation
practices must be considered a long-term investment. Many landowners
do not have the patience or the capital to invest in something that will
pay dividends a long time in the future, if ever. Furthermore, in many
cases society, not the individual landowner, reaps the benefits of
improved land management practices. It is therefore necessary for
landowners and citizens to understand more fully the true value of water
quality.
Sometimes it is not possible for landowners to obtain the
information needed to compare the benefits and costs of different BMPs.
In the case of livestock production, for example, the value of animal
wastes is not always clear. Although spreading the waste on agricultural
lands can help recover nutrients and thus reduce expenditures for
Contour strip cropping
is an effective and
economical way to slow the rate
of runoff from cropland, thus
limiting the amount of sediment,
nutrients, and pesticides that
reach nearby water bodies.
23

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commercial fertilizers, the cost of the labor and equipment needed for
waste handling sometimes exceeds the savings.
Government cost-share programs, where available, help ease the
economic burden on individual landowners by shouldering part of the
cost of BMPs. Some BMPs are not economically feasible without such
assistance. Even with cost-sharing programs, however, landowners may
not have the cash flow or credit line to cover their share of the expense.
Individuals with high debt loads may be unable or unwilling to obtain
additional credit for BMP investments. In some cases, landowners have
come to expect cost-sharing and are unwilling to install BMPs without
assistance.
Public resources for planning, monitoring, and enforcement
programs are also limited. Often these resources are inadequate to
address even the most serious problems. As the federal government has
reduced staff and funding, state and local governments have been unable
to take up all of the slack. Given limited resources, adequate funding for
complete nonpoint-source pollution control is often unavailable at any
level of government. Priorities, therefore, must be set.

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5. The Planning Stage:
	Setting Priorities for NPS Pollution Control
There are not enough public funds to address all of the significant
water pollution problems even though high-quality water resources are
important to our economic welfare and are valued by the public. In one
of the earliest water quality demonstration projects, the 1972 Black Creek
Project in Indiana1, it was found that nearly $1 million in cost-share
funding was not sufficient to address all of the pollution problems in a
10,000-acre agricultural watershed. That project and others (such as the
Rural Qean Water Program) suggest that the answer to the lack of
economic resources in controlling nonpoint-source pollution is to select
(target) critical areas for intervention. Priorities must be set so that
available funds can be used to address the most critical nonpoint-source
pollution concerns.
In addition to being more economical, targeting state
responsibilities to a limited geographic region improves the chance of
achieving visible water quality improvement2. Furthermore,
demonstrating water quality benefits will make the public become more
supportive of nonpoint-source pollution control programs and more
closely attuned to overall water quality goals. This change of attitudes
coupled with an increase in pollution control knowledge and skill can
lead to long-term water quality resource protection.
This chapter describes a step-by-step procedure for analyzing the
pollution problems in a watershed and targeting control efforts toward
those areas that will provide the greatest improvement in water quality
for a given level of funding. The process is illustrated using an
agricultural area as an example, although the same method applies to the
control of nonpoint-source pollution from other areas such as forestland
or urban sites.
Targeting at the State At the state level, targeting is the ranking of water quality needs according
and Watershed Level to their severity and considering the resources available for addressing
those needs. Hie resources are then directed toward the water quality
problems that can be addressed with the greatest probability of success.
Achieving visible success is important for building public support and
individual responsibility for pollution control.
25

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Once the water bodies have been prioritized, it is possible to
determine whether available resources are sufficient to achieve the water
quality objectives. If not, the prioritizing procedure can be repeated to
target subwatersheds or water resources with definable water quality
problems that can be solved.
Targeting at the watershed level involves identifying the
predominant pollutant sources, prioritizing these sources, and then
treating first those sources that impair water quality the most. A
targeting program designed to treat the major pollutant sources first can
hasten the achievement of water quality goals.
Setting Priorities Six basic steps are involved in prioritizing water quality needs. These
steps are explained in the following sections of this chapter:
1.	determining agency responsibilities,
2.	setting realistic program goals,
3.	establishing a realistic time frame,
4.	developing a watershed profile,
5.	establishing selection criteria, and
6.	selecting a critical area.
Step 1: Determining It is vital when establishing a state water resource priority program to
Agency Responsibilities determine clearly which agencies have the responsibility to perform
certain tasks. Otherwise, efforts may be duplicated, conflicts among
agencies may develop, and tasks may be omitted, reducing the
effectiveness of the program. All appropriate agencies should be
encouraged to contribute to the water resource prioritization program.
Because the causes and impacts of water quality problems are diverse, a
wide selection of agencies should be involved. Appropriate state
agencies and organizations may include those with interests in:
•	water resource planning,
•	natural resource protection,
•	land-use planning,
•	point-source pollution control,
•	nonpoint-source pollution control,
•	economic evaluation,
•	health and welfare, and
•	education.
26

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Step 2: Setting Once a network of agencies has been established and agency
Realistic commitments have been clearly specified, program goals should be
Program Goals developed. To the extent possible, goals should be dearly stated in
quantitative, measurable terms so that progress and accomplishments can
be assessed. Flexibility should be allowed so that goals can be modified
as additional knowledge of the water resource problem is obtained.
Quantifiable goals may be stated in terms of meeting water
pollution standards, pollutant concentrations, the restoration of biological
resources, or the amount of land or sources treated. A typical
quantitative goal might be to meet state standards for a designated use —
in shellfish waters, for example, not to exceed the allowable maximum
fecal coliform concentration and frequency. On the other hand, a goal for
a specific project might be to achieve a certain condition, such as a
specified average concentration of nitrate nitrogen. Or the project goal
might be to reduce the input of some pollutant such as sediment or
phosphorus.
Many nutrient and sediment control projects focus on reducing the
concentration of a pollutant by a certain percentage. Such goals should
be based upon the estimated magnitude of reduction necessary to achieve
a perceptible change in water quality. Progress toward these quantifiable
goals can be measured through the achievement of operational goals —
that is, goals expressed in terms of adopting specific land treatment
practices. For example, an operational goal might be to achieve the use of
conservation tillage on a specified percentage of targeted cropland.
Another such goal might be that a specified number of livestock
producers will implement runoff controls. Operational goals provide a
practical way to measure success in project implementation. These goals
should be very specific, distinguishing treatment of critical areas from
general conservation needs.
Step 3: Establishing a In establishing program goals, the time frame for project implementation
Realistic Time Frame and the water resource response should be considered. Some types of
water resource problems respond quickly to intensive treatment, whereas
others require extensive treatment and involve long response times.
Certain types of water bodies respond more rapidly to treatment than
others. For example, a small stream will respond more quickly than a
lake or estuary3. In establishing a time frame it is important to remember
that the impairment probably developed over a long period of time and
that it may therefore also take a long time to see the effects of any
corrective measures.
27

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Step 4: Developing a A watershed profile should be developed to augment land-use maps.
Watershed Profile This profile should include a list of the many potential pollutant sources
throughout the watershed. It can serve as a data base as well as provide
direction for defining critical areas. Discharges can be monitored or
NPDES permit data can be obtained from the state water quality agency
to develop estimates of pollutant inputs from point sources. Such
estimates need to be made for only those pollutants known or suspected
to cause the identified water quality problems. Some of the potential
nonpoint sources that should be considered are shown in Table 2. Based
on the information contained in a watershed profile, the major sources of
pollution can be identified, BMP options developed, and implementation
goals established.
Table 2. Pollutants and Their Most Likely Sources to Consider in
Developing a Watershed Profile
Pollutant
Possible Sources
Sediment
cropland

forestry activities

pasture

stream banks

construction activities

roads

mining operations

existence of gullies

livestock operations

other land-disturbing activities
Nutrients
erosion from fertilized areas

urban runoff

wastewater treatment plants

industrial discharges

septic systems

animal production operations

cropland or pastures where manure is spread
Bacteria
animal operations

cropland or pastures where manure is spread

wastewater treatment plants

septic systems

urban runoff

wildlife
Pesticides
all land where pesticides are used (cropland,

forest, pastures, urban/suburban areas,

golf courses, waste disposal sites)

sites of historical usage (organochlorines)

urban runoff

irrigation return flows
28

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Step 5: Establishing There are two distinct perspectives to consider when identifying a critical
Selection Criteria area: the land-resource perspective and the water-resource perspective .
From the land-resource perspective, critical areas are those lands on
which soil loss exceeds the rate at which soil can be replaced by natural
processes. Although areas of severe soil loss often are the most critical for
treatment of agricultural nonpoint-source pollution, this is not always the
case.
From the water-resource perspective, critical areas are those land
areas or sources for which the greatest improvement to an impaired
water resource can be obtained with the least investment in BMPs. To
determine critical areas, it is necessary to consider such factors as the type
of water quality impairment, the dimensions and dynamics of the
impaired water resource, the hydrology of the watershed (the way in
which water is distributed and moves within the area), the magnitude of
pollution source areas, and the investment in BMPs that would be
required to alleviate the problem. Implied in this approach is the concept
of treatability of the resource, which is a basic consideration in any
agricultural nonpoint-source pollution control project.
Although each specific pollution control project requires the
development of unique criteria, there are general guidelines that can be
applied to most situations. Criteria that can be used in selecting critical
areas for nonpoint-source pollution control include:
1.	type of water resource impairment,
2.	erosion rate,
3.	manure sources,
4.	fertilizer rates and timing,
5.	pathogen source magnitude,
6.	distance to nearest watercourse,
7.	distance to impaired water resource,
8.	present conservation status,
9.	planning timeframe,
10.	designated high-priority subbasins, and
11.	on-site evaluation.
Step 6: Selecting Finding critical areas within a watershed for pollution control treatment
a Critical Area can be difficult because of the many different land uses, the complexity of
the dynamics of water bodies, and the variability that occurs naturally in
land and water. The type of water resource problem, its severity, and
uncertainties about the magnitude of the sources or causes add to the
29

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difficulty. However, the following eight steps can greatly assist in
selecting a critical area:
1.	Characterize the nature and extent of the water resource impairment.
2.	Characterize the hydrologic dynamics of the water resource.
3.	Use all available information to estimate the pollutant reductions
needed to protect, improve, or restore the impaired water body.
4.	Use point-source discharge information and all available water quality
data to make initial estimates of relative point- and nonpoint-
source contributions to the water quality problems. From these
estimates, determine whether a nonpoint-source pollution control
project can successfully reduce the water resource impairment or
whether additional point-source control is needed.
5.	Rank the magnitude of pollution from the nonpoint sources.
6.	Consider the proximity of the source of pollution to the impaired
water resource. The distance to the nearest watercourse appears
to be a good first cut because it is important to control the pollu-
tion nearest to a water resource. Certain contaminants, such as
nitrogen (in its nitrate form), will travel long distances in runoff
and must be controlled close to their sources. On the other hand,
distance of the pollution source from the impaired water can work
in favor of reducing the impact of certain nonpoint-source pol-
lutants such as sediment, pathogens, and phosphorus that dis-
sipate with flow distance.
7.	Consider the conservation status and management practices being
used in areas adjacent to watercourses because they can greatly af-
fect pollutant delivery. Consider also the possible timeframes
for planning, implementation, and response.
8.	Visit the site, if necessary, to determine which areas actually meet the
selection criteria and whether proposed management practices
are appropriate to meeting the water quality needs.
Example Of the In the following example, the watershed shown in Figure 1 is used to
Targeting Process illustrate how to select a critical area for treatment using these eight steps.
1.	Characterize the impairments: Excessive sedimentation has greatly
reduced storage capacity in the lake, which serves as a water supp-
ly reservoir. Frequent algal blooms in the spring are unsightly
and have been associated with declines in the fish populations.
2.	Characterize the water resource: During runoff conditions, the
streams vary from fast flowing and erosive in the areas with over
a 5 percent slope to slow flowing and sediment loaded in areas
with little slope near the lake. There is extensive sediment deposi-
30

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>f> :Ś r&Ł&Ł$
Wastewater
Treatment
Plant 5^^
•'•'^jr^Br
Drinking Water
Intake
Cropland A
//^Z/ Cropland B
Cropland C
Residential
Recreational

Critical Area
Pasture
Forest
Large Livestock Operations
Small Livestock Operations
Figure 1. Map of the watershed used in the example.
31

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tion in the lake at the stream entrances, and the overall capacity of
the short-detention-time lake / reservoir is continuously being
reduced.
3.	Estimate pollutant reductions needed: Water quality data indicate
that excessive sedimentation and nutrient enrichment are the
cause of the problems described in step 1. A 50 percent decrease in
sediment buildup would be required to lengthen the reservoir life
by 20 years. Tests show average nutrient concentrations to be
twice the natural level, with enrichment concentrations up to five
times the natural nutrient levels immediately after heavy spring
rainfall. An overall 30 percent reduction in nutrients would be re-
quired to approach average natural levels.
4.	Estimate relative point-source and nonpoint-source contributions:
Point-source discharges are limited to the residential area and the
wastewater treatment plant. They are well regulated and control-
led. Nonpoint-source discharges are common throughout the
watershed.
5.	Rank the magnitude of the pollution from the nonpoint sources:
Using the best available data, the amount of contamination per
acre from each of the sources needs to be estimated. From these es-
timates, the largest sources can be identified on a per-acre and
total input basis. The relative impact of point and nonpoint sour-
ces and the ability to treat these sources can then be evaluated.
6.	Determine the proximity of the pollution sources to impaired
streams and embayments:
•	cropland A is a large area removed from the lake but bordering on a stream;
•	cropland B is a large area bordering on the lake and surrounding a stream;
•	cropland C is a small area removed from the lake; no streams are associated
with it;
•	the large livestock operations are in a medium-sized area removed from the
lake but surrounding streams;
•	the small livestock operations are in a medium-sized area bordering on a small
embayment and surrounding a stream;
•	the residential area is small; it borders on the lake, but no streams are
associated with it;
•	the pasture area is small; it borders on the lake and on a stream;
•	the wastewater plant is located on the lakeshore;
•	the forestland area is small; it borders on the lake, but no streams are
associated with it.
7.	Consider the conservation status and management practices being
used: All livestock operations use waste management systems
that have no discharge, with waste being applied to the land ac-
cording to soil test recommendations for nitrogen. Cropland A
has a 3 to 9 percent slope, receives manure, and has conventional
tillage and some filter strips. Cropland B has a 0 to 7 percent
32

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slope, receives manure, and has conventional tillage and no filter
strips. Cropland C has a 0 to 3 percent slope with filter strips and
conservation tillage. The pasture is maintained as a natural open
space. The residential area is sparsely developed, with extensive
open spaces and woods.
8. Determine which areas actually meet the selection criteria and
whether proposed management practices are appropriate: The
final selection is made through a two-stage process of elimination:
First Stage: The forest, pasture, and residential areas are eliminated be-
cause they are small and well managed with low erosion rates. Cropland
C is eliminated because it is far from the water body; also, good conserva-
tion practices that minimize erosion and nutrient loss have been used.
Cropland A and portions of cropland B closest to the streams and both
the large and small livestock operation areas are targeted as potentially
critical areas.
Second Stage: A site evaluation reveals that all large livestock production
and waste management systems are operated and maintained properly.
Areas surrounding streams in Cropland A with slopes greater than 5 per-
cent should be designated as a critical area; conservation tillage and filter
strips need to be implemented to reduce sediment and nutrient loss. Por-
tions of Cropland B with slopes greater than 5 percent near streams
should be designated as a critical area; conservation tillage and filter
strips need to be implemented to reduce sediment and nutrient losses.
One portion of the small livestock operation area should be designated
as a critical area because animal waste is being applied in excess of
nitrogen recommendations and because of its proximity to the stream
and drinking water intake.
Determining the Determining how much the pollutant inputs must be reduced in order to
Amount Of Pollutant achieve water quality goals is an essential part of the targeting and
Reduction Needed implementation effort. The required pollutant reduction affects both the
selection of nonpoint-source pollution control measures and the extent of
areas or number of sources that must be treated. In general, the larger the
pollutant reduction needed, the larger the critical area or the greater the
number of sources that must be targeted. Within the critical area the
largest and most intense sources should be given first priority. An
important part of this process is to determine the relative importance of
pollutant contributions from point and nonpoint sources for the entire
watershed.
Once critical areas have been targeted for nonpoint-source pollution
control, landowners must be encouraged to adopt BMPs in these areas.
As discussed in the previous chapter, however, certain factors may
discourage the use of BMPs. To make pollution control a practical
alternative, these barriers must be addressed.
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References ^Smolen, M. D., R. P. Maas, J. Spooner, C A. Jamiesori, S. A. Dressing, and F. J. Humenik.
1985. Rural Clean Water Program, Status Report on the CME Projects. National Water
Quality Evaluation Project; Biological and Agricultural Engineering Department,
North Carolina State University. 122 p.
2R. P. Maas, M. D. Smolen, C. A. Jamieson, and A. C. Weinberg. 1987. Setting priorities: the
key to nonpoint source control. Final Report for the project "Guidance Document on
Targeting of Nonpoint Source Implementation Programs to Achieve Water Quality
Goals." EPA Cooperative Agreement CR813100-010. 51 p.
jamieson, C. A., J. Spooner, S. A. Dressing R. P. Maas, M. D. Smolen, and F. J. Humenik.
1985. Rural Clean Water Program, Status Report on the CME Projects. Supplemental
report: Analysis Methods. National Water Quality Evaluation Project, Biological
and Agricultural Engineering Department, North Carolina State University. 71 p.
4Maas, R. P., M. D. Smolen, and S. A. Dressing. 1985. Selecting critical areas for
nonpoint-source pollution control. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 40, 68-71.
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6. Implementing Effective NPS
Pollution Control Programs
Techniques
for Implementation
Once a watershed plan has been developed, it will be necessary to put the
plan into action. Implementation is a vital but challenging component of
nonpoint-source (NPS) pollution control. During this stage, many groups
and organizations must team up to develop educational programs that
will reach a variety of target audiences. Citizens can play an important
role in successfully implementing local nonpoint-source pollution control
programs. This chapter first describes the role of education in
nonpoint-source pollution control. Second, it discusses the role of citizen
involvement. Finally, it advocates teamwork as a means for ensuring
efficient and effective progress toward meeting water quality goals.
Education for
Nonpoint-Source
Pollution Control
Education is central to implementing effective nonpoint-source pollution
control programs. Landowners and others must receive information and
assistance before they will be able to adopt BMPs. Other citizens should
also be informed
about what they can
do to help. Successful
educational
campaigns require
careful planning and
implementation of
several interrelated
activities. Figure 2
depicts the
educational planning
process described in
this chapter. The first
step is to select a
specific objective so
that educational
activities can be
developed to meet
that objective. The
second step is to
select and analyze
the target audience.
Next, Specific	Figure 2. Steps in planning, implementing, and
evaluating an educational program.
Objectives
Not Achieved
Objectives
Achieved
AnalyzeTarget
Audiences
Identify Target NPS
Pollution Problem
Conduct Educational
Program 	
Evaluate Outcomes,
Effectiveness
Select Strategies,
Channels, Media
Set Objectives for
Change in Knowledge,
Attitudes, Behavior
35

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educational messages must be developed. Finally, appropriate
communication channels and educational approaches should be selected.
Establishing Objectives. The first step is to identify clearly a
nonpoint-source pollution problem that can be addressed by educational
efforts. Specific and realistic educational objectives should be set in terms
of desired changes in the knowledge, attitudes, and behavior of specific
target audiences. Based on these objectives, an educational plan with
specific action items, a realistic timetable, and a description of
responsibilities can be developed. Types and sources of necessary
resources, such as money, information, and talent, must then be identified.
The objectives of the educational campaign should be aimed at
overcoming some of the educational barriers described earlier. These
objectives could include:
1.	increasing landowner and public awareness of nonpoint-
source pollution problems;
2.	improving the understanding and use of the available assis-
tance and information;
3.	increasing appreciation of the benefits of nonpoint-source pol-
lution control;
4.	building the prestige of people who are working to control non-
point-source pollution.
Local organizations (such as the Extension Service) are already
working on many of these objectives.
Defining the Audience. After selecting one or two objectives for
your educational efforts, the next step is to plan an integrated program.
Start by identifying and describing one or more target audiences. They
could include landowners, local leaders, educators, school children, and
members of the general public. To promote nonpoint-source pollution
control more effectively, it is necessary to address the unique information
needs and attitudes of different audiences. Improved knowledge of the
target audiences will increase effectiveness of educational efforts.
It is very useful to develop a profile of landowners and other
groups. Key individuals and organizations can play a vital role in
promoting and supporting local nonpoint source control efforts.
Carefully defining a specific target audience is a critical element in any
educational campaign. This process is similar to that of targeting
geographical areas, as described in the previous chapter. It is ineffective
to deliver information only through mass outlets to the general public.
Developing Messages. Next is the development of messages aimed
at changing attitudes, improving knowledge, or influencing behavior of
36

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the target audiences. The message content should be based on the needs
of the specific target audiences and educational goals. Messages may
focus on the costs of nonpoint-source pollution and benefits of sound
resource management. Other messages can be aimed at explaining
programs and policies, emphasizing their relevance for the target
audiences. Social influence strategies can be used to help build prestige to
motivate landowners and others. Tap the expertise of the mass media and
other creative people to develop clear and concise messages written in a
popular, nonthreateriing style. Messages can illustrate problems,
solutions, policies, or issues. Be sure to stress the availability of
information and assistance.
Selecting Communication Methods. The next step is to select one
or more specific communication methods to carry the messages to the
target audiences. Different approaches should be used for different
purposes. Mass media are useful for informing a large audience, creating
awareness, or reinforcing messages. Mass media cannot however,
provide detailed answers to specific questions and are generally not very
effective in motivating people. Posters and direct mail can be used to
announce new programs or policies. Interpersonal communication is
most effective for changing values or behavior. People rely on their
neighbors and friends for information. Wherever possible, promote
informal interaction through meetings, tours, and other events.
In most cases it is best not to rely on only one mode of
communication. Plan to use more than one approach over time.
Recognize, however, the trade-offs between the effectiveness of a method
and the effort it takes to use that method well. For example, one-on-one
communication is very effective but takes a lot of time and effort.
Members of the target audiences can readily identify what sources of
information they find most trustworthy, accurate, and relevant. Identify
and recruit individuals and organizations that should be involved with
the educational campaign. Encourage local opinion leaders to serve as
credible channels for nonpoint-source control messages.
Implementing and Evaluating. After the educational campaign has
been planned, it must be carried out. It may be best to start with a pilot
project in a small area. Monitor the effectiveness of the various activities.
Enlist volunteers to help carry out the campaign. Follow the plans
developed in the previous steps, but be ready to improvise. In particular,
build in mechanisms for obtaining information from landowners and
other target audiences about their understanding of important messages.
Determine ways to evaluate and refine the program to monitor
progress. This evaluation could be formal, such as an opinion survey
before and after the activity. In most cases, however, the evaluation will
be less formal, based on the opinions and experiences of knowledgeable
37

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individuals (such as local leaders, landowners, or mass media
representatives). Refine plans as necessary based on the evaluation and
informal feedback received. Remember that an educational campaign
should be a carefully planned, ongoing process, not a series of unrelated
public relations events.
Citizen involvement Citizen involvement is a vital element of any nonpoint-source pollution
control program. People have a vested interest and important roles to
play in land and water resource management. Members of the public
who should be involved in nonpoint-source pollution control include
landowners, public officials, the business community, and other
concerned citizens. Many of these groups should also be encouraged to
play an expanded role in policy decisions and watershed planning.
Widespread public support and interest are vital to local efforts to
control nonpoint-source pollution. In recent years, many people have
wanted to become more directly involved in decisions about
environmental issues. Citizen involvement allows more people to express
their views to government officials. If properly carried out, it assures that
government agencies will give due consideration to public concerns,
values, and preferences when decisions are made. In a democratic society
the public has a right to be consulted, particularly those people who will
be directly affected by public decisions.
Citizen involvement is especially important when controversy
arises. Some types of land and water management decisions can generate
considerable public interest and potential controversy. Public
controversies, at least in part, result from inadequate public participation
or education. Education and citizen involvement programs are most
effective when based on adequate understanding of public attitudes and
knowledge about the technical issues and policy alternatives. Such
understanding can be obtained through public participation.
Open, two-way communication and interaction between interest
groups, affected parties, concerned citizens, and decision makers is
essential for effective nonpoint-source pollution control. Citizen
involvement is an effective way of gathering information to be used in the
planning process. It helps decision makers determine the priorities,
alternatives, and potential negative impacts of possible actions early in
the process. Interested parties can make valuable contributions to the
decision process. Decision makers can gain considerable insight into the
concerns, needs, and preferences of affected groups.
A wide variety of mechanisms are available for increasing citizen
involvement in nonpoint-source pollution control programs. Many are
already being used and include some combination of education and
public participation. For example, meetings and workshops could be

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conducted to inform and involve people in local decisions. These events
could be aimed at planning and implementation. The process described
in the previous section on education can promote more active citizen
involvement. In particular, local media coverage is vital to ensuring
involvement. Citizen advisory groups can also play an important role.
The next section on team building presents ideas on how to develop and
work with such groups.
The Team Approach to Given the variety of activities in an effective nonpoint-source control
Nonpoint-Source program, it is clear that local officials cannot do everything themselves.
Pollution Control Citizens need opportunities to become actively involved, especially in the
educational process. Local programs will be most successful if a team
approach is used. Teamwork can help enlist outside talent and broaden
community support. A local team should be better able to design and
carry out an integrated nonpoint-source pollution control program. Team
members can contribute knowledge, time, talent, and even financial
resources to enhance local efforts. Possible contributions of various team
members are listed in Table 3 on the next page.
One very important team responsibility is to inform local officials
about the needs and interests of the public. Through this process the team
becomes an ongoing mechanism for citizen involvement in local program
planning and implementation, making the programs and policies more
responsive to local priorities. Influential team members, such as business
and political leaders, increase credibility and visibility of nonpoint-source
pollution control efforts.
Team building is an ongoing activity that involves cooperation
among individuals working together for a common purpose. No single
formula can be followed in all cases. However, some basic strategies can
be used to help develop effective local teams. Most resource professionals
and local officials already work with other groups and organizations.
These existing relationships can form the basis of community support for
water quality improvement programs.
Team building begins with local resource management
professionals and elected officials. The Soil and Water Conservation
District (SWCD) system was established to provide leadership and
insight into local needs and priorities. Each county has a locally elected
board of SWCD supervisors. Along with their staff and the USDA Soil
Conservation Service (SCS), these supervisors represent the focal point
for nonpoint-source pollution control. A team could be developed by the
conservation district and Extension Service staff, but other forms of
teamwork Eire also possible.
Successful team building should foster increased involvement of a
variety of other individuals and groups that have the interest and
39

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resources to help promote water quality (See Table 3). Many individuals
and groups will be willing to help once they learn about nonpoint-source
pollution control and how they can be an important part of local efforts.
Many of these private groups have a stake in water quality. An initial
Table 3. Possible Team Members and Their Potential Contributions
Team member
Potential Contributions to Team
Mass media representatives
Coverage of events
Human interest stories
Understanding of local information needs
Ability to get information out quickly
Landowners
Trustworthy information sources
Role models, prestige building
Bankers
Influence over management decisions
Linkage with landowners
Credibility and support for team
Business persons
Display posters and distribute information
Sponsor field days and demonstrations
Donate equipment and services
Civic organization members
Ongoing program activities
Interest in and concern for community
Fund-raising skills and mechanisms
Credibility and visibility
Environmental group members
Compatible, broader goals
Committed and knowledgeable membership
Different target audiences
Students
Women's group members
Religious leaders
Influence over future efforts
Motivation and resources
Influence over family decisions
High level of interest and concern
Ability to mobilize and motivate members
Commitment to soil stewardship
Ability to appeal to higher values
Credibility and legitimacy
Retired persons
Time and talent for teamwork
Understanding of local conditions
Credibility in community
Government agencies
Expertise and resources
Legal responsibility

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step, therefore, is to identify and contact these groups and individuals.
Hold a planning meeting involving as many of these groups as possible.
No standard team organization or structure will work in every case.
Local leaders and professionals should determine how formal the team
will be. Team members could meet on a regular basis or be contacted only
as needed. Build on existing community groups or organizations
wherever possible. Leadership is often shared among team members.
Group decision-making and consensus should be the norm. There are
various options for encouraging shared leadership and responsibility for
team goals.
Develop objectives that require teamwork and cooperation. Provide
opportunities for team members to assist each other in their activities. It
will be important to share information and create a climate of trust. Team
members must understand how they fit into the overall mission. Make
sure all team members are recognized for their efforts.
Team members can help make sure that objectives are accomplished
and projects are carried out. They can also provide a wealth of new ideas.
Teams should be built around citizens' interests and capabilities. Labor
should be divided and responsibilities delegated in a way that takes
advantage of complementary resources and expertise. For example, some
people may be responsible for public outreach and others for gathering
valuable information. Others may become involved in local Stream
Watch programs that monitor water quality in the local area. Some team
members can become spokespersons, giving talks and meeting with other
organizations. Other team members may have technical knowledge, as
well as an understanding of local needs and opportunities.
All team members should feel a sense of ownership in the team so
that each member will have a stake in the team's success. Share
responsibility for team decisions and actions as well as for successes. The
greater the trust and communication among team members, the more
effective the team will be. All members should be encouraged to express
their opinions and offer constructive criticism.
Several subcommittees could be appointed to carry out different
tasks, such as handling media relations, raising funds, recruiting
volunteers, distributing posters, or conducting special projects (for
example, demonstrations) Subcommittees could represent certain
geographical areas (such as communities or watersheds). Subcommittees
could also be organized to deal with specific nonpoint-source pollution
problem areas, such as cropland erosion, forestland management, and
urban runoff. Teamwork may also help to coordinate efforts with
neighboring districts for large watershed projects or when water quality
problems result from upland management in a different county. Many
41

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districts already work together to sponsor large-scale educational
campaigns such as multicounty demonstrations and other programs.
Establishing teamwork may require effort at first, but it will pay off
quickly through increased program effectiveness and more efficient use
of local resources. However, the team approach is not necessary for all
activities. Local officials should be responsible for program management.
Teamwork is important whenever time, staff, or money are limited. When
resource management requires community support, teamwork is also
called for.
Strategies for Innovative strategies will be required to successfully implement needed
Promoting BMPs BMPs. These strategies, in turn, require teamwork and citizen
involvement. This section describes four general strategies for
encouraging landowners to use BMPs.
1.	Promote awareness of nonpoint-source pollution problems and
available BMPs.
2.	Build prestige of landowners who use BMPs.
3.	Promote informal interaction among landowners to encourage
communication and support.
4.	Provide assistance to facilitate adoption and maintenance of
BMPs.
These strategies are based on the recognition that BMPs have
technical, economic, educational, social, and institutional dimensions.
Promotional strategies should be part of an integrated educational
program, rather than an afterthought.
Promote Awareness of Landowners must understand the causes and consequences of their own
Problems and Solutions nonpoint-source pollution problems and be shown the potential value of
implementing BMPs. One way to increase awareness is to document the
on-site and off-site costs of nonpoint-source water pollution. For example,
off-site costs include damage to water supplies, irrigation systems, and
recreation areas. On-site costs include reductions in crop yield,
degradation of resources, and problems in production.
It is important to use a variety of methods, such as the mass media,
posters, and public meetings. Pictures of dramatic nonpoint-source
pollution in newspapers or displayed as posters can help call attention to
the problem. Localized demonstrations and tours should be conducted to
promote awareness and interest. An effective way to develop public
informational messages is to use case histories and testimonials of local
landowners. These will be seen as credible and applicable to local
situations. Another useful technique is to incorporate nonpoint-source
42

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pollution control messages into other educational programs. It is also
necessary to increase awareness among government officials, local
leaders, businesses, and the general public.
Build Prestige
of Landowners
Who Use BMPs
Along with pointing out the impacts of nonpoint-source pollution on
water quality, it is also important to stress the benefits that result from
using BMPs both for the landowner and society. Some BMPs have been
shown to benefit landowners by reducing production costs, allowing
more precise management, allowing more flexibility, and reducing
off-site damages. Landowners also can benefit psychologically from the
recognition that they are helping society by protecting water quality.
One way to build recognition is to present awards to landowners.
These need not be elaborate and could include names on display in public
places, signs on farm fields, patches for hats or clothing, or some sort of
recognition at a special ceremony. Be sure to provide mass media
coverage of those landowners who employ BMPs. Stories could have a
recurring theme, such as "Resource Manager of the Month."
Family members often have great influence on landowners'
decisions. Work with schools to educate and motivate children. They
have a stake in their parents' decisions and can encourage resource
management. Spouses are
very influential in land
management decisions,
and their input is
important for successful
nonpoint-source control
efforts as well.
Children who learn the
importance of good resource
management will make better
land-use decisions when they
become adults. They may also
have an important influence on
their parents' decisions.
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Promote Informal Interpersonal networks serve as important sources of encouragement and
Interaction Among education in the use of BMPs. Family members and friends represent
Landowners accessible and trusted sources of information. Experienced landowners
are generally considered the local "experts" on implementing the BMPs
that work best under local conditions. They often know how to modify
practices for optimum performance in terms of both production and
resource management.
There are several ways to promote interaction among landowners.
One way is to develop and use a referral network. Such informal
networks already exist in most areas. The object is to link landowners
who have questions about nonpoint-source pollution control with those
who have the answers. Circulate this list among landowners and other
interested parties. Landowners who are currently using BMPs could also
be featured at tours, meetings, and demonstrations. Another way to
encourage informal interaction among farmers is to set up an informal
organization. Peer groups provide opportunities to share experiences and
ideas about resource management. Small group sessions in a particular
community can be both informative and persuasive.
Provide Assistance Field trials and demonstrations are a vital part of any assistance and
to Facilitate Trial educational program. The current knowledge and experience of local
and Adoption landowners should not be neglected; many effective BMPs may already
be used locally. Different groups of landowners require varying levels of
assistance and information. It may be necessary to spend more time with
those landowners
who are most
resistant to change.
Once public
awareness and
interest in nonpoint-
source pollution
control has been
raised, the actual
adoption and
maintenance of BMPs
requires one-on-one
technical assistance.
Because the use of
BMPs often entails
learning new
management skills,
success will be limited unless proper instruction and support are
provided. Individual landowners often need a custom-designed set of
alternatives rather than a standardized plan. The SWCD and SCS develop
such plans for landowners.
&
Field trials and demonstrations are proven ways to convince
people to adopt new practices.
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7. Accepting the Challenge
It is important to realize that pollution control is a never-ending
challenge. Even though many water bodies still support their primary
uses, increasing growth and development pressures threaten their
continued viability. Ongoing programs of monitoring and maintenance
will be needed even after BMPs have been employed. The most effective
approach to addressing any type of pollution control is to prevent
pollution in the first place. It is usually more difficult to clean up
pollution and restore water quality than it is to prevent pollution. This is
particularly true for nonpoint-source pollution, which is more difficult to
identify, control, and monitor than point-source pollution.
Effective nonpoint-source pollution control programs and pollution
prevention programs are already under way in many places. Many
farmers are seeking better ways to reduce fertilizer and pesticide use. The
goal of these efforts is to ensure that agricultural production methods
protect on-farm and off-farm resources and can be sustained indefinitely.
This approach, known as sustainable agriculture, not only helps protect the
environment but can also save farmers money. This effort parallels the
increasing attention being given to preventing point-source pollution
rather than controlling it through "end-of-pipe" treatment. In fact, North
Carolina has an innovative "Pollution Prevention Pays" program to
provide assistance to industry and others.
We do not of course have all of the answers to the many tough
questions raised about nonpoint-source pollution control. More research
is needed in a number of areas, especially in the development of more
cost-effective technologies that can help all landowners reduce
nonpoint-source pollution. These methods will be critically important for
small-scale, part-time farmers who often lack the resources and
management needed to adopt the more complex and costly BMPs. Social
science research is also needed to evaluate public policies and programs,
as well as to ensure more effective and equitable citizen involvement in
resource management decisions.
All citizens have a vested interest in protecting North Carolina's
important natural resources. These resources provide the basis for our
farming, forestry, and tourism industries. The integrity of our natural
environment also shapes the quality of our lives. We all enjoy and benefit
from clean water and wildlife habitat. Furthermore, we have an
important responsibility to protect these resources for our children and
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grandchildren. To ensure a sustainable future for our state's resources, all
citizens will have to be willing to contribute time and money to the
private and public sector programs that are working to protect the
environment. Soil and Water Conservation District and Cooperative
Extension Service professionals in every county can provide information
and assistance to anyone interested in becoming more involved with
these ongoing programs.
The team approach described in the previous section makes it
possible to use everyone's resources and ideas effectively in working to
control nonpoint-source pollution. The next section describes some
valuable sources of information and assistance.
Sources Of Information A variety of government agencies and other groups have an interest in
and Assistance and responsibility for controlling pollution and managing natural
resources. This section briefly describes some of the major organizations
and ways to contact them. We have chosen to list only a few key
organizations from each level of government and from the nonprofit
sector. Citizens and public officials can contact these sources listed below
to request more information and begin building nonpoint-source
pollution control teams. A number of other organizations (see Chapter 3)
also play a role in natural resource management and pollution control
programs.
County Organizations Cooperative Extension Service (CES). This agency is the educational arm
of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the College of Agricultural and
Life Sciences at North Carolina State University (NCSU) and North
Carolina A & T State University (NC A&T). Extension educational
programs are designed to apply research-based information to issues of
local importance. This system provides citizens and organizations with a
wide range of educational opportunities in areas such as agriculture and
natural resources, home economics, 4-H and youth development, and
community and rural development. State extension faculty members at
NCSU and NC A&T support county extension agents who specialize in
one or more of these program areas. The county Extension Service office
provides citizens with newsletters, publications, and advice on a number
of topics. The address and phone number of the county office is listed in
the government section of the telephone book under "Government
Offices — County." The office may be listed under the former name of
Agricultural Extension Service.
Soil and Water Conservation District (SWCD). Each North
Carolina county has a Soil and Water Conservation District charged with
promoting the wise use and protection of soil, water, and related natural
resources. The Conservation District Board of Supervisors is composed of
five members who serve (without pay) for staggered four-year terms.
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These boards are supported by a paid staff of technicians, administrators,
and secretaries as well as by resource management professionals from the
USDA Soil Conservation Service (see "Federal Organizations"). District
and SCS staff members provide landowners and other interested citizens
with information about natural resource conditions and technical
assistance in resource management. Districts can also provide
newsletters, notice of meetings, and publications. The address and phone
number of the local Soil and Water Conservation District office is listed in
the government section of the telephone book under "Government
Offices — County."
State Organizations Division of Environmental Management (DEM). This division of the
Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources (DEHNR) is
responsible for comprehensive planning and management of the state's
air and water resources. DEM has primary responsibility for
implementation and enforcement of the state's environmental quality
programs. This responsibility is delegated to North Carolina by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, authorized by state law, and enacted
through regulations of the Environmental Management Commission.
Major DEM responsibilities include issuance of permits, monitoring, and
enforcement. The agency also compiles inventories of natural resource
and environmental conditions. The DEM is the lead agency for
nonpoint-source pollution control in the state of North Carolina.
Division of Environmental Management
512 N. Salisbury St.
P.O. Box 29535
Raleigh, NC 27626-0535
(919) 733-5083 (Water Quality Section)
(919)733-3221 (Groundwater Section)
Division of Forest Resources. This division of DEHNR is
responsible for developing and maintaining the productivity of the state's
forest resources, which include timber, watersheds, wildlife habitat, soils,
and outdoor recreation. The division provides technical, administrative,
and forest management assistance to landowners and other groups. It
also provides planning services in community and urban forestry.
Division of Forest Resources
512 N. Salisbury St.
P.O. Box 27687
Raleigh, NC 27611
(919) 733-2162
Division of Land Resources. This division of DEHNR is
responsible for programs that survey, evaluate, conserve, protect, and
plan the use of the state's land, mineral, and related resources. Regulatory
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functions include the administration and enforcement of North Carolina's
laws on mining, sedimentation control, dam safety, and related topics.
Division of Land Resources
N.C. Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources
512 N. Salisbury St.
P.O. Box 27687
Raleigh, NC 27611
(919)733-3833
Division of Soil and Water Conservation. This division of DEHNR
is responsible for promoting the wise use and conservation of the soil and
water resources of the state. It works with the state's 93 Soil and Water
Conservation Districts to support local efforts to control and prevent soil
erosion, prevent flood and sediment damages, promote water and land
conservation, and develop the soil and water resources of the districts.
Division of Soil and Water Conservation
N.C. Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources
512 N. Salisbury St.
P.O. Box 27687
Raleigh, NC 27611
(919)733-2302
North Carolina Department of Agriculture (NCDA). The NCDA
administers programs such as registration of all pesticide brands;
examination of pesticide labels for accuracy of contents; operation of state
farms where research is conducted by NCSU personnel; examination of
fertilizers that may harm crops; evaluation of animal, municipal, and
industrial wastes and advice on their uses; certification of pesticide
applicators and regulation to ensure that consumer products are safe.
N.C. Department of Agriculture
1 W. Edenton Street
Raleigh, NC 27611
(919) 733-7125 (Administration)
(919) 733-3556 (Pesticide Emergency Reaction Team)
48

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Federal Organizations Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). This agency provides national
leadership for controlling pollution in the areas of air, water, solid waste,
pesticides, radiation, and toxic substances. Its mandate is to mount a
coordinated attack on pollution in cooperation with state and local
governments. The EPA is responsible for implementing and enforcing
most federal environmental protection laws. In North Carolina, the EPA
has delegated most of its authority for management to the Division of
Environmental Management. The EPA can provide information and
publications on a variety of topics.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Region IV
345 Courtland Street
Atlanta, GA
(404) 347-3004 (Office of Public Affairs)
1 -800-241 -1754 (outside of Georgia)
Soil Conservation Service (SCS). The Soil Conservation Service, an
agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, is responsible for
developing and carrying out a national soil and water conservation
program in cooperation with a number of individuals, groups, and
agencies. The SCS provides technical assistance to locally organized soil
and water conservation districts (see "Local Organizations")- The SCS
implements programs to reduce erosion, floodwater, and sediment
damage; conserve and manage soil and water; and reduce
nonpoint-source pollution. The local SCS resource managers can be
contacted through the county Soil and Water Conservation District.
Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service (ASCS). Also
an agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the ASCS administers
commodity and related land-use programs designed for voluntary
production adjustment; resource protection; and price, market, and farm
income stabilization. The ASCS also administers the Resource
Conservation Program, the Agricultural Conservation Program, the
Forestry Incentives Program, and many other farm benefit programs
including the cost-share programs that encourage the implementation of
BMPs. The ASCS can be contacted through their local county office.
49

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Private Organizations
Many private, nonprofit organizations are actively involved with natural
resource and environmental issues. These groups can provide
publications and other information resources for interested citizens.
Many are also involved in lobbying or other forms of political action that
represent a range of citizen interests before state and local government.
While it is not possible to list all the state and local groups, the following
are several of the major organizations. They can provide information
about other groups within the state.
The North Carolina Wildlife Federation
1020 Washington St.
P.O. Box 10626
Raleigh, NC
(919) 833-1923
The North Carolina Environmental Defense Fund
128 E. Hargett St., Suite 202
Raleigh, NC 27601
(919)821-7793
The North Carolina Coastal Federation
Hadnot Creek Farm
3223-4 Hwy 58
Swansboro, NC 28584
(919)393-8185
EPA Library Region 4
0235

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The Pamlico-Tar River Foundation
P.O. Box 1854
Washington, NC 27889
(919) 946-7211
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Suggestions for Further Reading
The following publications are available from the organizations described
in the previous section.
For more information about government regulations and public policies:
North Carolina Coastal Federation. 1991. A Citizen's Guide to Coastal
Resource Management through Local Government. Swansboro, N.C.
For more information about general environmental conditions:
North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural
Resources. 1989. State of the Environment Report. Division of
Environmental Management, Raleigh, N.C.
For more information about nonpoint-source pollution control:
North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural
Resources. 1989. North Carolina Nonpoint Source Management
Program. Report 89-02. Division of Environmental Management,
Raleigh, N.C.
For more information about water quality conditions:
North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural
Resources. 1990. Summary Report: Water Quality Progress in North
Carolina, 1988-1989 305(b) Report. Division of Environmental
Management, Raleigh, N.C.
For more information about forestry BMPs:
Forestry Best Management Practices Manual. 1989. North Carolina
Division of Forest Resources, Department of Environment,
Health, and Natural Resources, Raleigh, N.C.
Each county office of the Cooperative Extension Service maintains
several notebooks of information on nonpoint-source water pollution,
drinking water protection, and other water quality topics. They also have
numerous publications about agricultural, forestry, and urban BMPs.

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Prepared By
T. J. Hoban, Extension Sociology Specialist
M. G. Cook, Extension Soil Science Specialist
F. J. Humenik, Specialist-in-Charge, Extension Agricultural Engineering
This publication was supported in part by the United States Environmental Protection Agency
and the North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources through the Albemarle-Pamlico
Estuarine Study. Additional support was provided by the North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Contents of this
publication are the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the United States
Environmental Protection Agency; the North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources; the
North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service; or other institutions or organizations listed in this publication.
1,000 copies of this public document were printed at a cost of $1,787, or $1.79 per copy.
ALBEMARLE PAMLICO
WTSMiTi
ESTUARINE STUDY
North Carolina
Cooperative Extension Service
NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE & LIFE SCIENCES
Published by
NORTH CAROLINA COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE
Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8 and June 30,1914. Employment and program opportunities are offered to all people regardless
of race, color, national origin, sex, age, or handicap. North Carolina State University, North Carolina A&T State University, U.S. Department of Agriculture,
and local governments cooperating.						
March 1992
220073

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